i«"n liiiiiii ME BIRDS 11^ CALIFORNI ommtinnpfHmi liiiiiiiitiiHiiitiiiiitiiuiiniiiiiil' 111 iiiiiiiii.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiaiiiiiiiiiis^^ 'ii«kiitii GRINKELL * W^SIQ iiniiti M 1 1 1 1 11 liiiii iiiiiii FOR THE PEOPLE FOP. EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 1868-1918 UNIV. CALIF. PUBL. [GR^NNELL, BRYANT, STORER] PL. 1 y ^ fu-tf^f . CALIFORNIA QUAIL, MALE THE GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA CONTRIBUTION FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA MUSEUM OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY BY JOSEPH GKINNELL HAROLD CHILD BRYANT AND TRACY IRWIN STORER UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY 1918 COPYRIGHT, 1918 BY J. GRINNELL v\-(aai^- ioj^^i*^ ISSUED DECEMBER 28, 1918 PREFACE In the fall of 1912 it was decided that the staff of the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology should begin to apply a portion of its knowledge of the vertebrate natural history of the state along prac- tical lines, more particularly in an active effort towards conserving the native fauna. In the course of extended field work throughout California we had been forcibly impressed with the rapid depletion everywhere evident among the game birds and mammals, but at the same time we found reason to believe that a careful study of the situation would reveal some effectual means of retarding this down- ward trend. After observing the course of legislation for several months during the season of 1913, and recalling the popular indifference we had encountered in various parts of the state toward existing game laws, we had come to the conclusion that however numerous or stringent the game laws might be, they of themselves could not be expected to furnish adequate protection. The people at large must be apprized of the facts, and shown the need for, as well as the most effective means of, conserving our game resources. About this time our plans became known to a Berkeley gentle- man who was already intensely interested in any and all agencies for the protection of wild life. It was through the financial aid tendered by this man, whose name I am pledged to withhold, that the beginning of our work along economic lines was made possible. The actual task of Avriting the present book on the status of the game birds of Cali- fornia was begun on June 1, 1913, when Dr. Harold Child Bryant joined the staff of the ]\Iuseum of Vertebrate Zoology under salary provided as above indicated, and, in collaboration with the director of the museum, devoted his time exclusively to this enterprise. Bryant's services formally terminated on August 1, 1914, when he was called to a position as director of education, publicity and research, under the State Fish and Game Commission. He thereby cafried the slogan "Game Conservation through Education" into a sphere of application the scope of which he has been able steadily to enlarge and perfect. The work on the game-bird book was immediately taken up where Bryant had left off, by Mr. Tracy Irwin Storer, and the latter, under salary at first supplied from the anonymous source above alluded to, and later by Miss Annie M. Alexander, has, again with the collabora- tion of the director of the museum, faithfully and unremittingly labored on the book until its completion at the end of 1916. [iii] ]\Ieanwliilo, Bryant's interest in the undertaking has not flagged, and he has embraced opportunities in connection with his new work under the Fish and Game Commission, to secure information for use in our general chapters, as well as here and there throughout the accounts of species. It is but just to state here that the whole game-bird book has been brought to a conclusion only through the opportunities afforded under the auspices of the University of California Museum of Verte- brate Zoology; and the maintenance of this museum in all its func- tions has been due to the continued financial support furnished in generous measure by Miss Alexander. The arduous typing and retyping of the manuscript was a neces- sary labor, done faithfully by Miss Margaret W. Wythe, of the museum staff. Corrections in the phrasing were suggested by Mr. Aubrey Boyd, instructor in English in the University of California. Mr. Albert H. Allen, manager of the University Press, evinced personal interest in the enterprise in many ways during the process of compila- tion. The line drawings were done by Miss Frieda Lueddemann, directl}'' from museum specimens. Of the sixteen colored plates, nine were done specially for this book by Louis Agassiz Fuertes; three colored drawings, also by Fuertes, were loaned for our use by the California Fish and Game Commission; and the use of four colored drawings done by Allan Brooks was allowed by their owners, two of them by Miss Annie M. Alexander, one by Mr. A. Brazier Howell, and one through Mr. W. Leon Dawson, the latter from the stock of Brooks drawings owned by the Birds of California Publishing Com- pany, and intended for use ultimately in Dawson 's Birds of California. I would like to repeat here a principle in which I fully believe ; nameh^ that the highest plane of scientific output can be accomplished only through cooperative effort. If the present contribution proves to have reached an unusually satisfactory plane in any respect it will be because the attention of several workers rather than of a single indi- vidual has been devoted to it. "Where one author working alone would make mistakes unawares, two or, better, three, are able to cheek one another's output to advantage. The best results, always granting mutually sympathetic interest, will follow organized cooperative toil. Joseph Grinnell Director of the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Transmitted Novem,ber 30, 1916. [iv] CONTENTS PAGE Preface iii Table of contents „ v List of colored plates vii List of figures in the text viii List of tables x Introduction 1 Decrease of game and its causes 6 The natural enemies of game birds 19 The gun club in California 23 History of attempts to introduce non-native game birds into California 29 The propagation of game birds 45 Legislation relating to game birds in California 55 Glossary of special terms used in this book 62 Method of taking measurements 66 Key to the game birds of California 67 General accounts of the game birds of California 79 American Merganser 79 Eed-breasted Merganser 84 Hooded Merganser 89 Mallard 92 Black Duck 101 Gadwall 103 Baldpate 106 European Widgeon Ill Green-winged Teal 113 European Teal 119 Blue-winged Teal : 120 Cinnamon Teal '. 123 Shoveller 129 Pintail 134 Wood Duck 140 Eedhead 146 Canvasback 150 Greater Scaup Duck 156 Lesser Scaup Duck 159 Ring-necked Duck 164 American Golden-eye 167 Barrow Golden-eye 173 Bufiae-head - 177 Old-squaw 181 Harlequin Duck 186 King Eider 192 American Scoter 194 White-winged Scoter 197 Surf Scoter 201 [V] PAGE Euddy Duck 205 Lesser Snow Goose _ 210 Eoss Snow Goose 215 American White-fronted Goose 218 Canada Goose 222 Hutchins Goose 230 Cackling Goose 234 Black Sea Brant _ 237 Eastern Sea Brant 241 Emperor Goose : 243 Fulvous Tree-duck 246 Black-bellied Tree-duck 251 Trumpeter Swan _ 253 Whistling Swan 256 Eoseate Spoonbill 262 Wood Ibis 266 White-faced Glossy Ibis 269 Little Brown Crane 273 Sandhill Crane 279 California Clapper Eail 283 Light-footed Eail 289 Virginia Eail 291 Sora Eail 296 Yellow Eail 301 California Black Eail 304 Florida Gallinule 309 Mud-hen 313 Eed Phalarope 320 Northern Phalarope 326 Wilson Phalarope 332 Avocet 337 Black-necked Stilt 344 Wilson Snipe 350 Long-billed Dowitcher 358 Knot 363 Pectoral Sandpiper 368 Baird Sandpiper 373 Least Sandpiper 376 Eed-backed Sandpiper 381 Western Sandpiper 386 Sanderling 391 Marbled Godwit 396 Greater Yellow-legs 401 Lesser Yellow-legs 408 Western Solitary Sandpiper 411 Western Willet 416 Wandering Tattler „ 422 Upland Plover 427 Spotted Sandpiper 431 Long-billed Curlew 438 Hudsonian Curlew 445 [vi] PAGE Black-bellied Plover 452 American Golden Plover 458 Killdeer 463 Semipalniated Plover 469 Snowy Plover 473 Wilson Plover 479 Mountain Plover 481 Surf-bird 485 Ruddy Turnstone 489 Black Turnstone 493 Black Oyster-catcher 498 Frazar Oyster-catcher 502 Mountain Quail 504 Painted Quail 513 Valley Quail 514 California Quail 537 Catalina Island Quail 537 Desert Quail 538 Sierra Grouse 544 Sooty Grouse 552 Oregon Ruffed Grouse 552 Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 558 Sage-hen 564 Ring-necked Pheasant 572 Band-tailed Pigeon 575 Western Mourning Dove 588 White-winged Dove 603 Mexican Ground Dove 606 Literature cited 611 Index 633 Colored Plates 1. California Quail (drawn by Louis Agassiz Fuertes) Frontispiece 2. Mallard, male and female (Fuertes) — .., facing page 94 3. Baldpate, male and female; European Widgeon, male (Fuertes) 110 4. Cinnamon Teal, male and female (Fuertes) 126 5. Canvasback and Lesser Scaup Duck, males and females (Fuertes) 150 6. American White-fronted Goose and Lesser Snow Goose (Fuertes) 214 7. Fulvous Tree-duck (drawn by Allan Brooks) 246 8. White-faced Glossy Ibis (Fuertes) 270 9. California Clapper Rail (Fuertes) 286 10. Mud-hen (Brooks) 318 11. Avocet and Black-necked Stilt (Fuertes) 342 12. Snowy Plover (Brooks) 478 13. Surf-bird (Brooks) 486 14. Mountain Quail (Fuertes) 510 15. Sierra Grouse, male and female (Fuertes) 