fy" : fhe! eet
Pe ‘ t tT he 1 thi iH ite . Teck b!
Be hair rest oly aie ra he eriny i ee raat ee bane i * nea it
ans viserinl Rt eee Rr thet cectearit
eae Ty Wi Mae : Tit Heike i pata wit rt ee naa
ae fine infant tit aisha a att

Posie

Rs agra
Ny Heat ha oe habit an ath Ry
al ieaete al nyt i haya ee Naar y i “f y 4 Goda t poe
ots on hs ne hy na MA ‘ Men itr at a v4 ty
24 MENTE Bb Thiet Aik ite

ae vat

i a
co Mt

fa

Labial
Cuba yan
at LBL ti

Matt

Sees

=

Penh 4 a it nn ea iy
a Hf Hiatt tana ry
tts

ae he
ars

toe

baeeice tat t
CN a ily SURE
vio a a

iN ae ie i o hae

! Ri he

$=

want

4 iti hah i .

Hs ne :
i Sed "
ral i
pean
aan i
; iN a
nui

ou
ba
uistsutt m ’ He

ina i

itty

ie tes " i te f
us ae : ie

Ee te
Sh Nae ten mia
ste

i
aay A ; " we

HOM. baat AHMET ne ARE ATE TRS te Rieti ih ; PM srerse beer hy tos. eats
thy t une ae Pa ; ; f . , ie + rete

aati
Masher
pea
ahh iy Asis

Ney thy ps rity ae

se

PISS Oe Cele e ee YS el yy el See YITIIS SESE
Wale, Vote | oI We | WSTYYSISIOG AYES Www
VV Uh ALA See ey Sees Ue, yyy : MON
ICN Sw See uveveeeee wey ECE RUESEE
Sy \ INS hoi) hg AALS | Af
vv \ ‘ Od | Peet SiS
\ \ \ : - wy A, | oS
Wy |
IA AAT)
ORAORIORIPSAOAIORIORI RIANA, 1a (veeeer cope
% t%
& | al sey wey
b < ; S
5%) D
ra) m g
Ge %
. — % see |
% OU Se y A |
% i ty E I ISI
g Lert SF ) | | iy i
bE a Viveveuwes y :
% tg GS Vy,
we HO abe MOM
<a} Oe = Sh Z AN) NINE
a3 LeszacPar MarR Pa PoPoPOow Marmara marae 4 AAS J JSS
1 ANf\\S S GND, {_] AA
| Nadi i Ih

WACK WeertuuLe ee VI eee
Bepsssesseeee ev

LIBRA ES

CCl 6 1944

Oe ov
SS PATENT OLS.

an,
Re ae

we ARMED) LEM
Lae

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
REGISTER

RURAL AND DOMESTIC IMPROVEMENT ;

COMPRISING

TREATISHS ON LANDSCAPE GARDENING,
ARBORICULTURE, FLORICULTUREH, HORTICULTURE,
AGRICULTURE, RURAL ARCHITECTURE,
GARDEN STRUCTURKES,

PLANS OF GARDENS AND COUNTRY RESIDENCHS,
SUBURBAN VILLAS, &c.

ALSO

LISTS OF NEW AND RARE PLANTS, FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.

CONDUCTED BY

J. €. LOUDON, F.L.S. US. &e.

AUTHOR OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIAS OF GARDENING, OF AGRICULTURE, &e

VOL. IX.

NEW SERIES.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR THE CONDUCTOR;

‘ AND SOLD BY
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS,
PATERNOSTER ROW ;

AND A. AND C. BLACK, EDINBURGH.

1843.

C225

VF, Rens Sef

(812

SenHee

PREFACK.

va

THE Summary for the Year 1843 is unavoidably postponed, on
account of the illness of the Conductor, who hopes he may be
able to give it early in the year 1844.

TABLE OF CONTENTS,

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Page |

GENERAL SUBJECT.
*» the Theory of Manures_ -

1
1) uparative Physiology. By R. Lymbuen - - 190

Vital Stimuli; Heat as a Vital Stimulus;
-volution of Heat i in Vegetables ; Sources ;
ight asa Vital Stimulus ; Developement
»° Light in Plants; Electricity as a Vital

‘imulus ; Pressure of the Atmosphere -

Laws of Organic Developement ; General
.ew of the Functions of animated JSETES:
id their mutual Relations - -
Special and Comparative Physiology : 8
‘gestion and Absorption of Aa in
neral - - 461.
Absorption in Vegetables ; 5 Circulation of
e Nutritive Fluid generally considered ;

«culation in Vegetables; Interstitial Ab-

333

381

509

sorption - 557°
On the Food of ‘Plants, and its Transforma-

tion - - - - 397. 471
On Bottom Heat - - - - 113
On Horticultural Exhibitions - 45
On the Exhibitions of the London Horticul-

tural Society, and on various Matters con-

nected with Horticultural Exhibitions » 2299

Notes taken during a Twelve Days’ Tour in
Brittany and Normandy, in July, 1842 :—

Dinan; Rennes; Nantes; Angers; Le

Mans; Lisieux (Calvados) ; Honfleur - 224.

Recollections of a Gardening Tour in the
North of England, and Part of Scotland,
made from June 22. to Sept. 30. 1841 —
continued :

Stirling to Edinburgh; Edinburgh to
Stranraer; Culhorn House ; Castle Ken-
nedy; BGroadstones; Stranraer to Ayr;
Ayr; Alloway Kirkyard; Dounbrae Cot-
tage; Newark Castle. By the Conductor -

Notices of some Gardens and Country Seats
in Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Part of
Cornwall — continued and concluded : —

Sidmouth ; Peake House; Nutwell Court;
Killerton Park ; Silverton Park; Poltimore
House ; Winslade House ; Heanton Park,
near Torrington ; 3 Stevenstone, near Tor-
rington ; Roads ; Cottages ; Agriculture of
Devonshire. By the Conductor - - 238

Hints for the Improvement of the Town of
Southampton, with a short Notice of the
Vineyard at Shirley: —

The alternate System of Burying ; Cover-
ing the Bay with Water when the Tide is at
the lowest; Sewerage ; Direction of Streets ;
Architecture of Street Buildings ; Public
Walks ; Additional Supply of Water to the
Town; Vegetable and Fruit Market ; Even-
ing Shelters for Working Men; Naming
the Streets and numbering the Houses ;
Regulating the Charges made by Cabs,
Flies, &c. ; Shops; Vineyard oy Biarley. By
the Conductor -

Dinbur Castle, its Gardens ad
deners - - -

- 589
its Gar-
- 106. 413. 578

Page

| Descriptive Notice of some of the Gardens

, the Strath of
- 584

416

and Scenery around Stirling
Monteith, and Strathearn -

Notice of Dalvey, the Seat of Norman Mac-

Leod, Esq. - =

Notes made during a Horticultural Tour from

Lowther Castle in Westmoreland to Exeter
in Devonshire

A Classical Garden of ‘the Mason School of

Design, prevalent about the Middle of the
last Century, exemplified in the Grounds
of Stoke Park, near Sehineko the Seat of
John Penn, Esq.

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Manage-

ment. In a Series of Letters to the Con-
ductor — continued.
Letter IV. House for New Holland
Plants. List of New Holland Plants =
Letter V. The Orange and Camellia
House, Wineries, Pineries, and Peach-
houses, Back Sheds, &c. List of Camellias
Letter VI. Chrysanthemums. Manured
Water. Properties of Charcoal, &c. - 28
Letter VII. The Conservatories, and
List of Plants in them. The Orchideous
Houses and Stoves. Lists of Orchidex and

of other Stove Plants - 99
Letter VIIT. The Blower-Gardens. List
of Plants - - 46
Letter IX. Importance of Cleanliness.
Manure Water. Charcoal - = - 49
Letter X. The Rockery. The American
Garden - - 111
Letter XT. The Trees in the Park. The
Lake, and the Aquatic Birds . - 113
Letter XII. Reasons for following the
Business of a Market-gardener = =~ 164
Letter XIII. Growing Mushrooms = 25:
Letter XIV. Growing, Training, and
- - 301

general Management of Ericas
Letter XV. The Rust in Grapes - 367
Letter XVI. Culture of the Potato. Mis-
management it is subject to. Cause of Curl
and Dry Rot - - 419
Letter XVII. System of Kitchen- Gar.
dening. Culture of the Strawberry, As-
paragus, Sea-kale, Celery, and Cauliflower 427
Letter XVIII. On the Gooseberry Cater-

pillar - - 434
Letter XIX. “Crane- “necked Short-handled
Hoes - 495

Letter XX. “The Crane or - Goose-necked
Hoes: Objections to them answered. Masa
Cavendishéz, M. Dacca, and M. sapiéntuin 539

Letter XXI. System of Kitchen-Garden-
ing continued. Culture of the Cabbage,
Broccoli, Pea, Bean, Oech Carrot, Pars-
nep, and Spinach - - 540

Ter XXII. The principal Causes of
Canker in Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots 601

Letter XXIII. Notes on the One-Shift
System of Potting, and on Charcoal - 605

Letter XXIV, System of Cucumber-

Growing = - - - - 653

A 2

1V CONTENTS.

Notice of a Visit to Bicton Gardens in Au-
gust, 1843, with Remarks on the Culture
practised there, and on the State of some of

the Plants - - 546
Notice of a Visit to Bicton Gardens, in Oc-
tober, 1843 - - 606

Report on rare or select Articles in "certain
British Nurseries and private Gardens.
Drawn up from personal Inspection, or
from communications received : —

Cornwall: Carclew. Devonshire: Exeter
Nursery ; Mount Radford Nursery ; Sum-
merland and City Nursery, Exeter. Dor-
setshire: Merriott Nurseries, near Crew-
kerne. Gloucestershire: Durdham Down
Nursery, Bristol ; Cirencester Nursery.
Hampshire: Rogers’s Nursery, SOuteae=
ton. By the Conductor - 3+

Hertfordshire: Sawbridgeworth Nursery.
Kent: Dartford Nursery. Middlesex : Hor-
ticultural Society's Garden; Abney Park
Cemetery, Stoke Newington ; Fulham Nur-
sery ; Exotic Nursery, King’s Road, Chel-
sea. Norfolk: Great Yarmouth Nursery.
Somersetshire : Taunton Nursery. Stafford-
shire: Cliff Vale and Prospect Nurseries,
near Leek. Surrey: Clapham Rise Nur-
sery ; New Cross Nursery ; The Deepdene,
near Dorking. Warwickshire: Birming-
ham Botanic Garden; Stoneleigh Abbey,
near Coventry. Yorkshire: Hope Nursery,
T.eeming Lane, Bedale ; St. John’s Nursery,
Wakefield ; Beverley Nursery. Island of
Jersey : St. Helier’s Nursery. — Scotland.
Edinburghshire : Lawson’s Nursery, Edin-
pureh. Roy’s Nursery, Aberdeen. — Ire-
Jand. Glasnevin Botanic Garden, Dublin;
Carton, the Seat of the Duke of Leinster - 55

Phrenoiogy for Gardeners and their Patrons 662

Notice of a pnow Eouel Hoe Walks and

Footpaths - - - 116
On making Garden Besoms - - - 178
On pulverising Soil - - 115

Notice of a heating Apparatus in the Gardens
of His Grace the Duke of MOTE orn at
Strath fieldsaye

Description of a Propagating-Honse_ heated
by hot Water circulated in Brick OnE 266

On the Squirrel - S - - 117
The Squirrel = - - 179
The Roller called Pica 1 marina i in Italy - 18
What-Gardeners might learn by PESTS to

the Habits of Birds - - - 618
On the Hornet - - - 409
Some Account of the “Insects which attack

the Raspberry ihe - - - 411

LANDSCAPE-GARDENING, AND GAR-
DEN ARCHITECTURE.

The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and
of Landscape- Architecture applied to the
Laying out of Public Cemeteries and the
Improvement of Churchyards; including
Observations on the Working and General
Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds : —

I. The Uses of Cemeteries. By the Con-
ductor - 93

II. The Laying out, Building, and Plant-
ing of Cemeteries ; Situation ; Soil; Extent ;
Boundary Fence; Laying out the Interior ;
Situations of Graves; Roads, Walks, and
Green Paths; Chapels; Yard and Sheds;
Trees and Shrubs; Flowers; Buildings ;

: Entrance Lodge; Vaults; Catacombs;
Brick Graves; Earth Graves; Sepulchral
Monuments ; Cenotaphs ; Walls; Drains ;
Grave-Boards; Grave-Box ; Grave-Plat-
form ; Grave-Cover ; Grave-Mould ; Clergy-

man’s Shelter ; Roots and Plants - 141
Ill. The Working and Management of
Cemeteries - = 215

{V. Certain Innovations “suggested re-
lative to the Selection of Ground for Ce-
meteries, Mode of performing Funerals, &c, 292

VY. Design for a Cemetery of moderate

Extent, on level Ground, exemplified in
one now being formed at Cambridge

VI. Design for a CSRS on Milly
Ground

VII. The present ‘State of the ‘London
Cemeteries, considered chiefly as Cemetery
Gardens 3; Turkish Burying-grounds ; Per-
sian Cemeteries ; Chinese Cemeteries -

VIII. Country Churchyards; their pre-
sent State and Means of Improvement:
Want of Order ; Want of Perpendicularity
in the Monuments and Gravestones; slo-
venly State of the Grass and Herbage; De-
secration; Want of Trees and Shrubs;
Want of Monuments; Laying out and
planting a new Churchyard ; Situation and
Soil ; Size of the Church, and Extent of the
Churchyard ; Site of the Church ; Ground
Plan of the Church ; Boundary Fence ;
Walks of a Churchyard ; Grassy Surface of
a Churchyard; Trees in Churchyards;
System of Interments in Churchyards ;
Church ; Parsonage House and Grounds -

IX. Lists of Trees, Shrubs, and Perennial
herbaceous Plants, adapted “for Cemeteries
and Churchyards ; SAMO RENE BOSE

ings; Appendix - = 5

Some Account of the principal Cemeteries
in the United States, particularly those in

the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia - 6

Hints for the Improvement of Kensington
Gardens and Hyde Park. By the ue
ductor

Ground Plan and Perspective Elevation ofa
Portion of improved Landscape Scenery,
intended to point out the Errors which are
frequently committed by Persons who have
little Knowledge of Eareauene Compass
tion - -

On Laying out and Planting the Lawn) Shrub-
bery, and Flower-Garden. By the Con-
ductor 166. 258. 306. 371. 442. 497. 547. 634.

Remarks on one of the Designs in the Article
‘““On Laying out and Planting the EBT
Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden” -

On Grouping Trees in Parks and Pleasure-

Grounds - ell

Hints to Proprietors ‘who intend planting
Pleasure-Grounds, Shrubberies, or other
ornamental Plantations. By the Conductor

Remarks on a Design for a Flower-Garden
on Gravel, with Hints for the CHRIS of
Plants in Flower-Gardens -

On the Sep eon of Span-roofed “ Green-
houses -

Design for Five Suburban Dwellings, form-
ing a continuous BESS with their Gar-
dens - -

How to make the most of a Cottage of only
Two Rooms - - - -

ARBORICULTURE.

Notice of a Collection of Spirzeas, North Ame-
rican Oaks, Abiétine, and Cupréssine,
made in the Spring of 1843. By the Con-
ductor

On the white Oak of the United States (Quér-
cus alba L.) - -

The Holly 2 -

Dimensions of large Trees and Shrubs, col-
lected with a view to a Supplement to the
Arboretum Britannicum : — Large Trees
at Strathfieldsaye, the Seat of His Grace
the Duke of Wellington - -

Arboricultural Notices 181. 269. 442. 474. 637.

FLORICULTURE.

Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural
Notices of the Kinds of Plants newly intro-
duced into British Gardens and Plantations,
or which have been originated in them

44.5, 499.

On the Culture of the Chinese Primrose -

475

125
668

614
126

CONTENTS. Vv
List of Species and Varieties of Rhododén- On a Mode of growing late Melons - - 269
dron cultivated at Dysart House, with Re- On protecting Fruit ‘Trees against Walls - 3€9
marks on their Management - - 436 | On the Culture of the Garden Pea, Pisum
Notice of Two new American Roses lately sativum = - ma - - - 75
introduced - - - - - 125/| The Mode of Planting early Potatoes in the
List of the earliest and freest growing and Neighbourhood of Garstang, with a New
flowering Chrysanthemums adapted for Planting-Machine - - - - 40
Cultivation in the colder Parts of the
Country, and more particularly in Scotland 373
Result of an Experiment made in endeavour- AGRICULTURE.
ing to propagate the Gladiolus cardinalis - 642 The History of the Introduction of the
5 wedish Turnip into Britain - - 572
BIC EOE Ue Result of an Experiment made by Messrs.
On the Rotation of Crops in Kitchen-Gar- W. Drummond and Sons, to show the
dens - — - & = = - 670} proper Depth of Covering for Grass Seeds
On the Rust in Grapes - - - 449 and Clover. - : A a - 308
REVIEWS.
Horticultural Essays - - = - 279; and Tenantry of England, Scotland, and
Speede’s Indian Handbook of Gardening ~- 281 Ireland = - - ‘a - 313
Loudon’s Laying out, Planting, and Ma- Liebig’s Animal Chemistry - - - 81
naging of Cemeteries, &c. = - - 314 | Solly’s Rural Chemistry - - - 282
Smith’s Treatise on the Management and Glover’s History and Directory of the Bo-
Cultivation of Forest Trees ~ - - 642 rough of Derby - - = - 314
Hamerton’s Paper on Arboriculture - - 643 | Sopwith’s Account of the Museum of Econo-
Antoine’s Die Coniferen - 80 mic Geology,and Mining Records Office - 504

Whitley and Osborn’s Catalogue of Hardy
Trees and Shrubs - - - - 503
Prince’s Annual Catalogue for 1841 and 1842,

of Fruit and Ornamental Trees and
Plants - - ~ 4 - 80
Rendle’s Catalogue for 1843 - - - 313

Curtis’s Glazenwood Catalogue for 1843, of

American and other Hardy Shrubs, &c. - 282
Thorburn’s Catalogue for 1843 - - 313
Parson’s and Co.’s Catalogue for 1843 - 313

Remarks on the Management of Orchideous
Plants - - - - - - 310

Mott’s Flora Odorata - - - - 643

Bainbridge’s Guide to the Conservatory - 643

Pfeiffer and Otto’s Abbildung und Beschrei-
bung bliihender Cacteen, &c. - -

Link, Klotzsch, and Otto’s Icones Plantarum
rariorum Horti Regii Botanici Berolinen- .
sis - - -

Sowerby’s small Edition of English Botany - 79
Baxter’s British Flowering Plants - 80. 503
Babington’s Manual of British Botany - 377
Paul and Sons’ Catalogue of Roses - - 643
Hogg’s Catalogue of Sicilian Plants - - 312
Dillwyn’s Hortus Collinsonianus - - 312

Manetti’s Catalogus Plantarum Cesarei Regii
Horti prope Modiciam ad Annum 1842 = 643
Buist’s Catalogue of Plants - - - 282
Catalogue of the Fruits cultivated in the
Garden of the Horticultural Society of
London - - _-
Roberts’s Comprehensive Practical Treatise
on the Culture of the Vine under Glass,

&e. = - - - - - 643
Sutton’s Culture of the Grape Vine in Aus-

tralia and New Zealand - - _ ~ 644
Mears’s Treatise on the Culture of the Vine

in Pots - - - - -
Smith’s Treatise on the Growth of the Peach

upon the open Wall - - - - 310
Rendle’s Treatise on the Tank System - 309
Forbes’s Inaugural Lecture on Botany - 377
Low’s Elements of Practical Agriculture - 644
Stephens’s Book of the Farm_ - - - 80
The Farmer’s Calendar and Diary of Agri-

culture and Gardening for 1843 - - 81
Lawson and Son’s Treatise on the cultivated

Grasses, and other Herbage and Forage
Plants, with the Kinds and Quantities of
Seeds for sowing down Land to alternate
Husbandry, permanent Pasture, Lawns, “im
He ciow’s Letters to the Farmers of Suffolk 313
Three Prize Essays on Agriculture and the
Corn Law

= = - - - - 80
Timely Hints, addressed to the Landlords

Hosking’s Introductory Lecture, delivercd at

King’s College, London - - - 133
The Builder - - 6 - - - 81
Kittoe’s Illustrations of Indian Architecture 645
The Country House (with designs) - - 271

Martin’s Thames and Metropolis Improve-
ment Plan . - - - - 283
Restoration of the Church of St. Mary, Red-
cliffe, Bristol - - - -
Hay’s Natural Principles and Analogy of the
Harmony of Form - - - - 130
The British Almanack of the Society for the

Diffusion of Useful Knowledge for 1843 - 81
Companion to the Almanack, or Year-Book
of General Information for 1843. - 81
Gutch’s Literary and Scientific Register and
Almanack for 1843 - - - - 81
The Quarterly Journal of Meteorology and
Physical Science - - - =
Reports of Special Assistant Poor Law Com-
missioners on the Employment of Women
and Children in Agriculture - - 374
Yarrell’s History of British Birds - - 374
The Zoologist = - - - - 374
Van Voorst’s Naturalist’s Pocket Almanack
for 1843 - - - - - 81
Joplin’s Sketch of Furness and Cartmel - 504
Dieffenbach’s New Zealand and the New
Zealanders - - - - - 126
Dieffenbach’s Travels in New Zealand; with
Contributions to the Geography, Geology,
Botany, and Natural History of that Conr-
try - - = - - 126
Backhouse’s Narrative of a Visit to the Aus-
tralian Colonies - - - - 182
Butler’s Emigrant’s Hand-Book of Facts,
concerning Canada, New Zealand, Aus-
tralia, Cape of Good Hope, &c. - - 284
Freese’s Latin Governess - - - 314
Duhring’s Art of Living - - - 376
LITERARY NOTICES,
DeCandolle’s Prodromus - - - 284
Loudon’s Remarks on the Laying out of
Cemeteries, and the Improvement of
Churchyards - - - ~ 184
Loudon’s Arboretum Britannicum - - 673
Smith’s Treatise on the Management and
Cultivation of Forest and Fruit Trees - 284
Booth’s London Nuisances - - - 18t
Prices of Books - - - 133

NS}

CONTENTS.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

GENERAL NOTICES.

New Method of potting Plants, or One-Shift
System, 318; Disbudding Shoots with the
Leaves on, 648; A new Plough for raising Pota-
toes, 137; Stephens’s Plant-protecting Flower-
pot, with double Rim, 136; Saul’s Fountain
Flower-pot, 136; Brown’s Pot with hollow
Sides, 135; Garden Pots, 646; Hunt’s improved
Garden Pots and Saucers, 317; Improvements
in Garden Pots, 316; Covered Garden in Paris,
647; Articles of Cream-coloured Clay: Paving
Tiles for Walks, and Edgings for Beds in
Flower-Gardens, 507; Johnston’s improved
Portable Garden Engine, 316; A Pocket
Plant Case for Ladies, 134; Welch’s Bricks
for forming circular Flues, 134; Draining-
Pipes, 675; Edging of Seyssel Asphalte, 507 ;
Parchment Labels, 646; Baillie’s rounded
enamelled Case Locks, 453; Rendle’s Tank
System of heating by hot Water, 505; To dry
moist Air, 647; Asphalte Walks, 452; Turf
Drains, 134; Wooden Houses, 647; Scott’s
Patent Improvements in Cast-Iron, Wrought-
Iron,and Soft-Metal Pipes, 321 ; Juckes’s Smoke-
consuming Furnace, 3814; The Oropholithe,
83; Wirework, 83; Consuming the Smoke
of Hothouse Furnaces, 451; Distribution of
Sea Water all over the Country, 675; Distribu-
tion of filtered Sewer Water, 675; Application
of the Principle of the Balloon to Landscape-
Gardening, 646; Rockwork in -the Walton
Nursery, Liverpool, 452; Forcing Hyacinths so
as to bloom at Christmas, 676; Conservatory
Climbers, 676; Ddmmara orientalis, 184; The
Scotch Pine, a Substitute for Candles. Distil-
Jation of Oil of Turpentine from its Roots, 137 ;
Grafting and Budding the Rhododendron, 647 ;
Clématis azirea grandiflora, 42 ; Cytisus Adamz
(purple Laburnum), 315; Best ‘Time for eating
Pears, 649; Manuring Vines, 619; The most
economical Mode of dividing a square Plot of
Ground, 321; Gregson’s Green-Flesh Melon,
84; Trap for the Wireworm, 646; Palmer’s
Universal Steamer, £07; To prevent Mice from
Destroying early sown Peas, 184; Destroying
Wasps, 42; Wireworm destroyed by the Mole,
315; The Tree-Creeper (Cérthia familiaris)
and the green Fly that infests Geraniums, 315 ;
Verbenas and Petunias, 649; The Stimulus of
Competition in Agriculture, 137; Use of Sul-
phate of Ammonia in Agriculture, §&2; Agri-
cultural Implements, 82; Palmer’s Improved
Economical American Oven, 5()7 ; Cicer arieti-
num L., 316; A Statesman become a Farmer,
676; Imperishable Bread, 648; The ‘* Rule”
and the ‘‘ Reason,” 647; How a young Gar-
dener should travel by Railroad, 646; <Ap-
proaching Similarity of Manners all over the
‘World, 647.

FOREIGN NOTICES,

FRANCE.

Grafting the Vine, 322; Camellias, 322.

ITALy.

U'imus filva, 84; Nelwmbium tibetianum, 84 ;
Exotic ‘Trees aid Shrubs at Monza, 322.

Nortu AMERICA.

Indigenous Trees of North America not yet in-
troduced, 324; State of the Country, 324;
Culture of American Vines in Germany, 325,
Shephérdza argéntea Nett., 42; Philadelphia
Horticultural Society, 85; Doryanthes exceélsa,

NEw ZEALAND.

New. Zealand Horticultural Society, 325; Wel-
lington Horticultural and Botanical Society,
325.

DOMESTIC NOTICES.

ENGLAND.

Horticultural Society of London’s Show, 378;
Exhibitions in the Horticultural Society’s
Garden, 453; The new Royal Gardens at
Frogmore, 138; Royal Botanic Society of
London’s Exhibition, 37&; Second Exhibition
of the Royal Botanic Society, 454; Waterer’s
Exhibition of American Plants, 378; Botanical
Section of the Tower Street Mutual Instruction
Society, 326; The Lane-End Horticultural
Society, 1389; The Chislehurst Horticultural
Society for Cottagers, 139; Kew Gardens,
454; Naming of the Trees and Shrubs in Ken-
sington Gardens, 649; Grounds of the Chis-
wick Villa, 453; Bowood, Wiltshire, 677 ;

- Bicton Gardens in February, 1843, 158; Lea-
mington Spa, Warwickshire, 328; Metropolitan
Model Institution for improving the Dwellings
of the Industrious Classes, 85; Smoke given
off from the Chimneys of manufacturing Esta-
blishments in the Neighbourhood of the Metro-
polis, 327; Pinus Sabinzdéna, 86; Picea spec-
tabilis, 86 ; Araucaria Cunningham?, 85 ; Mag-
nol7a conspicua at Wormleybury, 85; Oak at
Hazel Grove, Castle Cary, Somersetshire, 86;
Missletoe on the Oak, 86; Pauldwnia impe-
ridlis, 649; Verbena Melindres and V. Tweedie-
ana, 86; American Aloe, 649; Melons grown
in Leaves, 86 ; Cucumbers, 86: Gigantic Rasp-
berries, 3828; Victoria Rhubarb, 328; Mush-
rooms, 86; Practical and Scientific Associa-
tion tor the Promotion of improved Street
Paving, 327; Royal Agricultural Society of
England, 455; Warping Lands on the Thames,
326; Draining, 326; Tile-Draining in North-
amptonshire, 397.

SCOTLAND.

Testimonial to Dr. Neill, 455; Bust of Dr.
Neill, 87; Sir Walter Scott’s Monument, 649 ;
Tablet for the Indication of the Name of a
Street, or a Guide-Post to a Cross Road, 88;
Kirkintilloch and Campsie Horticultural So-
ciety, 328; New Public Cemetery at Edin-
burgh, 459; Pine Cones a valuable Fuel, 328;
Remarkable Mountain Ash, 329; Foreign
Trees which thrive in Shetland, 88; Yécca
gloridsa, 556 ; Glasgow Cathedral saved by a
Gardener, 677; Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland, 459.

IRELAND.
Agricultural Improvement, 89.

RETROSPECTIVE CRITICISM.

Cemeteries, 379; The Volume on Cemeteries,
329; Thoughts on modern Burying Grounds,
90; Cemeteries and Churchyards, 380; Ceme-
teries, 185; Improving Churchyards, 329;
Improvements in Kensington Gardens, 650 ;
Study of Bees, and of Chemistry and Vegetable
Physiology, 508; Charcoal and Charcoal Dust,
140; Use of Charcoal in the Culture of Plants,
185; Professor Henslow’s Lecture on Ma.
nures, 139; Garden Walks, 331; Double
Flower-Pots, 187; Yellow Glass suggested for
Plant-houses, 3325; Saul’s Potato Planter, &c.,
91; Lime-water for killing Worms, 90; Ha-
bitations for the Poor, 44; Nutritive Proper-
ties of Elm Leaves, 332; ‘Transplanting large
Trees, 43; Roots and Tops of ‘Trees, 90; The
LBokhara Clover, and Physospérmum cornu-
biense, 187; Preservation of Grapes, 186;
Preservation of Fruits, 330; Cato’s Method of
preserving Grapes, 331; The River Delaware,
459 ; Errata, 89, 90, 459, 677.

QUERIES AND ANSWERS.

Kent, the Landscape-Gardener, 91; Larch Plan-
tations at Linley, 332; Whether the Larch
can be propagated by Cuttings, 92; Evergreen

LIST OF

Larch, 92; The Reason why Bees sometimes
die while they have Plenty of Food, in answe®
to a Lady Bee-keeper, 187; Curious Cater-
pillar, 652; Caterpillar on Geraniums, &c., 459.

ENGRAVINGS.

Vil

OBITUARY.

Sir John Robinson, K.H., 188 ; John Penn, Esq.,
380; John Milne, 380 5 William Sawrey Gilpin,
Esq. -, co2; Mr. Robert Lymburn, 677.

LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

DIAGRAMS.
6. Cloth for tying over the Surface of Pots

when syringing the Plants - 50
7. Mode of placing Plants in Pots when
syringing them - ~ - 51
10. Berry of the Hubshee Grape - - 67
13. Bricks for circular Flues - - 134
14. Section ofa Turf Drain - - - 135
15. Peat covering for a Turf Drain - - 135
16—18. Sections of Flower- Pots - - 136
52. Illustrative of a Mode of binding Birch
Besoms - - 178
53—55. Sections of Flower- Pots - 187
74. Illustrative of the Growth of Grass Seeds
sown at different Depths -
79. Illustrative of the most economical Mode
of hurdling off a Field of Turnips - 321
80. Section of the Hedge and Ditch Fences
at Garstang - - 326

101. Section through Ground, showing the
advantage of laying it in Beds, to ex-
pose it to the action of the Atmosphere 474

GARDEN STRUCTURES.

67. Plan and Section of a Propagating House 267
75. Section of a House heated according to
Mr. Rendle’s Tank System - - 309

INSTRUMENTS, IMPLEMENTS, UTEN-
SILS, AND MACHINES.

2. Lancashire Potato-Dibber - -
3, 4. Saul’s Potato-Planting Machine -
5. Besom_in use jin Bicton Gardens -
12. Snow-Plough for Walks - -

76. Se as Johnston’s Seas Garden
- 316

771, i nunea “improved Garden Pot and
Saucer - - 317

108—110. Views and Elevations of ‘Crane-
necked Hoes - - - 495, 496

GROUND PLANS AND VIEWS OF
BUILDINGS.

8. Ground Plan of a Cottage - -
9. Improved Ground Plan of a Cottage -
58—62. Views of Cottages in different Styles Bee

254,
71. View of the Fountain in the Serpentine
River in Kensington Gardens - - 29)
120—122. Ground Plans and Elevation
Five Suburban BYgo tn, with their
Gardens : - 608, 609
123, 124. Side and End View of Chimney- -tops 611

53

PLANS OF GARDENS, AND VIEWS OF
GARDEN SCENERY.

Plan of a Flower-Garden on Gravel - 70

A Lawn laid out in the Gardenesque
Style = - - 168
A Lawn laid out ina mixed Style - 169

Plan of a Flower-Garden in the Geome-
tric Style - ~ 171
50. Plan of an Architectural Flower-Garden 173
63. Plan of a Flower-Garden on Turf = 262

64, 65. Plans of Gardens for American
Plants” - - 264, 265

66. Plan of a Garden for Dahlias ape Holly-
hocks - - 266

68. Plan of the Serpentine River in Ken-
sington Gardens - - - 286

‘11.
‘47.

48.
49,

Page

Plan of the Serpentine River with sug-
gested Alterations = - 287
Plan of the Basin in Kensington Gardens 289
Plan of a Flower-Garden surrounded by
a Shrubbery = -

Plan of an Elizabethan Flower- Garden

1U0, Plan of the Roccoco Garden of Baron
Hiigel, at Hietzing = » 443

111. Plan of a Garden for the Natural Ar-
rangement of Herbaceous Plants ~ 498

- Plan of a Flower-Garden for a Hill with
a sandy Soil = - 548

. Plan of a Flower. Garden adapted for a
Hollow with a peaty Soil - - 550

b lan ge a Flower-Garden with angular

No-
69.

70.
73.

89.

106108, oe aaaa Plan and Views of Garden
Scenery, intended to point out errors
in Landscape-Gardening - 658—661
135. Plan of a Flower-Garden prevalent about
the Middle of the,Seventeenth Century 667

APPARATUS FOR HEATING WITH
HOT-WATER.

51. Hot-Water Apparatus in use at Strath-
fieldsaye - - - - - 177

PLANS AND VIEWS OF CEMETERIES,
WITH DIAGRAMS, &c., ILLUSTRATIVE
OF WHAT IS REQUIRED IN THEM.

19. Mode -of Laying out a SBE 5) in
imaginary Squares -
20. Manner of marking the Stones at the

Angles of the Squares - - 145
21—93. Plans of Beds and Borders for
Flowers and Shrubs fr each side of a
Cemetery Walk - - 150, 151
29. Ground Plan of the Entrance Lodge to
the Tower Hamlets Cemetery - 153
30. Section of a Vault fitted up with Cata-
combs - - 154
31. Section of a Brick’ Grave ‘and a common
Grave - - 155
32. Pedestal on an under- -ground Pier - 156
33. Double Foundation for Head-Stones - 157
34. Monumental Tally of Cast-Iron = 157
35. Double Bed for two Rows of Graves - 158
36. Section of a Cesspool - - 158
37—44. View, Plan, Elevations, and Sections
of Grave- Boards used in Cemeteries
159—161
45, 46. Screw Lever and Plank Hook - 162
56, 57. Concealed Brick and Tile Edging for
Cemetery Walks - - D7
72. Mr. Jukes’s Truck- Hearse - - 299

81. Ground Plan of Cambridge Cemetery - 357
82, 83. Sections of the Ground at the Cam-

bridge Cemetery - 359
84. Ground Plan of the Chapel at the Cam-
bridge Cemetery - 359

88. View of Entrance Lodge designed for
the Cambridge Cemetery 3
86, 87. View and Section of the Chapel de-

signed for the Cambridge Cemetery - 360
88. Isometrical View of the Cambridge
Cemetery 361
90. Design for Laying out and Planting a
Cemetery on hilly Ground - - 400
91, 92. Views of the South Metropolitan
Cemetery - 402, 403
93, 94. Views of Turkish Cemeteries 404, 405
95. View of a Chinese Cemetery ~ - 406

A A

Vill

96. View of the Cemetery of Hafiz - .
97. View of a Chinese Cemetery - -
102. A Churchyard proposed to be DEMIS as
a Cemetery Garden -
103. View of a Churchyard planted as a
Cemetery Garden -
104, oe eNfonuments in Dumfries Church
106, 107. neenietrical View and Ground Plan
of a Churchyard aces for an Agri-
cultural Parish - - 491,
112. View of the Entrance Lodge to the New-
castle Cemetery -
113. Roofing Tiles used in the Cambridge
Cemetery Chapel
114. Geological Diagram, showing the Strata
in which Interments may be made,
without injuring the Springs and Wells

407
408
479
484
493
- 533

- 534

535

LIST OF NEW AND RARE PLANTS

115. Plan for a-Cemetery Chapel - - 535

116. Diagram showing how the Mephitic Gas
may be collected and carried off from
Catacombs - - 536

117. Hand-bier for Cemeteries - - 538

PLANTS.

1. Plagianthus Lampénz -
98. Raspberry attacked by the Larva of the
Raspberry Beetle - - 412

INSECTS.

99, The Raspberry Beetle - - - 413

129134. Human Figures to illustrate the
Science of Phrenology - - 663, 664

LIST OF NEW AND RARE PLANTS
FIGURED In THE BOTANICAL PERIODICALS ror tHE YEAR 1843.

: Ranunculacee.
HE.wLE/BORUS
olympicus yY A Bithynia - -
TRO'LLIUS
acailis y A Cashmere - -
Dilleniacee.
CaNDO’LLEA
tetrandra 8 _| Swan River - -
Winteracee.
ILLI’ cium
religidsum # __| Japan 2 &
Caryophyllacee.
VISCA‘RIA
oculata © Algiers - - -
; Malvicee.
Maia
campanulata Ww - - - :
Ternstreemiacer.
SAURAU’S4
spectabilis 3 [7] Bolivia - -
Malpighiacee.

STIGMA PHY’/LLUM
heterophyllum $ ([() Tucuman =

Geraniacee.
GERANIUM
erianthum yy A California - -
Tropeolacee.
Tropez ‘oLUM
azureum & tJ] Chili - - -
Oxalidacee.
O’XALIS
rubrocincta A vt_| Guatemala -
Rutacee.
ACRONY/CHIA
Cunninghamz 3% L_] Moreton Bay -
Corrm a
bicolor “ 1_] Hybrid - . -

ERYTHROCHI’TON
brasiliénsis

? LC) Brazil - -

Leguminose.
ACACIA
rotundifolia w |_| New Holland -
Bossiz A
virgata * |_) Swan River - -
Cy’TIsus

Weldénz 3S Dalmatia - - -
GASTROLO‘BIUM

acitum “ __] Swan River = -
Ho‘vEa

racemuldsa 1 | Swan River-

spléndens % t_j Swan River - -
INDIGO’ FERA

Doésua %€\_| Nepal -

stachyodes % | N.E. of India
LaBIcHmE*A

bipunctata w tJ Swan River -

pa

446

614

446

446

44.6

447

La’LAGE
hoveefolia Ww _} New Holland - 448
LA’THYRUS
nervosus 8 t_J South Brazil - - 499
pubéscens 8 «_] South Brazil - 499
Lipa‘ria
parva % 1_]| Cape of Good Hope - 616
OxyYLo‘BIUM
obovatum w |_) Swan River - - 448
Zi’CHYA
villdsa g§ ~_] Swan River - - 499
Onagracee.
Fu’cusz4
alpéstris BR tJ Brazil - - - 500
exoniénsis 32 ~_} Hybrid - - 616
spléndens & Mexico - - - 500
GoprE Tra
grandiflora © California = - 500
Melastomdcee.'
CENTRADE‘NIA
yosea # t_] Mexico - - - 501
MARCE‘TrA
excoriata w [=] Mexico - 501
MEDINI/LLA . :
erythrophylla % ._j East Indies - 501
PLEROMA ;
Benthamidnum w{L] Brazil - - 500
Myrtaceae.
EUCALY’PTUS
splachnicarpon “@ __] K.G.Sound - 616
HyPocaLy/MMA
robistum w ,_] New Holland - 501
Passiflorec.
PASSIFLO‘RA
actinia § [[) Brazil - - - 501
Loasacez.
LoA\SA or CAto/PHORA
Herbért# 2 1.) Hybrid = - 501
Cactacee.
EcHINOocA’cTUS
centetérius “% 7] Mexico - - 502
MAMMILLA‘RIA
pycnacantha ¥ 7) Mexico - - 502
turbinata * 7] Mexico - - 502
Rar psaLis
brachiata |_] Buenos Ayres - 617
Grossulacea.
RI'BES
albidum 3 Hybrid 5 5 - 502
Rubiaceae.
GARDENIA
Sherbotrnze g§ (1) Sierra Leone - 617
MANeE’TT14
bicolor § \_J Brazil - - = 503
RONDELE ‘TIA
longifldra w (-) Brazil - - 502

FIGURED IN BOTANICAL

Composite.
BARNADE'sz4 -
vosea + _] South America - - 617
SENE‘CIO
calamifolius .% _] C. of Good Hope - 617
> Lobeliacee.
SIPHOCA’MPYLos
Jetulefolius «(7 Brazil - - 617
~longipedunculatus » [7] Brazil ? - 617
Campanuldcea.
ACHIME‘NES
grandiflora A ._| Mexico - ~ 618
multiflora Brazil - = - 618
Campa/NULA
Leeflingé? ©] Portugal - - 618
grandis ,A] Natolia - - 618
CoLvU’MNEA
spléndens 2. [7] Brazil - - 618
GLOxI’/NIA

tubifldra [ZA] South Brazil - -

618
Hypocy’/rra

strigilldsa [7X] Organ Mountains - 619
NEMATA’NTHUS :
léngipes 2. () Brazil - - - 619
Evicdcee.
CoMARosTA’PHYLIS
arbutoides # | Guatemala - - 619
Mac iea‘nra
angulata # [7] Peru - - - 619
RHODODE/NDRON
fragrans # \_| Hybrid - - 619
; Apocynacee.
EcuI ‘TES
atropurpirea § {[_) South Brazil - 620
hirstta § (7) Organ Mountains - 620
splendens g§ [-] Organ Mountains ~- 620
Gentidner,
LEIA/NTHUS
nigréscens |] Guatemala - - 620
Convolvulacee.
IPpoma@*‘a
Tweediéz & ._J Parana - - 621
PHARBITIS
ostrina Rk [-] Cuba ~- - - 620
Boragindcee.
E*cutum
petre‘um W Dalmatia - - - 621
Solandcea.
Ce’/STRUM S
Viridiflorum ¥% [7] South Brazil - 621
Scrophularinca.
ScHIZA/NTHUS
candidus _O] Coquimbo - - 621
TETRANEMA ;
mexicanum tAJ] Mexico - - 621
Labiite.
Be‘cium ae
bicolor # |_| Abyssinia . - 622
SCUTELLA*RIA 3
spléndens ¥ [A] Mexico - = 622
Acanthacee.
Era’NTHEMUM $
montanum w (-] India = - 622
Primulacee.
ANDRO’SACE
lanugindsa A Himalaya - - 629
Begoniacee.
BrEGO NIA
crassicatlis <y AX) Guatemala - - 622
coccinea w [_] Organ Mountains - 622
hydrocotylifolia y [A] ?S. America - 623
Proteacez,
Isopo‘GoNn f 2
scaber #% __] Swan River - - 623
Hleagnacee.
ELa&A/GNUS
parvifolia # North of.India - - 623

PERIODICALS IN 1843. 1x
Asarine or Aristolochiacee.

ARISTOLO‘CHIA

gigas & [[) Guatemala - - 623

Orchidacee.

AE/RIDES

crispum € [ZX] East Indies - 623
BARKE‘RIA

spectabilis € \] Guatemala - = 624
BROMAEA’/DrA

palistris € (AX) Sumatra , - - 624
CaTasE‘tuM

globiforum € [) Brazil - = 625

planiceps ¢ (4) Spanish Main - 625

Viridi-flavum € [7X] Central America 625
CaTtTLE ya

superba € [X) Guiana - - 625
CIRRHOPE’TALUM

chinénse € [A] China - = 625
CLOWE'sra

rosea €& () Brazil - - - 625
CoMPARE/TTL4

rosea € (ZX) Spanish Main - - 625
Cycno‘cHES

pentadactylon «& ZZ] Brazil - ~ 626
CymBi’Dium

devonianum £ [ZW] India - - 626
DENDROBIUM

aqueum € [ZW India - - - 626

cucumérinum. € ZX} New Holland ~- 626

macranthum € () Manilla - - 626

thébmbeum € (A) Manilla - - 626

Sanguinoléntum € [Z] Ceylon - 626

taurinum € [A] Manilla - - 626
EPIDE/NDRUM

lancifolium €& () Mexico - - 627
LE L14

flava € (XQ) Brazil = - - 628
Lyca’/sTz

plana € (ZW Bolivia - > - 628
MAXILLA‘RIA

acutipétala [7] Central America - 628
Mitro‘nra

Clowésia € TZ) Brazil - - 629
Oncl’p1um

bicalldsum € [A] Guatemala - - 629

microchilum € [A] Guatemala ~ - 629

uniflorum € [Z\) Organ Mountains - 629

uropbyllum « (I Brazil - - 629
ODONTOGLO’ssUM

citrosmum £€ [7] Mexico - - 629
PERISTE RIA

Humbéldtz € [A] Venezuela - - 630
RENANTHE’RA

matutina € ZX] Manilla - - 630
STANHOPE

Martidna € Zi Mexico - - 630
STE‘LIS

atropurpurea € [ZX] Mexico - - 630
Va'NDA

cristata € [ZX] Nepal - - - 631

Scitaminee.

GASTROCHI‘LUS

longifldra Yy [A] Rangoon = - 631

Amaryllidacez.
ALSTR@ME‘RIA Y :
nemordsa ~* |] Organ Mountains - 632
CoBu/RGHIA

humilis % :Aj Peruvian Andes - 632
versicolor %¥ :A} Andes - - 632
STENOME’SSON
vitellinum ¥% [) Lima - - 632
AMARY’LLIS
Banksidna ¥ :Aj C.of Good Hope - 632
Asphodélee.
Li’.10M
testaceum % _A] Japan - - 633
Bromeliacee.
TILLA/NDSIA ‘ a
ribida € _] Brazil - - - 633
ZEcumMeE’A a
fulgens [XJ Cayenne - - + 633

LIST

LIST OF

OF PLANTS MENTIONED OR TREATED OF

PLANTS

MENTIONED OR TREATED OF IN THE PRESENT VOLUME.

*, The abbreviation “ cu/t.”’ occurring after any species or variety indicates that there
is an article on its culture.

A List of New Holland Plants at Bicton Gar- A List of Hardy Trees and Shrubs growing in
dens - 22 the Royal Gardens, Monza - - 323
A List of Camellias and anes Plants at eee A List of Rhododendrons in the Collection at
ton Gardens - 26 Dysart House - 437
A List of Stove Plants at mieten Gardens - 31) A List of Spirzas, North American Oaks,
Lists of Hardy Trees and Shrubs at Bicton Abiétine, and Cupréssinz, in the Genes of
, Gardens - - 47. 111, 112 the Conductor - - 439
A List of rare or - select Plants i in British Nur- A List of Half-Hardy Plants growing in the
series and private Gardens - - - 55.69 Royal Gardens, Monza =
Lists of Plants adapted for Flower-Gardens 74.| A List of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous
172—176. 260—264, 373 Plants adapted for Cemeteries - - 512
A*bies canadénsis - - 125 Arctostaphylos nitida - 36] Castanea vésca - - 474. 638
Douglaszz - 36. 642. 669 | A‘ria Theophrasté - - 641 | Catalpa syringefolia - 642. 649
excélsa - - 125. 642 | Aréca sdpida - - - 129 | Catasetum globiflvrum - 625
Acacia bifldra - - - 500 | dristolochia gigas - - 623 naso - - - = 625
dealbata - - - 616 sipho - - - - 85 planiceps - - = 625
discolor - - - 616 | A‘rum cordifdlium - - 337 Viridi-flavum = - 625
Julibrissin = - = 23 Dractnculus - - 444 | Catha paniculata - - 448
rotundifolia - - - 615 | Artindo Dodnax - - - 638 | Cattléya supérba = - 625
spectabilis - - 500. 615 | 4/ster.cabilicus - - 617} Ceandthus americanus - 638
Avcerplatandides - = 37 | Avena flavéscens - = 183 divaricatus - -- = 448
Psetido-Platanus - 641 | Azalea indica - - - 616 | Cédrus Deodava- - 36. 418
saccharinum - 37. 638 Victoria - - 39 Libani - 125. 474. 658. 641
nigrum - - - 638 procimbens- - - 550 | Centradénia 7dsea_—- - 501
platanifolio - - 638 | Barbacénza squamata - 632 | Centranthéra punctata - 625
~ Achilléa Millefolium ~ - 183 | Barkéréa Lindleydna - 624 | Cephalotus follicularis = 35
Achimeénes See - 618 spectabilis - - - 624 | Cérasus lusitanica - - 63
hirsuta - - 618 | Barnadésza rdsea - = 617 | Coratonia Siliqua Be 6)
multiflora - - - 618 | Beatonza atrata - - ~ 624 Ucrels biformis - - 50
Acianthéra punctata - - 624 purpurea = - ~ 631 bifrons - - - - 79
Acinata Humbdéldtz - - 624 | Bécium bicolor = - - 622 coccineus - - se)
Barkeri - - - 624 | Begonza crassicatlis - - 622 cubénsis yo a)
Acridpsis picta - S - 624 coccinea - - 38. 622 Curtisz - - - - 79
Acronychia Cunningham - 447 hydrocotylifolia - - 623 eriéphorus - - = 09)
Adenocarpus intermédius 389 | Bérberis Coriaria 7 o> 88 flagriférmis - - - 79
Aschméa filgens = - 633 rotundifolia - - - 36 flagelliformis - - 79
Aérides Brookz - - - 623 umbellata - - - 446 octagonus - - - 79
crispum - - - 623 Wallichtana - - 86 platycarpus - - - 79
odoratum - - - 623 | Bifrenariainoddra - - 624 Royénz - - o )
virens - - - - 624 longicérnis - - - 631 setaceus - - - 79
Zl’ sculus Hippocdstanum - 88 | Bigndnia grandiflora - = 299 speciosissimus var. mi-
Agapanthus umbellatus var. Jasminoides - - - 620 nimus - - - 502
maximus ss 9 5 Ges picta - - 620 undatus = - 79
Agave americana - - 556 | Blandférdia grandiflora - 633 | Céstrum viridifldrum - 62
Agrostémma Coeli-Rdsa - 614 marginata - - - 633 | Cheliddnium majus - - 568
Asréstis stolonifera - - 183 | Bolbophyllum adenopéta- Chimonanthus fragrans - 482
Ailantus glanduldsa - ~- 642 lum - ce 5 - 624 | Chionanthus virginicus - 227
A’lnus glutinosa incisa - 240 calamarium - ° - 624) Chorézema varium = - 21
Alstroeméiia chorillénsis - 632 | Bossiz‘a eriocarpa_- - 448 | Cinerdria Webberiana - 39
Ligtt - - = - 632 virgata ari - 448 | Cirrhopétalum chinénse - 625
magnifica - - - 632 | Bovista gigantéa - - 461 Cleiséstoma dealbatum - 625
Neillzz - = - - 496 | Brasséa brachiata 2 - 624 | Clematis azrea grandiflora 42
nemorosa_ = - - - 632 Wraye - - - 624 Vitalba - - 669
Amaryllis Bankstana - 632 | Bromheadia paliistris - 624 | Clidnthus puniceus - - 75
grandiflora - - - 632 Brongnidrtéaserfcea - ~ 616] Clitanthes humilis - - 63
minor - - - - 632| Burchéllia capénsis - 503 | Clowésza rdsea - = = 622
stridta- - - - 632] CActuscochinillifera - - 79| Cobarghzahimilis - - 632
Amicia zyg6meris - - 499 campechiana - 79 versicolor - - = 635
Andromeda floribunda - = 38 folidsa- - - - 79] COdlaxjugdsa - - = 625
Drummondz - - 36 pusilla - - - = placanthéra - - - 625
Androsace lanuginosa - 622 | Celogyne testacea - - 625 Viridis- - - = 625
Anemdne apennina - - 447 | Caidphora Herbértzz ~ - 501 | Collétza spindsa - - 36
palmata > ~ 447 | Caladium esculéntum - 129 | Colocasia oddra - - 337
Angra*cum ashanténse - 624 | Calanthe Masica - - 625 | Colamnea Srna - 618
vesicatum- - - 624 Callipsyche eucrosidides - 633 spléndens - - 618
A‘nia bicérnis - - 624 | Calystégia sépium - - 569 Comarostaphylis arbutdides 619
Anisanthus spléndens var. Campanula Loeflingié - 618 | Combrétum grandiflorum - 500
hybridus - - 631 grandis - = - - 618 | Commelina scabra_ = - 78
Aquilégia glanduldsa - + 418 pyramidalis - 2 - 618 | Comparéttia Osea - = 625
A’rachis hypoge’a_- - 76} CandéJlea cuneiférmis - 445 | Comptodnza asplenifodlia - 638
Araucaria Cunninghamz - 85 tetrandra = - 445. 614} Cornus fiérida_ - - - 63
imbricata - - 36. 642] Cirpinus Bétulus = - 641 | Coronilla varia - - 75
A’rbutus Andrachne - 38. 642} Cassia fistula = - 75] Corre‘a alba - 3 = 448
mucronata - - - 88 emarginata - - - 75 bicolor - - - 447
procéra - - - 3 lanceolata = - - 75 pulchélla = - - 448
tomentosa - - - 38 Sénna - - - 75) Corvisartéaindica - - 617

Corylus Coldrna -
Cotoneaster buxifolia 3
Uva-trsi - -
Crate*gus coronata -
Mexicana - -
pruindsa == -
sphe’rica - -
Crinum brachynéma -

633

Cunninghamza lanceolata 36. 39

Cupréssus thurifera - -

Cyathéa dealbata = - -
medullaris - -
Cycndches pentadactylon
Cydonia japénica -
Cymbidium chloranthum
devonianum

Cynositrus cristatus
Cytisus Adamz -

Labiarnum

purptrea -

Weldénz -
Dacrydium cupréssinum

excélsum =

Mai - “ 129.

plumosum - -
Dammara australis 129

Daphne Cnedrum
indica rubra
Davatia depéndens
longifslia = -
Dendrobium aqueum
adincum -
compréssum
cucumérinum
janceum =
macranthum
moschatum -
planibilbe -
7oseum -
rhombeum
Rackerz ”
sanguinoléntum
scOpa - -
taurinum-
Dendrochilum latifdlium
Dicksdnia squarrisa -
Digitalis Burpixes var.
perba = 2
Dion edile - =
Diospyros edidlis -

iOS sy) Tet Spatep Te a OSU

(a)
i<}
t

Sapota - =
Dipterix odorata
Dé6lichos SEUSS

Soja -

Doncklaéria diversifdlia
Doryanthes excélsa - 8
Dryandra arctotédides
Drymonia punctata -
Farina suavéolens -~
Echevér7a bracteolata
Echinocactus acutissima
centetéria -
hybocéntra -

Jeucocantha -

mammillariddes *
Zchites atropurptrea 3

hirsuta - -

spléndens = -
E*chium petre‘um -
Eleignus argéntea -
parvifolia - -
Elymus geniculatus
Z’mpetrum nigrum -
Epidéndrum arbiseula
auritum -
collare -
cubénse =
didtam -
lamellatum
lancifdlium
latilabre -
jimbatum =
marginatum
évulum -
polyanthum
rubrocinctum
Epige*a répens -
‘Epiphyllim platycarpum

Vet 1-9, Ole Chee 8

Food fot oy OPO Ren oo ooo Oo Seo to oo Geto

THE PRESENT VOLUME.

Eranthemum montinum = 622

E‘ria acutifodlia = - 627
floribinda - - - 627
multiflora - - - 627
mucronata - - 627
profusa - - - 627

Erica Massoniz - 303. 547. 606
Neilléz - - 456. 619
sicula - - = hs

Erysimum Perowskidnum 454
Erythrochiton brasiliénsis ~ 615
Escalldnia montevidénsis 29.39
Eucalyptus splachnicarpon 616

Euthales macrophylla - 616
Fagus antarctica = 269. 442
betuloides - c ~ 442
sylvatica - - - 641
Festtca duritiscula - - 184
tenuifdlia - - - 184
Ficus elastica - - - 568
Fraxinus excélsior - - 641
Freycinétéa Banks7? - 129
Fuchsia alpéstris - - 500
coccinea - - - 500
cordifolia - = - 616
corymbifldra - = 230
exoniénsis - - - 616
fulgens = - - 500
globdsa - - - 616
spléndens - - - 500
Galéga virginidna = o 7%
Gardénia Sherbournie ~- 617
Gastrolibium actitum - 616
Gastrochilus longiflora - 631
Gaulthérza procmbens ~- 550
Geranium erianthum = 447
Gésnera discolor - - 618
polyantha - - - 618
zebrina - - 2
Gladiolus zequinoctialis - 631
cardinalis cult. - - 642
caucasicus = - - 631
Colville - - - 631
crispifldrus - - - 631
florib’indus - - 631
oppositifldrus - - 631
splendens’ - - - 631
Gleditschza hérrida - - 38
Gloxinza@ cauléscens - 181
tubiflora = - - 618
Godétza grandiflora - - 500
yosea-alba = - - 500
Gongodra truncata = &Q7
Gordon/éa lasianthus - 637

Govénza fasciata - = 627
Gymnocladus canadénsis -
Habranthus ASSESS var.

quadriflora” = -
Habrothamnus fasciculatus
Halimodéndron argeiteum
Hartwég7a purpurea var.

angustifolia - - - 628
Hédera Halix - - - 88
Hedysarum gyrans - - 75
Helleborus olympicus ~ - 445

Herbérté@ Drummondidna
Hexadésmia fasciculata -
Hibbértia volibilis - -
Hibiscus Cameronizs - - 78

Higginsza mexicana - aes)
Hippeastrum organénse var,
compréssum = - = 632
psittacinum - - - 632
Hovea pingens var. major 448
splendens - - - 448
racemuldsa = - - 448

Hymenocallis Skinner7a@na 633
Hypéricum Kalmidnum ~ 639
Hypocalymnaangustifolium 616

robustum = - - 501
Hypoevrta strigilldsa - - 619
I\ex Aquifdlium - - 88. 642

pendulum - 446
fastigiatum ~- 442
Tilfcium religidsum = - - 446
Indig6fera Désua - = 500

stachyddes - - - 500

Tpoince’a blinda - - - 621

X1

Ipomce‘a cymosa - - 621
Tweedie? - - - 621
I‘ris germanica - - - 454
Isopdgon roseus - - - 623
scaber - - - - 623
Jasminum subulatum - 620
Juniperus caroliniana - 639
communis hibérnica - 36
excélsa - - 36. 149
hispanica = - - 639
pheenicea = = - 639
recarva - 386. 149, 492
sinénsis - - - 36
mas - - 642
thurifera- - - 639
virginiana - - - 642
virginica = - 639
Kalma angustifolia nana - 550
Kolreutérza paniculata - 642
Labiche‘a bipunctata - 616
Lace‘na bicolor - - - 628
Le'‘lia flava o a - 628
peduncularis - = 628
Lalage hoveefilia - - 448
ornata - = - - 448
Lantana crocea - 622
Larix americana - - 639
europea - - - 641
Lathyrus nervosus ~ - 499
pubéscens - - - 499
tuberdsus <= - - 76
Latrus Sdssafras - ~- 296
Lechenautltza biloba 21. 38. 547
formosa = - = 21. 547
Leianthus nigréscens = - 620
Leochilus oncidioides - 628
Ligastrum italicum - - 639
vulgare var. - - 639
Lilium testaceum = - - 633
tigrinum =. - - 418
Lindléya mespiloides - 616
Linnz‘a robinéozdes - - 78
Liparia parva - - - 616
Liparis alata - - - 628
Liquidambar Styracfflua - 125

Liriodéndron Tulipifera 125.639

Lissochilus vOseus - - 628
Lodsa Herbértiz - - 501
laterftia - = - 5OL
pentlandica - - - 501
Lobéléa lutea - - - 72
texénsis - = - 78
Lolium perénne ténue - 184
Lomatia Zlicifolia - - 623
Lonicera diversifolia - - 670
Xylésteum - - - 670
Lotus corniculatus - = 15
Lupinus polyphYllus - - 418
Lycaste plana’ ~ - - 628
tetragoOna - - - 62
Lycium chinénse . - 639
ruthénicum - - - 639
sibiricum - - - 639
Lycopérsicum peruvianum 78
Macleania angulata - - 619
Magnolia acuminata = 669
Alexandrina - - 269
auriculata - = 669
conspicua 39. EE 269. 619
fuscata - - - 39
grandiflora « - 227. 239
macrophylla - - = 454
purptrea - = 269. 418
Soulangedna - - 269
Thompsonidna = - 39
Mahonza Aquifdlium - 37
pillida= =< = 446
Malva campanulata - ~ 446
Mammillaria adtinca - - 79
cylindracea - = - 79
eriacantha - - - 79
floribtinda - ~ - 79
pycnacantha - - 502
turbindta - = 502
uncinata - - - 79
Manéttia bicolor - 38. 503
cordifolia = - - = 456
Marattia elegans ~ - 129

Xil LIST OF PLANTS MENTIONED OR
Marcétéza excoriata - - 501 ; Phaséolus vulgaris - - 76
Masdevalléa floribanda - 629 | Philibértéa grandiflora - 455
Maxillaria acutipéetala - 628 | Phlomis fruticdsa - - 240
bractéscens - - - 628 | Phléx caroliniana - - 621
galeata- - - - 628 suaveolens - = - 621
picta - - - = 628 Van Houtte’s garden
SKinneré = - = 628 var. - - = - 621
tetragona_ - = 624.628 | Phoérmium ténax - - 129
Medinilla erythrophylla - 501 PAOD ECS trichomano-
MiltoOnéa Clowésia - - 629 ides - 129
candida eae 629 Physianthus SIbicans- - 456
var, grandiflora 629 | Physospérmum cornubiénse 187
Mimosa prostrata =.= - 36 | Piceapectinata- - 125. 642
pudica - - 2 - 75 Pindrow - - - 80
sensitiva = . = 75 religidsa - = - 453
Mormoddes lineatum - - 628 spectabilis - - - 86
luxatum 5 = - 628 | Pieris ovalifdlia - - - 619
Musa Cavendishiz - 39.606 | Pimeléadecussata’ - a Pl
Dacca - - © - 606 | Pinus austriaca - 40. 357
paradisiaca ~ - - 606 australis - - 36. 39
sapiéntum - 5 - 606 Cémbra = - 88. 492
Neillia thyrsiflora S - 456 Coulter - - - 669
Nelimbium tibetianum - 84 hispanica - = - 642
specidsum - = ed insignis - - 36. 669
Nematanthus Guillemin- montana - - - 88
zana - - - - 618 Nigricans - - - 149
léngipes 5 - - 619 Pallasi@na - - - 149
Nemo6phila insignis - a 9B Pinaster - =- 125. 642
Nedéttia specidsa - 630 foliis variegatis - 642
Nepénthes distillatoria - 35 pumilio ao) 3 em
Nierembérgia calycina = 455 Sabini@na - - 86
intermédia - - 456 Strobus = - 125. 642
Notylia pubéscens a - §29 sylvéstris = 37.475. 642
Nyssa bifldra a S - 125 tatrica = - 149. 357
Oberdnza miniata =< - 630 uncinata - - - 475
Octoméria grandiflora - 630 | Pisum arvénse - - - 76
Odontogléssum citrésmum 629 sativum - - 16
constrictum - a - 639 | Pitcairnza TORI — - - 633
Rosszz - ~ 630 ringens z - - 78
@nothéra Drumméondié - 74 undulata ~ - - 633
Oleaexcélsa - z - 36 | Pittésporum bicolor - - 446
Olinza acuminata 5 - 78 | Plagianthus Lampénz - 35. 88
cymodsa = - 78 | Platanus occidentalis = 239
Oncidium altissimum 629 orientalis - - 240.640
barbatum = - a - 629 | Pleroma Benthamizanum - 500
bicalldsum_ - = - 629 | Pleuroth4llis foe‘tens - - 630
candidum - = - 629 peduncularis - - 630
cuneatum <« - = 629 Smithz@na - - - 630
divaricatum - - 629 | Pda nemorialis - - - 184
ensatum a = = 629 sempervirens - - 184
Fork éliz S - = 629 trivialis - - - 184
macranthérum - - 628 Podocarpus feuugines - 129
microchilum - - 629 totara - = - 129
nanum - = = - 629 | Polystachyaclavata - - 630
pergaméneum~ - - 629 | Ponéra striata - - - 630
pulvinatum - a - 629 | Populus balsamifera - 88. 182
pumilum - = - 629 canadénsis - = - 8t
sphegiferum - - 629 candicans - - - 182
suave - - = - 629 fastigiata - - - 125
Suattonz 2 - 629 Zaurifolia = - - 182
unifldbrum - - - 629 longifolia - - - 182
urophyllum - - = 629 nigra - 5 - 88
Wraye - - - 624 pseddo- balsamffera - 182
Opuntia cochinillffera = '7fs) suaveolens - - - 182
folidsa - } = a 7) tristis - - - - 182
pusilla - - - - 179 | Portulaca spléndens - - 501
Ornithopus scorpioides - 76 Thellusonz - = - 501
Othénna frutéscens - - 617 | Primula denticulata - - 622
O’xalis dfscolor - - - 78 | Protea longifldra = - 78
rubrocincta - - - 447 | Protocéccus nivalis - 201. 236
Oxylobium capitatum - 448 | Punica Granatum - - 640
cuneatum - - ~- 448 | Piyarecurvata- - - 633
obovatum - - - 448 | Pyrus aucuparia - - 88
Pultenée = - ~- 448 | Quércusdlba - - 123, 124
Palmélla<cruénta - - 201 Cérris < - = - 641
Pandanus utilis - = - 85 Ragnal - - - 641
Passiflora actinia = 501 coccinea = So - 125
Paulownia imperidalis 181. 230 Mex Férdii - - - 36
549 pedunculata 4). 86. 125. 279,
Pedicularis megalantha ~- 621 641
Pentapéra sicula = 6 9} fastigiata - - 492
Pentstémon gentiandides fractu longissimo - 474
var. splendens - - 621 sessilifldra - - ie
Peristéria Barker? = - 624 sideréxyla - -
elata - = - 36 Tatixin - - 297. ot
Humbéldtz - = 624. 630 virens - - = 454
Pharbitis ostrina = - 620 | Randia oxypetala = - 617
Phaséolus multiflorus - 76 | Renanthéra matttina = 630

TREATED OF.

Ribes dlbidum - - - 502
atireum - - - 269
Beaton = - - 269
sanguineum - 269. 502

Ripégonum parviflorum ~- 129

Rhipsalis brachiata - - 617
pentaptera - - - 79
platycarpa - - - 79

Rhodanthe Manglészz - 71

Rhododéndron arbdreum 36. 619

7Oseum - - - 36

album - - - 3
azaledides = - - 619
barbatum =~ - - 36
campanulatum - - 36
caucasicum - - = 550
Chamecistus - - 550
cinnamOmeum = - - 36
flavum - - - 8&8
fragrans - . - 619
ndbile - - - = &
Noble@num - - - 138
ponticum - - - 88
Rollisonz - - - 619
zeylanicum - - 36

Rhodéstoma gardenioides - 503

Zhts radicans - - - 482

Robina hispida - - 640
inérmis - - 225. 297

Rodriguézéa carnea - - 630
maculata - - - 628

Rondelétza longifldra = 38. 502

#dsa indica mutabilis - - 231

_. rubifdlia élegans - - 195

Riuscus aculeatus - = 226

Saccoldbium ochraceum - 631

Salisburza adiantifodlia - 640

Salix alba - ~ : - 258
babylénica - - - 641
caprea - - - - 279
cinérea - - - 88
fragilis - - 88. 258
moschata - - - 279
Russellzana - - 88. 240
viminalis - - - 88
vitellina - : - 88

Salvia filgens = = - 138
tubiférmis - - - 78

Sarcanthus filiférmis - - 631
pallidus - - - 624

Sauratja spectabilis - - 446

Scelochilus Ottdnis - 78.63

Schistocarpha bicolor - 78

Schizanthus candidus - 621

Scilla peruviana var. dis-

color - - . - 633

Scléroon oléinum - - 622

Scutellaria spléndens - - 622

Senécio calamifolius - - 617

Shephérdéa argéntea - - 43

Sida pulchélla - - 35. 88

Sievérsza elata - - - 500

Siphocampylos detulefd-

lius - - - -
bicolor - = = - 617
longipedunculatus - 617

Sobralza macrantha - - 631

Solanum concavum = - 621

Sophora jap6nica pendula - 227

Spartium jinceum fl. Luk - 641
purgans - So ®

Spherolobium acuminatum 616

Spiranthes cérina - - 630
rosulata . - - 631

Spire‘a argéentea - - 500
fissa- - - 500

Stanhodpea Martiana - - 630

Statice monopétala var.

denudata - - - 622
suffruticosa - - - 622

Stélis atropurpurea - - 630
argentata - - - 630
crassifolia = - - 630

Stenactis speciosa - - 74

Stenocoryne longicornis = 631

Stenomésson aurantiacum - 652
eustephioides - - 632
vitellinum . - 632

LISTS OF FRUITS, CULINARY VEGETABLES, ETC.

Sremaphy yllum Seg) yl-
lum = - - 446

jatrophefolium - - 615
Syringa vulgaris alba - 641
Tamarindus indica - - 75
Taxddium distichum - » 240
Tecoma jasminoides - - 620
Tetranéma mexicanum ~ 621
Thija pendula = - - 453

orientalis <- - - 453
Tigridia lutea - - - 78

violacea - - 78. 631
Tilia 4lba pendula - = 297

europe‘a- - - 641
Tillandsza psittacina ~ ~ 633

rabida- = - - 633
Trichocéntrum candidum - 631

fiscum - - - - 631
Apples - = 232. 597
Apricot 931. 370. 583. cult. por

Moor Park - a = 232
Banana - - - 539. 606
Cherries’ - = 228. 232. 583
Figs - - = - 2928. 252
Filberts - = 296

Grapes 27. 186. Be 449. 252. 323
325. 331. 367. cult. 582. 600

Black Hamburg - - 449
Black Muscat - - 230
Hubshee - - - 67

LIST OF

Asparagus cult. 429. 473. 583.

670

Beans - - cult. 544. 671.
Mazagan_ - - - 544
Windsor Broad - - 544

Wonder HOWE Pod - 544

Beet - - - 671
Broccoli - Gules 543. cult. 671
Cape - - - - 671
Granger’s - - - 671
Knight’s Protecting - 671
Brussels Sprouts - - 543
Cabbage - 281. cult. 540. 597
Cornish = - 39. 541
Early Hope - - - 39
East Ham - - - 540
Imperial - - - 39
Kentisbeare - - 3
Matchless - - - 540
Nonpareil - - 39. 540
Paington - - 39, 541
Pomeranian - - 68
Vanack . - - 3
Wellington- - - 39

EIST OF

Agrostis stolonffera - - 183
Avena flavéscens = - 183
Barley - - - - 232
Beans - - = - = 9
Clover - - - - 183

-Bokhara~ - - - 187

Trichocéntrum recfirvum - 631

Trichonéma edile’ - = 632
Trifolium répens - - 184
minus - - - 184
Trollius acatlis - = - - 445
europe‘us - - - 445
Trope*‘olum azireum 38. 4.47
tricolorum - - - 447
pentaphyllum~ - - 456
polyphyllum - - 615
Turre‘a lobata - - - 615
Tweédia czrtlea - - 455
Typha angustifolia - - 129
UImus campéstris - 195. 641
failva - = - 84, 332
montana péndula - 442
Urania speciosa - - - 85

Vaccinium Vitis idz‘a - 550

XL

Vaccinium FP. i. major - 550
minor - - - 550

Vanda cristata - - - 63
Vanilla Palmarum - - 631
Verbéna Meiindres - - 86
Tweedidna - - - 86
Ver6énica nivea - - - 621
Verticérdia densiflora - 617
Vibarnum japénicum - - 36
Pinus - - - - 88
Vicia Cracca - - - 75
Faba - - - - 76
Viscaria oculata - - - 614
Viscum 4lbum - - - 641
Vriésza psittacina - - 633
Yiicca gloriosa - - - 556
Zichya villdsa_ - - - 499
Zygopetalon Mackaz? - - 36

LIST OF FRUITS.

Grapes,anewone - - 38
Sweetwater - - - 230
Gooseberry

- 434
Melon 86. 239, 233, cult. 269.
Gregson’s Green Flesh 84

Mulberries - - - - 226
Nectarines - - - cult. 601
Orange o 24
Peach 311. 370. 582. cult. 601

Royal George’ - - 603
Pears - 279. 597. 619. 678

Chaumontelle - = 228

Pears,Colmard’Aremberg 232

CULINARY VEGETABLES.

Carrot - 69. cult. 545. 671.
Horn - - - - 546
Surrey - - - = 545

Cauliflower cult. 433. 559. E70

Celery - - cult. 431. 671

Cucumbers - 86. cult. 653

Lettuce - - - cult. 546
Incomparable Cos - 65

Mushrooms 86. 204. cult. Ee

Onion of Nocera - - 68

Onion - = cult. 544. 670
Deptford - = - 544
James’s Keeping - - 544
New White Globe - 544
Old Brown Globe - 544
Reading - - - 544
Silver-skinned - - 544
Two-bladed - = - 544

Parsneps” - - 546. 671

Peas cult. 75. 204. cult. 543. o88

671
British Queen - - 65
Charlton - - - 543

Jargonelle - - - 228
Williams’s Bon Chré-
tien - - = - 230
Pines - Seles
A new one - - - 65
Queen - - - 546. 606
Plums - - oS - 583
Raspberry - 39.328. 411. 670
Strawberries 92. 114. cult. 429.
583. 670
Sweet Chestnut - - - 258
Peas, Frame - > - 543

Knight’s Tall Marrow 543

AGRICULTURAL PLANTS.

Cynosurus cristatus - - 183
Elymus geniculatus - - 183
Oats - - - - SG

Levant - - = 669
Turnips - 8. 247

May’s Victoria Swedish 66

List of - - - 77
Milford’s Marrow - 5AS
New Green Marrow - 543
Prince Albert .- - 65
Scimitar - - - 543
St. Helier’s - - - 67
Warwick - - - 543
Potatoes 16. 38. cult. 40. cult. 419.
137. 370. 597. 671
Kemp’s Seedling - - 41
Lapstone - - - 66
Radish - - - - 68
New winter - - 66
Rhubarb - = = - 583
New variety - - 64
Victoria - - - 328
Savoy - - - - 543
Sea-kale - - cult. 430. 583
Spinach - - - cult. 546
Turnip - - - 472, 597
Early White Nonsuch 67
May’s Golden Globe
Swede - . 2167
Swedish = = -~ 672
White Nonsuch - -

Wheat = -

67
8. 10. 82. 226.
Talavera £

- cult. 68

XIV LIST

OF BOOKS

REVIEWED OR NOTICED.

LIST OF GARDENS AND COUNTRY SEATS.

Acton Park - 5 - 672
Alton Towers - - 399, 474
Arboretum, Derby 124. 471. 555
Aston - > - - - 92

Barton - - - 669
Bedford Lodge - - 170
Belmont - . - 42

Black Park
Blair-Drummond
Blenheim - -
Bicton 14. 20. 23. 29. 34. 46. 49.
52. 111. 113. 158. 164. 234. 301.
318. 367. 419. 427. 460. 471. 496.

t
eue)ns
'
S
lee)
a

539. 582. 601. 606. 653
Botanic : —

Avranches = - = 322
Birmingham - - 65
Chelsea - - - 638
Glasgow - - 457. 629
Glasnevin - - - 69
Sydney - - - 325
Bowood - - - - 680
Broadstones - - - 953
Brooklands - - - 63
Burleigh - - - - 61
Bury Hill - - - - 502
Cambuskenneth Abbey - 251
Cannons - - - - 641
Canonmills - - - - 456
Carclew - - - 35. 446
Carr House - - - 15)
Carton - - - - 69
Castle Kennedy - - = 253
Cemeteries - 93. 141. 379 459
Abney Park ~ 62. 105. 147
Cambridge - - 354. 400
City of London - - 153
East London - - 229
Glasgow - - - 154
Green Mount - - 666
Hafiz —- - - » 405
Highgate - - - 155
Kensal Green 144. 147. 152.
154. 156. 222. 255, 204. 357.
363. 590
Lafayette - - ~ 666
Laurel Hill - - - 665

London and Westmin-
ster - - - 154. 294
Machpelah - - - 666
Monument - - - 666
Mount Auburn - - 666
Nunhead - ~ 147. 155

Norwood 147. 152. 155. 402
Pére la Chaise 101. 156. 402

Philanthropic - - 666
Sheffield - - - 154
Southampton - - 589
St. James’s, Liverpool 154
Tower Hamlets - 147.
159. 229, 362
Union - - - - 606
Warriston - - - 162
West London - 147. 154
Woodlands - - - 666
Charlton House - - - 649
Chatsworth - - - 636
Chicksands Priory - =)
Chiswick Villa - - - 453

Cossey Hall 90. 116. 118. 188. 411
Crimbles House - = 92. 538

Cross House - - - 244
Crosslee Cottage - - 258
Culhorn House - - - 252
Dalkeith - 67. 442. 457. 474
Dalvey - - - - 416
Deepdene - - - - 65

Dinbur Castle - 106. 413. 578

Dounbrae Cottage - - 256
Dropmore - - 170.172. 636
Drummond Castle - - 556
Duncombe Park - - 170. 264
Dysart House - - - 436
Elvaston Castle - - 37. 482
Flitwick House - - - 641
Fort Green Cottage - - 42
Forton Cottage - - - 42
Gardens : —

Blair- Adam - - - 642

Berlin - - - - 623

Caledonian Horticult. - 268
Kensington - 285. 507. 555.
637. 649, 550

Kew 61. 442. 446, 447. 454.
516 616, 617

London Horticultural 16.
34. 37. 61, 62. 222. 439.
453. 555. 612. 616. 636. G69.

7

M. Foulard’s - - 231
Royal Botanic - 378. 454
Royal, Frogmore - 138
Vice-Regal, Monza - 497
Green Park - - - 288
Hazel Grove - - - 86
Heanton Park - - - 242
Hendon Vicarage - 86.475
Hopetoun House - 311. 457

Hyde Park - - 44, 285. 592
Imperial Park, TEESSIDE 44

Kesgrave - - - dil
Killerton Park - - - 240
Langold - - - - 92
Loch Ryan House - - 253
Lowther Castle - - 546. 581
Markeaton - c - - 117
Mill Hill - - - - 638
Newark Castle - - - 257
Nurseries :—
Backhouse’s - 318. 615
Beverley - - - 67
Cachot’s 7 - - 931
Canterbury - - - 555
Cheadle - - - 63
Cirencester - - 40. 555
Clapham Rise - 64

Cliff Vale and Prospect of
Comely Bank - 556

Dartford - - - “6
Dickson’s_ - 38. 62. 555
Durdham Down - - 39
Epsom - - - 92. 617
Exeter - 35. 500, 501. 616
Exotic, King’s Road 62.
269. 446

Fulham 62. 503. 513. 553.
ID

Ghent -— - - - 621
Hammersmith - 268. 507
Handsworth - - 616
Hope - - - - 65
Kilmarnock - - - 680

Nurseries : —

Lawson’ Ss =37- OF 68. 555
Leroy’s - 229
Loddiges’ 62. 181. 325. 451.
516. 555

Merriott - - - 39
Mile End . - - 637
Mount Radford, Exeter 37.

63

New Cross ~ - = 65
Newman’s - - - 69
Paragon - - - 520
Pearson’s - = - 61
Perth - - - = 442
Rendle’s - - 310. 505
Rogers’s - - - 40
Roy’s - - - - 69
Saunders’s - - 65. 67
Sawbridgeworth 37. 55.

233. 555

St. John’s, Wakefield - 67
Summerland ayo 88
Taunton S = - 63
Vauxhall - - 574
Veitch’s - 503. 581. 619,
620. 632

Walton 5 - - 452
Winship’s = - - 42
Yarmouth - . - 63
Nutwell Court - - - 239
Oakfield - = - - 649
Oulton Park - 114. 119. 672
Peak House - - ~ 238
Poltimore House 3 - 242
Redleaf — - - 61. 446. 619
Regent’s Park - - - 592
Roselle - - - - 14
Sedbury Park - - - 332
Silverton Park - - 242, 511.
Shirley Vineyard - - 599
Shrubland Park - 268. 320
Sketty Hall - - - 312
Somerset House - - 678
South-Lodge - - - 638
Spring Grove - - - 35
Stevenstone - - = 243
Stoke Park - o - 586
Stoneleigh Abbey - - 65
Stow - 2 - . - 69
Strathfieldsaye - - 125. 177-
Syon House - - 475. 615
Tankersley - - - 92
Taplow Lodge - Se fH
Tidworth - - - - 582
Tilney Park - - - 641
Twickenham He - - 641
Walton = - - 3ll
Walton Hall 20. 499, 180. 18,
328

Ware Gifford - - - 244
Whitley Hall - - - 66
Windsor Castle - - - 587
Winslade House = - 242
Witton - - > - 639
Woburn - - - 636
Woodbine Cottage - - 126
Wood Hall - = 320. 556
Worcester Park - 315. 614
Wormleybury - - - 85
Writtle Park - - 638

LIST OF BOOKS REVIEWED OR NOTICED

Anon.

A Catalogue of Fruits in the Garden of
the Horticultural Society of London, 80.
Anon. Horticultural Essays, 279.

Anon,

Anon. Hortus Collinsonianus, 312.

Hints to the Landlords and Tenants of
England, 313.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

Anon. The British Almanack and Companion,

81.

Anon. The Builder, 81.

Anon. The Country House, 271.

Anon. The Farmer’s Calendar, 81.

Anon. Three Prize Essays on Agriculture, 80.

Anon. ‘he Zoologist, 374.

Anon. Report on Health of Towns, 97.

Anon. Reports of Special Assistant Poor Law
Commissioners on the Employment of Women
and Children in Agriculture, 374.

Anon. Restoration of the Church of St. Mary,
Redcliffe, Bristol, 314.

Antoine’s Conifere, 80.

Babington’s Manual of British Botany, 377.

Backhouse’s Visit to the Australian Colonies, 182.

Bainbridge’s Guide to the Conservatory, 643.

Baxter’s British Flowering Plants, 80. 503.

Booth’s London Nuisances, 184.

Buist’s Catalogue of Plants, 282.

Butler’s Emigrant’s Hand-Book of Facts, 284.

Curtis’s Botanical Magazine, 445. 499. 614.

Curtis’s Catalogue of Plants, 282.

DeCandolle’s Prodromus, 284.

Dieffenbach’s New Zealand and New Zealanders,
126.

Dieffenbach’s Travels in New Zealand, 126

Duhring’s Art of Living, 376.

Edwards’s Botanical Register, 445. 499. 614.

Forbes’s Inaugural Lecture on Botany, 377.

Fraser’s Scientific Wanderings, 134.

Freese’s Latin Governess, 314.

Glover’s History and Directory of the Borough of
Derby, 314. i

Gutch’s Literary and Scientific Register, 81.

Gutch’s Quarterly Journal of Meteorology and
Physical Science, 233.

Hamerton’s Paper on Arboriculture, 643.

Hay’s Natural Principles and Analogy of the
Harmony of Form, 130.

Henslow’s Letters to the Farmers of Suffolk, 313.

Hogg’s Catalogue of Sicilian Plants, 312.

Hosking’s Lecture on the Principles and Practice
of Architecture, 133.

Hunter’s Deanery of Doncaster, 91.

Jameson’s Journal, 284.

Jones’s Designs for Mosaic Pavements, 134.

Jopling’s Sketch of Furnace and Cartmel, 504.

Kittoe’s Illustrations of Indian Architecture, 645.

Liebig’s Animal Chemistry, 81.

XV

Link, Klotzsch, and Otto’s Icones Plantarum Ra-
riorum, 78.

Loudon’s Arboretum Britannicum, 35. 125. 673.

Loudon’s Catalogue of the Derby Arboretum,
124.

Loudon’s Remarks on the Laying out of Ceme-
teries, 184. 314.

Low’s Elements of Practical Agriculture, 644.

Lyons on the Management of Orchidaceous
Plants, 310.
Manetti's Catalogus Plantarum Cesarei Regii
Horti prope Modiciam ad Annum 1842, 643.
Martin’s Thames and Metropolis Improvement
Plan, 283.

Mearns’s Treatise on the Culture of the Vine in
Pots, 643.

Mott’s Flora Odorata, 643,

Eaveors and Co’s. Catalogue of Trees, Shrubs, &c.

13:

Paul and Son’s Catalogue of Roses, 643.

Paxton’s Magazine of Botany, 445. 499. 614.

Pfeiffer and Otto’s Figures and Descriptions of
Cacti in Flower, 79.

Prince’s Annual Catalogue of Plants, &c., 80.

Pugin’s Present State of Ecclesiastical Archi-
tecture in England, 134.

Rendle’s Catalogue of Plants, &c., 313.

Rendle’s Treatise on the Tank System of Heating
Hothouses, 309.

Roberts’s Treatise on the Culture of the Vine
under Glass, 643.

Smith on the Management and Cultivation of
Forest and Fruit Trees, 284.

Smith’s Treatise on the Peach Tree, 310.

Smith’s Treatise on the Management and Culti-
vation of Forest Trees, 642.

Solly’s Rural Chemistry, 282.

Sopwith’s Account of the Museum of Economic
Geology and Mining Records Office, 504.

Sowerby’s English Botany, 79.

Speede’s Indian Handbook of Gardening, 281.

Stephens’s Book of the Farm, 80.

Sutton’s Culture of the Grape Vine in Australia
and New Zealand, 644.

Thomas’s Monuments and Chimney-Pieces, 134.

Thorburn’s Catalogue of Plants, &c., 313.

Van Voorst’s Naturalist’s Pocket Almanack, 81.

Whitley and Osborn’s Catalogue of Hardy Trees
and Shrubs, 503.

Yarrell’s History of British Birds, 374.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

A. B., 315. A. F., 178. Aliquis, 449. Armstrong,
John, 42. A.S.M., 315, Ayres, W. P., 70.
261. 636.

B., 269. Barnes, James, 20. 45. 111. 164. 185. 234.
301. 367. 419. 427. 434. 460. 495. 539. 601. 605.
652, 653. Blair, John, 436. Booth, W. B., 35.
Branden, A., 416. Bray, Thomas, 606. Brooks,
J. T., 641. Brown, John, 65. Buist, R., 125.

Caie, Mr., 172. Cail, James, 264. Cameron, D.,
65. Chandler and Son, Messrs., 373. Chap-
man, George, 668. Conductor, 34. 55. 75. 83.
85. 88. 90. 92, 93. 124. 134. 136. 141. 166. 181.
188. 215. 238. 250. 258. 285. 292. 306. 316. 321.
326. 332. 353. 371. 379. 400. 439. 442. 452. 455.
459. 475. 497. 507. 512. 547. 553. 589. 634. 646,
647. 649. 650. 652. 667. 680. Cormack and
Oliver, 65. Cruickshank, James, 546. 581.

D. B.,85. D. M., 69. Drummond, James, 75.
584. Drummond, Messrs., 308. Dunlop, John,
315. 613.

Easton, James, 326. I. B., 44. Errington, R.,
113. 118. 670. E. W., 322. 325.

eareyth, Alexander, 397. 47]. Frost, Philip,

172.

G. C., 123. G.G., 61. Gordon, G., 62. Gray,
Samuel, 657. Gullett, John, 126.

H., 137, 329. H. A. M., 329, 380. Henderson,
William, 452. Herbert, W., 316. H. I., 90.

J. B., 84. 86, J. D., 124. 556. J. M., 85. 328.

Johnson, John, 125.177. Jones, Thomas, 662.
J. P., 263. J.R.,69. J.S.S.39. J. W.B.,
125. J. W. G. G., 327.

Lamb, John, 116. Lawrence, G., 86. Lawson &
Son, 68. Lindsay, J.M.,266. Leeds, T. W.,
Go. Lymburn, R., 1. 189. 334. 381. 461. 508. 509.

Mackenzie, Andrew, 642.

Mackenzie, Peter,
106. 380. 413. 578.

Manetti, Giuseppe, 84. 140.
187. 324. 331. May, W., 67. Mease, James,
665. M’Nab, James, 268.

Newcome, Thomas, 672. N. M. F., 369.

Osborn, Robert, 586.

P. J. M., 86. Prince, W. R., and Co., 325.
Pringle, J., 174.

R., 52. Rivers, T., jun., 224. RB. L., 140.

Saul, M., 40. 86. 91. 125. 184. 187.327. Saunders,
B., 68. S. T., 91. 139.

T. M., 44. T. N., 669. Tongue, Richard, 42.

U., 325.

Varden, R., 607. Vilmorin, M., 124.

W., 139. Walker, P., 86. Waterton, Charles,
18. 119. 179. 328. W.B., 67. W. C. T., 316.
W. D. S., 84. Westwood, J. O., 411. 460, 652.
Whiting, J. B., 65. Wighton, J., 90. 115. 117.
188. 409. Williams, Jane, 86. Wilson, N.,
78. Wilson, Thomas, 92. 534. Winship, J.,
and F., 43,

Y., 63.

¥

EXPLANATION

OF s
THE CHARACTERS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND INDICATIONS
USED IN BOTANICAL AND FLORICULTURAL NOTICES.
Habit. tive coun-, p Poisonous: Spot spotted. | Umb umber-
: try. pr pretty. t striped. coloured.
z Weciduous Hoey cu curious. rk for rock- Str straw-co-|V violet.
8 DACe : culculinary. work. loured. | Va_ varie-
Ae Deciduous ora de delicate. ro robust eu sulphur. gated.
: ‘ dy dyeing spl splendid. ‘an tan-co- |Ve_ vermi-
er Eeversreen suru: enna plant. tm timber tree. loured. lion.
Wen erercentunderehrube ec economical. | un uninterest- | Taw tawny. Vy veiny.
2 mecdaous twiner, ligneous | ©! clesant ing. b Test testace- A white:
are GERREONE, esc esculent. w weed, abun- ous. sh whitish.
5 fr fruit tree. dant in| Tran transpa- | Y ellow.
& Bvereueen s ee ligneous fra fragrant. cultivated Renee Ysh Peron
. omits . gr grotesque. soils in its
& Deciduous climber, ligneous |) medicinal. native Naitve Country.
i Fivararconwcliniben ligneous | °F ornamental. country. ¢ c: ae epee Good Hope.
. Ind. ast Indies.
¥ DGS CRIES ligneous Height. N. Amer. North America.
or herbaceous. Y fit floating. N ur Nouth of Europe.
@. Evergreen trailer, ligneous - Ho New Holland.
or herbaceous. Colour of Flower. aE ies Me New Sauth Wales.
3 Fi b b u merica.
Mv orherbaccous (AP apetale |G) green, |S; Eur. South of Hurope
fr Evergreen creeper, ligneous| rug erugi- |Go golden. |W. Ind. West Indien ne
<y Deciduous herbaceous plant. B enone een greenish. i
>, y grey. Propagation,
y Evergreen herbaceous plant.|Rq plood Eloathoan é
Mi Grass - 10ary. B_ by budding.
% Bulbous plant Bh blush. L _iight. Cc cuttings.
UISILS jETN Bk _ black. La lake. D daniel
* Fusiform-rooted plant. . yi ivision of the plant.
3% Tuberous-rooted plant. Bish blackish: ae Hic as c erating:
77 moRhee Bri BG Sat Ee pilonea L lever:
: oured. i lilac. L ] .
Duration and Habitation, | B¥Sh brow. tae a Bee o offsets,
A Perennial. Bsh bluish | Och ochrace- |g Seen mea oe i
© Biennial. Bt bright. ous. Ss : ;
O Annual. Cc crimson. |Ol olive. i of CuChees: f
( Bark, or moist, stove. Ces czsious, | Oliva olivace- Soil.
—] Dry stove. Ch chestnut. ous. aq. watery places.
MS Greenhouse. et citron. Pp purple: co. . common garden soil.
rame. in cinereous;/Pa pale. c.p. common peat or bog.
(A) Bark-stove perennial. Cop copper- |Pk pink, or /h. heavy rich clay. a
ZX) Dry-stove perennial coloured. rose. h.], heavy loam.
tAJ Greenhouse perennial Crea cream- Pl pellucid. |i. loam.
AJ Frame perennial coloured.| R red. l.p loam and peat, most loam.
{(}) Bark-stove biennial D dark. Ro rosy. It. light vegetable soil. ,
O) Dry-stove biennial, Din dingy. Rsh reddish. |It.1 light loam.
tO)! Greenhouse biennial. DI dull. Ru rufous. |m.s. moist soil.
Q) Frame biennial Dp deep. Rus_ russet. p- peat.
= Bar Ole annual E flesh. Rust rusty-co- |p... pent and loam, most peat.
ry-stove annual. er ferrugi- loured. |r. rich garden soil.
oI ercentiouse annual: = Rae S) scaulet. r.m. Ech mend:
frame annual. i ery. Sa saffron. |ru. rubbish.
as Fla _flame- Sil silvery. |s. sand.
Popular Character. coloured.|Smo smoky j|s.1. sandy loam.
ag agricultural. | clt cultivated | Ful fulvid. ash-co-|s.p. sandy peat.
cl clothing. initsna-|Fus fuscous. lour. |s.p.l. sand, peat, and loam.

The systematic names of plants are accented as in the Hortus Britannicus. The derivations of the
genera are given, and the specific systematic names literally translated, any explanatory words
accompanying such translation being printed in Italic. Those names, whether of genera or species,
which are commemorative, as Banksia in honour of Sir Joseph Banks, are distinguished by having
the subjoined letters in Italic where the rest of the word is in Roman, and in Roman where the rest
of the word is in Italic, as Banksia; those which have been applied to plants by the classic writers of
antiquity are distinguished by having the initial letter in Italic, as Pyrus, where the rest of the
word is in Roman, and in Roman where the rest of the word is in Italic, as Pyus. All words,
generic or specific, of unknown derivation, or aboriginal names, are wholly in Italic or wholly in
Roman, according to the letter in which the preceding or following matter may be printed, as
Pedéria Lingun Boj., or Padéria Lingun Boj.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,

JANUARY, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

ArT. I. On the Theory of Manures. By R. LympBurn.

‘THE year 1842 has been distinguished by a vast variety
of efforts to elucidate the subject of manures; and the many
tables published, opinions given, and experiments recorded, have
added immensely to the bulk of information from which rules
for practice must ultimately be deduced. That much disap-
pointment and many unaccountable results have been produced
should not damp our endeavours. The difference of soils has
a great effect in producing these: they vary so much in their
physical properties, both naturally and artificially, that experi-
ments will require to be often and carefully repeated on different
soils, in different seasons, and on a large scale, before they can
enable us to form rules for our guidance in practice. A soil
naturally porous will produce very opposite results from a
sodden stiff soil, and will require very different treatment ; if
this be neglected, or interfered with by accident, the result may
differ very much from expectation. If the season is likely to be
wet and cold, the porosity should be encouraged; if dry and warm,
the ground should be rolled and compressed; this may be omitted,
or the weather may be so very dry that the crop may fail even
although this is attended to. If the soil is cold and wet, it may
be much improved by cultivation. The skilful cultivator will
take advantage of tids of weather, and may make frost, drought,
and even wet, assist in pulverising and producing that great
requisite, a plentiful supply of moisture to the roots, absorbed
from the small pieces of the soil, without an overdose to gorge
up the channels of communication between the air and soil.
Dry hot manures, strawy and turfy, suit wet soils generally
best; and cold wet manures the dry soils. But seasons may
reverse this order. In cold wet summers, dry hot manures
may do best even in dry soils; while heavy wet land, if worked
wet in spring, and a dry summer succeed, may be so coarse in
the pieces, so open and porous, as to be benefited most by cold
wet manures. It makes no odds how much, and how usually

3d Ser.—1843, I. B

~.
~

2 On the Theory of Manures.

powerful, may be the manures deposited in the soil, if chemical
action is not kept up in the soil, the stomach of the plant, both
by the free admission and retention of heat and air. We may
have much greater produce from a small quantity of manure
under judicious cultivation, than from a great quantity when,
by improper cultivation, or by those baffling tids of weather
which occur so often to paralyse the efforts of the most skilful,
the soil has got out of order. It is difficult to lay down rules
stating how much should be ascribed to all these causes; the
skill acquired by practice, and great observation and discrimi-
nation, with repeated trials on a large scale, will all be needed
to elucidate and harmonise conflicting statements. There are
particular periods in the stages of existence of plants also, when
nourishing weather is more requisite, and the reverse does more
harm; as in turnips, carrots, &c., newly above ground, when,
if they are stunted and set up, no after nourishing weather will
altogether remove the defect; or in grain crops at the time of
setting the flower, in potatoes at the time of germination, &c.
The different kinds of manure, also, differ very much ; some re-
quiring much more chemical action to render them soluble than
others.

In experiments, also, conducted on a small scale, on small
measured portions of ground and manure, allowance must be
given for variations in the state of the soil, at very short dis-
tances, in the same field. Where immense level plains or
mountainous tracts of great extent occur, the soil is more uni-
form; but where the land, as in many districts, is undulated
through its whole extent, with hill and vale, knoll and hollow,
it is found that different portions of a field, within a few yards
or even feet of each other, differ much in many respects. One
piece, having a stratum of gravel running through it, may
be parched and burned up with drought in a dry season ;
while in a wet season it may retain only its proper quantity.
Another piece may be stiff sodden clay, suffermg much when
the seasons are wet and cold at the time of working, and greatly
improved by working dry, and having moist weather after-
wards. Another portion may have once been wet and marshy,
and accumulated a kind of peaty deposit, which, if drained after-
wards, may bear fine crops in ordinary seasons, but will suffer
in the extremes both of drought and wet. The field may have
had an excellent soil some feet deep deposited on it, but the good
soil may have been washed away from some pieces by partial
floods, and a stiff obdurate clay exposed: or the reverse may
have taken place; the good soil may have been washed from
the hills and knolls, and deposited in the hollows. All these
varieties occur in the district around this, frequently in the same
field. The prevailing rocks are sandstone and greenstone, above

On the Theory of Manures. 3

the coal measures; and the varieties produced by the mixture of
these are immense.

One end of the seedling beds, along a whole quarter of the
garden, may be of a loose friable, though loamy, nature, suiting
most seasons well; while the other end of the beds may be
found of a stiff retentive nature, which hardly any season is
found to suit, yielding scarcely any crop in comparison, though
covered with double the quantity both of manure and seed; yet
at times, by the agency of frost, with dry digging and pulverising,
these same ends may, in some seasons, be nearly equal to the
other. Many districts also, from the prevalence of moor land,
and the want of plantations to shelter, are much colder than
others in the neighbourhood more favourably situated. Some
hills slope to the south, and others to the north; some abound
in inequalities, while in others the slope is regular. Fields, and
pieces of fields, and gardens will also differ much, as to the quan-
tity of organic remains left from previous crops, or deposited
from the roots, or accumulated by accident. The mechanical
state will also differ much, from portions being dug for the
previous crop in wet or in dry weather, from trenching,
draining, &c.

When so many causes are at work, which may all at times
affect the results of experiments, we must not be discouraged
though we do not get exact comparative results from measured
portions of soils and manures; and be content, if, from a great
variety of experiments carefully observed in all their bearings,
on various soils, in various pieces of the same field or garden,
and in various seasons and circumstances, the truth should after
all begin to emerge. If these experiments give rise to theo-
retical opinions for which the reasons seem well grounded, and
if these theoretical opinions are confirmed by future practice,
a solid basis may be built, by the united aid of science and
practice, which neither the one nor the other could, of itself,
have so perfectly attained. The subject must be tho-
roughly investigated in all its bearings; and, however many
deceive themselves or succeed in deceiving others, it can only
be for a time. Practice will banish false theories and establish
the truth, if properly and unprejudicedly observed. We must
not be hasty in our conclusions, and must take proper observation
of the soils experimented on, the circumstances they are placed
in, the nature of the seasons, and how all these bear on one
another, and may be calculated to affect or be affected by the
substances deposited as manures. When practical men, gene-
rally, get so far versed in the elements of science as to enable
them to follow out all these subjects in all their bearings, an
immense power of observation will be brought into action,

and must ultimately be productive of vast benefit.
B 2

4 On the Theory of Manures.

Tt has been attempted to simplify the subject, by selecting
some one of the constituents of manure as the most essential.
Of the four principal and most abundant elements, hydrogen
and oxygen being got from the water absorbed, and carbon
partly from the air and partly from the soil, and not yet pro-
perly decided how much from each, nitrogen has been selected.
Being generally found in combination with carbon and other
substances needed as food, being necessary in the transformations
carrying on in the circulating sap, assisting greatly in all the
fermentations of manures, and being always found in greatest
quantity in the spongioles of the roots, and in the young shoots
and leaves, wherever vitality is most active, it has, though
small in amount as a constituent, been found very important.
It has not been found, however, that manures always produce
results in proportion to the quantity of nitrogen they contain,
nor that crops exhaust the fertility of the soil in the ratio of
the quantity of nitrogen they take from it. It has been found,
also, that great effects have taken place from an augmentation
in the usual quantity of the imorganic saline substances of
manures; and hence nitrogen, though perhaps the most essential
ingredient taken by itself and with regard to its combinations,
yet cannot generally be taken as an exact measure of value for
the whole.

Dr. Madden, in his Essay published in the Highland Society’s
Transactions (Quarterly Journal of Agriculture) for June last,
takes a more extended view of the subject, and proposes to
compare the value of manures by —

Ist. The quantity of soluble matter present.

2d. The facility with which those portions at first insoluble
can be rendered capable of solution by the process of decay.

3d. The quantity of azote (nitrogen) they contain.

4th. The whole quantity of organic matter possessed by
them.

5th. The quantity of inorganic matter which each contains,
possessing the same constituents as the ashes of the crop to
which it is applied.

Bone dust he finds, by analysis, to contain of

Water - - - - - - - = - 11°5
; soluble in cold water - - - And
Organic matter, with — inhot water - - - 55
some saline ma- — ina weak solution of potass 26°0
terials — ina strong ditto - - 15:5

; driven off afterwards by heat - 6:0

Phosphate of lime - - - - - - - - 28:0
Carbonate of lime - - = = = = = - 2°8

On the Theory of Manures. 5

Farm-yard manure, the average of several analyses:

Water” - - - - - - - - - 45.535
soluble in water - - - - 10°75
Organic matter — in potass - - - - 14°25
driven off afterwards by heat — - - 18°565
Salts of potass
of soda it
LAT CE bi ARS SE Fee PRE fret
of lime
of silica
Earthy phosphates — - - - - - - - 3°0
100:0

In comparing them together, he finds

Bone Dust. |Farm-yard Manure.

Water - - - - - - si eel Licey 4.5°535
Total organic matter = - - - - - | 33°5 33°565
Soluble matter - - - - - - | 10-2 10°75
Easily dissolved matter by caustic potass - | 41:5 14°25
Earthy phosphates - - - - - | 55:0 30
Saline matter - - - - - - | 55:0 10°9
Azote or nitrogen - - - - - 1-77 45

the phosphates im the analysis of bones having been partly con-
tained in the easily dissolved matter.

He next compares them as to the quantities of the respective
matters found in each, showing that the total organic matter
and soluble matter are nearly alike: but that, as compared
with farm-yard manure, there is contained in bones, of

Easily dissolved matter - 29 times the quantity.
Earthy phosphates - - 18°3
Saline matter - - - 5
Azote - - - - - 39
30°1

Thus chemical analysis shows, he says, that 1 ton of bone dust
is equal to 30 tons of farm-yard manure. The same mode of
analysis is also pursued with rape dust, 1 ton of which is made
equal to 184 tons of farm-yard manure; and, as this nearly
agrees with what is generally considered the ratio in practice,
he considers that practice thus confirms scientific results.

In the above analysis, however, the phosphates are made to
perform a double part, being compared, as to their action, both
as phosphates and saline matter. The soluble matter in farm-
yard manure, also, should have been 43°565. If these had been
properly attended to, the result would have been much less;
probably nearer the true amount as regards practice, which he

B 3

6 On the Theory of Manures.

states himself at 15 to 20. It may also be matter of doubt,
that, though a certain quantity of phosphates and other saline
matters is needed, we are therefore entitled to affirm that
every addition to the quantity of these will produce a corre-
sponding result. Certain quantities are needed as constituents ;
and, when they are abundant, the plenty of materials may pro-
duce more action. Another portion, not so easily estimated,
may be needed to act chemically in the soil, in preparing the
food, and in the transformations going on in the vital juices to
fit them for the assimilating organs. It may be well to provide
abundance; waste in these does not take place so readily as in
nitrogen and carbon, but there will be a limit. If, however,
we had many careful analyses of the different species of ma-
nures, conducted in the same way, they would come ultimately
to be of great benefit, in enabling practical men to know, when
there was a deficiency of ordinary manure, how much of the
other substances should be added to make up the deficiency.
When manure is required to be carried to great distances, a
considerable saving of expense might be found to result from
using the more concentrated manures. Peaty soils, or those
abounding in brushwood, turf, leaves, branches, &c., producing
carbon, are often situated at a distance from towns; and con-
centrated, nitrogenous, and saline manures might be carried
there at much less expense. If tables were once furnished of
the quantities of all the different substances drawn off by the
different crops usually cultivated, and of the capability of the
different manures to supply these, such as those now publishing
by Professor Johnson in his Lectures; and if such tables, carefully
made out, and corrected by separate analyses of plants grown
in different soils and climates and in different seasons, and of
manures in different stages of decomposition and in mixtures,
were compared and digested; they would furnish data to enable
the practical man to know, in all circumstances, how to pro-
ceed, how to supply deficiencies in manure, how to make up
for exhaustion, and keep his ground properly supplied with
food, so that his crops might be duly benefited by the blessings
of Providence in sending good weather. To expect exact
mathematical results, where so many contingencies are at work,
might be Utopian; but something sufficiently near the truth
may be hoped to be arrived at, so as to save a vast deal of
expense, and greatly increase the value of produce. When
substances are deposited as food, without a knowledge of their
contents, or the requirements of the plants they are intended
to feed, it is going blindly to work, and leaving to hazard
what it may be in our power to provide against.

In endeavouring to elucidate the progress made in arriving
at correct theoretical views on the action of the different ind:

2 On the Theory of Manures. 7

vidual substances forming the food of plants, or assisting in
rendering that food available in increasing the produce of
plants, the importance of nitrogen to both plants and animals,
though undoubtedly sometimes overrated, entitles it to a pro-
minent share of attention. It is the basis of fermentation,
which cannot be carried on without nitrogen, whether we may
reckon it the fermenting principle itself, or, as some, the food
of the fungi which carry on fermentation. It appears that, as
in the food of animals the necessary quantity of nitrogen is so
mixed up with their ordinary aliment, that in attaining it the
other substances, viz. the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and saline
earthy matters, forming the structure of the body, follow of
course; so in plants, when we deposit their food in the soil,
the stomach of the plant, it is generally, as in farm-yard
manure, a mixture of different substances containing all the ele-
ments requisite to build up the structure of the plant, and
assist the vital energy of the system in the chemical changes
necessary to enable the several organs to perform their func-
tions. Nitrogen forming a constituent, less or more, in all
plants and all the parts of plants, especially the youngest and
most active parts, and being found in much greater quantity
in animals, from the carbon given off by respiration, a mixture
of these substances, especially when containing a due proportion
of the latter, will always be found, along with the nitrogen, to
convey the other substances wanted. It is probable, also, that,
even in the function of absorption, the most essential elements
are intimately united; the humate and carbonate of ammonia,
apparently the greatest source of food to plants, furnishing the
earbon and nitrogen, combined with water (or hydrogen. and
oxygen), the most essential elements of plants.

In the excellent papers lately published in the Gardener’s
Chronicle from Professor Sprengel, whose great eminence in
his profession seems properly united to an intimate acquaint-
ance with practical cultivation (a most essential requisite in
bringing science to bear on practice), the benefits of humus have
a very important station. In all the mixtures he recommends
as necessary to prepare manures for becoming the food of
plants, he gives humus a preference, as the most essential requi-
site in preventing the evaporation of ammonia, and retaining it
in the compost in the state of humates and carbonates of ammo-
nia. Even in the solution of bones, humus is the article he
recommends, as both rendering the phosphates soluble by the
humic and carbonic acid it furnishes, and at the same time
absorbing the ammonia of the cartilage. It appears from his
practice, that, where sufficient vegetable remains have been
mixed with the animal substances usually employed as manures,

the humus has been found sufficient to retain, not only the am-
B 4

8 On the Theory of Manures. =

monia, but also the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogens,
of the composts. Dr. Madden, as we noticed in our former
essay, considers ammonia as the greatest solvent of humus,
and the way in which the principal part of the carbon and ni-
trogen of the plant is furnished. It is true that this is also
doubted by such eminent men as Liebig, Johnson, and Schlie-
den, the great liability of the humates to decomposition seem-
ing to be one of the principal objections; but if formed by the
every-day action of the manures in the soil, and carried to the
roots of plants, their liability to decomposition, if once ab-
sorbed, may be a benefit in place of the reverse, and may
account for one of the principal objections of Liebig, that
humates, or humic acid, are not found to descend to any great
depth in the soil.

Nitrogen being so indispensable an article; being necessary,
according to Dumas, in forming the fibrin of which all the
vessels of plants are composed; being deposited in the form of
diastase, gluten, and albumen, wherever food is stored up for the
future use of the plant; and, by its action in the form of ammo-
nia, which is largely formed in all young shoots wherever life
is most active, probably assisting in the chemical changes neces-
sary to prepare the food for the vital organs; it is of great con-
sequence to know whether the food we administer contains this’
valuable substance in proper quantity. Being exceedingly vola-
tile in the caustic state of ammonia, it is of great importance to
prevent evaporation as much as possible; and, if deposited in
composts containing humus or vegetable remains in a state of
decay, it is reckoned by some sufficient to prevent escape, and
will be united to another essential element of vegetation, thus
simplifying and rendering more intelligible the feeding of
plants. Such as do not believe in the power of composts to
absorb and retain ammonia, and such as dwell in large towns
where composts are not so easily to be had, use a variety of
substances to fix the ammonia by uniting it to some more pow-
erful acid, of which the best and most economical appears to
be sulphuric acid or vitriol.

As to the comparative quantities of nitrogen in crops and
manures, Dr. Madden, in his Prize Essay on Physiology and
Chemistry applied to Agriculture, published in the Highland
Society’s Transactions for March last, reckons that in a four-
course rotation of 30 tons of turnips, 42 bushels of wheat with
2000 lb. of straw, 200 stones of hay, and 48 bushels of oats
with 2500 Ib. of straw, which the four years would furnish
from an acre of ground, there would be produced and carried
off, in all, about 8183 lb. of carbon, 2483 ]b. of azote, and
1190 lb. of saline matter. The manure, at the rate of 30
tons of farm-yard manure, deposited in the soil as a preparation

‘On the Theory of Manures. 9

for the turnips, he calculates at 12,730 1b. of carbon, 280 lb.
of azote, and 6104 lb. of saline matter. We thus find that
while the manure provides half as much again carbon as needed,
and five times the quantity needed of inorganic matters, there
is not above ;4; part of an overplus in the nitrogen, to allow
for what may never reach the roots of plants (being carried off
by evaporation or washed away), and for the ammonia which
eirculates in the vital juices, assisting in the transformations
needed to prepare the food for assimilation, and stimulating
the activity of the vital principle. Wherever nitrogen is fur-
nished in abundance from the substances deposited in the soil
as food, whether in the form of ammonia or nitrates, the plants
are found to assume a dark green healthy appearance; the
evidence, well known to practical men, of luxuriant vigour of
growth, this colour being always assumed in the healthy con-
dition of the plant ; though perhaps the alkaline effect of the
ammonia on the chromule of the leaf may only denote its pre-
sence, and the capability of action, other circumstances being
favourable, as the colour has beén sometimes found to appear,
without the, usual consequences of luxuriance in growth follow-
ing. It might be more beneficial, when the manure is com-
pounded of substances not known to abound in nitrogen, to
make such as potatoes, containing little nitrogen, to precede
wheat. The analysis of turnips, as given by Professor Jolinson
in his Klements, would cause a greater quantity of nitrogen to
be suspected in the rotation than that of Dr. Madden’s state-
ment. He states the gluten and albumen in 25 tons of turnips
at 1400 lb.; according to Dr. Prout’s estimate of 15°55 per
cent, about 2172 lb. of nitrogen. Boussingault’s estimate of
‘17 per cent of azote in the turnips would make only about
95 Ib.

When the nitrogen of manures is so small in comparative
amount, it seems to strengthen the opinion that part of this also
is got from the air. Some crops, undoubtedly, derive a great por-
tion of their nitrogen from the air. Boussingault has found it so
in Jerusalem artichokes; a more familiar instance, however, is
to be found in the bean, which, in an average crop, carries off a
great deal more of nitrogen than wheat, and should proportion-
ally exhaust the fertility of the ground in a greater degree; yet,
while the wheat is one of the most exhausting crops we have,
the bean is rather a fertiliser. The oat also is a very exhausting
crop, and contains still less nitrogen than the wheat. The crops
of oats which follow beans are more luxuriant than ordinary, as
if the bean had been depositing rather than extracting nitrogen.
If Professor Johnson’s estimate of the quantity of nitrogen car-
ried off by turnips be correct, it is another instance of ground
being fertile after what should have been a scourging crop. If

10 On the Theory of Manures.

nitrogen is got wholly from the soil, crops should impoverish the
soil according to the nitrogen they extract. Many plants which
are found to abound in fungi at the roots must excrete a great
deal of nitrogen by the process of exosmose, fungi being well
known to be voracious of nitrogen for their food. Horse-dung
contains about the double of the nitrogen that cow-dung does,
yet most crops and most soils are more benefited by the latter
than the former. Some crops, as wheat, are found to have
gluten deposited in greater abundance in the ear, when manures
have been furnished abounding in nitrogen; the proportion of
gluten to the starch being much greater. But when manures
containing much nitrogen are applied to oats and barley, the
gluten is not increased there as in the wheat. All these cir-
cumstances seem to point out that there is not always a regular
ratio between the nitrogen deposited in the manures, and that
carried off in the crops; and that nitrogen is got in some way
not yet understood. It is probable, though not hitherto ad-
mitted, that, as plants contain a system of air vessels by which
the air containing the greater part of its volume in nitrogen is
constantly brought into contact with the circulating juices of the
plant, ammonia may be formed from the newly liberated or
nascent hydrogen, developed in the transformations of the cir-
culating sap, coming in contact with the nitrogen of the air,
perhaps also recently deprived of its oxygen by absorption, which
is well known to take place. The carburetted hydrogen of the
air, stated by Dumas as equal in quantity to the carbonic acid,
and the sulphuretted hydrogen lately found so beneficial by Mr.
Solly, may, perhaps, also furnish hydrogen to the plant to assist
in the formation of ammonia. The nascent nitrogen from the
air, deprived of its oxygen, and confined in the vessels of the
plant, if it come in contact with nascent hydrogen there, should
be as capable of forming ammonia in that situation as in the
manure heap. ‘That plants do get nitrogen, under a form capable
of assimilation, in this or some such manner, is evident from
their producing it in greater quantity than the ammonia from
manure, or that from the air in rain-water to the roots, could be
capable of furnishing. It has been generally said by our most
scientific writers, that the ammonia is wholly got by the roots:
the experiment of Mr. Milne, however, lately narrated in the
Gardener’s Chronicle, in which, having hung up tin cans contain-
ing ammoniacal liquor, and sprinkling it on the floor of a vinery,
he found, in 48 hours, the leaves to assume a dark green ap-
pearance, and the after-growth to be exceedingly luxuriant, is,
I should think, sufficient proof that leaves absorb ammonia
from the air when they fall in with it. That nitrogen is not
wholly from that provided in the form of ammonia to the roots
is evident; that some plants get it from the air, and that pro-

eee

;
|
3

On the Theory of Manures. 11

bably all have partly that power, seem also evident: the exact
tabular data of the quantities in crops and manures may not,
therefore, be a perfect guide, and we may not always reap
benefit in proportion to the quantity furnished; yet, generally
speaking, manures containing much nitrogen are found to
have a powerful effect; the exceptions will be best learned by
practice.

As urine, and other liquid drainings of the farm-yard, and
those furnished domestically, which are so rich in nitrogen, are
too frequently allowed to run to waste, the necessity of collect-
ing these substances and depositing them in the compost heap,
with plenty of humus earth, which in many places abounds to
so great an extent, cannot be too much inculcated.

Peat earth is plentiful in many situations, and has long been
known as capable of fermenting and becoming as good as manure,
if mixed with it. Sawdust of deciduous plants (hard wood)
rots also, and is good for composts; that of fir wood is found
to decay very slowly, from the insolubility of the resinous sub-
stances, which might, perhaps, be helped to dissolve by mixing
with the alkalies of wood-ashes, in which they are soluble.
Where leaves can be collected, and clippings of hedges, they are
excellent for composts; also the stems, leaves, and roots of
garden plants and weeds, in fact all the haulm and refuse of
the garden. The straw of grain crops, the stems of potatoes,
turf, and scourings of ditches (avoiding those places where
there is much deposit of iron from the water), are all capable of
yielding humus to the manure heap. Even the roots of couch
grass, and other root-weeds, if well fermented, are capable of
adding to the bulk and value of the manure heap; and almost
all vegetable and animal refuse, which cannot be more beneficially
employed. They should all be collected, a layer of these sub-
stances and earth put below, and alternate layers of hot ferment-
ing dung and these put together, watered if needed, and too
much wetness thrown off by coverings open at the ends and

ides. ‘There should be most of the humus earth in the bottom
nd around the outsides, the fermenting substance will not then
escape somuch. A proper state as to moisture, neither too wet
nor too dry, is very necessary to be attended to, substances be-
ing found to putrefy incomparably more quickly when moist,
than either wet or dry. Heat should be encouraged by loose
strawy matter, to allow the admission of air, and when too
great the heap should be turned over to allow it to cool.k When
too loose and dry it burns and gets white, and a proper degree
of consolidation and moisture is necessary. The drainings of
the dunghill should not be encouraged by too much wetness
being allowed to fall on the heap, but provision should be made
for collecting all that comes away, and throwing it on again,

12 On the Theory of Manures.

adding a little more earth and haulm if necessary. AII the.
urine, night-soil, soap-suds, soot, and all the domestic refuse,
should be carefully added to the heap; the coal-ashes, unless
sifted to a small powder, being kept by themselves. Sea-weed,
when to be had, is an excellent ingredient in such composts ;
and all brush-wood, furze, &c., chopped small. All animal re-
mains, refuse of fish, hair, wool, rags, horn, bruised bones, and
all refuse of the kind, should be carefully collected: animal re-
mains are the richest in nitrogen. ‘To a mixture of the above
substances, half the bulk of manure when coarse, and about +
or + when more concentrated, should, when rotted together,
be equal in value to the same bulk of rotted manure; prevent-
ing the loss in the way manure is generally managed, and in-
creasing the quantity in an immense degree. When the heap
is near the field less dung may suffice to mix, but when it is to
be carted far it should be rich, to save expense; the heap
ferments more perfectly with a good proportion of hot manure.
For such as root-weeds and seeds of weeds, there must be a hot
fermentation to destroy them. When there is not much stable
manure to mix with the compost, a mixture of wood-ashes, lime,
and other substances yielding alkalies, is very beneficial, in
causing the production of humic acid, forming humates with
the alkalies in place of carbonic acid. Where much ammonia
is in the compost, which will be the case wherever animal remains
and excrements abound, lime is apt to cause the escape of am-
monia, by decomposing its carbonates and humates; and only so
much should be used as will saturate the surplus of humic acid.
not taken up withammonia. Sprengel recommends about ;+, for
some composts ; too much should, above all, be avoided. When
sulphate of lime, sulphate of soda, and muriate of soda (salt),
are cheap, they will be useful to add. The refuse of glue manu-
factories is rich in nitrogen. ‘The refuse of woollen factories is
rich in soap-suds, urine, &c. The refuse of tanners and skin-
ners, the hair, skin, wool, and hoofs, is rich in nitrogen. ‘The
refuse of gas-works is well known as beneficial.

As regards the way in which carbon, forming the greatest
proportion of any of the elements in plants, is obtained, there
is still very considerable difference of opinion. As we noticed
in former essays, Professor Liebig is of opinion that most, if
not all, is got by the leaves from the air; while Professor
Schlieden, one of the most eminent physiologists of the day, in
a criticism of the Chemistry and Physiology applied to Agri-
culture, of Liebig, (translated into the Gardener’s Chronicle, )
seems to be of a completely opposite opinion. The action of
leaves on a growing branch confined in a vessel filled with air,
in which it has been said the carbonic acid has, after a time,
been found diminished and the oxygen accumulated, has always

On the Theory of Manures. 13

been brought forward as proof of the fact that plants get most of
their carbon from the air. These experiments, however, are
difficult to manage so as to prevent error; and Schlieden asserts
that, in the average of recorded experiments, it has been found
that the enclosed air of the vessel has neither been altered in
its quantitive nor qualitive relations. Dumas expresses him-
self hesitatingly on the point, and, though he leans to the
supposition of the carbon being got principally from the air,
and undoubtedly, he thinks, from carbonic acid, yet notices
_ the great quantity of carbonic acid found by Boucherie to
issue from the trunks of divided trees when felled in full sap,
evidently derived, he says, from the roots. Professor Johnson
seems to lean to the supposition that the greater part is from
the air. Professor Sprengel and Dr. Madden seem to be of
opinion that the greater part of the carbon is got in the humic
acid absorbed with the ammonia: the latter allows that very
little of the carbon is got in the state of carbonic acid by the
roots, while many are of opinion that what is got by the roots
is principally in that form. I shall have an opportunity of
entering more at length into this subject in the article “ Ve-
getable Physiology.” While so much difference of opinion,
however, prevails among learned men on the subject, practical
men will do well to preserve and deposit in the soil the carbon,
as well as the other portions of the manure. Fortunately,
in the mixed manures generally applied, there are carbon,
nitrogen, and inorganic matter; and in most soils, though not
all, as asserted by some, there is generally a reserve of humus to
assist when neglected. I doubt it would be found very dif-
ficult to grow plants luxuriantly in washed sand, with either
ammonia or saline matter, or both, in an ordinary atmosphere.
Such an experiment, however, might throw more light on the
subject than most of those tried. Solutions of nitrates, sulphates,
and phosphates of ammonia, potash, soda, lime, and magnesia,
with silicates of potash and soda, and a little common salt,
would furnish the nitrogen and inorganic substances wanted ;
but, I fear, would not produce luxuriance of growth without
carbon.

On the subject of cnorganic manures, the experiments re-
corded this season are manifold, and, as might have been
expected, much at variance. Some applications, in certain
circumstances, appearing to have had little effect; others to
have done much good, and some to have done harm. The
tables furnished of the quantities of these substances found in
the different plants under cultivation, and the quantities
furnished by the different kinds of manure, will, when pro-
perly regulated and corrected, show what are the wants of
plants as to constituents, and how far the food deposited is

14 On the Theory of Manures.

capable of supplying these wants, a proper allowance being
given for the portion washed away from soils; but there is
still more to be done before correct data can be furnished.
It is evident that saline substances are wanted for other pur-
poses besides forming constituents. The quantity found in
the young branches and leaves of trees is great, im comparison
with what is found in the trunks ; the quantity found im trees is
comparatively much less than that found in annual crops; and
the quantity in these is also much greater in the young suc-
culent growing portions, than in the ripened tissue. These
facts all show that a liberal comparative supply is needed for the
young growth, teaching the necessity of applying these and
ammonia early to young seedling plants; and also teaching
that these substances are necessary to assist in the transform-
ations going on where life is most active, to fit the circulating
juice for the purposes of the organs of assimilation, and that,
where extra vigour is wished, a liberal supply of these sub-
stances must be furnished. ‘The effects of this supply may be
observed, wherever the burnt ashes of young unsaleable trees,
or the clippings of hedges, have been applied to vegetable crops ;
I have seen the effect often such as to defeat the end in-
tended, by an over-luxuriance of stem and leaves to root crops.
I have seen very powerful effects, this season, follow the.
mixing of composts for pots with ashes of small branches burned
and bruised to small pieces. At Roselle, the geranium leaves
were like those of tussilago for size, of a deep green, and the
vigour of growth so great as to injure the flowering. The ex-
cellent preparation of branches, straw, cabbage leaves, and
other haulm, set fire toand kept at a smothered heat till charred,
as pointed out in the November Number of the Magazine by
Mr. Barnes of Bicton Gardens, will be very powerful. The
greater the variety in the small branches, leaves, roots, &c.,
charred, the more likely are the ashes to answer general pur-
poses. They contain the great variety of saline substances
found in the most vital portions of the plants burned, which
accounts for much of their action. Leaves will not grow, nor
vital activity become active, till all the essentials of vital che-
mistry are provided; though the compost they are furnished
with contains sufficient of carbon and ammonia. ‘The ashes,
also, act mechanically, as keeping the soil open by their elasti-
city, which is one of the principal benefits of farm-yard ma-
nure. ‘They also absorb oxygen and ammonia from the soil
and air; or, if the oxygen is from water, perhaps form am-
monia from the nascent hydrogen, and absorb it, as most
oxidising substances likely do. These absorbed gases will be
given off to the roots. Roots are always exceedingly fond of
running round such porous substances, and are found to increase

On the Theory of Manures. — 15

and multiply and get matted around them, which of itself must
greatly assist. Whether the roots are impatient of too much
moisture, or attracted by the gases absorbed as they cling
round those charred pieces of wood, and of clay as in pieces of
pot and brick, or whether opposite states of electricity may
affect, it might be difficult to say. It is likely, however, that
the absence of undue moisture, and the presence of a proper
quantity of gases, form the principal cause. I have seen them
cling round large pieces of porous bones with avidity, while
they refused to enter the powdered small pieces of bones, where,
perhaps, there was too great an abundance of food, the ends
of the spongioles appearing diseased and swoln. ‘The carbon
of the ashes is also undoubtedly given off as the pieces begin to
dissolve. I have seen such powder to increase greatly to
appearance the growth of hyacinths in water, as compared with
those in pure water; and the saline substances and carbon were
likely to afford most of the benefit there.

To enable us to arrive at correct data, plants should be ana-
lysed in the various stages of their existence. The comparative
analyses of plants must vary according to the age of the plant
experimented on; according to the part of the plant examined
also, if in portions; perhaps, also, according to the liberality of
the supply furnished to the roots. What is to be allowed for
constituents, and what for assistants, and what perhaps deducted
for superfluity, may be very difficult to solve, and may require
many analyses of scientific men, and much judicious observation
of practical men, before arriving at correct principles. Super-
fluity is undoubtedly prejudicial; and it has been frequently
proved by experience, that plants will at times absorb both
more water and more food in the water than are necessary, or
than the leaves can elaborate, so as to enable the organs to as-
similate. As the quantity of food absorbed depends partly on
the quantity of water absorbed, excess in some seasons and
some soils may more readily occur than in others. In seasons
when little light is present, less water is, however, absorbed,
though the season should be more wet and the ground more
moist ; and, to a certain extent, the one is a corrective of the
other: yet confusion may arise from the confliction of causes,
and may baffle and retard the efforts at establishing rules;
though, if we are cautious of deceiving ourselves and others
with preconceived notions, and do not attempt to make practice
bend to theory, it will undoubtedly in the end conduct us to
the right path.

In endeavouring to ascertain from practice the necessity for
these substances, by the effects produced by their application,
the recorded effects of experiments are much at variance.
Nitrate of soda has been found to have very different effects in dif-

16 On the Theory of Manures.

ferent situations. This has been ascribed to the places in which
it failed being near the sea coast; and, the lands abounding im
salt (muriate of soda or chloride of sodium), they had therefore
no need, it is said, for nitrate of soda, and hence the want of
effect. At Roselle, which is so near the sea as to entitle it to
the benefit of a saline atmosphere, and where common salt was
found to produce no effect which might be ascribed to that cause,
nitrate of soda was found to produce a powerful one. Yet
even here it was found by the gardener that a small quantity
killed the stool plants of sea-kale, while, at the Society’s Experi-
mental Gardens, it has been given in doses of 1 lb. to the plant
with good effect. The nitric acid of the nitrate when absorbed
must have a different effect from the muriatic acid or chlorine of »
the other. The latter are seldom found as constituents in plants,
and little is known of their beneficial action ; while nitric acid has
been found by Braconnot to produce fibre from starch, and, if
confirmed by further experience, may be found in this way to
assist in performing an important part in the vegetable economy.
It is also said to assist in the formation of oxalic acid, which
last is thought to abound more in plants than analysis points
out; the oxalate of potash being changed into a carbonate in
extracting it. Like ammonia, nitric acid probably assists also,
by the nitrogen it contains acting as a stimulus to growth: pro-
bably ammonia is formed from it, as it is generally found to give
rise to a dark green colour, denoting the alkaline state of the
chromule, an appearance which generally betokens vigour of
growth, but is sometimes found to appear without this increase.
When a sufficient dose of manure has been given before the
dressing of nitrates, they have been often found to produce no
additional effect. At Caprington this season, a lot of potatoes
had been manured at the rate of about fifty cubic yards of
well rotted manure (about thirty tons), and the crop produced
was about twenty tons per acre, the manure and working of
the land being excellent: but some drills, dressed with the usual
quantities of nitrate of soda, sulphate of soda, and urate con-
taining a great deal of ammonia, had no perceptible increase;
apparently from the large quantity of ammonia supplied by
the manure to a crop not carrying off much nitrogen, the
substances containing it had no effect. Some nitrate of soda
and sulphate of soda, sprinkled on a crop of vetches in an
adjoining field, caused a great increase of produce, showing
that there was nothing naturally in the soil against their acting.
The many causes noticed in the commencement of this essay
may have occasioned different results, and may not have been
observed. Sometimes the substances lie over year in cold
soils and cold seasons before producing effect ; and some may
have been applied unwittingly to pieces of fields which were

On the Theory of Manures. 17

inferior, not suiting the season. One part of the field, equally
good with the other and as well manured, may fail also from
tids of weather being against it, one piece being worked on a
dry day, the other on a wet; one piece or one field being
farther advanced -than another, and not suffering so much from
drought as the other, the soil being more retentive in one place,
and more open and porous in another. If all these are not
properly taken into account, the observation is imperfect ; and
some of them may, from circumstances, have eluded the ob-
servation of the most vigilant. There must be causes for every
thing, but we must wade through much difficulty in arriving at
them before we can furnish proper data, and must not expect
mathematical results where so many obstacles, seen and unseen,
are in the way.

The best experiments for ascertaining the true nature of the
action of these substances are those made by Mr. Fortune in
the Society’s Experimental Gardens. He washed silver sand
as a soil for plants, to prevent any effect from previous organic
remains; and also washed the roots of the geraniums he planted
in the sand. The result was, that none of the various sub-
stances he watered with in solution had any more effect than
common water, except carbonate of ammonia and wood-ashes
mixed, which contain the most of the constituents generally
needed in plants. In some potted in common soil, the other
substances produced the usual effect. Before any action can
take place, it is evident that real food containing all the con-
stituents of plants must be supplied from some source, and
these substances will always be most generally valuable. Such
as sulphuric acid, which is found only in very small quantities,
unless in some particular kinds of plants; and such as muriatic
acid*, of which only a trace is to be found; must be much less
needed than carbonic acid, and must act principally by their
influence on the constituents of food, cither in the soil before
absorption, or in the transformations going on in the plant.
Such bases as iron are prejudicial, unless in very small quan-
tity; such as magnesia and alumina are very little needed as
constituents, and must be sometimes hurtful in excess. Potash

* The experiments of Mr. Solly on muriatic acid, lately recorded in the
Gardener's Chronicle, show that, so far from being injurious, as formerly sup-
posed, and poisonous to plants, he found it beneficial, even in pretty large
quantities. He found it, also, to have the effect of requiring much less water
to the pot the plant experimented on was growing in; the usual perspiration
of the plant being much checked, either by the stopping of the pores, or pre-
venting the extrication of water chemically. Some pots naturally require
much more water than others, but this is likely to have been observed.
Acids, generally, are prescribed to check perspiration in human beings ; if
acids have the samie effect on plants, it may be found another circumstance
requiring attention. Such an action cannot, certainly, be generally beneficial.

3d Ser. — 1843, I. Cc

18 The Roller called Pica marina in Italy.

is most prevalent in all parts of the plant, and should, there-
fore, be most beneficial. Lime is found in greatest proportion
in the stem, and should be most beneficial to the growing plant.
Soda is found most in seeds, and should be most useful at the
time of ripening. It is evident, also, that such as soda cannot
be so much needed, as a constituent, as potash; though, as a
solvent, it is more powerful. Nitrate of soda has been very
beneficial to onions this season; its deliquescent property of
extracting water from the air may be useful in a dry season.
As a knowledge of these things spreads, it may conduce to
economy to employ them only when needed; and the object of
fruitfulness may be secured at much less expense.

