B 3 3bl 22"

i GUIDE

TO TTTE

GALLERIES

OF

PPTILES AND FISHES

IN THE

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

OF THE

BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY),

ILLUSTRATED BY 101 WOODCUTS.

[FOURTH EDITION.']

PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES.

1898.

Price Sixpence.

THE LIBRARY

OF
THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

GUIDE

TO THE

REPTILES AND FISHES

IN THE

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

OF THE

BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY),

ILLUSTKATED BY 101 WOODCUTS.

[FOURTH EDITION.}

PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES.

1898.

riyhts reserieJ.)

PBINTED BY TAYLOR AND FBANCJS,
BED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

Die to

PREFACE.

THE dry and mounted specimens of Reptiles and Fishes are
exhibited in two parallel Galleries on the west side of the ground
floor behind the Bird Gallery. The Batrachians are contained in
one large table-case placed in the cross gallery between the last
named and the Fish Gallery.

This Guide gives a general account of the animals belonging to
these three classes. The first edition was written by Dr. Gunther,
late Keeper of the Zoological Department, and published in 1887.
The present (the fourth) edition has been revised by Mr. G. A.
Boulenger, the changes being mostly in the sections devoted to the
classes Reptilia and Batrachia. That of the Fishes,, except for
some corrections necessitated by alterations in the arrangement of
the specimens, has been left much as written by Dr. Gunther.

W. H. FLOWER,

Director.

January 31st, 1898.

TABLE OF CONTENTS,

THE REPTILE GALLERY.

Page

General Notes on Reptiles 1

Crocodilia (Crocodiles and Alligators) 3

Rhynchocephalia (Tuatera) 5

Lacertilia (Lizards) 6

Ophidia (Snakes) 16

Chelonia (Tortoises and Turtles) 24

General Notes on Batrachians 31

Tailless Batrachians (Frogs and Toads) . . . . . 3.3

Tailed Batrachians (Salamanders and Newts) .... 42

Limbless Batrachiaus 46

THE FISH GALLERY.

General Notes on Fishes 47

Acanthopterygii (Perches, Mackerels, &c.) 58

Pharyngognathi (Wrasses) 76

Anacanthini (Cod- and Flat-fishes) 78

Physostomi (Carps, Herrings, &c.) 82

Lophobranchii (Pipe-fishes) 91

Plectognathi (File-, Globe-, and San-fishes) .... 92

Ganoidei 96

Chondropterygii (Sharks and Rays) 100

Cyclostomata (Lampreys) 112

Leptocardii (Lancelet) 114

THE REPTILE GALLERY.

GENERAL NOTES ON REPTILES.

THERE is but a short step from the Class of Birds to that of
Reptiles. No doubt, as regards external appearance, the dissimi-
larity between the living animals of these two classes is sufficiently
great to allow of a sharp line of demarcation being drawn between
them : Birds being shortly characterized as warm-blooded vertebrate
animals clothed with feathers, Reptiles as cold-blooded, and covered
with horny or bony shields, tubercles, or "scales." But there
are numerous and important agreements between these two classes,
especially in the structure of their skeleton, in their internal
organs, and their mode of propagation ; and their close relation-
ship becomes still more apparent when fossil forms, such as
Archaeopteryx, are examined.

Reptiles are termed " cold-blooded " because the temperature of
their blood is raised but a few degrees above, and varies with, that
of the outer atmosphere, owing to the imperfect separation of the
divisions of their heart, which allows more or less of a mixture of
the arterial arid venous currents of the blood. Reptiles are ovi-
parous or ovoviviparous ; no important change takes place after
exclusion from the egg ; they breathe by lungs throughout life.
Their skull articulates with the vertebral column by a single occi-
pital condyle (see fig. 1), and their lower jaw with the skull by a
separate bone (quadrate) (see figs. 1, 13, and 14).

The remains of the oldest known Reptiles, those found in the
Permo-Carboniferous formations, belong to the Rhynchocephalian
type, of which only one representative is still living (in New Zealand).
Reptiles flourished and attained their greatest development in the
Secondary period — Pterosaurians (large flying Lizards, see Guide

REPTILE GALLERY.

Fig. 1.

Back view of skull of Crocodile.
o, single occipital condyle ; g, quadrate bone.

to Fossil Reptiles and Fishes, p. 1), Dinosaurians (huge terrestrial
Reptiles far exceeding in size our largest Crocodiles, p. 8),
Ichthydsaurians, and Plesiosaurians (large marine creatures,
Geological Guide, pp. 32, 47), Dicynodonts (p. 55), Crocodiles,
Lizards, and Turtles lived in abundance; Snakes, however, did not
appear before the Tertiary period. At present some 4000 species
of Reptiles are known, which are unequally divided among five
Orders, vh. Crocodilia (Crocodiles and AlYigatorB^Rhynchocep/ialia,
Lacertiiia (Lizards), Ophidia (Snakes), and Chelonia (Tortoises
and Turtles).

In this classification of Reptiles the naturalist is guided much
more by the structure of the skeleton and the other internal organs
than by the external appearance. In fact, in Reptiles, as in many
other classes of the Animal Kingdom, outward similarity is decep-
tive as to the natural relationship — that is, as to the degree in
which they are related to each other as descendants from a more or
less remote common ancestor. Take, for instance, a Crocodile, a
Lizard, a Slowworm, and a Snake. The observer who, like the
naturalists of the last and preceding centuries, is guided by external
appearance only, would without hesitation place the Crocodile and

CROCODILES. 3

Lizard together, and associate the Slowworm with the Snake ;
whilst a study of their internal structure shows the Lizard and the
Slowworrn to be most closely related to each other, and both
nearer to the Snake than to the Crocodile.

Reptiles are most abundant in hot climates, become less nume-
rous in higher latitudes, arid are altogether absent in the Arctic
and Antarctic regions.
In the Gallery —

Wall-Cases 1— 9 contain the Crocodilians.

„ 10 „ Rhynchoeephalians.

„ 10-17 „ Lizards.

18-22 „ Snakes.

„ 23-44 „ Tortoises and Turtles.

Large specimens are exhibited separately on stands placed on the
floor of the Gallery.

Order I. CROCODILIA.

The Crocodilians differ in many anatomical characters from [Cases
the Lacertilians, or true Lizards, with which they were formerly
associated on account of their external resemblance. The organs
of their chest and abdomen are separated from each other by
a muscular diaphragm • their heart is divided into four cavities,
as in the higher vertebrates. The ribs are provided with two
heads for the articulation with the vertebrae, and with processes
directed backwards; and their abdomen is protected by a series of
transverse bones, as may be seen in the skeletons of the Gavial
and Crocodile (opposite Wall-Cases 4-9). The teeth are implanted
in sockets, while in other recent Reptiles they are grown to the bone
of the jaws. The tongue is completely adherent to the floor of the
mouth. The nostrils are situated close together on the upper side
of the extremity of the snout ; the eyes and the ears likewise are near
to the upper profile of the head, so that the animal can breathe, see,
and hear whilst its body is immersed in the water, the upper part
of the head only being raised above the surface. When it dives, the
nostrils are closed by valves, a transparent membrane is drawn over
the eye, and the ear, which is a horizontal slit, is shut up by a
movable projecting flap of the skin. The limbs are weak, the ante-

4 REPTILE GALLERY.

rior provided with five, the posterior with four digits, of which three
only are armed with claws, and which are united together by a more
or less developed web. The tail is long, compressed, crested above,
very powerful, and admirably adapted for propelling the body
through the water. The back, tail, and belly are protected by a
dermal armour formed of quadrangular shields, of which the dorsal
and, in several Alligators, also the ventral contain true bone.

The Crocodilians are thoroughly aquatic in their habits, and
the most formidable of all the carnivorous freshwater animals.
Crocodiles and Alligators, when young, and the Gharials through-
out their existence, feed chiefly on fish ; but large Crocodiles
attack every animal which they can overpower, and which they
drown before devouring. The eggs, of which one (of Crocodilus
porosus) is exhibited in Case 4, are oblong, hard-shelled, and
deposited in holes on the banks of rivers and ponds. The flesh
of these animals is not eaten, but their hides have lately been
introduced as an article of commerce; a portion of the skin pre-
pared for the trade may be seen in Case 4.

The large stuffed Crocodilians are arranged in a row along the
left side of the Gallery, those nearest the entrance being the
Old-World forms, the other the American kinds. The smaller
specimens occupy Wall-Cases 1-9.

About 25 species are known.

Crocodiles proper (Crocodilus) are distinguished from the Alli-
gators by having the fourth lower tooth passing into a notch of the
lateral edge of the upper jaw. They inhabit Africa, Southern
Asia, the tropical parts of Australia, Central America, and the
West Indies. The Indian Crocodile (Crocodilus porosus) is very
common in the East Indies and Tropical Australia, and has been
said to grow to a length of 30 feet. This, however, is very
doubtful, as a very large specimen obtained in North-east Australia
and exhibited in the Gallery measures only 17^ feet. The African
Crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) attains nearly to the same size as
the Indian species. It was worshipped by the ancient Egyptians,
and was once common in Egypt proper. It has now been almost
exterminated in the lower parts of the Nile, but infests in great
numbers all the freshwaters of Tropical Africa; and it is believed
that more people are killed by Crocodiles than by any other of the
wild beasts of Africa.

TUATERA. O

The false Gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii] is intermediate
between Crocodiles and Gharials. It has long been known from
Borneo, but its presence has recently been ascertained in Sumatra
and the Malay Peninsula. A stuffed specimen from Perak is
exhibited in a Case opposite to Wall-case 1.

The Gharials (Gavialis) may be readily recognized by their
extremely long and slender snout. The Gharial of the Ganges
(G. gangeticus), of which a large specimen and a skeleton are
mounted in the middle of the Gallery opposite to the entrance, is
abundant in that river and its tributaries, and attains to a length
of about 16 feet. It feeds chiefly on fishes, for the capture of
which its long and slender snout and sharp teeth are well adapted,
but occasionally devours human bodies. Old males have a large
cartilaginous hump on the extremity of the snout containing a small
cavity, the use of which is not known.

In the Alligators (Alligator] the fourth lower tooth is received [Oases
in a pit in the upper jaw, when the mouth is shut. With the
exception of one species which occurs in the Yang-tse-kiang
(Alligator sinensis), they are found only in America. They do not
grow to the large size of the true Crocodiles. The species most
generally known is A.mississippiensis,w}i\ch abounds in the south-
ern parts of North America. The Black Alligators (Caiman
niger and sclerops) are common in South America as far south as
32° lat. S.

Order II. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA.

Of this Order, which seems in the Permian and subsequent forma- [Case 11.]
tions to have been represented by various genera, one species only
has survived to our period. It is the Tuatera of the Maoris, or
Hatteria or Sphenodon of naturalists. Case 11 contains examples
of this interesting Reptile, with skeleton and skulls. It is the
largest of the few Reptiles inhabiting New Zealand, but scarcely
attains to a length of 2 feet. Formerly it was found in several parts
of the northern island and in the Chatham Islands ; but at present
it is restricted to a few small islands in the Bay of Plenty and Cook's
Straits, where it lives in holes, feeding on lizards, insects, worms,
and other small animals. Externally there is nothing to distinguish

6 REPTILE GALLERY.

the Tuatera from ordinary Lizards; but important differences
obtain in the structure of its skeleton, viz. the presence of a double
horizontal bar across the temporal region, the firm connection of
the quadrate bone with the skull and pterygoid bones, biconcave
vertebrae (as in Geckos and many fossil Crocodilians), the presence
of a plastron formed of numerous small bones and of uncinate
processes to the ribs (as in Birds and Crocodiles).

Order III. LACERTILIA, OR LIZARDS.

[Cases The Order of Lizards comprises over 1900 species, which

"-^'•J exhibit a great variety of form and structure. Some, like our
common Lizards, possess four legs and a long tail, and are
endowed with great rapidity of motion ; others, like the Chamse-
leons, are arboreal, and have their limbs and tail adapted for climb-
ing on the branches of trees ; others, like the Geckos, can ascend
smooth vertical surfaces^ their toes being provided with special
adhesive organs. The limbs may be rudimentary or disappear
entirely, as in our common Slowworrn, in which case the Lizard
assumes the appearance of a Snake j but, in all, rudiments at least of
both pectoral and pelvic bones are hidden under the skin. Lizards

Fig. 2.

Hind legs of Lizards, to show the gradual abortion.

a, Chalcides ocellatus ; b, Chalcides mionecton ; c, Chalcides tridactylus
d, I/ygosoma lineo-punctulatum ; e, Chalcides yuentheri.

LIZARDS. 7

may be characterized as Reptiles with the skin covered with scales
or tubercles ; with non-expansible mouth, the rarni of the mandible
being firmly united anteriorly by a suture ; with four or two limbs,
or at least rudiments of pectoral and pelvic bones; with teeth which
are ankylosed to the jaws, and not implanted in sockets ; with a
transverse anal opening. Movable eyelids and an ear-opening are
usually present. If the limbs are developed, they are generally
provided with five digits armed with claws; but as in some kinds
the limbs get weaker and shorter, the number of toes is gradually
reduced ; and there are Lizards in which the little limb terminates
in a single useless toe, or is even entirely toeless (see Fig. 2). The
tongue offers very remarkable differences in form and function. It
is simple, broad, short, soft in the Geckos, Agamas, and Iguanas, and
is probably an organ of taste; in the majority of the other families
it is narrow, more or less elongate, often covered with scale-like
papilla?, and with a more or less deep incision in front, assuming
more and more the function of an organ of touch. It is of extra-
ordinary length, worm-like, and terminating in two fine, long points
in the Monitors, in which, as in Snakes, it acts as a feeler only.
The tongue of the Charnseleons will be noticed subsequently.

Lizards are spread over the whole world except the very cold
regions, and are, like all othei' Reptiles, most numerous, both as
regards species and individuals, between the tropics. They are
divided into many families, some of which can be alluded to here
by name only : —

Families — 1. Geckonida. 2. Eublepharida. 3. Uroplatidce.
4. Pygopodidae. 5. Agamidce. 6. Iguanida. 7. Xenosaurid<s .
8. Zonurida. 9. Anguidce. 10. Anniellidce. 11. Helodermatida.
12. Varanidce. 13. Xantusiidee. 14. Teiidce. 15. Amphis-
bcenidce. 16. Ltwertida. 17. Gerrhosaurida. 18. Scincidce.
19. Anelytropida. 20. Dibamidae.

The last family, the Chamaleontida, is so distinct from all the
others that some herpetologists would remove it from the Lacertilia
altogether.

The majority of Lizards, especially the smaller kinds, are not
suitable objects for exhibition in a dry state ; they must be pre-
served in spirit ; consequently only a selected series is exhibited
in this Gallery.

8 REPTILE GALLERY.

[Case 10.] The Geckonida, or Geckos,, are Lizards of small size, the largest
measuring about a foot,, and have always attracted attention by
their possessing the faculty of ascending smooth surfaces, or even of
running on the ceilings of rooms like a fly. For this purpose the

Fig. 3.

Head of Gecko verticitlattts (East Indies).

lower surface of their toes is provided with a series of movable
plates or disks, by the aid of which they adhere to the surface over
which they pass. Geckos are found in almost every part of the globe
between and near the tropics, frequenting houses, rocks, and trees.

Fig. 4.

Hind leg of Gecko verticillatus.

With few exceptions they are nocturnal, and consequently large-
eyed, animals, the pupil being generally contracted in a vertical
direction. Geckos are extremely useful in destroying insects, and,
though greatly feared by those not acquainted with their habits, are
perfectly harmless. Nearly all Geckos possess a voice ; and the
large Gecko verticillatus, which is extremely common in the East-
Indian Archipelago, utters a shrill cry, sounding like " tokee " or
" took."

LIZARDS. 9

The Varanida, or Water Lizards, are the largest of Lizards, [Cases
some exceeding a length of six feet. A few (Varanus griseus,
Case 11) are terrestrial, but the majority semi-aquatic, the former
having a rounded, the latter a compressed tail, with a sharp saw-
like upper edge, which assists them greatly in swimming, and at
the same time constitutes a formidable weapon with which these
powerful animals can inflict deep wounds on the incautious captor.
They range all over Africa, the Indian region, and Australia. Their
prey consists of other vertebrate animals — small mammals, birds
frogs, fishes, and eggs. In India they are well known under the
misnomer " Iguanas " as dangerous neighbours to poultry-yards.
Among the species which grow to the largest size may be men-
tioned the gigantic Monitor (Varanus giganteus, Case 16), from
N. Australia; the two-streaked Monitor (V. salvator, Cases 15-17),
common in the East-Indian Archipelago; the common Indian
Water-Lizard (V. bengulensis) ; and the African Monitor (V.
niloticus), ranging over the whole of Tropical Africa (Case 14).

The Helodermatida contain a single genus, the remarkable [Case 14.]
Heloderma, of which two species are known (H. horridum and
suspectum], inhabitants of Arizona and the western parts of
Mexico. So far as is known at present, they are the only Lizards
whose bite is poisonous. Their teeth are fang-like, provided with
a deep groove as in some Snakes, and the submaxillary gland is
enormously developed and secretes the poisonous fluid. They are
about two feet long.

The Tejida (Case 13) are the American representatives [Case 13.]
of the Lizards proper, from which they somewhat differ in
their dentition. The Teguexins (Tupinambis teguexim and nigro-
punctatus) are the largest, attaining to a length of about four feet,
and found in most parts of the South -American continent. The
Drac&na guianensis is a rare Lizard, found in the Guianas and
Brazil, and was considered a kind of Crocodile by old authors, who
saw a distinct resemblance to those animals in its compressed,
keeled tail, as well as in the large tubercles which are arranged
pretty regularly on its back.

Of the Amphisb&nidce, singular worm -like Reptiles, a few [Case 14.]
specimens and a skeleton are exhibited. All their external cha-
racters testify to their mode of life; they are burrowing animals.

10 REPTILE GALLERY.

passing; the whole of their existence under ground in loose soil,
sand, or ant-heaps. The skin is not protected by either scales or
scutes, but divided by circular and longitudinal folds into quad-
rangular segments arranged in rings. The colour of the skin is
either whitish, reddish, or greyish, sometimes marbled with black.
Legs are absent (with the exception of the genus Chirotes, in which
a pair of very short fore legs are developed). The head and tail
are both short; and the superficial similarity of the two extremities
in some of the species has led to the belief that they could progress
backwards and forwards with equal facility ; they are often described
as " Two-headed Snakes." Their eyes are quite rudimentary,
hidden below the skin ; ear-openings are likewise absent. The
Amphisbsenians are inhabitants of hot countries — Africa, America,
and the countries round the Mediterranean. About 50 different
species are known.

[Case 14.] Lizards proper (Lacertidte) are confined to the Old World, and
found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They seldom reach a length
of eighteen inches (Lacerta ocellata) ; they feed on small animals,
insects and worms being the principal diet, but a few, like the small
Lizards of Madeira, have taken to a vegetable diet, and cause some
injury to grapes and other soft fruit. The Common British Lizard
is Lacerta vivipara ; the Sand Lizard (L. agilis) and Green Lizard
(L. viridis) being more locally distributed in the Southern Counties
and the Channel Islands, but very abundant in various parts of
the continent of Europe.

[Case 14.] T^ Anguida include limbed as well as limbless forms; of
the latter the Slowworm or Blindworrn (Anguis fraffilis), common
in Great Britain, is the best known. The Glass Snake, or Shelto-
pusik (Pseudopus pailasii or Ophisaurus apus), common in South-
eastern Europe and Western Asia, is another example.

[Case 14.] The Scincida or Skinks, recognizable by their round imbricate
scales, also include forms in which the limbs are rudimentary
or absent. The largest forms of this family are Australian,
as Tiliqua gigas and nigrolutea, and Trachydosaurus, the last
remarkable for their rough scales and short tail, somewhat re-
sembling the cone of a fir-tree. A very curiously ?haped form,
also from Australia, is Egernia stokesii, with its short conical
tail armed with dagger-pointed spinous scales.

LIZARDS.

11

The Iguanida are American pleurodont Lizards (see Fig. 7) exhi- [Cases
biting an astonishing variety of form. The largest and best known H-13.]
are the Iguanas (Iguana rhinolophus and tuberculata, Case 12), found

Fig. 5.

Iguana tuberculata (Brazil).

in the forest-regions of Tropical America only, in the neighbourhood
of water, into which when frightened they jump from the overhang-
ing branches of trees, to escape capture by swimming and diving.
Feeding exclusively on leaves or fruits, they are themselves highly
esteemed as food, and their eggs also are eagerly sought for by the
natives. Iguanas grow to a length of five feet. The marine
Iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatm, Case 13) is an inhabitant of the
Galapagos Islands, living on the rocks of the shore and feeding on
seaweeds. No other Lizard enters sea-water. Among the smaller
representatives of this large family may be mentioned the Anolis,
extremely numerous in Tropical America and the West Indies —
small, slender, agile, thoroughly arboreal Lizards, of rare beauty

Fig. 6.

Californian "Toad" (Phrynosoma cornutum).

12

REPTILE GALLERY.

and variety of colour, and forming a striking contrast to the species
of Phrynosoma (Case 11) of North America and Mexico, which,
on account of their shape and sluggish habits, have earned the name
of Horned or Californian Toads (fig. 6).

Case 10.] The Ayamida represent the Iguanas in the Old World. They
are distinguished by the acrodont dentition, the teeth being anky-
losed to the upper edge of the jaws, an arrangement which occurs

Fig. 7.

Lower jaws, showing the acrodont (a) and pleurodont (6) dentition.

also in the Rhynchocephalians5 some Amphisbsenians, and the
Chamseleons. Lizards of this family are most abundant in the
Indian and Australian regions, showing a great variation of form
analogous to that of the preceding family. The perhaps most
highly specialized Agamoid is the genus Draco, small winged Lizards
from the East Indies (fig. 8). The Dragons are tree-lizards, and
possess a peculiar additional apparatus for locomotion : the much-
prolonged five or six hind ribs are connected by a broad expansive
fold of the skin,, the whole forming a subsemicircular wing on each
side of the body, by which they are enabled to take long flying
leaps from branch to branch, and which are laid backwards at the
sides of the animal while it is sitting or merely running.