550 16. Ring-necked Pheasant (Fuertes) 574 [vii] Text Figures Note. — Numbers in parentheses following titles of figures, and usually accom- panying the figures in the text, are those of the specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology from which the drawings were made; figures drawn from specimens in private collections have numbers followed by initials of owners (e.g., 209 H.SS.). All figures natural size except as noted. PAGE 1. General outline of a Mallard showing names of parts and areas referred to in describing a game bird; X i/4 62 2. Outer surface of spread wing of Green-winged Teal showing names of regions and feathers employed in descriptions (24635); X % 63 3. Under surface of spread wing of Black-bellied Plover showing axillars and lining of wing (24868); X % 64 4. Side view of Hudsonian Curlew showing method of taking the measure- ments used in this book (6940) ; X Vi 66 5. American Merganser, side of bill (21609) 80 6. American Merganser, top of bill (21609) 80 7. Eed-breasted Merganser, side of bill (18814) 86 8. Eed-breasted Merganser, top of bill (18814) 86 9. Mallard, side of bill (21615) 93 10. Mallard, top of bill (21615) 93 11. Mallard, side of tarsus and foot (21615) 94 12. Gadwall, top of bill of female (21643) 104 13. Green-winged Teal, side of bill of female (21699) 116 14. Cinnamon Teal, side of bill of female (21739) 125 15. Cinnamon Teal, top of bill of female (21735) 125 16. Blue-winged Teal, top of bill of female (1647 H.S.S.) 125 17. Shoveller, side of bill (21768) 131 18. Shoveller, bill from below (21768) 181 19. Pintail, top of bill of female (21827) 136 20. Eedhead, side of bill and head (585) 148 21. Canvasback, side of bill and head (10607) 153 22. Canvasback, side of foot and tarsus (10607) 153 23. Buffle-head, head of female (18825); X Vs 179 24. Old-squaw, head of female (111) ; X % 183 25. Harlequin Duck, head of male; X % 188 26. Harlequin Duck, head of female (74); X % 189 27. American Scoter, side of bill of male (4847) 196 28. White-winged Scoter, side of bill and head of male (18826) 199 29. Surf Scoter, side of bill of male (113) 202 30. Lesser Snow Goose, side of bill (5493) 212 31. Eoss Snow Goose, side of bill (21905) 216 32. Canada Goose, side of bill (21949) 224 33. Hutchins Goose, side of bill (22001) 224 34. Cackling Goose, side of bill (22028) 225 35. Canada Goose, side of tarsus and foot (21949) 226 36. Hutchins Goose, side of tarsus and foot (22001) 227 37. Cackling Goose, side of tarsus and foot (22028) '. 227 38. Fulvous Tree-duck, side of tarsus and foot (21573) 248 39. Fulvous Tree-duck, side of bill (21573) 249 40. Whistling Swan, side of bill and head (21284) 257 [ viii ] PAGE 41. Whistling Swan, side of tarsus and foot (21284) 259 42. Eoseate Spoonbill, side of bill (23325) 265 43. Eoseate Spoonbill, top of bill (23325) 265 44. White-faced Glossy Ibis, side of bill (6188) 271 45. Little Brown Crane, side of bill and head (1125) ; X V2 275 46. Sandhill Crane, side of bill and head (X2067 J. & J. W. M.); X V2 280 47. California Clapper Eail, side of foot and tarsus (6995) 284 48. California Clapper Eail, side of bill (6995) 285 49. Light-footed Eail, side of bill (3497) 285 50. Virginia Eail, side of bill (4071) 293 51. Sora Eail, side of bill (5486) 298 52. Yellow Eail, side of bill (17250) 303 53. California Black Eail, side of bill (16701) 306 54. Mud-hen, head showing "shield" (22149) 315 55. Mud-hen, top of foot showing lobes on toes (22148) 316 56. Eed Phalarope, tarsus and foot showing webbing and lobes (4804) 322 57. Eed Phalarope, side of bill (4804) 322 58. Northern Phalarope, side of bill (18932) 329 59. Wilson Phalarope, side of bill (14018) 334 60. Avoeet, side of bill (22169) 340 61. Avoeet, top of foot showing webs between bases of toes (22169) 341 62. Black-necked Stilt, side of bill (22183) 346 63. Black-necked Stilt, top of foot showing practical absence of webs (22183) 347 64. Wilson Snipe, side of bill of female, with sense pits near tip (1068) 352 65. Long-billed Dowitcher, side of bill of female (22232) 361 66. Knot, side of bill (24578) 365 67. Least Sandpiper, side of bill (3482) 378 68. Western Sandpiper, side of bill (165) 378 69. Least Sandpiper, top of foot showing absence of webbing (3482) 379 70. Western Sandpiper, top of foot showing webs between bases of toes (165) 379 71. Eed-backed Sandpiper, side of bill (9835) 384 72. Western Willet, outer surface of spread wing showing color patches (24783) 417 73. Long-billed Curlew, side of bill of female (24867) 440 74. Hudsonian Curlew, side of bill of female (3997 J. G.) 447 75. Black-bellied Plover, side of bill (22342) 454 76. Black -bellied Plover, side of tarsus and foot, showing presence of small hind toe (22342) 455 77. Killdeer, side of tarsus and foot, as typical of Plovers (18983) 465 78. Surf-bird, side of bill (9875) 488 79. Black Turnstone, side of bill (107) 495 80. Black Oyster-catcher, side of bill (19016) 499 81. Mountain Quail, head 506 82. Valley Quail, head of male 516 83. Valley Quail, side of tarsus and foot (11955) 517 84. Curve showing by half -month periods the time when Valley Quail begin to lay their eggs 529 85. Sierra Grouse, side of tarsus and foot, showing feathering (14076) 546 86. Band-tailed Pigeon, head (15619) 577 87. Map showing distribution of the Band-tailed Pigeon in California 578 88. Band-tailed Pigeon, lower surface of tail (238 H.S.S.) 589 [ix] PAGE 89. Western Mourning Dove, lower surface of tail (209 H.S.S.) 589 90. White-winged Dove, lower surface of tail (239 H.S.S.) 589 91. Western Mourning Dove, head (209 H.S.S.) 591 92. Graph showing nesting season of the Western Mourning Dove in Cali- fornia, according to opinions of deputies of the California Fish and Game Commission 596 93. Graph showing changes in open season for hunting doves in California, 1880-1915 599 94. Graph showing open season for hunting doves in states which allow these birds to be shot (1915) 601 T.\BLES Table 1. Game birds S'hot on the grounds of the Empire Gun Club (Elk- horn, Monterey County, California) in four seasons between 1905 and 1913 10 Table 2. Estimates of numbers of ducks sold in the markets, between 1911 and 1916 13 Table 3. Ducks received by the American Game Transfer Company at San Francisco in the season of 1910-11 13 Table 4. Geese received by the Independent Game Transfer Company, of San Francisco, during the season of 1909-10 — 13 Table 5. Ducks received by the Hunters Game Transfer Company of San Francisco, during the five seasons, 1906-11 14 Table 6. Ducks sold on the markets of San Francisco by five game transfer companies during the season of 1910-11 14 Table 7. Showing open seasons for hunting game birds in California, 1852- 1915 (opposite) 60 Table 8. Data relative to the nesting of the Mallard in California 96 Table 9. Data relative to the nesting of the Gad wall in California 105 Table 10. Data relative to the nesting of the Cinnamon Teal in California 126 Table 11. Data relative to the nesting of the Euddy Duck in California 207 Table 12. Data relative to the nesting of the Virginia Eail in California 294 Table 13. Data relative to the nesting of the Mountain and Painted quails in California 507 Table 14. Crop contents of Mountain Quail 512 Table 15. Data relating to nesting of Vallej^ and California quails in Cali- fornia 522 Table 16. Sets of eggs of Valley Quail examined by C. S. Sharp in the vicinity of Escondido, San Diego County, California, 1896- 1913 525 Table 17. Sets of Valley Quail eggs showing more than one type of colora- tion 528 Table 18. Data relative to the nesting of the Band-tailed Pigeon in Cali- fornia 582 Table 19. Data relative to the nesting of the Western Mourning Dove in California 594 [X] INTRODUCTION In preparing the present volume the authors have attempted to meet the requirements of a varied public. The hvmter wishes informa- tion concerning the haunts and habits of our game birds ; the naturalist wishes to have the completest possible data regarding their life histories ; the legislator who appreciates the necessity of judicious game laws wishes to have the facts that are relevant to his purpose presented in concise form ; and the conservationist desires that information which will assist him in his efforts to perpetuate our bird life for the ultimate benefit of the greatest number of people. Whether the needs of these various classes have been adequately met in the following pages remains to be proved, but it may at least be stated here that none of them has been overlooked. To each of the four categories of persons above mentioned, this book is offered as a working manual. The authors also have appreciated the fact that the literature relating to California game birds is widely scattered, and not accessible for immediate use by the public ; an exhaustive review and compilation was necessary to make it easily available. Furthermore, they have realized that many California game birds are rapidly disappearing, and that any postponement of the time of writing the histories of these species might mean losing entirely the opportunity to record much that pertains to them. An effort has been made to organize the material at hand in such a form as to provide a convenient sum- mary of our knowledge of the subject to date. "While the book may thus prove of positive value to the active field