Art. II. The Roller called Pica marina in Italy. By CHARLES
WatTERTON, Esq.
“T love to see the little goldfinch pluck
The groundsel’s feather’d seed, and twit and twit ;
And then, in bower of apple blossoms perch’d,
Trim his gay suit, and pay us with a song.
I would not hold him prisoner for the world.” - Hurpis.

IT Know nothing in the environs of Rome half so grand and
charming as the ornamented grounds of the beautiful villa
Pamphili Doria, the gates of which are always opened to the
public. A blessing be upon the head of its princely owner, for
this prized permission to the world at large! May his liberality
never suffer by the hand of wanton mischief, or ever be checked
by the presence of a rude intruder! Many a time, when fairly
tired with the never ending scenes of painting and of sculpture
within the walls of the eternal city, have I resorted to this en-
chanting spot, here to enjoy an hour or two of rural quiet, and
of purer air: and, could I have had a few British gardeners by
my side, the enjoyment would have been more complete; for
gardeners in general are choice observers, to them
“Not a tree, .

A plant, a leaf, a blossom, but contains

A folio volume.”

The marble fountains of Pamphili Doria, its lofty trees, its
waterfalls, its terraces, its shrubs and flowers and wooded
winding-paths, delight the soul of man, and clearly prove what
magic scenes can be produced, when studied art goes hand in
hand with nature. The walk, canopied by evergreens of
ancient growth, and at the end of which a distant view of
St. Peter’s colossal temple bursts upon the sight, has so much
truth and judgment in its plan, that I question whether its
parallel can be found in the annals of horticultural design.

The Roller called Pica marina in Italy. 19

When St. Peter’s dome is illuminated, whilst standing under
the wooded archway of this walk, you may fancy yourself on
the confines of Elysium.

As an additional charm to the beauties of Pamphili Doria,
the birds are here protected, so that not one of them which
comes within its precincts is ever transported to the bird-
market at the Pantheon in Rome, where individuals of every
species. known in Italy, from the wren to the raven, may be
had, ready trussed for the spit. I myself, in the course of the
season, have seen and examined the following list of good things
on the stalls, to regale natives and foreigners in Rome.* To-
wards the close of April, the walks of Pamphili Doria resound
with the sweet notes of the nightingale both day and night;
and, from February to mid-July, the thrush and blackbird pour
forth incessant strains of melody.

There stands in this enclosure a magnificent grove of stone
pines, vast in their dimensions, and towering in their height.
Here the harmless jackdaw nestles, here the hooded crow is
seen, here the starline breeds in numbers, and here the roller,
decked in all the brilliant plumage of the tropics, comes to seek
his daily fare. But, as far as I could perceive, after two seasons

* Wild boars, roebucks, red deer, hares, rabbits, pheasants, frogs, common
partridges and two other species, quails, water rails, godwits, snipes, woodcocks,
dabchicks, coots, wild ducks, wild geese, golden plovers, green plovers, sand-
pipers, wigeons, teal, gargany, brown-headed ducks, sheldrakes, tufted Grecian
ducks, green linnets, goldfinches, brown linnets, grosbeaks, land tortoises,
ringdoves, rock pigeons, fancy pigeons, wagtails, robin redbreasts, common
buntings, grey buntings, cirl buntings, bluecap titmouse, oxeye titmouse, long-
tailed titmouse, blackcap titmouse, cole titmouse, blackcap sylvia, song thrush,
blackbird, blue thrush, jays, magpies, rooks, hooded crows, hedge sparrows,
hawks, siskins, common larks, black-throated larks, titlarks, smaller larks,
judcocks, land rails, combs from the heads of cocks, fowl and turkey legs and
feet, buzzards, curlews, small stints, redwings, pochards, falcons, civetta owls,
whinchats, windhover hawks, kites, stone curlews, jackdaws, shoveler ducks,
gobbo ducks, hedgehogs, water hens, spotted water hens, bitterns, mergansers,
stormcocks, porcupines, foxes, goats, kids, yellow wagtails, fieldfares, hooting
owls, horned owls, barn owls, wheatears, redstarts three species, nightingales,
yellow-breasted chats, stonechats, brown-headed shrikes, common shrikes,
little terns, gulls, Guinea fowls, goatsuckers, eggs from the ovarium of all sizes,
wind eggs, larger white egret, common heron, turkeys, guts of turkeys and
common fowls, swifts, swallows, starlings, little bitterns, white-winged bitterns,
large bitterns, bullfinches, chaffinches, water tortoises, turtle doves, water rails,
shags, red-throated mergansers, badgers, lesser spotted woodpeckers, smallest
woodpeckers, green woodpeckers, small white-throated mergansers, common
wrens, common gold-crested wrens, splendid golden-crested wrens, house spar-
rows, mountain sparrows, mountain sparrows with yellow speck on the throat,
olive-throated bunting, crested grebes, Canary birds, hoopoes, rollers, bee-
eaters, golden orioles. Add to this list butcher’s meat of all descriptions, and
the finest fruits and vegetables, and flowers. By the custom-house report,
seventeen thousand quails have entered Rome in one day.

N.B. If a man cannot get fat in this city at a very moderate expense, it
must be his own fault.

C2

20 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

of observation, he does not make his nest in the trees. Holes
in lofty walls, and in stately ruins, are the favourite places for
his nidification. The cradle plumage of his young displays the
metallic colours of after-life ; hence, there is no perceptible dif-
ference in the appearance of the adult male and female. After
passing the summer months in Europe, he returns to Africa at
the autumnal equinox.

The aerial movements of this bird put one in mind of our
own rook, when in the act of shooting downwards from on high.
He rises perpendicularly, and then descends in rapid zigzag
evolutions, during which process, if you get betwixt the sun
and him, you have a magnificent view of his lovely plumage.
His voice has something in it of the united notes of the jay
and magpie.

Innovations in modern ornithology, so prolific of scientific
confusion and unimportant distinctions, have removed this bird
from the family of Pie, where it had had a place from time im-
memorial; thus rendering useless its most ancient name of Pica
marina.

It was known in the time of the Romans. “ Picus in aus-
piciis avis observata Latinis;” and it was also admitted into
heathen mythology. Virgil alludes to the beautiful colours in
its wing: and above two thousand years ago, when the gods
used to change men into other animals, just as easily as we
nowadays change eur acts of parliament, the Pica marina
was both king and horsebreaker, “ equum domitor.” He was
married to the celebrated Circe, an enchantress of the first
order; she who changed the sailors of Ulysses into swine.
The royal horsebreaker had unfortunately shown a partiality
for a young woman in his own neighbourhood, a thing not al-
together unknown in our days. This so enraged his wife, that,
with her magic rod, far more potent than finger nails, she trans-
formed him into a bird; and, at the same time, bespangled his
wings with beautiful colours.

“Fecit avem Circe, sparsitque coloribus alas,”

Walton Hall, Nov. 9. 1842.

Art. III. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. In a
Series of Letters to the Conductor. By JAmrs Barnes, Gardener
to the Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from our preceding Volume, p. 621.)
Lerrer IV. House for New Holland Plants. List of New Holland Plants.

I witt now give you the dimensions, and a few other par-
ticulars, of the most lovely and interesting tribe of plants ever

House for New Holland Plants. 21

introduced into this country, in my humble opinion, and which
generally come into flower at a very convenient season of the
year; but, indeed, there is always something new and interesting
amongst such a noble collection of plants as there is in the New
Holland House at Bicton gardens. If charcoal and charcoal
dust have made more improvement in one tribe of plants than
another, it-is amongst them. They have all of them charcoal
about them; and it is a pleasure, when potting them, to see the
fine roots they make amongst it. ‘This house has a noble span
roof, and of the same dimensions, and fitted up in the same
manner, as the heath-house, with a Portland stone walk be-
tween the stone platform in the centre and the shelves, which
go all round. As you took particular notice of my system of
potting and training these plants, I will leave you to give a
description of them. ‘There is one most remarkable plant,
Chorézema varium, amongst many others which I forgot to
show you; it is out of doors, and too large to be got into any
house this season, therefore I intend leaving it out of doors for
the present, and sheltering it a little, to try if it will do out. It
will astonish every one but those that have seen it, when they are
told that this time two years it was a plant in a 32-pot, what is
called in Devonshire a penny pot; it is now in a 4-shilling pot.
It is only 3 ft. Gin. high, and is 32 ft. in circumference, with
many thousands of shoots, all set with flowers from top to
bottom; the shoots are so thick that you cannot see whether the
plant is in a pot or turned out into the ground, for the branches
cover the grass turf all round, like a large rhododendron. But
it will be asked what made it grow so wonderfully. Why, char-
coal, loam, a little heath mould, some large stones, and a small
quantity of river sand; and, by continually stopping the shoots,
I made it so thick and dwarfish. I will give you another in-
stance of the extraordinary effect charcoal has produced on an-
other very valuable plant, Lechenaultza biloba, which has been
said by many cultivators of plants to be a bad ugly grower. Now
this plant, which I am going to describe, is about two years old,
from a cutting; it is now in a No. 2. pot, is 1 ft. 3in. high,
covering the rim of the pot, and 7 ft. 9 in. in circumference, thick
with shoots, as I have seen fine plants of L. formosa at the exhi-
bitions about London. I have counted 500 blooms open on the
plant all at one time. If there is one plant in the house more
beautiful than another, it is this plant. If 100/. were offered for
a fellow plant to it, it could not be got. The gentleman that
was with you asked what caused this plant to make such extra-
ordinary progress. Why, charcoal. It has nothing but char-
coal, stones, a little sand, and some heath mould, ali jumbled
together in lumps as large as bricks broken into about six or

eight pieces. ‘There is also Pimelea decussata, which I have
c3

22

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

treated in the same manner, 8 ft. high and 13 ft. 3 m. in ciréum-
ference. I fancy those who exhibit in London would require a
number of vans to remove sixty such specimens as this is. I
will now give you a list of a few of the plants contained in the
house, you being now aware of my treatment and method of
training them, and having so lately seen in what health they are.

Name.

Polygala oppositi-

folia - -
cordifolia - -
Pultenz’a subumbel-
lata - -
villosa - fine
daphnoides _— do.
stricta - do.

Muraltia mixta large
Correa longiflora -

quadriformis -
pulchella - -
speciosa = -
Oxylobium arborés-
cens - fine
retisum = do.
Pultenée - do.
capitatum - do.
Dillwynia rudis fine
spléndens - do.
clavata - do.
floribinda - -
cinerascens - -
speciosa - do.
pangens - do.

Boronia denticul. do.

crenulata - do.
serrulata - do.
triphylla - do.
viminea - =
anemonefolia -

Crowea saligna fine
Eriostémon duxifo-
lius - - fine
cuspidatus - do.
Diplolz ‘na Dampieri
Chorézema_ corda-

tum - fine
Dicksonz - do.
mucronatum do
varium - do.
ovatum - do
spartidides - do.
angustifolium do.
Henchmannz =
Burtonia violacea, fine
specimen.

conférta, do.

Height. Circumf.

Ft. In.
40 7
4 0
1 6
2
2 6
3)
2 0
8}
1 6
1 O
2 6
2 0
il @

Ft. In.

G2 H= Go Or
DOAS

= oS
vo}

ive)
lone)

Name.
Scottza dentata fine
Podolobium choroze-
meefolium fine
staurophyllum do.
triangulare - do.
Mirbela dilatata = -
reticulata - -
ilicifolia - fine
speciosa - -
Séllya heterophylla
very large.
Marianthus ceeruleo-
punctatus covers a
wire trellis 4 ft. high
and 2 ft. 6 in. wide,
flowering from top
to the bottom, all
in one mass.
Gompholobium tenél-
lum - fine
versicolor - do
pulchéllum - do.
polymorphum do.
tenuifolium - do.
grandiflorum do.
Hovea crispa- do.
villosa - do.
tomentosa - do.
alba - - do.
pungens - do.
Manglés - do.
lanceolata =~ do.
pannosa - do.
dicifolia - do.
Acacia Bréwnii do.
microphylla do.
prostrata - do.
nigricans - do.
pubéscens - do.
dolabriformis -
and many others.
Bossiz‘a rufa- fine
ensata - do.
Templeténia retisa
fine.

Genista rhodé]phia
fine.

Cytisus élegans fine

Height. Circumf.

Ft. In. | Ft. In.
I @ |) 4h @
Is) ©
2 3;6 4
We Gy a
94646

Orange and Camellia House. 23
Height. Circumf. Height. Circumf,
Name. Name.
Ft. In. | Ft. In. Ft. In. | Ft. In.
Cyt. racemosa _ fine Dracophyllum secin-
Hardenbérgia Comp- dum - fine
toniana - -|/2 0/4 6 Cosmeliarubra do.
monophylla longi- Stenantheéra pinifolia
racemosa- fine fine.
PoincidnaGilliész do. Gardoquia Hookeri
Tropz‘olum tricolo- fine.
rum - fine Grevillea spléndens-| 2 6| 7 4
brachyceras do. argentifolia - -|2 6/6 6
grandiflorum do. sulphurea - fine
Jarratt? - do. E’pacris paludosa do.
Chymocarpus pen- campanulata do.
taphyllus - fine onosmeflora do.
Helichrysum retér- impréssa - do.
tum - fine pulchélla - do.
fasciculatum do. nivalis rosea do.
spectabile - do. grandiflora - do.
Leucostémma vesti-~ purpurascens do.
tum - fine obtusifolia - do.
Aphélexis humilis do. purpurascens ru-
Lechenailtia formos.| 1 0| 6 O bra - fine
Drumméndi Se Oo are cerifléra - do.
Brachyséma _latifo- levigata - do.
lium - fine variabilis - do.
Plagiédlobum choroze- Fabiana imbricata
mefolium - do, fine.
Platylobium formo- Labichea bipinnata-| 1 6 | 4 0
sum - fine Prostanthéra viola-
Murrayanum do. cea - fine
triangulare - do. Banksia coccinea do.
Kennédya nigricans | 4 0} 4 6 serrata - do.
Maryatte - =D, O46 quercifolia - do.
pannosas- =\'2) On) 520 specidsa - do.
Zichya inoph¥lla -| 2 0/10 6 Cunningham do.
glabrata - fine dentata - do.
tricolor - do. littoralis - do.
Pimeléa rosea do. ze ‘mula - do.
intermedia - do. formosa - do.
hispida - do. prostrata - do.
sylvéstris - do. Dryandra nivea do.
Jinifolia - do. armata - do.
hypericifolia do. plumésa - do.
figistrina - do. pterifolia - do.
incana - -|1 0|4 6 nervosa - do.
hispida rosea SH Ol 8. 4 6 floribinda - do.

The above are only a few out of the collection
the New Holland House at Bicton.

Bicton Gardens, Sept. 28. 1842.

of plants in

Lerter V. The Orange and Camellia House, Vineries, Pineries, and Peach-

houses, Back Sheds, Sc.

List of Camellias.

I am now about to describe the Orange and Camellia House ; but,
as you took particular notice respecting their growth, health,

c 4

4

24 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

bloom, bud, &c., and my method of training them into any
shape I chose, &c., I need not make many remarks on the
plants. [Tied into regular conical shapes with green packthread.
Mr. Barnes will, we trust, give us the details in a future
letter.] I will describe to you my own method of potting or
tubbing them, as the greater part of them are in tubs. Orange
trees and camellias are both of them rather a difficult tribe
of plants to get into a vigorous state after once losing their
roots, and after the soil has been allowed to get into a sodden
sour condition. I consider the orange trees to look worse than
any tribe of plants I have under my charge at this present time.
As you requested, I will give you the dimensions of this noble
house; and then describe the state in which I found the plants.
It is span-roofed, 120 ft. long, 16 ft. high, and about the same
width.

I found a beautiful lot of young Orange Trees when I first
came two years ago; but by some means, at some time
or other, they had been so dreadfully treated for the want
of water, that they had actually. lost every root, and were as
black as the ink with which I am now writing. I was actually
obliged te get a large hammer and an iron rod, and drive
it through the earth in the tubs to let the water pass. ‘They
had been planted in a very heavy red marl, not loam, and had
been soured with water; then, by getting dry, the earth closed
together as hard as a lime-ash floor (as it 1s called in Devon-
shire), and shrunk away from the sides of the tub, so that a mouse
could run round between the roots and the tub. You may
imagine this was a curious way to see the roots of orange trees
in, but so it was. I set to work and filled up this space as soon
as I could; for what water had been given to them had run down
this cavity, and out at the bottom of the tub as fast as it was
poured in. I could do nothing more to them until the spring;
when I took them out of the tubs they were in and put them
into smaller ones, and the tubs at this time contain one mass
of beautiful fibres. I have been all this summer preparing
some beautiful loam for the purpose of shifting them early next
spring (if I should live) into large tubs, and I intend to char a
good heap or two of rubbish to mix with it, and plenty of
stones.

I must here observe before going further, that I purposely
‘keep their heads from growing this season to any extent, be-
cause they should make themselves properly strong at the
bottom first of all; for it is of no use building a house with-
out first laying the foundation: therefore, it would not be
wise of me to force a fine head upon those poor trees for
show, if they were so weak on their feet and toes as not

Orange and Camellia House. 25

to be able to carry their fine heads after getting them. Yet
I could turn them out into a draught, in a cold windy place, and
allow it to cut their fine heads all to pieces, and then say it
was not my fault, for I could not help the wind; but I should
have too much regard for the poor plants to punish them that
way.

Now, as you particularly wished me to give you a little
idea of my System of potting Camellias, I will do so: it will no
doubt be thought a rough method by some. Do you imagine
that they have the mould sifted, and all the stones picked out
of the soil in their native country? I always fancied they had
not, and for this reason, I never saw any man in the woods or
hedge-rows in this country sifting the soil for our native trees
to grow in; nor do I believe those noble trees in Bicton Park
(of which I have promised you a description some day) would
ever have attained the wonderful size they have done, if men had
been employed all their lives sifting the soil about them and
picking out the stones. I get loam and heath soil in equal quan-
tities, stones, and river sand, one barrow of rotten dung to eight
of the above mixture, well mixed up together as roughly as
possible.

Now, as I wish to be better understood than a certain author
was when he recommended nitrate of soda as a manure for

the Pinus, and was told afterwards, by those who had tried it,
that they had killed all their plants, although they had done
exactly as the author alluded to had prescribed, I shall try to
explain my system clearly; but I do not ask any body else to
follow it. In the first place all the soil should be sweet; the
dung must be rotten and sweet (some persons would call dung
rotten that came from a pigsty; I do not). No one should
attempt this kind of work, who did not know something about
it. ‘The right season for potting camellias is when they re-
quire it; not because you observed your neighbour doing so
yesterday, nor because you read in some man’s noted calen-
dar last evening when to pot those plants. You must judge by
the constitution of what is under your care; and, till you know
something about it, you will be apt to burn your fingers. Now,
I give my camellias a good soaking of manured water, two or
three times in the season, which would frighten many growers of
them ; therefore I only recommend it to those who understand
both the properties of the soil they have already used, and of
the liquid they intend using, or it will affect the plants in the
same way as a pot of porter would a weak sickly person, if
taken of a morning before breakfast.

I will now give you, as you wished, the names, &c., of some of
the plants in this house.

26 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

Height. Circumf.
Ft. In. | Ft. In.

Height. Circumf. i

Name. = q Name.
Ft. In. | Ft. In. y a
C. j. pulchérrima do.
tricolor - do.
candidissima do.

Caméllia japonica.
double white, se-
veral large ones,

some being -/|6 6 |I8 0 Pomponia - do.
Chandlers - -|5 Oj11 O Colvillé - do.
rosea ~ - -|6 0|9 6 delicatissima do.
Waratah - -|6 618 6 Palmeri - do.
Beali - -|8 010 6 Palmer’s white do.
eclipsis - 2/3 50) ©O likewise several
eximia - 2) 2 Oe @ others.

Donckelaer? fine
Cardinal - do.

Cactus speciosissima
with Epiphyllum

pendula - do. worked onit -/|10 0 |12 6
Vandésia supérba quadrangularis -| 5 5 |ll 6
fine. Jenkinsonz - -|6 6 |12 O
Schotiana - do. hybrida_—- -|6 0 |12 6
myrtifolia - do. Ackermanni fine
Fordz - do. | truncata - do.
anemoniflora alba | Witsénia corymbosa
fine. i eh.
elata - do. Rhododéndron arbo-
Rosa sinénsis do. reum - -|4 6/9 6
celestina - do. altaclerénse -| 7 6
Sweetiana - fine cinnamomeum

Victoria, several| 5 0

barbatum - fine

| campanulatum do.

| Azalea indica alba-| 3 0 |I3 6

pheenicea grandi-
flora - large

indica flore pleno
albo, a very fine

large plants.
nobilissima fine
spléndens - do.
Dallas - do.
Hume’s blush large
corallina - fine
Gilliési - do.
Gilliész striped do.

Louis Philippe do. specimen, and a
King 5) 1G} very rare one.

princeps - do. Danielsidna, fine,
picturata - do. and several others.
coronata - do. | Agapetes setigera,

Hendersonz do. very rare and

triamphans _— do. valuable plants | 4 6/9 8
Wiltome - do. glabra, very rare -| 4 0) 5 O
Perfection - do. | Enkianthus — reticu-
élegans - do. lata - -|4 0/9 6
punctata - do. quinqueflora, both
expansa - do. of these rare -|/6 0|8 4&

Blackburniana do.
Spofforthidna do.
Campbéllaz - do.

| Canavalia bonariénsis
covering a large
space of trellis-

Welbanki - do. work.
epsomeénsis —_do. Likewise numerous
Ross —-_ large other valuable
Sabinidna - do. plants.

The Back Sheds. — As you expressed a wish to have some
particulars respecting the sheds, store-rooms, &c., here, and I
have at present half an hour to spare, I will just give you a few

Back Sheds, Vineries, Pineries. Qi

lines on the subject, as far as we have gone. There is a shed
the whole length of the back of the palm-house, where you ob-
served a store of large flower-pots, and green string stretched
out going through the process of painting, &c. At the back of
the heath-house there is a mushroom bed; likewise at the back
of the New Holland house. I told you that I would some day
tell you of a sure and easy method of growing mushrooms; but
I must delay it until I have made a little more progress with
the houses. You likewise saw a store-room, where baskets,
hampers, flower-pots, wire, trellis, new tools of different kinds
not yet in use, and many other little things are kept. You
next saw another little stcre-room, where I keep charcoal dust,
bone dust, and soot. You next saw another long open shed at
the back of the two vineries, with a loft over to keep flower-pots
in; the bottom part filled with old sugar hogsheads, packing
tubs, and cement casks, with stores of loam of different sorts,
heath-mould, rotten dung, leaf-mould, cow-dung, sheep-dung,
different kinds of sand, &c.; and at the open side you observed
a quantity of rough shelves I had fixed for drying and
sweetening different soils on in the winter; as it faces the north
it answers two purposes, first by sweetening the soil, then by
keeping the snow from blowing all over the shed.

Vineries are rather scarce in Bicton gardens. Considering
what noble gardens they are, you would expect to see vineries
from which grapes could be had every day in the year. If there
is one plant in the world that I am more fond of than another,
it is the beautiful vine, for the kinder you treat it, the more it
will do for you. You saw the grapes and tasted them, there-
fore I leave you to say what you thought of them. I have a
great deal to say some day on the culture of the vine, if it pleases
God to spare me. I had once the care of a house of grapes for
a large grape-grower in the neighbourhood of London, who
had many other large houses equally good. I heard a man
offer my master 175 guineas for the crop in this house, and
would cut them himself within a given time; but my master
wanted 200 guineas, took them to market himself, and made
more than 240 guineas. Now the house they grew in was not
worth more than 701.

Pineries.—You saw and made some notes on the large pine-
pit, nearly the length of the orange-house, likewise on the half-
hardy pit the same length; you also seemed to observe the
pines and pine plants. I hope you will not flatter anything
under my charge, but point out all the faults you saw; for I
am perfectly satisfied that nothing is perfect, and mean to perse-
vere and endeavour to improve every thing under my care. If
you say that you saw queen pines here weighing more than
23 or 31b., people will not believe you, when they recollect the

28 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

rand exhibition at Chiswick, where queen pines were shown of
what was considered an enormous weight, 3lb., and one fruit
of that weight got stolen, and found its way to Bow Street.

The two peach-houses I leave you to describe, as you took
some notes of them. I-can only say the trees are too far from
the glass to get early fruit. The tool-shed, I think, you also
noted down; likewise the shed at the back of the stove, where you
noticed tubs, boxes, &c., filled with pebbles of different sizes,
broken stones, and broken potsherds of all sizes.

Bicton Gardens, Sept. 29. 1842.

Letrer VI. Chrysanthemums. Manured Water. Properties of Charcoal, §c,

Since I have taken in all the plants to the various houses, I have
arranged my Chrysanthemums. I believe you made some observ-
ations on them, and took notes, and asked me to describe my
manner of treating them, which I will now do. In the first
place, I make it a rule at this season of the year to take off two
or more suckers of each variety; I pot them in small 60-sized
pots, let them stand in these pots until the March following,
when I remove them into 48-sized pots, to grow them in. I
take the tops off in the beginning of May, and strike them ; then
in August lay a quantity from the plants that are turned out for
the purpose, to pot (as now) in the beginning of October. This
gives me four successions of plants; so that they are in flower
from this time until February next. I have also winter-flower-
ing pelargoniums, Primula sinénsis, cinerarias, Guernsey
lilies, and camellias, always ready at this time, as it makes the
houses look cheerful all the winter. The collection of chrysan-
themums at Bicton consists of about 100 varieties. I pot in
the whole about 1000 plants or rather more. I grow them in
charcoal and loam, occasionally giving them a little manured
liquid. Do you remember my observation on manured liquid,
when I espied a blunder that had been made on a row of the
largest and most forward of my chrysanthemums, and which
blunder, I was told on enquiry, had been committed by the boy,
viz. * It is well to have a boy sometimes to throw the blame
upon?” However, when manured water is properly understood
it will be a great thing, not only for gardeners, but farmers, and
indeed for all mankind, I hope.

I think you wrote something respecting the Properties of
Charcoal eighteen or twenty months since, and I believe it was
translated from the German. Now, you did not expect to
meet with so humble an individual as myself, who had not
only used it for years before, but even before he rightly un-
derstood the wonderful and astonishing properties of it. No
doubt but many have tried it in various ways, for I have been

Conservatories. 29

closely observing the different questions asked in the Gar-
dener’s Chronicle at times during this last year. I think the
first question which I saw answered by Dr. Lindley was to
this effect: that it had no other good qualities but to serve
as a substitute for other things to keep the soil porous. I
have lately seen another answer: that the chemists have not
yet come to a decision respecting the properties of char-
coal. Now I am neither chemist nor scholar, but I think I
can one day soon explain the different properties of charcoal and
of manured water, and, J flatter myself, to the satisfaction and
benefit of many; and I hope too to live to explain some
more things which will not only be startling to many, but, I
trust, a lasting benefit. But I must hasten to a conclusion,
and caution any one from using these manures before he
understands the properties of them. I give all my plants
manured water at times. Did you smell any thing, in
either house or pits, unpleasant? did you see anything un-
sightly or disagreeable? did you see one plant out of ten
thousand unhealthy ? did you see one plant that could not
breathe, if they stood ever so thick ? How is all this lar ge col-
lection kept free from disease and vermin ? I will tell you some
day, if it pleases God to spare my life. You know there are
diseases of many kinds, and vermin of all sorts, to which every
plant is subject in its natural state. You also hear of blights,
and all kinds of cures are recommended for these things; but I
think that the best cure is a preventive. I do not use blue
vitriol in manured liquid to keep the smell away, nor any kind
of poisonous drugs to kill vermin and cure diseases. We see
the rain, the snow, and the hail descend, but it is all pure: we
hear the wind blow, and it is healthy: why should we act in
opposition to nature? I hope to live to see things and persons
better understood; not so much deception and jealousy, but
more brotherly love, and readiness to assist one another.
Bicton Gardens, Oct. 1. 1842.

Letter VII. The Conservatories, and List of Plants in them. The Orchideous
Houses and Stoves, Lists of Orchidee and of other Stove Plants.

I suai this evening give you a short description, accord-
ing to your wish, of the two Conservatories, one on each side
of the temple which you so much admired, as you did also the
beautiful fountain of water, and an obelisk at a short distance,
both in a line with the centre of the temple. ‘The obelisk was
built by Henry, first Lord Rolle, in the year 1743, and serves as
a landmark for vessels at sea. You desired me to give you
some particulars of a very large Escallonza montevidénsis that
is now in full bloom with its beautiful racemes of flowers, the

30 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

circumference of which is 34 ft., and the heisht 6 ft., with 1520
heads of flowers now expanded. However, I shall treat on all
these noble specimens when I come to them.

When you were here, the two above-mentioned conservatories
were filled with pelargoniums, fuchsias, balsams, globe ama-
ranthus, Primula sinénsis, Achiménes coccinea, and cockscombs
of fourteen different varieties. All these plants are grown with
charcoal mixed in the earth, or are drained with if, and every
plant is fond of it. The houses are each of them about 40 ft.
long, 18 ft. high, and 18 ft. wide. They are both of them now
furnished with a row of large orange trees, banksias, many
varieties of acacias, including large plants of 4. alata, armata,
Bréwni?, longifolia, pulchélla major, lophantha, discolor, my v=
tifdlia, affinis, &c. Likewise large plants of

i ioind Swammerdamia antennana, very rare
cus rubigindsa \
N , . Z Seno 2
Datira (Brugmansia) bicolor Ozothamaus myrsdides
candida Callisteémon semperflorens
Hakea heterophylla _tanceolatus
Myrica quercifolia Cacalia repens
Dodone‘a pinnata Eutaxia éaxifolia
viscosa myrtifolia
Hibbértia volubilis Limonia citrifolia
Hibiscus spiralis Carya angustifolia
Sparrmannia africana Goodenia ovata, fine
Eugenia ligustrina Circumf. Height.
Leonotis Leontirus ante:
Euriops pectinatus sei ae ete | Ft. In.
an ara re = G |
Olea europea Virgi ia capensis )!2 6 |
Protea villosa Erica gélida - =i ane en Siem
Nerium spléndens _ multiflora oni 2, ©) 8 6
@ilsthra achores Indigéfera purpuras- | |
RAD eats Arye a alles |
Rueélla Sabinidna CORB fa. b Sec Es 0
Pachysandra procambens Lairus Cémphora - (14 0 20 8

A large plant of A’loe arboréscens. <A pair of large American
aloes in each house, and many others. Likewise many old and
valuable Cape plants, and many that have been raised from
foreign seeds ; a large collection of fuchsias, cinerarias, and other
plants too numerous to dwell upon at this moment.

I will now give you some account of the Orchideous and Stove
House, which is a fine large one, but crowded with plants to
overflowing. The Portland stone platform up the centre is so
crowded and full, that there is hardly room for the plants to
breathe. The Portland stone shelf all round the house is 2 ft.
wide, and the plants are growing almost on the top of each
other. The rafters are completely loaded with blocks and baskets
of all sizes, covered with that beautiful and interesting tribe of
plants, Orchidaceze; but, in my simple judgement, it does not
require a quarter of the care and attention to cultivate the
orchideous plants that many persons use. I have not yet, it is
true, had them all drained and potted with charcoal, but those I

Orchideous and Stove House. on

have done so by are in the most vigorous and healthy state, so
that, as opportunities offer, I shall use charcoal with all of them,
for I am convinced it has a very beneficial effect upon them; and
you will remember I pointed out many plants to you here, that

you might take the opportunity of observing them, and seeing
the effect it had on them, which is truly astonishing. I will now

co)

give you a few of the names of the plants in this house : —

Vanda téres, fine large plant.
Roxbarghi
multiflora, fine, large.
Aérides aff ine

tessellatum
odoratum
Phaius Albus
te, several very large
Woodfordii plants.

These three plants of Phaius grandi-
florus growing very strong in
charcoal.

Lelia grandiflora
anceps
autumnalis

Schombiargkia crispa
tibicina

Bifrenaria aurantiaca

Pholidota jamaicénsis

Cyrtochilum maculatum

Dendrobium czeruléscens
Calceolaria
ageregatum
pulchéllum
chrysanthum
grandiflorum
nobile
Jenkinsi
moniliforme
speciosum
secindum
crumenatum
macrostachyum
cupreum

Acropéra Loddigés#

Trichopilia tértilis

Megaclinium faleatum

Bolbophyllum barbigerum
recaryum —

Miltonia spectabilis

Stanhopea devoniensis
tigrina
ebarnea
oculata
insignis
grandiflora

Oncidium crispum
bifolium

On. carthaginénse
Harrisonzdanum
Lancednum
flexuosum
luridum
papilio
species, fine.
ornithorhynchon
Cebollétz
leucochilum
divaricatum
pumilum
ampliatum
pubes
pulchéllum

Catasétum tridentatum
maculatum
Hooker

Grammatophyllum multiflorum

Evria stellata

Maxillaria picta
Barringtonie
Harrisone
marginata
dénsa
squalens
Warreana

Cattléva Forbésii
Mossie
Harrisonie
labiata
intermedia
Loddigés#
Skinner
crispa
Schombirek7i

Epidéndrum ciliare
species
noctarnum
pygmee'um
odoratissimum
elongatum
clavatum
macrochilum
Harrisonie
aurantiacum
species
cochleatum

32 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

All of the following are fine large plants: —

Cypripedium ventistum
o 4
insigne
Myanthus cérnuus
Renantheéra coccinea
Calanthe densiflora
veratrifolia
Goddyera discolor
Saccolabium guttatum, very large.
Pleurothallis Groby?
saurocéphala
Lanceana
Gongora maculata
atropurpurea
Cyrtopodium ventistum
speciosissimum
Andersonz
Cymbidium sinénse
aloifolium
Trigonidium obtusum
Coryanthes macrantha
Cirrhee‘a viridi-purpurea
Loddigési
Ornithidium coccineum

Q£ceéclades maculata
Rodriguézia sectinda
planifolia
and many others.
Peristéria péndula
cérina
elata
Barkerz
Brassia Lancedna
maculata
macrostachya
eaudata
Sarcanthus rostratus
teretifolius
Zygopétalum Mackaiz
stenochilum
rostratum
Monachanthus discolor
Eulophia macrostachya
cuineénsis
Neéttia picta
elita.

The whole of the following stove plants are growing in earth,

with some charcoal mixed : —

Gloriosa supérba
Poinséttia pulchérrima
Catesbze‘a spinosa
Zingiber officinale
Russélia jancea
Croton variegata
fAAschynanthus grandiflorus
parasiticus
species.
The two latter are now bearing
long pods of seeds, from 12 in. to
16 in. long. I have never before
heard of their doing so in England.
Txora grandiflora
coccinea
flammea
crocata
obovata
rosea
Bandhuca
Bauhinia aculeata
? Manghas
parviflora
Quisqualis indica
new species
Ardisia pyramidalis
lentiginosa
crispa
littoralis
hymenandra

Ard. paniculata

Strelitza jancea
reginze

Costus specidsus

Passiflora Loadom, large plant.
quadrangularis, very fine.
bicolor, do.
princeps, do.

Gloxinia rubra, large plant.
cauléscens, do.

hirsuta, do.
speciosa, do.
alba, do.
Pressléey#, do.
Young, do.
Py RA >
Crinum er uéntum all three very
pedunculatum ra airalbarari
amabile Beppe
Billbérgia zebrina
viridifolia
fasciata
amoe‘na
discolor

Stachytarpheta mutabilis
Justicia calycétricha
peruviana
coccinea
flavicoma
nodosa
Myrtus tomentosa

Orchideous and Stove House. 33

Vinca alba
rosea
Hibiscus roseus
flavo-plénus
collinus
rubus
Hoya carnosa
Euphorbia spléndens
falgens
Breyonii
Brunsfélsia americana
latifolia
angustifolia
Pancratium fragrans
rotatum

Jatropha pandurifolia, very large.

Clerodéndron fragrans
speciosum
Aphelandra cristata
Rondeletia speciosa, very large.
Lantana scabrida
Xylophylla falcata
spinosa
latifolia
Latrus nitida
Plumbago rosea
capénsis
Abitilon aireum
Haméllia Ackermanni
Calpicarpum Roxbarghi
Hedychium spicatum
Gardnerzanum
coronarium
racemosum
Asclépias curassavica
Coutaréa speciosa
Blakea trinérvia
Bréwnea grandiceps, very fine.
A‘rum odorum
viviparum
Alpinia nutans
Franciscea Hopea
uniflora
Galphimia spléndens
Eranthemum bicolor
pulchéllum
Pavétta caffra, very large
Riyina humilis
Stephananthus hastata

Can. indica

angustifolia

lutea

coccinea
Ipomee’a insignis

Sellowz

Horsfalli
Barleéria mitis ~
Heliconia Harrisoni
Thunbérgia fragrans

lutea, fine, new

alata

alba

aurantiaca
Gossypium arboreum
Anacardium occidentale
Psidium polycarpum
Dichorizandra thyrsiflor a
Combretum purpureum

erandiflorum
Chloréphytum orchidiastrum
Hymenocallis speciosa
Piper ovatum

incanum

umbellatum
Ruéllia formosa
Gésnera zebrina, large plants.

bulbosa

spléndens

Codperz
Petréa Staplésie -
Gardenia florida

radicans

amoe‘na
Phrgnium zebrinum
Portlandia grandiflora
Echites suberécta
Quisqualis indica, new species.
Maranta bicolor
Nepénthes distillatoria, 12 ft. high.
Sinningia villosa

Schotti

maculata
Brandésia pérrigens
Dracz‘na terminalis, 10 ft. high.

Draco, 8 ft. high.
Stephanotus floribundus covers a very

large space of trelliswork.

I believe I have now given you a rough description of the

twelve houses which you saw.

The thirteenth, which is a

very interesting one, we, by some means or other, passed by in
our hurry, being briskly engaged in talking and looking at
other things. It is the propagating house, which is a small but
very pretty one, adjoining the potting-shed ground. The seeds
and cuttings are sown here; and grafting and inarching are first

3d Ser. —- 1843. I.

“

D

34 Report on rare or select Articles

begun in the potting-shed, and the plants are afterwards nursed
in the propagating house. I sow and strike, in a great measure,
every thing of consequence with some charcoal amongst the earth;
some plants are struck wholly in charcoal, and I sow seeds in
the same way.

Bicton Gardens, Oct. 8. 1842.

Art. 1V. Report on rare or select Articles in certain British Nur-
series and private Gardens. Drawn up from personal inspection,
or from communications received. By the ConpucTor.

BEING desirous of producing an Annual Report on the acces-
sions of trees and shrubs made to the British arboretum, we
advertised on the wrapper of the Gardener's Magazine, and in
the Gardening Newspapers, 1 November last, imviting nur-
serymen, curators of botanic gardens, and gardeners having
the care of private collections, to send us notices of what they
had new, rare, or remarkable. We received a number of
letters, which, with notes taken by ourselves in Somersetshire,
Devonshire, Hertfordshire, &c., we have incorporated into the
present paper. Our readers will find some things new, or that
appear to be so, and a number of articles of comparative rarity,
or otherwise of interest. To determine what is really new, we
ought either to see plants durmg the summer, or receive speci-
mens of them in autumn, which we trust we shall do next
autumn; or, what would be best of all, every person thinking
he has any new tree or shrub ought to send a plant to the
Horticultural Society’s Garden, where it will be compared with
what is already there, and its merits reported on. In the mean-
time, the Report now submitted to our readers will, we trust,
be of use both to collectors and nurserymen, and encourage
both to be more copious in their communications in Septem-
ber next, for the Report which we intend to draw up for
1843.

There are those, and we are among the number, who dislike
excessively the addition of trifling varieties to trees and shrubs,
or other plants. Nurserymen are much too prone to introduce
such varieties, and we object to them, not only on account of
their insignificance, but also because they tend to draw the
attention away from new species. How easy would it be to
introduce hundreds of varieties of the common oak, Turkey
oak, holm oak, or common thorn! At the same time we ac-
knowledge that almost all the most valuable culinary and agri-
cultural plants, and most of the finest flowers, are varieties of
the species to which they belong; and that truly distinct varie-

in certain British Nurseries and private Gardens. 35

ties are just as desirable as, or even more co than, new species.
Hence the great number of names which we have admitted in

this Report of which we know nothing.

CoRNWALL.

Malvacee. — Plagianthus Lampénii B. Booth. Botanical Reg. for 1838.
No. 2032.; Arb. Brit. vol.i. p.363. fig. 89.
(here repeated); and Gard. Mag. for 1839,
p. 275.

Carclew, the Seat of Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.
— With the permission of Sir Charles Lemon,
Bart., I forward to you the accompanying spe-
cimens of Plagianthus Lampenz, an interesting
shrub from Van Diemen’s Land, which, in my
opinion, deserves to be better known. It was
described some years ago in the Botanical Re-
gister, from specimens communicated to me
by the Rev. Robert Lampen, vicar of Probus,
near Truro, and is noticed in the Gardener’s
Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 275. It was at first con-
sidered to be the same as Sida pulchélla of
Bonpland; but, although greatly resembling
that plant, it is unquestionably very distinct, as =<
may be seen by comparing the specimens now ~
sent, with the figure of the Sida pulchélla in
Loddiges’s Botanical Cabinet, t. 1841. [The
figure above given, from the Arboretum Britan-
nicum, is from a drawing by Mr. F. Rauch,
from a specimen taken from a plant at Spring
Grove; and it so closely resembles the speci-
mens sent us by Mr. Booth, as to leave no
doubt of the identity of the species.] You
have not mentioned it in the abridged edition Fig. 1. Stda pulchélla Bonpl.
of your Arboretum Britannicum, on account, I suppose, of its being considered
not sufficiently hardy for an English climate. In Cornwall, however, it thrives
beautifully in the open border. There are plants of it here from 6 to 8 ft.
high, nearly evergreen, and at this season covered with flowers, which renders
it a desirable plant for the shrubbery, or for training against a conservative
wall in those places which have not the advantages of a Cornish climate.
—W.B. Booth. Carclew, Dec. 4. 1842.

DEVONSHIRE.

Exeter Nursery ; Lucombe, Pince, and Co. — We looked into this nursery
twice in the course of September, 1842, and were much delighted with it.
The entrance is commanding from the disposition and substantial appearance
of the buildings, the gates, and the plant-houses, as seen fromthe road. We
shall first notice the plant-houses, next the collection of specimens of rare
adel trees and shrubs, and the arboretum, and lastly the general nursery
stock.

The Camelha-house we have noticed in our Volume for 1842, p. 652., as the
finest thing of the kind we have ever seen. Though it has only been planted
four years, many of the camellias are now from 12 ft. to 16 ft. high.

The Stove, which is a span-roofed house, contains many rare and valuable
plants, among which we observed Wepénthes distillatoria running at least 30 ft.
along the rafters, with pitchers of extraordinary size; and Cephalotus folli-
eularis, a very rare plant, in vigorous health,

D2

36 Report on rare or select Articles

The Orchidaceous House contains an ample collection, including fine speci-
mens of vandas, cattleyas, saccolabiums, aerides, dendrobiums, peristerias,
&c. One fine plant of Peristéria elata, in flower, has twelve spikes 6 ft. high ;
and a specimen of Zygopétalon Mackai, coming into bloom, has thirty spikes.

The Heath-house is a spacious span-roofed structure, and it contains large
specimens of all the rare kinds, Messrs. Lucombe and Co. having long been
celebrated at the London Horticultural Society’s shows for the beauty of
their specimens.

There are two houses appropriated to New Holland plants, one for gera-
niums, and several others, besides numerous pits and frames. All the houses,
as far as we recollect, are span-roofed, which gives more light, and is particu-
larly well adapted for growing small plants which require to be near the glass ;
but they do not all stand north and south. They are all most substantially
executed, and the health and vigour of the plants speak volumes both for their
design and management.

The Specimens of rare Hardy Trees and Shrubs are chiefly contained in an
enclosure at the end of the Camellia Temple, as it may well be called. It is
surrounded by a hedge of laurel 10 or 12 feet high, within which is a parallel
line of posts of the same height, formed of larch trees with the bark on, and
connected by festoons of chains, for climbers. The interior of the area is
planted with rare specimens, access to which is had by small winding gravel
walks, communicating with broader walks; the whole forming an exceedingly
interesting assemblage. Among the plants we noticed are, Araucaria imbricata,
planted in 1832, 15 ft. high, in vigorous health; Cédrus Deodara 11 ft. high ;
Pinus australis 12 ft.; Pinus insignis 14 ft. 6 in. high, with branches covering
a space 14:ft. in diameter, transplanted two years ago without receiving any
check ; Abies Douglas? 18 ft. 6 in. high, producing cones; Juniperus excélsa
9ft. 6in. high; J. recirva 9ft. high; J. sinénsis 11 ft. high; Cupréssus
thurifera 7 ft. 6in. high, quite hardy; Cunninghama lanceolata 10 ft. high ;
Quércus [lex Foérdz 18 ft. high: this is a distinct and very beautiful variety
which assumes a conical shape, and is a free grower ; it will form a fit asso-
ciate for cypresses, Irish yews, and other cypress-like or churchyard ever-
greens. Besides these the following plants are fine specimens :— Colleétia
spinosa, Vibtrnum japonicum, Daphne indica rubra, Olea excélsa, Bérberis
Coriaria, B. rotundifolia, and B. Wallichienwm, Arctostaphylos nitida ; Mimosa
prostrata, quite hardy; Rhododéndron noébile 8 ft. high, &. barbatum (Ard.
Brit. vol.ii. p. 1148., half-hardy), R. arboreum, R. a. rdseum, #. a. album,
R. zeylanicum (4rd. Brit. vol. ii. p.1148.), &. campanulatum, &. cinnamo-
meum, and various other rare species and hybrids, mostly, however, only half-
hardy ; Andrémeda Drummond, Elzagnus sp., Quércus sideréxyla ( Encyc.
of Trees and Shrubs, p. 900. fig. 167+4.), &c.

The Arboretum is being planted along both sides of a walk 1400 ft. in length ;
but, as night came upon us before we could get half through it, we must pass
it over, not doubting that it will be rendered as complete as that of any
nursery in the kingdom, and particularly so in the Abiétine and Cupréssinz,
of which Messrs. Lucombe and Pince have a collection as complete, we
should think, as exists. (See the notice of their Catalogue of Conifere in our
Volume for 1841, p. 86.)

The general Nursery Stock of Messrs. Lucombe and Pince afforded us, if
possible, more satisfaction than the fine specimens. We do not know that
we ever saw such immense numbers of rare species finely grown, the
greater part of them in pots, in order to insure their growth, to whatever
distance they may be sent: hundreds of araucarias, from 18 in. to 2 ft. high ;
the same of Pinus insignis, from 1 ft. to 6 ft. high; Deodar cedars by thou-
sands, of various sizes; great numbers of Juniperus excélsa, J. rectirva, Cu-
préssus thurifera with its elegant tortuous branches, and many other species
of junipers and cypresses, all in pots. Juniperus communis var. hibernica,
very distinct from the Swedish juniper, in quantities, from 2 ft. to 4 ft. high ;

in certain British Nurseries and private Gardens. 37

thousands of Irish yews (we wish we could see some in every churchyard in
the country), from 5 ft. to 10 ft. high. There are two rows of selected plants
of these, from 5 ft. to 6 ft. high, on each side of a walk which is 300 yds. in
length, reminding one of the noble rows of this yew at Elvaston Castle ; many
thousands of Mahonia Aquifolium ; many thousands of the new Lucombe oak,
in pots, ready to be transmitted to every part of the world; an immense
quantity of roses, rhododendrons, of ornamental trees generally, and of timber
trees. Many of the ornamental trees are transplanted every second year till
they attain the height of 10 or 12 feet, at which size they produce an imme-
diate effect when planted out in pleasure-grounds. Among the A'cers in this
nursery we saw what Mr. Pince assured us were plants raised from seeds
received from North America as those of A‘cer sacchaérinum, but the plants
were nothing more than those of A‘cer platandides. We have found this to
be the case in various other nurseries, which confirms us in a suspicion
we have long entertained, viz., that A. platandides and A. saccharinum
are one and the same species; notwithstanding the fact that the true A’cer
sacchérinum has the leaves hoary beneath. We possess a plant of A. sac-
chaérinum raised from American seeds, which answers Michaux’s description,
as does a stool in the Sawbridgeworth Nursery, and the specimen tree of
this species in Lawson’s Nursery, Edinburgh. There is not, or was not lately,
any plant of this species in the Horticultural Society’s Garden.

We had almost forgotten to notice the fruit trees in the Exeter Nursery,
which are remarkably healthy, more particularly the trained peaches and nec-
tarmes, which are washed every spring with Mr. Glendinning’s composition,
given in Gard. Mag. 1841, p. 70.

The Mount Radford Nursery, Exeter ; James Veitch and Son. Sept. 1842.—
The nursery of Messrs. Veitch was, till lately, chiefly at Killerton, about seven
miles from Exeter, but in 1834 it was removed hither. It now comprises in
all forty acres of soil admirably adapted for the purpose, twenty-one acres of
which are the freehold of Mr. Veitch, sen., and the remainder is held on long
leases. The leasehold includes seven acres of Broadclist Heath, about
seven miles from Exeter, which, being entirely a peat soil, is devoted to the
raising and culture of American and other peat-earth plants. The grounds
at Mount Radford are compact in outline, finely exposed, and judiciously
laid out in squares and parallelograms, separated by many secondary and sub-
ordinate walks ; the former graveled, edged with box, and accompanied
with borders exhibiting specimen plants, ligneous in some places and herba-
ceous in others. The main or central walk is nearly 1000 ft. in length, and
is planted on each side with a double row of choice specimens of trees and
shrubs named. About half-way along the walk, there is a basin of water in
the centre, surrounded by rockwork; farther on there are two basins of
water, one on each sidem a recess, also surrounded with rockwork ; and two
larger recesses of turf farther on, on which are planted a collection of pillar
roses. This walk terminates at one end in the main entrance, and at the other
in the private entrance to the house of Mr. Veitch, sen. The main cross walk is
about 450 ft. inlength, with a broad border of turf, on which there is a pine-
tum. This cross walk terminates at one end in an orangery, and at the other
in a camellia-house ; both very conspicuous objects from every part of the
nursery, and from the public road ; and both, in our opinion, altogether un-
suitable for a nursery. Were they ours we should remove them without
delay. The rest of the plant structures are most substantial, and indeed in
every point of view unexceptionable ; they include a stove, orchidaceous
house, and various greenhouses and pits. There is a third walk, of about
800 ft. in length, with arched trellises at regular distances for climbing roses ;
and there are other walks bordered by standard roses. It would be of little
use to go into further details without giving a plan, and, though we have one
before us, there is not time at present to have it engraved. Taking it alto-
gether, we think this nursery better laid out than any other which we have

D3

38 Report on rare or select Articles

seen, and certainly in point of keeping it cannot be surpassed. We have not,
however, seen the nurseries of Mr. Skirving of Liverpool, or Messrs. Dick-
son of Chester, for the last ten years ; and they may probably be, as indeed
we have heard that they are, laid out with as much care as the Mount Radford
nursery. The latter has the great advantage of being all laid out at once,
unfettered by existing objects, or by being leasehold. We have heard that
this was also the case with the ground lately taken possession of by Messrs.
Dickson of Chester.

The dwelling-house of Mr. Veitch, sen., is one of the most remarkable
features in the Mount Radford Nursery, and, in our opinion, does Mr. Veitch
very great credit. It is not every one who makes a fortune by business that
possesses the much higher quality, after having made a fortune, of living like
a gentleman. We could mention several nurserymen, now no more, who had
made perhaps larger fortunes than Mr. Veitch, but who, after having done so,
had not the art of elegantly enjoying them. Mfr. Veitch’s house is in the
Elizabethan style, elegant in design externally, and replete with every com-
fort and luxury within that any reasonable man could desire. It is surrounded
by a portion of lawn laid out somewhat in the Elizabethan manner, but in
which that style is not so fully developed as it is in the house.

From Messrs. Veitch’s nursery are known to have been figured a number
of rare plants, including Kchites spléndens, E. atropurpurea, Rondeletia
longiflora, Lechenaitltia biloba, Gésnera zebrina, Manéttia bicolor, Begonia
coccinea, and, in the very last published periodicals, Tropze‘olum azureum, the
beautiful blue nasturtium, so long a desideratum. They have a collector in
South America, who has lately sent them some bushels of seeds of Araucaria
imbricata, from which they have already raised thousands of plants, so that
this fine tree will soon be as common as the cedar of Lebanon. As Messrs.
Veitch and Son have at present the care of the arboretum at Bicton, and are
rendering it as complete as possible, by collecting hardy trees and shrubs from
every part of England and from the Continent, they will be able to form a
very complete arboretum in their own nursery ; and we trust they will
do so.

The general Nursery Stock of Messrs. Veitch and Son includes many thou-
sands of admirably grown young forest trees, innumerable ornamental trees
and shrubs in pots, fruit trees of every description, trained trees an extensive
collection, pines, and even pine-apples. In a word, nothing that can be ex-
pected from a nursery is wanting in this establishment. No man in the pro-
fession of gardener or nurseryman was more respected than the late Mr. John
Veitch, who founded this family and nursery ; and his descendants show them-
selves worthy of such a parent.

Summerland and City Nursery, Exeter; C. Sclater and Son. Sept. 30. 1842.—
The grounds are of considerable extent, and remarkably well, as it appeared to
us, furnished with fruit trees. Mr. Sclater, jun., informed us that they have
avery extensive collection of hardy fruits, with specimen plants of each kind
bordering the walks. They have a new kind of grape from America, pro-
ducing a,very fine fruit with peculiarly agreeable flavour, and a most powerful
perfume. They have some superb kinds of raspberries, and a great many

articles from America, received through the kindness of Major Knox of |

Lindridge. Among these is a potato which may be said to produce two
crops a year, as, when the first-formed tubers are taken away early in summer,
a second set is produced late in autumn. This, however, is an old practice,
both in Scotland and Lancashire. This potato is so prolific that Mr. Sclater
thinks it will produce 3 cwt. per square yard, which is 33 tons per acre!
Among the hardy trees and shrubs we noticed various good articles: Mahonia
Aquifolium, with extraordinary large foliage and fruit ; Andromeda floribunda,
large specimens ; large plants of A’rbutus procéra, 4. Andrachne, A. tomen-
tosa, &c., new unnamed kind from America; Gleditschia hérrida 15 ft. high,
and 8 ft. in circumference, a very singular object, from the number and large-

ee ee ee

ness of its spines, which we mention in order to recommend this tree for
introduction among odd specimens on lawns, or in glades in drives or plea-
sure-grounds. Escallonéa montevidénsis, remarkably fine specimens ; Mag-
nolia Thompsonidna conspicua and fuscata, from 10 ft. to 15 ft. high ; Adeno-
carpus intermédius (Excyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 228. fig. 370.), 4 ft. high, a
very beautiful free-flowering evergreen shrub from Portugal, flowering from
April to November, and ripening seeds, deserving a place in every collection ;
Cunninghamia lanceolata 10 ft. high; Pinus australis, a fine specimen ; a
ereat many camellias, some of which have attained a large size in the open
ground; Musa Cavendishi, a collection of Orchidez, and many other hot-
house plants ; florist’s flowers, including two beds of named tulips, each con-
raining 93 rows; a hybrid Russian anemone, and innumerable other articles.

We were much struck with the vigour of the raspberry plants ; and a Dutch
variety was pointed out to us which produces a much larger fruit than any in
common cultivation. We noticed some plantations of cabbages of different
kinds, respecting which Mr. Sclater, jun., gave us the following information.

“ The Paington Cabbage is a very large and valuable kind, cabbaging very
early, and frequently weighing from 201b. to 28 lb. The flavour is very su-
perior, not having the least degree of coarseness, although it is so very large.
In my opinion there is no other kind of cabbage to compare with it in that
respect. It should be grown in a very strong rich loam, the plants to be 3 ft.
apart every way. I have frequently seen the cabbage in the market divided
into halves and quarters for the convenience of purchasers.

“The Cornish and Kentisbeare Cabbages are smaller and earlier than the
Paington, but are most valuable kinds, being very early, and not requiring
such a strong soil as the Paington: they may be grown much closer, say 2 ft.
by 18in. For the cottager, these kinds are more desirable than the Paington,
as they do not require so much space, and produce excellent sprouts for many
months after the first heads are cut. These are the principal kinds of cab-
bages grown in this county for garden purposes.

** The Nonpareil and Early Hope are both very early cabbages, but small.
- They are of excellent flavour, can be planted very close, and are very suitable
for small gardens.

“ The Vanack, Wellington, and Imperial are also very excellent and profitable
kinds of cabbage, in consequence of their giving a second, and frequently even
a third, crop of very good heads from the sides of the stem. There are many
other kinds grown in this neighbourhood ; but I consider those named above
are the very best. —J. S. S. Oct. 1842.”

DorsETSHIRE.

Merriott Nurseries, near Crewkerne ; John Webber. — Cineraria Webberiana,
Paxt. Mag. of Bot. for July, 1842. A beautiful hybrid. (See Gard. Mag.
for 1842, p. 415.) Azalea indica Victoria, flowers of a light purple, and a
profuse bloomer, with a weeping habit, the branches hanging down over the
pot so as to cover it.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

The Durdham Down Nursery, Bristol ; Garraway and Mayes.— We made
a flying visit to this nursery on October 1. 1842, and were only able to devote
an hour to what would have required a whole day. In the laying out of the
nursery, no expense has been spared to combine ornament with utility; and
every part is executed in the most substantial manner, The whole is judi-
ciously thrown into compartments by main and secondary walks, and along the
former are rows of specimen trees and shrubs, mostly named. There are
hundreds of specimens that we should have taken notes of, if we had had time.
The plant-houses are numerous, well constructed, and in good repair ; and
the masses of rockwork and basins of water are, in regard to design and
taste, of a very superior description.

40 - . Mode of planting early Potatoes

Cirencester Nursery ; W. Gregory.— An excellent whole sheet catalogue of

this nursery has the plants arranged as forest trees, fruit trees, and ornamental |

trees and shrubs, which occupy the greater part of the catalogue, with notices
of stove plants, Orchidez, Cacti, greenhouse plants, herbaceous plants, and
florist’s flowers. To all the trees and shrubs the prices are affixed. We
regret we have not yet been able to visit this very complete establishment.

HAMPSHIRE.

Rogers’s Nursery, Southampton.—The Durmast Oak (Quércus pedunculata
var. Durmast), Mr. Rogers informs -us, is readily distinguished by the male
catkins being of a grey colour, while the trees having red or reddish catkins
are not the durmast variety, but the species. The leaves are broader, more
pointed, and less deeply sinuated than those of the species. The value of
this variety of oak has been noticed in our preceding Volume, p. 656. In
mixed plantations, Mr. Rogers recommends planting an oak in every fifth
space, which gives an oak to every pole, or about 360 to an acre. If the soil
and situation are adapted to the growth of oak, he plants no other kind of
tree ; finding, from experience, that the oaks shelter one another, and that the
.thinnings, on account of the value of the bark, and the solidity and durability
of the oak poles, are far more profitable than the thinnings of any other kinds
of trees that may have been planted as nurses. When he plants oaks alone,
he puts in from 5000 to 7900 plants per acre. After the plants are thinned
to the distance of a rod apart, or 360 per acre, they are allowed to remain
until they become full-grown timber. We have lately introduced the durmast
oak and the Pinus austriaca extensively in Suffolk.

(To be continued.)

Art. V. The Mode of planting early Potatoes in the Neighbour-
hood of Garstang, with a new Planting-Machine. By M.Saut.

“ We live to improve, or we live in vain.”

Havine had several opportunities of seeing potatoes planted by
this mode in the present year, and the crops produced appearing
to be excellent, I am induced to describe the method to you,
for, although not new here, it may be so to some of your readers.
It is simply this.

The ground is first prepared in the following manner. A
trench is made at the end of the bed about 6 in. deep, and the
manure laid therein; then another trench is made, and the earth
laid upon the manure in the first to about the depth of 6 in.
above the manure; then manure is laid in the second trench,
and covered with earth in the same way as the first; and this
is repeated till the whole bed is done.

The next thing is to plant the potatoes, which is done in the
following manner. A line is drawn across the bed; the operator
then takes the planter shown in jig.2. It is about 2 ft. 6 in. long,
with a handle on the top; the bottom end is rounded off; a
bar goes through the upright about 6 in. from the bottom as
a gauge for the depth it is to go into the earth, which is just far
enough to reach the manure. One foot is placed upon the

with a new Planting-Machine. — 4]

cross-bar, and presses the planter down into the earth W—,
till the cross-bar reaches the top of the bed; it is then
withdrawn with the left hand and the potato dropped
into the hole. This part of the process may be done
by a boy, or an aged person, with ease and despatch.
After the bed has been planted it is raked over, which
draws the earth over the holes, and closes up the pota-
toes. When they have sprung up high enough for
earthing-up they are hoed, which brings the manure
between the rows close up to the plants. This ma-
nure is very beneficial by keeping the earth open; and,
being washed in by the rain among the loose earth, eS
is a great advantage for the potatoes setting and grow- \ |
in

The following is the greatest produce we have on ,, ‘

Hi, Gan. Lhe.
record from three roots of potatoes. The competition Lancashire
produced considerable interest at the Leyland (near =
Preston) Agricultural and Horticultural Association, which met
Oct. 26. 1841. There were four competitors for the prizes. The
first was obtained for a basket containing 674 lb. of potatoes
from only three roots of Kemp’s Seedling: they were grown by
Mr. Rose, jun. The second prize was taken by Mr. J. Lovett,
jun., Leyland; his three roots produced 663 lb. The third
prize was given to Mr. J. Ashcroft, Leyland; his three roots
produced 61 |b, The fourth was awarded to Mr. J. Leyland ;
his three roots produced 60 lb. This Kemp’s Seedling is a

most excellent po-
i b tato, and always
fetches a high price
in the market for its
quality; it is consi-
dered fit for suc-
ceeding the first ear-
ly potatoes.
I have enclosed
a Sicetel) (jens)
of an improved po-
tato-planter. The
improvement is this.
It is made of tin.
On the top there is
a pan for holding
the potato sets. gg
The part a first —==\

Fig.3. Sazil’s Potato- makes the place

i 7 Fig. 4. Saul’s Potato-Planting
Planting Machine. wh ere the seed s are 1g Wiaehine'tn dae:

to go into; the machine is then raised by the handle (4), and

! lt
satil|l\\ ee

42 General Notices. — Foreign Notices.

moved forward so that the tube (c) may come over the place made
by a. The seed is then put into the tube at d, which conducts

it to the place made for it by a. By this method there is no

stooping, because the sets are in the top of the planter ready
to be put into the conducting tube (c). You will see at once
the object of my improvement; and you may say it is strange
that this improvement should not have been made long ago. The
part e is for the foot to press the planter into the earth, as before
described.

Fig. 4. shows the planting-machine in use.

Fort Green Cottage, Garstang, July, 1842.
[ We expect to be able to give another article by Mr. Saul,
on the culture of the potato, in our next Number. ]

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. General Notices.

DEsTROYING Wasps.— This year I tried, and succeeded wonderfully, in de-
stroying the queens. They are well known by every naturalist to be the only
breeders. The method I adopted is the old simple one of hanging bottles
partially filled with sweetened water against the walls, in the spring of the
year, about the time when peaches, apricots, &c., are in bloom ; before food
for those noxious insects becomes plentiful, and while they are glad to seek
out any thing in the shape of sustenance. The water in the bottles, while fer-
menting, attracts them ; and, on their going in to drink, they are almost in every
instance destroyed. By the above-mentioned means I killed between 200
and 300 queen wasps, thereby causing a great diminution in the number of
nests this summer. While other people have had upwards of one hundred
wasps’ nests to destroy, I have not had more than a dozen, although situated in
the midst of plantations where they might, almost undisturbed, increase to an
alarming extent. — John Armstrong. Belmont, near Durham.

Clématis azirea grandiflora must rank as the queen of hardy climbing
plants. It is a rampant grower ; its hardiness is indisputable ; its large star-
like flowers are matchlessly showy, and so suitable is our climate to its
growth, that this year my plant, which climbs an Irish yew, has produced
perfect seed. Clématis Sieb6ld? is entitled to be the fairy queen of the same
class of climbers, from its slender growth and delightfully beautiful flowers. —
Richard Tongue. Forton Cottage, near Lancaster, Oct. 2. 1842.

Art. II. Foreign Notices.

NORTH AMERICA.

SHEPHE’RDIA argéntea Nutt.— Some of our readers will recollect that this
was recommended as a fruit tree by Mr. Russell in our Volume for 1831,
p- 570. Desirous of knowing how far the tree was maintaining its reputa-
tion as a fruit tree, we wrote to Messrs. Winship, nurserymen at Brighton
near Boston, U.S., who were said by Mr. Russell to be the only cultivators
of the tree in 1831, and the following is an extract from their answer : —
“We are glad you are about ta notice a plant which has always been

a ce al is

Retrospective Criticism. 43

held in the highest estimation by ourselves, as one of the most beautiful,
ornamental, and useful fruit-bearing productions in nature. The Shephérdia
argéntea, or buffalo-berry tree, in our nursery, which was 14 ft. high in 1831,
is now 20 ft. high, 29 in. girt at 2 ft. from the ground, and its branches cover
a space 28 ft. in diameter ; that is, 14 ft. on each side of the main stock. It
is a female plant, and requires the proximity of the male plant; but the
distance is immaterial while the pollen can be communicated by the wind, or
conyeyed by a peculiar insect, in appearance like the common bee, but only,
about one quarter the size. It will not mature fruit without the male. The
cultivation of it has been extensive. We have disposed of 20,000 plants, and
as fast as the male and female characters of the plants could be ascertained
by the blossom buds. The tree is propagated by layering or by seeds ;
lately, altogether by seeds. We have recently sold them at 50 cents per
plant, formerly much higher. We have not sent any to Europe, but should
be disposed to sell a thousand, or thousands, to any person you might recom-
mend, to sell upon equal shares, and receive our payment in nursery plants
from England : that is, one half of the amount of sales to our credit, to meet
our orders as for the amount above stated. Unfortunately we cannot send
any fruit this season: we did not take our usual precaution of covering the
tree with a net, and those little warblers and depredators, the birds, had taken
all the fruit prior to our reception of your favour. Another year, if you
desire it, we will send you specimen clusters of the fruit in any way you may
prescribe.

“We enclose two sprigs of the Shephérdia, male and female: the large
flowering buds are those of the male, the small ones of the female. The fruit
is of the size of the red currant; a brighter red, richer, and more nutritious.
It is a fine eating fruit after the frost has operated upon it. It is also a very
superior fruit for jellies, jams, &c. Picture to your imagination a tree con-
taining a mass of fruit, the little specimen twig enclosed producing a cluster
of 141in. in diameter, close and compact, even to hardness ; fancy a large
tree thus loaded, every branch and twig, with a bright and shining fruit, and
you may form some idea of this unsurpassed and beautiful production from
the American Rocky Mountains, discovered, as you must be aware, by that ex-
cellent man Nuttall, and named after his intimate friend Mr. Shepherd, for-
merly curator of the Liverpool Botanic Garden.

“We shall be much gratified to hear from you frequently, and by the
Liverpool line of steamers for Boston, directed Messrs. J. and F. Winship,
Brighton, Mass., U. S. A.” —J. and F. Winship. Oct. 1. 1842.

[The specimens sent were of Eleaégnus argéntea Pursh, Arb. Brit. and
Hort. Soc. Garden; and it would therefore appear that the Hippdéphae
argéntea is not a synonyme to Shephérdia argéntea. Some plants of each
sex of the Shephérdza have been ordered by Messrs. Whitley and Osborne of
the Fulham Nursery.]

Art. III. Retrospective Criticism.

TRANSPLANTING large Trees. (p. 387.)—I was much pleased with your opinion
on transplanting large trees without any previous preparation of their roots,
given in the August Number of the Gardener’s Magazine, p. 387., by thinning
out their tops at the time of transplanting, which is perfectly correct, according
to my practice. I have been obliged, upon the spur of the moment, and no doubt
many other gardeners have been so obliged, to remove trees that had received
no previous root-pruning preparation; and I have seldom failed, when a due
proportion of the branches and young spray has been cut out at the
time of transplanting. The general quantity removed has been one half or
more of the head of the tree. This is done, not by cutting out large limbs
and mutilating the tree, but by a careful and regular thinning of the whole

44 Retrospective Criticism.

head, much in the same way as in thinning and pruning standard apple trees,
so as to leave the general outline of the tree the same as it was before prun-
ing; in fact, at a distance, the head looks better and more regular than it did
before the operation. Iam further convinced, although not by actual expe-
rience upon similarly prepared trees, that, had the trees at Allanton been pruned
in the above manner at the time of their removal, their effect upon the scenery
would not have been deteriorated, whilst their larger and healthier foliage in
immediate as well as after years would have been more pleasing, and left no
cause for the observations in Strictures on Steuart’s Planter’s Guide, quoted in
the Gardener's Magazine, vol. vi. p. 91.

There are many fine old ornamental trees to be found in parks, &c., appa-
rently verging to decay, which might be renovated, at least for a few years,
were their tops regularly thinned out so as to throw fresh vigour into the
remaining branches ; and, in those districts where faggots are in request, the
prunings would pay the expenses. Trees in demesnes by the sides of public
roads are sometimes to be seen in want of this kind of pruning, in consequence
of much of the rain that falls, and which ought to go to their roots, being
carried off without penetrating the soil. Young trees from the nurseries are
also much benefited by pruning at the time of planting; not by removing a
certain quantity of the lower branches and leaving those near the top un-
touched, but by a regular thinning out of a portion of branches all over the
plant, and shortening some of the more straggling shoots of those left, par-
ticularly two or three of the stronger shoots near the top, in some kinds of
trees, which seem to contend with the leading shoot for leadership. The
lower branches should only be gradually removed in after years, as the trees
advance in growth. By keeping the heads regularly thinned, the trees, while
in a young state, are less exposed to be tossed about with the wind, than if
they were only to have their lower branches cut off, giving them much the
appearance of long birch brooms, with their handles stuck in the ground.
(See some of the young trees in Hyde Park, between Knightsbridge and
Kensington.) Were the young plantations partitioned off in Hyde Park, it
would be an excellent plan to give the different methods of pruning a trial, by
pruning each partition im a different manner; and, from observation in that
public situation, the most successful methods would soon be introduced
throughout the country. The above remarks do not apply to the fir tribe ;
they do not seem to be benefited by pruning; and branches once removed
from them never push out again, while the hard-wooded deciduous trees do
again push out shoots in abundance where smaller branches have been removed.
—E.B. Oct. 24. 1842.

Comfortable Habitations for the Poor with Gardens attached. (Vol. for 1842,
p. 637. to 642.)—I entertain the hope that the nobility and gentry will
become alive to this important subject, and numbers of them are so already.
But many small capitalists in country places find a profitable investment for
their little moneys in buying old stables, and outhouses of various kinds, and
converting them into human habitations. A large old cottage, originally
adapted for one family, will be divided into three or four tenements, with
scarcely any garden ground to each. For these, the allotment system of
the Labourer’s Friend Society seems to be especially adapted. However,
nothing can compensate the moral evils resulting from crowding families
together ; and men, finding their houses uncomfortable and no garden em-
ployment for their spare time, resort to the beer-house and the public-
house, and are thereby debased and degraded, and, in fact, ruined. I know
of no remedy for this, but by the nobles and gentlemen of England having
such comfortable cottages as you design and recommend erected for the use
of all young and newly married people. — 7’. MZ. Reigate, Dec. 16. 1842.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
FEBRUARY, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

‘Art. 1. On Horticultural Exhibitions. By James BARNES,
Gardener to the Right Hon, Lady Rolle.

Havine all my life been engaged in gardening, and having
been anxious to see the skill and industry of “gardeners re-
warded, I have carefully watched for many years “the effect of
the encouragement given at horticultural exhibitions to work-
ing gardeners. If the conclusions that I have come to differ
from those arrived at by some of my brethren, I trust the
circumstance will not be attributed to any partiality on my
part, but rather to a want of more extended observation and
experience.

The general impression on my mind is, that, under the
present system of exhibiting, it very rarely occurs that either
skill or industry gets properly rewarded.

For instance, a our principal leading exhibitions, encourage-
ment is held out for the production. of certain articles, no
matter what may be their native country, the part of England
they come from, who may exhibit them, or how long they may
have been in the possession of the exhibitor, provided only he
has had them long enough to make them his property. For
this purpose, it will be sufficient if they have been purchased
the very morning of the exhibition; and I can state with
confidence, that some of the leading exhibitors of the present
time never think of growing the productions they exhibit, but
scour the country over in search of them, to the no small satis-
faction of the nurserymen from whom they are purchased.
Whether this shows a taste for horticulture, or a taste for
exhibiting, I leave others to determine. What chance has a
gardener who grows his plants from their infancy with exhi-
bitors of this kind, who can show, at every exhibition, a dozen
of plants for his one or two? A number of respectable men
get chosen as judges for such exhibitions, who very often are
totally incapable of estimating the merit of the articles for
want of practical knowledge. Horticultural exhibitions have,
no doubt, done good by stimulating to exertion, but, for some

3d Ser. — 1843, II. E

46 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

time past, I have thought them degenerating into something
like horse-racing.

It has been my opinion for some years, that, to reward the
skill and industry of a gardener properly, the whole of the
plants and gardens under his charge ought to be taken into
consideration, by a committee of practical gardeners lke him-
self. These ought to examine the fruits and vegetables which
he raises, to see whether they are of good kinds, well grown,
healthy, and without insects or diseases; to observe the order
and beauty of his flower-gardens, pleasure-grounds, walks, and,
in short, every thing under his care, from the stoke-holes of the
furnaces, and root-cellar, fruit-room, onion-loft, and tool-house,
to the botanic stoves and conservatories. ‘Then let him only be
rewarded who excelled in the greatest number of things, taking
his place altogether; and had not only the best productions,
but exhibited the best order and highest keeping. If some-
thing of this kind were set on foot, I am persuaded it would
be a greater stimulus to improvement in gardening than the
present mode of giving premiums for fine specimens, which are
generally either produced by gardeners to the neglect of almost
every thing else under their charge, or purchased by their em-
ployers in the spirit of gambling. At the same time, I would
not altogether give up awarding prizes for single productions ;
but I would do this under such regulations as would insure
their being grown by the exhibitors.

Bicton Gardens, Dec. 1842.

Art. II. Bieton Gardens, their Culture and Management. In a
Series of Letters to the Conductor. By James Barnes, Gardener
to the Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 34.)
Lerrer VIII. The Flower-Gardens. List of Plants.

Tue first thing you noticed in the flower-gardens here was a
peculiar sort of broom I have had made for sweeping up the
grass walks, &c., the most useful and expeditious I have ever
met with. I have light handles from 4 ft. to 10 ft. in length made
to fit, which we adapt to the nature of the sweeping. If it is in
hot summer weather, the grass short and dry, we use a handle
of 10 ft. My largest size measures from side to side 4 ft., and
the length of the centre is 3 ft. 6 in. Being thin and light, they
easily sweep up all loose rubbish, and always keep themselves
clean and dry. A man will soon brush over a large space; and
at this season of the year, when there are a few loose leaves blown
about, you have no idea how soon several acres can be swept

The Flower- Gardens.

‘over with these brooms, and
‘the place made neat and tidy
very quickly. To see the great
bundles of rubbish tied to a
stick, in many places, to be
used as brooms, is surpris-
ing; and, when soaked with
wet and dirt, a man carries it
without being able to do any
work at all. I call mine the
hen and chickens broom. I
will enclose you a small rough
model of one. [Z%g. 5, is taken
from the model; the separate
broomlets are tied with brass
wire. } You will perceive that
the short fine birch, heath, or
whatever you choose to make
brooms of, is first of all col-
lected and divided into the dif-
ferent lengths, and the longest
of it is used for the middle.
I have some made with two
chickens on each side of the
hen, others with three on
each side. I make brooms of
three different lengths to suit
the weather, and heavy or
light work, which you will
readily understand. If it isa
long broom, each chicken has
two bands bound round it,
the hen three; then they are
all bound together to be ready
for handling.
The following
gardens here : —

Name. Height. Circumf.
Ft. In. | Ft. In.
Araucaria imbricata,
handsome, branch-
ed quite down to
the ground - - |11 10|36 0
Yucca grandiflora - |12 3
._A*bies Doiglasi,
branches to the
ground - - |25. 0/82 0
~Pinus Laricio -|15 0
Sabinzdna - |20 0|54 0

47

(i I
Gy 4
i Xx
i.
a
\y |! NA i) y)

KW AN Yi

SSS
——
SS
A

Fig. 5. Fan Besom in use in Bicton Gardens.

are a few of the specimens in the flower-

Name. Height. Circumf.
Ft. In.| Ft. In.
Pinus palistris [aus-
tralis Ard. Brit.| |10 0
Cédrus Deodara - |12 0/38 O
Ribes speciosum,
very large
niveum do.
glutindsum = -| 8 0/16 0
malvaceum -| 7 6)32 O
atreum - = 6) On 1s) O
lanceolitum -| 7 O| 8 O

E 2

48 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

Large clumps of the new scarlet rhododendron, including
R. arboreum, altaclerénse, nepalénse, Noblednwm, pulcherri-
mum, campanulatum, Glennidnum, barbatum, the Victoria rho-
dodendron, and most of the new and valuable sorts. Many
large camellias, of different varieties, from 5 ft. to 6 ft. high,
and Jarge round heads well furnished with flower-buds.

Height. Circumf. Height. Circumf.

Name. Name.
Ft. In.) Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
Edwardsia micro- Be, empetrifolia
phylla a] & O12 © asiatica, large,
grandiflora’ - | 9 0/30 0 dilcis
chilénsis -| 6 0 atropurpurea,
Deittzia scabra J) OG OV le wo &e. &c.
Photinia serrulata - | 8 0/15 O | Rascus androgynus,
Sophora jap. pendula | 16 Oj 14 O fine.
Callitris japonica - | 7 O Rubus spectabilis
A’rbutus U ‘nedo sa- Cytisus falcatus
licifolia purpureus
hybrida - -| 9 6/28 O Labirnum in-
procera - = 110520125 0 cisum
/aurifolia - |12 0/28 O | Cydonia sinénsis
Aristotelia Mackazi | 12 0/63 O japonica
variegata -|1l1 0/64 0 Medicago arborea
Escalloma rubra - | 4 6/32 O Callistemon semper-
montevidénsis- | 6 0|52 O florens - =) |) (806) 20080
floribtnda -| 6 0\)40 O | Aralia spinosa -|10 0
glandulosa = - | 8 0/57 O | Fontanésia philly-
illinita - -| 6 0/27 O redides, a most
and large plants beautiful shrub - | 4 6/34 O
- of other sorts. Taxodium distichum| 6 0/18 9
Cupréssus lusitanica | 14 0/48 0 | Juniperus excélsa,
thyoides - -| 8 0/20 0 very fine.
and many other rectirva
Cupressi. tamariscifolia
Bérberis pinnata Lag. chinénsis
[Mahonia fascicularis pheenicea
Dec., and Arb. Br.) suécica.

Heimea salicifolia, very fine, with thousands of beautiful yellow
flowers expanded at this time. To all appearance this plant has
been standing for many years in the most exposed situation in
ihe flower-garden. ‘The reason why I am so particular in de-
scribing this beautiful plant is, that some of our clever men tell
us decidedly that it is a tender plant. We have also large
plants of Clématis czertlea, C. Siebéldtz, Véstza lycioides,
Casuarina equisetifolia, myrtles of various sorts, and plants of
different sizes ; but, if I were to tell people in the neighbourhood
of London that myrtles are to be seen in Devonshire 25 ft.
high, I should not be believed ; but it is so. Magnolias of all
sorts and sizes, and, as standards, in all directions; even Mag-
noléa fuscata standing out, and flowering most part of the year.
Two walls, each of them 230 ft. long, which enclose the flower-
garden, covered mostly with M. g, exoniénsis, with hundreds of

The Flower-Gardens. 49

blossoms out daily. Several very fine plants of Azalea indica
alba, flowering in May in the greatest profusion. Several large
plants of Wistarza chinénsis, covering trellises, running up
poles, &c. Leptospérmum baccatum, 12 ft. high and 22 ft. in
circumference; there are also several plants of it from 4 ft. to
9 ft. You observed you had never seen such large leptosper-
mums growing out of doors before. Sdllya longiflora, covering
a large surface of trelliswork. Likewise several rare plants, of
the names of which I am not quite certain, and others whose
names I do not at all know yet; but I will send you a few
specimens, as you were kind enough to offer to find out the names
for me.

You noticed the number of Maltese vases in the flower-garden ;
the busts in niches outside the temple, the Duke of Wellington’s
in the most conspicuous place; with one of Sir Walter Raleigh,
whose birthplace is in sight of the flower-garden, and whose
property is now a part of this demesne; also a bust of the hero
of Trafalgar. You observed the marble fountains, the shape
and furnishing of the flower-beds, the green terrace walks and
slopes, terminating with the little parish church, not seen till you
approach it closely; and, as you noticed all these things, I shall
not dwell upon them.

Bicton Gardens, Oct. 10. 1842.

Lerrer IX. Importance of Cleanliness, Manure Water. Charcoal,

TuE necessity of cleanliness amongst plants is universally
acknowledged, but very partially practised. Dirtiness is the
parent of all disease. What is more disgusting than a dirty
dwelling-house? It becomes a harbour for all kinds of dis-
ease and vermin; but, if you keep it clean, you will not be
plagued with either. There will be no food for flies and wasps,
and none for the spider. So it is with all vegetation: it is only
from our neglect that plants become covered with disease and
vermin. I have seen, it is true, some few things a little im-
proved within the last twenty-five years, but nothing is yet
brought to that degree of perfection which it might be. Why
Is itso? Because, in my humble opinion, we often act in direct
opposition to nature. ‘Those who fancy they have made a
new discovery, wishing to be considered more learned than
their neighbour, do not assist him, but keep the secret to
themselves, that their neighbour may not try to make some
improvement on what they consider as their inventien. In un-
folding my small and humble store of knowledge, I do not do
so for gain of any kind to myself, nor am I doing it for a name,
for if you think it right to withhold my name, do so; only it
may be desirable, perbaps, for my brother-gardeners to have
Er 3

50 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

some authority to refer to, as I mean to relate nothing but
what I have put into practice fully; and I do not care who
examines me. Perhaps I may not sufficiently explain myself,
but the sooner I endeavour to do so the better.

Is it not disgusting to go into a house of fruiting pines and
see them covered with scale and coccus of all kinds; and to
smell black and yellow sulphur, black soap, and many other
fetid drugs? Ihave seen such fruit sent to noblemen’s and
gentlemen’s tables as I have not considered wholesome to eat;
such as I would not have tasted myself. Houses of grapes
covered with coccus, red spiders, and other vermin; the bunches
shanked, cankered, and mildewed, &c. Can such fruit be whole-
some to eat? I have seen melons, cucumbers, and other things
in the same way. Whose fault is it? Not nature’s, but those
who had the charge of the plants. Now, the grand secret is to
sweep, brush, and mop; to use pure water and pure soil, with
a proper drainage. These are the preventives for all kinds of
disease and vermin. Well, but how are we to clean the already
foul and diseased collection of fruit and plants? I will tell you,
and in doing so state nothing but facts; but you must persevere,
or you will not conquer. You must give your hothouses, green-
houses, forcing-houses, pits, and frames, air before the sun
comes on them, and keep every thing properly watered; and, to
clean and expel the present stock of vermin, you must use
clean hot water from 140° to 150° Fahrenheit. Cut a bit of
cloth into a circular shape, a little Jarger than the pots, and in-
sert in its circumference a string to draw and tie round the rim
of the pot; put a good handful of moss underneath the cloth, so
as to keep all tight together, and prevent the earth from falling
out, and the hot water from getting to
the roots of the plants, &c. The cloth
must be cut in the manner shown in
fig. 6., with a slit or opening half-way
across it, to admit the stem of the plant |!
to pass through. Then tie it up quite
tight, and apply the water with a sy-
ringe. I find that water heated from
140° to 150° Fahrenheit is sufficient to
kill or expel any kind of mealy bug,
coccus, scale, or vermin whatever, but not
by one application; for, if the plants are
very dirty, the insects will in time reappear

: Fig. 6. Cloth for tying over the
from the crevices where they had taken GLEE GEO

refuge. You must, therefore, persevere in repeating the syring-
ing with hot water, and you will have the pleasure of seeing
your plants become clean and healthy. Pray observe that,
if the plant is in a growing state, you must not use the

Importance of Cleanliness. Charcval. 51

hot water in a close place, for it will sometimes touch the
young and tender leaves and shoots. Beware of that. When
the plant has been stunted and starved, I have applied the
water as high as 154°, and the vermin came off like the
peelings of onions, and the plant acquired new life, and grew
_ afterwards amazingly; but if you should use the water at 150°
in the spring of the year, when the plants are growing freely,
and the foliage and the shoots are young and tender, more espe-
cially if the place where you use it should be close, and the
steam cannot get away quickly enough, the plant will be scalded.
On the other hand, if the plant be taken into a shed, or some
such place, or if you give the house in which it is a little air,
there is not the least danger of scalding, and the plant will
derive wonderful benefit from the syringing. I manage thus:
I vet two bricks, lay them in such a manner as to support the
pot, and place it between them, the rim of the pot resting on the
two bricks, so as to admit of
the plant being raised or low-
ered in an oblique position
without touching the ground
(see fig. 7.): this will also
admit of turning the plant
round at pleasure, so as to
allow of syringing every part
of the plant, as well over the
surface of the leaves and
heads of flowers, as on the
under side of them, so that
hot water may touch every i
part of the plant except the ==. ' annie
roots. Syringing answers bet- "5,7, Mateo pacing Plants in Pots when they
ter, according to my own
practice, than pouring on the water from a_watering-pot,
which would probably scald the plant, in the same manner as
dipping it in water would do. For instance, if you syringe
water at 150° heat against the back of your hand, it will
only give you a smarting twinge for a moment; but if you dip
the other hand into the same pot of water, it will scald it
severely. Practice will soon teach you, if you persevere.

Manure Water. — What is it? It is composed of sheep-
dung, cow-dung, soot, lime, and nitrate of soda, all mixed to-
gether, to be applied to the constitution of the plant as we see it
requires If.

And now for Charcoal, that astonishing material, that purifier
of all things. I have proved the use of charcoal in some
thousands of instances. Did I not point it out to you when you

were here? I do not claim making the discovery, for I do not
E 4

52 How to make the most of

know but that thousands have seen the same effects of charcoal
in woods as I have done, for I have seen it in different parts of
the country for the last twelve years at least; but I have not
seen it put into practice, nor heard of any person using it, until
within the last eighteen months or so. As I have stated: in my
first letter [p. 558. of our last volume], I came to think of trying
it because I saw nature making use of it. In a place where
scarcely a bush or a weed would grow; where there was a yellow
stiff clay, and the subsoil was a rock of clay and gravel; where
the clay had been poached about in wet weather; and where
rusty-coloured mineral springs oozed out and ran about, I have
seen, from charcoal dust being put on it accidentally, the barren
spot become rich and luxuriant. Was not that enough to make
me look about, and consider if I could not turn this to good
account? I did so, and I have used charcoal ever since, more
or less, as I could get it. I put it in bags and place it in
cisterns of water, and into the manured water; I mix it amongst
the earth, and drain almost every plant with it; and I am
perfectly satisfied of its attractive purifying qualities. I was
along time before I could understand so much about it; but
now I shall continue to use it, and I hope to keep my plants
in the same healthy state in which you have lately seen them.
Bicton Gardens, October 11. 1842.

Art. III. How to make the most of a Cottage of only Two Rooms.
By R.

Mucu has been said of late of mechanics’ cottages, and some
designs have recently been published of dwellings for this class
of persons, that have contained jive rooms; but we all know
that mechanics in general (unless they depend on lodgers)
have not the good fortune to enjoy this extent of accom-
modation. This is not the state of things that ought to be,
but it is the state of things as they are; for many mecha-
nics are obliged to be content with even one room, and they
consider themselves well off when they have two. At the
same time many liberal noblemen build houses for their la-
bourers containing five rooms, and even more, with a deal of
external ornament to boot; but this is the exception, not the.
rule; therefore we must try to make the most of a two-roomed
cottage; and the accompanying plans are submitted for that
purpose.

Fig. 8. is the plan of a two-roomed cottage before it was
altered. It was originally a wheelwright’s shop, and the land-

a Cottage of Two Rooms. aes

lord, in converting it into a dwelling, just put a fireplace in
each end, and the division down the middle; the two windows
were the shop windows, and the two doors were originally one

Fig. 8. A Cottage of Two Rooms before being altered.

large door for the wheelright. The out-buildings were made
similar to those of jfig.9. There was no proper situation for
a bed, and as soon as the door was opened the bed was exposed;
besides, the rooms were very cold in winter from having no
passage or inner door. The occupant wished to get rid of these
erievances, as well as to have a kitchen, parlour, and bed-room
(in effect), without the expense of building an additional room.
To accomplish this I converted the house into fig. 9. by putting
up a wainscot division in the east room (the building faces the
south), making a closet in the passage, leaving sufficient room
behind it for the length of a bed. Concealed beds are very
much the fashion in Scotland, and I believe, too, in France.
An upper chamber is, however, always preferable for a bed-
room where it can be had; but when it cannot, a well-aired
bed recess, with a neat curtain in front, leaves a sitting-room
tidy, and conveys the idea of a respectable family. A window
was made in the east end of the house, as the front window was
too small, and the door of the west room was converted into a
window. ‘The occupant has been so well pleased with the new
arrangement of his house, that he has had the parlour painted,
papered, and carpeted. The exact amount of the mason’s and
joiner’s bills was 62. 10s. 3d.; and let landlords just look to the
additional comfort that this small amount affords. I have not
sent you the elevation, for it is not handsome, and has not
been altered; but for the matter of 42 10s. I could beautify the
exterior with lime, trellising, &c., so as to make the house an
object of interest. In the improved plan (jig. 9.), a is the lobby ;

54 How to make the most of a two-roomed Cottage.

N
IN

N

TE

EL LLL LLL
j y

Fig. 9. A Cottage of Two Rooms made the most of.

b, kitchen, where a press bedstead might be put if there were
any children; c, pantry; d, wood; e, privy; f, ashes; g, coals;
and f is the parlour, in which is the recess for the bed (¢) with
a tasteful curtain in front. This recess is well aired by an open-
ing through to the kitchen, close to the ceiling. To give some
idea of the comfort of the room, I would just observe, that in
the bottom of the new window there is a large covered box
which serves as a wash-hand stand for the wife when there
is any one in the kitchen, and for the husband on a Sunday
while the wife is engaged in the other room with her culinary
matters; it also serves to hold brushes, combs, &c., to prevent
the room having the appearance of a bed-room, while the top,
at other times, answers the purpose of a work-table. The
sofa is placed at J, the clock in case at m, a chest of drawers at
n, and tables at o. The closet (p) was made for holding clothes,
linen, &c., and any thing that would, if left in the parlour,
make it look like a bed-room. f

We have recently converted an old barn into a comfortable
little two-storied cottage ; the outline happened to be of a form
that was easily convertible into a neat simple old English cot.
Shall I send it to you? [We shall feel very much obliged for
it. Such communications are the more desirable, after what
our correspondent 'T. M. has stated respecting the converting of
old stables and outhouses into human habitations, and large
cottages into small ones, &c., in p. 44. |

Derbyshire, July 13. 1842.

Rare or select Articles in certain British Nurseries. 55

Art. 1V. Report on rare or select Articles in certain British Nur-
series and private Gardens. Drawn up from personal inspection,
or from communications received. By the ConpucrTor.

(Continued from p.40. and concluded.)

HERTFORDSHIRE.

THE Sawbridgeworth Nursery; T. Rivers, jun.—We visited this nursery
Oct. 20. 1842, and were much gratified by the extent of the collection, the
excellence of the soil, and the great vigour of the plants. So many curious
things we have scarcely ever found in any nursery. Mr. Rivers makes an
extensive tour among the Continental nurserymen every year ; and, as these
are continually straining every nerve to procure new varieties, he sel-
dom returns without something new. Notwithstanding this, there are still
a number of things in the Jardin des Plantes, particularly acers and Poly-
gonaceze, which are not in British nurseries, but which Mr. Rivers might
procure through M. Camuzet. (See Gard. Mag. 1840, p. 394.) We do not
give the names in the following list as entirely new, though some of them are
so; we give them simply as those of articles which we thought at the time
were noticeable from the vigour of their growth, comparative rarity, or from
the large stock in hand, If we had more leisure and room, we should notice
some of Mr. Rivers’s propagating-houses, as being of very judicious and
economical construction, in which he has applied Arnott’s stove, and the
British sheet glass, in a very economical and satisfactory manner. We have
taken no notice of Mr. Rivers’s collection of roses, because every body knows
it to be one of the most comprehensive and select in this country. They are
all named with zinc labels written on with prepared ink, which Mr. Rivers
finds to remain quite clear after having been in use upwards of ten years.
The ink used is not that invented by M. Teichmacher, and sold by Thompson
and Gordon, Fenchurch Street ; but one composed as follows: Nitrate of cop-
per, 1 drachm ; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 2 drachms; lampblack, 2 scruples ;
and water, 40z. This ink is very black and legible, and not so liable to pro-
duce a white crust as that of M.Teichmacher. After being written upon, the
labels require drying in a hot sun, or on a stove, for two or three days ; for,
unless they are well dried, they contract a white crust, which soon covers
the letters, and ends in obliterating them. Whenever this white crust ap-
pears, it should be rubbed off with linseed oil and flannel. The writing
on these labels, Mr. Rivers observes, seems as if it would last for ever, for
rain, frost, and sunshine seem to have no effect upon it. A cheaper label,
either for a private or public garden, cannot well be.

Ranunculaceae Clematidee.— Clématis Viticélla major, A variety with very
large blue flowers ; a beautiful climber.

Clématis macropétala, Atragene macropétala Ledebour. Has not yet bloomed
here. Habit distinct. Belgium.

Berberaceze.—Beérberis petioldris Wallich. H.S. “ This is a very distinct
species, with the largest leaves of any of the simple-leaved berberries yet in-
troduced. It is from the North of India, and quite hardy. It was first raised
in the gardens of the Society from seed received from Dr. Royle.” — G, G.

Bérberis vulgaris spathulata, A slender-twigged variety, very distinct.

B. vulgaris foliis purpureis, Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 1111. The
purple-leaved Berberry. Its leaves and spines, in early summer, are of a deep
purple colour, and the calyx of the flowers of a dark brown. A very elegant
shrub. Belgium.

Bérberis vulgaris Fischérii. Has long slender shoots ; deciduous. Belgium.

Mahonia fascicularis hyjbrida, M. répens fascicularis, Encyc. of Trees and
Shrubs, p. 53. Of fastigiate robust growth, the foliage very large, and the
plant quite hardy. A fine variety. :

56 Report on rare or select Articles

Cistacee@. — Céstus. A species from Mexico ; a curious trailing plant; has not
yet bloomed. “It is the Helianthemum glomeratum of Sweet.” — G. G.

Tilidcee.— Tilia europe.a macrophylla, A magnificent variety, with robust
shoots, and leaves of enormous size. Plants of the common lime raised from
seed of the Dutch lime imported from France, are of a habit much more
robust and fastigiate than those of the common lime when raised from layers,
as it commonly is in this country. The leaves of seedlings also remain on the
trees from a fortnight to three weeks later than they do in plants raised from
layers.

Ternstromiaceze. —Théa Bohéa major. Seemingly a hybrid between 7.
Bohéa and T. viridis. Habit robust and distinct. Belgium.

Aceracee. — Avcer palmatum 1.8. Quite hardy in this nursery. Encyc.
of Trees and Shrubs, p. 90.

TEsculacee.— FE'sculus Hippocastanum spectabile, with very large leaves.
Has not yet flowered. France.

ZE’sculus Hippocdstanum fore pléno Baumann. Forms a long spike of imbri-
cated flowers. Has bloomed at Angers. It flowers were described by M.
Leroy of Angers as much like those of Chionanthus virginica, the fringe tree.

Staphyleacee.—Staphyléa Emodi Dr. Royle.

Celastracee.— Euénymus obovatus. A hardy evergreen species. Belgium.

Eudnymus repens. A hardy evergreen species of horizontal growth, from
Belgium.

Eudnymus europe us péndulus. A curious weeping variety.

Aquifoliacee. —Ilex madeirénsis nigréscens. A dark-leaved variety raised
from seed here, seemingly much more hardy than the species.

Iver madeirénsis fol. variegatis. A partially variegated variety from France,

TWewx vomitoria.

Ilex castaneefolia and I. ligustrifolia. Apparently varieties of I‘lex Casstne.

Tlex opdca rectrva. Leaves recurved.

Ivex estivalis (Prinos).

Rhamnacee.—Paliurus Pallasii. Belgium. “ Probably the same as Rham-
nus Pallasi, a species nearly related to the curious &. Erythroxylon, and
seems intermediate between #&. Erythroxylon and &. /ycioides.” — G. G.

Ceanothus hybridus ceruleus. A hardy elegant shrub with blue flowers,
between C. americanus and C. azureus.

Ceandthus hibridus flore cirneo. From the same source, with flesh-coloured
flowers.

Leguminacee Lotee. — Spartium radidtum, grafted on the laburnum. The
double furze has also flourished from four to five years on this stock. It was
killed in the winter of 1837-8. The white Portugal broom and the com-
mon English broom, grafted on the laburnum, make singular plants.

Genista pilosa, grafted on the laburnum. Also a singular pendulous plant.

Genista pirgans. A pretty dwarf hardy shrub.

Genista anxantica, grafted on the laburnum. Forms an ornamental lawn
tree.

Cytisus sessilifolius var. strictus. A free-growing upright variety from
France. Forms fine standards.

Robinia Pseud-Acacia péndula. Trained up, or grafted standard high, from a
dwarf bush it forms a graceful semi-pendulous tree.

Robinia Gondouiniana. A curious dwarf variety with very large leaves.

Robinia hispida major. Forms a fine drooping tree when grafted standard
high. It requires its shoots to be shortened twice in summer, to prevent
damage from wind. If the points of the shoots are pinched out with the
finger and thumb in June, the plant will bloom again in September. A
beautiful tree.

Leguminacee Cassie. — Cércis Siliquastrum flore cérneo, Was pale flesh-
coloured flowers.

Cércis Siliquastrum flore albo. tas flowers nearly white,

in certain British Nurseries and private Gardens. 57

Rosacee Amygdalee.— Amiygdalus comminis grandiflora, Was very long
leaves and large flowers.

Amigdalus Pérsica péndula, the pendulous-branched Peach. Handsome.

Amygdalus incdna, the hoary-leaved dwarf almond, A pretty shrub, not
uncommon.

Amygdalus Peérsica nana, the dwarf Orleans Peach. Grows but two inches
in a season, and bears fruit in pots.

Amygdalus nana flore albo, the white-flowering dwarf Almond. A handsome
shrub.

Amigdalus ispahana flore pléno, the double Ispahan Peach. With very narrow
leaves and slender shoots.

Armeniaca vulgaris incisa, the cut-leaved Apricot. France,

Cérasus Padus péndula. A distinct and interesting pendulous tree.

Cérasus Padus heterophilla variegdta. A pretty variegated small tree, from
France.

Cérasus Pddus aucubeefolia. Has large spotted leaves, like the aucuba.
France.

Cérasus Padus rubra, the Cornwall Bird-cherry.

Cérasus Laurocérasus var. stricta, Raised from seed in Wilson’s Nursery,
Derby.

Bess Laurocérasus colchica, A variety of the common laurel, with slen-
der shoots, rather pendulous. Booth of Hamburg,

Cérasus prostrata,

Cérasus persicifilia, Paris,

Cérasus gre‘ca Baumann, A yery ornamental species.

Cherries are in this nursery grafted on Cérasus MJahaleb, for dwarf trees
and for potting.

Rosdcee Spireée.—Spire‘a Reevesiana and S. aérctica. Dwarf shrubs, with
white flowers, “ Spirz‘a Reevesidna Hort. is the Spirze‘a lanceolata Poir.,
Bot. Reg., and Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 1114., a handsome nearly
evergreen species, with rather large corymbs of white flowers. It appears to
be quite hardy.” — G. G.

Rosdcee Rosee.— Rosa Banksie spinosa alba. A very robust-growing
variety ; its vigorous shoots have numerous recurved spines.

Rosdcee Pomee.— Cotoneaster denticulata and C. margindia, Very pretty
evergreen species. The latter has around its leaves a bright silvery margin,
in which only it seems to differ from the former, ‘ Cotoneaster denticulata
is very distinct from C. marginata. The latter is nearly related to C. duxi-
folia, but differing in having larger and more marginate leaves, and is from the
North of India; while the former has leaves nearly as large, resembling
those of C. nummularia, and is from Mexico.” — G. G.

Méspilus germanica var. Neflier monstruéuse. A large variety of the Notting-
ham medlar, which grows well grafted on the common thorn,

Pyrus Sorbus var. Sorbier de Neuilly. Apparently a variety of Pyrus Sér-
bus with very large pinnated leaves.

Pyrus nivea, A variety of P, A’ria resembling P, vestita, but very hardy and
robust.

Pyrus A’ria latifolia, Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 434. Pyrus lanugindsa
Ibid. p. 438. Pyrus edulis, Ibid. p. 433. All these grafted on Pyrus A’ria
make fine ornamental trees; the last is rather a rare variety, and the fruit is
good to eat,

Pears grafted on Pyrus A’ria unite well and grow freely, but they haye
not yet fruited at Sawbridgeworth.

Pyrus spectdbilis Rivérsii. A variety obtained here from seed, in an attempt
to fertilise the species with Pyrus japonica. Flowers larger and deeper in
colour than the species; habit more robust ; leaves more rugose,

Granatacee.—Punica Grandtum plenum miajus, the Grenadier Royale of
France, with very large flowers, and robust habit. A splendid variety.
France,

58 Report on rare or select Articles

Pinica Grandlum dlbo pléno. A double variety with “ large double white
flowers.” France.

Panica Grandtum ndnum dlbo pleno, the dwarf double white Pomegra-
nate. France.

Philadelphacee.—Philadélphus mewxicanus. A pretty very dwarf species.

Nitrariacee.—Nitraria Schdberi. In sandy loam, salt occasionally applied.
Killed in most nurseries in 1837-8.

Grossulacee.—Ribes Menziésii. A beautiful species, not common.

Ribes Aybridum. A hybrid between R. atreum and &. sanguineum. Raised
by D. Beaton. Pretty and distinct.

Caprifoliacee. — Lonicera sempervirens supérba. A \arge-flowering variety.

Lonicera sempervirens serétina, A vigorous-growing variety ; blooms till
November. From Mr. Young of Taunton, in which neighbourhood it was
originated in 1837, or before.

Lonicera occidentalis. Glaucous leaves, and orange-coloured flowers ; very
hardy and robust.

Lonicera Géldii. A variety of the above. ‘“‘ Lonicera (Caprifolium) Goldz,
if correct, is the same as Lonicera (Caprifolium) pubéscens, and not like
Caprifolium occidentale of Douglas.” — G. G.

Lonicera atirea. Quite distinct from L. flava; grows more freely, with
pale yellow flowers. Belgium.

Ericacee Ericee.—A'rbutus. From the Crimea; belongs to the A. An-
drachne family, with deep red petioles. Has not yet flowered here.

A’rbutus magnifica, A. prunifolia, and A. magnoliefolia, are hybrids from
A, Andrachne.

A’rbutus Millerii. A red-flowering hybrid, with the habit of 4. Andrachne
hybrida. Bristol Nursery. See Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 575.

Ericacee Rhoddree.—Rhododéndron luteum. With rugose evergreen leaves.
Said to be a hybrid between R. caucdsicum and Azalea péntica. Habit dwarf
and bushy.

Rhododéndron Adansonii Baumann. A new species; probably a hybrid of
the R. azaleoides family. A pretty dwarf evergreen bush.

Rhododéndron azaleoides album. Flowers white. Belgium.

Rhedodéndron Wilsonii. A pretty dwarf hybrid, with some apparent affinity
to R. myrtifolium.

Pernéttya floribinda. A dwarf and pretty hardy evergreen shrub.

Pernéttya Cummingii. A prostrate evergreen hardy shrub.

Oledcee Fraxineé. — Fraainus sp. From Kamaon. Dr. Royle. “This
is the O’rnus floribindus of Dr. Wallich.” — G.G.

Frévinus excélsior glomerdta. Forms curious pendulous shoots. Found on
a tree of the common ash at Stanstead Bury, Herts. When grafted on the
common ash, it becomes a stiff glomerated dwarf tree.

OVea excélsa. Grafted on the common privet.

OVea europea robista. A hardy olive from the Crimea. H. S.

Ligtstrum angustifolium. Apparently a variety of Z. vulgaris, with very
long leaves. Belgium. “ Ligistrum angustifolium is not L.nepalénse, but
is the Phillyrea robasta of Wallich, which was raised by Messrs. Loddiges.
L. nepalénse is the same as L. vestitum of Wallich, a plant with large broad
pubescent leaves, resembling those of the common lilac.” — G. G.

Ligtstrum vulgare buxifokum. A very distinct and pretty compact variety ;
decidedly evergreen. From Mr. Smith of Worcester.

Dem grandifiorum. Evergreen, with pubescent foliage, seemingly half-
hardy.

Clee Syringee.—Syringa vulgaris grandiflora. A very strong-growing
variety ; the flowers are not larger than those of the species, but the spikes
are very large-shouldered, like the bunches of some varieties of grapes: much
like Lilac Charles X., but more robust. It forms a fine standard.

Lilac Prince Notger. A new variety from the Continent, with long pointed
leaves ; has not yet flowered here. :

in certain British Nurseries and private Gardens. ‘59

Syringa Hmodi, Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 638. fig. 1244.; S. indica
Wall. Quite hardy.

Jasminacee. — Jasminum revolutum Ker, J. chrysanthemum Rowb., Encyc.
of Trees and Shrubs, p.655. A pretty shrub.

Jasminum odoratissimum, jonquil-scented. Remarkably fragrant, tender ;
deserves a place in every greenhouse.

Scrophularidcee. — Biddlea séssilis, A dwarf and tender shrub ; has not yet
flowered here.

Pentstémon Scotdleri. On sandy soil, a hardy evergreen shrub.

Thymeleacee. — Daphne Cneorum strictum. An upright-growing variety ;
raised from seed in France.

Daphne Cneorum grandiflorum. A variety with broader leaves and larger
flowers than the species. Raised from seed in France.

Daphne lutetiana. A hybrid raised in Paris: very fragrant.

Daphne Aucklandii, Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 1117. Of the D.
Gnidium group; with broader lanceolate leaves and a more robust habit
than D. Gnidium. India, but hardy.

Daphne collina latifolia. A distinct broad-leaved variety of D. collina;
raised in France.. More tender than the species.

Eleagnacee. — Hippophae salicifola, Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 669.
fig. 1369.

" Bledgnus triflora, and E. argéntea (Shephérdia argénteaNutt.). Shrubs ;
the first species scarcely half-hardy. E. refléxa. Belgium.

Artocdrpee. — Morus alba incisa Large serrated leaves,

Morus alba intermedia. A hybrid of MM. a. Morettiana.

Ulmacee.— Céltis cordata. Large cordate leaves.

Céltis dspera. Very narrow round leaves. Both sorts are raised from seed
from the South of France.

Juglandacee.— Pterocarya caucasica. A fine free-growing ornamental tree.
The vigour of the plants of this species in the Sawbridgeworth Nursery was
so much greater than what we had seen anywhere else, that we were quite
astonished at them.

Salicdcee.—Salix americana péndula. A prostrate species [possibly S. pur-
purea], with dark shoots and leaves. glaucous on the under surface, forming a
most elegant pendulous tree, when “grafted on the broad-leaved willow with
obtuse rugose leaves and purple shoots. Mr. Rivers does not know the
species. It does not succeed on the narrow-leaved species of willow. It has
been grafted on some species of Pépulus, but lives only one or two years at
most.

Populus laurifoka Booth. P. viminalis Booth.

Betulacee.— A'Inus jorullénsis. A species from Mexico.

Corylacee or Cupulifere. — Quércus pedunculata fastigiata viridis. A variety
of Q. p. fastigiata with green shoots and light vivid green foliage, selected
from seedlings raised here.

Quércus pedunculata Hodginsii, the Irish hybrid Oak. Retains its leaves,
which are green, till the end of the year.

Quércus pedunculata hibrida H. S.

Quércus pedunculata atirea. Bright yellow shoots. France, 1841.

Quércus pedunculata macrophijlla. eaves very large and long. France,
1841.

Quércus sessiliflora ambigua H. S. Q. falkenbergénsis Booth. Q. panné-
nica Booth.

Quércus E’sculus, Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p- 853. ; syn. pubescens pén-
dula. A pendulous and beautiful variety of Q. pubéscens (E’sculus) received
from France as Q. péndula nova.

Quercus Cérris laciniata. An elegant variety of Q. Cérris from H. S.

Quércus Cérris cana. Habit dwarf and spreading.

Quércus Cérris fulhaménsis péndula. A weeping variety from seed here.

60 ' Report on rare or select Articles

Quércus AR'gilops latifolia. From H.8. A distinct variety with larger leaves
than the species.

Quércus élba var. stricta. An upright and free-growing variety of Q. alba,
selected from seed here, and grafted on Q. pedunculata.

Quércus Prinus castaneefilia Meyer. Half-hardy evergreen ; leaves glaucous
on the under surface. A beautiful species.

Quércus macrocérpa. A North American species, with acorns as large as"

Orleans plums,

Quércus macrophilla, Distinct, with small acorns. A North American
species.

Quércus Catesbe’i sempervirens. An evergreen variety of Q. C. from seed here.

Quércus lancifolia, A Mexican oak, approaching virens in habit. Ever-
ereen. A distinct and beautiful species.

Quércus gldbra, apparently Q. imbricata. Large laurel-like leaves, An
elegant species, but tender hitherto, perhaps owing to the plants being very
oung.

: Gis heterophylla. Nearly evergreen, like Q. virens, but not so hardy ;
scarcely hardy, but very beautiful. New Orleans,

Quércus Mew latifolia (perhaps crassifolia would be better). Very thick and
broad leaves. A distinct variety. The original tree in the Hammersmith
Nursery.

Quércus. Vlex salicifolia. Original tree at Pishiobury, Sawbridgeworth.
Very distinct and deserving of its name.

Quércus [ew laurifolia. Deep green, large foliage. Original tree at Pish-
iobury.

Quércus IVew fagifolia, From H. 8.

Quércus vex oblonga. From H. 8.

Quércus Mew longifoia. From H.S8.

Quércus Wex rotundifolia, with very round dark green foliage. Selected
from seedlings here.

Quércus Wex integrifolia HS.

Quércus coccifera glaica. Very curious. Small round leaves, under
surface glaucous; deciduous. From Cels, Paris, 1840. Probably a hybrid
between Q. pedunculata and Q. coccifera.

Quércus Fontanésii, Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 885. Subevergreen.
H. 8.

Quércus spicata (rugosa of some). A Mexican oak. with thick rugose
evergreen foliage, haif-hardy ; would probably thrive in Devonshire. Succeeds
well grafted on Q. pedunculata.

Quércus confertifolia, Mexico. Evergreen.

Quércus petiolaris H. S.

Quércus callosa FH. S.

Fagus ferruginea, syn. F. americana, Encye. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 909.

Fagus castaneefolia, Weaves scarcely to be distinguished from those of the
Spanish chestnut.

Fagus castaneefolia hgbrida. Apparently a hybrid between the above and the
common beech.

Fagus. sylvatica purpurea major. A variety of the purple beech, with large
leaves ; colour very dark. France.

Fagus sylvatica argéntea, the silver-striped common Beech. A distinct
variety from France.

Fagus sylvatica purpurea péndula, A fine pendulous variety of the purple
beech. France.

Conifere Taxine.— Taxus microphylla. From Yorkshire. A pretty fas-
tigiate variety of the common yew.

Contfere Cupréssine.—Taxodium distichum intermédium. An upright variety
of T. chinénse.

Juniperus communis pendula. An elegant pendulous variety. Original tree
at Pishiobury, Sawbridgeworth.

ee

in certain British Nurseries and janet, Gardens. 61

‘Juniperus comminis hibérnica, the Irish Juniper. A beautiful fastigiate variety,
distinct from the Swedish juniper, which is also fastigiate, and grows on soils
unfavourable to the genus.

Juniperus virginiana nana. Original plant ten years old, and but 1 ft.
high ; from seed here.

“Juniperus virginiana horizontalis. Of remarkable horizontal growth; from
seed here.

Juniperus virginiana péndula. A beautiful pendulous variety. Original tree
at Parndon, Essex. A tree at Levesun Gower’s, Esq., Clapham Common,
approaches to this in habit.

Juniperus Oxijcedrus Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 1083.

Juniperus tetragona H. 8.

Juniperus bermudiana, grafted on the red cedar.

Thija filiformis, arafted on Thija orientalis. The most remarkable of the
Cupréssinz, and not to be forgotten by any one who has ever seen the parent
plant in the arboretum at Kew. Quite unique and quite hardy.

Thuja hjbrida. This has been in the nurseries of Mr. Pearson of Chilwell,
Nottingham, for forty years, under the name of the Sweet-scented Arbor
Vite, received also from France.

Conifere Abiétine.— Pinus Pindster Lemonianus, Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs,
p. 963, This variety is occasionally, in this nursery, selected from seedlings
raised here of the pinaster.

Abies excélsa nigra, A large tree at Burleigh bears numerous cones, and
forms a fine object.

Picea Pinsapo. A large stock of plants of this species, and also of P. cepha-
Idnica.

Picea pectinata stricta. Seedlings from a remarkable fastigiate tree near
Beccles, Suffolk, retaining the habit of the parent, which was destroyed in
1839 by wind.

Perforated earthenware covers to seed-pans facilitate vegetation in seeds.
Peat-earth seeds are raised in pans and boxes on the shady side of hedges and
other screens, supported from the ground on boards to prevent the entrance of
worms, and to facilitate protection in severe weather by mats suspended from.
the hedge, and reaching over the pots and pans on the shelf, like a cloak,

KENT.

Dartford Nursery ; J.D. Parks. — Ciytisus alpinus intermedius. Interme-
diate between the weeping and the common alpine or Scotch laburnum; a
vigorous grower with a pendent habit; flowers deep yellow; racemes very
long, sometimes 15 inches. A well-marked variety, deserving general cul-
tivation, A new white and a new purple | cineraria have been raised by
Mr. Parks, which he has not yet “ given out.’

MIDDLESEX.

Horticultural Society's Garden, — Berberacee, — Bérberis. umbellata Wal-
lich. Bot. Reg., 1842, Monthly Chron., No. 42. “ A specimen of this
new hardy shrub has flowered in the garden of W. Wells, Esq., of Red-
leaf, where it has been raised from Nepal seeds. It is something like
B. aristata, but has much narrower leaves, very decidedly glaucous under-
neath. From B. Coriaria it differs in the same character, and in the flowers
being much smaller, and in Jong-stalked clusters. The branches and spines
are remarkably slender. The leaves are narrow, obovate, mucronate, slightly
toothed, with very distant veins on a glaucous gr ound upon the under surface.”

( Bot. Reg., 1842, Monthly Chron., No. 42.) — aC. G.

Leguminosae. —Indigofera Désua Dee., and Don's Miller, A straggling bush,
a native of Nepal, with bright deep rose- ‘coloured blossoms, highly ornamental.
Raised in the Hort, Soc. Garden, where it flowered in May, 1840. “ It
appears to be a shrub sufficiently hardy to stand an ordinary winter in the
‘open border, and growing vigorously in any good rich garden soil, It flowers

3d Ser.—1843, II. F

62 Report on rare or select Articles

freely during the months of July and August in the open border, but earlier

if kept in the greenhouse. It is easily increased from cuttings of the young
wood, treated in the ordinary way, or by seeds.” (Bot. Reg., 1842, t. 57.) —
.G.G.

Amaranthacee. — Deeringia indica Spr., syn. Celosia baccata Retz.— G.
Gordon. September 17. 1842.

On walking through this garden on the 31st of December, we were much
gratified by the state in which we found the following trees and shrubs ; —
Bigg’s Everlasting Crab, laden with fruit, which remains on all the winter, a
truly splendid sight ; Hippéphae Rhaminoides foe’mina, also covered with its
orange-coloured berries, which change towards spring to a dark straw colour
(there is a still more splendid specimen of this tree, covered with fruit, in the
Abney Park Cemetery) ; Symphoria glomerata, covered with its fine purple fruit,
and forming a highly ornamental bush ; Cotoneaster frigida and affinis, both
covered with fruit, but much less so in the Hort. Soc. Garden than in the
Abney Park Cemetery; Elzagnus argéntea (syn. Shephérdia argéntea),
Cérnus mas, and Hamamélis virginica, in full flower, the Glastonbury thorn
coming into flower,

The Abney Park Cemetery at Stoke Newington contains 3] acres, and a
named arboretum has been planted in it by Messrs. Loddiges, which contains
every hardy tree and shrub, varieties as well as species, that was in their
collection a year ago. The names are on brick, the same as in the Hackney
arboretum, and they are unfortunately already scaling off; but there will be
no great expense incurred in naming them on cast iron, or on wood with cast-
iron shanks, as in the conservatory of the Hort. Soc. Garden.

The Fulham Nursery, Fulham; Messrs. Whitley and Osborn. — As. usual,
a number of new kinds have been added to the catalogue. Among these is
a very curious variety of the common yew, with the leaves quite adpressed to
the shoots. It was found in a bed of seedlings in the Chester Nursery by
Messrs. Dickson, the proprietors of that establishment. The Dovaston
variety of the common yew, of which a portrait is given in our Arboretum
Britannicum, has also been added. There is a very handsome small plant of
this variety inthe Hort. Soc. Garden.

Exotic Nursery, King’s Road, Chelsea; Joseph Knight. —The following
names have been sent us, of the spelling of some of which we are doubtful,
never having heard of them before.

Abies, sp. from New Holland Pxonia Mottan arborea Newman
Cupréssus Moray Sombay papaveracea Jacquinidna
sp. from Swan River Pinus, three new and distinct sp.
Fothergilla from Alta California
Cratee\gus spicata one new and distinct sp, from
Carpinus Bétulus variegata China
Euonymus angustifolius one new and distinct sp. from
nepalénsis New Zealand
Fraxinus excélsior salicifolia nova Cerasus Padus aucubefolia
Fagus sylvatica grandidentata péndula
Cris-galli variegata
latifolia nana Ptélea trifoliata variegata
Iex latifolia Paul6éwnia imperialis
crassifolia Quércus heterophylla cucullata
Juglans régia laciniata elegantissima
heterophylla macrophylla
Juniperus neoboriénsis glabra
religiosa nepalénsis
Mahonia Knighti Several apparently new kinds
Morus nigra cucullata from mountains in the north-
Pyrus Malus maculata east of Portugal.
sempervirens Several new sps. from the Hima-

flore pléno layas

in certain British Nurseries and private Gardens. 63

Ribes péndulum Rh. rubelaris

acerifolium ferrugineum album
Rhamnus cucullatus Salix péndula nova [? S. americana
Rhis copallina pendula, p. 59.]
Rhododéndron pyramidale Tilia argéntea pendula [? 7. europz'\a
. Hartoppi péndula alba, p. 00.]

ovum rubécula macrophylla [? p. 56.]

translicens mississippi€nsis

tortuifolium U\mus chinénsis

concolor pyramidalis

Chélsoni punctatum pendula nova

revolutum

NorFo.k.
Great Yarmouth Nursery; Youell and Co, — Araucaria imbricata in

large quantities has stood within 500 or 600 yards of the sea, and fully exposed
to the cutting winds from the north-east, for two years, without the slightest
injury. — Y. § Co.

SoMERSETSHIRE.

Taunton Nursery ; J. Young. — We visited this nursery on October 1.
1842, and found it very well laid out, with an excellent dwelling-house
in the form of an old English cottage, built of solid blocks of stone, and
thatched, combining every comfort expected in such a dwelling, and much of
elegance and refinement. There is a veranda which has an excellent effect ;
and this, and also one of the living-rooms, open into a handsome conservatory.
We do not recollect any nurseryman’s house in England that can be placed
on a par with this dwelling, except the house of Mr. Veitch, sen., in the Mount
Radford Nursery, Exeter. Mr. Veitch and Mr, Young are unquestionably at
the head of their profession, as far as commodious and tasteful dwellings are
concerned. We could refer to one or two nurserymen’s houses about London,
for example, the late Mr. Wilmott’s house at Lewisham, where there are com-
modious enough rooms within, perhaps as much so as those of the houses we
have mentioned ; but they form part of streets, or in some way or other are so
circumstanced that they do not exhibit a single particle of taste without ;
houses, in short, that no man of taste would live in, if he could possibly help
it. Along the walks in the Taunton Nursery there is a tolerable arboretum, ex-
hibiting numerous fine specimens of the more rare trees and shrubs ; and we were
agreeably surprised to find the genus Cratzgus, with only one or two exceptions,
correctly named. There are remarkably fine specimens of Crate‘gus trilobata
and C. virginica, covered with fruit. Ina bed of seedlings of Sophdra japénica
a plant has appeared with pendent shoots, exactly like the old S. japénica pén-
dula ; but we do not think it worth keeping distinct, any more than are the
numerous plants of Quércus pedunculata heterophylla, or A‘cer platandides la-
ciniata, which frequently come up among seedlings of the species. There is an
excellent stock of many articles, and particularly of Tilia europe'‘a alba pén-
dula, the weeping Hungarian lime, budded on the top of stems 12 ft. high. This
splendid variety of lime deserves to be far more frequent than it is on lawns
among curious or odd trees. We saw a new yellow Portugal broom; a new
and valuable hardy variety of Lonicera sempervirens serétina ; and Lonicera
Gold, which Mr. Young considers distinct from L. occidentalis ; A’rbutus
procera budded on the common species in May last, and already producing
shoots above a foot in length; Bignonia radicans supérba, quite a bush;
besides a number of other articles. In the lawn, which embraces the house
on three sides, and contains some pretty pieces of rockwork, enclosing
bright little basins of living water, there are many fine plants. We noticed
particularly Bouvardia triphylla spléndens, forming a bush 23 ft. high; and a
group of heaths, which Mr. Keed, the foreman, has planted out in a circular

F2

64 5 Report on rare or select Articles

bed 54 ft. in diameter, with the intention of keeping them there through the
winter. Mr. Reed recommends the surface of the bed to be 2 or 3 inches below
the level of the adjoining ground, which, he says, is a protection from the frost.
He suggests the idea of a large wicker basket shaped like a beehive, the top to
come off, with handles on the outside to lift both top and sides on and off at.
pleasure, and with a canvass cover to be put over the top during heavy rains.
The species planted in this bed are as follows :—Frica Hartnéll, Z. assargens,
E. echiiflora, E. cerinthoides supérba, EZ. mirabilis, #. ventricésa, H. incar-
nata, E. picta, HZ. intermedia, E. linnzeotdes, E. Wilmoreana, E. hybrida, E.
blénda, Z. tréssula, EH. Bowieana, E. vérnix coccinea, /. cruénta, H. mam-
mosa, and Z£. verticillata. :

STAFFORDSHIRE.

Cliff Vale and Prospect Nurseries, near Leek; F'. Fox.— Quércus pedun-
culata atirea. A new gold-striped-leaved oak, raised last year from seed.

U’Imus montana crispa. A new curled-leaved elm, raised last year.

Fagus sylvatica atro-rubens. A new variety of the purple beech ; leaves more
indented than those of the common purple, and the plant keeps its leaves
in winter more like the common beech.

Pyrus aucuparia aérea. A mountain ash with golden leaves, the stronger
it grows the more golden the leaves appear ; raised here some years ago.

Spire\a Foxii. A dwarf shrub, growing from 1 to 12 ft. high; free bloomer ;
colour white; raised from 8S. trilobata impregnated by S. corymbosa,
Flowering in June and July; with the habit of corymbosa, but a clear white,
and a more compact and hardier plant.

Tdxus baccdta nana. Raised seventeen years ago from seed; and, at the
present time, net more than 12 in. high.

Taxus baccata argéntea. A new silver-striped yew, raised seven years ago
from seed of the 7’. hibérnica; height, at the present time, 4 in.

Vex Aquifolium salicifolium, A new variety of holly, with very narrow
leaves.

Ivex Aquifolium serratum. leaves deeply serrated.

Azdlea péntica nana alba Foxii. A new white azalea, the dwarfest and best
bloomer Mr. Fox has ever seen.

Erica Tétralix airea. Shoots of a golden yellow.

Erica vulgaris nana Foxii. A new dwarf heath; being much smaller than
E. vy. dumosa.

Ribes nigrum lacinidtum. eaves cut like those of the eagle’s claw.

Dodecatheon Meddia pallida. A new pale-flowered American cowslip ;
raised from seed of the white, with much of the habit of that variety.

Anemone horténsis, Fifty varieties raised here from seed.

Delphinium elatum pallidum. The palest-flowered variety which Mr. Fox has
seen.

Peonia officinalis airea. The common peony, with yellow-blotched leaves,
Specimen sent.

Tart Rhubarb. A new variety, raised from the red Tartarian, impregnated
with #. palmatum ; large and vigorous. Leaves cut in the way of those of
R, palmatum.

Mr. Fox’s printed catalogue exhibits a respectable collection of forest
trees seedlmg and transplanted, fruit trees, ornamental trees and flowering
shrubs, evergreens, climbers, &c.

SURREY.

Clapham Rise Nursery ; Henry Groom.— Mussendock. A plant from the
North of India; said to be used to repel the flies from the melons.

Echites Carrassa, Poinciana régia, Abutilon bedfordiénsis, Dasylirion
filiforme,. Franciscea Lockhart#, Manéttia spléndens, Bigndnia speciosa,

in certain British Nurseries and private Gardens. ~- 65

Aischynanthus Horsfalli, Gésnera digitalis, Ziéria levigata, Clerodéndron
Jaurifolium.

Twelve varieties of hardy lilies, between Lilium atrosanguineum and L.
bulbiferum: rather dwarf, with very large umbels and beautiful rich-coloured
flowers ; some of them spotted and marked with a darker colour.

Agapanthus maximus. Fine blue, tall, with a very large head.

Euonymus fimbriatus. This promises to be a first-rate evergreen shrub. I
have not yet tried if it is hardy in this climate.

. Euonymus tingens. I have only one plant of this, therefore do not know
much of it.

Tetranthera japonica. A beautiful evergreen shrub; and, if hardy, will be a
most desirable addition to the British arboretum.

Gaultheria cordita. This, I should think, is quite hardy.

Bérberis sp. From India.

_ New Cross Nursery ; Cormack and Oliver. — Cormach’s Prince Albert Pea.
The earliest and best sort we have ever seen. A quantity was put into the
ground on the 14th of March last, and the produce was fit for the table on
the 25th of April following, being only forty-two days from the day of sowing
to the date of gathering ; and, we think, if it were sown about the present
time (Noy. 14.) it would come in earlier in the season.

The British Queen Pea; syn. the St. Helier’s Pea, Lawson. See Saun-
ders’s Nursery, under Jersey ; and Lawson’s Nursery, under Edinburghshire.

The Incomparable Cos Lettuce. Peculiarly crisp and juicy ; perfectly hardy
as a winter lettuce, not apt to run in summer, and requiring no tying. —
Cormack and Oliver, Nov. 14. 1842.

The Deepdene, near Dorking ; H, T. Hope, Esq., M. P.— An unnamed
species of d’rbutus from Mexico flowered here and at other places last autumn,
for the first time in England, — J. B. Whiting. Jan. 16, 1843,

WARWICKSHIRE.

Birmingham Botanic Garden, — Conifere: Pines, Firs, §c.— Pinus Hart-
weg, P, Psetido-Strobus, P. Llaveana, P. Teocdte, and Abies religiosa,
remained in the Birmingham Botanic Garden, in a rather unfavourable soil,
uninjured, without the slightest protection. P. Devonidna and P. Russellidna
perished more, I believe, from continued wet, and from being in a naturally
springy soil, than from the severity of the winter. Cupréssus thurifera stood
well. — D. Cameron. Oct. 24, 1842.

Onagracee. — Fuchsia macrostémon discolor Lind\.; Hort. Brit., p. 636.
This plant is a shy flowerer in pots, but it proves so hardy that none of its
most tender shoots were injured last winter, while other species were killed
back to near the surface. It flowered freely, and ripened plenty of seed.
From the form of the berries, Mr. Cameron, of the Birmingham Botanic
Garden, thinks it is entitled to be raised to the rank of a species. — Idem.

Ranunculdeee Clematidee. — Clématis Siebdldti and C. azirea grandiflora
have stood the winter well, and the latter has ripened seeds. — Idem.

_ Stoneleigh Abbey, near Coventry.— A new Pine-apple raised from seed of
the old Queen. ‘The leaf is of a dark chocolate colour, the plant has the
habit of the Queen, but the shape of the fruit resembles that of the Enville.
Raised in March, 1834, and fruited in October, 1840. Likely to prove a
valuable variety. — John Brown, Gardener, Stoneleigh Abbey, Nov, 16. 1842.

YoRKSHIRE.

Hope Nursery, Leeming Lane, Bedale; W. May, — Quércus alba, nigra,
and rubra do no good in this part of Yorkshire, either as useful or ornamental
trees.

A’rbutus Unedo var. stricta. A compact upright-growing plant, very dif-
ferent from anything Mr, May has seen. Raised from seed.

R30

66 Report on rare or select Articles

Crate\gus Oxyacdntha var. Wychnor (origin of the name unknown) is a
puny-growing sort, but very distinct. ;

C. Ox. heterophijlla (where or when originated not known). A very beau-
tiful variety, and a free grower.

Tilia europea whitleiénsis, the Whitley Hall (near Wakefield) variety of
the common lime. This variety is much more graceful in its growth than the
species ; the branches stand out more horizontally. They are partly pendu-
lous, and the internodes longer. I think it the most ornamental of all the
tilias, most of which, when young, are dense and lumpish in their growth ;
but this variety is not.

I have found a very fine gold-blotched Ontario poplar, which, if the varie-
gation is permanent, will, I think, be a very ornamental object.

Fuchsias. Many new hybrids of great merit.

Mays new large late Red Victoria Currant. Berries very large, sometimes
measuring upwards of 1iin. in circumference ; bunches many of them 6 in.
in length; the fruit of a beautiful scarlet, and the flavour excellent. Its
foliage differs much from that of the ordinary red currant, being thicker, and
not so much cut or pointed, and it hangs later on the plant in autumn, thus
affording protection for the fruit to a later period without being matted or
covered up.

Fuller’s new hybrid Winter Radish. This is a great improvement on the
old black Spanish radish, being a hybrid between that variety and the long
scarlet, producing roots varying in colour from white and pink to black or
purple: it is not so large as the black Spanish, consequently much finer in
quality, and, for winter use, is a most desirable acquisition. It is perfectly
hardy, so much so, that the person who raised it says he very frequently has
the snow to brush off the ground to gather it, when it is at all times found
perfectly sound and good. The best time for sowing it is from the first to the
third week in August.

The Lapstone Potato. This is a seedling variety of “ second early”
kidney potato, raised between the early ash-top kidney and the Scotch red-
nosed kidney; both much valued for their superior qualities. It was raised
by a shoemaker in this neighbourhood, from seed, and hence the name Lap-
stone. It succeeds the early ash-top kidney, and is very productive, of very
dwarf habit, of a good size and handsome oblong form, and of first-rate
quality either for early or iate use. It is the only really “second early”
kidney I am acquainted with. It is not yet in circulation, but probably may
be sent out towards spring in small parcels, of which due notice will be given
through the usual medium.—W. /Z. [A few of these potatoes were sent to
us ; we found them full-eyed, very mealy, boiling soft, and of an excellent
flavour. We think them a most valuable kind of potato.]

May's Victoria Swedish Turnip [of which we received very fine specimens]
I consider as near perfection in shape and quality as it is possible to attain.
I have been working with this Swedish turnip many years, and I consider I
have attained the object I had in view, by producing a Swedish turnip perfectly
globular, with small root and small top; and one which is not subject to run
in the neck in the autumn, which is invariably the case with all other Swedish
turnips that [ know. The original stock from which this was raised was
direct from Sweden, and was given me as being something extra. I sowed it
in July, and produced fine turnips by November the same year; a very
unusual thing: and I thought there was something peculiar in their form. I
had then the whole, about fifty, planted for seed, and sowed the produce of
the whole next season, and had a splendid crop ; but I was surprised at
finding a great diversity of colour and, form in them, still all of them good
specimens. They were visited by many leading agriculturists, and considered
superior to any Swedish turnip then in cultivation. I saved the whole of
these, selecting perhaps a dozen of the very best. The bulk of the seed was
sold to good advantage, and is now known as May’s Victoria; it is in great
repute. The selected few I kept, and have been working with them two or

in certain British Nurseries and private Gardens. 67

three years; the specimens sent are a fair sample of the variety, which is
planted for seed, and of which I shall have seed to offer, if all does well, next
ear.

: The early White Nonsuch Turnip [of which fine specimens were also re-
ceived] has undergone a similar process of care, and it is considered to be the
very finest early white turnip known. It may be sown with the Dutch in
spring, to which it is very much superior both in form and quality ; and it is
found very valuable to the market-gardener. I have supplied Mr. Charles
Farnes, seedsman, St. John’s Street, Smithfield, with it, who tells me he has
had great praise of it from the market-gardeners who frequent Covent Garden
Market.

May's Golden Globe Swede is the name which I shall give to the last im-
provement of the Swedish turnip when it is sent out.—W. May. Nov. 22.
1842.

Mr, May’s Catalogue of select Plants occupies 20 pages of small type, and
exhibits an astonishing assemblage of names, with the price to each. Stove
plants, 100; Cactaceze, 60; miscellaneous greenhouse plants, 360; camellias,
90 ; ericas, 70; geraniums, 110; fuchsias, 36; calceolarias, 60; cine-
rarias, 20 ; verbenas, 24; chrysanthemums, 50; select and showy hardy
herbaceous plants, 620 ; hardy ferns, 11; new and superior kinds of hearts-
ease, 100 ; carnations, 100; pinks, 60; auriculas, 90; select polyanthus,
20; roses, 440 ; ornamental trees and hardy shrubs, 620 ; Coniferz, 68.

St. John’s Nursery, Wakefield; Mr. Barratt. —Fréxinus excélsior var. au-
cubeefolia Barr. The leaves spotted like the aucuba, and very beautiful.
Found by Mr. Barratt. .

Salix magnolizfolia Barr. A seedling, with very large leaves. Raised by
Mr. Barratt, but from what species is not mentioned.

Effect of terrestrial Heat on an Apple Tree. J have an apple tree, a late
winter kind, Robin, which often reminds me of a theory of yours about
heating the ground to improve the growth of trees. This tree stands where
the sun is shaded from it until 3 o’clock, so that its situation cannot con-
tribute to its early or fine growth; but there is a flue runs close by its roots,
which causes it to vegetate and ripen its fruit three or :
four weeks earlier than any other kind, and it produces
larger fruit than any of the same kind. I am quite per-
suaded, if the ground for fruit trees could be artificially
warmed, we should secure earlier, better in quality, and
more certain crops. —W. B.

Beverley Nursery; Laing and M*Intosh.— Rhododen-
drons raised from seeds sent from Mr. M‘Intosh at Dai-
keith Palace, quite different from &. arboreum or R.
cinnamomeum ; said to be of great variety of colour,
habit, and character; and found at an altitude much
greater than that where &. arboreum is found, and
hence more hardy.

Thee Hubshee Grape, of which jig. 10. represents a
berry of the natural size, is esteemed the best dessert
grape in the South of India. Plants will be ready to
send out next spring.

Fraxinus sp.

Rosa sp. A climbing plant. ; i

Siinesa sp. Said to He as fine as S. bélla. Be conde AGEL

Lobelia sp. Very unlike any other species which we i
have seen, except one at the Glasgow Botanic Garden, which may possibly
be the same.

IsLAND OF JERSEY.

St. Helier’s Nursery; Bernard Saunders. — Le Feuvre’s new Pea: syn.

British Queen Pea, Cormack and Oliver, p.65.; St. Helier’s Pea, Peter

Lawson and Son, p. 68. This new and very superior variety of pea was
F 4

68 _. Report on rare ‘or select Articles —

raiséd by Ph, Le Feuvre, Esq., of this island, and, for its great produce and
good qualities, deserves to be more generally known and more extensively
cultivated. Jt is an improved variety of the shriveled marrow, resembling
that of Knight’s tall marrow; but it is considered by every one who has
tasted it to be much superior to that esteemed variety. It grows from 5 ft.
to 6 ft. high, and produces two, and often three, crops in succession from the
same stalk. Its first crop is from the top, and it immediately throws out
laterals, and produces another crop from the centre; after which it frequently
shoots out from the bottom, and produces a third crop: thus continuing a
supply for near two months. The pods contain from 7 to 9 peas in each ;
and, what is rather peculiar, when the pods become old and ready to dry, the
peas still continue to boil green, and are well flavoured. It is particularly
well adapted for late crops. Sown in June or July, it continues to produce
till November, if not destroyed by frost before. I have this autumn supplied ~
what I had to dispose of to Messrs. Cormack and Oliver, seedsmen, &c.,
New Cross, Surrey, and to Messrs. Peter Lawson and Son, seedsmen, No. 4,
George Street Bridge, Edinburgh; from whom they may be procured.

Talavera Wheat. Yn January, 1842, about 52\lb. of Talavera wheat
were sown in drills at 14in. apart, after a crop of potatoes, in a plot of
ground dug with the spade, and measuring exaetly 774 perches. A small
portion of lime ashes was deposited, and carefully raked into each drill. In
May, lucern was drilled between each row of wheat, after hand-hoeing,
which now exhibits a most luxuriant and flourishing crop. The precise
produce from the above experiment has been 100 cabots and 18 1b. of remark-
ably fine wheat; and, as 90 Jersey perches are equal to an English acre,
a similar produce from an acre would be 66 bushels and 321b., equal to
8 quarters 24 bushels and 2lb. The accuracy of this statement can be satis-
factorily proved. — B. Saunders,

ScoTLaNnp. — EDINBURGHSHIRE.

Lawson's Nursery, Edinburgh ; Peter Lawson and Son.—Onion of Nocera.
The only really new culinary vegetable which we have introduced in course
of the past season is the Onion of Nocera (Ognon de Nocera, p. 25. of the
Bon Jardinier for 1842), seeds of which we received last spring; and these,
being sown ina rich garden soil, produced a crop of ripened onions by the
beginning of July, of a globular form, silvery white colour, and very small size,
the largest being under an inch in diameter, which must render this a very de-
sirable variety for pickling and other purposes for which small onions are
used.

The Pomeranian Cabbage has not, we believe, been much grown as yet in
the vicinity of London. We introduced it in 1837, and all who have grown
it here agree in stating it to be the richest and most delicate autumn cabbage
hitherto known ; but, if grown on rich soil and allowed plenty of room, it gets
too large, producing even a greater weight of head and leaves than the late
drumhead cabbage. It is allied to the sugar loaf, but is so different from it
that it may be reckoned to form a distinct class of cabbages.

The St. Helier’s Pea (syn. Le Feuvre’s new Pea, Saunders; the British
Queen Pea, Cormack and Oliver) is a new wrinkled marrow we have had
for two years past, from Mr. Bernard Saunders of Jersey, which attains a height
of 6 to 8 feet, and yields a very heavy crop, of good quality, but inferior to
Knight’s pea in sweetness. It is, however, a decided favourite with all who
have made trial of it in this country.

The oblong Radishes are a class, we believe, not generally known. They
are of an oval form, or between the long and round rooted; and, three years
since, we introduced from the Continent three varieties, viz. the red, scarlet,
and white. The first of which is generally allowed to be fully superior to
any of the common sorts, while the others are at least equal in quality to
either the common, long, or turnip-rooted sorts. — Lawson & Son.

in certain British Nurseries and private Gardens. 69

_ [We have received a copy of Messrs. Lawson’s Horticultural Seed List,
which is very copious, enumerating all the new kinds, as well as the old, of
culinary vegetables. |

Roy's Nursery, Aberdeen; J. Roy.—Araucaria imbricata grows as well in
this quarter as, if not better than, it does in England. I have seen a fair
sprinkling of them over the country; about as many as there were of the
larch about 100 years ago. I have plants that have stood out during the last
ten winters without the slightest protection, and produced shoots from 4 in,
to 9 in. long annually. ;

Pinus Lambertiana. I have had a parcel of cones from California, and suc-
ceeded in rearing a few plants; and also a number of deodar cedars, and
Nepal species of A‘bies, Picea, and Pinus.

The following, after between seven and eight years’ trial, I find quite hardy,
Pinus Laricio calabrica, P. L. austriaca, P. L. a. var. nigricans, P. L. tai-
rica, P. excélsa, insignis, Lambertidna, ponderosa, rigida, Sabiniana, Mughus,
pumilio, Pinaster, Pinaster var. maritimus, Banksidza, pyrenaica, Strobus,
Cémbra; A’bies Douglasz, Smithiana, excélsa five or six varieties, alba, nigra,
nigra gracilis, Menziési ; Picea nobilis, Webbiana, Pindrow, balsamea, pecti-
nata. [In the above enumeration we have altered the names of some of the
kinds from those given by Mr. Roy to those adopted in our Encyclopedia of
Trees and Shrubs; separating, for example, Picea from Abies. Mr. Roy
mentions that he found a fine weeping variety of A‘bies excélsa at Newman’s
Nursery, Chichester, and in the collection at Stow.]

An i‘lex, a Cotoneaster, a Rhus, and a Cornus from Nepal, will be noticed
on another occasion.

A carrot with a violet-coloured root, and seeds heavy and nearly round
like caraways, received from Nepal, has been tried, but is found to run very
much to seed.— J. R.

IRELAND.

Glasnevin Botanic Garden, Dublin; D. Moore, Curator.— The following
hardy trees and shrubs have been raised during the year 1842: —

Xanthoxylon hastile. Nepal.

Céltis triandra Rox. Nepal.

Fraxinus floribinda G. Don. Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs, p. 653
fig. 1270. Introduced in 1822, but lost during the severe winter of 1837-8.

Lonicera altaica Pall., syn. L. certlea L. Encyclopedia of Trees and
Shrubs, p. 540. figs. 1005 and 1006. The seeds received from M. Otto of
Berlin,

A Lonicera from Nepal, a Fraxinus or O’rnus from Cabul, and two beau-
tiful evergreen shrubs apparently belonging to Rhamndacee, have also been
raised. These Brazilian shrubs have stood out during the last two winters
without protection.—D. M.

Carton, the Seat of the Duke of Leinster.— There are a great many fine old
specimens here, of which dimensions have been sent us, which we shall pub-
lish in a future Number. In the meantime we notice a cupressinous tree,
which appears to be the cedar of Goa. It stands in what was once the
nursery ground of a Mr. Smith, long since dead. — It is 28 ft. high, the head
18 ft. in diameter, with a stem 2 ft. 6 in. in circumference at one foot from the
ground, with long pendulous branches, which grow very gracefully, and hang
down almost perpendicularly, like those of a weeping willow. Specimens have
been sent us by Mr. Moore, curator. of the Glasnevin Garden, and also by
Mr. Alexander, the gardener at Carton, and we have shown them to dil-
ferent persons, most of whom think them the cedar of Goa, Cupréssus
lusitanica, Arb, Brit. and Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs.

70 Design for a Flower-Garden on Gravel,

Art. V. Remarks on a Design for a Flower-Garden on Gravel,
with Hints for the Grouping of Plants in Flower-Gardens. By
W.P. Ayres, Author of ‘‘ Culture of Cucumbers in Pots,” &c.

In the Gardener’s Magazine for March last, p. 180, 181., you
have inserted a design for a flower-garden on gravel, with a list
of plants ‘ with which it may be stocked the first year.” Now,
as I profess to have imbibed the principles of my taste in land-
scape and flower-gardening from the writings of yourself in the
Gardener’s Magazine, and in other
of your excellent works; and as I
find that I have either misappre-
hended your principles, or that you
have not acted in accordance with
them, in grouping the plants in
the designs above adverted to,
I take the liberty of offering a few
remarks on what I consider er-
rors in the arrangement; and I do
this the more confidently, because
I am sure that one whose whole
life has been devoted to the fur-
therance of horticultural science
will not take offence at his own
performances being passed through
the “crucible of investigation,”
especially when the investigator is
a disciple of his own.

Of the plan itself (and I must
here request the reader to turn
to it, or you to repeat it (see fic.
11.), though it is certainly not
so pretty as the original one in
the Volume for 1836, yet, retain-
ing the boundary fence, I do not’
see that the space could have been
much better disposed of, or any

improvement made, unless it were bo AH We i
to convert the four triangular i Co reyes.

beds, numbered 11, 12, 48, and Oe Jen

49, into two, as they are too small QZ, SF pe
to group well with the other beds, iS a Gs e

FI

and it is not indispensable that A Uy
there should be a walk between YG PY,

them. Perhaps, also, the beds 18 Nea

and 19, and 26 and 27, would be as Reo ae x ‘

well made into two, as they would i
Fig. 11. Garden on Gravel.

with Hints for the Grouping of Plants. 71

be more in proportion with the side beds 22, 23, 30, and 31, with
which they should accord. The placing of the fence 2 in. within the
gravel, in order to facilitate the cutting of the grass edging, is not
good ; because, as it will be impossible to roll within 2 or 3 inches
of the fence, the walk will show a raw rough edge 5 or 6 inches
wide, than which I do not know any thing that has a more
untidy appearance. By care and attention this might be averted;
but, where the mowing of the grass in the original plan formed
an objection, it is doubtful whether there would be sufficient
pains taken for that purpose. It is also objectionable, because, as
the walk is only 4 ft. wide, two ladies cannot walk abreast with-
out one of their dresses sweeping the fence; and because, by im-
parting a meagre and confined appearance, it militates so much
against that boldness and ease so necessary in a principal walk.
I should recommend it to be placed on the grass, and at least
18 in. from the walk, and if the horizontal wires are strained,
and the lower one placed 1 in. above the grass, it will be easy,
in mowing, to pass the point of the scythe under, so that there
will be no loss of time.

In the choice of plants with which the garden may be stocked,
you have been very unfortunate; not so much because some of
them are worthless, as that you have introduced so many an-
nuals, some of which are of such an ephemeral character, and.
others, as the Rhodanthe Mangleészz, of such doubtful culture in
the open air, that I hold it to be impossible, without almost
supernatural power, to keep the beds filled with flowers from
June to October. It is true, that with unremitting attention a
tolerable display may be kept up, but shabby indeed when com-
pared with what would be produced by using verbenas, pelar-
goniums, petunias, &c. &c. What are the best of our annuals
after a month or six weeks’ flowering, even in the most favourable
seasons; such, for instance, as clarkias, nemophilas, clintonias,
godetias, collinsias, &c. &c.? Some of them will produce
flowers for a longer period than above specified, and the beds may
be replanted ; but the flowers, after the principal bloom, will be
small, and the plants look weedy; while the beds, if they are re-
planted, unless the plants are just coming into bloom, will have a
very shabby appearance, in consequence of their not being suf-
ficiently full of plants to group properly with the beds containing
perennial plants. Depend upon it, the greater part of our most
fashionable annuals, when self-sown, point out the time best
suited for their growth and flowering; and, though they may
flower when sown at a later period, the flowers are never so
fine as they are in the early part of the season. ‘The reason of
this is, if the season is fine, the plants are incapable of supporting
the excessive heat, while, on the contrary, if the season is wet,
one small shower after they are in bloom dashes them all to pieces.

72 Design for a Flower-Garden on Gravel,

These remarks apply more particularly to the annuals above
mentioned, and to nolanas, schizanthuses, clintonias, gilias,
and others of the same fragile character. ‘The most advan-
tageous manner in which annuals can be used in beds is, planted
in a single row as an edging to the borders. ‘The centre of the
beds may either be sown or planted to come in as the others go
out of bloom, and thus a very respectable show may be kept up;
but unquestionably the most effective combination, to secure a
regular succession of flowers, is, bulbs and spring-flowering
herbaceous and shrubby plants for the centres of the beds,
autumn-sown annuals to succeed them round the sides, and half=
hardy plants or late-sown annuals, which may be sown or planted
after the bulbs have died down, or the other plants been removed
to the reserve garden, fora summer display. In this way we have
three distinct combinations of colour in the season; the beds are
always covered ; and, if half-hardy plants are turned out for the
summer show, the row of annuals round the beds serves admirably
to fill them, and produces a show of flowers until those last planted
require the room. I cannot subscribe to. the prevailing custom
of planting verbenas and other half-hardy plants among annuals,
to succeed them, because it has a very untidy, not to say slovenly,
appearance; and the permanent plants have a miserable appear-
ance, from being etiolated, for a long time after the annuals are
removed.

In the grouping of the plants you have lost sight of a very
important rule laid down by yourself, but where I cannot at this
moment remember; viz. that “ every bed in a symmetrical.
flower-garden, except the one which forms the centre, must
have a corresponding bed, resembling it in colour, as well as in
form and position.” But, instead of this, you will see by refer-
ring to the plan, that of the two large beds, 34 and 39, instead
of being of the same colour, one is stocked with Nemophila in-
signis, blue, and the other with Lobelza lutea, yellow, well
arranged, so far as complementary colour is concerned, but in
direct violation of the old distich, which, slightly paraphrased,
is one of the best rules we have in the grouping system, viz. : —

“* Group nods at group, each alley has a brother,
And half the platform just reflects the other.”

Again, in point of height, the two beds above-mentioned are
planted with plants that will not exceed 6 or 9 inches in height,
while the two smallest beds, 11 and 12, are filled with clarkias,
which will grow to double that height. This is wrong; for I con-
tend that, to secure unity of expression, it is quite as necessary
that the height of the plant should be in proportion to the size
of the beds, as that they should properly harmonise in regard to
colour. Indeed, of the two evils, tall plants in small beds, and:

with Hints for the Grouping of Plants. 73

the reverse, is worse than an inharmonious amalgam of colours ;
because the mass of mankind cannot appreciate a scientific ar-
rangement of colours, whereas an uncultivated eye will discover
a want of harmony in the height of the plants. |

For illustration, I will take ‘the diamond- shaped group of beds
numbered | to 13, and, assuming that the central bed 13. con-
tains a rustic basket or vase, to form a side wing to the fountain
in the central basin, which may be considered the axis of sym-
metry, I hold that, to form a harmonious whole, the large
oblong square beds, 3, 4, 9, and 10, should be planted with
plants that will grow to the height of 18 in., to support the vase
or basket, while the small triangular beds should be stocked
with plants that will not exceed 1 ft. in height. In this way the
large beds are thrown up or rendered more intense, by the small
beds acting as a shading to them, something on the same prin-
ciple that a speck on a sheet of white paper is rendered more
intense by being surrounded by a regularly shaded border of
black: in truth, the large beds are the bold strokes in the
picture, and the small ones the light and shade by which their
boldness is rendered more apparent. I think it will not be
denied that this group, thus arranged, would have a more im-
posing appearance than as it now is; therefore, before I con-
clude this article, I will endeavour to name the plants with
which it may be grouped in accordance with these principles.
An important advantage of this kind of management will be, it
will tend much to simplify the grouping of plants: for, the beds
being divided into classes according to their size, and the plants
into classes according to their height, we should then have a
certain number of plants for each class of beds; and the trouble
of arranging would be nothing comparatively with what it now
is, to select forty or fifty kinds from several hundreds without
any classification, Where the garden is on grass and warm
colours ought to prevail, a powerful effect might be produced
by stocking the large beds principally with warm colours; and
the reverse on gravel, where cold colours ought to preponderate,
The proportion which the height of the plant ought to bear to
the size of the bed is rather a difficult matter to determine,
because small plants are admissible in large beds, though large
plants cannot be tolerated in small ones ; but, as a maximum
guide, I think the plants ought not to exceed 6 in. in height in a
bed of 18 in. wide; neither ought they to increase more than
6 in. for every foot which the beds increase in width after wards.
Much, however, will depend upon the size and form of the
garden, the situation from which it is viewed, and the taste of
the proprietor; but, whatever is the height fixed upon for the
large beds, care must be taken that the plants i in the smaller ones
bear a just proportion to it.

74 Design for a Flower-Garden on Gravel,

To return to your arrangement again, you have in the beds
from $4 to 38 inclusive five different shades of blue, without
either yellow or orange to support them; and at the back of
these, from 18 to 24, you have seven kinds of verbenas in suc-
cession, which has too much the character of a generic arrange-
ment.

I could name other discrepancies, but perhaps placing the
coarse Stenactis specidsa in 60, to correspond with Cinothéra
Drummondzz in 13, is the greatest error. Stenactis, in my
opinion, is altogether unworthy of a bed; but, if it must have a
bed, and have a “ corresponding one,” I should say “none but
itself can be its parallel.”

In conclusion, I may remark that the most certain mode of
securing harmony in the grouping of a garden is, to make the
arrangement during the time the plants are in flower, by placing
the flowers on a sheet of green or yellow paper, as the garden
may be on grass or gravel. In this way the most harmonious
arrangement may be made; but, in the absence of flowers, pieces
of card, of the form of the beds, and coloured to represent the
flowers, will be found the best substitute.

Subjoined is a list of plants with which I propose to stock

the garden.
quire pegging

Some of them, as the ageratums, wili probably re-
down, to keep them to the proper height; but of

that the superintendant of the garden will be the best judge.

1. Verbena Hendersoni, purple. 17. Pelargonium compactum, rose
2. Lobelia lutea, yellow. scarlet.
3. Salvia patens, with S. chameedry- 18. Pelargonium, basilisk, brilliant

Ou

oides, dark blue, round the sides;
and Sanvitalia procimbens, yel-
low, in the bottom, to cover the
ground,

. Bouvardia triphylla, red scarlet.

Tournefortia heliotropioides, pale
blue.

scarlet.

. Calceolaria rugosa, yellow.
. Lobéka ramosa, dark blue.
. Nierembérgia filicatilis, French

white.
Verbéna Tweedieana supérba, dark
crimson.

. Verbéna Neill, violet.

6. Verbena, the queen, white. 23
7. Campanula carpatica, dark blue. 24. Verbéna Buistii, pale rose.
8. Verbena amcena, pale lilac. 25. Pelargonium Manglész, varie-
9. Same as No. 3. gated, white.
10. Pentstémon gentianotdes coc- 26. Pelargonium, Frogmore, scarlet.
cineus, scarlet. 27. Calceolaria bicolor, yellow and
1]. Verbéna purpurea, purple. whitish.
12. Lotus jacobze‘us luteus, yellow. 28. Anagallis czerulea grandiflora,
13. Diplacus glutinosus, orange yel- dark blue.
low, in the vase, with Lobelia 29. Nierembérgia calycina, white.
Erinus, blue, to droop over the 30. VerbénaTweediedna latifolia, crim-
sides ; and Gnotheéra macro- son.
carpa, pale yellow, in the bed. 31. Petinia erubéscens, blush.
14. Petunia purpurea, purple. 32. Verbéna odorata rosea, pale pink.
15. Verbéna Drummond, pinkish 33. Pelargonium, variegated ivy-
lilac. leaved, white.
16. Heliotropium peruvianum, violet. 34. Agératum mexicanum, pale blue.

On the Culture of the Garden Pea. 75

35. Petunia hybrida, purple. 47. Petunia hybrida, purple.

36. Anagallis Monélli major, dark 48. Nierembérgia intermeédia, purple.
blue. 49. Sanvitalia procimbens, yellow.

37. Lobelia bicolor, pale blue. 50. Salvia patens, &c., same as No. 3.

38. Pelargonium, Smith’s emperor, 51. Campanula Barrelieri, pale blue.
scarlet. 52. Verbena multifida, pale pink.

39. Agératum grandiflorum, pale blue. 53. Pentstémon frutéscens, scarlet.

40. Petunia purpurea, purple. 54, Verbena Hendersonii, purple.

41. Anagallis Phillips#, dark blue. 55. Calceolaria integrifolia, yellow.

42. Lobélia gracilis, pale blue. 56. Same as No. 3.

43. Pelargonium, Shrubland, scarlet. 57. Campanula garganica, blue.
44, Pelargonium compactum, rose 58. Verbéna feucriotdes, white and

scarlet. pink. —
45, Heliotropium corymbosum,violet. 59. Bouvardia spléndens, scarlet.
46. Verbéna teucriozdes, white. 60. Same as No. 13.

Chicksands Priory, Bedfordshire, Sept. 13. 1842.

[We agree with Mr. Ayres in almost every thing he has said in the above
communication, and take much blame to ourselves for not having prepared
with greater care the article which he so justly criticises. The truth is
(though this is not a sufficient excuse), the list was got up by an assistant, on
account of our extreme ill health at the time. We differ from Mr. Ayres, in
thinking the retention of the small beds desirable, because, by contrast, they
give effect to the large beds; and we prefer the wire framework on the gravel,
rather than on the grass, because it is more architectural, that is, it rises out
of an apparently more solid foundation. On referring to our Volume for
1836, p. 526., it will be found that the walk round the beds is not properly a
main walk, and that, though wider than the cross walks, it is not intended for
two persons walking abreast. — Cond.]

Art. VI. On the Culture of the Garden Pea, Pisum sativum.
By James DruMmMonp.

Tue order Legumindse, to which the Pisum sativum is allied, is large,
beautiful, and very natural. The plants in this order are characterised by
their pinnated leaves and papilionaceous flowers. Many of the trees and
shrubs in this order are unrivalled in beauty ; such as the following tribes : —
C¥tisus, Robinia, Coltttea, Amérpha, Wistaria, Glycine, the beautiful coral
tree Erythrina, Clianthus puniceus. The graceful trembling foliage and
golden tufted flowers of the Acacia and Mimosa radiate their charms even
amidst the sandy burning deserts of Africa ; or what can be more gay, on the
sloping banks and rugged hill-sides of our own country, than the furze and
broom, the Lotus corniculatus, the Vicia Cracca, with its tufted peduncles
of flowers of the gayest violet overtopping the hedges by the waysides, and
several others of the same and of other tribes of the leguminous order,
bespangling their banks? The moving plant, Hedysarum gyrans of Bengal,
near the Ganges, is very wonderful on account of the voluntary motion of its
leaves, which takes place without the least touch, irritation, or movement of
the air. The meadows and pastures of Brazil, on account of the numberless
plants of Mimosa sensitiva and M. pudica, assume a curious animated
appearance, shrinking from the steps of the traveller. Some of the plants of
this order are valuable timber trees, the wood being very hard, heavy, and of
a beautiful yellowish green with dark brown streaks, such as the laburnum
and Brazil wood of commerce. The leaves and pods of the Cassia Sénna,
C. lanceolata, C. emarginata, and of Spartium purgans, act as brisk pur-
gatives; the juice of Coronilla varia as an emetic; the juicy pulp of Cassia
fistula, Tamarindus indica, and Ceratonia Siliqua, as gentle laxatives, purging
without the least pain; the decoction of the roots of Galéga virginiana

76 On the Culture of the Garden Pea.

is considered hy the Americans as a very powerful vermifuge; the green
leaves of Ornithopus scorpidides blister the skin ; the seeds of A’rachis hy-
pogze'a contain a large portion of fixed oil ; the seeds of Dipterix odorata, or
Tonquin-bean, is used for perfuming snuff; gum, balsam, resin, ‘tannin,
indigo, &c., are also produced from leguminous plants. Many of the seeds.
of this large and beautiful order are very farinaceous, and very nutritive, and
compose a considerable portion of the food of man and of animals; such as
Phaséolus vulgaris and P. multiflorus, and their varieties; Dédlichos Catiang
and Soja, Lathyrus tuberdsus, Vicia Faba, and varieties ; Pisum arvénse and
P. sativum, the latter of which, with its numerous varieties, is the most
common and useful of our culinary legumes.

The Pisum sativum is of great antiquity, its native country being un-
known; but it is supposed to be the South of Europe. The varieties of the
garden pea are very hardy, and not particularly adapted for forcing, but may
be accelerated by sowing in pots, in boxes, on pieces of turf, drain-tiles, &c. ;
and placing them in a peach-house, glazed pit, or frame, and, when from 4 in.
to 6 in. high, planting them out on a warm border along the south side of a
wall; and protecting them with yew, spruce, or silver-fir branches, or coyer-
ing with a pea-case, as described in M‘Intosh’s Practical Gardener. [Copied
by our good friend Mr. M‘Intosh, from our Encyclopedia of Gardening,
3d edit., p. 824., without the slightest acknowledgement, though the case was
invented by us, and not previously described in any other work.]

I have practised the following method for at-least twelve years, and find it
far preferable to sowing in pots, boxes, turves, or drain-tiles. When I com-
mence forcing the early peach-house here, which I do about the beginning of
February, the border inside the house is covered on each side of the path-.
way to the depth of 3 or 4 inches with short dung (commonly cow-dung
gathered from the park) ; over this are laid 2 or 3 inches of half-decomposed
tree leaves, put through a very wide sieve, raking level, and beating it lightly
with the back of the spade; upon this the peas are sprinkled as thick
as they will lie, so as one seed may not lie above another, and covered with
leaf mould 2in. thick. In the course of three weeks-or so, the peas are fit
for planting out, being from 4 in. to 6 in. long. A border on the south aspect
of a wall is chosen for the first planting ; and, the ground being dunged, and
digged deep and fine, the line is stretched in a diagonal across, or in a parallel
direction to the wall along, the border, according to circumstances ; a deep
perpendicular cut is made along the line. The peas are then raised from the
peach-house border with a three-pronged hand-fork, m large turves, and
carried in a basket, barrow, or sieve, to the prepared drill. They are then
divided with the hand into small patches, drawing each patch longitudinally,
then placing it in the cut, in the manner of planting box-edgings, letting the
roots hang as perpendicular as may be. By this operation, very little of the
dung and leaf-mould falls from the roots. The earth is then pressed firm
to the roots, and another drill planted in the same manner 9 in. from the
former, thus forming a double row; the earth is drawn up about them with
a draw hoe, and staked pretty closely.

I have been long in the practice of planting and sowing my peas in double
rows, with the rows from 20 ft. to 30 ft. apart, and cropping between with
dwarf vegetables ; such as cabbages, cauliflowers, carrots, leeks, onions, tur-
nips, scorzonera, salsify, &c. I find by experience that the peas pod far
better, and are not so apt to mildew, when the rows are considerably de-
tached; and they are excellent shelter for the dwarf vegetables between them;
‘and also, that transplanted peas do not grow so tall, and are more productive
than most that are not transplanted. This may be attributed to sowing in
the leaf-mould, where a greater ramification of the roots takes place than in
common mould; and in addition to this, in the act of transplanting, each of
the main or tap roots becomes a radix premorsa, and the consequence is, after
being transplanted, a further multiplicity of the rootlets ensues. Peas sown in
the peach-house on the Ist of February, and transplanted as described above,

On the Culture of the Garden Pea. (il

are fit for gathering about the same time as, or even sooner than, those of the
same sort sown on the 11th of November preceding in the same situation.
I gathered excellent race-horse peas on the 26th of May last which were sown
the first week of February preceding in the peach-house, and transplanted as
described above : this may be considered very early for the climate of Scot-
Jand, and this is none of the warmest corners of it.

By the accelerating and transplanting method there is a great saving of seed,
especially if the sprmg months are wet and frosty; and it is more secure
against the attacks of mice, pea-fowls, pigeons, and pheasants, the latter of
which are among the most infernal depredators that ever entered the pre-
cincts of a garden. On making a large sowing of peas, and on passing them
a morning or two afterwards, I have been mortified on seeing them ploughed
up and masticated by these voracious depredators, notwithstanding the seed
in the rows being closely covered with whin croppings.. Since I adopted the
above plan of germinating and transplanting my peas, my losses in seed have
been comparatively trifling, as I make successive sowings of peas, beans, and
French beans, till the middle of May, in the peach-houses, for transplanting,
when, for two months after, I get the principal late crops of peas and beans
sown in the open garden without much molestation, as the pigeons and
pheasants commit their greatest ravages in the spring months, before they
begin hatching their young. ;

To the gardener who has the superintendence of extensive vineries, peach-
houses, flued pits, &c., the above method, coupled with that of a correspond-
ent in the Gardener’s Chronicle for 1842, p. 22., will, I presume, be a little
interesting.

Germinating peas for transplanting, without either pots or boxes, in the
manner I have described, is attended with less labour than one who has not
practised it would imagine. The border of one of the peach-houses. here will
contain a sowing of two pecks: the extent of the borders on each side of the
pathway is only 200 square feet. The following are the sorts of peas gene-
rally sown here, with the height of the straw; a sowing of which is made
every fortnight from the Ist of February to the middle of July, sowing in the
order they stand in the list, or nearly so.

Height. Height.
ft. in. ft. in.
Karly race-horse = - - 2 0| Knight’s tall marrow - -60
Early Warwick - - - 3 0 | Matchless - - - - 60
Early frame - - - - 3 6 | Magnum bonum - - -80
Charlton - = - - 40) Tall marrow = - - -70
Groom’s dwarf - - - | 6 | Green marrow - - -5 0
Beadman’s dwarf - - - 1 6 | Blue cimeter - - - - 40
White-podded - - - 5 0 | Large crooked sugar - -50
Purple-podded - - -50 : aN
ienehes dwarf marrow - -40 The ue last sowings are
Woodford’s green marrow -30 Seay
ae 8 Karly Warwick.
uvergne - - - -40

Blair-Drummond Gardens, Perthshire, near Stirling, Dec. 1842.

[ The following is the article in the Gardener’s Chronicle referred to by our
correspondent. ]

Peas in Pots.—I1 have found the following method very successful for
having early peas ready by the Ist of May, and I think it may be advantageous
for gardeners who have extensive vineries under their care. The peas are
supposed to be ready for transplanting by the Ist of February ; so that the
same sowing does for the first out of doors as well as for those I am about to
mention. The seedlings are removed from the boxes or pots where they have
been thickly sown, when about 4 in. in height, and are planted thinly into
large pots (twelves) which have been filled with good soil, not too rich.
They are staked with moderately strong willows, and run round at distances of

3d Ser. —- 1843. II. G

78 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c.

6 in. with small twine, which has a neater appearance than, and does not shade
so much as, common pea-sticks. The situation I have found quite suitable is
at the back walls of the late vineries. The pots so filled and staked are placed
on the top of the back flues, elevated to the glass as near as the stakes will
permit ; where they are to remain till the crop is gathered, which will be from
the Ist to the 15th of May. It will readily be seen that the peas are certainly
kept from the frost and severe weather, and have always plenty of air when
the weather is fine. They are watered rather sparingly at first, but plentifully
as they advance into bloom. The following is the result of two years’ expe-
rience on the above method :— In 1839 and 40 I gathered a peck of peas on
the Ist day of May; on the 11th of last May, above two pecks; and a peck
on the 15th, 20th, and 25th days of the same month. The whole was ga-
thered from pots standing on the back flues of two vineries, each 40 ft. in
length. I have tried the early frame pea, the Warwick, and Thompson’s early
dwarf; but I have found very little difference as to earliness or produce. I
have tried to force peas in pits and various ways, and have found that they
will not bear forcing till they are out of bloom, and the pod set; then they
will bear it, and be forwarded admirably. Ihave tried them in the autumn
on the same principle, but could not get them after the 20th of November.—
N. Wilson. Gopsall.

REVIEWS.

Arr. I. Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Agriculture, Botany,
Rural Architecture, &c., lately published, with some Account of those
considered the more interesting.

Icones Plantarum rariorum Horti Regii Botanici Berolinensis. By Link,
Klotzsch, and Otto. Nos. IV. V.and VI. 4to, from p. 49. to p. 94. inclu-
sive. Berlin, 1841 and 1842.

The plants figured are: tab. 19. Pentapéra sicula A7/Z.; Erica sicula Cus.
Ericacee. Sicily. — 20. Tigridia violacea Schiede, Ividee. Mexico.—21.
Olinta acuminata K/. Olinee. C. G. H.— 22. Protea longiflora Lam. var.
Mindw, Protedcee. C. G. H. — 23. Higginsia mexicina Lh, et Otto, Rubi-
acez. Mexico.—24. Olinia cymosa Thunberg, Olinee. C. G. H.—25. Pit-
cairna ringens Lk. et Otto, Bromelidcee. South America. —26. Linnze‘a
robinio:des Lk. et Otto, Leguminose Papilionacezee Loteze. Mexico. A very
handsome shrub with pink flowers, and probably hardy.—27. Echevéria brac-
teolata Lh. et Olto, Crassulaceze. South America.— 28. Salvia tubiférmis LA. et
Otto, Labiate. South America. Suffruticose with scarlet owers.—29. O*xalis
discolor A?., Oxalideze. Chili, Brazil, &c. Flowers dark and pale pmk, and
the leaves dark pink beneath. — 30. Commelina scabra Benth., Commelinee.
A perennial from Mexico.— 31. Scelochilus Ottonis KI., Orchideae. Caraccas.
—32. Hibiscus Cameronis Knowles et Westcott, MJalvacez. Raised by
Mr. Cameron of the Birmingham Botanic Garden, from Madagascar seeds.
— 33. Lobelia texénsis Rafin., Lobelidcee. Texas. Flowers deep scarlet,
— 34. Tigridia lttea Lh, et O., Iridew. Chiloé. Readily propagated either
by bulbs or seeds. — 35. Lycopérsicum peruvianum Miller var. commutatum
Spr., Solanacee. South America. Flowers yellow, and larger than those of any
other species. — 36. Epidéndrum (Osméphytum) marginatum LA. ef O., Or-
chideze. Caraccas, in woods. — 37. Schistocarpha bicolor Lessing, Composite.
Mexico. The plate of this species will appear in Part VII.

The figures are executed with the very greatest care, and evidently faithful
representations of nature ; and the letterpress is copious, scientific, and also
popular. Under every species the generic character, and what belongs to the
genus generally, are stated ; next the section of the genus to which the species
belongs is described; then the specific character; next the synonymes, and re-

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. 79

ferences to authors and to plates; affinity of the species; affinity of the
genus ; the culture of the species; and, lastly, a detailed description of the plate.
A translation of the work, with the same plates, would be very instructive to
the English amateur; but it would not answer, as is evident from the failure
of Maund’s Botanist, which was conducted very much on the same plan,
though not with the same care and knowledge of the subject, and was cheaper
than any other botanical periodical.

Abbildung und Beschreibung bliihender Cacteen, §c. Figures and Descriptions
of Cacti in Flower, &c. By Dr. L. Pfeiffer and Fr. Otto. Parts III.
IV. and V. Cassel and Leipzig.

We noticed the first appearance of this work in our Volume for 1839,
p- 522., to which we refer for the essence of the prospectus, and for the high
opinion which we have expressed of the letterpress and engravings. Part II.
we have never received. The parts before us contain :—

Tab. 11. Céreus Curtis? Lk. et O., C. Royéni Bot. Mag. t. 3125.,
C. octagonus Hort. A native of New Granada.—12. Céreus flagriférmis
Zucc. Mexico. At first this species was thought to be a variety of C. fla-
gelliformis, but when it came into flower M. Zuccarini gave it the name of
flagriformis, which, though a different word, has the same meaning as
flagelliformis (whip-shaped).—13. Mammillaria uberiférmis Zucc. Mexico.
— 14. Echinocactus leucocantha Zucc. Mexico.— 15. Céreus coccineus
Salm., C. bifrons Haworth, Suppl. p. 76. Mexico. — 16. Céreus setaceus
Salm., Dec. Prod. iii, p. 469. Brazil.—17. Rhipsalis pentaptera Pfeiff. and
R. platycarpa Pfeiff, syn. Epiphyllum platycéarpum Zucc.; and Céreus pla-
tyearpus Zucc. Brazil.— 18. Opintia foliosa Salm., Dec. Prod. iii. p. 471.,
Cactus foliosa Willd., C. pusilla Haw., Opuntia pusilla Haw. South
America.—19. Mammillaria uncinata Zucc., M. adinca Sheid. Mexico.—
20. Echinocactus acutissima Lh. et O., Mammillaria floribGnda Hook. Bot.
Mag. t. 3647. Chili. — 21. Echinocactus hybocéntra Lehm., E. mammil-
laridides Hook. Bot. Mag. t.3558. Brazil.— 22. Céreus eridphorus LA. et O.,
C. cubénsis Karw. et Zucc. Cuba.— 23. Céreus undatus Lk. ef O. Native
country unknown. — 24. Opuntia cochinillifera Jill. Dict. ed. 8. No. 6.,
Cactus cochinillifera L., C. campechiana Dict. Natur. vi. p. 293. South
America. — 25. Mammillaria eriacantha Lk. et O., M. cylindracea Dee.
Mexico.

This is a splendid work, every plate being as carefully finished and coloured
as if it were an original drawing. It will be hailed with delight by the col-
lectors of Cacti in both hemispheres ; not only for the beauty and fidelity of
the representations of their favourite plants, but on account of the number of
new species which it portrays.

Sowerby’s small Edition of English Botany. In 8vo numbers, every alternate
Saturday.

This most excellent work is drawing rapidly to a close; Nos. 429. and
430. containing plates of lichens. We have so often recommended Sowerby’s
Botany to all persons of leisure living in the country, and to all gardeners
who can afford it, that we can only repeat our previous recommendations.
In every garden there ought to be a garden library, the property of the
proprietor, and this is one of the books that it ought to contain. Young
ladies living in the country will find it a source of perpetual interest. At this
season, for instance, though there are almost no flowering plants in a growing
state, yet there are numerous mosses and lichens which are growing vigor-
ously ; and a number of evergreen ferns at the roots of hedges, and on pollard
and other trees, that they would find the names of, by gathering a specimen,
bringing it home, and turning over the leaves of Mr. Sowerby’s book.

G2

80 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c.

Bacxter’s British Flowering Plants. In monthly numbers, 8vo, plain and
. coloured.

This is a work of the same nature as Mr. Sowerby’s; but, while the latter
contains engravings and descriptions of all the species, Mr. Baxter’s work is
confined to figures and descriptions of the genera, with a bare enumeration of
the species. The engravings are also larger and more elaborate in regard
to detail, as are also the descriptions. To those who cannot afford Mr.
Sowerby’s work, Mr. Baxter’s will prove an excellent substitute: 125 Nos.
have been already published, and three more will complete the work, in six
handsome volumes. It is unquestionably the best work of the kind that has
yet appeared.

Die Coniferen. By Francis Antoine. Parts IV. and V. 1841.

We noticed Parts II. and IfI. of this valuable work in our Vol. for 1841,
p. 624., and the parts before us are not less excellent than those which have
preceded them. The last species described is No. 65. tab. 24. fig. 2. Picea
Pindrow. One of the plates in Part V. exhibits a group of cedars on Mount
Lebanon, engraved from a sketch by a French artist, and kindly supplied by
Baron Hiigel. The trunk of one of the cedars in this group, M. Antoine
informs us, measures 46 ft. in circumference.

Prince’s Annual Catalogue for 1841 and 1842, of Fruit and Ornamental Trees.
and Plants, cultivated and for Sale at the Linnean Botanic Garden and
Nurseries, Flushing, Long Island, near New York. 32d edition.

As we are collecting American oaks for our own private arboretum, we
were surprised, on looking into this catalogue, to find only eight American
species named ; with the addition, however, of the words “‘ 20 other species.”
We should be glad to have plants of the whole twenty-eight species ; and, if
they prove distinct species, we shall pay the catalogue price for them, but not
otherwise.

A Catalogue of the Fruits cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society of
London. Third edition. 8vo, pp.182. London, 1842.

Too much cannot be said in praise of this book, which is perhaps one
of the best things of the kind in existence. We do not know a single
individual who combines a scientific knowledge of gardening generally, with
practical skill in fruits, to the same extert as Mr. Thompson ; and, as a man,
he has a heart as good as his head ; both are cultivated; while it too often
happens that the former is neglected. In our opinion, Mr.. Thompson is a
model for young gardeners to form themselves upon.

The Book of the Farm. By Henry Stephens, Editor of the Quarterly
Journal of Agriculture. Parts IX. and X. Edinburgh and London, 1842,
1843. .

These parts maintain the high reputation which the work has obtained.
The last subject treated of is the threshing-machine and the threshing of
corn ; both brought to great perfection in Scotland.

The Three Prize Essays on Agriculture and the Corn Law, published by the
National Anti-Corn-Law League. Pamph. 8vo, pp. 50. Price 4d. the
three. Manchester and London, 1842.

The essay which gained the first prize is by George Hope, tenant-farmer
in East Lothian ; the second was gained by Arthur Morse of Swaffham in
Norfolk; and the third by W. R. Greg of Caton, Lancaster. . The essays are
well reasoned, and deserve the careful perusal of all who take an interest in
the subject of them.

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. 81

The Builder ; a Builder’s Newspaper and Magazine. In weekly folio numbers.

This journal is intended to be, for the various arts connected with building,
what the gardening newspapers are for gardening. The first number pro-
mises well. It contains, besides an address, what the editor calls his
“ Sermon,” an article on the Treatment of Workpeople by their Employers,
written in an excellent spirit; several reviews, miscellaneous paragraphs, and
various notices, together occupying five pages, with the addition of eleven
pages of advertisements ; in all, sixteen folio pages for 14d., or stamped to go
tree by post 24d.! The work is every way deserving of success, and we
doubt not will obtain it.

Animal Chemistry, or Organic Chemistry, in its Applications to Physiology and
Pathology. By Justus Liebig, M.D., Ph. D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Giessen. Edited, from the Author’s
Manuscript, by William Gregory, M.D., F.R.S.E., &c. 8vo, pp. 354.
London, 1842.

There is much in this work to interest the thinking gardener, who, if he can
procure the book, will find his mind enlarged by the perusal, It will probably
be noticed more at length in an article which Mr. Lymburn is now kindly pre-e
paring for us.

Van Voorst’s Naturalist’s Pocket Almanack for 1843. London. pp. 32. 1s.

Mr. Van Voorst is the publisher of a number of works on natural history,
such as Yarrell’s Birds, Yarrell’s Fishes, Bell’s Quadrupeds, Jones’s Animal
Kingdom, and twenty or thirty others, which have contributed greatly to the
diffusion and popularity of natural science, and elevated Mr. Van Voorst’s
name to the first rank among liberal and enlightened publishers. His books
are all admirably got up, and very cheap. The little book now before us is
original in its plan ; the whole of the information which it contains being
limited to natural history. At the end there is an account of the different
Natural History Societies in London, including the Royal, Linnean, Horti-
cultural, Geological, Zoological, Entomological, Botanical, Microscopical, and
Ornithological. Next follows an account of the metropolitan museums, libra-
ries, and gardens. For every leaf of letter-press there is a leaf of blank
paper, ruled with blue lines at the rate of eight to an inch.

The Farmer's Calendar and Diary of Agriculture and Gardening for the Year
1843. London: printed for the Company of Stationers. 12mo, pp. 95.
Price Is.

The agricultural calendar is by a friend of ours, of the Scotch school, who
has the management of three extensive farms in Wales, and we can recom-
mend it as one of the best things of the kind. The other parts of the Farmer's
Calendar ave good and useful, and the work may be considered as among the
best of the rural almanacks.

The Literary and Scientific Register and Almanack for 1843. By J. W. G.
Gutch, M.R.C.S.L. London. pp. 187.

Besides an almanack, and a number of ruled blank pages for memorandums,
there are a great number of useful facts on almost every subject connected
with literature, science, and every-day life; and the price, bound, is only
3s. 6d.

The British Almanack of the Society for the Diffusion of useful Knowledge for
1843. Small 8vo, pp. 96. London, 1843. Is.

Companion to the Almanack, or Year-Book of General Information for 1843.
Small 8vo, pp. 260, several woodcuts. London, 1843. 2s. 6d.

The first article in the Companion is on the recent applications of electricity
G3

82 General Notices.

to the arts: it treats of lightning conductors, copper sheathing, submarine
operations, electric moving power (in lieu of steam, &c.), electro-locomotive
power, electrical telegraph, electro-metallurgy, electro-gilding and plating,
electrotype, and electrotint. Such are the wonders of electricity! Passing
over a number of articles, we come to Art. xv., Public Improvements, in
which the new churches and other public buildings erected throughout the
country are noticed, and beautiful engravings given of Wilton Church, near
Salisbury, in the Lombardic style, Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon, architects, a
strikinely original edifice 3 Christ church, Broadway, Westminster, in the
latter period of early English, Ambrose Poynter, architect; Wesleyan Theo-
logical Institution, Richmond, A. Trimen, architect ; Cambridge County
Courts, in the Palladian style, Messrs. Wyatt and Brandon, architects; and
Brunswick Buildings, Liverpool, A. and G. Williams, architects, a building in
the Italian Palazzo style, intended to be let out as offices to different occupiers.
As heretofore, we strongly recommend the Companion to every gardener who
can afford it.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. General Notices.

Usk of Sulphate of Ammonia in Agriculture. — For the full developement of
the capacity of the soil, and to afford a greater amount of nitrogen than what
is afforded either by the ordinary manures, or the ammonia, &c., of the at-
mosphere, sulphate of ammonia has been introduced, and found to be a most
valuable auxiliary, as a top dressing, to the farmer. It has been found to
impart a greater degree of fructification to grass, wheat, and other grain, than
any other dressing yet discovered, and at a less cost by 50 per cent.

The mode of application, as adopted by Mr. C. Hall, of Havering-atte-
Bower, Essex, is as follows : —

Having selected several fields of grass, peas, turnips, and wheat, he had
sown broadcast on parts of these fields in quantities, at the cost of 5s. 3d.,
lls. 4d., and 21s. per acre; the sulphate having cost him 17s. per cwt.

The produce was kept and threshed separately, when the increase from the
wheat-land was found to be as follows : —

The part that was sown at the rate of 5s. 3d. per acre gave an increase of
three bushels ; 11s. 4d. gave six bushels; and 21s. upwards of nine bushels;
besides a considerable increase of straw. (Phil. Mag. for December, 1842,
p- 489.)

Agricultural Implements. —'The improvements which are constantly making
in agricultural implements are still greater than those which are taking place
in the culture of corn and green crops. The Scotch swing plough 1s no
longer considered the best implement of the kind, but one has been fonnd
requiring considerably less draught. For measuring the power required to
draw any implement, we have Cottam’s Draught-Gauge, allowed by Mr. Pusey
to be the best machine of the kind. We have also Cottam’s Grubber, which
is a great Improvement on Finlayson’s Harrow ; Cottam’s Revolving Dibble,
for dibbling wheat or beans; Cottam’s One-Row Drill, for manure and seed ;
and Cottam’s Apparatus for hatching and rearing Game and Poultry. But,
perhaps, the most remarkable agricultural machine of the present time is
one imported from France, and to be seen in operation on the premises of
Messrs. Graham and Co., Malin’s Wharf, Fore Street, Lambeth, which
completely cleanses damaged wheat, and also renders wheat that has been
injured by the weevil, not only perfectly free from that insect, but weevil-
proof for the future. The process would be too tedious to describe here;
but it is completely effective, and of immense importance with reference to
the preservation of corn in granaries. Whoever wishes to know all that is

General Notices. 83

newest and best respecting agricultural implements and machines cannot do
better than consult Messrs. Cottam and Hallen of London, or Messrs. Slight
and Co., Edinburgh.

The oropholithe (orophé, a roof, and lithos, a stone), a composition used
as a substitute for zinc, lead, tile, or slate, and apparently well adapted for
covering garden and agricultural buildings, is now attracting a good deal of
attention among architects. It appears to be a peculiarly hard cement,
spread thinly over a surface of canvass, which may be cut up into squares
of any convenient size. “ The oropholithe, as applied to buildings, will be
found to recommend itself to attention by its cheapness and durability, as
well as by the absence of all qualities capable of attracting electric matter,
and which are more or less resident in all metallic substances. This cannot
fail to render it safer than either of the metals now used on the tops of
houses; while, not being liable to oxidation, and entirely impenetrable to
water, it must, on both these accounts, recommend itself to the attention of
builders with additional force. Independently of its durable qualities, for
cheapness the oropholithe will be found unrivalled. It can be laid down at
about half the price of zinc, at one quarter of that of lead, and, from the im-
-mense saving in the expenditure of time and money, at considerably less than
slates and tiles. Then, its weight being so much less than that of any of these
materials, the saving of timber in rafters will not be the least important consider-
ation with the architect ; as, while the new-invented material effectually resists
the action of the elements, when the amount of pressure taken from the roof
is considered, the whole under-structure may be much lighter. The oropho-
lithe being laid down on large surfaces, and its joints united by the cement of
which it is made, the whole superfice of the roof appears covered with one
solid sheet of the material ; and this compactness gives it such an extraor-
dinary power of resistance that no wind storm, how violent soever, could by
any possibility remove it, while the building itself continued firm in its
position. As a medium preventive of damp, as fatally injurious to buildings
as to the health of their inhabitants, the oropholithe is likely to supersede the
custom of stuccoing walls as at present. Lined with oropholithe, the rooms
will be instantaneously fit for habitation, free from damp, and the tainted
reek so disagreeable in newly built and unseasoned houses; that is to say, for
this purpose one side is covered with the material which is placed against the
wall, the other, or exterior side, presents a dry surface which may be paperéd
immediately. The resistive qualities of the oropholithe are so great, that
after years of exposure to the action of those universal solvents, air and water,
no visible alteration in its structure has taken place. Hence its applicability
in lining baths, tanks, cisterns, fishponds, &c., becomes manifest.” Such
are the uses of this article, as stated in the prospectus. — Cond.

Wirework is now being applied to a great many purposes in gardening, and
to some in agriculture, and we expect shortly to be able to announce a mode
of coating over wire with zine by the galvanic process, which, without adding
much to its expense, will add greatly to its durability. We have lately found,
in various parts of the country, that a strained wire fence 4 ft. high can be put
up cheaper, all expenses included, than a wooden fence of the same height,
even without reckoning any thing for the wood. lLand-owners, who have
plenty of young larches and Scotch pines that might be used in making such
fences, find that the labour of cutting down the trees and forming them into
fences is more than the entire cost of the strained wire fence. Almost every
ironmonger deals in such articles. We have before us a great many designs,
by Mr. Porter of Thames Street, and Messrs. Cottam and Hallen of Winsley
Street, London; Messrs. Young of High Street, Edinburgh ; and Mr. Samuel
Taylor of Stoke Ferry, Norfolk. Mr. Taylor confines himself to the manu-
facture of a cheap and effective fence against hares and rabbits, which is, at
the same time, an excellent substitute for hurdles or cords, as sheep-folds,
and for sticks for peas, trailers in general, and other garden purposes. Mr.
Porter exhibits a great variety of designs for fences and useful ornamental ob-

G 4

84 Foreign Notices : — Italy.

jects, as do Messrs. Cottam and Hallen; and very handsome designs, with
very low prices affixed, are to be had of Messrs. Young of Edinburgh. A
correspondent in Scotland, on whom we can rely, says of Messrs. Young :
“They are young men who have carried, into their business the scientific
knowledge of the age, acquired at our cheap and:greatly improved educational
institutions. They are intelligent, tasteful, enthusiastic, and of a good address,
and they are being very extensively employed. Sunk fences are now seldom
made in Scotland, though I see you occasionally recommend them in England.
A wire fence 3ft. 6 in. high is sufficient for cattle and sheep. It consists of
six horizontal wires passed through, or fastened on, wooden posts, and is put
up for 9d. per yard; and with an additional wire, to render the fence 4 ft. 6 m.
high, for 10d. per yard; the posts being supplied and fixed in the ground by the
proprietor. These posts, if tarred and charred, are found to last 20 years.
The wires are generally painted with gas tar. Instead of running the wires
through the wooden posts, it is found an improvement to attach them by iron
staples; which admits of renewing a post when it decays, without disturbing
any of the others. Very strong deer fences Messrs. Young erect at from 2s.
to 3s. 6d. per yard, according to the height; the proprietor providing stones for
the straining pillars, and stone or wood blocks for the intermediate uprights,
&c. Curved wire fences [which are so beautifully put up by Mr. Porter, with
under-ground stays, and no prop or brace of any kind shown above ground]
are also put up by Messrs. Young.”—W. D. 8. Sept. 28. 1842.

Gregson’s Green-Flesh Melon is a small fruit, seldom weighing more than
three pounds, but it is decidedly the best-flavoured Cantaloup melon that I
have ever tasted. The person from whom I had the fruit has grown it for
many years, and never had any other variety that gave so much satisfaction.
He does not know its origin, —J. B. [We have a few seeds of this melon at

the service of any one who chooses to ask for them, enclosing a postage
stamp.]

Art. II. Foreign Notices.

ITALY.

U’iuus filva.—1 was much surprised to read (Vol. for 1840, p. 231.) of the
medical properties of the U’lmus falva, owing to the great quantity of muci-
lage with which its cellular tissue abounds ; and as the mucilage is very
nutritious, and as the leaves and bark of the commen elm fatten cattle in a
short time, on account of the portion of mucilage which they also contain, we
may hence conclude that cattle would fatten much more quickly if fed with
the leaves of the U/Imus fialva. In the Maison Rustique du XIX Siecle it is
said that the leaves of the Pdépulus cauadénsis in a green state are equivalent
to the same weight of the best hay: what is meant is, that a certain weight of
these leaves in a dry state nourish or fatten equal to twice (due) the weight
of the best hay. A comparison of the nutritive properties of the leaves of the
Canadian poplar, the common elm, and the U’Imus falva, is well deserving of
a trial.— Giuseppe Manetti. Monza, Nov. 1. 1842.

Nelimbium tibetianum.— At the house of my friend George Compton, Esq.,
to whom Lombardy is indebted for many fine and rare plants, and who lives
in the neighbourhood of Como, I saw Neléimbium tibetianum in full flower in
August last year (when it flowered for the first time), as well as in the same
month of the present year, and which I do not think has been as yet de-
scribed. He grows it in a pot 2 ft. in diameter, and 14 ft. high, filled with
mould to the height of J ft.,in which the nelumbium is planted, and from this
point to the top it is kept filled with water. The flowers are rather smaller,
more round (see the two figures sent), and of a darker colour than those of
the Nelimbium speciosum. There is no difference in the leaves and smell of
the flowers from the other species; therefore I consider it a variety. In the

Domestic Notices : — England. 85

summer he keeps it exposed to the sun in the open air, and in winter he pro-
tects it in a greenhouse. — Idem.

[We have sent the figures of the two nelumbiums to Sir William J. Hooker,
who sometimes publishes in the Botanical Magazine specimens of interesting
plants, though they may not have been introduced.]

NORTH AMERICA.

The Philadelphia Horticultural Society held their fourteenth exhibition on the
13th instant, and it will close this evening. It is more tasteful than any
previous one, while the usual proportion of plants and fruits is maintained.
I send you two newspapers containing accounts of particulars. There are
upwards of 300 varieties of the genus Cactus ; of rare plants there are Ura-
nia speciosa from R. 8. Field, Esq. of New Jersey ; palms of several kinds
from Mr. J. B. Smith ; the pitcher plant, and the butterfly plant, from Mr.
R. Buist; Panddnus utilis and two species of Zamia from G. Pepper, Esq.
V.P. of the Society ; Aristolochia sipho from General R. Patterson ; mango
trees, croton, calabash tree, coffee tree, and indigo tree, from Mr. Peter
Mackenzie. The fruits were superb. Apples and peaches of great size, and
beautiful ; seckle pears in great perfection; large blue and yellow plums.
The grapes also, foreign and domestic, were very large. I refer to the printed
list. —J. M. Philadelphia, Sept. 23. 1842.

Dorydnthes excélsa. —The majestic Doryanthes excélsa has been exhibited
in Philadelphia for the last twelve days, by Mr. Sherwood, florist. The stem
began to shoot in December last, and is now (June 18. 1842) about 12 ft.
high. Eleven flowers have blown, and eighteen more are to come out. It
is at present in the beautiful greenhouse of Mr. Pepper, to which it was
removed after the exhibition of it ceased. I have not been able to see
Mr. Sherwood to know the history of this specimen of the plant.—J. M,
Philadelphia, June \8, 1842.

Art. III. Domestic Notices.

ENGLAND.

WoRMLEYBURY, in Hertfordshire, formerly the seat of the late Sir Abraham
Hume, Bart , and now in possession of Cust, Esq., has been till lately
in a state of deplorable neglect ; but it is now being thoroughly renovated
under the care of Mr. J. Harden, an intelligent and enthusiastic gardener.
The noble plant of Magnolia conspicua, of which an account was given by
Sir Abraham in the first Volume of the Gardener’s Magazine, is now upwards
of 20ft. high, and covered with blossom-buds. The wall trees had run
quite wild, the plums and cherries having spurs a foot long; but all is now
being brought into order.—D. B. Jan. 19. 1843.

A Metropolitan Model Institution for improving the Dwellings of the in-
dustrious Classes is now being formed. A main object of this institution will
be to erect a building combining a number of habitations for workmen, having
every requisite accommodation for health and comfort ; and to show that such
buildings, when let at a reasonable rent, will afford an adequate return for the
money expended. Such a combination as we have shown in the Encyclopedia
of Cottage Architecture, } 493., and in the Supplement to Cottage Architecture,
p- 1149., under the head of “ A College for single working Men,” will pro-
bably be attempted, and we have no doubt success will be fully attained.
We have been trying to get such a college erected ever since 1819.— Cond.

Araucdria Cunninghami is here 10 ft. high and 8 ft. wide, with three soli-
tary cones on the points of three of the lateral shoots of the two uppermost
tiers of branches. The cones are oyate, sessile, 1 inch in width, and half an

86 Domestic Notices: — England.

inch in length; they consist of narrow, slender, bristly, somewhat recurved
brownish scales, densely imbricated. — G. Lawrence. Hendon Vicarage,
Jan. 10. 1843.

Picea spectibilis. — Of this fine tree we have two specimens, each bearing
seven cones. — Idem.

Pinus Sabiniana has one cone. — Jdem.

An Oak (Quércus pedunculata) in the park of Hazel Grove, Castle Cary,
Somersetshire, [of which a lithograph has been sent us,] is 82 ft. high,
30 ft. in circumference at 33 ft. from the ground, and it contains 863 cubic
feet of timber, though it has lost many of its largest limbs. It is in full vigour
and bears every year abuadance of small acorns in pairs at the end of long
stalks. Near this tree are several other oaks of great height, and from 18 in,
to 23 ft. in circumference. An elm in the same park, blown down some time
since, measured 39 ft. in circumference; and an ash 21 ft. — P. J. WM.

The Mistletoe on the Oak may be seen at Penporthlenny, in the parish of
Goitre, Monmouthshire ; and also on a tree near Usk. It may be interesting
to some to have these habitats added to those already given in your Arbo-
retum Britannicum. — Jane Williams. Glastonbury, Oct. 22. 1842.

Verbena Melindres and V.Tweediedna have stood out here the last winter
with no other protection than their own uncut branches. They died back to
the collar of the roots, but broke well again in spring, more especially V.
Melindres, and they grew much more vigorously during summer than plants
raised from cuttings in spring. Our flower-garden is a level spot on the
south side of a steep hill overhanging Swansea. The soil is a strong loam,
from 9 to 18 inches deep, on stratified rock dippimg to the north. It becomes
rapidly dry and hard after rain. — P. Walker, Gardener to R. Grenfell, Esq.
Maesteg, near Swansea, Oct. 22. 1842.

Melons grown in Leaves.— At Taplow Lodge, Bucks, melons have been for
many years past grown in leaves raked up the preceding autumn. The plants
are raised in loam in the usual manner, and a crop of early potatoes having
been first grown on the leaves, the melons are turned out of the pots to
succeed them. They bear abundantly, and the fruit is of excellent flavour.
—J.B. Uxbridge, Dec. 10. 1842.

Mushrooms this year (1842) have been most unusually abundant in August
and September, and very great quantities have been gathered fine and large;
some measuring 30 in. round. Many of the agricultural labourers’ fami-
lies have made a guinea a week during these months, by gathering them in
the fields and selling them in the neighbourhood. — J. Saul. Garstang, Lan-
cashire, Oct. 10. 1842.

Cucumbers this year (1842) have been very abundant in the cottager’s
gardens here. They are attended with very little trouble or expense, and are
of great benefit to the cottager and the labouring man in hot weather, being
found of great advantage in removing thirst, with the addition of a little
vinegar, when taking their meals, far more so than either milk or beer. The
cottagers’ mode of growing is, in the first place, to obtain a few plants
from their neighbours who have them in the open ground, and plant them in
the spot where they have taken up their early potatoes in July, without adding
any manure. I have seen some so planted this season produce cucumbers
weighing from 2 to 3 lb. each, without any protection, but merely growing
in the beds the early potatoes had been removed from. To keep the fruit
clean when growing, they put what is here called a turf or peat under them,
such as they use for fuel ; they use no coal for fuel here. [have no doubt
you would have been much pleased if you had had an opportunity of sceing
those cucumbers growing in the cottage gardens, and might have said much in
their praise. There is at this time growing up to a saw-pit side in the wood
yard of Henry Masden, at Cobus, near Garstang, a cucumber which weighs
52 0z. The roots are merely growing ina few road droppings from the horses,
gathered from the road side. The plants have produced abundance of fruit,
without the least protection, in September. — dem.

Domestic Notices: — Scotland. 87

SCOTLAND.

Bust of Dr. Neill.—In consequence of a resolution passed at the General
Meeting of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, of Ist December last, to
place in their New Hall a marble bust of their excellent secretary, Dr. Neill,
for his long and valuable gratuitous services rendered to the Society since its
commencement in 1809, now a period of thirty-three years, it was suggested,
by several practical gardeners, that the exertions of that gentleman having
been eminently instrumental in promoting and sustaining the high character
of Scottish gardeners, and the science of horticulture in all its branches, they
should come forward as a body and subscribe for a testimonial to be pre-
sented to him in their name; and in order to ascertain what might be the
general feeling in this respect, a number of the most influential gardeners have
been written to; all of whom fas is proved by extracts from their letters]
are most anxious that it should be carried into execution; and, in order to do
this the more effectually, the following individuals have agreed to act as a
committee, viz., Mr. Edward Sang, sen., Kirkaldy ; Mr. W. M‘Nab, Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh ; Mr. S. Murray, Royal Botanic Garden,
Glasgow ; Mr. C. M‘Intosh, Dalkeith Park ; Mr. J. Smith, Hopetoun
House; Mr. J. Dodds, Scone Palace ; Mr. John Young, Archerfield ; and
Mr, R. Watson, Moredun ; Mr. W. M‘Nab, convener; Mr. J. M‘Nab,
treasurer.

To this paper are appended letters approving of the resolution from the
following gardeners and nurserymen : —

Nicol Cathie, Airthrey Castle.

James Dodds, Scone Palace.

William Sharp, Pitfour.

Edward Sang, Kirkaldy.

James Smith, Hopetoun House.

John Robertson, Kinfauns Castle.

John Gow, Tullyallan Gardens.

Robert Arthur, Edinburgh.

Stewart Murray, Royal Botanic Gar-
dens, Glasgow.

Thomas Bishop, Methven Castle.

William Lawson, Greenock.

John Addison, Gosford.

John Davidson, Culzean Castle.

John Young, Archerfield.

Alexander Smith, Callander House.

Robert Watson, Moredun Gardens.

Charles Lawson, Edinburgh.

Andrew Turnbull, Bothwell Castle.

James M'‘Intosh, Drumlanrig Castle.

Archibald Gorrie, Annat Cottage.

John Westwood, Academy Gardens,
Dollar.

Joseph Bain, Beaufort Castle.

James Mathison, Melville House.

John Petrie, Cullen House.

D. Montgomery, Buchanan House.

William M‘Nab, Royal Botanic Gar-
den, Edinburgh.

William Barron, Elvaston Castle.

William Pearson, Cally House.

Peter Crocket, Raith Gardens.

Charles M‘Intosh, Dalkeith Park.

James Sinclair, Castle Toward.

Daniel Ferguson, Royal Botanic Gar-
den, Belfas:.

George Shiells, Erskine House.

George Saunders, Gordon Castle.

James Smith, Monkwood Grove.

It is highly gratifying to us to see so many highly respectable men and ex-

cellent gardeners bearing testimony to the great services rendered by Dr.
Neill to the horticulture of Scotland, and to his urbanity and kindness to
gardeners. For our own part, we can only heartily join in the expression of
Mr. M‘Nab of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden, that we “ have had the honour
of Dr. Neill’s acquaintance for upwards of thirty years, and can say with
perfect sincerity, that we do not believe there is another individual now in
existence who is more entitled to their gratitude. His whole life has been
devoted to usefulness in almost every department of science, but more es-
pecially to that of gardening, and the advancement of gardeners.” Perhaps
there is no Scotch gardener more obliged to Dr. Neill than we are, since it
was from his article HorticuLTureE in the Encyclopedia Britannica that we
took the idea of the arrangement of the Encyclopedia of Gardening. The
subscriptions are limited to sums from 2s. 6d. to 10s. 6d., and the thirty-
eight gardeners whose names are given above have subscribed from 5s. to

88 Domestic Notices : — Scotland.

10s. each. Subscriptions are received by Mr. James M‘Nab of the Experi-
mental Garden. — Cond.

Foreign Trees which thrive in Shetland.— At a meeting of the Botanical So-
ciety of Edinburgh, on November 10. 1842, Mr. Edmonston, jun., men-
tioned in our Volume for 1840, p. 102., gave an account of the botany of
Shetland. The whole is extremely interesting ; but, as it will be published in
the Transactions of the Botanical Society, we shall confine ourselves to an
extract relating to arboriculture in that island. “ A number of experiments
have been carried on by my father for five or six years, in order, if possible,
to ascertain what foreign trees will endure this climate. He obtained from
Messrs. Lawson of Edinburgh all the more generally cultivated trees and
shrubs, North British, North American, and North Asiatic, and the result
has been as follows. Among the indigenous trees of Scotland, the ash
appears to stand as well as any other, as it puts forth its leaves late and loses
them early. Of the scarcely indigenous, or naturalised species, the sycamore
appears to be the hardiest ; while the birch and Scotch pine will scarcely live
a year. Again, Pinus montana and 4’sculus Hippocastanum, comparatively
tender plants, appear to thrive well; and Pyrus aucuparia, which is idi-
genous with us, thrives tolerably in cultivation. Almost all the willows do
well; Salix Russellidna, fragilis, cinerea, viminalis, and vitellina, among the
best. The alder is rather too early in putting forth its leaves; but some
poplars appear to do well, especially the white, black Italian, and Lombardy ;
and Pépulus nigra * is indigenous. Oak and beech will not thrive at all.
Generally speaking, evergreens, both trees and shrubs, appear not to suit.
Pinus Cémbra, the black, white, and Norway spruce have all been repeatedly
tried, but seldom languished a year. Even the hardy shrubby evergreens,
which are met with indigenous or in every shrubbery en the mainland, such
as I‘lex Aquifolium, Rhododéndron pénticum and flavum, Vibirnum Tinus,
&c., die almost immediately. Among the best-thriving evergreen shrubs may
be mentioned, A’rbutus mucronata, Cotoneaster U\va-ursi, Hédera Helix, &c.
The latter, indeed, is native, and in some situations thrives remarkably well,
as it also does in Orkney.” — Cond.

A good Tablet for the Indication of the Name of a Street, or a Guide- Post to
a Cross Road. —\t should be, Ist, readily discoverable and distinguishable ;
2d, easily legible at moderate distances, and by oblique as well as by direct
vision, in diffused light, or in sunshine ; 3d, of such material as to be lasting
and easily kept in a serviceable state.

No tablet which I have met with fulfils these conditions so entirely as that
which was widely diffused in Paris during the administration of M. Chabrol
de Volvic. The material is volcanic stone in thin slabs; these slabs are
covered by hard blue enamel, and the inscription is in white enamel burnt in.
They are immediately distinguishable from all other inscriptions or signs, are
very legible in all states of the weather, and appear to be unaltered after
several years’ exposure.

It unluckily happens that the cost of these tablets is such as to make them
unattainable generally.

The next best model, in point of distinctness, is that which has long been
in general use in the town of Birmingham, viz. cast-iron plates, with the
inscription in slightly relieved letters. This model, which, if judiciously
executed, is but little inferior to M. Chabrol’s in distinctness, has a manifest
advantage over it in cheapness and in strength. Some tablets on this plan
were, several years ago, introduced in Edinburgh, and have answered well as
far as they went; but, subsequently, changes have been introduced which
have notably impaired their efficiency ; the original proportion of the letters

* A specimen of poplar which we received from Mr. Edmonston, sen.,
some years ago, appeared to us to be P. balsamifera; at all events we are
quite certain it was not the P. nigra of English Botany ; but we have written
to Mr. Edmonston for a plant. — Cond.

Retrospective Criticism. 89

to the spaces has been altered so much as to make them ilJegible, unless when
seen nearly from the front, and the colours of the ground and letters have
been inverted (the ground being now white). This last change has been par-
ticularly detrimental, as, when the sun shines obliquely on them, the shadows
of the raised letters fill the spaces between them, and turn the inscription into
an illegible black stripe; it has, besides, had the effect of giving the tablets a
close resemblance to the tickets on houses to let.

Among the models in the Paris collection was one which does not appear
to have had a fair trial anywhere, and which, if on enquiry it should be found
to be available in point of cost, appears to offer considerable advantages.

These tablets were very similar in form to the Birmingham pattera, though
thicker in substance. The material was a sort of earthenware, analogous to
that of which we make greybeards and pickling jars in this country. If such
tablets were first fired with a hard lustreless blue enamel, and then the sur-
faces of the letters enamelled white, a very perfect tablet would be the result.
(Civis, in the Scotsman, Dec., 1842.)

IRELAND.

Agricultural Improvement. — The following is an extract of a letter received
by Messrs. Drummond, of the Agricultural Museum, from Mr. M‘Leish, land-
steward on one of the estates of the Marquess of Waterford, in Ireland.
Mr. M‘Leish, after alluding to the implements furnished by the Messrs.
Drummond for the estate, consisting of sixty full sets of draining tools, with
subsoil and furrow plough, and expressing himself highly pleased with their
superior excellence, proceeds to say: “ The Marquess of Waterford has about
40,000 acres of land in the county of Derry, on which there are about 800
tenants, but until this season there had not been anything done by them in
the way of draining their land on any regular system. But, by advice and
encouragement held out to them by Mr. Beresford, agent to the marquess,
upwards of sixty of the tenants have been and are thorough draining on
_ Mr. Smith of Deanston’s system, and have already completed upwards of
16,000 perches (51 yards each) of drains, all filled with broken stones. Being
only a few months since the principle was fairly laid down to them, they seem
to embark in it with spirit ; and, from the satisfaction it is giving, not only to
those who have adopted it, but also to those who have been watching its
effects, I have no doubt that ere long every tenant on this estate will be
thorough draining. They have suffered so much from wet for the last five or
six years, and now from the lowness of the markets, that they seem quite
aware that, unless they try some method of improving their land, so as to be
able to raise an additional quantity of grain to compensate for the low prices,
they will not be able to pay their rents ; so they have determined on thorough
draining and subsoiling, which certainly is the first and best step, for nine
acres out of ten require it. The qualities of the soils on this estate are vari-
able, but well adapted for draining, and can be thoroughly drained with
broken stones for about 5/. per imperial acre on the average. The tenants
here do the work at their own expense in the first instance, but, when finished
in a proper manner, Mr. Beresford pays them the full amount of what it cost
them, on their agreeing to pay interest for the same at the rate of five per cent

er annum during the term of their lease. — Cammnish, near Dungiven, Sept. 29.
1842.” (Stirling Advertiser, Oct. 14, 1842.)

Art. IV. Retrospective Criticism.

Erraté.—In our Vol. for 1842, p.594., line 28. from the top, for “an
overshot water-wheel” read “four overshot water-wheels.” In p, 593., lines
1. and 33. from the top, for “ Grampians” read “ Ochils.”

90 Retrospective Criticism.

In p.624., line 14. from the bottom, for “three thousand” read “ thirty
thousand ;” and in p. 625., line 5. from the top, for “destruction” read
“ dispersion.” :

In our last Number, p. 35., under fig. 1., for “ Sida pulchélla” read “ Plagi-
anthus Lampenii.” ; ait

Thoughts on modern Burying-Grounds. (Vol. for 1842, p. 616.) — In visiting
the country I have often regretted the very slovenly and neglected state of
the churchyards. If they were judiciously planted with Irish yew, cypresses,
junipers of different kinds, hollies, box, and other dark evergreens, the grass
kept short, and the nettles and brambles destroyed, they would interest the
spectator, and tend to keep alive a taste for neatness and decency generally
amongst the poorer classes. I cannot doubt but that a great improvement
would speedily take place if the public mind were roused on this subject ;
and I do think it is of more real importance than may appear at first sight,
and your pen would be very powertul if applied to cure this foul disease,
though it may be a hereditary one. Pray give the subject that consideration
which it deserves ; and draw up yourself, or get some of your correspondents
to draw up, a paper, comparing the general states of churchyards in the
country with what they might be made by a little attention, and at an expense
which the frequenters of the churches would not grudge. I think the Church
Society would be very much indebted to you for such a paper, and also that
they would cause it to be printed and extensively circulated amongst the
clergy. If I stop in a village I generally make a point of visiting the church-
yard. I like to see the names, ages, &c.; but, as I said before, it is generally
accompanied with regret at seeing the very slovenly manner in which they
are allowed to remain. The churchyard at Henbury near Bristol is an ex-
ception ; and one of the neatest village churchyards I have ever seen is about
two or three miles west of Henley-on-Thames, but I forget the name at this
moment. The churchyard walls, and sometimes even the churches themselves,
would be much improved in appearance by ivy being planted to grow up over
them. — H, 7. Dec. 5, 1842.

Our readers will find a great many remarks on cemeteries and churchyards, ,
both at home and abroad, in the Notes of our Tours, but we fear little good
will be done till the clergy can be induced to take up the subject ; which,
happily, in various places they are now doing. The formation of public
cemeteries, which are in general kept in a very superior manner to what
churchyards are, will contribute to the same desirable end. — Cond.

Roots and Tops of Frees. — Although Mr. Barnes has of late given some
very useful information on this subject, still I may be allowed to make a few
remarks on what he says about orange trees in your Vol. for 1843, p. 24.
He observes: “ 1 purposely keep their heads from growing this season to any
extent, because they should make themselves properly strong at bottom first of
all.” By this are we to understand that iftrees were allowed to make large tops,
that would prevent them from making roots ? If so, it is against the received
opinion, nay, the fact, that roots of trees extend accordingly as their branches
do ; for, if otherwise, how is it that those who understand the culture of vines
do not prune them the first summer or two after they are planted, but allow
them to grow wild, if I may say so, solely with the view of encouraging their
roots? Mr. Crawshay, the celebrated horticulturist, always adopted that plan
‘with his young vines ; but, as Mr. Barnes mentions that he has “a great deal
to say some day on the culture of the vine,” perhaps he will then throw more
light on the subject. —J. Wighton. Cossey Gardens, Jan. 6. 1843.

Line-water for killing Worms,—-1 hardly know what you consider a fair
trial of lime-water for a lawn infested with these pests; but I have tried it so
often, and so long, that I give it up. You say, after the worms have come
above ground, do so and so; why, my good Sir, that is the very point
at issue between us. I cannot make them come up; the last time I tried,
not one out of fifty showed their faces. The truth is, we are ignorant of the

Queries and Answers. 91

habits of these groundlings. At certain times they lie so deep in the earth,
that all the lime-water you could apply to them would not make them come
forth; and, unless you do that, you do nothing. I believe at this very time,
if I were to pour hogsheads of lime-water on my lawn, I should not kill any
worms worth notice —S. 7’. April 20. 1842.

Saul’s Potato-Planter, §c.—1 think but little further can be added to the
account of the potato-planter and its uses given in p.40. The plan has been
tried in pianting the winter potatoes in the fields ; and, as an experiment on it,
last season, a field was divided into parts; one half was planted by the plough,
and the other half by the planter. The manure having been put into the
ground, and covered up by the plough, the potatoes were planted by the
planter fig. 4. (given in p. 41.), and the ground was then harrowed over. As
soon as those potatoes made their appearance above ground, their foliage looked
more luxuriant and stronger than those set by the plough, and when taken up
had a more abundant produce, and well repaid the owner for the extra labour.
As I before stated, it may be done by boys or aged persons, and would prove
a benefit to the working classes, as it is highly desirable that every means
should be used to prevent persons being sent to the workhouse ; and there is
no doubt that, if employment could be furnished, it would be to the advantage of
the farmer, and a great pleasure to the labourer to work for small wages rather
than be forced into the workhouse. As a proof of this, there are here, at the
present time, farmer’s labourers working for 8d. per day and their victuals, who
have wives and three or four children to support out of this small sum; but
who are quite satisfied with this rather than go to the workhouse: they have
also rent to pay out of this small sum, as well as supporting their families,
Bad as this may appear, I am sorry to say that many of the families of the
Irish farmer’s labourers are in a far worse condition, as may be seen in a work
lately published in 2 vols. by Mr. Bins of Lancaster, who travelled through
Ireland. It is entitled the Beauties and Miseries of Ireland, a work well
worth being read by every thinking man of the present time.

I shall close by giving an account of an extraordinary crop of potatoes grown
by Mr. Hodgson of Poulton le Fyld. At first sight it may appear as if not
true, but it is a fact. In May last he cut into sets 20 potatoes, and planted
them, the produce of which, when got up, was no less than ten bushels and a
half, or three windles, as it is called here, which is 720lb. This produce, I
think, is worthy of recording in the Gardener’s Magazine. — M, Saul. Gar-
steng, Dec. 29. 1842.

Art. V. Queries and Answers.

Kent, the Landscape-Gardener.—At the end of one of your Magazines, you
ask for information respecting (among others) Kent the landscape-gardener.
I find this extract in the notes I made when reading Hunter’s Deanery of
Doncaster, a most learned and valuable local history. I cannot at this dis-
tance of time recollect whether I extracted the whole or only the most im-
portant part of what related to Kent.

“ The family of Kent, who have been numerous in the parish of Rother-
ham, and have produced several clergymen, may seem to have a claim to
William Kent, the artist, who did so much to improve the public taste in
gardening. Vertue says he was a native of Yorkshire; and the following
entry in the Parish Registry of Rotherham agrees well with the time of his
birth. £1684, March 27. bap. William, son of Richard Kent.” (Vol. ii. p. 13.)

In looking for this memorandum, I found also the following extracts, which
may not be uninteresting to you.

“ Repton .... was accustomed to say that the groups of oaks, thorns,
yews, and other trees were more picturesquely combined at Langold than at
any other spot in the country.” (Vol. i. 299.)

92 Queries and Answers.

Langold is near Rotherham, and is now the property of H. Gally Knight,
Esq. M. P., a gentleman who inherits the fine taste of his predecessors.

«© Aston still exhibits evidence of the favourite employment of Mr. Mason.”
(Vol. ii. p. 168.) If [remember right he was vicar of Aston.

Tankersley Park.—* Before 1654, Lady Fanshawe, speaking of Tankersley
Park says: ‘I found .... the countryplentiful and healthy, and very pleasant,
but there was no fruit in it till we planted some, and my Lord Strafford says now,
that what we planted is the best fruit in the North.’”’ Hunter adds: “ The
fact which Lady Fanshawe notices, that before her time there was no fruit in
this part of the country, is curious: but perhaps the statement is to be taken
with some qualification. I find Dr. Berrie cultivating strawberries at Hod-
royd before this time. The Fanshawes were great gardeners. Sir Henry
Fanshawe had a curious garden at Ware.” (Vol. li. p. 303).

Tankersley is about half-way between Sheffield and Barnsley, westward of
the road. Hodroyd is 5 miles N. E. of Barnsley. J am inclined to think
that Lady Fanshawe’s account is more literal than Hunter seems disposed
tothink. The old accounts of the great families might, perhaps, if properly
kept, throw some unexpected light on points like these. — Tomas Wilson.
Crimbles House, near Leeds, Oct. 9. 1842.

An evergreen Larch has been discovered in his plantations by a gentleman
in the neighbourhood of Carmarthen; and he is anxious to know if any of our
correspondents have seen or heard of an evergreen larch. He also wishes to
know,

Whether the Larch can be propagated by Cuttings. —To this question we
answer, that every ligneous dicotyledonous. plant whatever, that produces a
shoot long enough to have two or three buds on it, can be propagated by
cuttings ; because every such plant, when wounded into the soft wood, has
an inherent power of healing that wound ; because the healing process consists
in the protrusion of granulated matter from the upper lip of the wound ; and
this granulated matter protrudes roots when placed in favourable circum-
stances. If, then, the cutting be cut directly through where it has been
wounded, immediately below this granulated matter, and planted in sand,
roots will be produced from the granulations. It is true that the process is
much more rapid and certain in some plants than in others, but in all it will
take place, if the operation of cutting into the soft wood is properly per-
formed on the lower part of a shoot still growing, but just beginning to
ripen its wood, and the cutting afterwards carefully planted in sand, and kept
in a state of uniform temperature and moisture. In many cases the cutting
may be taken off at once, without waiting for granulations; in others, it may
be ringed or notched immediately under a bud; in some cases, a slit may be
made vertically through a shoot where there is a bud or joint, and the slit
kept open by a wedge till it has granulated on the edges of the wound, It
may then be cut off across the joint, or rather towards its lower extremity.
Roses, rhododendrons, azaleas, arbutus, and a great many trees and shrubs
that are commonly propagated by layers, may be increased in this manner, as
Mr. Cooper, late of the Epsom Nursery, but now possessor of the Brixton
Nursery, has abundantly proved ; and we should think it the most certain
mode with the evergreen larch, making the slit an inch or two in length,
through the lower part of the shoot, in the month of July, when it is just
beginning to ripen. There are a great many other modes of applying the
principle, not only to shoots contaming woody matter, but even to leaves,
many of which, from the common cabbage to the orange, if wounded at the
lower extremity of the petiole before the leaf has quite done growing, will
granulate, and, when planted, produce roots. Sce this matter treated in
detail in the Suburban Horticulturist. — Cond.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
MARCH, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and of Landscape-
Architecture applied to the Laying out of Public Cemeteries and
the Improvement of Churchyards ; including Observations on the
Working and General Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds. By the Conpucror.

Tue circumstance of bemg employed by the Directors of a Cemetery Com-
pany at Cambridge to form a plan for their guidance in arranging the ground,
and in working and managing the cemetery afterwards, led us to study the
principles on which all the arrangements connected with cemeteries are, or
ought to be, founded, and the following pages contain the general results of
our enquiries. The subjects discussed are:

I. The Uses of Cemeteries.

II. The Laying out, Planting, and Architecture of Cemeteries, with a view
to these uses.

Ill. The Working and Management of Cemeteries.

IV. Certain Innovations suggested, relative to the Selection of Ground for
Cemeteries, and the Mode of performing Funerals, &c.

V. A Design for a small Cemetery on level Ground, of moderate extent,
exemplified in a cemetery now being formed at Cambridge, illus-
trated by a plan, sections, and an isometrical view.

VI. Design for a Cemetery on hilly Ground, with an isometrical view.

VII. The present State of the London Cemeteries, considered as cemetery
gardens.

VIII. The Improvement and Extension of Country Churchyards, illustrated
by plans.

IX. A List of Trees, Shrubs, and perennial herbaceous Plants, adapted for
Cemeteries and Churchyards,

I. Tue Uses or CEMETERIES.

As, to know the best mode of applying the principles of design to any par-
ticular object, it is necessary to know the purposes for which that object is
intended, we shall commence by considering the wses for which cemeteries or
burial-grounds are reguired.

The main object of a burial-ground is, the disposal of the remains of the
dead in such a manner as that their decomposition, and return to the earth
from which they sprung, shall not prove injurious to the living; either by
affecting their health, or shocking their feelings, opinions, or prejudices,

A secondary object is, or ought to be, the improvement of the moral senti-
ments and general taste of all classes, and more especially of the great
masses of society.

3d Ser. — 1843, III. H

94 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

With respect to the first and most important object, the decomposition of
the dead, without the risk of injury to the living, there is, as we think, but
one mode in which this can be effected, to which there can be no objection on
the part of the living ; and that is, interment in a wooden coffin in the free
soil, in a grave 5 or 6 feet deep, rendered secure from being violated, im which
no body has been deposited before, or is contemplated to be deposited there-
after.

Various circumstances, however, into which it is needless to enquire, have
given rise to burying several bodies in the same grave in the free soil, and
to modes of sepulture by which the decomposition of the body, or at least
its union with the earth, is prevented; such as the use of leaden or iron
coffins, and depositing them in vaults, catacombs, and other structures, in
which they can never, humanly speaking, except in the case of some great
change or convulsion, be mingled with the soil, or, in the beautiful language
of Scripture, be returned to the dust from which they sprung. Though
we are of opinion that the modes of burial which prevent the body from
mixing with the soil, which, for the sake of distinction, we shall call the sepul-
chral modes, cannot, on account of the danger to the living, be continued
much longer in a highly civilised country, yet, in considering the conditions
requisite for a complete cemetery suited to the present time, the various
modes of sepulchral burial at present in use must be kept in view. The
expense of the sepulchral mode, however, confines it to the comparatively
wealthy ; and hence by far the greater part of burial-grounds always
was, and is, necessarily devoted to interments in the free soil. In some
churchyards where there is abundance of room, only one coffin is deposited
in a grave; but in most cases, and particularly in the burial-grounds of
large towns, the graves are dug very deep, and several coffins, sometimes as
many as a dozen, or even more, according to the depth of the grave, are
deposited one over another, till they reach within 5 or 6 feet of the surface.
Interments in this manner are of two kinds. The first are made in family
graves, in which the different members of the same family are deposited in
succession, in the order of their decease ; and to such graves there is always
a grave-stone or some kind of monument. The second are what are called
common graves, to which there is no monument, and in which the bodies of
the poor and of paupers are deposited, in the order in which they are brought
to the cemetery ; probably two or three in one day, or possibly as many in
one day as will fill the grave. Unless this mode were adopted in the public
cemeteries, they would, from their present limited extent, very soon be
filled up. Such graves, whether public or private, in the newly formed ceme-
teries, when once filled with coffins to within 6 ft. of the surface, are under-
stood never to be reopened ; but, in the old burial-grounds, they are in many
cases opened after being closed only four or five years, and sometimes much
sooner.

When the parties burying cannot afford to purchase a private or family
grave, the practice is, in some burial-grounds, to bury singly in graves of the
ordinary depth of 6 or 7 feet, and these graves are reopened for a similar
purpose in six or seven years ; but, as this is attended with the disinterment
of the bones, it is a very objectionable mode. In a burial-ground properly ar-
ranged and managed, a coffin, after it is once interred, should never again be
exposed to view, nor a human bone be disturbed. At present this is only the
case in the cemeteries of the Jews, where there is a separate grave for every
coffin, and where the graves are never reopened. It is also the case in the
cemeteries of the Quakers ; though not, we believe, from religious principle,
as in the case of the Jews, but rather from that general regard to decency and
propriety which is a characteristic of that sect of Christians, and perhaps, as
in the case of the Moravians, in consequence of their comparatively limited
number.

As data to proceed upon with reference to interments in the free soil, it is
necessary to state that the muscular part of the body either decays rapidly,

applied to Public Cemeteries. 95

or dries up rapidly, according to the circumstances in which it is placed; but
that the bones do not decay, even under circumstances the most favourable
for that purpose, for centuries.

The face of a dead body deposited in the free soil is generally destroyed in
three or four months, but the thorax and abdomen undergo very little change,
except in colour, till the fourth month. The last part of the muscular fibre
which decays is the upper part of the thigh, which in some subjects resists
putrefaction for four or five years. In general, a body is considered unfit for
dissection after it has been interred eight or nine weeks. In a very dry
and warm soil, especially where the body is emaciated, the juices are
rapidly absorbed ; and, no moisture coming near it, the solids contract and
harden, and a species of mummy is produced. This may be observed
in the vaults of various churches in Britain where the soil and situa-
tion are remarkably dry; and it has given rise to those appalling scenes
which may be witnessed in the vaults of Bremen, Vienna, Rome, Naples,
Palermo, Malta, and other places. (See Necropolis Glasguensis, p. 48. to 55. ;
and Stephens’s Incidents of Travel, as quoted in the Saturday Magazine, vol.
xx. p. 141.)

Bones are chiefly composed of phosphate of lime deposited in gelatine,
an animal tissue; and, unless acted on by powerful acids, they will en-
dure, either in the soil or in the atmosphere, for many centuries. They
are even found in the fossil state, and after ages of exposure often contain
more or less of the original animal tissue, particularly if they have been
embedded in clayey soil. In the ante-hominal part of the creation, there
are bones daily discovered which have existed 6000 years at least. Dr.
Charles Loudon informs us that he has seen numerous human bones in
certain caves near to Naples, which are supposed to be those of the Grecian
colonists who settled there before the Christian era, or perhaps those of
an older race who inhabited Magna Grecia.* Dr. Loudon has seen several
skeletons dug out of the ruins of Pompeii, the bones-of which were as dry and
entire as the bones of skeletons which we see in dissecting-rocms, though
they must have lain there nearly 1800 years under the lava, which, around
them, seemed to be a dry greyish kind of earth. Even while writing this, we
read in the newspapers (Morn. Chron., Jan. 10.) of the workmen, while digging
a deep sewer in Lad Lane in the city, having.cut into what is supposed to have
been a cemetery of the Romans, and dug up a number of human bones.

With respect to prejudices, there is, as every one knows, a decided prejudice
in favour of being buried in dry soil, and against the placing of decomposing
substances, such as quicklime, in coffins ; and it is one of our principles to
respect existing prejudices as well as vested rights. | With regard to the use

* The desire to preserve the bones from decay seems natural to man, both
in a rude and a civilised state. Dr. Dieffenbach informs us that the New
Zealanders expose the bodies of their dead, in a sort of canoe-shaped coffin,
among the foliage of trees, for several months, till the flesh is sufficiently
decomposed ; the bones are then washed and cleaned, and finally deposited
in some secret spot in a wood, or in a limestone cavern, of which there are
many, or in some chasm of the rocks difficult of access. The bodies of
hereditary chiefs are dressed and ornamented, and preserved in mausoleums
of elaborately carved work ; but, even in this case, after a time, the tohunga,
or priest, removes the bones to a place in the forest often known only to
himself. (Travels in New Zealand, i. p.63.) The monks of the Convent of
Mount Sinai, Mr. Stephens informs us, bury their dead for about three years,
after which they take them up, clean the bones, and deposit them in one ereat
pit ; except those of the archbishops, which are preserved separately in an
adjoining sepulchre, some in baskets, some on shelves, and others tied together
and hanging from the roof. (Incidents of Travel.)

H 2

96 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

of quicklime ; independently of the existing prejudices against its introduction
in coffins, it is found to cause the solution of the softer parts of the body,
which, unless the coffin is watertight, and this is rarely the case with the
coffins either of the poor or of the middling class, oozes out to such an
extent that the undertaker’s men can scarcely carry the coffin, on account of
the flow of matter and the odour.

The health of the living is chiefly affected by a certain description of
gas, respecting which it is necessary to enter into some detail. The de-
composition of the muscular part of the human body takes place with
different degrees of rapidity in different soils, and at different depths in
the same soil. It is most rapid in sandy soils somewhat moist, within 3
or 4 feet of the surface, and in a warm climate; it is next in rapidity in chalky
soils ; much slower in clayey soils; and slowest of all in peaty soil, saturated
with astringent moisture. In general, dry soil, and a moderate distance of
5 or 6 feet below the surface, are favourable both to decomposition and human
prejudices. In such soil, in the climate of London, the muscular part of the
human body will have become a black mould in between six and seven
years ; but, practically speaking, the bones may be considered as indestruc-
tible. In the progress of decay, the first change which takes place im-
mediately after death is, the escape of a deleterious gas from the mouth
and nostrils, but generally in so small a quantity as not to be perceptible
for three or four days. In some cases, it is perceptible in a much shorter
period ; and in alla gas accumulates within the body, which escapes sooner or
later according to the progress of the putrescent process. If the body is
buried in the free soil, in a wooden coffin, to the depth of 5 cr 6 feet, the gas
escapes into the soil, and is, in part at least, absorbed by it, and con-
sequently does not contaminate the air above the surface ; but, if a leaden
coffin is used, and the body is deposited in a vault, catacomb, or brick
grave, the gas escapes within the coffin, and either remains there till
the coffin decays, or escapes through crevices in the lead, and through
small holes bored on purpose by the undertaker in the outer wooden
coffin and leaden inner coffin, and concealed by the name-plate. (Report on
the Health of Towns, Walker, 5c.) By the last mode the gas begins to escape
before the corpse is taken from the house ; and its effect is often felt there,
as well as when the service is being read over it in the chapel, and even after
it is deposited in a vault, the catacombs of which, though apparently her-
metically sealed, are seldom air-tight. Sometimes the body, especially of
a corpulent person, swells so much before it is removed from the house,
that it is ready to burst both the inner and the outer coffin; and in that case
it requires to be tapped, and the gas burnt as it escapes, or the operation
performed close to an open window. Even in some of the public catacombs
of the new London cemeteries explosions have been known to take place,
and the undertaker obliged to be sent for in order to resolder the coffin ; which
shows the disgusting nature of this mode of interment, and its danger to the
living. To inhale this gas, undiluted with atmospheric air, is instant death ;
and, even when much diluted, it is productive of disease which commonly ends
in death, of which there is abundant evidence in Walker’s Grave-Yards and
the Parliamentary Report quoted. The gas abounds to a fearful extent in
the soil of all crowded burial-grounds, and has been proved to be more or
less present in the soil thrown out of graves where bodies have been interred
before. Even in the new London cemeteries, when interments are made in
family graves, or common graves, which have been filled in with earth, such is
the smell when the grave-diggers arrive within 2 or 3 feet of the last deposited
coffin, that they are obliged to be plied constantly with rum to induce them
to proceed. This is more particularly the case when graves are dug in strong
clay, because the gas cannot escape laterally as in a gravelly or sandy soil, but
rises perpendicularly through the soil which has been moved. The remedy
for this evil is, never to allow a family grave, or a common graye, in which an
interment has been made, to be excavated deeper than within 6 ft. of the last

applied to Public Cemeteries. 97

deposited coffin ; and, to make sure of this, there ought to be a protecting
stone, or slate, to be hereafter described, deposited when the grave is being
filled, at the height of 6 ft. above the last coffin, under a severe penalty. It
is only by some regulation of this kind, that burying several coffins in deep
graves can be conducted without injuring the health of grave-diggers; and
without the gas, which escapes from the earth brought up, endangering the
health of those who may be occasional spectators.

In the years 1782 and 1783, when the disinterment of the burying-grounds
of Les Innocents in Paris took place under the direction of some eminent
French chemists, these philosophers endeavoured to analyse this gas, but were
unable to procure it. Fourcroy, speaking in their name, says :— In yain we
endeavoured to induce the grave-diggers to procure any of this elastic fluid.
They uniformly refused, declaring that it was only by an unlucky accident
they interfered with dead bodies in that dangerous state. The horrible odour
and the poisonous activity of this fluid announce to us that if it is mingled, as
there is no reason to doubt, with hydrogenous and azotic gas holding sulphur
and phosphorus in solution, ordinary and known products of putrefaction, it
may contain also another deleterious vapour, whose nature has hitherto
escaped philosophical research, while its terrible action upon life is too
strikingly evinced. These Paris grave-diggers know,” Fourcroy adds, “that
the greatest danger to them arises from the disengagement of this vapour from
the abdomen of carcasses in a state of incipient putrefaction.” (See Annales
de Chimie, vol. y. p.154., as quoted in Walker’s Grave-Yards, p. 86. ; and
Ure’s Dictionary of Chemistry, art. Adipocere.)

While this inflation from gas is going forward, the aqueous part of decom-
position, a “ fetid sanies,” exudes from the body, and sometimes, when inter-
ment is delayed too long, to such an extent as to drop from the coffin
before it is taken out of the house. This exudation, as already observed, is
greatly accelerated and increased by putting quicklime into the coffin. In the
free soil this fetid sanies is diffused by the rain in the subsoil, and carried
along in the water of the subsoil to its natural outlet, or to the wells which
may be dug into it; and thus, while the gas of decomposition poisons both
the earth and the air, the fluid matter contaminates the water.*

* Speaking of the infectious agency in the houses in the neighbourhood of
that part of London called Fleet Ditch, Dr. Lynch observes :—“ The great
primary cause is, that the privies are in general under the staircase of the
wretched hovels of the poor, and the sulphuretted hydrogen, and the carbo-
nated hydrogen, and the noxious gases there generated, are the same gases as
are generated from the dead bodies in a state of decomposition; for the eva-
cuations from the body are decomposed animal and vegetable matter, and a
dead body is the same, it is decomposition of the dead body, or a general
state of disorganisation, and that produces exactly the same kind of gases.
There have been instances mentioned, where people have fallen down dead
from a rush of those gases in a concentrated form.” (Report on Health of
Towns, &c., p. 161.)

If the public were fully aware of the dangerous nature of the gases which
proceed from the decomposition of dead bodies in crowded churchyards, and
in vaults and catacombs, and of the poisonous nature of the water of de-
composition, 1 :

1. They would not live in houses bordering on churchyards, which, though
already full, are still used as burying-grounds.

2. They would not drink the water of wells dug in the vicinity of burial-
srounds, whether in town or country ; because, though the filtration of the
soil will purify the water from matter suspended in it, it will not free it from
what is held in solution.

3. They would not attend service in any church or chapel whatever, in

H 3

98 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

With regard to the destruction of human bones, we assume that to be
impracticable, otherwise than by means which are altogether out of the
question. The most favourable soil for their decomposition is a coarse
gravel, subject to be alternately moist and dry ; but, though such a soil, so
circumstanced in regard to water, might be found naturally, or might be com-
posed by art, yet these cases may be considered as equally impracticable.*
Instead, therefore, of endeavouring to destroy the human skeleton, let us
limit our endeavours to preventing it from being desecrated by disinterment
and exposure. This may be effected in various ways; but by far the most
simple, effectual, and economical, as it appears to us, would be to place over
the coffin, after it was deposited in the grave, a stone or slate of the same
dimensions as the coffin, or even as many flat 12-inch tiles, say six, as would
extend from head to foot. As the coffin and the muscular part of its contents
decayed and sunk down, the stone, slate, or tiles, would follow it and press
close on the bones. In consequence of this arrangement, when the ground
was at any future period opened to the depth of the stone, slate, or tile, guard,
it would be known that a skeleton was beneath, and the operator would cease
to go farther; or, at all events, it should be rendered illegal for him to do so.
If a name and date were graven in the stone, being protected from atmo-
spheric changes, it would remain uninjured for ages, and, like the foot-marks
which geologists have found in the red sandstone, might, in some far distant
age, become part of the geological history of our globe. We prefer stone or
tile guards, to guards of metal, because iron would soon rust, and cease to
be a guard, and lead or any equally durable metal would offer a temptation to
stealing. A layer two or three inches thick of stucco, Roman cement, or
a plate of asphalte or oropholithe, might be used as a substitute ; but stone,
slate, and tiles are decidedly preferable. The slate might even be introduced
within the coffin, without rendering it heavier to carry than if a lead coffin were
used. Burying in a coffin made entirely of stone or slate we do not consider
so likely to prevent desecration as a stone or slate guard; because there is a
temptation to dig up the lower part of the stone coffin, and use it as a drink-
ing-trough for cattle, or a cistern for a flower-garden, which is done in various
places in the vicinity of old abbeys. A stone hollowed out on the under
side might be better than a flat stone; because the depending edges would

the vaults of which there were coffins, or in the floors of which imterments
had taken place. They would absent themselves from all such places, even
if there were no immediate danger, in order, by such means as were in their
power, to contribute to the discountenance of a practice by all parties allowed
to be attended with disgusting and injurious results.

4, Nor would they live in houses in which the privies were not either ren-
dered water-closets, or placed detached from the house.

5. Nor in a house adjoining an open sewer.

6. Nor would they keep a dead body in the house more than five days, or
at the most a week.

* If the bones were to be destroyed in the case of a single grave, a hint
might be taken from the following passage in Fellowes’s Asta Mmor. “ The
outward marks of respect are scarcely visible in their burial-grounds, little
more being left to mark the place of interment than a row of stones indicat-
ing the oblong form of the grave; but a pipe or chimney, generally formed of
wood or earthenware, rises a few inches above the ground, and communicates
with the corpse beneath; and down this- tube libations are poured by the
friends of the deceased to the attendant spirit of the dead.” (Vol. xi. p. 16.)
Were the libations withheld for five or six years, till the muscular part of the
body was completely destroyed, and then diluted muriatic acid employed
as a libation, the result would probably be obtained in the course of a year
or two.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 99

be a kind of side protection to the skeleton ; and might, together with the
name graven on the upper side, procure more respect from those who should
fall upon it accidentally in future ages, in excavating for improvements.

The space of ground required for a single interment, and for the interments
incident to any given population, requires next to be taken into consideration.
If all interments took place in the free soil, if a grave were allowed for
each coffin, and the grave were never afterwards to be opened, that is,
not opened for several generations, then the space required for cemeteries
would be considerable. Thus, supposing graves without head-stones or orna-
ments of any kind to occupy a surface of 7 ft. by 3 ft. 6in., and the average
area of those having grave-stones or monuments to be 10 ft. by 5ft., then,
making an allowance for grass paths between the graves, and for gravel
roads, we may take 8 ft. by 4 ft. as the average space on which to
calculate the capacity of a garden or ornamental cemetery. This will
give 1361 graves to an acre; and, estimating the deaths in a town popu-
lation at 3 per cent per annum, this acre would suffice for a population
of 1000 souls for 45 years; or for a population of 45,000 for one year.
Taking the population of London to be 1,500,000, this would require 33 acres
annually, or the whole of that part of Middlesex not covered by London and
its suburbs (128,540 acres) in the course of 3895 years. The average number
of deaths annually in England and Wales has been ascertained to be about
336,000, which, at 1361 interments to an acre, would require 247 acres
annually; or, supposing three interments in each grave 82 acres per annum.
On the supposition that ground once occupied by graves was for ever after-
wards to be held sacred, and not subjected to cultivation of any kind ; the
mode of interment which would require so large a sacrifice of surface an-
nually may be considered as impracticable; and, for our present purpose, this
is the view that we shall take of it. We shall, however, hereafter show how
separate graves may be procured, not only for those who cannot afford grave-
stones, but even for paupers; and these graves never again opened for gene-
rations. In the meantime, the mode of burying several coffins in one grave,
provided these coffins are of wood, and layers of soil not less than 6 ft. in
thickness interposed, and the graves, when once filled, not opened for genera-
tions, appears the best adapted for the present state of things. Supposing
that on an average three interments take place in each grave or vault before
it is finally closed, this will give upwards of 4000 interments to the acre; and,
as the eight public cemeteries recently formed in the neighbourhood of the
metropolis, and the unoccupied part of the new burial-grounds recently formed
by different sections of the Dissenters, contain upwards of 300 acres inclusive
of the space occupied by roads and buildings, this will probably supply the
demand for two centuries to come, even allowing the population to increase.

The security of the grave was, till within these few years, an important
part of the considerations requisite to be had in view in constructing ceme-
teries. In some cases it was effected by surrounding the enclosure by high
walls, or other effective fences; sometimes by constructing central watch-
towers for stationary watchmen within; sometimes by employing perambulat-
ing watchmen ; at others by burying in a grave 15 or 20 feet deep; by burying
in a walled grave, covered with an iron grating built into the wails all round,
some feet beneath the surface soil, and keeping the surface loose, and planted
with flowers or shrubs (which, as the grave could not be disturbed without
first taking these up, would by their withered state, when replanted, have told
what had been attempted); and sometimes by the very extraordinary mode of
letting down over the coffin a ponderous cast-iron box, to remain over it for
six or eight weeks, till the body was considered to be so far decomposed as to
be unfit for the purposes of the anatomist. Tne iron box, or case, which
had remained whelmed over the coffin, but without touching it, was then
disinterred, and drawn up by machinery, and the wooden coffin was covered
with soil, and the grave completed a second time in the usual manner.
Even the poorest families, in some parts of Scotland, went to this extraordinary

H 4

100 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

expense. Fortunately a law has been passed which renders these precautions
unnecessary, and we shall therefore take no farther notice of them. :

The secondary object of cemeteries, that of improving the moral feelings, will
be one of the results of the decorous attainment of the main object ; for it
must be obvious that the first step to rendering the churchyard a source of
amelioration or instruction is, to render it attractive. So far from this being
the case at present, they are in many instances the reverse, often presenting,
in London and other large towns, ablack unearthly-looking surface, so frequently
disturbed by interments that no grass will grow upon it *; while, in the country,
the churchyard is commonly covered with rank grass abounding in tall weeds, and
neglected grave-stones. Cemeteries in this state “lose their monitory virtue
when thus obtruded upon the notice of men occupied with the cares of the
world, and too often sullied and defiled by those cares.” No wonder that,
under such circumstances, the burial-grounds, more especially of towns, are
shunned and avoided, rather than sought after as places for meditation. Even
under the most favourable circumstances, the associations which are generally
attached to churchyards are gloomy and terrific.

“ The Grave! dread thing,

Men shiver when thou ’rt named; Nature, appall’d,
Shakes off her wonted firmness. Ah! how dark

The long extended realms and rueful wastes,

Where nought but silence reigns, and night, dark night!
: 5 4 : : : The sickly taper,

By glimmering through thy low-brow’d mirky vaults,
Furr’d round with misty damps and ropy slime,

Lets fall a supernumerary horror,

And only serves to make thy night more irksome.”

“ Why,” says Washington Irving, “should we thus seek to clothe death
with unnecessary terrors, and to spread horrors around the tomb of those we
love? The grave should be surrounded by every thing that might inspire
tenderness and veneration for the dead, or that might win the living to virtue.
It is the place, not of disgust and dismay, but of sorrow and meditation.”
“ Nothing can make amends,” says Coleridge, “ for the want of the soothing
influences of nature, and for the absence of those types of renovation and
decay which the fields and woods offer to the notice of the serious and con-
templative mind. To feel the force of this sentiment, let a man only compare,
in imagination, the unsightly manner in which our monuments are crowded
together in the busy, noisy, unclean, and almost grassless churchyard of a
large town, with the still seclusion of a Turkish cemetery in some remote
place, and yet further sanctified by the grove of cypress in which it is em-
bosomed.” (Coleridge’s Friend.)

“ Let us be careful, however, in our anxiety to escape from gloom and horror,
not to run into the opposite extreme of meretricious gaudiness. Death and
the grave are solemn and awful realities ; they speak with a powerful and
intelligible voice to the heart of every spectator, as being the common lot of
all. To say nothing of the bad taste, therefore, anything obtrusively pic-
turesque, anything savouring of fashionable prettiness, any far-fetched conceits

* The persons living in the houses which abut on the burial-ground of Bartho-
lomew the Less, Dr. Lynch states, are in the habit of emptying their cham-
ber-pots into it; and the surface of the burial-ground of Bartholomew the
Great, adjoining, is so covered with the excrementitious matter floated over
from the cesspools of privies, that it is difficult to walk across it. There is
no hope of curing any person living in this quarter, when attacked by disease
but by removal. (Dr. Lynch, in Report, &c. p. 161.) 3

applied to Public Cemeteries. 101

or tortured allegories, jar upon the feelings of every well-regulated mind, and
excite ideas the very opposite to those of sympathy and tenderness. Our
cemeteries, then, should bear a solemn and soothing character, equally remote
from fanatical gloom and conceited affectation.” (Picton, in Arch. Mag. iv.
p. 430.)

“Where is it, would we ask,” says the learned and eloquent author of Ne-
cropolis Glasguensis, “ that the innate desire which is felt in every bosom to
live in the recollection of his companions, the pleasing hope that he may
still be a remembered denizen of this fleeting world, is more likely to be
realised than at the spot where his ashes are laid? Where is it that the
‘ Extincta amabitur,” such as Cicero professed to his daughter Tullia, and
which is still the pledge of friendship offered at the couch of the dying, is
more likely to be experienced in all its force and all its purity, than at the
tomb where all that remains of worth and loveliness is lying? Where is it,
indeed, that the heart is likely to be so feelingly moved, or the memory to be
so powerfully roused, as at a parent’s grave or at a sister’s tomb?” (p. 27.)
After deploring the present state of Scottish churchyards, and contrasting
them with some in England and Wales, our author has the following touching
paragraphs on the Cemetery of Pere la Chaise, which, as they exhibit the
beau idéal of what a general cemetery ought to be, in order to realise our
ideas of its moral influence on the living, we shall quote as preferable to
anything that we could say on the subject.

“« Who, that has ever visited the romantic Cemetery of Pere la Chaise, would
not wish that there were, in this our native land, some more attractive spot
dedicated to the reception of the dead, than those vast fields of rude stones
and ruder hillocks, to which we are ever and anon called, when attending
the obsequies of a kinsman or companion; that in fact there were here some
such garden cemetery as that in the neighbourhood of Paris, whither the
widowed heart might occasionally resort to hold spiritual communion with
the departed partner of earthly joy or woe; whither the weeping orphan
might at times repair, to recall the worth and the virtues of his beloved parent.
Within the extensive and delightfully variegated enclosure alluded to, situated
on Mount Louis, it is perhaps unnecessary to state that all the disagreeable
sensations which are here coupled with a churchyard are dispelled by the
beauty of the garden, the variety of its walks, by the romantic nature of its
situation, and, above all, by the commanding view of Paris and its environs
which it affords. In that vast grove of the dead, each has his own grave, and
each his own mausoleum. In place of the clumsy mound or large white
stone that so generally covers the ashes of our countrymen, is to be found a
little flower-garden surrounded by cedar, spruce, cypress, and yew trees,
round which the rose and the honeysuckle are seen entwining; while, instead
of a solitary and deserted churchyard, the eye meets at every turn with some
pensive or kneeling figure weeping over the remains of a relative, or wor-
shipping his God at the tomb of excellence and virtue.

“The most common burial-places, and perhaps the most affecting, in this ce-
metery, consist of a square or parallelogram of ground, of about three or four
yards broad, enclosed by a neat little railing of iron or wicker-work. Within
this spot there is always a sepulchral urn, a small pillar, or a cross, to tell
the name and the quality of him who lies below. The remaining portion
is filled with flowers, and embellished with pots of rare plants. The more
ambitious monuments consist of obelisks, pyramids, temples, and marble sar-
cophagi, decorated with figures and bass rilievi; while a third consist of crypts
and family sepulchres in some degree similar to those of ancient Rome. Amid
the green glades and gloomy cypresses which surround and overshadow the
vast variety of sepulchral ornaments of Pere la Chaise, the contemplative mind
is not only impressed with sentiments of solemn sublimity and religious awe,
but with those of the most tender and heart-affecting melancholy. Vain man
is recalled from the distracting turbulence and folly of the world, to the sa-
lutary recollection ‘of that undiscovered country from which no traveller

102 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

.

returns.’ The gay and the giddy are reminded that their ‘gibes and jokes’
must ere while for ever cease, and are led to reflect that they too must die;
and, as ‘by the sadness of the countenance the heart is made better,’ the
religious man, instructed on the narrowness of the boundary which separates
him from those who were the ‘sun and centre’ of his nearest and dearest
regards on earth, looks forward not only without fear, but with joy and
exultation, to the period when, that boundary being for ever broken down,
they shall, in their happy experience, find that, as they were loving and be-
loved in their lives, ‘in their deaths they were not divided.’ In the mazes of
Pére la Chaise, we feel walking as in the porch of eternity, and our heart is at
once impressed with a sense of the evanescence and the value of time. There,
the instability of all human affairs is emphatically and eloquently taught by
the dread silence of the tomb, and unequivocally beheld in the mere change
which a few years have produced on the garden itself; for, within the stately
mansion whose ruins are now on every side surrounded by melancholy tombs,
did the favourite confessor of Louis XIV., the most powerful and most per-
secuting Jesuit-of his time, erst pass his hours of pastime and of pleasure ; and
the disciples of Jansenius and Molina now repose, in freedom and in peace, in
that place to which, when alive, they did not dare even to approach; while
the fierce disputes which they mutually excited through the Christian world
are fallen, like themselves, into neglect and oblivion ! *

“Tn Scotland it is of every-day occurrence, to find the lie given to the most
pompous monuments, a few months after their erection, by the moss over-
growing and obscuring the epitaph which vows and intends unceasing re-
membrance of the dead. In the Cemetery of Mount Louis, however, the
feeling of recollection is exemplified to live a very long time after the en-
graving of the sepulchral stone and the wonted period prescribed to outward
mourning. It is there the custom for surviving friends to visit the tombs of
their relatives, and, as a token of recollection and respect to their memory, to
weave a garland of flowers, and hang it on their monument. At every turn
the eye is arrested by the tender proof of some late friendly visitation.
Flowers, as yet fresh and unfaded, are seen scattered over the not yet verdant
sod. The greenhouse myrtle flourishes in the parterre dedicated to affection
and love ; the chaste forget-me-not blooms over the ashes of a faithful friend ;
the green laurel shades the cenotaph of the hero; and the drooping willow,
planted by the hand of the orphan, weeps over the grave of the parent.
Every thing is there tasteful, classical, poetical, and eloquent. In that asylum
of death, there is nothing found save that which should touch the heart or
soothe the afflicted soul, nothing save that which should awaken tender re-
collections or excite religious feelings. In one word, the Cemetery of Pére
la Chaise is the spot, of all others, dedicated to the genius of memory; and
the one where a more powerful sermen is daily preached than ever fell from
the lips of a Fenelon, a Massillon, or a Bossuet. Here the bodies of the

‘*** Tt is from this confessor, Pere la Chaise, that the cemetery derives its
appellation. By an edict in 1804, prohibiting burial in churches and inha-
bited places, the garden and pleasure-grounds of the late confessor were con-
verted into a burial-ground, chiefly for those persons of a higher circle who
could afford to purchase a grave and rear a monument; and, at this moment
[1831], the whole of this extensive enclosure is nearly covered with tombs
and monuments. [We have seen a Report on this cemetery, made to the
French Government, dated 1842, by which it appears to be so much crowded
as to require enlargement, and also that much ground has been lost in con-
sequence of its not having been laid out originally on some systematic plan.
In this Report the want of walks and roads, and of drainage, is particularly
deplored, as well as the dilapidated and decaying state of the monuments. ]

applied to Public Cemeteries. 103°

people of every nation, of every condition, of every age, and of every religion,
are found congregated. The Russ sleeps next to the Spaniard, the Protestant
next the Catholic, the Jew next the Turk. Individuals the most dissimilar
when alive, in faith, in feeling, in practice, are here reconciled amid the
peace-making dust of the sepulchre.” (Necropolis Glasguensis, p. 32.)

“‘ A garden cemetery and monumental decoration are not only beneficial to
public morals, to the zmprovement of manners, but are likewise calculated to
extend virtuous and generous feelings. Affliction, brightened by hope, ever
renders man more anxious to love his neighbour. At the brink of the grave
we are made most feelingly alive to the shortness and uncertainty of life, and
to the danger of procrastinating towards God and man whatever it is our
bounden duty to perform. There, too, the conscience is taught the value of
mercy, and best feels the recompense which awaits the just in Heaven.
There, the man whose heart the riches, titles, and dignities of the world have
swollen with pride, best experiences the vanity of all earthly distinction, and
humbles himself before the mournful shrine, where

‘ Precedency ’s a jest; vassal and lord,
Grossly familiar, side by side consume.’

There, the son whose wayward folly may have embittered the last days of a
father will, as he gazes on his grave, best receive the impulse that would urge
him, as an expiation of his crime, to perform a double duty to his surviving
parent. There, in fact, vice looks terrible, virtue lovely; selfishness a sin,
patriotism a‘duty. The cemetery is, in short, the tenderest and most uncom-
promising monitor of man; for, —

‘When self-esteem, or other’s adulation,
Would cunningly persuade us we were something
Above the common level of our kind,
The grave gainsays the smooth-complexion’d flattery,
And with blunt truth acquaints us what we are,’

A garden cemetery is the sworn foe to preternatural fear and superstition.
The ancients, from their minds being never polluted with the idea of a charnel-
house, nor their feelings roused by the revolting emblems of mortality, con-
templated death without terror, and visited its gloomy shrine without fear.
With them death was tranguillity, and the only images that were associated
with it, were those of peaceful repose and tender sorrow. The names of their
burial-places indicate no association with terror, and call forth no feeling of
fear. The Cemeterion of the Greek suggests only the idea of a bed of slumber ;
the Bethaim of the Jew speaks but of the mansion of the living. Amid the
tombstones of Thermopylz, we would conceive that the Grecian heart beat no
less boldly at midnight than at mid-day ; while we know that the timid female,
during the slumber of Jerusalem, could fearlessly wander to the silent se-
pulchre.* Whence then did the preternatural terrors connected with death
arise, which so powerfully swayed the hearts of the middle and more modern

“ Among the works of ancient art there is not to be found a single image
of a revolting nature connected with death. D’Israeli states that, ‘to conceal
its deformity to the eye, as well as to elude its suggestion to the mind, seems
to have been a universal feeling; and it accorded with a fundamental prin-
ciple of ancient art, that of never offering to the eye a distortion of form in
the violence of passion which destroyed the beauty of its representation; such
is shown in the Laocoon, where the mouth only opens sufficiently to indicate
the suppressed agony of superior humanity, without expressing the loud cry of
vulgar suffering.’

104 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

ages ; those slavish terrors which, in the ages of ignorance, appeared almost to
make the resurrection an unhoped for, rather than a hoped for, event; terrors
altogether at antipodes to those just fears that call upon man, ere death, to
make up his peace with Heaven? This slavish and more than vulgar error
was chiefly engendered through the monkish artifice of associating man’s latter
end with all that was disgusting and horrible, and of inspiring the world with
the idea, that, to gain heaven, it was not necessary to exist rationally on earth.
Amid the general gloom thus created by penances and pilgrimages, by mid-
night masses and bloody flagellations, the troubled imaginations of Europe, as
D'Israeli says, ‘first beheld the grave yawn, and death, in the Gothic form
of a gaunt anatomy, parading through the universe. The people were af-
frighted as they viewed every where hung before their eyes, in the twilight of
their cathedrals and their pale cloisters, the most revolting emblems of death.
Their barbarous taste perceived no absurdity in giving action to a heap of
dry bones, which could only keep together in a state of immovyability and
repose; nor that it was burlesquing the awful idea of the resurrection, by ex-
hibiting the incorruptible spirit under the unnatural and ludicrous figure of
mortality, drawn out of the corruption of the grave.’ If supernatural terror
sprang from such causes, it was from the gloomy, naked, and deserted ceme-
tery that superstition drew her chief influence. Thence flitted the phantoms
- which terrified the vulgar, and which even carried dread to the thrones of
kings and emperors. Solitude peopled itself with ghosts and _spectres ;
silence disturbed itself with hollow groans ; while Nature, reversing her laws,
allowed the dead to collect their scattered mouldering bones, and to appear,
at the witching hour of night, wrapt in a winding-sheet. The monsters
which man’s imagination thus created, he turned from with horror; they
broke his rest in the silence of the winter’s night; he heard their cry in the
howl of the winds, their threat in the roar of the tempest. If the corrupters
of Christianity still attempt to terrify rather than to console humanity, and
if superstition still exercises her fatal spell, does it not become the duty of
every wellwisher to his species, to pour into the tomb the light of religion
and philosophy, and thereby to dissipate the vain phantoms which the false
gloom of the grave has tended to call forth. The decoration of the cemetery
Is a mean peculiarly calculated to produce these effects. Beneath the shade
of a spreading tree, amid the fragrance of the balmy flower, surrounded on
every hand with the noble works of art, the imagination is robbed of its
gloomy horrors, the wildest fancy is freed from its debasing fears. Adorn
the sepulchre, and the frightful visions which visit the midnight pillow will
disappear ; and if a detestation for annihilation, mingled with the fondest
affection for those who are departed, should lead men still to believe that the
dead hold communion with the living, the delightful illusions which will
result from this state of things will form a pleasing contrast to the vile super-
stitions that preceded them. Let the fancied voice of a father pierce, in the
silence of the night, the ear of the son who lives unmindful of his parent’s
early counsels; or let the shade of a warning mother appear in the lunar ray,
to the thoughtless and giddy eye of her who threatens to sacrifice her beauty
and her virtue at the shrine of flattery. These fancies, the children of a
pious sorrow, will neither debase the human mind, nor check the generous
impulses of the human heart.” (Necropolis Glasguensis, p. 62.)

The remaining point to be noticed is, the influence which a cemetery or a
churchyard is calculated to have in improving the taste. That churchyards
have had very little influence of this kind hitherto, we readily acknowledge ;
but that they are calculated to have a great deal, may be argued from the
universality of churches and burying-grounds, and from their being visited by
every individual perhaps more frequently than any other scene, except that
of his daily occupation. A church and churchyard in the country, ora general
cemetery in the neighbourhood of a town, properly designed, laid out, orna-
mented with tombs, planted with trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, all
named, and the whole properly kept, might become a school of instruction in

applied to Public Cemeteries. 105

-architecture, sculpture, landscape-gardening, arboriculture, botany, and in
those important parts of general gardening, neatness, order, and high keeping.
Some of the new London cemeteries might be referred to as answering in
some degree these various purposes, and more particularly the Abney Park
Cemetery ; which contains a grand entrance in Egyptian architecture ; a
handsome Gothic chapel; a number, daily increasing, of sculptural monuments ;
and one of the most complete arboretums in the neighbourhood of London,
all the trees and shrubs being named. In summer there are a number of
beds filled with flowers of various kinds, and the whole is kept with great
neatness and order. We do not, however, approve of various points in the
arrangement of the trees and shrubs in this cemetery, nor of the form of the
beds containing the flowers, though we admit that the management in these
particulars is better than it is in most of the other cemeteries. But this sub-
ject will be considered more in detail in division VII.

_Churghyards and cemeteries are scenes not only calculated to improve the
morals and the taste, and by their botanical riches to cultivate the intellect,
but they serve as historical records. This is the case with the religious
temples and burial-grounds, in all ages and in all countries. The country
churchyard was formerly the country labourer’s only library, and to it was
limited his knowledge of history, chronology, and biography ; every grave
was to him a page, and every head-stone or tomb a picture or an engraving.
With the progress of education and refinement, this part of the uses of
churchyards is not superseded, but only extended and improved. It is still to
the poor man a local history and biography, though the means of more ex-
tended knowledge are now amply furnished by the diffusion of cheap publi-
cations, which will at no distant time, it is to be hoped, be rendered still more
effective by the establishment of a system of national education. “ A garden
cemetery and monumental decoration,” our eloquent author observes, “ aftord
the most convincing tokens of a nation’s progress in civilisation and in the
arts which are its result. We have seen with what pains the most celebrated
nations of which history speaks have adorned their places of sepulture, and
it is from their funereal monuments that we gather much that is known of
their civil progress and of their advancement in taste. Is not the story of
Egypt written on its pyramids, and is not the chronology of Arabia pictured
on its tombs? Is it not on the funeral relics of Greece and Rome that we
behold those elegant images of repose and tender sorrow with which they so
happily invested “the idea of death? Is it not on the urns and sarcophagi of
Etruria that the lover of the noble art of sculpture still gazes with delight ?
And is it not amid the catacombs, the crypts, and the calvaries of Italy, ‘that
the sculptor and the painter of the dark ages chiefly present the most
splendid specimens of their chisel and their pencil? In modern days, also,
has it not been at the shrine of death that the highest efforts of the Michael
Angelos, the Canovas, the Thorwaldsens, and the Chantreys, have been
elicited and exhibited? The tomb has, in fact, been the great chronicler of
taste throughout the world. In the East, from the hoary pyramid to the
modern Arab’s grave; in Europe, from the rude tomb of the druid to the
marble mausoleum of the monarch; in America, from the grove which the
Indian chief planted round the sepulchre of his son, to the monument which
announces to the lovers of freedom the last resting-place of Washington.”
(Necropolis Glasguensis, Pp: 63.)

Such are the various important uses of the cemetery and the churchyard,
which it was necessary to take into consideration, before devising either a
design for laying out a cemetery, or a system of rules and regulations for its
working and management.

(To be continued.)

106 Dinbur Castle, tts Gardens and Gardeners.

Art. Il. Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and its Gardeners. By PETER
MACKENZIE.

(Continued from our preceding Volume, p. 610.)

On the north side of the garden there was a small glen; the
side next the garden was steep and rocky, the opposite side was
sloped and of more easy access; here and there lay large blocks
of whinstone rock, and the vegetation consisted chiefly of whins
and broom. Near this place were some of the labourers’ cot-
tages, which could easily be seen from the bothy; and there
was a footpath across the small ravine, which led from the one
place to the other. Bauldy Black was well acquainted with the
path, and could find his way in the dark, although it required
the assistance of the loose roots and the broom to help one
along.

That night he was often looked for by Maggy Scraunky; for
she heard that he was going to the dance, and she was anxious
to know whom he was to have fora partner. As she was looking
at one time towards the bothy she was surprised to see a bright
light come from the bothy window ; a flash of lightning, as she
thought. She kept looking in the same direction for some time,
when another illumination took place. She instantly turned
away, and ran into one of the houses, exclaiming: “ There is
something no canny about the garden this night; only come
out and ye’ll see. There is surely something wrang wi Bauldy.”
—‘ What can be wrang wi Bauldy, mair than ony o’ the rest?”
said Geordie Lowrie: “ he was hale and weel when I cam frae
my wark in the gloamin.” However, old and young ran to the
door, and all eyes were directed to the bothy, when soon another
flash was seen brighter than any that had yet appeared. ‘“* See
ye that?” roared out Meg: “ye’ll ken noo gif I hae been haiver-
ing to ye.”

‘© That is an unchancy blink,” said Geordie, “ and unco
uncanny like. My granny has often tauld me about warlocks
and witches, and brownies and fairies, and kelpies and spunkies,
but ony thing like that I hae never seen. I mind fu weel, on a
night when I gaed awa to see Jenny, a pick mirk night it was;
and coming near the cairny loan I saw a blue low dancing
atween the hedges, and coming in my direction. Though I was
a raukle handit chield then, I was unco eerie, and felt a grooz-
zling in my throat, and a smell o’ brimstone; and if I hadna set
a tryst wi’ Jenny, it wouldna been that night I would hae gane
to the hethery knowe; and I tried to gang faster, but it turned
the corner before me. I begun to feel gif the bonnet was on my
head, for I thought a’ my hair stiffened; and it still gaed dancing
before me, but I followed slowly behind it. Sometimes it went

Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and Gardeners. 107

faster than I was able to follow, at last it took a turn awa to the
auld kirkyard of Mirkness, which was near by. When I
entered Jenny’s father’s house I nearly fainted. —‘ What’s
wrang wi’ ye the night, Geordie lad, ye are no yersel aya?’
—¥* Come awa to the door, and ye'll see something that will
maybe mak ye wonder. “Do ye see yon blue low dancing in
the corner of the kirkyard?’ —<* That’s nae ferlie,” said the auld
carle; “ whar did it come frae?’—‘ It cam frae the clauchan airt,
and up the cairny loan.’ — ‘ Weel, weel, there will be a funeral
in a few days come the same gate, and if ye wait awee ye will
see it gang awa the road it cam.’ And I stood upon a knowe and
saw it gang awa again, and in three days after the auld miller o’

=

Melderston was brought to his lang hame.”

Geordie was beginning another spunkie story when another
brilliant light was seen, and he cried out: “Come awa, bodies,
come awa, we are lang enough here; there will be waur news
than piper’s news heard o’ ere long. We will, maybe, soon hae
to read Bauldy’s epitaph, puir chield, for he deserves ane as weel
as Habbie Simson the piper o’ Kilbarchan, or anither fiddler,

whose name I forget, but it is said of him:—

* Here lies dear John, whose pipe and drone,
And fiddle oft has made us glad ;
Whose cheerfu’ face our feasts did grace,
A sweet and merry lad. ”

Next morning the young men were greatly amused by the
remarks Geordie Lowrie made concerning the “ awfu’ lights he
had seen coming frae the bothy yestreen.” They, however,
took care, the next time that Sandy Macalpine made chemical
experiments, to hang up one of their aprons over the window, to
prevent any of their neighbours imagining that they were rais-
ing the devil.

In a few nights after Sandy Macalpine had delivered his
remarks on oxygen, Walter Glenesk was prepared to give a short
outline of geology, a branch of knowledge which he thought
every gardener ought to be acquainted with. It was well, he
said, to be acquainted with mathematical, physical, and political
geography, to know the general form of the earth, and be able to
determine the relative positions of places upon the earth’s sur-
face; also to know something about the principal features of the
surface of our globe, to have some knowledge of the mountain
ranges of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, as well as of the
valleys and plains of these extensive districts; to be acquainted
with the subject of climate and temperature, and how these and
other natural causes affected the condition of the human race;
also with the moral and social condition of the various nations
of the world. All these were subjects well worth the study of

108 Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and Gardeners.

man: but, however varied and beautiful the exterior features of
the earth may be, together with the herbs and trees that adorn
it, and the numerous tribes of organised beings which people it,
yet the interior structure of our earth deserves also our parti-
cular attention ; for it could be easily shown how close a relation
exists between rocks and soils, and how a knowledge of the na-
ture of soils must be of essential benefit to those who cultivate
them; every gardener, therefore, ought to be a geologist.

Walter Glenesk took his own way to illustrate his subject.
When travelling from place to place, he made himself, as far as
he was able, familiar with the geological features of the coun-
try through which he passed, and when he had settled he col-
lected specimens of the rocks and erratic boulders which he
found in the neighbourhood of the place in which he resided, so
he was enabled to make his discourse more interesting, by exhi-
biting specimens of many of the rocks that form part of the dif-
ferent geological formations. The other lads in the bothy were
able to examine the specimens at their leisure, which was an ad-
vantage which many students who attend geological lectures do
not enjoy. He had prepared an ideal section of part of the
earth’s crust on a large scale, by means of which he was able to
point out more clearly the relation which one rock bears to
another.