The Frilled Lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii, fig. 9) is an Australian
Agamoid, growing to a length of two feet. It is provided with a
frill-like fold of the skin round the neck, which, when erected,

LIZARDS.

13

Fig. 8.

Dragon (Draco tcmiopterus) j Siam.

c2

14

REPTILE GALLERY.

resembles a broad collar, not unlike the gigantic lace-ruffs of Queen
Elizabeth's time. When startled, this Lizard rises with the fore
legs off the ground, and runs with semi-erect body supported by the

Fig. 9.

Frilled Lizard from Australia (Chlamydosaurus kinqii).

hind limbs only. An extraordinary creature is the Moloch {Moloch
horridus), also from Australia ; the tubercles and spines,, with
which it is entirely covered, give it a most repulsive appearance;

Fig. 10.

Moloch horridus (Australia),

but it is perfectly harmless. Other Lizards of this family are the
Australian Amphibolurus and the African and Asiatic Uromastix.
[Case 10.] The Chamaleontida, or Chamseleons, are almost peculiar to
Africa, and most numerous in Madagascar; one species extends
into India. No other member of the Order of Lizards shows

LIZARDS.

15

such a degree of specialization as the Chamseleon. The tongue,
eyes, limbs, tail, skin, lungs are modified in a most extraordinary
manner to serve special functions in the peculiar economy of
these animals. They lead an exclusively arboreal life : each of
their feet is converted into a grasping hand, by means of which,

Fig. 11.

Common Chamaeleon.

assisted by a long prehensile tail, they hold to a branch on which
they are sitting, so fast that they can be dislodged only with
difficulty. Their movements are slow and awkward on the

Fig. 12.

Hand of Chamaeleon.

ground, and still more so in the water, where they are nearly
helpless. The tongue (fig. 11) is exceedingly long, worm-like,
with a club-shaped viscous end ; they shoot it out with incredible
rapidity towards insects, which remain attached to it, and are thus
caught. The eyes are almost entirely covered by a thick lid, pierced
with a small central hole, and not only can be moved in any direc-

16 REPTILE GALLERY.

tion, but each has an action independent of the other — one eye
may be looking forwards, whilst an object behind the animal is
examined with the other. The faculty of changing colour, which
they have in common with many other Lizards, is partly dependent
on the degree in which the lungs are filled with air, and different
layers of chromatophores* are pressed towards the outer surface of
the skin. The adult males of some of the species possess long
horns or other excrescences on the head. The largest species
attain a length of 18 and 20 inches. About 75 species are known.

Order IV. OPHIDIA, or SNAKES.

The Snakes, or Ophidians, are scaly Eeptiles, with exceedingly
elongate, limbless body, without sternum, without, or with only
rudiments of, a pelvis, with the mandibles united in front by an
elastic ligament. The ribs are articulated movably with the verte-
bral column. The jaws are armed with sharp, fang-like teeth,
which are ankylosed to the bone. The peculiar mobility of the
jaw-bones enables these animals to extend the gape in an extra-
ordinary degree, and to work their prey (which generally is much
thicker than the Snake itself and always swallowed whole) through
the throat into the stomach. The tongue is narrow, retractile into
a basal sheath, and terminates in two long thread-like points ;
it is frequently and rapidly exserted when the animal is excited or
wants to touch an object. Snakes have no eyelids ; but the part
of the epidermis which covers the eye is transparent, convex, and
has the shape of a watch-glass, behind which the eye moves. There
is no ear-opening. The scales are not isolated formations, as in
fishes^, but merely folds of the outer skin, which is cast off in a
single piece several times every year. The head is generally covered
with large, symmetrical, juxtaposed plates (see figs. 15&16),and the
belly with large transverse shields. The organs of locomotion for
the exceedingly elongate body of the Snakes are the ribs, the
number of which is very great, nearly corresponding to that of
the vertebras of the trunk. Although the motions of Snakes arc
in general very quick, and may be adapted to every variation of

* Cells in the skin in which the colouring-pip-ment is deposited.

SNAKES. 17

ground over which they move, yet all the varieties of their locomo-
tion are founded on the following simple process. When a part
of their body has found some projection of the ground which affords
it a point of support, the ribs, alternately of one and the other
side, are drawn more closely together, thereby producing alternate
bends of the body on the corresponding side. The hinder portion
of the body being drawn after, some part of if finds another
support on the rough ground or a projection, and the anterior
bends being stretched in a straight line, the front part of the body
is propelled in consequence. During this peculiar kind of loco-
motion, the numerous broad shields of the belly are of great
advantage, as, by means of the free edges of those shields, they
are enabled to catch the smallest projections on the ground, which
may be used as points of support. Snakes are not able to move
over a perfectly smooth surface.

Non-venomous Snakes have generally two rows of short, thin

Fig. 13.

Skull of Snake (Python).
m, maxillary ; pm, premaxillary ; q, quadrate bone.

teeth, pointed like a needle, on each side of the upper jaw, and
one in the lower; sometimes one or two of the anterior teeth are
longer than the rest, but they are not grooved or perforated, nor
do they communicate with a poison-gland. Other species have
one or more of the hindermost maxillary teeth enlarged, and
provided with a longitudinal groove. The Snakes with such
long grooved posterior teeth are provided with a small poison-
gland and possess slight poisonous properties, paralyzing their

18 REPTILE GALLERY.

prey before deglutition; but the simple bite of tbese Snakes is
harmless.

The truly poisonous Snakes are armed with a long grooved or
canaliculated tooth in front of the upper jaw; the channel terminates
at the extremity, and is in connection with a duct which carries

Fig. 14.

Skull of Poisonous Snake (Bitis nasicornis).

m, maxillary, -with poison-fang; a bristle is inserted in the openings of the
channel at the base and point of the tooth ; d, undeveloped poison-
fangs ; pm, prenmxillary j q, quadrate bone.

the poisonous fluid from a large gland to the tooth. This venom-
gland is situated on the side of the head, above the angle of the
mouth, and invested by a dense fibrous sheath, which is covered
by a layer of muscular fibres. At the moment the Snake opens
its mouth to bite, the muscles compress the gland, and force its
contents through the excretory duct into the channel of the venom-
tooth, whence it is ejected into the wound. The force with which
the gland is compressed is shown by the fact that irritated animals
have been seen to spout the poison from the aperture of the tooth
to a considerable distance. The venom-apparatus serves these
creatures not only for defence, but also, and chiefly, for the pur-
pose of overpowering their prey, which is always killed before they
commence to swallow it.

The dental apparatus is not the same in all poisonous Snakes.
The venom-tooth is always fixed to the maxillary bone ; but in
some this bone is as long, or nearly as long, as in the non-venomous
Snakes, aiid generally bears one or more ordinary teeth on its
hinder portion. This venom.tooth is always more or less erect,

SNAKES. 19

not very long, and its channel generally visible as an external
groove. Poisonous Snakes with such a dentition resemble also in
other respects the non-venomous Serpents, and are designated as
Venomous Colubrine Snakes.

In the other venomous Snakes the maxillary bone is extremely
short, and does not bear any ordinary teeth, only an exceedingly
long curved fang, perforated in its entire length. Although this
tooth also is fixed to the bone, the bone itself is very mobile; so
that the tooth, which is laid backwards when at rest, can be
erected the moment the animal prepares to strike. The tooth is
occasionally lost ; but others, in different stages of development,
lie in the gum behind it, ready to take the place of the lost tooth.

Most Snakes feed on living animals, a few only on eggs. They
are oviparous or ovoviviparous. Tney number about 1600 species,
and are spread over all temperate regions, but are most numerous
between the tropics. They are absent in New Zealand. The
Order is divided into 9 Families and numerous minor groups.

Fam. 1. TypMapid*. 1 Burrowingj blind Snakes.
,, 2. Glauconiidce. )
„ 3. Boida, with two Subfamilies : — Boina, Boas and Eryces,

and Pythomna, Pythons.
„ 4. Ilysiida.

,, 5. Uropeltida, or Earth-Snakes.
„ 6. XenopeUidce.
,, 7. Colubridce, with 8 Subfamilies: — Acrochordin(R,Colubrin(e,

Dasypeltina, Homalopsina , Dipsadomorphinae } Ela-

chistodontince, Hydrophiina, Elapince.
„ 8. Amblycephalidce.
„ 9. Viperidce, with two Subfamilies: — Viperina, Vipers

proper, and Crotalince, Pit- Vipers.

Snakes are most unsuitable objects for preservation in a dry
state, as no method is known by which the singularly regular
arrangement of their scales, and their sometimes beautiful colo-
ration and lustre, can be preserved. Therefore only a small propor-
tion of the collection is exhibited, of which the following deserve
particular notice : —

20

REPTILE GALLERY.

The Burrowing or Blind Snakes (Typhlopida and Glauconiida]
are small worm-like species, with teeth in one of the jaws only, and
without enlarged ventral plates. They are numerous in Africa and
India^ though occurring also in tropical America and Australia ;
one species is found in South-eastern Europe.
[Cases The Pythonince, or Rock Snakes, are found in the hottest

18-20.] parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia, and attain a very large size
(from 8 to 24 feet). They climb as well as swim, most of
them preferring the neighboui hood of water. Like the Boas, to
which they are closely related, and from which they differ chietiy
in the presence of intermaxillary teeth, they overpower their prey
by constriction. The Pythons of Africa, Asia, and of Australia
represent this family.

The Boinee, or Boas and Eryces, are mostly from the tropical parts
of the New World. The Anaconda (Eunectes murinus) , which
grows to 30 feet, is the largest Snake known, the true Boa con-
strictor being a much smaller species (Case 24).

[Case 21.] The Colubridce form the great bulk of the Order, and are
found in every part of the temperate and tropical regions, but

Fig. 15.

Fig. 10.

Smooth Snake (Coronella
Icevis).

Common Snake (Tropidonotm
natrix).

are only scantily represented in the islands of the Pacific. To
the group Colubrince belong the Smooth Snake (Coronella lavis),

SNAKES.

21

found in the southern parts of England, and the Common or
Ringed Snake (Tropidonotus natrix). The Tree- or Whip-

Fig. 17.

X*

Skull of Common Snake (Tropidonotus natrix}.

an. Angular.
ar. Articular.
bo. Basioccipital.
bs. Basisphenoid.
ca. Coluraella auris.
a. Dentary.
eo. Exoccipital.
epg. Ectopterygoid.

/. Frontal.

m. Maxillary.

n. Nasal.

p. Parietal.

pi. Palatine.

pm. Pr3?maxillary.

prf. Praef rental.

pro. Prootic.

pg. Pterygoid.

pff. Postfrontal.

q. Quadrate.

so. Supraoccipital.

ste. Supratemporal.

v. Vomer.

Snakes are exceedingly slender and elongate, and some are
exquisitely coloured, green being the predominant hue. They

22 REPTILE GALLERY.

feed chiefly on tree-lizards and birds, and are found in all the
tropical regions.

The Freshwater Snakes (Homalopsince) are thoroughly aquatic,
several of them even entering the sea. In some points of their
organization they approach the truly marine Hydrophiince. They
feed on fish, and belong chiefly to the Indian region.

The Acrochordince are distinguished by their small, wart-like,
not imbricate, tubercular or spiny scales. Acrochordus javanicus,
from Java, Borneo, and the Malayan peninsula, grows to a length
of 8 feet.

The Elapina are poisonous Snakes, with the physiognomy of
the harmless Colubrine Snakes : they occur in all the tropical
regions, and are most abundant in species in Australia, where they
form almost the entire Snake-fauna. The Indian Cobra (Naja
tripudians) and the African Cobra (Naja haje) are two of the
best known and most dreaded Ophidians. They possess the re-
markable faculty of expanding their neck when irritated, by raising
the elongated ribs of this region, and thus stretching the skin
outwards on each side ; the dilatable portion is frequently orna-
mented on the back by a figure resembling a pair of spectacles.
The Hamadryad, Ophiophagus elaps, or Naja bungarus, is allied
to the Cobra, but attains to a much larger size, arid is one of the
most dangerous venomous Snakes, as it is well known to frequently
attack people without provocation. It feeds on other Snakes, and
occurs in many parts of the Indian continent and archipelago. A
specimen, 13 feet long, is exhibited in a spirit-tank opposite the
wall-case. The true Elaps, or Coral-Snakes, are small, brilliantly-
coloured Snakes, and their very small mouth renders them much
less dangerous to man.

The Sea-Snakes, Hydrophiina, are inhabitants of the tropical
parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and most abundant in the
East-Indian archipelago and in the seas between Southern China
and North Australia. They pass their whole life in the sea. Their
tail, which is compressed and paddle-shaped, answers all the pur-
poses of the same organ in a fish, and their motions in the water
are almost as rapid as they are uncertain and awkward on land.
These Snakes are highly poisonous; their dentition resembling

SNAKES

that of the preceding family. Their food consists entirely of fish.
The greatest size to which some species attain is about 12 feet.
Pelamys bicolor and Hydrophis are examples of this family.

. 18.

Sea-Snake (Hydrophis), from the Indian Ocean.

The Vipers (Viperincs) and Rattlesnakes (Crotalinte) are Snakes [Case 2:
with the most perfect poison-apparatus ; the latter subfamily being
distinguished from the former by the presence of a deep pit on
the side of the snout, between the eye and the nostril. These
Snakes have generally a short thick body and a broad head, are
slow in their movements, and nocturnal ; some live on bushes,

24 REPTILE GALLERY.

most of them on the ground. They are viviparous. The true
Vipers are chiefly African, a few species only occurring in Europe
and Asia. The common British Viper is one of the smallest of

Fig. 19.

Common Viper (Vipera berus).

this group; the Puff- Adder (Bitis arietans), the most dangerous
Snake of South Africa.

The Pit-Vipers and Rattlesnakes are found only in Asia and
America, most abundant and reaching a larger size in the latter
part of the world. The true Rattlesnakes (Crotalus) are distin-
guished by the "rattle" at the end of the tail, formed by several
horny rings, which the animal shakes when irritated, producing a
peculiar sound. It is stated that the length of the "rattle"
indicates the age of the individual ; and it is a fact that rattles of
such a length and so many joints (twenty-one), as are exhibited in
Case 22, are now of extremely rare occurrence, as these dangerous
creatures, with the advance of cultivation, have now but rarely the
chance of surviving to a very old age.

Order V. CHELONIA (TORTOISES and TURTLES).

The Chelonians5 or Tortoises and Turtles, are distinguished from
all other Reptiles by the more or less ossified case or "shell"

TORTOISES AND TURTLES.

25

which encloses the body, and into which most of the species can
retract their head and limbs. This armour consists of two shields
united by their lateral margins ; the upper, or carapace, is formed
"by the expansion and union of the vertebrae and ribs; the loWer,
or plastron, by dermal bones only. In most of these animals the
carapace presents three series of central bony plates — the vertebral
medially, and the costal laterally — and they are surrounded by a series

Fig. 20. ,

Skeleton of Tortoise, in a vertical section through the carapace.

c, neck ; v, dorsal vertebrae ; t, tail ; r, costal plates ; pi, plastron ;
s, shoulder-bones ; p, pelvis.

of marginal plates ; the plastron bones are generally nine in number,
one median and four pairs. Horny epidermic plates cover the
carapace and plastron ; their arrangement is also symmetrical,
but by no means corresponds to that of the underlying bones;
they constitute what is called the " Tortoise-shell," which in some
species has great commercial value. The jaws are toothless,
covered by a horny bill, rarely hidden under fleshy lips. The
four limbs are always well developed, and modified according to
the mode of life of the species, — the terrestrial Tortoises having
short, club-shaped feet furnished with blunt claws ; the freshwater

26 REPTILE GALLERY.

Turtles, digits distinct, armed with sharp claws, and united by a
more or less developed membrane or web ; and, finally, the marine
Turtles, having their limbs transformed into regular paddles, re-
sembling those of Cetaceans. The tail is constantly present, but
frequently extremely short; in a few forms only it attains to a con-
siderable length. Chelonians are oviparous, and the eggs are
generally covered with a hard shell.

The Chelonians form only a small part of the Class Reptilia, the
number of species amounting to about 300. If they occupy in
this Gallery almost half of the wall-cases, it is because they are
more suited than the other Reptiles for being preserved and exhi-
bited in a dried state.

Chelonians may be divided according to their mode of life into
the following Groups : —

Sphargidte and Cheloniidce, or Sea-Turtles.
Trionychidce, or Freshwater Turtles.
Emydida and Chelydida, or Freshwater Tortoises.
Testudinidte, or Land Tortoises.

The Sphargida are a geologically ancient type, in which the
formation of a protecting bony carapace has made but little
advance. The skin, which in a fresh state is flexible, like thick
leather, contains bony deposits arranged like mosaic ; but this
dermal shield is not united to the vertebra? and ribs, which remain
free, and are not particularly dilated, as may be seen in the large
skeleton (G) exhibited opposite to Case 29. In this arrangement
the dermal shield and skeleton are in the same relation to each other
as in the Crocodiles. The shape of the limbs is the same as in
the marine Turtles, with which the Leather-Turtle agrees in its
mode of life ; the bones of the paddles, however, have different
proportions, they are still more simple, merely rods, and claws are
entirely absent. Only one species exists in our time (Dermochelys
coriacea), which seems to become gradually rarer, although it is
found occasionally throughout all the seas of the tropical and
temperate regions, specimens having strayed now and then to the
British coast. This Turtle is, perhaps, the largest living Chelonian,
exceeding a length of 6 feet, and is said to be herbivorous.

TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 27

Cheloniidce or true Marine Turtles. Their feet are transformed [Cases
into long compressed fins, the anterior pair considerably longer ' ''
than the posterior, the digits being enclosed in a common
skin, out of which only one or two claws project ; the carapace
is broad and much depressed, but large interspaces between
the extremities of the ribs remain unossified ; it is covered with
symmetrical horny plates. These Turtles are thoroughly marine
animals, their fin-like feet and their light shell rendering them
the best swimmers in the class of Reptiles. They sometimes
live hundreds of miles distant from the shore, to which, however,
they periodically return in order to deposit from 100 to 250 soft-
shelled eggs, which are buried in the sand. The food of some species
{Chelone mydas) consists exclusively of algre; others (Thalasso-
chelys) subsist upon fish and mollusca. They are found in all
the intertropical seas, but sometimes they travel far into the tem-
perate regions, specimens being occasionally captured on the
British coasts. The flesh and eggs of all the species are edible,
the Green Turtle (Chelone mydas) being the most esteemed. The
Hawk's-bill Turtle {Chelone imbricata) furnishes the commercial
tortoise-shell ; the finest sort comes from Celebes, whence it is
exported to China. Specimens of polished shell from the Indian
Ocean and Jamaica are exhibited. A common Atlantic species
is the Loggerhead Turtle (Thalassochelys caretta), which forms an
exception to all other recent Cheloniaris in having five instead of
four epidermic plates on the side (costals).

The Trionychidce are Freshwater Turtles, with much depressed [Cases
shell, which is covered with soft skin, and not with epidermic plates ; 23~25-]
the digits are movable, strongly webbed, and each foot has only
three sharp claws, belonging to the three inner digits, exactly as in
Crocodiles. The jaws are covered with fleshy lips, and the snout
is produced in a short tube bearing the nasal orifices, and enabling
the animal to breathe while the rest of the head is submerged
under water. These animals are thoroughly aquatic and carni-
vorous, and inhabit the hotter parts of Asia, Africa, and North
America. We may note the Javanese and Gangetic Trionyx
(Trionyx javanicus and gangeticus) , and the Nilotic Trionyx (T.
triunguis), as showing the largest size attained by these Turtles.

28

REPTILE GALLERY.

[Cases

31-38.]

[Cases

The Emydulte, or Freshwater Tortoises, possess a perfectly
ossified carapace covered with epidermoid plates, and movable
digits furnished with sharp claws. The mode of life of some is
aquatic, of others almost terrestrial; the former having their shell
least convex, and a more or less developed web between the toes.
Thoroughly aquatic are the Alligator Terrapens of North America
(Chelydra and Macrockmmys, Case 31), in which the tail attains
to a great length, and is furnished with a crest resembling that
of a Crocodile ; Macroclemmys temminckii is the largest fresh-
water Tortoise. The East-Indian Batagur (Case 33) approach in
their physiognomy and habits and in size the Freshwater Turtles.
The smaller forms are most abundant in North America, and
sometimes beautifully marked ( Clemmys picta, rivulata, ornata, &c.,
Case 36). The European species (Emys orbicularis, Case 36) is
abundant in South Europe, and found, less frequently and locally,
in Germany as far north as Berlin ; its fossil remains have been
found in the fen-country. Nicoria* Geoemyda, Cyclemys live as
much on land as in water; and, finally, we have an example of
an exclusively terrestrial Emydoid in the Box-Tortoise ( Cistudo
Carolina) Case 38), which lives in the woods of the eastern and
southern parts of the United States, and possesses, like Emys, hinges
in the lower shield, rendering its anterior and posterior portions
movable. A lid is thus formed by which the openings of the shell
can be completely closed.

The following Freshwater Tortoises differ from the preceding in
not being able to retract the head and neck, but in bending it side-
ways under the shell, as the American Podomemys expansa (Case
26, 27), of which a fine skeleton is exhibited, and the Australian
Chelodina. But the most remarkable form of this group is the
Mata-Mata Tortoise (Chelys fimbriata, Case 26), a native of Brazil
and the Guianas. Its head and neck are fringed with warty appen-
dages, floating in the water like some vegetable growth, whilst the
rough, bossed carapace resembles a stone, — an appearance which
evidently is of as great use to this creature in escaping the obser-
vation of its enemies as in alluring to it unsuspicious animals on
which it feeds.