naturalist, the writers hope that the deficiencies apparent in the data presented will of them- selves furnish an incentive to further research. A more thorough observation of the bird life within our boundaries is urgently needed. In comparison with the Atlantic states California has thus far produced but a small number of careful observers, and many more are needed for the purpose of watching and recording the changes in the population of the birds from year to year, of chronicling their migrations, learning their food habits, and determining their relation both to sport and agriculture. Should the present volume succeed in enlisting even a few intelligent and active recruits in this work, an excellent end will have been served. Many game birds in eastern North America had almost or entirely disappeared before their value was realized or any attempts were made to conserve them. Adequate knowledge and forethought would have prolonged the life of these species and perhaps have saved many [1] 2 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA of thein for all time. Here in California the situation has not yet become so serious ; we are in a somewhat earlier stage of development. We have still an opportunity of studying the circumstances, learning the facts, and taking the remedial measures indicated thereby. But the time for action is short ; already one species, the Columbian Sharp- tailed Grouse, is gone, and certain others are threatened. The neces- sity of calling attention to this danger is another reason for the publication of this book now. The authors fully recognize the fact that there are a number of people in this state who by reason of their long experience as hunters possess, in this regard, better qualifications for the authorship of a book on game birds than the present writers. But these persons are as a rule so engrossed in business that they themselves have not sufficient time to put through such a work. Some of them, however, together with certain other interested people, have placed the necessary means at the disposal of the authors, who, realizing their own shortcomings, have utilized their opportunities to the best of their ability. They have attempted to compensate for their lack of direct knowledge in the field of hunting by conversing and corresponding with sportsmen of experience, and they have each visited hunting grounds at the opening of different shooting seasons, with the object of learning something of the viewpoints, methods, and field-lore of Californian gunners. As regards the technical handling of the book the authors feel themselves on much surer ground. They have been able to derive first-hand information for almost all of the technical descriptions from museum specimens or from live or freshly killed birds in the field, and they have reviewed the literature of the subject in an exhaustive and discriminating manner. They are accordingly reasonably confi- dent of the accuracy of their descriptions of birds, nests, and eggs, places of nesting, and of the habits of the several species. But with regard to the sportsman's notions and evaluations of the several species, and his preferred methods of hunting them, they have had to rely chiefly on second-hand information. The authors have been fortunate in having at their disposal a large amount of museum material. The specimens contained in the Cali- fornia IMuseum of Vertebrate Zoologj% and in the private collections of J. and J. W. Mailliard, J. Grinnell, H. S. Swarth, and G. F. Morcom, have provided a basis for almost all assertions, independently of what has been previously published on the subject. "When western mate- rial failed to supply needed facts, recourse has been had to eastern collections. Among eastern institutions which have granted the use of specimens or given information are the United States National IMuseum and Bureau of Biological Survey, in Washington ; the INTBODUCTION 3 Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Jonathan Dwight, Jr., collection in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City ; and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, Cambridge. To all of these institutions and their officers we express our appreciation of the spirit of cordial cooperation they have shown. In response to our direct request a great many persons have furnished specific information. Wherever such information has been used it has been credited to the individual contributor. Much use has been made of Ljanan Belding's manuscript Water Birds of the Pacific District, now on deposit in the Bancroft Library of the University of California. The field observations of the three present co-authors and of W. P. Taylor and R. H. Beck have been taken from the note books of these persons on file in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. All of these various sources of information are referred to in the text as "MS." The hearty cooperation of the California Fish and Game Commis- sion has been of great assistance in assembling data. Much new material has been obtained by means of circular letters to the com- mission's deputies, as in the cases of the Mourning Dove and Valley Quail. Mr. Ernest Schaeffle, former secretary of the commission, assisted us in a multitude of ways both official and personal. Finally, Mr. Harry S. Swarth, curator of birds in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, has read the entire proof of the book, and by reason of his extensive knowledge of western birds has been able to make important corrections and improvements. It was found necessary arbitrarily to set a date beyond which no new information should be incorporated into our manuscript. This date was fixed at June 30, 1916. "Work done subsequently, and up to the time of going to press, consisted solely in revision. The list of "literature cited" at the end of the book must not be taken as a complete bibliography of the subject ; it contains titles only of those articles or books from which material is actually taken either indirectly or by quotation. Many of our readers will probably disapprove of our frequent use of direct quotations. In defense of this practice we urge the greater accuracy thereby obtained. Experience has taught us that rewording an account often leads unintentionally to a perversion of the original author's exact meaning, and we believe that scientific accuracy of fact should take precedence over smoothness of diction or an appearance of originality. We also recognize the fact that inter- polation of citations in the text mars its typographical appearance ; but their presence makes verification possible, and, together with the list of articles and books under the heading "literature cited," they serve to assist those readers who are interested in following the sub- 4 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA ject farther. We believe that placing citations in the text rather than in footnotes results in a smaller percentage of error even though it somewhat interrupts the smoothness of the printed page. The order in which the species chapters follow one another is essen- tially that used in the American Ornithologists' Union Check-list of Noiih American Birds (1910). The small-type paragraphs at the beginning of each species chapter are intended primarily for reference purposes, as for example in com- paring two or more species, and are consequently reduced to essentials. Many of the points briefly given in these paragraphs are elaborated upon in the general (large-type) account which follows. Each species chapter is headed by the most generally accepted common name, followed by the current scientific name and its author. Under "other names" are included, as a rule, only those names by which the species has been called in California, either colloquially by sportsmen or naturalists, or more formally in published articles. Mere variations in the spelling of names have not been listed. For a few common or widely distributed species, names used in other parts of North America are included, as a convenience in referring to other books. The word "part" indicates that the name which it follows has also been used for one or more other species in California. Under "description" are included only details of plumage (color) and size (measurements). Peculiarities in the structure of feathers, bill and feet are rarely mentioned because if important in diagnosis they are clearly shown in the accompanying illustrations or discussed in the running account. For each plumage a specimen has always been selected showing typically the particular phase to be described. Many species which occur in California, such as certain shore birds, are, in migration time, in a mixed transitional state between the winter and summer plumages. Of course these, and such additional variants as are produced by wear or fading of the feathers, are not ordinarily mentioned in the description. Under "marks for field identification" are mentioned such char- acters as will be of service in long-range observations. In most instances are included characters which will separate a species under discussion from others with which it is likely to be confused. In the running account there will usually be found one or more paragraphs discussing these field characters in greater detail. A number of our game birds differ slightly in color and measure- ments in different parts of the country and naturalists are accustomed to recognize such geographic races as subspecies. In some instances it is known that such races exhibit marked differences in behavior, so that we do not feel justified in citing the habits of eastern races in illustration of the behavior of western birds (e.g., see Oregon Ruffed INTRODUCTION 5 Grouse). However, in the case of certain birds which are represented in California by two or more subspecies, such as the valley and the mountain quails and the "blue" grouses, our knowledge of the birds has led us to believe that there are no important differences in the behavior of the different races, and we have consequently combined the general accounts under that of the more widel}^ distributed race. For example, in the account of the Valley Quail the habits of the California and Catalina Island quails are to be considered as covered. Whenever a bird in hand cannot be identified by the use of the ' ' key ' ' or does not fit any of the descriptions, the specimen should be sent at once to some natural history museum for identification. Such a bird may be a representative of a rare species or of one new to the state, and so of particular value to science. The California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology stands ready at all times to receive and identify such specimens. Joseph Grinnell, Harold C. Bryant, Tracy I. Storer. Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, September 15, 1916. GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA DECREASE OF GAME AND ITS CAUSES It is easy to make statements to the effect that game has either increased or decreased ; but to find reliable figures with which to sub- stantiate such statements is well-nigh impossible. Yet the material gathered under this heading, even though fragmentary, seems not unworthy of consideration. The evidence we have been able to obtain may be grouped under four headings: the judgments of dependable observers; the records of the kills of waterfowl on gun-club grounds; the records of market sales and shipments of game ; and the toll taken by various agencies, natural as well as artificial. The decrease in the numbers of game birds in California began to arouse comment more than thirty-five years ago. In 1880 that pioneer ornithologist, Dr. J. G. Cooper, stated (1880, p. 243) that game birds had already "very much diminished" locally. In his opinion this reduction was due to "persecution by the gun," and to poisoned grain intended for "vermin" (probably squirrels and gophers). In 1913 letters of inquiry on this subject were sent out from the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology to responsible observers throughout the State. Questions were asked as to the status of ducks and geese, shore birds, quail, and other game birds. Seventy replies were received, representing twenty-seven counties of the State. Many of these reports covered periods of ten to forty years, and one observer stated that he had kept track of game conditions for sixty-one years. A compilation of these reports showed that sixty-eight of the seventy observers had noted a decrease in ducks and geese. The other two reported that these birds were "holding their own." Not one reported an increase! The estimates of the decrease in ducks ranged from twenty-five per cent to ninety-nine per cent, and average close to fifty per cent. The same observers agreed in reporting the greatest decrease in the ease of geese ; six stated that the birds had entirely disappeared from their accustomed localities, and five said that they were now seldom seen. The percentages of decrease for geese were given as fifty per cent and more, the average being about seventy-five per cent. Forty-one reports on the status of quail showed a considerably smaller decrease. Thirty-six observers reported a decrease, four stated that the birds were "holding their own," and one reported an increase. Of eleven reports relative to the Mourning Dove, seven indi- DECBEASE OF GAME 7 cated a marked decrease, and four no change. The amount of decrease ranged from twenty-five to seventy-five per cent. A few excerpts from the letters received are given here to show the general character of the reports. Mr. Henry Grey, writing of San Diego and vicinity, under date of March 17, 1913, says : Eight and nine years ago I could go down to a iiond near my house and shoot six Widgeon in twenty minutes. After shooting what I wanted, ducks would come streaming in from the ocean and the water-hole would soon be so filled with ducks while I stood in full view that they hardly had room to flap their wings. . . . Now all is changed. ... A nearby resident declared that in the season of 1911-12 there was only one duck for over 100 seen in the same place four years before, and this season (1912-13) I failed to see even that proportion. Mr. Samuel Hubbard, Jr., under date of March 12, 1913, writes us : In 1876 ducks were very plentiful in all the marshes from Sausalito north to Petaluma, Napa and Vallejo. In those days it was easy for a boy to kill from twenty to thirty ducks in a day's shooting and very much larger bags were obtained by experienced hunters. Today, in the region between Sausalito and Novato, I think it is safe to say there is not one duck in the marsh now where there were a hundred then. Beyond Novato there is still some shooting, but it is mostly confined to baited ponds where the birds are regularly fed. There are still large flocks of Canvasbaeks and Bluebills on San Pablo Bay, but nothing like as many as in former years. On Oakland Creek where ducks, rail, curlew, and shore birds w^ere formerly plentiful, they are seldom seen today. I have killed as many as forty rail on one tir rf o" .— 1.1 >o t^ i.O -* C O Tt< C5 O --^ CV r-i Tj< . SIKJOJ '^^ '^■^ *"- ^- '^- -.S O .-H O iona aiJ4!'j[ S "^ 21 ^ -H O Si !» «0 SJjona ll«ros _- t~ Cl O 00 O 05 ■*! LO CO 43 o to Oi --H Ti "M -^ o; s>i.inf[ ipiiiis' — "x 't >louC->iaBia Tt< t^ t^ CO 00 O C X C-J 00 1-1 rt « ^ t^ 'O rt re CO i— I 10V!C[SBAHl!3 "+ CO 05 «0 IJJ TjH CM ■* 05 tJI O CO ^ 1-1 00 JJOliCoiORia Ci r ocT c— i n-'"u •^"■'u 00 Tfi CO CO CO o C^l Tj4 o 00 '^ Ttl o 00 m Oi m T^^ m IB-'X co'~ CO in" c^ 05 Tt< m 05 -* CO in CO Oi o noaSpiAV CO 00 I— 1 CO in CO oo rH ■* o CO n^na .a'jo CO CO CO Ln CI c^i 00 -* CO m CO 00 o pJBIlBUI o^ co^ Ln^ oo_^ co_^ co" o" oT co~ "*" o ^ O t^ C^l Oi LO CO o t~- un CO b- 00 OJ C-l P-i«ll«K -> _r o- c" o" t^ 00 Ci O r- ( jBa^ o o 00 05 O O -H C; C-. CI I I — ■SO S r3 03 O n o CS a CO rt -u u zj a> a) ^ -*j 't- fc. a o e« c l^ ffi <5 c H cS t.1 0; H g cS +J O c •^ 50,000. The farm was imme- diately stocked with Ring-necked Pheasants, Valley Quail, and a few Hungarian Partridges. During the operation of the farm perhaps 3.000 Ring-necked Pheasants have been reared and distributed throughout the state. In most instances, however, it has been found that the birds become very tame in captivity and that when liberated they seemed to be incapable of taking care of themselves. In spite of the large numbers planted, there are at the present time but few places in the state where the birds have gained a foothold. The efforts to propagate quail in captivity have for the most part been unsuccessful. In 1915, about 300 young birds were reared. ' ' Quail disease ' ' gave continual trouble and large numbers of the birds died before reaching maturity. A few Mountain Quail have been kept at the farm but they have not bred. The eggs of a few captive Desert Quail have been hatched in incubators, but none of the chicks survived. No Hungarian Partridges have been successfully reared on the farm and those which were purchased and planted in different parts of the state soon disappeared. In response to requests and suggestions from a number of sports- men, efforts were made to secure from Virginia and from Mexico some Wild Turkeys, in the hope that propagated birds might establish themselves if given reasonable protection. A few were reared at the farm from the stock secured and were planted in different parts of the state. No turkeys are believed to exist in a wholly wild state in California at the present time, although favorable reports were at first received from the Sequoia National Park, where some were placed (see p. 37). The breeding stock at Hayward was constantly reduced in numbers by blackhead, a disease very fatal to turkeys. In all the above breeding experiments the birds with the exception of the turkeys, were kept in small wire cages. Eggs have been col- lected and hatched in a few instances under bantams but more fre- quently in incubators. Most of the young birds have been reared in brooders. Eastern game farms have abandoned the incubator in favor of bantams, but there seems no good reason why equal success could not be obtained through the use of incubators and brooders. PROPAGATION 47 In 1914 a pond at the farm was stocked with wild ducks in order to determine whether or not these birds could be easily propagated. It was found that pinioned Mallards would breed readily and would successfully rear their broods. But out of the twelve species of ducks kept in captivity, the only ones which nested under the artificial con- ditions provided were Mallards, Cinnamon Teal (one pair) and Shovellers (one pair), and Mud-hens. No