He commenced with granite, a rock considered as occupy-
ing the lowest part of the series, and often found in moun-
tain ranges at the highest elevation. He did not stop to tell
them of its constituent parts, but went on from granite to
eneiss, from gneiss to mica-slate, from that to chlorite-slate, tale-
slate, hornblende-slate, clay-slate, primary limestone, quartz
rocks, and serpentine rocks. Having gone over the various
rocks of the primary formation several times, until the others
could name them in their order, he then proceeded in describing
the constituent parts of granite. He told them that it was com-
posed of felspar, quartz, mica, and sometimes hornblende, but
they were not to imagine that these were simple substances ; -
and, taking up a specimen of felspar, he told them that it was
composed of potash, silica, and alumina; mica contained potash,
silica, alumina, magnesia, and iron; hornblende was composed
of silica, lime, iron, and magnesia; and quartz, when pure,
consisted of silica alone. He then showed them the difference
between the best Aberdeen granite and that of Peterhead and
Braemar: how it varied in colour; sometimes it was flesh-
coloured, at other times dark grey: how some kinds of it were
indestructible, and others were easily decomposed by means of
the air and water acting upon the potash of the felspar. The
celebrated Cornish clay, much used in potteries, is obtained from
decomposed granite; and sometimes, when the clay is mixed with

Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and Gardeners. 109

the quartz of the granite, a tolerably good soil is produced
sufficient to bear corn crops when properly cultivated and ma-
nured.

From granite he proceeded to gneiss, and showed them the dif-
ference between the two rocks, although composed of nearly the
same sort of materials, namely, felspar, quartz, mica, and horn-
blende; pomted out to them how granite was granular, and
gneiss was granular and slaty ; and shine that a great part of
the Highlands of Scotland is composed of strata of gneiss, and
that vegetation, im those districts where gneiss abounds, is ge-
nerally “thought to be more productive than where eranite
abounds. He next showed them specimens of mica-slate, “telling
them that they were composed chiefly of mica and quartz , and
that Ben-Lomond, Ben-Ledi, and other parts of the Grampian
Mountains, were mostly composed of it. He showed them two
varieties of it; one abounding with garnets, the other without
them. Next followed specimens of clay-slate from various
slate quarries in Scotland, such as Aberfoil, Callender, and
other places where roofing slate is found; in some slates iron
pyrites abound, others are without them. On the banks of
Loch-Lomond it may be seen dipping into the water, and rising
again on each side of the loch; and may be compared to “a
bonnie blue ribbon” thrown across the breast of the Grampians.

Next followed primary limestone, quartz rock, and serpentine.
Primary limestone, he told them, was sometimes called statuary
marble, and that some beautiful specimens of it were found in
the North of Scotland. It is of a granular and crystalline
texture, and some kinds of it take a very fine polish. Much of
the marble that was used by the ancients was obtained from
Mount Pentelicus in Attica, and also from the Island of Paros,
as well as from Mount Hymettus, Lesbos, and other places; and
much that is used by the moderns is obtained from the quarries
of Carrara. Quartz, he told them, was also found in the primary
formation, and there were many varieties of it. The Cairngorm
stone, or rock crystal, is one variety of it; and the common,
or amorphous, quartz is another. He also showed them some
beautiful varieties of serpentine rock from Portsoy ; a rock com-
posed chiefly of magnesia, silica, and iron. After making them
acquainted with the order of superposition of the rocks of the
primary formation, and also pointing out the character of each,
he proceeded to inform them that many of the metals were
found in veins in the rocks belonging to the formation they had
just been considering; and the richest mines in Cornwall, where
copper and tin ores were obtained, were in the primary clay-slate
resting on granite; also the mine of Valenciana, at one time the
richest in Mexico, where gold and silver were obtained, tra-
versed the clay-slate and porphyry.

3d Ser. —1843, ITT. I

110 Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and Gardeners.

Before proceeding to the transition series of rocks, he gave
the young men an opportunity for making any observation they
thought proper on the subject they had been hearing.

Bauldy Black was the first man that made any remarks. He
said that he had listened wi’ a’ the attention he was able to give,
and he thought he understood the subject as far as he had gane,
for he once had some dealings wi stanes. When he was a laddie
on the farm o’ Rashenbrae, mony a cart-load had he broken to
fill drains wi’; but he never had heard so much said about rocks
and stones before, nor did he ken that they had sae mony braw
names before. “ What ye ca’ granite, we used to ca’ it a ringer ;
and mica was sheep’s siller; and quartz was liverwhin, and
chucky stanes. But, Watty, is that no the diamond that is found
in slates which you name pyrites? When I was herding, often
hae I broken the slates for them; and large anes were sometimes
found in a kind of slaty whinstone.” Walter told him that the
true diamond was quite a different substance altogether ; that it
was found in Bengal and the Island of Borneo, and also in Brazil
and other places; and that it was found to be crystalline char-
coal, while those yellow bodies that were obtained from roofing
slate were composed chiefly of iron and sulphur. But it would
appear that every country must have its diamonds, and almost
every formation is sought for them; the Scotch seek for them
in the primary formation, and the English in the gravelly hills
of Bagshot Heath.

“ But what kind of a stane is that,” said Bauldy, “that ye
have amang your specimens of primary rocks? I think I hae
seen something like it sometimes turned up by the plough, and a
hard heavy lump it is; there’s nae braken o’t; ye may maist as
weel thump awa at a yetlin bullet; and I ance saw a sma’ bit of
it draw the needle of a compass to it, and make it spm round
like Jenny Birril’s wheel o’ fortune on the end o’ an auld
herrin barrel at Broxbrae fair.” That is magnetic iron-stone,”
said Walter; “and it is frequently found in primary mountains.
It is also found in the Shetlands, and many parts of Germany
and Sweden.”—“ And how had it found its way to the Rashen-
brae ?” said Bauldy.—“ That is a subject which we will not enter
upon at present,” said Walter; “‘ but, perhaps, we will be able to

give you information on that point when we are farther advanced
in geology.”

West Plean, December 10. 1824.

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. 111

Art. III. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. In a
Series of Letters to the Conductor. By JAMes Barnes, Gardener
to the Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 52.)
Lerter X. The Rockery. The American Garden.

I WIL now, according to my promise, give you a short descrip-
tion, and the circumference of a few cf the finest specimens of
trees and shrubs in the American Garden and Rockery. The
Rockery is covered with a collection of plants far too great for
me to enumerate at present. Amongst them are fine specimens
of many kinds of ferns, berberis, snl ribes, of Cunninghamia
sinénsis, &c. ‘There is a constant supply of water coming out
of the top of a pyramid of rocks in the centre of the rockwork,
and trickling down the sides of it, thus forming a ‘ weeping
pillar ;” and there are pipes and stopcocks in various parts of
the Rockery, so that you have merely to’ turn them, to water the
whole of it at once.

The American Garden, adjoining the Rockery, has a lovely
stream of clear water running through it, over a bed of the beau-
tiful round pebbles for which our sea-coast is celebrated. In
this stream you see trout of different sizes enjoying themselves
unmolested. This is the most delightful part of the garden
from April to July, with its rich collection of the rarest rhodo-
dendrons, consisting of fine plants of the following, viz. : —

R.campanulatum, and the hybrid tig. grandiflorum
varieties, Lee’s purple
Victorie datricum altaicum
Cunninghamianum atrovirens
nepalénse punctatum
Glennyanum myrtifolium
venustum chrysanthum
strictum caucasicum
arboreum pulchérrimum
roseum Nobleanum
rubicandum Russellidnwm
album prunifolium
Webbianum Rollissonz
acutifolium Smithzi
supérbum magnoliefolium
coccineum maximum grandifloruim
altaclerénse mirabile
princeps catawbiénse
macranthum spléndens
tigrinum fragrans, and many others.

Clumps of the richest and handsomest Ghent and other
azaleas.
Likewise clumps or beds of Andrémeda, Lyonia, large plants

of Leucéthoe floribanda; arbutus of sorts, pernettyas, clethras ;
ee

112 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

kalmias, noble clumps; ledums, vacciniums; cistuses, many
varieties ; helianthemums, all of these in fine clumps, of which
it would fill a large book to give the names of all the varieties ;
Vibirnum O’pulus rosea; Studrtza marylandica, syn. Malacho-
déndron marylandicum.

Height. Circumf. Height. Circumf.
Name. Name.
Ft. In. { Ft. In. Ft. In.| Ft. In.
Cratze‘gus Acacia dealbata - 20 0 \38 0
Douglas - -|12 0 42 O Cércis canadénsis -| 6 0 |22 O
macracantha -|10 0/38 O Siliquastrum -|10 0/40 0O
Cris-galliovalifolial] 0 |19 0 Olea europea var.

ovalifolia 14 0 42 0 buxifolia—- -|5 6/10 0

obtusifolia = 1 sO 35 10 Cedronélla triphylla |12 0

salicifolia 5 6 (56 0 Othonna crassifolia - |10 0

spléndens -|14 0 |40 0 Ozothamnus rosma-
punctata- =) 13270)'39 90 rinifolius —- -|10 0
orientalis - -|10 0 48 O Coronilla glaica -|10 O

sanguinea 14 0 \48 O Ceanothus azureus - |13 0
tanacetifolia - 18 0 The five last named
tanacetifolia aii @ il. © cover a_ large
pyrifolia (edulis space of wall.

Lod. Cat.) - 10 0/14 O Salisbtirza adiantifo-
pyrifolia- -|12 0/40 0 lia - -|10 0
glandulosa - -|7 018 O Calycanthus floridus
apiifolia—- - 10 0 39 0 levigatus - large
coccinea - -|12 6 (388 0 C¥tisus sessilifolius- | 8 0 |18 0
prunifolia - -|11 0 |32 0 Bérberis asiatica -|16 0 |39 O
pyracantheefolia - | 8 O Large plants of
nigra - 5 -|16 0 27 0 Magnolia acuminata |11 0 |18 0
lobata - -|15 0 \29 0O obovata
cordata ca 17 0 grandiflora
Oxyacantha me- exoniénsis

Janocarpa latifolia

PONE angustifolia

Jaciniata lanceolata

obtusata macrophylla
parvifolia tripétala
mexicana fuscata
andmany others. pyramidata

Méspilus grandiflora)14 0 40 0 auriculata

Photinia serrulata conspicua
(Cratee\gus glabra Soulangidna -|10 0 27 O
LETS TN soe oer purpurea

Gleditschia hérrida - |12 0 |24 0 olatica

Amelanchier Botry- ~ Thomsonidna - |10 6/24 O
Apium gracilis

Ligistrum chinénse cordata

Saad ey A’bies Smithiana

Acer créticum canadensis

Elzagnus horténsis Pavia discolor
latifolia.) 21°) = 15" 0136" 0 Ulex europze’a flore

Andromeda acumi- pleno i
aie ec a 28° @ 3 @ Cotoneaster micro-| 5 0O |18 0O

Chimonanthus fra- phylla eee es | 0 ae ©
erans - 4 -|6 0/120 0O Ailéntus glandulosa -

Bottom Heat. 113

All the magnolias are good plants. Several varieties of escal-
lonias, myrtles, daphnes, fine specimens of Andromeda flori-
banda, and many other fine and rare plants. A very lofty tree
of Populus (Alba var.) canéscens: the trunk, at 4 ft. from the
ground, is 22 ft. 6 in. in circumference; and it is 42 ft. to the first
branch, and then about 54 ft. above the first branch; therefore,
the whole height is about 96ft. The large beech tree in the
flower-garden you took great notice of, and wished for the dimen-
sions. ne trunk, 4 ft. are the ground, is 12 ft. 6 in. in circum-
ference, clear ante 38 ft. to the fares Gienebe the tree altogether
is about 78 ft. nies There was another beech tree exactly
similar to the one i have described, which stood in the corre-
sponding situation in the flower-garden, but was blown down
about four years ago, and in its fall did much damage to the
Maltese vases, &c.

Bicton Gardens, Oct. 22. 1842.

Lerrer XI. The Trees in the Park. The Lake, and the Aquatic Birds.

I wiLt now give you the dimensions of a few of the noble trees
that are growing in Bicton Park. ‘Taking them altogether,
I think I never saw so fine a lot of trees growing on the same
space of ground. Some of the brave old oaks measure, at 4 ft. from
the ground, 17 ft. to 18 ft. in circumference, and many of them
spread their branches round to an immense distance. Several
elms, about the same size in circumference, from 86ft. to 100 ft.
high. Remarkably fine beeches from 84 ft. to 96 ft. high; at 4 ft.
from the ground, measuring from 13 ft. to 19ft. in circum-
ference. A good specimen of a Lucombe oak, 68 ft. high, the
joanna of which is 8ft. 6in. The largest ash I ever saw,
measuring 85ft. high, 12 ft. in circumference, and going up in a
straight line 30ft. to the first branch. There are many fine
specimens of chestnuts, limes, &c.; indeed, the trees of all kinds
thrive very well here.

There is in the park a beautiful lake with islands, on which
is a fine collection of black. and white swans, and all kinds of
aquatic birds and fowls; and in the winter it is covered with wild
fowls of all sorts, which are never permitted to be shot.

Bicton Gardens, Oct. 29. 1842.

Art. IV. On Bottom Heat. By R. Errincron.

Tue subject of bottom heat has been much canvassed of late, but still it is a

thing of indefinite character, and not, in my opinion, appreciated according to its

merits. Dr. Lindley, in his excellent work, The Theory of Hor ticullure, has,
13

114 Bottom Heat.

in a pointed and philosophical manner, endeavoured to draw attention to the
subject. However, we want data to proceed upon; the vegetation year, or
active period, is not confined by Nature to any given months, but moves by
periodical fits. Those fits (a clumsy term, I confess,) are dependent chiefly
on the relation that the bottom heat bears to that of the atmosphere.

I am of opinion that the average bottom heat of certain periods is much
more in advance of the average of the atmosphere, at the same period, than is
commonly imagined. I know it is common to say that the average bottom
heat of the year is about 2 or 3 degrees in advance of the average atmospheric
temperature ; but this, if correct, proves nothing, except that bottom heat
is one of Nature’s established principles.

To obtain the data requisite, the year should be divided into natural periods :
one of these is obviously the rest period; a second points itself out as the
excitable period ; and a third as the perfecting or accumulating period. Now,
it is not proper, I conceive, to plunge a thermometer 1 or 2 feet deep to as-
certain how vegetation is influenced by bottom heat, seeing that the chief and
most efficient volume of roots lies probably within from 6in. to 9in. of the
surface. The radiation, too, from the surface may also be taken into con-
sideration ; as the accumulation of heat by the end of August must be very
considerable, especially within 3 in. of the surface.

The time was when bottom heat was only deemed essential for pines and
cucumbers ; but now few processes of any importance are conducted under
glass without it.

Many complain that they cannot get their greenhouse and conservatory as
gay through the months of December, January, and February, as they could
wish ; and I do not wonder at it. If plants in a somewhat dormant state are
to be subjected to a higher temperature all of a sudden, without activity of
root, what can be expected but abortions ?

I am led to make these remarks in consequence of observing the effect of
bottom heat in flower-forcing in general, more especially Dutch bulbs. Mine
have been unusually early and good ; and I adopt a practice which deserves
to be more generally known. My hyacinths, narcissuses, &c., are potted at the
usual time and in the usual way, and immediately plunged over head in old
tan. This so far is every body’s plan; but about the end of October I take
them up, and prepare a bottom heat of from 75° to 80° of dung and leaves,
between the bricked asparagus pits, and place the pots thereon, covering them
as before with old tan. When this heat declines, I prepare the next pit in
like way, and remove them into it; keeping them, in fact, in a similar bottom
heat constantly. By these means I get my root in advance of the bud ; for,
this season, having paid close attention to their movements, I found the pots
were full of roots, and well coiled round the bottoms of the pots, before the
buds were an inch long. This I conceive to be a point of high importance ;
for on removing them from the asparagus pits to a forcing-pit of dung and
leaves, where the bottom heat was 80°, and the top heat averaging 65°, the
buds came up like magic, and were in bloom in a surprisingly short period.

The same principle applies to nearly all of what are termed forcing flowers ;
not excepting strawberries, which, in my opinion, would be much benefited by
such a process. However, I have not yet proved this with strawberries,
although I have several experiments in progress, bearing on the subject of
bottom heat, which I shall probably make known as soon as completed.

When the various flowers possessing capabilities for forcing are taken into
consideration, we may fairly conclude that our conservatories and greenhouses
ought to be as gay in the month of January as during any part of summer,
and so, in fact, have mine been; for I have had abundance of camellias con-
stantly from the first of November (some thousands of blossoms), violets,
lilies, azaleas, bulbs, justicias, lilacs, eranthemums, and scarlet geraniums, in
great profusion, now, indeed, a complete blaze of colour.

Oulton Park, near Tarporley, Jan. 20. 1843.

——

On pulverising Soil. 115

Art. V. On pulverising Soil. By Joun WiGHtTon.

THouGH it is certain that nothing is created without some specific purpose, a
man may be tempted to ask, What can be the use of weeds, seeing that they
encumber the ground, and choke up the crops? The labourer, more indus-
trious than learned, may imagine that weeds are sent to afford him employ-
ment in rooting them out ; and he may not be altogether wrong, though he
does not carry his view far enough. The advantage does not end here; for,
in the act of hoeing the weeds, the soil is pulverised, and thereby encourage-
ment given to the growth of the crops. But for the necessity of hoemg up
weeds, this important process of stirring and breaking up the soil would be,
it is to be feared, much neglected. However, since the days of Tull, the
benefit of pulverising the soil is better understood ; and, though many plans
of that great agriculturist were ridiculed in his day, they are now in common
use. He tells us that it is of more consequence to stir the soil than to
manure it, in short, that if the former be practised, manure will not be
wanted ; and that hoeing ought to be done at all times, instead of weeding. It
is useless for me to comment on the first; and hoeing is not at all times
practicable. Weeds will not die in wet weather ; and it is injurious to tread
upon the land at that time. Hoeing, moreover, is hurtful to some crops in
very dry weather, from letting too much moisture escape, notwithstanding the
opinion of Tull. A proof of this is the fact that the best onions often grow
on the hard paths between the beds. The reason is obvious; the firm soil
retains moisture longer than that which is loose. This circumstance led to
the practice of treading down onion-beds fresh sown, as also of pressing down
dry earth in which fine seeds are sown.

I have said enough above to obviate the supposition that I am opposed to
hoeing or stirring the soil. Mr. Barnes, too, has noticed its great utility in
the November Number of this Magazine, for which its readers are much
indebted to him. He justly observes that gardeners have many kinds of
blights to contend against, without the injury caused by handling the fruit, as
servants are too much in the habit of doing, before it reaches the master’s
table. This, however, is irrelevant to the subject before us. In justice to
Tull, I will give his words on the subject of hoeing in dry weather, at p. 27,
28.:—“ Dews moisten the land when fine. Dig a hole in the hard dry
ground, in the driest weather, as deep as the plough ought to reach; beat the
earth very fine, fill the hole therewith, and, after a few nights’ dews, you will
find this fine earth become moist at bottom, and the hard ground all round
become dry.” From this he observes: “In the driest weather, good hoeing
procures moisture to the roots; though the ignorant and incurious fancy it
lets in the drought, and therefore are afraid to hoe their plants at such a
time.” Although Cuthbert W. Johnston calls these enlightened observations,
they are not very clear. Though it is said that vapour is absorbed by the
soil, Tull’s experiment does not prove it; for, if such were the fact, the soil
would have been wet at the top instead of the bottom. The truth is, that
the hole was a vent for the vapours to ascend from below. Upon this Tull
might safely have founded his belief, that hoeing in dry weather gives moisture
to the roots of young plants; but there is danger, on the other hand, of
letting too much escape. Young turnip plants can, perhaps, stand drought
better than wet cold weather. This appeared by the bad crops on good land
which retained moisture, and the good crops on poor land which did not, in
Norfolk, in the year 1841. As to the earth’s absorbing vapour, it is not
apparent in this case. I may be wrong here ; but I can safely say that the
evaporation from the earth is far greater than any absorption by it. To illus-
trate this, there is no need of enquiry into the theory and phenomena of
dews ; it is enough to make the simple experiment of covering part of a seed-
bed with a mat. The under side of the mat will be found wet, while the
upper will remain dry, like the exposed surface of the bed. Tull did not

I 4

116 Snow-Plough for Walks and Footpaths.

imagine, like some in these days, that plants derive the chief, if not the whole,
of their nourishment from the atmosphere.* They are thus nourished in
great measure; but, unless they are supported also from the soil by means of
their roots, what they obtain from the air will be of no avail. Vegetables, in
this respect, are like animals; and if any one were to try the experiment on
himself, whether he could live upon air alone, he would find out his mistake
sooner than Tull discovered that pulverising the soil would not enable him to
dispense with manure. I may observe that Mr. Bick’s alleged discovery of
the cultivation of the ground without the aid of manure will, in the end, prove
like Tull’s.

The effect of manure on soil is pretty well understood; but not so how
land becomes exhausted by a series of crops of tne same kind, so that its lost
powers cannot be renewed by manuring. It is a common opinion that each
kind of plant draws something from the soil peculiar to itself. Of course this
cannot be meant of all the 44,000 kinds already discovered. But, if it be
supposed that only a few species act on the soil in this manner, we may still
ask how it happens that natural forests are never exhausted. The soil con-
tinues good, though it rears a series of trees of the same kind from generation
to generation. This fertility may be owing to the annual decay of the leaves,
twigs, &c., which fall from the trees, and are mixed up finally with the soil.
If it were practical to allow the annual decaying crops to do so, I question if
the soil would become exhausted. That there are now wastes, even in this
country, which were once covered with trees, does not invalidate my state-
ment. I have not, indeed, sufficient evidence to decide how they became
what they now are; but sufficient proof exists that the trees fell in full
vigour. Even the oak seems to have been once flourishing in the North of
Scotland: the root end of one, 6 ft. in circumference, found on the summit of
Corryarrack, in Inverness-shire, is evidence of this; and the thriving growth of
young plantations in such parts is convincing proof that there is no fault in
the soil. I may instance those of Lord Methven on Methven Muir.

This may be supposed to fall in with the opinion, that nothing but rest can
restore the lost energies of the soil. Certainly those wastes have been long
at rest; but a state of rest may be understood in two different ways. Soil
may be said to rest, in one sense, when no crop is upon it, and the soil is
pulverised and left fallow; in another, when not disturbed, but left to the
natural growth of grass. By the first, it is asserted that “ fresh alkalies are
set free from the rock.’ This may be correct; but it cannot be truly said of
the second state of rest, in which the soil is not exposed to atmospheric
action and influence. Nevertheless, this latter plan is often practised with
great success; and this has probably led to the mixing of the turf, or rather
the top spit or sod, from pasture land, with exhausted soil, in preference to
all other kinds of manure.

Cossey Hall Gardens, near Norwich, Feb. 8. 1843.

Art. VI. Notice of a Snow-Plough for Walks and Footpaths. By
Joun Lams.

As I do not recollect having seen, in any of your works on gardening, a snow-
plough for walks or footpaths, I beg to give a description of one (jig. 12.)
made here during the present snow, which answers well. It is simple in its

* Liebig mentions that a large proportion of the solid matter of plants is
derived from the atmosphere.

alae

The Squirrel. 1 iy

construction, expeditiously and easily worked, and prevents the common evi
of sweeping the gravel off the walks along with the snow.

The one under description was made from rude materials which happened
to be at hand, as follows.
Two pieces of board, about
2 ft. long, and 8 in. wide,
-were nailed together, as if
to form the end and side of
a box ; a common road-
scraper, made of wood, was
then put m between the
boards in the form of a tri-
angle, or something like an
arrow head; elevating the
end of the handle so as to
enable the operator to walk
erect ; then the boards were
nailed to each end of the head of the scraper, and the implement was com-

lete.
I need not mention that it is pushed before the person using it, at a walking
pace ; nor add that it works easier when used before the snow becomes en-
crusted at top.

Markeaton Gardens, Derby, Jan, 1843.

Vig. 12. Snow-Plough for Walks and Footpaths.

Art. VII. On the Squirrel. By J. WicutTon.

Tue squirrel is one of the liveliest little quadrupeds we have ; whetlier seen
leaping from branch to branch, or on the ground, he is always engaging. It
is said that this little fellow lays up store for winter. I doubt this ; though he
may hoard up a few nuts or acorns, that can hardly be called a provision for
winter, for, if he had nothing else to depend upon, he would soon fall short. By
instinct, however, he inhabits woods that afford him ample supply in winter.
The seed in the fir cones are his favourite food, and in summer the young
shoots of the same kind of trees, especially the spruce firs ; and frequently
much damage is done to the trees by losing their tops by those nimble fellows.
Mr. Munro has noticed this so clearly in the Vol. for 1841, p. 335., in reply
to a letter of Mr. Waterton’s in the Vol. for 1842, p. 203., that I think that
gentleman cannot deny “the misdeeds of his favourite pets the squirrels.”
As the summer advances the shoots of trees get too hard for the squirrels :
they then visit the orchard and garden in search of food. Their thefts in the
former may be looked over, except there are nut-bushes, but not in the
latter ; for apricots that have escaped the frost, the grub, and decay at stoning-
time, are too valuable to be carried over the wall to be eaten on the top of an
adjoining tree: but the mischief does not end here, for the net that preserves
cherries from blackbirds and thrushes is of little consequence to the squirrel’s
sharp teeth; and, if not protected in time by trap or gun, there will be nothing
left of a fruitful crop except stalks and cherry stones. In justice, however,
to the squirrel, I ought to mention that those misdeeds of his only happen
when he is driven by necessity from the woods ; and, except at nutting-time,
he seldom approaches the garden ; but “the damage he does then is incal-
culable.”
Mr. Waterton laughs at the idea of Mr. Coward’s belief of the carnivorou

propensities of the squirrel; once I did so myself; but, after hearing of so
many instances of squirrels being seen with birds in their mouths, I began to

118 Grouping Trees in Parks and Pleasure-Grounds.

think the contrary : to test the thing, I gave a squirrel a dead swallow, and he
soon devoured it. I repeated this with other birds, and the same thing always
happened. Mr. Waterton can hardly object to what I have just stated, as he
did to Mr. Coward, viz. “ You cannot judge of the real habits of an animal
when it is in confinement ;” for the squirrel in question was but a few days
before a free denizen of the wood, and was well supplied with his favourite
kind of food at the time he eat the birds. This squirrel soon got tame; also
a female, which brought forth three young ones. This gave me an opportunity
of observing their habits when young. At first they were helpless ugly crea-
tures, blind four weeks and some days, and it was three weeks more before
they began to frisk about. The nest was of loose construction, but soft and
warm within, similar to those on trees, having an entrance in the side.
Perhaps the reader is not aware that, when a squirrel’s nest is disturbed, the
mother will carry off the young to another one for safety: if once the hand
has been in the nest, it is quite enough ; it is of little use to leave the young
until they get more advanced in growth, for they are sure to be gone. J may
mention a very simple plan to catch squirrels, when they happen to be on
detached trees. Put a small wire noose on the end of a long pole like a
fishing-rod; ascend the tree leaving a few gaping folks below, to prevent the
descent of the squirrel ; with a deal of manceuvring try and put the noose over
his head, and pull him gently down. Whoever is to get hold of him ought to
be well provided with good gloves, otherwise he may have to repent of acting
Jack Catch upon Mr. Squirrel. Perhaps Mr. Waterton may consider that I
“deserve a birch rod” for what I have said, as he thought the Wiltshire shep-
herds did who backed Mr. Coward in his belief of the carnivorous pro-
pensities of the squirrel; if so, I can only say what I have stated is correct.
Cossey Gardens, Jan. 3. 1843.

Art. VIII. On Grouping Trees in Parks and Pleasure- Grounds.
By R. Errineton.

Groups of trees, of considerable size, it is well known, are often planted in
park and other open scenery, yet seldom have I seen it performed in a satis-
factory way. I have noticed attempts of this kind, in which the trees being
all of a size, and planted in the most circumspect way, at measured distances,
would have led one to suspect they had been planned and planted by the
carpenter.

No one, in my opinion, can plant a group of trees of considerable size, for
immediate effect, without in the first place having a variety of heights disposed
in a somewhat irregular way. Thick planting also must be had recourse to in
many instances, or how shall the pendulous inclination of stems or branches
be produced that gives graceful outline to the vista ?

The operator in this case must set aside the idea of planting for profit, for
this is in seme degree incompatible with the effect which is sought to be pro-
duced. I once saw a park in which grouping with large trees for immediate
effect had been attempted to a very great extent, and it was in its results a
most miserable failure; the park was of immense extent, and presented in
many places rather agreeable folds of ground, which, although not possessing
expression enough for the picturesque, would, by judicious planting, have
produced considerable diversity. Groups here and there were attempted of
some twenty or thirty trees scattered at about equal distances and of equal
heights ; their distance asunder was so considerable, that they could not be
said to act in unison in producing effect. Added to this they had been planted
without the necessary preparation of making the holes, &c. ; for, the soil being
a stiff retentive clay, and withal what is termed technically “ thin-skinned,”
it could not be expected that trees of from 20 ft. to 30 ft. high could flourish

; The Holly. 119

without some previous preparation, and a little of what gardeners term
“¢ pruning.”

As regards planting groups for immediate effect, two things ae indispens-
ably necessary, premising of course a judicious choice of situation. In the
first place, capacious holes, adapted to the size of the tree, in making of
which the upper or useful soil (if good), and the subsoil, should be thrown
out in distinct heaps ; and last, though not least, sufficient choice of trees,
both as regards height and form, reserving the most pendulous or inclining
forms for the exterior of the groups.

If the subsoil be a retentive clay, the trees can of course make no root to
be depended on below the general clayey surface, therefore what they cannot
do below must be done above. In this case, the tree should be planted on
a mound, and the true collar of the tree should be nearly a foot above the
common surface. A small cart-load of prepared soil should be ready for
each tree, composed of one half free loam, and one half vegetable matter,
well blended ; this should be trimmed in amongst the fibres, and finally topped
up with the original surface soil.

One of the most general faults that I am aware of, in the pleasure-grounds
or shrubberies of the wealthy, is, the definite line formed by the sudden trans-
ition from the pleasure-ground to the park. How frequently do we see a
wire fence in this position; studded on the one side like a nursery, with a
dense mass of chiefly evergreens, and either suddenly naked on the other side,
or with a few large deciduous timber trees, which (in winter at least) form no
bond of connexion! Sir Uvedale Price and others have said much about
masses of holly and thorn as connecting links, and to break the browsing
line; but how few attend to it, although few dispute the principle!

After all, the best groups are and can be made out of enclosed plantations,
provided the “ painter’s eye” has been at work. Here, by studying the
varying forms, and seizing on what Price or some author calls “ accidents,”
graceful groups may be formed, full of intricacy, possessing a good sky outline,
- together with a gracefully fringed vista; and, if the position of the plantation
has been well selected, groups complete in themselves as to form, and con-
ducive to the general effect, may be produced.

Oulton Park, near Tarporley, Dec. 1842.

Art. 1X. The Holly. By Cuartes Waterton, Esq.

“ See, Winter comes to rule the varied year,
Sullen and sad, with all his rising train,
Vapours, and clouds, and storms.” THOMSON.

IT am very partial to the holly, the yew, and the ivy. They
give both food and shelter to the birds; whilst their charming
green foliage makes us almost forget that winter has set in.
The holly claims my preference; for, in addition to food and
shelter, it affords an impenetrable retreat to those birds which
take up their quarters on its branches for the night.

Our ancestors knew and felt the value of the holly hedge,
when the wintry blast whistled through the naked hawthorn.
Hence they raised it as a barrier against the north; and, on the
breaking of the clouds at noon, they would resort to the pro-
tection which it offered, and there enjoy the sun’s delightful
presence. But modern innovation, which, in nine times out of

120 The Holly.

ten, does more harm than good, seems to have condemned the
holly hedge as a thing of stiff unsightly form, and in its vacant
place has “introduced a scanty sprinkling of isolated plants. I
own that Iam for the warm arboreous plan of ancient days; .
and thus I never pass a garden where yew and holly hedges
grow without stopping to admire them, and then I proceed
onwards with favourable notions of the owner’s taste.

But, to the holly in particular. I am so convinced of its
utility both to men and birds, that I have spared no pains in
rearing it as a shelter from the cold, when Boreas, sure har-
binger » of storms, sweeps over the dreary waste.

The deeper and richer the soil, so much the better for the
holly. Still, this favourite plant of mine will thrive almost in
any soil, and even amongst the clefts of rocks, where there is
scarcely any soil at all. Neither can any of the four rude
winds of heaven affect the perpendicular growth of the holly
tree, although they make an impression upon the sturdy oak
itself. “Baily 3 in this neighbourhood, whilst we see the elm and
the beech leaning towards the east by the overbearing pressure
of the western blast, we find that the holly has not given way
to its impetuosity. Indeed, keep the roots of the holly clear of
stagnant water, and you have little more to do, for it forms its
own defence; and, moreover, it has one advantage over most
other plants, namely, it can push its way successfully up amid
surrounding shade and pressure. Its lateral branches, too, will
take root, so soon as they come in contact with the soft soil
beneath them.

If you place a young holly plant in a full-grown hawthorn
hedge, it will vegetate in that incommodious site; and will
manage, at last, to raise its head aloft, and flourish clear of all
opposition. Thus, driven from his native home, perhaps through
scarcity of wheat and whiskey, I have known a hardy son of
Caledonia, although put in a situation apparently hostile to
advancement either in fame or in fortune, maintain himself
under fearful trials of adversity. In process of time, his per-
severance and honesty were crowned with complete success.
He took kindly to it, where you thought there would be no
chance of ever getting on; but, by carefully watching his hour
of advance, in the death of this competitor or in the negli-
gence of that, this frugal, careful, steady emigrator from the
North moved slowly onwards, till, in due good time, he passed
through all surrounding difficulties; and, having got at last into
the full sunshine of good fortune, he there took the lead on the
high road to long expected wealth and honours.

He whose nerves would be affected at the sight of a straight
holly hedge, might prevent their irritation by forming a cres-
cent; say a segment of a circle to a radius of sixty yards.
This would present a fine appearance to the eye, whilst it shut

The Holly. 121

out both the north-west and the north-east winds of winter.
Hollies, too, may be planted in a clump, with very pleasing
effect to the beholder. I consider a regularly formed clump of
_hollies to be the perfection of beauty, in grouped arboreal
design. One single tree of mountain ash in the centre of this
would add another charm to it, and would be of use to the
ornithologist at the close of summer. When the holly trees
are in full bearing, and the berries ripe, we may roam a long
while through the whole extent of British botany, before we
find a sight more charming to the eye than the intermixture of
bright red and green which this lovely plant produces.

-I have a fine circular clump of hollies here, under which the
pheasants are fed; and to which, throughout the whole of the
winter, a vast number of sparrows, green linnets, buntings,
blackbirds, and some starlings resort, to take their nocturnal
repose in peace and quiet. ‘The holly sheds a large proportion
of its leaves after the summer has set in. These remain on the
ground in thick profusion. So formidable are their hard and
pointed spikes to the feet of prowling quadrupeds, that neither
the cat, nor the weasel, nor the foumart, nor the fox, nor even the
ever-hungry Hanoverian rat, dare invade the well-defended terri-
tory. Hence the birds, which in yew trees and in ivy would
be exposed to inevitable destruction from the attacks of these
merciless foes, are safe from danger in the holly bush.

People generally imagine that the holly is of tardy growth.
It may be so in ordinary cases; but means may be adopted to
make this plant increase with such effect as to repay us amply
for all our extra labour and expense. Thus, let us dig the
ground to a full yard in depth, and plant the hollies during the
last week of May, taking care to puddle their roots well into the
pulverised soil. We shall find, by the end of September, that
many of the plants will have shot nearly a foot in length, and
that not one of them has failed, let the summer have been ever so
dry. Small plants, bought in a nursery, and placed in your own
garden for a couple of years, will be admirably adapted for the
process of transplanting. Had I been aware in early life of this
encouraging growth of the holly, it should have formed all my
fences in lieu of hawthorn, which, after arriving at full matu-
rity, suddenly turns brown in summer, and dies in a few weeks,
without having given any other previous notice of near approach-
ing decay.

Birds in general are not fond of holly berries; but many
sorts will feed upon them when driven by “ necessity’s supreme
command.” Thus, during the time that the fields are clad in
snow, and the heps and the haws have already been consumed,
then it is that the redwing, the blackbird, the fieldfare, and the
stormcock, numbed by the cold, and bold through want of
food, come to the berry-bearing holly close to your house,

122 Lhe Holly.

and there too often fall a prey to the gun of the designing
fowler.

In these days of phantom schemes and national extravagance,
when work is scarce and penury fast increasing, the holly tree
is doomed to suffer from the lawless pilferer’s hand. When
least expected, you find it arrested in its growth. Its smaller
branches by degrees lose their vitality, and, by the end of the
following year, one half of the tree appears as though it had
received a blast from the passing thunder-storm. This declining
aspect of the holly has been occasioned by the hand of sordid
mischief. It is well known that birdlime is produced from its
bark. In the spring of the year, at earliest dawn of day, our
finest holly trees in this neighbourhood are stripped of large
pieces of their bark by strolling vagabonds, who sell it to the
nearest druggist. So common has this act of depredation been
in this vicinity, that I should be at a loss to find a single holly
tree, in any hedge outside of the park wall, that has escaped the
knife of these unthinking spoilers.

Some six or seven years ago, there stood in the ornamented
erounds of my baronet neighbour a yariegated holly of mag-
nificent growth, and it bore abundant crops of berries; a cir-
cumstance not very frequent in hollies of this kind. Many a
half hour have I stood to admire this fine production of nature ;
for it was unparalleled, in this part of Yorkshire, in beauty,
size, and vigour. But, at last, it was doomed to perish by a
plundering and an unknown hand: one morning in spring I
found the whole of its bark stripped off the bole, for full 2 ft.
in length. Notwithstanding this disaster, the berries became
ripe in due time; whilst its leaves apparently retained their
wonted verdure upon the greater branches. Even the year
following it was alive, and put forth new leaves and blossoms ;
but the leaves were of a stinted growth, and the berries did
not attain their usual size. During the course of the third
year from the day of its misfortune, the whole of the foliage
fell to the ground; and then the tree itself became, like our
giant debt, a dead unsightly weight upon the land.

Walton Hall, Jan. 19. 1843.

Memorandum. —'The stormcock sang swéetly here every day
throughout the whole of December, 1842, a circumstance never
known before in my time. — C. W.

Feb. 13. — The late hurricane has made sad havock amongst
my trees. The ring-doves cooed, this year, a full fortnight before
their time. Still, the fine weather has not induced the chaffinch
to sing a day sooner than his wonted period. The blackbirds
had begun to arrange things for their nuptials, but old Boreas
appeared last week and peremptorily forbade the banns.—C. WW.

White Oak of the United States. 123

ArT. X. On the white Oak of the United States (Quéreus alba L.).
By G.C.

In answer to your enquiries respecting the white oak, I have to state that it
grows in all the middle States in America ; it grows some distance south of
Pennsylvania, but I do not know how far. I know it does not grow in the
extreme southern States. It grows north of Boston, but it ceases to grow in
Maine; therefore the oak that comes from New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, &c.,
is but of little value. White oak is good for building purposes; and the
timbers of the old houses, barns, mills, &c., built with it, which is the case with
most of them, are as sound, after standing 150 years, as those in this country
that are built of English oak. White oak is the principal timber used in ship-
building: all the line-packets are built with it, timbers, planks, and knees ;
and all the government ships of war are pretty much built of live oak, but
planked with white oak. White oak is excellent for machinery, far surpassing
any wood that we have in this country, being so much stronger and so much
tougher than our ash. All the naves and sides of their light waggons and other
vehicles are made with it, also the hoops or bows that go over the tops, whether
covered with leather or canvass ; also the spokes of the wheels, and being so
much tougher than our oak they are made much less ; the rims, or felloes,
also, are sawed out of white oak plank, and being so much stronger than
our ash or elm they are not near the size we have them, and will last as long
again, as the wood is so much more durable. Shafts of all waggons, carts,
&c., are made of it, let them be ever so heavy or ever so light. For coach-
poles it is better than lance-wood, because it is lighter, and will not fly; it is
better than our ash, because you can make it less, and it will not snap off like
ash. All the frames of their railroad cars and steam-engines are made of
white oak, and they make them lighter than we do with English oak, because
it is tougher ; also staves for casks, vats, &c. The white oak is the wood
generally used there, more than oak and; ash both put together are here, as it
has the qualities of both, and is much superior. This wood enables the Ame-
ricans so much to surpass us in carriage and steam-boat building. We are a
quarter of a century behind them, at least. A gentleman’s carriage here will
weigh more than two of theirs; and there is as much difference between a
steam-boat at New York and one at London, as there is between a gentle-
man’s carriage and a common cart. When the white oak is small, it is fit for
hoops for barrels, &c. ; when it is as big as your arm, it is fit for all purposes
that our ash is; and, as it gets larger, it is fit for all purposes that I have
enumerated, and many others. I should say a nice warm sandy loam will
suit the growth in this country. I do not think it would do in the deep clays,
like our oak. I think a soil adapted for elms would suit it better.
Southampton, Dec. 2. 1842.

The American White Oak (Quércus alba L., Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs,
p- 862.).—* A laudable anxiety to introduce this species on a large scale has
existed in England from the days of Elizabeth to the present time; and, during
this period, hundreds, nay thousands, of pounds have been expended in the
importation of acorns. Bartram, Michaux, Cobbett, and a host of nursery-
men, besides private gentlemen, have all signally failed. Cobbett, alone, ex-
pended many hundred pounds in his efforts to accomplish this object; and
every plant he raised, 1 have no doubt, cost him a crown. Nurserymen do
sometimes succeed in obtaining a few plants from a large importation of acorns ;
but at so great an expense, that no gentleman can afford to plant them: and
this I call failing, failing to introduce this invaluable tree, for the purpose of
forming plantations on that scale necessary to render it worthy of consider-
ation in a national point of view. Acorns cannot be gathered from the tree
on account of the expense, though even this might be submitted to, if the

124 White Oak of the United States.

acorns would retain their vitality during their transit to England. The acorns
generally germinate in a slight degree before dropping from the tree; conse-
quently, if they are dried, they are, in effect, malted ; if packed in a moist
state they heat, or they germinate and the radicle perishes for want of soil and
moisture. Young plants cannot be got from under the trees, because the acorns,
as they drop, are eaten by wild turkeys, squirrels, pigeons, and other animals, or
by swine. Some of the American oaks have thick and hard shells, and do not
naturally germinate until the spring. With these sorts there is no difficulty,
after they are once collected. They can be packed in moss, dry sand, or
simply thrown into a barrel by themselves.’ The writer goes on to state that
he is packing plants of the white oak to be sent to England, in perforated
flour barrels, the plants being mixed with fresh moss; and that he has no
doubt that they will arrive safe. The letter from which the above is an ex-
tract is dated New York, Nov. 21. 1841. Thirty thousand plants arrived
safe in 1841, packed in the manner described, and they are now (1843) in a
thriving state, in a favourable soil and situation in Surrey.

Acorns of the white oak, or of any other, may be brought over with perfect
safety, if bedded in moist live moss, and planted as_ soon as they arrive, with-
out pinching off the extremity of such of the radicles as may have pushed
above an inch in length. (See drd. Brit., vol. iii. p. 1867.)

Plants of the white oak may be obtained by the thousand from several
nurserymen in the South of England, who have procured them from the gen-
tleman who introduced the 30,000 plants above mentioned. — Cond. —

“ In the Descriptive Catalogue of the Derby Arboretum,” M. Vilmorin observes,
“ you have stated that the leaves of Quércus alba, when they die off, neither
take the colour of yellow nor red, like the other American oaks. In my
plantations at Barres, in which there are above fifty plants of this species, more
than a half of them in the autumn take the colour of a beautiful purple
violet.” [This we have stated in the Ard. Brit., vol. iil. p. 1865., and the
Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 863.) “ Neither do I admit the truth of what
Cobbett says, that the leaf of the white oak is among the least curious and
beautiful of the American oaks; on the contrary, I consider it one of the
most beautiful, and, I should say, one of the most remarkable (le plus dis-
tingué) among those of the oaks of America. Its general form, the graceful
outline of its lobes, profoundly sinuated and rounded; their consistence at
once thin and firm ; their upper surface smooth and of a clear green, which
contrasts agreeably with the beautiful glaucous hue of the under side ; their
petioles sometimes of a bright red ; in short, all these features have always
appeared to me to give this leaf a charm, and a positive beauty, distinct from
those of every other. I speak, it is true, of the leaves such as they show
themselves on young and vigorous plants ; perhaps on large trees they lose a
good deal of their beauty. I acknowledge, also, that in matters which are
judged of merely by the eye, every one judges according to the impression
which he has received ; and what I wish to say is, that my impressions are in
favour of the leaves of Quércus alba. It is this partiality which has in-
duced me to break a lance in its favour, -as the chevaliers of other times did
for the lady afflicted and molested, whom they took under their protection.”
—Vilmorin. Paris, Feb. 6. 1843.

The acorns of the white oak, in America, are preferred before all others for
fattening swine ; and the swine are so fond of them, that they will not eat any
other acorns as long as those of the white oak last. A good white acorn year
is always a good year for pork. —J. D. Web. 15. 1843. [A young gardener
who spent six months travelling in America, and who is now very anxious to
go to China as a natural history collector.]

Two new American Roses. 125

Art. XI. Dimensions of large Trees and Shrubs, collected with a
view to a Supplement to the Arboretum Britannicum.

Ir is our intention, in the course of the present year, to publish a Supplement
to the Arboretum Britannicum, chiefly for the sake of introducing descriptions
and figures of the new species of pmes and firs introduced from Mexico by
the Horticultural Society, and of certain trees and shrubs recently raised from
Himalayan seeds (all given in our abridged Arboretum) ; but partly, also, to
record the dimensions of remarkable specimens of trees and shrubs now
growing in Britain, which have been sent us since the Arboretum was com-
posed, or which may be sent in the course of the next three months.

We shall therefore be greatly obliged to our readers and correspondents, if
they will cooperate with us in this matter, and send us dimensions of large
specimens with as little delay as possible.

Large Trees at Stratfieldsaye, the Seat of His Grace the Duke of
Wellington.

A Norway Spruce (Abies excélsa), 110 ft. high. This is the highest tree
in the grounds ; its girt at 4 ft. from the ground is 10 ft., and at 20 ft. high
8 ft., gradually tapering upwards.

A edar of Lebanon (Cédrus Libani), 100 ft. Apparently in its prime.

A Silver Fir (Picea pectinata), 102 ft., branching to the ground.

A Weymouth Pine (Pinus Strobus), 92 ft.

A Pinaster (Pinus Pinaster), 86 ft.

A Hemlock Spruce (Abies canadénsis), 46 ft. A very handsome plant.

A Tupelo tree (Nyssa biflora), 31 ft. Growing vigorously.

A Liquidambar (Liquidambar Styraciflua), 69 ft.

A Tulip tree (Liricdéndron Tulipifera), 87 ft.

A Scarlet Oak (Quércus coccinea), 96 ft. Girt at 7 ft. high 9ft., witha
very fine head.

A common White Oak (Quércus pedunculata), 80 ft. Girt at 4 ft. high
15 ft. 9in., and at 15 ft. high 14 ft.

A Lombardy Poplar (Populus fastigiata), 101 ft.

The Elms (U’Imus campéstris var.) in the avenue average from 70 ft. to
80 ft. high, and girt at 6 ft. from the ground from 12 ft. to 15 ft.

The above are the highest trees at Strathfieldsaye, but there are a great
many of each variety nearly as high. —Joun JouHNSON.

Stratfieldsaye Gardens, Feb. 11. 1843.

Art. XII. Notice of Two new American Roses lately introduced
By J. W. B.

Ro's4 rubifolia élegans, the Prairie Rose.— A fine climbing rose of very robust
habit, often making shoots of from 10 ft. to 12 ft. in the season. Flowers
semi-double, in clusters of from eighteen to twenty-five in each, and of a deep
pink colour. Found by R. Buist of Philadelphia, in the state of Ohio.
R. Buist. \ prices

Rosa rubifolia var. Prairie Queen.— A seedling of Rosa rubifolia élegans,
which was raised by Mr. S. Feast of Baltimore. Of a stronger habit than 2.
r. élegans ; flowers quite double, and imbricated, in clusters. ; Similar, but
superior, to the strong-growing varieties of Noisettes. Colour bright pink. R.
Bust.

Mr. J. W. Brown, who brought over a plant of each of the above roses
from Mr. Buist, saw both in flower in Mr. Buist’s nursery in the summer
of 1842, and bears testimony to the truth of the above descriptions by Mr.
Buist.— London, Dec. 1842.

3d Ser.— 1843, III. K

126 Dieffenbach’s New Zealand and the New Zealanders,

Art.YXIII. On the Culture of the Chinese Primrose. By JoHN
GULLETT.

Havine for several years succeeded in growing my Primula sinénsis in great
perfection, I submit the following system of cultivation. I endeavour to get
my seeds ripe, but sometimes I sow them when just turned brown, in the
last week in July, or first week in August, placing them on a little heat, to get
them up as soon as possible. When the second leaf gets the size of a six-
pence, I pot them off in thumb-pots in the following compost: one third well
decomposed leaf mould, one third sandy peat, and one third two-years-old cow-
dung. In five or six weeks, I shift them into 60-sized pots ; and when they
have filled those pots with their roots, which will be in about two months, I shift
them again into 48-sized pots, and in these I blow them, keeping them m a cold
frame till February, when I take them into the greenhouse, and have them in
bloom in March, at the time all the treatises on the Chinese primrose which
I have seen recommend to sow the seed.

You see I gain a season; and my flowers are much larger and finer than
those I see any where else.

Woodbine Cottage Gardens, Oct. 23. 1842.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. New Zealand and the New Zealanders. By Ernest Dieffen-
bach, M.D., Naturalist to the New Zealand Company, Honorary
Member of the Aborigines Protection Society. Pamph. 8vo,
pp: 30. London, 1841.

Travels in New Zealand ; with Contributions to the Geography,
Geology, Botany, and Natural History of that Country. By Ernest
Dieffenbach, M.D., late Naturalist to the New Zealand Company.
In two volumes 8vo, pp. 827. London, 1843.

Tue first of these works is a pamphlet chiefly occupied with an account of
the native population. The second is a very interesting relation of what the
author saw during several journeys into various parts of New Zealand, in the
years 1839, 1840, and 1841; including a grammar, dictionary, and specimens
of the New Zealand language.

In pointing out the superiority of New Zealand to other British colonies,
Dr. Dieffenbach observes “ that the climate is not only similar to that of
England, but even milder than that of our most southern counties, whilst,
at the same time, it is healthy and invigorating! The children of Eu-
ropeans, born in this country, show no deterioration from the beauty of the
original stock, as they do in New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. A
great part of the country possesses a soil which yields all those articles of
food which are necessary for the support of Europeans, especially grain,
potatoes, fruit, and every variety of garden vegetables ; it possesses materials
for ship-building and domestic architecture in its timber, marble, and freestone ;
the coal which has been found will probably prove sufficient in quantity for
steam-engines and manufactories; its coasts are studded with harbours and
inlets of the Sea ; it is intersected by rivers and rivulets ; its position between
two large continents is extremely favourable ; in short, it unites in itself every-
thing requisite for the support of a large population in addition to the native
inhabitants. No other country possesses such facilities for the establishment
of a middle -class, and especially of a prosperous small peasantry, insuring
greatness to the colony in times to come.

“ It is, conceive, no small praise to a country that in it labour and industry
can procure independence, and even affluence ; that in it no droughts destroy
the fruits of the colonist’s toil; no epidemic or pestilence endangers his family ;

LS
;

and his Travels in New Zealand. G7)

that, with a little exertion he may render himself independent of forei, 1 supply
for his food ; and that, when he looks around him, he can almost fancy him-
self in England, instead of at the antipodes, were it not that in his adopted
country an eternal verdure covers the groves and forests, and gives the land an
aspect of unequalled freshness and fertility.” (Vol. i. p. 4.)

The climate is wet and windy. “New Zealand, being situated within the
temperate zone, although nearer the equator than Great Britain, possesses,
from its peculiar geographical position, especially from its being insular, and
also from the nature of its surface, a climate so modified as to resemble that of
England more nearly than that of any other country I am acquainted with.
It is moderate in every respect, the range of its temperature throughout the
year and during the day being very inconsiderable. This is principally owing
to the immense expanse of ocean which surrounds these narrow islands on
all sides, preserving a temperature little varying, and moderating alike the
cold of the antarctic regions, and the heat of the tropics.” (Vol. i. p. 173.)
“* Without pronouncing a decided opinion from a single series of observations,
and these taken at only one place, and during ten months, I may, I think,
safely draw the conclusion that New Zealand has a rainy climate, and may
be ranked, in this respect, with several placesin England.” (Vol. ii. p. 176.)

Notwithstanding this flattering picture, many of the emigrants who have
flocked to New Zealand during the last two years have been sadly dis-
appointed ; because they did not intend to make their new colony their second
home, but to export native produce, and, after having made a rapid fortune, to
return to their native country. Our author, however, shows at length, “that
there is at present in New Zealand no article of export which can be de-
pended upon, to procure that balance of trade which is necessary for the
success of all commercial communities. Exports must be created in the
island by means of the agriculturist ; and it is the highest praise of the country
that they can be created, and that they do not differ from the same articles
produced at home. England, in former times, had scarcely more exports
than New Zealand has now ; but the internal resources and geographical po-
sition which secured to Great Britain its unequalled prosperity are, although
much inferior, yet similar in New Zealand, and may give her, in the course of
time, as high a position.

“ Tt will readily be concluded from these observations that, in the first set-
tlements of New Zealand, by far too much importance has been attached to
commerce and to those natural products just mentioned, and that many
incorrect and exaggerated statements on the present capabilities of the colony
have been brought forward. In a country like New Zealand, favoured in so
many respects by nature, but which cannot be regarded as an entrepot or
point of transit, the first question as to its future prosperity and success
should be: — Can the settlement produce all that it may require for internal
consumption, and will provisions be cheap as compared with the price of
labour? This should, undoubtedly, be the case in New Zealand ; and, con-
sequently, the supply of provisions to ships and to the Australian colonies,
will be the principal source of export from the colony.

“ To afford facilities to the first settlers of creating agricultural produce ; io
extend the utmost liberality to those who have purchased land and intend to
become working colonists ; to permit them to have an extensive choice, that
they may select the good land in preference to the bad; to give them legal
titles accordingly, and not to allow them to consume their capital after their
arrival in the colony by a delay of the surveys, are the only means of se-
curing prosperity to New Zealand. Under such circumstances, the system of
land sales in England at a fixed price, and the application of the purchase-
money to send out agricultural labourers and mechanics in a just ratio to
the demand of labour, the price of provisions, the quantity of capital em-
ployed, and the actual produce of the land, accompanied by a sound discretion
as to the number of emigrants sent out, cannot, it appears to me, be easily
replaced by a better one.” (Vol. i. p. i

K &

128 Dieffenbach’s New Zealand and the New Zealanders,

“ The value of New Zealand as a British colony cannot be estimated too
highly. For a certain class of colonists it is preferable to New South Wales,
which will never be any thing else than a large pasture ground. It is si-
tuated near numerous groups of interesting and important islands, the Navi-
gator’s, the Friendly, and Society Islands, which are rapidly advancing in
Civilisation and peaceful commerce; and some of which already afford sugar,
coffee, and other colonial produce, and require in return articles of European
manufacture. It is a country suited particularly to Europeans, from the
nature of its climate and soil,and seems to be destined to become a prosperous
agricultural and manufacturing state; but only a laborious peasantry can
clear the road for this, and render the colony, in time, an entrepot of commerce
or a depot for transit trade and a manufacturing country, none of which it is
at present.” (Vol. i. p. 18.)

The chief drawbacks to New Zealand, as a colony, arise from the high price
charged for the lands; the greater part of which, Dr. Dieffenbach says, “is
already disposed of to private individuals and to the New Zealand Com-
pany.” (Vol.i. p. 18.)

Thus far with reference to gardeners who may intend to emigrate. We
shall next glance at the chapter on the “‘ Botany of New Zealand.” “ The area
of the three islands is 51,584,000 acres [the British Islands contain 57,952,489],
and the total number of plants at present known, including the marine plants,
does not amount to more than 632 species [those of the British Isles exceed
9000 species.] This small number is not perhaps due to our little acquaint-
ance with New Zealand, and to the want of a sufficient botanical exploration
of the country; for, although there is no doubt that some more species will be
added, when we shall have examined the rugged and snowy mountain crests
of the middle island, yet it appears to me that their number will not ma-
terially alter the asserted fact, that, for the extent of its surface, and for the
varied localities which it offers to the growth of plants,—as mountains
reaching above the limits of lasting snow, stony and exposed ridges, burning
and extinct volcanoes, valleys and ravines with a fertile soil (where moisture
and moderate warmth, so favourable to vegetable life, continually prevail),
volcanic table-land, swamps and morasses, downs on the sea-coast, &c.,— the
flora of New Zealand is distinguished by a scantiness of species. In this
latter respect the vegetable corresponds with the animal kingdom, which,
however, is still more deficient. Several zealous botanists have bestowed
their labour on plants of this country” (Vol. i. p. 419.)

“ Although in its flora, New Zealand has some relationship with the two
large continents between which it is situated, America and Australia, and
even possesses a number of species identical with those of Europe, without
the latter being referable to an introduction by Europeans, yet the greater
number of species, and even genera, are peculiar to the country, which as-
tonishing fact had already forced itself upon the minds of the first explorers.
New Zealand, with some of the adjacent islands (the Chatham, Auckland,
and Macquarie’s), forms a botanical centre. It is sufficiently distant from
both continents to preserve its botanical peculiarities, and it offers in that
respect the most striking instance of an acknowledged fact in all branches of
natural history, viz., that the different regions of the globe are endowed with
peculiar forms of animal and vegetable life.

“The number of species at present known is 632, of which number 314 are
dicotyledonous or endogenous plants, and the rest, or 318, monocotyledonous
and cellular plants. To what can this remarkable disproportion be due ; so
contrary to what is the case in other countries? Is it owing to the geo-
logical fact that New Zealand is of recent formation, and that in such
countries the plants which are regarded as inferior, the cellular and crypto-
gamous plants, make their appearance before the more developed flowering
ones. Without discussing this difficult question, I merely observe that the
visitor to the distant shores of New Zealand will be struck by the scantiness
of annual and flowering plants, of which only a very few possess vivid colours,

and his Travels in New Zealand. 129

and would attract the attention of the florist. In their place he will find a
number of trees and ferns of various descriptions, of which the greater part
of the flora consists. But these give at once a distinct character to the
vegetation. If the traveller should happen to come from New South Wales,
he cannot but observe, either that the glaucous colour of a New South Wales
landscape, produced by the Eucalypti, Casuarineee, Acacie, and Banksias of
its open forests, which is only relieved in certain alluvial situations by a
fresher green, and in certain seasons and localities by a variety of beautiful
flowers, has given way in New Zealand to the glossy green of a dense and
mixed forest; or that the landscape, when it is covered with the social fern,
has assumed a brown hue. In the former general aspect, together with the
tree-ferns, palms, and draceenas, which abound in New Zealand, that country
resembles one situated between the tropics, and especially the beautiful
islands of the Pacific.” (Vol. i. p. 421.)

There are 245 species of flowerless plants, including 48 alge, 28 lichens,
some fungi, several mosses, and a great many ferns. ‘“ Of all plants, however,
the ferns and fern-like plants are the most numerous in New Zealand, as
they are not only the most common plants as regards the number of the
genera and species, but especially as regards the number of individuals of one
and the same species: covering immense districts, they replace the Gramineze
of other countries, and give a character to all the open land of hills and
plains. Some of them grow to 30 ft. and more in height; and the variety
and elegance of their forms, from the most minute species to the giants of
their kind, are astonishing. Although 94 species of ferns are already known,
every day adds new treasures to our knowledge. There exist three tree-
ferns, the Cyathea medullaris, C. dealbata, and Dicksonia squarrosa. The Ma-
rattia elegans also assumes a tree-like appearance. The Cyathea dealbata is
the highest ; I measured some 40 ft. in length. These trees generally grow
in groups.” (Vol. i. p. 423.)

The number of exogenous plants is only 76. There are 24 grasses, and
20 Cyperdcee ; one palm, the Aréca sapida, which grows to the height of
40 ft. with a stem a foot in diameter. The undeveloped leaves are eaten by
the natives, and when full grown they are used for roofing their houses. The
genera Dracze‘na, Cordyline, and Phormium are common, with other As-
phodelez, on the alluvial banks of rivers. There is a variety of New Zealand
flax (P. ténax), with yellow-striped leaves, which is scarce. Ripdgonum
parviflorum 2. Br., one of the Smilacez, is a common and luxuriant climber
in forests, and its stem forms the supplejack of Europeans. There are three
species of Jrideze, and about treble that number of Orchidacez. The Ca/d-
dium esculéntum is cultivated, but according to the natives not indigenous,
their ancestors having brought it with them at their first immigration. The
swamps are covered with Z'ypha angustifolia, the roots of which are eaten,
and the stems and leaves tied in bundles and used both for walls and roofs to -
their houses. Freycinétia Banks# is a monocotyledonous climbing plant,
the sweet bracteew of the blossoms of which are eaten by the natives, OF
Coniferze and Yaxinez, there are eight species, which produce the most
valuable timber of the island. Démmara australis, the only cone-beating
tree, is confined to the extreme north of the Northern Island. The other
species are Phyllécladus trichomandides, P. sp., Podocarpus ferruginea, P.
totdra, P. sp., Dacry¥dium mdi, D. plumosum, D. excélsum, D. cupréssinum,
and D. sp.

Of Ericez, there are three species of Gaulthéria ; and there are examples, in
all, of between 60 and 70 orders of Dicotyledonez.

The general conclusion to be drawn from Dr. Dieffenbach’s book is, that
very little is to be expected from New Zealand in the way of botanical riches ;
but that it is an excellent place for an able-bodied agriculturist willing to
work, and with a small capital, to emigrate to; more particularly if he can
purchase an allotment of good land, favourably situated, at a moderate price.

Every page of this work is full of interest, from the novelty of the occur-

K 3

130 Hay’s Natural Principles and Analogy

rences and the scenery, and it is illustrated by some beautifully executed
engravings of remarkable portions of scenery and animals. The author is
evidently a man of most extensive views, liberal, enlightened, benevolent,
and, like almost all learned Germans, remarkably free from prejudice of every
kind, a man after our own heart. : . t

A manual of the botany of New Zealand, Dr. Dieffenbach informs us, 1s
expected from the pen of Sir W. J. Hooker.

Art. II. The Natural Principles and Analogy of the Harmony of
Form. By 1). R. Hay, Decorative Painter to the Queen, Edin-
burgh ; Honorary Fellow of the Royal Institute of the Architects
of Ireland, and Author of “ The Laws of Harmonious Colouring,”
&e. 4to, pp. 50, with 19 plates, and numerous woodcuts. Edin-

burgh and London, 1842.

Mr. Hay is the author of a work on Colouring, which is in much esteem,
and has gone through several editions. In the work before us it is attempted
to show “that the impressions made upon the eye by forms are really
founded on natural principles, and that the proportions and peculiarities of
form which produce the most pleasing impressions are in reality, as well as
appearance, dictated by nature, being a response to these principles in the
human mind. If it can be shown,” Mr. Hay continues, “that, agreeably
to the boundless analogy by which the sciences and arts are connected, forms
are in all respects analogous to sounds, and that consequently a system of
linear harmony can be established, similar to that which regulates the ar-
rangement of musical notes, a knowledge of this important branch of art may
become a part of elementary education.” (p. 4.)

The author, after this introductory idea, endeavours to prove the analogy
between the natural principles of harmony and form, and their analogy to
those of sound and colour.

“That form, in its effects upon the eye, is analogous to sound in its
effects upon the ear, has been generally admitted.”’ There are three kinds of
harmony in sound; that produced by the intonations of the voice of the
orator, that by the tones of the vocalist, and that by vocal and instrumental
music combined. Forms also address themselves to the eye in three ways ;
to the judgment as in architecture, to the feelings as in sculpture, and to
the imagination as in historical painting. Colour has its three effects of har-
mony: in the three neutrals, white, grey, and black; in the natural colours
of landscape; and in the brilliant hues of flowers, and the plumage of birds.

“Forms are therefore analogous to sounds and colours in their effects
upon the senses, and through the senses upon the mind. But the proving of
this analogy would do little in the formation of an intelligible system of har-
mony of form: it must be shown that a perfect analogy also exists in the
component parts producing these effects.” (p. 10.

The author next proceeds to prove that, as there are three primitive colours,
red, blue, and yellow; three primitive sounds, the tonic, the mediant, and the
_ dominant ; so there are three primitive forms, the circle, the triangle, and the
square. He next shows that these forms arise naturally out of one another,
and that they may be combined like the tones in music.

To follow the author farther with advantage, a scientific knowledge of
music is absolutely necessary ; and, as we are deficient in this respect, we feel
ourselves incompetent to pronounce judgment on this part of the work.
We can only say that it appears well reasoned and consistent in itself ;
though we must confess that the author’s application of it to some of the
buildings of antiquity has failed to produce in our minds that conviction of its
utility which might have been expected, notwithstanding our inability to
follow up his musical analysis. As a specimen of the author’s application of
his principles we give the following :—

of the Harmony of Form. 131

“The most perfectly harmonious production in architecture that exists, is,
by the concurrent opinion of the best judges in all ages since its production,
the Parthenon at Athens. Whether this structure owes its perfection to an
acquaintance with a particular system of applying the natural principles of
form to architecture, lost to succeeding ages, or to the natural genius of the
designer alone, is a matter of doubt, and may ever remain so. But, whether
the knowledge of the artist was acquired or intuitive, it must be admitted that
the elements of harmony are transcendently displayed in this great work.

“The melody, or general outline, of the temple itself seems to enter into
combination with the hill upon which it stands, and thus to make up the
harmonic triad of the third class of forms. This is endeavoured to be shown
in Plate XIV. In the centre of the diagram formed by the repetition of the
line Ist to 5th, within the ellipsis, it will be observed that the component parts
of the temple occur, as marked by the strong line. These being removed
from the harmony of combination to that of succession, the curve of the
ellipsis becomes its fundamental bass, and the temple itself supplies the other
two component parts of a melody.

“The melody is only appreciable at such a distance as allows the general
outline of the temple, in combination with the hill upon which it was placed,
to be encompassed by the eye of the spectator: consequently, when he
ascended the Acropolis, the curvilinear forms, which at a distance made up
the harmonic triad, disappeared. Instead of which, however, the most beauti-
ful harmony of combination was presented to his view, accompanied, as has
been proved by late investigations, with an equally perfect harmony of colour.
The curvilinear form, so amply supplied in the distance, which, like cool
colours in nature, always predominate in the most pleasing combinations,
he now finds in equal proportionate quantity, not only in the horizontal and
perpendicular lines of the columns, but in the exquisite bas-reliefs which
embellish the friezeand tympanum. The taste and knowledge of the artist is
further disylayed; for, that there might be no harsh or sudden transition
from the curved to the perfectly straight line, the architrave, frieze, and cornice
approach the tympanum by an almost imperceptible curve.

“In thus gliding, by an imperceptible gradation, from one component part of
harmony into another, a facility easily attainable in form, but which can only
be 2ttamed in music by the human voice, is made available.

“The portico, or front elevation of this temple, from the base of the columns
to the extreme point of the pediment, is inscribed by the parallelogram
adopted in this treatise as the second of the general series of forms. I
has been already observed, that geometricians have given no definite ruics for
the proportions of this particular form; but that in question has peculiarities
which are worthy of remark in this place.

“Tt is the only rectilinear form that is not produced by the intersection of
the mediant line drawn from the first to the fifth division of the circle, there-
fore requiring in its formation the second line, which is drawn fron: the first
to the third division. Neither the equilateral triangle, the square, nor the
rhombus, can be produced by any smaller number of forms of a similar kind
and proportion to themselves than four; and it takes the same number of
parts to reproduce a parallelogram of any other proportions ; but this can be
reproduced by three and also by four. If its length be divided into the semi.
tonic division of twelve, its breadth will be seven of those divisions; conse
quently, when three are placed together perpendicularly, their lengt! wil! be
collectively twenty-one of those divisions.

“Tn this triple capacity it seems in the present case to be employed, and its
shorter dimension is therefore divided, as shown in the scale, PlateX V. The
subdivision of the parts of this unequal structure are, agreeably to this scale,
as follows :—

“The perpendicular and obviously curvilinear portion ends, and the hori-
zontal or rectilinear portion begins, on the seventh semitonic division of the
parallelogram, the perfect fifth or dominant of the present scale of the mu-

K 4 :

132 Hays Harmony vy Form.

sician. The horizontal or apparently rectilinear part ends, and the oblique or
angular part commences, on the next musical consonance, the sixth or sub-
mediant of the same scale. (Plate XV.)

“Taking the dimensions from the elevation of the portico as given in
Stuart’s Athens, the minute groove cut below the capital of the column is one
of these semitonic divisions. From centre to centre of the columns on each
side of the middle space is three of those divisions; and this is continued,
with a slight deviation, till the last division, which must include the outer
column. The space which includes the columns is exactly the proportion of
the second parallelogram produced within the ellipsis, as the first was within
the circle. Ifthis be divided into twelve parts, the capital will be found to be
one of these in height, and the triglyphs one of the same in breadth. But
these matters can only be properly investigated by the architect, whose edu-
cation enables him to enter into details with which the unprofessional are
necessarily unacquainted.” (p. 40.)

The conclusicn at which the author arrives is, “ that form, like sound and
colour, has its three primaries; and that consequently there can be no per-
fectly harmonious combination of forms in which one of these is wanting; and
that the distinctions of harmony, like those of sound and colour, depend upon
a predominance of one, and a subordination of the other two, in the composi-
tion.” (p. 42.)

Granting the premises, it is impossible to deny that the conclusion is
legitimate ; but the difficulty is, to show the application of the doctrine in
such a manner as shall be intelligible to architects who are not at the same
time conversant with the theory of music. We cannot help thinking that, as
the theory is undoubtedly founded in nature, this might have been done, at all
events, to such an extent as to carry conviction to artists who have no musical
knowledge.

In an appendix to the work are the following paragraphs, which every
artist can understand and appreciate, and which would seem to justify our
opinion, that the theory might have been brought down nearer to the capacities
of those who, like ourselves, are ignorant of the science of music.

“Tt has been observed, that the series of forms in which the ellipsis takes
the place of the circle exercises a softer influence on the eye; and that the
combinations of those forms are more natural, and the harmonies they produce
more pleasing, than those arising out of the combinations of the forms which
have the circle for their key. This would, at first sight, appear quite paradox-
ical. But it must be taken into consideration, that we are made to view
nature with two eyes, whose rays traverse or cross each other horizontally ;
and that, consequently, any object of a horizontally elongated kind can be more
easily encompassed by the visual rays than any of the more primary or homoge-
neous forms. The eye, in this double capacity, associates its rays at once with
the forms in which the three elements, earth, air, and water, are generally
presented to our view, and in which, consequently, the landscape-painter ge-
nerally transfers their effects to his canvass.

“Landscape composition has its linear harmony, as well as architecture,
sculpture, or historical painting; and it likewise consists in the judicious ar-
rangement of the three elementary parts of form, or the straight line, the
angular line, and the curved line. In this, as in every case where various forms
are combined, there can be no perfect composition, unless the harmonic triad
be present. But the parts of this triad must not be jumbled promiscuously
together, however irregular the general characte rof the subject may be ; for, if
linear harmony exists, there must be system in it, as there is in every other
kind of harmony; and this system must consist in certain geometrical rules.
Such a system is attempted to be developed in the foregoing treatise ; and it
is assumed that it has the leading features of a natural theory in the extreme
simplicity of its elementary parts, and the endless variety of combination of
which they are susceptible.

“ The harmony of forms depends much on the propriety of their position,

Hosking’s Principles and Practice of Architecture. 133

and a strict adherence to the key or tonic ina composition. The'three primary
forms, the circle, the triangle, and the square, have each only one proper
position. The first, indeed, can take no position but one, while the secondary
and tertiary forms have two proper positions, the horizontal and vertical.
These positions must be strictly adhered to; for obliquity in this case is
inadmissible, and, as already shown, can only be employed to produce angular
forms. When the circle is the key or tonic adopted, the square and the equi-
lateral triangle will be the leading features of the forms introduced into the
composition. When the ellipsis is the tonic, their leading features will be
the parallelogram and rhombus, whether the composition be horizontal or
vertical, There can be no properly harmonious composition in which this
classification is not attended to. No doubt men of great genius can do this
instinctively, and to such, a knowledge of rules is superfluous: but rules are

requisite to enable the generality of mankind to appreciate judiciously the
works of men of genius.” (p.48.)

Arr. HI. An introductory Lecture, delivered at King’s College,
London, January 24. 1842, on the Principles and Practice of Archi-
tecture. To which are now added a few Notes, and some further
Remarks on the modern Practice of Competition. By William
Hosking, F.S.A., Architect and Civil Engineer. London, 1842.
Pamph. 8vo, pp. 42.

Tue pages of this pamphlet are occupied in enumerating the various kinds of
buildings, and operations connected with them, which fall within the province
of the architect to originate and direct, with the author’s particular opinions
on the modern practice of competition. We shall make one short extract,
for the sake of the last sentence.

“ The largest class of buildings yet remains; and it will be found that, great
as the variety of requirement is in buildings distinguished as publie, it is even
greater in the class of dwelling-houses ; for, although every house may be
resolved into the three departments which the uses and habits of social life
require (every house having its sitting-room, its sleeping-room, and its
cooking-room), the nobleman’s mansion must have these multiplied and
extended, with accessories to include all that human wants and wishes can
demand ; whilst the shopkeeper is content to expose his goods for sale in the
best parts of his house, and to cook, eat, and sleep where his business ma
leave him room; and the labourer, in his turn, is but too glad to find his
cottage so arranged by the economic skill of the architect, that cooking, eat-
ing, and sleeping have each a separate apartment. The idea of a peasant’s
cottage being included in the studies of an architect may excite a smile; but, if
architects were more employed upon peasants’ cottages, there might be less
occasion for their services in building county hospitals and union workhouses.”

Art. IV. Literary Notices.

Frequent complaints have been made to us that we do not state the pri

of the books which we review or recommend ; and the reason is. that
cannot do so, except under particular circumstances, without incurring ¢\)
advertisement duty. We propose, however, in future to adopt the mode fo
lowed in the Laterary Gazette, Atheneum, and similar journals, to give a

monthly list of books, which we think worth purchasing or reading by gay-
deners or their employers, with their prices, unless we find some consequences

134 General Notices.

resulting from the publishing of such a list, which we do not anticipate. Our
list for this month 1s :

Hay on Form, 4to, 16s. (rev. p. 126.).

Dieffenbach’s New Zealand, 2 vols. 8vo, 24s. (rev. p. 130.).

Pugin’s present State of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England, 8vo, 9s.

Thomas’s Monuments and Chimney-pieces, 8vo, 16s.

Jones’s Designs for Mosaic Pavements, 4to, 21s.

Fraser’s Scientific Wanderings, 5s.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. General Notices.

A PocKeET Plant-Case for Ladies. — Some young ladies of our acquaintance
who are remarkably fond of gardening, and particularly of raising plants from
seed, having been lately residing principally in London, where they have no
garden, have contrived a very ingenious substitute for a hotbed, by having
recourse to their side pockets as a source of heat for germinating seeds. The
seed, enveloped in some moist moss, is put ina small tin case, commonly one
which has been used for pepperment lozenges, or acidulated drops. The case,
so filled, is carried about the person constantly during the day, and put with
the pocket under the pillow during the night. When the seeds have germi-
nated, and the plumule, as well as the radicle, has appeared, the seed, having
now become a plant, is taken out and planted ina pot. The same ladies
have germinated seeds by suspending them over water in a hyacinth glass,
or small carafe ; and in this manner they have raised trees from filberts, which,
being afterwards planted in the open ground in the country, have, in the
course of afew years, borne fruit. They have also raised oaks, sweet chest-
nuts, and various other plants.
— Cond.

Welch's Bricks for forming
circular Flues, without any ad-
ditional expense for materials
or labour beyond what is
necessary for the common
square flues, well deserve the
attention of the architect and
builder. Two moulds are all
that are necessary to effect
the object, viz. moulds to
make the bricks (a and 8,
fig. 13.), each 9 in. long.
The idea is a_ peculiarly
happy one and does Mr.
Welch great credit. He has
taken out a patent for it.
Any direction may be given
to the flues by beveling the
bricks, which, of course, will
require other two moulds. — Fig. 13. Welch’s Bricks for circular Flues.

Cond.

Turf Drains are used in different parts of the country, particularly in mea-
dows and pastures. Mr. Saul recommends section jig. 14., and as a cover
fig. 15., which is 10in. long, 7 in. broad on the upper side, 5 in. broad on
the under side, and 34in. thick. When made of peat and thoroughly dried

ne

General Notices. 135

in the sun, they are remarkably strong, and will last many years: some in
this part of the country have stood for thirty years, both in land pastured
and under the plough. A man will cut about 2,500 of
these turves in a day, having a spade made on purpose,
with a ledge on each side, so that the peats are all cut
to the same size. He cuts from a breast of peat earth
which is from 3in. to 4in. deep in front of him; he
pitches them as he cuts them from the breast to his
labourer, who is provided with a sort of carriage with
one wheel on which he puts the
covers. When he has got a suf-
ficient load, he moves them to a

hort di s them to. Quem!
short distance, and places them in

; rows to dry in the sun and wind. Tig. 15.) View of a
Se aaa oa They stand a few weeks in this Turf for a Daan
way, and are then turned over and
remain for some time longer. They are then piled up in rows three deep,
so that the sun and wind get better at them than if they were all on the
sround. In this state they remain till they are completely dried; they are
then made into large stacks till they are wanted for use. The stacks are so
made that the rain passes off them the same as off the roof of a house.
These peats are sold at 5s. per thousand. The prime cost may be considered
about 3s. per thousand. The man has about 2s. 6d. per day, and labourer 2s.
The time of cutting them is in April and June ; it will not do to cut them till

the frost is over.

Fig. 14, shows the drain cut and furnished with the peat cover. The drain
is cut from 20in. to 30 in. deep, as circumstances may require. The workmen
have spades made on purpose. The price of making these drains is 23d. per
rood, so called here, which is seven yards in length, the materials being laid
at the place. At this price a man will make about 2s. per day. When the
covers are placed on the drain, a little strong gravel or small stones are put
in, as shown in the figure, to take the top water into the drain. The drain
covers being on the principle of the wedge, weight increases rather than di-
minishes their strength, which is not the case with common draining tiles—
MM, Saul. Garstang, Dec. 22. 1842.

Perhaps the following plan may be added to the one above described.
Where peat earth is not to be got, I have seen the following mode practised
to a great extent, and it has been fairly proved to stand for a great number of
years. The plan is simply this. Line out the drains in pasture lands; and, in
cutting out the top sod, do it on the wedge system. The drains are cut the
same as in fig. 14. The plan is called sod-draining. These sod-drain covers
are cut so that the grass side is downwards. They are about 6 in. thick, and
of the same length and breadth as the peat covers shown in fig. 15., and they
are laid in the drain in the way before mentioned. I have been induced to
try whether these sod covers could be forced into the drain by pressure, and
have jumped upon them for this purpose, but found that the more I jumped
upon them, the stronger they were ; so that, after the drains have been filled
up according to the plan I sent you, there is no fear of their being injured by
either cattle or carts passing over them.—Jdem. Dec. 29, 1842.

By a subsequent letter from Mr. Saul, we learn that the Duke of Hamilton
is supposed to have housed more than 100,000 of the turf-drain covers (jig.
15. above) on his estate in the neighbourhood of Lancaster, and that he
would have housed more if they had been to be got ; but the demand by other
proprietors and by farmers has greatly exceeded the supply.

Flower-pots with hollow Sides (figs. 16. and 17.), by Mr. Brown of Ewell,
and Mr. Saul of Garstang.

Mr. Brown’s Pot with hollow Sides (fig. 16. copied from the Gard. Chron.
for 1842, p. 803.) may have the vacuity filled with water through a small
orifice in the rim shown in the figure, or left empty at pleasure. Every

136 General Notices.

reader is aware that plants will be prevented from suffering from want of
water when the vacuity is filled, and from having so much heat as usual
carried off by evaporation from the sides of the
pot when the vacuity is empty. Such pots are
peculiarly suited for plants in rooms, and they
might be rendered clean-looking or ornamental by
being glazed externally. Care should be taken,
however, not to glaze them of a green colour,
nor to endeavour to render them ornamental by
coloured imitations of flowers, or other natural
objects, for reasons that we need not here insist
on. The colour may be of stone or brick, and
the ornaments, if any, should be sculptures, not
paintings. (See Quatremére de Quincy On Imita- Fig. 16. Mr. Brown's Flower-
tron.) pot wth double closed Sides.
Saul’s Fountain Flower-pot (fig. 17.) has hollow sides with a stopper, and
it supplies the plant with water on the same principle that a glass fountain
supplies a bird in a cage. An outer basin is made on the bottom of the pot,
to which the water enters at a, and is carried round the pot in the basin,
there being two or three
holes through the bottom
of the pot, as seen at 606.
By these means the water
is drawn up from the basin
by the roots of the plants ;
or, if it should be desirable
to prevent it from being
drawn up, the exterior ori-
fices of the holes which
open into the basin or
saucer can be closed. The
fountain is supplied with
water by taking out the
stopper c, the entrance into
the basin at a being at that
moment closed; and, as
soon as the water runs over
at c, the cork or stopper
of that orifice is put in, and the stopper at a removed. This pot is the inven-
tion of Mr. Saul of Garstang, who sent the above description, and the sketch
from which the engraving is made, on Dec. 5.,
and who informed us at the time that he had
had them both some weeks by him.— Cond.
Stephens’s Plant-protecting Flower-pot, with
double Rim, of which fig. 18. is a section, was
sent to us by Mr. James Stephens of Carr
House, near Doncaster, a gardener who has
read this Magazine from its commencement.
It was sent in April last, but we did not receive
it till Dec. 29. This pot not only supplies the
plant with moisture where it is most wanted, \ RZ
but serves as a plant-protector, as there are but TSS
few creeping insects that will venture to cross Fig- 18. Stephens’s Double-rimmed
from one rim to the other when the space be- Oe ie
tween is full of water. For plants that stand out in the open ground, Mr.
Stephens has the pots made with two small holes, one on each side, half an
inch from the bottom; and as there are no holes in the bottom, worms can~
not get into the pots, nor can the roots of the plants root through these
holes into the ground; advantages both of which are of no mean importance.

Fig. 17. Saul’s Fountain Flower-pot.

TAU
uy Wt

General Notices. 13 7/

Mr. Stephens, though he invented these pots, has no pecuniary interest in
them ; they are manufactured by Robinson & Co., at Kiln-hurst, near Swin-
-ton ‘Station, Yorkshire, at from one penny each upwards. Mr. Mearns of
Leeds, and a number of experienced gardeners, Mr. Stephens informs us,
declare this pot to be the most decided improvement hitherto made in flower-
pots. — Cond.

A new Plough for raising Potatoes has been invented by Mr. David Goudie,
overseer upon Hillhead Farm, near Kilmarnock. The implement somewhat
resembles the grubber harrow, being held by two handles, drawn by two
horses, and supported upon two wheels. Details will be found in the
Kilmarnock Journal, in the Stirling Advertiser for Octcber 14.; and the imple-
ment itself may be procured of Messrs. Drummond, Agricultural Museum,
Stirling. — Cond.

The Scotch Pine, a Substitute for Candle. Distillation of Oil of Turpentine
from is Roots. — The Pinus sylvéstris, or native fir of Scotland, abounds
with resinous matter and turpentine throughout its whole structure, which is
particularly the case in the lower part of its trunk and roots. Dr. Howison,
many years ago, whea residing in and passing through various parts of the
Russian empire, observed that the principal (or almost entire) light used by
the peasantry in the northern departments was produced from slips or laths
of the fir tree fixed horizontally, or in a slightly sloping direction, on iron
stands, and set fire to at the lower extremity. These laths might be a yard
in length, and of small diameter. Each one gave a flame of greater size than
a candle, and continued burning for a considerable time, when its place was
supplied by a fresh one. Might not the same method be followed in some
parts of Great Britain? In the Highlands and northern islands of Scotland
the peasantry use the extreme roots of the fir tree, dug out from the bogs
and peat mosses, as a substitute for candle; and, in consequence of the quan-
tity of turpentine contained in them, they burn with vivacity and splendour,
furnishing a brilliant light. Around the cottages or isbas of the Russian
peasantry Dr. Howison observed the large roots of the fir tree, dug from the
earth after the trunk had been cut down for the numerous useful purposes to
which it is applied, lyingindiscriminately about. These were obtained previously
to the falling of the winter snow, which remains for seven or eight months of
the year. During the above period, when no other more valuable work can
be obtained, the peasantry break them down into small pieces with hatchets,
put them into a small still, and obtain oil of turpentine in large quantities at
no expense, the exhausted slips, the refuse of the boiler, from which the
turpentine has been already extracted, furnishing fuel for the future fire. The
receiver is a glass bottle with a hole in its bottom filled up with a plug. When
the distillation is over the plug is withdrawn, the water, falling to the bottom
from its greater specific gravity, is allowed to escape, and the floating oil of
turpentine is retained. The sale of the turpentine pays the expense of dig-
ging up the roots (which leaves the ground free for the plough), and allows
a surplus for the labour. Might not the same be done by the unemployed
labourers in some parts of Great Britain? — H.

The Stimulus of Competition in Agriculture.— Our great manufacturers
have thriven under the sometimes too feverish and intense, but yet generally
wholesome, stimulus of competition. We think it can hardly be said that of
late years this principle has been brought sufficiently to bear upon the growers
of agricultural produce. We speak of them, as a body, with the highest
respect ; they are the very trunk of our social health and strength: may the
day never come when they shall cease to be the first among the classes of
the noble country they adorn! But to say that they require to be stimulated ;
to say that, unless stimulated, they will not use their utmost and sustained
efforts to devise the means of economising production, and of selling as
cheaply as possible; and further, that the stimulus they may afford to one
another cannot, under all circumstances, be considered sufficient ; all this
is merely to say that they are men, and that they are not wholly exempt

138 Domestic Notices: — England.

from the common, the universal, infirmities of men. Let us look at the dif-
ference in private life between a frugal and a lavish expenditure ; let us see
how practically true it is, that equal means do not yield equal, but on the -
contrary yield most unequal, results; and we may then the more readily
conceive that English agriculture has large resources as yet almost unopened,
upon which it may draw in the time of need, and which will give ample scope
for their exercise, before they have raised our average cultivation to the
standard of the South-east of Scotland. (oreign and Colonial Quarterly
Review, as quoted in the Morning Chronicle, Jan. 14. 1843.)

Art. II. Domestic Notices.

ENGLAND.

THE new Royal Gardens at Frogmore, which have already excited much
curiosity in the horticultural world, are progressing very satisfactorily, and bid
fair to surpass all existing establishments of the kind. The splendid range of
metallic hothouses and greenhouses, which, when completed, will be nearly a
thousand feet in length, begms to make a very conspicuous figure, several of
the most able workmen in the employ of Jones and Clark of Birmingham (the
contractors for the horticultural buildings) having been for many months past
actively engaged on the spot. The west wing of the range, to the extent of
more than 300 ft., is already nearly completed, and the corresponding portion
on the other side is being rapidly proceeded with. In the centre of the range
is a neat Gothic structure, designed for the residence of Her Majesty’s gar-
dener, and it is intended to form a noble terrace or carriage drive in front of
the buildings, which, commanding a view of the entire range, will produce a
very striking effect. When the several works now in hand are completed,
they cannot fail to attract a large number of visitors, and particularly such as
take an interest in horticultural pursuits. (Sun.)

Bicton Gardens in February, 1843. — I have now been a week in Exeter,
and twice to see Mr. Barnes. The weather here is at present dry and season-
able ; wind N. and N.E., with very slight frosts in the mornings; and there
was a slight snow-storm or two at the beginning of this week. I am told
there has not been here this winter sufficient frost to kill scarlet geraniums, petu-
nias, Salvia falgens, and such like things. Where they are under the sheltered
walls, they have kept flowering all the winter; as well as mignonette and
many other things. Of course the soft free-growing plants in the open flower-
garden were cut with the slight frost in the autumn, at the time the dahlias
were cut. Camellias out of doors have flowered beautifully all the winter, as
well as many of the beautiful scarlet and pink rhododendrons. Mr. Barnes
informed me that a large plant of Rhododéndron Noblednum in the flower and
American garden had on christmas day above 200 heads of bloom fully ex-
panded; but the cold winds this week have turned some of them a little
brown. The peach, apricot, and pear blossoms on the walls are getting very
forward. I hope this fine but cold weather is in time to retard and keep
things in their places. Mr. Barnes says he never fouid the ground to work
so well as it does this season. There are still excellent pine-apples here, and
a good succession coming on. I think I never before saw such a show of

_ pine-apples, at this season of the year, as are now coming on here. The peach-
house presents a splendid assemblage of blossoms, and the fruit seemingly
setting well. Mr. Barnes’s new potatoes are thoroughly ripe, and he has a
good crop. Mushrooms, cucumbers, French beans, asparagus, &c., have been
very abundant all through the winter, and still continue so. It is really very
interesting to be amongst the plants here: the houses are very gay with
bloom, and the plants are very healthy and vigorous. Heaths are growing like
weeds. The camellia blossoms I never saw so large and perfect in form
before. Mr. Barnes has grapes as large as marrowfat peas. The kitchen-

Retrospective Criticism. 139

garden has been turned upside down this winter, the whole of the box having
been taken up and replanted in a regular manner: 500 cubic yards, equal to
as many cart-loads, of marl and loam have been got in for the borders, &c., the
greater part of which is already trenched in.— W. Exeter, Feb. 11. 1843.

The Lane-End Horticultural Society, exclusively for the encouragement of
horticulture among labouring cottagers, is well worthy of imitation through-
out thecountry. Premiums are offered for the first and second best cultivated
gardens, and for the first and second best of all the commoner vegetables,
fruits, and flowers. The premiums vary from Is. to 5s. The place of exhi-
bition is the schoolroom, and the clergyman and the schoolmaster are the
principal judges.

Lhe Chislehurst Horticultural Society for Cottagers is conducted on the same
general principles as that of Lane-End, and is effecting for part of Kent, ,
what the other is for part of Bucks. Very handsome premiums are given by
the Chislehurst Society, and the Messrs. Barnes, and other first-rate gardeners,
not only subscribe liberally, but contribute improved varieties of culinary ve-
getables, &c.—S. T. Feb. 1843.

Art. III. Retrospective Criticism.

Proressor Henslow’s Lecture on Manures.—I have your favour of the
27th instant, and the two Ipswich newspapers containing Professor Henslow’s
lecture on manures, and feel obliged by your attention. I have little to
remark on the essay. Professor Henslow is cautious and prudent in his
statements, and I agree generally with what he says. A great many, even of
physiologists, seem to be of opinion that carbonic acid is the sole way of plants
getting their carbon. This, I have no doubt, is the principal form in which
they get it, though humic acid and organised substances, I think, cannot be
excluded. If sugar, gum, and starch are stored up in the plant, to become
again the food of buds in the spring and of seeds, does it not show that these
and similar substances may be made useful? When soluble in water, and ab-
sorbed, where can be the difference? In seeds germinating and buds sprouting
these substances are changed into carbonic acid ; which, losing its Oxygen in
the leaf, gives rise to the nascent carbon of DeCandolle, necessary in forming
the latex or blood of the plant which alone can furnish the products of assimi-
lation ; and what will prevent absorbed substances from being so transformed by
the vital activity of the plant, as well as the same substances stored up in the
autumn, and restored to the circulation in the spring?* The professor seems to
lean to the opinion that the carbon is mostly taken up by the roots : he says
carbonic acid and carbonate of ammonia are got from the air, and that they
are absorbed by water, and carried into the soil, which is quite different from
getting carbonic acid altogether by the leaves. If the carbonic acid is taken
up by the roots, then there is some reason for depositing carbon in the soil ;
if wholly got by the leaves, and the atmosphere always contains the same pro-
portion, then we may as well spread the carbon on the roof of the house as
deposit it in the soil. Tbe ,

The professor seems to lean to the opinion that manure is best de-
posited unrotted. If we were sure of its rotting equally well in the soil,
if the moisture and heat of the soil could be regulated so as to insure this,
it would be an advantage. The contrary, however, is most often the case;

* If organised substances are divided small enough to allow of their entering
the spongioles of the root with the water, which they will do if soluble, the
decomposing powers of the plant are sufficient to reduce these to the elements
of food, as well as sugar, gum, starch, &c. If nascent carbon is needed, as
well as nascent hydrogen and oxygen, the carbonic acid of these substances
will furnish it as well as that of the soil or air.

140 Retrospective Criticism.

and, as he himself says, the crop planted with fresh unrotted dung loses the
benefit, and much is lost before another crop succeeds. The chemical pre-
paration, or digestion, of the manure intended as the food of plants is, un-
doubtedly, best done in the rot-heap. If carefully managed, covered with mould,
and kept as directed in the last essay, there should not be so much loss as the
professor states, one half of the nitrogen. It is not convenient at all times to
deposit fresh manure, and the carriage is much more expensive. If the heat
is well kept down by frequent turning, and the washing away prevented, there
should not be much loss. Putrefaction and fermentation are much more
active in the heap than in detached portions. Fresh manure in the potato-
drill, unless the season is moist, is often found quite fresh at the end of the
ear.

. On the subject of nitrogen he notices only that got from the nitrogen of the
manure in the state of ammonia; but this, though undoubtedly the principal,
is not the only source of nitrogen. If, as asserted by Dumas and others,
animals do not absorb nitrogen from the air, their nitrogen being wholly got
from plants, it follows there must be some source of supplying the waste.
Accordingly we find that, in the combustion of coal and wood, the hydrogen
given off forms ammonia with the nitrogen of the air already deprived of its
oxygen by combustion ; and part is found deposited in the soot in the form of
carbonate of ammonia, or sulphate, when the substances burned contain
sulphur ; part of the ammonia will also escape into the air: and thus com-
bustion is a great source of nitrogen to plants, as in soot, gas liquor, &c., be-
sides that to the soil by rain. Volcanoes are also a source of ammonia on
a large scale, as noticed by Professor Daubeny. The eremacausis of Liebig
(or slow combustion of substances) is also another source. Where the oxygen
is partly got from water and partly from the air, the hydrogen set free in the
one case, and the nitrogen in the other, will form ammonia. Professor John-
son seems to think that much of the ammonia said to be absorbed by charcoal,
&c., should be ascribed to this source rather than to absorption. In the manure
heap a good deai of the ammonia found is probably due to this source, as well
as that of the nitrogenous substances it contains. Nitrogen is also soluble
in small quantity in water; and the water of the soil absorbed by plants will, no
doubt, afford a small portion of nitrogen. The common air absorbed by
plants, and deprived of its oxygen by absorption, is another source, as noticed
in our last essay. From all these sources the nitrogen is supplied to plants
in sufficient abundance to enable them, on the other hand, to supply the
wants of animals, which are now generally believed to be consumers rather
than producers of nitrogen: they give it off principally by the urme, show-
ing the great benefit of retaining this in the manure heap ; but also waste
it by perspiration and exhalation, as shown by the fetid smell of both these
excretions. j

Dr. Madden is of the same opinion as the professor, that sulphate of am-
monia is very apt to be re-acted on again by carbonate of lime; and sulphate
of lime and carbonate of ammonia are the result. If soils contain much
lime or chalk, the benefits of urate or sulphate of ammonia may be greatly lost
by this cause. Sulphuric acid is said to be as cheap in proportion as gypsum,
where needed; but carbonate and humate of ammonia we should consider
more beneficial to the generality of plants, though such as clover, pulse, &c.,
are more in need of sulphur.— R&R. LZ. Kilmarnock, Dec. 30. 1842.

Charcoal and Charcoal Dust. — In your Vol. for 1841, p. 254-5., it is said,
speaking of charcoal and charcoal dust, that M. Lucas was the first to show
the action exercised by the charcoal on vegetation ; thus setting aside the
Italians, among whom the Abbé Piccone and Professor Moretti have treated
of it at length in vol. 2. of the Biblioteca Agraria, p.'70.—Giuseppe Manetti.
Monza, Dec. 7. 1842.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
APRIL, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art.I. The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and of Landscape-
Architecture applied to the Laying out of Public Cemeteries and
the Improvement of Churchyards ; including Observations on the
Working and General Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds. By the ConpuctTor.

(Continued from p. 105.)

As we anticipated, we have received a variety of communi-
cations relative to the article on the uses of cemeteries in our
last Number. In one circumstance almost all the writers
agree, Viz. In expressing their surprise at the great durability
of human bones: of this durability, however, there can be no
doubt. One correspondent, a medical man, has “ seen bones
in churchyards in a state of incipient decay,” and he therefore
concludes that there must be “ an ascertainable period when the
decay is complete, and the bones, as well as the flesh, are
returned to dust.” On this subject we would observe that, in
crowded churchyards which have been in use perhaps for cen-
turies, the bones have in all probability been frequently dug
up and reinterred, and that the changes in regard to soil and
moisture, in which they were placed “each time of removing

must no doubt have had a considerable influence in accelerating
their decomposition. Add also, that the soil of burying-erounds
which have been long in use has been rendered so porous, as to
be as permeable to water, and consequently to air, as sand or
eravel. In short, it has become like the surface soil of a garden
or a field which has been long cultivated and well manur ed; ; and
every gardener knows that ‘such soil is so porous, and so little
liable to cohere even by pressure, that it may be used to fill in
drains. We agree, therefore, with our correspondent, that
bones have every chance of decaying sooner in a burying-ground
that has been long used than in fresh soil; though we do not
consider this a sufficient argument for continuing to bury i in such
erounds after they have heen once filled. On the contrary,
as the porosity of the soil must necessarily be as favourable
for the escape into the atmosphere of the gases of decomposi-

tion, as it is for the sinking into it of rain water, it shows the
3d Ser, — 1843. IV. L

142 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

much greater danger to the health of the living from burials in
old burying-grounds than interments in new ones.

Il. Tue Layine out, Buitpinec, anp PLANTING oF CEMETERIES.

‘Havine shown the uses of cemeteries, we shall next consider the mode in
which the ground should be laid out or arranged, with reference to these uses.

The situation of cemeteries, as they are at present used, that is, interring
several bodies in one grave, and placing coffins in vaults, ought always to be
at a distance from human dwellings ; but if only one coffin were to be placed
in each grave, and that grave never again opened, but the cemetery when
filled used as a public garden, its situation might be regulated solely by con-
venience ; and, in general, the nearer the town, the more desirable it would
be, both as a burial-ground and a promenade. Cemeteries, as at present
used, ought to be in an elevated and airy situation, open to the north, but
with a south aspect, that the surface may be dried by the sun; rather than
with a north aspect, where the surface would be moist during the winter months.
Tf the surface be even, it will be more convenient for interments than if it were
irregular, whether by broken ground, rocks, or undulations. It should be as
near the great mass of the population for which it is intended, as a due regard to
their health will permit, in order to lessen the expense of carriage, and shorten
the time of the performance of funerals and of visits by the living to the tombs
of their friends ; it ought to be conspicuous at a distance, because, from its
buildings and tombs, it will generally be an ornament to the surrounding
country, and an impressive memento of our mortality ; and the outer boundary
ought to be regular and simple, in order that it may be short, and consequently
less expensive than if it were circuitous.

The soil, for reasons which we have already noticed, ought to be dry to
the depth of 20 or 30 feet, or capable of being rendered so by underground
drains. It ought not to be generally rocky, at least where deep graves are to
be dug. As in decomposition a considerable quantity of moisture (sanies) is
exuded, the greatest care ought to be taken not to form a cemetery over a stra-
tum of soil which contains the water used in the neighbourhood for drinking.
Not to mention numerous instances in London, as noticed in the Report on the
Health of Towns, there is a churchyard near Kirkaldy in Fifeshire with a per-
petual spring immediately without the boundary wall, the water of which, pass-
ing through a stratum under the graves, is said to be contaminated ; and the
burial-ground of St. Peter’s Church, Brighton, cannot be used as such, on
account of the proximity of the chalky stratum which contains the water
that supplies the wells of the lower part of the town.

In situations where, from the flatness of the country or the nature of the soil,
there is not an opportunity of draining to a great depth, care ought always
to be taken to carry off as much as possible of the surface water by shallow
underground drains placed under the roads, and under the gravel walks and
green paths which separate the lines of graves. No drains can be made under
those parts of the surface in which graves are to be dug, for obvious reasons.
Many details of this kind, which need not be entered into, will readily occur
to the practical man.

The prejudices of the living, in every country, are in favour of a gravelly,
sandy, or chalky soil; and in such soils draining is not required. In strong
clayey soil, like that of most of the London cemeteries, decomposition does
not take place for a very long period, the fleshy part of the bodies being
changed into adipocere.

The extent of a cemetery must, of course, depend on the population
for which it is intended ; the probable increase or decrease of that popu-
lation; and whether one, or more than one, interment is to be made in
the same grave. The data on which to form the necessary calculations are,

applied to Public Cemeteries. 143

that the average outside dimensions of a grave are 7 ft. by 3ft. Gin. ; that
the average dimensions of a grave, where a number of them are supposed to
have gravestones, are 8 ft. by 4ft.; and that the average deaths in a healthy
population in the country are 2 per cent, and in crowded towns and cities
3 per cent, per annum. Thus, 20 graves will be required per annum for
a rural population of 1000, and 200 per annum for a population of 10,000.
An acre will give 1361 graves, which will afford a supply for nearly seven
years ; and three acres will serve for twenty-one years. At this latter period
the town will probably have increased on the side next the cemetery, when
the additional ground should be taken at a greater distance, and the old
ground, when fully occupied, may be sprinkled over with trees, to be
eventually used as a place of recreation for the living. The calculation, how-
ever, will be considerably different, if we suppose that all the graves are to be
without head-stones, and consequently no longer than is necessary to admit
the coffins. For this purpose, the average width of the grave at one end
may be 2 ft., and at the other 20 in., and the length 6 ft. Taking the greater
width, this will give 12 square feet to each grave, which will give 3630 graves
to an acre, These graves in the London cemeteries are dug 145 ft. in depth,
and ten coffins of poor persons are deposited in them. The common charge
is 25s. for each coffin, or at the rate of the enormous sum of 45,375/. per acre.
In some cemeteries as many as fifteen coffins are deposited in one grave,
the depth in that case being 20 or 25 feet. We could name a cemetery in
which forty-five coffins, we are assured, have been deposited in one grave.

The situation, soil, and extent being fixed on, the next consideration is
the boundary fence, which ought to be such as to insure security from theft,
and favour solemnity by excluding the bustle of every-day life, while a view
of distant scenery is admitted to produce a certain degree of cheerfulness,
and dissipate absolute gloom. In an open part of the country, where there
are few buildings or public roads, an iron railing may be employed as a
ring-fence ; but, in a populous neighbourhood, a wall 10 or 12 feet high,
strengthened by buttresses carried up above the coping, so as to give
the wall an architectural character, may be preferable. The buttresses may
be of two kinds: ordinary ones, merely for strengthening the wall, or form-
ing piers to panels of open iron railing; and, in the case of cemeteries
not laid out in beds or panels, higher and more massive piers rising con-
spicuously above the others, at regular distances, to receive stones having cut
in them the numbers and letters used as indexes to lines for ascertaining
the situations of graves, in the manner which will be hereafter described.
The numbers and letters alluded to are at present in most cemeteries painted
on the brickwork, which has a mean temporary appearance ; or they are put on
stones or labels of cast iron inserted in the soil, and rising only an inch or
two above it, which are liable to be disturbed by the moving of ground.
Though we entirely disapprove of this mode of laying out a cemetery, yet, as
it is generally practised, we have thought it right to keep it in view. Where
economy is an object, a hedge and sunk wall may be used as a boundary, and
the best plant for the hedge is the common holly. There ought to be one
main entrance; and, if the situation admits of it, a second entrance, for the
admission of workmen, carts, &c., necessary for carrying on the executive part
of the cemetery.

In /aying out the interior, the system of roads and walks, the drainage, the situa-
tion of the chapel or chapels, and the arrangement of the graves, and of the
marks which in large cemeteries, as at present laid out, are necessary at the
angles of the squares, require to be taken simultaneously, and also separately, into
consideration. ‘There ought to be at least one main road, so as to allow of a
hearse having ready access to every part of the grounds ; and from this road
there ought to be gravel walks into the interior of the compartinents formed
by the roads, walks, and the boundary wall; and, from these gravel paths,
ramifications of narrow grass paths, so as to admit of examining the graves in

L 2

144 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

every part of the grounds, without walking over any of them, and thus insure
respect for the dead. We have already observed that all the drains that re-
quire to be made must be under these roads, walks, and paths, so as not to
interfere with the graves; and the ranges of situations for graves must be
determined before the roads, walks, and green alleys are fixed on, otherwise
there might be a waste of ground. To be convinced of the bad effects of the
neglect of surface drainage in a cemetery, it is only necessary to walk on the
grass of that at Kensal Green during winter or spring.

The first point to be attended to, according to the present system,
unless the cemetery should be a small one of only an acre or two, is
to devise a system for throwing the interior into imaginary squares or paral-
lelograms, which shall be indicated by numbers and letters on the boundary
fence, and by marks inserted in the ground at their points of intersec-
tion. In cemeteries of moderate dimensions, more particularly if the
form be rectangular, the marks at the intersections of the squares may be
dispensed with; these intersections being readily ascertained when it is
desired to find out the precise situation of any grave, by stretching lines
across the cemetery from the letters and figures on the boundary fence.
For example, suppose jig. 19. to represent a cemetery of five acres, with the

Fig.19. Mode of Laying out a Cemetery in imaginary Squares.

letters A, B, C, &c., marked at regular distances on the end walls, and figures
1, 2, 3, &c., at the same distances on the side walls ; then, by stretching one
line from B to B, and another from 2 to 2, &c., the intersections of the strings
will give the points B2, C2, &c.: but supposing the surface of the cemetery
to be very hilly, or that it is thickly studded with tombs or trees, then, as the

applied to Public Cemeteries. 145

lines could not be readily stretched so as to give the points B2, C2, &c.,
with perfect accuracy, a stone or mark of cast iron is inserted when the ceme-
tery is first laid out, in each of the intersecting points, with the letter and
figure on it, as shown in the diagram fig. 19. at B2, C2, D3, &c. At every other
point of intersection throughout the cemetery, there is a sunk stone or iron in-
serted, with the letter which stands at the ends of the long lines, and the figure
which stands at the ends of the cross lines, as shown i

on a large scale in fig. 20. Thus in the diagram jig. ]
19., we should have the squares Al, Bl, Cl, D1,
&c.; and A2,B2,C2, &c. The use of these squares
is to enable the sexton to ascertain and point out, at
any future time during the existence of the ceme-
tery, the precise spot where any interment has taken
place. For example, required to see the grave of T.
W. On turning to the index of the register book of
names, T. W. is found to have been interred in the _. : :
square B4, Now, on turning to the map book of OSes ee Ce
the cemetery, in which every imaginary square into — Angles of the Squares.
which the cemetery is parcelled out is laid down on a large scale, the position
and dimensions of the grave will be found delineated according to the scale;
and then, by taking the dimensions from two of the sides of the square and
applying them to the ground, the exact position of the grave is found, even
though the grave mound should be obliterated. Now it must be evident
that it would be exceedingly inconvenient to have the stone marks fall
into positions where buildings were to be erected, or roads or walks to
be laid out ; and hence the propriety, as we have said above, of deter-
mining the position of the intersections of the squares, before any other
part of the laying out is proceeded with. This is the more necessary in cases
where the intersecting points are to be marked by trees of particular kinds, or
by an obelisk, or other monumental stone. By using an obelisk or other
pillar with four sides, pointing diagonally to the four squares, as at B2 and
C 2 in the diagram fig. 19., these stones would not only serve to indicate
the intersections of the squares, but to record the names of those buried in
each square, if the parties interested thought fit to incur the expense. It is
not necessary that all the squares or parallelograms should be of the same
size ; on the contrary, their dimensions may be varied, so as to suit the
ground, the boundary, and all the different circumstances connected with the
general arrangement. In some cases the intersections of the squares might
be indicated by trees, as shown at B 4, D 3, &c.

It must be confessed, however, that this system of laying out a cemetery
into imaginary squares is a very unsatisfactory one, for the following reasons :
——1. It neither admits of a permanent system of surface drainage, nor of
grass paths among the graves. 2. From there being no obvious principle of
order or arrangement in conformity with which the graves are placed, the
general aspect of the interior of the cemetery is confused and unsatisfactory ;
the graves and tombstones seeming to be put down at random as in common
churchyards. 3. A very slight error in mapping the graves may render it
difficult, if not impossible, to identify a particular grave, either to point it out
to the relations of the deceased; or, when the square is nearly full, for the
purpose of avoiding an old grave in digging a new one. Let any one who
doubts this examine the map books in the principal London cemeteries, and
ask to see one of the graves indicated in the plan. 4. Unless a head-stone is
put to the grave, orsome other permanent mark, it is impossible for any
person but the sexton to identify it ; which circumstance can by no means be
rendered satisfactory to the relations of the deceased. 5, No provision is made
for paths among these graves, so that, when the squares are nearly full, there
will be no mode of getting to any one grave, but by walking over a number of
others ; which is not only a species of desecration, but, when there are several
of the graves having head-stones, must be exceedingly inconvenient.

L3

146 Principles of Landseape- Gardening

A much better system, in our opinion, is to lay out the ground in what may
be called double beds with green paths between, in the manner to be described
in a future paragraph, which has an orderly appearance, admits of a permanent
system of surface drainage, requires no mapping, and enables the friends of
the deceased to recognise the grave they wish to see without troubling the
sexton or any one else. This laying out of the ground in double beds need not
be so executed as to have a formal appearance, though it should be sufficiently
distinct to give what, in the language of art, is called the expression of pur-
pose, and thus give the lawn of a cemetery a different character from that of
the lawn of a pleasure-ground. The double beds may be slightly raised in
the middle, so as to slope to the grass paths, and the surface of these paths,
if only 3 in. below that of the beds, will be a sufficient distinction, when the
whole is near the eye ; while, at a short distance, the difference between the
beds and the paths will scarcely be perceptible. We mention these things to
anticipate objections on account of the supposed formality of this plan. Under
every green path there may be a tile drain, which will render it as dry asa
gravel walk. The path will answer if only 3ft. wide, because, in carrying a
coffin along it shoulder high, that space is sufficient; but 4 ft.is preferable, as
admitting of carrying a coffin by handspokes. Where the hand-bier, to be
hereafter described, is used, a 2-feet path would be wide enough.

In making arrangements for the situations of graves, regard must be had to
the wealth and taste of the persons who will probably use the cemetery, and
the proportion of situations for sumptuous tombs and monuments adjusted
accordingly. At the same time, we should mark no part of the ground as
exclusively devoted to any class of society, of graves, or of monuments* ; nor
should there be any part in which a monument might not be erected. In
general, we would torm a broad. border, say from 12ft. to 20 ft. wide, along
the main roads ; a border immediately within the boundary fence, of the same
width as the height of the latter; a border from 8 ft. to 12 ft. wide on each
side of the gravel walks ; and the interior of the compartments we would lay
out in beds or zones, straight or curved, with green alleys of 3 or 4:feet between.
These beds ought to be of such a width as to contain two rows of graves,
with the head-stones of each row placed back to back in the middle of the bed,
so as to face the alleys. The necessary width for this purpose is 18 ft.; which

_will allow 7 ft. for the length of each grave; 1 ft. at the head of each grave,
on which to erect a head-stone, or other monument not exceeding | ft. in
thickness nor the width of the grave; and 1 ft. at the end next the walk, for a
foot-stone or number. This head-stone or monument, it may be observed,
should in no case be built on the soil, but on two brick piers brought up from
the bottom of the soil to the surface of the ground, in the manner to be here-
after described.

The direction of the roads, walks, and green paths, is partly a matter of
necessity and partly of design and taste. Where the surface of the ground is

* By the cemetery bill brought into parliament in 1842, “both in the
consecrated and unconsecrated ground, portions are to be set apart for the
poor, a hard-hearted and unchristian proposal, worthy only of barbarous
times. Can it be necessary or useful, that now, for the first time, a ‘ distinctive
mark’ should be made, after death, between rich and poor, by the express

- authority of an act of parliament ? When even the propriety of distinctions
in churches is becoming the subject of controversy, surely the good sense
and good feeling of society will never suffer an unfeeling innovation in this
respect to be formally legalised in our churchyards. He who has had familiar
intercourse with the poor must have observed their sensitiveness with regard
to their treatment after death, a subject often of more painful interest than
the good or bad in store for them while living. Before the committee, the
Bishop of London, much to his honour, expressed the most kindly sympathy
with the feelings and prejudices of the poor with regard to interment: will he
not set his face against the proposed regulation ?” (Claims of the Clergy, p. 30.)

applied to Public Cemeteries. 147

hilly, undulating, or otherwise irregular, winding roads become necessary ; but
where the surface is tolerably even, whether a uniform slope or a flat
approaching to a level, the choice lies between straight lines and curvilinear
ones. The direction of the roads and walks, and consequently the whole of
the interior arrangement of the cemetery, are thus in a great measure con-
trolled by the character of its surface. In general, straight roads and
walks are greatly to be preferred in a cemetery to winding ones, not
only as admitting of a more economical occupation of the ground, every grave
being a rectangle, and every rectangle being a multiple or divisor of every
other rectangle, but as contributing far more than curved lines to grandeur
and solemnity of effect. If all the roads cannot be made straight, there ought,
if possible, to be one broad and straight road from the main entrance to the
chapel. A winding road from the main entrance, with the chapel concealed
by trees, has too much the character of an approach-road through a park to
a country residence. The roads may vary from 12 ft. to 20 ft. in width,
according to the extent of the cemetery; the walks should not be narrower
than 5 or 6 feet, nor the green paths than 3 or 4 feet.

The chapel or chapels ought to be placed in a central and conspicuous situ-
ation, so as, if possible, to be seen from all the prominent points of view
along the roads and walks. The chapels, if there are more than one, ought
either to be grouped together in one conspicuous situation, so as to form one
pile of building ; or placed so far apart, or in situations so different, that they
either cannot both be seen from the same point, or that, if seen in the same
view, the one shall appear to the eye so much smaller than the other as to
appear as a part of the background of the picture. The bad effect, in an
artistical point of view, of two chapels placed equally near the eye, that
is, in the same plane of the picture, and so far apart as not to group together
is strikingly exemplified in those of the Norwood Cemetery. At the main
entrance there may be a lodge or lodges, in which the sexton or superintend-
ant of the ground may reside, and in which also there ought to be an office for
the cemetery books and plans, or duplicates of them, and for receiving orders
for funerals, &c. One lodge will generally be found preferable to two, because,
where lodges are of such a size as to be useful, and are widely separated by
spacious gates, they attract attention as separate objects, and do not group
together so as to satisfy the eye as a whole. If there are two separate lodges
with intervening gates, the lodges ought not to be higher than the piers between
the gates; and they ought to seem rather as massive terminations to the gates
than as lodges, in short as a part of the facade. A striking example of the bad
effect of two large lodges is afforded by the Nunhead Cemetery. The Abney
Park Cemetery shows a judicious combination of two lodges with gates between ;
there is a very good single lodge at the west entrance to the Tower Hamlets
Cemetery ; and the Kehsal Green and West London Cemeteries afford examples
of the lodge and gateway combined in one edifice, the gateway forming an arch
through it. Where it is considered absolutely necessary to have two lodges,
either to a cemetery or to the park of a country residence, they ought to
be combined with the piers of the gates, as at the Abney Park Cemetery ;
formed into one pile of building with the gateway, as at the West London
Cemetery ; or one lodge ought to be much larger and higher than the other,
in order to form a central mass or axis of symmetry, or, in Hogarth’s language,
to form the apex of the triangle.

A yard and sheds for the cemetery tools, implements, and other cemetery
furniture, including a carpenter’s shop, may also be conveniently placed near
the lodge ; but where the cemetery is large there ought to be two or three
sheds for planks, barrows, &c., in different parts of the ground. In most
cases a reserve ground for spare earth, produced from time to time as brick
graves or vaults are formed, for rubbish of various kinds, and for nursing
plants to be placed over the graves when wanted for that purpose, may be
requisite. Ona large scale, a mason’s yard with sheds is essential ; unless,
which is much the better mode, there should be an establishment of this kind

L 4

148 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

in the immediate neighbourhood, by which all the brick and stone work would
be done by contract.

On the introduction of trees and shrubs into cemeteries very much of their
ornamental effect is dependent ; but too many trees and shrubs impede the
free circulation of the air and the drying effect of the sun, and therefore they
ought to be introduced in moderation. They ought not, as we think, to be
introduced in masses in the interior of the cemetery, nor in strips or belts
round its margin, unless under very particular circumstances. Every mode
of introducing trees and shrubs which is identical with that practised in
planting parks and pleasure-grounds is to be avoided, as tending to confound
the character and expression of scenes which are, or ought to be, essentially
distinct. Independently of the injury done by masses and belts in impeding the
free circulation of the air, they prevent the ground on which they stand from
being occupied by graves ; and though there may be no immediate occasion
for so occupying that ground, yet an arrangement which seems to be at
variance with, or at least to have no reference to, the purpose for which the
cemetery was formed is unsatisfactory. There is evidently not the same
objection to single trees or single shrubs ; because, in whatever manner they
may be placed, still, between and among them, graves may always be formed.
There is a specific objection against boundary belts, which is, that they
occupy a space that might be advantageously laid out as a broad border for
tombs of a superior description, with a gravel walk in front accompanied by
another border on the opposite side. For the same reasons that we would
not introduce trees and shrubs in masses, we would not, in the case of ceme-
teries on low or’level ground, plant trees which produce bulky heads ; but
confine ourselves chiefly to kinds having narrow conical shapes, like the
cypress, the form of which not only produces little shelter or shade, but has
been associated with places of burial from time immemorial. Almost all the
kinds should be evergreen and of dark foliage; because the variety produced
by deciduous and flowering trees is not favourable to the expression either of
solemnity or grandeur. Evergreen needle-leaved trees, such as the pines,
firs, junipers, yews, &c., we should prefer; because, when their foliage drops,
it produces much less litter than that of broad-leaved trees, such as the
holly, common laurel, evergreen oak, &c. On very hilly cemeteries we would
introduce round-headed trees along with conical shapes, but still chiefly
- confining ourselves to evergreens, such as the ilex, Lucombe oak, holly, the
dark-foliaged pines, &c.

Supposing all the roads, walks, and green paths laid out, or their situations
fixed on, and all the beds and borders also laid out, then we would dispose of
the trees and shrubs in the following manner. Along each side of most or
all of the main roads, whether straight or curved, we would plant a row of
trees parallel to the road, and at regular distances, so as to form a running
foreground to the interior of the compartments, and to whatever there might
be of distant scenery. The kinds should be pines and firs of dark foliage.
In roads and walks in the direction of east and west, we would either plant
the trees farther apart, or plant narrower-growing kinds, such as the common
cypress, the Irish yew, the Swedish juniper, the fastigiate arbor vite, &c.
At many of the intersections of the squares, in those cemeteries where that
mode of division is adopted, we would plant provisionary trees, of a kind
strikingly different from every other planted in the cemetery, in order to
distinguish the angles of the squares at first sight, with the number-stone at
their base, to be taken up when it became practicable or desirable to sub-
stitute obelisks, square pillars, or other monuments, for them. Along the
centre of the beds adapted for double rows of graves we would plant trees or
shrubs at regular distances, with the intention that, in this and in all other
cases whatever, except along the main approach from the entrance to the
chapel, the trees should be taken up and replanted, or removed altogether,
when necessary, so as to suit the position of graves.

With respect to the kinds of trees, we would, with very few exceptions,

applied to Public Cemeteries. 149

plant only those evergreens which have naturally dark foliage and narrow
conical heads, or which admit of being pruned with little difficulty into such
forms ; because such forms not only interfere less with ventilation, sun-
shine, and the performance of funerals, but, more especially when of a
dark colour, are naturally, from their great height in proportion to their
breadth, more sublime than spreading forms; as well as artificially so,
from their being classically and popularly associated with places of sepulture.
For the main avenue we should prefer Pinus tatrica, P. Pallasidna, or P. ni-
gricans; if the situation were) favourable, the evergreen cypress, or the
Juniperus excélsa, found to be a very hardy conical tree; and, if very unfa-
vourable, the red cedar, or the common spruce. The pines and spruce grow
rapidly, and admit of being cut into cones as narrow as may be desirable ;
but, to render this cutting unnecessary, the red cedar, and some of the rapid-
growing conical junipers, might be employed. Along most of the gravel walks,
and along the centre of the double beds, we would plant for the most part
only fastigiate shrubs, such as the Irish yew, Irish and Swedish juniper, Ju-
niperus recirva, and some other junipers, and the arbor vite, box, common
yew, &c. We would not plant, as a part of the general plantation of a
cemetery or churchyard, weeping willows, weeping ashes, weeping elms,
or trees of that kind; because we think that these trees, being of such
marked and peculiar forms, are best adapted for being used only occasionally,
for particular purposes ; and therefore we would leave individuals to select
such trees, or trees or shrubs of any other singular shapes that they thought
fit, and have them planted over their graves or tombs. Thus, while the
general plantations of the cemetery maintained a uniform grandeur and so-
lemnity of expression, the singularly shaped trees and shrubs employed by
individuals would confer variety of character.

A cemetery planted in the manner described will have a distinctive character,
and one quite different from that of any of the cemeteries that we have seen,
either in London or elsewhere. These cemeteries, according to our ideas,
bear too great a resemblance to pleasure-grounds. That they are much
frequented and admired by the public is no proof that they are in appropriate
taste, but only that they are at present the best places of the kind to which
the public have access. When our public parks and gardens are extended and
improved as they ought to be ; when they are ornamented with fountains, statues,
immense blocks of different descriptions of rock (named), aud with models of
celebrated buildings, as covered seats and places of temporary repose or
shelter; when they abound in singing and other birds and aquatic fowls, and
contain every variety of tree and shrub that will thrive, and many kinds of
herbaceous plants ; and when they are perambulated, during a certain number
of hours every summer’s day, by a band of music, as in some of the public
gardens in Germany ; then will the necessity, as well as the propriety, of having
a distinctive character for cemeteries be understood and appreciated.

The planting of flowers in cemeteries is very general, not only in the mar-
gin of masses and belts, and in beds as in pleasure-grounds, but on graves.
For our own particular taste, we would have no flowers at all, nor any por-
tion of ground within a cemetery that had the appearance of being dug or
otherwise moved for the purpose of cultivation. A state of quiet and repose
is an important ingredient in the passive sublime ; and moving the soil for the
purpose of culture, even over a graye, is destructive of repose.

Nevertheless, as the custom of planting flowers on graves is common
throughout Europe, and of planting them in beds is frequent in the cemeteries
about London, arrangements for this purpose must be provided accordingly.
We would never plant flowers or flowering shrubs in the margins of masses
or belts, or in beds or patches that might be mistaken for those of a lawn or
a flower-garden ; but, to give them a distinctive character, we would plant them
in beds of the shape of graves or coffins, raised above or sunk beneath the
general surface, and only in situations and on spots where at some future
time a grave would be dug. For example, two graves are seldom dug close

150 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

together, but an intervening piece of firm ground is always left of width
sufficient for forming a grave at a future time; the object being to have, if
possible, at all times, firm ground for the sides of a grave which is about to be
excavated. Now, on these intervening spots alone would we plant beds
of flowers, or of roses, or of other flowering shrubs. When flowers, shrubs,
or trees are planted on occupied graves, it is done by individuals according
to their own taste. The most highly ornamented cemetery in the neighbour-
hood of London, as far as respects plants, is that of Abney Park, in which,
as already mentioned, there is a complete arboretum, including all the hardy
kinds of rhododendrons, azaleas, and roses in Messrs. Loddiges’s collection ;
and in which also dahlias, geraniums, fuchsias, verbenas, petunias, &c., are
planted out in patches in the summer season.

“ON SS

NN WX \ 3

WW
\

NS

FV VNE SSCs eae
NY

Tw wew~wynwyn TT T GT FT LK A

NAS
\
Fig. 21. A Cemetery Walk with a Double Border on each Side, arranged with Beds for Shrubs or
Flowers, alternating with Spaces for Graves having Tombs.

Fig. 21. represents a walk with a double border on each side, the shaded
parts of the border representing beds of shrubs or flowers, or of shrubs and
flowers alternately, and the open spaces between being left for graves having

WS

BERS)

. 22.
Double Beds on the Borders, alternating Fig. 23. Double Borders with Masses of

1 £ h Shrubs, and Spaces for single Graves at
tended for Graves having large Monu- regular Distances.
ments.

monuments. When these spaces are filled up, those filled with flowers can
be occupied. It is evident that this mode might be varied exceedingly, both
in the form of the beds, and in the mode of planting them. (See figs. 22. to 28.)

\"\ WL OE UF \

N
Fig. 24. Beds of Flowers or Shrubs alternating with Spaces for Graves, for the interior Beds or
anels of Cemeteries. .

applied to Public Cemeteries. 151

eve me Veews vow

SAAN heheh

Fig. 25. Double Borders, with Beds of Fig. 26. Beds for Shrubs, and Circles for
Flowers or Shrubs alternating with Flowers.
Spaces for Graves.

A mode of planting and managing which we should like to see tried with all
or any of the systems of beds, figs. 21. to 24., would be to plant them with com-
mon yew, or with juniper, box, Pinus pumilio, or spruce fir, and keep the
plants cut or Gipned 4 in such a manner as to form low, compact, architectural-

SG SASAAAY Ay
| Bene

AAA LARA AS

Fig. 27. Beds for Flowers and single Shrubs Fig. 28. Beds for Flowers and fastigiate Trees,
or low Trees, such as Thorns. such as the Irish Yew, alternating with Graves.

© Oo 6 © © ©

LAD I Vywt
— :

The buildings required in cemeteries may next occupy our attention. A
chapel or chapels are generally required, because some persons prefer the
burial service read under cover, or this may be rendered necessary by
the state of the weather. The size of a chapel, therefore, should be such as
to afford seats for the ordinary number of attendants at a funeral, with an
open area in the centre, of sufficient diameter to hold two or more cathee on
biers ; and, as it is a general custom in Christendom to carry a corpse with
the feet before, the body being brought in and set down on the bier in that
position is, after the service is over, taken up by men and turned com-
pletely round, so as the feet may be in advance before it is taken out of the
chapel. In addition, therefore, to the space necessary for holding the bier and

the coffin, there must be room for turning the latter completely round, either
while on the bier, which has long handles for that purpose, or on men’s
shoulders. A circle 10 or 12 feet in diameter, or a square that would con-
tain such a circle, will afford ample space for these purposes, and the remainder
of the chapel may be occupied with the pulpit, desk, seats, &c.

In the chapels of some of the new London cemeteries, instead of biers for
the coffins, there is a table, the top of which has one or two spaces, each
of the width of a coffin, filled in with rollers, and the entire top of the table
turns on a pivot. The coffin or coffins, when brought in, are put on the
table, by sliding them on the rollers; and, after the service has been performed,
the table is turned round on its pivot, when the coffins being thus placed in
the right position for going out are carried away by the bearers. The rollers

152 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

facilitate the sliding on and drawing off of the coffins, and the turning of the
table, by means of the pivot, saves the most difficult and awkward portion of
the labour performed by the bearers, who, when not much accustomed to it,
are apt to stumble, and create alarm in the mourners lest the coffin should
fall. When a bier-table of this kind is used, the area left for it need not
exceed 8 ft. in diameter, which will thus save 4ft. in the entire length, and
the same in the breadth, of the chapel.

A very convenient apparatus of this kind has been put up at the Kensal
Green Cemetery. In the body of the chapel is a bier, in the form of an
altar, about 8 ft. long, 4ft. broad, and 4 ft. high, hung round with black
velvet. The upper surface of this altar-like structure consists of a top for
holding one or two coffins ; and, to facilitate the putting on and taking off of
these, this plate or top is furnished with rollers. After the desk service has
been read, the top containing the coffin or coffins can be turned slowly
round by machinery, operated on by a small movable winch handle on one
side, which is done after the service has been read, when the interment is to
take place in the open ground, or in the catacombs at a distance from the
chapel; but, when the coffin is to be removed to the vaults under the chapel,
there is machinery below, worked by a man there on a signal being given
by ringing a small bell, by which the entire bier, and the coffin. or coffins
which may be onit, are slowly lowered into a central area in the vault be-
neath. The mourners having descended by a staircase much too small for a
chapel so magnificent in other respects, the coffins are carried from this area
to the vaults, which radiate from it in four directions, and occupy nearly an
acre of ground. The machinery by which the bier is lowered consists of
two vertical male screws, worked by two female screws or nuts, which are
moved by means of two beveled wheels set in motion by a man turning a
windlass handle. This machine, while it lowers the bier through the floor,
moves at the same time two horizontal shutters, which gradually close the
opening in the floor as the coffin descends from the view of the spectators in
the chapel ; while, by the time they have arrived in the area below, the bier is
already at the bottom, with the coffin on it, ready to be removed to the vault.
The great advantage of using a screw movement for the descent of the bier is,
that the motion can never be otherwise than slow and solemn, and that it
cannot run down in case of the handle being set at liberty. This admirable
contrivance was invented and executed by Mr. Smith, Engineer, Princes
Street, Leicester Square, the patentee of an excellent window shutter, and
of several other inventions noticed in our Encyclop. of Cott. Architecture. The
cost was about 400/. In the Norwood Cemetery the same object is effected
by means of Bramah’s hydraulic press, which raises and lowers the bier with
the slightest possible noise, and with a degree of steadiness which cannot be
equalled by any other machine. The cost is about 200/. There is one draw-
back, however, to this machine, which is, that during very severe frosts the
water is liable to freeze; but this may be guarded against by shutting all the
outside doors of the vaults, and by the use of stoves. In ordinary winters,
however, the latter are unnecessary. This machine was put up by Messrs.
Bramah, Prestage, and Ball, 124. Piccadilly.

The number of sittings need seldom exceed fifty, at least in the neighbour-
hood of London, as it rarely happens that more than a fourth of that number
attend a funeral. Whatever be the architectural style of the chapel, it ought
to contain a bell, the ringing of which, when the hearse is approaching from
the entrance gate to the chapel, may be considered as a part of the burial
service. The bell ought to be placed in a bell turret, rising from one of the
gables, so as to become a conspicuous feature, and distinguish the chapel
from a cottage or barn, in the same manner as the chimney tops of a dwelling-
house are characteristic of a human habitation.

The entrance lodge to a cemetery ought to comprise a room to serve as an
office to contain the cemetery books, or, at least, the order book and register,

applied to Public Cemeteries. 153

and the map book, where, from the system of squares being employed, such
a book is rendered necessary. In small cemeteries, and in common church-
yards, where the sexton is also the clerk and registrar, all the books and
other documents will be kept in a strong closet in this room; but, in large
cemeteries managed by a court of directors, the books are kept bya clerk in
the cemetery office in the town or district to which it belongs, and only an
order book, and the register and map book, or duplicates of them, are kept
in thelodge. ig. 29. is a plan of the lodge and yard at the main entrance of

yuu MULL

YA
7
Y
Y

WUE

Rl
SS

Fig.29. Ground Plan of the Entrance Lodge to the Tower Hamlets Cemetery.

the City of London and Tower Hamlets Cemetery; in which a is the porch ;
b, vestibule; ec, committee room ; d, strong closet; e, gate-keeper’s room ;
fi bed-room; g, passage ; /, coals; 77, water-closets; &, tool-house ; 7, house
for planks, tools, carpenter’s shop, &c.; m, coach-house; n, coal-shed ; and
o, yard. The architects of this lodge and cemetery are Messrs. Wyatt and
Brandon. The most appropriate cemetery lodge that we know is the one at
Newcastle by Mr. Dobson, a figure of which will be hereafter given. Mr.
Dobson’s lodge can never be mistaken either for an entrance to a public park
or to a country residence.

The other buildings or mural structures belonging to cemeteries are, vaults,
catacombs, brick graves, tombs or other monuments, head-stones, foot-stones,
cenotaphs, walls, and drains.