The Testudinidce, or Land Tortoises, have a very convex

39-44.] carapace, and feet adapted for progression on land only. They are

TORTOISES AND TURTLES. 29

The Mtita-Mata ( Chetys Jimbriatd) ; British Guiana.

vegetable- feeders, and inhabit the hotter parts of the Old as well
as New World, but are absent in Australia. The greater part are
referable to the genus Testudo, of which one species occurs in
Southern Europe (Testudo graca, Case 42) ; another closely
allied species is T. ibera, extremely abundant in Morocco and
Algiers, and imported in great numbers into England. But the
most interesting forms of this group are the Gigantic Tortoises
(Cases 39-41), which were formerly found in great numbers in
the Mascarene and Galapagos islands. At the time of their dis-
covery these islands were uninhabited by man or any .large
mammal; the Tortoises therefore enjoyed perfect security, and
this, as well as their extraordinary degree of longevity, accounts
for their enormous size and the multitude of their numbers. They
could be captured in any number with the greatest ease within a
few days, and proved to be a most welcome addition to the stock
of provisions. They could be carried in the hold of a ship, with-
out food, for months, and were slaughtered as occasion required,
each Tortoise yielding, according to size, from 80 to 100 pounds
of excellent and wholesome meat. Under these circumstances, the
numbers of these helpless creatures decreased so rapidly, that in
the beginning of this century their extermination was accomplished
in the Mascarenes ; and now only a few remain in a wild state
in Aldabra and some of the islands of the Galapagos group. We
may note particularly the gigantic Land Tortoise of Aldaba (Tes-
tudo elephantma) ; the large male specimen (H) exhibited weigher
870 pounds, and although known to have been more than 80 years

30

REPTILE GALLERY.

old, was still growing at the time of its death ; the gigantic Land
Tortoise of Abingdon Island (T. abingdonii), remarkable for its

Fig. 22.

Testudo abingdonii. The Tortoise of Abingdon Isl., Galapagos.

long neck and its thin shell, which may be easily pierced by a
knife. The specimens exhibited were obtained by Commander
W. E. Cookson during the visit of H.M.S. 'Petrel' to the
Galapagos Islands in 1875, and were probably the last survivors of
their race.

BATRACHIANS.

(FKOGS AND NEWTS.)

GENERAL NOTES.

A TABLE-CASE placed in the passage leading from the Bird- to the
Fish-Gallery contains a small series of this class of animals.
The softness of their skin prevents their being preserved in a
dry condition ; therefore of the thousand species known only
a few typical specimens are exhibited.

Although Batrachia are popularly regarded as Reptiles, they
have much in common with Fishes, from which it is by no means
easy to separate them.

They may be defined as cold-blooded * Vertebrata, the majority
of which have a pair of lungs which lie below the digestive tract,
which for some, or the whole, period of their existence breathe by
gills, have three chambers to the heart, and two or no occipital
condyles ; their limbs, if present, have not more than five fingers
developed, and if, as is rare, they possess dorsal fins, these are
merely folds of the integuments without those supporting carti-
laginous or bony rays which are found in Fishes.

The skin is soft, moist, richly provided with blood ; small scales
with rounded edges are found only in some of the Limbless
forms.

In the majority of Batrachians the young when it leaves the egg
is totally unlike, and afterwards gradually changes into, the form
and condition of the perfect animal. This change is called " meta-
morphosis." The young or larva is fish-like and breathes by gills,

* See page 1 with regard to this term.

32 REPTILE GALLERY.

which are gradually exchanged for lungs ; in some Batrachians
in which the larva is to some extent a vegetable-feeder, the change
from mixed to an exclusively animal diet is accompanied by a
shortening of the intestine; and in many the loss of a tail is com-
pensated by the growth of four limbs, whilst in others the tail is
persistent throughout life. The metamorphosis is very complete
in Frogs and Toads, in which the limbless, long-tailed larva or ' Tad-
pole'' differs so much from the perfect animal that only direct
observation can afford the proof of these change's being the develop-
mental stages of the same creature. However, a few Tailed Batra-
chians (Proteida, Sirenida) retain the gills throughout their
existence, though producing one or two pairs of limbs ; and a certain
number of Frogs belonging to various genera (Rana, Hy lodes, Rhino-
derma , Pipa, &c.) are known to leave the egg in the perfect form.

The greater number of Batrachians are oviparous ; some, like
the Salamander, are ovoviviparous. The eggs are deposited in
water or damp places, and generally (in all the British species)
enveloped in a gelatinous capsule, w7hich protects them from mecha-
nical injury and atmospheric influences : those of the Frogs form
large coherent lumps, whilst the Toads deposit theirs in long
strings, and the Newts attach theirs singly to water-plants. In
a few species the female carries the eggs in a pouch on her back
(Nototrema), or in dorsal cells (Pipa), or attached to her belly
(some Rhacophori) ; in a few the male carries the eggs round his
legs (Alytes) or in a gular sac (Rhinoderma).

The tongue is occasionally absent; when present it is generally
attached to the front end of the floor of the mouth instead of, as
in the higher Vertebrates, at the hinder end; in the majority
of the Tailless Batrachians it can be thrust out of the mouth,
and act as the organ with which they seize their prey. (See
tig. 25, p. 37.)

In many species a sac or a pair of sacs are developed on the
throat or the side of the head in the males; they act as resonants
to the waves of sound set up by the air which is passing from the
lungs, and the species that possess them are much more noisy than
those that are without them.

All Batrachians have numerous small glands imbedded in their
skin for the secretion of a whitish slimy fluid. In some these glands

TAILLESS BAT11ACH1ANS. 33

are more developed than in others, and when many are placed close
together they form protuberant masses, sometimes on each side
of the neck (parotoids of Toads and Salamanders), sometimes on
the loin or on the hind legs, or on other parts of the body. There
is no doubt that in most species this secretion has more or less
poisonous properties ; that of the Common Toad is sufficiently dis-
agreeable to dogs, birds of prey, &c. to act as a protection to the
Batrachian; but that of some South- American species of the genus
Dendrobates is said to be a much more active poison, and to be
used by the Indians as one of the ingredients of their arrow-
poison.

All the Batrachians which flourished in the older formations,
Carboniferous to Trias inclusively, belonged to the extinct order
Stegocephala or Labyrinthodonta, and were succeeded in the Cre-
taceous by the Tailed, in the Tertiary by the Tailless Batrachians,
which order appears to have now attained its highest point of
development. No fossil Coecilian has as yet been found.

Recent Batrachians are referable to three orders, viz. : —

1. Ecaudata, Tailless Batrachians, such as Frogs and Toads;

2. Caudata, Tailed Batrachians, such as Salamanders, Newts,
and Permanent Gill-breathers ;

3. Apoda, Limbless Batrachians or Coecilians.

Order I. ECAUDATA, OR TAILLESS BATRACHIANS.

This order, which comprises about 1100 species, includes Batra-
chians destitute of a tail, with shortened body and four limbs, of
which the hinder pair is longest and adapted for leaping.

Their skeleton shows many peculiarities. The following account
refers to the Frog: — The skull is large and flattened, with
enormous orbits ; the vertebral column shortened, with constantly
eight prsesacral and one sacral vertebra, and a coccygeal style
formed by the co-ossification of at least two caudal vertebrae,
the following is an enumeration of the principal bones of the
skull : — On the upper surface two large bones, the front o-parietah
(tig. 23, fp], formed by the fusion of the frontals and parietals.
leaving uncovered anteriorly a portion of the ethmoid (e) ; a pair
of nasals (ri) ; the prootic (po) on each side between the fronto-

REPTILE GALLERY.

parietals and the squamosal (sq) j the latter is a mallet-shaped
bone, the basal extremity of which is in contact with a small bone,
the quadrato-jugal (qj), which represents the quadrate and jugal

Pig. 23.

Skeleton of Hana esculenta.

of higher Vertebrates ; there are then two premaxilla (pm) and
two maxilla (mx), bearing^ in certain species, closely-set, small,
acute teeth. On the lower surface we distinguish the vomers (vo),
each of which bears sometimes a group of teeth, the palatines (pl}}
horizontal, rod-shaped bones, the ethmoid (e)} a large T-shaped

TAILLESS BATRACHIANS. 35

parasphenoid (psp), and the ptery golds (pt). On the back of the
skull are the exoccipitals (eo), with a condyle on either side of the
foramen magnum for articulation with the first vertebra ; there is
no basioccipital. The toothless lower jaw is composed of several
bones, as in the Reptiles, to which may be added on each side a
peculiar symphyseal (sy] .

The number of prcEsacral vertebra (v) is normally eight; the
ninth, or sacral (sv), gives attachment to the pelvis. The vertebrae
possess strong transverse processes but no ribs, and, save in the
first and last two, the centra are proco3lous or concavo-convex.
The coccyx or urostyle (c) is a long styliform bone, usually
articulating with the sacral vertebra by a double concavity receiving
the double condyles of the latter.

The pectoral arch (fig. 23) is composed of a pair of precoracoids
(pco) and a pair of coracoids (co) nearly parallel, and firmly con-
nected in the median line by a narrow cartilage, the epicoracoid
(eco) ; this structure of the pectoral arch is termed the "Firmi-
sternal," to distinguish it from the "Arciferous" type as seen in
many families — for instance the Toads, in which the coracoid and

Fig. 24.

Sternal apparatus of Leptodactylus pentadactylus.

precoracoid on the one side are connected by an arched epicoracoid
cartilage overlapping that of the other side (fig. 24). In front is
the omosternum (ost), composed of a cartilaginous disk and a bony

36 REPTILE GALLERY.

style; posteriorly the sternum (st), similarly formed. Above the
scapula (sc), on the dorsal side, is the suprascapula (ssc), partly
cartilaginous. The fore limbs present this peculiarity,, that the ulna
and radius (cr) coalesce into a single bone; the functional digits
number four, but there is a rudimentary thumb (po). The pelvic
arch also differs much from that of higher Vertebrates; the ilia (il)
are elongated bones set parallel to the vertebral column, and join-
ing posteriorly the pubis and ischium (pi), which are united into
a single small discoid bone. The acetabulum, or socket for the
reception of the head of the femur, is far removed from the sacrum.
In the hind limb also the tibia and fibula (tf) are united into a
single bone, and the two proximal elements of the tarsus (a, astra-
galus', ca, calcaneum] are so elongated and strong as to resemble the
real tibia and fibula of other animals — the Newts, for instance.
The toes are also much elongated, and number five, with an
additional ossicle (VI) on the inner side, which is regarded as a
rudimentary sixth toe (prahallux) .

The Tailless Batrachians are distributed over the whole surface
of the globe except the Arctic Regions, and are most abundant in
the tropical and subtropical zones. They are divided into two sub-
orders and fifteen families as follows : —

Suborder PHANEROGLOSSA, furnished with a tongue, and with the
internal ear-openings separated.

Series A . Firmisternia *.

Families: — 1. Ranidas. 2. Dendrobatida. 3. Engystomatidce.
4. Dyscophidce. 5. Ceratobatrachida.

Series B. Arcifera *.

Families: — 6. Cystignathida. 7. Dendrophryniscidce. 8. Bufo-
nida. V. Hylida. 10. Pelobatidce. 11. Diseoglossida. 12. Am-
phignathodontida. 13. Hemiphractida.

Suborder II. AGLOSSA, without tongue, and with a single
internal ear-opening.

Families : — 14. Dactylethrida. 15. Pipidae.

* For the meaning of this term see p. 35.

TAILLESS BATRACHIANS.

37

The Ranida, or true Frogs, have teeth in the upper jaw ; the
transverse processes of the sacral vertebra are not distinctly dilated.
Two species occur in this country : the common Frog (Rana tern-

Fig. 25.

Rana temporaria (Common Brown Frog).

poraria) is indigenous ; the second species, the Edible Frog of
the Continent (R. escul.enta), has probably been introduced, and
has thoroughly established itself in some parts of Norfolk. The
Bull-Frogs, so called from their bellowing powerful voice, are
R. catesbiana of North America, and R. tigrina, the largest Frog
of India ; R, adspersa, also one of the largest species, is found in
various parts of tropical Africa, and remarkable for its toad-like
appearance. The largest known Frog is Rana guppyi, from the
Solomon Islands, the body of which measures nearly a foot. This,
family also contains arboreal types, of which Rhacophorus maximus,
from the Himalayas and the hills of Assam, is a representative.
In this genus the webs between the fingers and toes are much
developed and very broad, so that some naturalists have represented
this structure to be of service to the frog in taking flying leaps

38 REPTILE GALLERY.

(the Flying Frog of Wallace). What is certain is that the disk-like
dilatations of the tips of the fingers act as adhesive organs (fig. 26),
by means of which the animal attaches itself to vertical or smooth
surfaces, as may he observed in the common Tree-Frog from the
continent, which is frequently kept in captivity in this country.

Fig. 26.

Foot of Hylambates palmatus.

The Dendrobatida are small Tree-Frogs, closely allied to the
preceding family, but destitute of teeth, in which respect they
resemble the Toads. The savage tribes of some parts of South
America extract a deadly poison for their arrows from Dendrobates
tinctorius, of which a specimen is exhibited, and from other allied
species.

The Cy stiff nathida represent the Ranidae in tropical America
and Australia. They differ from the true Frogs in the structure
of the sternal apparatus, which, as in Toads, belongs to the
" Arciferous " type. Several of the genera lack altogether a web
between the toes (Leptodactylus) , whereas others (e. g. Pseudis)
have the toes extensively webbed. Pseudis was believed by the
earliest observers who studied the fauna of the Guianas to reverse
the course of the ordinary metamorphosis and to change into a
fish. This fable originated in the enormous size of the tadpole,
which frequently far exceeds that of the perfect animal. Several
of these larvae are exhibited. The Ceratophrys, or Horned Frogs,
also belong to this family.

The Bufonidce, or true Toads, have no teeth, and the transverse
processes of the sacral vertebra are more or less strongly dilated
or hatchet-shaped. Two species, Bufo vulgaris (the Common Toad)
and Bufo calamita (the Natterjack), represent this group in the

TAILLESS BATRACHIANS.

Fig. 27.

39

Ceratophrys cornuta (Homed Frog).

British Isles. The largest species is the Agua Toad (Bufo marinus]
of South America, which attains to a length of 8 inches, the limbs
not included, and which possesses enormous parotoid glands.

The Hylida, or true Tree-Frogs, resemble very closely the
arboreal Ranida as regards form and habits ; but the structure of
their skeleton proves their affinity to the Toads, from which they
are distinguished by the presence of teeth in the upper jaw. The
large Tree-Frog exhibited, Hyla dolichopsis, from New Guinea, and
the common European species, Hyla arborea, are examples. Closely
allied to Hyla is Nototrema (fig. 28), a marsupial Frog provided
with a dorsal pouch, into which the ova are introduced (probably
by the male) immediately after they are laid, and preserved from
injury until hatched. The commonest species, AT. marsupiatum,
is a native of the Andes of Ecuador. The species of Phyllo-
medusa, or " quadrumanous " Frogs, are still more strongly
adapted to arboreal life, the first digit of both hands and feet
being opposable to the others, like the thumb of the hand.
Several species are known from tropical America.

REPTILE GALLERY.

Fiir. 28.

Nototrcma marfujnafam, from Ecuador.
Fi*. 29.

Xenopus l&cis, from Tropical Africa.

TAILLESS BATKACHIANS.

41

The Discoglossida differ from all the preceding families in pos-
sessing short ossified rudimentary ribs, and the vertebrae, instead
of being procoelous, are opisthocoelous, two characters in which
they approach the Newts. They are represented by but few
species ; among them the Yellow- and Fire-bellied Toads (Bombi-
nator pachypus and B. igneus), so abundant in many parts of
Germany, and the curious " Midwife Toad " (Alytes obstetricans) ,
an inhabitant of Western Europe : the latter owes its name to the
assistance rendered by the male to his mate during the deposition
of the ova ; he twists the strings of ova round his legs and carries
them until they reach maturity.

The Amphignathodontidts and Hemiphractidce, as well as the
Ceratobatrachidce of the series Firmisternia, are remarkable for
possessing teeth in the lower as well as in the upper jaw.

Pipa amencana (Surinam Toad).

42

REPTILE GALLERY.

The Dactylethrida (Xenopus, fig. 29) of tropical Africa and the
Pipidce of South America are small groups which form the suborder
of tongueless Frogs — the former being chiefly distinguished by the
presence of teeth in the upper jaw, whereas the latter are toothless.
The Surinam Toad (Pipa americana, fig. 30) is well known for
its curious mode of reproduction, the eggs being placed by the male
in cells on the back of the female, where they remain until the
completion of the metamorphosis.

Order II. GAUD ATA, OR TAILED BATRACHIANS.

Elongate, lizard- or eel-like in form, with two, or, exceptionally,
one pair of limbs and with a tail. Short ribs are constantly present,
and the vertebral centra are biconcave or opisthocoelous. Over 100
species are known, from Europe, Temperate Asia, North Africa, and
North and Central America, but they are entirely absent in the
Southern Hemisphere. They are arranged in four families : —

I. Salamandridae. 2. Amphiumida. 3. Proteidce. 4. Si-
renidce.

Fig. 31.

Amblystoma tigrinum (Axolotl of Mexico).

The Salamandrida, or Newts and Salamanders, lose their gills
before they reach the adult state. However, there are instances
occurring in various genera, of which the Axolotl (fig. 31) is the

TAILED BATRACHIANS.

43

best known, of specimens retaining the gills throughout life
whereas other individuals of the same species undergo the regular
metamorphosis. The yellow-and-black-spotted Land-Salamander
(Salamandra maculosd) is very common over nearly the whole of
Europe and in North Africa. Three species of Newts (Molye) are
found in Great Britain, viz. the large Crested Newt (M. cristata), the
Common Smooth Newt (M.vulgaris, fig. 32), and the PalmatedNewt

Molge vulyaris (Common Smooth Newt), male and female.

(M.paltnata). These species live in the water in spring and during
part of the summer, whilst they are engaged in depositing their
eggs, at intervals coming to the surface for the purpose of respir-
ation. The remainder of the year they pass on land.

The Amphiumida are exclusively aquatic, although they lose the
gills during metamorphosis. They are easily distinguished from the
Salamandridce by the absence of eyelids. The species of Amphiuma
(fig. 33) are eel-like creatures, with very small limbs, from North

E

44

REPTILE GALLERY.

America. The Gigantic Salamander (Megalolatrachus maximus),
from Japan and China, belongs to this family; it is the largest
living Batracbian, attaining a length of four feet, and the living

Fig. 33.

Amphiuma means, from North America.

representative of the fossil Salamander of (Eningen, the remains
of which were originally regarded as those of man (Homo diluvii
testis}.

The Proteida and Sirenida are permanent gill-breathers, and

TAILED BATRACHIANS. 45

distinguished from the preceding families by the absence of
maxillary bones. Proteus anguinus (fig. 34) inhabits the sub-
terranean waters of the caves of Carniola, and in consequence of its
long sojourn in absolute darkness its eyes have become rudimentary
and are concealed in the skin, which is devoid of pigment.

Fig. .34. Fig. 35.

Fig. 34. Proteus anguinus, from the caves of Carniola.
Fig. 35. Siren lacertina, from North America.

Siren (S. lacertina, fig. 35), a native of North America, possesses
only one pair of limbs, viz. the anterior.

E2

4(5

BEPTILE GALLERY.

Order III. APODA, OR LIMBLESS BATRACHIANS.

Fig. 35.

These are worm-like burrowing crea-
tures, destitute of limbs, without or with
only a rudimentary tail, frequently with
small scales imbedded in the skin ; the
vertebrae are biconcave. About 35 species
are known, belonging to one family,
Coeciliidce, which is found in tropical Africa,
the East Indies, and tropical America. A
specimen of Siphonops annulatus, the com-
monest species in South America, and a
skeleton of Ichthyophis glutinosus, from the
East Indies, are exhibited. The species
figured (fig. 36) inhabits West Africa.
Very little is known of their habits ; the
majority seem to live buried in mud or very
soft moist soil, some in water. The ova are
of large size and few in number. Some
species are ovoviviparous. Ichthyophis
deposits its eggs, shortly after impregnation,
in a hole in damp earth. These eggs form
a small mass, which the mother protects
by coiling herself round it.

In the embryo large external gills are
developed within the egg ; and the larva is
provided with an opening, or spiraculurn,
on each side of the neck.

Uraotyj.Mus africantu.

THE FISH GALLERY.

VISITORS who desire to inspect the exhibited series of Fishes
have to pass from the Bird-Gallery on the ground-floor by the
first corridor on the right-hand side into a large side Gallery, as
shown on the plan accompanying this Guide. The contents are
chiefly stuffed specimens * and skeletons ; the former arranged in
a continuous series in the Wall-cases numbered 1-M, the latter in
Table-cases marked A— G. Large objects are exhibited in special
cases, or placed on stands on the floor of the Gallery, or suspended
on the walls or from the ceiling.

GENERAL NOTES.

The class of Fishes, of which now some 13,000 species are known,
exhibits a much greater amount of variation of external form, and
of diversity of their principal internal organs, than any of the
higher Vertebrates. But as all, without exception, live in the
water throughout life, they possess common distinctive characters
in those systems of their organization which are in direct relation
to their aquatic mode of life, viz. in the organs of respiration and
locomotion.

Fishes, therefore, may be described as vertebrate animals living
in water, and breathing the air dissolved in the water by means of
gills or branchiae; whose heart consists of two chambers only, viz.
a single ventricle and single atrium ; whose limbs, if present, are
modified into fins, supplemented by unpaired, median fins; and
whose skin is either naked or covered with scales or osseous scutes
or bucklers. With few exceptions, Fishes are oviparous.

* The collection of Fishes preserved in spirit is placed with other similar
preparations in a separate locality, such specimens being preserved to meet
the requirements of the scientific student, and generally unsuitable for
exhibition.

48 FISH GALLERY.

The earliest fossil remains referred to this class are found in the
Lower Silurian, in the form of small horny bodies which have been
regarded as teeth of Cyclostomes or Lampreys. But the first
undeniable evidence of a Fish, probably a Plagiostome, occurs in
the Upper Silurian ; from the Devonian to the Cretaceous, Ganoids
, were extremely abundant and exhibited an endless variety of forms,
many of which recall, with regard to external appearance, the
Teleosteans of the present time ; from the former formation started
also Chondropterygians and other Palseichthyes ; in the Tertiary
Epoch the Teleosteans almost entirely replaced the Ganoids, and
have continued to be the predominant type of Fishes down to
our times.