attempts have been made to liberate any of the Mallards thus raised. Attempts to hatch, by means of incubators, eggs collected in nearby marshes met with success, but only a part of the ducklings so hatched survived. In March, 1916, the Fish and Game Commission decided that the game farm was not a paying proposition, and, desiring to retrench in some direction, ordered the farm abolished. It had become evident that the adobe soil on which the farm was situated was a constant hindrance to success. Though it seems reasonable to believe that with more experience and better conditions a larger percentage of birds could be reared, yet it has everywhere been growing more manifest that birds so reared are not suitable for stocking purposes. The only apparent justification for a state farm is that it may be a useful ground for experiments in the breeding of captive game birds. In furnishing the knowledge thus acquired to game breeders, a state game farm might prove of con- siderable value. Private Game Farms Game propagation as carried on by private individuals still appears to be in the experimental stage. Though a number of people have established small game farms, they have usually done so for pleasure rather than for profit. Many people rear a few pheasants each year in their back yards, or in aviaries, but without any idea of making money. Even the offer by hotels in San Francisco of $2.00 apiece for Ring-necked Pheasants has not greatly increased the number of pheas- ant breeders. A possible indication that the rearing of fancy breeds is not fast increasing is evidenced by the fact that breeding birds of certain races still bring the high price of $10.00 a pair. The equipment needed in order to rear pheasants successfully deters many from engaging in their propagation. Wire for pens is expensive. The hen birds do not properly incubate the eggs, and it is necessary to use either incubators for hatching purposes and brooders for rearing the chicks, or else employ bantam hens. The young need a great deal of insect food and this is difficult to supply. 48 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA The Bowman Law An attempt to encourage the breeding of game in captivity was made in 1913 when the Bowman Law (Stats. 1913, Penal Code, §631° Others, Sept. 1-Dec. 1. 2-5 : Oct. 15-Mar. 1 1 and 6: Oct. 1- Mar. 1 Closed until Nov. 1, 1912, then Nov. 1-Dec. 1 Nov. 15-Mar. 30 Nov. 15-Mar. 30 Nov. 15-Mar. 30 2-5 : Oct. 15-Mar. 1 1 and 6: Oct. 1- Mar. 1 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 l-5:0ct. 15-Feb. 15 6 : Oct. 15-Nov. 15 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 1 and 3 : July 15- Oct. 1 2 and 5 : Aug. 1— Oct. 15 4 and 6 : Sept. 1- Nov. 1. 1887 No protection Sept. 10-Mar. 1 Sept. 10-Mar. 1 Sept. 10-Mar. 1 June 1-Jan. 1 1915" Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Closed" Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Closed Closed" Closed" Closed" Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Closed" Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Closed" 2, 3, 4, etc.: Oct. 15-Jan. 1" Oct. 15-Jan. 1 2, 3, 4, etc.; Oct. 15-Jan. 1" Oct. 15-Jan. 1 Closed" Sept. 1-Dec. 1 Table 7 — Showing Open Seasons foe Hunting Game Birds in California, 1852* 1658 Mollard and Wood Dttck BaU OrouBO Sept. 20-MBr. 1 Sept. 1-Mar. 20 Sept. IS-Mar. 1 Sept. 20-Mar. I Sept. 1-Mar. 20 Sept. IS-Mar. 1 .5-Mar. 15 Aug. 1-Apr. 1 Aug. 1-Apr. 1' (Aug. 1-Apr. 1) Ducka Wood Duck Black Sea Brnnt Ibis Roil Hud-boD, QaUinule WIlMon Snipe Yollow-legi Curlew Quail' MouQtain Vallej and Deaert .. 1891 Oct. 1-Mar. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct, 1-Mar, 1901 Oct. I-Feb. 1 . lO-Mar. 1 Sept. 1-Mar. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Mar. : SnKit'hen Band-tailed Pigeon Dove July 1-Jan. 1 Aug. 1-Mar. 1 etimes bob-whites. Oct. 1-Feb. 1 Oct. 1-Feb. 1 Oct. 1-Feb. 1 Aug. 15~Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15" Oct. 1-Mar. 1 Aug. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Peb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 1 Oct. 1-Feb. 1 July 1-Feb. 15 July 15-Feb. 15 Aug. 1-Feb. ' Including "partridges" and i M862-80, cloBO season applied only in > * Including all "broad-btU" ducks. * 1600, close seasons mentioned in this year applied only in Siskiyou County. •Including "prairie-cblckenB" [=:Shnrp-tailed Grouee], * 1870, 1676, dose seasons mentioned in these years applied only in Lassen, Plumas, and '■ ^ 1878, close season on doves applied only in San Joaquin County. * 1880-1911. close seasons on all species mentioned applied in all counties. 'Including all "will" dock*. " Including "marsh- hens." " Other than those specifically mentioned above. "1895-97, including robin. "1911-15, for districta see Chronology of Legislation. "Close season on certain apeciea established under Federal Migratory Bird Law in 1913. ** Others. Sept. 1-Dec. 1. Sept. 1-Mar. 15 Sept. 1-Mar. 15 1905 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Closed Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 . 1-Mar. 1 Sept. 1-Mar. 1 Oct. 15-Apr. 1 Oct. 15-PGb. 15 Oct. IS-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Peb. 15 Oct. 15-Peb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. l-Feb. 15 July 1-Feb. 15 July 1-Peb. 15 1852-1915 1873 1880' Sept. 15-Mar. 15» Sept. 15-Mar. 15" Sept. 15~Mar. 15 Sept. 15-Mar. 15 (Aug. 1-Apr. 1) Sept. 15-Mar. 15 Sept. 15-Mar. 15 (Aug. 1-Apr. 1) July 1-Jan. 1^ July 1-Jan. 1 1907 1909 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Closed Closed Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Apr. 1 Oct. 1-Apr. 1 Oct. 15-Peb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Closed until Sept. 1, 1911 Oct. 16-Feb. 15 Oct. l.-Feb. 1 Closed until Closed until Sept. 1. 1909 Sept. 1, 1911 Closed until Closed until Sept. 1, 1909 Sept. 1. 1911 July 15-Oct. 15 July 15-Oct. 15 1883 1887 No protection No protection Oct. 1-Mar. 1 Sept. 10-Mar. 1 Oct. 1-Mar. 1 Sept. 10-Mar. 1 Oct. 1-Mar. 1 Sept. 10-Mar. 1 June 1-Jan. 1 June 1-Jan. 1 1911" 1915" 2-5: Oct. 15-Mar. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1 1 and 6: Oct. 1- Mar.l „. ^,. Closed'* Oct, 15-Peb. 1 1: Oct. l-Apr. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1 2-6:NoT.I-Mar.l5 Closed Closed 2-5: Oct. 15-Mar. 1 Closed" 1 ond6: Oct. 1- Mar. 1 Closed" Closed until Nov. 1, Cloaed" 1912, then Nov. ~ . "; Oct. 15-Peb. 1 Nov. 15-Mar. 80 Oct. 15-P6b. 1 Oct. 15-Peb. 1 Nov. 15-Mar. 80 Closed" Nov. 15-Mar. 80 Oct. 15-Peb. 1 2-5: Oct. 16-Mar. 1 Closed" 1 and 6: Oct. 1- Mar. 1 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 2, 8. 4, etc.: 0' 15-j'an. 1» l-5:0ct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Jan.l 6: Oct. 15-Nov. 15 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 2, 3. 4. etc.: d 15^an. 1*« Sept. 1-Dec. 1 Oct. 15-Jan.l Closed" 1 and 8 : July 15- gept. 1-Dec. 1 Oct. 1 2 and 5: Aug. 1- Oct. 15 4 and 6: Sept. 1- Nov. 1. LEGISLATION 61 wood duck, wild [baud-tailed] pigeon, shorebirds other than those mentioned above, and sandhill, whooping and little brown cranes. (The above changes were chiefly for the purpose of making the California law conform with the regulations issued under the Fed- eral Migratory Bird Law.) Use of animal blinds entirely pro- hibited. Fish and game districts rearranged and increased in num- ber. Four priucipal districts: 1. Del Norte, Siskiyou, Modoc, Hum- boldt, Trinity, Shasta, Lassen, Tehama, Butte, Sutter, Plumas, Yuba, Sierra, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento, El Dorado, Amador, Calaveras, Alpine, eastern Sau Joaquin, eastern Stanislaus, Tuolumne, eastern Merced, Mariposa, Madera, Mono, eastern Fresno, Kings, Tulare, eastern Kern, and Inyo counties. 2. Mendocino, Sonoma, Marin, Glenn, Lake, Colusa, Yolo, Napa, and Solano counties. 3. Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, western San Joaquin, western Stanislaus, western Merced, Monterey, San Benito, western Fresno, San Luis Obispo, and extreme western Kern counties. 4. Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, Eiverside, and Imperial counties. Also twenty-five minor districts (numbers 5 to 29, inclusive), embracing the coast line, the main interior waters, and certain forest areas. All game protected in minor districts 24 to 29, inclusive, except that waterfowl mav be hunted in District 28. 