Vaults are commonly made under churches or chapels, but in the large ceme-
teries they are also made in the open ground, in deep excavations descended to
by stairs, and ranged on each side of a passage or passages, which are lighted
through iron gratings on the surface. One of the best examples, on a small

154 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

and economical scale, is the public vault in the Abney Park Cemetery. The
most classical situation for vaults is in the face of a steep rocky bank, where
they require no drainage, and can be entered without descending more than
a few steps; such as occurs in the St. James’s Cemetery, Liverpool; the Shet-
field Cemetery; and the Cathedral, or Necropolis, Cemetery of Glasgow. Cata-
combs above ground, like those in the London and Westminster Cemetery,
like some private tombs in the Kensal Green Cemetery, and like those
in the new burying-ground attached to the old church at Brighton, are, in
our opinion, in bad taste; since the general idea of burial, no matter by what
mode, implies the descent of the body below the surface of the ground.
Private vaults for the use of a single family are commonly made of the width
of two or three coffins, and of such a depth as to hold several placed one
over the other, commonly with iron bars or plates of stone between, so that
no coffin may have more to bear than its own weight, and the air may be
allowed to surround them, to prevent them from rotting. Sometimes each
coffin is placed in a separate cell, and closed up with masonry.
Catacombs. — Sometimes the vault is divided into cells like bins in a
wine-cellar, by vertical divisions of brick or stone; and these cells are
called catacombs, though the term is frequently applied to a vault or crypt
not subdivided into cells. Each cell, when the coffin is inserted, is hermeti-
cally sealed by building it up with brickwork, or inserting a tablet of stone or
marble, inscribed with the name, age, &c., of the deceased. In the new
London cemeteries, the cells or catacombs are frequently only closed with an
open iron grating, the end of the coffin being fully exposed to view. In some
cases the cells are literally shelves, and the entire side of the coffin is ex-
posed, as in the West London Cemetery. Both of these modes are attended
with great danger to the living; whether by the bursting of the lead coffins
from the expansion of the gas in the bodies within them, or from its
escape through crevices in the lead coffin left accidentally, or through holes
made on purpose by the undertaker under the brass plate, as already men-
tioned (p. 96.). When a private vault is formed on even ground in an
open cemetery, steps are made for descending to it; and these steps are
commonly covered by a flat stone, level with or slightly above the surface ;
or in some cases, as where the steps are under a walk or path, the stone is
concealed under this. Over the vault is placed a monument of some kind,
most commonly what is called a square tomb, as in fig.30.; in which a is -

Fig. 30. Section A B in the Plan fig. 35., through a Vault filted up with Catacombs, and also
through a common Grave, k.

the tomb or superstructure; 4, the cover to the steps; c, the steps; d, the
catacombs or cells ; e, a coffin placed in the lowest catacomb, and sealed up
at f; g, a door of slate, flag-stone, or iron; and 4, the grass alleys. In this
figure is also shown a common grave; in which 7 is the foot-stone; #, the

applied to Public Cemeteries. 155

grave, containing a coffin at bottom; /, the basement wall to the head-stone ;
and m, the head-stone.

A brick grave is a substitute for a vault, and differs only from an ordinary
grave in haying the sides and ends of brickwork or masonry, and in being
covered with a large flat stone, technically, aledger-stone. These graves are
generally purchased and built by heads of families. Sometimes they are of the
width of two coffins, but generally of one; and they vary in depth from 10 ft.
to 20 ft. or upwards. When an interment takes place the stone is loosened
by levers, and removed by means of rollers; and, the coffin being let down as
in common graves, the ledger-stone is replaced and cemented. The side
walls are built concave next the grave, in order that they may act as arches
against the exterior soil; and, in some cases, they are furnished with ledges
which project 2 or 3 inches from each side, for retaining a flag-stone or slate
between each coffin. When this flag-stone is securely cemented, the coffin
below may be considered as hermetically sealed, though it is not very likely
that this will be done so completely as to prevent the ascent of the mephitic
gas. In other brick graves no ledges are projected, but one coffin is pre-
vented from resting on another by inserting two bars of iron in the side
walls, so as to support each coffin. When the coffins reach within 3 or
4 feet of the surface, the ledger is put on for the last time; and a putrid mass, of
perhaps 15 ft. in depth, is left to generate poisonous air, which will escape,
probably for years, through such crevices as may be left, or as may occur from
the action of weather or other causes, between the ledger and the side walls
on which it rests. The proper mode would be to fill in the uppermost 6 or
8 feet of the grave with earth. The names of the interred are inscribed on
the ledger, in the order of their interment ; or a monument of scme kind
is erected on it, of such dimensions, and in such a position, that it can be
removed in one piece with the ledger, without being loosened or otherwise
disturbed. In the Highgate Cemetery there are ledger-stones weighing
with their monuments eight or ten tons, which are removed all in one piece
every time an interment takes
place. The more common mode,
however, is to place a head-
stone as a monument, as shown
in the section, fig. 31. In this
section, a is the side wall of the
grave, here shown with openings
to permit the lateral diffusion of
moisture and mephitic vapour ;
6 is the ledger or covering
stone; and c, the head-stone.
At one end is a common grave \
(d) with its foot-stone (ec); S<SoEnpsCe
and one of the two double green pig. 31. Section C D in the Plan fig.35., through a
alleys, which form boundaries to Brick Grave and a common Grave.
the raised panel of graves, is shown at f.

Brick graves are also used as earth graves, and filled to the surface with
soil every time after an interment has taken place. The openings for re-
interments should, as we have already mentioned (p. 96.), never be sunk
to a greater depth than within 6 ft. of the last-deposited coffin; in which
case no very great disturbance or danger from putrescence would take
place, more especially in clayey or loamy soil, and when it is made a rule
to ram the soil hard with a cast-iron rammer, to the height of at least 6 ft.
above every coffin as it is deposited.* When the last-deposited coffin is

* Family graves, in some of the new cemeteries, are made from 12 ft. to
30 ft. in depth. We lately saw one in the Norwood Cemetery, which had
been originally 20 ft. deep, and had one coffin deposited in it, after which it

156 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

within 6 ft. of the surface, the grave should be finally closed. Graves of this
kind are not necessarily covered with a ledger-stone; they may be finished with
a raised mound of earth, like a common earth grave, or the side and end walls
may be finished with kerb-stones a foot above the surface, and the interior
left level or planted with flowers. After the last interment, a cypress or
other tree, or a strong-growing herbaceous plant, might be planted in the centre.
The walls of graves of this sort should be built with numerous openings, as
in fig. 31., to permit the lateral diffusion of the products of decomposition,
and of the natural moisture of the soil.

Earth graves are of two kinds: private graves, in which only one body is
deposited, with or without a monument ; and common graves, in which several
bodies are deposited, of poor persons, or paupers, for whom no monument is
ever put up, except a mound covered with turf, but which ought always to
be marked with a stone number for reference, and to prevent all risk of their
being opened again at any future period.

Sepulchral monuments, whether mausoleums (which is a term only applied to
the most sumptuous description of tombs), square tombs, ledger-stones with
inscriptions, sarcophagi, pedestals, vases, urns, columns, obelisks, pillars, crosses,
&c., to have the appearance of security and permanence, ought to exhibit two
features ; they ought to be perfectly erect or perpendicular, and they ought to
rise from an architectural base. These features it is easy to exhibit when the
monument is newly put up, but to continue them, even for a year, it is neces-
sary to have a foundation of masonry under ground, as well as a basement
above it; and, in order that this foundation may be permanently secure, it must
be as deep as the adjoining grave or graves. In the case of vaults and brick
graves, this secure foundation is furnished by the
structure itself; but in the case of common earth
graves a foundation requires to be built up, and the
problem is how to effect this in a manner at once se-
cure and economical. In most cemeteries and church-
yards, and even in Pere la Chaise and Kensal
Green, the greater part of the monuments have no
other foundation than the moved soil, and only
comparatively few are placed on the firm soil. The
consequence of this is, that, in two or three years after
the monuments are put up, they are found leaning to
one side; or, if they are composed of several pieces,
they are seen with the joints rent, and conveying _
ideas the very reverse of permanence. Our remedy
for the evil is, two brick or stone piers at the head
of each grave, carried up from the bottom, and
from 9 in. to 2 ft. square, according to the depth. The
two piers should be brought up at the same time,
and tied together by building in pieces of iron hoop;
and, when within a short distance of the sur-

101 1c] . Fig. 32. Pedestal resting on
face, they should be joined by a semicircular arch, “(5 inch underground Pier

was filled in to the surface with soil. It was, at the time we saw it, being opened
to the depth of between 18 ft. and 19 ft., and the smell proceeding from the
earth brought up was to us intolerable. This, and numerous other cases
which we have witnessed, or which have come to our knowledge altogether
independently of the Parliamentary Report on the Health of Towns, for 1842,
or Mr. Walker’s Gatherings from Graveyards, have strongly impressed us with
the necessity of a law to limit the proximity of one coffin to another in graves
in which more than one interment is made; unless, as before observed, the
coffins are put in on the same day. (See p. 96.)

»

applied to Public Cemeterves. 157

or carried up to the surface and connected by a lintel, which may be the
visible base of the head-stone. Where a pedestal ornament of any kind not
more than 18 in. on the side was to be put up, one pillar 18 im. square
might suffice; or, when there was no danger of the ground being moved,
even a 9-inch pier, as in fig. 32., would keep the pedestal from sinking. Where
two graves were built end to end or side by side, three pillars would serve
for both graves: and where four graves were to be made side by side
and end to end, three pillars would suffice; or, in_ effect, two pillars, as
shown in fig. 33., the two half-pillars at a and 6 not occupied being charged
by the builder to the ceme-
tery, which would have a right
to sell them to those who \
made adjoining interments. “<<

\
RSS b

AY
: NSS

Nee:

: aes NRC SRS WWI
These pillars may be built in \X XMM Y QQ WW! ANS
a few hours, by having before- Fig. 33. Double Foundations for Head-stones to be placed
hand portions of them pre- back to back,

pared with brick and cement

in the manner familiar to every builder; or, in stone or slate countries, under-
ground props of these materials might be formed; nor do we see any objec-
tion to cast-iron underground props. Where permanent endurance was the
main object, we would not use cast-iron monuments ; as it is next to impossible
to prevent the rust from appearing through

the paint, and scaling off so as to destroy,

first the inscription, and next the body of

the monument. In some of the London

cemeteries temporary labels of wood, hav-

ing on them the number of the grave or of

the interment, and sometimes the name of

the party interred, are used ; and where

economy is an object, and durability to the

extent of a generation considered sufficient,

we do not see any objection to the use of oye
cast-iron tallies, such as fig. 34.; theirlower = SSS
extremities being so fixed to a piece of wood
as to prevent them from being pulled out,
while a circular disk, resting on two plain
tiles or bricks, will prevent them from
sinking. The cost of these monumental
tablets at the foundery will be under 1s.
each ; and the painting, and lettering, and 12. baw 28 ft
fixing could scarcely, in any case, exceed Fig. 34, Monumental Tally of
5s. each. Cast Iron.

It is in order to supply room for head monuments that we have reserved a
space of 2 ft. in width between each double row of graves, as shown in the
ground plan fig.35. In this figure a4 is the space between the two lines
of graves, commencing and ending with a number-stone; cc are common
graves with coffins, with piers for head-stones at dd, and spaces for foot-
stones a foot in width at e e; fis a brick grave with two coffins inserted, the
head-stone to be placed between g g andd; hh are spaces left for common
graves, brick graves, or, by occupying four divisions, for vaults; 7, a vault for
two coffins in width, occupying four divisions ; &, a vault for one coffin in width,
occupying one division; //, the green alleys between the double rows of
grave beds or panels.

When it is in contemplation to have a double line of brick graves, or to fill
up a cemetery regularly, without allowing a choice to the purchasers, as in
the cemeteries of the Jews, then a foundation wall 2 ft. in width might be
regularly carried up along the middle space, between the lines of graves, from
one end of the line to the other.

3d Ser. — 1843. IV. M

158 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

NY

LLL

ATI)

ian
Ste,

Fig. 35. Planof a Double Bed for the Arrangement of two Rows of Graves, with green Alleys
between.

Cenotaphs, as every one knows, are monuments put up to the memory of
persons who are interred somewhere else. They commonly consist of tablets
with inscriptions, medallions, busts, basso-relievos, or other sculptural objects,
and are very fit ornaments for affixing to walls under cover, or protected by
architectural projections, such as those furnished by a chapel, a cemetery
veranda, a boundary wall, or a structure erected on purpose, as is not unfre-
quent in the French and German cemeteries.

Walls, when used as the boundary of a cemetery, and built of brick, may be
carried up hollow, which will be a considerable saving of material, and render
all piers unnecessary, unless for effect, or, in the case of cemeteries laid out
in imaginary squares, the piers which are to contain the stones having the let-
ters and numbers.

The main conveying-drains of a cemetery, if built of brick, should be barrel-
shaped, in the usual manner ; but, if of stone, the bottom should be laid with
flag-stone, and the same description of stone should be used for the covering.
Main collecting-drains may be formed by semi-cylindrical tiles placed on flat
tiles in the bottom, and small stones placed over them to within a foot or less
of the surface of the ground. Surface collecting-drains may be 20 in. deep,
formed like the last, with tiles at the bottom, and carried up to the surface with
small gravel, finishing with coarse sand; and, WW _
when these drains are in the green alleys, grass \ \\
may be sown over them. When at the sides of \ NN
the gravel walks or roads, they ought to com- N \
municate with surface gratings at regular dis-
tances; and immediately under each grating
there ought to be a pit I ft. square and 2 ft
deep to retain the sand carried in by the water
(jig. 36.), this sand being taken out once a year.
Where the roads and walks are laid with as-
phalte, gratings of this kind will be more ne-
cessary than when they are made of gravel, as
a certain proportion of the water always sinks Fig.36. Cesspool under Grating, for
through the latter material, but none through —¢/atning the Sand brought down

y the Water.
the former.
The furniture, or tools, implements, and temporary structures, of large and

applied to Public Cemeteries. 159

complete cemeteries, consists of picks, spades, shovels, levers, rakes, scrapers,
brooms ; a rope and pulley, or block and tackle, to be used with a triangle ;

planks, ladders, grave-boards, dumcrafts, erave-platforms, grave-boxes, grave-
moulds, wheelbarrows, buckets for raising soil, a frame for supporting canvass
or a tarpaulin over a grave while being dug during rain; and a temporary struc-
ture, consisting of a floor of boards or wooden grating, with three sides and a
roof of canvass, rendered waterproof by paint, for the protection of the clergy-
man while reading the service at the grave ; with another structure, of a larger
size, for sheltering both the clergyman and the mourners. It is only necessary
to notice in detail the grave-boards, the earth-boxes, and the temporary
structures, as these are required in all burying-grounds.

The grave-boards are required in almost every case where the grave is dug more
than 5 or 6 feet in depth, in order to prevent the sides from breaking down; and
they are, perhaps, the most important implements connected with the ceme~
tery. The ordinary custom is, to dig the grave 6 in. or a foot longer than is
necessary ; to introduce planks, one after another, as the grave advances in
depth; and to keep them firmly against the sides by short pieces used as struts
at the ends. An improved description of grave-boards has been devised by two
superintendants of London cemeteries unknown to each other, viz. Mr. E.
Buxton, superintendant of the Nunhead Cemetery, and Mr. Northen, super-
intendant of the Tower Hamlets Cemetery. In both improvements the side
grave-boards are hinged, so as to form a concave side next the grave, by
which means, when they are placed against the sides, they resist the lateral
pressure in the manner of an arch. According to Mr. Buxton’s invention,
one board is put in beneath another as the grave is excavated, and each
board is kept in its place by the end struts, which are driven outwards at
each end of the grave: but, according to the practice in the Tower
Hamlets Cemetery, the boards and end pieces are first joined together,
and then let down from the top, one above another, as in well-sinking.
The difficulty in both cases is to take the boards out, which must always
be done by commencing at the bottom and proceeding upwards, the filling
in of the earth over the coffin being carried on at the same time. Were
the boards taken out from the top, the earth from the sides would be liable to
fall in and bury some of the lower boards, or, in the case of graves 15 or
20 feet deep, it might bury the grave-digger. The grave-boards used by Mr.
Buxton, the superintendant of the Nunhead Cemetery, are represented in
the isometrical view jig. 37. They are in four parts: two sides, each of

Fig.37. The Grave-Boards used in the Nunhead Cemetery.
which is hinged on a beveled edge, which renders it impossible for them to
get out of their places, and two ends which serve as struts to keep the sides
apart. These ends are prevented from dropping out, by cutting the grave
rather less than the intended width, and driving the ends, which act as str uts,
home with a large wooden hammer ; ; In consequence of which they cannot be
removed without the aid of a flat-ended lever bar. The sides are kept in
their places by the pressure of the soil, against which they act as arches. The
M 2

160 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

method of using these boards is as follows. The ground is opened about | ft.
or 18in. in depth; then the first pair of boards and ends are fixed, their
upper edge being 12 or 18 inches from the surface of the ground. Next, at in-
tervals of their own width, or closer, if the nature of the ground renders it
necessary, another pair of boards and ends may be fixed, and so on till the
grave is dug to the required depth. When the coffin has been deposited, the
lowest pair of boards and ends are first taken out; and the remaining sides
and ends are taken out in succession as the grave is filled. Mr. Buxton, to
whom we are indebted for a small model from which our engraving was made,
and who takes a deep interest in the Nunhead Cemetery, and in the subject
of cemeteries generally, states that, by having the head and foot boards of
different sizes, graves may be made of different degrees of width, as required
for the different-sized coffins. The common length of the head board is 18 in.,
and of the foot board 16 in. ; length of the side 5 ft. 2 in., and of the shorter
portion 2 ft. 2in.; making the total dimensions of the box, mside measure,
7 ft. in length; width at the shoulders, 2 ft. 4in.: but by the use of different-
sized head and foot struts, as before mentioned, any size required may be
obtained. A great deal of labour in digging is saved by the use of these
boards. It may be added, that a set of side boards are kept about 6 ft. in
length, by which graves 5 ft. 9 in. in the clear are produced.

Fig. 38. Plan of the Grave-Boards in use in the Tower Hamlets Cemetery.

Fig. 38. is a plan of the grave-boards invented by Mr. Northen, as they
appear when placed together in the grave. One side is hinged at p, and the
other retained in its angular position by strong iron plates at the upper and
under edge at a. Both boards are fastened to the ends by iron pins, which
drop into eyes, as seen at the angles e e, and more distinctly in the sections
Jigs. 43. and 44,

LY

Fig. 39. Elevation of the Side marked D in fig. 38.

Fig. 39. is an elevation of the side p viewed externally, showing the hinges
at f, and the iron hoops for preventing the boards from splitting at g g.

Fig. 40. Elevation of the Side marked a in fig. 38.

Fig. 40. is an elevation of the side marked a seen externally: hh, the
top and bottom stiffening plates.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 161

eas Fig. 41. is an elevation of

the end B.
: Fig. 42. is an elevation of
ee i the endc, which is two inches

shorter than the end B.

Fig. 41. Elevation of the ny 2 es 6 1 n Fig.42. Elevation of the End
z End B in fig. 38. . Fig. 43.15 a secon oc Cc in fig. 38., which is 2 in.
the line Bc, showing the shorter than the End B.

inside elevation of the side a: 7% i are rings for
pulling out the side boards; e e, pins and eyes for fastening the ends to
the sides; % h are the stiffening plates.

Fig.43. Section on the Line B Cin fig. 38., showing the Szde A.

Fig, 44. is asection on the line Bc, showing the inside elevation of the side
p; #4, an iron hasp which locks the two leaves of the side p, and prevents
them from being pressed inwards. A latch of this kind is fixed on every
other board on each side of the grave ; and thus, when the board having the
latch is loosened, the ends and the opposite board (jig. 40. 4) readily drop
out. The scale shown in this figure applies to it and to the preceding seven
figures.

tn. 12 6 0 t 2 3 SIE

Fig. 44. Section on the Line B c in fig.38., showing the Elevation of the Side v.

As the grave is being dug, one tier of boards fastened together, as shown
in fig. 38., is first let down, like the kerb of a well in well-sinking; and as
the work proceeds, and this frame sinks, another is placed over it, to sink in
its turn; and so on, introducing one frame of boards after another, till the
grave is dug to the proper depth. The last 18 or 20 inches at the bottom of
the grave are not dug out quite so wide as all above, in consequence of
which the boards do not go just so deep as the top of the coffin after it
has been lowered. This admits of more readily taking out the boards, which
is done by driving out the hasps h, and the pins e, beginning at the bottom
and working upwards as the grave is filled. When the coffin is lowered,
settled in its place, and the lowering ropes drawn out, the grave-digger de-
scends to the bottom, and with a hammer drives out one of the hasps, which
instantly loosens that board, allows of taking out the two ends, and conse-
quently loosens the opposite one. In this way he proceeds from the bottom
to the top, filling in the soil as he goes on.

The manner in which the grave-boards are kept in their position at Mussel-
burgh, near Edinburgh, differs from that employed in most places, and is in
some, if not in all. respects superior to it. It is the invention of Mr. Robert
Gay, a smith in Musselburgh, and the superintendant of the burying-ground
there. It consists in the application of the instrument shown in fig. 45.,
which about Edinburgh is called a dumcraft, and about London a screw lever.
Two of these instruments, with the iron plates, spear nails, &c., screwed to
the planks, which cost about 6s. 6d. each, are required for every pair of boards,
one being applied at each end. A pair of boards, with a pair of dumcrafts
fitted up complete, cost at Musselburgh from 20s. to 22s. The iron is made of
#-inch rod, with a male screw at one end working in a female screw, to which

M 3

162 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

Fig. 45. Dumcraft, or Screw Lever, in use in the Musselburgh Burying-Ground.

wings having knobs are attached to facilitate working, and with the other
end pointed and pierced about 3 in. from the point, so as to receive a spear
nail. Every pair of boards requires a pair of dumcrafts; and one end of each
board requires to have a hole about three quarters of an inch in diameter,
guarded by a shield, for one end of the instrument; and, within a few inches of
the other end, a plate of iron fixed on to receive the centre point of the screw,
and allow it to work. By a mere inspection of the instrument, any workman
will understand the manner in which it is to be used. The object of allowing
one end of the rod to go through the boards is to allow the other end to
come freely out when the grave is being filled up; for, although the dum-
craft is slackened by unscrewing one end by means of the knobs which
project from the wings, yet, by the pressure of the earth from the sides of the
grave, it would take much longer time to loosen it sufficiently to get it out ;
whereas by turning the movable open part of the screw end a little, and
then taking out the spear and allowing the iron rod to go through the boards,
the centre point at the other end is freed at once, and this without any noise,
which is not the case in taking out the strut pieces commonly employed. By
having two or three holes for the spear, and two or three plates with centre
holes for the screw to work in, a difference in length and breadth of grave
may be obtained within certain limits. For an account of this instrument we
are indebted to Mr. William Ballery, the superintendant of the Warriston
Cemetery, Edinburgh.

Fig. 46. is a cemetery plank hook,
for dragging out loose planks used in
the common mode of supporting the
sides of graves, and for moving boards Fig. 46. Cemetery Plank Hook.
generally, when they are in a wet and dirty state.

The grave-bow (Vol. for 1842, fig. 16.) consists of a bottom and sides, the
latter readily separating from the former ; and its use is to hold the soil dug
out of the grave, till the grave is ready to have the soil returned to it. From
one to four boxes are required for a grave, according to its dimensions. Their
use is two-fold : to preserve the soil from mixing with the grass, from which
it is difficult afterwards to separate it so entirely as not to leave a quantity of
it entangled among its leaves; and to return the earth in the most rapid
manner to the grave. The box, before receiving the earth from the grave, is
placed alongside, and raised up in a sloping position ; the earth is thrown into
it; and as soon as the coffin is lowered the grave-diggers loosen and take out
the side of the box next the grave, when the soil immediately begins to drop
out, while, by raising the other side of the box, the whole is returned to the
grave, and not a particle of earth is to be seen on the surface of the grass.
This box was first used by Mr. Lamb, an undertaker in Leith, and is now in
general use in the burial-grounds about Edinburgh. There ought to be a
number of such boxes for every cemetery; and it would be an improvement
to place them on low wheels, say those on the side which is to be next the
grave of 6 inches in diameter, and those on the opposite side of double that
height. This, while it would save the trouble of propping up the boxes,

applied to Public Cemeteries. 163

would also enable the grave-diggers to wheel them away, one after another, as
fast as they were filled, and, when the grave was completed, to leave it quite
free on every side for the approach of mourners, who would in this case walk
on the turf, instead of walking on loose earth or planks. This result is some-
times obtained by throwing all the excavated soil into wheelbarrows, and
removing these to a short distance, there to stand till the coffin is deposited.
Either of these modes is much better than the common one of throwing up
the soil on each side of the grave, and obliging the coffin-bearers to clamber
over it. As the grave-boxes are readily taken to pieces, they can be stowed
away, in sheds or tool-houses, in little space.

The grave-platform 1s a flooring of boards about 10 ft. long by 5 ft. broad,
with an opening in the middle, of the shape and dimensions of an ordinary-
sized coffin. It is hinged, so as to fold together lengthwise. Its use is to
place over the grave, after the soil has been removed in boxes or barrows, for
the double purpose of forming a guide to the lowering of.the coffin, and a
floor for those who lower it, who in Scotland are commonly the relations or
mourners, to stand on. In most cemeteries loose boards, or two or three
boards nailed together so as to form a platform, are laid down on each side of
the grave, leaving the ground at the end of the grave uncovered ; but this
arrangement is far from being so complete and commodious as a hinged plat-
form.

The grave-cover is a low roof of light boards, or of a frame and canvass, of
dimensions sufficient to cover the opening of a newly made grave, and with
handles like those of a hand-barrow, to allow of carrying it readily from place
to place. Its use is to exclude rain or snow; and also, in the case of a very
deep grave, to guard against the danger of persons approaching too near its
edge. In large cemeteries it is found convenient to have at all times two or
three graves prepared, both common graves and brick graves, ready to admit of
interments on the shortest notice. The unoccupied brick graves are com-
monly protected by the ledger which is to constitute their permanent cover
and finish, but the common graves are protected from the weather by the
portable cover described.

The grave-mould is a box without either bottom or top, but with the sides
and ends shaped like a coffin, to serve as a guide to the form of the grave- -
ridge, or mound of earth raised over a grave immediately after interment.
When the grave is filled to the brim and properly rammed, the box is placed
over the soil, and more is added and firmly rammed till the box is full, when
the soil is raised in the middle, and rounded off in the manner seen in
all neatly kept churchyards. Afterwards the grave-ridge is covered with
turf, or planted with flowers. In some of the London cemeteries the stone-
crop is planted on the grave-ridge, and forms a very neat evergreen covering,
always within bounds. Some of the evergreen saxifrages might be used for
the same purpose ; and a friend has suggested that the common thrift would
be an excellent plant, as its thick mass of dark green grass-like foliage would
contrast with the light green of the grass forming the common covering of
the cemetery. Where economy is an object, grass inoculation or grass seeds
might be resorted to. .

A clergyman’s shelter is unnecessary where a tarpaulin or a movable shed
is used over the grave; but, where this is not the case, it may be formed
of five pieces, viz. A flooring of boards, or, to prevent slipping when the
boards are wet, as well as to render the floor lighter, of wooden grating,
raised one or two steps above the general surface, in order to give the reader
of the service a more commanding position. To this floor three sides, each
consisting of a frame of canvass, are readily fixed by means of studs in the
lower rails of the sides, dropping into holes in the framework of the bottom ;
and they are as readily connected together by hooks dropping into eyes.
The roof-piece, which ought to be raised a little in the middle to throw off
the rain, can readily be dropped on four iron bolts, fixed in the upper ends of
the styles of the sides. The whole may be painted black; and, when not in

mM 4

164 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

use, it should be taken to pieces, and kept in a dry airy situation. A tent or
movable structure, to cover not only the clergyman but the mourners
assembled, either during rainy weather or hot sunshine, might be formed with-
out difficulty, and at no great expense. The framework might be light iron
rods ; and the canvass might be so arranged as to be drawn up and let down
like the awnings to tulip beds, or the outside gauze shades to hothouses. (See
Sub. Hort., fig. 115. p. 175.)

The other articles of cemetery furniture having nothing particular in their
construction, and being in use either by mechanics, ground workmen, or cul-
tivators of the soil, do not require farther notice. -

Roots and Plants. —In some of the London cemeteries dahlias are planted
in the summer season, and these are kept through the winter in the unoc-
cupied catacombs, and, with geraniums and other greenhouse plants, are
brought forward in spring in frames in the reserve ground, or in some other
concealed part of the cemetery, or perhaps in an adjoining garden or nursery.
In the reserve ground of the great cemetery at Rouen, there is a large green-
house, and the curator lets out plants in pots durmg summer at so much
a pot, undertaking to keep them watered and trimmed, to decorate graves
and monuments.

(To be continued.)

Arv. II. Bien Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By JAMES BARNES, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 118.)

Letter XII. Reasons for following the Business of a Market-Gardener.

Havine sent you a rough description of a few things con-
tained in these noble gardens, before I commence giving you
my method of growing, training, &c., my fruit trees and plants,
I will tell you my reasons for following the business of a
market-gardener for so many as twelve years. Hearimg, when
a boy, gentlemen’s servants and others that had been in London
talk of having there seen such fine and early fruits and flowers,
Lalways felt anxious to go there to see them grow; and I started
when quite young for that purpose, and got work with a noted
cucumber and mushroom grower ; a good grower too of grapes,
pines, and melons, and a forcer of all early fruits and flowering
plants. I stopped there more than four years, until I thought
there was nothing more to learn. I next went as framer toa
large market-gardener, quite on the other side of London;
where I had the charge of 1000 lights of framing, 2600 hand
and bell glasses for growing cucumbers, melons, early potatoes,
&c., forcing asparagus and sea-kale in an extensive way, and
fourteen acres of beautiful ground for vegetable-growing, under
the spade, managed in a first-rate style as to cropping and the
general management of it. I remained there until I thought I
knew all I wanted, and then went to a very extensive grower of

e e =) e
grapes, peaches, pines, strawberries, mushrooms, and all kinds

Market-Gardening and Market-Gardeners. 165

of salads, fruits, and vegetables. I from there went to an ex-
tensive general grower of out-door fruits; having twenty-six
acres of cropping ground under the spade, with more than 600
lights of framing for the early forcing of various things, and
about 1200 hand and bell glasses; so that, in those twelve
years, I had the opportunity of seeing the different methods of
sowing and growing, from the commonest vegetable and salad
to the most rare and expensive fruits. Market-gardeners,
generally speaking, are the most industrious persevering class
of men I ever met with; but they are at an enormous expense,
and subject to very heavy losses. Nobody has an idea to what
expense they go; and their men (taking the year through) I
consider to work harder, and to have more hardships to contend
with, than any other class of men I have ever met with. Two
thirds, or more, of the men are Irish; at least they were so at
the time I followed that kind of business; and I never met with
more than one Scotchman amongst them as a workman. I have
kept an account of the expense of working one acre of ground
under the spade, reckoning the rent, taxes, manure, horses, &c.,
and getting the produce to market, and I found it averaged
5O/. per acre.

I have heard hundreds of people complain of being tired with
working; but they never knew what it was to follow market-
gardening for one year in the neighbourhood of London. If
they had done so, they would soon have found out what it was to
be tired. I have worked, and been paid, at the rate of ten
days a week; and generally made, at some work or other, eight
days all the season, for some years, out of my time. I could
sleep as well riding on the top of a load all through London to
Covent Garden as I now can on a bed, and have done so many
times; and sometimes then what little sleep I did get was on
the pavement in the old market, amongst vegetables, and before
the business of the market began, and I never thought it any
hardship.

The method the market-gardeners have of cropping and
changing their crops is astonishing to many. For instance, you
will see a large space of ground cropped, and arrived at the
greatest state of perfection one day, and in about three days
afterwards you will see it all gone; the ground manured,
trenched, and cropped, almost in the space of time a West-
Country man would turn round to reply to a question.

Some of thera pay their workmen ready money every night ;
others three times a week; others twice a week, and some
every Saturday evening. The reason why we find so few of
these workmen afterwards as gentlemen’s gardeners (in my
opinion) is, first, that, if a man is a scholar, he thinks he can
make better use of his time than following market-gardening ;

166 | On Laying out and Planting

secondly, he is frightened at the thoughts of the hard laborious
work he will have. It is of no use for any man to think of
going to work in a market-garden, that has not made up his
mind to persevere and be industrious, and to make himself
generally useful; no skulking about is ever suffered there. I
used to find it a difficult matter to procure a good lodging; I
have paid more than one fourth of my weekly earnings for one,
and then had my cupboard sadly pillaged and robbed.

The next subject I shall address you upon will be my method
of growing and forcing mushrooms; they spring out of the
earth so quickly, and they are a very useful vegetable indeed.

Bicton Gardens, Oct. 31. 1842.

Art. III. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and
Flower-Garden. By the Conductor.

Tue principles which serve to guide us in laying out the details of a place
are derived from its natural and artificial character, and the wants and wishes
of the proprietor. By natural character is to be understood the condition
of the situation in respect to climate, the kind of surface, the nature of
the soil, subsoil, rock, and springs, ponds, rills, or other forms of water, or the
sea. By artificial character we mean the style of the architecture of the
house, the present state of the ground as far as art is concerned, and the
various topographical circumstances ; such as roads, trees, neighbouring
houses, cottages, villages, manufactories, &c. The wants and wishes of the
proprietor require to be attended to no less than the character of the ground
and the locality. An important object, in the first place, is to ascertain the
extent to which he will go in regard to expense. Next his peculiar taste
and that of his family are to be studied, and, as far as practicable, accommo-
dated ; except in the case of what the artist considers bad taste. In this
case he must respectfully submit his reasons for what he proposes, and endea-
vour to argue the matter with his employer. Should he fail in producing the
conviction desired, it will be a question for him to resolve how far he can,
consistently with his own reputation, sanction the production of what he con-
sidersin bad taste ; at the same time carefully distinguishing between taste which
is inherently bad, and taste which is merely peculiar. For example, suppose an
employer wished to terminate a vista with a landscape painted on canvass ; or
to introduce, in a verdant scene, a flat surface of boards painted so as to resemble
a rock or a cottage? This taste, except in the garden of a guinguette, we
should consider as radically bad; and should respectfully protest against it in
the pleasure-grounds of a private gentleman. ;

Bearing these data in view, there are three styles or systems of art, according
to which lawns and shrubberies may be laid out. The first of these is the geo-
metric style, characterised by lines which require to be drawn geometrically ;
that is, on paper by the aid of a rule or a pair of compasses, and on ground
by similar means ; the second is the picturesque style, characterised by that
irregularity in forms, lines, and general composition, which we see in natural
landscape ; and the third is the gardenesque style, characterised by distinctness
in the separate parts when closely examined, but, when viewed as a whole,
governed by the same general principles of composition as the picturesque
style, the parts, though not blended, being yet connected.

The geometric style admits of several varieties, according to the prevailing
features. In one case architectural objects, such as stone terraces, steps,
parapets, stone edgings to beds, stone margins to basins, may be prevalent;

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower- Garden. 167

and this will constitute the architectural style. In another, statues, vases, and
other sculptural objects, may be frequent in a geometric garden, and consti-
tute, of course, the sculpturesque style. Where the trees and shrubs are for the
most part cut into artificial shapes, whether architectural, such as walls
(hedges), arcades, pyramids, &c., or sculptural, such as statues, vases, and
other tonsile works, the result is the tonsile style, or verdant sculpturesque.
Where stone terraces, terrace gardens, and sculpture are combined, the result
is the Italian style; and grass terraces, turf mounts, and straight canals consti-
tute the Dutch style.

The picturesque style varies according to the natural character of the sur-
face, and the kind of art employed. It may be the hilly, the rocky, the
aquatic, the trivial or common, or the elegant or refined, picturesque. The
trivial picturesque may be applied to garden scenery in which only the common
trees and shrubs of the country are planted, and the grassy surface is left, like
that of a common pasture, without either the wildness of the forest glade, or
the smoothness and polish of the lawn. The rough picturesque is exemplified
in a surface more or less irregular or broken, among the grass of which ferns
and other strong-growing plants spring up along with low shrubs ; such, in
short, as we see on the margins of forest glades, where the bushes have been
kept down by the browsing of cattle and sheep. The elegant or refined pictu-
resque is exemplified in lawns and pleasure-grounds, where the surface has
been reduced to smooth undulations, levels, or slopes, and where the trees
and shrubs grouped on these surfaces are of exotic species, or of such varieties
of the common kinds as are not frequently to be met with. Other varieties
of the picturesque, resulting from rocks, water, &c., will readily occur to the
reader.

The gardenesque style is to gardening, as an art of culture, what the pictu-
resque style is to landscape-painting, as an art of design and taste. All the
trees, shrubs, and plants, in the gardenesque style, are planted and managed in
such a way as that each may arrive at perfection, and display its beauties to as
great advantage as if it were cultivated for that purpose alone; while, at the
same time, the plants, relatively to one another and to the whole scene or
place to which they belong, are either grouped or connected on the same
principles of composition as in the picturesque style, or placed regularly or
symmetrically as in the geometric style. Hence there are two distinct varie-
ties of the gardenesque, the geometric gardenesque, and the pictorial gardenesque ;
and of each of these there are subvarieties arising from the use, in connexion
with them, of architecture, sculpture, common trees and plants, or exotic trees
and plants, &c. The tonsile style, however, can never be united with the gar-
denesque, because it violates the fundamental principle, that of allowing each
plant to grow in such a manner as to come to perfection ; nor will the pictu-
resque, because in that style every tree and shrub is left, unpruned, to assume
the form which it takes by nature, or which it may be forced to assume by its
connexion or grouping with other trees and shrubs,

Mixed Styles. —'Two or more of these styles may be employed in the same
pleasure-ground, but not indiscriminately mixed there. When more than one
style is employed, it can only be done with a good effect by using the styles
in succession, in different parts of the same pleasure-ground. For example,
the Italian style may prevail on the lawn front of the house, and may lose
itself in grass terraces of the Dutch style; beyond which may be exhibited,
first the gardenesque, and then the picturesque ; but to introduce alternately
portions of geometric or tonsile scenery with picturesque scenery would dis-
tract attention, and be destructive of that first of all principles in composition,
the unity of the whole, which can only be produced by the connexion and
harmony of the parts. Such scenery cannot be rendered tolerable otherwise
than by being the effect of neglect, and exhibiting the character of a garden
in ruins ; of which there are a few fine specimens in the country, produced by
only partially keeping up scenery originally in the tonsile style.

It is much to be regretted that the tonsile style is not occasionally revived,

168 On Laying out and Planting

for the sake of variety, and the striking effect which it would produce from
its novelty. At present, the most general mode of laying out pleasure-grounds,
whether on a small or on a large scale, is to adopt the architectural, or the
Italian, style, immediately on the lawn front of the house; and, where this
style terminates, to commence either with the picturesque or the garden-
esque style. We shall illustrate these two modes by two sketches. I’ig. 47.

Fig. 47. A Lawn laid out in the Gardenesque Style.

represents a small pleasure-ground, laid out in the gardenesque style,
with the trees and shrubs in vertical profile; a 6 represents a terrace-
garden, embracing the house on three sides; the fourth being the en-
trance front. The general surface of the ground is supposed_to be flat,
but the terrace is raised 6 or 8 feet above it, as indicated by the steps
at a and 6. At the base of the steps, the ground may be supposed
to be 3 ft. above the general surface, whence it slopes gradually till it becomes
united with it. A walk commences at a, and is continued by d and c to 6.
On the supposition that the grounds are more extensive than is shown in the
figure, a second walk commences at d, and is continued through a shrubbery
to the kitchen-garden and farm, from which it returns by c; so that either a
long walk or a short one may be taken without going over the same ground
twice. There are two circles marked w w, which represent basins of water
for watering the beds, and for a few of the most showy water plants. All
the beds are circular, and vary in diameter from 18 in. to 3 ft. All the naked
circles are supposed to be planted with flowers, one kind in a bed; or tem-
porary shrubs, such as roses, cistuses, &c.; while the others are planted
chiefly with flowering shrubs, some beds containing among these a low or fas-
tigiate tree. The greater number of the shrubs are supposed to be rhodo-
dendrons, azaleas, kalmias, lilacs, roses, cistuses, and other shrubs which
make a great show when in flower, and form compact bushes at all times.

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 169

In a number of the small circles, standard roses and dwarf or trailing plants
grafted standard high, such as Cotoneaster buxifolia, Halimodéndron argén-
teum, &c., are supposed to be planted, in order to combine to a certain ex-
tent the singular with the gardenesque ; but the great object, in laying out
and planting this lawn, is to exhibit a blaze of flowers from the windows of
the house and the surrounding walk.

It may be necessary to observe that it is not essential to the gardenesque
that the beds should be circular ; they may be of any other regular form,
and they may even be irregular: but the circular shape is by far the best for
entering into composition, either with one another or with scattered trees or
shrubs ; and what gives it a decided preference over all other forms is, that it
is best adapted for culture.

Fig. 48. is a plan, with the trees in elevation, of the same space of ground
as in fig. 47. It is laid out chiefly in the picturesque style, but combines also

DY
oe et

12 ©). Qual

AG a oak
Scat gee

Fig. 48. A Lawn laid out in the Picturesque Style, combining also the Gardenesque and the
Regular Styles.

” DZ
ts?
50

the architectural, the gardenesque, and even in a slight degree the geo-
metric, style. The entrance front of the house is at a, in the entrance court.
There is a terrace-garden from 6 to c; and a walk commencing at 4, pro-
ceeding by e and d, and returning to the terrace by c. The scenery from c to
d, and also that near the water basins w w, is decidedly picturesque ; that is,
trees, shrubs, and flowers are grouped together in the same beds. On leaving
the terrace at 5, we pass between small trees, such as thorns, crabs, &c.,
placed at regular distances like an avenue, with circular flower-beds between ;

170 On Laying out and Planting

and this part of the ground may be considered in the regular, or geometric,
style. The circular beds of this style, and also one or two circular beds at ce,
are harmonised with the rectangular forms of the terrace by some square
beds marked f/ The beds ee are for roses and flowers, and may be con-
sidered as strictly gardenesque. At d is a statue, or a pedestal and vase,
intended as an object when coming along the branch walk; so that we have
in this sketch a harmonious combination of the picturesque, gardenesque,
architectural, and geometric styles, in which, however, the picturesque style
greatly prevails. While in the other design the object was chiefly to produce
a display of flowers ; in this one the object is to produce varied combina-
tions of trees, shrubs, and plants, and shade and shelter, with masses of
flowers as subordinate objects.

Fig. 49. is a lawn laid out in the geometric style, for shrubs and flowers,
with few trees. In the centre are a circular basin and fountain ; the margin of
the basin is of stone, and outside of this is a circle of beds. The other beds
require no description. A gravel walk surrounds the whole, beyond which
there may be the formal boundary to the lawn required by the geometric
style, whether a wall or other fence with a border for flowers and creepers,
or a hedge architecturally cut. The circular beds are 6 ft. in diameter, which
will give a scale to the whole, viz. 32 ft. to an inch. These circular beds are
supposed to be planted solely with flowers, which will admit of views between
the beds of shrubs from the walk across the lawn to the fountain, and also
contrast well with the shrubs. All the other beds are supposed to be planted
with shrubs, each kept a distinct bush, so that in this style we have the
geometric combined with the gardenesque. In each of the terminating scrolls
may be planted any fastigiate evergreen low tree or shrub, such as a cypress,
Irish yew, or Irish or Swedish juniper.

By limiting the spaces planted to rhododendrons, azaleas, kalmias, andro-
medas, vacciniums, arbutus, &c., a very effective American shrubbery, or
fruticetum, would be formed.

It may be observed that the boundary walk, which ought to be at least
once and a half the width of the beds (viz. 9 ft.), is not bounded by straight
lines, but by lines coinciding to a certain extent with the direction of the
beds, which will take away from the trivial character which straight walks
always have when accompanied by beds which do not coincide with them.
It is necessary to keep this fact constantly in view when designing flower-
gardens; because, unless this is done, there never can be that unity of the
whole and connexion of the parts which are essential to the harmonious effect
of every composition.

This design would also answer remarkably well for a rosary, or for a mixed
collection of herbaceous plants, either annuals or perennials. It would also
answer well for a dahlia garden.

By omitting the basin in the centre, and the borders which surround it, a
covered seat, temple, or rustic bower might be placed there; or a weeping
tree, such as the weeping lentiscus-leaved ash, or the weeping sophora, might
be planted in the centre, and trained down over trelliswork. The giant ivy,
planted in the centre, and treated in the same manner, forms a beautiful ever-
green bower, and that in a very short time, if the soil is rich.

Fig. 50. (p. 173.) is a plan of an architectural flower-garden, the edgings to the
beds being of stone, and the paths between paved. It was designed for a parti-
cular situation at Bitteswell in Leicestershire, but, in the execution, box edgings
and gravel walks were substituted for stone. In order to show different ways
in which this garden may be planted, we sent copies of the plan to Mr. Frost
of Dropmore gardens, Mr. Caie of Bedford Lodge, Camden Hill, Mr. Pringle
of Duncombe Park gardens, and Mr. W. P. Ayres of Acton, and we shall
subjoin the lists supplied by each. We may previously observe that @ repre-
sents a square basin, with a candelabrum fountain in the centre. It is supplied
by a hydraulic ram, which forces the water to the upper tazza, from which it

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden.

E72 | On Laying out and Planting

descends by a succession of square tazzas of stone to the basin, which is
bordered by a stone kerb.

b b are circles of grass to harmonise with the grass of the lawn beyond; in
the centre of each circle there are a pedestal and statue.

ec c are pedestals for vases, containing select flowers.

dd are square beds for standard roses, and mignonnette in summer; and
winter aconite, crocuses, scillas, &c., during early spring.

List of Plants for the Flower-Garden fig. 50. By Mr. Frost.

As the beds are narrow (3 ft. wide), Mr. Frost observes, I have confined
the list to rather weak-growing plants ; if they had been 5 ft. wide, I should
have added many things, such as petunias, salvias, &c., which would probably
grow too large ; though some persons, by care, might render these kinds suit-
able. I have chiefly included such things as we grow here, and what I know
to be good. The small square beds not numbered will do well for standard
roses and mignonnette; but I should have in them crocuses of sorts, Scilla
pre‘cox, S. amee‘na, Erythronium Dens canis (the three varieties), and
snowdrops ; also tulips in the beds allotted for planting afterwards with pelar-
goniums, or any of the other bulbs alternately, as it gives the garden a gay
appearance early in the spring. The stock beds, 16, 26, &c., might be suc-
ceeded by later-sown stocks, or clarkias, collinsias, nemophilas, or any other
hardy annuals: indeed, they might be sown in the autumn for the spring
show as well as for that of summer, and used instead of tulips where tulips
are not to be easily obtained. I have endeavoured to pair the beds, so that
each corresponding bed should have plants of similar habits ; and, should any
one wish to deviate from the list laid down, they might readily substitute
some favourite plant that might range for height and colour; such as the
verbenas, for example, of which there might be better sorts selected than I
have now specified, which can be arranged according to the same principle.
— Philp Frost. Dropmore Gardens, March 7. 1843.

1. Nierembérgza gracilis. 20. Tropze‘olum majus flore pléno.
2. Lobelia Erinus. 21. Calceolaria viscosissima.

3. Nolana atriplicifolia. — 22. Pelargonium, Ingram’s scarlet.
4, Pelargonium, Cooper's dwarf 23. Lobéla unidentata.

scarlet. 24. O’xalis tuberosa.

5. Calceolaria angustifolia. 25. Alonsoa linearis.

6. Fachsia Bréwsteri. 26. Rose-coloured German Stock.
7. White ten-week Stock. 27. Calceolaria Stewart.

8. Isétoma axillaris. 28. Gladiolus cardinalis.

9. Lobélia spléndens. 29. Pelargonium, cup-leaved pink.
10. Heliotropium peravianum. 30. Pelargonium compactum.
11. Pelargonium Daveydnum. 31. Verbena, Ivory’s queen.
12. Verbena picta. 32. Verbéna maxima.

13. Verbéna formosa. 33. Pelargonium pavoninum.
14, Lantana Selloviana. 34. Senécio élegans flore pléno.
15. Pelargonium, pink nosegay. 35. Lobéka propinqua.
16. Purple German Stock. 36. Pelargonium, Prince of Orange.
17. Lupinus nanus. 37. Scarlet ten-week Stock.
18. Ferraria pavonia. 38. Fuchsia globosa.

19. Alonsoa incisifolia.

List of Plants which will keep up a Show of Flowers in the Flower-Garden
Jig. 50. till June. By Mr. Catz.

1. A’rabis pree‘cox. White. 4. Alyssum saxatile. Yellow.
2. Eranthis hyemalis. Yellow. 5. Hésperis repanda. Purple.
3. Scilla hyacinthotdes. Blue. 6. Tulipa Gesneridna. Scarlet.

173

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden.

B m = a

Gy) sa —

YY, \Gd

WA Wr
»o— ”
z YS sy ee gy >.

yy

Fig. 50. An Architectural Flower-Garden.

38d Ser.—1843. IV.

174

10.
Il.
12.
13.
14,
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

7. Erythronium Dens-canis. Purple.
8.
9. Vesicaria utriculata.

White.
Light yel- _

Tberis saxatilis.

low.
Polemonium réptans. Blue.
Lflium longiflorum. White.
Adonis vernalis. Yellow.
Phléx verna, Pink.
Phlox procumbens. Lilac.
Narcissus papyraceus. White.
Tulipa pre‘cox. Scarlet.

Fritillaria meléagris. Purple.
Narcissus Jonquilla. Yellow.
Aubriétia purptrea. Purple.
Anemone horténsis. Scarlet.

Scilla campanulata. Dark purple.
Hepatica triloba rubro-plena.
Double red.

23.

24.
20.

26.
20.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.

On Laying out and Planting

Erythronium Dens canis albi-
flora. White.

Hepatica triloba cer.-pl. Blue.

Cheiranthus ochroletcus. Pale
Yellow.

Sanguinaria canadénsis. White.

Meconépsis cambrica. Yellow.
Ibéris sempervirens. White.
Narcissus minor. Yellow.
Corydalis ndébilis. Yellow.
Flumaria formosa. Reddish.
Iris vérna. Purple.
Cheiranthus Cheiri. Yellow.
Corydalis balbosa. Purple.
Galanthus plicatus. White.

Crocus sativus. Yellow.
Scilla pree‘cox. Blue.
Phil6x ovata. Pink.

Last of Plants for the Flower-Garden fig. 50., which will flower from June to

September.

1. Gnothéra macrocarpa. Yellow.

[S)

those for the first show of flowers.

. Verbena spléndens.

. Salvia chameedryoides.

. Bouvardia coccinea.
. Verbena, the queen. White.

. Calceolaria angustifolia. Yellow.
. Verbénateucriozdes. Whitish pink.
. Petunia erubéscens. Whitish pur-

. Verbéna Tweediedna.
. Calceolaria rugosa. Yellow.
. Campanula carpatica.
. Verbena Stewart.

. Verbena Forstéri.

. Petinia tridmphans.

Dark crim-
son.

Blue.
Verbena Thompsoniana. Whitish.
Frogmore Pelargonium. Scarlet.
Scarlet.

le.
Scarlet.

Blue.
Dark pur-
ple.

Light crim-
son.

. Tropz‘olum minus flore pleéno.

Orange and yellow.
Dark pur-
ple.

. Calceolaria integrifolia. Yellow.

IG).
20.

By Mr. Caie.

Bouvardia triphylla. Scarlet.
Antirrhinum alpinum. Light pur-

ple.

. Pelargoniumcompactum. Scarlet.
. Petunia, the Germ. Dark purple.
. Alonséa linearis.
. Verbena Hendersoni.
. Campanula carpatica.
. Verbena Melin. latifolia. Scarlet.

. Ivy-leaved Pelargonium. White.

Red.
Purple.
Blue.

28. Ginothéera Drumméndi, pegged
down. Yellow.

29. Tournefortza heliotropioides.
Pale lilac.

30. Verbéna teucriotdes. White and
pink. :

31. Phléx Drummond. Purple.

32. Frogmore Pelargonium. Scarlet.

33. Verbéna amee‘na. Dark lilac.

34.
35.
36.

- 37.

38.

Senecio élegans. Purple.
Calceolaria angustifolia. Yellow.
Verbena, the queen. White.
Verbéna ignea. Scarlet.
Verbena Imridna. Purple.

List of Plants for planting the Flower-Garden fig. 50. By Mr. Pringle.

Throughout the following arrangement, the plants mentioned first will be
The low-growing plants or bulbs, called

edgings, are to be planted in patches about 6 in. within the edgings of the
beds ; and in order to assist the amateur, or those who have not been in the
habit of providing for flower-gardens, I have given the probable number of
each plant that will be required, or at least the number that will be necessary
to fill the bed ; but, as the number required to stock a bed will often depend
on the strength or weakness of the plants, sometimes two or three less or
two or three more than I have mentioned may be required.

lo)

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 175

. Bulbous Iris, 18 plants. Commelina tuberosa, 27 plants.
. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 patches. Standard Roses, 4 plants. German

Asters.

. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 patches. Standard Roses, 4 plants. German

Asters.

. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 patches. Mignonnette. Dahlias, 7 plants.
. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 patches. Tulips, 200 roots. Scarlet Geraniums,

25 plants.

. Edging of Yellow Crocus, 30 plants. Standard Roses, 4 plants. Chry-

seis crocea.

. Edging of Blue Hepatica, 14 plants. Carnations, 18 plants.
. Edging of Heartsease, 26 plants. Dahlias, 7 plants.
. Edging of Heartsease, 26 plants. Hyacinths Single, 200 roots. Shrubby

Calceolarias, 25 plants.

. Edging of Purple Auricula, 30 plants. Standard Roses, 4 plants. Dwarf

Larkspur.

. Edging of Purple Auricula, 30 plants. Double Anemones, 200 roots.

Nierembérgia linearis, 25 plants.

. 20 select Herbaceous Plants in two rows, with a patch of Narcissus be-

tween each plant, for an early bloom.

. Narcissus between each plant, with patches of Fritillaria meléagris, &c.
. Edging of Yellow Auricula, 30 plants. Standard Roses, 4 plants.

Schizanthus venitstus.

. Edging of Yellow Auricula, 30 plants. Ranunculus, 200 roots. Ana-

gallis Monélli, 25 plants.

. Edging of Red Hepatica, 14: plants. Picotees, 18 plants.
17.
. Edging of Heartsease, 26 plants. Jonquils, 200 roots. Lobelia pro-

Edging of Heartsease, 26 plants. Dahlias, 7 plants

pinqua, 25 plants.

. Edging of Blue Crocus, 30 roots. Standard Roses, 4 plants. Calliép-

sis bicolor.

. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 roots. Standard Roses, 4 plants. German

Stocks.

. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 roots. Double Tulips, 200 roots. Salvia pa-

tens, 25 plants. °

. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 roots. Mignonnette. Dahlias, 7 plants
. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 roots. Bulbous Iris, 18 roots. Tigridia pa-

vonia, 27 plants.

. Edging of Snowdrop, 30 roots. Standard Roses, 4 plants. German

Stocks.

. Edging of Striped Crocus, 30 roots. Standard Roses, 4 plants. French

Marigold.

. Erythronium Dens canis, 14 roots. Pinks, 30 plants.

. Polyanthus, 26 plants. Dahlias, 7 plants.

. Van Thol Tulips, 200 roots. Salvia falgens, 25 plants.

. Hepatica, 30 plants. Standard Roses, 4 plants. Godétia rubicinda.

. Turban Ranunculus, 200 roots. Heliotropium peruvianum, 25 plants.

. 20 select Herbaceous Plants, in two rows, witha patch of Martagon Lily

between each two Herbaceous Plants.

. 20 select Herbaceous Plants in two rows, with patches of Gladiolus

communis, or any other hardy species.

. Single Anemones, 200 roots. Nierembérgva linearis, 30 plants.
. Hepatica, 30 plants. Standard Roses, 4 plants. Brachycome tberidi-

folia.

- Double Hyacinths, 200 roots. Pefzinia pheenicea, 25 plants.

- Double Primrose, 26 plants. Dahlias, 7 plants.

. Scillabifolia, 14 patches. Pinks, 30 plants.

. Striped Crocus, 30 patches, Standard Roses, 4 plants. African Ma-

rigold.
N 2

176 On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, &e.

a, Basin of Water, with an enriched sculptured vase in the centre, with jet
d’eau, or other contrivances that the proprietor may choose, according
to the head and supply of water that he has at command.

6 b, Figures, or Groups of Figures, emblematical of the beauties or riches
of the vegetable kingdom.

c c, Vases, elevated on pedestals proportionate to the size of the vase, and
filled with handsome specimens of plants in flower, to be changed
when required during summer.

dd, Beds of choice varieties of Fuchsias, or of choice Pelargoniums.

An Arrangement of Plants for the Flower-Garden fig. 50., by which, when the
Beds are once stocked, they will require very little annual Preparation to keep
up the Stock of Plants; and which may be swtable for some Gardens where
there is not the Convenience of much Glass, and where it is desirable that the
Whole should be kept up at comparatively little annual Expense of Labour. By
Mr. Pringle.

Erica herbacea. Kalmia of species.

Snowdrops. Early flowering Annuals. Dahlias.
Snowdrops. Early flowering Annuals. Dahlias.
Narcissus. Fuchsias.

Eranthis hyemalis. Common China Roses, trained on a flat trellis.
Yellow Crocus. Delphinium of Species.

Gaultheria Shallon. Yellow Azaleas.

Fritillaria. Fuchsias.

Grape Hyacinth. Noisette Roses, on a flat trellis.

10. Auriculas. Herbaceous Plants mixed.

11, Polyanthus. Provence Roses, Dwarf.

12, American Plants mixed.

13. American Plants mixed.

14, Auriculas. Herbaceous Plants mixed.

15. Primula farmosa. Scotch Roses, Dwarf.

16. Gaultheria procimbens. Azaleas, Red.

17. Gentiana acatlis. Scarlet Geraniums.

18. Erythronium Dens canis. Bourbon Roses, on a flat trellis.
19. Crocus, Blue. Potentillas of different species.

20. Snowdrop. Early Annuals. Dahlias,

21. Adonis vernalis. Tea-scented Roses, on a flat trellis,

22. Orange Lily. Salvia patens.

23. Andromedas of different species.

24. Snowdrops. Early Annuals. Dahlias.

25. Striped Crocus. Phlox of species.

26. Vacciniums of species.

27. Pulsatilla vérna. Petunias.

28. Scilla bifolia. Hybrid China Roses, on a flat trellis.

29. Hepatica. Herbaceous Plants mixed.

30. Primula cortusotdes. Perpetual Roses, Dwarf.

31. Rhododendrons of different species.

32. Rhododendrons, Hybrids.

33. Alpine Auricula. Moss Roses.

34. Hepatica. Herbaceous Plants mixed.

35. Hyacinthus monstrosus. Macartney Roses, on a flat trellis.
36. Gladiolus. Fuchsias.

37. Vacciniums of different species.

38. Striped Crocus. Pentstemon of different species.

aa, b b, c ¢, as in the preceding arrangement.

d d, Rose Pillars; or Roses trained on an umbrella or other fancy trellis.

G2. $253) Sp Bie GS go) =

Remarks. By each of the above arrangements a good bloom may be ob-
tained during the flowering season; and out of the two a third might be

Ffleating Apparatus at Strathfieldsaye. 177

arranged. Thus, by taking the beds, 2. 3. 6. 10. 14. 19. 20. 24. 25. 29. 34.
and 38. of the first arrangement, and joining them to the second, the garden
would then bea rosary ; by which, with a proper selection of successional kinds,
with the bulbs and other plants used as edging to the beds, a regular supply
of flowers might be obtained.—J. P.

( To be continued.)

Art. 1V. Notice of a heating Apparatus in the Gardens of His
Grace the Duke of Wellington at Strathfieldsaye. By Joun Joun-
son, Gardener there.

THE apparatus (jig. 51.) consists of a stove (originally Dr. Ar-
nott’s) and two copper cylinders. The stove contains two
copper boilers 1 ft. deep
and 3 in. wide, which form
the fire-box of the stove,
out of which the boiling
water flows by the top
pipe into the cylinder, and
returns by the lower pipe
into the bottom of the
boiler. The cylinders have
each thirty tubes, 1 in.
in diameter, extending
through the whole length
(amongst which the water
flows), giving out an ex-
tent of heated surface
equal to the outside of the cylinder, and through which the air
circulates. The dimensions are, stove 1 ft. 6 in. square, and
3 ft. 9in. in height, including the ornamental cap on the top,
which is 41n. deep; cylinders 1 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and the
same height as the stove, including the caps.

It consumes exactly one bushel of coke per day, the half of
which is supplied every morning and evening. The water is
supplied by a covered valve near the top of the cylinder, as’
seen in the figure. There is a small pipe for evaporation at the
back part of the cylinder. The ornamental caps are moyable,
and conceal the tubes of the cylinders and the feed-hole of the
stove. The smoke escapes by a tube at the back of the stove,
communicating with a flue built in the wall.

There are two of the above apparatuses in the conservatory
at this place, which is 67 ft. long, 27 ft. wide, and 21 ft. high,
and which for the last four years has been sufficiently heated to
preserve the plants from injury from cold or damp.

Strathfieldsaye, Feb. 11. 1843.

N3

Fig. 51. Heating Apparatus at Strathfieldsaye.

178 On making Garden Besoms.

Art. V. On making Garden Besoms. By A. F.

SEEING nothing, in any of your numerous works on gardening and rural
economy, on the manufacture of an article the most essential to, and most
generally used in, every well-kept garden, I have taken some pains to point out
- to you, and, through your Magazine, to my friends in the wide field of garden-
ing, the manly use of besoms, and a very superior mode of manufacturing
them. It is nothing of my own, nor is it, perhaps, new to some of your
readers ; but certainly it is not known or practised by one in a hundred that
have the greatest occasion to do so.

I need not tell you, or any other gentleman or gardener at all acquainted
with rural affairs in this country, that besoms are made of birch, heather, or
any other tough spray that can be most readily come at; but I must tell
you that, when the birch is got in lengths of 3 ft. from the top, it is to be
singled by tearing the strong forked branches asunder with the hands without
any tool, and when this is done the besom-builders begin, two to form the
faggot, and one to bind; and, by the following contrivance, six score may be
bound in an hour by one man.

A rope, of the strength and suppleness of window sash-cord, is to be at-
tached to a beam in the roof of a shed, as in fig. 52.,
and it must be long enough to let one end reach the
floor; this end is to be in a double of the cord for a
man to put his foot into, like a stirrup. The faggot
of birch, straight and the right size for the besom, is
handed to this man, who puts his cord once round the
birch, and, setting his foot in the stirrup, tightens the
faggot in the place where the first tie from the tip is to
be, and keeps it tight till he puts a tarred string twice
round and ties it ; then, shifting his cord to the place
where the other tie is wanted, tightens and ties that in
like manner ; with such a thorough command of, and
such an ability easily to compress, these otherwise
unyielding materials, as cannot fail to please the work-
men and profit the employer, who thus gets a day’s
tying done in an hour; and, instead of making this
trade an excuse for idling away wet days, the gardener... A

: . Fig.{52. Contrivance for
may get a waggon-load of birch worked into besoms in pinding Birch Besoms.
the course of a day, by half a dozen handy labourers.

Now for the wielding of the instrument after it is made; and we shall take,
as an example, the cleaning of a lawn after a morning’s mowing. Every
alternate swarth is to be raked with a common hay-rake, or other blunt-
toothed rake, in such a way as to leave a breadth of two swarths for the
long-handled besom. Along the centre of this cleared space, a man starts
with a flattened besom on the end of a nine-foot handle, and sends all the grass
that he meets with right and left, leaving these two swarths cleanly swept. A
boy or a woman, with a short-handled besom, follows after, and sweeps ten
yards of this ridge upward, and ten yards downward, thus leaving the lawn
studded with heaps of grass 60 ft. apart one way, and 15 or 18 feet apart the
other way. This is again basketed into the grass-cart by a man and a boy
with a couple of boards and a besom. When this plan 1s followed all is regu-
larity ; the long-handled besom, doing the bulk of the brushing without ever
having to touch a blade of grass twice over, is a manly straight-forward sweeper;
for the person stands upright as a dart, and moves forward in a line, swinging
his arms on even balance, furrowing the greensward, whilst the women and
boys with their four-foot besoms lay it in heaps.

The handles of the besoms should be shod with iron in the form of an arrow
head, and have a ferrule on the other end, to prevent the wood from -giving
way in the act of putting the heads of birch on the besom’s tail; and, when

The Squrrel. 179

done in this manner, the same handle will last a life-time, and be softer and
smoother for the hand than the rustic cudgels that besom-makers tail their
faggots with, and sell to cockneys for garden brooms.

Staffordshire, March, 1843.

Art. VI. The Squirrel. By CHARLES WATERTON, Esq.

HorvTiIcuLTureE and zoology are contiguous provinces. Surely,
then, no one in these days of liberality can find fault with Mr.
Wighton for straying a little out of bounds. Let him not fear
the apparition of a birch rod.

If squirrels injure the shoots of my spruce firs, which they
are known to frequent, trivial indeed must be the damage, and
quick the reparation by old Dame Nature, for the trees bear no
marks of aggression.

Had the squirrel been wild, in the wild woods, at the time that
Mr. Wighton saw it eat the birds, I should not hesitate to pro-
nounce that individual squirrel to be carnivorous, because I
believe that Mr. Wighton would only state what he conceived
to be “correct.” Still, we must allow that there are exceptions
to all rules. Don Quixote put Sancho Panza in mind that
summer did not always set in with the appearance of the first
swallow. Sir William Jardine shot a barn owl in the very act.
of hooting. Probably, neither the baronet, nor any body else,
will ever perform a similar feat, for barn owls do not hoot.

I gather from Mr. Wighton’s communication of January 3.
[p- 117.], that his squirrel was 7 captivity when it partook of a
carnal repast. This single fact at once precludes the possibility
of the squirrel family being raised to the rank of carnivorous
animals. The incarceration only of “a few days” might have
injured the prisoner seriously, either in his nervous system, or
in his gastric powers, or in his olfactory sensibilities. Now, a
sudden derangement in all, or even in any one, of these compo-
nent parts of a squirrel’s frame, might have affected his health
sufficiently to have induced him to try a change of larder; and,
should this have been the case, I don’t know a nicer morsel for
the alterative system than a tender and a well-fed swallow.
Under existing circumstances (loss of liberty, to wit), I am not
at all astonished that Mr. Wighton’s squirrel should dine on
bird, raw or roasted we are not informed; even though the
said squirrel were well supplied, on the same table, “ with his
favourite kind of food.”

I wish we knew more than we do of the carnivorous propen-
sities, or the want of them, in certain animals. We might then be
able to account tolerably well for many strange occurrences, which
every now and then puzzle us so much, in the workings of zoo-

N 4

180 The Squirrel.

logical gastronomy. So unaccountable, indeed, are sometimes
the actions both of man and beast, not only in the eating depart-
ment, but also in domestic arrangements, that we might really
fancy the performers not to be quite right in their heads.

Whilst I am actually writing this, there are two geese on the
lawn before me. One of them is a Canada goose, the other a
barnacle gander. ‘The latter is about half the size of the former.
Notwithstanding this disparity, the old fool of a goose has taken
the insignificant little fellow into connubial favour, although
there are four and twenty others of the Canada species here,
from which she has it fully in her power to make a more profit-
able choice. Singular to tell, this is the third year that these
infatuated simpletons have paired, and the goose laid eggs,
without any chance of a progeny. And, in high quarters, some-
times unions take place, where the husband is ignorant of the
language of his wife, and the wife of that of her husband.

How capricious, then, is the taste, not only of Mr. Wighton’s
captive squirrels, but also of geese, and eke of man himself!
By only “a few days’” loss of liberty, I have shown that Mr.
Wighton’s pretty squirrel preferred the flesh of birds to its own
“favourite kind of food.”

My tom-cat, apparently an excellent mouser, will sometimes
eat plentifully of dry biscuit, and turn up his nose at mutton
chop. Sterne’s ass seemed to relish macaroon. Did all asses
relish macaroon, we might doubt the fitness of the Spanish
proverb, “ La miel no es para la boca del asno:” Honey is not
made for the mouth of the ass. Parrots in cages will pull off
their own feathers, and eat them by the dozen. Blackbirds,
although on very short allowance, caused by the frosty weather,
would not touch their favourite ivy berries, which were thrown
down in abundance for them in the garden of my friend, Mr.
Loudon of Bayswater. I knew a healthy old owl who took
her confinement so much to heart that she refused all kind of
food, and died at last for want of it. And, when I was in the
Mediterranean Sea, I saw a brute in the shape of man, swallow
pieces of raw fowl (which he had torn asunder, feathers and
all,) with as much avidity as Sir Robert Peel devours our
incomes.

Should Mr. Wighton read this paper, he cannot fail to perceive
that I have many serious obstacles to overcome, before I can
arrive at the very important conclusion, that the family of
squirrel is carnivorous in its own native haunts.

Walton Hall, March 8. 1843.

Arboriculiural Notices. 181

Art. VII. Arboricultural Notices.

DISBARKING Timber Trees to increase the Durability of the Timber is useful in
the case of the resinous tribe, but injurious with trees that are non-resinous.
This is the result of extensive experience in the South of France by M. Laure
of Toulon. This gentleman has also found that the trunk of the white oak
(Quércus pedunculata), disbarked when in full sap, has a power of reproducing
the bark. Soon after disbarking, some drops of a fluid ooze out, which
thickens and takes a green colour as soon as it comes in contact with the
atmosphere; and this process of oozing out, thickening, and colouring, con-
tinues till the surface of the trunk, which had previously been laid bare as far
as the soft wood, is covered with a rough granulated surface of a greyish
colour without, and of a herbaceous green within. By degrees, a very thin
pellicle is formed on the surface of this exuded matter, which ends in becom-
ing the epidermis of a new bark ; and this bark, by the end of the first
summer, becomes of sufficient thickness to admit of the descent of the sap
from the branches to the base of the trunk. (Ann. d’Hort. Soc. de Paris,
tom. xxxi. p. 17.) [We have known the same thing take place in the case of
a pear tree, the trunk of which had been laid completely bare to the white
wood all round, and for between 3 ft. and 4 ft. in length.]

Raising American Trees from Seed.—Mr. Charlwood’s annual Catalogue of
American Tree Seeds, just printed, is this year unusually rich in the genera
Andromeda, Jiglans, Carya, Magnolia, Pinus, Rhododéndron, and various
others ; and, as packets of these seeds may be sent by post to any part of the
United Kingdom, there never was so fine an opportunity for provincial nur-
serymen and country gentlemen to enlarge their arboretums at little expense.
We would recommend first procuring a catalogue from Mr. Ckarlwood, and
next marking the species wanted, and returning it with an order at the rate of
ls. for every species marked. We mention this mode, because a gentleman
with whom we have been conversing on the subject has complained to us that
some of the kinds are sold only by the bushel, and that he only wants a few
plants to extend his collection. — Cond.

Nuts with a bony Shell, such as those of the olive, holly, hawthorn, &c.,
which at present lie a year in the ground before they germinate, have been
found to grow the first year when the nut is broken, provided the kernel is
not injured. This has been effected in France, in the case of the olive, by the
aid of a small press or a vice, with which, it is said, a female can break 2000
olive nuts in one day, without injuring the kernels. We doubt if this could
be done so easily with the nuts of the holly or the hawthorn, but the sugges-
tion is worth trying. (Annales d’ Hort. de Paris, tom. xxxi. p. 15.)

Paulownia impevidlis, in the Jardin. des Plantes, showed flower-buds in the
autumn of 1841, which stood the winter and came into flower on the 29th of
April, 1842 ; thus proving the great hardiness of the tree when it can ripen
its wood, The flowers are of a fine blue, somewhat like those of Gloxinia
cauléscens, and they have an agreeable smell like those of Philadélphus. The
Paulownia has been propagated to an amazing extent in France, so much so,
that it is said already to have produced more money to commercial gardeners
than any other plant known. The price has fallen from 5 guineas to 2s. 6d.
(Annales d’ Hort. de Paris, tom. xxx. p. 406.)

Balsam Poplars.—The following kinds are described by Dr. Fischer of St.
Petersburg in the Garten Zeitung, vol. ix. p.401., and also in the Botanical
Register for March, 1843. We trust some nurseryman or private gentleman
connected with St. Petersburg will endeavour to procure living plants of
such of them as are not already in this country, or rather of the whole of
them ; for, though there are several of the names in Messrs. Loddiges’s col-
lection, yet the plants are too small to enable us to judge how far they answer
Dr. Fischer’s description. Should this meet the eye of Dr. Fischer, or of

182 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c.

any one else who possesses the whole collection, we beg to state that we shall
feel greatly obliged by a plant or a cutting of each, for which we shall be glad
to reciprocate.

Pépulus balsamifera L., P. tristis Fisch., P. longifolia Fisch., P. cAndicans
Hort. Kew., P. pseudo- balsam‘fera Fisch, P. laurifélia Ledebour, P. suavéo-
lens Lisch.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Agriculture, Botany,
Rural Architecture, Sc., lately published, with some Account of
those considered the more interesting.

A NARRATIVE of a Visit to the Australian Colonies. By James Backhouse. Illus-
trated by three maps, fifteen etchings, and several wood-cuts. 8yo,
pp- 704. London and York, 1843.

Some of our readers may recollect an article on the indigenous esculents of
Van Diemen’s Land, in our Volume for 1835 p.338., by the author of the
Narrative now before us. Mr. Backhouse was at that time in Australia,
on a visit which occupied nearly six years, terminating with 1838. ‘It was
undertaken, solely, for the purpose of discharging a religious duty. During
its course, the writer kept a Journal, in which, having been trained to habits
of observation, records were made, not only on religious subjects, but also on
such as regarded the productions of the countries visited, the state of the
aborigines, and the emigrant and prisoner population, &c.”

The work consists of 47 chapters, and 18 papers as an appendix, and it is
illustrated by many very clever etchings, independently of large maps, and
several wood-cuts. Every chapter is a personal relation of what took place
with the author and his fellow-traveller, and recounts not only what relates
to his “religious duty,” but what he observed as a naturalist, and more
especially as a botanist. The two pursuits appear to have gone hand in hand,
in the most natural manner ; and it is impossible not to be deeply affected by
the sincere piety of the author on the one hand, and on the other instructed
by his observations on the animals, plants, and geological features, that fell in
his way. Add to this the many incidents which befell him im a country un-
der the peculiar circumstances of almost the only inhabitants being either
aboriginal savages or convicts. In a word, Mr. Backhouse’s Narrative is a
singularly entertaining book, as much so as The Lible m Spain; but, though
equally religious, yet quite in a different way.

In the appendix is an enlarged version of the paper already referred to, by
which it appears that there is not a single plant indigenous to Australia worth
cultivating for its fruit, or as a culinary vegetable, unless it be the common
mushroom. Most of the European fruits and vegetables, however, thrive
well. It will readily be conceived that in such a climate as Australia a green
lawn cannot readily be obtained in the summer season; nevertheless we have
a substitute for perpetual verdant herbage in a stemless evergreen Xanthor-
rhee‘a, or grass tree, which reminds us of a plant recommended by Duhamel for
a similar purpese in the warmer parts of France, the ephedra (LZ. of Trees
and Shrubs, p. 937.); while for dry sandy soils, both m France and England,
M. Vilmorin recommends (Vol. for 1841, p. 199.) the Bromus pratensis.

We could extract many singular facts and entertaining passages from this
work, but we prefer recommending the original. We intend, however, to
return to it, and select a list of the plants mentioned, bringing together their
habitats and such other particulars as lie scattered over the volume. We
could wish, indeed, that this had been done by Mr. Backhouse himself, either
in an appendix or in a botanical index.

a

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. 183

Treatise on the cultivated Grasses and other Herbage and Forage Plants, with the
Kinds and Quantities of Seeds for sowing down Land to alternate Husbandry,
permanent Pasture, Lawns, Sc. By Peter Lawson and Son, Seedsmen to
the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Pamph. 8vo, pp. 49.
Edinburgh and London, 1843.

This is a very carefully prepared work, and one which ought to be in the
hands of every farmer who practises the alternate husbandry, and of every
gardener who has lawns to form. The introduction contains the history
of herbage and forage plants, in the early ages, in England, in Scotland, and
in Ireland; and a history of the introduction of species and of varieties. Next
follow descriptions of the true or natural grasses, and of the clovers or arti-
ficial grasses, followed by remarks on sowing by measure and weight, and a
table of weights per bushel, and number of seeds per ounce. Then follow
13 tables of kinds and quantities of grass seeds required for sowing an im-
perial acre ; 1. for alternate husbandry ; 2. for permanent pasture, first mixture
and second mixture ; 3. for permanent lawn pastures, first mixture and second
mixture ; 4. for fine lawns, bowling-greens, &c. ; 5. for lands in preparation for
irrigation ; 6. for pasture and hay in orchards, &c.; 7. for pasturage and cover
in thick shady woods; 8. for heathy and moory lands, &c.; 9. for improved
dry mossy grounds, &c. ; 10. for marshy grounds, &c. ; 11. for warrens and
light sandy links; 12. for dry gravelly situations, &c.; and 13. for drifting or
blowing sands. The following quotations will afford a specimen of the valu-
able matter contained in this pamphlet.

“ Weight of Seeds preferable to Measure.—It was formerly an almost uni-
versal practice to sow the grasses by measure, and the clovers by weight ; but,
of late, the more judicious innovation of sowing the whole by weight has been
successfully introduced ; for although the greater weight in one sort is no
criterion of its superiority over less weight in another, yet a greater weight
in the same kind always denotes. a superior quality. Thus, when seed is
light, and consequently inferior, the greatest number of seeds is obtained by
adhering to a given weight; and hence there is a chance of nearly an equal
number of plants springing up as when the seeds are plump and heavy. But
a given weight or measure, applied to the seeds of different grasses, is no
indication of the number of plants each sort will produce ; there being ma-
terial differences both in the relative bulk and specific gravities of such seeds,
as well as a difference in the number of each which germinate in a given
quantity. In making out the tables, these variations have therefore been
kept in view; and it has also been deemed useful, for the purposes of com-
parison, to subjoin a tabular statement of the average weight per bushel of
each of the kinds of seeds recommended, with the average number of seeds
required to weigh one ounce.” (p. 33.)

In this table, the greatest number of seeds contained in an ounce is in
the case of Agréstis stolonifera, the marsh creeping bent-grass, or fiorin,
amounting to 500,000 ; and the smallest number is in £’lymus geniculatus,
the jointed sand lyme grass, an ounce of the seeds of which contains only
2300 seeds. With regard to weight, a bushel of Cynosurus cristatus, the
crested dog’s-tail grass, weighs 26 lb.; while a bushel of Avena flavéscens,
the yellowish oat grass, weighs only 5lb. In the case of the herbage plants
not grasses, an ounce of Achilléa Millefolium, the yarrow or common mil-
foil, an ounce contains 200,000 seeds, and a bushel weighs 291 1b. while an
ounce of common red clover contains 16,000 seeds, and a bushel weighs
64 lb. As might be expected, the variation in the weight per bushel of the
seeds of the dicotyledonous herbage plants is not nearly so great as in the
case of the proper grasses.

“ Sowing with and without a Crop.—It is not our purpose here to discuss the
question, asto whether it is better to sow grass seeds for permanent pasture
with or without 2 corn crop. Both systems have their advocates, as well as
their advantages and defects, and depend, in a great measure, on the varied

184 _ Literary Notices. — General Notices.

‘

circumstances which present themselves in practice; and therefore, in the
following tables, separate columns are given for each of these methods; it
being always expedient to sow a somewhat larger portion of seeds without
than with acorn crop ; and, in that case, it is farther advisable, for affording
shelter to the young plants, to add a bushel of rye to the mixture when
sown in autumn, and a bushel of barley when sown in spring; to be de-
pastured or cut green along with the young grass crop.” (p. 34.)

As a specimen of the care with which the tables have been drawn up, we
give an extract from IV., which exhibits the mixture for “ Fine Lawns, Bow-
ling-Greens, &c., kept constantly under the scythe.” There are three columns,
viz. for light soils, heavy soils, and medium soils, and in each column there
is the quantity for sowing with a crop and without a crop. We shall give a
selection for a medium soil without a crop, viz. Cynosurus cristatus, 6 lb. ;
Festuca duriascula, 31b.; Festuca tenuifolia, 2 lb.; Lolium perénne ténue,
20lb.; Poa nemoridlis, 13 lb.; P.n. sempervirens, 12 lb. ; Poa trivialis, 12 |b. ;
Trifolium répens, 7lb.; and 7. r. minus, 2ib.; in all 451 1b. to a statute
acre.

“ In walks, bowling-greens, &c., which are wished to be kept as dry as pos-
sible, especially towards the end of the season, Trifolium repens should be
sparingly introduced; and when it is intended to mow the grass by machine,
instead of the common scythe, greater proportions of the hard and fine-leaved
fescues may be sown.” (p. 40.)

The prices of all the seeds enumerated in the tables may be ascertained by
application to the authors for their priced list of agricultural seeds, which
they publish annually.

Art. Il. Literary Notices.

REMARKS on the Laying out of Cemeteries and the Improvement of Church-
yards, forming an octavo pamphlet of 130 pages, with above 50 engravings,
will appear with the present Number. It contains the two articles already
published, and those which are intended to appear; therefore no reader of
this Magazine need have recourse to the pamphlet.

London Nuisances ; viz. Smoke, Water, Fire, Sewerage, Roads, &c., will
appear on April 1., and wili be completed in 12 numbers. The author is A.
Booth, Esq., chemical engineer, whose Guide to London is noticed in our
Volume for 1839, p. 562.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. General Notices.

To prevent Mice from destroying early sown Peas, take a few small slices
of bread, and dust a little arsenic on them. Place these slices on different
parts where the peas are sown, and cover them over with pots or any other
thing, so that nothing but the mice can get to the bread. This plan I have
found quite sure of destroying the mice.— MVM. Saul.

Dammara orientalis has been found by M. Neumann to succeed when grafted
on the Araucaria imbricata. The mode adopted is the wedge side-grafting,
invented by Mr. Barron in grafting the deodara on the cedar of Lebanon,
and described in our Volume for 1838, p. 80. One advantage of this mode
of grafting (by which the stock is not cut over) is, that, if it does not suc-
ceed, the stock is not injured; but with M. Neumann there was hardly a
single failure. Ddmmara australis might probably be rendered halt-hardy by
being grafted on the Araucaria..(Ann. d’ Hort. de Paris, tom. xxx. p. 393.)

Retrospective Criticism. 185

Art. I]. Retrospective Criticism.

CrmeTERIES.—I have perused your paper on cemeteries with very great
interest indeed. I clearly see how constant and deep has been your research
in this department. But I could wish (pardon me) that your pen had here
and there been guided by a Catholic hand. There are no midnight masses,
except on one single night in the year; and that mass is celebrated at
Christmas. Peére de la Chaise was one of the best of men, and did not
deserve the abuse which the Calvinists heaped upon him. I have taken a
good deal of notice of cemeteries, both here and abroad ; hut I should never
think of handling the subject, because my remarks would not suit a Pro-
testant eye. Till the Reformation, a universal belief in purgatory existed ;
that is, a place of punishment hereafter (not endless) for the expiation of
venial sins committed in this life, since nothing impure can enter heaven. The
Reformers, solely on their own authority, thought fit to teach otherwise ; and
this new doctrine of theirs quite changed the face of the churchyard, and
rendered it a dreary waste. Far different was the appearance of our English
churchyards in Catholic times. The cross over the grave was a noble anda
consoling sign. It at once put the visiting friends of the departed in mind of
what their Saviour had suffered for man’s redemption ; and, before they went
away, they would kneel down and say the prayer “ De profundis” for the
soul of him or of her whose remains lay there. Indeed, there is something
so cold and forbidding, and dreary and desolate, in the reformed churchyards,
that, when I am obliged to pass through them, I could fancy that Christianity
had left the land. In Catholic countries, there is something exquisitely sooth-
ing to the mind when one sees the living bowed down in humble and fervent
prayer before the cross at the head of the grave, to beg our dear Redeemer to
take to eternal glory the soul of one who now can no longer help himself. —
Charles Waterton. Walton Hall, March 8. 1843.

Use of Charcoal in the Culture of Plants. — The following is the extract from
the 2d volume of the Biblioteca Agraria of Professor Joseph Moretti and
Carlo Chiolini, respecting wood charcoal, which I mentioned in my letter of
the 7th of December. [p. 140.]

“ From numerous experiments made by the Abbé G. Piccone, this sub-
stance [charcoal] is considered as an efficacious manure. It consists principally
of oxide of carbon, the primary element of vegetable productions, and is,
therefore, undoubtedly calculated to be employed for the purpose specified.
According to the above author, every sort of charcoal, whether of oak,
chestnut, or of any other sort of wood, the refuse of the charcoal, the small
particles, or still better the dust, can be used as manure for every species of
plant and in every soil. The charcoal of close grained wood, therefore, should
be the richer in nutritious particles, as it contains less ashes and earth. The
effect is more speedy and vigorous according to the fineness of the pulve-
risation of the charcoal; if it is coarse the effect is weaker but more durable.
When the charcoal is intended to manure a field for several years, or the roots
of vines and fruit trees, it is not necessary to pulverise it very fine. It is suf-
ficient in such cases to triturate it so that the largest pieces may not exceed
the size of a vetch. The means used for triturating the charcoal are, the olive
presses, mallets, and large pestles of iron or heavy wood, suspended from a beam
of wood like that of turners’ and many other machines. The dust which is
produced during trituration is easily laid by sprinkling it with water. When
the pulverised charcoal is to be used in flower-pots, in furrows, in seed
pans, or in seed beds, itis sprinkled on the surface and incorporated with
the spade or with the watering-pet. This mayalso be done after the plants
have germinated, and are 2 or 3 inches high, according to the nature of
the species. In sown fields the same method is followed in applying it as
with manure. Therefore, in treating ground burnt up by the sun, according
to the opinion of the Abbé Piccone, it is laid on the ground towards spring,
when French beans are to be sown, to preserve them from drought ; to these

186 Retrospective Criticism.

succeed common beans, and afterwards wheat or any other grain without
manure. In soils less arid, the rotation is begun with potatoes, hemp, buck-
wheat, and wheat. In every case the seed should be used sparingly. On ar-
tificial meadows charcoal dust is sprinkled in spring on the surface, as is
practised with chalk and lands containing saltpetre. As to the quantity, the
Abbé Piccone computes about an equal weight between charcoal and woollen
rags, skins, and even scrapings of bones: a rubbo (about 18 lb. avoirdupois)
of charcoal to two of new urine; three of night-soil well digested ; four of
fresh, and six of common, manure. After this, he advises, for olive grounds,
vineyards, orange gardens, or orchards, to allow an interval of four years for
the first time, five for the second, and six for the third, and so on between
every manuring, taking care always to increase the quantity according to the
growth of the trees.” And since we are in the way, allow me to compare
some articles in the Gardener’s Magazine with some in the Latin authors de
re rustica, on the preservation of fruit, &c.

Preservation of Grapes. In the Gardener’s Magazine for 1841, p. 646., the
author says, “ and (I) cut the whole of the grapes remaining, with a joint or
two or more of wood below the bunch. I make a clean cut, and apply
sealing-wax, as hot as can be used, to it, and seal the wood closely, so that
no air can enter in the tissues communicating with the bunch. I then hang
the bunches upon cords suspended across a closet in a cool airy room, taking
care that they do not touch each other ; and, after this, they are cut down as
wanted. To succeed, much depends on the situation where the grapes are
preserved ; they must not be exposed to a current of warm air, nor yet be so
damp as to cause mould. The bunches being well sealed is a most important
point to be attended to.”

Varro, in chap. lvili. De Re rusticé, in answer to Cato, says, “‘ Cato ait,
uvam Aminneam miniusculam et majorem, et Apiciam, in ollis commodissime
condes:” and Cato, in chap. vil. De Re rustica, “ Hee,’ that is, the grapes,
* in ollis, olla in vinariis, conduntur ; eadem in sapa, in musto, in lora recte
conduntur.” Thus far little or nothing can be understood ; but let us hear
Columella, who describes the process at length in chap. xliii. “‘ As soon as
you have cut the bunches of grapes, either those with large berries, or hard
or purple berries, pitch over the footstalks immediately with hard pitch ; then
fill a new jar of burnt clay (new, because it should have no smell) with well
dried straw free from dust, and spread the bunches on the straw ; then cover
this with another vase, and smear them all round with clay very thick and
mixed with small pieces of straw ; and in this state the jars are put on a dry
floor, where they are surrounded with straw. Every sort of grape may be
preserved, provided they are gathered in the waning moon, after it is set, in a
clear sky, after the fourth hour of the day, when the sun has dried up the
dew. But the fire should be lighted as near as possible to boil the pitch in
which the stalks of the grapes are to be dipped.”

Now I ask, what difference is there in the application and effect, between
the sealing-wax of G.G. and the dura piv of the rustici Latini? To succeed

“well, the English author observes that the bunches should neither be exposed

to currents of warm air nor to damp ; and this is what Columella effectually
provides against by placing his grapes in burnt earthen jars on clean and
dry straw, and covering them hermetically with other jars, which he besmears
with clay.
The uncle of Columella, however, made use of another method. ‘“ Marcus
»Columella, my uncle, ordered long jars, like dishes, to be made of the clay of
which amphore are made, and desired them to be coated, outside and in, with
a good coat of pitch. This being done, he had the grapes gathered, purple
grapes, those with large berries, the Numidian, and hard-berried sort, and
immediately immersed the stalks in boiling pitch, and put each sort of grapes
in separate jars, so that the bunches did not touch each other; he then fitted
on the lids to the dishes, which he smeared with a thick coat of cement, and
then plastered them with hard pitch melted at the fire, in such a way that no
moisture could penetrate to them: finally, he plunged these jars in spring

Queries and Answers. 187

water or in a cistern (or in wells, according to Pliny, lib. xv., in which it is
said, ‘ Columelia auctor est in puteos cisternasve in fictilibus vasis pice diligenti
cura illitis mergi’), and put weights upon them, so that no part of them might
emerge from the water. By this means the grapes were preserved in good
condition ; but, when they were taken from the water, they turned sour if
they were not consumed the same day.”—Giuseppe Manetti. Monza, Feb. 5.
1843.
The Bokhara Clover and Physospérmum cornubiénse.—I1 thank you much
for the seeds of the Bokhara clover ; I have given some to one of my brothers,
who will also commence a series of experiments with them, the results of
which shall be communicated to you. J will now beg of you to send mea
packet of seed of Physospérmum cornubiénse of DeCandolle, as I see it
noticed in seyeral papers [see our Vol. for 1842, p. 528.] as a plant which
cattle eat with avidity. —TJd. :
Double Flower- Pots. (p. 136.)—It is remarkable that both I and Mr. Ste-
phens should have proposed to have water at the outside of our pots ; and
that Mr. S. has no pecuniary object in view any
more than myself. He states that there are but
few creeping insects that will venture to cross
from one rim to the other when the space be-
tween is full of water ; but there is one creature
which, 1 think, will pass, and that is the slug.
In the first volume of the Gardener's Chro-
nicle a controversy arose respecting the gal-
vanic protector. I was induced to try se-
veral plans to prevent the slug from destroying
the flowers, and I found that riveting a piece ’
of zine to the rim of the pot, as in jig. 53., Mw J
answered the purpose. The slug was able to pig.53. Half of a Flower-Pot, showing
shoot out its body and feelers, and pass over @ Band of FUL INELE COREE aE
water ; now, if the space betwixt the rims in “97 7" "8
the pots fig. 17. and 18. in p. 136. is not above 14 in., the slug will pass
from one rim to the other, although there is water. Figs. 54. and 55. show
the slugs passing from one rim to the
other. The hinder part of the slug
being fixed on the outer rim, it is able
to shoot out its body to a certain
length, so that if it be able to get hold
with its feelers and mouth on the
inner rim, it finds no difficulty in
drawing its body up after it; there-
fore, to make those pots sure, the
space betwen the rims should be more
than 14 in. wide. I have never proved
whether the slugs will or will not pass
through the water ; and I only wait [~~ A

Fig. 54. Section of the return of the slug season to put De gas Pano eae

Mr. Stephens’s Pot. 5 , ©

: them to the test. The result I hope
to communicate to you, if I am spared to live, and try the experiment.—
iM, Saul. Garstang, March 6. 1843.

Art. III. Queries and Answers.

THE Reason why Bees sometimes die while they have Plenty of Food, in answer
to a Lady Bee-keeper.— This does happen, though rarely ; and it has given rise
to various conjectures. The most plausible reasons are, that some accident
having befallen the queen, the bees have got unsettled, and many of them have
perished abroad ; the few remaining in the hive being too weak to keep up the

188 Obituary.

requisite heat, on account of which the honey becomes candied, and unfit for
nourishment. Although these are the reasons usually assigned, still it is more
likely that a Lady Bee-keeper’s bees died on account of the queen being un-
fruitful ; there being an insufficient number of bees in autumn to supply the
places of those dying off. If the following observations are applicable in this
case, we may conclude that her bees died by the latter way. Last year I had
a hive, called a flight or second swarm, in a large skep full of combs. Durmg
the season the bees collected plenty of honey, but their increase in number
was small, and afterwards they got very weak, owing to there being no brood
reared, though there was plenty of brood bread in the brood combs, which
showed there was no fault in the bees, but in the queen not being prolific. On
the 26th of December the hive in question contained about tea pounds of
honey and only a handful of bees, including the queen, in a weak state. I
may add, that, in all cases that have come under my notice of hives becoming
tenantless during winter whilst they contained honey, there were always
but very few dead bees found in them. This coincides with what I have stated,
viz., there being an insufficient number of bees in autumn to supply the places
of those dying off. —J. Wighton. Cossey Hall Gardens, March 6. 1843.

Art. IV. Obituary.

DIED, March 7. 1843, at his house in Randolph Crescent, after a short illness,
Sir John Robison, K.H. ‘“ His father was the late Professor Robison ; a
man still remembered with veneration by many persons now alive, and one of
whose talents and virtues Scotland may justly be proud. Sir John Robison
passed much of his early life in India; but for many years he has resided
almost constantly in Edinburgh, where his energy in carrying out projects
which he considered to be ef public utility, his zeal in making known merit
amongst ingenious artificers and others, in introducing improvements in the
mechanical arts from abroad, and in carrying out his own elegant contrivances,
obtained for him a well deserved reputation. His original inventions, which
were numerous, were always announced with simplicity and conciseness,
without parade of learning or indefinite promises of merely probable benefits
to result from them. They were almost invariably accompanied by specimens
of his exquisite manual skill, in which, considering the vast variety of practical
subjects he was conversant with, he was probably surpassed by no one.

* Sir John Robison was for many years the indefatigable secretary of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh; and, from the foundation of the Society of
Arts for Scotland, he was one of its most active members, and finally its pre-
sident. He received the honour of knighthood from Queen Victoria in the
first year of her reign.

“ It must be added, that at his house foreigners of any merit or distinction
were constantly received in the most friendly manner, and introduced to per-
sons of congenial tastes. His name is known, and his loss will be felt, far
beyond Scotland or England. There are few countries i Europe which
have not, at one time or other, been represented at his hospitable board.”
(Scotsman, March 8. 1843.)

Sir John Robison has contributed various valuable articles to this Magazine,
and many to the Architectural Magazine, and the Encyclepedia of Cottage
Architecture. In the Supplement to that work is given a description of the
house in which he died, and in which he had combined, with complete success,
every contrivance which he considered requisite to comfort and elegant enjoy-
ment. The contriving and superintending of the execution of this house occu-
pied Sir John’s attention for several years, and the result may be pointed to
as one of the best models of a town-house in existence. We mention these
things in testimony of our great respect for the deceased, both as a friend and
a practical philosopher. — Cond.

"I ee

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
MAY, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I, Comparative Physiology. By R. LympBurn.

Tue knowledge of the science of physiology to practical men
is valuable, as teaching them the functions of the various parts
of plants, and enabling them to apply the necessary food and
training in the best possible manner. Different climates,
seasons, and soils require different treatment; so likewise do
different plants and different states of the same plant; and a
knowledge of the way in which the different functions are per-
formed enables us to apply the necessary food at the best
time, in the best condition, and with most economy. This
knowledge, when acquired by practical men, is also valuable to
science, as enabling those who in their every-day practice have
opportunity of observing the works of nature on a great scale
(as performed by nature itself in a manner that cannot possibly
be wrong, if correctly observed), to examine and correct the
rules laid down by theory. The experiments in the laboratory
are necessarily on so small a scale, as compared with the great
laboratory of nature, that some small circumstance omitted may,
though trifling to the limited extent observed, be of sufficient
magnitude to derange the conclusions of theory. Practice and
theory should thus be mutually beneficial to each other; the
conclusions drawn by scientific men from interrogating nature
In a superior manner, by means out of the reach of practical
men, should, if correct, be found to correspond with the ob-
servations of practice; and, by the constant application of the
one to the other, both will be benefited. The desire of practical
men to benefit from the deductions of science is at present so
great, as to have called forth the exertions of many eminently
scientific men to popularise theory, by simplifying the subjects
treated of, so as to bring them to the capacity of the cultivators
of the soil.

Among the many helps towards the simplifying of the
subject, that of comparative physiology is a valuable assistant,

3d Ser. — 1843. V. )

190 Comparative Physiology.

By comparing parts we do not understand in plants, with those
which are already familiar to us in animals, we get a more com-
prehensive knowledge of their functions. By examining the
function also as to the manner in which it is performed in plants,
we get a knowledge of it as performed in its most simple con-
dition, and are better enabled to understand the more complex
performance of the function in animals, and to separate what
is essential to the function from what is only a more perfect,
though more complicated, manner of performing it. It is ne-
cessary to know the functions which the different organs
perform before we can estimate their value, or know the ne-
cessity of supplying them with proper food; and the more we
can simplify the subject, by classifying one organ in one orga-
nised being with one destined to a similar purpose in another,
we the more readily arrive at a general knowledge of the whole.
We get possession of a few leading facts, to which all the others
are subordinate, thus enabling us to arrange the whole in our
mind by a comprehensive idea of the leading points. We
acquire a knowledge that such functions as absorption, circu-
lation, respiration, secretion, nutrition, and reproduction, are
absolutely necessary and indispensable in all organised beings.
When we wish therefore to acquire a knowledge of any indi-
vidual, our exertions are directed to obtain a knowledge of the
parts or organs destined to perform these leading functions, and
to know how far they agree with, or differ from, the normal
general state of these organs, without which we are unable to
know how they should be fed or trained. .

There are difficulties undoubtedly in comparative physiology,
and it may not be possible exactly to reduce the subject to a
definite order; but it greatly assists our comprehension: and
these difficulties have been ably cleared up in the second edi-
tion of the work recently produced by Dr. Carpenter on the
above subject; which is so elaborate, comprises so great a
quantity of condensed information, exhibits inferences de-
duced therefrom so ingenious and varied, and developes so
many new views, that I have thought it might interest your
readers to have a few of the leading doctrines stated, and
contrasted with those of other physiologists, with such com-
ments thereon as may appear useful. Of course it will only be
possible to give such an outline of the subject as will convey
the leading ideas; but even this, it is hoped, will be profitable,
and stimulate those who are anxious for further information, to
examine the work itself, and judge for themselves on the mass
of information brought forward there under each separate head.
The main object in the work is, to exhibit the connexion between
the different grades of organised beings, to point out the re-
semblance between plants and animals in their functions, and

cd

Comparative Physiology. 191

to trace the connecting links in both, from the lowest up to the
highest forms, and from the commencement of reproduction up
to maturity. It has been thought by DeCandolle, Fries, and
many others, that the best view of the subject is to study the
function in its most complete form, in the highest classes of
beings: but Dr. Carpenter gives good reasons for the opposite
opinion ; it is in the lowest forms of organised beings, and at
the commencement of life, that the performance of the function
is seen in its most simple condition, and the most complete
knowledge attained of what is essential and indispensable in its
due performance.

In the Preliminary Remarks in the Introduction, he com-
mences by stating that Physiology regards the functions or
actions of living beings, and notices the difficulties attending
the investigations of physiologists. ‘The chemist, when de-
sirous of establishing to which of the ingredients in a given
mixture a particular effect is due, places each separately in the
conditions required to produce the result; while the physiologist
finds that the attempt to insulate any one organ, and to reduce
the changes performed by it to definite experimental invyes-
tigation, necessarily destroys or considerably alters those very
conditions under which its functions can be normally performed.”
This is the fruitful source of error in all physiological expe-
riments, and the cause why practical experiments on a large
scale are so necessary to corroborate and confirm the de-
ductions of theorists. Many theories, which from the illustrious
names by which they were brought forward appeared to carry
a warrant with them, have not been found to stand the test of
experience. The operations of nature, though simple, are so
many and complicated that some very minute, though im-
portant, circumstances have escaped observation. Portions of
organs are more easily insulated in the Vegetable Kingdom, and
he recommends therefore to commence with it, where the
sumplest manifestation of the functions of the lowest grades of
organised beings enables us to comprehend and explain the
complicated phenomena of the highest.

On organised structures in general, he regards inorganic or
mineral substances as held in connexion by electrical attraction
merely, every particle possessing a separate individuality. They
may be decomposed as organised substances, but not to the
same extent. “It may be regarded as the peculiarity of an
organism, that all its distinct parts, in their own way, subserve
a general purpose, and conduce to the maintenance of one
whole. The individuality of a mineral resides in each molecule ;
that of a plant (or inferior animal) in each member, and that of
one of the higher animals in the swm of all the organs. Change,
in organised bodies, is essential to our idea of life, and is the

02

192 Comparative Physvology.

rule; in inorganic substances, permanence is the rule and change
the exception. In organised beings there are additional forces
to those of inorganic, resulting from properties nowhere else to
be found, and for which physical laws will by no means account.
The distinction between organic and inorganic bodies is com-
plete: the simplest of aerial flags, as the red snow, &c., as
well as the most simple animalcules, grow from a germ, increase,
reproduce, and die; each, after its own kind, arranging their
particles in the same definite manner. The links between the
animal and vegetable kingdom are close and mutual; but there
is a total want of resemblance in the mode of aggregation by
which minerals are held together.”

Some have held that it is difficult to distinguish between
infusorial animalcules, as nomades and vibrios, and inorganic
substances acted on by electricity. In the hardest animal
bodies particles have been found which have motion, and yet
are without life. Life, however, as explained above, is sepa-
rated from motion; it is vague and absurd, he says, to infer from
these motions that all matter is possessed of vitality.

The distinction between the vegetable and animal kingdom
is more difficult; the above definition, however, of plants pos-
sessing individuality in each member or joint, and animals only
in the aggregate, is the most useful for practice. Sensibility
has been thought distinctive; but some plants possess something
so like sensibility that it can hardly be distinguished from it,
and some of the lower animals, as hydatids, appear insensible to
stimuli. Plants have been said to live only on inorganic, and
animals only on organised, food; but Sir Humphry Davy found
plants to thrive on sugar, gum, jelly, &c.; and, as the depo-
sits of starch, &c., laid up for the food of young buds, germs,
&ec., in the spring, are capable of affording nourishment, it
seems natural to infer that organised substances so minutely
divided as to be capable of absorption may be decomposed in
the same way and serve as nourishment. Miller (vol. i. p. 4.)
says, “plants are nourished by organic substances in solution,
that have not wholly undergone decomposition, and also ge-
nerate organic compounds from inorganic.” Dr. Lindley dis-
tinguishes between the two kingdoms, by plants being destitute
of locomotion, and being congeries of individuals; which is the
most obvious, and perhaps the best, method of distinction. It
is true some animals divide spontaneously, and some are capable
of doing so artificially ; but they are so nearly allied to plants
as to have been sometimes classed among them. Some plants
also, as mushrooms and other cellular plants, will not propagate
by joints as other plants do, their multiplication beimg princi-
pally by ascini, thecz, spores, &c. The Monocotyledons also do
not divide so well into propagating joints as do the higher

Comparative Physiology. 193

classes of plants. Yet, throughout the whole kingdom gene-
rally, the capability of division artificially and spontaneously is
characteristic of vegetables. There is perhaps no absolute dis-
tinction between the two kingdoms; but it is the most obvious
and most general. The editor of Cuvier’s Regne Animal thinks
vegetables and animals will be best separated by their products ;
the whole animal kingdom producing hard bony substances,
either internally, as in the higher classes, or externally, as in the
lower polypi. ‘The duration of existence is in the higher
classes of plants very distinctive as compared with animals. In
animals there is a period of maturity and decay, which we
cannot well arrest by any circumstances we can place them in;
in plants, on the contrary, especially in Exogens, the period of
decay, in natural circumstances, is greatly prolonged beyond that
of animals. By cutting in the tops and roots and removing the
soul, or by propagating from pieces of the plant, we can arrest
their decay to an apparently unlimited extent. It is no doubt
true that plants from seeds are generally more vigorous than
those from other portions of the plant; but the long period in
which such plants as limes, poplars, &c., have been propagated
from pieces without appearing much exhausted, seems to infer
a power of prolonging their existence to which there is nothing
comparable in animals. Hyen in annuals and biennials the life
of the individual may be much prolonged by preventing it
from fruiting, and by propagation of parts, in a much more ex-
tensive way than in the artificial or spontaneous division of the
lower animals, and to which there is no parallel case in the
higher. In plants it is the rule, im animals the exception.

In enquiring into the way in which vital forces harmonise
or interfere with those common to other forms of inorganic
matter, he says: “ In the structure of organised beings may be
detected an arrangement of the ultimate particles very different
from that which crystallisation produces in minerals; it is a
mixture of solid and fluid substances, flexible and elastic, not
rigid and brittle like animals. In plants the solid substances
are more diffused through the body, more external than in ani-
mals, unless in the lower classes. The softest parts, and those
most subject to decay, are the places where the activity of the
living principle is strongest, as in the spongioles of the roots of
plants, and the nervous matter of animals. No elementary sub-
stance, however, is found in these, which does not occur in the
inorganised world. The parent communicates to its offspring,
not so much the structure itself, as the power of forming this
structure from the surrounding elements. Of the fifty-four
elementary substances found in minerals, only eighteen or
nineteen are found in plants and animals; many of these in

extremely minute proportions, though, perhaps, not the less ne-
‘ 0 3

194 Comparative Physiology.

cessary.” On this head he afterwards quotes Sir J. Herschel’s
demonstration, that a force 50,000 times that of gravity may be
instantaneously generated by the action of galvanism on an
amaleam of mercury, with a millionth part of its weight of
sodium; thus showing that the minutest mixture of ingredients
may completely reverse the electrical, and consequently the che-
mical relations of large masses of organised matter. “ The
bulk of the inorganic world is made up of the metals and their
compounds; while the essential ingredients of living bodies are
the non-metallic elements, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and car-
bon; carbon being the most characteristic in vegetables, and
nitrogen in animals. Chemical affinity, the result of the elec-
trical properties of bodies, is affected by temperature ; the
affinities of potassium and iron to oxygen are reversed by -
different states of temperature. A distinct set of vital affini-
ties can hardly be distinguished from chemical, by saying that
all organic substances decompose upon the loss of vitality. It
is, therefore, scarcely a proper definition of life, to say that it is
the power by which decomposition is resisted; it is rather the
provision for the removal of particles in a state of incipient
decay, and their replacement by others freshly united. Car-
bonie acid, the first product of putrefaction, is the substance
given off most copiously during life, as well as death; the inter-
stitial or lymphatic replacement fully compensates for the ten-
dency to decay ; if this is prevented, decomposition and loss of
vital properties ensue.”

It appears, therefore, he considers the power of life to consist
more in the insterstitial displacement of decayed and replacement
of sound particles, than in the prevention of decomposition, be-
cause inorganic substances are also acted on differently in differ-
ent circumstances. It is not clear, however, that the tendency
to decompose is not much greater after dissolution than before ;
the removal of decayed particles preventing accumulation will
not, perhaps, account for the much less tendency to decompose
during life. After death, all the particles, both sound and
decayed, appear to be more acted on by chemical affinity ; and
hence the general opinion that vitality furnishes a resisting as
well as replacing power. The waste of the body producing
decay may be distinguished from chemical affinity, having a
power of displacing the weakened decayed particles, which it
does not possess over the sound ones; and may thus be pre-
vented, by vital force maintaming the sound parts in a con-
dition capable of resisting chemical action, from interfering with
them, while it removes all those particles become unsound from
waste. The carbonic acid given off by animals will be partly
also from substances not assimilated; perhaps partly so im
plants also. The power which enables living bodies to with-

Comparative Physiology. 195

stand a heat of 260° appears more than lymphatic action would
account for. The power of assimilation is a vital affinity, which
has not been imitated or understood yet. The power of light
has been said by some to be wholly chemical, but others regard
it as acting greatly by the stimulus it gives to the power of the
secreting organs in the leaf. The gastric juice of the stomach
is said to act on and destroy dead matter, even the stomach
itself after death; but to have no power on it while living, be-
cause protected by its vital properties. The egg resists putre-
faction at a great degree of heat while alive; but, if the electric
spark be passed through it to destroy life, it soon commences to
putrefy. The blood of the animal, and sap of the plant, though
extravasated, will live and become organised, if connected
with the living system. The blood has been said to be kept
in a fluid state, and tendency to solidify prevented, by its
vital properties; it is said to solidify if forced through dead
tubes. Chemistry has lately been able to imitate some actions
considered as vital: starch can be formed from woody fibre,
sawdust, bark, and other substances; sugar and gum from
starch, &c. These chemical transformations have been princi-
pally, however, in the descending series (though woody fibre
has been said to have been formed from starch by nitric acid
and chlorine), and they have been produced chiefly on what
are called organisable or proximate principles. It has not yet
been thought possible to form any of these from their elements
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; at least none have succeeded
in doing this, though Professor Thomson, in his Vegetable Che-
mistry, seems to think we may yet do so. It may be, that che-
mical affinity is the principal agent by which living organised
bodies are produced, as well as inorganic combinations of dead
matter. But if so, that agency is controlled by a power which
we can only as yet feebly imitate in the production of or-
ganisable proximate principles. I fear the day is far distant
when even these will be produced from their elements; but,
though we should attain so far, when shall we hope to be able
to imitate the power of assimilation which can from such or-
ganisable products, through the mere agency of cells in which
no distinguishing anatomical difference can be found, cause so
many and. such varied secretions and assimilations to take place,
and combine the whole in one system, in which all the parts so
mutually harmonise with each other? Such opinions as the
above, and others, on vitality, &c., have by some been said to
savour of materialism, but erroneously; as the wisdom of the
Creator may be as well displayed in working by one agent as
another.

On the elementary structure of vegetables, he divides the
subject, as in other similar works, into—1. Cellular Tissue ;

o 4

196 Comparative Physiology.

2. Woody, or Fibrous, Tissue; 3. Vascular Tissue; but has the
new addition of, 4. Laticiferous Tissue. ‘ The basis of all the
elementary tissues may be considered as membrane and fibre;
the one, perhaps, formed by the adhesion of single particles in
expanded surfaces, the other by their union in lines.” Some
have thought them produced by the different kinds of elec-
tricity; that which gives out the brush producing membrane,
while that which gives off the electrical matter in a pointed
form produces fibre. Vegetable membrane he defines as per-
meable to fluids, though always, unless in some very few
instances, destitute of visible pores. Elementary fibre he com-
pares to hair of extreme tenuity, often not exceeding 72355
of an inch, usually disposed in a spiral direction; the adjacent
threads having a peculiar tendency to unite and grow together ;
whether hollow or solid not easily determined. The descrip-
tions of the tissues are similar to those of other authors. Cel-
lular tissue, varying from =, to 3/59 of an inch in the diameter
of the cells, 1s capable of growth in all directions, forming
the parenchyma, or flesh of plants, and the great bulk of the
organs in which active vital processes are performed. <A
modification of this (the elongated cellules of De Candolle and
others) he describes as vasiform tissue, the largest of all kinds
of tissue formed by the union of cells laid end to end, the par-
titions between them being more or less obliterated, thus forming
a continuous tube. The descriptions of Ugneous tissue, or
woody fibre, forming the essential organs of support, consti-
tuting first the alburnum or sap wood, and afterwards, by the
deposition of various secretions in its tube, forming the du-
ramen or heart wood, with its modifications in the Conifere,
or fir trees; as also of the vascular tissue, distinguished by pos-
sessing a spiral fibre coiling within its membranous tubes from
end to end, resembling the trachez or air vessels of insects in
always containing air, though, being closed vessels, the gaseous
contents have to permeate the delicate membrane of the tubes
in plants closed at the end. These are described in a manner
so similar to other elementary works as to prevent the necessity
of lengthening out the present essay by any more detailed
account. The laticiferous tissue he describes “ as consist-
ing of a series of branching tubes anastomosing with each
other, so as to form a network, in which the vatex, or elaborated
sap, flows. This branching character is its chief difference from
other forms of tissue; the walls of the vessels, though very thin
and scarcely visible in the young plant, become thickened after-
wards, but the structure is not different from what we find
elsewhere. ‘The sides are not parallel as in other vessels, but
often contracted and expanded at intervals; the average dia-
meter about +455 of an inch. This tissue is present in most

F rey
2 ae? aT Ny

Comparative Physiology. 197

flowering plants ; but, lying in no regular direction in regard to
the other vessels and fibres, have been commonly overlooked.
They resemble the capillary vessels of the lymphatic system of
animals ; but, in elementary structure, do not differ from vege-
table cellular tissue; the branching character being due to an
arrangement of the primary cells, in which these tubes ori-
ginate.”

The tissues he thinks, to a certain extent, transformable; all
the tissues have been said to be formed of the cellular. He
is of opinion, that in animals it is not so much from the cellular
matter, ordinarily so called; the cellular, like all the other tissues,
being preceded by the existence of a semitransparent gelatinous
matter, of which the entire embryo seems at an early period to
be formed, and which may be regarded as a vesicular structure re-
sembling that of the inferior plants and animals. The cells of
which it consists give origin simultaneously to the various kinds
of tissue, and disappear as they are evolved. Cellular tissue may
be transformed into the other vessels, but will retain the form
impressed on it. A similar gelatinous semiorganised matter is
found in the peculiar juices (cambium) of plants, which is ex-
ceedingly apt to assume the appearance of membrane, and is
likely similar to that of animals. The opinion seems very
general that elongated cellules, dotted ducts, &c., which follow
the woody fibre up the stem, and extend into the centre
horizontally by the medullary rays, are formed of cells united,
compressed, and perforated ; and that the spiral cells, or fibro-
membranous tissue, as also the different modifications of spiral
vessels, are formed from cells round which spiral threads are
coiled in various ways, and to various extent; simple, and in-
terrupted, or dotted, as in some varieties, up to the perfect spiral
vessel, which is coiled all round. Some have ascribed the same
origin to woody fibre, but its toughness and elasticity have been
thought distinct from modifications of common cells. They are
found formed in bundles, probably from what might have been
round cells, but elongated at the time of formation from some
peculiar action on the granules. Mirbel says, in watching the
evolution of Marchantza, he found the cells elongate, and spiral
fibres to be formed on them; these spiral cells, and the ducts of
ferns, he thinks a transition forwards to the true spiral vessel.

«* Membrane and fibre compose the vegetable tissues; mus-
cular fibre and nervous matter are peculiar to animals, and, for
the most part, restricted to those parts of the fabric subservient
to the functions purely animal, namely, sensation and voluntary
motion. One of the characteristics of animals is the possession
of a digestive cavity, to store up the food for the continued
supply of the absorbent system, and cause it to undergo a
certain degree of preparation; this addition to the absorbent

198 Comparative Physiology.

apparatus of plants being required by the locomotive propen-
sities of animals, and the nature of their food. Nerves and
muscles are needed for the motions of the stomach; and for the
regularity and constancy of the movements of the blood in the
circulating apparatus, the peculiar contractile powers of mus-
cular fibre are needed in the impelling organ, the heart.”

The distinction here drawn between plants and animals, in
the latter for the most part possessing a digestive cavity, and a
special circulating apparatus, points out the soil as the stomach
of the plant, and the diffused contractility of the vegetable
system, united to the power of endosmose, as the circulating
power. As in the stomach and alimentary canal of the animal
the food is prepared for absorption, so in the soil, by the action
of heat and moisture, and of the air and electricity, the food of
the plant is reduced to a soluble state, fit for solution in water,
without which it cannot be absorbed by the spongioles of the
root, which have been thought, with apparent reason, to have
also an action of their own on the food. We all know the
necessity of keeping the soil in an open pulverised state, to
admit air, heat, and moisture freely, retaining as much as pos-
sible of the former, and only as much of the water as can be
held in absorption by the particles of earth themselves. The
circulation, though of a much feebler kind than that of animals,
is carried on by the process of endosmose, or the power of
denser fluids, inside of a membranous sac, attracting the thinner
fluids outside, by which means the sap is raised to the leaves,
where it is elaborated and evaporated to a more dense consist-
ency, and attracts the more fluid ascending sap. This power,
united to the diffused contractile power of the vessels, supposed
to be caused by electricity, assisted, perhaps, by gravity in the
descending sap, produces the circulation, all of which will be
found treated more particularly when we come to absorption and
circulation. ‘The respiration is carried on through the whole
surface, but principally in the leaves. Some have thought the
action in the leaves similar to digestion; but though carbonic
acid is absorbed, and water evaporated, which causes it to differ
from animal respiration, and though the chemical power of
transformation in the sap is no doubt assisted by light, yet
similar transformations take place in the blood of animals, where
light does not act, and perhaps too much is ascribed to the
power of light on the leaves.

The power of light is, perhaps, as much stimulant as chemical,
as light itself without the leaves will not act as it does with their
assistance. Aeration in leaves, though different from that in
lungs, is likely a similar function. At all events, in com-
parative physiology, leaves can only be viewed as the respiratory
apparatus, if we wish to classify organs for the purpose of com-

Comparative Physiology. 199

paring them together. There will also be found a correspond-
ence between plants and animals in the manner of performing
the remaining functions of secretion and reproduction, when we
come to these.

He next takes a General View of the Vegetable Kingdom, which
he computes at between 70,000 and 80,000 distinct species
already existing in collections, and probably as many more still
undiscovered. He notices the difficulty of laying down perfect
distinctions between the different groups, and fixing distinctive
characters. ‘ The Phanerogamia (or flowering) and Crypto-
gamia (or fruitless plants), two great primary divisions, are
distinguished by the want of vessels in the latter; being mostly
"amass of homogeneous cellular matter, having absorption, cir-
culation, and aeration performed by the whole mass. The ferns
and mosses, however, belonging to Cryptogamia, have a woody
stem, and evident indications of vascular structure, though no
true spiral vessels; there are also some species of Phanerogamia
to be found in which spiral vessels cannot be detected.” He
continues to trace the anastomosing of the different tribes with
one another, and the difficulty of fixing on any distinctive points
of difference, in consequence of the connecting links which run
through the whole. ‘The belief that there is no such thing in
nature as abrupt transitions is more and more confirmed as new
plants are discovered, to fill up what were formerly reckoned as
wants. This is a bar in the way of distinct separative definitions
of plants, which greatly facilitate the acquirement of names by
the analytical method.

Artificial classification depends more on single characters ;
natural, on a mass of characters. The natural method is better
fitted for synthesis than analysis; the most distinctive analy-
tical characters of natural systems are artificial. External cha-
racters are most easily discerned, and, in systems of botany,
simplicity is greatly promoted by using external characters. In
the primary divisions of the natural system of botany, external
characters can be traced to correspond with the internal; they
have real distinctions in nature, and appear to be created by
nature as independent forms of organised matter. Their pecu-
liarities are connected with their whole nature, and not with
modifications of particular parts merely. There are, no doubt,
connecting links, but they do not confuse, and the distinctions in
the primary classes are obvious and easily observed. As we
descend, however, in the scale of division, natural distinctions
are not so obvious, and the lower divisions of natural systems
are in great part artificial. A knowledge of the names of plants
is the first and most essential step in botany. We must know
the name of a thing before we can speak of it, or understand
what is said about it; for the acquirement and communication

200 Comparative Physiology.

of knowledge names are alike necessary. For the acquirement
of names, especially in small local floras, the Linnaean was the
most easy; many of the classes were natural, and some forcible
separations from them, by abortive stamens, &e., were remedied,
in some works, by references at the stations to which alterations,
&c., would lead. To gardeners, and other students in the
country, where botanical named collections cannot be referred
to, the Linnean system is most simple, and the distinctions most
easily remembered. The most popular works were also based
on that system, and in such as the Botanical Arrangements of
Withering, Smith, Hooker, &c., so much attention has been
paid to individual plants, from their number being more limited -
in local floras, and the facility of reference to plants growing in
a state of nature, that the distinctions were very marked, and
the plants comparatively more easily decided on. In the natural
systems a greater mass of characters are grouped together, and
it is more easy to combine them synthetically ; but the arriving
at the name is an analytical process, and it is more labour for
the student to select distinguishing characters among so many
as are generally given in natural systems. To the student in the
country, who has not the benefit of a preceptor, nor of a named
collection, the natural systems are likely, therefore, to appear, at
least at first, more repulsive.

The deficiencies in the Linnean system, however, have be-
come more apparent, from the immense additions lately made to
the number of plants. In small local floras these defects were much
remedied by references; but the separation of natural groups re-
quired to follow it up completely, in the general flora, were many,
and hence natural systems are now most generally approved of.
They combine plants more according to their natural affinities ;
which, though found to anastomose together in the extremities,
are yet, for practical purposes, sufficiently distinctive to enable
the mind to comprehend and arrange them in groups, which
assist the memory to retain a comprehensive idea of the whole,
and refer them to their stations more easily than under artificial
characters. When orders, alliances, and groups are properly
based on real, not analogous, affinities, by a strict conformity in
the essential parts of fructification, as im the grasses, composite
flowers, Labiate, Cruciferz, &c., it greatly facilitates the com-
prehensive idea of the whole in parts. Even genera, as Rosa,
Rubus, &c., often admit of distinctive natural affinities. Most
of the divisions are, however, still artificial, and natural systems
are still very imperfect; sufficient attention has not yet been
paid to the drawing out of the distinctions of plants, in perma-
nent structural differences. In works of descriptive botany, one
single such character is of infinitely more value than an immense
mass of others, which only tend to confusion. Much has been

Comparative Physiology. 201

done by Lindley, Bentham, Brown, and others, to remedy these
defects, but much remains still to be done. Distinctions of
species are confined to superficial and external characters, the
higher structural characters being reserved for the higher divi-
sions, which are generally confined to fructification, though
sometimes very permanent characters are to be had from less
essential parts of the plant. Great experience and judgement,
and much reasoning from physiological knowledge, are required
in deciding what are permanent characters and what only trans-
itory ; and the want of attention to this has been the cause of
much confusion, both in species and genera. Much confusion
has arisen from the many different names given to the same
plant, by selecting mere varieties as species; by the splitting
of genera that might well have stood together, and uniting
others that had no call to be so. Undoubtedly many of the
changes are necessary; but they greatly tend to confusion, and
it would be well if botanists would attend to the rule laid down
by some of our most eminent scientific men, rather to put up
with trifling inconveniences than to change without urgent
necessity can be pleaded. It would be well if, as in pronounc-
ing dictionaries, some preeminent authority could be decided on
to which all might bend. Much money has been lost needlessly
in purchasing what was before possessed, and the public are
getting tired of changes, unless good reason can be shown for
them, and a prospect of their being permanent. There is much
need for some energetic methodical mind, like that of Linneus,
to bring order out of confusion.

In the lowest groups of plants, as fungi, lichens, alg, &c., it
is not easy to define them, he says, by their structure. “ Lichens,
if removed from light and over-supplied with moisture, have a
tendency to assume the appearance of alg. In such simple
forms of vegetation as Protoccécus nivalis ‘(red snow), Palmélla
eruénta (gory dew), and the nostoc or fallen star, there is only a
simple aggregation of vesicles without any definite arrangement ;
sometimes united, sometimes not, and by their rupture giving ex-
istence to the germs contained within. By some they have been
placed among algw, by others among fungi, by others among
lichens. In beings of such simplicity, there are no definite cha-
racters to determine their affinities.” He next traces the ascent in
the scale of existence from minute fungi, as mould, mildew, &c.,
in which the absorbent nutritive and reproductive functions ap-
pear confounded with each other, up through mushrooms, in which
a distinct stem is developed separating the pileus or cap, the
reproductive system from the nutritive of the root, showing
how a progressive complication of form arises without any al-
teration of the original characters of the simpler members of the

group, and conducts upward to the higher classes. The Cryp-

202 Comparative Physiology.

togamia and Endogens are connected through Rhizénthex, which
resemble the former, but have spiral vessels like the latter.
Endogens, again, are connected with Exogens by the Conffere,
which have the vessels distributed in a manner approaching the
Endogens in some, and, from the want of perfect spiral vessels
in others, approach the eryptogamous lycopodiums.

On the question whether the lower plants, as fungi, are de-
veloped from distinct germs, or generated by processes antecedent
to their formation, by what has been called spontaneous gene-
ration, he says: “ the infinite number of sporules the fungi pro-
duce, stated by Fries as ten millions from a single individual,
so subtle as scarcely to be perceptible, and so light as to be
raised by evaporation, and dispersed in so many ways by attrac-
tion, insects, wind, elasticity, &c., renders it difficult to conceive
a place from which they can be excluded. The germs thus
constantly floating in the atmosphere are developed according
as the nature of the decomposing matter they alight on is re-
spectively adapted to each, showing why certain kinds are
always found in certain situations.” In the fungi found on
roots it is still more curious how each is adapted, and to be
found in the several situations. No sooner are the roots pro-
truded from some plants, than their own peculiar fungi are to
be found on each, and nourished by the peculiar excretions of
the roots. “The same germ may, however, assume widely
different forms, according to the circumstances which influence
its developement; and it would seem the absolute number of
species among fungi is not nearly as great as has been usually
supposed; and that the kind produced by a decomposing in-
fusion, or a bed of decaying solid matter, will depend as much
upon the influence of the material employed as upon the germ
itself which is the subject of it.” On this head he quotes
the great number of species, and even genera, which have
now been found, by Fries and others, to be only different
states of the same species; and the appearance of different
species in fluids, in Dutrochet’s experiments, according as
acids or alkalies were added. ‘This subject is again re-
sumed in the chapter on Reproduction; it is to be wished,
however, that such variations should rather be referred to in-
completeness in the characters of species by the botanist who
first named them, than to any uncertainty in the developement
of germs, which savours too much of equivocal generation, and,
if once admitted, might tend to confusion. There are so many
ways of one germ being substituted for another, and it is so
nearly impossible to guard against this, and the variations of
species are so apt to be classed as distinct species even in the
higher plants, that the facts observed may be resolved perhaps
better into these than any other.

aah, ai
a ee

Comparative Physiology. 203

On the question whether fungoid growths on leaves, &c.,
may be regarded as degenerations merely of the tissue on
which they grow, he quotes the opinion of Unger, that blight,
mildew, smut, &c., are diseases of the stomata; the Exan-
themata (eruptive fevers) of vegetables. <The state of our
knowledge at present is not such as to enable us to decide
whether, as reproduction seems only to be a peculiar form of
nutrition, if its regular form of developement be prevented, it
may not give origin to beings of more simple organisation, and
these fungi be formed in place of higher forms of existence.”
“Many substances once thought fungi,” he says, “are now
found to be only accidental and irregular expansions of the tissues
of flowering plants, become deformed through growing in the
dark, as in cellars, caverns, &c. Animals and plants are both
liable to the growth of fungi within their bodies.”

To say that degenerations of tissue might give rise, when
prevented from higher developement, to beings of more simple
organisation, is not so indicative of divine wisdom, as to say
that the diseased morbid matter of the tissue formed the
food of the germs of an inferior being. The germs of
these fungi have been generally thought to give rise to blight,
mildew, &c. They undoubtedly appear as diseases of the
leaves, whether of the stomata or not. Whatever checks
erowth appears to cause a morbid diseased state of the cuticle
on all the places where growth is most active. When beeches,
especially large plants in hedges, are stopped in their growth
by spring frost and drought afterwards, the diseased state of
the leaves and young shoots appears in an exudation of sap,
which attracts innumerable swarms of aphides. If the weather
sets in moist, warm, and encouraging growth, after the check
by frost, the disease does not extend so far. It is the same
with the larch and some other plants, when attacked by frost
and subsequent drought. Thorns do not suffer from frost, but
they are exceedingly fond of moist wet weather, and in moist
summers I have always observed them to make most growth.
In dry weather, if continued long, they never fail to set up
in growth, and the whole quarters of that plant in the nursery
grounds become white in the foliage with mildew. It has
been generally thought to arise from the imperceptible germs
of mildew floating m the atmosphere, which, from the diseased
state of the leaf, have (like the insects attracted in the case of
the other plants) found here their proper food, without which
their developement could not take place. If this were an erup-
tion from the stomata, it should appear most on the under side
of the leaf; but the reverse is the case; it appears principally on
the upper side of the leaf; and, when refreshing showers com-
mence and continue for any length of time, it is washed off the

204 Comparative Physiology.

leaves, and the plants start into a new growth. Sulphur
sprinkled on the mildew also banishes it, and is thought to
kill the fungus. It appears more in the light of an exudation
through the cuticle attracting and feeding the fungi, than an
eruptive fever of a substance resembling fungi through the
stomata. A cold drought appears to have more effect on most
plants subject to mildew on the leaves, as peaches, peas, &c., than
a warm drought; but drought appears the most active agent with
most plants in producing this disease. Any state of the
weather however, or soil, that will arrest vigorous growth sud-
denly, appears to cause it. That it isa real plant and not morbid
matter, I think may be proved from the fact that, where peach
trees on walls have been much infested with it, it has been
found in the soil of the border around the roots; and the disease
could not be banished, in some instances, till the soil was totally
removed and the plants washed all over. That fungi will pro-
pagate in this way, I have had ample proof in the willows in
our nursery, which were attacked by an orange yellow fungus,
which in the first year appeared to have been wholly external
in its ravages; but in subsequent years appeared to have been
partly, and latterly almost wholly, taken up by the roots and
conveyed to the leaves; as the eruptions occurred principally on
the veins and midribs of the leaves, and the cuticle was evidently
thrown up outwards and not pushed inwards, as in the first
season. The mildew in frames is caused by damp, not drought,
and is removed by exposure to dry air. It takes place on the
surface, and appears a putrefaction of some substances on the
surface of the soil, which communicates to the neck of the plant
and destroys it, and does not appear a diseased state of the plant
itself. Moisture in excess should be more apt to kill by canker,
ulcer, or gum, than by mildew: some gardeners have thought
wetness a cause of mildew on peas; Mr. Knight, however, always
considered it to be caused by drought, and I should think it
most likely. He calculated 250 millions of seeds from a
single mushroom in ninety-six hours. Mildew cannot be ge-
nerated by the plant itself, he says: the cause, he thought,
was the want of moisture and food to the roots, causing
stagnation. If wetness caused stagnation of growth it might
end in mildew, but I should think it not so likely. He no-
tices the discovery of fungi in yeast, but does not say whether
he thinks them a cause or consequence. Liebig ascribes fer-
mentation to the presence of nitrogen, and says, it will not
commence or go on without nitrogen; but neither would fungi
grow without it; and, notwithstanding many eminent men as-
cribe fermentation to fungi, it appears still doubtful.

The affinities of the principal divisions of the Vegetable King-
dom, he says, may be generally expressed in the following
manner : —

Comparative Physiology. 205

EXOGENS.......ENDOGENS.

ca] ‘
s RR
leet ieal
5 E
i Z
© <x
a BN
= a
ma ACROGENS. lame
ids) Cs OE AO SS SE _
, SSS =
FERNS, ETC. PROTOPHYTA. FUNGI.

“Starting from the simplest alee and lichens, which re-
semble one another closely in every respect, unless their locality,
and which are classed under the general name of Protophyta or
simplest plants, we may pass on the one side, through the
Hepaticee and mosses to the ferns, the highest among the
Acrogens, or Cryptogamia. From mosses and ferns the transi-
tion is easy, through the Lycopodiacez (club mosses) and Gym-
nosperme (Conifer, &c.), to Exogens. Exogens and Endogens
have many connecting links; and, from the latter group, the re-
turn to the fungi is direct by the Rhizanthez, whilst the simplest
forms of the fungi bring us back again to the Protophyta.”