Fishes are distributed over all the waters of the globe, and may,
on the whole, be divided into Freshwater and Marine forms.
However, a sharp line cannot be drawn between these two kinds of
Fishes, for there are not only species which can gradually accom-
modate themselves to a sojourn in either salt or fresh water, but
there are also such as seem to be quite indifferent to a rapid change
from one to the other, as, for instance, Sticklebacks and some species
of Clupea, or Herrings. Further, Fishes belonging to freshwater
genera descend rivers and sojourn in the sea for a more or less
limited period ; whilst others annually or periodically ascend
rivers for the purpose of spawning — for instance, the Salmon and
many Sturgeons. Marine Fishes fall, with regard to their life and
distribution, into three divisions : — 1. Shore Fishes, that is,
Fishes which inhabit chiefly parts of the sea in the immediate
neighbourhood of land or banks ; 2. Pelagic Fishes, which inhabit
the surface and uppermost strata of the open ocean, and approach
the shores only accidentally or occasionally (in search of prey), or
periodically (for the purpose of spawning) ; 3. Deep-sea Fishes,
which inhabit such depths of the ocean as to be but little or not
at all influenced by light or the surface temperature, and which, by
their organization, are prevented from reaching the surface stratum
in a healthy condition. But it must not be imagined that these
three divisions are more sharply defined than Freshwater and
Marine Fishes, and, like these latter, they gradually pass into each
other.

A number of Skeletons are exhibited in separate cases and table-

FISHES.

49

fcb

£

50 FISH GALLERY.

cases. An idea of the principal features of the bony framework of
a typical Fish may be given in the two accompanying engravings —
of the skeleton of the Perch (fig. 37), as illustrative of the
Teleostean type, and of a Chondropterygian (fig. 42, p. 55),
Carcharodon rondeletii.

Like that of the higher Vertebrates, the skeleton of a Fish
consists of the Skull (from which a branchial apparatus is sus-
pended), the Vertebral column, composed of vertebrae to which
ribs are attached, the Scapular arch, giving attachment to the fore
limbs (pectoral fins), and the Pelvic arch, giving attachment to the
hind limbs (ventral fins). Besides these parts, the typical Fish
possesses a series of dermal bones, spines, or rays, forming the
vertical fins, viz. dorsal, anal, and caudal.

Looking at the Perch's skull from the side (fig. 37), we distin-
guish:— The prcemaxillary (17), armed with teeth, and, parallel to
it, the toothless maxillary (18). The mandible (34), the right and
left rami of which are united by a ligament in front ; each ramus
is formed of three pieces, viz. the articulary (36), angular (35),
and dent.ary (34) bones, the latter armed with teeth. An infra-
orbital ring of bones (19), of which the anterior is the largest and
named pr&orbital. Four large bones, constituting the gill-cover,
and distinguished as prceoperculum (30), operculum (28), subuper-
culum (32), and inter operculum (33).

The chain of flat bones which, after the removal of the tem-
poral muscles, appear arranged within the inner concavity of the
preoperculum, are comprised with the latter under the common
name of mandibulary suspensorium. They are : — The epitympanic
(23), the mesotympanic (31), the pretympanic (27), and the
hypotympamc or quadrate (26), which has a condyle for the man-
dibulary joint.

The palatine arch connects the suspensorium with the anterior
extremity of the skull and is formed by three bones — the ento-
pterygoid (fig. 38, 25), the pterygoid (24), and the palatine (22) ;
the latter is toothed.

In the occipital region (fig. 38) we have the basioccipital (o),
readily recognized by the conical excavation corresponding and
similar to that of the atlas, with which it is articulated through
the intervention of a capsule filled with a gelatinous substance (the

FISHES.

51

remains of the notochord) ; on each side, the exoccipital (10) ; and
the supraoccipital nbove (8), which is raised into a crest. The
formation of the posterior part of the skull is completed by the
mastoids (12) and parietals (7).

On the lower surface of the skull (fig. 38) are seen the basi-

Lower view of skull of Perch.

sphenoid (6), the vomer (16), which, like the palatines, is beset
with teeth, the alisphenoids (11), and orbit o sphenoids (14).

In addition to these bones we have to notice those of the
upper surface of the skull (fig. 37), viz. the frontals (1), the
prafrontals (2), the postjrontals (4), and the turbinals (20), all
paired bones.

Attached to the skull are the hyo-branchial apparatus and the
scapular arch (figs. 39, 40).

52

FISH GALLEllY

Fig. 39.

-1C

Hyoid and scapular arches of Perch.

The hi/oid arch is suspended on each side by a slender styliform
bone, the stylohyal (29), from the hyomandibulars ; it consists
of three segments — the epihyal (37), ceralohyal (38), and basi-
hyal (39, 40), the latter formed by two juxtaposed pieces. A
median ossicle, extending forwards into the substance of the tongue,
is called glossohyal or os Linguale (41). And below the junction of
the two hyoid branches there is a vertical single bone (42), ex-
panded along its lower edge, which, connected by ligament with
the anterior extremity of the humeral arch, forms the isthmus
separating the gill-openings. This bone is called the urohyaL
Articulated or attached by ligaments to the epihyals and cerato-
hyal are a number of sword-shaped bones or rays (43), the branchio-
stegals, between which the branchiostegal membrane is extended.

The branchial arches (fig. 40) are enclosed within the hyoid
arch, with which they are closely connected at the base. They
are five in number, of which four bear gills, whilst the fifth (56)
remains dwarfed, is beset with teeth, and called the lower
pharyngeal bone. The arches adhere by their lower extremities to
a chain of ossicles (53, 54, 55), basibranchials. Each of the first
three branchial arches consists of four pieces. The lowest is the

FISHES.

53

Hyoid and branchial arches of Perch.

hypobranchial (57), the next much larger one the ceratobranchial
(58), and above this, a slender and a short irregularly-shaped
epibranchial (61). In the fourth arch the hypobranchial is absent.
The uppermost of these segments (62), especially of the fourth
arch, are dilated and more or less confluent ; they are beset with
fine teeth, and generally distinguished as the upper pharyngeal
bones. Only the ceratobranchial is represented in the fifth arch
or lower pharyngeal. On their outer convex side the branchial
segments are grooved for the reception of large blood-vessels
and nerves; on the inner side they support horny processes (63),
called the gill-rakers, which do not form part of the skeleton.

The scapular or humeral arch (fig. 39) is suspended from the
skull by the suprascapula (46) ; then follows the scapula (47),
and the arch is completed below by the union of the coracoid (48)
with its fellow. Two flat bones (51, 52) attached to the coracoid may
be regarded as radius and ulna ; and two series of small bones (53)
between the forearm and the fin (54) as carpals and metacarpals.
A two-jointed appendage, the epicoracoid (49, 50), is attached to
the clavicle.

The pelvic arch (fig. 37) is reduced to a pair of flat bones, called
pubic bones (80), to which the ventral fins (81) are articulated.

54

FISH GALLERY.

The series of bones constituting the axis of the body, and des-
tined to protect the spinal cord and some large longitudinal
blood-vessels, is called the vertebral or spinal column ; the single
bones are the vertebrae.

The vertebra consists of a body or centrum (fig. 41, c), with a
concave anterior and posterior surface, and of several processes or

Fig. 41.

Vertebra of Fish.

apophyses, as : — 1. Two neurapophyses (na) which, on the dorsal
side, rising upwards, form the neural arch over the canal, in which
the spinal cord is lodged. 2. Two parapophyses (pa), projecting
from the lower part of the sides of the body, or two /i&mapophyses
(ha), which coalesce to form on the ventral side the haemal canal
for a large trunk of the vascular system. 3. A neural spine (ns),
which crowns the neurapophyses. 4. A hamal spine (hs), having
the same relation to the hsemapophyses. 5. Two pleurapophyscs
or floating ribs, suspended from the parapophyses. 6. Oblique
articular processes, zygapophyses (za], developed from the base of
each neurapophysis.

The vertebrae are divided into abdominal and caudal, the latter
distinguished by the coalescence of the parapophyses into a com-
plete haemal ring; the suspension of the anal fins forms the boundary
between the two divisions (fig. 37). The abdominal vertebrae,

PISHES.

55

c^

•^

fcb

56 FISH GALLERY.

with the exception of the first (atlas) and last, are provided with
ribs,, many of which are bifid (72). A series of flat spines (73),
called interneuralsy to which the spines and rays of the dorsal fins (d)
are articulated, are supported by the neural spines. A similar
system of bones, the interhamals (79), afford the base for the
articulation of the rays of the anal fin («). The last and smallest
caudal vertebra articulates with the hypural (70), a fan-like bone,
which, together with the dilated hindermost neural and haemal
elements, supports the caudal rays (c).

As an example of the Chondropterygian type, a figure of the
skeleton of Carcharodon rondelctii, which is exhibited in the
Entrance Hall, is given here (fig. 42, p. 55).

The substance of the skull is cartilage. The articulation
with the vertebral column is effected by a pair of lateral condyles,
and a central conical excavation corresponds to that of the
centrum of the first vertebra. The cranium itself is an undivided

Skull of Carcharodon.

cartilage, with three rod-like plates forming the base of the pro-
jecting conical snout. As separate cartilages there are appended
to the skull a suspeusorium (su), a palatine (pi), mandible (md),
hyoid (hy\ and rudimentary maxillary elements. The suspen-
sorium is movably attached to the side of the skull. What is
generally called the upper jaw of a Shark is not the maxillary, but
the palatine. It consists of two simple lateral halves, each of

FISHES. 57

which articulates with the corresponding half of the lower jaw.
Both upper and lower jaws are armed with teeth.

The hyoid consists of a pair of long and strong lateral pieces
and a single mesial piece. Prom the former cartilaginous filaments
(representing branchiostegals) pass directly outwards. Branchial
arches (br), similar to the hyoid, succeed it; and are suspended
from the side of the foremost part of the spinal column, and, like
the hyoid, bear a number of cartilaginous filaments.

The vertebral column is composed of a series of centra (c), coni-
cally excavated in front and behind, with a central canal through
which the notochord is continued, and with neural (no) and
hsemal (ha) apophyses. The caudal extremity of the vertebral
column shows a heterocercal condition, i.e. its axis is turned upwards
and the hsemapophyses are much more developed than the neurapo-
physes. The vertical fins are supported by interneural and inter-
hsemal cartilages, to which the fin-rays are attached without articu-
lation.

The scapular arch is formed by a single coracoid cartilage (co)
bent from the dorsal region downwards and forwards, not suspended
from the skull as in the majority of Teleosteans. Behind, at the
point of its greatest curvature, three carpal cartilages are joined to
the coracoid, which are distinguished as propterygmm, meso-
pterygium, and metapterygium, the former occupying the front, the
latter the hind margin of the fin. Several transverse series of
styliform cartilages (pK) follow ; they represent the phalanges, to
which the horny filaments (r), which are imbedded in the skin of
the fin, are attached.

The pubic is represented by a single median transverse cartilage
(pu), with which a tarsal cartilage articulates. The latter supports
the phalanges and fin-rays. To the end of this cartilage is also
attached, in the male, a peculiar accessory generative organ or
clasper.

The Class of Fishes is divided into 3 Subclasses and 9 Orders : —

Subclass I. TELEOSTEI. Heart with a non -contractile bulbus
arteriosus ; intestine without spiral valve ; optic nerves decussating.
Skeleton ossified, with completely separated vertebrse.

Orders : — 1. Acanthopterygii. 2. Acanthopterygii Pharyngo-

58

TISH GALLERY.

(jnathi. 3. Anacanthini. 4. Physostomi. 5. Lophobranchii.
6. Plectognathi.

Subclass II. PAL^ICHTHYES. Heart with a contractile conus
arteriosus; intestine with a spiral valve; optic nerves non-decussating
or only partially decussating.

Orders : — 7. Ganoidei. 8. Chondropterygii.

Subclass III. CYCLOSTOMATA. Heart without bulbus arteriosus;
intestine simple. Skeleton cartilaginous or notochordal. One nasal
aperture only. No jaws ; mouth surrounded by a circular lip.

Order : — 9. The Lampreys.

In many works on Fishes a fourth Subclass, Leptocardii, is
admitted; it comprises the Lancelet (Branchiostoma) only, which,
however, differs so much not only from the Class of Fishes, but
from the general Vertebrate type, that in a strictly systematic
account it should be referred to a distinct class.

TELEOSTEI.

Order I. ACANTHOPTERYGII, on SPINY-RAYED FISHES.

Acanthopterygians are bony fishes in which part of the dorsal,
anal, and ventral fins are non-articulated, more or less pungent

The Pike-Perch (Lucioperca sandra) : a Spiny-rayed Fish.

spines ; the lower pharyngeal bones are generally separated ; the
air-bladder, if present, is without pneumatic duct in the adult.
This Order, the most numerous in species, is divided into a great

SPINY-RAYED FISHES. 59

number of Families^ many of which can be alluded to here by name
only : —

1. Percidte (Perches). 2. Berycida. 3. Aphredoderidce. 4.
MullidcB (Red Mullets). 5. Sparida (Sea-Breams). 6. Squami-
pinnes (Coral-fishes). 7. Cirr/iitidae. 8. Scorpcenida. 9. Cottidce
(Bullheads, Gurnards). 10. Trachinidce (Weevers), 11. Sciae-
nidae (M eagres). 12. Polynernidca. 13. Sphyr<£md<s (Barra-
cudas). 14. Trichiuridce (Hair-tails). 15. Scombrida (Mackerel).
16. Carangida (Horse- Mackerels). 17. Xiphiida (Sword-fishes).
18. Gobiidce (Gobies). 19. Discoboli (Lumpsuckers). 20.
Oxudercidae. 21. Batrachida. 22. Pediculati (Frog-fishes).
23. Blenniidce (Blennies). 24. Acanthoclinida. 25. Come-
phorida. 26. Trachypteridce (Ribbon-fishes). 27. Lophotidce.
28. Teuthidida. 29. Acronurida (Surgeons). 30. Hoplo-
gnathidce. 31. Malacanthidae. 32. Nandidcs. 33. Polycentridae.
34. Labyrinthici. 35. Luciocephalidae. 36. Atherinida (Atherines).
37. Mugilida (Grey Mullets). 38. Ophiocephalida. 39. Tri-
chonotidce. 40. Cepolida (Band-fishes). 41. Gobiesocidce. 42.
Psijckrolutid(K. 43. Centriscidce. 44. Gastrosteidae (Stickle-
backs). 45. Fistulariida (Flute-mouths). 46. Mastacembelida .

The Acanthopterygians occupy Wall-cases 1 to 14, and skeletons
are exhibited in Table-cases 1 and 2.

The Percida, or Perch-family (Cases 1-5), constitute a large [Cases
family of which the common Freshwater Perch (Perca fluviatiiis) is 1~'/5
the best-known example. This fish is generally distributed over
Europe and Northern Asia, and equally common in North America.
The Bass (Labrax) are common on the coasts of Europe and in the
fresh waters of North America (L. lineatus, L. rufm, &c.) ; the
best-known European species (L. lupus) is an inhabitant of the
sea, entering brackish but never fresh water.

The Pike-Perches (Lucioperca) are inhabitants of lakes and
rivers of Europe, temperate Asia, and North America; the European
species (Z/. sandra) is one of the most esteemed freshwater fishes,
and attains to a length of 3 or 4 feet and to a weight of from
25 to 30 Ib. The Black Bass of North America (Huro nigri-
cans) is an esteemed food-fish, the introduction of which into
Germany is an accomplished fact. The Sea-Perches proper (Ser-

60 FISH GALLERY.

ranus and Epinephelus) are found on the shores of all temperate
and tropical seas, and extremely numerous In species. Some
(Epinephelus lanceolatus and others) attain to a size of over 7 feet,
and become then dangerous to man. Several fine specimens of these
gigantic Sea-Perches are exhibited in separate cases opposite the
wall-cases.

The Mullidce, or Red Mullets (Case 5), are characterized by the
rather low and slightly compressed body, covered with large thin
scales; two long erectile barbels are suspended from the hyoid,
and can be laid backwards in the hollow at the lower side of the
head ; the mouth is rather short, and the teeth are very feeble ; two
short dorsal fins remote from each other, the first with feeble spines.
They are marine fishes, celebrated for the delicacy of their flesh.
The European Mullet (Mullus barbatus] was prized by the ancient
Romans above any other fish.

The SparidcEj or Sea-Breams (Cases 5, 6), are recognized chiefly by
their dentition, which consists of either cutting-teeth in front of the
jaws or molar teeth on the sides. By the latter they are enabled to
crush and feed on hard-shelled crustaceans or mollusks. The Gilt-
head (Chrysophrys aurata) is common in the Mediterranean^ but
occasionally found on the south coast of England. Other British
species belong to the genera Pagellus (P. erythrinus, P. centrodontus,
the common Sea-Bream or Chad) and Cantharus (C. lineatus). One
of the largest species is the "Sheep's-head" (Sargus ovis) , from the
coast of the United States, which attains to a weight of 15 lb., and

Fig. 45.

The Snapper (Pagrus unicolor).

SPINY-RAYED FISHES.

61

is highly esteemed on account of the excellency of its flesh. The
" Snapper" (Pagrus unicolor) is one of the best-known sea-fishes
of Southern Australia and New Zealand ; it attains to a length of
more than 3 feet and to a weight exceeding 20 Ib.

The Squamipinnes, or Coral-fishes (Case 7), are inhabitants of [Case 7.1
the tropical seas, and abound chiefly in the neighbourhood of
coral-reefs. They attain only small dimensions, and comparatively
few are used as food. They are carnivorous, feeding on small
invertebrates. The typical forms of this family are readily
recognized by the short and deep form of their body, and by
having the soft, and frequently also the spinous, part of their

Fig. 46.

Hcniochus macrolepidotus. (Indian Ocean.)

r 2

62 FISH GALLERY.

dorsal and anal fins so thickly covered with scales that the
boundary between fins and body is entirely obliterated. The
beauty and singularity of distribution of the colours of some
genera (Chcetodon, Heniochus, Holacanthus) is scarcely surpassed
in any other group of fishes. The genus Chelmo is remarkable in
having the snout produced into along tube, which probably enables
the fish to draw from holes and crevices animals which otherwise
could not be reached by it. A well-known species from the East
Indies is Toxotes jaculator. It has received its name from its
habit of throwing a drop of water at an insect which it perceives
close to the surface in order to make it fall into it. The Malays
keep it in a bowl in order to witness this singular habit, which it
continues even in captivity.

[Case 7.] The Scorpaenidts (Case 7) are carnivorous marine fishes, many of

which possess skinny appendages resembling the fronds of seaweeds,

by which they either attract other fishes or by which they are

enabled more effectually to hide themselves. The dentition is

feeble, but some of the bones of the head are armed with spines.

To this family belong the Sebastes, which approach the Sea-Perches

in forms and habits ; the Scorpcena, the head of which is strongly

armed with spines, and generally furnished with skinny tentacles.

Allied to the preceding is Pterois volitans. The dorsal spines and

pectoral rays of this fish are much prolonged, passing beyond the

margin of the connecting membrane. It is one of the most

singularly formed and most beautifully coloured fishes of the

tropics^ and was formerly believed to be able to fly like Dactylo-

pterus. But the membrane connecting the pectoral rays is much

too short and feeble to enable it to raise itself from the surface of

the water. The species of the genus Synanceia are justly feared

on account of the dangerous wounds which they can inflict with

their poisonous dorsal spines. The terminal half of each spine is

provided with a deep groove on each side, at the lower end of

which lies a pear-shaped bag containing the milky poison. This

sac is prolonged into a membranous duct, lying in the groove of

the spine, and open at its point.

[Case 8.] The Cottida, or Gurnards (Case 8), are fishes of singular
appearance, nearly all marine, bad swimmers, and generally living
at the bottom near the coasts. Their body is oblong, subcylindrical,

SPINY-RAYED FISHES. 63

their head thick. The dentition is feeble. Some oones of the
head are armed, and a bony stay connects the preopercular spine
with the infraorbital ring. The "Bull-heads/' or"Millers'-thumbs"
(Coitus), are small fishes from the shores and fresh waters of
Northern Europe, Northern Asia, and North America. The
common British Miller's-thumb (C. gobio) is exclusively confined to
fresh waters ; two marine species are common on our coasts (C. scor-
pius and bubalis), whilst a fourth (C. lilljeborgu) inhabits deeper
water on the North- British coasts. The Gurnards (Triyla), of which
seven species occur on the British coast, are principally characterized
by the free finger-like pectoral appendages which serve as organs of
locomotion as well as of touch. The Flying-Gurnards (Dactylo-
pterus), of which three species are known, are very abundant in the
Mediterranean, the tropical Atlantic, arid Indo-Pacific. They and
the " Flying- Herrings'" (Exoc&twt) are the only fishes which are
enabled by their long pectoral fins to take flying leaps out of the
water, and deserve the name of " Flying-fishes " ; when young
their pectorals are much shorter, and consequently they are unable
to raise themselves out of the water.

The Trachinida (Case 8) have the body elongate, naked, or
covered with scales, and the spinous portion of the dorsal fin
always much shorter than the soft. The Weevers (Trachinus) are

Fig. 47.

The Weever (Trachinus draco); with separate view of opercular spine.

common fishes on the European coasts, and but too well known to
all fishermen. Wounds by their dorsal and opercuiar spines are
much dreaded, being extremely painful, and sometimes causing
violent local inflammation. In the absence of any special poison-
organ, it is very probable that the mucous secretion in the vicinity
o f the spines has poisonous properties. The dorsal spines as well

FISH GALLERY.

as the opercular spine have a deep double groove in which the
poisonous fluid is lodged, and through which it can be inoculated
in the punctured wound.

The Sci&nidce (Cases 8, 9) are chiefly coast-fishes of the tropical
and subtropical Atlantic and Indian Oceans, frequently entering
the mouths of large rivers. Some of the larger species wander far
from their original home, and are not rarely found at distant
localities as occasional visitors. Thus the "Maigre" (Scicena
aquila) reaches sometimes the British coasts, and has been found
at the Cape of Good Hope and on the coast of Southern Australia.
Large specimens of allied species (S. antarctica, S. diacanthus)
are exhibited in table-cases. To this family also belong the
Umbrine (Umbrina) and the "Drum" (Pogonias). The latter
derives its name from the extraordinary sounds which it produces.
These sounds are better expressed by the word "drumming" than by
any other, and are frequently noticed by persons in vessels lying at
anchor on the coast of the United States, where these fishes abound.
It is still a matter of uncertainty by what means the "Drum"
produces the sounds. Some naturalists believe that it is caused
by the clapping together of the pharyngeal teeth, which are very
large molar teeth. However, if it be true that the sounds are
accompanied by a tremulous motion of the vessel, it seems more
probable that they are produced by the fishes beating their tails
against the bottom of the vessel in order to get rid of the parasites
with which that part of their body is infested.