62 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOENIA GLOSSARY OF SPECIAL TERMS USED L\ THIS BOOK (See figs. 1-3) Abdomen — See Belly. AxiLLARS — A group of feathers situated beneath the wing in the "arm-pit," at the junction of the wing and side of body; they are usually narrow and often much elongated. Back (of body) — The area on the upper surface included between the neck, wings and rump. Fig. 1. General outline of a Mallard showing names of parts and areas referred to in describing a game bird. One-fourth natural size. See Glossary (pp. 62-65) for definitions of teims used. Bar — A narrow transverse mark of color across an individual feather, or across wing or tail. Base of Bill — Where the bill is joined to the skull; in most birds, where the feathers of the forehead end. Belly — The hinder middle portion of the lower surface of the botly, included between the breast, sides and flanks, and vent. Breast — An area on the middle of the under surface of the body, between the fore-neck and belly; not capable of exact definition. Cere — The naked skin at the upper base of the bill, through which the nostrils open. GLOSSAET OF SPECIAL TEEMS 63 Cheek — The area on the lower side of the head between the eye and throat. Chest — The upper part of the breast, just below the fore-neck. Chin — The area on the under side of the head included between the branches of the lower mandible or jaw. Claw — The horny sheath on the terminal joint of any toe. Crest — A more or less lengthened tuft or group of feathers on the top of the head, which is either permanently erected (Hooded Merganser, male), or capable of being elevated at will (Mountain Quail). Crissum — See Lower Iail Coverts. Cross-ridges (on bill) — The horny flutings on the sides of the bill in ducks, geese and swans; these are not to be confused with the sharper "teeth" on the opposed surfaces of the mandibles of mergansers. Bcnd of Fig. 2. Outer surface of spread wing of Green-wnnged Teal showing names of regions and feathers employed in descriptions. One-half natural size. Culmen — The upper ridge or profile of the bill. Ear Coverts — See Ear Kegion. Ear Eegion — The area over which the feathers (ear-coverts) which cover the external ear opening are distributed. Flanks — ^The hindermost feathers on the side of the body, included between the rump and belly, and overlapping the thigh. Forehead — The area just above the base of the upper mandible of the bill; situated in front of the "top of head." Fore-neck — The lower throat, between the throat proper and the breast. Forepart of Body — That part of the body nearest the head; in general, the region forward of the bend of the wing. Greater (wing) Coverts — The hindmost row of covering feathers on the outer side of the wing, overl>ang the bases of the secondaries and tertials; the outer margins of these feathers are exposed. Hind-neck — The middle of the neck behind. 64 GAME BIRDS OF CALIF OMNIA HiNDPART OF Body— That part of the body nearest the tail; in general, the region behind the bend of the wing. Lesser (wing) Coverts— The several rows of small covering feathers on the outer surface of the wing, from the bend of the wing to the side of the body and forward of the middle coverts; like the greater coverts, the outer margins of the lesser coverts are exposed. Lining of Wing— The feathers on the under surface of the wing covering the inner bases of the flight feathers. Lobes (on toes) — A series of thin, membrane-like flaps on the sides of the toes (fig. 55). Lower Tail Coverts— The feathers behind the vent and immediately under- neath the tail. Fig. 3. Under surface of spread wing of Black- bellied Plover showing axillars and lining of wing. One-half natural size. Mandible — Either the upper or the lower half of the bill; the jaw. Margin of Wing — The edge formed by the outermost primary feather and the smaller feathers overlying it, from the bend of the wing backward. Middle (wing) Coverts — The series of covering feathers lying immediately for- ward of the greater wing coverts on the outer surface of the wing; the middle coverts have their inner margins exposed while both the greater and lesser coverts have their outer margins exposed. Nail (of bill) — In ducks, the smooth, rounded and slightly raised portion on the end of the upper mandible. Nail (of toe) —See Claw. Nape — See Hind-neck. Outer Surface of Closed Wing — All of the several series of covering feathers on the outer surface of the wing, collectively. Plume (on head) — A slender tuft of elongated feathers on the top of the head. Pointed Tail — One in which the central pair of feathers are the longest and the outer ones shorter in regular order so that, when spread, the tail is wedge- shaped as seen from above or below. Primaries — The outermost and longest series of flight feathers of the wing; the wing "quills" attached to the outermost (the "hand") of the three "joints" of the wing. GLOSSAEY OF SPECIAL TEEMS 65 Primary (wixg) Coverts — The series of rather stifif covering feathers overlying the bases of the primary flight feathers. EuFF — A bunch of elongated feathers on the sides of the neck, which by reason of their length (and often color) stand out distinctly from the surrounding feathers. Rump — That portion of the upper surface of the body lying just forward of the base of the tail between the back and upper tail coverts. Rump Patch — Any contrasted area of color occurring on the rump, or upper tail coverts, or both. Scales — The small horny plates on the tarsus or "leg" of birds; in the duck and shorebird families the shape of these plates is important in classification. Scapulars — The group of feathers at either side of the back, on the "shoulder," just above the wing; they often overlie some of the tertial feathers. Secondaries — The next to the outermost series of flight feathers on the wing; they are attached to the middle section of the wing (the "forearm") and form a series continuous with that formed by the primaries. Shaft (of a feather) — The quill or midrib to which the two webs are attached. Shaft Streak — A line or narrow stripe of contrasting color running lengthwise along the middle of a feather. Side (of body) — The area on either side, between the "arm-pit" and flank, and back and belly. Speculum — A brightly colored area on the terminal portions of the outermost secondary wing feathers of most ducks. Spur- — A horn-covered projection on the back of the tarsus of the male Ring- neck Pheasant and of the male Wild Turkey. Square-exded (tail) — Said of a tail in which the feathers are of such lengths that when lying parallel they end evenly; not wedge-shaped or pointed. Streak] o„„,pp ( Mark of contrasted color running lengthwise of a feather. Tarsus — The "leg" of a bird; that portion from the heel joint to the base of the toes. Teeth — The sharp horny projections on the opposed surfaces of the two mandi- bles in mergansers. Tertials — The innermost series of flight feathers on the wing, between the secondaries and the body; they are attached to the innermost section of the wing ("upper arm"). Throat — The area on the lower side of the head, between the chin and fore- neck. Under Surface (op body) — The whole of the body below lines drawn along either side from the corner of the mouth to the side of the tail. Under, op Inner, Surface of Plight Feathers — The surfaces of the flight feathers which are next to the body when the wing is closed. Upper Surface (of body) — The whole of the body above lines drawn along either side from the corner of the mouth to the side of the tail, and, where the tail is of the same color, including the upper surface of it as well. Upper Tail Coverts — The feathers immediately behind the rump, and covering the upper bases of the tail feathers. Vent — The anus. Web (of feather) — Either half of the vane of a feather, each side of the shaft. Web (between toes) — A membrane-like extension of skin between the front toes in all members of the duck family and in certain other birds. 66 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA METHOD OF TAKING MEASUREMENTS As a rule, only adult birds have been used in securing the measurements given in this book; but in a few cases (which are designated) full-grown immature birds have been included. In every instance the region of capture of the specimens used is indicated. Occasional individuals are likely to be found which do not come within the limits of the measurements here given, and of course specimens with tail or wing feathers badly worn or in process of molt will give total lengths and wing lengths below normal. Wherever measurements were taken by us originally in millimeters, the equivalents in inches and hundredths have been secured by mechanical eon- version, double checked; and the converse is true of measurements taken orig- inally in inches, as well as of all those quoted from published literature. Total length- Fig. 4. Side view of Hudsonian Curlew showing method of taking the measurements used in this book. One-fourth natural size. Total Length — With the bird laid flat on its back, the head straight out, and the neck not unduly stretched, measure from the tip of the bill to the end of the longest tail feather. Folded Wing — With the wing folded naturally against the side of the bird, measure in a straight line from the bend of the wing ("wrist joint") to the tip of the longest primary flight feather. Bill Along Culmen — Measure in a straight line from the last feathers on the middle of the forehead to the tip of the bill. This is really the "chord of the culmen," and does not take into account any irregularity or curve in the profile of the bill. Tarsus — Measure from the notch in the "hock" or "heel" at the upper end of the tarsus to and over the rounded knob on the front of the lower end of the tarsus at the base of the middle toe. Middle Toe (without claw) — With the foot pressed against some flat surface so that the toes are spread out, measure from the angle just below the lower end of the tarsus to the base of the claw. Eggs — Measured with calipers; specimens with holes in their end? are likely to fall short of the measurements given for the longer dimension. KEY TO THE GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA It is believed that the following key will prove sufficient for identi- fying any game bird heretofore found