In the next chapter, he traces the connection between the
different groups of animals and the manner in which their af-
finities unite and separate, showing the connecting link between
the lower and the higher, and their gradual approximation to
one another. In tracing the manner in which the grand divisions
are connected, and enquiring how far these divisions may be re-
garded as analogous to those of plants, he expresses their affini-
ties as passing from Phytozoa the simplest forms of animal
structure, through Molltisca and Cephalépoda, to Vertebrata the
highest in the scale, and returning by Articulata, through Ho-
lothiiride and Radiata, to Phytozda again. If these divisions
be admitted, he says, “as expressing the principal types of
structure, a very curious series of analogies may be pointed out,
which indicate their correspondence with those of vegetables. Tn
making such comparisons, it should be carefully kept in mind
that we must not expect to find among plants any characters
analogous to those peculiar to the animal kingdom; and that we
must be guided, rather by the general plan of structure and
arrangement of the organs, than by any of those details which,
in the higher classes of animals especially, are so much modified
by their connexion with the function of relation. Perfection
in the vegetable kingdom having reference to the nutritive
system alone, whilst among animals it is the manifestation, in
the highest degree, of the powers of sensation and locomotion,
and of the psychial faculties connected with them. Keeping

these Benciptes in view, we proceed to point out the affinity
3d Ser. 1843. — V. P

206 Comparative Physiology.

between Phytozda, the lowest group of animals, and Proto-
phyta, the lowest of plants. They approach each other so
closely as to be distinguished often by supposed differences only.
They correspond in their nutritive functions, the lowest in each
absorbing by their whole surface. The lichens absorb by one
surface only, and in this resemble Polypifera, which have the
absorbent power restricted to the sides of the digestive cavity,
the external surface being excluded by its hardness. Traces of
the higher animals have been found among the lower, as if
Nature, at the commencement of her work, had given us a
sketch of the different forms she intended to adopt in the higher
parts of the scale. So, in like manner, among the lower plants,
in Protéphyta, traces of Endogens and Exogens may be found.
The fungi and Radiata correspond in the tendency exhibited
in the higher divisions of fungi to the arrangement of parts
around a common centre, so characteristic of the Radiata (star
fish). The ferns have the spiral mode of developement very
evident, in the arrangement of the leaves both in themselves
and around the stem*, to which the Gastrépoda (typical Mol-
Itisca) approach more than other animals; they also form their
shells by additions to the edges, as ferns do their stems by the
addition of the petioles of the leaf. The Articulata (insects)
resemble Endogens, in their haying the hardest portions or
organs of support external; the additions to their tissue being
formed from within, and the trachea being distributed, like the
tubes in Endogens, through the whole system. Finally, Ex-
ogens may be considered analogous to Vertebrata, in the
internal situation of their hard parts, the formation of new
tissue from without, and the confinement of the internal respi-
ratory apparatus to a particular situation in the fabric. The
process of decortication in some plants reminds us of the exuvi-
ation among serpents. The following table will place in an
obvious aspect the position of the principal groups of the animal
and vegetable kingdoms : —

ANIMALS. VEGETABLES.
Ree ee \y VR Bee

PHYTOZOA. @ PROTOPHYTA.

AiG AMINA, ‘Nese pocesssceoccceeccece oy, pap anise ea SS) ENDOGENS.
<< RADIATA @/......... 9 FUNGI.

ee

* Some authors say the spiral is the true mode of developement in plauts ;
and that the radiated or whorled is an arrestment only of that spiral ; even
the opposite leaves they reckon unnatural.

Comparative Physiology. 207

“ Some zoologists divide the animal kingdom into three
groups, Vertebrata, Annulosa, and Mollusca; plants would
then be Exogens, Endogens, and Acrogens; the Mollusca in-
cluding Mollusca, Radiata and Phytozoa, as Acrogens do Ferns,
Fungi and Protophyta.

“In the foregoing arrangement, what has been called the
circular system has, to a certain extent, been adopted. From
whatever point we start, we may, by pursuing the various gra-
dations of structure presented to us, return again to the same
point. This is characteristic of a natural group, which never
ends abruptly, beginning with the highest and ending with
the lowest. The typical member of a group is that which ex-
hibits its peculiarities of form, structure, and economy in the
greatest perfection; the types of the different groups being
always more widely asunder than the aberrant members which
connect them. It may be doubted whether the circular arrange-
ment 1s competent to express all the affinities of natural groups;
it is probably better represented by a sphere than a circle; its
typical form being the centre, and the aberrant members con-
nected by affinity in all directions. We constantly meet with
exemplifications of the circular form in the groups both of plants
and animals; but its universality has by no means been esta-
blished ; much less can the number of divisions in each circle be
restricted to five, as proposed by some.”

On the Symmetry of Organised Structures, he remarks, “ that
besides the uniformity of the parts composing the two sides of
the body in the external form of animals, or bilateral symmetry,
there is a symmetry also in the regular arrangement of many
similar parts around a common centre, as in the Radiata, or in
a spiral disposition of similar organs around a cylinder, which
is the type of symmetry in the vegetable kingdom. In the simpler
algz, lichens, and fungi, the growth is so modified by circum-
stances that it is impossible to assign determinate bounds to
the outline ; and hasty attempts to characterise the races by
external form have led to much erroneous multiplication of
species. In the higher fungi we find the radiated form. In
the mosses the leaves begin to be spirally arranged round the
axis; and the spiral arrangement is more conspicuous in
ferns. In the Phanerogamia it may be regarded as the general
law of the arrangement of the branches, leaves, and parts of
the flower, that they are disposed spirally around the axis
of growth, though the proof might sometimes be difficult
from perturbing causes. Opposite and whorled leaves will be
rendered spiral or alternate by any cause which gives full de-
velopement to the stem. ‘The circular arrangement of the parts
of the flower also arises from the non-developement of the axis
of the stem. The spiral is evidently formed by the union of a

[Pp

208 Comparative Physiology.

circular and longitudinal motion. When the axis is not deve-
loped therefore by the latter, the former or circular prevails.
In the lower animals the circular and spiral symmetry prevails.
In Articulata (insects) the d7-lateral symmetry is carried to its
greatest extent, the locomotive powers being developed to their
highest extent. In Mollusca the locomotive organs are adapted
only for slow and feeble progression; and the nutritive appa-
ratus constitutes almost the entire bulk of the body, and there is
a general want of lateral symmetry. In Vertebrata the uni-
formity of the two sides is only external, the nutritive organs
apparently being developed internally on an asymmetrical
plan.”

The fascicled appearance of the leaves of pines, the whorled
leaves of many plants, and the circular arrangement of the parts
in flowers, have been termed abortive, from the greater part of
the branch, called the axis, being wanting. The doctrine has been
carried so far as to call the parts of a flower mutilated leaves. To
a certain extent the doctrine is true, as we frequently see a branch
developed from the centre of a flower; perhaps, however, we are
not warranted to call every departure from a former to a new
mode of developement abortion, because parts of the one are want-
ing to the other. The power which gives the longitudinal or ver-
tical developement to plants is always found associated with the
radiated or circular, as in the medullary rays of Exogens, and the
circular joints of Endogens. It is found to prevail most in the
higher classes of plants, and, united to the circular, to cause
the spiral arrangement of the leaves on the branches; but,
though in the flower the circular developement overcomes in
many instances the vertical, it does not follow that it is by
abortion ; itis the way in which flowers normally develope, and
we cannot say that it would have been more perfect to elon-
gate. It is also repugnant to our ideas of flowers being con-
cerned in the highest function of reproduction, to have them
denominated abortions or mutilations. Transformation would
be a better term, as it would really seem from stamens and
pistils becoming petals, and petals becoming partly or wholly
leaves, that they are undoubtedly convertible forms, according
to the nature of their food and other circumstances they are
placed in. Abortion would be more properly confined to such
instances as interfere with the normal number of parts, as in
stamens, petals, &c., when wanting; and mutilation or de-
generation to parts more obviously deformed from their not
being developed in the usual manner, as in full flowers, &c.,
where deformity and departure from the normal mode appear
more connected than in the higher developement of a flower from
a leaf bud; deformity not being so applicable to a departure from
a lower to a higher function as the reverse. This has been

Comparative Physiology. 209

always termed monstrosity; and the designation mutilated
would not appear so much out of order here at least, though
transformation would be a better term for both the ascending
and descending series, mutilation being, perhaps, indicative
of a still more imperfect form of developement, as in cut or
otherwise mutilated leaves, petals, stems, &c. Sometimes the
monstrosity of fulness of flower takes another direction, and
perfoliate flowers are produced; a branch starts from the flower
as in geum, and forms a flower above. This and the full flower
are both in the descending series, the nutritive function of
growth having overcome the higher function of reproduction.
Even in the fascicled appearance of pine leaves it is normal for
them to be produced in that way ; and, though the circular de-
velopement prevails over the longitudinal or vertical, it cannot
be so properly called abortion as where accidental deviation from
a normal form points out that something is wanting. Abortion
or mutilation, at all events, I should think an improper term
for a perfectly formed flower.

After these preliminary and introductory remarks, he com-
mences the subject of General Physiology in Chap. I. On the
Nature and Causes of Vital Action. He introduces the sub-
ject in the analysis of contents, where he distinguishes between
physical phenomena resulting from the physical properties of
matter, and vital actions from the vital properties of mat-
ter. ‘“ These vital properties depend on the peculiar state
in which the component particles of the organism, or living
being, exist, and this state is induced by an action of organisa-
tion upon inorganic matter, by a preexisting structure. This
peculiar state is such that spontaneous decomposition has a
peculiar tendency to take place, but is kept in check by the
renovation characteristic of vital action. Vital action depends
on organised. structure and a stimulus.” It appears, therefore,
that he considers life as the result of the state, or formation,
of the living being; and that it is continued by the power of
a living being to communicate its peculiar state, or form, to
inorganic matter, and thus produce its like. We are more ac-
customed, however, to conceive that there is a separate living
power, which is influenced in its actions by previous form. We
may conceive that the production or bringing together of matter
in a certain form produced life; but it savours more of acci-
dent (and not of purpose or wisdom), than to suppose that
a separate vital principle was made to act in a general way on
matter, besides the particular form which was independent of
that principle. The former appears at least more lable to be
attributed to accidental congregation of atoms than the latter.
Whether life is the result of form, or form the result of life, it

P 3

210 Comparative Physiology.

may be difficult to decide; perhaps we have no means of deciding;
but it is safest to adopt that which is farthest removed from
accident.

In Chap. I., he says: “ vitality is not a subordinate principle
presiding over matter, but a property impressed on the or-
ganised structure by its Creator ; a property of organised beings,
as electricity of inorganic, or as gravitation is of systems. It is
more consonant to Divine Wisdom to suppose it impresses laws
on matter, than to suppose it to delegate the control of matter
to a secondary psychological being. Vitality is a law im-
pressed on form, by which it works, rather than a power
deputed to a secondary power. ‘The truth appears to le be-
tween the extremes of those who attribute all the actions of
living beings to vitality, and those who maintain that they are
purely of a physical nature. Dr. Herschel says that the Divine
Creator of the universe has, by creating his materials endowed
with certain fixed qualities and powers, impressed them with the
spirit, not the letter, of his law, and made all their subsequent com-
binations and relations inevitable consequences of this first im-
pression. Our belief of the uniformity of nature proceeds from
our conviction of the immutability of the Deity. To suppose
that alterations would be required would be to deny the per-
fection of the divine attributes ; while to say that the properties
first impressed on matter would of themselves continue its
action, would be to deny our dependence on the Creator.”

“Tt is not logically correct to speak of vital properties as su-
peradded to organised matter. Organisation and vital proper-
ties are simultaneously communicated to the germ by the
structure of its parent. As we have no evidence of the exist-
ence of vital properties, unless in organised matter, so we
have no reason to suppose that organised matter can retain its
regular constitution, and be subjected to its appropriate stimuli,
without exhibiting vital actions. Vitality is not a cause of
vital action, but the character of the being which exhibits such
action. Death is the separation of that bond of union which
unites all the functions of the living system. Molecular death,
or the death of parts, is not always the consequence of the
general or systemic death. The mere cessation of yital actions,
whether apparent or real, does not constitute death. Their
suspension may result from the want of stimuli. Seeds may
preserve their vitality for a length of time; it is scarcely cor-
rect to say here that the seed is alive, since life is synonymous
with vital action, but it is possessed of vital properties, or
vitality, so long as no destructive change takes place in its
organisation.”

« In the production of the alimentary materials, of gum, sugar,
albumen, gelatine, &c., which are preparations for organisation,

Comparative Physiology. 211

and which do not serve for the support of the structure, until
united into new combinations (probably after being first de-
composed), we perceive the action of physical laws, operating
under those peculiar conditions which the living organism alone
can perfectly supply. Reasons have already been given for the
belief that the affinities which hold together the elements of
organised tissues are the same as those that prevail in the in-
organic world. We cannot yet succeed in producing artificially
any organic compound, even of the simplest kind; but there
is no reasonable ground for doubt, that, if the elements could
be brought together in their requisite states and proportions,
the result would be the same as the natural compound. The
agency of vitality does not change the properties, but combines
them in modes which we cannot imitate. The operations in
vital chemistry are attended, like the changes in the composition
of inorganic substances, with a disturbance of electrical equili-
brium, and the late researches of Dr. Faraday have fully proved
the identity of electrical attraction with chemical affinity. Un-
less therefore a distinct set of laws could be established, recu-
lating vital affinities, we are scarcely justified in assuming that
these laws may not be accordant with those which we recognise
elsewhere.”

* In the changes denominated catalytic by Berzelius, a change
is produced by one body upon the composition of another, in-
dependent of any alteration or new combination of the first ;
while, in ordinary chemical combinations, change is effected by
the superior attraction of one agent, or of one of its elements,
for those of another. The peroxide of hydrogen, which is
readily decomposed by any substance having an affinity for oxy-
gen, is decomposed by metals, the fibrin of blood, &c. without
any change in themselves; they produce in it a state analogous
to fermentation, oxygen escaping, and water being left. Most
metals at high temperatures, and platinum minutely divided at
low temperatures, produce the union of oxygen and hydrogen in
an explosive mixture. The action of sulphuric acid on alcohol,
in producing ether, without itself undergoing change, also the
conyersion of gum or starch into sugar by the same agent, ap-
pear referable to the same class.. These substances exercise an
influence essentially distinct from what is known as chemical
affinity. Berzelius defines it as a new power, connected with
the electro-chemical.”

« The class of actions essentially vital are confined to, and
can only occur in, living organised structures; they require
properties for their performance which are not to be met with
in other substances. Organisation is not confined to the solids
alone, for traces of it may be detected in the fluids by which

they are nourished. The blood in animals and the latex in
Pp 4

212 Comparative Physiology.

vegetables are, in the living state of these fluids, the appro-
priate stimulus to the assimilating and organising power, which
in each tissue converts the nutritious matter into a structure
like its own; but the same materials, not themselves endowed
with vital properties, would be totally imert. Kyery tissue
possesses vital properties peculiarly its own, besides that com-
mon to all, and each property of each organ has stimuli appro-
priate to atself.”

It is impossible in a condensed view to do sufficient justice
to so difficult a subject ; by those interested in such abstract dis-
quisitions, recourse must be had to the work itself, which will
amply repay the trouble. On the same subject DeCandolle re-
marks, that there are four forces in nature, attraction, affinity,
(or chemical force), and also vital and intellectual force. It is
difficult, he says, to divine what is chemical and what vital,
and to say whether vitality is owing to the form of the organ,
or the form of the organs to vitality. Cuvier says form is essen-
tial to life. Life is opposed, he says, to chemical affinity, and
is a mysterious power, capable of uniting molecules in a way
which no other power can. Muller compares life to an idea,
or instinct, forming a pattern to which the organism is made to
conform, and calls it a principle. The simple germinal disc he
regards as the potential whole of the future being. The or-
ganised state is the result of the organic creative power, and
organic matter. Whether the two have ever been separated is
not, he says, an object of science. Schleiden says: form is the
result of vitality, and not vitality of form. It is not necessary
to suppose life .a separate psychological being ; the term prin-
ciple does not necessarily imply this supposition. Dr. Carpenter
says, it is unphilosophical to suppose that the Creator first gave
existence to a vital principle or organic agent, and then set it to
work in organising the body, since every organised structure is
capable of exhibiting life when the appropriate stimuli are
applied, so long as it retains the constitution which causes it to
possess those properties. It 1s unnecessary, however, to set
limits as to time to creative power; when the molecules were
arranged in proper order, we are told God infused into them
the breath of life: this life may have existed before, or may
have then been created on purpose, for any thing we know, or are
likely ever to know. We may call it a property of organised
beings, or a principle; or we may confound the two together,
by the manner we talk of them. Life and organisation are so
inseparably connected that we can hardly think of them as
separate. We know not yet whether attraction is a property
or a principle; though, from increasing as the mass increases,
it has been called a property, it may be a principle, for aught
we can tell; which produces the attractive properties, and may

Comparative Physiology. 213

augment as the mass increases, in the same way as galvanism
augments by the size of the plates of the battery. We may
conceive of life, as a principle similar to electricity, which per-
vades all organised matter, as electricity does the morganic ;
and communicates vital properties to the organism, as the other
does magnetism to metals. We may pursue the analogy farther,
and say that as metals will not retain the magnetic properties,
unless in a certain condition, so neither will the matter of an
organism retain vital properties unless in a certain condition or
form; and as organised living bodies can communicate their
vital properties to others, so will magnetic bodies develope elec-
tricity. Vitality may thus be a principle so intimately united
with vital properties that it is hardly possible to distinguish
them. There is perhaps as much danger to be apprehended in
assuming state or form producing vitality, as in vitality pro-
ducing form; ; there appears as yet as much logic in the latter
supposition as the former. In guarding against mystery we
may approach materialism; and though nothing would appear
to be farther from the opinions of the author than this, yet such
opinions, argued in a different manner, and carried to extremes,
might tend thereto.

The peculiar influence of sulphuric acid in changing gum ue.
starch into sugar, without being itself changed, is very striking ;
it is the same with the conversion of these substances into Abin
by the action of nitric acid and chlorine. They appear a class
of actions which approach those of vitality, in so far as that they
act on other substances without appearing to be acted on them-
selves. The researches of chemists have of late been more
directed to organised substances than formerly, and the advance
is likely to be correspondingly rapid. As new truths come to
be discovered, they are found to connect the former, to clear up
confusion, and establish simplicity. Many new hases have been
discovered, and it is said by Professor Thomson, in his Vegetable
Chemistry, that we may hope soon to have all bodies reduced to
a simple and lucid arrangement of alkalies (or alkaloids) and acids,
bases and the bodies which they neutralise. Chemistry has done
much to advance physiological knowledge, and more may be ex-
pected; the strides in advance in all sciences are so rapid that it
is mmpossible to set limits to expectation, and vital and chemical
affinities may be found more closely united than at present is sus-
pected: but we may err in anticipating too much as well as too
little ; it is part of our nature to err in extremes. Professor Thom-
son says, organic principles are made by the processes connected
with vegetable and animal life. They constitute the results pro-
ceeding ‘from the chemical skill of the Cre ator, which is infinitely
oreater than ours can pretend to be. The immense mass of in-
formation contained in the tables of atomic elements, collected

214 Comparative Physiology.

in the Vegetable Chemistry, to which great additions are con-
stantly being made, should tend greatly to develope the subject
of the relation which bodies bear to each other, and facilitate
their classification into those leading groups which furnish a
comprehensive idea of the whole.

Vital force does not always seem dependent on the usual
stimuli; new bulbs and new tubers will be formed under ground
at times, without any foliage being developed to the light, the
little stimulus of heat and food being sufficient, without the
chemical powers of light, to perform the usual actions and form
a new being, though generally smaller, yet perfect.* It seems
also, in a certain degree, capable of being stored up, as plants
in cold climates push more strongly when growth commences ;
the longer light of the day, in northern regions, will hardly
account for the whole of the effect, and it is usually ascribed
to the increased excitability of the tissue. That the usual ope-
rations of growth carry with them a powerful stimulus in in-
creasing vital or organic force is clearly seen in the way stunted
and slow-growing plants are renovated in vigour. By cutting
back the young shoots of last year’s growth those of the succeed-
ing year are made to push more strongly; a more vigorous
growth is made to commence, and is generally found to continue;

* Connected with this subject also are the celebrated opinions of Mr. Main,
that the germ contains within itself all that will be developed from it in the
state of an invisible membrane. De Candolle, in his Vegetable Physiology,
quotes the opinions of Bonnet, which are similar, and does not state any ob-
jection, but rather seems to coincide. Miiller says the germ is not actually,
but only potentially, the same being. The germ itself is only formed of amorphous
matter; the earliest rudiments, he says, are distinct though simple; and the
later complicated state arises by transformation from the simple rudiment.
The word invisible, however, seems to set no limits, and it may be said the
simple visible rudiments contain the invisible future being. It has been said
the opinion is wrong, as the vital sap in the cambium exhibits living powers,
and it is this living power that organises, and not a developement of invisible
parts. Life, however, may be exerted in developing as well as organising ; at
least it is possible to conceive so, though not so consonant to the general ideas
of life. The aptitude of all vegetable matter to throw off a membrane, on
being extravasated or cut, would seem to countenance the idea of invisible
membrane, but is generally ascribed to vital force. It has not been explained,
as far as we have seen, how this membrane is renewed annually in the cambium,
and not a continuation of the same; nor do we see how the transformation of
leaves into flowers can be accounted for, if all the organs are originally found
in the embryo in a determinate form. Toa certain extent the doctrine is true,
as parts are found formed long before they are developed. In the Lebrary of
Useful Knowledge, it is said the rudiments of the flower have been discovered
in the bud seven years before flowering. In hybridising grey peas with white,
Mr. Knight observed the transformation only to be partial the first year, and
fully developed the next ; indeed hybridisation of any kind seems to be against
the doctrine. Undoubtedly, at least, it vitiates that part of it which has been
carried so far as to attribute the formation of all the plants of a species to
exist in the primary germ. We are apt to lose ourselves, however, when we
attempt to talk of invisible things.

Landscape-Gardening applied to Public Cemeteries. 215

so that cut over plants are found in a few years to outstrip those
left uncut in an immense degree, and very soon to double their
bulk. Besides the vital force there is instinct, which Cuvier,
likens to a constant dream of the imagination, and Miller thinks
connected with life by the idea or imagination, which furnishes
to vitality the picture of the structure to be formed. Imagina-
tion or instinct, as we ascend in the class of animals, is found
connected with reason, where it has been disputed that such
exists. In their deviation from their usual instinctive manner
of performing their actions, in the dreaming of dogs, &c., we
perceive the approach to reason, which in man reaches the highest
orade we are conversant with. That the imagination is distinct
from the reason, however, we perceive, when we feel our ima-
gination acted on in a way we cannot account for, unless by
psychological agency. Pictures are presented to the imagination
which we had never before seen, of any train of ideas leading to
which we have no conception, and which we are constrained to
impute to psychological agency. We are thus led from matter
to mind, and from mind to spirit; from nature up to nature’s

God.

( To be continued. )

Art. Il. The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and of Landscape-
Architecture applied to the Laying out of Public Cemeteries and
the Improvement of Churchyards ; including Observations on the
Working and General Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds. By the Conpucror.

(Continued from p. 164.)
Ill. Tae Workine anp MANAGEMENT OF CEMETERIES.

By the working and management of cemeteries are to be understood the rules
and regulations respecting interments, monuments, planting, &c., the fees to
be taken, and the books to be kept by the clerk or sexton. Previously to
the establishment of large cemeteries there were scarcely any rules or regu-
lations for the guidance of the sexton, and hence the irregularities that were
continually occurring in burying-grounds: such as graves opened in some
parts of the ground in which interments had recently been made, in order to
gratify the wishes of the deceased, who had, perhaps, fixed on a particular
spot; while other parts of the grounds were compzratively without graves.
Had there been an established rule, that no ground in which an interment
had been made should be opened so long as there was any fresh ground to
bury in, such anomalies could never have taken place, and there never
could have occurred what is now frequently to be met with, viz. ground
untouched in one corner of a churchyard, and a charnel or bone house at the
other. In every particular case there will probably be required some rules
and regulations peculiar to the locality, and some which are everywhere ap-
plicable. We shall only enumerate such rules and regulations as-we think
ought to be general.

The most important rules respecting a place of burial must necessarily be
those which have reference to the sacredness of the place, the security from

’

¥

216 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

disturbance of the bodies of the dead, the healthfulness of the living, and
their improvement in sentiment and in morals. On these principles we would
found the following rules, which should be absolute, even in cemeteries and
churchyards as they are at present constituted. Some of these rules have
been mentioned before, but we repeat them, in order that they may be
strongly impressed on the mind of the reader.

First, We would allow no grave to be dug, except in ground which never had
been opened before. When a grave in which an interment has taken place at
the usual depth of 6 ft. is opened, one of two things must happen; either
the bones at the bottom of the grave must be disturbed, or, to avoid this, the
grave must not be dug to a sufficient depth. There may be three exceptions
to this case, if the superintendent of the burying-ground could be depended
on: first, when the previous interment has taken place to a greater depth
than 6 ft., which would be ascertainable if a proper register had been kept ;
second, where the surface of the burying-ground was to be raised by the
addition of a foot or two of earth all over it; or third, when a child was to
be interred, 4 or 5 feet, according to the age, &c., of the child, being sufficient
in the latter case. Every grave whatever should have a number cut ina
number-stone, or on some part of the plinth of the gravestone or monument,
if there be one, for the purpose of registration.

Secondly, We would allow no coffin to be placed nearer the surface of the
ground than 6 ft. A German author has shown by calculation the different
degrees of depth at which interments may take place, according to the age
and other circumstances of the subject. His depth for adults is 6 ft., and
for children under a year, 2 ft. The calculation may be useful in Germany,
where, in many churchyards, the children are buried in a part of the ground
by themselves, and their graves arranged according to the children’s ages and
lengths ; but, in England, the safer mode is to make the rule of having the
grave 6 ft. in depth absolute, for it must be recollected that, in the case of
children above three years of age, the bones, practically speaking, are almost
as indestructible as those of adults. Hence we conclude that a child’s
grave ought no more to be opened for a second interment than that of a
grown up person.

Thirdly, When more interments than one are to take place in a grave of the
width calculated for one coffin, we would require a stratum of earth over
each coffin of 6 ft. in depth; and supposing one interment made in the
bottom of a grave 12 ft., 20ft., or 30 ft. deep, and 6 ft. of soil placed over
the coffin, then on the surface of that soil we would deposit a coffin-shaped
slate or flag-stone, as a preventive to the grave-digger from going deeper
when he was excavating for a second interment. The protecting stone ought
to be taken up when the second interment was made, and used after every
interment till the last, when it might either be taken out for use in another
deep grave, or, if it were a family grave, it might be left immediately over the
coffin tor protection of the bones, on the principle mentioned in p.98. This
rule will not prevent the interment of ten or twelve bodies in a grave as at
present, but it wiil require such graves to be an immense deal deeper, viz. at
the rate of 6 ft. for every interment; but there is no reason why graves should
not be dug as deep as wells. A grave 18 ft. deep, however, will take three
interments, which, at the low rate of 10s. each, as in the Abney Park Ce-
metery, will give a return of 5,445/. per acre ; and in cemeteries where 25s.
for each interment is charged, of above 13,600/. per acre.

Fourthly, When a common or private earth grave was once filled to within
6 ft. of the surface, it should on no account whatever be opened at however
distant a period.

Fifthly, Brick graves which are filled with earth after each interment, we
would make subject to exactly the same laws as deep earth graves: that is,
we would have a stratum of soil 6ft. in thickness over each coffin. We
would allow no interments to take place in brick graves, in which each coffin
was not either covered with 6 ft. of soil, or with a flag-stone hermeti-

applied to Public Cemeteries. 217

cally sealed. Where the system of hermetically sealing was proposed to be
adopted, we would require the walls of the graves to be built with Roman
cement, every coffin to be separated by a flag-stone resting on ledges project-
ing from the walls, the joints of this flag-stone to be made good with cement,
and a coating of cement of not less than 3 in. in thickness placed over the
entire stone. Or, as a substitute for the use of flag-stones, we would sur-
round and cover every coffin with a mass of toman cement, so that it should
be completely embedded and enveloped in that material. By this hermetically
sealing mode of interment, a great many bodies might be got into one grave ;
but it is evidently too expensive for general purposes: for large families it
may be the cheapest mode, consistent with safety to the living; but, as there is
always the possibility of desecration at some future period, for our own feel-
ings we should greatly prefer lateral (side by side) interments in the free
soil.

Sixthly, We would allow of few or no catacombs or vaults in buildings,
and certainly of none in or under churches, or other places where assem-
blies of human beings were held ; but, as many catacombs and vaults have
been built in the public cemeteries, in the case of all interments in them,
the catacomb or vault should be hermetically sealed the same day on
which the interment took place, and should on no account whatever be again
opened. Nothing can be more dangerous with reference to the health of the
living, than the mode prevalent in the new cemeteries, of merely placing an
open grating in front of the coffins deposited in catacombs. Were it not for
the current of air established through the vaults, by which the mephitic gas
is carried off as fast as it is produced, it would be impossible for a living per-
son to exist for an hour in these cellars for the dead. But even if these ca-
tacombs were each, when a coffin is placed in it, hermetically sealed in front,
there is searcely one of them so caretully constructed as to be air-tight, so
that the mephitic gas is certain to escape from some part of the catacomb,
more especially when we consider the expansive power of air when com-
pressed. And for what is all this disgusting boxing up of dead bodies, as if
ta bid defiance to the law of nature? We cannot think it in good taste
to practise this mode of sepulture, and therefore we would render it expen-
sive by such a heavy tax as should serve for the interment of the poor ina
more careful manner, for the general ornament of the cemetery, or for go-
vernment purposes generally. Nor do we think it could be considered op-
pressive to pass a law obliging all bodies now in vaults or catacombs under
churches, chapels, &¢., to be taken out and buried in the free soil.

Seventhly, We would encourage the erection of handsome monuments, and
the inscription on them of moral sentiments, the former to improve the taste,
and the latter to cultivate the heart and affections. In both we would allow
individual taste to be displayed ; but at the same time we would encourage
individuals to submit their designs to men of acknowledged skill, and to
tisten to their hints for improvement.

Eighthly, We would at all times keep every part of the cemetery in the
highest order. The grass should be kept short and smooth by frequent
mowing; the gravel free from weeds and smooth by frequent weeding and
rolling; the edges, which we would form of concealed bricks or tiles (jigs. 56.
and 57.), low, and
constantly clipped ;
and the leaves, as
they drop from the
trees, should be
’ picked up the same
day on which they
fell ; litter of every
kind picked up the Fig.57. Concealed Tile Edging.
moment it appeared; and the walls, chapel, lodge, gates, drains, &c., kept
in constant repair.

Fig. 56. Concealed Brick Edging.

218 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

Ninthly, To insure the high keeping of monuments of every kind, who-
ever erected one should, at the time it was put up, pay to the proprietors or
directors of the cemetery a sum considered sufficient to preserve it in repair
in perpetuity, or for a certain number of years.* Every person having shrubs
or flowers planted on a grave, we would require to pay a sum sufficient to
keep them trimmed for such a number of years as they might think fit; or
to keep them in order themselves, under the penalty of having them rooted
up and grass substituted, if neglected for a period varying according to the
kind of plants. Flowers and roses require to be attended to weekly during
summer, but evergreen shrubs may grow for years with scarcely any attend-
ance. As flowers and low shrubs are very apt to get tawdry when neglected,
as soon as keeping them in order ceased to be paid for, or otherwise effected,
the plants should be taken up and grass substituted. The turf mounds over
graves, and the number-stones (of which, as already observed, there ought to
be one to every grave, whether it have a monument or not), ought, of course,
to be kept in order by the proprietors of the cemetery.

Tenthly, No dogs or improper persons; no smoking, drinking, or even
eating ; no running or jumping, laughing, whistling, or singing, or other
practice that might indicate a want of reverence for the place, should be per-
mitted. No person should be allowed to walk on the graves, or to cross
from one walk or green path to another in places where the ground was filled
with graves.

Eleventhly, Wherever there was the least risk of a grave being reopened for
a second interment, or for any other purpose, or even where it was desired to
protect the bones in the case of some future unforeseen change taking place,
such as making a road through the cemetery or building on it, we would intro-
duce a guard or follower of stone over the last-interred coffin, as already
described, p. 98. and p. 216. ®

If the foregoing rules were rigidly attended to, cemeteries, whether in
town or country, would be as healthy as gardens or pleasure-grounds, and
would form the most interesting of all places for contemplative recreation.
As one great object in forming and managing a cemetery, whether small
or large, is to render it inviting by being ornamental and highly kept, it is not
desirable that all the monuments should be crowded together in one place,
and all the graves without monuments placed in another part of the ground.
It appears better that the monuments should be seen one after another, with
plain spaces intervening; and for this reason it ought to be a rule that any
person purchasing a grave may choose the spot where he will have it, pro-
vided he makes known whether he intends to erect any monument and what
sort. This rule, however, must be taken in connexion with another,
viz. that it is desirable to have a considerable display of monuments on the
borders laid out on purpose for them along the roads and main walks, and
along the boundary wall. The finest ancient monuments in the churchyards
of Scotland, and we know nothing to equal them in England out of West-
minster Abbey, are the sepulchral structures projected from the walls of
Grey Friars churchyard in Edinburgh, and the Cathedral burying-ground at
Glasgow. These in general are not vaults, catacombs, or brick graves, but
interments in the free soil, where the husband and wife lie side by side, and

* The sum per annum, and the number of years during which the party
wishes the monument, gravestone, shrubs, or flowers, kept in order, being
agreed on, it is only necessary to find, by the annuity tables (say, Jmwood’s,
12mo, 5s.), the present value of this sum, at the rate of interest obtainable in
the public funds. The sum required for keeping a monument in repair, even
in perpetuity, is by no means so great as might be expected. The ordinary
charge for keeping a common grave and gravestone in repair is only 1s. a year,
and the present value of an annuity of that amount, payable for ever, reckoning
the interest of money at 25 per cent, is 2/7. Hence, 5/. paid down would give
2s. 6d. a year for ever, which is quite enough for most monuments.

—

applied to Public Cemeteries. 219

the space is enclosed by highly wrought iron railings, and superb architectural
and sculptural compositions fixed against the wall. Sometimes the whole is
covered by an architectural canopy, supported on stone columns. The ar-
chitecture is of the time of the Jameses, elaborate in composition, rich in
decoration, and learned, scriptural, heraldic, or quaint, in inscription ; and there
is nothing offensive in the mode of inhumation. In our opinion, it is in far
better taste for a family to expend money in purchasing as much ground in the
open part of a cemetery as will allow the husband and wife, and some of their
children, if they have any, making an allowance for a certain number of both
sexes to die young, and of the females to die unmarried, to be buried side by side,
than to expend it on burying in vaults or catacombs, or even on expensive
monuments. In the cemeteries about London we frequently see monu-
ments that have cost upwards of a hundred pounds placed over what are
called family brick graves, in which, perhaps, have been deposited one over
the other, without intervening soil or flag-stones hermetically sealed, the
half dozen bodies constituting the family, so as to form a mass of putre-
faction appalling to contemplate ; more especially as contrasted with the
chaste marble sarcophagus or other monument placed over it. Such a disgust-
ing mode of interment, to which men have been driven by various causes,
which have led to charges so high that they cannot be borne, is not for a
moment to be compared with the interment of a family side by side in the free
soil. There is nothing at all offensive in the latter mode ; nothing to hinder
such interments from taking place in a shrubbery or pleasure-ground, or a flower-
garden. If the citizens of London were to reflect on this, instead of laying
out a large sum on a brick grave or a vault, and afterwards on a monument to
be placed over it, they would lay it out in purchasing a greater extent of
territorial surface, and in enclosing this surface in such a manner as to mark it
for theirown. The family name, deeply cut on the stone forming the coping
or finish of the enclosing barrier, would say more for the taste of the owner,
than a thousand pounds laid out on a monument over a vault or brick grave.
The most desirable part of a cemetery for small grave enclosures of this
kind is against the boundary wall, as at Grey Friars in Edinburgh, the Glasgow
Cathedral, and the old burying-ground at Munich; but it is singular that, in
almost all the new London cemeteries, this very desirable situation for graves
and monuments is occupied by a belt of trees, as if the cemetery were to be
laid out exactly on the same plan as Brown’s parks, with their surrounding
beits and interspersed clumps.

If men of landed property, however small its extent, were to reflect on this
subject, we are persuaded they would greatly prefer laying their bones in a
suitable spot in their own grounds, to having them piled up in any family
grave, vault, or catacomb whatever.

It ought to be a generai rule to place handsome monuments at particular
points of view ; such as at angles formed by the junction or intersection of
roads or walks, terminations‘to straight walks, points seen from the entrances
and from the chapel, &c.

One of the most important rules respecting monuments is, that they be all
placed on solid foundations of masonry reaching as deep as the bottom of the
grave, by the means already described (p. 157.), or by other equally efficient
means. A rectangular tomb over a brick grave will, of course, rest on the
side walls of the grave ; but over a common earth grave it will require to be
supported, either by four pillars carried up from the bottom of the grave,
or by two pillars at each end, founded 2 or 3 feet deep in the soil, and 2 or
3 feet distant from the edge of the grave. In this way rectangular tombs, or
any description of large monument, may be placed over earth graves of any
depth whatever, and in cases where it would be practically impossible to
carry up pillars from the bottom of the grave.

It is never desirable to form two graves adjoining each other at the same
time, or even after a shorter period than two or three years; because the
narrow partition of firm soil between them is apt to give way. However,

220 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

if there is any particular reason for graves being so formed, such as a wife
desiring to be buried by the side of her husband, &c., the weak side of the
grave can be supported by grave-boards.

The most economical mode of using the ground in any cemetery would be
to begin at one end or side, mark out the graves, and use only every alternate

-one; then, when the ground was once gone over, to go over it a second time,
and occupy all the blank graves. As, however, it has long been customary
for persons purchasing graves to have the liberty of choice, the most economi-
cal mode cannot often be adopted. When the interments are to commence at
one end of the cemetery, and the whole of the ground is to be occupied as
they proceed, thatend ought always to be the lowest ; because, when the inter-
ments have commenced at the highest point and been carried down the slope,
considerable inconvenience has been found from the fluid putrescent matter
ee the inclination of the ground. (See Picton in Arch. Mag. vol. iv.

2431.
No part of a cemetery ought to be exclusively devoted to common graves,
because, as a number of coffins are placed in each grave, there would in this
part of the cemetery be accumulated such a mass of putrescent matter as
would contaminate the air of the whole, and render the locality insalubrious
for very many years.

With a view to preventing waste of ground, the proprietors, or director, or
curator of the cemetery ought to place common graves either where private
graves are least likely to be taken, or where a private grave with a monument
might interfere with a grave already existing. Hence it may frequently be
desirable to place a common grave, or any private grave to which there is a
certainty of no monument being erected, on each side of a grave with a
conspicuous monument. Even two or three intervening common graves may
sometimes be desirable among monuments, in order that each structure may
have its full effect on the spectator while approaching it, as well as while
directly opposite to it.

The mound over a common grave, while it is liable to be reopened, should
not be finished with turf or flowers; because, to open a grave with the
finished character thereby given is more shocking to the feelings than to
open an unfinished grave.

Every grave, whether private or common, to which there is to be no
monumental stone, should still be finished with a green mound, which itself
is a kind of monument, and maintains respect for the spot so long as it
remains.

Though levelling the surface of ground filled with graves having no stone
monuments, instead of finishing the grave with a raised grass mound, renders
the grass much easier mown, yet, as it confounds all distinction between
ground filled with graves and ground not so filled, we would not on
any account follow this practice. The Society of Friends and the Moravians
adopt this mode, and we admit the superior neatness of their grounds on this
account ; but we disapprove of it, more especially in the case of the Quakers
(who forbid even flat stones with inscriptions, which the Moravians admit),
because it exhibits nothing characteristic of a place of interment. As it
destroys the distinctive feature of a grave-yard, it cannot be considered in
just taste, and ought, therefore, as we think, not to be adopted. Technically,
the appearance of the turf mound over the grave is the expression of purpose
or use, and this expression is essential to every work of art.

In all large cemeteries there ought to be some graves of every kind, ready
made and fit for being occupied at the shortest notice. To protect these
graves from the rain or snow, the grave-cover described p. 163. should be
placed over them.

In order to effect the registration of graves and interments, which we have
stated to be an important part of the working of a cemetery, it is necessary to
recur to the mode of numbering the graves described in a former page. ‘This
may either be done by the mode of squares common in large cemeteries as at

~

any

applied to Public Cemeteries. 221

present laid out, and exhibited in fg. 19. in p. 144.; or, in small cemeteries or
churchyards, by laying out the ground in broad borders along the walks and
walls, and in double beds, calculating the capacity of both beds and borders in
single graves, and having a number-stone at each end of the bed or border
indicating the number of single graves it will contain, and the direction
in which the numbers are counted, as shown in jig. 35. in p. 158.; in
which the stone at a contains Nos. 1. and 50., being the first and last
graves on the bed; and the stone 64 contains No. 25., being the last
number on one side, and No. 26., being the first number on the other side.
The next bed will commence with No.51., and so on throughout the
cemetery. This mode of numbering requires that every grave or piece of
ground purchased, which is to be larger than the space allowed for a common
grave, must be a multiple of that space: thus, a vault of the smallest size
requires the space of one grave for the stair and another for the vault; and
hence it would be recorded in the cemetery books under two numbers. A
vault of double or treble the size would require the space of four or six single
graves, and thus absorb four or six numbers, and so on. ‘This is the mode
which we have adopted in the Cambridge Cemetery (in which, in conformity
with existing prejudices, we made provision for constructing vaults and cata-
combs, if they should be required), because it is of small size; but in one on
a large scale we would first lay out every part of the cemetery in beds and
borders, and next have one number for each bed and border. The interments
in each bed or border should be numbered in the order in which they are
made ; and in the register the numbers of the bed or border, and the number
of the interment, would be found together. We have already (p. 145.) given
our reasons for considering this a better mode of laying out a cemetery than
the one generally adopted, of throwing it into squares.

This mode of throwing the ground into squares is at present adopted in
most cemeteries, more especially where, from the numerous turnings of the
winding walks, the ground is laid out in very irregular shapes. In the working
of such cemeteries the practice is to number every grave or vault in the order
in which it is made, and indicate its place in the cemetery by areference to the
square in which it is situated, and by laying it down in the plan of that square
in the cemetery Map Book in the manner hereafter described.

As the interments require to be numbered, to indicate the order in which
they are made, as well as to indicate their place in the cemetery, it follows
that every grave has two numbers ; the one indicating the precise spot in
the cemetery in which the grave is to be found, and the other the time or times
at which bodies have been deposited in it ; because family graves, while they
have only one number referring to their locality, have several referring to the
interments made in them. By having an index to the interment numbers, and
another to the numbers of the graves, and both referring to the Register Book,
the particulars may be obtained of every funeral that has taken place in the
cemetery from its opening to the time being.

The cemetery books which require to be kept are as follows : —

1. An Order Book, in which are entered the date, name, description, age, and
abode of the deceased, mode and time of the intended burial, size of the
coffin, name of the person by whom the order is given, and the charges.
These and some other particulars are printed on two columns of a folio page;
and, the blanks of both columns being filled up, one column is retained, and
the other is cut out and sent to the sexton. A receipt for the money, indi-
cating the leading particulars, is at the same time given to the undertaker.

2. A Register Book, which is filled up after the funeral has taken place, and
contains columns extending across two folio pages, for the following particu-
lars: — number of the interment; number of the grave; name and de-
scription of the deceased; last residence ; disease of which he died; age,
date, and hour of burial; in what part of the cemetery ; what monumental
distinction ; purchased by whom and under what date; sum paid for the in-
terment; sum paid for keeping the gravestone, monument, or plants, &c., in

3d Ser. 1843, — V. Q

222 On the Exhibitions of

order ; time during which they are to be kept in order for the sum paid;
name of the undertaker ; name of the clergyman who performed the ceremony ;
name of the sexton. — All these particulars are entered in the order in which
they are here enumerated.

3. A Ledger, in which an account is opened for each grave in the following
manner: two folio pages contain the same number of columns, and the same
headings as in the Register, but the body of the pagesis divided into spaces,
one of which is allotted for each number of a grave, in the same manner as
the pages of a ledger are divided into spaces for each name or account,
which has been opened ; and in this space, which exhibits the transac-
tions which take place with the grave it represents, is inserted the number
of each of the different funerals that have taken place init. For example,
a brick grave, 60 ft. deep, may have ten different imterments of as many dif-
ferent numbers, dates, and names, of the deceased ; and hence a space at
least equal to ten lines will be left for it. A private grave, 36 ft. deep, which
will only contain six coffins, requires only six lines; a vault of twenty cata-
combs a proportionate space; and a single catacomb in a public vault only
one line. The utility of such a ledger, in the case of extensive cemeteries, is
exemplified in the case of that of Kensal Green, as any one may be con-
vinced of by applying at the office, 95. Great Russell Street, London.

4. A Map Book.—In the cemetery office there ought to be one map
showing the entire cemetery, with all the roads, walks, squares, beds, &c., and
even the trees and shrubs, correctly laid down. Then there ought to bea
book in which every square or bed is laid down on a sufficiently large scale
to admit of inserting in it the plan of each particular grave. The scale for
these separate squares in the Kensal Green Cemetery book is 2 in. to 6 ft.,
and in the Tower Hamlets Cemetery 3in. to 8 ft. In small cemeteries laid out
in beds, like the Cambridge Cemetery, such a map book may be dispensed with ;
but where the imaginary square system of laying out is adopted it is essential.

5. Some subordinate books are convenient for abridging labour, and in-
suring accuracy, such as printed forms for certificates of registry, for per-
mission within a certain time to place a head-stone or other monument, for
receipts for cash or fees, &c. The books for the Kensal Green Cemetery
were prepared by Messrs. C. and E. Layton, Stationers, 150. Fleet Street ;
those of the East London Cemetery by Mr. T. H. Hoppe, 79. Strand ; and
those of the Tower Hamlets Cemetery, the last London cemetery which has
been formed, by Mr. E. Colyer, 17. Fenchurch Street. The common business
accounts which require to be kept, of course, do not differ from those in
use in general business.

We have omitted to notice some minor details required for the working
of a cemetery, but they are such as will readily occur in practice; and
they may be foreseen by procuring a printed paper of the rules and re-
culations of any of the principal London cemeteries, or of the burying-grounds
belonging to the Incorporated Trades of Calton, Edinburgh. The latter,
which have been kindly forwarded to us by Mr. Hay, the recorder and su-
perintendant, are remarkable for their comprehensiveness and efficiency. .

The curator of a cemetery ought to be a man of intelligence, and of cul-
tivated feelings, with a taste for and some knowledge of gardening; for all
which reasons we think the situation one well adapted for a middle-aged gar-
dener.

( To be continued. )

Art. II. On the Exhibitions of the London Horticultural Society,
and on various Matters connected with Horticultural Exhibitions.
By Amicus.

Tue subject I am about to introduce may be thought, by some, unfit for such
a publication as the Gardener’s Magazime; but, as it is chiefly for the benefit

the London Horticultural Society. 223

of gardeners that I have written it, perhaps you will allow me a page or two
for its insertion.

It is, doubtless, fresh in your memory, that, some time ago, a bill was passed
for the better observance of the Sabbath, to the great benefit of many of Her
Majesty’s subjects; but, as far as I have experienced, it has not effected much
good for gentlemen’s gardeners. My object, therefore, is to induce you to use
your influence, in the proper quarter, on their behalf; and endeavour to secure
for them, and some others, the better observance of Saturday. I allude to the
exhibitions at the gardens of the Horticultural Society, which are so fre-
quently held on that day. How far it may affect the officers of the Society I
cannot pretend to know, but I am certain it is very inconvenient for those per-
sons who have to come from ten to twenty miles with their productions ; and
to conscientious persons, who take the word of God for their guide, it is a
matter of doubt whether they ought to send plants, &c., to exhibit, or sanction
by their presence an exhibition which is calculated to tempt so many hundreds
of persons to transgress the command, “ Remember the Sabbath-day, to keep
it holy.” And I have reason to believe that there are many who would come,
but do not on this account. Those gardeners who live at the distance I have
mentioned must leave home by the middle of Friday night : supposing
them to get clear off from Chiswick by seven o’clock on Saturday evening,
they will not reach home before twelve or one o’clock ; and, if they have many
things to unpack, they must encroach very much upon the Sabbath before
they have done ; and then, let me ask you, what state of body or mind do
you think they will be in, after the fatigue and excitement of the past day and
night, to attend to meditation at home, or the duties of the sanctuary abroad ?
How far the Society can justify themselves in respect to this arrangement I
cannot imagine; but they ought to have some weighty reasons for inducing
men to run the risk of losing their souls, when He who “ spake as never man
spake” has asked, “ What shall it profit a man, if he gain the whole world and
lose his own soul?” But the evil does not terminate here. I believe it ex-
tends further than any one can tell. Only think of the number of vehicles
that are called into action on that day, both public and private, many of which
would undoubtedly have otherwise remained clean till Monday, instead of
making Sabbath-breakers of the various servants who look after them. There
is also another class of persons who suffer in the same way, viz., those whose
houses are open for the accommodation of the public. Instead of their houses
presenting the same appearance as on other Saturdays, they are all in con-
fusion till late at night, when the inmates are so fatigued with extra labour,
that they are compelled to leave much undone till Sunday morning, when,
being free from customers, they have an opportunity to put all right again.

It is also very injurious to those who are compelled to go to such houses
for refreshment. The gardener, if so inclined, may perhaps find something to
fill up the spare time he may have, without spending it there; but not so the
men who accompany the carriages which convey the plants, many of whom
would gladly go somewhere else if they could ; but, having no other amuse-
ment to make choice of, they remain there till the exhibition is over, by which
time they have become so stupefied with liquor, and the want of rest the pre-
vious night, that they are much more fit to go to bed than to travel six hours,
and prepare for the Sabbath. But, besides those who are obliged to suffer,
there are many more who suffer voluntarily ; I mean such as spend their time
in the public-house merely from curiosity and fondness of company, and in
this class we may include a great part of their customers ; and these, not being
obliged to leave so soon as the others, are perhaps in a worse state than those
before mentioned to prepare for the duties of the coming day. A vast deal
more mizht be said of the evils which result from exhibiting on Saturdays, but
I trust enough has been said to cause those whose duty it is to make the
arrangements to give it the attention it demands, and that 1843 will be the last
year it will be witnessed. I do not see why Wednesday might not be fixed on
for all, as well as only one, of the exhibitions; except it is that Saturday is a

Q 2

224 A Twelve Days’ Tour

favourite day with many for giving and attending parties, who, at the same time,

are subscribing their money and using their influence for the suppression of
vice, and the establishment of Sabbath and other schools ; while at home they
expect their servants to attend divine service, though themselves are the cause
of such servants being absent. Surely such things ought not so to be.

_As far as the spiritual improvement of gardeners is concerned, perhaps you will
allow me to make another observation, which is, that they should have every
possible inducement to Sabbath-keeping, instead of being encouraged to Sab-
bath-breaking. Here I allude to gardening publications, which, I think, would
be much better to be published on Tuesday instead of Saturday, Sunday, or
Monday. Surely gardeners, or under-gardeners, are not so highly paid as to
be able to purchase more of such works than their evenings would allow them
to read ; or, if some of them are, it were well if they would spend what they
cannot save on something that would be more proper for Sabbath reading.
Gardeners are, in general, fond of study. The retired situations in which they
practise, perhaps, makes them so. The things under their care require, in
many instances, attention on Sundays, as necessarily as the ox requires food or
water; still there are many intervals in the day which may be, and usually
are, filled up with reading.

To a mind unacquainted with spiritual things, nothing is more likely to
attract attention than a publication which treats on those subjects a know-
ledge of which it is so anxious to obtain; thus imperceptibly drawing it away
from the pursuit after that knowledge which makes “ wise unto salvation.”
If, therefore, such publications came out on Tuesday, there are not many in
this country but might obtain them in time to read them before Sunday, and
have their minds at rest for attention to those things which that sacred day
requires. And here I would just notice what an amount of good might be
done, if employers would take care that their garden cottages, and, indeed, all
cottages on their estates, were furnished with a few religious, and at the same
time entertaining, books, for the improvement of those who are dependent on
them. This might be done at a very small expense, and would yield an abun-
dant return in the good they would accomplish. I have no doubt that some will
ridicule the attempt I have made to effect the alterations I have mentioned :
but, while societies are forming on every side for the spiritual benefit of man-
kind, I do not see why something should not be done for a class of men who
are, Im many instances, placed almost as much out of the reach of spiritual in-
struction as the heathen themselves ; and, above all, why the Horticultural
Society of Londen, which in every other respect is calculated to do so much
good, should be the means of thwarting the endeavours of wise and good
men, when it might so easily further them. Whatever ridicule, therefore, may
be heaped on me, I am prepared to meet it; being confident that I shall have
the commendation of all whose approbation is worth having, and also the
satisfaction of knowing that I have done what I could,

Middlesex, Jan, 1843,

Art. IV. Notes taken during a Twelve Days’ Tour in Brittany and
Normandy, in July, 1842. By T. Rivers, Jun.

Dinan. — After a most interesting voyage from St. Malo,
per steamer, up the Rance*, about twenty miles, we arrived here,

* Do we derive the name of our esteemed pear from this locality, or from
a small town or village near Metz of that name ?

in Brittany and Normandy. 225

and were much delighted with the situation of the town: its
boulevards command a most extensive view of the surrounding
country, which is beautifully undulated, well wooded, and appa-
rently remarkably fertile. On the walls of the tower of St.
Vincent, now used as a prison, we gathered seeds of a beautiful
species of Didnthus; every crevice in the upper part of the
walls was brilliant with the gay pink and white flowers of this
very pretty plant. Ihave not yet been able to identify the spe-
cies. The wallflower, strawberry spinach, and a species of
Sédum, were also most abundant. Our attempts to gather spe-
cimens of these plants, by mounting on each other’s shoulders
(two of us being six-feet men), attracted the notice of the pri-
soners confined in the tower, and caused some merriment
amongst them. The promenaders on the boulevards, which pass
under the walls, seemed also surprised at our earnest endeavours
to gather objects to them of such little interest. The boule-
vards are planted with elms of some seven or eight years’
growth ; these seemed all seedlings of the Cornish elm, and
were exceedingly interesting in their variations of habit. My
attention was drawn to them, more especially as I had never
before seen seedlings of this variety of elm, which, I believe,
never bears seed in England. Many of the varieties were ex-
ceedingly beautiful; and I quite regretted not being able to
take home some grafts. The gardens on the south side of the
town overlook the boulevards from a height of 30 or 40 feet:
they were apparently on the site of the old walls of the town,
of which the boulevards on this side formed the fosse. Their
situation appeared delightful ; they were thickly planted with
Robinza inérmis (ambraculifera) ), and laid out in the usual French
style. Diman is the most famous horse market in Brittany.
The horses were all a sort of short-legged galloway, about four-
teen hands high; some of them showing marks of good blood,
and all in fine condition. They were what we should call in
England “ useful animals.” The dealers were Bas Bretons, with
hardy swarthy countenances, and wearing black beaver hats
with immense brims. Their swarthy countenances, and their
driving their bargains in pistoles, almost inclined us to think
they were of Spanish origin. Their clamouring in making a
bargain, and their hard manner of striking onde other’s hands
many times consecutively, before the peculiar concluding slap,
were highly amusing. They demanded for some very nice four
and five years’ old horses twenty and twenty-four pistoles. On
enquiry, we found the pistole reckoned at ten francs, so that a
very good horse might have been bought for eight pounds:
something superior for ten pounds. I must give these rough
dealers the credit of not demanding even of me, an Englishman
and a stranger, more than the regular price. We found the
Q3

226 A Twelve Days’ Tour

wheat here, July 21., “dead ripe.” I observed a curious red-
bearded wheat, which I had never seen elsewhere; but, in
general, the wheat was of very inferior varieties, ears thinly set,
and straw very slender.

We visited “the Fountain,” a delightful resort, about a mile
from the town, situated in a deep valley, almost a ravine. It is
a spring, whether chalybeate or not I was unable to ascertain,
to which the pleasure-seekers, who visit Dinan in great num-
bers from Jersey and Guernsey, resort in the morning to drink
the water. The descent to it from the town is exceedingly
abrupt; the walks near the bottom turn almost at right angles,
but, as they are bounded by hedges, one can walk with safety.
In warm weather this is a most agreeable place.

Rennes, July 23.— This town, the capital of Brittany, is one
of the most regularly built cities in France. We found the
botanic garden a pleasant promenade, but the collection of
plants exceedingly meagre. A fine specimen of the Zatrus
Sassafras was the only object of any interest: this measured
3 ft. in girt at 6 ft. from the ground. It was Saturday, and
market day: we were surprised at the immense concourse of
country people. Provisions were cheap and abundant: fowls
1s. 1d. each, ducks 1s. 3d. each; butter 64d. per pound; some
fine plums, called “ La Madeleine,” and blue perdrigon plums,
the latter from walls, attracted our notice. We were surprised,
at this early season, to find filberts nearly ripe, and abundance of
mulberries. Vegetables, in general, were small, and very in-
ferior to those exhibited in the markets of London. The
butcher’s broom (Adscus aculeatus) was used here extensively
to brush off flies in the butcher’s market. We were pleased with
the breed of cattle: the cows, in particular, appeared so exceedingly
docile, they all bore a strong resemblance to the most esteemed
Alderney cows; this extends nearly throughout Brittany. The
breed of pigs seemed to us perfectly ludicrous: some yearling
store pigs, for which they demanded twenty-four francs each, were
so long-legged, that, on observing a person scattering some peas
on the ground for them to eat, we felt exceedingly curious to
ascertain in what manner they could possibly get at them. Much
to our relief, these “ daddy long-legs” knelt down and ate their
peas most reverentially. I questioned the farmers respecting
their predilection for thin bodies and long legs, when they
might so easily import our short-legged fat-carcassed pigs:
« Ah, well, Monsieur, I don’t like your fat; it is only fit for
savages.” He spoke the sentiments of his countrymen: a
Frenchman hates fat —and silence.

We were much interested with the agreeable “ Promenade du
Tabor,” adjoming the Jardin des Plantes, which commands in-
teresting views of the surrounding country ; numerous seats are

i
/

in Brittany and Normandy. 227

placed under the shade of the trees, so that it forms, in hot
weather, a most agreeable place of resort.

We visited the nursery of the Messieurs Lansezeur, and
found the usual stock of a respectable French nursery, viz.
oranges in pots, pomegranates, and other showy greenhouse
plants, with rather a large stock of standard roses; but no new
plants, either species or varieties, of any interest: but I ought
to except a moss rose obtained here from seed, and named
** Lansezeur.”

Nantes, July 24.— After a dreary ride of twelve hours from
Rennes, partly through the “ Landes” of Brittany, consisting
of a sterile flat sierse. with occasional detached masses of
furze and heath, we arrived at this beautiful city. I observed
in the hedge-rows, as we approached Nantes, the Quércus Tauzin
mixed rather abundantly with the common oak. We were
struck with the massive magnificence of the houses here: whole
streets consisted of houses from six to eight stories in height,
all of which were built of stone. I was reminded of St.
Germain-en-Laye, which has something of the same character.
Our first visit was to the quays on the banks of the “beautiful
Loire,” which seem much resorted to by promenaders; and
most beautiful they are. Our next was to the Jardin des Plantes,
with which we were highly interested; not so much by its
collection of plants, which was mediocre, as by its fine speci-
mens of Magnolia grandiflora. We here saw what is generally
considered the first plant of this species imported into Europe.
This tree [the history of which is given in the Arboretum Bri-
tannicum, vol.1. p. 263.| appeared about 30 ft. in height, and
was 3 ft. in girt at 6 ft. from the ground. The avenue of Mag-
nolia grandiflora (Exmouth variety) consists of twenty-four
plants on each side of a long walk, planted about 20 ft.
apart; these were coming into full bloom; they have compact
round heads. I calculated they were about 20 ft. in height;
their girt, at 6 ft. from the ground, was 24in. A fine speci-
men of 7J'tlia alba péndula, 30 ft. in height, with its numerous
shoots in curious fascicles, attracted much of our notice; its
branches were not strictly pendulous, but rather horizontal, and
its appearance highly picturesque and elegant. Chiondn-
thus virginicus, grafted on the ash, had leaves quite double
their ordinary size’; in fact, some of these were more than
12in. in leneth. A fine tree of Sophdra japénica péndula,
erafted on a straight stem, perhaps 20 ft. in height, formed a
regular and beautiful column of foliage; its shoots descending
perpendicularly nearly to the ground. I could scarcely leave
this tree, so much did I admire it. Some immense trees of
Robinia inérmis were also remarkable. <A standard Althza
frutex, in full bloom, gave indications of the warmth of this

Q 4

228 A Twelve Days’ Tour

fine climate. Grapes trained on espalier rails, and approaching
to maturity, excited in me, I must confess, some little feeling of
envy.

As part of our dessert at the table d’hote to-day, we had ripe
green gage plums, ripe figs, and fine jargonelle pears. One
dish is perhaps worthy a little notice for its peculiarity, and for
showing in strong colours the difference in taste between us and
our neighbours. I observed on the table what I thought to be
a preparation of blanched almonds, served in syrup. As these
were most eagerly sought for by the French visitors, we con-
cluded they must be very delicious, and accordingly we de-
manded of the waiter that a like dish should be placed in our
vicinity, to which we plentifully helped ourselves. Judge of
our dismay and wry faces when we found these envied delicacies
to be unripe walnuts, with part of the outward green husk
pared off, then cut into halves, so as to show the delicately
white and immature kernel, and, above all, served up in verjuice
or some other vile acid. I shall never forget the nauseous com-
pound of bitterness and acidity. To make some amends, a con-
fiture of “cerises tardives” (I think our “late duke” cherry)
was delicious: the stones were all removed, so that it formed a

grateful jelly. We visited the famed abattoirs, which were:

remarkably clean and very extensive. Numerous calves were
here ready for the slaughter ; but we remarked that the taste of
the good people of Nantes for beef was at a very low ebb, for
only one bullock, and he by no means fat, was to be seen in
all this immense place, in which is slaughtered the meat re-
quired for a population of 90,000. The sheep were loose-
limbed thin-carcassed animals, and a red patch on each cheek,
just under the eye, gave them a very goatish appearance.

There are but two nurseries at Nantes of any eminence, that
of Noisette, and that of Bourtrand. I visited the latter, and
found his culture almost confined to magnolias, of which he had
a very fine stock. I observed a tree or two of the chaumon-

telle pear: and, remarking the small size of the fruit, I was sur-~

. . ° 2 °
prised by his telling me the climate: was too hot for many sorts

of pears, particularly the chaumontelle, which, with many
others, was dry and worthless.

Angers, July 25.— We departed from Nantes this morning
at six, and were eleven hours in steaming up the Loire in a
steamer belonging to the “ exploitation @inexplosibles;” one of
these lately belied its name, for it blew up at Angers, and

killed several persons. We were much delayed in our voyage

by the numerous sand-drifts, on which we often stuck fast; and
numbers of labourers were at work, with wooden shovels, making
a channel for the steamers, which, in a few hours, would again
be filled with sand. Had it not been for the extreme beauty of

in Brittany and Normandy. 229

the surrounding country and the vine-covered banks of this
famed river, we should have found our voyage very tedious. I
observed the vines in many places dipping their shoots into the
water, which were laden with grapes; so favourable is this fine
climate. Some German venders of brooms, and musicians
male and female, were on the deck; these we soon induced to
while away the hours by singing and playing. Their seeming
wild harmony, but still strictly in time and tune, with the
sparkling river and bright sun, made the greater part of our
voyage most delightful. The French captain and mate were
“bearded like the pard;” and, when on meeting the vessel from
Angers they arrayed themselves in their blue and gold uni-
form, and strutted their hour on deck, we were struck with the
contrasting simplicity of John Bull; the captains of our steam-
boats, two or three times the tonnage and power of our little
*‘ inexplosible,” being rarely seen but in their professional Bee
jacket, or, at most, in a plain coat: on the Frenchman like
parade and “ much ado about nothing ;” still it ought not to ie
complained of, for it serves to throw a eee of sunshine on the
too often gloomy path of life.

We were much struck with the very pretty situations of
many of the towns and villages on the banks of the Loire. I
remember particularly Poissoniére, a short distance below An-
gers, entirely surrounded by vineyards: one could scarcely
help wishing that one’s lot was cast there; but French villages
and towns are like many in Wales, more pretty to look at from
a distance, than to live in.

Angers is the head-quarters of the nurserymen of France:
we were delighted with the gardens and nurseries. They say
here that from thirty to forty nurseries are in and about the
city. or a population of 33,000, this seems a very large pro-
portion; but Angers supplies a great part of southern and
western France with trees and plants. We paid an early visit
to the botanic garden, but found it small, and no plants or
specimens of any interest in it: in happy contrast was our
visit to the extensive nurseries of M. Leroy, Rue des Ponts de
Cé, leading to that curious long bridge over the Loire, the junc-
tion of which with the Maine takes place a short distance south
of Angers. We found this nursery very extensive; perhaps
nearly “forty acres; the soil a fertile sandy loam, on a sub-
stratum of schist; the quarters of fruit trees looked as if they
were situated among the chips of a carpenter’s yard, for in
trenching the schistose rock was brought plentifully to the sur-
face. Our attention was first attracted by Bignona grandi-
flora covered like a sheet of flame with its peillicnt flowers ;
in every situation, whether trailing on the ground, or trained to
walls, it was blooming most abundantly, and presented a most

230 A Twelve Days Tour

gorgeous appearance. I could not help exclaiming, it was
worth a journey to Angers, if only to see this splendid plant.
A large quarter, about an acre in extent, of Magnolia grandi-
flora (Exmouth variety), the plants from 6 ft. to 12 ft. im
height, trained to single stems for avenues, was admirable
for their fine health and vigour. ‘The price of the larger plants
was thirty francs ; certainly very cheap. We were next at-
tracted by a specimen of Paulownia imperialis, about 12 ft.
high. This tree, with its large cordate leaves, had exactly the
appearance of a gigantic sunflower, lacking its terminal flower ;
in fact, when I returned, on observing a giant sunflower, about
8 ft. high, growing in my nursery, I could not help exclaim-
ing, “ Voila Paulownia!”

"This plant was an object of great interest in the nursery of
M. Leroy. Its leaves were 2 ft. in length, the same in breadth;
petioles 1} ft. in length. It was growing, as I was assured by
the foreman, at the rate of 2 in. per diem. In this most favour-
able climate it will doubtless soon form a magnificent tree: still
I doubt if it will bear sharp frost; for, in spite of the very hot
weather, its stem was exceedingly soft and herbaceous; as much
so as Fichsa corymbiflora turned out in a wet border in England.
We saw here fine standards of Acacia Julibrissin in full bloom.
They were propagating nearly all the hard-wooded greenhouse
plants by layering in small pots in the open air; the surface of
the pots covered with moss. ‘They appeared to succeed admi-
rably ; but the climate of Angers seems almost to be perfection,
as far as regards plant culture. The rose “‘ Noisette Lamarque”
bears seed freely, and from it have been raised some splendid yellow
Noisette roses. All sorts of moss roses were covered with heps.
Melons were growing and ripening in the open borders. M.
Vibert, the eminent rose cultivator, has now turned his atten-
tion to the improvement of grapes, on which he has published a
small treatise. He purposes, by crossing, to obtain high-flayoured
muscat grapes as early as the sweetwater and other precocious
varieties. I observed a seedling black muscat, which had
apparently resulted from a cross with the black sweetwater,
nearly ripe on the open wall; but it seemed to inherit the badly
setting qualities of the sweetwater, as many berries were small
and imperfect. Its flavour was rich and musky. As M. Vibert
is very persevering and scientific, he will doubtless make great
improvements in this branch of horticulture. Idid not observe

at Angers any thing remarkable in their culture of pears: it.

sounded rather oddly in this country of pears, to hear Williams’s
Bon Chrétien, or “ Poire Guillaume,” as they call it, extolled as
the finest pear known; it is “ magnifique, délicieuse, Monsieur
Rivers,” exclaimed the foreman of M. Leroy.

in Brittany and Normandy. 231

I noticed in the rose nurseries here the effect of increased
light and heat on the petals of some China roses. In this
family are some varieties originating in a semidouble rose, well
known to amateurs as chameleon, or Aodsa indica mutdbilis:
Archduke Charles, Etna, and Rubens are the finest of these
changeable roses. In England these are, on their first opening,
a pale rose, then deep rose, and the second day, if the weather
is dry, crimson, more or less deep. At Angers, the weather
warm and dry, their flowers in the third stage were nearly
black. I was much interested with the mélange of black, red,
and blush roses on the same bush; this peculiarity in those few
varieties is the more remarkable, as it is quite the reverse of
what takes place in the generality of roses; the brilliancy of
their colouring, in almost all cases, fading under bright sun-
shine.

Camellias are cultivated very extensively here. I visited the
nursery of M. Cachot, most delightfully situated on the “ Pro-
menades du Champ de Mars,” a spacious parallelogram with
fine avenues on each side. His culture is confined to camellias:
the stock was in the best condition. I should calculate that I saw
fifty thousand plants of various sizes, all in the finest possible
health. Here again was the beautiful Bignonéa grandiflora,
enlivening the walls and borders with its splendour: it seems a
general favourite at Angers.

Le Mans, July 27.—We arrived here from Angers, travelling
on one of the routes royales, macadamised, broad, and admi-
rably kept. I observed it was divided into sections by tin or
iron plates, fixed on posts and numbered; the labourers had
their hats with corresponding numbers fixed on plates of tin to
them: each labourer had the portion of road between each post
under his care; they were even sweeping the dust from the
road, so careful did they seem of it. The country was in fine
cultivation, the wheat all harvested. We passed through La
Fléche, a large market town, the hedges in the vicinity of which
were lined with Quércus Tatzin. I observed also a few of the
common oak amongst them. The former were absolutely laden
with acorns. If these are more nutritive than those of the
common oak, they must form abundant food for pigs and other
stock. Numerous walnut trees were also by the road side; the
fruit equalling in abundance that of the Quércus Tazzin. This
part of the country seemed indeed highly fruitful. Le Mans is
a spacious and ancient city, with a population of 25,000. The
eathedral is well worthy a visit. I visited the garden of M.
Foulard, a first-rate amateur of horticulture, and was much in-
terested by his collection. Apricots were here growing in the
open quarters on dwarf bushes; the large early, or gros précoce,

232 A Twelve Days Tour

M. Foulard informed me, was ripe on the 6th; and the “abricot
péche,” a large variety of the Moor Park, was just now in fine
perfection. "The cherries, “royale tardive” and “ cerise d’Oc-
tobre,” were just ripening; the former is our late duke, the
latter I had not seen before. Some fine melons were also ripe
in the open borders. I here heard of the famous poire épis-
copal, raised from seed by M. Bougére. It is reputed to be
juicy and high-flavoured, keeping sound till June and July.
The soldat laboureur is also a new pear of high reputation, as
is the colmar d’Aremberg; these ripen in November and De-
cember.

Lisieux (Calvados), July 28.— At Le Mans we left the route
royale, and after a tedious journey, in a small and inconvenient
diligence, of fifteen hours, through a pretty undulated country,
the corn fields all planted with apple trees, we arrived at this
ancient-looking market town. It was a busy day for the towns-
people, as a grand mass was performed at the cathedral for the
death of the Duke of Orleans. The national guard attended
the mass, and grounded their firelocks on the stone pavement,
making a tremendous uproar, in but ill accordance with religious
worship. Objects of interest in horticulture diminished as we
left the banks of the Loire. We visited a nursery here, but saw
no specimens of new plants worthy of mention, and nothing,
as at Angers, to show the effects of a fine climate. M. Oudin
treated us with brandy made from cider, which he informed us
can scarcely be bought pure. It was a most powerful and
agreeable spirit.

As we approached Normandy we were reminded of England,
except that in England (unless in Worcestershire and Hereford-
shire) but few fruit trees are to be found in the corn fields ;
whereas in Normandy, through many many miles of country,
the apple trees are planted, often irregularly and at a consider-
able distance apart, all over the face of the soil, and the land is
mostly arable, which attracts the notice of the English traveller,
as it has not the appearance of an orchard. I looked very
closely into the wheat and barley crops directly under the shade
of the trees, and could not perceive the least difference either in
the bulk of straw or quality of the grain. An Englishman at
first sight thinks the practice bad, as shade in his country is so
injuricus to corn crops; but the superior dryness of this climate,
and greater abundance of sunshine, will account for the non-
injurious effect of planting fruit trees in corn fields. Iwas sur-
prised to find the crop of apples a total failure: the trees looked
full of healthy foliage, but scarcely an apple could be perceived.
I believe this failure was chiefly in cider apples, as I afterwards
saw trees full of fruit in some gardens. ‘The farmers of Nor-

in Brittany and Normandy. 233

mandy seem a superior race of men to those of Brittany; in
short, more like English farmers. I remember seeing at a fair,
between Dinan and Rennes, many hundreds of Breton farmers:
they seemed all of one grade, neither rich nor poor. I ob-
served many returning from the fair with their purchases of
stock. A Suffolk farmer would have turned up his nose with
contempt at the smallness of their ventures. Some had one cow
and a calf; these were great men: for the majority had some
two, some three, others four, sheep of the goatish breed before-
mentioned; these they were leading by a line round their
necks. ‘The whole affair looked, by contrast with our own far-
mers, poor and miserable enough. Still these people are happy.
They have small farms, which in most cases are their own free-
holds; they have few wants, and these are all supplied. In
that part of Brittany the country seemed peopled by these
small farmers; no common labourers were to be seen. Un-
doubtedly this contributes to the happiness of the people, and
offers a striking contrast to the wealthy farmers, large farms,
and numerous and ill-paid labourers in our agricultural districts.
Whether the general welfare of the country is promoted by this
system is another question, and one requiring much consider-
ation to answer.

Honfleur, July 29.— At Lisieux we found that no diligence
could be taken to carry us to this little town; we, therefore,
bargained for a “ cabriolet” for the journey of twenty miles, for
which we paid twenty francs. Let it not be supposed that by
this name was designated a roomy chaise on springs. Oh, no;
our cabriolet was a large market-cart on springs, in which were
double seats. In this my three friends, myself, and the driver,
were amply accommodated, and our “bonne jument,” as our
driver affectionately called his old mare, jogged along at the
rate of four miles an hour to Pont l’Eyvéque, about half-way,
where we rested and partook of “ café noir ;” thence, after walk-
ing up a tremendous hill, a three miles’ ascent, we arrived here,
descending to the town through a magnificent avenue of elms.
The famous Honfleur melons, we ascertained, were grown to
the south of the town, at some distance from it: our time did
not permit us to view the melon gardens, and we found no
other matter of any horticultural interest, so that we crossed the
Seine to Havre as soon as possible by the steamer, thence by
steam to Southampton; thus terminating a rapid, agreeable, and
mentally profitable tour of twelve days.

Sawbridgeworth Nursery, April 4. 1843.

234 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

Art. V. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By James Barnes, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 166.)

Letrer XIII. Growing Mushrooms.

I sHaxu now fulfil the promise I made you when here, to give
you a description of my method of growing mushrooms ; which is
a very easy, simple, but sure method to get them of a good
quality, and in great abundance, at all times of the year, if you
only manage to get good spawn. ‘There is no vegetable cul-
tivated that is so sought after in a nobleman’s or gentleman’s
kitchen as the mushroom; as I once heard a French man-cook
say, “de mushroom is de very life and soul of de kitchen.”

The prettiest and most interesting of all vegetable-growing
is the mushroom culture. I was always devotedly fond of it,
and have been in the practice of cultivating them for the last
25 years. I have seen many different systems tried, but have
decided on one settled one of my own for many years; yet I
do not say it is superior to any other, neither am I recommend-
ing it, or asking any one to follow my advice. I have heard of
treatises being written on mushrooms, but I never met with one
of them; neither did I ever read a book of any kind on garden-
ing, nor take any interest in reading them, until the Gardener's
Gazette made its appearance, as I always fancied it was loss
of time; but now I am resolved to get every book I can
possibly procure, as from time to time I can buy them. Out
of the many hundreds of mushrooms, there are but three va-
rieties that I would venture to eat myself. I do not know the
specific name for any of them, but I will send you a specimen
of each as they come in season; and, if you will be so kind as to
try and find out the proper names of them, you will greatly
oblige me, as, in my humble opinion, the public ought to be
particularly cautioned against purchasing and eating any of those
of a dangerous quality, which are sometimes offered for sale.

I will tell you how I discovered the dangerous qualities of
mushrooms. When I was about eight years old I was sent to a
dairy for a can of milk, and I took care to go early before the
dairy-maid was up, that I might go foraging about, as I have
since seen all boys will do, after apples, crabs, nuts, walnuts,
chestnuts, or any other fruit I could lay hands on. That
very morning I was on one of those excursions, and fell in with
two fine-looking mushrooms under some chestnut trees. I took
them home and got my mother to cook them for my breakfast,
ate them, and went about my business; but it was not long
before I was taken so dreadfully ill that I can never forget it.

Growing Mushrooms. 235

I swelled all over from head to foot, and rolled over and over in
my agony. I have often thought since, if I had been nursed
for it I should have died; but, being out of the sight of any body,
the agony causing me to roll about on the ground was the
means of keeping me alive. At the end of three hours I was at
the height of my misery, and after that I began to get better
gradually ; but, when I went home at night, I looked so ill that
my mother guessed what was the matter with me. I could not
taste, or scarcely look at, a mushroom, for a long time afterwards.
I remember well the time when I lived in Essex, I and my men
were moving some trees in a plantation, and one of the makers
of mushroom catchup came by us, just where there was a quan-
tity of this unwholesome variety of mushrooms, which he
thought great luck to meet with, and he eagerly collected them.
I addressed him, and asked him how he could make use of such
mushrooms. He told me they made the best of catchup, and,
by putting plenty of salt and spices to it, the cockneys did not
know the difference. I told him he had gathered a sufficient
quantity to kill a regiment of soldiers, and that it would be no
easy matter to persuade me to taste them.

Before I proceed to describe my system, I must observe that
I do not desire any one else to follow it, as it may be an im-
perfect one, and I do not profess to be perfect in anything,
though I intend to try to be so. I do not profess to be a
scientific gardener, but I have followed the profession all my
life with the greatest pleasure and interest; I know nothing
of any other profession; and it is not my intention to answer
any letter or questions put to me, on any subject, without the
writer puts his own name and address to it.

Every body, after one moment’s consideration, must know
that nature produces the greatest abundance of mushrooms in
parks, old pastures, and meadows, where the ground has not
been disturbed for some time. After a tolerably dry summer,
in the autumn season, when the weather is temperate and the
nights and days nearly of an equal length, get horse-droppings
and cow-dung of equal quantities; one barrow of good maiden
loam to four of the above ; mix it well together backwards and
forwards, until it is regularly incorporated; then wet it the same as
you wotild mortar, and well chop and beat and tread it together,
just as a potter does his clay for making pots. Then spread it on
a smooth surface three inches in thickness to get steady ; if it
is fine dry weather, it will in two days be ready to cut into
pieces the size of a brickmaker’s bricks. Leave it to dry, taking
care never to allow it to get washed by rain to any extent, or
the principal part of its virtue will be lost. When tolerably
dry take it to a shed, or some other darkish place. Procure, if
possible, some natural spawn from an old pasture or mill-track.

236 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

Stack your bricks, and place some of the spawn between every
alternate row. Cover it up closely with litter, taking care to
look at it in two days’ time to see that it does not vet too hot ;
if it does so, uncover it, or it will quickly destroy the spawn,
and injure the bricks so much, that, if spawned again, it never
works so kindly and strong. If it goes on kindly it will in
about 35 or 40 days be ready to unpack. Sort out what is
well worked; the remainder, that is not worked enough, stack
and cover up as before, taking care to put what is ready into a
dry place (without a draught) to get steadily firm, or it will perish.
If put into a damp place the spawn will soon run out of it and
perish. This must be all particularly attended to. If you do
not have good spawn, how can you expect to get good mush-
rooms? Many people that I have seen use spawn did not know
good from bad, and were ignorant of the qualities and properties
of it; whether it was perished spawn or not. One observation I
must here make, that, when mushroom spawn is once good, if it
is taken proper care of, it will be as good after it has been kept
seven years as the first day it was ready: the oldest that I ever
used was 84 years made; but I have no doubt it would have
been as good if it had been kept 20 years.

To make a bed of any size or shape, take the dung fresh
from the stable, litter and all together; but, if it is very strawy,
shake out some of the long straw. I like to have well-made —
stable dung. Then have it wheeled into the mushroom shed,
or wherever you mean to make the bed, and add a quantity of
good heavy loam to it; enough to keep the dung from heating
or fermenting to any extent, and so that it may be altogether
of one congenial warmth and moisture, which it will be if made
with foresight and judgement ; but, if it is allowed to ferment and
steam, the very life and soul of the dung is gone. If it is
allowed to lie and get washed with rain, it is like the brewer’s
grains after the liquid has been extracted; the grains will not
fatten a beast, neither will the dung, when allowed to lose its good
qualities, grow good mushrooms; but they will become of a bad
_ quality, poor and thin: the bed will not continue long in bear-
ing, and will probably show large quantities of small mushrooms
that will never come to perfection.

I saw a question that was asked about a fortnight since in
the Gardener's Chronicle, by a man who appear ed to be in
trouble about his mushrooms, which showed well, but did not
come to perfection; and it was answered, but I believe not
exactly as I should have done.

The bed made on my principle will be quite ready to be
spawned in about a fortnight after being made. Put the spawn
in the bed shallow, just covered; let the bed lie quiet for aweek or
ten days before casing it, which must be done with about three

Growing Mushrooms. 237

inches of good stiff holding loam; beat it as firmly as possible
down on the bed. Let the bed remain quiet another week; then
well beat it with the back of a spade again, and cover it over
lightly with hay, litter, and straw mixed together; for, if you
cover it with hay alone, it is very apt to quickly draw all the
spawn out into it and ruin your bed. Take care to give the
spawn plenty of time to work itself regularly all through the
bed before covering the bed to any extent, or you will certainly
be disappointed, and only get very few mushrooms, and those
of a bad quality. I have had beds made on the above prin-
ciple that have produced mushrooms of the first quality in great
abundance for four, five, or six months, picking them constantly
two or three times a week.

When the bed has been covered about 20 or 25 days, un-
cover it, and brush it all over, to take the short rubbish out;
shake the litter well, and take all the rubbish clean out.
Examine the bed, and, if you find it dry, get a stake or broom-
handle and make a row of good-sized holes, all up the centre of
the bed; get some boiling water and pour two or three quarts
into each hole, stopping the heat and steam in immediately
with a whisk of mulching dung to retain the evaporation; it
will moisten the bed, and cause a nice congenial warmth. I
always make it a rule to water the casing of the bed likewise,
with boiling water out of a watering pot with a rose on it.

After the bed has been made about 30 or 35 days, this water-
ing causes a fine congenial warmth if covered down immediately,
which should be done. I generally repeat it two or three
times, allowing three days to intervene between each time,
according to the state of the bed. It destroys every slug, wood-
louse, or any other kind of insect whatever that is about, and
sweetens the bed to such a degree that mushrooms thrust them-
selves up through it of a firm good quality all over the bed.
But never water a mushroom bed after it is in full bearing, or
it will stop bearing, or send them up of a bad quality generally
afterwards, and will not continue long. For instance, observe
mushrooms when they are growing naturally in parks, pastures, or
fields, as soon as the heavy rains come on them they stop bear-
ing. Damp the litter occasionally with hot water, to raise a gentle
mist ; and if the bed is ina shed sprinkle it all over now and
then with boiling water, which destroys every kind of insect, —
and raises a sweet congenial mist that mushrooms are par-
ticularly fond of.

How I came first of all to discover the good effects of using
loam amongst the dung was this. Some years ago, whilst I was
working for a market-gardener, I was short of dung to form
the mushroom beds with, so as to make them come into bearing

at the time wanted. I recollected having accidentally seen a
3d Ser. — 1843. V. R

238 Notices of some Gardens and Country Seats

mixture of earth and dung once lying outside a farmer’s field,
full of beautiful mushroom spawn, and I resolved to try it mixed
together, thinking it would be the means of keeping the bed
cold, that it might be very soon spawned to be in readiness for
market at the time wanted; and I was truly astonished, and so
was my master, to see such an abundance of mushrooms of a
superior quality, and lasting so long; the quality beyond any
that we had ever seen before. It did not strike me till some
years afterwards about its preserving the quality of the dung,
although I never left off practising it, and with the same good
effect. I have told many gardeners of it since, and I know they
have put it into practice for some years past.

My next letter shall be on potato-growing in all its stages;
the cause of curl, dry rot, and my opinion on the great abuse
that most useful of all vegetables is subject to in this country
generally, as far as I have observed.

Bicton Gardens, Nov. 4. 1842.

Art. VI. Notices of some Gardens and Country Seats in Somerset-
shire, Devonshire, and Part of Cornwall. By the Conpucror.

(Continued from Vol. for 1842, p. 555., and concluded.)

SEPT. 20. 1842. — Sidmouth. Peake House; EK. B. Lousada,
Esq. This is the largest place in the immediate neighbourhood
of Sidmouth. The house is in a commanding situation at the
top of an extensive slope which terminates near the sea shore.
No expense has been spared to render this declivity uniform,
but, as there were a number of trees to be left, they stand on
elevated portions of the original surface, which either have not
been sloped down at the edges at all, or sloped down so very
imperfectly as to constitute glaring deformities. “The ugliest
ground,” Sir Uvedale Price observes, “is that which has neither
the beauty of smoothness and gentle undulation, nor the pic-
turesqueness of varied tints of soil: of such kind is ground that
has been disturbed, and left with risings upon it, which appear
like knobs or bumps, or gashes into it, such as old gravel pits or
quarries.” (Essays on the Picturesque, vol. i. chap. ix.) It is
surprising to see, at a place which bears evidence of a large sum
having been laid out on it, the finishing operation of uniting
the bumps with the surface on which they stand so much
neglected. ‘The cause is evident: the proprietor has entered
fully into the subject of improvement, as far as ambition and
wealth are concerned, but has not imbued his mind with it in
regard to taste. If country gentlemen and ladies would give

in Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Part of Cornwall. 259

themselves up as completely to their architects and landscape-
gardeners, as they do to their tailors and milliners, such de-
formities as those to which we allude would not be perpetrated,
though the result would probably be nearly as great a sameness
in the scenery of places as there is in dress. What then is to
be done? Let taste be free, and let every country gentleman
do as he pleases. We recommend those who do not think fit
to employ a first-rate artist, and yet set some value on public
opinion, to study the subject, and superintend their own im-
provements. It is necessary to be rationally occupied in order
to pass the time agreeably, and what can be more rational than
the improvement and adornment of that portion of our coun-
try’s surface which we can call our own? What more conducive
to health, to the prosperity of his neighbours who live by their
labour, and what more patriotic? Mr. Lousada has the great
merit of being unsparing in expense; and, with a few years’
experience and observation of other country seats, and some
reading, he will acquire a good taste and display it. This is
evident from what he has recently done in the flower-garden, in
which there are some scenes that might engage the pencil of
an artist.

In the kitchen-garden we observed a pine pit heated by hot
water agreeably to a mode invented by Messrs. Garton and
Jarvis of Exeter, the peculiarity of which is that the hot water
can be let out of the pipes into troughs over them at pleasure,
so as rapidly and abundantly to supply a moist heat. Of this,
and some other improvements made by Messrs. Garton and
Jarvis, we expect hereafter to give some account. Mr. Lou-
sada’s dwelling-house is replete with arrangements requisite for
comfortable and elegant enjoyment, and it contains some good
pictures, statues, and books.

A singular place at Sidmouth, belonging to Mr. Fish, was
mentioned to us as worth seeing, but Mr. Fish only shows it on
particular days, and our day happened not to be his.

Sept. 22. — Nutwell Court; Sir Thomas Trayton Fuller
Elbot Drake, Bart. This place is extremely interesting on
account of some remarkably fine trees which it contains; but in
other respects it is crowded, confused, and not carefully kept.
Nevertheless it has all the elements necessary to constitute a
fine place: beautiful distant views across and along the Exe
and to the sea; a varied surface, with hills and knolls; a fine
spring of water, as the name implies; a good house, not badly
situated ; extent of park; and abundance of wood which only
requires thinning out. We noted down the following dimen-
sions of trees: Magnolia grandiflora 25 ft. high, with a head
30 ft. in diameter, and the stem 14 in. across at 1 ft. from
the ground; Pldtanus occidentalis 100 ft. high, with a trunk

R 2

240 Notices of some Gardens and Country Seats

5 ft. in diameter; Taxddium distichum 50 ft. high, with a
trunk 23 ft. in diameter; Pldtanus orientalis 60 ft. high, with
a head 70 ft. in diameter; A’Inus glutindsa incisa 70 ft. high,
with a regular conical head; Salix Russelliana 80 ft. high,
with a trunk 5 ft. in diameter; a tulip tree 70 ft. high, with a
trunk 4 ft. in diameter; a very large Lucombe oak; and nu-
merous elms from 80 to 100 ft. high. There are, besides, cedars,
silver firs, spruces, Scotch pines, hollies, and various other trees
of large size, of which we had not time to take notes. In re-
turning to Exeter, we observed in a cottage garden Phlomis
fruticdsa 8 ft. high, with a stem 4 in. in diameter, which ripens
seeds in abundance. Throughout the South of Devonshire the
Phlomis becomes a large and very ornamental shrub.

Sept. 24.— Killerton Park ; Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, Bart.,
M.P. This place is situated on the side of a hill, which slopes
eradually and beautifully down to a level country or broad
valley on one side of the house, and on the other rises to a
summit crowned with wood. Nothing can be more judiciously
disposed than the trees on the lower part of the slope, and in
the level valley. Immediately in front of the entrance to the
house the surface contains very few trees, but at a short dis-
tance these commence, at first thinly scattered and sparingly
grouped, and then increased in number till the groups unite
into masses, and the masses are lost in one grand valley of
wood. ‘The surface of this wood is fully commanded by the
eye from the house, and forms a grand and effective contrast to
the rest of the place. As a contrast to this wood in front of
the house, which is looked down upon, we have another behind
and at each side to which we look up. Turning to the plea-
sure-ground side of the house, we have smooth glades between
masses of rhododendrons and other finely tufted shrubs, which
lead the eye up the trunks of the trees which form the venera-
ble wood crowning the hill on the side of which the house
stands. This hill to the right and left of the house affords
many fine walks, commanding extensive prospects. Some of
these walks, particularly the one leading to the chapel, are
nearly level in regard to surface, but, as they follow the wind-
ings of the slope, they are exceedingly varied in regard to
direction ; and this, in our opinion, constitutes one of the finest
descriptions of walk that can any where be made. ‘There is
much to admire at Killerton, both of natural feature and arti-
ficial treatment, for Sir Thomas Dyke Acland has an excellent
taste in landscape-gardening. ‘There are many fine old trees,
the dimensions of which will be found in our Arboretum, in-
cluding a remarkably large tulip tree close to the house : in 1834
it was 63 ft. high, with a thick trunk, and a very wide spreading
head; and the trunk, we were informed, has since increased

in Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Part of Cornwall. 241

several inches in circumference. There are here some of the
largest Lucombe oaks in the country, and, in short, very large
specimens of most trees in cultivation half a century ago. In
an architectural flower-garden we observed a very effective and
economical imitation of stone flower-baskets. They are formed
of paper-printers’ blocks after they are no longer of any use to
print from. These blocks are made of the best oak, square in
shape, and when painted and sanded they bear a close re-
semblance to sculptured stone. All that they require is a frame-
work in which to fix them as panels. The price is little more
than that of old wood sold for fuel. These blocks are also well
adapted for forming the panels to fixed garden benches, boun-
dary parapets to architectural flower-gardens, and for various
other garden purposes.

A very handsome Gothic chapel has lately been erected in
the grounds from the design of C. R. Cockerell, Esq. It is
situated at the extremity of the beautiful walk already mentioned,
near the public road, so as to be convenient for the public who
choose to attend, and on ground so far elevated as to form a
fine object from various parts of the surrounding country. It
stands on a terrace, and the principal approach to it is through
an avenue of cypresses.

The house is commodious, and rich in books and pictures;
and we were particularly gratified with seeing the nu-
merous very artistical landscapes and sketches made by Sir
Thomas in different parts of Europe. ‘There is no study what-
ever equal to that of sketching landscape, for giving a just taste
in landscape-gardening. It is difficult to conceive how persons
with minds little cultivated by the study of prints or pictures,
and who have not sketched a good deal, can understand the value
of breadth of light and shade, of connexion, of grouping, of sym-
metry, of contrast (the most important ingredient in all compo-
sition, whatever may be the line of art), and of awhole. Without
this kind of knowledge all attempts at landscape-gardening must
be little better than random work. Without this science of
landscape, as it may be called, no person can give a sufficient
reason for what he proposes, or foresee its result. At the same
time this knowledge alone is not sufficient: a knowledge of
trees and their culture is equally requisite ; for otherwise a
design may be made that cannot be carried into execution, or
commonplace sameness may be the result, instead of arboricul-
tural variety.

There is a good kitchen-garden, well cropped, and the fruit
trees carefully trained. We noticed in particular some vines on
the open wall trained horizontally, and bearing abundantly. The
whole place was, and we were told at Exeter always is, in ex-
cellent order, for which much praise is due to Mr. Craggs, the

R 3

242 Notices of some Gardens and Country Seats

gardener, as well as to his enlightened and kind-hearted em-
ployer.

Silverton Park, the Earl of Egremont, is separated from
Killerton by the river Culm; and the finely wooded hill which
we have mentioned as forming the apex to the landscape of
which Killerton House is the main feature, is the principal
object in the view from the house at Silverton. This house is
situated in an inner angle formed by the concurrence of two
immense banks, on the site of an old mansion. The greater part of
the new building is not yet finished. It is eminently classical,
abounding in colonnades and porticoes, without a single vulgar
feature externally ; the interior we had not an opportunity of
seeing. The appearance of the entrance front gave us the idea
that the house was sunk much too low; but this impression is
not made by the pleasure-ground fronts. As the whole place
was undergoing a course of improvement, we could not judge
what will be the ultimate effect.

Sept. 26. —Poltimore House, Lord Poltimore, is an extensive
place, with a flat surface, and a house which appeared to us too
low for the situation. There are ample space and scope for im-
provement in the neighbourhood of the house, and few situations
are better adapted for an architectural garden. There is a fine
lime tree avenue to the church.

Sept. 29.— Winslade House, Henry Porter, Esq., possesses
naturally some fine features, and much has recently been done
by art. There is a terraced garden in front of the house, which
conducts by a succession of levels to a piece of water, along
which there is a broad gravel walk, separated by an enriched
parapet. The design and execution of the terrace-work and
the parapet next the water are good, with the exception of some
slight details. There is an excellent kitchen-garden; and,
on the whole, the place is remarkably complete in every re-
quisite for substantial and refined enjoyment. ‘There is a
rosary laid out and planted by Mr. Pince with great taste (of
which he promised us a plan and list); and various rustic struc-
tures designed by Mrs. Porter. In the house are many rare and
valuable articles of vir, sculpture, pictures, books, &c., recently
brought from Italy and Germany, more especially from Dresden;
and, among some beautiful specimens of foreign birds, we observed
the Bell bird of Mr. Waterton, its plumage beautifully preserved.

Sept. 26. to 29. — Heanton Park, near Torrington; Lord
Clinton. ‘This is a place of great extent, and capable of very
great improvement. The house is situated on an immense
bank, with another immense bank facing it, about a mile
distant, with a broad valley between, the whole or any part of
which might be covered with water at very little expense, or
might be laid down in meadow or covered with wood at

in Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Part of Cornwall. 243

pleasure. This broad valley jos a narrow one with lofty
banks covered with natural wood, the whole or any part of
which might also be flooded. Every natural feature here is on
a large scale, and the arts required are chiefly draining and plant-
ing, both of which, as far as they have been carried, evince
good judgement. ‘The masses of trees in the park were pro-
jected by Mr. Gilpin, and are judiciously placed. Various
recent improvements have been devised by His Lordship and his
intelligent gardener Mr. Cato; and we had the honour of
staking out an approach above a mile in length. The house is
not large, but it is well arranged, and, as far as a stranger can
judge in a day or two, it cannot be better placed. In a shrub-
bery walk there is a living arbour, formed by Mr. Cato, of ash
trees, in the manner recommended in our Volume for 1841,
p- 312., which has succeeded admirably. The kitchen-garden
and nursery grounds heré, as well as the pleasure-ground, are
kept in excellent order. The agriculture, like that of Devon-
shire generally, is very bad; but Lord Clinton is using every
exertion to improve it, as hinted at in our Volume for 1842,
p- 658. Lord Clinton, who has resided some time in Scotland,
is well aware of the defects of the agriculture on his estate, but,
with true benevolence, is unwilling to change any of his tenants,
preferring to instruct them. For the latter purpose, he has
encouraged the formation of an agricultural society, of which he
is president; and the papers read at the meetings, when con-
sidered worthy of publication, are printed at His Lordship’s ex-
pense. His Lordship has also built a school and schoolmaster’s
house, and is improving the labourers’ cottages and the farm-
houses. In a word, he appears to be proceeding judiciously
with all the more important improvements of which Heanton
Satchville is susceptible.

Stevenstone, near Torrington, Lord Rolle, is a very old place,
chiefly remarkable for very large trees, and for a boldly un-
dulated surface. It is capable of immense improvement, in con-
sequence of hollows that might be flooded with water, and

co)
eminences that require planting. The house is very old, though

to)
there is nothing worthy of notice in its architecture. It is low,
occupying three sides of a long narrow court: the connecting
side, or extreme end, containing the principal living-rooms; one
side terminating in the offices and stables, and the other in the
family chapel. The library, as a protection from fire, forms a
detached building in the garden. There is a peculiarly quiet and
melancholy expression about this place, which we think we can
trace to its having little or no appearance of being inhabited, to
the prevalence of grass, and the absence of gravel walks, espe-
cially of winding ones, and to the park being, as far as we

remember, totally without young trees. Well-kept gravel
R 4

244 Notices of some Gardens and Country Seats

walks always give the idea of occupation; and young trees, with
their protecting fences round them, seem to show that improve-
ments are going on. A lodge has been recently built here,
which ought to be noticed for the bad taste which it exhibits:
not to speak of its architecture, which wants some characteristic
features of the style, we shall merely mention that painted
stags’ heads are built into a rubble wall without any preparation,
and that the Rolle arms are placed on the piers of the gates, not .
so as to front the public road, but edgewise towards it. It is
much to be regretted that proprietors in the country, when they
do not employ a regular architect, do not submit their own, or
their carpenter’s designs to one. For two guineas, any London
architect would have pointed out the exterior faults in the pitch
of the roof, form of the windows and doors, and defects in the
placing of the ornaments in the structure to which we allude;
and the stags’ heads and the arms, instead of being deformities
as they now are, would have been appropriate ornaments: and
all this, with the exception of the architect’s fee, at no greater
expense than has been incurred.

At Torrington we called at Mr. Fowler’s, the author of the
Thermosiphon, a pamphlet on heating by hot water on the
siphon principle, reviewed in our Volume for 1829, p. 453.
Mr. Fowler, who was a banker and bookseller, was too ill to be
able to see us, and is since dead.

In going from Torrington to see the inclined plane on the
Rolle ‘Canal, we looked down upon Ware Gifford, Lord For-
tescue, and on Cross House, Mrs. Stephens, both situated in a
rich valley. The Rolle Canal, and the various works connected
with it, must have greatly benefited Torrington and the neigh-
bourhood, and they do honour to the memory of Lord Rolle.

We have now noticed most of the gentlemen’s seats which
we saw in Devonshire, very briefly and imperfectly, from having
taken no notes, and from haying delayed to put down our re-
collections before most of them had escaped from our memory.
Their brevity, however, is perhaps an advantage, because, if they
had been much longer, we could not have found room for them. -
Before closing this article we shall notice the general impres-
sions made on us by the face of the country and its agriculture,
and by the labourers’ cottages.

Roads.— The greater part of Devonshire, more particularly
of the south part, seemed very badly arranged in respect to
parish roads. Owing to the small size of the fields the roads
are far too numerous, and it is to the same cause that we must
attribute their circuitous direction and their narrowness. We
have already noticed the high hedge banks which accompany
these roads, and prevent the traveller from seeing into the
fields except when he comes to a gateway. We feel confident

in Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Part of Cornwall. 245

that we do not exaggerate when we say that in many cases the
ground lost to the proprietors by the lanes and fences, which
would be superfluous if the ground were properly laid out,
amounts to from 10 to 20 per cent. Proprietors of lands of
great extent may remedy this evil themselves, but in general
it would require the cooperation of the district. In either case
a survey should first be made, and not only the roads and
. fences, but the inclination of the surface, natural drainage, and
course of water ditches and brooks pointed out; and from this
plan, jointly with the careful examination of the ground, a re-
arrangement of the surface into shorter lines of road, straighter
hedges, ditches, and brooks, and larger fields, might be deter-
mined on. Even if the direction of the roads, and the general
drainage, were rectified on sound principles, much public good
would result, and the arrangement of the fields and farms might
be left to the proprietors.

Cottages. —'These are not bad in the same proportion as are
the general arrangement of the country and the agriculture.
There is a greater sympathy between the cottage dwellings
and those of the smaller farmers. In Northumberland, where
there are scarcely any small farms, and where the farm-houses
are almost as large as gentlemen’s seats, there appears to be
no sympathy between the dwelling of the farmer and that of
his labourer, and the cottages are ‘hovels of the most wretched
description. (See our Vol. for 1842, p. 31.) In this respect
Devonshire and Somersetshire are as far before Northumberland
and Berwickshire, as they are behind these counties in agri-
culture. Nevertheless the cottages in Devonshire are suscep-
tible of much internal improvement, more especially in the
north; and, neither in the north nor in the south, do they
appear to have been at all considered by the landed interest
as objects of taste. This will not be the case in any country,
till the subject of the improvement of cottages is taken out
of the hands of farmers and land stewards, and undertaken
by proprietors themselves. The farmers are jealous of their
cottagers, to such an extent that, in some places that we
could point out, they disapprove even of their children being
sent to school; and the stewards are jealous of any improve-
ment that does not originate with themselves, as it seems to
reproach them with neglect of duty, or to give them extra
trouble. Of course there are many exceptions.

The Agriculture of Devonshire appeared to us worse than
that of any other English county, but, in consequence of the
warm moist climate, grass is produced in abundance through-
out the year, and thus the deficiencies of arable culture are
in some measure compensated for. The corn crop being
everywhere removed, we had an opportunity of seeing the

246 Notices of some Gardens and Country Seats

stubbles, which were everywhere foul, indicating shallow
ploughing and bad fallowing. The best parts of the farm-
yard manure are allowed to be washed away by the frequent
rains, and the weeds in the hedges and by the road sides are
allowed to ripen their seeds, which are disseminated over the
cultivated grounds, by the winds in some cases, and the birds
in others. We saw one or two thrashing machines of the
very worst construction. But it is unnecessary to say more
than that 15 tons per acre are reckoned a good crop of tur-
nips, in a county which abounds with some of the best turnip
soils in England; and the climate of which, from its warmth and
moisture, is peculiarly favourable to the culture of that root and
of the potato. In a word, with the exception of the grass lands,
the cattle, and the culture exhibited by the bailiffs on one or
two gentlemen’s estates, we saw nothing that we could commend.

In proportion as Devonshire is in a backward state in
respect to rural improvement, notwithstanding its fine cli-
mate, in the same proportion is it susceptible of amelioration ;
and we amused ourselves, while travelling from one point to
another, in fancying what we should do if we had the com-
mand of an extensive Devonshire estate. As the celebrated
Arthur Young, in his Annals, indulged in a reverie of the
same class”, we trust the precedent will be accepted as an

* «¢T wish I was a king,’ said a farmer’s boy: ‘ Why, what would you do if
you was aking?’ ‘I would swing upon the gate and eat bacon all day long.’
So Lalso may wish I was a kine; if I did, it would be for the pleasure Of
executing such a plan as this for a personal amusement. I would send a
message to the House of Commons, desiring to be invested with a power, on
my own personal examination im any progresses I might make through my
dominions, of ordering the necessary enclosures, buildings, and expenditures
for the establishment of farms in tracts now waste. And I should be very
well assured that my faithful Commons would not refuse it. They would, on
the contrary, be happy i in promoting the royal pleasures that had for their ‘end
the cultivation, improvement, and population of the kingdom. They would
rejoice to see the presence of their sovereign diffusing industry; making barren
deserts smile with cultivation, and peopling joyless wastes with the ‘grateful
hearts of men, who, through these efforts, nad exchanged the miseries of
poverty for cheerfulness, content, and competence; rearing the quiet cottage
of private happiness, and the splendid turrets of public prosperity. These
should be my amusements; doubtless they are such as kings would look down
upon with a contempt equal to mine at the swinging and bacon of a country
boy. But I should feel an enjoyment as refined, per rhaps, as that which arises
from desolated though conquered provinces, from the triumphs that military
glory erects on the ruin and sufferings of humanity. And when I died my
memory would have the honour of being forgotten ; for I should rank with
those kings of ancient days, dignes sans doute de nos éloges puisque Vhistoire ne
les a pas nommés. (Chastellux de la Felicité publique, Amst, anon. ) The sen-
timent is more just, though not so strikingly expressed as that very pretty
one of D’Alembert, who, praising Charles V. of France, adds, ‘ Quoique
moins célébré dans Vhistoire qu’une foule de rois qui n’ont été qu LEnREUes
ou puissans.’””? (Annals of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 62.)

in Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Part of Cornwall. 247

excuse for inflicting on the reader two or three additional
pages having reference to this county.

1. We would remove no tenant or labourer from the estate,
however deficient he might be as a cultivator or a workman ;
because their present condition is the result of the circum-
stances in which they have been placed by preceding propri-
etors, and by the neglect of the local clergy. We would en-
gage a man acquainted with the best practices in that kind
of husbandry which is most suitable to the soil and climate,
and we would let him have a man, a pair of horses, a cart,
and a set of suitable agricultural implements at command;
and with these, according to the season, he should go from
farm to farm over the whole estate, and teach the best prac-
tices, and give the reasons, as far as they could be understood
by the tenants, why one mode was better than another. In
the case of a naked fallow, or the culture of turnips, this man
would arrange to have a ridge to prepare and cultivate in his
mode in the same field in which the farmer pursued his ordi-
nary culture, and so of every other operation and crop. For
example, if a field was to be broken up for oats, our loco-
motive instructor should have a ridge in it to show the advan-
tage of deeper ploughing than is generally practised, and of
sowing a better variety. In this way we would continue for
years to teach improved modes of culture and management,
by degrees introducing improved rotations, breeds of horses or
cattle, implements, machines, and even farm buildings; grant-
ing or extending the leases, so that the occupants might always
be assured of continued possession, whether they adopted the
improvements immediately or not.

2. For the improvement of the labourers, we should first have
a survey made of every cottage on the property, in which
there should be plans, elevations, and perspective views of
their present state, including the gardens, with other plans,
elevations, and views showing how they might be improved;
and such as could not be improved we would take down and
rebuild. Before determining what was to be done, we would
consider the situation of all the cottages on the estate relative
to the farms on which the men were likely to be employed,
the mill in which their corn was likely to be ground, the
school to which their children should be sent, and the church
and burying-ground. We would always, if possible, have the
cottages in small villages or in groups, that the occupiers
might protect, assist, or communicate with one another more
readily; and that they might, im certain cases, have a common
washing-house, bakehouse, brewhouse, drying-ground, play-
ground for their children, &c. Other ideas which we enter-
tain on the subject of cottages need not be repeated, as they

248 Notices of some Gardens and Country Seats

will be found in our Volume for 1842, p. 637. to p. 642.
Having fixed on a central situation for a school, we would
build one sufficiently commodious for the population within a
certain circle, say under two miles in diameter, with a proper
house and garden for the teacher. The only compulsory mea-
sure that we should propose would be, that every child on
the estate should be sent to this school till it was fifteen or
eighteen years of age, or to some other school equally good.
The greater part of the schoolmaster’s salary should be paid
by the proprietor, and the remainder by the children of the
tenantry, or of other persons on the estate not day labourers.
The education of their children should be considered as part
of their wages. In the schools the boys would be taught a
little of carpentry and of all the building arts; and in the
school garden the operations of horticulture, and the reasons
for them, and enough of botany to enable them, in any
country, to distinguish edible plants and fruits from such as
are poisonous, and the comparatively edible season of even
poisonous plants, viz., when the sap is rising. In short, the
education of the boys should be such as would fit them for
emigration. The girls would be taught cookery, housewifery,
clothes-making and mending, and the art of taking care of
children. Children twelve years of age and upwards should
be allowed to work a certain proportion of every day for the
benefit of their parents. Grown-up men and women that
could not read or write we would have taught, if they were
willing to learn, privately at their homes, or in the school at
particular times. We would teach at school morality, as
founded on our innate sense of justice, and on our experience
of its utility, and charitable and liberal feeling towards all
religions and opinions of every kind, so long as these opinions
were not attempted to be forced on others: but we would
allow no particular religion to be inculcated by the teacher ;
leaving that matter entirely to the parents of the children and
the clergy of the church, chapel, or meeting-houses to which
they belonged.

3. A portion of the payment of all the labourers should be
the rent of their house and garden, the education of their chil-
dren, and a certain quantity of wheat, barley, potatoes, bacon,
and mutton ; a mill being established on the estate for the.
purpose of grinding their wheat into flour, and a malthouse for
malting their barley and grinding it. We would employ a plain
cook to go round and teach the mistress of every cottage how to
make the most of her food, and advise also as to other points
of housewifery.

4. To enable the labourers to make the most of their gardens,
we would engage a gardener to go round among them weekly,

in Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Part of Cornwall. 249

and instruct them in every point of culture and management ;
and to furnish them with trees, shrubs, and every requisite
plant, root, or seed from our own garden and nursery. We
would assist them to form a society for the encouragement of
cottage gardening, in which premiums should be given for
produce, and for order and neatness as displayed both within
and without the cottage.

5. We would allow none of the aged poor on our estate to
be sent to the workhouse, or to be relieved otherwise than at
home among their relations; but if there were several aged poor
who had no relations in the village, or none that they particu-
larly cared for, or that cared for them, we might, for the sake of
their comfort, bring them together in one house, and have their
food prepared by one of their neighbours, or by a person em-
ployed as housekeeper to them.

6. Having provided for the comfort of the grown-up and
aged poor, and for the education of their children, we would go
a step farther than many persons would think desirable, and
provide for their amusement. For this purpose we would have
a large room attached to the school-house, which might serve as
a theatre for comic representations, a lecture-room, a music-room,
a dancing-room, and on the walls of which pictures might be hung,
or shelves or cases attached containing specimens of articles of
natural history, antiquities, or whatever could be got to create
an interest. We would hire different persons at different times
to give amusing lectures, comic recitations, tableaux, and a
variety of other kinds of amusement in this room. We would
even introduce theatricals when a strolling company afforded an
opportunity ; and, as an occasional treat, we would bring down
a conjurer from London. When we could get nothing better,
the schoolmaster should appoint some of his boys to read, recite,
relate anecdotes, or explain prints from the desk, during a
certain portion of every evening.

7. Having cared for the immediate comfort and enjoyment of
the tenants and labourers, we should now proceed, or the pro-
cess might be going on at the same time, to permanent improve-
ment and ornament. Roads, water-courses, drains, fences,
farm-houses, and masses of plantation, should be arranged to
the best advantage. The hedges adjoining the roads we would
render ornamental by introducing foreign trees in them, par-
ticularly such as were of fastigiate growth or conical forms, so
as not to injure the adjoining lands. Every farm-house we
would render architectural; and, if its garden were surrounded
by a hedge, it should either be of ornamental or fruit-bearing
plants, cut, but not clipped, or of thorn, hornbeam, beech,
holly, yew, &c., clipped architecturally. Every farm-house
should have a good orchard, including walnut and chestnut

250 Recollections of a Gardening Tour.

trees for shelter. We would arrange a drive or ride from the
mansion house through the property, which should display the
whole of it, without going over any part twice; and by means
of tunnels under roads in some places, and arches over them in
others, we would prevent the necessity of opening and shutting
many gates. By means of narrow strips of plantation, double
hedges, and strained wire fences, this can be done to a much
greater extent than most people imagine. We would add to
the income of the clergyman of the parish if it were necessary ;
and, with his approbation, improve the church and church-
ard.

: 8. Having attended to the comfort of every person around
us, and to the improvement of the estate as a property, we
should next bend our attention to the family mansion, our home
farm, park, plantations, and gardens, which we would endeavour
to render models of their kind.

So much for our beau idéal of what we think we should do if
we were an extensive landed proprietor in Devonshire; but, to
realise our suggestions, would require a degree of moral courage
and devotion to the subject that can hardly be expected to be
met with. Such a course of reformation would, in many, per-
haps in most, cases, be met by the opposition of all the stewards,
agents, and upper servants, whose business it is to get through
their duties with as much ease to themselves as possible; and it
would even be resisted at first by the tenantry and by the
labourers. A determined spirit, however, on the part of the
proprietor, and perseverance, would overcome every difficulty ;
and the consciousness of effecting a great good directly to a
number of individuals, and by example to the public, while we
were at the same time greatly increasing the value of our own
estate and benefiting our offspring, would be an ample reward.

Art. VII. Recollections of a Gardening Tour in the North of Eng-
land, and Part of Scotland, made from June 22. to Sept. 30. 1841.
By the Conpucror.

(Continued from Vol. for 1842, p. 606.)

Aue. 11.— Stirling to Edinburgh. We could only reconcile
ourselves to leaving Stirling so soon, by hoping one day to re-
turn to it, and to the Royal Hotel, a most excellent inn. We
took the steamboat, and cannot help noticing the very defective
arrangements for going on board, and the dangerous practice
of racing; there being two rival vessels. ‘Though an accident,
attended with loss of life, had occurred only the day before,

Stirling to Edinburgh. 251

the racing was still continued, which, with the rain and mist,
greatly diminished our enjoyment. We could not help thinking
that if the captains of these vessels had been taught at school
something of the laws of motion, they would not have been so
foolhardy ; a remark which will apply also to coachmen, and to
persons who attempt to save themselves by jumping out of car-
riages in rapid motion. It is, we believe, in part owing to the
want of this kind of science, that soldiers and sailors perform
such courageous feats; great courage being generally accom-
panied by great ignorance. Cultivation and comfort make men
comparatively tame and cowardly; and they can only be roused
to place themselves in circumstances in which life is in danger,
by a strong sense of duty, and of shame at its non-performance.
This is, essentially, the grand security that wars of aggression
will ultimately cease.

At a short distance from Stirlmg we pass Cambuskenneth
Abbey, a considerable ruin, partaking, from its high walls, of
the character of a castle; but, as the walls are without ivy or
vegetation of any kind, a stranger is left in doubt as to their
antiquity, and the idea arises that it may possibly be the remains
of a modern building, the interior of which has been destroyed
by fire. Ruins with which the idea of time is not associated
have little or no dignity; and the idea of time cannot be given
more effectually than by the appearance, on the walls, of that
kind of vegetation which considerable time is required to pro-
duce, such as ivy and trees, which every one knows to be of
slow growth.

All our readers we presume to be aware of the unrivalled
beauty of the scenery on the banks of the Forth between Stir-
ling and North Berwick. The banks of the Thames between
London and the Nore exhibit greater richness of vegetation,
and more wealth and taste in the buildings, but they are without
that grandeur and variety of character which arise from the
great and abrupt variations of ground, and the distant hills and
mountains, which are seen on every side of the Forth, and by
its windings continually changing their position. Granton
Pier, where we landed soon after midday, is one of the best con-
structions of the kind in Scotland. It is entirely the property
of the Duke of Buccleugh, and is at once a great accommoda-
tion to the public, and a benefit to the estates of that wealthy
and patriotic nobleman. Much as His Grace, since coming of
age, has laid out in building and territorial improvements, we
question if it is more than some other noblemen have wasted in
gambling and horse-racing. How different must be the feelings,
on reflection, in the one case and in the other !

Aug. 12.—Edinburgh to Stranraer. We went by mail to
Glasgow on the common road, for the railroad, though nearly

252 Recollections of a Gardening Tour.

finished, was not yet opened. Though every part of this road
was familiar to us in 1806, yet we could now with great dif-
ficulty recognise only a few natural features, and some bridges
and churches. What were newly made plantations when we
last saw them had now become full-grown woods, and country-
houses and substantially built cottages have been increased by
hundreds. We could not help remarking, throughout, the won-
derful difference between the gardens and grounds of similar
dwellings in the central and southern counties of England.
While the English gardens at this season are teeming with
flowers, those on the Glasgow road exhibit scarcely any, and
only three or four kinds of shrubs. The cold nakedness of the
white and grey stone fronts, and the blue slate roofs, are any-
thing but inviting to the eye that has been accustomed to brick
walls, varied by China roses and honeysuckles, and tiled roofs
partially covered with vines. Comparing them in idea with the
road-side cottages in Surrey, Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire,
how astonishing the difference! And yet the occupant of the
Scotch cottage, being a far more provident being, is in much
more comfortable circumstances than the English cottager. His
grand sheet anchor is the oatmeal, which enables him to eat at
so much less expense than the English one; but perhaps the
habit of forethought is of still more value than the oatmeal.

From Glasgow we took the railroad to Ayr, and thence the
mail to Stranraer, where we arrived between 2 and 3 o'clock
in the morning. Great part of the road is along a rocky shore,
against which the dashing of the waves roused the attention
and awakened long trains of ideas.

Aug. 13. to 28.— Culhorn House ; the Karl of Stair. The
nucleus of this mansion was originally a barrack for the dra-
goon regiment of Marshal Stair, about the beginning of the
last century; but, on Castle Kennedy, the ancient seat, be-
ing burnt down, the family were compelled to resort to Cul-
horn, which has ever since been the residence of the Earls of
Stair in this part of Scotland. It has been added to by the
different successors of the marshal, and now contains some
large apartments, with adequate accommodation in other respects
for the ample hospitality exercised by the great landed pro-
prietors in Scotland. The situation is near the sea, and great
part of the property has, at no very distant period, geologically
speaking, been a series of low sand hills, with mmtervening
meres or marshy lakes. The family estate here consists of nearly
100,000 acres, chiefly of excellent turnip soil, in a moist climate,
and so mild that the fig lives as a standard without any pro-
tection, and sometimes ripens its fruit. Both figs and grapes
are frequently ripened on walls. There is a beautiful and very
distinct variety of the common ash on the lawn, in the library

Castle Kennedy, Broadstones. 208

front of Culhorn House, which is worthy of being propagated
by nurserymen. It is doubtless a seedling, and planted there
without any knowledge of its being different from the normal
form of the species.

Castle Kennedy, when we last saw it in 1804, was one of the
most singular places in Scotland, or perhaps in Europe. In
1841 we were called on professionally by Earl Stair to give a
design for restoring it, and as we have received the earl’s per-
mission to publish this design, we intend to do so in an article
by itself, in which the details will be found accompanied by en-
gravings which would otherwise have been given here.

Aug. 28. — Broadstones ;, John Murray, Esq. This is a
beautiful little spot on the Bay of Stranraer, the property of a
much respected literary and scientific gentleman, a native of the
town. The garden is rich in plants, more especially in all
those which are employed in the arts, whether hardy or exotic ;
the latter of course being kept under glass. A part of the
grounds consists of a steep wooded bank which Mr. Murray has
laid out in terraces with great taste. We were quite astonished
at the number of half-hardy shrubs which we found on this
bank, enduring the open air as well as, or better than, they do
in the neighbourhood of London. Mr. Lamb, who was with us
at Culhorn House, has designed a house in the Swiss style for
Mr. Murray, which is worthy of notice, both as a design, and
because it admits of being very economically executed (650/.):
the plan and elevation are given in our Supplement to the Enc.
of Cott. Arch. p. 1195.

Stranraer to Ayr. Before leaving Stranraer we went to
look at the burying-ground of the kirk, and found it a very
limited spot in a state of desecration, which will be noticed in
our article on cemeteries; but, as soon as Lord Stair was aware
of its condition, with his accustomed liberality and public spirit,
he presented the town with an additional piece of ground.
Architecture in Stranraer is in a very low state, and the town
does not contain a single building, church, chapel, meeting-house,
or dwelling-house worth notice, unless it be a house and garden
belonging to Sir John Ross, which has a basin of salt water
communicating with the sea at high water, for the purpose of
retaining a stock of live sea fish. The same idea was realised
many years ago by Macdoual of Laggan in Wigtonshire, and
Sir Robert Preston at Culross. (See our Volume for 1842,
p- 591.)

On the road to Ayr we passed Loch Ryan House, Sir Alex-
ander Wallace, made conspicuous by whitewashing, which ren-
ders most of the villas in this part of the country spots in
the landscape. The taste is no doubt that of the mason em-

ployed, who ought to be told to mix some soot and yellow ochre
3d Ser. — 1843. V. s

254 Recollections of a Gardening Tour.

with his lime, so as to produce a grey tint. ‘There is a great
want of handsome specimens of architecture in this part of
Scotland, in every department, from the cottage to the villa,
and it is to be hoped that the Earl of Stair will commence a
reform in this respect, by erecting some handsome and com-
fortable cottages in different styles, and rebuilding some of his
farm-houses. Something also may be expected from the Earl
of Orkney, on whose property at Ballantrae a lodge has recently
been built, and some plantations made. ‘There is this great
satisfaction in making improvements in this comparatively neg-
lected part of the country, that they are certain of attracting
public attention and procuring “the world’s applause.”

Mr. Lamb was delighted with the wildness of the country
through which we passed to Ayr, and with the grandeur and
singularity of the rocks along that part of the road which
touched on the sea coast. He afterwards made a sketch from
memory (jig. 58.) of the normal form of a portion of a row of
the road-side cottages with their
stone walls and thatched roof, and
without front gardens, with other
sketches (figs. 59. to 62.) showing
how the same materials might be
disposed somewhat more architec-
turally. It is but justice to Mr.
Fig. 58. Road-side Cottage in the West Liamb to state that the engravings

of Scoband. from his sketches, having been made
by an amateur at an early period of his progress, do not do
justice to the originals. To an architect or a builder, however,
they will be quite sufficient to indicate what is tended. The
object is not to render the cottages ornamental, but merely to
confer on them somewhat more of an architectural character
than they at present possess.

In jig. 59. the door-jambs are brought forward and covered
with two flat stones so as to form a sort of porch; while the
ground is lowered so as to admit of a rise of one step into the
porch; the windows are shown arched, and the chimneys raised
a little and finished with a squared stone ; a gutter is added to
receive the rain from the roof, and a vertical tube from this
gutter conducts the water to a stone box, from which it may
either pass into a waste drain, or be filtered and sink into a well
to be drawn up by a pump inside the house.

Fig. 60. shows a porch, the roof of which is composed of
two flagstones; a plinth to the walls; one step of ascent; the
windows with a flat arch and a keystone; a gutter as in fig. 59. 5
and the chimneys with lateral openings, one on each side, the
perpendicular opening being closed by a broad flat. stone.

Fig. 61. shows the door and windows arched, the sills to the

Alloway Kirkyard. 255

F ig. 59. Road-side Cottage sumewhat Fig. 60. Road-side Cottage, with the ad-
improved. dition of a Porch and covered Chimney
Tops.

lower windows supported by brackets, a tablet over the door
for the name of the cottage or the builder, the chimneys with
plinths, a plinth to the walls, and a rise of a step, and a water
gutter as before.

Fig. 61. Road-stde Cottage of Two Tig. 62. Road-side Cottage in the English
Stories. Style.

Fig. 62. shows windows, steep roofs, and chimney tops, in the
old English style.

It is proper to observe that, if these figures had been in-
tended to represent detached cottages, they would have been
rendered much more ornamental by giving an architectural
character to the gable ends.

August 29.—Ayr. This being Sunday no public conveyance
is allowed to leave the town in the daytime, and we were
therefore obliged either to take a postchaise, or wait till the
evening for the mail. We chose the latter, and spent the day
in Alloway kirkyard; in the grounds of D. Auld, Esq., the
- conservator of Burns’s monument; at Newark Castle; and in
walking through the town.

Alloway Kirkyard is extremely interesting on account of the
associations it calls forth connected with Burns, which circum-
stance has occasioned it to become quite a fashionable burying
ground for the better classes of all the surrounding country. A
grave in Alloway Kirkyard now costs nearly as much as one
does in the Kensal Green Cemetery. ‘The chapel walls here,
and those of the old church of Loggie (Vol. for 1842, p. 594),

show how much depends on the bell turret and the surrounding
s 2

256 Recollections of a Gardening Tour.

burying-ground in conferring a sacred character. The un-
roofed walls of both kirks might otherwise be mistaken for
barns. The remains of a chain depending from the bell in the
turret of Alloway Kirk heightens the effect. The last baptism
which took place in Alloway Church was in 1756. On refer-
ring to our notes made on Kirk Alloway when we saw it on
August 20. 1831, we find that some of the nurserymen of Ayr
planted a row of ornamental trees round the churchyard, but
that they were no sooner planted than pulled up, and laid down
on the ground, to show, as it was supposed, that it was not in
order to steal the trees, but on account of the supposed desecra-
tion by the act of planting them; many of the strict Presby-
terians objecting to ornamenting a churchyard in any way. The
ground is now crowded with tombstones, and there is not a
walk through it, or around it, of any kind; nor is the grass kept
short, nor any means taken to prevent the kind of desecration so
common in churchyards in Scotland, in consequence of the
want of places of convenience, and of the habits engendered in
consequence of this want. The interior of Burns’s monument is
not allowed to be shown on Sundays, but we were permitted to
walk in the garden which surrounds it.

Dounbrae Cottage, or, as it is sometimes called, Kirk Alloway
Cottage, is the residence of D. Auld, Esq. It is situated on
the river Doun, close to the new bridge, and near to Mungo’s
Well, and in short in the very heart of the memorials of Burns.
(See our Vol. for 1833, p.13.) The bridge consists of one
semicircular arch, said to be nearly as large as that of the
Rialto in Venice. The grounds consist chiefly of the steep,
rocky, woody bank of the river, in which Mr. Auld has cut
walks, and formed terraced gardens containing fountains, and ¢
great variety of interesting features. There are an excellent house
and offices, and a good kitchen garden. The walks along the
wooded banks are most delightful, and, like every thing else
about the place, they are kept in the highest order. We sat
down on a bench under a projecting ledge of rock, in which a
swarm of bees had resided for several years, and were almost
lulled to sleep by the loud murmurs of the river some thirty or
forty feet beneath, its sparkling waters seen through the branches
of the overhanging trees. On noticing to Mr. Auld the lulling
effect of the waters and of the heat of the day, he took occasion
to relate what actually took place with one of his servants, who
being sent out to look for the gardener sat down for a moment,
as she thought, on that bench, but was lulled to sleep, and slept
for several hours, to the great alarm of the family, who feared
she might have fallen into the river. Mr. Auld has the great
merit of haying been the chief instrument of getting the monu-
ment to Burns erected, and he it was who first brought Thom

Newark Castle. 257

the sculptor, and Stephens the Ayr landscape-painter, into
notice. He gave us a very interesting account of the progress
of what the French would call bienséance among the people
within the last forty years. Formerly the Ayr boys, on Sundays,
used to conceal themselves near a church road by the sea-shore,
and amuse themselves by throwing stones at persons returning
from church. To such an extent was this carried, that many
persons received severe injuries, and others were obliged to take
a more circuitous route to church in order to go along a more
public road. No such thing has occurred for a number of years
past. Mr. Auld’s grounds are open to the public the greater
part of every day, and though some injury was done at first, yet
scarcely any thing of that sort now takes place. When it does,
it is chiefly by the higher classes, some of whom have been de-
tected gathering flowers and taking cuttings of fuchsias and
such like plants. Mr. Auld seems to be of the same opinion as
Lord Francis Egerton, viz. that there is-now much less danger
from the lowest class than from those who are a step or two
above them. (See Times, April 8. 1843.)

In Mr. Auld’s grounds are many wild plants, particularly
ferns, a dozen kinds having been found within as many square
yards by the venerable Mr. Smith of Monkwood. The river
abounds with salmon, and the woods with singing birds, more
especially the thrush and the blackbird. The day being fine as
well as the scenery, and other circumstances being favourable
for enjoyment, we left the wooded walks, the roar of the waters,
and the beneyolent and liberal Mr. Auld with regret.

Newark, Castle is the property of the Marquess of Ailsa, but
is now occupied by Thomas M. Gemmel, Esq., the editor of
one of the Ayr newspapers. We had heard much of this castle,
as being of great antiquity, in good preservation, and as having
had Queen Mary for a guest. It appears to have been built,
or perhaps only repaired, in the early part of the seventeenth
century. The entrance is at the bottom of an outside circular
stair; the rooms are low, the walls thick, and the windows
small, but there is no pretension to architectural finish or de-
coration. ‘The roof is partially concealed by a parapet, and at
one angle there is a projecting turret, with openings between
the corbel stones, the arrangement serving in these days
as the family water-closet, the family dunghill or refuse heap
being probably directly below. The castle is high in proportion
to its length and breadth, and is placed on a rock, in a com-
manding position, with a view of a considerable portion of
country inwards, and of the sea coast, which is at a short dis-
tance. As a proof that it was a place of some consideration
about the latter end of the seventeenth century, it is approached

through an ayenue of silver firs, a tree that was only introduced
s 3

258 On Laying out and Planting

into England in 1603, and is not likely to have been so abundant
in Scotland as to admit of its being planted in avenues for at
least half a century afterwards. In the grounds, which are in
a state of utter neglect, are a number of fine large specimens of
silver firs, Scotch pines, ashes, and a sweet chestnut 23 ft. 4 in.
round at the surface of the ground, and 18 ft. in circumference
a little farther up. We could not help regretting that this
place, which has so many advantages of varied ground, water,
rocks, wood, distant prospect, and the shell of a house which
will endure for ages, and might be filled with good rooms, should
belong to a proprietor who has already several fine residences,
and to whom a piece of farm land of equal annual value would,
we should suppose, answer the same purpose. It is a pity that
such a place is not let on lease, for such a period as would justify
a tenant in improving and keeping it in good order.

On returning to Ayr by the coast road, we passed some fine
specimens of Salix alba and S. fragilis, and some decent cottages
and very indifferent gate lodges. Mr. Paton’s cottage, and
some others of an ornamental character, with tolerable front
gardens, deserved a more minute inspection than we could give
them from the road; but, on account of the day, we did not
think it desirable to ask admission. The spire of the new
church of Ayr, by Mr. Hamilton of Edinburgh, is generally
considered the handsomest in Scotland.

Aug. 30.— We passed the day at Crosslee Cottage, with our
friends Mr. and Mrs. Woodhouse, and in the evening set off for
Edinburgh. We think it right to notice the extreme careless-
ness and incivility of the people at the Paisley station. When
we arrived there from Liverpool on June 28th, the train would
not stop sufficient time to take out our luggage, but carried it
on to Glasgow, and nearly the same thing happened to us this
time, having with great difficulty procured the luggage, which
was not thrown down from the roof till after the carriage was
in motion. On mentioning these circumstances to several per-
sons, we found our case was by no means singular. If every
one would notice such treatment as we now do, the evil would
be remedied.

(To be continued.)

Art. VIII. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery
and Flower-Garden. By the Conductor.

(Continued from p. 177.)

BEFORE proceeding with our lists, we wish to offer a suggestion to the pro-
prietors of pleasure-grounds and shrubberies, with a view to rendering these
scenes more permanently interesting ; and, also, in the present depressed
state of the country, to the temporary employment of workmen.

sues

a

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 259

The walks through shrubberies and pleasure-grounds in general, it must be
acknowledged, exhibit a good deal of beauty, but, at the same time, a good
deal of sameness. The ordinary mode of increasing their interest is by the
introduction of buildings, seats, and statues, vases, and similar architectural
and sculptural objects, together with baskets of rustic work. All these, when
introduced in moderation and in appropriate places, produce the effect intended
to a certain extent : but we would add to the variety, and consequently in-
terest, of shrubbery and pleasure-ground walks, by the introduction along
them, at various distances, of what may be called botanical episodes. For
example, we would introduce near the walk, and connected with it by sub-
ordinate walks, such scenes as a rosary, a heathery, a rock-garden, an American
garden, a garden of British plants, gardens of particular genera of shrubs or
flowers, such as of Rtbes, Bérberis, Spire‘a, Cytisus, A’ster, Dahlia, annuals,
bulbs, a garden of topiary work, of embroidery, &c. Ata certain distance
from the house we would introduce a thornery, a salictum, a juniper garden,
a garden of cypresses, of hollies, &c., and, where there was room, a pinetum,
an oak garden, an acer garden, &c. Whether separate gardens of this sort
could or could not be introduced, we would commence near the house an
arboretum, scattering the trees thinly over each side of the walk among the
other trees and shrubs, or on the lawn, and so arranging them as to extend
over the whole length of the walk, whether that were half a furlong or two
or three miles, taking care that every tree and shrub that formed a part of
the arboretum was completely detached, so as to afford ample room for its
growth and natural shape. We would also have every plant named. Where
the shrubbery or pleasure-ground was not large enough to admit of a com-
plete arboretum, we would introduce only as many species as could be well
grown ; and, even if that number did not amount to a hundred, it might include
one species of most of the genera which constitute the British arboretum.