Allied to the preceding family are the Polynemidae (Case 9),
characterized by the free filaments which are inserted on the
humeral arch at some distance from the pectoral fin, of which,
however, they form merely a detached portion. They can be
moved quite independently and are organs of touch. The Polyne-
moids are very useful to man ; their flesh is esteemed, and some of
the species are provided with an air-bladder which yields a good
sort of isinglass ; specimens of this important article of trade are
exhibited. These fishes belong to the littoral fauna of the Tropics,
and some attain to a length of four feet.

The family of Sphyrtenidce (Case 9 and Table-case) consist of one
genus only, Sphyrana, generally called " Barracudas," large vora-
cious fishes from the tropical and subtropical seas. They attain to

SPTNY-RAYED FISHES.

65

a length of' eight feet and a weight of 40 Ib. ; individuals of this
large size are dangerous to bathers. They are generally used as
food, but sometimes (especially in the West Indies) their flesh
assumes poisonous qualities, in consequence of their feeding on
smaller poisonous fishes, particularly certain Clupeoids.

The Scombridae, or Mackerel family (Cases 10, 11), are pelagic [Case 10.]
forms, abundant in all the seas of the tropical and temperate
zones. They are one of the four families of fishes which are the
most useful to man, the others being the Gadoids, Clupeoids, and
Salmonoids. The)'' are fishes of prey and are unceasingly active,
their power of endurance in swimming being equal to the rapidity
of their motions. They wander about in shoals, spawn in the open
sea, but periodically approach the shore, probably in the pursuit of
other fishes on which they feed. The type of this family is the
Common Mackerel (Scomber scomber}. The Tunny (Thynnus
thynnus), abundant in the Mediterranean, and ranging to the south
coast of England and to Tasmania, is one of the largest fishes of
the Ocean, attaining to a length of 10 feet and to a weight of
more than 1000 pounds. The fishery of the Tunny is systemati-
cally carried on in the Mediterranean. To the same genus belongs
the Albacore (T. albacora). Specimens of both these species are
exhibited in a separate table-case. Other highly esteemed fishes [Case 11.]
of this family are the "John Dorys" (Zeus). The remarkable
Sucking-fishes (Echeneis) have the spinous dorsal fin modified into

Fijr. 48.

Sucking-fish (Echeneis scutata) ; with separate view of sucking-disk.
(Indian Ocean.) ...

66 FISH GALLERY.

an adhesive disk, which occupies the upperside of the head and neck.
These fishes, of which ten different species are known, are enabled
to attach themselves to any flat surface by means of this disk. The
adhesion is so strong that the fish can only be dislodged with
difficulty, unless it is pushed forwards by a sliding motion. They
attach themselves to sharks, turtles, ships, or any other object which
serves their purpose, and, being bad swimmers, they allow them-
selves to be thus carried about by other animals endowed with a
greater power of locomotion or by vessels. This genus is connected
with the more normal forms of this family through Elacate, which,
though closely allied to the Sucking-fish, have the spinous dorsal
fin formed of free spines. Coryphana, generally (though by mis-
application of the name) called "Dolphins," are pelagic fishes,

Fig. 49.

Dolphin (Coryplifena hippurus}. (From the Atlantic Ocean.)

distributed over all the tropical and subtropical seas ; they are
most powerful swimmers, congregate in shoals, and pursue the
Flying-fish, which try to escape their enemies by long flying
leaps. They attain to a length of 6 feet, and are eagerly caught
by sailors on account of their well-flavoured flesh. The beauty of
their, unfortunately fugitive, colours has ever been a subject of
admiration. The Opah or King-fish (Lampris lund) is one of the
most beautiful fishes of the Atlantic, and occasionally occurs on
the British coast. It attains to a length of four feet. The
skeleton (of which a specimen, together with a stuffed example, is
exhibited in a table-case) exhibits several peculiarities, viz., an
extraordinary development and dilatation of the humeral arch, and
great strength of the numerous and closely-set ribs.

SPINY-RAYED FISHES.

67

The Carangida (Cases 12, 13), or Horse-Mackerels, are a large [Case 12.]
family of carnivorous fishes allied to the true Mackerels, and
inhabiting the tropical and temperate seas. One species (Caranoc
trachurus) is common on our coasts, and almost cosmopolitan
within the temperate and tropical zones of the northern and
southern hemispheres. The " Yellow-tails " (Seriola) occur in

Fig. 50.

Yellow-tail (Seriola lalcmdii). (From South Australia.)

all the temperate and tropical seas; the larger grow to a length
of from four to five feet, and are esteemed as food. The Pilot-
fish (Naucrates ductor} is so named from its habit of keeping

Fig. 51.

Pilot-fish (Xaucrates ductor).

company with ships and large fish, especially Sharks. The con-
nection between the Shark and the Pilot-fish has received various
interpretations; being a small fish, it obtains greater security
when in company of a Shark, which would keep at a distance all

68 FISH GALLERY.

other fishes of prey that would be likely to prove dangerous to
the Pilot. With regard to the statement that the Pilot itself is
never attacked by the Shark, all observers agree as to its truth ;
but this may be accounted for in the same way as the impunity of
the swallow from the hawk, the Pilot-fish being too nimble for the
unwieldy Shark. The Sea-bats (Platax), so called from the
extraordinary length of their dorsal and anal fins and of their
ventrals, are also remarkable members of this family.

The Xiphiida, or Sword-fishes (Case 13), are pelagic fishes,
occurring in all tropical and subtropical seas. Several large speci-
mens are exhibited on the top of Cases 1—12, and skeletons in a
Case in the centre of the Gallery. The Mediterranean Sword-fish
(Xiphias gladiut), the flesh of which is considered to be superior
to that of the Tunny, and which is also abundant in the Atlantic,
is the object of a regular and profitable fishery, both in Europe
and America. The other species, which are found in the open
ocean, and endowed with extraordinary strength and swimming
powers, are less frequently captured, and still more rarely preserved.
They belong to the genus Histiophorus, which is distinguished from

Fig. 52.

Sword-fish of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans (Histiophorus ffladntt).

the common Mediterranean Sword-fish, or Xiphias gladius, by
the presence of ventral fins, which, however, are reduced to two
long styliform appendages. Some species have the dorsal rays
exceedingly elongate, so that the fin, when erected, projects beyond
the surface of the water : it is stated that these Sword-fishes, when
quietly floating with the dorsal fin erect, can sail before the wind

SPINY-RAYED FISHES. 69

like a boat. Sword-fishes are the largest of Acanthopterygians, [Case 13. J
and not exceeded in size by any other Teleostean ; they attain
to a length of from 12 to 15 feet, and swords have been obtained
more than three feet long, and with a diameter of at least three
inches at the base. This sword forms a most powerful weapon.
Sword-fishes never hesitate to attack large Whales, and after
repeatedly stabbing these animals they generally retire from the
combat victorious. The cause which excites them to these attacks
is unknown; but they follow this instinct so blindly that they
riot rarely attack boats or large vessels in a similar manner,
evidently mistaking them for Cetaceans. Sometimes they actually
succeed in piercing the bottom of a ship^ endangering its safety;
but, as they are unable to execute powerful backward move-
ments, they cannot disengage their sword, which is broken off by
the exertions of the fish to free itself. A piece of a two-inch
plank of a whale-boat, thus pierced by a Sword-fish, in which the
broken sword still remain s^ is exhibited, as well as a second block

Fig. 53.

Block of wood pierced by Sword-fishes.

of wood, from a ship, pierced by three swords. Attacks by small
Sword-fishes on the frail canoes of the natives of the South-Sea
Islands or on the stronger boats of the professional Sword-fish
hunters are of common occurrence, and only too often the persons
sitting in them are dangerously wounded.

The Gobiidte and Discoboli (Case 13) are two closely allied
families in which the ventral fins are usually united to form an
adhesive disk. The former contains numerous species, small

70

FISH GALLERY.

[Case 13.] carnivorous littoral fishes, many of which have become accli-
matized in fresh water. It is represented in British waters by
several species of Gobius and two of Callionymus (Dragonet).
The latter family contains the Lump-suckers (Cyclopterus), the

Fig. 54.

Luinp-sucker (Cyclopierus lumpus} ; with a separate view of the
sucking-disk.

common species (C. lumpus] occurring in North Europe and
North America. It is difficult to remove it from any object to
which it has once attached itself by means of its sucking-disk.

The Pediculati or Sea-devils (Case 13) contain a larger number
of bizarre forms than any other; and there is, perhaps, none in

SPINY-RAYED FISHES. 71

which the singular organization of the fish is more distinctly seen [Case 13.]
to be in consonance with its habits. Pediculates are found in all
seas. The habits of all are equally sluggish and inactive: they
are very bad swimmers; those found near the coasts lie on the
bottom of the sea, holding on with their arm-like pectoral fins to
seaweed or stones, between which they are hidden ; those of
pelagic habits attach themselves to floating seaweed or other
objects, and are at the mercy of the wind and current. A large
proportion of the genera, therefore, have gradually found their way
to the greatest depths of the ocean — retaining all the character-
istics of their surface-ancestors, but assuming the modifications by
which they are enabled to live in abyssal depths. The Fishing-
frogs (Lophius), also called Anglers or Sea-devils, are coast-fishes,,

Fig. 55.

Angler, or Sea-devil (Lophius naresii). (From the Admiralty Islands.)

living at small depths. The wide mouth extends all round the
anterior circumference of the head, and both jaws are armed with
bands of long pointed teeth, which are inclined inwards, and can
be depressed so as to offer no impediment to an object gliding
towards the stomach, but prevent its escape from the mouth.
The pectoral and ventral fins are so articulated as to perform the
functions of feet, the fish being enabled to move, or rather to
walk, on the bottom of the sea, where it generally hides itself in
the sand or amongst seaweed. All round its head, and also
along the body, the skin bears fringed appendages, resembling

72 FISH GALLERY.

[Case 13.] short fronds of seaweed — a structure which, combined with the
extraordinary faculty of assimilating the colours of the body to its
surroundings, assists the fish in concealing itself in places which
it selects on account of the abundance of prey. To render the
organization of these creatures perfect in relation to their wants,
they are provided with three long filaments inserted along the
middle of the head, which are, in fact, the detached and modified
first three spines of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most
important in the economy of the Fishing-frogs is the first, which
is the longest, terminates in a lappet, and is movable in every
direction. There is no doubt that the Fishing-frog, like many
other fish provided with similar appendages, plays with this
filament as with a bait, attracting fishes, which, when sufficiently
near^ are engulfed by the simple act of the Fishing-frog opening
its gape. It is extremely interesting to find that in Fishing-frogs
inhabiting great depths of the ocean, to which no ray of light
can penetrate, the filament is provided at its end with a luminous
or phosphorescent organ ; the light issuing from it attracts other
creatures, in the same manner as surface-animals congregate round
the lamp of a boat during a dark night. The stomach of the
Sea-devil is distensible in an extraordinary degree, and not
rarely fishes have been taken out of it quite as large and
heavy as their destroyer. The British species (L. piscatorius)
grows to a- length of more than five feet ; an allied species from
the Admiralty Islands (Lophius naresii) is figured here. Chaunax
mctus is a deep-sea form, hitherto found near Madeira, Japan,
and the Fiji Islands, at a depth of 215 fathoms. Another curious
fish of this family is Malthe vespertilio, common on the shores of
the tropical Atlantic ; the anterior part of the snout is produced
into a long process, beneath which there is a retractile tentacle.

The Blenniidte, or Blennies (Case 13), are mostly small-sized
littoral fishes; some species have become acclimatized in fresh
water, and many inhabit brackish water. Four species of Blen-
nius occur on the British coasts. The Sea-wolf or Sea-cat
(Anarrhichas lupus) is a gigantic Blenny, attaining to a length
of more than six feet. With its enormously strong tubercular
teeth it is able to crush the hardest shells of crustaceans or
mollusks, on which it feeds voraciously. It is an inhabitant of

SPINY-RAYED FISHES.

Fig. 56.

73

[Case 13.]

Sea-wolf (Anarrldclias lupus).

the northern seas, occurring plentifully on our northern coasts.
Of late years it is frequently to be seen in the London market, its
flesh being firm and well-flavoured. A stuffed specimen and
skeleton are exhibited in a table-case.

The Trachypteridte, or Ribbon-fishes, are true deep-sea fishes,
met with in all parts of the oceans, generally found when floating
dead on the surface or thrown ashore by the waves. Their body

Fig. 57.

Ribbon-fish (Regalecus gladius).

is like a band, specimens of from 15 to 20 feet long being 10 to
12 inches deep, and about an inch or two broad at their thickest
part. The bones contain very little bony matter, are very porous,
thin and light. A few specimens are exhibited on the top of
Cases 13 and 16.

The Acronurida, or Sea-Surgeons (Case 14), are inhabitants of [Case 14.]
the tropical seas, and most abundant on coral-reefs. They feed
either on vegetable substances or on the superficial animal matter
of corals. The best known are Acanthurus, readily recognized by
the sharp lancet-shaped spine with which each side of the tail is
armed. When at rest the spine is hidden in a sheath ; but it can

74

FISH GALLERY.

be erected and used by the fish as a very dangerous weapon, by
striking with the tail towards the right and left. Naseus,

Fig. 58.

Naseus unicornis. (From the Indo-Pacific Ocean.)

remarkable for the horn-like projection on its forehead, also
belongs to this family.

The LabyrintMci (Case 14) are freshwater fishes of Tropical
Africa and the East Indies. They are able to live for some time
out of water, or in thick or hardened mud. In an accessory
branchial cavity there is lodged a laminated organ which has the
function of -assisting in the oxygenization of the blood. The
Climbing-Perch (Anabas scandens) is well known for its faculty

Fig. 59.

Gourami (Osphromenus olfax).

of moving for some distance over land, and even of ascending
trees. The Gourami (Osphromenus olfax) is reputed to be one

SPINY-RAYED FISHES. 75

of the best-flavoured freshwater fishes of the East-Indian Archi- [^ase *
pelago. Being an almost omnivorous fish and tenacious of
life, it seems to recommend itself particularly for acclimatization
in other tropical countries, and specimens kept in captivity become
as tame as Carp.

The Mugilidce, or Grey Mullets (Case 14), are characterized by
a more or less oblong and compressed body, covered with cycloid
scales of moderate size, by the absence of a lateral line, and by
their anterior dorsal fin being composed of four stiff spines. They
inhabit, in numerous species and in great numbers, the coasts of
the temperate and tropical zones. They frequent brackish waters,
in which they find an abundance of food, which consists chiefly of
organic substances mixed with mud or sand. Several species are
more or less abundant on the British coasts.

The Gastrosteidce, or Sticklebacks (Case 14), are small fishes with
elongate, compressed body, without scales, but generally with large

Fig. 60.

Stickleback and Nest.

scutes along the side, and parts of the skeleton forming an in-
complete external mail. The ventral tins are abdominal, articulated

76 FISH GALLERY.

[Case 14.] to tbe pubic bone, and composed of a spine and a small ray. The
spines of tbe anterior dorsal are isolated. Three species are common
in the British Isles, and are very remarkable for the elegant nests
they construct. The three-spined and ten-spined Sticklebacks
(Gastrosteus aculeatus and pungitius] are inhabitants of the
fresh and brackish waters ; the larger, or fifteen -spined, species
(G. spinachia) is marine, and abundant in brackish water.

The Fistularuda, or Flute-mouths (Case 14), are gigantic marine
Sticklebacks, living near the shore. They are distributed over
the whole of the tropical and subtropical parts of the Atlantic and
Indo-Pacific. The species are few in number.

Order II. PHARYNGOGNATHI.

Acanthopterygians with the lower pharyngeal bones coalescent.
They are divided into four families : — 1. Pomacentridts. 2. La-
brides. 3. Embioiocida. 4. Chromides.

Fi<r. 61.

Separate upper and united lower pharyngeal bones of Labrus maculatus.

The Pomacentrida are small marine fishes, resembling the
Chsetodonts with regard to their geographical distribution, mode
of life, and coloration.

The Labrida, or Wrasses (Cases 14, 15), are a large family of
littoral fishes, very abundant in the temperate and tropical zones,
but becoming scarcer towards the Arctic and Antarctic circles, where
they disappear entirely. Many of them are readily recognized by

WRASSES.

77

their thick lips, which are sometimes internally folded, a peculiarity
which has given to them the Grerman term of " Lip-fishes/' They
feed chiefly on mollusks and crustaceans, their dentition being
admirably adapted for crushing hard substances. Others feed on
corals, echitioderms, etc. ; a few are herbivorous, Nearly all are
distinguished by their beautiful coloration, and some of the species
are, perhaps, the most gorgeously coloured in the whole class of
Fishes. Several species occur on the British coasts, belonging to

Fte. 62.

Wrasse (Labrus maculatus).

the genera Labrus, Crenilabrus, Ctenolabrus, Acantholabrus, Centro-
labrus, and Coris. The Parrot- Wrasses (Scarus and Pseudoscarus)

Fig. 63.

Wrasse (Pseudoscarus troschelii). (From the Indian Ocean.) -

78 FISH GALLERY.

are chiefly tropical fishes, which have the jaws transformed into a
h arp beak, the teeth being soldered together.

The Embiotocidce are marine fishes characteristic of the fauna
of the temperate North Pacific, the majority living on the
American side, and only a few on the Asiatic. They are vivi-
parous.

The Chromides are freshwater fishes of rather small size, from
the tropical parts of Africa and America. Some are herbivorous,

Fig. 64.

" Bulti " of the Nile (Chromis niloticus).

the others carnivorous. Chromis niloticus, the " Bulti " or " Bolty "
of the Nile,, is one of the few well-flavoured fishes of that river.
Several species are common in Lake Tiberias.

Order III. ANACANTHINI.

Bony fishes without spinous rays in the vertical and ventral fins ;
the air-bladder, if present, without pneumatic duct, and the ventral
fins, if present, jugular or thoracic.

They form two divisions, viz. the Gaduidei (Cod-fishes), in which
the head and body are symmetrically formed ; and the Pleuro-
nectoidci (Flat-fishes), in which the head and part of the body
are unsymmetrical. The former group contains four families : —
Lycodida, Gadida, Ophidiida, and Macruridte ; the latter includts
a single family only — Pleuronectida.

COD-FISHES. 79

The Gadidce, or Cod-fishes (Case 17), consist partly of littoral [Case 17.]
and surface species, partly of deep-sea forms. The formev are
almost entirely confined to the temperate zones, extending north-
wards beyond the Arctic circle; the latter have, as deep-sea fishes
generally, a much wider range, and hitherto have been found chiefly
at considerable depths in rather low latitudes. Only two or three
species inhabit fresh waters. Cod-fishes form one of the most
important articles of food and subsistence to the fishermen in
Europe and North America, and to whole tribes bordering upon the
Arctic Ocean. The common Cod (Gadus morrhua) measures from
two to four feet, and attains to a weight of one hundred pounds.
It occurs between 50° and 75° N. lat., in great abundance, to a
depth of 120 fathoms, but is not found nearer the Equator than
40° lat. It is met with singly all the year round close to the
coast, but towards the spawning-time it approaches the shore or
shallow banks in numbers; this happens in January in England,
and not before May on the American coasts. The English resorted
to the Cod-fisheries of Iceland before the year 1415; but since
the sixteenth century most vessels go to the Banks of Newfoundland,
and almost all the preserved Cod consumed during Lent in the
various continental countries is imported from across the Atlantic.
At one time the Newfoundland Cod-fishery rivalled in importance
the Whale-fishery and the Fur-trade of North America. Cod-liver
oil is prepared from the liver of the common Cod on the Norwegian
coast, but also other species of this genus contribute to this most
important drug. The Haddock (G. aylefinus), the Whiting (G.
merlan(/us),the Bib or Pout(G. luscus),the Power-Cod (G. mintUus),
the Pollack (G. pollachius), and the Coal-fish (G. virens) are other
well-known species of the same genus. The Norway Pout (G.
esmarkii) has recently been discovered on the west coast of
Scotland. The Hake (Merluccius vulyaris) is also found on
both sides of the Atlantic, and forms, preserved as " Stock-fish," an
important article of trade. The Ling (Molva vulgaris), of which
a stuffed specimen and skeleton are exhibited in a separate case,
is likewise a very valuable species, from three to four feet long,
abundant in the north of Great Britain. The Rocklings (Onus) are
small fishes of which several species occur on the British coast. The
Burbot or Eel-pout (Lota vulgaris, fig. 65) is a freshwater fish

80

FISH GALLERY.

[Case]?.] which never enters salt water. It is locally distributed in Central
and Northern Europe and North America; it is one of the best
freshwater fishes, and exceeds a length of three feet.

Fig. 65.

The Burbot (Lota vulgaris}.

The OphidiidcK are small Gadoids with more or less elongated,
naked or scaly body. The " Sand-eels" or "Laurices " (Ammo*
dytes, fig. 66) occur on the British coast, and are well known

Fig. 66.

The Sand-eel (Ammodytes Umceolatus).

for the incredible rapidity with which they bury themselves in the
sand; they are much sought after for bait.

The Macrurida (fig. 67) are deep-sea Gadoids of curious shape,
occurring at depths of from 120 to 2600 fathoms. This family,
known a few years ago from a few species only, proves to be one
which is distributed over all oceans, occurring in considerable
variety and great abundance. About 40 species are known, of
which many attain a length of three feet.

The Plcuronectida are called Flat-fishes, from their strongly
compressed, high, and flat body. In consequence of the absence

FLAT-FISHES. 81

of an air-bladder, and of the structure of their paired fins, [Case 17.]
they are unable to maintain their body in a vertical position,
resting and moving on one side only. The side turned towards

Fig. 67.