in California. We would warn our readers, however, not to depend upon it for the determination of species outside of our own state, and to use it only for birds in hand, either freshly killed or stuffed as specimens. The key is "artificial," in that it makes use of any serviceable character, whether or not that character be important in a natural classification of birds. If informa- tion be desired as to the technicalities of systematic ornithology, then recourse must be had to other works than the present one. The kind of key here employed, except in two places, is that which is called "dichotomous," that is, it is two-branched, the members of a larger group being separated into two lots according as they possess or lack a certain character or group of characters. In determining to which of two groups a specimen belongs, both headings should be read — that is, read 1 and 1', and 2 and 2', even if from first inspec- tion it is certain to w^hich group the bird belongs. Reference to the figures cited will often assist in deciding doubtful points. If any difficulty be found in identifying a specimen by means of the key, appeal to the descriptions of species will soon settle the question. Measurements have been used in the key only where there were no convenient color or structural features. The methods of taking the measurements used in this key are the same as those employed in the descriptions of species (see page 66 and fig. 4). A concrete example will best show the manner of using the key. Suppose we have in hand a specimen of one of our commonest upland game birds and wish to identify it. In the "Key to the Main Groups" we read : 1. Feet fully webbed between front toes, etc. 1'. Feet without webs (or else only partly w^ebbed) ; bill without cross-ridges or "teeth," and never "duck-like" in shape. Our specimen has no webs and therefore belongs in group V. Proceeding : 2. Legs and feet short, tarsus (leg) never more than one-tenth total length of bird; ends of claws never reaching beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe reaching to base of claw on outer toe. 2'. Legs and feet longer, tarsus (leg) always more than one-tenth total length; ends of claws reaching to or beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe never reaching to base of claw on outer toe. Our bird belongs to group 2', as it has longer feet, etc. Continuing : 3. Area between bill and eye and space around eye naked. 3'. Area between bill and eye and space around eye always feathered. [67] 68 GAME BIBDS OF CALIF OMNIA The specimen in hand has the area between bill and eye fully feathered and therefore belongs in 3'. Next: 4. "Wing more than 17.00 inches (430 mm.) long; bill move than 3.00 (76 mm). 4'. Wing less than 13.00 inches (328 mm.) long. The short wing of our bird i^laces it in group 4'. Then : 0. Bill "chicken-like," never more than one-third as long as head (except in Eing necked Pheasant) ; tip of upper mandible curved abruptly downward, covering tip of lower mandible. Pheasant, Quails, and Grouses. 5'. Bill never " chicken -like, " always more than one-third as long as head, and tip of lower mandible never covered. The short bill on the bird being identified, places it in group 5. Turning to the key for the Pheasant, Quails and Grouses, we proceed, beginning there with 1 and 1' again : 1. Wing more than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long. 1'. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long; tarsus never feathered. Our specimen has a wing less than 6.00 inches long and an un- feathered tarsus and hence goes under 1'. Continuing: 7. Head with a straight, slender, tapering plume more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long; flanks rich chestnut brown broadly barred with black and white; throat brown in males. 7'. Head with a short, curved, broad-ended plume, less than 1.50 inches (38 mm.) long; flanks without black and white barring; throat black in males. Our bird belongs under 1\ as it has a short plume and black throat. Then : 9. No scale-like markings on belly, etc. 9'. Forepart of belly scaled with narrow blackish cross-bars, etc. Evidently our bird comes under 9'. Then: 10. Ground color of n])per surface and flanks deep olive biown. California Quail. 10'. Ground color of upper surface and flanks grayish brown. 11. Smaller: wing averaging less than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. Mainland species. Valley Quail. 11'. Larger: wing averaging more than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. On Santa Catalina Island only. Catalina Island Quail. Our bird shows a grayish rather than olive tinge on the back, so w^e have a Valley Quail. Such characters as the last (under 10 and 11) are often difficult of determination and in the absence of speci- mens of both races for comparison dependence must be placed upon the locality of capture of the bird. After finding a name for any specimen by use of the key, reference should always be made to the full description of the species so as to verify the determination. EE¥S ()9 KEY TO THE MAIN GROUPS OF CALIFORNIA GAME BIRDS PAGE 1. Feet fully webbed between front toes (fig. 1); bill usually broad and flat (figs. 9 and 10), rarely slender (figs. 7 and 8), and always pro- vided either with cross-ridges or "teeth." Ducks, Geese, and Swans G9 1'. Feet without webs (or else only partly webbed [figs. 56 and 61]); bill without cross-ridges or "teeth" and never "duck-like" in shape. 2. Legs and feet short, tarsus (leg) never more than one-tenth total length of bird; ends of claws never reaching beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe reaching to base of claw on outer toe. Pigeons and Doves 78 2'. Legs and feet longer, tarsus (leg) always more than one-tenth total length; ends of claws reaching to or beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe never reaching base of claw on outer toe. 3. Area between bill and eye and space around eye naked (figs. 42-44). Ibises and Spoonbill 7-3 3'. Area between bill and eye and space around eye always feathered (feathers sometimes bristle-like). 4. Wing more than 17.00 inches (430 mm.) long; bill more than 3.00 (76 mm.) (fig. 45). Cranes 74 4'. Wing less than 13.00 inches (328 mm.) long. 5. Bill "chicken -like," never more than one-third as long as head (except in Ring-necked Pheasant) ; tip of upper mandible curved abruptly downward, covering tip of lower mandible (fig. 81). Pheasant, Quails, and Grouses 77 5'. Bill never "chicken-like," always more than one-third as long as head, and tip of lower mandible never covered. 6. Wing less than four times as long as middle toe without claw. Rails, Gallinule, and Mud-hen 74 6'. Wing more than four times as long as middle toe without eiaw. Shore Birds 74 DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 1. Plumage (including all flight feathers) entirely white; neck as long or longer than body; area between bill and eye naked (fig. 40). 2. Larger; bill entirely black; hind margin of nostril more than 2.50 inches (63.5 mm.) from tip of bill. Trumpeter Swan 253 2'. Smaller; a yellow spot (in adult) on side of bill in front of eye; hind margin of nostril less than 2.35 inches (59.7 mm.) from tip of bill (fig. 40). Whistling Swan 256 r. Plumage never entirely white; neck shorter than body; area between bill and eye always feathered. 3. Bill at least three times as long as height at base; no cross-ridges on sides of lower mandible, but "teeth" present (fig. 5). 4. "Teeth" on bill conspicuous, sharp, and inclined backward at tips; wing more than 8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; head crest various, but never with white. 70 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA Key to California Game Birds — (Continued) PAGE 5. Larger; wing of male more than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long, of female more than 9.00 (228 mm.) ; no reddish brown band on breast of male; nostril (both sexes) nearer middle of bill than base of bill (figs. 5 and 6). American Merganser 79 5'. Smaller; wing of male less than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long, of female less than 9.00 (228 mm.); breast of male crossed by a broad reddish brown band; nostril (both sexes) nearer base of bill than middle of bill (figs. 7 and 8). Eed-breasted Merganser 84 4'. "Teeth" blunt and not inclined backward; wing less than 8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; head of male with a large erect, compressed, black and white crest. Hooded Merganser 89 3'. Bill never as much as three times as long as height at base; the sides of lower mandible cross-ridged or fluted (figs. 9 and 39). 6. Wing more than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long; tarsus longer than middle toe without claw (shorter in Canada Goose). 7. Plumage chiefly white (grayish in immatures), some- times stained with rusty. 8. Larger; bill more than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; the margins of the two mandibles widely separated and a large black area showing between them (fig. 30). Lesser Snow Goose 210 8'. Smaller; bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; margins of the two mandibles almost meeting, no large black area between them (fig. 31). Ross Snow Goose 215 7'. Plumage various, never predominantly white. 9. Bill and feet never wholly black. 