Where there was not extent sufficient for an arboretum, we would intro-
duce what may be called an herbacetum, that is, a series of circles on each
side of the walk, but at such a distance from one another as not to show
many circles at a time, and in each circle we would plant the hardy herba-
ceous plants, annual or perennial, which illustrated one natural order or tribe.
If we could not get in the whole of the orders and tribes, we would limit our-
selves to such as were most ornamental. By means of this kind, together with
architectural and sculptural objects, as already mentioned, the walks in plea-
sure-grounds might be rendered much more interesting than they generally are;
for the conspicuously naming of plants, and the planting them together ac-
cording to their natural affinities, seldom fail to create a taste for botany
among those who are in the daily habit of seeing plants so arranged and named.
Where no interest of this kind is taken by the ladies of a family resident in
the country, it will frequently be found that the walk to which they give the
preference is the public road. There they have a chance of seeing something
new or exciting ; but in the shrubbery, as they take no botanical interest in
the plants composing it, they know all that they will see before they set out.

The great object, then, of these introductory suggestions is to lead to im-
provements which will render the pleasure-ground and shrubbery far more
interesting than they have hitherto been, except in those places where
something of the kind which we have been recommending has been attempted;
as, for example, wherever rosaries, pinetums, American gardens, salictums,
quercetums, thorneries, grass gardens, gardens of annuals, bulbs, &c., natural
arrangements of herbaceous plants, or arboretums, have been planted. This
kind of improvement, we are happy to state, is on the increase. Very much
depends on the gardener ; and we trust we shall have his cooperation, as he is,
in truth, as much interested in raising the character of the garden and grounds
under his charge as his employer.

We shall now give Mr. Ayres’s lists for planting the flower-garden fig. 50.
in p.173. Mr. Ayres has given three lists: one for spring, consisting chiefly
of bulbs and low-growing herbaceous plants, which come into flower from

s 4

260

On Laying out and Planting

January to the middle of May; one for summer, consisting chiefly of hardy
annuals, which should be brought forward ready to transplant the moment the
bulbs have done flowering and are removed ; and a third for autumn, consisting
chiefly of greenhouse plants, such as pelargoniums, verbenas, Lobelias, &c.
Mr. Ayres has also given a list of roses for the sixteen square beds marked d,
in each of which there is to be a standard rose.

— e
H= C2 0D (=)

alae
lor):

—_
(0.0)

—
ie)

1. Clintonza pulchélla. Blue.

2. Clarkia pulchélla alba. White.

3. Godétia bifrons. Pink and
white.

4. Yellow Wallflower. Yellow.

5. Nemophila insignis. Bright blue.

6. Nemophila atomaria. White.

7. Leptosiphon densiflorus. Pale
purple.

8. Godetia Lindleydna. - Rose and
white.

9. Hrysimum Perowskidnum. Deep
orange.

10. Nolana atriplicifolia. Blue.

11. Collinsca bicolor. Pink and
white.

12. Gilia tricolor alba. White.

13. Gila tricolor. White and purple.

14, Nemophila insignis. Blue.

15. Clarkia pulchélla. Rose.

. Blue Crocuses.
. Anemones.

G2 CoE OH as PSS)

. Hyacinths.
. Tulips.
. Hyacinths.
. Tulips, Duc Van Thol.

. Hyacinths.
. Crocuses.

ies
. Tulips, mixed, common.

. Ranunculuses, Turban.

. Schizopétalon Walkeri.
. Clarkia élegans.

I. List for Spring.

Blue.

Pale blue.

Anemones. White.

Alyssum saxatile. Yellow.

Hyacinths. Dark purple.

Ranunculus, Turban. Scarlet.

Crocuses. Yellow.

Heartsease. Variegated.

Tulips, mixed, common. Various
colours.

. Tulips, Royal standard. Various

colours.

White.

Yellow.

Blue.

Scarlet
and yellow.

Red.

Purple. ~<
Heartsease. Variegated.

Red,

White.

yellow, and white.

II. List for

. Collinséa grandiflora. Purple and

blue.
White.
Lilac.

20.
21,
22.
23.
24,
25.
26.
27.
28.

29.

30.
31.
32.
33.
34.

35.
36.

37.
38.

Pale blue.
Dark purple.
Yellow.

Anemones.
Hyacinths.
Alyssum saxatile.
Crocuses. Blue.
Anemones. White.
Ranunculuses, Turban.
Crocuses. Yellow.
Heartsease. Variegated.
Tulips, mixed, common.
yellow, and white.
Tulips, Gold standard. Red and
yellow.
Hyacinths. White.
Tulips. Yellow.
Hyacinths. Blue.
Hyacinths. Red.
Tulips, Duc Van Thol.
and yellow.
Tulips, mixed, common.
yellow, and white.
Heartsease. Variegated.
Crocuses. Purple.
Ranunculuses, Turban.

Scarlet.

Red,

Scarlet

Red,

White.

Summer.

19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
20.
26.
27.

28.
2o9-
30.

Sule
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.

Godétia rubictnda. Purple.
Clarkia pulchélla alba. _ White.
Nemophila insignis. Bright blue.
Yellow Wallflower. Yellow.
Clintonia pulchélla. Blue.
Godétia rubicinda. Purple.
Nemophila atomaria. White.
Leptosiphon androsaceus. Lilac.
Godétia rosea alba. Rose and
white.
Erysimum Perowskidnum. Deep
orange.

Nemophila phacelicides. Pale
blue. ee
Collinsia bicolor. Pink and

white.
Gila tricolor alba. White.
Gilia tricolor. White and purple.

Clarkia pulchélla. Rose.
Nolana prostrata. Blue.
Ibéris umbellatus. Purple.

Schizopétalon Walker?. White.
Collinsia vérna. Purple.

Godetia Romanzovi. Purple.

—)
SOMNYon fP» Wwe

i ee
fon) Or H GO 0D

=
=

=a
© 0

. Verbena Melindres.
. Crucianéllastylosa. Flesh colour.
. Verbéna teucriozdes carnea. Flesh

. Lobélia ramosa.
. Lobelia bicolor.
. Verbéna Hendersoni.
. Pelargonium, Frogmore. Scarlet.
. Calceolaria rugosa.
. Lobélia axillaris.

. Petunia pheenicea.
. Verbéna Barnész.

. Verbéna, the Queen.
. Petunia hybrida.
. Heliotropium corymbosum. Pale

. Nierembérgia filicailis.
. Verbena ‘Tweediedna

. Gnothéra Drumméndi.
. Verbena pulchélla.

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Fi lower-Garden.

Scarlet.

colour.

. Pelargonium variegatum. Varie-

gated.

Blue.

Pale blue.
Purple.

Yellow.
Pale blue.
Purple.
Rose.
White.
Purple.

purple.

Lilac.
supérba.
Scarlet.

Yellow.
Pale purple.

23.
24.

. Campanula carpatica.
. Verbena Bishdps:.
. Pelargonium, Cooper’s.
. Calceolaria integrifolia.
. Anagallis Phillipsz.

. Petunia, Lady Peel.

. Senécio élegans pleno.
: Heliotropium peruvianum.

5. Ginothéra macrocarpa.
. Verbena Tweedieana.

. Nierembérgia intermedia. Purple.
. Tournefortia heliotropioides. Pale

261

Ill. List for Autumn.
20.
21.
24.

Verbena Buisti. Pale rose.

Anagallis Monélli.. Blue.

Pelargonium, — variegated
leaved. Variegated.

Verbena ignea. Scarlet.

Verbéna teucriozdes carnea.
flesh colour.

ivy-

Pale

Blue.
Pale purple.
Scarlet.
Yellow.
Blue.
Purple.
Rose.
White.
Purple.
Pale

Verbena Marryatte.
Verbena teucriozdes.

purple.
Yellow.
Scarlet.

purple.

IV. List of Standard Roses.

Noisettes.
Aimée Vibert.

' Bouquet tout fait.
Elizabeth.
Fellemberg.
Jaune Desprez.
Lamarque.
Lamarque a Cceur rose.
La Biche.

Luxembourg.
Ne plus ultra.

Victorieuse.

Bourbons.
Madame Desprez.
Gloire de Rosameéne.
Prince Albert.
Emile Courtier.
Ida.

The plan for a flower-garden, fig. 63., occupies the same space as the design
fig.11.in p.'70.;‘and is surrounded by the same low wire fence, only 20 in.
The beds are supposed to be on turf,
and there are a basin and fountain in the central compartment, and a vase on a
pedestal in the centre of the two others.
different correspondents as before, and we now subjoin their lists.

hich, for the sake of excluding rabbits.

~ am & H CO 00

. Hepatica triloba, double.
. A’rabis albida.
. Crocuses, yellow Dutch. Yellow.
. Hepatica triloba, double.

. Hepatica triloba, double.
. Crocuses, Cloth of Gold. Yellow

. A’rabis rosea.

Lust of Plants for the Flower-Garden fig. 63.

We sent copies of this design to

By Mr. Ayres,

I. List for Spring.

Dark
blue.

White.

Dark
red.
White.

and brown.
Red.

8.

9.
10.
1].

12.

13.
14.

15.

Omphalddes vérna. Blue.
Anemone nemoros2. White.
Primula vulgaris, double. Lilac.
Primula Auricula, border varie-
ties. Various colours.
Anemones, double.
colours.
Ranunculuses. Various colours
Hyacinths. Various colours.
Hyacinths. Various colours.

Various

262 On Laying out and Planting

16. Ranunculuses, double.
Various colours.

17. Anemones, double. Various
colours. rere

18. Primula Auricula, border
varieties. Various co-
lours.

19. Pulmonaria virginica. Blue
and purple.

20. Dodecatheon Meadia. Li-
lac. a

21. Omphalédes vérna. Blue. *\

22, Phl6x subulata. Red. S x

23. A’rabis alpina. White. \

24 Primula vulgaris, double.

3. Gilia tricolor. White.

4. Neméphila insignis. Blue.
5

6

White.
25. Hepatica triloba, double.
Dark red.
26. Crocuses, yellow Dutch.
Yellow.
27. Primula vulgaris, double.
Red.
28. Hepatica triloba, double. ,¢ :
Dark blue. 5
1 |
Il. List for Summer.
1, Neméphila atomaria, | fr
White. (
2. Collinsta grandiflora. Pur- } 1
le. H {
!
XN |

. Nolana atriplicifolia. Blue.

. Leptosiphon androsaceus.
Lilac and white.

7. Nolana prostrata. Violet.

8. Clinton pulchélla, Blue.

9. Collinsia bicolor. Pink and

white.
10. Clarkia pulchélla. Rose.
11. Eschscholtzia crocea.
Orange.

12. Godétia bifrons. Purple.

13. Clarkia pulchélla alba.
White.

14, Eutoca viscida. Blue.

15. Lupinus nanus. Purple
and blue.

16. Zbéris coronaria. White.

17. Zbéris umbellata. Purple.

18. Clintonza pulchélla. Blue.

19. Clarkia élegans. Lilac.

20. Godétia rosea alba. Rose

and white. Fig. 63. Flower-Garden with the Beds on Turf.
21. EHrysimum Perowskianum
Orange. 23. Nolana prostrata. Violet.

22. Leptosiphon densiflorus. Purple. .24. Nemophila phacelioides. Lilac.

25.
26.

. Verbéna ignea.
. Pelargonium, ivy-leaved. Varie-

. Verbéna Hendersonii.

. Verbena purpurea.
- Pelargonium Manglési.

. Verbena Chandlerz.

. Verbena, the Queen.

. Verbena Drumméndi.
. Lotus jacobee'us.

. Calceolaria rugosa.
. Petunia hybrida.

. Pelargonium, Frogmore. Scarlet.
. Pelargonium, Ingram’s.

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden.

Nemophila insignis. Blue.
Gilta tricolor alba. , White.

27.
28.

263

Collinsia vérna. Purple.
Nemophila atomaria. White.

III. List for Autumn.

Dark scarlet.

gated.
Purple.
Lobelia ramosa. Blue.
Gnothera macrocarpa. Yellow.
Purple.
Varie-
gated.
Scarlet.
White.
Lilac.
Black.
Yellow.
Purple.

Scarlet.

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

22.
23.
24.
25.

26.

27.
28.

Senécio élegans pléno. Purple.
Calceolaria integrifolia. Yellow.
Lotus jacobe us. Black.
Nierembéreia filicailis. Lilac.
Verbena teucriozdes. White.
Verbena Melindres latifolia.
Scarlet.
Petunia nyctaginiflora. White.
Verbena elfordensis. Purple.
(@nothéra Drumméndz. Yellow.
Anagallis cerulea grandiflora.
Blue.
Nierembérgia intermédia. Pale
yellow.
Pelargonium, variegated. White.
Verbena Melindres. Scarlet.

List of Plants for planting the Flower-Garden, fig. 63. By Mr. Pringle.

1.

© GD ~ID & ceo G2 0%

—
i=)

Wl,
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

. Hepatica.
. Hepatica.

. Double

. Double Primrose.
. Crocus.
. Crocus.
. Snowdrop.

Snowdrops as edging; the body
of the bed of Moss’ Roses,
dwarfs.

Petunias, var.

é Heliotropium peruvi-

anum.

Primrose. Provence

Roses, dwarf.

Scotch Roses.

Caiceolaria, var.

Verbéna, var.

Perpetual Roses,
dwarf.

Narcissus.
plants.

Select herbaceous

. Narcissus, or other Bulbs. Select

herbaceous plants.
Gentidna acaulis. Salvia filgens.
Neméphila insignis. Dahlias.

Lasthénia californica. Dahlias.
Dwarf Larkspur. Fuchsias.
Cladanthus arabicus. Fuchsias.
Collinsta grandiflora. Dabhlias.

17.
18.

19.
20.
21.

. Sanguinaria canadénsis.
. Adonis vernalis.
. Auricula,
. Polyanthus, var.

. Scilla bifolia.

Gilta tricolor. Dahlias.
Primula cortusozdes. Salvia pa-
tens.

Scilla, or Phalangiums. Select
herbaceous plants.
Scilla, or other bulbs. Select

herbaceous plants.
Snowdrop. Hybrid China Roses,
dwarf,
Gera-
niums of var.
( Scarlet Gera-
nlums.
var. China Roses,
dwarf.
Tea-scented
Roses, dwarf.
Senécio élegans
flore pléno.

. Erythronium déns canis. Zotus
jacobze‘us.
- Snowdrop. Noisette Roses,

dwarf.

The centres of the two extreme figures may contain fancy baskets or vases
for greenhouse plants in summer ; and the centre a may be a basin and foun-
tain, if there is water at command ; if not, azaleas and other American plants,

mixed with select standard roses.

If the beds Nos. 2, 3, 6, 7, 22, 23, 25, and

27 were planted with American plants, the garden might then be kept at less
annual expense of plants and labour; and this may be suitable for those who
do not keep a sufficient garden establishment. — J. P.

264

On Laying out and Planting

List of Plants for planting the Flower-Garden fig. 63. By Mr. James Call,
Foreman in Duncombe Park Gardens.

> 09

Or

13.

21,

. Lobelia fdlgens, and

Tupinus nanus.

, Mimulus of dwarf va-

rieties.

. Heartsease of varieties.
. Verbena Drummond,

and V. Melindres.

. Petunias of varieties,

and Anagallis Mo-
nélle.

. Eschscholtzia califér-

nica, and Anagallis
erandiflora.

. Alonsoa urticifolia, and

Clarkia pulchélla.

. Calceolarias of varie-

ties, and Collinsza
bicolor.

. Herbaceous plants.

Herbaceous plants.

. Scarlet Geraniums,

and Verbéna Twee-
diedna.

. Crassula coccinea, and

Salpigléssis picta.
Salvia patens, and Ger-
man Stocks.

. Fuchsias of varieties,

and Antirrhinum ca-
ryophylloides.

. Dahlias of varieties,

and German Asters.

. Salvia coccinea, and

Dwarf Rocket Lark-

spur.

. Hydrangeas,and A’ster

Améllus.

. Pentstémon gentian-

oides, P. fruticosa,
and Neméphila in-
signis.

. Herbaceous plants.
. Herbaceous plants.

Heliotropium _ peruvi-
anum, and Collomia
coccinea.

Q@nothera Drum-
mondz, and Nemo-
phila atomaria.

. Antirrhinum caryo-

phylloides, and Eu-
toca viscida.

. Verbéna Tweediedna

élegans, and V. Sa-
bina.

25, Potentillas of varieties, and Schizanthus
pinnatus.

26. Heartsease of varieties.

27. Verbéna incisa, and V. Melindres.

28. Lobélia propinqua, and Convolvulus
minor.—J, C.

Fig. 64, American Garden.

Fig. 64. is a design for a small American garden, intended to form an epi-

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 265

sode in a shrubbery on the principle recommended in the introduction to this
article.

a. American perennial herbaceous plants.

6. American bulbs and annuals.

c. American low flowering shrubs, such as rhododendrons, azaleas, kal-

mias, &c.

d. Magnolias.

e,f, g, Counterparts to a, 6, c, but containing quite different species.

Fig. 65., is a design which may also serve as an American garden, or for a
garden entirely of peat earth shrubs and plants, of whatever country they
may be natives, which require to be grown in moist peat. The herbaceous
plants may be planted in the beds 1, 4, 5, 8, and the magnolias and low shrubs

Fig. 65. Garden of Shrubs and herbaceous Plants which require to be grown in moist Peat ; the
moisture being communicated by pipes connected with the central basin.

in the beds 2, 3, 6,7. The central circle, 9, is for a basin and fountain, from
which there may be an underground communication to each bed, by means
of small earthenware pipes, which can be plugged up at pleasure. This com-
munication will admit of keeping the beds moist during the dry season, which
contributes greatly to the beauty of all flowering shrubs, especially such kinds
as the American Rhodoracez, most of which grow in moist peat.

Fig, 66. is a design for a garden, to contain a select cellection of dahlias,
to form an episode to a shrubbery walk.

The beds at a a embrace small basins of water, and in order to contrast
with the others, may be planted with a collection of hollyhocks, The beds
marked 4 6 may be planted with evergreen shrubs, in order to prevent the

266 Propagating-House heated by hot Water

whole garden from be-
ing seen at once when
entering. There may
also be a few plants of
Cupréssine, or other
evergreens, _ sprinkled
down the middle of the
garden, from 6 to 6, in
order to form a back-
ground to the dahlias
and hollyhocks ; for this
garden, like jig. 64., 1s
one of those the beau-
ties of which are to be
seen in succession, and
not at a single glance,
as in the design jig. 63.
The dahlia beds are so
disposed as that every
variety may be seen from
the walk. The width of
the beds is 3 ft., which
will admit of two rows,
the plants of one row
alternating with those
in the other. In order
to preserve the exact
form of the beds, they
ought to have concealed
brick edgings, formed in
the manner shown in
figs. 56, 57. in p. 217.,
or by triangular bricks
made on purpose. The
shapes may also be pre-
served by iron rods
raised 6 in. above the
Fig. 66. Dahlia and Hollyhock Garden. beds, and securely fixed.

Art. 1X. Description of a Propagating-House heated by hot Water
circulated in Brick Troughs. By J.M. Linpsay.

AccorDING to my promise, I forward for your inspection a plan and section
(fig.67.) of a propagating-house in the Hammersmith Nursery, recently
heated (by my employers, Messrs. John and Charles Lee) by hot water cir-
culating im brick troughs lined with cement; top and bottom heat being
produced by the same means. We have now had the plan in operation a suf-
ficient time to test its merits, and I feel quite justified in asserting that it far
surpasses every other means with which I am acquainted for the purpose of
commanding a regular, steady, genial, and moist bottom and top heat ; so much
so, that I have not the least doubt that, when its superior advantages are fully
known, it will ultimately supersede the use of all the fermenting materials
which are generally used as a medium for bottom heat, and also the use of
iron pipes for horticultural purposes.

The house to which the system has been applied here is fifty feet long and

circulated in Brick Troughs.

267

eight feet wide ; it was originally used for propagation, but without the means
of that useful stimulant for cuttings, &c., bottom heat, instead of which it had

a platform of tiles three feet six inches in width, raised
on brick arches, and running the whole length of the
house, being of a sufficient height to make it convenient
for placing pots of cuttings, &c., upon. The means of
heating used was a common smoke flue, also raised on
brick arches, and occupying two feet in width; the
remaining space was taken up by the path.

All that was found necessary to do in altering it to
its present state, after procuring a boiler, was to pull
down the smoke flue, which was next the front wall,
and make the bench on which it stood on the same
level with the platform on the other or back side of
the path; this done, two troughs were erected upon
it for heating the atmosphere of the house, as repre-
sented in jig.67. at 66. These troughs are formed
by partitions two bricks on edge deep, set in cement,
the bottom and inner sides of the lower bricks only
being plastered with the same material. A covering
is formed of common tiles, which were in use for co-
vering the smoke flue. On the three feet six inches
platform are also erected two troughs (dd), as a me-
dium for bottom heat. They occupy its full width, but
are only formed one brick on edge deep (d d), also
set in cement, and plastered with the same inside.
Common plain tiles (as they are termed) are used for
a covering for these troughs; but, as they are only
nine inches in length, it was found necessary to support
the end of each in the middle of each trough by means
of a row of brick on edge laid in without cement, so
as not to raise them above the level of the side bricks,
and left pigeon-holed. The tiles were then bedded on
in cement, all the joints being afterwards carefully
pointed. This forms another platform, which is co-
vered by about six inches of old tan for receiving pots
of cuttings, &c., which tan is kept compactly together
by a brick on edge, also set in cement along each side,
as shown in the section.

The boiler is placed at the extreme end of the house
at e, inside, being supplied with fuel from the out-
side; it has a short piece of four-inch iron pipe to
supply the two flow troughs, as represented by the
dotted lines at e, and two return pipes which enter it
at opposite sides. This boiler is of novel construction,
the invention of Mr. Thomson, late gardener at Syon
House, and is well calculated for economy, both in
fuel and labour; having a much greater surface ex-
posed to the action of the fire than any boiler I have
ever seen of the same size.

= Sales =

Saas
a

——) i) Fe)

Fig. 67. Plan and Section
of a Propagating- House
in the Hammersmith
Nursery, heated by hot
Water circulating im
Brick Troughs lined
with Cement.

W/Z o 7S
Pats 20 1

The water in the troughs rarely exceeds an inch in depth, with which
quantity we can keep, with the greatest nicety, both the temperature of the

house and the bottom heat to any required degree.

I must not omit to men-

tion, that in each flow trough is placed a sluice, formed by a piece of slate
pushed down in two grooves in the cement, so that the water may be stopped

from circulating in either at pleasure.

So satisfactory has the system proved here, and so very moderate in expense,
a bricklayer and his labourer having completed the whole in a few days with
two and a half tubs of cement, the old materials which formed the smoke

268 Un the Superiority of Span-roofed Greenhouses.

flues being found sufficient for the alteration, that my employers have deter-
mined on heating a large orchidaceous house, and also one for cacti on the
same principle. The troughs in the latter house will be supplied by the boiler
in use for the above propagating-house.

I believe that Mr. Beaton, gardener to Sir W. Middleton, Bart., at Shrub-
land Park, was the first that used brick troughs for heating the interior
of horticultural erections; he published a detailed account of it in the
Gardener’s Chronicle for 1842, p. 348., and it has since been adopted in various
parts of the kingdom, Hot water has also been in use as a medium for bottom
heat, for many years back, in different horticultural establishments, but upon
modes much less economical than those above described. To those who do
not wish for the expense and litter of fermenting materials as a mode of pro-
ducing heat, I can safely say that the trough system of heating offers great
advantages.

Hammersmith Nursery, March, 20. 1843.

Art. X. On the Superiority of Span-roofed Greenhouses. By JAMES
M‘Naz, Superintendant of the Caledonian Horticultural Society’s
Garden.

Av the last meeting of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, Mr. James
M‘Nab, the curator of the Society’s Experimental Gardens, made an interest-
ing communication, showing the superiority of plant-houses extending north
and south, and having a span-roof fronting east and west, over such as have
only an inclined roof fronting the south, commonly called by gardeners lean-to
houses. This superiority holds good both in summer and winter, but is
particularly remarkable in the latter season.

For example, in a span-roofed house, extending north and south, during
the stormy weather of winter, air can be freely admitted, from whatever
direction the wind may blow, there being always a lee side where sashes can
be opened. In frames and pits, where top air alone can be given, plants suffer
greatly from damp ; but in a span-roofed house, the circulation of air may be
constantly kept up so as effectually to prevent damp. For such a green-
house, fire heat is scarcely at all required; for, if there be a free circulation
of air during the autumn and winter months, and if the tables or shelves be
carefully kept dry and clean, and water be sparingly given to such plants only
as require it, cold, even though it should extend to the occasional freezing of
the surface soil of the pots, will do less injury to most plants than the appli-
cation of fire heat. Mr. M‘Nab has found the same kind of plants to become
soft, spongy, and drawn up in the lean-to house, which continued hard,
woody, and dwarfish in the span-roofed house. Last season he kept a number
of fine cinerarias and geraniums in houses of both forms. After a severe
frosty night in January, they presented in the morning much the same appear-
ance in both houses; the leaves drooping, and being covered with a white
rime, resembling hoar-frost. By ten o’clock the sun shone forth. The plants
in the /ean-to house were subjected to the full influence of the mid-day rays ;
and, although air was given, they blackened and perished. In the span-roofed
house, extending north and south, the influence of the sun was much less
felt ; for, as he proceeded towards the meridian, the intercepting astragals and
rafters necessarily formed a screen or shade ; and, air being given, the plants
survived, and soon recovered.

Amateur cultivators who like to possess a small greenhouse, and to manage
it for themselves, ought to prefer the span-roofed form ; and from Mr. M‘Nab
they may learn this important lesson, that, by an early and anxious application
of fire heat, in a frosty night in the beginning of winter (a common fault),
they not only incur unnecessary trouble and expense, but do real injury to

it Naa

Arboricultural Notices. 269

their plants, which would suffer little from cold, provided air were made to
circulate freely among them, and damp were guarded against. The beautiful
tribes of Erica and E’pacris will suffer little or nothing in a cold greenhouse,
although the thermometer in the open air may indicate several degrees
below freezing ; while the sudden application of fire heat will probably kill
them.

Mr. M‘Nab mentioned that the superiority of the span-roofed form was
strikingly exemplified in the Society’s garden about the middle of February
last (1843), when the self-marking thermometer in the open air, during dif-
ferent nights, indicated 20°, 15°, and even 10° Fahr. During these frosts no
heat whatever was applied to the span-roofed house, which contained a
general collection of soft and hard wooded greenhouse plants. On the
mornings of the 17th and 19th of February, the mercury in the thermometer
within the house stood at 25°, or seven degrees below freezing; yet only two
or three plants which were standing near the upright glass of the south end
of the house, and were thus exposed to the mid-day sun, suffered from the
intense cold to which they had been subjected, The temperature in the
span-roofed house always remained much more equable than in the lean-to
house. This was signally remarkable at 1 p.m. of the 14th of February, when
the thermometer in the open air indicated 56° ; in the lean-to house 70° ; and
in the span-roofed house 43°: in the lean-to house, therefore, where the
whole glass roof was fully exposed to the sun’s meridian rays, the temperature
thus becoming fourteen degrees higher than the open air, and twenty-seven
degrees higher than in the span-roofed house,

Having enlarged on the advantages of this form of greenhouse during
winter, we shall only briefly state, in conclusion, that, in the warm weather of
summer, the span-roofed house admits the freest possible circulation of air,
by means of upright sliding sashes on both sides of the house; while the
rafters and astragals of the glazed roof break and intercept the sun’s rays,
and help to shade the plants from their direct influence ; and that in such a
house the plants, instead of being drawn up and weakly, continue firm and
bushy ; that they remain much longer in flower ; and that the colours of the
flowers are generally brighter. (Edinburgh Advertiser, April 11. 1843.)

Art. XJ. Arboricultural Notices.

Fa’aus antarctica, Arb. Brit. p. 1982., and E. of Trees and Shrubs, figs. 1702.
and 1703. p. 910., has been introduced from Tierra del Fuego, by Dr. Joseph
Hooker, and there are plants at Kew, and in Mr. Knight’s Exotic Nursery.

Ribes Beatonii, a hybrid raised by Mr. Beaton, between R. sanguineum
and #. atireum, is now beautifully in flower in Lee’s Nursery. It is a vigor-
ous-growing plant, with long racemes of flowers, partaking of the colour of
both species.

Magnolia Alexandrina, a hybrid between M. conspicua and M. purpurea,
or perhaps M. p. gracilis, one of the most desirable of deciduous magnolias,
was in full flower in Lee’s Nursery on April Ist, when not a single flower
bud of M. Soulangedna was expanded, and when M. conspicua was just
going out of bloom. Thus, by having plants of these three kinds, a succes-
sion of bloom will be kept up from the first week in March to the first week
in May.

Art. XII. Ona Mode of growing late Melons. By B.

AGREEABLY to promise I now attempt to. send you an account of my method
of growing late melons, which, as I have practised it with complete success
3d Ser.—1843. V. T

270 Mode of growing late Melons.

for the last three seasons, I think may be acceptable to at least some of your
readers. The last three summers have been so different in temperature and
moisture, that I think I may reasonably conclude the change of season will
not affect my plan. I do not mean to dictate to any one the precise time for
sowing their melon seed, making their beds, or planting their plants ; all this
must depend on the circumstances under which they are placed, for, if I were
differently situated, I should very likely be obliged to vary somewhat as to
time, &c. ; but my object is to show that a good crop of melons may be ob-
tained, with greater certainty, at a less expense than is generally supposed,
and of superior flavour. As regards the latter you can speak from experience,
from one sent you late in the season. [See J. B. in p. 84.] As regards the
quantity, owing to the state of my health last autumn, I could not attend to
the cutting of them myself, and therefore a strict account was not kept; but
generally not less than ten to a light are produced. As to the expense, some
may think it no object where they have plenty of soil and a convenient cart
road into the melon ground, but not so with those who have not soil, nor are
allowed to purchase it, or who have but few hands, and a long distance to
wheel ; to such the expense and labour form an object of importance.

Having plants in readiness, I proceeded last year to make my beds on the
30th of June. The materials consisted of leaves which had lain in the melon
ground since the autumn, some old dung from pit linings, ina mouldy, not
wet rotten state, and some fresh long dung to make up the deficiency. Ido
not like the dung to be sufficiently wet at this time of the year to cause it to
rot and become solid, as it will then be of little use in the autumn, when its
assistance will be more required. With the above kind of materials the bed
was made, without any regard to their being sweet. In making all kinds of
dung beds, my practice is to have the ground they stand on much lower in
the middle than on the sides, and, where necessary, to have a drain under-
neath the whole length. I then build them up, and finish the top in the
same form, as I find they are not so liable to fall at the sides, splitting the
soil of the bed, breaking the roots of the plants, and rendering it necessary
frequently to raise the frames. The beds being made for our present purpose
about 3ft. high, I immediately put on the frames, each light being about 4 ft.
2in. wide, and 6 ft.5in. long. In consequence of the green dung used in
the beds, they will of course heat very rapidly, and, owing to the power of
the sun at this season of the year, the heat in the frame will be very great;
and by keeping it shut up for some days every insect must perish, and the
beds will have heated themselves into such a dry state that there will be no
danger of overheating afterwards. When the heat has sufficiently subsided
to render it safe to put in the soil, the frames are taken off and the beds
regulated, still keeping them hollow along the middle. A ridge of the best
loam in a rough state is then laid along the middle, and pressed firm, about
15 in. deep, and about as wide on the top, drawing what rolls dewn all over
the bed, so as scarcely to hide the dung, more for the sake of making it level
enough to set pots on than any thing else. If there is any danger of wire
worms in the soil, I find it a good plan to place some potatoes where the
plant or plants are to go. Sometimes I put one plant, sometimes two. When
the earth is warm enough, let the plant or plants be placed under the middle
of each light, and one shoot be trained towards the back, one towards the
front, and one each way along the ridge, stopping them when they reach the
frame, or under the bar between the lights. Let the potatoes still remain
planted all rcund the plants, as they will almost always attract the wire worms ;
and as they will show, by growing, where they are, they may be taken out
and examined, till the soil is cleared of them ; at least I have never known
it fail. Before the frames get crowded, add about 3 in. more soil all along
the sides of the ridge, and press it firm ; but add no more all the summer, and
let the plants fall down as they extend, and cover the dung in front of and
behind the ridge.

Perhaps some may think it would be better to fill the frame with soil, but

The Country House. 271

from such I must beg leave to differ, and for this reason. For several years I
was taught to believe that, in order to have good melons, it was necessary to
watch the roots in their progress through the hills, after each earthing, till the
frames were filled with soil; and many a time have I had to place fresh layers and
beat it firm, and at last, when full, to get in and tread it firm, thereby rendering
it so hard that the portion of water allowed could not get down, and the
little heat remaining by the time the earthing was done could not get up ; the
consequence of which was, that the atmosphere at top must be cold and damp,
and very unlikely to produce a good crop of melons: but my present plan
will be free from these objections, as, by leaving the space in front and back of
the frame uncovered, there will always be a warm moist atmosphere produced,
so long as watering is necessary; and when the cold nights and gloomy days
of autumn come on, the dung of which the beds are composed having become
dry will, if linings are necessary, afford a warm dry atmosphere to ripen the
fruit. But perhaps some one will be ready to say, Will not the dry mouldy
kind of dung very much harbour insects which will eat the melons, especially
such as are commonly known by the name of sow bugs? To this I reply, I
have never been injured by them to any extent ; for, if I find many of them in
the frames, I merely put a little hay into a few flower-pots, turn them upside
down, sprinkle the frame round, and next morning, soon after uncovering,
examine the pots, when most of them will be found concealed above the dry
hay in the pot. There should never be sufficient hay in the pot for any por-
tion of it to touch the bed, otherwise the insects will remain on the dung in-
stead of climbing the pots. But, in order more safely to guard against these
depredators, my plan is, after a melon is set, to raise it on a flower-pot in-
verted, with a piece of glass on the top, larger than the flower-pot, so that if
they crawl up to the glass they will crawl down again, instead of continuing
their course on the under side of the glass, which is the only way they can
get to the fruit, except by the stem on which it grows, and being a consider-
able distance from the ground I never knew them succeed by this route.

I believe I have now stated all that is necessary, except that I had melons
from these beds from August till late in November, and that I never prune
melon plants if possible to avoid it, as I have often seen a good crop spoiled
by it ; and, if melons are kept continually swelling in succession, the plants
will generally have enough to do to support them, without producing too
much vine.

Middlesex, April, 1843.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. The Country House (with Designs). Edited by Lady Mary
Fox. 4to, pp. 65, with 5 lithographic plates, and many vignette
woodcuts. London, 1843.

Tue idea of this book is good. A gentleman is about to build a house, and
he enters previously into the discussion of the subject with his architect, who
residing at a distance, the discussion is naturally carried on by letter. The
letters of the gentleman intending to build are signed H. B. (understood to
be Henry Bellenden Ker), and the architect is M. de Chateauneuf of Ham-
burg, the author of Architectura Domestica (reviewed in our Volume for 1839,
p- 703.). In addition to the letters of the architect and nis supposed em-
ployer, there is a valuable one by Mr. Eastlake, the eminent artist, on the
principles of interior decoration. We shall endeavour to abstract what we
T 2

272 The Country House.

consider as bearing on general principles, and afterwards give our opinion of
the design.

In Letter I. the employer states that he consults the foreign architect
from great respect for his talents, and because he is “not likely to be so
much wedded to the routine of modern Italian villas, Elizabethan houses,
and thatched cottages, as is the case with most of our English professors.”
He next hints at the sort of house he wants, and gives a short description of
the proposed site. “ With respect to the offices,” he says, “ I think we make
a great mistake in England, as we manage to hide them, and lose all the
benefit of increasing the size and importance of the house by these additions.”
This remark may have been applicable thirty or forty years ago, but no
architect of the present day thinks of concealing the offices of a country
house, unless under very peculiar circumstances. In Price’s Essay on Archi-
tecture and Buildings, published in 1798, the following passage occurs : —
“Much of the naked solitary appearance of houses is owing to the practice
of totally concealing, nay, sometimes of burying, all the offices under ground,
and that by way of giving consequence to the mansion ; but though excep-
tions may arise from particular situations and circumstances, yet, in general,
nothing contributes so much to give both variety and consequence to the
principal building, as the accompaniment, and, as it were, the attendance, of
the inferior parts in their different gradations.” (Price on the Picturesque,
edit. 1798, vol. ii. p. 215.)

In Letter IL. the architect observes that sixty years ago no one would
have thought of proposing to an architect to consider what style was most
suitable for the intended situation and purpose. Every architect then, he
says, adopted the style in general use, modified by his own particular views
of that style. When the Italian mode was prevalent, no architect would have
ventured to introduce the Gothic, &c.; but now we recognise and adopt
various styles indiscriminately. ‘“ We seem to be of opinion that variety of
character is attainable only by variety of style,” and hence our museums are
Grecian, our churches Gothic, and so on. “The adoption of a style pre-
viously discarded, though it may suit the vitiated taste of the artist, yet it can
never be pleasing to a really cultivated taste.” (p. 6.) The contrary of this
principle is so obvious, that we think there must be some mistake in the
translation ; indeed, there is much in this letter that is obscure. Was not
the Grecian style itself at one period discarded? The following, however,
is good. “The most perfect architectural style is that which admits at the
same time of a refined style, both of sculpture and painting.” ‘ Sculpture
and painting,” M. de Chateauneuf observes, “‘ are the daughters of architec-
ture, not, as is commonly said, the sisters; and it is only in the Italian style
of the 15th century, that we meet with all the three arts growing up to com-
pleteness together.” (p.7.) The Greek style as modified in the Italian
1s what the architect proposes to adopt; “but, at the same time, with a ~
reserved right to the free use of those modes and motives with which later
European architecture supplies us. If a determinate name must be given to
the style, I propose to call it the Renaissance style of the 19th century.”

To the admirers of Gothic architecture he says, “If you can introduce
modern sculpture and painting into Gothic architecture, without prejudice to
them or it, I will say that you have attained a great end.” In answer to
those who imagine that he intends to produce a medley of Grecian and
Gothic, he has the following excellent passage: “ You misunderstand or
pervert my meaning. I have not spoken of a merely mixing up of different
styles, but of compounding them together; between which two processes
there is, I conceive, a wide difference, the ingredients being merely put
together in the one case, without losing their respective qualities; while in
the other they amalgamate with each other, and produce an entirely new
combination ; and it is in accomplishing combinations of this kind that the
power of genuine art manifests itself; and the distinction may be likened to
the difference between a mechanical and a chemical combination.” (p. 9.)

The Country House. 273

Letter III. — In this letter, as well as in his first, the employer shows
a predilection for the comforts of the Elizabethan style, but admits the merits
of the classical style in the abstract, and more especially as adapted for dis-
playing sculpture and painting. He endeavours to ridicule the works of
modern English architects. ‘ Show me a Palladian villa,” he says, “a mile
off, and I could draw you the plan of the inside at once. Indeed, I could
walk blindfolded into the drawingroom, dining-room, library, and boudoir,
and go up to bed in the best bed-room, without a guide or a light.”

In Letter IV. the architect makes some further observations on style.
“‘ The Elizabethan style is only one of the links of a progressive series of
attempts to appropriate and adapt the elements of the Grecian style to
modern purposes. You must, therefore, admit that architecture, which is
capable of producing independent works out of its own resources, and from
its own principles, is degraded to what is little better than mere decoration
and scene-painting, when (apprehensive of falling into contradiction and want
of harmony, unless it retains all the individual particulars of extant examples,)
it timidly strives to imitate the dialect of a single province. How short a
time, however, must the impression produced by such mummery last, and
how long the impression of a work of architecture is destined to remain! Is
it because we are ashamed of or mistrust the results of our own study and
conviction, that we venture to exhibit ourselves to posterity, merely as the
copyists of examples the repute of which is already established, and which
may be learnt and repeated by rote? At various periods, men have shown
themselves either barbarous or puerile in their notions on art; yet never till
now such slavish copyists, such mere plagiarists, such mocking-birds in style.
You may judge by this sally in what an ill humour I am, at finding that you
would shut me up in a cage and there make me sing. If you examine your
Elizabethan architecture with some little critical attention, you will hardly
fail to perceive that, with all its richness of expression, the elementary sounds
are no more harmonious than the crowing of a cock, or the braying of
an ass.

** All this concerns merely the style, as style; for, in other respects, we often
meet with much [in the Elizabethan style] that deserves praise ; convenient
arrangement and contrivance, striking effect, and much cleverness of con-
struction and execution, although, so far from being pure or refined, the taste
displayed may be decidedly vulgar and coarse. I freely confess that the merits
I have just mentioned were retained in the architecture of the North of
Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. I say retained, because the
Gothic style that was then abandoned had been treated with masterly skill,
and showed disciplined artificers in all that belongs to mechanical execution;
consequently, the ability thus produced had only to employ itself upen a
fresh task.” (p. 18.)

With respect to the suitableness of the Greek style for modern purposes,
our architect observes: “ If we allow that, as far as it proceeded, Grecian
architecture is stamped by perfect beauty, it is of little moment to our argu-
ment whether it was so comprehensive as it might have been, and had suffi-
ciently developed itself for those purposes which we now more especially
require, since the perfection it did actually attain in the direction it took
ought to be sufficient to inspire the artist. It was not necessary that the
latter should surrender up the freedom belonging to him as such, and confine
himself to following Grecian motives and intentions. In fact, the peculiar
charms, or the grace and freshness, of Grecian architecture become withered, as
soon as we begin to treat it according to dry systematic rules. The Vitruvius
capable of legislating for it according to its genius and true spirit, perhaps is
not yet born.” (p. 19.)

In conclusion he observes, with respect to the style which he means to
adopt for H. B.’s country house: “I do not mean to be confined either to a
servile imitation of a pure Pompeian house; or to be tied down to repeat
your Elizabethan architecture, or the Gothic of Germany or England. Nor

mS)

274 The Country House.

do I propose to give you a fac-simile of any building of the Renaissance
school. To the best of my power, I propose (as the best style) that which
adopts the pure broad principles of beauty in building, and which were, I sin-
cerely believe, best propounded by the Greeks ; and which all experience has
shown to be the best suited to receive addition from the highest style of
painting and sculpture; and which are, in fact, parts of architecture. How
far I may succeed is another point.” (p. 22.)

Letter V.— General observations by the employer ridiculing modern prac-
tices.

Letter VI.—The employer describes the site, and the accommodations
required, more in detail.

Letter VII.— The architect, speaking of architectural treatment and cha-
racter, has the following passage :— :

“‘ Nearly all productions of architecture, more especially structures adapted
for habitation, offer one side stamped as the principal or front, and another,
which is its reverse ; in which respect they bear a greater analogy to living
beings than to plants ; the latter having no definite fore side, on the contrary,
any part becoming the front that is towards the spectator. Such being the
case, the same rules that are to be observed for displaying a statue or repre-
sentation of a living figure to advantage ought to be attended to in regard to
the position of buildings.” (p. 31.)

He proposes to form an artificial lake, and erect the house immediately on
its north shore. ‘“ I need hardly point out to you the unusual agreeableness,
and even piquant effect, of a residence so situated ; and when I send my plans
for the house itself, you will see what are the apartments that will occupy this
side of the building, and what a charming prospect they will command of the
lake immediately below, and the grounds on its opposite banks. At present
I will only remark, as regards the increased effect thus to be gained, that a
building immediately on the edge of a piece of water appears more consider-
able than in any other situation; and that the reflected image of the archi-
tecture will form a brilliant contrast to the darker reflections of trees and
foliage. Besides which, the most favourable point of distance for viewing the
building itself on this side would thus become fixed, being that from the oppo-
site bank of the lake.

“A very cursory examination of the plan of the ground will convince you
that the whole of the buildings you require are massed together in one group.
Such an arrangement certainly contributes to convenience ; and I agree with
you that, by showing the various offices, instead of attempting to mask or
screen them, the house itself may be made to possess greater importance and
apparent extent; that is, you will get a large-looking country house at a small
cost. It may be further remarked, that, by adopting such treatment of the
plan, some kind of architectural foreground is introduced into the prospects
seen from the house itself, together with much contrast and variety, and that,
too, without incurring unnecessary or extra expense, since the same accom-
modation must be provided. Another advantage is, that the subordinate
buildings of this kind, attached to the main structure, may be made use of as
a kind of connecting link between the more artificial and studied regularity of
the latter, and the natural objects in its immediate vicinity ; without which
sort of intermediate transition a house is apt to have the appearance of a
mushroom structure that has over night started up out of the ground.” (p. 32.)

Letter VILI.— The architect explains the design in detail.

Letter IX.— The employer objects to having a house “ actually bordering
on still water.”

Letter X.— The architect describes the interior.

Letter XI.—The employer addresses Charles Lock Eastlake, Esq., R. A.,
&c., reminding him of his promise of advice, and acknowledging the kindness
with which he devoted much time and labour to the “ designing and execut-
ing” for him the “ Pompeian room so deservedly admired.”

“ 1 never think on the subject without calling to mind the principles laid

The Country House. 275

down for the ornamenting of a country house, in Mr. Rogers’s ‘ Invitation to a
Friend :’ indeed, locking to his intimate knowledge of the whole circle of fine
arts, and, lastly, the specimen of refined taste which his own town house
exhibits, my beau idéal is a house decorated under his direction ; but, as this
cannot be obtained, I trust that you, who possess so much of his spirit and
refinement, will, as far as may be compatible with your engagements, afford
me the benefit of your assistance.” (p. 51.)

Letter XII., by Mr. Eastlake, is, in our opinion, worth more than all the
rest of the volume, because it lays down in the clearest manner principles
either self-evident or reasonable.

The word decoration, however appropriate to fantastic ornaments, and in
some degree to insulated figures, has been considered vilifying when applied to
works that are addressed to the mind. We must be content to use it in both
meanings ; remembering that no work of art, however elevated, can dispense
with the appeal, impressive or winning, to the eye.

As a general principle, the eye should be solely or chiefly addressed where
a passing glance only can be given to the work; and the attention should be
more taxed where leisure and surrounding circumstances permit or invite
contemplation.

In art, the augmenting excellence ascends from sense to thought ; but the
indispensable condition is, that a gradation should still be maintained.

Halls, In the pavement of halls, the forms and hues employed should be
merely calculated to gratify the sight ; mosaic histories under the feet are
therefore objectionable. A pavement, however decorated, should still express
the characters of firmness and solidity. The lowest kind of life, even that of
plants, and every approach to perspective, should be banished. Geometrical
forms are alone admissible : their variety is infinite; but, even here, abrupt
and irregular contrasts of colour should be excluded, because they have
sometimes the effect of making the evenness of the surface doubtful. The
same remark will apply in the case of carpets and oilcloths. These principles
harmonise with those laid down by Pugin, as quoted in our Supplement to
the Encyclopedia of Cottage Architecture, pp. 1283—1285. ; the difference
between the two authors being, that the one is guided by feeling and reason
conjoined, and the other (Pugin) chiefly by feeling.

Door Sills. The ancients placed inscriptions on the threshold of the prin-
cipal door of the house (salve), and sometimes even on the mosaic floor of
the entrance to bedrooms (bene dormio) ; but

Letters are only ornamental in architecture when disposed symmetrically,
and enclosed in a regular framework.

Statues have the advantage of being seen in various points of view, and
thus command attention in situations where paintings could not. Bas-reliefs
recommend themselves from their rich effect, and, like statues, are naturally
connected with the classic materials of marble or bronze. In general, archi-
tecture seems to acquire additional solidity by the presence of sculpture.
Works of sculpture, of the first excellence, should be admitted to the library
or drawingroom. In the hall, mixing mural painting and sculpture is not
advisable, because the former competes injudiciously with the latter, that is,
with bas-reliefs. When there are statues or pedestals in a hall or corridor,
decorate the walls with arabesques.

In the staircase employ either sculpture or painting, not both ; the latter is
preferable ; but the decoration should be entirely subservient to the architec-
tural effect. A great display on the walls and ceiling of a staircase might be
defended on the ground that a mere passing impression of magnificence is
intended ; but they generally destroy the architectural effect. Whatever may
be the subject of a painting on a staircase, it should appear to grow out of
and complete the architecture. The introduction of painted figures of the
size of life on the walls of staircases, or, indeed, anywhere else, where living
figures must often come in contact with them, is in the very worst taste. The
entire surface of the wall ought not to be covered, because that would destroy

T 4

276 The Country House.

its character as a wall; and, therefore, the boundaries of the panels ought
neither to extend to the angles nor the ceiling, but leave enough at these
places to show that the paintings only covered compartments, and were in-
tended to ornament the wall, not to conceal it.

Dining-rooms, “strictly so called and employed, are generally unadorned
with pictures: this hardly seems necessary. In theory, we may admit that
subjects requiring some contemplation would be out of place in a room exclu-
sively devoted to ‘the table’; but portraits of celebrated individuals, and
landscapes, although they cannot be duly examined in such moments, may
convey associations, to which the spectator, even if not particularly con-
versant in pictures, is supposed to be alive at all times. Portraits of the
class alluded to, as historic texts, are connected with time; and landscape,
especially if founded on actual scenes, suggests. the conditions of place. A
room used for the purpose in question, and for nothing else, is, however, not
the place where fine works of art should be bestowed; and J incline to think
that this is the fittest field for small frescoes and arabesques. This, in short,
is one of the occasions to please the eye and the imagination only. Accord-
ingly, in the mode proposed, no definite idea is presented to the mind, but an
idea of elegant and festive splendour surrounds the guests. There should,
however, be endless variety ; scarcely a form should be repeated in the
details, although an architectural symmetry is, as usual, to be preserved in the
masses.” (p. 57.)

The Breakfast-room. Where a family betake themselves to particular
rooms at stated hours, it may be allowable to decorate and furnish these
rooms in such a manner as to insure a marked and agreeable variety of cha-
racter. ‘ The morning has its own feelings, even for those whom affluence
frees from any kind of labour. The purposes of the day are unfinished ;
every thing is contingent. Under such circumstances, the character or subject
of pictures is to be adapted to the mind, not the mind to the subject. The
open face of nature, by sea and land, may here enliven the walls, and agree
with the excursive feelings of the hour. The chase and its incidents may here
triumph. The English pastoral is here strictly in its place. Solemn themes,
solemn effects, should not be admitted ; while all that responds to buoyancy
of spirit would, on the contrary, be appropriate. [t need not be gravely
objected, that accidental, or even average, states of feeling may be little in
unison with the impressions which the arts profess to give; for the same
objection is frequently applicable to all of the accompaniments of civilised life,
nay, to the beauties of nature, which so often appeal even to cultivated human
sympathies in vain. The occasional contradiction is unavoidable where, of
two conditions, one is permanent, the other mutable.” (p. 58.)

Corridors and Conservatories. | Corridors not furnished with pictures, and
garden pavilions, may be decorated with arabesques ; but not so conservatories,
where the conventional forms and tints of art would contend injudiciously with
nature.

Frescoes are not adapted for sitting-rooms, because in general they require
to be of a large size, and, being fixed, they cannot afford that variety which is
produced by a number of small pictures, which may be changed at pleasure.

The Library. Yn libraries pictures of extensive interest divert the atten-
tion from the business of the place; but portraits may be admitted, and the
library is the proper place for cabinets of gems and medals, collections of en-
gravings, terra-cottas, &e. “ I prefer a library without coloured decorations ;
the wocd-work may be carved in flat relief, even to the panels of the walls; a
mode of decoration now beautifully supplied by embossed leather, which need
not be dark in colour. Whatever colour appears, except in the portraits,
miniatures, or illuminations, hung around, should be in the books; these
should strike the eye, and be, so to speak, in the foreground of the picture.
Vases or busts may surmount the cases.

“ T see no objection even to inscribing both the subject and the name of the
master under_works of art generally ; a volume bears its title and author’s

The Country House. 277

name ; and pictures, to many, are as sealed books, till enquiry is stimulated or
interest quickened by similar means. When the description is too long to
admit of this, the words ‘ See Catalogue, No. —.,’ might be added.

“ Tf colour is admitted anywhere in the library, it might be in subjects on
the ceiling, allowable here, if at all, in the region of easy chairs and occasional
meditation ; perhaps too, to a certain extent, in the windows. The introduc-
tion of subjects on ceilings has not been recommended generally, but in the
system of arabesque painting the universal decoration of the walls requires to
be carried into the ceiling. Sculpture, from the reasons already given, or
rather in accordance with the same taste, is quite admissible in the library.”

. 60.

e i Sane ae principal drawingroom, as that most occupied
in hours of calm seclusion and leisure, is the proper place for the choicest
works of taste. “ The arrangement of pictures comprehends some of the
difficulties which the artist experiences in the production of one; for a certain
balance and repose are as essential for the eye, as a harmonious impression
for the mind. Enlightened connoisseurs see excellence both in the Dutch and
Italian schools, but they are often embarrassed in arranging them together. I
am convinced, however, from instances I have seen, that this is to be accom-
plished satisfactorily. It is sometimes argued, that no one reads Milton and
Crabbe alternately ; but this is hardly a parallel case. Many go toa gallery to
look at a particular picture, and see nothing else ; the eye is blind when the
attention is not actively exerted. So, in a room, the spectator selects his
favourites, his favourites at least for the time, and scarcely looks beyond them.
At another moment he will perhaps direct his undivided attention to works
which he passed over on a former occasion. A certain congruity is sometimes
to be accomplished, by attending to impressions rather than names and schools.
Many an Italian picture would not be out of place with the Flemish and Dutch
schools ; while Vandyck, Rembrandt, Cuyp, and others, might sometimes
harmonise in many respects with the genius of the South.” (p. 61.)

“With regard to subjects, the mind, as well as the eye, must be respected :
the ethos [spirit] of painting is quite compatible with familiar and homely
subjects; and, on the other hand, the greatest Italian masters have sometimes
sought for poetic impressions in regions where it would be unsafe to follow
them. The subject often acquires elevation, and commands respect, by the
evidence of mental labour and power in the artist. To a true connoisseur,
this skilful application of principles derived from universal nature supersedes
the mere subject ; and the idea which he recognises, whatever may be its
vehicle, is grand and poetical. Less experienced observers are often deceived
by the title of pictures: ‘A Court-yard’ (de Hooghe) sounds unpromising
enough ; but when it is seen that the painter has represented daylight with
inagical truth, and that all is subservient to this, his aim must be acknow-
ledged to be dignified. It is to be observed, too, that the influence of this
high aim on the part of the artist often extends itself to the treatment of the
materials which constitute his ostensible subject. It is easy to see from the
unaffected feeling, as well as from the re/ative character of the execution in
some (though not all) of the Dutch masters, that the real subject of their
meditation was noble.” (p. 62.)

“With respect to the colour of the walls on which pictures are hung, my
opinion is singular without being novel. I am quite aware that it is necessary
to consider wall, pictures, gold frames, and all, in relation to general effect:
the gold, especially, is to be treated as part of the coup-d’ail. But, though I
remember examples of light walls hung with pictures producing an agreeable
effect, I prefer a colour which displays the pictures more, and must also main-
tain that living pictures are seldom seen to the best advantage against a bright
ground ; the quantity of actual light (it may always be assumed) making
reflected light unnecessary : my idea, in one word, is, that the wall should not
be so light as the lights of the pictures; and this supposes a sufficiently low
tint. Of such colours, the most agreeable is the long established rich red,

278 The Country House.

which might be sufficiently allied to purple to give value to the gold frames
and the warm colour of the pictures. I need not recommend avoiding too
much unbroken polish in the frames, since this is now very generally disap-
proved of.” (p. 63.)

For a variety of details illustrative of the principles laid down in the above
extracts we must refer to Mr. Eastlake’s letter. We are happy to learn that
this eminent artist has employed Mr. Moxon, the author of the Grainer’s
Guide, noticed in our Volume for 1842, p. 379., to paint his house. We are
glad of this, because we feel confident it will contribute to the public taste in
the pictorial decoration of rooms. Mr. Moxon’s works, in the house of Mr.
Tomalin in Carlton Terrace, for example, require only to be seen to be
appreciated.

The reader will have observed that in the letters of M. de Chateauneuf
there are various excellent remarks from which sound principles may be »
derived; but the whole subject of a country house is not discussed. Very
little is said on what relates to domestic comfort, such as warming, ventilating,
lighting, supplying water, &c. Indeed, these are subjects with which foreign
architects are not familiar; and, therefore, M. de Chateauneuf’s remarks must
be considered as chiefly relating to matters of taste.

The letters are illustrated by one ground plan and four perspective views.
The latter are beautiful as specimens of architectural composition ; but they
want the characteristic features of a dwelling-house, chimney tops; and they
have one feature far too large for a dwelling-house, a square tower sur-
mounted by a dome. To conceal the chimneys of a dwelling-house is to
omit its principal characteristic feature. Imagine for a moment that the
country houses of England, which are as far superior to those of every other
country in the world as the liberty of England is superior to the liberty of
Russia, were without chimney tops, and what would they represent ? Compare
those Italian country houses in England, in which, as in M. de Chateauneuf’s
design, an attempt has been made to conceal the chimneys, with those in the
same style in which the chimneys have been rendered conspicuous architec-
tural features, and say which afford the most pleasure to the beholder. Ask,
also, in which of the two houses are there likely to be smoky chimneys. But
we have said enough on this subject elsewhere.

We are sorry we can say little in behalf of the plan; it exhibits much
display, with but little convenience or comfort ; indeed we never yet saw a
Continental architect that could design a country house fit for an English
gentleman. It is in town houses that M. de Chateauneuf excels ; and in these,
as we have stated, when noticing his Architectura Domestica, he has very great
merit. The whole of the work before us shows that M. de Chateauneuf, through
the intended kindness of his friend H. B., has been brought into what is
called a false position.

The five plates are very beautifully executed, as are the vignettes, which,
however, have very little to do with the subject of the book, having been
kindly “furnished by Mr. C. Knight and Mr. Jackson.” The translation of
M. de Chateauneut’s letters from the German, it is stated, “ unfortunately
have not had the advantage of being submitted to the writer for correction,”
which will account for the obscurity of some passages in them, though it will
not furnish an excuse for the careless manner in which the proofs appear to
have been corrected. We allude to the transposition of entire lines, as in
p. 55.; the omission of words, as in p. 32.; and the insertion of superfluous
words, for example, “‘ treated with masterly and skill,” in p. 18.

One circumstance relating to this book, however, will cover a multitude of
sins: it is published for the benefit of the “ Royal Schools of Industry, at Ken-
sington, the Potteries, and Shepherd’s Bush.”

“« On the formation of the schools, the plan of self-support was adopted,
each child contributing a weekly payment ; infants, ld.; girls who are taught
to work, and the younger boys, pay 2d.; and the elder boys, who are taught
to write, 3d. Although these payments go some way towards the maintenance

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Sc. 279

of the establishment, yet the funds hitherto have been found very inadequate,
and the deficiency has been supplied by voluntary contributions, the produce
of bazaars, ladies’ work, &c. One of the most successful sources of profit
has been a small volume, printed under the title of Friendly Contributions: the
profits from the sale of this work have been applied to the support of the
schools ; three volumes have already appeared, and the present forms the
fourth.” (Pref. p. 6.)

Art. IJ. Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Agriculture, Botany,
Rural Architecture, &c., lately published, with some Account of those
considered the more interesting.

HORTICULTURAL Essays; being the Papers read at the Meetings of the Regent’s
Park Gardeners’ Society for mutual Instruction, §c. §c. Part I. 8vo, pp. 73.
London, 1843.

Too much cannot be said in favour of the usefulness of the societies for
mutual improvement which have, within the last ten years, originated with
journeymen gardeners in the neighbourhood of London, and been carried on
entirely by them. The founder of the first of these societies was, we believe,
Mr. Robert Fish, and it may safely be stated that they have done as much for
the improvement of the young men which belong to them, as the Horticultural
Society of London has done for the advancement of horticulture generally.
The papers read at the meetings of the West London Gardeners’ Society for
mutual Instruction have, from time to time, appeared in this Magazine and in
the gardening newspapers; those of the Regent’s Park Society, recently
formed, are collected together in the work before us.

The first article is on Cacti, by Mr. D. Maher. The second, on the Oak, by
Mr. J. Bevis. Quercus sessiliflora is described as having leaves with very short
footstalks, the reverse of which is the case, as may be observed at Ken-
wood, where there are scarcely any of Q. pedunculata. With the exception
of this trifling accuracy, the article is correct.

On the Camellia, by Mr. E. Pigg, with a selected list of the best varieties in
cultivation. Good.

On training Pear Trees, by Mr. T. Moore. A well-reasoned paper, though
we differ from the author in being partial to espaliers, especially in a regular
kitchen-garden surrounded by wails.

On the Mushroom, by Mr. C. M‘Donald. On the genus Agaricus, by Mr.
D. Maher. In the latter article is given an interesting extract from Lyall’s
Moscow, enumerating the edible species of Agaricus, Boletus, Phallus, Cla-
varia, &c., found in Russia.

On the Atmosphere, by Mr. T. Moore. On planting Pear Trees, by the
same. Both these are valuable papers.

On the Willow, by Mr. J. Bevis. Salix moschata is mentioned as the
“ Willow of the Persian harems, much cultivated in the East,” and coming
very near S. caprea. The male plant is now growing at Stratford; in, we
presume, Mr. Alcard’s garden.

Water, with reference to its Application in Horticulture, by Mr. E. Pigg.
An elaborate and instructive paper.

On protecting Plants, by Mr. T. Moore, contains many useful hints.

On the Drainage of Plants in Pots, by Mr. W. Field. Pieces of slate are
recommended instead of potsherds, with moss placed over them; slate pre-
vents the mould from being washed to the bottom of the pot, and has other
advantages.

On Tropzolacez, by Mr. D. Maher. Eighteen species of Tropz‘olum are
described. We agree with this author in recommending columnar trellises for

280 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c.

training plants in pots, in preference to the fanciful and grotesque patterns
generally in use. A decided contrast is required between the support and the
thing supported, not only in strength and substance, but in form and cha-
racter.

The last article is the Report of the Committee for the first half-year of the
Society’s existence, ending Feb. 28. 1843, from which we make the following
extracts :—

“ The success which has attended the exertions of those who have willingly
contributed to the usefulness of the Society, becomes a forcible argument to-
wards inducing a more generally diffused spirit of industrious exertion on the
part of the whole body of members, which could only result in the attain-
ment of the objects which we set before us at our formation as a Society,
namely, our mutual instruction. In no other profession are its members so
entirely dependent on each other as in that to which we belong ; because, in
no other profession, or scarcely in any other, is the same amount of mental
exertion found to be requisite ; and this circumstance, more than any other,
may be regarded as the cementing bond, the point of union, which is visible in
its effects, if we look around us on either hand. Mutual wants create mutual
dependence ; and in no way can these wants be so well supplied, in no better
manner can these obligations be returned with usury, than in the opportunities
afforded at meetings such as ours, in societies such as that to which we belong.
This feeling of unity, a union of wants, a union of interests, a union of reme-
dies for existing evils, a union of preventives against new ones, this unity is
so universal and sc apparent, that it is scarcely possible to conceive a member
of our profession who can stand aloof from the common interest ; and in no
way can this feeling be more strongly encouraged than by societies like our
own, through whose medium much of the required aid and information can be
obtained, Surely, with such numerous requirements, and in a profession where
so much is to be attained, no opportunity of imparting or of receiving inform-
ation ought to be omitted ; and the committee earnestly hope that the ensuing
half-year will be characterised, not only by a more strict attention and interest
in the meetings, but also by more personal and direct exertions to render them
what they should be, what we trust they will be.”

‘““ One of the most important objects of our Society, and one from which the
committee flatter themselves much good has resulted, is that of the naming of
specimens : some idea of its importance, and a tolerable key to the amount of
benefit resulting from it, may be gained from the fact that during the half-year
upwards of 1220 specimens have been brought for naming; the whole of which,
with a few exceptions too insignificant to be further noticed, have been named
by Mr. Bevis. Too much praise cannot be bestowed on those who, in a true
spirit of enquiry, have exerted themselves towards the establishment of an
herbarium, for the purpose of gaining instruction in the highest walks of their
profession ; and such as these the committee would commend to a more ex-
tended and persevering application to their studies, assuring them that their
exertions can have no other termination than their advancement in their pro-
fession.

“In addition to these, upwards of 1100 species of ferns, 900 species of
grasses and allied plants, and 300 species of stove plants, have been exhibited
to the members by Mr. Bevis.

“The committee would venture to hope that the Society may meet with
some support from their superiors m station, and thus be enabled to make
one important advance which they have ventured to hope will ultimately be
accomplished ; they refer to the establishment of a horticultural library, for
the use of the members.

“In conclusion, the committee would especially, and again, remind the
members of the advantages of union of feelings and of action, in securing those
interests which our Society professes to have in view: they trust that the ex-
ertions of each member may increase more and more ; and, if such be the case,
they confidently predict a full realisation of those high expectations of utility

re

.
7
x

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c. 281

and prosperity which, by their actions as well as intimations, they have ever
sought to raise.”

We would strongly recommend the formation of Gardeners’ Societies for
mutual Instruction in every part of the country where half a dozen young
men have an opportunity of conveniently meeting together ; but more espe-
cially in the suburbs of the metropolis, in which are to be found journeymen
gardeners from every part of the United Kingdom. We repeat, that we do
not know any other means likely to be so effectual in imbuing the mind of a
young gardener with all that is requisite to fit him for rising to the summit of
his profession. The personal intercourse and professional discussions carried
on in such societies are also calculated to humanise and refine the young
gardener as a man, and render him a polished and benevolent member of
society generally.

The Indian Handbook of Gardening, or Guide to the Management of the Kitchen,
Fruit, and Flower-Garden, in India. To which are added a Hindoostanee’
Vocabulary of Horticultural Terms, and a List of Plants. By G. T. Frederick
Speede. With Illustrations by C. Grant. Second edition, enlarged and
corrected. S8vo, pp. 602, with several lithographic plates. Calcutta, 184.2.

Gardening in India, Mr. Speede informs us, is considered an art that can be
performed by the most ignorant labourer, and therefore books of instruction
are considered useless. The Hindoo mallee, or gardener, “ estimates that
because he had a good crop of cabbages from a certain spot of ground this
year, he shall have an equally fine crop from the same spot in the next season ;
and would not conceive that there could be any causes arising from this year’s
culture to depreciate the quality or injure the growth of the like article in the
next year. Uninstructed as he is, he looks only on a cabbage as a cabbage,
without reference to the variety of the species, or that one kind may be more
delicately flavoured, and hence more worthy of his attention, than another:
he supposes he reaches perfection when he brings before you an immense
drumhead, or other large-sized description, that would require a_ boiler
to be made especially for its reception; and he looks at you, while pre-
senting it, with an air of triumph, little heeding that your preference would be
given to the small close early York or the delicate Savoy. But at the same
time he can hardly be blamed for his mistake, since we have never thought of
informing him that gardening was rather to be ranked among the sciences,
and that some study of the character, the habits, and the natural localities
even, of divers plants, must be required to bring it to perfection. The ex-
amination and study of these form the science of gardening; and, combined
with the manual labour, or that portion forming the ‘art of gardening,’ con-
stitute what is necessary to perfection.” (p.2.) It is the object of the
Indian Handbook of Gardening to exhibit the European practices adapted to
India to the European employers of gardeners there, in such a manner as that
they may explain them to their mallees, and thus procure an improved de-
scription of culture and produce for themselves, and ultimately for the whole
country.

Most Europeans in India, our author observes, complain of the ignorance
of their gardeners; but it cannot be otherwise, since there are no schools for
their instruction, such as the nurseries and market-gardens of Europe. “ If
every gentleman who possesses a garden were to spare a few minutes daily to
instruct his gardener, and explain to him the reason of the operations he directs,
much might yet be done for the advancement of horticulture, especially if that
were backed by an increase of pay according as the man advanced in know-
ledge ; for, after all, it is really too much to demand intelligence and inform-
ation where it is not encouraged, or the knowledge of science from a man who
is paid and treated like a common labourer.” (p.281.) We have no doubt
that this work will effect the useful objects for which it is intended.

282 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c.

The Glazenwood Catalogue for 1843 of American and other Hardy Shrubs,
Herbaceous and Greenhouse Plants, Fruit, Forest, and Ornamental Trees, cul-
tivated for Sale by James Curtis. 8vo, pp. 26. London, 1843.

This is a priced catalogue, in which the plants are classed as American,
Hardy evergreen Shrubs, Hardy deciduous flowering Shrubs and Trees, Peren-
nial herbaceous Plants, Hardy ornamental Climbers, Greenhouse and Conser-
vatory Plants, Greenhouse and Conservatory Climbers and Twiners, Fruit
Trees, Orchard and Garden Trees and Plants, Ornamental Forest Trees, and
Forest Trees for profitable Planting. In a preliminary page are the following
paragraphs, which may be useful to the intending planter : —

“‘¥n selecting the future occupants of the shrubbery, great difficulty is often
felt by young and inexperienced planters, from deficient knowledge as to their
ultimate height. In this catalogue, Mr. Curtis has distinguished the relative
height of each individual by the initial letters of the words dwarf, medium, and
tall preceding the name; and he hopes he has, by this means, rendered it easy
for the unpractised improver to choose the most fitting ornaments of the fore,
middle, and back ground of the scene he is about to create or adorn.

“ Mr. Curtis, having had considerable experience as a Landscape-Gardener,
undertakes to survey and plan estates, of large or small extent, in any part of
the kingdom, for the purpose of ornamental or profitable planting. He has paid
particular attention to this department of his art, and is confident there is no
situation, however ungenial in climate, sterile in soil, or uninteresting in
appearance, that may not be rendered ornamental in scenic effect, and profitable
in its future results.”

Catalogue of Plants cultivated for Sale by Robert Buist, Nurseryman and
Florist, Philadelphia. March, 1843.

This is a catalogue of greenhouse and hothouse plants, hardy trees and
shrubs, hardy herbaceous plants, and roses. The number of kinds in each is
surprising, and exceeds that to be found in most of our British nurseries.
For example, Acacia, 27; Alstreeméria, 11; Amaryllis, 52; Azalea indica,
32; Cactus, 80 ; Caméllia, 166, &c. The hardy trees and shrubs are not so
numerous as might have been expected, being chiefly confined to sorts which
are ornamental ; and the same may be said of the hardy herbaceous plants.
A new Catalogue of Fruits is promised in July. _ In an address to the public
Mr. Buist says, “ my resources for acquiring the fruitful and floral beauties of
the earth are every day increasing, which, with practical ability, shall keep this
establishment, as it is now conceded to be, the first and best in the United
States.” The greenhouse department in his nursery has 16,000 square feet of
glass.

Rural Chemistry: an Elementary Introduction to the Study of the Science in its
Relation to Agriculture. By Edward Solly, Jun., F.R.S., F.D.S., Hon.
Mem. Roy. Agr. Soc., Experimental Chemist to the Horticultural Society _
of London, Lecturer on Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Bri-
tain, &c. Small 8vo, pp. 169. London, 1843.

This little volume “formed the substance of a short series of articles on
chemistry, which originally appeared in the columns of the Gardener's Chro-
nicle. ‘The interest which they excited in the readers of that journal has led
to their republication in a separate and more complete form. It would have
been easy to have greatly increased the size of the book ; and indeed it was
frequently very difficult to select, from the mass of information which exists,
those facts which appeared most worthy of notice. The original object of
the author was to give such an elementary sketch of the science, as should
enable those ignorant of the subject more readily to comprehend the works
of the various authors who have written on agricultural chemistry. As a
general rule, care has been taken, as much as possible, merely to give well

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c. 283

established facts, or, when doubtful theories are mentioned, to state distinctly
that they are more or less problematical.” ( Pref.)

The great art of disseminating a knowledge of chemistry among practical
men is to produce specific applications of it like that now before us, which
unquestionably constitutes the best chemical book for gardeners, and which
every young gardener ought to possess. We have several books of chemistry
for farmers, and we trust we shall soon see one for architects and engineers,
which, like agricultural chemistry, ought to combine geology. The only
change which we should wish to see in Mr. Solly’s book would be to have
it entitled what it really is, “ Horticultural Chemistry; an Elementary In-
troduction to the Study of the Science in its Relation to Horticulture.”

The Quarterly Journal of Meteorology and Physical Science, published under
the immediate Sanction and Direction of the Meteorological Society of Great
Britain. No. VI. Edited by J. W. G. Gutch, M.R.C.S. London, 1843.

To those who take an interest in meteorological pursuits, this journal will
afford a rich treat ; containing as it does a great variety of communications,
extracts from different publications bearing on the subject, reviews, &c.

Martin’s Thames and Metropolis Improvement Plan: the Object being to supply
the Metropolis with pure Water ; to embank the River Thames and preserve the
Sewage ; to improve the Navigation below London Bridge ; and to connects the
Port of London with the Inland Railways. Pamph. 8vo, pp. 52. London,
1842.

There are a great many original and ingenious ideas in this work, and Mr.
Martin deserves great praise for his perseverance in keeping the subjects
treated of before the public. One of the objects is, “ the improvement of
the drainage of the metropolis, and preservation of the sewage for agri-
cultural purposes.” The subject is one which we have been attending to
since 1829, as will appear by our Volume for that year, p. 690., and the Builder
for March 1843, p. 45., from which we extract the following paragraph : —

“ Might not the whole of the aqueous parts of the common sewers be re-
turned to the country as manure, in mains of pipes, in the same manner
as the water is brought in, and the solid part sent out in cakes like oil cake ?
This might be done by intercepting the matter contained in the sewers at dif-
ferent points, separating the solid from the fluid parts by filtration and com-
pression, and forcing off the latter along cast-iron main pipes, by steam, or
by previously forcing it to the summit of a tower. From the mains of liquid
manure, conducted along all the principal roads, farmers and market-garden-
ers might be supplied with the liquid, exactly as houses are at present with
pure water. Viewing this mode of getting rid of the water of the sewers as
the converse of the mode of introducing clear water, all the requisite details
for carrying it into execution will readily occur to any practical person. It
might be tried at first on alimited scale, say along the Hammersmith Road,
as far as Hounslow or Slough.”

Having mentioned tie Builder, we take this opportunity of repeating (see
p. 81.) our strong recommendation of it to such of our readers as have re-
latives or friends connected with the building arts. It interferes with no other
publication, and it is calculated to have an excellent moral, as well as pro-
fessional, influence over a body of young men who probably amount, in Eng-
land alone, to fifty or sixty thousand. Young gardeners cannot do better than
associate with young carpenters, when these are like themselves of good moral
character, and readers of scientific and moral works like that just recom-
mended. The knowledge of geometry and architecture, which a carpenter
requires to enable him to rise in his profession, entitles him to the same rank in
an intellectual point of view with the gardener, though the science of yege-
table culture and carpentry are as different as mathematics and chemistry.

284 Literary Notices.

The Emigrant’s Hand-Book of Facts, concerning Canada, New Zealand, Aus-
tralia, Cape of Good Hope, §c.; with the relative Advantages each of the
Colonies offers for Emigration, and practical Advice to intending Emigrants.
By Samuel Butler, Esq., Author of the “ Hand-book for Australian Emi-
grants.” 12mo, pp. 240, and two maps. Glasgow and London, 1843.

The subject is discussed in three chapters: British America, Australasia,
and Africa and South America. The purpose of the work is, not to advise
or persuade to emigration, nor to recommend one colony in preference to
another, but simply to state the history and conditions of the different co-
lonies, leaving to the reader to choose for himself.

“We have,” says the author, “no partiality for one more than another—no
desire to give an undue preference ; or to depreciate one colony at the ex-
pense of another. This has been too much practised ; and several valuable
colonies have been seriously injured by unjust statements made, and unfounded
prejudices created, regarding them, for the benefit of others possessing in no
way superior advantages. Our object has rather been, by detazling facts, to give
the intending emigrant ample means to guide him in making a proper selection for
the scene of his future exertions. Emigration, the removal from the scenes
around which all our affections have hitherto been concentrated, is a matter
of grave importance, and one which ought to be deliberately and seriously
considered; and the choice of the colony which the emigrant is to make the
scene of his future home is equally entitled to careful and deliberate con-
sideration.

“ The labouring man, in so far as emigration depends on his own exertions,
is, in the mean time, in a great measure restricted in his choice among the
British colonies to Canada or the other provinces belonging to Great Britain
in North America. The expense even of a steerage passage to Australasia
puts it far beyond his power to seek any of these colonies, however strong his
desire may be to do so. Indeed, Canada has been emphatically called the
‘Poor Man’s Home;’ and, in the extended regions there belonging to Great
Britain, the sober and industrious labourer or mechanic is certain of having
his labour duly rewarded. We do not certainly hear of such ample fortunes
being made in Canada as have been realised im Australia; but we have suf-
ficient evidence to show that, after a very short residence in any of the British
North American provinces, the exertions of the labouring man, if steadily and
soberly pursued, will lead to comfort and independence.”

The work may be safely recommended as the best guide to emigrants re-
cently issued from the press.

Art. Ill. Literary Notices.

DeECANDOLLE’s Prodromus, vol. viii., we are happy to observe, is announced
by Mr. Pamplin for publication in August or September next. Mr. Pamplin
also has on sale a few beautiful engraved portraits of the illustrious author of
that work. Wehad the honour of being introduced to Professor DeCandolle
in Paris in 1828, and can vouch for the fidelity of the likeness.

In Jameson’s Journal for April 1843, there is a sketch of the Writings and
Philosophical Character of the late Professor DeCandolle of Geneva, by Dr.
Daubeny, Professor of Chemistry and Botany at Oxford, which is extremely
interesting and instructive.

A Treatise on thé Management and Cullivation of Forest and Fruit Trees

is in preparation by John Smith, Gardener and Forester to the Marquess of -

Bute.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
JUNE, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. Hints for the Improvement of Kensington Gardens and Hyde
Park. By the Conpucror.

THE improvement of Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park has
been the subject of a variety of articles in this Magazine, from
its commencement in 1826 to the present time, and we have at
length been amply rewarded by seeing many of our suggestions
carried into execution. The removal of the line of dead wall
reaching from Cumberland Gate to the Gravel Pits, and the
substitution of an improved line and of open railing, widening
the public road in some places and enclosing a part of the
waste in others, are what we have been trying for since 1816;
and, though the ground formerly occupied as a kitchen-garden
has not yet been added to the pleasure-ground, we are happy to
find that the high dead wall, which has so long been an eyesore
and an injury, will be removed, and set farther back from the
public road, and that, instead of brickwork 18 ft. high, there
will be a low parapet, crowned with an iron railing.

Our attention has been called to the subject of Kensington
Gardens at the present time, by observing that a very complete
collection of low shrubs, and especially of Ericacez, has been
planted in two masses near the piece of water called the Ser-
pentine River; and that a new line of boundary wall has been
formed at the upper part of this piece of water, which, by adding
a portion of ground to the gardens in that quarter, will render
it practicable to give the water a better termination.

Fig. 68. shows a plan of that part of the Serpentine River
which is in Kensington Gardens; the bridge a separating it
from the part which is in Hyde Park, and which may be called
the Lower Serpentine; and, at the opposite end of the figure, c
representing the Uxbridge Road. The newly made plantations
of shrubs are indicated at e e; not by the dotted lines h h, which
show proposed alterations on the boundary of the water, but by
the black lines, as explained in the references in the margin of

the engraving. The widest part of these plantations is nearly
3d Ser.—1843. VI. U

286 Hints for the Improvement of

REFERENCES.

a, Bridge on the line of sepa-
ration between Kensington
Gardens and Hyde Park,
and which separates the
upper or Garden Serpentine
River from the lower or
Park River.

6, Blind bridge, forming the
termination to the water at
its northern extremity.

c, The Uxbridge Road.

d, Waste ground, now being
enclosed. :

e, Plantations of rhododen-
drons, azaleas, and other
low evergreens, made in the
present spring.

Jf, Trees at present existing.

g, Candelabrum fountain of
cast iron, shown in jig. 71.

h, Dotted lines indicating pro-
posed changes in the form of
the water, the introduction
of islands, &c.

z, Present line of walk.

J; Floating islands, proposed to

be removed.

.68. The upper Serpentine River in Kensington Gardens as tt 7s, with dotted Lines indicating
Bes PTUAOeL AIC EHO to change the Character from that of a River to that of a Lake.

REFERENCES.

a, Bridge on the line of sepa-
ration, &c., as in jig. 68.

c, Uxbridge Road.

%, Proposed continuation of
the water beyond the
bridge.

Z, The upper or Gothic bridge,
formed into a foot bridge.
m, Proposed alteration of the

line of walk.

2, Trees and shrubs proposed
to be planted.

o, Situation for a rockwork
cascade, or the, termination
of a ruined aqueduct form-
ing acascade, to indicate the
supply to the lake, &c.

Fig. 69. The upper Serpentine River in Kensington Gardens, as it would appear if the Alterations
suggested in fig. 68. were carried into Execution.

288 Hints for the Improvement of

150 ft., and the narrowest part above 50 ft. The plants are
planted in alphabetical order, each with its name attached; and
they are distributed irregularly at proper distances, the intervals
being planted with common laurel. The situation is completely
sheltered, and slightly shaded; and the soil cool, soft, and moist.
The plants have been planted with the greatest care, and the
entire surface of the plantation is thickly mulched with rotten
leaves. In short, no American shrubs could be placed in more
favourable circumstances, with respect to growth. ‘The names,
however, of nineteen twentieths of the plants are necessarily too
far from the eye to be read, and consequently the public will
not benefit so much as they ought to do from the plants being
named; and the laurels are not only useless, but as injurious
to the plants as so many noxious weeds. ‘The named plants do
not require more shade and shelter than the situation affords
naturally ; and the laurels can only serve to deprive them of
nourishment, and to give a general sameness of character to the
plantation. We hardly expected to see such an example of
obsolete practice in these Gardens; though we recollect the
Scotch firs planted in the new plantation in Hyde Park, and the
Black Italian poplars which still continue among the Lebanon
and Deodar cedars in the Green Park. very one of these
laurels, in our opinion, ought to be immediately removed ; or,
to save appearances, they might stand till autumn, and then
be quietly taken away, as the Scotch firs were some years
since.

With respect to the named shrubs, very great praise is due
to the Earl of Lincoln for having introduced labels into the Gar-
dens; but, in order that the public may profit from these shrubs
being named, they would require to be distributed in such a
manner as to bring each species and its name near the eye.
We have suggested the idea of placing them in small square
and circular beds round the central basin opposite the east front
of Kensington Palace, as shown in jig. 70.; in which the beds
next the water are proposed to be planted with low shrubs, not
allowed to rise above 4 ft. high ; and the outer row with herba-
ceous plants, each bed being limited to one order or tribe. All
the shrubs in the plantations ¢ e, in fig. 68., would not be in-
cluded in these beds, because a number of them would grow
too high ; but almost all the Hricacee (including the numerous
kinds of rhododendrons, azaleas, kalmias, vacciniums, and
heaths), with the daphnes, mahonias, &c., which have been
planted, would be perfectly suitable, and would produce a
splendid effect, not only by themselves, but by their reflection
in the water, more especially when in flower.

The larger-growing shrubs we would dispose of partly in the
plantations on the south and north side of the gardens, and

Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park. 289

partly in single specimens, enclosed in wire fences, along certain
open portions of the walks.

Between the row of beds of shrubs and that of herbaceous
plants, shown in jig. 69., we would form a gravel walk 14 ft.
in width, connected with the grand south and north walk d in
Jig. 70., by the straight walk ec. The warm colour of the gravel

REFERENCES.

a, Outer line of beds for herbaceous
plants.

5, Line of beds, next the water, for
low flowering shrubs.

c, Walk, 15 ft. wide, connecting the
walk round the basin with the
broad gravel walk, d, which
crosses Kensington Gardens from
north to south.

e e, Floating islands.

Ff f, Pedestals for statues, vases, or
fountains, on the supposition
that the water is surrounded by
a stone margin.

£ g, Strained wire fence.

- A, Central fountain, to be worked
by a steam engine, concealed in
the adjoining mass of wood.

Fig. 70. The Basin in Kensington Gardens as supposed to be surrounded with low Shrubs, &c.

-of this walk would relieve the view of the water from that cold,
dull, monotonous appearance which is so often complained of in
that part of Kensington Gardens, and which is the result of
the want of warm colours in the scene. ‘The only relief from
the eternal green and blue is a momentary one on fine Sundays,
when the banks are promenaded by gaily dressed females and
children. This dull scene forms the view from the principal
front of Kensington Palace; and, judging from Miss Burney’s
picture of court life in the time of George III., it may not
have been unappropriate to the ideas of royalty of the by-gone
generation. Now, however, thanks to the aquatic fowls with
which this piece of water has lately been stocked, the attraction

to walk on its banks is increased, and the monotony of the
u 3

290 Hints for the Improvement of

scene is, in a slight degree, diminished; but more islands are re-
quired, and, as the crowning improvement, a fountain should be
placed in the centre with a single jet, which should throw the
water up to the height of 50 or 80 feet, as we have suggested
(Vol. for 1841, p. 331.). Independently altogether of colour,
the circumstance of the surface of this water being some feet
above the level of the walk d, from which it is chiefly seen by
those who do not go nearer to it, adds greatly to its bad effect.
Water should, if possible, always be placed in the lowest or ap-
parently lowest ground in the view: but, when this cannot
be done, the spectator who is to see the water ought to be on a
surface rather above it than under it; at all events, he ought
never, as in the case before us, to be placed on a lower level.
This circumstance being taken into consideration, it would be a
very desirable improvement to raise the surface of the walk d,
and also all the ground between that walk and the water, to the
same level as the surface on which the beds of shrubs and flowers
are placed. On the side of the walk next the palace, the slope
might either be gradual or comparatively abrupt; the distance
from the palace windows being such as to render it a matter
of indifference which mode is adopted.

The floating islands in the figure are shown much larger
than they really are; and, instead of eight, only three are exe-
cuted, and these are not placed to the greatest advantage. The
beds containing both the shrubs and herbaceous plants we
would surround with 4-inch brick edgings; as well to keep them
distinct and regular, as to raise them a few inches above the
general surface. They would always be kept abundantly moist
by the high level of the water, which would be an immense ad-
vantage to the American shrubs. With respect to the her-
baceous plants, they might be supplied by the Royal Botanic
Garden at Kew. Both lines of beds, and also the broad gravel
walk, might be protected from sheep by a strained wire fence,
as indicated in the figure; or each bed might be enclosed se-
parately, and this we have ascertained may be done by means
of Mr. Taylor’s wire netting (p. 83.), attached to a frame, at a
very moderate expense, which will be hereafter exactly stated,
as will the estimate for the fountain in the centre, which is
kindly preparing for us by Messrs. Easton and Amos.

A very great improvement to Kensington Gardens is now
being made by enclosing a piece of waste ground, hitherto the
receptacle of the worst kinds of filth, at the upper end of the so-
called Serpentine River. This piece of waste ground is repre-
sented in jig. 68. at d, and the use that we propose to make of
it is shown in jig. 69. at o, k, l. By means of this addition the
termination of the water might be very effectually and pictu-
resquely concealed ; and, instead of the hideous cast-iron fountain

Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park. 291

shown in jig. 71., a cascade from some masses of rockwork, or
from the abrupt termination of a ruined aqueduct, might de-

NN elee ara any
ee

Fig. 71. Cast-tron Fountain in the Serpentine River in Kensington Gardens.

liver, as a waterfall, the same quantity of water which now flows
from the fountain. We do not pretend to say that artificial
rockwork, or the remains of an aqueduct, will not be works of
art as much as the cast-iron fountain; all that we contend for
is, that they will be works of art more in accordance with the
surrounding scenery, and such as will not shock the feelings of
persons possessing taste in landscape.

On referring to jig. 69. it will be observed that we propose
to widen the river in several places, and to introduce islands,
so as to give it the only character adapted for still water, viz.
that of a lake. On some of the spots on which islands would
be formed there are already large trees, and on others we would
plant low growths, such as rhododendrons, azaleas, &c., leaving
glades of turf; and some of the islands should be almost en-
tirely without trees and shrubs, so as to harmonise their surface
with that of the Gardens generally. The margins both of the
islands and the boundary shores we would vary by coarse
gravel, blocks of stone, &c., so as to be more in accordance with

u 4

292 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

nature, and to produce a better harmony of colouring. At
present the grass grows to the very edge of the water, which
is always unnatural, and produces a cold and monotonous effect.
In this respect, the shores of the water in St. James’s Park are
much better managed.

The management of the banks of pieces of made water is
very seldom artistical. The object, in such a case as that before
us, is, or ought to be, the imitation of the banks of a natural
lake, and supposing it to be in a similar situation to that in
which the artificial lake is placed; the imitation, in this and in
all similar cases, being such as never to be mistaken for wild
nature. (See our Vol. for 1837, p. 597.) It is of great im-
portance to keep this last principle constantly in view ; because
it is the carrying of it out which constitutes a piece of natural-
looking water in a pleasure-ground a work of art. In sucha situ-
ation as that in Kensington Gardens, a natural lake may be
supposed to have the banks clothed with aquatic plants, such
as reeds, rushes, &c., so as to give them a marshy character; to
have them broken by the treading of horses or cattle approach-
ing to drink; or comparatively firm and smooth, with grass
growing down nearly to the water’s edge, but still separated
from it by a line of shore occasioned by the varying height of
the water. Here then are three distinct characters which may be
imitated by art, and that in such a manner as that the imitation
shall not be a fac-simile of nature, but a resemblance of it. In
the first case, cultivated aquatic plants are to be employed in-
stead of water weeds ; in the second, firm and dry warm-coloured
broken ground is to be substituted for a poached surface; and,
in the third case, the separating line between the water and
grass is to be coated with coarse gravel or small stones, with
perhaps occasional blocks connected with shrubs, so as to give
acharacter of firmness, and introduce a warm colour between
two cold colours.

(To be completed in our neat.)

ArT. II. The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and of Landscape-
Architecture applied to the Laying out of Public Cemeteries and
the Improvement of Churchyards ; including Observations on the
Working and General Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds. By the ConpucrTor.

(Continued from p. 222.)

IV. Certain INNOVATIONS SUGGESTED RELATIVE TO THE SELECTION OF
GROUND FoR CEMETERIES, MoDE OF PERFORMING FUNERALS, ETC.

Woutp not a law, enacting as follows, answer every purpose of Mr. Mac-
kinnon’s bill? That no graves should be made except on ground that never
was opened before; that, when only one coffin was placed in a grave, it should

applied to Public Cemeteries. 293

not be less than 6 ft. below the surface; that, when more than one coffin was
to be contained in the same grave, each coffin should be separated from the
other by a layer of earth not less than 6 ft. in thickness ; that all burying in
vaults and catacombs be discontinued; and that no new burial-grounds be
formed in London within two miles of St. Paul’s, nor in country towns within
half a mile of their suburbs. Such a law would at once prevent interments
from being made in most of the London burial-grounds, while it would admit
of all the unoccupied ground, whether in London or out of it, being used ; and
thus no injustice would be committed towards those who have recently en-
larged their burying-ground ; it would, at the same time, check the disgusting
and dangerous practice of burying ten or twelve bodies close upon one another
in one grave, now practised both in the old churchyards and in the new
cemeteries.

A law to attain these objects, combined with regulations to prevent graves
from being reopened within sixty years if in the country, or not at all if
in a town, would, if strictly enforced, probably be found sufficient for every
purpose, as far as health is concerned. Under the influence of such a law
there seems to be no objection to every sect having its separate cemetery
or cemeteries ; to individuals forming cemeteries as commercial speculations ;
or to different trades or professions having their separate cemeteries. The
greater the number of present cemeteries, the greater the number of future
public gardens.

The law should be modified with reference to Jews and Quakers, since it is a
part of the religion of the former that no grave is ever opened a second time ;
and the latter adopt the same practice, though not, perhaps, from religious
principle, but from a general regard to decency and propriety. It would be
sufficient to enact that the burying-grounds of these religious bodies, in
common with others, when once filled, should be shut up for ever, if in
towns, and that the new cemeteries opened by them should always be in the
country.

All burial-grounds whatever within the precincts of towns, when once
filled, that is, when the whole ground has been buried in, even if with only
one body in a grave, should be shut up as burying-grounds, and a few years
afterwards opened as public walks or gardens; the grave-stones and all
architectural or sculptural ornaments being kept in repair at the expense of
the town or village; such trees, shrubs, or plants being planted among the
graves as the town council, or, ifa village, the parish vestry, may determine.

The distance from a town at which a cemetery ought to be placed will
depend a good deal on the elevation of the site, the nature of the soil, and the
sources from which the town obtains its water. If there are pervious strata
lying on impervious strata, immediately under the surface of the ground
intended as a cemetery, and these strata traverse ground without the cemetery
in which wells are likely to be dug, and have a descent towards it, the mois-
ture of decomposition will be carried by the rains along the strata to the wells,
and to all artificial depositories, or natural outlets for the water. An elevated
situation, with a soil of gravel, sand, or chalk, to a great depth, is evidently pre-
ferable to all others, because the moisture generated will be carried perpen-
dicularly down by the rains, and the gases evolved will be carried off by the
winds. No human dwellings ought to be made within a cemetery, unless we
except the entrance lodge, which might, if desirable, always be made outside
the gates, or so as not to have all its windows looking directly on the graves.
It would frequently be advantageous to have a space outside the cemetery
fence, of 50 or 60 feet in width, to be planted with trees, varying in height
according to the nature of the situation and soil ; the object being to disguise
the view of the graves from the nearest houses, without producing too much
shelter to impede the action of the sun and winds on the surface of the
cemetery.

Such a law as we contemplate should prohibit interment in churches or
public buildings ; whether in yaults, catacombs, or in the floor of the church

294 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

or vault, without any exception whatever ; it should prohibit the formation of
private vaults, or private or family graves or graveyards, in towns, or any
where except in the country, and there they should be placed in spots at
least 100 ft. from any other building. The law should also, as we think,
enforce the clearing out of all public vaults under churches or chapels,
whether in town or country, and not even excepting those of the newly
formed public cemeteries. That the vaults and catacombs of these cemeteries
are liable, to a considerable extent, to the same objections as those in the old
burying-grounds and under churches, is a fact which can be proved by refer-
ence to what has taken place both in the vaults of the Kensal Green Ceme-
tery and in those of the London and Westminster Cemetery * ; and, in short,
any person walking through them will require no other evidence than that
of his own senses.

We may, perhaps, be thought unreasonable in wishing to prevent inter-
ments in Westminster Abbey and St. Paul’s, or in the royal vault at Windsor,
but we consider that the memory of the great men of the nation, including
even our sovereigns, would be quite as much honoured by having their bodies
buried in the free soil in the country, and appropriate monumental cenotaphs
erected to their memory in these and other national buildings, as by having
their bodies buried under their monuments, or preserved in wooden or leaden
cases in vaults or catacombs. Surely it is pleasanter in idea, when looking on
the statue of Dr. Johnson in St. Paul’s, to think of his remains being covered
by the green turf in the open ground of a cemetery or a churchyard, than to
think of them lying in black earth, saturated with putrescent moisture, under
the damp paved floor of the crypt of a cathedral. There is no doubt that
burying in sepulchres, by which the body is preserved from mixing with the
soil, is of great antiquity, and it was doubtless justified by the opinions of
mankind in the early ages of history; but it may be fairly asserted that the
practice is not in conformity with the opinions and spirit of the present age.
Security from desecration was, no doubt, a main object for this mode of
burial, and certainly it was a protection from the hyena, the fox, the dog, and
other wild carnivorous animals that were common in the early stages of civi-
lisation ; but neither then nor now is it any permanent security against
desecration by the human species. On the contrary, it is a mode certain of
ending in desecration, sooner or later. Witness the mummies of Egypt,
unprotected even by the Pyramids ; or look to what has been taking place
for many years past in the vaults of churches in London, as given in evidence
in the Parliamentary Report, which we have so often quoted; or turn to the
volumes of travellers on the Continent since the peace of 1814.+ The truth is,

* Mr. Jones, undertaker, residing in Devereux Court, Essex Street, Strand,
placed a body in a leaden coffin and the other usual cases, and deposited it in
the catacombs of Kensal Green Cemetery. It had remained there about three
months, when he was informed by the secretary of the cemetery company that
“the coffin leaked, and that he must see to it immediately.” Mr. Jones,
accompanied by his assistants, went to the cemetery, removed the body from
the horizontal stone resting-place, which was sealed very carefully at the ends
and round the sides. It was necessary to remove the lid of the outer coffin
and turn out the body, enclosed, as is usual, in the shell and leaden coffin;
these were reversed, when it was found that a small hole existed at the under
part of the leaden coffin. This hole was enlarged with a gimlet by one of the
assistants, Mr. Thomas Moxley ; the gas which escaped extinguished a lighted
candle three distinct times, and he was rendered incapable of following his
oan for several weeks. (Appendix to Report on the Health of Towns,
p. 208.

+ In the autumn of 1813 we passed two days in and about the small town
of Kowna, on the Niemen, celebrated for its lime trees and its honey ; and
looking into the vaults of the church, we observed the floor covered with

applied to Public Cemeteries. 295

that in this matter, as in most others, we follow the practice of those
who have gone before us, without enquiring into its reasonableness or suit-
ableness to our present views of nature. A gentleman in the country builds
a chapel in his grounds, and his architect tells him that it would not be
complete without a family vault, and he therefore has one built, other-
wise he would not be like his neighbours. As to public vaults in churches,
their origin is security, and they are continued partly owing to the crowded
state of the churchyards, but principally on account of the higher fees
obtained from those who bury in them by the clergyman and the under-
taker. Hence, on account of the expense, burying in vaults becomes a
mark of wealth or distinction, and for that reason is adopted by many of
the London tradesmen, even in the new cemeteries. How much better
for the health and improvement of the living, and the honour of the dead,
were the money now laid out in vaults and in burial fees expended on hand-
some monuments, or even on increased space round graves in the open ground,
so as to admit of interring only one coffin in a grave! How much more
natural and agreeable to see the grass graves of a family placed side by side in
a small green enclosure, the property of the family, which cannot be disturbed;
than to see the cover of a brick grave or a vault, in which we know their
bodies have been let down one over the other, and there remain unmixed
with soil, a pestilential mass of putridity ; or see the coffins which contain
them deposited on stone shelves above ground, forming separate portions of
preserved corruption ! *

The directors of the Kensal Green Cemetery have offered seven acres
of their ground for the interment of the paupers of seven London parishes,
which exceed in number 1,000 annually. “ It has been found,” they say,
“that seven acres will contain about 133,500 graves ; each grave will
receive ten coffins ; thus accommodation may be provided for 1,335,000
deceased paupers, and the seven acres, at an average of 1,000 burials
a year, will not be filled for 1,335 years.” (Annual Report of the General
Cemetery Company, dated 9th June, 1842, p. 8.) The idea of accumulat-
ing such a mass of corruption in such a limited space is horrible, and we trust
will never be listened to for a moment by the public. The directors introduce
the irproposition by the following passage: “ The directors of the General

bodies in their shrouds, which had been turned pellmell out of their coffins.
On some the flesh and hair were still remaining. We were informed this was
done by the French on their retreat from Moscow the winter before, in
search for the loaf of bread and bottle of wine, which it was at that time
customary for the Poles and Lithuanians to place in the coffin along with
the body, previously to its interment.

* The late Sir Francis Chantrey had caused a splendid vault to be built for
himself, and, with much kindness, proposed to Allan Cunningham that he also
should be buried init. ‘ No, no,” answered Allan; “I?ll not be built over
when I’m dead; I’ll lie where the wind shall blow over, and the daisy
grow, upon my grave.” (The Builder, No.3. p.40.) In the Gentleman’s
Magazine for December, 1842, a biographical notice of Allan Cunningham,
Esq., is given, in which it is stated that he died on Oct. 29., aged 56, and that
on the 4th of Nov. his remains were removed to the General Cemetery in
the Harrow Road, for interment in the catacombs of that place. Having
written to Mr. Peter Cunningham, the son of the deceased, with a copy of
the above extract from the Builder, to ascertain the facts of the case, his an-
swer is : “ My father is buried in the General Cemetery at Kensal Green ; not
in a close, damp, pestiferous vault, or in a brick grave (just as bad), but in
his native earth, that he may mingle with what he sprung from. The extract
you send me is perfectly correct. My father had always an abhorrence of
Westminster Abbey vaults and brick-built graves. — P. C. March 2. 1843.”

296 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

Cemetery Company, knowing the difficulty as well as the expense of obtain-
ing ground for burial, (as a cemetery always depreciates the property around,)
and contemplating that a Bill may pass to prohibit burials in the crowded me-
tropolis, offer seven acres of their ground at Kensal Green, adjoining the
Cemetery, for the burial of the poor, under such regulations as may be
thought advisable.” (Report, &c., p.8.) Fortunately for the public, the calcu-
lation of the directors is altogether erroneous. An acre contains 43,560 square
feet, and supposing the pauper graves to be 6 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in., this is equal
to 161 square ft., and hence, dividing 43,560 ft. by that sum, we have 2,680
graves per acre, which multiplied by seven gives 18,760 graves in seven acres ;
something more than one seventh of the number which the directors say the
seven acres will contain. But let us take even this limited number of 18,760
graves, and multiply it by 10, the number of pauper interments which the
directors propose to make in a grave, and we have 187,600 bodies deposited
in seven acres. Something less indeed than the 1,335,000 bodies which the
directors propose to get into that space, but still enough to put the public
on their guard against men who can hazard such statements ; for it must
be remembered that this error in the calculation has nothing to do with
the intentions of the directors. One million three hundred and thirty-five
thousand bodies deposited in seven acres may well depreciate the pro-
perty around. If it be true, as Mr. Walker, the author of Gatherings from
Graveyards, observes (Report on the Health of Towns, p. 412.), that “ layers
of earth, of several feet in depth, can no more intercept the transmission of
gas into the atmosphere, than they can by their density prevent the infiltra-
tion of water,” then indeed these seven acres, if occupied even with the smaller
number of 187,600 bodies, might be considered as the crater of a volcano,
vomiting forth poison in the form of a column of gaseous matter, which, chang-
ing in direction with every change of the wind, would poison the atmosphere
for many miles round; while the water of decomposition would poison the
springs of the subsoil.

It is lamentable to witness in the proprietors of cemeteries, and in some
members of the Committee for enquiring into the Effect of Interments in
Towns, the manner in which the subject of the interment of paupers, and of
the poor generally, is discussed. We do not limit the remark to the proprie-
tors of cemeteries, the committee referred to, or to the rich or influential
classes in this country, but extend it also to every other class which con-
siders itself above the poor ; for example, to parish vestries. One would think
that the poor were considered as animals of a different species, or as totally
without the feelings which belong to the rest of mankind. While the bodies
of the dead rich in every capital in Europe are to be placed singly in cata-
combs or graves, those of the poor are to be trenched in in layers as in
France, thrown into a common pit as in Naples and Leghorn, or buried ten
or fifteen in a grave as in London.* Some of the committee who examined
witnesses seem particularly anxious to abridge the process of taking care of
the poor, by placing quicklime in their coffins. The questions put by some
of these persons evinced, in our opinion, great want of humane feeling gene-
rally, and an utter disregard of the feelings of the poor.

“ Should you have any objection, if there was a law made that there

* The price of land, within ten miles of London, is much too high to admit
of burying paupers singly in the London cemeteries ; but one thousand, or
even two thousand, acres of poor waste land, admirably adapted for burying-
ground, might be purchased in the parishes of Woking, Chobham, Horsall,
Perbright, Pyrford, &c., at from 4/. to 8/7. per acre. The land alluded to is
too poor to admit of cultivation for arable purposes; but it would grow
yews, junipers, pines, firs, and other cemetery plants, with which it might be
planted in rows, in such a manner that the graves could be made between the
rows.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 297

should be so much lime put in with the body, so as to destroy it in a certain
time ?”

“ Do you think there would be any objection to burying bodies with a
certain quantity of quicklime, sufficient to destroy the coffin and the whole
thing in a given time ?”
are questions continually recurring. One honourable member put the quick-
lime question so often, that we took the trouble of counting the number of
times, which we found to be twenty. It would no doubt be very desirable in
the eyes of those who find themselves above the poor, to get rid of “ the
whole thing” at the expense of a little quicklime ; but, unfortunately for this
desire, and fortunately for the poor, and sometimes for the cause of justice,
there are the bones, which, as we have before seen (p. 3.), are not to be
got rid of so easily. Very different indeed were the feelings expressed
by the Bishop of London, and some other clergymen who were examined.
It is very natural for the rich to hate the poor, and wish to dispose of
them, and of “the whole thing,” with as little trouble as possible; but this
is the feeling of wild nature, exactly the same which leads a herd of deer to
forsake a wounded individual. Cultivated nature, whether that cultivation be
the effect of religion or philosophy, ought to lead to a very different mode of
feeling. Sympathy with the whole of human nature must surely be produc-
tive of more happiness to the individual who feels and exercises that sym-
pathy, than when it is limited only to a part; to those in the same circum-
stances as ourselves, or who are connected with us by the ties of relationship
or friendship. It is certain that many of the rich have very little sympathy
for the poor, and equally certain that there are others among the rich who
evince much sympathy for them. Which of these parties comprises the most
useful members of society, and by which is the most happiness enjoyed ?

It should never be forgotten, that what are called the poor and paupers are
fellow-creatures, and that the difference between the former and the latter is
very frequently matter of accident. Every poor man, however honest, in-
dustrious, and even talented, is liable to become a pauper. The common idea
is, that a pauper is a person who has brought himself into destitution by im-
providence or misconduct; but, admitting this to be sometimes the case, it
cannot generally be so. Most paupers, in the ordinary state of the country,
are aged perscns, no longer able to work, from infirmity or disease. Many in-
dustrious persons are brought to the state of paupers by unforeseen accidents ;
by fire, water, storms, robberies, the death of persons on whom they chiefly
depended, and by a variety of other causes over which they had little or no
control. Admitting that a number of pauper children have become so by
the recklessness of their parents, is not that the fault of the government in not
having provided for the education of the poor, by which they would have
acquired habits of self-control, and been taught the advantage of foregoing a
present enjoyment for a future good? Admitting even that a number of per-
sons have brought pauperism on themselves, is that a sufficient reason for
interring them in a different manner from the other poor? We think not;
and therefore we contemplate the provision of no particular part of a ceme-
tery for paupers: but would bury them indiscriminately in those parts of the
ground destined for grayes without monuments ; and also among those parts
having monuments, in order that by surrounding the latter with plain spaces,
they may, as already observed, have more effect.

The following suggestions are made with a view to the interment of the
poor, of paupers, and of such persons as desire no monuments to their graves,
belonging to London ; and they may apply also to some other very populous
towns, such as Manchester or Liverpool.— Suppose London divided into
four or more districts; then let each district, besides its permanent cemetery,
have a temporary one for the use of all persons whatever who did not wish to
have monuments to their graves, and of course including paupers without
friends sufficiently wealthy to bury them in a monumental cemetery. This
temporary cemetery may be merely a field rented on a 21 years’ lease, of such

298 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

an extent as to be filled with graves in 14 years. At the end of seven years
more it may revert to the landlord, and be cultivated, planted, or laid down
in grass, in any manner that may be thought proper; thelandlord binding
himself and his successors by such a deed as should be inseparable from the
transfer of the property, that the field should never again be let for the same
purpose, or for building on. To render this the more certain, the transaction
ought to be recorded in some public register, and also on monumental stones
placed at the angles of the field, or one stone in its centre. Landed property
held by public companies, as being least likely to change proprietors, is pe-
culiarly suitable for this kind of occupation. There is, for example, along
the Uxbridge Road, near Acton, an estate belonging to the Goldsmiths’ Com-
pany, which would make an admirable cemetery of this description.

We see no objection to taking land for temporary cemeteries at a con-
siderable distance from a town, provided it were on the line of a railway,
as, for example, at Bagshot Heath; and we can see no difficulty in the dif-
ferent districts of such a city as London having a place of temporary deposit
for their dead, whether paupers who paid nothing, or poor persons who
paid moderately. There are depositories of this kind in Frankfort and
Munich* ; and they are found to add greatly to the convenience, economy, and
salubrity of persons having only small dwelling-houses, and moderate incomes.
Were depositories of this kind established in the metropolis, it might be so
arranged that a number of bodies should be conveyed to the place of interment
at the same time, and this might be done with appropriate decency and respect
in a railway or a steam-boat hearse. There are thousands of acres of the poorest
gravelly soil, which the Southampton railway passes through, that at present
do not rent for more than 3s. or 4s. an acre, which would afford a cemetery
sufficient for all the poor of London, and the rich also, for ages to come; and
the same may be said of some thousands of acres not far from the Thames, in the
neighbourhood of Chertsey. In proportion as the land was filled with graves,
it might be planted with trees, or laid down in grass.

We can see no sufficient reason against having permanent monumental
cemeteries, as well as temporary ones which are to have no monuments,
laid out on poor soils at great distances from London, along the railroads,

* The cemetery of Frankfort on the Main is entered through an open pro-
pylaum between two wings. In one of these wings is the residence of the
overseer and assistants; while the other contains ten cells, in which bodies in
coffins are deposited for some days previously to interment. As a precaution
against premature inhumation, cords are fixed to the fingers of the deceased,
communicating with a bell, so that the least motion, in case of a person’s
revival, would be instantly made known to an attendant stationed in the
apartment adjoining these cells. There is also a spacious waiting-hall on each
side of the entrance, for the accommodation of those who accompany the
funerals. It is strictly prohibited to inter any corpse till infallible signs of de-
composition shall have become obvious ; and, though this might occasion con-
siderable inconvenience in a private house, no evil results from it here, because
interment takes place immediately afterwards. There is also a receiving
house (Leichenhaus) to the large cemetery at Munich. (Arch. Mag., vol. ii.
p- 136.)

The general cemetery at Munich is surrounded by a border of trees and
shrubs, with the exception of one end, in which is placed a semicircular build-
ing, composed of an open colonnade in front, with vaults underneath. In the
centre of this semicircular building is a projection behind, called the Leichenhaus,
containing three large rooms, in two of which (one for males and the other for
females) the dead, as shrouded and deposited in their coffins by their relations,
are exposed to view for forty-eight hours before they are committed to thie
earth. The other room is for suicides and unowned bodies.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 299

with cooperative railroad hearses, and other arrangements to lessen expense ;
which would admit of more ground being spared in the suburbs for public
gardens and breathing-places. Nor does there appear to us any objection to
union workhouses having a portion of their garden ground used as a cemetery,
to be restored to cultivation after a sufficient time had elapsed. The bones
in this and in every case where the ground was planted or cultivated would
be at least 6 ft. below the surface, and, where it was thought necessary, they
might be protected by covering-plates, as already described. Proprietors
of land, we think, ought to be encouraged to bury on their own grounds
in the free soil; a proper officer, who might be the local registrar, or one of
the churchwardens, taking cognizance that the grave was of the proper depth,
and that all the other conditions necessary for insuring decency and salubrity
were fulfilled.

The expense of funerals has last year been considerably lessened about the
metropolis by the introduction of one-horse hearses, which convey the coffin
and six mourners to the place of i interment, These appear to have been first
suggested in 1837, by Mr. J. R. Croft, in ‘an article in the Mechanic's Ma-
gazine, vol. xxvii. p. 146., and the idea has subsequently, in 1842, been
improved on and carried into execution by Mr. Shillibeer, to whom the
British public are indebted for the first introduction of the omnibus. Mr.
Shillibeer’s funeral] carriage embraces in itself a hearse and a mourning coach,
is very neat, and takes little from the pomp, and nothing from the decency of
the ordinary funeral obsequies, while it greatly reduces the expense; the hire
of a hearse with a single horse costing only 1/. 1s., and with two horses,
17. lls. 6d. These carriages have one division for the coffin, and another
for six mourners ; and when the coffin has been taken out for interment,
before the mourners reenter to return home, the front part of the carriage
and the fore wheels are contracted and drawn close up to the hinder or coach
part of the carriage by means of a screw, so that the part for containing the
coffin disappears, and the whole, when returning from the place of interment,
pee the appearance of a mourning coach. The invention is ingenious and most
useful

Perhaps the expense to the poor might be still farther lessened by the use
of light low four-wheeled vehicles for conveying the corpse, which might be
moved by a man, or by two men. We see no reason why the attendants at
the funeral of a poor man should not move this carriage by turns ; as in
various country places, more especially in Scotland, where the bodies even of
respectable farmers are, or were forty years ago, carried to the churchyard on
handspokes by the relations of the deceased. | The same idea has occurred
to Mr. H. W, Jukes, whose carriage for walking funerals is shown in fig.72. In

i eooaall) ie

Fig. 72. Mr. Jukes’s Truck-Hearse.

this figure, besides the cross handle in front for two persons to draw by, there
are two handles behind for assisting to push it up steep hills, or by pressure or
drawing back to retard it when going down hill. These last handles should be
made with a hinge to let down when the coffin is being taken out ; and ina level
country they may be altogether omitted. The pall, or mortcloth, lies over the
coffin. The dimensions of the body of the carriage should be about 7 ft. by
2 ft. Gin. inside measure; the height from the bottom to the roof may be 4ft.,

300 Landscape-Gardening applied to Cemeteries.

and from the roof to the ground 6 ft. In a funeral with this machine, no hired
men are necessary ; the man who precedes the procession should be one of
the mourners, or the joiner who made the coffin, and the labour of drawing
should be shared by the whole in turns. Persons who have not attended a
walking funeral are not likely to be aware, not only of the fatigue to the
bearers and attendants, but of the very disagreeable effects, more especially to
the man at the head, whose head and shoulders are under the pall, of the
smell, and sometimes the moisture, proceeding from the coffin. Could Mr.
Jukes’s truck-hearse, therefore, be generally introduced, not only in towns, but
in country parishes, it would be a great blessing to the poor. The expense of
funerals to the poor might be still farther diminished by the use of the hand-
bier, a figure of which will hereafter be given, as practised formerly in
Scotland, and as it still is in various parts of the Continent, more par-
ticularly in Poland. In the latter country the body is put in a coffin of
coarse boards, in which it is carried to the church, placed on a bier, and a
bottomless coffin of a superior description placed over it. The service being
read, two of the mourners carry the bier to the side of the grave, when, two
cords being introduced under the coffin, the whole is lowered to the bottom
of the grave, while the case is drawn up by two back cords which are at-
tached to its top.* These innovations will probably be resisted at first,
because, among other things, they would render unnecessary some of the under-
taker’s ment; but, as mankind cease to become slaves of custom, various

* We saw a funeral performed in this way in the neighbourhood of War-
saw, in June, 1813. The body was not buried in the churchyard, but in the
margin of a wheat field, the son of the deceased not being abie, as we were
informed, to pay the churchyard fees. In Rome, and some other cities of
Italy, the body is placed in a stone sarcophagus, while the funeral ceremonies
are performed ; after which it is deposited, sometimes only for a day or two,
and in the cases of people of greater rank for some weeks, ina vault or cata-
comb : it is then taken out and buried in the free soil.

+ People are not generally aware that the origin and type of the array of
funerals commonly made by undertakers is strictly the heraldic array of
a baronial funeral, or the funeral of persons entitled to coat armour, all of
which were attended by heralds ; the two men who stand at the doors being
supposed to be the two porters of the castle, with their staves in black ; the
man who heads the procession, wearing a scarf, being a representative of a
herald at arms; the man who carries a plume of feathers on his head being
an esquire, who bears the tabard of arms, including the shield, sword, helmet,
gauntlet, and casque, with its plume of feathers ; the pall-bearers, with batons,
being representatives of knights-companions at arms; the men walking with
wands being supposed to represent gentlemen ushers, with their wands.

The cost of the men who bear staves covered with black, and who re-
present the two porters of the castle, varies from 18s. to 30s.; and the man
who heads the procession, representing the herald at arms, costs from 2/. 11s. 6d.
to 5/. 5s., and so on. In general the poorest person does not fool away less
than 3/. 3s. for attendants of this kind. (.C.8.) In the case of truck-hearses
and hand-biers, all these expenses might be spared, by the mourners acting in
succession as the leader or herald; or dispensing with the leader altogether,
as is generally the case in Scotland. At the funerals of persons of rank,
heralds and hired mourners have in every age attended, and formed an array
of pomp and simulated grief; but the practice seems inconsistent with real
sorrow, and should therefore be rejected by people of common sense. “ If,
says a correspondent, “ the poor were wise, their funerals would be as simple
as possible : a plain coffin, borne by near male relations, and followed by the
family and friends of the deceased in decent mourning, but without any of
the undertaker’s trappings on their persons, would be sufficient. The poor
like funeral pomp because the rich like it; forgetting that during life the con-

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. 301

innovations of this kind will be adopted, which at present will be rejected as
absurd ; but which it is nevertheless desirable to suggest, with a view to in-
duce men to examine into the possibility of departing from the beaten track.
The thick crust of prejudice must be broken up before it can be dispersed ;
and the debacle must precede the clearing of the river.

(To be continued.)

Art. III. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By JAMES Barnes, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 238.)

Letrer XIV. Growing, Training, and General Management of Ericas.

HAVING promised you when here a few remarks on my method
of growing, training, and general management of that beautiful
tribe of plants the Hricas, and haying this morning an hour to
spare, I take the opportunity of fulfilling my promise, in a plain
humble sort of way; not professing to say that my system and
general management are superior to those of any one else. One
thing I have long thought, viz. that the general management of
this beautiful tribe of plants is very imperfectly understood :
that many noblemen, gentlemen, and amateurs have been
deterred from purchasing plants, and building houses, &c., for the
cultivation of them, because it has been said that they are so
short-lived and uncertain. It has been asserted many times in
my hearing, and that too by some of our best growers, that
there is no certainty of the life of the most healthy heath.
Why should that be? I have myself thought it is through
mismanagement, and perhaps in time I shall not be the
only one that fancies the same thing. As I have before stated,
go to any common where our own natural heath grows, and
examine the surface soil where the heath is most luxuriant:
it will be found a loose decayed vegetable earth, gritty, sandy,
or stony ; firmer a distance down; and most generally on a sub-
soil of stones, flints, or sand, naturally well drained: where the
rush thrives, the heath does not. Why should we sift soil for
the cultivating of those plants, and pick out all the stones?
Surely that must be acting in complete opposition to nature ;
and until such times as we think proper to try and assist nature,
we need not expect to perceive much progress. If the soil were
more generally used in a rough state, and plenty of stones thrust
amongst it, I am perfectly satisfied we should hear of but few
complaints about the unhealthiness and dying of heaths. I say,
if they only get proper treatment, it will be no more likely to
see a dead heath than it would be to see a dead donkey. There
would be but few complaints about mildew or blights of any
3d Ser. — 1843. VI. x

302 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

kind. The cause of mildew is nothing but drought and poverty ;
dry at bottom, foggy and damp at top, will soon stock a house
full of plants with mildew. Sulphur dusted on them in a proper
manner will certainly cleanse them of that pest for a time; but
what is the preventive? not sifted earth with the stones picked
out, I am perfectly satisfied. No, the stones are good.

I found a very good collection of ericas at Bicton gardens :
the generality of them tall naked plants, many of them 5 ft.,
6 ft., and even 7 ft. high, with five or six great hazel and ash
stakes thrust into the pots to hold them up, and tied, in some
instances, with matting as wide as my finger; many of them
smothered with mildew, more particularly one large Massonzz,
which was completely scorched up with it, and to all appearance
dead. By continual perseverance with sulphur, I got completely
rid of that pest. The whole of them being potted to such an
unreasonable height above the rim of the pot, and the pot filled
entirely to the rim, it was impossible to get them moist. Al-
though the surface of the ball of earth was covered with green
moss, the earth underneath was a complete dust. This is the
very way in which ericas are lost. I have observed it myself
in the countenance of many collections. Iam a great advocate
for potting not only ericas high, but every hard-wooded plant ;
but not to such an unreasonable and unnatural height as that
one would suppose they were hung up to dry to make fuel of. My
own maxim is, witha No. 32. pot, for the collar of the plant to be
elevated above the rim of the pot about 2 in. on an average; a
No. 2. about 4 in.: of course the other-sized pots in proportion,
and when shifted into large tubs allowing a little more. Surely
nature never taught us to stick them up to the unreasonable
height of 10 or 12 inches above the rim of a No.8. pot: if so, what
utility can the pot be? The expense of the pot might well be
dispensed with, if they could be made to thrive that way. I
took a bit of stiff wire larger than my pen, and thrust into the
balls of earth to allow the water to pass: but, finding I could
not get the ball of dust moist, I took a hammer and an iron
wedge, and drove the wedge in to make holes. I then put a
quantity of broken stones and pebbles into these holes; scraped
off the moss; got a quantity of tough rooty heath soil, cut
it as I required it with my bench hatchet, and pegged it all
over the surface, thrusting plenty of stones, pebbles, &c., between
the sods; and, routing out 2 in. with a crooked piece of iron all
round the rim of the pots, I filled up the cavity with stones. I
very soon had the pleasure of seeing a complete wig of white
fibrous roots all through the sods and amongst the stones. I
then prepared for fresh-potting them, which was done in the
following manner : —

By turning them out of the pots, and chopping off two thirds

Culture of Heaths. 303

of the lower end of the ball of earth; well draining the pots,
and potting them to any desired height; filling in round, first
one third with the crumbs of the potting-bench, with some
stones, and a little sand if necessary, and ramming it down tight
with a stick for the purpose; then filling up with coarse pieces,
stones, pebbles, flints, &c., with occasionally a handful of sand
shook in amongst it. As I have before stated, I never make it
a rule to mix my compost before using it, for ericas or any
choice plants; but use the preparation to the best of my
judgment, according to their constitution.

My own season for potting or fresh-shifting ericas is when
they are in want of it, no matter what season of the year it is.
If they require shifting two or three times in the course of the
year they get it; some get shifted in January, others in June,
and every other month. ‘They do not all make their growth at
the same season ; therefore I do not consider they require all
potting at the same time, although I have heard my grandfather
used to fresh-pot all his in the month of March.

I must tell you how perplexed I was about the E. Massond ;
its appearance was so bad I considered it a hopeless case. I
left it standing aside, considering in what way I could deal
with it. I was grieved to see it in such a deplorable state.
One evening after the men had all left I made up my mind to
do something with it, and, on turning it out of the pot, every
particle of earth fell from it; not a single root to it. I was in
two minds about casting it on the rubbish heap. You may judge
my grief; I certainly never can forget it. However, I cut it
back ; potted it, in soil I fancied, into a rather small pot ; placed
it in the corner of a cold-pit ; and very soon had the pleasure of
seeing it breaking abundance of young shoots. It grew vigo-
rously, soon wanted a larger pot, and is at this time in a No. 2.
pot. Its next shift will be into a large tub. ‘This is the very
plant you admired; and it was described in page 621., in the
December Number of your Magazine.

I find that by potting them in coarse sweet soil, with plenty
of pebbles, or some rough, uneven, knobby flints; part of the
drainage coarse charcoal, and a few pieces of charcoal put in
here and there in the progress of potting, to keep all healthy
and pure together; there is no fear of their getting soddened
with water, or punished with drought. Give them plenty of
water in the growing season, and never let them get punished
for want of it. In my humble opinion, 99 heaths that die, out
of every 100, do so through being punished for want of water.
If they are properly drained, potted, and watered; taking care to
givethem abundance of air at all times, night and day, if possible ;
and giving them a good washing with the engine or syringe often,
when in a healthy vigorous state, of a fine morning; I will

x 2

304 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

warrant that they will be preserved in health and vigour,
clear from mildew and every other pest. The house they
are growing in should be kept well washed and cleansed; for no
plant that I am acquainted with enjoys cleanliness more than
heaths do. Fire heat they do not relish by any means, no more
than they do confinement. If at any time it is necessary to
have fire of a frosty night, I find it also necessary to give air; if
it is but a small portion of a very severe night, it is better than
confinement, for a little frost does not punish them so much as
closeness and confinement. I have heard practical men observe,
«¢ Why ! do you syringe your ericas ?” — “ Yes, certainly. Do
you think they never get rain on them in their native country ?”
I have often seen men make quite a wonder to see ericas
syringed, observing that it would be the means of the young
wood getting the mildew, damping, and cankermg. In my
humble opinion, it is a preventive.

I have entirely given up using broken freestone, Portland stone,
&c., this last season ; finding that in the course of two seasons
the heath soil is the means of perishing it; that it wastes and
erumbles away like old mortar; and that, when exposed to the
atmosphere, it 1s very subject to get green in damp weather, and
the roots object to work or run about it. Although it is a great
improvement on the old sifting system, there is nothing to be
compared with common stones, pebbles, rough knobby flints, &c.,
such as can be picked up on any common where turf, &c., have
been cut.

The whole of the ericas under my care are growing amongst
stones, pebbles, knobby flints, charcoal, and a portion of sand,
with sods of fibrous tough heath, soil, merely taking the hatchet
and chopping off the furze, heath, bushes, &e., and giving the
sod a chop or two. No doubt it requires some knowledge and
a little taste to pot ericas. I should not exactly like to trust
to any man to repot the choice kinds of heaths, although I had
made the preparation and given directions. It is my opinion,
without a man is fond of his business, and feels an interest in
what he is doing or about to do, it is very seldom it gets pro-
perly done; for instance, I have seen and heard men, when
meeting a plant, fruit, &c., in any way a little superior or out
of the common, make enquiries respecting the soil it was
produced in: and it has appeared to me that some fancy the
only reason they cannot produce things of equal quality is the
difference of soil; that is, because they have not the very kind
of soil their neighbour has. It is a common complaint that the
fault is a bad soil, bad water, a bad situation, or a bad season. It
is not often that we hear that it is for the want of knowing what
properties the soil and water contain, or that they have been
made use of at an improper season without being purified;

Culture of Heaths. 305

nor do they often think of putting their shoulders to the wheel
to try to improve the bad situation, or of opening their eyes
a little earlier of a morning to try to assist nature at the
supposed unkind time of the season. A man may make the
most perfect preparation imaginable in his own mind, and then
by misapplication be completely deceived; particularly if he
does no more to it himself than making the preparation, trusting
to other people much ; who if they are ever so good and careful,
if they do not happen to see the nature of what they are doing,
often commit sad errors. Some men appear to follow a business
for years without giving their proceedings a candid consider-
ation ; but sow when it is spring, and gather when it is autumn,
because they observe others do the same, or that their grand-
father did the same. However, the time will come when this
mode of doing business will not do.

It is pretended by many growers that ericas are a most diffi-
cult tribe of plants to manage, in respect to watering ; but, if
they are potted in coarse soil with plenty of stones, and well
drained, using some charcoal over the crocks and a few knobs

to)
of charcoal amongst the soil, taking care to have all sweet and

fo)
wholesome, there is no fear of the plants doing well.

I am fond of a good span-roofed house for heaths, opening on
both sides at the ends, and the top lights movable, so that the
house can have abundance of air, which may be regulated ac-
cording to the kind of weather, &c. A house of this description
can be aired suitably at all seasons.

Cutting down old naked plants I practise at any time in the
season, as I observe any variety requires it. The different
varieties making their growth at different seasons is my reason
for so doing. ‘The best time is when they are about com-
mencing to make their young wood; and I take care to leave
one living branch on the plant, as I find, by cutting down into
the old naked wood, and not leaving any living wood, sometimes
they will not break. If a plant is properly managed from the
first and kept topped, it never requires cutting down.

In commencing tying and training the tall naked ericas, I
got some neat stakes made out of double laths and painted them
green; and, with some small twine painted and green thread, I
brought the heads of the plants down, and trained them round
five or six of these small stakes, which was the means of their
making generally plenty of young shoots. The next time of
traming I got them still lower down. I have of late entirely
dispensed with stakes, training them in the following manner. I
put from five to ten short ereen-painted stumps, Teaving them
about 1 in. above the rim of the pot, and run a fine wire round
the whole, by which means the plant can be tied neatly down to
any required shape: if neatly done, it is scarcely perceptible, and

x 3

306 On Laying out and Planting

there is nothing more to do. When shifting into larger pots, it
is only necessary to cut the wire asunder, and place the stakes
near the rim of the pot, adding two or three more, joining a
piece more wire, and shifting some of the ties a little. It is
very quickly done by an active person; and is not only neat,
but very durable.

Propagating heaths is much easier and more simply done
than most people imagine. Full the pots half full of crocks,
then add a handful of good rich open heath soil, and about 1 in.
of pure sand with a small portion of charcoal dust. Take the
most healthy cuttings, cut them clean with a sharp knife,
clear off a portion of the leaves, and put them in to the depth
of a quarter of an inch, covering them down close with a bell-
glass. Take off the glass every morning, wipe it with a dry
cloth, and leave it off for half an hour or so, taking care to
water them with a fine-rosed pot often; for I have observed
thousands of cuttings put in and lost for the want of sufficient
water.

Heath-growing may be summed up in afew words. Get good,
tough, rooty, gritty heath soil, sweet and wholesome, with a
portion of pure sand, stones, pebbles, or flints; a good drainage,
with a portion of charcoal used in a rough state. The plants
should stand in a healthy airy situation, and be watered with
pure water; if the water is not pure, put charcoal in it. Keep
them at all times and seasons well aired, and syringed often on
a fine morning; it is the life and soul of them.

Bicton Gardens, Feb. 13. 1843.

Art. IV. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and
Flower-Garden. By the ConpuctTor.

(Continued from p. 266.)

TueE design fig. 73. is for a flower-garden combining a shrubbery; the plants,
in both cases, to be a miscellaneous assemblage planted regularly, according
to height, colour, and time of flowering. In the centre is a basin of water
with a stone margin and vases at the angles, the entrance to which is through
arches of trelliswork, covered with hardy herbaceous climbers, such as
convolvulus, tropzolum, &c., at a, a, a, @; or a cypress or conical-shaped
Juniperus, or Irish yew, may be planted in each of the small squares at the
four openings. The beds are not more than 2 ft. wide, i order to admit of
only a single row of plants in each ; every plant is to be encouraged to form
a circular mass of 18 in. in diameter, leaving a separation of 3 in. between plant
and plant when full grown, and the same distance between the plants and the
grass, so that in fact each plant will be a circle of 18 in. in diameter, standing
within a square of 2 ft. on the side. On the beds next the walk the lowest
plants, or those which do not rise above 9 in. or 1 ft., are to be planted; on
the next the middle-sized plants which do not rise above 2 ft., and on the
third bed, plants which grow from 3 ft. to 5 ft. in height. The plants in each
bed may be arranged jointly according to the colour of the flowers and the
time of flowering as follows : —

For the line of beds next the walk, eight white-flowering plants for Fe-

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 307

Sa = (Sail

oe fe ie
= io Le

Vig. 73. A Flower-Garden surrounded by a Shrubbery.

bruary, March, April, May, June, July, August, and September, planted in
succession ; next, eight red-flowering plants for the same months ; and so on,
through blue, yellow. purple, orange, and brown, commencing again with white.
The line of beds next the walk being completed in this manner, the second
line may commence with purple or orange, and the third with brown. As
several of the plants in each colour will continue in bloom more than a
month, there will never be any colour wanting. In the middle line of beds
there will be no plants for February or March, because there are scarcely any
plants which rise above a foot that bloom in these months; and in the third
line of beds there will be none for February, March, or April, and only the
crown imperial for May, because almost all tall-growing plants flower late.
The beds for shrubs, which are on the other side of the walk, are to be
planted in single rows distributed on the same general principles as the herba-
x 4

308 = Proper Depth for Grass Seeds and Clovers.

ceous plants. The first row will contain hardy heaths, low vacciniums, and
other ericaceous plants, daphnes, &c., which do not rise above 9 in., of which
there are upwards of a hundred species and varieties purchasable in the
London nurseries.

The outer bed of shrubs should be planted with taller-growing kinds, chiefly
showy rhododendrons and azaleas, kalmias, mahonias, &c.

In both the lines of beds of shrubs care should be taken to distribute the
evergreens and the variegated-leaved plants with some degree of regularity
among the others; and the same care ought to be taken in distributing the
herbaceous plants. Among the latter there are certain white-leaved plants,
such as cerastium, some varieties of auricula, some species of gnaphalium, &c.,
which ought to be equally distributed : and the same care ought to be had with
respect to glaucous and grass-leaved plants, such as the garden pink; and ever-
green plants, such as the sweetwilliam, the wallflower, &c.

In planting such a garden, whether with flowers or shrubs, it must
always be borne in mind that the garden constitutes a regular formal figure,
and that the principle of regularity must be maintained throughout. Every
herbaceous plant and shrub must be pruned and trained, and taken up and
reduced when necessary ; so as to form a circle in the plan, and a dome, or
semi-globe, or a cone more or less blunt, in the elevation. The lines of beds
next the walk, whether of herbaceous plants or shrubs, will be composed of
semi-globes or flattened domes ; the herbaceous plants in the second row of
somewhat pointed domes, the diameter of the base being 18 in., and the highest
point of the elevation 2 ft.; while the herbaceous plants in the third row,
and the shrubs in the second row, will be trained so as to form sugar-loaf or
blunt conical shapes.