Macrurus purallclus : from a depth of 350 fathoms.

the bottom is sometimes the left, sometimes the right, colourless,
and termed the " blind " side ; that turned upwards and towards
the light is variously, and in some tropical species even vividly,
coloured. Both eyes are on the coloured side, on which side also
the muscles are more strongly developed. The dorsal and anal
fins are exceedingly long, without division. All the Flat-fishes
undergo remarkable changes with age; when quite young, they
are perfectly symmetrical, with an eye on each side of the head,
and swim in a vertical position like other fishes. To illustrate the
gradual change from the symmetrical form of the newly-hatched
Flat-fish to the more advanced asymmetrical shape, a series of
young Brill (Rhombus lavis) is exhibited in Case 17. Flat-fishes
when adult live always on the bottom, and swim with an undulating
motion of their body. They occur in all seas, except in the
highest latitudes and on rocky precipitous coasts, becoming most
numerous towards the Equator; those of the largest size occur in
the Temperate zone. Some enter fresh water freely, and others
have become entirely acclimatized in ponds and rivers. All are
carnivorous. Those most generally known are : — The Holibut
(Hippoglossus vulgaris), the largest of all Flat-fishes, attaining to a
length of 5 or 6 feet, and a weight of several hundredweight ;
the Turbot (Rhombus maximus), one of the most valued food-
fishes ; the Brill (R. laevis) ; the Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) ;
the Dab (P. limanda) ; the Flounder (P. flesus) ; the Smear-Dab
or Lemon-Dab (P. microcephalies) ; the Craig-fluke (P. cyno-
glossus)^ and the Soles (Solea).

8.2 FISH GALLERY.

Order IV. PHYSOSTOMI.

[Case 18.] Bony fishes with all the fin-rays articulated, only the first of the
dorsal and pectoral fins sometimes ossified ; ventral fins, if present,
abdominal, without spine. Air-bladder, if present, with a pneu-
matic duct (except in Scombresocida) . 29 families: —

1. Siluridce. 2. Characinida. 3. Cyprinidce. 4. Haplochitonid(B.
5. Sternoptychidce. 6. Scopelidos. 7. Stomiatidce. 8. Salmonidce.
9. Percopsida. 10. Galaxiidce. 11. Mormyrida. 12. Esocidce.
13. Umbrida. 14. Scombresocidae. 15. Cyprinodontidce . 16.
Heteropygii. 17. Conor hynchidce. 18. Hyodontida. 19. Osteo-
glossidce. 20. Clupeida. 21. Chirocentridte. 22. Bathythrissida.
23. Alepocephalida. 24. Notopterida. 25. Halosaurida. 26. JVo-
tacanthidce. 27. Gymnotida. 28. Symbranchidce. 29. Mur&nidffi.
The Siluridce, or Cat-fishes (Cases 18, 19), are a large family,
represented by numerous genera, which exhibit a great variety of
form and structure of the fins. The skin is naked or protected by
osseous scutes, but without scales ; barbels are generally present.
These fish inhabit the fresh waters of all the temperate and
tropical regions ; a few only enter the sea, but keep near the coast.
The European species (Silurus glanis, fig. 68) is found in the

Fig. 68.

Wels (Silurus glanis).

waters east of the Rhine, and is, next to the Sturgeon, the largest
of European freshwater fishes, attaining to a weight of 300 or
400 Ib, The " Bayad " (Bagrus bayad) is common in the Nile,
and grows to a length of over five feet ; it is eaten. Arius, of

CAT-FISHES.

83

which numerous species are known, has a wide distribution, being [Case 18.]

found in almost all tropical countries which are drained by large

rivers ; some of the species prefer brackish to fresh water, and a

few enter the sea. Arius latiscutatus, from West Africa, is one

of the largest species of this genus. Pimelodm, common in

South America, also includes some very large species. The

Electric Cat-fish (Malapterurus, fig. 69) occurs in Tropical

Fig. 69.

Electric Cat-fish (Malapterurus}. (From Tropical Africa.)

Africa, and grows to a length of about four feet. The electric
organ extends over the whole of the body, but is thickest on the
abdomen. The Callichthys of Tropical America (fig. 70) have the

Fig. 70.

Callichthys. (From British Guiana.)

body wholly protected by two series of large imbricate shields on each
side ; they construct nests for their ova. The species of Aspredo
are inhabitants of the Guianas, and remarkable for their mode of
carrying their ova : after having deposited the eggs, the female
attaches them to, and presses them into, the spongy integument
of her belly by merely lying over them, and carries them until they
are hatched.

84 FISH GALLERY.

[Case 20.] The Characinidce (Case 20) are confined to the fresh waters of
Africa and tropical America. This family includes herbivorous
as well as strictly carnivorous forms ; some are toothless, whilst
others possess a most formidable dentition. Many are provided
with an adipose dorsal fin, like the Salmonida and some Siluridce.
Among the carnivorous forms, Myletes (Caribe) and Hydrocyon
are most destructive to other fishes, and are known to attack and
annoy even bathers.

[Case The Cyprinidce, or family of Carps (Case 22 a), is the most
pasla»-ehe numerously represented in the fresh waters of the Old World and
from Gen- North America. Most feed on vegetable and animal substances;
•oFisli a ^ew °nty are exclus*vely vegetable-feeders. The absence of teeth
Gallery.] in the jaws is compensated by the development of large teeth on
the pharyngeal bones. The Carp (Cyprinus carpiu), originally a

Fig. 71.

Pharyngeal bones and side-view of one of the teeth of the Chub.

native of the East, abounds in a wild state in China, where it
has been domesticated for many centuries; thence it was trans-
ported to Germany and Sweden, and the year 1614 is assigned
as the date of its introduction into England. Two allied and
common species are the Crucian Carp (C. carassius) and the Gold-
fish (C. auratus). The Catla of the Ganges (Catla buchanani) is
one of the largest Cyprinoids, growing to a length of more than
three feet, and esteemed as food. The Barbels (Barbus) are a genus
very numerous in species, inhabiting the temperate and tropical parts
of the Old World ; one species is British (B. vulgaris) ; B. mosal, or
" Mahaseer"" (fig. 72) of the mountain-streams of India, is probably
the largest species of the genus, the scales being sometimes as large
as the palm of the hand. The White-fish (Leuciscus) are also

SALMON 85

extremely numerous in species in the Old and New Worlds, of
which the following are well known in England : — The Roach
(L. rutilus), the Chub (L. cephalus), the Dace (L. leuciscus), the

Fig. 72.

Mahaseer (Barbus mosal).

Rudd (L. erythrophthalmus], and the Minnow (L. phoxinus).
Other British Cyprinoids are the Tench (Tinea tinea), the Bleak
(Alburnus alburnus), the Breams (Abramis brama and blicca), and
the Loaches (Nemachilus barbatulus and Cobitis tcenia}.

The Haplochitonida are a small but interesting family, inasmuch
as they represent the Salrnonoids in the temperate parts of the
Southern Hemisphere. They differ from the latter family in the
structure of the jaws, and by the total absence of pyloric appendages;
but they possess an adipose fin like the Salmonoids. Two genera
are known : one, Haplochiton, is abundant in the lakes and streams
of the Falkland Islands, Patagonia, and Chili ; these fishes have
the general appearance of a Trout, but are naked. The second
genus, Protutroctes, is scaly, and resembles a Vendace (Coregonus) ;
the settlers of South Australia and New Zealand call them Grayling.

The Salmonida (Case 21) are one of the most valuable families [Case 21.]
of the Class of Fishes. They are inhabitants of the sea and fresh
water; but the majority of the marine genera are deep-sea forms.
The freshwater forms are peculiar to the Temperate and Arctic
zones of the Northern Hemisphere, one only (a Smelt) occurring
in New Zealand. Many migrate periodically or occasionally from
fresh water to the sea, or vice versa. The genus Salmo, containing
the Salmon, Trout, and Char, is abundant in species, some being

86 FISH GALLERY.

migratory, others not ; they are spread over the whole of Europe
and North America.

Of the species exhibited attention is directed especially to the
following : — the Lake-Wenern Trout (Salmo venernertsis\ a non-
migratory species; a large Sea-Trout from the River Narenta,
Dalmatia (S. dentex] ; two male British Sea-Trout (S. truttd) with
extraordinary development of the jaws; a large specimen of the
Alpine Char (S. alpinus) from Nova Zembla; the Brook-Trout of
North America (S.fontinalis and S. hoodii). The Common Trout
(S. fario} has been successfully introduced in rivers and lakes of
Tasmania and New Zealand, where it grows to a size rivalling that
of the Sea-Trout and Salmon, finding at present an abundance of
nourishing food in the small native fish (especially Galaxias], which
in the course of time will be brought to the verge of extinction.
In a tank on a table-case between wall-cases 17 and 18 a beautiful
large specimen of a Trout (S. fario) is exhibited, which has been
reared in New Zealand, and was captured in the estuary of the
B/iver Waimakariri ; in its size it is quite equal to the large Trout
sometimes found in the Kiver Thames,, which it also resembles in
general appearance. The Smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) ; the Vendace,
called White-fish in North America ( Coregon us, fig. 73), numerous in

Fig. 73.

Vendace (Coregonus vandesius). (From Loch Maben.)

species in Europe and North America, andthe Graylings (I%

are other well-known and highly esteemed members of this family.

The Galaxiida resemble the Pike in the disposition of their fins

but are confined to freshwaters of Temperate Australia, Tasmania,

FLYING-FISHES. 87

New Zealand, and of the southern extremity of South America.
They are scaleless. The number of species is small, but in Tas-
mania and New Zealand they form almost the whole of the Fresh-
water-Fish fauna. They rarely exceed a length of eight inches,
but are well-flavoured. The fry is eateii in New Zealand, and
known as " White-bait."

The Mormyrida (Case 22) are a type peculiar to the fresh waters
of tropical Africa. The genus Mormyrus is numerous in species,
some of which attain to a length of four feet. Many are remark-
able for their long and decurved snout. The common species of the
Nile (Mormyrus oxyrhynchus) was an object of veneration to the
ancient Egyptians, and therefore frequently occurs in their
emblematic inscriptions. Another member of this family is Gym-
narchus niloticus, of eel-like habit and growing to a length of six
feet.

The Esocidae (Case 22), or Pike, are inhabitants of the fresh
waters of the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and America. The
European species (E. lucius) inhabits all three continents. Very
large specimens are called " Muskellonge " in America. An old
painting of a large Pike is exhibited, which^ according to the legend,
was caught in the year 1230 by the Emperor Frederick II., marked
with an inscribed ring, and caught again after the lapse of more
than two centuries.

Fig. 74.

Flying-fish (Exoccetus spilopterus).

The ScombresocidfB (Case 22) are chiefly marine. The Gar-pike
(Belone) have both jaws prolonged into a long slender beak. The
most curious members of this family are the Flying-fishes (Exocce-
tus, fig. 74), of which numerous species are known from tropical

88 FISH GALLERY.

and subtropical seas. Their usual length is about 10 or 12 inches,
but specimens of 18 inches have been caught. They are enabled to
execute flying leaps by means of the great development of their
pectoral fins. They dart out of the water when pursued by their
enemies, or frightened by an approaching vessel, but frequently also
without any apparent cause, as is also observed in many other
fishes; they rise without regard to the direction of the wind or
waves. During flight the fins are kept quietly distended, without
any motion, except an occasional vibration caused by the air when-
ever the surface of the wing is parallel with the current of the
wind. Their flight is rapid, greatly exceeding that of a ship going
10 miles an hour, but gradually decreasing in velocity, and rarely
extending beyond a distance of 500 feet. .Flying-fishes often
fall on board of vessels; but this never happens during a calm, or
from the lee side, but during a breeze only, and from the weather
side.
[Case The Osteoglossidce (Case 22 b) are large freshwater fishes of the

22 a, in tropics. Of the genus Osteoglossum three species are known — one
from Brazil and the Guianas, one from Borneo and Sumatra, and the

Central third from Queensland. The single species of the genus Heterotis
' (H. niloticus) is not uncommon in the Upper Nile and the West-

Gallery.] African rivers. The genus Arapaima (fig. 75) also contains a
single species, A. gigas (exhibited in separate table-cases), from the
rivers of Brazil and the Guiauas, and highly esteemed as an article
of food. It is the largest freshwater Teleostean known, exceeding
a length of 15 feet, and a weight of 400 Ib.

Fig. 75.

Arapaima of the River Amazon.

[Case The Clupeida, or Herrings (Case 22 b), are probably unsurpassed

-J by any other family in the number of individuals, although others
comprise a much greater variety of species. The Herrings are
principally coast-fishes; none belong to the deep-sea fauna;

EELS. 89

scarcely any have pelagic habits, but many enter or live in fresh
waters communicating with the sea. They are spread over all the
temperate and tropical seas. The genus of Herrings proper
(Clupea) includes more than sixty species, of which several are
extremely common on our coasts, viz. the Herring (Clupea harengus)
of immense commercial value, the Sprat (C. sprattus), the Shad
(C. alosaand C.finta), and the Pilchard or Sardine (C.pilchardus).
The "Mossbanker" (C. menhaden) is common on the Atlantic
coasts of the United States. The economic value of this fish is
surpassed in America only by that of the Gadoids, and derived
chiefly from its use as bait for other fishes, and from the oil
extracted from it. Albula and Elops reach a size of three feet, but
are not esteemed as food. The largest species of the whole family
is the Tarpon (Megalops thriss aides) [a specimen of which is
exhibited on the top of the case], from the Tropical Atlantic,
exceeding a length of five feet, and excellent eating.

The Chirocentridce and Notopterida (Case 22 b) are small families,
inhabiting, the former the Indian Ocean, the latter fresh waters of
the East Indies and West Africa.

The Gymnotidte (Case 22 a) are eel-like freshwater fishes from
Tropical America, of which the best known is the Electric Eel
(Gymnotus electricus, fig. 76) ; it is the most powerful of electric

Fig. 76.

Electric Eel (Gymnotus ekctricus).

fishes, growing to a length of six feet, and extremely abundant in
certain localities of Brazil and the Guianas. The electric organ

90 PISH GALLERY.

consists of two pairs of longitudinal bodies, situated immediately
below the skin, above the muscles — one pair on the back of the tail
and the other pair along the anal fin. The electric shock may be
of sufficient strength to temporarily paralyze a man.

The Eels, Murcenidte (Cases 23, 24), are a numerous family,
spread over almost all fresh waters and seas of the temperate and

Fig. 77.

Murcena helena. (From the coast of Europe.)

tropical zones; some descend to the greatest depths of the oceans.
Some 25 species of true Eels (Anguilla) are known from the fresh
waters and coasts. They migrate to the sea for the purpose
of breeding, and, as only 'recently discovered, the young undergo
remarkable changes before assuming the adult condition. Two
species are found iri Great Britain, A. vulgaris and A. latirostris.
The Congers (Conger) are marine Eels, differing from the preceding
in the absence of scales; the common British species (C. conger) seems
to be almost cosmopolitan. The genus Murcena and its allies are
abundantly represented in the tropical and subtropical seas, and
mostly beautifully coloured and spotted. The majority are armed
with formidable pointed teeth, well suited for seizing other fish
on which they prey ; in shallow water they readily attack persons
who happen to disturb them in their retreat. The Mediterranean
species (M. helena, fig. 77) was highly prized by the ancient
Romans.

PIPE-FISHES.

Order V. LOPHOBRANCIIII.

91

The Lophobranchii are bony fishes in which the gills are not
laminated, but composed of small rounded lobes attached to the
branchial arches ; the gill-cover is reduced to a large simple plate;

Fig. 78.

Lobular gill of Hippucunipus.

the air-bladder is simple, without pneumatic duct ; a dermal
skeleton, composed of numerous pieces arranged in segments,
relpaces more or less soft integuments; the muscular system is not
much developed ; the snout is prolonged, and the mouth terminal,
small, toothless, formed as in Acanthopterygians.

This Order (Case 27) contains only two families, Solenostomidae [Case. 27.

Fig. 79.

Pipe-fish (Synynathus acus}. (From the Cornish coast.)

The lower figure represents the pouch below the tail, opened on one side to

show the young, which are ready to escape from the pouch.

and Syngnathidae. They are small marine fishes, which are abundant
on such parts of the coasts of tropical and temperate zones as offer

H

9.2 FISH GALLERY.

by their vegetation shelter to these defenceless creatures. They are
bad swimmers, and are frequently and resistlessly carried by currents
into the open ocean or to distant coasts. All enter brackish water,
some fresh water. The males of most of the species carry the eggs
either in a sac at the base of the tail, or attached to the abdomen.
The best known are the Pipe-fishes (Syngnathus] and the Sea-horses
(Hippocampus] .

Order VI. PLECTOGNATHI. (Cases 25-27.)
Teleosteous fishes with rough scales, or with ossifications of the
cutis in the form of scutes or spines ; skin sometimes entirely naked.
Skeleton incompletely ossified, with the vertebrae in small number.
Gills pectinate ; a narrow gill-opening in front of the pectoral fins.
Mouth narrow ; the bones of the upper jaw generally firmly united.
A soft dorsal fin, belonging to the caudal portion of the vertebral
column, opposite to the anal ; sometimes elements of a spinous
dorsal besides. Ventral fin none, or reduced to spines. Air-
bladder without pneumatic duct.

This Order consists of two families, Sclerodermi and Gym-
nodontes.

The Sclerodermi comprise the genera Triacanthus, Batistes, Mona-
canthus, and Ostracion. The File-fishes (Batistes, fig. 80) inhabit

'-ir. 80.

File-fish (JBalistes wdua). (From the Indian Ocean.)

the tropical and sub-tropical seas ; both jaws are armed with eight
strong incisor-like and obliquely truncated teeth, by which these
fishes are enabled to break off pieces of corals on which they feed,
or to chisel a hole into the hard shells of Mollusca, in order to

GLOBE-FISHES.

93

extract the soft parts. In the sea round Ceylon they have been
found to destroy an immense number of Pearl-Oysters, thus doing
a great deal of injury to the fisheries. Shells pierced by File-fish
are exhibited in Case 27. The Coffer-fishes (Ostracion) have the

Fig. 81.

Coffer-fish (Ostracion quadricornis). (From the West Indies.)

integuments of the body formed into a hard continuous carapace., [Case 26.]
consisting of hexagonal scutes juxtaposed in mosaic fashion ; only
the snout, the bases of the fins, and the hind part of the tail
are covered with soft skin.

Fig. 82.

Fig. 83.

Fig. 82. Globe-fish (l)iodon maculatns) . (From the Indian Ocean.)
Fig. 83. The same, inflated.

H :

94

FISH GALLERY.

The Gymnodontes contain the genera Triodon, Tetrodon, Diodon,
and Orthagoriscus. The Globe-fishes (Teirodon and Diodon) have
a short, thick., cylindrical body, more or less studded with spines;
they possess the power of inflating their body by filling their dis-
tensible oesophagus with air, thus assuming a more or less globular
form, the spines protruding and forming a defensive armour, as in the
hedgehog ; therefore they are frequently called " Sea-hedgehogs."
[Case 25.] In these fish, as in the others of the same family, the bones of the

Fig. 84.

Rough Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus mold). (Captured near Portland.)

upper and lower jaws are confluent, forming a beak with a trenchant
edge, without teeth. The Sun-fishes (Orthagoriscus, figs. 84, 85)

SUN-FISHES.

95

are, with regard to external form, perhaps the most singular of all
Bony Pishes ; they present the appearance of a fish with the tail cut
off, this latter part of the body being extremely short. Two species
(O. mola and O. truncatus) are known, both of which occasionally
approach the southern coasts of England arid Ireland. The former
species, which attains to a very large size, measuring 7 or 8 feet,
has a rough, minutely granulated skin. The second species is

Smooth Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus iruncatus). (From the Atlantic.)

distinguished by the more elongate form of its body, and by its
smooth tessellated skin. A very large specimen of O. mola, from
Australia, is exhibited in the Communication Gallery ; a full-grown
specimen of O. truncatus in a separate table-case.

96 FISH GALLERY.

PALJEICHTHYES.

Order VII. GANOIDEI.

The fishes belonging to this Order have the skeleton either
cartilaginous or ossified ; the body is provided with median and
paired fins, the hinder pair abdominal ; the gills are free,, rarely
partially attached to the walls of the gill-cavity ; one external gill-
opening only on each side, and a gill-cover ; the air-bladder with
a pneumatic duct. The ova are small, impregnated after exclusion.
The embryo or the young sometimes with external gills.

To this Order belong the majority of the fossil fish-remains of
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic age, whilst it is very scantily represented in
the recent fauna, and evidently verging towards total extinction.
Small as is the number of the surviving forms, they represent not
less than five Suborders : — 1. Amioidei. 2. Polypteroidei.
3. Lepidosteoidei. 4. Dipnoi. 5. Chondrostei.

AMIOIDEI. — The sole living representative of this Suborder, the
Mud-fish of North America (Amia calva), differs from the following
Ganoids in being covered with cycloid scales, and approaches in its
general appearance and many points of its internal structure the
Teleostean type very closely indeed. The skeleton is entirely
ossified. This fish is not uncommon in many of the fresh waters
of the United States.

POLYPTEROIDEI (Case 28). — They resemble the Lepidosteoidei in
the form and arrangement of the scales, but the structure of their

Fig. 86.

Polypterus. (From Tropical Africa.)

dorsal fin is quite unique ; it consists of a series of dorsal spires, to
each of which an articulated finlet is attached. Polpyterus (fig. 86)

DIPNOI. 97

is an inhabitant of tropical Africa, occurring in abundance in the
rivers of the West coast and in the Upper Nile.

LEPIDOSTEOIDEI (Case 28). — The fishes of this group, as well as
the following, are remarkable for the hard, bony, lozenge-shaped,
polished (ganoid} scales with which they are covered. The skeleton
is nearly completely ossified. The dorsal and anal fins are composed
of articulated rays only, and placed far backwards, close to the
caudal. Though the end of the body appears nearly diphycercal
(i. e. with the caudal rays inserted above as well as below the
vertebral axis, as in the case of most Teleosteans), the termination
of the vertebral column is, in fact, distinctly heterocercal, as in

Fig. 87.

Gar-Pike of North America (Lepidoateus viridis}.

Sharks. The Gar-Pike (Lepidosteus, fig. 87) are at present limited
to the temperate parts of North America, Central America, and
Cuba. They feed on other fishes.