10. Top of head and hind neck never white though area around base of bill usually white; breast usually marked irregularly with black. American White-fronted Goose 218 10'. Top of head and hind neck white; breast bluish ash, with regular dark bars. Emperor Goose 243 9'. Bill and feet entirely black. 11. Broad band across cheeks and throat white (sometimes interrupted on throat). 12. Large; bill 1.88-2.31 inches (47.7-58.6 mm.) long; tarsus usually shorter than middle toe and claw (figs. 32 and 35). Canada Goose 222 12'. Medium; bill 1.37-1.80 inches (34.8-45.7 mm.) ; tarsus about as long as middle toe and claw (figs. 33 and 36). Hutchins Goose 230 12". Small; bill 1.04-1.44 inches (26.4-36.6 mm.); tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw (figs. 34 and 37). Cackling Goose 234 KEYS 71 Key to California Game Birds — (Continued) PAGE 11'. Head entirely black; no white on cheeks or throat. 13. A series of white streaks on each side of neck. Eastern Sea Brant 241 13'. A broad white collar around middle of neck, incomplete behind. Black Sea Brant 237 6'. Wing less than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long; tarsus shorter than middle toe without claw. 14. No broad thin lobe on hind toe (compare figs. 11 and 22). 15. Tarsus 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long or more. 16. Belly black. Black-bellied Tree-duck 251 16'. Belly hazel brown like breast, not black (pi. 7). Fulvous Tree-duck 246 15'. Tarsus less than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long. 17. Head crested; speculum deep steel blue. Wood Duck 140 17'. Head not crested; speculum variously colored. 18. Bill spoon-shaped (fig. 18), about twice as broad near tip as at base. Shoveller 129 18'. Bill nearly straight-sided, never greatly ex- panded at tip. 19. Speculum purple or violet. 20. Speculum Dordered with white (pi. 2). MaUard 92 20'. Speculum without white border. Black Duck 101 19'. Speculum not purple or violet. 21. Speculum white. Gadwall 103 21'. Speculum not white (though there may be white elsewhere on wing). 22. Larger; folded wing 9.00 inches (228 mm.) long or more. 23. A large white patch on fore part of wing; top of head white or cream- color in males; bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; middle tail feathers never greatly elongated. 24. Head of male cinnamon (pi. 3), of female ochre flecked with blackish. European Widgeon 111 24'. Head not cinnamon, but white flecked with black in both sexes ; a streak of green behind eye in male (pi. 3). Baldpate lOG 23'. No light patch on fore part of wing or on top of head in male; bill more than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long (fig. 19) ; middle tail feathers of male in winter very long (pi. 3). Pintail 134 72 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA Key to California Game Birds — (Continued) PAGE 22'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 inches (210 mm.) long. 25. No blue patch on wing. 26. A white bar on side of breast of male. Green-winged Teal 113 26'. No white bar on side of breast of male. European Teal 119 25'. A large blue patch on forepart of wing. 27. A crescent-shaped white patch on cheek of male; under surface never cinnamon brown; bill usu- ally less' than 1.60 inches (40.5 mm.) long (fig. 16). Blue-winged Teal 120 27'. No crescentic white patch on cheek of male; under surface of male chiefly cinnamon brown (pi. 4) ; bill usually more than 1.60 inches (40.5 mm.) long (fig. 15). Cinnamon Teal 123 14'. A broad thin lobe on hind toe (fig. 22). 28. Speculum gray. 29. Larger; folded wing more than 8.50 inches (216 mm.) long. 30. Forehead high and prominent (fig. 20) ; bill bluish gray, black at tip; iris yellow. Redhead 146 30'. Forehead sloping (fig. 21); bill uniformly colored (pi. 5); iris red. Canvasback 150 29'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 incdies (210 mm.) long. Ring-necked Duck 164 28'. Speculum various, but never gray. 31. Speculum white. 32. Wing more than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long; head of male dull black, never iridescent. White- winged Scoter 197 32'. Wing less than 9.50 inches (242 mm.) long; head of male more or less iridescent. 33. Bill (viewed from above) broader near tip than towards base. 34. Larger; folded wing more than 8.25 inches (210 mm.) long; head of male glossed with green. Greater Scaup Duck 156 34'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 inches (210 mm.) long; head of. male glossed with jmrple (pi. 5). Lesser Scaup Duck 159 33'. Bill (viewed from above) narrower toward tip than at base. KEYS 73 Key to California Game Birds — (Continued) PAGE 35. No white behind eye; folded wing more than 8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; male with a white patch between bill and eye, female with whole head dull reddish brown. 36. Head of male glossed with green; white spot between bill and eye, rounded. American Golden-eye 1G7 36'. Head of male glossed witli purple; white spot between bill and eye triangular, higher than wide. Barrow Golden-eye 173 35'. A single patch or band of white behind eye (fig. 23); folded wing less than 7.25 inches (184 mm.) long; no white spot in front of bill of male. Buffle-head 177 31'. Speculum never white (but white patches may be present elsewhere on wing). 37, Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long. Ruddy Duck 205 37'. Wing more than 6.50 inches (165 mm.) long. 38. Lower tail coverts white. Old-sciuaw 181 38'. Lower tail coverts not white. 39. Wing more than 10.50 inches (266 mm.) long. King Eider 192 39'. Wing less than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long. 40. Feathering at base of bill never extending as far forward as within 0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) from nostril (fig. 27). American Scoter 194 40'. Feathering at base of bill approaching to within 0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) of nostril. 41. Wing more than 8.50 inches (216 mm.) long; bill more than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) long (fig. 29). Surf Scoter 201 41'. Wing less than 8.50 inches (216 mm.) long; bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) long. Harlequin Duck 186 IBISES AND SPOONBILL 1. Bill not flattened, rather slender and curved downward toward tip. 2. Plumage chiefly white; larger; bill more than 8.00 inches (203 mm) long; folded wing more than 16.00 inches (406 mm.) long. Wood Ibis 266 2'. Plumage chiefly deep brown; smaller; bill less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long (fig. 44) ; folded wing less than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long. White-faced Glossy Ibis 269 1'. Bill straight, flat and broad, much expanded at tip (figs. 42 and 43); plumage pinkish. Roseate Spoonbill 262 74 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA Key to California Game Birds — {Continued) CRANES PAGE 1. Larger; folded wing more tliau 21.00 inches (533 mm.) long; hill more than 5.00 (127 mm.). Sandhill Crane 279 1'. Smaller; folded wing less than 20.50 inches (520 mm.) long; bill less than 4.50 (114 mm.). Little Brown Crane 273 RAILS, GALLTNULE, AND MUD-HEN 1. No "shield" on middle of forehead. 2. Bill as long as, or longer than, tarsus. 3. Folded wing more than 5.00 inches (127 mm.) long. 4. Averaging slightly larger; upper surface grayish brown; under surface dull cinnamon brown. California Clapper Rail 283 4'. Averaging slightly smaller; upper surface olive brown; under surface bright cinnamon brown. Light-footed Rail 289 3'. Folded wing less than 4.50 inches (114 mm.) long. Virginia Rail 291 2'. Bill not more than three-fourths as long as tarsus. 5. Under surface with little or no black; folded wing more than 3.00 inches (76 mm.) long. 6. Breast gray; no white on wing feathers; folded wnng more than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. Sora Rail 296 6'. Breast yellowish brown; patch on secondary wing feathers white; wing less than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. Yellow Rail 301 5'. Under surface of body chiefly blackish; folded wing less than 3.00 inches (76 mm.) long. California Black Rail 304 1'. Middle of forehead covered by a horny, shield-like extension of the bill (fig. 54). 7. Toes slender, without any marginal lobes; bill of adult chiefly red. Florida Gallinule 309 7'. Toes with thin, broad, marginal scallop-like lobes (fig. 55) ; bill whitish. Mud-hen 313 SHORE BIRDS 1. Tarsus more than 3.25 inches (82.5 mm.) long; bill black, and more than 2.25 inches (57 mm.) long, never curved downward; some solid black in body plumage at all times of year. 2. Top of head, neck and back, black; bill almost straight (fig. 62) ; no hind toe; webs between front toes very small (fig. 63) ; legs pink. Black-necked Stilt 344 2'. No black on head or neck; bill decidedly curved upward (fig. 60); hind toe present ; extensive webs between front toes at bases (fig. 61); legs blue. Avocet 337 1'. Tarsus less than 3.25 inches (82.5 mm.) long (if more than 3.25 [82.5 mm.] then bill curved downward) ; bill various. 3. Front toes with lobes or webs on margins and webbed at bases; tarsus conspicuously compressed; under surface of body never streaked or barred. 4. Bill blunt (fig. 57); wider than high at base; marginal webs on front toes scalloped (fig. 56); under surface of bo