DIPNOI (Case 28). — The skeleton is notochordal. There are two
pairs of nostrils, more or less within the mouth. Their respiratory
organs are gills as well as lung-like sacs. The dentition is very
peculiar ; it consists of a pair of large molars, above and below, and
a pair of vomerine teeth. The molars, the upper pair of which are
inserted on a pterygo-palatine ossification, are provided with strong
cusps or lateral prongs. The vomerine teeth are conical, pointed,
or incisor-like. The fore limb differs greatly from the pectoral fin
of other fishes. It is covered with small scales along the middle
from the root to its extremity, and surrounded by a rayed fringe
similar to the vertical fin. A muscle split into numerous fascicles
extends all the length of the fin, which is flexible in every part
and in every direction. The cartilaginous framework supporting
it is joined to the scapular arch by an oblong cartilage, followed by
a broad basal cartilage, generally single, sometimes showing traces

98 FISH GALLERY.

28.] of a triple division. Along the middle of the fin runs a jointed
axis, the joints gradually becoming smaller and thinner towards the
extremity ; each joint bears on each side a three-, two-, or one-
jointed branch. This " axial" arrangement, which evidently
represents one of the first and lowest conditions of the skeleton of
the limb of Vertebrates, is found in Ceratodus with the branches,
but in Lepidosiren the jointed axis only has been preserved, with
the addition of rudimentary rays in Protopterus.

Three recent genera and four species are known, viz.: — Lepidosiren
paradoxa (fig. 88), from the Amazons and Paraguay ; Protopterus

Fig. 88.

i-en pamdoxa. (From South America.)

annectens, spread over the whole of tropical Africa; and Ceratodus,
from the fresh waters of Queensland, with two species, C. forsteri and
C. miolepis. Protopterus lives in shallow waters which periodically
dry up. During the dry season they form a cavity in the mud, the
inside of which is lined with a capsule of mucus, and from which they
emerge again when the rains refill the pools inhabited by them. The
balls of clay containing the fishes in a torpid condition are sometimes
brought to Europe, and some are exhibited here. Lepidosiren has

CHONDR08TEI. 99

recently been found in abundance in swainpy localities of the
Chaco, Paraguay, whence the specimen exhibited was obtained.
The Barramunda (Ceratodus, fig. 89) is locally plentiful in the

Fig. 89.

The Barramunda (Ceratodus). (From Queensland.)

Burnett, Dawson, and Mary rivers, and grows to a length of six,
feet. To the settlers it is known by the name of Burnett or Dawson
Salmon. It can breathe either by gills or by its lung alone, or
by both simultaneously. Fossil teeth have long been known from
Triassic and Jurassic formations in various parts of Europe, India,
and America.

CHONDROSTEI (Cases 29, 30). — The skeleton is cartilaginous, [Cases
and the skin is naked or partially protected by bucklers. This 29, 30.]
Suborder is divided into two families — Acipenserida and Polyo-
dontid(B. To the former belong the Sturgeons (Acipenser], inhabi-
tants of the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere ; they are
either entirely confined to fresh water, or ascend periodically, for the
purpose of spawning, from the sea into rivers. About 20 different
species can be distinguished. The best-known are the Sterlet
(A. ruthenus) from Russian rivers, celebrated for the excellence of
its flesh, but rarely exceeding a length of three feet ; the Hausen
(A. huso], from rivers falling into the Black Sea and the Sea of
Azow, sometimes 12 feet long, and yielding an inferior kind of
isinglass ; the Common Sturgeon of the United States (A. macu-
losus), which sometimes crosses the Atlantic to the coasts of Great
Britain ; Giildenstadt's Sturgeon (A. gueldemtcedtii] , common in
European and Asiatic rivers, which yields more than one fourth
of the caviare and isinglass exported from Russia* ; the Common
Sturgeon of Western Europe (A. sturio), which is said to attain to
a length of 18 feet, and has established itself also on the coasts of

* In a email table-case between Cases 30 and 31 samples of the best sort
of Russian isinglass are exhibited.

100 FISH GALLERY.

Eastern North America. A fine example from the Doggerbank
is placed outside the case. Scaphirhynchus is a closely allied genus,
of which four species are known — one from the river-system of the
Mississippi, and the three others from Central Asia.

The Polyodontida, or Sword -bill Sturgeons, which have the
snout produced into an exceedingly long shovel-like or conical
process, contain two species — one from the Mississippi, Polyodon
folium, growing to a length of about six feet ; the other, Psephurus
gladius (exhibited in a tank opposite wall- case 29), inhabits
the large rivers of China, the Yaritsekiang and Hoangho. The
great depth of the rivers in which these fishes live, as well as the
turbid condition of their water, renders the organ of sight almost
useless: the eyes of these Sturgeons, therefore, are remarkably
small; and to obtain their food they evidently use the rostral
process in stirring up the mud at the bottom, thus dislodging
and finding the small animals on which they prey.

Order VIII. CHONDROPTERYGII.

The skeleton is cartilaginous, with the vertebral column generally
heterocercal. The body has median and paired fins, the hinder
pair being abdominal. The gills arc attached to the skin by the
outer margin, with several intervening gill-openings (except in the
Chimseras, which have only one gill-opening on each side) ; a gill-
cover is absent, as also the air-bladder. Some are viviparous,
but the majority are oviparous. A pair of semiossified appendages
of the pubic, called claspers, are characteristic of all male indivi-
duals. These appendages are sometimes armed with hook-like
osseous excrescences. They are irregularly longitudinally convo-
luted, and when closely adpressed to each other form a canal open
at their extremity. The ova are large and few in number, and
invested with a tough leathery envelope or shell (fig. 90), presenting
great variety of shape.

This Order comprises the Chimeras, Sharks and Rays, and is
divided into two Suborders — Holocephala and Plagiostomata.

HOLOCEPHALA, or Chimseras (Case 30).

These arechiefly characterized by having one external gill-opening
only, covered by a fold of the skin ; also their dentition strongly

SHARKS.

101

resembles that of the Dipnoids. In fact this Suborder connects [Case 30.]
th'e Ganoids with the Plagiostomes. It contains one family only,
represented in the living fauna by two genera — Chimera and
Callorhynchus. Of the former three species are known — Ch. mon-
strosa. from deep water off the coasts of Europe, Japan, and the

Fig. 90.

Egg of a Dog-fish (Scyttium). (From Magelhan Straits.)

Cape of Good Hope ; Ch. colliei, off the west coast of North
America; and Ch. affinis, off the coast of Portugal. Callorhynchus
anlarciicus is common in the southern temperate zone, and differs
from the preceding by the curious shape of the snout, which bears
a cartilaginous prominence terminating in a cutaneous flap.

PLAGIOSTOMATA, or Sharks and Rays.

These have from five to seven gill-openings and the teeth are
numerous. They differ greatly among each other with regard to

102 FISH GALLERY.

the general form of their body. In the Sharks, or Selachoidei, the
body is elongate, more or less cylindrical, gradually passing into
the tail; their gill-openings are lateral. In the Rays, or Batuidei,
the gill-openings are always placed on the abdominal aspect of the
fish ; the body is depressed, and the trunk, which is surrounded
by the immensely developed pectoral fins, forms a broad flat disk,
the tail appearing as a thin and slender appendage. However,
some of the Rays approach the Sharks in having the caudal
portion less abruptly contracted behind the trunk. Fossil Plagio-
stomes are very numerous in all formations, but in the oldest the
only remains they have left consist of teeth and fin-spines. Some
of the earliest determinable fish-remains are believed to be, or are,
derived from the Plagiostomes. The recent forms, of which nearly
300 species are known to exist, are arranged in the following
families : —

A. Selachoidei, or Sharks.

1. Carchariidce. 2. Lamnidce. 3. Rhinodontidce. 4. Notidanida.
5. Scylliida. 6. Cestraciontida. 7. Spinacidce. 8. Rhinidcs.
9. Pristiophoridce.

B. Batoidvi, or Rays.

10. Pristida. 11. Rhinobatida. 12. Torpedinida. 13. Raiidas.
14. Trygonidce. 15. Myliobatidce.

A. SELACHOIDEI : Sharks.

Sharks are most numerous in the tropics, and become scarcer
beyond ; they are exclusively carnivorous, and those armed with
powerful cutting-teeth are the most formidable tyrants of the
ocean. Many of the smaller kinds are eaten. Sharks' fins form
in India and China an important article of trade (specimens of
this article are exhibited in Case 32). Sharks have no scales, like
other fishes; their skin is covered with calcified papillae, and if
these papillse are small, pointed, and close-set, the skin is called
" shagreen/'

[Cases Carchariidae (Cases 31—34). — To this family belong the true

31-33.] Sharks (Car char ias) , common in the tropical, but less so in the

temperate seas. Numerous species are distinguished, of which

one of the most common is the Blue Shark (C.glaucus). Indi-

SHARKS.

103

viduals of from twelve to fifteen feet are of very common occurrence,
but some of the species attain a much larger size and a length of
25 or more feet. Such large specimens are very dangerous to
man.

The species of Galeocerdo (Case 33 : two large specimens of
G. arcticus, fig. 91, in the middle of the Gallery) also attain to a very

Fig. 91.

Galeocerdo arcticus. (From the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.)
The figure of the tooth is of the natural size, and taken from a specimen

11 feet long.

large size, and belong to the most dreaded of their kind. On the
other hand, the Tope (Galeus) is a diminutive form, spread over
nearly all the temperate and tropical seas, and common in California
and Tasmania; one species (G. cams) occurs in British seas. The
Hammerheads (Zygcena) (Case 34) have the same powerful den- [Case 34.]
tition as Carcharias, and although they do not attain to the same
large size, they belong to the most formidable fishes of the ocean.
The peculiar form of their head is quite unique among fishes, the
anterior part being produced into a lobe on ea'ch side, theextrerrity
of which is occupied by the eye. The relation of this singular
structure to the mode of life of the Hammerheads is not known.
By far the most common is Z. malleus, which occurs in nearly
all tropical and subtropical seas. The " Hounds " (Mustelus) are
small Sharks, abundant on the coasts of all the temperate and
tropical seas ; two of the five species known occur on the coasts of
Europe, viz. M. lavis and M. vulgaris.

104

FISH GALLERY

[Case 35.] LamnidcB (Case 35) . — All the fishes of this family attain to a very
large size and are pelagic. The Porbeagle (Oxyrhina cornubica,
fig. 92) occurs in the North Atlantic, frequently straying to the

Fig. 92.

Porbeagle (Ox\)rMna cornubica).

British coasts. It attains to a length of ten feet, and feeds chieHy
on fishes ; its lanceolate teeth are not adapted for cutting, but
rather for seizing and holding its prey, which it appears to swallow
whole. Carcharodon rondeletii, of which enormous jaws are ex-
hibited, is the most formidable of all Sharks. It is strictly pelagic.,
and appears to occur in all tropical and subtropical seas. It is
said to attain to a length of 40 feet. The Fox-Shark or Thresher

Fig. 93.

A

Thresher Shark (Alopecias vulpes).

The figures of the teeth are those of the upper and lower jaws, of the natural
size, and taken from a specimen 14 feet long.

(Alopecias vulpcs, fig. 93) (exhibited in Case 35, and also in the
corridor leading into this Gallery) is the most common of the larger
kinds of Sharks which occur on the British coasts ; and seems to be
equally common in other parts of the Atlantic and Mediterranean, as
well as on the coasts of California and New Zealand. It attains to a
length of 15 feet, of which the tail takes more than one half, and is

SHARKS. 105

quite harmless to man. It follows the shoals of Herrings, Pilchards,
and Sprats in their migrations, destroying incredible numbers;
when feeding it uses its long tail in splashing the surface of the
water, whilst it swims in gradually decreasing circles round a shoal
of fishes, which, thus kept crowded together, fall an easy prey
to their enemy. The Basking-Shark (Selache maxima, fig. 94),

Fig. 94.

Basking-Shark (Selache maxima).

of which a male specimen 28 feet long, obtained near Shanklin,
Isle of Wight, is exhibited in the middle of the Gallery, is the
largest Shark of the North Atlantic, growing to a length of more
than 30 feet. It is quite harmless if not attacked, its food con-
sisting of small fishes and other small marine animals which swim
in shoals. On the west coast of Ireland it is chased for the sake
of the oil which is extracted from its liver, one fish (it is said)
yielding from a ton to a ton and a half. Its capture is attended
with some danger, as one blow from its enormously strong tail
is sufficient to stave in the sides of a large boat.

The Rhinodontidte comprise one species only, Rhinodon typicus,
a gigantic Shark which, though in most respects agreeing with the
Scylliidte, resembles the Basking-Sharks in the structure of its gills.
If is found in various parts of the Indian Ocean. The specimen
(18 feet long) exhibited in the middle of the Gallery was procured
in Ceylon, and is quite young, — this species being known to exceed
a length of fifty feet ; its teeth are very small, as in the Basking-
Shark, and, like that species, it is quite harmless.

The Notidanida are characterized by having only one dorsal [Case
fin, without spine, opposite to the anal, and by lacking a nicti-
tating membrane or eyelid ; they contain two genera — Nutidanus,

106 FTSH GALLERY.

distributed over nearly all the tropical and subtropical seas ; and
Chlamydoselache, from Japan, Madeira, and Finmark.

The Scylliida, or Dog-fishes, are mostly of small size. The
teeth are small and generally arranged in several series ; the fins
are not armed with spines, a nictitating membrane is absent, and
the spiracle is always distinct. Two species of Scyllium are found
on the British coast — the " Larger " and " Lesser Spotted Dog-
fish/' S. caniculum and S. catulus. They are coast-fishes, living
on the bottom, and feeding on crustaceans, dead fishes, &c.
The Zebra- or Tiger-Shark, Stegostoma tigrinum, one of the
commonest and handsomest Sharks of the Indian Ocean, reaches
a size of 10 to 15 feet. Crossorhinus (Case 39), a genus of ground
Sharks from the Indo-Pacific Ocean; they are sluggish and lie
concealed on the bottom watching for their prey. In accordance
with this habit their colour closely assimilates that of a rock or stone
covered with short vegetable and coralline growth, a resemblance
which is increased by the frond-like tentacles on the side of the head.

The Cestraciontidae (Case 40) have, like the preceding, several
series of teeth simultaneously in function ; each of the dorsal fins
is armed with a spine. This family is one of particular interest,
because representatives of it occur in numerous modifications in
Primary and Secondary strata. Their dentition (of which pre-
parations are shown in Table-case C) is adapted for the prehension
as well as mastication of crustaceous and hard-shelled animals. A
few recent species are known, from various parts of the Pacific Ocean.

The Spinacidce, or Spiny Dog-fishes (Cases 39, 40), so called on
account of the spine with which their dorsal fins are usually armed,
are a family containing numerous genera, the majority of the species
being of small size. Acanthias is the best known, the two species,
A. vulgaris and A. blainvillii, occurring on the British coast. The
species of Centrophorus live at a considerable depth, perhaps at a
greater depth than any of the other known Sharks. The Portuguese
fishermen fish for them in 400 or 500 fathoms with a line of some 600
fathoms in length. The Greenland Shark (Lcemargus borealis] is an
inhabitant of the Arctic regions, rarely straying to the latitudes of
Great Britain. It grows to a length of about 1 5 feet, and is extremely
voracious. The " Spinous Shark" (Echinorhinus spinosus) is a
ground Shark, probably living at some depth, and but accidentally
coming to the surface. More frequently met with in the Medi-

RAYS. 107

terranean, it has been found occasionally on the south coast of
England.

The family of Rhinidae contains only one species, the "Angel-fish57
or " Monk-fish " (Rhina squatina) (Case 41), which approaches the
Rays as regards form and habits. Within the temperate and tropical
zones it is almost cosmopolitan ; it does not exceed a length
of five feet ; it is viviparous, producing about twenty young at
a birth.

The Pristiophorida (Case 41) resemble so much the common
Saw-fishes as to be easily confounded with them, but their gill-
openings are lateral, and not inferior. They are also much smaller
in size, and a pair of long tentacles are inserted at the lower side
of the saw. The four species known occur in the Australian and
Japanese seas.

B. BATOIDEI : Rays.

The true Rays lead a sedentary life, moving slowly on the
bottom, rarely ascending to the surface. They progress solely
by means of the pectoral fins, the broad and thin margins of
which are set in an undulating motion, identical with that of the
dorsal and anal fins of, the Pleuronectida, or Flat-fishes. They
are exclusively carnivorous, like the Sharks, but unable to pursue
and catch rapidly-moving animals.

The Saw-fishes, Pristida (Case 41), agree with the Rays in the
position of their branchial clefts. They are abundant in tropical, less
so in subtropical seas. They attain to a considerable size, specimens
with a saw 6 feet long and 1 foot broad at the base not being of
uncommon occurrence. The saw renders them most dangerous to
almost all the other large inhabitants of the ocean. Its skeleton con-
sists of three, sometimes five, rarely four, hollow cylindrical tubes,
placed side by side, tapering towards the end, and incrusted with an
osseous deposit, as shown in a preparation in Table-case C. The
teeth of the saw are implanted in deep sockets of the hardened in-
tegument, and are, as regards their origin, from dermal papilla?,
and their mode of attachment a unique structure among Fishes.
The teeth proper, with which the jaws are armed, are much too small
for inflicting wounds or seizing other animals. Saw-fishes use the
saw in tearing pieces of flesh off an animal's body or ripping
open its abdomen ; the detached fragments or protruding soft parts

108

FISH GALLERY.

are then seized by them and swallowed. They feed also largely on
cuttle-fishes.

Fig. 95.

mm

Lower view of head of Saw-fish.

j^Case 42.] The Rhinobatida (Case 42) contain the genera Rhynchobatus,
Rhinobatus, and Trygonorhina. A fine series of Rhynchobatus
ancylostomus, with preparations of its curious dentition, is exhibited
in a separate case in the middle of the Gallery. They feed on
hard-shelled animals, and attain scarcely a length of 8 feet. They
are confined to the coasts of tropical and subtropical seas.

The Torpedinida, or Electric Rays (Case 42). — The electric
organs with which these fishes are armed are large, flat bodies
lying one on each side of the head ; they consist of an assemblage
of vertical hexagonal prisms, whose ends are in contact with
the integuments above and below. The fish gives the electric

RAYS.

109

shock voluntarily, when it is excited to do so in self-defence or [Case 42.]
intends to stun or kill its prey ; but to receive the shock the
object must complete the galvanic circuit by communicating with
the fish at two distinct points, either directly or through the
medium of some conducting body. It is said that a painful

Fig. 96.

Electric Ray (Torpedo marmorata). (From the Mediterranean.)

sensation may be produced by a discharge conveyed through
the medium of a stream of water. The electric currents created
in these fishes exercise all the other known powers of electricity :
they render the needle magnetic, decompose chemical com-
pounds, and emit the spark. The dorsal surface of the electric
organ is positive, the ventral negative. This family contains
several genera, of which Torpedo is the best known. Of the latter
six species are known, distributed over the AfJantic and Indian

i 2

110

FISH GALLERY.

Oceans ; three of them are rather common in the Mediterranean,
and one (7". nobiliana) reaches the south coast of England. They
attain to a width of from two to three feet, and specimens of that
size can disable by a single discharge a full-grown man, and
therefore may prove dangerous to persons bathing.

The Raiidae, or True Rays (Case 43), have a wide geographical
range; they are chiefly inhabitants of temperate seas, and much
more numerous in those of the northern than of the southern
hemisphere. More than 30 species of the genus Raid are known,
of which the following are found on the British coasts : — The

Fig. 97.

Sting-Ray (Try yon uarnak}. (From Madras.)

Thornback (R. clavata), the Homelyn Ray (R. maculata), the
Painted Ray (R. albopicta), the Starry Ray (R. radiatci), the

RAYS.

Fi* 98.

Ill

Eagle- Ray (Myliobatis aquila). (From Madeira.)

Fig. 99.

Jaws of the Eagle-Ray (Myliobatis).

112 FISH GALLERY.

Sandy Ray (R. circularis), the Cuckoo Ray (R. miraletus), the
Common Skate (R. batis), the Flapper Skate (R. macrorhynchus) ,
the Burton Skate (R. marginata), and the Shagreen Skates (R.
fullonica and R. vomer). Some of these species, especially the
Skates, attain a considerable size, the disk measuring six and even
seven feet across. All are eatable, and some of them regularly
brought to market. Teeth are exhibited in Table-case C.

The Trygonida, or Sting-Rays (Cases 43, 44), are as numerous
as the Rays proper, but they inhabit tropical rather than temperate
seas. The species armed with a spine use it as a weapon of defence,
and the wounds inflicted by it are, to man, extremely painful, and
have frequently occasioned the loss of a limb. Some forms,
however (Urogymnus, Case 43), are devoid of that caudal weapon.
The genus Trygon is numerous in species, one of which (T. pasti-
nacd) occurs on the south coast of England. Large specimens of
T. sephen and T. uarnak (fig. 97), and of a New- Zealand species
(T. brevicauda), are exhibited on stands opposite Case 42 and in
the corridor leading into this Gallery.

The Myliobatidae (Case 44), also called Devil-fishes, Sea-devils,
or Eagle- Rays, are generally of large size, inhabiting temperate and
tropical seas. The tail is very long and slender. Some genera
(Cephaloptera, Dicerobatis) possess a pair of singular cephalic
processes, which generally project in a direction parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the body, but are said to be flexible in the
living fish, and used for scooping food from the bottom of the water
and conveying it to the mouth. Some of them, if not all, attain an
enormous size; specimens weighing 1250 pounds, or measuring 20
feet in width, are on record. In the Myliobatina the dentition
consists of perfectly flat molars, forming a kind of mosaic pave-
ment in both the upper and lower jaws — a most perfect mechanical
arrangement for crushing alimentary substances. Examples of the
dentition are exhibited in Table-case C.

CYCLOSTOMATA. (Case 44.)

Their skeleton is cartilaginous and notochordal, without ribs
and without real jaws ; the skull is not separated from the vertebral
column. Limbs are absent, and the body is eel-like. The gills
are in the form of fixed sacs, without branchial arches, numbering

HAG FISHES. 113

six or seven on each side, There is a single nasal aperture. The [Case 44.]
mouth is anterior and suctorial, surrounded by a circular or sub-
circular lip.

This Subclass comprises the Lampreys (Petromyzori) and Hag-
fish (Myxine). The former are found in the rivers arid on the
coasts of the temperate regions of the northern and southern
hemispheres, Their habits are but incompletely known, but so
much is certain that at least some of them ascend rivers periodically
for the purpose of spawning, and that the young pass several years
in rivers whilst they undergo a metamorphosis. In the larvae
the mouth is toothless, and surrounded by an imperfect lip. The
Lampreys feed on other fishes, to which they suck themselves fast,
scraping off the flesh with their teeth. Whilst thus engaged they
are carried about by their victim. The British species are the Sea-
Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), exceeding a length of three feet,
and not uncommon on the European and North-American coasts ;
the River- Lam prey or Lam pern (P. fluviatilis), ascending in large
numbers the' rivers of Europe, North America, and Japan, and
scarcely attaining a length of two feet; the " Pride" or " Sand-
piper^ or " Small Lampern " (P. branckialis) 3 scarcely 12 inches
long, the larva of which has long been known under the name of
Ammoccetes. The Hag-fishes, or Myxine (fig. 100), are marine fishes

Pig. 100.

3

Hag (Myxine}. (From the German Ocean.)
g. Gill-opening.

most plentiful in the higher latitudes of the temperate zones of the
northern and southern hemispheres ; some descend to a depth of
345 fathoms. They are frequently found buried in the abdominal
cavity of other fishes, especially Gadoids, into which they penetrate
to feed on their flesh. When caught, they secrete a thick glutinous
slime in incredible quantities, and are therefore considered by
fishermen a great nuisance, seriously interfering with the fishing
in localities where they abound.

]14 FISH GALLERY.

LEPTOCARDII.

The Lancelet (Branchiostoma or Amphioxus) has been long
considered to be the lowest in the scale of fishes, but it lacks so
many characteristics, not only of this class, but of the Vertebrata
generally, that it is better referred to a separate class, the chief
characters of which are as follows : — Skeleton membrane-cartila-
ginous and notochordal, ribless. No brain. Pulsating sinuses in
place of a heart. Blood colourless. Respiratory cavity confluent
with the abdominal cavity ; branchial clefts in great number, the
water being expelled by an opening in front of the vent. Jaws none .
Six species of Lancelet (Branchiostoma, fig. 101) are known, and

Fig. 101.

c

Lancelet (Branchiostoma).
a, mouth ; b, abdominal pore ; c, vent ; d, anterior end of notochord.

found at almost every suitable locality within the temperate and
tropical zones. Their small size (rarely exceeding three inches),
transparency, and the rapidity with which they are able to bury
themselves into the sand are the causes why they so readily escape
observation, even at localities where they are known to be common.
Shallow, sandy parts of the coast, at some distance from the influx
of fresh water, seem to be the places on which the Lancelet may be
looked for ; in a larval condition it is frequently obtained in the
tow-net at any distance from land.

INDEX.

Abramis, 85.

Aphredoderidae, 59.

Brill, 81.

Acanthias, 106.

Apoda, 33, 46.

Brook-Trout, 85.

Acanthoclinidse, 59.

Arapaima, 88.

Bufonidaj, 36. 38.

Acantholabrus, 77.

Archaoptcryx, 1.

Bull-Frog, 37.

Acanthopterygii, 57, 58.
Acanthurus, 73.

Arcifera, 36.
^Hfw, 82.

Bullheads, 59, 63.
Bulti, 78.

Acipenser, 98.

Aspredo, 83.

Burbot, 79.

Acipenseridas, 99.

Atherines, 59.

Burnett Salmon, 99.

Acrochordinae, 19, 22.

Atherinida3, 59.

Burrowing Snakes, 19, 20

Acronuridae, 59, 73.

Axolotl, 42.

Burton Skate, 112.

Agamidae, 7, 12.

Agriossa, 36.

Bagrus, 82.

Caiman, 5.

Agua Toad, 39.

Batistes, 92.

Californian Toad, 11,

Albacore. 65.

Band-fishes, 59.

12.

Albula, 89.

Barbel, 84.

Callichthys, 83.

Alburnus, 85.

Barbus, 84.

Callionymus, 70.

Alepocephalidae, 82.

Barracuda, 59, 64.

Callorhynchus, 101.

Alligator, 5.

Barramunda, 99.

Cantharus, 60.

Terrapen, 28.

Basking-Shark, 105.

Caouana, 27.

Alopecias, 101.

Bass, 59.

Carangidae, 59, 67.

Alyt.es, 41.

Batagur. 28.

Caranx, 67.

Amblycephalidae, 19.
Amblyrhynchus, 11.

Bathythrissidae. 82.
Batoidei, 102, 107.

Carcharias, 102.
Carchariidae, 102.

y4m'ff, 96.

Batrachians, 31.

Carcharodon, 104.

Amioidei, 96.

Batrachidse, 59.

Caretta, 27.

Ammocoetes, 113.

Bayad, 82.

Caribe, 84.

Ammodytes, 80.

Belone, 87.

Carp, 84.

Amphibolous, 14.

Berycidae, 59.

Cat-fish, 82.

AmphignathodontidaD,36,

Bib, 79.

Catla, 84.

41.

Bids, 24.

Caudata, 33, 42.

Amphioxus, 114.

Black Bass, 59.

Centriscidaj, 59.

Amphisbaenidae, 7, 9.
Amphiumidffi, 42, 43.

Bleak, 85.
Blennies, 59.

Centrolabrus, 77.
Cenirophorus, 106.

Anabas, 74.

Blenniidae, 59, 72.

Cephaloptera, 112.

Anacanthini, 58, 78.

Blind Snakes, 19, 20.

Cepolidae, 59.

Anaconda, 20.

Blind worm, 10.

Ceratobatrachidae, 36,

Anarrhichas, 72.

Boa, 20.

41.

Anelytropidae, 7.

Boidae, 19.

Ceratodus, 98, 99.

Angel-fish, 107.

Boinge, 19, 20.

Ceratophrys, 38.

Angler, 71.

Bolty, 78.

Cestraciontidae, 102,

Anguidae, 7, 10.

Bombinator, 41.

106.

Anguilla, 90.

Box-Tortoise, 28.

Chad, 60.

Anniellidac, 7.

Branchiostoma, 58, 114.

Chcetodon, 62.

Anolis, 11.

Bream, 85.

Chamaeleons, 15.

116

INDEX.

Char, 85.

Dab, 81. Flounder, 81.

Characinidae, 82, 84.

Dace, 85.

Flute-mouths, 59, 76.

Chaunax, 72.

Dactylethridse, 36, 42.

Flying-fish, 63, 87.

Chelmo, 62,

Dactylopterus, 63.

Flying-Herrings, 63.

Chelone, 27.

Dasypeltinae, 19.

Fox-Shark, 104.

Chelonia, 24.

Dawson Salmon, 99.'

Freshwater Snakes, 22.

Cheloniidae, 26, 27.

Deep-sea Fishes, 48.

rP/-vT»*-ni C-QO O£i fc.)ft

JLOri'OlSGS, Zi\)) *-o.

Cbelydidae, 26.

Dendrobatidae, 36, 38.

Turtles, 26, 27.

Chclydra, 28.

Dandrophryniscidae,

Frilled Lizard, 12.

Chelys, 28.

36.

Frog, Common, 37.

Chimcera, 101.

Devil-fish, 112.

— , Common Indian,

Chirocentridae, 82.

Dibamida3, 7.

37.

Chlamydosaurus, 12,

Dicerobatis, 112.

, Edible, 37.

14.

Diodon, 93.

fishes, 59.

Chlamydoselache, 106.

Dipnoi, 96, 97.

— , Flying, 37.

Chondropterygii, 58,

Dipsadomorpliinae, 19.

Horned S8

100.

Discoboli, 59, 69.

, Marsupial, 39.

Chondrostei, 96, 99.

Discoglossidae, 36, 41.

, Quaclrumanous, 39.

Chromides, 76, 78.

Dog-fish, 106.

Chrysophrys, 60.

Q1vjnv 1()(\

Gadidaa, 79.

Chub, 85.

Dolphin, 66.

Gadoidei,78.

Cirrhitidae, 59.

Dracana, 9.

Gadus, 79.

Cistudo, 28.

Draco, 12.

G-alaxiida?, 86.

Climbing-Perch, 74.

Dragon, 12,

Cfateocerdo, 103.

Clupea, 89.

Dragonet, 70.

Galeus, 103.

Clupeidae, 82, 88.

Drum, 64.

Ganoidei, 58, 95.

Coal-fish, 79.

Dyscophida, 36.

Gar-Pike, 86, 96.

Cobitis, 85.

Gastrosteidas, 59, 75.

Cobra, 19, 22.

Eagle-Eay, 111, 112.

Gavialis, 5.

Cod-fish, 78, 79.

Earth-Snakes, 19.

Gecko, 8.

Ccecilia, 46.

Ecaudata, 33.

Geckonidse, 7, 8.

Coffer-fish, 93.

Eckeneis, 65.

Geoemyda, 28.

Colubridse, 19, 20.

Echinorhinus, 106.

Gerrhosauridae, 7.

Colubrinae, 19.

Eel, 89, 90.

Gharial, 5.

Comephoridas, 59.

Eel-pout, 79.

Gigantic Tortoise, 29.

Common Snake, 21.

Egernia, 10.

Gilt-head, 60.

Conger, 90.

Elacate, 66.

Glass-Snake, 10.

Coral Fishes, 59, 61.

Elachistodontirae, 19.

Glauconiid03, 19, 20.

Snakes, 19, 22.

Elapinse, 19, 22.

Globe-fish, 93.

Coregonus, 86.

Elaps, 22.

Gobies, 59.

Cow, 77.

Electric Cat-fish, 83.

Gobiesocidae, 59.

Caronella, 21.

TTpl 8Q

Gobiidae, 59, 69.

ji*ei, 0*7.

Coryph(sna, 66.

Eays, 108.

Gobius, 70.

Cottidse, 59, 62.

Efops, 89.

Goldfish, 84.

Coitus, 63.

Embiotocidae, 76, 78.

Gonorhynchidae, 82.

Craig-fluke, 81.

Emydidaa, 26, 28.

Gourami, 74.

Crenilabrtts, 77.

Emy*, 28.

Grayling, 86.

Crocodilia, 3.

Engystomatidae, 36.

Greenland Shark, 106.

Crocodilus, 4.

Epincphelus, 60.

Green Lizard, 10.

Crossorhinus, 106.

Eryces, 20.

Turtle, 27.

Crotalinae, 19, 23.

Esocidae, 82, 87.

Grev Mullets, 59, 75.

Crotalus, 24.

Eublepharida?. 7.

Gurnards, 59, 62, 63.

Crucian Carp, 84.

Exocoetus, 63, 87.

Gymnarchus, 86.

Ctenolabrus, 77.

Gymnodontes, 92, 94.

Cydoptcrus, 70.

File-fish, 92.

Gymnotidae, 82, 88.

Cyclostomata, 58, 112.

Firmisternia, 36, 41.

Cyprinidae, 82, 84.

Fishes, 47.

Haddock, 79.

Cyprinodontidae, 82.

Fishing-frog, 71.

Hag-fish, 113.

Cyprinus, 84.

Fistulariida?,, 59, 76.

Hair-tails, 59.

Cystignathida. 36, 38.

Flat-fiehes, 78, 81.

Hake, 79.

INDEX.

117

Jlalosauridac, 82.
Hamadryad, 22.
Hammerheads, 103.
Haplochitonidae, 82.

Jlafteria, f>.
Ha u sen, 99.
Hawk's-bill Turtle, 27.
Heloderma, 9.
Heloclermatidns, 7.
Heiniphractidae, 30, 41,
Heniochus, 62.
Herring. 89.
Hesperornis, 1.
Heteropygii, 82.
Heterotis, 88.
Hippocampus, 91, 92.
HippoghssKs, 81.
Histiophorus, (58.
Holacantkus, 62.
Holibut, 81.
Holocephala, 100.
Homalopsirw, 19, 22.
Homelyn Ray, 110.
Hoplognathidfe, 59.
Horned Toad, 12.
Horse-Mackerels, 59,

67.

Hound, 103.
Hydroeyon, 84.
Hydrophiinffi, 19, 22.
Hydrophis, 23.
Hylidae, 36, 39.
Hyodontidae, 82.

Ichthyophis, 46.
Iguanas, 9, 11.
Iguanidae, 7, 11.
llysiidse, 19.
Innocuous Snakes, 19.

John Dory, 65.
King-fish, 66.

Labrax, 59.
Labridse, 76.
Labrus, 77.
Labyrinthici, 59, 74.
Labyrinthodonta, 33.
Lacertidas, 7, 10.
Lacertilia, 6.
Lcemargus, 106.
Lake-Wenern Trout,

85.

Lamnidae, 102, 104.
Lampern, 113.
Lampreys, 58, 113.
Lampris, 66.
Lancelet, 114.

Land-Tortoises, 26, 28.
Launce, 80.
Leather-Turtles, 26.
Lepidosiren, 98.
Lepidosteoidei, 96, 97.
Lepidosteus, 97.
Leptocardii, 58, 114.
Leuciscus, 84.
Limbless Batrachians,

46.

Ling, 79.
Lizard, 6, 10.
Loach, 85.

Loggerhead Turtle, 27.
Lophius, 71.
Lophobranchii, 58, 91.
Lophotidae, 59.
Lota, 79.

Luciocephalidas. 59.
Lucioperca, o9.
Lumpsuckers, 59, 70.
Lutremys, 28.
Lycodidae, 79.

Mackerel, 59, 65.
Macrurida>, 79.
Mahaseer, 84.
Malacanthida, 59.
Malapterurus, 83.
Malthe, 72.
Marine Turtles, 27.
Mastacembelidiv, 59.
Mata-Mata, 28.
Meagres, 59, 64.
Megalobatrachus, 44.
Megalops, 89.
Midwife Toad, 41.
Millers'-thumbs, 63.
Minnow, 85.
Molge, 43.
Moloch, 14.
Molva, 79.
Monacanthus, 92.
Monitor, 9.
Monk-fish, 107.
Morelia, 21 .
Mormyrida?,, 82, 87.
Mossbanker, 89.
Mud-fish, 96.
Mugilidae. 59, 75.
Mnllidae, 59, 60.
Muraenidaa, 82, 90.
Muskellonge, 87.
Mustelus, 103.
Myletes, 84.
Myliobatidae, 102, 112.
Myxine, 113.

Naja, 22.
Candidas, 59.

i Naseus, 74.
j Natterjack, 38.

Kaucrates, 67.

NemachUttf, 85.

Newt, 43.

Norway Pout, 79.

Notacanthidae, 82.

Noiidanidaa, 102, 105.
I NotopteridaB, 82.

Nototrema, 39.

Onus, 79.
| Opah, 66.
Ophidia, 16.
Ophidiidse, 79, 80.
Ophiocephalidae, 59.
Ophiophagus, 22.
(jrthayonseHt, 94, 95.
Osmerus, 8(5.
Ouphro menus, 74.
Osteoglossidffi, 82, 88.
Ostracwn, 92, 93.
Oxudercidas, 59.
Oxyrhina, 104.

Pagellus, 60.
Pagrus, 61.
Palaeichthyes, 58, 96.
Parrot-Wrasses, 77.
Pediculati, 59, 70.
Pelagic Fishes, 48
Pelamys, 23.
Pelobatidas, 36.
Perch, 59.
Percidse, 59.
Percopsidae, 82.
Petromyzon, 113.
Phaneroglossa, 36.
Pharyngognathi, 76.
Phrynosoma, 11.
Phyilomedusa, 39.
Physostomi, 58, 82.
Pike, 86.
Pike-Perch, 59.
Pilchard, 88.
Pilot-fish, 67.
Pimelodus, 83.
Pipa, 42.
Pipe-fish, 92.
Pipida;, 36, 42.
Pit-Vipers, 19, 24.
Plagiostomata, 100

101.

Plaice, 81.
Platax, 68.
Plectognathi, 58, 92.
Pleuronectes, 81.
Pleuronectidas, 81.
Podocnemys, 28.
Pogonias, 64.

118

INDEX.

Pollack, 79.
Polycentridse, 59.
Polynemidic, 59, 64:.
Polyodon, 100.
Polyodontidge, 99, 100.
Polypteroidei, 96.
Polypterus, 96.
Poinacentridse, 76.
Porbeagle, 104.
Pout, 79.
Power-Cod, 79.
Pride, 113.
Pristidse, 102, 107.
Pristiophoridse, 102,

107.

Proteidae, 42, 45.
Proteus, 45.
Protopterus, 98.
Psephurus, 100.
Pseudis, 38.
Pseudopus, 10.
Pseudoscarus, 77.
Psychrolutidae, 59.
Pterois, 22.
Puff-Adder, 24.
Pygopoclidae, 7.
Pythoninse, 19, 20.
Pyxidea, 28.

Raid, 110.
Raiidas, 102, 110.
Ranidaj, 36, 37.
Bat-Snakes, 20.
Rattlesnakes, 19, 23,

24.

Rays, 101, 110.
Red Mullets, 59, 60.
Rhinidaj, 102, 107.
Rhinobatidse, 102, 108.
Rhinobatus, 108.
Rhinodontidee, 102, 105.
Rhombus, 81.
Rhynchobatus, 108.
Rhynchocephalia, 5.
' Ribbon-fishes, 59, 73.
Ringed Snake, 21.
Roacb, 85.
Rockling, 79.
Rock-Snakes, 20.
Rudd, 85.

Salamander, 42, 43.

, Gigantic, 44.

Salamandridae, 42.
Salmon, 85.
Salmonida;, 82, 85.
Sand-Eel, 80.
Sand-Lizard, 10.
Sandpiper, 113.

Sand-Snakes, 19.
Sardine, 89.
Sargus, 60.
Saw fish, 107.
Scaphirhynchus, 100.
Scarus, 77.
Scicsna, 64.
Sciaenidae, 59, 64.
Scincidae, 7, 10.
Sclerodermi, 92.
Scombresocidse, 82,

87.

Scombridse, 59.
Scorpaenid*, 59, 62.
Scopelidae, 82.
Scylliidas, 102, 106.
Scy Ilium, 106.
Sea-bat, 6S.
Sea-Breams, 59, 60.
Sea-cat, 72.
Sea-devil, 70, 112.
Sea-hedgehog, 94.
Sea-horse, 92.
Sea-Perch, 59.
Sea-Snakes, 19, 22.
Sea-Surgeons, 73.
Sea-Trout, 85.
Sea-Turtles, 26.
Sea-Wolf, 72.
Sebastes, 62.
Selache, 105.
Selachoidei, 102.
Seriola, 67.
Sermnus, 59.
Shad, 89.

Shagreen Skate, 112.
Sharks, 100, 102.
Shark, Blue, 102.

, Spinous, 106.

Sheep's-head, 60.
Sheltopusik, 10.
Shore-fishes, 48.
Silurida?, 82.
Silurus, 82.
Siphonops, 46.
Sirenidas, 42, 45.
Skates, 112.
Skink, 10.
Slowworm, 10.
Smear-Dab, 81.
Smelt, 86.
Smooth Snake, 21.
Snakes, 16.
Snapper, 61.
Sole, 81.
Solea, 81.

Solenostomidae, 91.
Sparidae, 60.
Sphargidae, 26.
Sphyrsenidae, 59, 64.

Spinacidoe, 102, 106.
Spiny-rayed Fishes, 5, 8.
Sprat, 89.

Squamipinnes, 59, 61.
Stegocephala, 33.
Stenoptychidse, 32.
Sterlet, 99.
Sticklebacks, 59, 75.
Sting-Rays, 112.
Stock-fish, 79.
Stomiatidse, 82.
Sturgeon, 99.

- , Sword-bill, 100.
Sucking-fish, 65.
Sun-fish, 94.
Surgeons, 59, 73.
Surinam Toad, 42.
Sword-fishes, 59, 68.
Symbranchidas, 82,
Synanceia, 62.
Syngnathidae, 91.

Tailed Batrachanis, 24.
Tailless Batrachians, 33.
Tarpon, 89.
Teguexin, 9.
Teiidse, 7, 9.
Teleostei, 57, 58.
Tench, 85.
Terrapen, 28.
Testudinida;, 26, 28.
Tetrodon, 94.
Teuthididae, 59.
Thorn oack, 110.
Thresher, 104.
Thymallus, 86.
Thynnus, 65.
Tiger-Shark, 106.
Tiliqua, 10.
Tinea, 85.
Toad, 38.

- , Fire-bellied, 41.
Tomistoma , 5.
Tope, 103.

Torpedinidae, 102, 108.
Torpedo, 109.
Tortoise, 24.
Toxotes, 62.
Trachinidae, 59, 63.
Trachydosaurus, 10.
Trachypteridae, 59,

73.

Tree-Frog, 38, 39.
Tree-Snakes, 21.

Triacanthus, 92.
Trichiuridae, 59.
Trichonotidse, 59.

Trigla, 63.

Triodon, 94.

INDEX.

119

Trionychidse, 26, 27.
Tropidonotus, 21.
Trout, 85.

Trygonidae, 102, 112.
'Prygonorhina, 108.
Tuatera, 5.
Tunny, 65.
Tupinambis, 9.
Turbot, 81.
Turtle, 24.
Typhlopidte, 19, 20.

Umbridse, 82.
Umbrina, 64.
Urogymnus, 112.
Uromastix, 14.

Uropeltidae, 19.

Uroplatidas, 7.

Varanidas, 7, 8.
far anus, 9.
Vendace, 86.
Viperidre, 19.
Viperinse, 19, 23.
Vipers, 19, 23, 24.

Water-Lizard, 9.
Weevers, 59, 63.
Wels, 82.
Whip-Snakes, 21.
White-fish, 84, 86.

Whiting, 79.
Wrasses, 76.

Xantusiidse, 7.
Xenopeltidae. 19.
Xeiiop/us, 42.
Xenosauridse, 7.
Xiphias, 68.
Xiphiidse, 59, 68.

Yellow-tail, 67.

Zebra-Shark, 106.
Zeus, 65.
Zonuriduj, 7.
Zygaina, 103.

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