To plant such a garden as this botanically, keeping all the species of a
genus together, would render it disagreeable even to the commonest cbserver,
because there would be no obvious relation between the mind displayed in
laying out the beds and that employed in planting them, between the designer
and the executer, the artist and the artisan.

( To be continued. )

Art. V. Result of an Experiment made by Messrs. W. Drummond

and Sons to show the proper Depth of Covering for Grass Seeds

and Covers. Communicated by Messrs. DRumMoND.

Tue following seeds were sown on the 13th of May, 1842, on an open border
of light soil, the covering regulated by a frame standing 3 in. in depth at a 4,
and level with the surface at c d, the border 4. ft. wide: the white dots show
where the seeds have brairded, and the proportionate thickness of the plants
in the different depths ; thus proving to a certainty the great loss sustained
by the ordinary mode of covering, or rather burying, the seeds.

a

12) SP 4 oe 6-7-8 9 TOA al oR

Fig. 74. Diagram showing the Growth of Grass Seeds sown at difftrent Depths.

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. 309

1. Perennial rye grass; 2. Timothy grass; 3. Meadow fescue; 4. Red
clover ; 5. White clover; 6. Yellow clover ; 7. Rib grass ; 8. Meadow fox-
tail; 9. Hard fescue ; 10. Smooth-stalked meadow grass ; 11. Cocksfoot ;

12. Crested dogstail ; 13. Wood meadow grass; 14. Fiorin; 15. Italian rye
rass.
: The perennial rye grass alone has grown at 3in. deep; but after 14 in. the
plants decrease more than half.
Agricultural Museum, Stirling, April 27. 1843.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Agriculture, Botany,
Rural Architecture, &c., lately published, with some Account of those
considered the more interesting.

TREATISE on the Tank System of communicating Heat to Horticultural Struc-
tures. By W. E. Rendle, F.H.S. With eight wood engravings, 12mo,
pp- 56. London and Plymouth, 1843.

The long extract from the Gardener’s Chronicle, in favour of the tank
system of heating as developed by Mr. Rendle, which will be found in
a subsequent page, renders it unnecessary to express here our entire approba-
tion of it. In this little book Mr. Rendle has shown, by descriptions and wood-
cuts, how the tank system may be applied to a propagating-house, to a forcing
or orchidaceous house, to a botanic stove, to a pine-pit, and to the cucum-
ber, melon, strawberry, and the forcing of moss and other roses. Ig. 75.

eel

Fig. 75. Section of a Span-roofed House heated according to Mr. Rendle’s Tank System.

kindly lent us by Mr. Rendle, exhits a span-roofed propagating, forcing,
or orchidaceous house, which is in fact suited for any kind of plant requiring
bottom heat. “In lieu of a wooden tank, one of brick or stone, coated with
Roman cement, would here answer well. "The cistern is represented as being
fixed on a solid base of masonry, which, in this instance, I would recommend
to be at least 12 in. in depth, so as to contain a very large body of water ;
for, the larger the body of water, the longer of course ‘the continuance of
heat, while I question very much whether the fire would require attendance
more than once a day. ‘The slates with which the tanks are covered should
rest on a brick partition, over which may bea layer of sand, sawdust, or any
suitable material, into which to plunge the pots. The water may be con-
trived to pass from the one side of the path to the other, by means of an
inverted siphon passing under the pathway.”

310 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c.

When we visited Mr. Rendle’s nursery in September last (see our Vol.

for 1842, p. 546.), we were shown one of these tanks, but Mr. Rendle not —

being at home, and besides being in a great hurry, and having before seen at
Bristol tanks of water heated by steam, in order to produce bottom heat, Mr.
Rendle’s tank did not make that impression on us which might have been
expected. Count Zubow’s tank heated by steam, and also those in the Bris-
tol Nursery, will be found figured and described in the Horticultural Society’s
Transactions, and in the earlier volumes of the Gardener’s Magazine.

Remarks on the Management of Orchideous Plants, with a Catalogue of those in
the Collection of J. C. Lyons, alphabetically arranged, with their native Coun-
tries, and a short Account of the Mode of Cultivation adopted. 12mo, pp. 96.
with several woodcuts. Ladiston, Ireland, 1843.

The author, in a printed circular which we received with his book, has
directed our attention to what he calls “his Oniscamyntic [oniscus, the wood-
louse, and amuno, to repel] Epiphyte Stand,” which, among other merits, has
that of being easily formed by every gardener for himself.

“Procure from the potter a pan generally known as a feeder, with a raised
centre and a hole in it, into which the forked branch of a tree is to be made
fast. In the forked part, the plant is to be fastened with zinc or copper wire,
and the roots covered with moss. The branches can be cut to any desired
length, so as it does not overbalance the bottom. I have them from 12 in.
to 36 in. long. The bottom of the feeder should be made thick and heavy,
which will cause it to stand steady and firm. They may be made of different
sizes, and the branches cut to different lengths. Should the plant mcrease in
size and weight so as to become unsteady, a larger bottom can easily be sub-
stituted. I have several plants of Oncidium, Papilio, Stanhopea, Lee‘lia, and
Catasétum, &c., growing in the forked branches, which succeed remarkably
well; the foliage of all the plants so grown is much more luxuriant, and of a
darker and richer green than those grown in lumps of peat, and at this mo-
ment (November) the branch of the tree is covered with the roots firmly
attached to it, having in many instances penetrated the bark. They were,
until the idea of the stand in their present state occurred to me, fixed in
common pots, made steady with yellow clay pressed hard; but those in the
stands are much preferable, as they contain a quantity of water in the feeder,
which prevents the attacks of insects, and also contributes to the moisture of
the atmosphere by evaporation. Iam strongly of opinion they will be found
an excellent improvement on pots for almost every Hpiphyte, and will not oc-
cupy more space; besides, they have the advantage of allowing smaller plants
to be placed between them.

“T strongly recommend the feeding-pans to be procured from Mr. John
Thompson, Annfield Pottery, Glasgow, who executed my order with neat-
ness and dispatch.”

The work contains various remarks on culture, extending to 32 pages,
illustrated by woodcuts; and the remaining 64 pages contain a monthly
calendar. We were surprised to find, in p. 2]., the author deriving the word
Epiphyte from epi, upon, and fuo, to grow, instead of epi, upon, and phyton,
a plant, as given in various botanical and gardening works. We have no
doubt the work will be found exceedingly useful to the inexperienced in the
culture of Orchidacee.

A Treatise on the Growth of the Peach upon the open Wall. By John Smith,
Author of “ Treatise on the Growth of Cucumbers and Melons.” 12mo,
pp: 112, and three plates. London and Ipswich, 1843.

This is a sensibly written treatise by a gardener of much experience, and
it may be safely recommended to the younger brethren or the amateur. Zig-
zag or serpentine walls Mr. Smith decidedly disapproves of, having in his
youth had experience of several hundred yards of them. ‘“ Instead of their

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. By

affording a quiet shelter, and inducing a general warmth, they are calculated
to encourage so many eddies and sudden gusts of wind, that cold and bleak-
ness are induced,” “ The best line for a garden wall is most certainly a straight
line ; and the best aspect for the peach the south, or the S., with but little
inclination to either E. or W., especially the latter.” (p. 62.) ‘“ The height
of the wall may vary from 8 ft. to 14 ft. Walls in cold bleak situations
may be sunk below the general surface of the garden, as they are at Walton,
the marine residence of R. D. Alexander, Esq., near Felixtow in Suffolk,”
[and at Silverton Park (p. 242.) in Devonshire]. Great care is requisite in
this case thoroughly to drain the border. “ A border only 6 or 8 feet wide,
entirely devoted to the peach, is much better than one twice that width not
so devoted, that is cropped with deep-rooted and strong-growing vegetables.”
(p. 67.) Wherever peach trees are worn out, the soil will be found to be no
less so, and the one requires to be renewed no less than the other. The
wavy fan mode of training “ embraces one very good principle, and at the
same time one of the very worst which can possibly exist. The good is that
of elongating and elevating the under leader ; the evil is that of encouraging
a number of shoots upon the upper side of this leader, within the bosom of
the curve, to be produced and reproduced one above another ; every one, as
it is encouraged, becoming stronger than its producer, until the leader’s
life is sucked away by them, and its amputation rendered unavoidable.” The
common fan mode of training, so universally practised, is what Mr. Smith
prefers to all other modes, elevating occasionally the extremities of the lower
shoots when it is necessary to add to their strength.

Copious and frequent watering Mr. Smith considers essential to the growth
and fruitfulness of the peach, and this, we believe, is also the opinion of Mr.
Smith of Hopeton House Gardens. “ The very finest and best Grosse Mig-
nonne peaches I ever saw were grown by my friend and neighbour, Mr.
William M‘Credie, some years since, in a garden at that time occupied by him ;
and their superiority, it is certain, arose from the constancy of the supply of
moisture, communicated by means of a considerable-sized stream of water,
which ran immediately at, and in close contact with, the north side of the
wall against which the tree was planted. Again, the Barrington peach, cul-
tivated under circumstances differing from the above, by the water being at
the back of the wall, and stagnant, foul, and rising considerably above the
surface of the soil on the south side, but removed in the latter end of the
season, has been known to succeed admirably.

“There is in the mind of many gardeners an idea that dry, very dry situ-
ations are most favourable to the growth of the peach, and especially that
there they are not liable to the attack of mildew; this, however, is a mistake,
for in such places, and without a good supply of water being afforded, this
tree is as liable to infection from that disease as in any situation whatsoever ;
and indeed I have witnessed its existence upon a lofty and dry situation to a
most deplorable extent, even while under the care of gardeners of no mean
talent. I have also known one who, differing from them on the cause of
mildew, ventured to recommend copious watering as the principal means of
removing the pest. This course they adopted, and the result has been most
satisfactory. That the application of an abundance of water to cold soils, &c.,
or in seasons which are unusually dull and cool, would be proper, let not any
one suppose, for this would indeed be the extreme of absurdity. There
should, under every circumstance connected with human operations, be che-
rished in the mind of the operator a due regard to that equilibrium which is
so essential to the well-being of all created things.” (p. 97—100.)

“Were it needful still to enlarge upon the propriety of administering large
quantities of water in a skilful manner, and on the beneficial effects thereof, the
trees upon the walls of R. N. Shawe, Esq., of Kesgrave, between Ipswich and
Woodbridge, under the management of my friend Garrod, gardener at that
place, might be referred to as an undeniable proof; for there the element
exists in abundance, and runs in a large stream continuously just in front of,
and at a few feet distance from, one of the principal south walls; the peach

312 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c.

and other fruit trees at the same time testifying that it does them no injury.
The trees in this garden are generally fan-trained, and, though perhaps past
their zenith, afford proof of no mean description in favour of that system.

“ In addition to the preceding remarks, I would say, let the operation be
done judiciously; by which is meant : — First, with water which has been ex-
posed to atmospheric influence for a considerable time, say not less than twenty-
four hours. Secondly, when the leaves, &c., are to receive the benefit of this
element, by its application from the garden engine, let it be water simply ; and
by no means wash them with lime-water, for, if this be done, the probability is
that an abundance will run down upon the bole of the tree, and the effect will
be very injurious, though the cause of the mischief may not always be under-
stood. I have known trees, the main stems of which have been bared of
their bark on the part where the liquid ran down, from no other cause than
this; but at the first I could not imagine from what source the evil had
originated. Thirdly, in hot weather, let the operation be performed season-
ably, that is, in the after part of the day, when the sun is declining from, and
not when it is shining fully or powerfully upon, the wall. Fourthly, when
the soil alone requires to be watered, let it be remembered that one good doing
will be of more service than several ‘ make-believes.’ My own method is
to prepare a trench at some distance from the bole of the tree, and, if the
weather be hot, and the soil becoming dry, to pour the water in by whole-
sale, until the soil is completely saturated ; and, when the whole is passed
away into the ground, the disturbed part is relevelled, and made to appear as
if nothing of the sort had been done; thus the sun’s influence upon the
moistened ground is beneficial, whereas, were the surface exposed in a moist
state, it would be injurious [by the cold that would be produced by the evapo-
ration of the water]. Such a watering as this, taking place shortly after the
stoning is over, need not be repeated during the season ; but the surface of
the border should be kept quite clean, and raked with a wooden rake at least
twice every week, in order that the atmospheric and solar influence may be
duly received, and thereby the perfect maturation of the fruit promoted.”
(p. 101—103.)

Mr. Smith protects the blossom buds in spring, and the article he prefers for
that purpose is bunting. “ During fine days it should be removed, and when
the fear of frost is passed for the season, it must be taken away entirely.”
Syringing about sunrise after frosty nights he has also found an efficient sub-
stitute for coverings. An alarm bell, attached to ingenious and yet simple
machinery, is described and figured, the object of which is to detect “ fruit-
gatherers who have little regard to principle.”

The reader will see from these extracts that this is a valuable little manual
of peach culture.

Hortus Collinsonianus. An Account of the Plants cultwated by the late Peter
Collinson, Esq.. F.R.S., arranged alphabetically according to the modern
Names, from the Catalogue of his Garden and other Manuscripts. Not
published. Swansea, 1843.

This is a catalogue with annotations, prepared from Mr. Collinson’s
copies of the sixth and eighth editions of Miller, and from other sources,
which were in the late Mr. Lambert’s library, and were purchased at its sale
by L. W. Dillwyn, Esq, F.R.S., L.S., &c., of Skelly Hall, near Swansea.
In printing it this botanist has rendered an acceptable service to his botanical
friends, and through them, for the work is not sold, to the public. Under our
article entitled Arboricultural Notices will be found some interesting extracts,
which may be considered as supplementary to the historical part of our Arbo-
retum Britannicum. In p.59 and 60. there are some memoranda relating to
the fruit and kitchen garden, which we shall have recourse to when we
prepare a new edition of, or a supplement to, the Hncyclopedia of Gardening.

A Catalogue of Sicihan Plants ; with some Remarks on the Geography, Geology,
and Vegetation of Sicily. By John Hoge, Esq., M.A. 8vo, pp. 51. London,

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Sc. 313

1842. Extracted from the “ Mag. Nat. Hist.,” and from the “ Annals
and Mag. Nat. Hist.”

There are many plants enumerated in this catalogue that would form very
desirable additions to the British garden. Among the trees and shrubs there
are several, which, if they have been introduced, are now lost, or rare, and
of these we shall give a list under our Arboricultural Notices.

Thorburn’s Catalogue of Kitchen-Garden, Herb, Flower, Tree, and Grass Seeds,
Bulbous Flower Roots, Greehouse Plants ; Gardening, Agricultural, and Bo-
tanical Books, Gardening Tools, §c., for 1843. 12mo, pp. 68. New York.

Parsons and Co.’s Catalogue of Fruit and Forest Trees, Ornamental Shrubs,
Plants, §c., for 1843. 8vo, pp. 40. New York.

Rendle’s Catalogue of choice Geraniums, Dahlias, Pansies, Fuchsias, Calceo-
larias, Greenhouse, Hothouse, and Herbaceous Plants, Camellias, §c., for 1843.
12mo, pp. 25. Plymouth.

Each of these catalogues is a very copious list of the plants and seeds of
commerce.

Timely Hints, addressed to the Landlords and Tenantry of England, Scotland,
and Ireland ; showing, in a few Words, the only obvious, easy, and certain
Means by which they can severally continue to derive and pay fair Rents from
the Soil, under the present certain, and prospective possible, Depreciation
in Value of British rural productive Industry, Sc. §c. By their “ Country
Cousin.” Pamph. 8vo. pp. 46. London, 1843.

According to this author the present backward state of agriculture is
mainly owing to the well-known incapacity of lawyers as managers of landed
property ; and his remedy consequently is, the employment of resident
stewards or agents, who have received a competent, general, and professional
education. The pamphlet contains a great variety of quotations, authorities,
and opinions, all bearing on the subject of the title, and tending to show that
all the ‘present difficulties of landlords and tenants are to be overcome by
superior cultivation.

Letters to the Farmers of Suffolk. By the Rev. J. S. Henslow, M.A., Rector
of Hitcham, and Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge.
London and Hadleigh, 1843.

We take much blame to ourselves for not having before noticed the ex-
traordinary exertions which Professor Henslow is making in Suffolk for the
advancement of agriculture. These exertions commenced with some lectures
on the nature of plants and soils and manures, delivered at different times in
the course of the last two years to the farmers, his parishioners, and they
have led ultimately to the publication of the pamphlet before us, the history
of which is thus given.

“These letters were published in three of the county papers. Their
object was to direct the attention of the farmers of Suffolk to the great im-
portance of conducting their experiments in such a manner as might render
any results obtained by them available to the progress of science, and conse-
quently to the more rapid improvement of agriculture. With this view, an
extensive systematic cooperation has been strongly insisted on; and the
success which has attended one appeal for the trial of a particular experiment,
to be undertaken by not less than fifty experimenters, has led to a persuasion
that it would be very easy to organise a system of experimental cooperation
among a very large body of the farmers of all England. I have, therefore,
determined on republishing these letters, with the addition of a few notes,
and a glossary of terms, in hope they may be serviceable in persuading others
to imitate the example of my own neighbours. As I am not to be personally
benefited by the sale of this publication, though I bear the expense of it, I
have no scruple in requesting my personal friends, acquaintances, and corre-

314 ‘General Notices.

spendents, to assist me in promoting its circulation as widely as possible.
They will find a confident hope expressed in it that some scheme will shortly
be organised for securing the object which is there suggested, and which has
received the approbation of persons well competent to judge of its importance
end practicability. The pamphlet includes also an address delivered last
December to the Hadleigh Farmers’ Club, on the theory of manuring ; and
the letters discuss, in a popular manner, the functions of the leaf, and a few
other topics which may be considered of general interest to practical agri-
culturists.—J. S. Henslow. April 27. 1843.”

We most strongly recommend this pamphlet, not only to every one in-
terested in agriculture, but to the gardener and the scientific amateur.

On the Laying out, Planting, and Managing of Cemeteries; and on the Im-
provement of Churchyards. With 60 Engravings. By J. C. Loudon,
F.L.S., &c. 8vo, pp. 120. London, 1843.

The whole of what is contained in this volume, with the exception of three
lithographic plates, will be given in the Gardener’s Magazine. Four articles
have been published, and there remain five to be given, so that the last will
be in the November Number.

A History and Directory of the Borough of Derby, intended as a Guide to
Strangers visiting the Town. By Stephen Glover. 8vo, pp. 256, numerous
woodcuts. Derby, 1843.

This work is judiciously drawn up, and it is illustrated by numerous wood-
cuts, exhibiting views of the churches, and all the more remarkable buildings,
of tombs, antiquities, and of the buildings erected in the Derby Arboretum.
It also contains plans and sections of the Arboretum, a description of it, and
an account of the gallery of paintings, sculpture, &c., in the residence of
Joseph Strutt, Esq., the benevolent founder.

Restoration of the Church of St. Mary, Redcliffe, Bristol: An Appeal by the
Vicar, Churchwardens, and Vestry ; with an Abstract of Reports by Messrs.
Britton and Hosking ; and an engraved Plan and Views of the Church.
4to, pp. 28. Bristol, 1842.

The engraving of the restored church is very handsome, both in regard to

design and execution, and we trust funds sufficient will be raised for carrying ~

the improved building into effect.

The Latin Governess, a Manual of Instruction in the Elements of Latin, for thé
Use of Teachers of Latin generally, but more especially of Mothers and Go-
vernesses. By John W. Freese, B.A. 12mo, pp. 163. London and West-
erham, 1843.

This work is quite original in its plan, and, though intended chiefly for
governesses, yet we think it also well adapted for the self-instruction of young
gardeners. It is much to be desired that some amateur botanist and gardener,
who is a classical scholar, would write a Latin grammar expressly for practical
gardeners ; illustrating it as far as possible by passages taken from the specific
characters and descriptions of plants, with just enough of syntax to enable the
student to read botanical works, which are frequently written in Latin. Such
a grammar, and a short selection from these works, embracing all the difficul-
ties likely to occur, would form a complete course for the practical gardener.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. 1. General Notices.

JUCKES’s Smoke-consuming Furnace, which may be seen in action at the Ma-
nufactory, “the Grove,” Great Guilford Street, Southwark, consists of a
series of bars attached together so as to form an endless chain, which tra-

General Notices. 315

verses over two drains, the one placed at the back and the other at the front.
These fire bars traverse at the rate of about 6 ft. per hour, and only require
a power about one thirtieth of a horse to keep them in motion. The fuel being
introduced on the bars at the entrance, through a hopper, is carried onwards
by the traversing motion of the bars, passing through all the relative stages
of combustion until nothing but the scoria or unyolatilisable portions remain,
which are rejected at the back. It will be seen that in this arrangement, when
the fuel is first introduced, it parts with its more volatile portions, which are
consumed with the fuel farther advanced on the bars, and consequently in a
more perfect state of combustion. By this process all the carbon is burnt,
instead of being distributed in the atmosphere, which is at once seen by
the total absence of smoke in the chimneys of the furnaces where it is em-
ployed. This is of itself a great saving in the economy of fuel ; but another
equally important is in the fact, that the coal dust or refuse coal answers
all the purposes of the largest and best coal. Through the constant admis-
sion of atmospheric air between the fire bars, the heat of the furnace is con-
stant and uniform, and there is no clinkering of the bars, which come out of
the fire as clean in the evening as they did when they entered in the morn-
ing. The hopper, which supplies the fuel, may be made to contain a supply of
fuel for an unlimited time ; and thus the regulation of the fire is rendered
quite independent of the caprice or neglect of the stoker.

This furnace appears to be interesting to the gardener in two ways: Ist,
because the general adoption of some such arrangement, where the important
object of effecting the combustion of smoke is accomplished, would tend
greatly to improve the purity of the atmosphere, and prove beneficial to the
cultivator; and, 2d, as it might be economically and advantageously employed
in heating houses upon a large scale, particularly with the hot-water appa-
ratus. — A. B.

The Tree-Creeper (Cérthia familidris) and the Green Fly that infests Gera-
niums.— Once upon a time one of the little birds called tree-creepers entered
a small greenhouse, and took up its abode therein for a day and a night, at
the end of which time it had cleared the plants of insects most completely.
Not a leaf nor a twig escaped its searching glance. As its scientific name im-
plies, it was quite tame and familiar, and never seemed to heed the intrusion
of strangers, but still continued to carry on its work of destruction. But,
alas! on the second morning the voracious little bird was found lying stiff
and cold in the corner which it had fixed on for its bed, having, in fact,
glutted itself to death. Gardeners, if you wish your greenhouse plants to be
free of insects, encourage the Cérthia familiaris when you have it, and try
to procure it when you have it not.— A. 8S. M. Braes of Gowrie.

Wireworm destroyed by the Mole.—A singular instance of the utility of
protecting the mole has within these last few days come under my observa-
tion. Having had occasion to turf up a number of small clumps in our
flower-garden, I was astonished in a few days to find that the moles had
pushed up the turf over the whole surface of some of the clumps. I imme-
diately searched for the cause of their visit to these patched up clumps ;
when, to my astonishment, I found the wireworm in great abundance between
the surface of the former clump and the new-laid turf. They had, I suspect,
been in the turf before it was laid down, and, the ground beneath being beat
so hard, they could not penetrate farther; where the moles, having once
discovered them, seemed determined on eradicating them. They were mostly
the larva of Agriotis lineatus, with a few of A. obsctra. What was very sin-
gular in this instance is, that before this time I never saw a single indication
of a mole in the garden, although there were plenty of them in the wood which
surrounds it.— John Dunlop. Worcester Park Gardens, near Kingston,
May 10. 1843.

Cytisus Adami, Purple Laburnum.— I write to communicate to you a further
freak of this singular plant. The tree of my brother, Mr. Algernon Herbert,
at Ickleton, near Saffron Walden, having for some years ripened seed on
both the yellow-flowering branch and the small-leaved purple-flowering

316 General Notices.

branch, has, this year, in addition to these eccentricities, produced small
solitary axillary purple flowers in that part of the tree which has retained the
original hybrid character. Some of the seedlings from the yellow branch
have flowered, and are natural yellow Jaburnums. One from the small purple
branch at Spofforth has rounder leaves than Cytisus purptreus, but has not
yet flowered. I regret the loss of one seedling from the yellow branch, which
showed a purple tint on the young wood, and would probably have manifested
some diversity in the colour of its flowers. The habits of this plant are not
those of a seminal mule; and [ entertain little doubt of the correctness of my
surmise, that it was produced by the cooperation of the cellular tissue of the
two species in forming the bud on the suture where the bark had been in-
serted in budding. —W. Herbert. May 18. 1843.

Johnston’s improved portable Garden Engine ( jig.
76.) is formed on exactly the same principle as that
of Mr. Read, figured in our Volume for 1837, p. 459.
The principal difference is, that Mr. Johnston occupies
two cylinders with what Mr. Read includes in one.
The fcllowing is the description sent us by Mr. John-
ston. On raising the handle a, the water passes up
the lower tube, opening the valve 4, and filling the tube
c. Depressing the handle closes the valve 6, and opens
the valve d; the water passing up the tubes e and ff
and compressing the air in the outer tube f, when it
continues up the tube e to the joint g, through
which it passes out at the jet, with or without the
rose h; the joint being movable up or down. On
the handle being raised again, the valve d closes, and
the valve 6 opens for the water to fill the tube c. At
the same time that the tube c is filling, the air com-
pressed in the tube f is expanding, and forcing the re-
maining water in the tubes e and fto flow out of the
jet. This process being repeated at each stroke of the
pump, causes a perpetual stream, which may be
thrown out 60 ft. The conducting tube / screws off
at 7, rendering the instrument extremely portable. The
instrument itself is very handsome, and well adapted
for lady gardeners.— Cond.

Cicer arietinum L.—I send you some seeds of Cicer
arietinum collected at Athens in 1842. It is an excel-
lent vegetable, and remarkable when growing for the
whole plant being covered with a secretion of oxalic
acid in a liquid state. I never saw it in crystals, as

stated in the Penny Magazine.—W.C. T. May Fis. 76. Section of John-
13. 1843 ston’s improved portable
. 1540. Garden- Engine.

Improvements in Garden Pots. — In a valuable arti-
cle on this subject in Paxton’s Magazine of Botany for March, the glazing of
pots is objected to as assimilating them to culinary utensils, and as interfering
with the pictorial effect of vegetation, for which a dead or dull quiet surface is
justly said to be much more appropriate than a shining one. “ In reference, how-
ever, to the health of the plants, experience is most decidedly in favour of the
hardest pots. The less porous the material, the less likely is it to become
sodden or saturated with water, or to carry off moisture with too great rapidity
in the burning heat of summer. Soft thick pots that are imperfectly baked
are universally discarded by good cultivators, and those which are hardest and
thinnest preferred. Pots or tubs of slate are found, likewise, to be excellent
receptacles for most plants; and hence we discern nothing but that which
is fitted for proving beneficial to plants in the idea of glazed pots ; but, as
their hardness and closeness may almost be realised without the glazing, we
deprecate their use on account of the appearance.” (p. 42.

The author after nocicing Mr. Brown’s hollow-sided pots, which he thinks

General Notices. Set

(with the improvement of the hole for the admission of the water made out-
side the pot instead of inside) are particularly suitable for plants which re-
quire a great deal of water in summer, and whose foliage is not low, or ample
enough to shade the plants from the rays of the sun, such as Tropze‘olum
tricolorum and T. brachyceras, suggests three improvements. These are :
less depth im proportion to the width ; a better drainage by means of more
holes in the bottom ; and the admission of air through the drainage holes, by
raising the pot above the surface on which it stands by means of feet, or, in
other words, carrying down the sides of the pot an inch or two below the
bottom, and making two or three notches in the prolonged part. ‘“ That
shallow pots are of the utmost importance to flowering plants in promoting
their beauty, every day’s observation more and more fully convinces us. No
gardener would now think of letting his vines or his peach trees have a border
as deep as it is broad, or, in other words, suffer their roots to extend down-
wards as far as they do horizontally. He would at once anticipate (and
justly) a failure in his crops from such a proceeding. And yet the cultivator
of exotics takes a course which is quite as unwise when he puts his plants in
pots that have the same depth as diameter. The grand rule in all culture,
whether for fruit or flowers (for the means that will produce the former must
bring the latter), should be to keep the roots near the surface ; and this can
only be done by positively preventing them from descending, for it must be
recollected that all roots have naturally a downward tendency. In order to
accomplish this end with potted plants, there is no other way of proceeding
than by making the pots shallower ; and in this, we are persuaded, lies the art
of flowering plants quickly and well. It will repress straggling and rampant
habits, and, with a state of beautiful dwarfness, produce an unusually liberal
flowering condition. We are greatly mistaken if the Chinese are not better
philosophers than we are on this point; for we believe they plant their
curious stunted trees in exceedingly shallow pans of porcelain,” (p. 44.)
Hunt’s improved Garden Pots and Saucers, of which jfigs.77. and 78. are
specimens, are well calculated to accom-
plish two of the desiderata mentioned in
the foregoing paragraph, viz., improved
drainage, and the admission of air ; and
they are also adapted to prevent the en-
trance of worms. J%g. 78. shows a pot

Fig. 77. Hunt’s improved Saucer.

with the improved bottom, which may
be used with or without a common saucer;
and fig. 77. shows the improved saucer,
with which any common pot may be used.
Two or three holes in the bottom of the
pot instead of one, and an increased width in proportion to the depth, would, as
the writer in Paxton’s Magazine observes, be great improvements to these pots,
and we have no doubt they will be made without delay by Mr. Hunt. Even
as they are, they are obvious improvements on the common form; and the
additional cost, when made of the common material, is only ls. 6d. per
cast. Ornamented pots of this kind, made either of the common material, or
of a beautiful cream-coloured clay obtained from Teignmouth in Devonshire,
are also manufactured hy the same parties. For greenhouses, and for plants
in rooms, this last description of pot, combined as it is with the improvements
described, will be a great acquisition.
3d Ser, — 1843, VI. ¥

Fig. 78. Hunt's tmproved Garden Pot.

318 General Notices.

The new Method of potting Plants, or One-Shift System, promises to be the
greatest step ever made in the progress of pot culture. A previous adyance
was made forty or more years ago, when the frequent-shift system was adopted
instead of annual shifting or repotting. Previously, plants in pots were seldom
shifted or repotted oftener than once a year, except in the case of balsams
and a few other tender annuals, which received two or three shifts. Subse-
quently these shifts became much more frequent, so that when a balsam or a
cockscomb was required to be grown to a great size, it was first planted in a
pot of an inch or two in diameter, in rich finely sifted soil, and gradually
shifted, as soon as the roots reached the sides of the pots, from one pot to
another a little larger, till at last, when nearly full grown, it was in a pot of a
foot or more in width. A similar practice was general with all plants what-
ever, even including heaths, that it was wished to bring forward rapidly. The
results of this mode of culture have in general been highly satisfactory, and the
chief objection that can be brought against the system is, the time and labour
required. A second objection is, that water does not escape so freely, and
consequently air does not follow it so readily, as when plants are growing in
the free soil. This last objection is completely got over by the one-shift
system, the essence of which consists in the employment of rough, turfy,
lumps of soil along with fragments of stone, wood, charcoal, or other matters
which keep the soil thoroughly open, placed, of course, over abundant
drainage.

The one-shift system is said to have been first “struck out” by Mr. Wood,
late foreman in the nursery of Messrs. Backhouse of York, and for the last two
years foreman in the nursery of Messrs. Henderson of Pine-Apple Place.
The dawn of Mr. Wood’s invention may, perhaps, be found in Mr. Knight’s
chopped green turf (Physiological Papers, p. 243.), and Mr. M‘Nab’s “ wide-
meshed riddle” and large pots or tubs (Cape Heaths, p. 20. and 23.); and, from
the Letters on Bicton Gardens in this Magazine, and the Suburban Horticulturist,
p. 616. and 706., it appears that Mr. Barnes has been in the habit of using
rough, rooty, unsifted soil in potting for upwards of twenty years. The fol-
lowing account of the invention by Mr. Wood is from an excellent article in
Paxton’s Magazine of Botany for March, 1842. ‘ It appears to have occurred
to him [Mr. Wood] that, as plants flourished with such amazing vigour when
planted out in a bed, and, if judiciously exposed and drained, flowered also in
the greatest profusion, it would be a most desirable object to give them the
same means of attaining an early and luxuriant maturity in pots; seeing that,
in many places, there is no convenience for having appropriate borders or beds
in plant-houses, and, where there is, the specimens cannot be so easily con-
trolled, nor are they at all portable. Numerous experiments, both casually
and designedly made, had shown that, by the conmon way of potting, no such
ends could be brought about ; since plants which were placed in pots very
considerably larger than those which they seemed to require almost invariably
suffered, to a greater or less degree, from the stagnation of water in the soil.
And, as this accumulation evidently formed the chief obstacle to the adoption
of large pots for the smallest plants, it was very justly thought that any thing _
which could be employed to drain effectually the entire mass of earth, so that
no water could stagnate therein, would give the means of allowing young
plants in pots all the benefits which they would derive from being planted in
beds. Following out this notion in a practical manner, small specimens were
shifted from what are called 60-sized pots to those which were 9 in. or 1 ft. in
diameter; using a turfy fibrous soil, divested of none of its rougher matters,
and mixing with it a quantity of broken sandstone, in pieces from a quarter
to half an inch square. By the united aid of the turfy and vegetable matters
in the soil, and the fragments of stone scattered throughout its substance, it
was thus kept porous and oper, without even a tendency to become hardened,
consolidated, saturated, or sour ; and the plants throve in it with the rapidity
and health of those which were placed in a border, while, being situated nearer

General Notices. 319

the glass, and more subjected to the agency of air, &c., they began to flower
much sooner, and more abundantly.” (p. 37.)

After pointing out the great advantages which will attend this system of
potting, the following judicious practical details are given.

“ The main point to be observed in potting plants, according to this as well
as the customary mode, is to drain them thoroughly. To do this properly,
it is requisite that a thick layer of broken pots or ashes, or some such material,
be put in the bottom of the pot, and not merely a few pieces of potsherd.
There should be at least an inch of drainage, and over all this should be spread
a small quantity of dry moss, or a few lumps of very turfy peat or loam, -in
which all the vegetable matter is dead, but which contains a good deal of
woody fibre. Either of these substances will assist the passage of the water,
by preventing the fine earth from getting down amongst the drainage and stop-
ping up its interstices, while they will also, by retaining some degree of
moisture in themselves, keep the roots cool and damp whenever the earth
happens to get excessively dry. What is of nearly equal consequence is the
texture of the soil. It should by no means be reduced, pulverised, or sifted,
any more than as the first of these may be needful. Vegetable fibre, and
stones that are not too cumbersome, should be suffered to remain. Where
heath-mould is employed, it ought to be full of roots, and be left, to a large
extent, in rough irregular lumps, about an inch or so in breadth. There is
infinitely too much preparing and manipulation in most composts; and the
freedom with which heaths root into lumps of turfy peat shows at once that
they would be more at home if potted entirely into something approaching to
the natural texture of the soil in our heatheries or moors. The same principle
will apply to all soils, and this constitutes a valuable part of the system of
potting we describe.

“‘ A further part of the plan is to keep the neck of the plant, or that portion
of the stem next the roots, rather higher in the pot than the level of the soil.
This is often done with heaths, and is just as useful to other fine-rooted spe-
cies. It keeps down exuberance, and promotes inflorescence. It saves many
a delicate plant from being killed by water ; while, by maintaining the vital
part in a drier state, it makes them less sensitive to the sudden and casual
occurrence of cold in the winter.

“ But the process most conducive to the bushiness of the plants is the fre-
quent reduction of their young shoots. This must be very rigidly attended to,
when they do not of themselves bear a sufficient number of laterals. It may
be that the branches will require stopping three or four times in the first sea-
son ; but this will occupy very little time, and is of such extreme moment
that without it not a few plants would be quite unsightly, whereas, with its
aid, they have become the most ornamental of our exotic decorations. Where
itis rightly practised, it will almost necessarily cause the removal of all the
early flowers ; but with those plants that do not need to be thus treated, and
with others that continue to show their blossoms despite such pruning,
it will be highly advisable to take away all the flower-buds as fast as they
appear.

“As to the application of the system, it embraces all flowering shrubs,
whether belonging to the stove or greenhouse, but more especially those
which have not been produced by art. Heaths, pimeleas, lechenaultias, &c.,
have all been found to be vastly benefited by it. At present it is not known
how tong specimens so managed will last after they have begun to flower.
We should presume, however, that they will continue in beauty for three or
four, or more years, with only a very trifling shift each spring, after the
second season, and that they may then be discarded, to give place for similar
progeny. The beauty of a greenhouse or stove does not consist in having
very large or very old specimens, but in keeping plants of a moderate size that
are particularly healthy and lavishly prolific of flowers.” (p. 41.)

In a subsequent article in Paxton’s Magazine, by Mr. Wood himself, we
have the following concise and systematic definition of his system.

yee

320 General Notices.

“ In testimony of the approximation of the present age to a comparatively
perfect system of cultivation, there is perhaps no instance of higher mterest
than the one which involves a mode of culture which has for its ultimate
object a constitutional maturity of growth, by dispensing with the attendant
risk and restrictive influence of intermediate shifts from smaller to larger

ots.
ae The principle upon which such a course of practice is founded is now
being successfully applied by the most eminent cultivators, and the same
principle, so easily adapted to the stronger or rooting division of ornamental
plants, has also been rendered applicable to those the most difficult to rear.

“ It is well known that growers of plants for public competition have often
urged the difficulties and disadvantages attending the purchase of plants which
may have received a treatment in some respects opposite to that which they
are wishful to adopt ; and in many instances they haye considered it essen-
tial to the accomplishment of their object that the plants should have been
subject to their system of management from the first, or initiatory, stage of
growth. These disadvantages are, however, now being overcome by a mode
of potting (subject to a corresponding treatment), which, not unexpectedly,
has been a subject of surprise to some, and a stumbling-block to others, who,
in asserting its impracticability, because contrary to the ordinary method,
have failed to apprehend the principles upon which such a course of practice
is founded.

“ The rule which is implied in the principle now adverted to may be defined
as follows: — that plants the most difficult to rear ought to be removed
from their youngest stage of growth into the largest-sized pot in which they
are to be exhibited as specimens.

“¢ However opposite to prevalent opinion and practice such arule may appea
to those who are unaccustomed to view facts in the light of comprehensive
truths, it may nevertheless be proved consistent with the first principles of
horticulture, and rendered conformable to general practice.

“ Having stated the rule, the following directions are necessary in the me-
chanical process of potting : — Take a sixteen or twelve-sized pot, place 3 in.
of bottom drainage, and fill up with pieces of peat from 1 in. to 41n. square,
filling the interstices with the fibrous siftings of peat and pieces of crocks till
the pot is quite full; then plant a seedling or struck cutting of a heath plant of
similar habit, give very little water till the plant shoots freely ; and in this
treatment is contained the only secret in growing fine specimens.

“‘ Such is the most ingenious and easy mode of potting yet offered to the
attention of the cultivator ; and, though the plan of dispensing with interme-
diate shifts has been recognised nearly fourteen years ago, yet, for this most
successful application of the system, the profession is indebted to Mr. D.
Beaton, the gardener at Shrubland Park, near Ipswich, one of the most emi-
nent horticulturists of the present day.

“ This novel and original mode of attaining a mature growth in the cultivation
of plants may not inappropriately be termed the accumulative system, and
involves, by its unique mechanical application of soil, one of the most import-
ant and essential desiderata in all systems of cultivation, and without which
all efforts to obtain a constitutional vigour and fertility must prove abortive,
namely a uniform circulation of moisture.’ (William Wood, in Paxton’s
Magazine of Botany for May, 1843, p. 89.)

_ Since the above was written we have seen Mr. Alexander Couper, of the
Paragon Nursery, Brixton Hill, known to be one of the best propagators in
the neighbourhood of London. Observing that he grew his larger plants in
rough turfy stuff, and asking how he came to adopt that mode, he informed
us that he was taught it during his apprenticeship with Mr. Henderson, at
Wood Hall, near Glasgow, nearly twenty years ago, Mr. Henderson, he
says, did not practise the one-shift system; but he did not shift his large
specimens of heaths, camellias, oranges, &c., oftener than once in three or
four years. The meshes of his sieves were of the same width (above an inch)

General Notices. ao}

as those recommended by Mr. M‘Nab in his Treatise on Cape Heaths. Mr.
Couper assures us that most, if not all, of the best modern practices in propa-
gating and rearing plants were Known and practised by Mr. Henderson before
the commencement of the present century, and he refers for proofs to the
Caledonian Horticultural Societys Memoirs. In Mr. Couper’s nursery we ob-
served a number of rare plants which he is propagating rapidly, more especially
some of the new hybrid rhododendrons, which he increases by budding and by
herbaceous grafting ; placing the stocks, after they have received the bud or
graft, on heat, and covering them with a hand-glass in the greffe étouffée
manner, — Cond.

The most economical Mode of dividing a Square Plot of Ground. —I have
this year two pieces of turnips, of ten acres each, nearly square, which I
intend to divide by hurdles into eight divisions each, for eating on the ground
by sheep and young cattle: now it is plain that if I divide them straight
across the field, from hedge to hedge, I shall have seven settings of hurdles,
of 220 yards in length in each field, making in the whole a length of 3080
yards for setting hurdles at different times.

To savelabour,I A a B
therefore adopt the
method explained
in the annexed di-
agram, jig. 79.

Suppose the fi- ¢
gure ABCD to bea
square field of ten
acres, then a 6 will
be the first setting
of hurdles, ¢ d the
second, 65 e the 7
third,c f the fourth,
6b g the fifth, h i
the sixth, 6 & the
seventh, and J m
the eighth ; in the
whole, eight settings
of 110 yards each,
or 880 yards; in
both pieces 1760
yards, or one mile : 7 Z
and the turnips will Fig. 79. Diagram showing the most econonucal Mode of hurdling aff
be eaten in rotation a Field of Turnips.
as the plots of ground are numbered.

D

Pa ae Yards.

Length of hurdling in former way - 3080
Length of ditto in latter way == - 1760
Saving of labour - - - 1320

—(Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 346.)

This article may afford the gardener and planter some useful hints relative
to the division of ground into beds, the sheltering it by hedges, or the distri-
bution of surface or underground drains. — Cond.

Scott’s Patent Improvements in Cast-Iron, Wrought-Iron, and Soft-Metal
Pipes. — Since the vastly extended use, in recent times, of pipes for gas-lighting,
and heating by air, water, and steam, a ready mode of joining numerous
lengths of pipes tightly together, and of disjoining them again at pleasure, has
become every day more and more a desideratum. The old spigot and faucet
joint, commonly used for cold-water pipes, was never, even with the aid of
the best soldering, a very sound one ; and, when applied to pipes constantly

y 3

322 Foreign Notices: — France, Italy.

subject to heat, or to the pressure of highly elastic fluids, proved utterly
useless. The various sorts of flange and thimble joints were found but little
better. The cement joints of the butt, mitre, and T forms, now so commonly
used by gas-fitters, are, under ordinary pressures, sound joints, and soon
made ; but, like all joints depending for their tightness on cements, which
must be applied in a hot state, they are unavoidably the cause of a good deal
of trouble, and of some cost, when one pipe, or any number of pipes, of a
series is required to be removed for repair or renewal, or for any purpose of
temporary convenience. In the right and left hand screw joint, introduced
by Mr. Perkins, mechanical pressure has been substituted with excellent
effect for the ordinary cements ; but this, too, is liable to the objection that
any pipe of a series thus jointed together cannot be removed or replaced
without great dfficulty. Mr. Perkins endeavoured to obviate this objection
by an improvement which he patented a year or two ago, though with but in-
different success. What was still left wanting, by all who had applied their
ingenuity to the subject, was, a mode of connexion at once perfectly tight
and easily dissolvable ; a sort of joint which could with equal readiness be
made and unmade, and in the unmaking thereof be attended with little trouble
and no expense.

The improvements we speak of are variously modified as they relate to
cast-iron pipes, wrought-iron pipes, and soft-metal pipes; but they have this
general and remarkable characteristic, that every pipe carries, as it were, its
own key, by which it can be made fast and unfast at pleasure; the key, too,
so inseparable from the pipe that it can never be mislaid, and a key so simple
withal that it requires only to be turned round. (Mech. Mag., Feb. 11.
1843.)

Art. Il. Foreign Notices.

FRANCE.

GRAFTING the Vine. —It is now becoming general, in this part of France, to
graft the vine in the vineyards. I employ a man for this purpose, who last
year grafted 4000 stocks. We have the best of grapes here, which in the
ripening season are eaten by every body in immense quantities. I have been
in the habit of forwarding contributions to periodical publications during the
last fifty years ; and, so far back as the year 1790, was a constant writer in the
Annals of Agriculture, and, even now that age has checked my activity, I employ
some hours every day at my writing-table. I have a small but productive
garden, in which I take my exercise and watch the cultivation of my vines and
roses with great pleasure. Every returning spring seems to bring new plea-
sures, and I am especially delighted with the bulbous flowers, such as the
scillas and the wild tulips, which, with many others cultivated in gardens in
England, are indigenous in this neighbourhood.— Z. W. Blois, March 12.
1843.

Camellias have been raised from seed in the open air in the Botanic Garden
at Avranches by M. Bataille, the curator of that establishment. M. Bataille
and his friends appear to think that, by being raised in the open air, and allowed
to continue there without protection, the species will become acclimatised ;
but, though the mdividual plants will doubtless prove hardier than if they had
been brought up ina greenhouse, we doubt the possibility of increasing the
hardiness of the species. (See Journal d Avranches, May 12. 1843.)

ITALY.

Monza, April 27. 1843.— I have delayed hitherto from sending you the
remainder of my critiques on the different articles in your valuable periodical

Foreign Notices : — Italy. 323

from sheer want of time. His Imperial Highness, my master, seeing that the
stoves of these royal gardens were not capable of containing the number of
exotic plants which he possessed, and that he could not gratify his ardent
desire of enriching his collection with new species, ordered two others to be
constructed, each of the length of 18°10 metres, breadth, 6°10 metres, and
of the height of 6°65 metres. They are to be heated by Perkins’s method.
But I have been more particularly occupied in laying out a new botanic
garden for perennial exotics only. Ihave distributed them as you have sug-
gested in your Hortus Britannicus, in the Introduction to the Natural System.
I divided accordingly the whole area into six compartments, four of which I
destined for Exogens, viz. three for the subdivision Dichlamydez, which com-
prehends the Thalamiflore, Calycifloree, and Corollifloree ; the fourth for the
subdivision Monochlamydee ; the fifth was destined for the Endogens, and the
last for the Acrogens. Then I subdivided these compartments into as many
spots as there are orders or families which comprehend perennial exotic plants
that live in the open air, so that the surface of this garden (unquestionably
new for Italy, as all the botanic gardens which I have hitherto seen, and which
I know, are geometrically laid out) has the appearance of a geographical map
on which the empires, kingdoms, and principalities are laid down.

During the last year the collection of these royal gardens has been much.
enriched. I shall here transcribe, to avoid prolixity, only those trees and
shrubs which stand the open air. Acer campéstre lavigatum A. Brit., A. c.
heterocarpum Booth, A. c. tatiricum Booth, A. lobatum Bosc, A. cdlehicum
Hort., A. col. rubrum Booth, A.tatricum Booth; Anus autumnalis Lodd.,
A. denticulata C. A. Meyer, A. subcordata C. A. Meyer, A. barbata C. A.
Meyer, A. oblongata W. ; Bérberis heterophylla Juss., B. sanguinolénta Schr.,
B. buxifolia Lam., B. hybrida Booth, B. mitis Schr. ; Bétula grandis Schr.,
B, alba pontica Hort., B. a. urticefolia Hort., B. glandulosa Lodd., B. Thouini
Lodd.; Baxus sempervirens caucdsica Booth ; Caléphaca wolgarica Fisch. ;
Caprifolium proliferum Booth ; Carpinus Carpinizza Hort.; Castanea vésca asple-
nifolia Hort., C. v. downtoniana Booth; Céltis occidentalis scabriaiscula W. ;
Cérasus Psetido-Cérasus Lindl., C.hyemalis Mz.; Clématis nepalénsis Dec.,
C. sibirica Mill., C. smilacifolia Waill., C. sp. of North India ; Cratz‘gus Oxyac.
reginze Hort., C. O. punicea A. Brit., C. apiifolia minor A. Brit., C. Douglasi
Lindl., C. macracantha Lodd., C. purpurea Bosc, C. altaica A. Brit. ; C¥tisus tri-
florus Hort., C. purp. atropurptreus Hort., C.p. incarnatus major Hort., C.p.
incarnatus minor Hort., C. p.roseus Hort. ; Deutza canéscens Sieb., D. undu-
lata Booth ; Eledgnus horténsis eryvanénsis H. Vind., E.h. soongarica H.
Vind., E. salicifolia Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs ; Fraxinus oxyphylla taurica
Booth ; Genista thyrsiflora Booth; Hédera Helix chrysocarpa A. Brit. ; Hip-
pophaé salicifolia D. Don; Juniperus flaccida Schicht., J. nepalénsis Hort., J.
comminis oblonga A. Brit., J. c. Smithid A. Brit., J. c. canadénsis Eneyc. of
Trees and Shrubs, J. c. nana W.,~J. c. oblonga péndula FE. of T'r. and Sh., J.
lycia L., J. recirva Ham., J. Sabina variegita Hort., J. Sabina prostrata A.
Brit., J. Bedfordiana Hort., J. squamata Don, J. thurifera Z. ; Ligustrum vulg.
angustifolium A. Brit., L.v. fl. [not fr.] liteo Booth ; Mahonia Royle: Booth,
M. sp. of North India; Merténsia levigata H. B. § K.; Menispérmum dahu-
ricum Dec,; Philadélphus coronarius fl. pl., P. mexicanus Schlcht., P. tomen-
tosus Wall., P. Gordonidnus Lind!. ; Pépulus balsamifera macrophylla Booth,
P.balsamifera suaveolens A. Brit., P. b. salicifolia A. Brit., P.candicans bél-
gica H. Vind., P.trémula péndula A. Brit., P. trépida W. 3, P. trépida 9 ;
Pinus Coilteri Doug., P. T'eocdte Schicht., P. patula Schlcht., P. excélsa Wall.,
P. Pseiido-Strobus Lindl., P. Hartwégi Lindl., P. odcarpa Schiede, P. odcar-
poides Benth., P. Russelliana Lindl., P. apulcénsis Lindl., P. macrophylla
Lindl., P. filifolia Lindl., P. californiana Lois., P. occidentalis Swz., P. Monte-
zum@ Lamb., P.leioph§lla Chamisso, P. pérsica Hort. ; A’bies Smithidna Lind. ;
Picea ‘religiosa A. Brit.; Arauciria imbricata Pav., A, Cunninghamia Ait.;
Paulownia imperialis Sieb. ; Primus spinosa dalcis Booth ; Pyrus pubens Lindl.,

y 4

324 Foreign Notices: — North America.

P. latifolia glabrata Booth ; P.heteroph¥lla Steud. ; Potentilla glabra Booth ;
Rhamnus Pallas f. et m. Hort. Brit., R. spatulefolia f. et m., &. dahurica
Pall. ; Quéreus castaneifolia C. A. Meyer, Q. castaneifolia caucasica Booth, Q.
mongolica Fisch., Q. pannéonica Booth, Q. rubra taraxacifolia Booth, Q. rubra
undulata Booth, Q. xalapénsis H. B., Q. sp. cochleata Booth ; Ribes resindsum
Ph., R. Menziést Ph., R. nigrum fruct. maximo, R. rigens Mzx.; Rubus nut-
kanus Mocin., R. hirtus W. K.; Rhas copallina leucantha Jacg.; Spartium
scoparium fl. pleno; Spirze‘a alpina Pad/., S. lanceolata Poir. ; J’axus Harring-
toma Knight, Z’. baccata fastigiata A. Brit.; Thuja nepalénsis Lodd., T.
orientalis stricta Hort.; Tetranthéra geniculata Nees, Tilia europe‘a Hort.
(not L.), 7. e. grandifolia corylifolia H. Vind.,.T’. e. begoniefolia Booth, T’. e.
dasystyla Booth, T. americana heterophylla A. Brit., T.a. macrophylla H.
Vind. ; Vaccinium salicinum Chamisso, V. sibiricum Horé., V. uliginosum L., V.
elevatum Banks, V. corymbosum L., V. halleriefolium Lodd., V. colchicum
Booth ; U\mus montana Heyneana H. Vind. ; Vibarnum dauricum Pall.

By this you will see the love our excellent viceroy has for plants, and for
the advancement of his favourite science in the kingdom committed to his

care. The catalogue of the plants in these royal gardens is now being printed ;_

as soon as it 1s finished I will send you a copy that you may have some idea
of what we possess.

The Bokhara clover has germinated ; when it is tolerably grown, it will be
transplanted as your correspondent Taylor did, who was very successful with it.

We shall see if it succeeds equally well here, and what comparison it bears

with the common clover and with the lucern, with respect to the quantity and
quality of the forage.

The cultivation of heart’s eases, called Pensées Anglaises, because the finest
came from your happy country, where horticulture is carried to the highest
pitch, is all the fashion here. Although I am not a fashionable man, yet even
I am enchanted with so lovely a flower, of which there are some very fine
ones. — Giuseppe Manetti.

NORTH AMERICA.

Indigenous Trees of North America not yet introduced. — It is very true, as
you observe, that in Torrey and Gray’s Flora a great many trees and shrubs,
as well as herbaceous plants, are deseribed, which are not yet introduced into
England ; and I have sometimes thought of collecting them, and cultivating
them for sale. To do this profitably, however, I would require to give it
personal attention, which at present I cannot do, having a very extensive

business already on hand ; and good practical labour cannot be permanently:

secured here unless at a very extravagant rate. As soon as young men are
two or three years in my employ, and save a few hundred dollars, they at
once begin in some part of the States on their own account. If they have
proved faithful to me, I give them a quantity of stuff, at little or no charge, to
begin upon. My nursery foreman and house propagator have each forty dollars
a month.— U. Philadelphia, Feb. 14, 1843.

State of the Country.— This country is at present under a cloud of dis-
graceful distress. Bankruptcy, a few years ago, was considered a branded
shame upon the individual or corporation ; but now honour has gone to the
winds, and its place is occupied with roguery and breaches of trust. There
have been 1500 failures in this city and county during the past fifteen months ;
and hundreds of individuals who lived in comparative wealth, whose all was
invested in stocks, are now in actual want of food and raiment. The widow
and daughters who lived in style are now in a room or garret, sewing for
their daily bread. Men who had retired from business with honour, and
whose heads were silvered with age, have again begun the world of trade
without a penny. Consequently, in all this wreck our business has suffered
severely ; our losses have been great indeed. In this city there were, in
1842, seven stores, or shops, the occupiers of which lived by selling seeds and

ne

Foreign Notices: — New Zealand. 325

plants, five of which have failed. The last bankrupt notice I had was a few
days ago, from the old, and considered wealthy, house of M‘Mahon and Co. ;
an event which has been daily expected since last September. I think we
have now touched the bottom, and that our star is again on the ascendant.
We anticipate, therefore, the dawning of brighter days. I cannot close this
without calling your attention to the tact and talent of the gardeners that are
- required for this world of labour. It grieves me to see many of our profession
arrive without a solitary reference as to their abilities and character, which
should be from men of public standing in England to some nurseryman of the
United States, who then can with confidence recommend such to situations ;
which, by the by, are “few and far between,” but yet, when obtained, are
generally worth keeping. It is working, reading, thinking, temperate men we
want ; and, as we go on the locomotive principle, they must move actively ;
and independently of these qualities, if they have not a knowledge of trees and
plants, they had better not cross the Atlantic. The period of arrival should
be in March and April: at any other time it will be difficult for strangers to
find employment. It is a fact, that many come as ignorant of the present
advanced state of horticulture, as if they had just emanated from the middle of
the sixteenth century in a confused dream of the science of British gardening
in the present day. — U. Philadelphia, Feb. 14. 1843.

The Culture of American Vines in Germany.—You will perhaps be surprised
when we tell you that, of the American species and varieties of grape vine,
there are not less than 200 sorts deserving cultivation for the table or the
wine-press, and that we have this month executed an order for 120 plants, of
thirty varieties, for the Margrave of Baden.—W. R. Prince and Co. Flush-
ing, near New York, Jan. 30. 1843.

NEW ZEALAND.

The New Zealand Horticultural Society. —1 have the pleasure to inform
you that the Jardin des Plantes of Paris has last autumn made a large col-
lection of seeds, and sent them to Mr. Ward, New Zealand House, London,
to be forwarded to the Horticultural Society at Wellington, New Zealand. I
expect that by this time the word Zoological is added to the term Horticul-
tural, and that the Society will print their Transactions quarterly, and forward
them to England. I have no doubt that the settlements which have been
made in this island will, in a few years, be among the most important of
English colonies. Nelson appears to be backed by an almost boundless extent
of country, admirably adapted for English agriculture and gardening, with
a superior climate, and land of inexhaustible fertility. The river Nelson
flows through a yalley of 10,000 acres of rich alluvial soil. — £. W. Blois,
March 12. 1843.

The Wellington Horticultural and Botanical Society was formed at Port
Nicholson before that settlement was two years old. It is prosperous, and
has already been extremely useful. The secretary of the Society, Dr. Feather-
stone, is in correspondence with Mr. Robertson, the superintendant of the
Botanical Gardens, Sydney, who has already contributed a number of plants
and cuttings; and with Messrs. Loddiges, who, in a letter to R. Stokes, Esq.,
treasurer to the Society, published in the New Zealand Colonist of Sept. 9.
1842, offer to send out boxes of whatever may be required from England, in
exchange for the same boxes returned full of native plants, more especially
Coniferze, Orchidez, and Ferns. Of all the countries that we have ever heard
of, New Zealand is the one that a person whose delight is in plants should
prefer to emigrate to; because, though its native flora is one of the most
limited found in territories of equal extent, yet such is the mildness of the cli-
mate, that plants from a greater number of different regions may be grown in it,
than can be grown, as far as we know, in any other part of the world. Under
the protection of glass, with scarcely any artificial heat, we believe the pine-
apple, and every other sub-tropical and tropical plant, may be cultivated ;

326 Domestic Notices : — England.

and the mosses of Sweden and Norway may be grown on the mountains.
Young gardeners and farmers who can command 100/. or 200/. cannot, all
circumstances considered, emigrate to a better country. There may be better
bargains got in Canada, and more money to be made there, but. the severe
winters are great drawbacks to rural occupation and enjoyment. We are
happy to think that one very excellent gardener, Mr. Trotter, late gardener
to J. T. Brook, Esq., of Flitwick, Mrs. Trotter, and their two sons and two
daughters, sailed for New Zealand on the 15th of the present month, May,
1843. — Cond.

Art. III. Domestic Notices.

ENGLAND.

THE Botanical Section of the Tower Street Mutual Instruction Society hold
their meetings one evening weekly, at a quarter past 8 o’clock. The prospec-
tus is before us of twenty-four Lectures on Botany, the subscription for the
whole of which is only one shilling. The lecture room is in No. 16. Great
Tower Street, and there are several gardeners who attend, though nothing
like so many as would do so were they aware of the very moderate charges.
Meetings for discussion are held on the evenings of every Monday and Wed-
nesday. The lecturer on Botany is Mr. Robinson, and there are above
twelve other gentlemen who lecture on Chemistry, Entomology, Geometry,
Drawing, Agriculture, Domestic Economy, and a great variety of other sub-
jects. This Institution was commenced in January 1836, and only requires
to be known to gbtain the support of the neighbourhood. — Cond. :

Warping Lands on the Thames.— Some months ago, one of the banks which
protect Crayford Level, near Dartford, from the overflowing of high tides
gave way, and the river tlowed over several acres during sixteen tides, leaving
a deposit of nearly an eighth of an inch in thickness of rich sediment every
tide. Those lands are now let at a rental of from 20s. to 30s. per acre per
annum, and I have no hesitation in saying that I would engage to make thein
worth three times that rental within eight or ten years, at a trifling expense.
I know lands on the banks of the river Parrott, in Somersetshire, let at
four guineas per acre, but the sediment floating up and down that river is not
to be compared to the rich manure of the Thames, which takes the wash of
London. — James Easton. 80. Blackfriars Road, May 10. 1843.

Draining. —The Duke of Hamilton has been making considerable improve-
ments in the neighbourhood of Garstang for some years past, not only in
draining but in the fences and water courses. All the unsightly fences and
water courses have been removed, and new ones made. Some may be seen, I
suppose, half a mile long, and the fields made about 17 rods wide, parallel
to each other, which gives them a very striking effect when viewed from a
distance. Cross fences are also made at proper distances with great judgement,
and there is no doubt that a great quantity of land will be brought into culti-
vation by these improvements which has lain uncultivated for ages. The fol-
lowing is the plan of the fences e j
and water courses. Fig. 80. a
is the water course into which
the turf drains run; 6, the
thorns or hedge ; the bank is
raised a very little above the
field when the thorns are plant-
ed, as shown in the figure.
When the thorns have stood
about a year, the angle ¢ is
sloped down to the thorn, as __ Fig. 80. Section of the Hedge and Ditch Fences at Garstang,
shown by the dotted line. The reason of the bank being raised at the first

Domestic Notices : — England. 327

higher on one side than the thorn, is to protect it from the wind, and to give
heat to the roots from the sun. When the thorns have got completely esta-
blished, the other part of the bank, as shown by the dotted line d, is removed ;
e shows that there are posts fixed, to which rails are attached to protect the
thorns from the cattle. On the other side of the fence they are protected by
the water course; ff show the turf drains leading into the main water course.
The Duke of Hamilton being very desirous of getting as much fencing as
possible finished and planted every year, planting has been in consequence car-
ried on into the month of May. Much doubt was entertained the first year,
whether planting in May would succeed, as the thorns were come into full leaf ;
but that doubt. has been fairly removed, as the thorns planted in May have
answered quite as well as those planted in autumn, February, March, and
April. — M. Saul. Garstang, March 11. 1843. [See F. Wilkamson in Gard.
Chron., vol. i. p. 325.]

The Smoke given off from the Chimneys of manufacturing Establishments in
the Neighbourhood of the Metropolis has become such a nuisance to the market-
gardeners, that they have got up a petition on the subject. The prayer of
the petition is, that parliament would pass some legislative enactment by
which the nuisance may be abolished, convinced, as the petitioners are, that
there are means in existence by which the smoke may be consumed or ren-
dered innoxious, to the great saving of the manufacturer, the advantage of
the cultivator, and the general salubrity of the metropolitan atmosphere.—Cond.

The Practical and Scientific Association for the Promotion of improved Street
Paving. — The objects of this Association are: — To form a museum of all
the improved systems for making carriage-ways ; to collect and disseminate
the most correct information respecting them; to invite the cooperation of
men eminent for their practical and scientific experience 6n this subject; to
adopt such measures as will insure justice and impartiality to inventors and
patentees ; to pursue such a course as will lead to the introduction of that
pavement, which, for its general utility and economy, shall not fail to obtain
the approbation of the public at large; and, finally, to assist the rate-payers,
in any locality, in procuring the introduction of wood, or any better system
of pavement, in conformity with the wishes of the majority of the residents.
The office is at 20. Vere Street, Oxford Street; and the secretary is J. W.
G. Gutch, Esq., author of the Literary and Scientific Register, reviewed p. 81.

The Asscciation offers the benefit of organised over individual efforts .
it proceeds upon the broad principles of public good, eschewing private in-
terests on the one side, and acting independently of personal opposition on the
other. Its province is emphatically to ascertain facts, and to demonstrate
truths, not to offer an intemperate antagonism to allowed privileges, nor to
stop short of its utmost ability to overcome factious opposition. _ Pursuing
this course, the committee have to submit, That wood paving has so far
advanced in practice as to make its general adoption in the leading thorough-
fares of the metropolis a highly probable event. The committee found their
opinion on the following grounds, viz.: 1st. The comparative quiet produced ;
2dly, Its greater cleanliness ; 3dly, Its greater durability; 4thly, Its greater
facility of traction ; 5thly, Its economy in point of expense ; and, 6thly, Its
greater advantages, in all respects, when compared with granite, paved, or
Macadamised streets. But this is not all: the committee are in possession
of the most satisfactory proofs, that, in situations where wood paving is
adopted, business increases, and the value of house property is enhanced. —
Den GG.

[We have elsewhere suggested that wood pavement is well adapted for the
ground floors of schools and labourers’ cottages ; and we understand that it
is already being adopted even in the floors of kitchens of street houses.]

Tile Draining in Northamptonshire.— The ground can be opened to the
depth of 18 in. for the reception of the tiles at 6d. per chain ; and the soles
for the tiles, and the tiles, laid in for 3d. per chain. The cost of the tiles is
30s. per thousand, and of the soles 20s. per thousand; and three tiles and

328 Domestic Notices : — Scotland.

three soles are required for each yard, consequently 66 of each fora chain, at
a cost of 54d. per yard in the one case, and 33d. per yard in the other. Total
expense of tile draining per chain in Northamptonshire, 21s. Moving soil in
the same county costs, for a distance of two chains, 6d. per cubic yard, and
the price of labour is 9s. a week. —J. M. Northamptonshire, Dec. 1842.

Leamington Spa, Warwickshire. — In the course of the last winter many
trees have been planted along the principal roads, and in many of the open
spaces belonging to the town, thus contributing materially to its ornament,
and to the production of shade and shelter, and at the same time employing
labourers who could not otherwise have got work. The expense was defrayed
by subscription, and two of the most active gentlemen on this occasion were
Mr. Hitchman and Mr. Cullis.

Gigantic Raspberries. — When I altered Walton Hall, I destroyed the finest
garden, for its size, in Yorkshire. But there was no help for it. I was ab-
solutely forced to turn Vandal, and blot it out from the face of the earth.
The raspberries in it always grew to the height of 14 ft. Situation caused
this growth. I once, in my rambles in Lancashire, fell in with a like situation,
and there I found wild raspberries growing fully as high. To obtain this lux-
uriant growth, the situation must be low and rich; and the raspberry plants
must be shielded from the noonday sun by trees, or a high wall. Trees, I
should say, would be better. We had always wooden steps on purpose to
reach the fruit. My father sent plants of these raspberries to his friends in
Yorkshire, and in the county of Nottingham, but they answered not the ex-
pectations which had been formed of them. When I destroyed the garden,
I saved a sufficient quantity of plants to be cultivated elsewhere. They are
still in existence, and their puny growth informs me that I must never more
expect to see them in their former luxuriance. When I removed the soil on
which they had flourished so surprisingly, I found stony fragments at the
bottom, through which there ran a stream of water which got vent from the
mouth of a drain at the opposite side of the garden. — Charles Waterton.
Walton Hall, May 19. 1843.

Victoria Rhubarb produces by far the largest stalks of any of the new va-
rieties, and it is scarcely too much to say that it is equally superior in flavour
and suitableness for culinary purposes. In this respect it may be compared to
some of the largest Lancashire gooseberries, the flavour of which is not always
deteriorated by size. — Cond.

SCOTLAND.

The Kirkintilloch and Campsie Horticultural Society has been instituted chiefly
for the encouragement of horticulture among cottagers. Prizes are given for
the best kept cottage garden in a particular parish or district. Tie intending
competitors give in their names at the beginning of the season, and their
gardens are visited, from time to time, by the officers of the Society. Miss
Horrocks, a very young lady, who is an enthusiastic member of this Society,
has offered a prize for the best essay on the culture of any flower, by amateur
cultivators and cottagers ; and also for the best canary-bird, goldfinch, and
the best three singing birds.

Pine Cones a valuable Fuel. — Dr. Howison, lecturer on botany in Edin-
burgh, met with the following occurrence in Fifeshire, during one of his
botanical excursions. Calling at the cottage of a medical practitioner, a
former pupil of his, he found the Esculapius going to mount his pony to visit
his patients. Upon the two friends meeting, the practitioner remarked,
“ Doctor, it is not every day I see you, we must go in and have a haver.”
Upon entering the parlour there was no fire. He rung the bell ; his house-
keeper came in carrying in her white apron a quantity of dried pine cones and
a lighted candle in her hand. She threw the cones into the polished grate,
broke a coal into pieces, and laid them over them. She then applied the
candle, when almost instantaneously they broke into a beautiful strong flame,

Retrospective Criticism. 329

from the great quantity of turpentine they contained. They soon set fire to
the coals, and in a few minutes a delightful warm fire was the result. A few
blasts of the bellows might be an improvement. Next followed the decanters
and glasses ; and, it may perhaps be unnecessary to add, the two doctors made
themselves comfortable in front of the cone fire. The practitioner obtained
this knowledge in the following manner. He was attending a poor woman
residing close to the forest. She could not pay him. With the gratitude of
the rural population, next morning her two daughters came to his house, each
carrying a sack filled with dried pine cones collected in the wood. They told
him they were for kindling a fire, and if he had no coals they would make an
excellent durable fire of themselves. The cones of the Pinus silvéstris, or
Scotch fir, contain a great quantity of solid woody matter in addition to the
resinous, and are excellently adapted for fuel. They are used over Italy,
Switzerland, &c. This circumstance is little known ; and the intention of
these remarks is to recommend their use to the poor population of Scotland.
— H, Edinburgh. Dec. 1842.

Remarkable Mountain Ash.— There was cut last week on the estate of
Ochtertyre, belonging to Sir William Keith Murray, a mountain ash, or rowan
tree, which measured 96 in. in circumference about 7 ft. from the ground, the
branches covering an area the diameter of which was upwards of 46 ft. This
remarkable tree was upwards of eighty years old; but the wasting hand of
time having at last seized upon its aged trunk, the forester was under the
painful necessity of cutting it down. (Caledonian Mercury, Nov. 26. 1842.)

Art. IV. Retrospective Criticism.

Improvine Churchyards.—I read your articles in the Gardener's Magazine
(p. 93. 141. and 215.) with great interest. We may be pretty sure that a
disposition to rescue churchyards from their now generally ruinous and dis-
graceful condition will become more and more prevalent. The self-evident
improvement in every way, the force of example, and the progress of taste, in
accordance with the attention bestowed on church buildings, will induce
people to put these depositories of our forefathers into a more decorous con-
dition. We ought to get rid of the nuisances of cattle in churchyards. Sheep
are the only animals permitted by law ; but I have seen the law evaded, and
cows and horses turned in. Our grasping churchmen will give up nothing, if
they can avoid it; and, I dare say, would make a strong fight to retain their
right of turning sheep into their freehold. However, I am one of those who
look upon their property as national property placed in trust; and very bad
trustees they make: so that I hope to live to see the nation resume posses-
sion of it all ; investigate it rigidly, reform the disposal of it, and place it alto-
gether on a different footing. —H. A. M. May 3. 1843.

The Volume on Cemeteries. (p. 314.)—I have now read your volume on ceme-
teries and churchyards, and I sincerely hope you have made a great step
towards rescuing us from a barbarism which does not exist among Turks and
Chinese, of leaving the depositories of our dead in at once a disgraceful and
pestiferous condition. I dare not venture to offer any ideas upon a subject
which you have so well considered and explained. It will certainly take hold
of the public mind eventually. There is, however, a fashion in these matters,
as in most others. No doubt, the Duke of Sussex’s interment will give an
impetus to the fashion of cemeteries; and I hope ornamental churchyards will
follow. There is a difficulty in the latter case. At whose expense can the
improvement be effected? Not one out of twenty of our parsons will stir ;
and, to effect your proposal contained in the note to p. 80. at the end of the
volume, we should have to apply a very considerable lever to bishops and
archdeacons. The churchwardens, who misspend a good deal of money, and

330 Retrospective Criticism.

do a variety of jobs in bell-ropes and things of that kind, would run very
rusty were any plan of laying out a sixpence upon the churchyard proposed.
Tam a churchwarden, and, after doing all I can for the decent support and
maintenance of the fabric of the church, fight desperate battles with the
churchmen in resisting their unwarrantable claims to fees at visitations. I
believe these fees are illegal, and cannot be enforced; but I am threatened
with all sorts of spiritual punishments, excommunication, and what not, to all
of which I am perfectly indifferent. But were the moneys now demanded as
visitation fees laid out in improving churchyards, there would be sufficient to
keep them in very high order. We want a reform in these matters more than
in any other. There are popular prejudices with regard to interments which
have to be overcome, and which are generally more durable than any other
impressions, as they are founded on religious superstition; just as Sir G.
Wilkinson tells us that the incision in mummies was always performed with a
flint, long after the introduction of ron as an instrument, because the system
originated before the use of metals. The Cornelian family at Rome kept up
the custom of interring the dead entire, long after the practice of cremation.
Sylla was the first of his race who ordered his body to be burned. In the
same way our peasants, although immensely attached to their churchyards, are
averse to alterations, such as planting trees. We had some limes planted in
our churchyard many years ago, which, for a time, gave great offence. The
grand assemblage of trees in a necropolis of the extent you contemplate would
produce a noble effect. Allan Cunningham wished, naturally enough, to
repose where daisies grew ; and another poet (Moore) describes the wish of
the friends of the departed, to

“ make her a grave where the sunbeams rest,
When they promise a glorious morrow.”

To a lover of the vegetable world, a desire to repose amid a forest of vari¢us
trees is the most consonant to his pursuits and feelings. Hitherto we have
been contented in England with the yew, as the southern nations were with the
cypress, which alone Horace permits to follow us to the grave:

“« Neque harum, quas colis, arborum
Te, preter invisas cupressus,
Ulla brevem dominum sequetur.”

“ The cypress only, hated tree,
Of all‘thy much-loved groves, shall thee
Its short-lived lord attend.” FRANCIs’s trans.

But enough for the present.—H. A. M. May 3. 1843.

Preservation of Fruits. — After what I sent you in my last letter [see
p. 186.], I know not what there is of novelty in the method of preserving fruits
by M. Loiseleur Deslongchamps so much lauded in the French journals, and
announced in the Mémorial Encyclopédique for 1838, p. 420., in these terms :—
“The Royal Society of Horticulture formerly proposed a prize for the preserv-
ation of fruits; the question has been completely resolved by M. Loiseleur
Deslongchamps, who has decided that it is necessary to have recourse to arti-
ficial cold to retard the maturation of fruits and to render it stationary, and to
whom a gold medal has been awarded in consequence at the general meeting
of the 3d of June, 1838. His simple and inexpensive method, which consists
in keeping the fruit well enclosed and protected from moisture, and at an equal
temperature a little above that of melting ice, might have been made a very
advantageous speculation for the inventor; but this learned agriculturist pre-
ferred giving gratuitously to the public a process which will no doubt become
the basis of a new species of industry. M. Loiseleur Deslongchamps had
boxes made of zinc 1 ft. high and 6 in. broad, with a detached lid of the same
metal with a projecting rim. He wrapped each of his pears in a piece of thin (?)
paper (papier Joseph), and over that another cover of common brown paper ;
the pears being thus enveloped, he placed them in layers in his boxes till they

Retrospective Criticism. 331

were full. Each box contained, in general, from eighteen to twenty pears, dis-
posed in four or five layers, one above another, and the pears only separated
from each other by the thickness of the sheet of paper. The boxes being
filled, M. Loiseleur Deslongchamps replaced the lid, sealed it hermetically by
pasting thick paper on the rim, placed several of these little zinc boxes in a
wooden case, and deposited the whole in an ice-house immediately on the ice.”

The wells and cisterns of Marcus Columella have the same effect as the ice-
house of M. Loiseleur Deslongchamps ; and the closing hermetically, and the
impermeability to moisture, are found as well in the vases of Columella as in
the zinc boxes of M. Loiseleur ;: it only remains to be seen if the fruit pre-
served according to the process of Loiseleur turns speedily sour, like the
grapes preserved according to the method of Columella.

All this, and many other things which for brevity’s sake I omit, might be
communicated to M. W. C. Bosse, who announces : “ I intend to make more
experiments on preserving plums, particularly by putting them in closely
stopped bottles, and immersing them in water.” There is no doubt but this
attempt will be successful, because an equal temperature and exclusion of air
seem to be the principal agents in preserving fruit, and where can both be
obtained with greater certainty than in water ? (See Gardener's Magazine, for
1839, p. 604.) — Giuseppe Manetti. Monza, April 27. 1843.

Cato’s Method of preserving Grapes.—“ The ancients for the most part pre-
served in vases the sircitulan, venuculan, larger aminian, and Gallic grapes,
and those which had the largest berries, hard and loose. Now, in general,
the grapes of Numidia are more especially preserved for this use. They are
gathered when they are tolerably ripe, in a calm sky, when the sun has dis-
pelled the dew, at the fourth or third hour, in the wane of the moon and after
it has set. The stalks are immediately sealed, and they are then put upon a
lattice in such a way that one bunch does not touch or rub against another.
Having done this, they are brought in doors and the decayed berries are cut
off with the scissors ; and being somewhat refreshed in the shade, three or
four bunches are put in an earthen vessel, and, the lid being put on, they are
thoroughly sealed down, so that no moisture may penetrate. After this a mass
of grape dregs which have been well pressed are thrown on the top of them,
and after having scattered about the stalks a little, and separated the husks,
you form a bed of them in the cask, in which these vases are to be distributed
with the mouth downwards, and so much space left between them as that the
dregs may be heaped up and trodden in. This first bed being made with the
dregs well trodden in, in the same manner another is formed with the vases.
Afterwards, other strata are formed with the vases in a similar manner in the
casks, and in the intervals the dregs are well pressed in. After which the
dregs are heaped up to the brim of the cask, which is immediately covered,
and the lid fastened down with ashes prepared like cement. We must warn
those who buy the vases not to purchase those that are porous or ill burnt,
because, in either case, they would admit the damp, which would spoil the
grapes. It is also necessary in taking out the vases to remove an entire layer
of them, for, when the accumulated husks are once moved, the grapes soon be-
come sour and spoil.’? — Idem.

Garden Walks.—In order that garden walks should not be dusty or muddy,
and be easier to free from grass, or rather produce as little as possible of it,
it was proposed in your Magazine to use asphalt, a sort of gum (catrame), and
pyroligneous acid. (See Vol. for 1839, p. 188, 189. 618. and 619.) Let us see
if there is not something analogous in Marcus Porcius Cato. In chap. 92.
and 130., we read: “In making a walk, let the earth be finely dug and well
saturated with lees of oil, then pulverise it, and level with a roller or mallet.
Sprinkle a second time with lees, and leave it to dry. Such a walk will suffer
no injury from ants, grass will not grow on it, nor will it be sloppy after
showers.” Now, what great difference is there, either in the chemical com-
position or in the effect, between the dregs (morchia) of the ancient Sabine,
and the gum (catrame) and asphalt of the moderns ?— Idem.

332 Queries and Answers.— Obituary.

Nutritive Properties of Eim Leaves.—In the Number for March of the same
year, 1839, p. 125., a notice is given by M. Poiteau of the nutritive properties
of the leaves of the elm, as forage for horned cattle. This is also an idea
contemporary with Cato the censor. In proof of it, let us look at chap. 30.
De Re Rustica: “ Feed the cows on elm, poplar, oak, and fig leaves, as long
as they last.” And also in this neighbourhood, perhaps from tradition, but
more certainly from experience, the leaves of the elm are so esteemed for fat-
tening horned cattle, that the trees are stripped of their leaves twice a year;
and, in fact, there is here no forage nor hay which fattens cattle more quickly
than the foliage of the elm. We may presume that these nutritive properties
depend on the mucilage contained in the parenchymal tissue, and thence we
may conclude that the U’Imus falva, from.what has been said in the Gardener’s
Magazine for April 1840, p. 231., is the most abundant in mucilage, and will
furnish, in its twigs and leaves, the most nutritive fodder for cattle.

If in these and many other things modern discoveries coincide with more
ancient practices, there are also other subjects in which the ancient practice
is entirely discordant to the modern doctrine. Thus, for example, Cato
sowed the seeds of cupressus in soil well manured with sheep or goat dung.
In opposition to this, Prof. Lindley, in his excellent Theory of Horticulture,
p. 354., observes, “‘ coniferous plants can scarcely bear any manure.” — Giuseppe
Manetti. Monza, April 27. 1843.

Yellow Glass suggested for Plant-houses.— A hundred other comparisons
could be made, but let the shades of the ancient Romans repose for the pre-
sent, and let us turn our attention to an argument of the day. From the
excellent observations of the celebrated T. A. Knight, the necessity is evident
of letting the plants repose or grow torpid, to induce them to produce flowers
and fruit in season. Prof. Lindley says that “ very low temperature, under
the influence of much light, by retarding and diminishing the expenditure of
sap of the growth of plants comparatively with its creation, produces nearly
similar effects, and causes an early appearance of fruit.” This being granted,
and the observations of Mr. Horner of Hull and Mr. Hunt, mentioned in
Gard. Mag., 1841, p. 629. and 630., being borne in mind, will it not be useful,
in furnishing the elaborated matter destined for resting plants, to have the
glass of a yellow colour ? — Idem.

Art. V. Queries and Answers.

LARCH Plantations at Linley.—I1 propose visiting the extensive larch plan-
tations of the late Mr. More, of Linley in Shropshire, who, I have been in-
formed, first introduced this tree into our country. This gentleman, upon a
fortune of about 1000/. per annum, clothed a naked country with noble
woods, erected a spacious mansion-house, employed a considerable number
of labourers in various improvements, travelled over most countries in
Europe, collected a valuable library, employed artists in making drawings
in natural history, introduced new species of forest trees and exotics,
was an independent member of the senate in several parliaments, and left
his fortune unencumbered. You will credit me that he was not a man of un-
necessary show and parade. (H. Harries, E'sq., of Hanwood, in Young’s An-
nals of Agriculture, vol. xiii. p. 100.)

Can any of our readers oblige us with an account of the present state of
the larch plantations at Linley, and of the exotic trees introduced there by
Mr. More ? — Cond.

Art. VI. Obituary.

Diep, on the 4th of April, at Sedbury Park, Yorkshire, Wiliam Sawrey
Gilpm, FEsq., Landscape-Gardener, late of Painesfield, East Sheen, aged 81.
(Times, April 7. 1843.)

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
JULY, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. 1. Comparative Physiology. By R. Lympurn.
(Continued from p. 215.)

In Chap. II. On Vital Stimuli, Dr. Carpenter says: — “ It has
been shown in the last chapter, that the actions of living beings
depend on an organised structure possessing vital properties, and
certain agents necessary to call the operation of these properties
into existence. In the higher classes especially, of living beings,
the influence of the stimuli supplied by alimentary materials, heat,
light, electricity, &c., is directed towards the preparation of a
nutrient fluid, which contains the elements of all the solid
tissues of the body, and which not only supplies the materials
of growth, but stimulates the organs to the performance of their
actions. Light, heat, &c., serve as external stimuli, and their
immediate action is upon the simplest of the organic processes.
The nutrient fluid is the chief znternal stimulus to the nu-
tritive actions of the system, assisted by the continued influence
of external agents. The motion of the blood through the lungs
is as dependent upon the influence of the air in ‘the cells, as
sneezing is upon a stimulant applied to the nostrils; and, if the
circulation be suspended, the nerves and muscles lose their
power, from the want of the stimulant action of the blood.
Both the external and internal stimuli must thus be regarded
as vital, as they not only give rise to vital actions, but these
actions conduce to the maintenance of life. The action of the
internal stimuli will be best considered under the functions of
absorption, nutrition, respiration, &e. The dependence of life
_on the external stimuli, heat, light, electricity, &c., is greater in
proportion to the perfection of the structure, and the variety of
its organs, and vice versd. Beimgs of a simple organisation
are capable of enduring a deprivation of these stimuli, which
would be fatal to those higher in the scale; as the more de-
veloped the parts of the system are, the more closely are the
parts connected with one another.
3d Ser, — 1843. VII. Z

334 Comparative Physiology.

“The simpler the condition of any organism, the more sus-
ceptible is it of being modified in form and structure by external
causes. In the more simple embryonic state also, changes are
more easily effected: the germ is hybridised by being furnished
with different nutrient matter from another female parent
than usual; the bee is changed from a working neuter to a
queen by peculiarities in the cell and food; and, among the
lowest groups of plants, there seems reason to believe that the
same germ may assume very different forms, according to the
circumstances under which it is developed.”

Some have denied the existence of any such thing as stimuli
at all, especially as applied to the alimentary materials. It is,
they say, the production of the aliment in a proper form, and
under the requisite circumstances, that produces activity in the
vital functions. When the circulating fluid contains the proper
elements, in the requisite condition for absorption, nutrition,
&c., these functions will become active, which would cease to be
the case, if the necessary changes were not produced by reaction,
&c. The presence of nitrogen in the form of ammonia, and
alkaline substances, in the young shoots and leaves of plants,
producing the well-known dark-green colour so characteristic of
vigour, has been thought to produce a stimulating action on
the organs, increasing their activity. It has been sometimes
known to take place without vigour of growth following; and
it may be doubtful whether it denotes the proper state of the
food for growth merely, or produces a stimulating action.
From the excitability prevalent, however, through all organised
tissues, their capability of being stimulated to action has been
generally inferred. Miiller defines stimulus as a reaction fol-
lowing a disturbing cause, something similar to elasticity, in
which a power of attraction causes the disturbed particles to
communicate the attempt to displace a portion to the whole,
and bring into activity a power of restitution, accompanied by
elasticity. The power of reaction or restitution, he says, in
organised beings, is, however, more uniform than the elasti-
city, &c., of inorganic, and arises from that fundamental property
resident in them, of counterbalancing disturbances in their
composition by a force which, in the healthy state of the body,
is much stronger than the disturbing cause. Dutrochet calls
excitability a state of susceptibility of excitation. The power
of resisting excitation has by others been termed a vital property,
antagonist of that of the chemical or exciting, which tends to
destroy ; and the capability of stimulus would, from the above
definition, appear to be a capability of displaying vital actions,
or a susceptibility thereto. The quiescent state of the vital
principle he terms “a capability of living;” the simplest or-
ganised beings retaining this state longest, and seeming least

Comparative Physiology. 335

dependent on stimuli. He distinguishes between mechanical
stimuli, as pressure, &c., which exhaust, and vital, which re-
novate. ‘ Nutriment is not merely a stimulus of the organic
body ; it is itself susceptible of life ; it is a stimulus which vivi-
fies, and can itself receive vitality. The constant reanimation of
the tissues by the general vital stimuli ordinarily renders them
capable of a proportionate exercise of their functions; but, if
their action is increased and accelerated, subsequent rest is
necessary to restore as much power for new action as has been
thus consumed. Rest alone, however, induces weakness; the
power of an organ is increased by exercise, not carried too far,
and alternating with rest.” The affinity of the tissues for the
vital stimuli seems to be greater where the developement is less
complete, or in the young state. That the power of vitality
is increased by its exercise, I have often before noticed; it is
from this cause that a lazy slow-growing plant is converted, by
cutting in the shoots, into a more vigorous growth; the activity
given by the start made after cutting continues. Sets from
vigorous-grown potatoes, and cuttings and seeds from vigorous-
grown plants, always thrive best. The bad consequences, how-
ever, of too much and too long continued excitement in plants,
without a due proportion of rest, have been often pointed out,
and have been most conspicuous in the forcing of the vine. Much
of the bad consequences attributed to excitement are probably
also due to a want of balance in the effects of stimuli. Were
it possible to follow up the great expansion by heat with a
corresponding degree of light, the weakness produced by the
former might not be so apparent; and great part of what is
ascribed to over-stimulus may be rather due to a deficiency of
other stimuli, to a want of light, as well as too much heat.

That the embryo is susceptible of changes at the time of form-
ation, of which it is not susceptible afterwards, is clearly to be
seen in the many hybrids produced; and those hybrids being
more frequent among plants, shows that the lower grades of
beings are more susceptible of these changes. Whether any or
what portion of the change is due to stimuli, we are, however,
perhaps unable to decide. Whether the germ is produced by
the male or female, or the jomt influence of both, in seeds, can
hardly be said to be decided. There may also be much owing
to certain kinds and states of food being required for the de-
velopement of parts, without which they cannot be produced.
Of this kind seems the transformation from a leaf bud to a
flower; the greater degree of elaboration of the sap seeming all
that is requisite to produce from a bud, the germ of a branch,
so apparently different an organ as a flower. That it is a
real transformation seems evident from the many changes ob-

served, from petal to leaf, from stamen to petal, and from a
Zi es

336 Comparative Physiology.

stigma to a branch. The difference however is, perhaps, as
much produced from the different quality of the food enabling
a different form to be developed and vice versd, as from a
stimulus given by the food. The production, or capability of
production, of a new being from the bud seems only a lower
grade of the function of reproduction, than the more perfect
form of it in producing a seed. The changes produced by the
different nature of the food in the lowest grades of plants, pro-
ducing sometimes a lichen, sometimes a conferva, from the same
germ, according to the absence or presence of water, seem
apparently to countenance the idea of there being something
equivocal in their developement, perhaps more than in their
generation. The changes produced on higher grades of plants,
by the different nature of their food, have frequently been
found to alter them so much as to cause them to be reckoned
distinct species; yet it has been found that the seedlings from
these plants resume the ordinary habit of the species, when again
under ordinary circumstances. ‘There may be much of this in
the changes of plants so nearly resembling each other as confervee
and lichens; and a fixed character in the germ is more indicative
of purpose and wisdom, till the equivocal has been more cer-
tainly determined.

On Heat as a Vital Stimulus, he remarks that “ all vital
action requires a certain amount of caloric for its due per-
formance, and can only continue within a certain range of
temperature. The greater the amount and variety of vital
action, the more immediate is the dependence of the individual
on the maintenance of its usual temperature. Plants are almost
entirely dependent on the medium they inhabit for the neces-
sary supply of caloric; and their vital actions are so adjusted as
to be carried on within very wide extremes of heat and cold.
In the Chinese embassy, a species of Marchaéntia was found at
the Island of Amsterdam, growing in mud hotter than boiling
water, at a hot spring; and the beautiful Protocéccus nivalis,. or
red snow, reddens extensive tracts in the arctic regions, where
the perpetual frost of the surface scarcely yields to the in-
fluence of the solar rays at midsummer. The stimulating
action of heat is very obvious on plants; it increases evapo-
ration by the leaves, and consequently absorption by the roots,
supplying the water which prevents its tissue from being dried
up, and, by its conversion into vapour, moderating the tem-
perature, which would otherwise be excessive. If the supply of
water is deficient, the tissues get dense and contracted; the
shrubs in sandy Hastern deserts assuming a stunted and prickly
appearance. Cold depresses vital action, and, if very severe, con-
geals the juices, and bursts the vessels; the viscidity of the fluids,
and the slow conducting power of the wood, tend to resist this

Comparative Physiology. 337

injurious effect ; and the dormant condition of their functions in
winter also tends to preserve the vitality of the system. Heat
also injures seeds, probably by a physical change. Grains of corn
will germinate after exposure to a cold that would freeze mer-
cury, but their vitality is destroyed by exposure to vapour of
167°, probably from rupturing the vesicles of starch. A curious
effect of heat is noticed by Mr. Knight in melon and cucumber
plants producing all the flowers stamimiferous in excessive heat,
and all female or pistilliferous in cold.”

On the Evolution of Heat in vegetables, Chap. XII., he
remarks that “much dispute has occurred, whether plants
have a proper heat or not. Although the excretion of carbonic
acid is constantly going on, there is also a process of evapo-
ration; the surface is so exposed, and the circulation so slow,
that a general maintenance of vital warmth can scarcely be anti-
cipated. In small plants, the temperature is found to vary with
that of the atmosphere, and the trunk in large plants to be
warmer than the atmosphere in winter, and colder in summer;
probably from the slow nature of the transverse conducting
power of the wood, and the communication with the deep roots
in the soil. Dutrochet has ascertained by recent experiments,
that plants do possess the power of generating heat in the parts
in which the most active changes are taking place. In the
leaves and young shoots he found an increase of temperature
of almost one degree, differing with the species, the energy of
vegetation, and the time of the day; highest about noon. In
germination and flowering, the evolution of heat is most ap-
parent, from the quantity of carbonic acid furnished. In malting
of seeds ina heap, the thermometer has been seen to rise to 110°.
The flower of a cistus, notwithstanding the conducting power
of the atmosphere to carry off the heat as generated, has been
found 79° whilst the air was 76°; and that of a geranium 87°
when the air was 81°. In the centre of twelve spadixes of the
A‘rum cordifolium, the heat has been found at 121° while the
air was only 66°. Brongniart found the spathe of Colocasia
odora, at opening, 8°1° above the surrounding air; next day it
was 18° above it; and during the three days of the emission of
pollen it increased to 20°; after which it diminished with the
fading of the flower. Vrolik and Vriese also found the tem-
perature increase when the spadix was placed in oxygen, and
no increase at all of temperature to take place when the
spadix was placed in nitrogen, nor any carbonic acid evolved.”

Heat, light, and electricity are so intimately connected, the
one being so generally accompanied with the others, that it is
difficult to separate their actions. Vegetation is incomparably
most rapid and powerful between the tropics, and there is a far
greater preponderance of heat and electricity there than light.

Z3

338 Comparative Physiology.

The proportion of light is much greater in the polar regions
than the proportional vigour of vegetation there; and heat,
generally accompanied by electrical changes, would appear most
powerful. Heat appears to act much by its expansive power,
as may be seen in the greater elongation between the joints of
plants exposed to its influence. It is also indispensable to the
chemical and vital powers of plants; but, unless the chemical
power is increased by the presence of light in proportion to
heat, a weak, elongated, feeble growth is produced. The motion
of the air is also necessary to invigorate the growth; and there
are probably also other substances got from the air besides car-
bonic acid, as we shall see when we come to the article secretion.
On all these accounts, an influx of air, in a moderate degree, is
found beneficial and indispensable in all forcing-houses, when
the heat can be kept up during its admission; the vegetation of
seeds, and subsequent growth below bell-glasses in heat, are rapid
indeed, but proportionally weak. The heat sets in motion the
sap, by the evaporation setting the endosmose power to work,
and stimulating the excitability and vital properties of the tis-
sue; and heat and moisture, with the nutriment contained in
the water itself, and the food it carries in solution, are indis-
pensable to all vital action in plants. The heat also assists the
chemical action of the light and of the organs, as we find in
wall fruits, in the juicy acid kinds of which there is always more
sugar on walls; while, on the other hand, some sweet dry fruits
are hurt by the increased chemical action producing more starch,
and causing dry mealy fruit on walls, when the same sort on
standards would have sweeter and more juicy fruit. Fruit will
ripen in heat without light, as in those preserved in warm
places, where there is not much light, and mixed among sand,
oatmeal, &c., where light is totally excluded. In the bulbs
formed below ground, as before noticed, heat also acts independ-
ent of light. The heat and electricity of the sunbeam are also
useful in increasing the power of the leaf to decompose carbonic
acid. Light will not decompose carbonic acid in the same way
out of the leaf, as it does by means of the leaf; and the power
is therefore to a great degree organic. It is the prevalent
opinion that the chemical power of light is the principal agent.
Dumas describes it as stored up in the leaf for that purpose :
but it may still be doubted, as Schleiden and others seem to
suppose, whether the heat and electricity of the sunbeam are
not important agents in increasing the action of the leaf, which
they think more organical than chemical. Organical action and
chemical, heat, light, and electricity, are so intimately connected
in their causes and effects, that it is difficult to separate and
define.

Heat injures all seeds by drying; though, after consider-
able exposure to a dry heat, no physical alteration is per-

Comparative Physiology. 339

ceptible on their being magnified. It appears to act principally
by drying up the fixed water which all seeds contain, and which
seems necessary to keep up the capability of exhibiting vital
powers in seeds; all seeds, when bruised in a fresh state, exhibit
generally a moist appearance in the albumen, which assumes a
dry floury appearance in seeds hurt by dry heat. The vitality
probably depends on the capability of exhibiting chemical action,
or it may be called electrical following from chemical; and the
fixed water, or moist state of the seed, probably is needful in
keeping the tissue in a state fit for exhibiting vital chemical
properties. When kept from the drying power of air they keep
long. Some seeds will stand a great deal of moist heat without
being killed, as I noticed before in my essay on the Theory of
Horticulture, in adverting to the power of hastening germination
in seeds by boiling water: the vesicles of starch are always rup-
tured in ordinary germination. Heat appears the principal agent
in evaporation, the red or heating end of the spectrum, which
is always in the positive or plus state of electricity, has most
momentum, and will pass most easily through a refracting medium,
as glass; and the concentrated rays in curvilinear houses, which
are found to destroy plants, probably act more from the evapora-
tion, &e., by heat than from the chemical power of light, to which
it has been ascribed ; the blue chemical rays do not pass so easily,
and are not so likely to be in excess. Heat increases the intensity
of light: by throwing heat on the metal of a jet of light, it has
been found to cause white light, while, by throwing cold on
the metal, it was found to cause a faint blue light. Professor
Lardner says it is still uncertain whether heat and light be the
same principle manifesting itself in different ways, or distinct
physical agents having the same nature. Glass stops more of
the heat of the fire than of the sun light, when held between it
and an object, and has been thought to distinguish; but this
arises, he says, from the heat being so much greater in proper-
tion in the ray from the fire than in that from the sun.

Cold diminishes vital activity, the great source of health and
vigour; and diminished vital activity is very apt to end in dis-
ease, especially if applied in a previous active state of the vital
powers. If the tissue is young and succulent, and full of fluid
in the plant, it expands the juices by freezing, and bursts the
vessels, causing death of the part affected, and injuring the
whole system of the plant before new shoots are evolved. It
has been said that the danger is greatest from the excitement
produced by next day’s heat, and that the air in the air vessels,
condensed by cold, and occupying thus less bulk, gives room
for the expansion of the cells containing frozen juice; and that
it is not till sunrise in the ensuing day, by again expanding the
air in the air vessels, destroys this balance, that danger takes

z4

340 Comparative Physiology.

place. It might, however, as well be theoretically argued, that
the same heat that caused the expansion of the air would again
neutralise the danger by thawing the juices. To a certain
extent it is true, that covering and watering in the morning
will do good; the vegetative organs, weakened by the damage
they have sustained, are unable to bear the full stimulus of
light and heat, and will not suffer so much when covered.
The water, if thrown on before the hoarfrost is thawed,
washes it off and restores the temperature of the shoot; it
also invigorates and enlivens the healing process of vitality in
any of the parts that are sound. After a severe frost in May,
the plants are always found to revive much sooner when the
frost takes the air, as it is called, and moist weather ensues ;
those revive soonest that have most spare buds. It is folly,
however, to tell the practical man that no danger ensues till
the heat of the next day begins to operate: I have myself
often watched the plants with anxious heart on such mornings,
and uniformly found, that, wherever the leaves had blotches
of a darker green, betokening the extravasation of juices from
ruptured cells, these leaves were sure to perish. The dif-
ference, however, is not perceptible to the ordinary observer,
till the heat of the day ensues; and hence the opinion that the
danger commences then. Those that do not decidedly exhibit
these blotches before the rising of the heat seldom perish alto-
gether, though they sometimes appear whitened in the colour,
and scathed in their appearance; and it is to such states of
damage that covering and water will be found most beneficial.
The continued effect of low degrees of heat, though perhaps not
below the freezing point, and not attended with so sudden
injury, is also, however, very baneful. When water is in excess
in soils, greater evaporation and cooling of the tissue in the
young shoots must ensue; and the same will take place in long-
continued cold weather. Plants, from being more exposed in
their vital parts when growing than animals, are more apt to
suffer from cold. So great a degree of heat is not necessary ;
but that they are possessed of a certain degree of internal heat
might be inferred from the chemical and electrical processes
going on wherever life is active. The chemical transformations
produced in the preparation of the latex should evolve heat. It
is a general belief, that most of the food absorbed is reduced to
carbonic acid, in order that from the carbonic acid may be
eliminated the nascent carbon, by the disengagement of oxygen
in the leaf; from which, united to the oxygen and hydrogen
from water, and the nitrogen from ammonia, are formed most
of the products found in the latex or proper juice, especially
that azotated matter called vegetable fibrine, from which are
formed most of the vegetable tissues. All these processes, united
to the vital action of the organs in assimilating the products of

Comparative Physvology. 341

the latex and forming the organism, must be productive of a
considerable amount of heat, which, though not perceptible in
any great degree to a thermometer on the outside, must be
of essential consequence where it is generated, and probably
indispensable to the activity of life. Whether the heat in these
vital actions flows from the action of the vital principle itself, as
thought by some, or from the chemical action displayed, or
partly from both, it is undoubtedly present, and therefore
needed. Whatever states of the weather or soil produce cold must
be greatly detrimental to vegetation, and are undoubtedly the
causes of many diseases. The cold arrests the proper develope-
ment of growth, and produces diseases in the leaves and young
shoots, which may be seen in many various forms; and, if long
continued, and joined to other injurious circumstances, often
ends in producing a cancerous state of the system, and death.
That cold is sometimes in a great measure the cause of canker,
may be seen in the fact that trees subject to it in ordinary
situations are not so when trained to walls. When the tissue
is ripened, as in deciduous plants, before winter, and to a certain
extent also in evergreens, plants will stand a great degree of
cold. Heat is much more easily conducted along than across
the woody fibre; and the slow conducting power across, and the
comparatively dry condition of the tissues, prevent the danger
arising from severe cold in the winter: it is only in the polar
regions that it is sometimes so intense as to split the trunks of
deciduous trees. Kvergreens, from the more fluid nature of the
tissues, and the greater degree of vital action, are more easily
hurt; and hence, while many of the deciduous plants of America
will not ripen sufficiently here, from deficient heat in the sum-
mer, and perish during winter, our most common evergreens,
which in ordinary seasons are not hurt here, will not stand the
greater severity of an American winter. Seeds are seldom or
never hurt in the severest winter; the smallest of our seeds will
lie on the surface of the ground without injury, as far as cold is
concerned, but are considerably and easily mjured by the drying
power of air, or heat without moisture. Roots of deciduous
plants, well ripened, do not appear easily hurt by cold either,
as they stand often, when the frost is excessive and long con-
tinued, completely insulated in a mass of frozen earth, without
the least injury ; though they perish, if the roots are long exposed
to the drying power of air, much sooner than seeds. A certain
degree of moisture around the roots appears necessary to keep
the plant alive, and would therefore seem to argue some degree
of active vitality in the roots; and perhaps heat and some small
portion of moisture are conducted upwards even in winter: it
is only in very mild winters, however, that any outward mani-
festations, by protrusion of spongioles, make their appearance.
The sources of the evolution of heat in organised beings have

342 Comparative Physiology.

formed the subject of much discussion. When carbonic acid is
formed a great condensation of bulk takes place, the carbonic
acid not being near so bulky as the oxygen and carbon; and, as
the particles of caloric or heat are repellent and expansive, it is
said condensation of bulk is always accompanied by heat; and
the principal, some say the only, source of heat is in the function
of respiration, by which oxygen is inhaled to be converted into
carbonic acid in the system. The carbonic acid occupies less
bulk than the oxygen and carbon, and the bulk being condensed
caloric is developed, from the latent state it becomes sensible.
It has been said, however, that the computed effects of the
quantity of oxygen inspired are not sufficient to counterbalance
the waste of heat in animals, by the various ways in which it is
given off by the body; and some say the motions of the body
form the source of heat, while others assert that it springs from
the nervous system, all the motions of which, they say, are
accompanied with electricity, which developes heat. Sir J.
Herschel has likened the successive discharges from a galvanic
battery, fitted up so as to give off the electricity as it accumu-
lates, to the pulsations of the heart. It has not been shown,
however, how motion produces heat unless by condensation ; and
electrical and chemical processes are so much combined that the
one is seldom found without the other. Dr. Carpenter seems to
consider the source of heat in animals as still undecided. Pro-
fessor Miiller, in the newly published translation of his works
by Dr. Baly, considers the experiments of Brodie, in which
artificial respiration was kept up in rabbits after death had been
caused by destruction of the nervous system, and in which
carbonic acid was given off as during life without maintaining the
heat of the body, a convincing proof that respiration is not the
sole cause of heat. He says (p. 86.): “ Several of the facts we
have mentioned prove that the influence of the nerves in the
organic processes of the body contributes greatly to the produc-
tion of animal heat in other parts than the lungs. Berzelius is
also of this opinion, and it seems to derive confirmation from the
rapid and momentary increase of temperature, in states of
nervous excitement caused by the passions of the mind.” Pro-
fessor Liebig, in his Animal Physiology, which, like the Agri-
cultural, abounds in concise and mathematical statements on the
most abstruse subjects, seems to consider respiration as sufficient
to produce all the heat needed, by furnishing the oxygen which
is condensed into carbonic acid by carbon, and into water by
hydrogen. The force by which nervous power acts, he says, 1s
chemical; when the nervous power is destroyed, the oxygen
inhaled does not meet with these substances with which, in the
normal state, it would have combined. He takes no notice of
the experiments of Brodie, in which artificial respiration, though
the oxygen combined with carbon as usual, and carbonic acid

=

Comparative Physiology. 343

was given off, yet failed to keep up the heat. From the quan-
tity of heat evolved in the combustion of carbon, as experi-
mented on by Despretz, and the quantity of carbon given off
from the body, he thinks, by the average of calculations, the heat
generated in that way may be perfectly sufficient to replace the
waste from perspiration, respiration, &c. Others differ from this.
Dr. Carpenter thinks, in plants at least, that the absorption of
oxygen, and its subsequent conversion into carbonic acid, form the
principal source of heat. It is evident that a certain amount of
specific heat must be needed in plants, when life is most active 5
they cannot be altogether dependent on external heat, though,
from their vital parts being more exposed than in animals, it is
not so sensible to thermometers. The heat produced by a seed
in germination is not perceptible, but, when large heaps are put
together, it becomes evident; and, could we keep young shoots
together and enable vital activity to proceed, the heat would be
more perceptible there also. Dutrochet thought plants possessed
of a specific heat, and found it greatest after noon; light he
found essential, and, though the heat did not totally cease on
the first day of darkness, yet by the third day it had disappeared.
altogether. Exposure, however, even to simple diffused light,
he found to restore the heat in a rapid manner. Some have
contended for electricity being a cause of heat in animals; others
say the electricity is only the consequence of the heat developed
by chemical action. Plants are evidently much affected by
electrical states of the atmosphere; and as chemical action deve-
lopes electricity, so may electricity have a power of increasing
vital chemical action, in which heat may be developed. The
diffused excitability in plants when put in motion, as it must be
by vegetation, may also be a source of heat; it is similar to
neryous power, though of an inferior kind, and may produce the
same effects in a less degree; they are both also connected with
vital power. As nervous force seems to increase heat, as its
action is developed, so may the inferior action of diffused excit-
ability do the same by its action in plants, though in an inferior
manner. Nervous power may act by chemical affinity to produce
the effect wanted, but still be productive of an action which would
not have taken place independent of vitality, and be productive
of the developement of heat when needed, though done by che-
mical means. The vital activity of plants, though acting also
chemically, may produce the heat required to keep up vital
vigour. ‘I'o these two, therefore, to chemical and vital power,
accompanied likely by the developement of electricity, and per-
haps often stimulated and set to work by it, are we probably
indebted for the specific heat necessary to carry on vegetation.
Chemical action is supposed to commence as soon as the fluid
food is absorbed. The quantity of sugar, in the ascending sap, is
found to augment, according to the height from the root where it

344 Comparative Physiology.

is drawn. This may be, in great measure, taken from the deposits
laid up in the albumen the preceding year. Mr. Knight, how-
ever, was of opinion that there was a formation of sugar in the
ascent of the sap, by the action of the air in the air-vessels. The
starch taken up by the ascending sap, and the organised sub-
stances in a state of imperfect decomposition, must all be de-
composed before they can be assimilated. What can become of
them, if not decomposed ? they are not fit for assimilation in an
organised state, and must be excreted if not appropriated. A
great proportion of carbonic acid is probably formed; indeed it
is the opinion of some that all these substances, and water and
ammonia, are decomposed into their elements, before forming
the proper juices of the plant. So much chemical action joimed
to that of vitality must be productive of a constant supply of
heat to carry on vegetative life. Cold is said to act principally
on animals by the condensed state of the air increasing the ab-
sorption of oxygen, and thus causing the chemical to prevail
over the vital force. It must also act very much by paralysing
and stopping vital actions. The absorption of oxygen in plants
is not so great as in animals, but cold must act very powerfully
by paralysing vital action when it is in activity, the vital parts
being so much exposed to its influence. In the dormant state
it cannot be productive of much harm, but when the tissue is
young and active, and stopped in the performance of its func-
tions, it must get into a diseased state, and become less capable of
performing vital actions, when heat again supervenes. ‘The ac-
cumulation of nutritious matter also, from the inactive power of
the organs, must cause fermentation and corruption of the juices
themselves; the chemical power of the oxygen, prevailing over
the feeble vital powers of the plant, may mduce the formation
of an acrid corrosive matter, which injures in place of nourish-
ing, and may end in cancer and death.

Heat, light, and electricity are essential, but that they will
not be sufficient without a proper supply of moisture, even in
deep-rooted plants, we have evidence sufficient in the year past,
of 1842, in which neither fruits nor roots ripened well, but were
generally unsound, and the tissues not ripened.

On Light as a Vital Stimulus, he remarks “that its action as a
stimulus has been much overlooked. Its immediate effects upon
the animal system are not so manifest as those of heat, but pro-
bably not less important. In the vegetable kingdom its mode
of operation is less obscure. The operation of light is so closely
connected with that of heat, that it is not easy to say what is
due to the one and what to the other. There is scarcely a
process in the vegetable economy which does not depend on the
stimulus of light. The exhalation of vapour from the leaves,
and consequent absorption by the roots; the decomposition of
the carbonic acid of the air, and the reception into the system

Comparative Physiology. 345

of the carbon thus furnished; the formation of nutritious pro-
ducts, and the elaboration of peculiar secretions, are so com-
pletely subservient to it, that they languish under a diminution,
and usually cease under a continued abstraction, of its agency.
The degree of light necessary to plants is very various. Fungi
are found in caverns and mines; and Humboldt met with both
endogenous and exogenous species presenting a green colour, in
the subterranean galleries of the Freyberg mines. Plants grow
towards the light: the roots, however, avoid the light ; and many
of the simpler plants also, as mosses, ferns, &c., which grow on the
north and north-west sides of trees and rocks, while the opposite
parts are comparatively bare. By throwing the light from
below upwards, by a mirror, among seeds placed in moss, and
darkening them from other light, M. Schultz found the order
of developement reversed, the roots sent upwards and the stem
downwards, showing thus the influence of light on the direction
of the stem and roots. In germination the influence of light
rather retards than hastens vegetation, the tendency of light to
decompose and fix carbon being opposed to the chemical action
then required.”

On the developement of light in plants, “ it has been asserted
that many flowers, as nasturtium, marigold, sunflower, &c.,
disengage light in warm summer evenings, but it is doubted.
There is no doubt, however, that light is emitted by many
fungi, especially various species of Rhizomoérpha, and, in some
instances, to a very considerable extent. The light is perceived
in all parts of the plant, but chiefly in the young white shoots;
and it is more vivid in young than in old plants. The phospho-
rescence is stronger in such as grow in the moist and warm
localities of mines, than in those inhabiting dry cold situations.
It ceases if the atmosphere is deprived of oxygen, and reappears
when restored to the air. The juice of the Luphorbia phosphorea
emits light, especially when heated. ‘These evolutions of light
seem connected with the combination of carbon and oxygen; it
takes place also from dead and decaying wood, but is not in-
creased when the substance is placed in pure oxygen. In
animals, where it is more common, it appears to be occasioned
by the secretion of a product possessing a luminous property,
depending for its continuance on the life and health of the
animal.”

The power of light has been thought to lie principally in its
chemical action, though in the sunbeam it is always accompanied
with heat and electricity, and it must be difficult to separate the
action of each. A white light is always indicative of intense heat,
the latter generally producing the former, when raised to a high
pitch; they so generally accompany one another, the one always
increasing the action of the other, that it is difficult to talk of them
separately, Heat and light are like electricity and magnetism,

346 Comparative Physiology.

the one producing and reacting on the other. It has been said,
light acts chiefly by its chemical power, but the chemical rays
are at the faintest end of the spectrum, and possess less mo-
mentum than the red; this is said to cause the azure-blue colour
of the sky, by their small momentum causing them to be re-
tained, and the red colour of the rising sun by the red rays
possessing most momentum, and being first seen. Faint blue
light, however, does not produce so much effect on vegetation,
which is always greater the whiter and more intense the light.
It is likely, therefore, the intense sunbeam containing both
light, heat, and electricity, is the best adapted to encourage
vigorous growth. Faint light will produce action, as is seen in
the action of the moonlight on plants, especially in tropical
countries ; but white light is most powerful. Light is not in-
dispensable to vegetation, as may be seen in bulbs and tubers
produced at roots without the foliage ever having been above
ground, if any were produced. Miiller says, it is a general rule
In organic action, that many various stimulants are capable of
exciting the organs to produce their action, and still the action
will be produced in the same normal form. It is likely that
the heat, light, and electricity of the sunbeam are all con-
cerned in furthering organic action. Plants differ greatly in
their power of being affected by light; perhaps from their being
too susceptible of stimuli, it is too powerful for some, as the
leaves are found to get feeble and flaccid when exposed long
to full light and heat. The power of standing much stimulus
appears also to depend on the power of absorption; such leaves
as those of the camellia would appear not so susceptible of being
hurt by stimulus as those of the geranium; yet, from the more
vigorous roots of the latter, it is enabled to stand much more
light than the former, which thrives better in heat and dif-
fused light. Alpine plants, being naturally much exposed to
light, should thrive well in its presence; they are accordingly
found to like it in winter: but in summer the heat of the sun-
beam is too powerful, and they require shading with all the air
possible; the cool air sifted through a hedge appears to suit
them well. The green colour has been said to depend on light,
but it rather seems to depend on the alkaline state of the chro-
mule, which the deoxidising power of light furthers. In mines
where hydrogen abounds, plants are found green though shut
out from light ; probably through the formation of ammonia from
the hydrogen absorbed by the leaf uniting to the nitrogen of
the air deprived of its oxygen in the air vessels, and producing
thus the alkaline or green colour from the predominance of
alkali (ammonia), by a different process from that of deoxidation,
which is a diminution of acidity. Dumas describes the power
of light as being stored up in the leaf. Light appears capable of
being retained in a latent form. The experiments of Mr. Hunt,

Comparative Physiology. 347

in producing pictures by pressing substances together, without
the aid of light, which is needed in the daguerreotype, have been
thought to be effected by latent light. Professor Thomson
says, calcined powder of oyster shells, mixed with one fourth
part of sulphur, absorbs so much light, that, after being exposed
for a few seconds to light, the hours may be seen by it on
a watch, when removed to darkness. It loses and recovers the
property of giving out light, by exposure to darkness and light.
Heat increases the light of this pyrophorus, he says, and di-
minishes its duration. Large pulpy leaves are most productive
of action, perhaps from the greater quantity of organic action
chiefly ; but part of the power may arise from their greater
capability of absorbing light. The organs destined to prepare
the food for assimilation probably abound most in the leaf, as
the greatest changes on the food are produced there, and they
are likely to abound more and be more perfect in strong vi-
gorous pulpy leaves; and the action of the sunbeam on these
organs, whether by light or heat, or both combined, will probably
be more powerful where there is a greater absorbing power.

On Electricity as a Vital Stimulus, he says: “ The mode and
degree in which this agent operates on the living system is one
of the most obscure but most interesting questions in physiology.
If, as there is reason to believe, all the new combinations of
elementary substances formed in organised bodies are held to-
gether by the same affinities as the inorganic world, namely,
by electrical attraction, it is evident that electricity must be
regarded as one of the most important of all the vital stimuli,
since upon its mode of operation will depend all the earlier stages
of the nutritive process. The electricity required will probably
be generated within the system itself; since the constant vari-
ations in the atmosphere would be attended with too much
uncertainty of operation, were living beings dependent on the
electricity supplied by it. In all meteorological changes of the
atmosphere, alterations in the electric state of the atmosphere are
largely concerned ; and the more decided the change, the more
evident is the electric disturbance. Many vegetables close and
unfold their flowers on the approach and retreat of a storm.
In highly electrical states of the atmosphere, young shoots have
been observed to elongate with extraordinary rapidity. This
effect, however, cannot be imitated by the artificial application
of the stimulus, though a gentle current transmitted through
the plant seems to increase exhalation, and affect consequently
other vital processes; what is beneficial to some, however, may
be injurious to others. In the germination of the seed, the
functions are confined to the conversion of starch into sugar, an
essentially chemical change, involving the liberation of carbonic
and acetic acid. As acids are negative, the seed itself may be
regarded in a negatively electric condition; and, accordingly, it

348 Comparative Physiology.

is found that the process of germination may be quickened by
connecting the seed with the negative pole of a feeble galvanic
apparatus, and retarded by a proximity with the positive. In
animals, though electricity seems to possess a peculiar relation
with the organic processes, especially muscular contractility,
yet no very definite influence seems to be produced by its ex-
ternal application to the system. Many tribes of animals
appear to be peculiarly affected by changes in the electric con-
dition of the atmosphere, and almost every human being may
be cognisant of them from his own feelings. The destruction
of life by electricity is accounted for by the disturbance of the
affinities between the component elements of the body and the
destruction of the vital properties of the tissues, especially the
nervous. Bodies killed by lightning pass more rapidly into
putrefaction than those killed by other means; the decom-
position of flesh already dead may be hastened by electrifying
it. ‘The ordinary processes of vegetable growth are attended
with the evolution of electricity, as proved by the experiments
of M. Pouillet, in which seeds had no sooner sprouted and
growth commenced, than the gold leaves of the electrometer
were separated half an inch from each other. The growth of
plants he thinks one of the most constant and powerful sources
of atmospheric electricity. Dr. Graves accounts for the violence
of meteorological phenomena in tropical islands, by the evapo-
ration from the sea rendering the atmosphere positively elec-
trical with great intensity during the day, at the very time
when terrestrial vegetation is rendering the air negatively elec-
trical. Contrary electrical states are produced by the processes
of decomposition and recomposition going on in the vegetable
juices, and wires placed in the pith, bark, and different places
of the plants, and their fruits, denote different states of elec-
tricity. Dr. Prout supposes that the small quantities of mineral
bodies usually regarded as accidentally present in the vegetable
tissues may have an important influence, through electricity, on
their properties and actions. The various secretions in animals
have been thought to take place from different states of elec-
tricity: as acids and gastric juice, in the kidneys and stomach,
from positive electricity ; and alkali in the bile and saliva, in the
liver and salivary glands, from an excess of negative electricity
there prevalent.”

As I before noticed on heat, the source of heat in animals
has been ascribed to electricity by some. Llectricity, they say,
is the power by which nervous influence acts. The electricity
developed in the brain is, they assert, transmitted along the
nerves and across the muscles, which contract by the tendency of
electricity to attraction, and electricity is always accompanied
by heat. Sir J. Herschel, on viewing the voltaic pile of De Luc ~
discharging itself at regular intervals as the tension accumulated,

Comparative Physiology. 349

is said to have drawn the inference, that the circulation of the
blood in man was owing to electricity collecting in the brain,
and discharging itself at ; regular intervals along the nerves con-
ducting to the heart. Dr. Garpenter, however, seems to doubt if
such opinions be tenable; and Liebig says there is no ground
for them. At page 261., however, he : says: still, as a current
of electricity (or a magnet, which produces a current of the same)
acts medicinally, causing motion and change, it cannot be con-
sidered inefficient.” Miiller says: “N either Person nor he has
been able to detect electric currents in the nerves. Pouillet
thought the electricity detected by needles was owing to ox-
idation of the steel; as needles of platina, gold, or silver did not
give the same indication. Matteucci has seen a deviation of
fifteen to twenty degrees in the needle when the liver and
stomach of the rabbit were connected, which might be owing to
different states of electricity. In the nerves themselves Mat-
teucci could detect no electric action; but neither was the gal-
vanometer affected when the current of a galvanic battery was
passed through the nerves. Bellingeri concluded from expe-
riments, that in inflamed blood electricity is diminished, and
that blood retains its electricity long after it has been abstracted
from the body; but the real existence of free electricity in the
blood generally has yet to be proved. Dutrochet’s imagined
formation of muscular fibre from the blood, by the agency of
electricity, has been shown to be an error. Pouillet, in his
experiments on the developement of electricity during vegetation,
found that vitreous electricity was detected in the gases formed,
while resinous electricity was accumulated in the vessels they
were growing in.” There seems very great difficulty in ar-
riving at perfect conclusive opinions on this subject; as the
chemical transformations of the living body are always attended
with disturbances of electricity, so, likely, will a highly electric
state of the atmosphere react on the vital functions. In a moist
state of the atmosphere, which in that case has a greater con-
ducting power, the body feels more cool and relaxed, probably
from its greater negative state; in a dry state of the atmo-
sphere, the body feels oppressed from the accumulation producing
a positively electrical state, probably acting injuriously from
excess. Some have thought they could detect the presence of
galvanic currents in the body, from a magnet being deflected
when held near a part of the body. Galvanic currents of elec-
tricity are generally thought to pervade all matter, and to be
the cause of the magnetism of the earth, and of the formation
of metallic veins. ‘The metallic saline substances pervading all
plants should attract and increase the conducting power of
electric currents, and further the intensity of vital actions: as
vital chemical changes develope electricity, so, likely, will cur-
3d Ser. —1843. VII. AA

350 Comparative Physiology.

rents of electricity react on and increase vital force. Experi-
ments made on the atmosphere near hedges and woods show that
it is there in a more negative, or minus, state, from the attrac-
tions exerted by the vegetating points; and plants act on the
positive state of vapour in the air, and produce thus condens-
ation and rain. ‘Thomas Pine, Esq., (Polytech. Journal) found
the point of a living plant to draw off electricity from the
prime conductor of a machine at the distance of 14 ft., col-
lecting also dew at the point, while the magnetic needle acted
only at 4 ft. distance. He found vegetation more powerful
when the atmosphere only was electrified, than when electricity
was communicated to the soil only. The atmospherical apparatus
of Mr. Cross, placed among trees, was found to collect much less
electricity, owing to the attraction of plants, than when among
houses. Mr. Pollock found that water produced a chemical action
affecting the galvanometer, when it was added to a coloured
solution, but produced no action upon a transparent solution,
seeming merely diluted; a white colour producing reflection,
and no absorption or conduction, while dark-coloured absorb-
ing substances absorb light and conduct electricity: in every
change of colour, he says, in a solution by heat, there is an
action on the galvanometer. The film of iodine on the da-
guerreotype plate, which at first repels the vapour of mercury,
is changed in its electric condition by the action of lght,
and attracts the vapour; light has thus the power of exciting
an electric condition, if not itself combined with electricity.
Electrical light is said to produce the same effect on the da-
guerreotype plate as sun light. Heat, light, and electricity repel
and elicit each other; the passage of electricity always produces
a change of atoms in the conductor, and frequently produces
both heat and light. Heat developes electricity, as seen in
high-pressure steam; and heat and light mutually render each —
other sensible, accompanying each other in all bodies, and the
developement of the one being generally followed by the other.
It becomes, therefore, a very complicated task to which of
these agents to ascribe the phenomena that take place. It has
been said that negative electricity, which gives its spark in the
form of a pointed star, is concerned in forming the fibrous
elongated thread-like vessels, whilst the positive, which gives
out its spark in the form of a brush, is concerned in forming
cellular vessels; it is probably, however, only conjectural.

The vitality of seeds has been said by some to depend on elee-
tricity, but electricity will not rouse the dormant vital power;
the capability of exhibiting vital action seems to depend more
on their retaining solidity and moisture; as vital action is set to
work, it will likely, however, by the chemical action produced,
develope electricity. The reason why seeds vegetate soonest at
the negative pole is said to be from the alkaline substances

Comparative Physiology. 351

collected there being needful in germination. Seeds germi-
nating naturally have been found to throw off acids and accu-
mulate alkalies; and seeds bottled in alkaline solutions have
been found to germinate more quickly than natural, while those
bottled in solutions of acids have been found to vegetate in a
retarded imperfect manner. It is not likely that the functions
in germination are confined wholly to the conversion of starch
into sugar; though the most obvious change, it will require to
be followed up by the preparation of the latex, or life blood, of
the plant. Dumas says all the tissues of vegetables commence
being formed from an azotated matter called vegetable fibrine,
similar in its properties to the fibrine of the blood of animals;
it is contained in the grey milky substance first deposited in
seeds; and when seeds germinate we again find it in the coty-
ledons. The substances deposited as food are probably, there-
fore, at least in part, converted into their elements, from which
the latex containing fibrine, mucilage, &c., is formed. The fibrine,
the insoluble nitrogenised constituent of seeds, must be again ren-
dered soluble, new fibrine also formed, and the other substances
decomposed and recomposed into a state fit for assimilation.
The peculiar juices vary much in different plants; it is difficult
to get them in a pure state, being generally mixed with the
ascending sap in the act of extracting. In the present state of
vegetable chemistry, Professor Thomson says, “ an accurate
detail of their properties cannot be attempted; the cambium,
however, which, according to Mirbel, makes its appearance in all
those parts of vegetables where new matter is being formed, is
entirely mucilaginous.” Much chemical decomposition and re-
composition is probably required in forming the vital fluid for
assimilation.

On the pressure of the atmosphere, he notices the effects of
violent and sudden changes on animals: “ Though it cannot
be regarded as a vital stimulus, yet it has an important in-
fiuence on the functions of life. The whale can dive in
the water to the depth of 100 fathoms, at which depth the pres-
sure is twenty times greater than at the surface, and where the
sword-fish and its other enemies are unable to follow; the
condor, also, can dart from the highest peak of the Andes to
the brink of the sea, passing through a barometric pressure of
from 12 to 28 inches: but the greater number of air-breathing
animals are adapted to reside on the surface of the earth, sub-
jected to the usual pressure of the air. It is probable that
man, possessing as he does in so remarkable a degree the power
of adaptation to external circumstances, could support life
under any degree of rarity of the atmosphere which will main-
tain that of other vertebrated animals; but the rapid change
from the ordinary pressure to one much less in amount is

AA 2

352 Comparative Physiology.

usually accompanied in him, as in other animals, with more or
less disturbance of various functions.” The deficiency of
oxygen in rarefied air, from its want of condensation, causes
increased respiration to furnish the requisite quantity, which
augments the effects of a want of pressure. He takes no
notice of the pressure on plants, but the growth of plants in
rarefied air is feeble indeed, when compared with that under
the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. Part is no doubt due
to the expansion by heat, and attraction of, and consolidation by,
light; but the want of atmospherical pressure, and especially
of the motion caused by the pressure of atmospherical currents,
tends greatly to draw up plants in a sickly weak condition
in confined situations. Plants are never so vigorous as when
submitted to the free action of the air, under ordinary cir-
cumstances ; and plants grown under glass will always be found
more vigorous when sufficient heat can be kept up to allow
of a free ingress of air. Alpine plants never thrive so well
in summer at the foot of a north wall, as at the foot of a
north hedge. The removal of injurious heat is indispens-
able and beneficial, but when accompanied by the sifting of
the wind through the hedge is still more beneficial. It is pro-
bable, though not hitherto allowed, that the respiration of
plants, or their emission of carbonic acid, which is a constant
function (as in animals), is due to the removal of waste or unsound
particles from the system, to which the motion by atmospherical
currents may be necessary. No vessels appropriate to inter-
stitial absorption have yet been discovered in plants; but the
discovery of laticiferous vessels is only of late date, and in the
young growing shoots, where the removal of unsound particles
will be most needed, such vessels will be difficult to detect.
There is no muscular system in plants, as in animals, to produce
waste in a great degree; they' cannot exist, however, without
inhaling oxygen, and, though part of the oxygen may be needed
in chemical decomposition, to reduce the starch, &c., into food,
yet the carbonic acid exhaled is likely to be, as in animals, from
waste. It would help to determine this, if, by experiment, ex-
posed plants were found to exhale more carbonic acid than pro-
tected plants. It has been shown by the experiments of Bur-
nett (Journal of the Royal Institution, n. s. vol. i.; Carpenter,
2d Con. p. 338.), that the evolution of carbonic acid in ve-
getables is a constant function, even when fixation is most
rapid in the full light of the sun. This seems a fact not gene-
rally known, as most other physiologists take no notice of it ;
Liebig says it is not the case. There seems little doubt, how-
ever, of its being correct; and the inhalation of oxygen, and
exhalation of carbonic acid, would seem to infer a removal of

waste.
( To be continued.)

Landscape-Gardening applied to Cemeteries. 353

Art. II. The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and of Landscape-
Architecture applied to the Laying out of Public Cemeteries and
the Improvement of Churchyards ; including Observations on the
Working and General Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds. By the ConpucTor.

(Continued from p. 301.)

V. Desien ror A CEMETERY OF MODERATE EXTENT, ON LEVEL GROUND,
EXEMPLIFIED IN ONE NOW BEING FORMED AT CAMBRIDGE.

We shall here copy the Report which we made to the Directors, having
obtained their permission for that purpose, omitting some details which have

[Continuation of note from p. 300.]

dition of the dead was entirely different, and that there ought to be a consist-
ency in every thing belonging to the various orders of society. The cause of
the mistake which the poor make is this: that, by so uncalled for an expense,
they think they show their greater respect for the dead, as if a dead father
or mother (unless he or she were wrapt up in selfishness) would deprive their

children of necessaries or comforts to gratify an imaginary and false pride.” —
S. H. N.

The following case shows that where there is a genuine respect for the
feelings and wishes of the dead, it soars high over all the ordinary pomp of
funerals. It also shows how very careful persons ought to be on their death-
bed, not to utter wishes that may give much pain and inconvenience to
their relations. No considerate person would have expressed the wish
which led to the following instance of

Extraordinary Resolution and Perseverance. — We have now to record
a feat of extraordinary perseverance, so rare indeed, that we much doubt
whether its parallel can be found. On the 19th of November last, a person
of the name of Thomas Wrassel, aged sixty-three, died at Wisbeach, in the
county of Cambridge, and previously to his demise he expressed a wish to his
only sister, who resided with him, that his remains should Le interred in the
churchyard at Clarborough, near Retford, at which place he had formerly
lived, and where his mother and some of his family had been interred. With
astonishing resolution the sister resolved on fulfilling his last injunctions, and
set forth with the remains of her brother in a donkey cart. The distance be-
tween Wisbeach and Clarborough is ninety-seven miles. During the journey the
coffin, which projected from behind the cart, was covered with a ragged
coverlet, upon which the wretched sister sat. At length, after being eleven
days on the road, she and the coffin reached Clarborough on the 2d of
December, and the body lay as it had travelled in the cart, in an outhouse of
one of the village inns until Sunday December 4., when the last rites of the
church were performed over it by the Rev. W. R. Sharpe, curate: and, after
its long transit, it was committed to its last earthly resting-place. The woman
herself was not attired in decent mourning, but readily paid the funeral ex-
penses, and expressed her determination to return to Wisbeach by the con-
yeyance in which she had come, in order to dispose of some little property
there, preparatory to residing at Clarborough ; so that she may be sure of
laying her bones beside his bones, and that the kindred dust of the family may
commingle together, until the trump of the archangel shall summon them to
meet the Lord in the air. The woman is sixty years of age, and the remains
of her brother were only placed in a single coffin, although he had been dead
for the long period of fifteen days ere the earth received back its own.
(Nottingham Journal, as quoted in the Times, Dec. 24. 1842.)

AA 3

354 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

already been given in Divisions II. and III. as belonging to the subject of
cemeteries generally.

Report on the Design for a Cemetery proposed to be formed at Cambridge :
made, by Order of the Directors, by J. C. Loudon.

[Referring to Plans and Sections, Nos. 1. to 15.]

The Ground purchased by the Cambridge Cemetery Company was, by the
desire of the directors, inspected by us on Nov. 8. 1842. It lies in an open
airy situation, in the neighbourhood of the town. The extent is 33 acres,
and the tenure freehold. The surface is flat, with a gentle inclination to one
end, from which there is a tolerabiy good drainage, by means of a public
drain along the margin of the New Huntingdon Road, to the river. The soil
is a compact blue clay ; its present state is in broad high ridges, which have
recently borne corn crops, and the soil is therefore favourable for vegetation
to the depth of 8 or 9inches. The ground is enclosed on three sides by a
recently planted thorn hedge, and the fourth, or north, side is open to a field
of similar surface and soil.

The Object of the Cemetery Company is to form a cemetery chiefly for the
middle class of society, the total expense of which, including the purchase of
the land, shall not exceed 2000/.; that being the sum raised by the Company
in 200 shares of 10/. each. The sum paid for the land being 400/., there
remain 1600/. for building and arranging the ground.

The duties of the reporter, therefore, are to show the directors, by plans,
specifications, and estimates, how the ground may be arranged, and the ne-
cessary buildings erected, for the sum of 1600/.; to suggest rules and regu-
lations for the use and management of the cemetery ; to point out the duties
of the curator; and to offer any other suggestions to the directors that may
occur to him.

The Principles which have been borne in mind by the reporter, in comply-
ing with the desire of the directors, are as follows :

That, to prevent all risk of desecration or indecency, the arrangements be
such as that no part of a coffin, or of its contents, can ever be again exposed
after interment, and, in particular, that no human bone can ever be disturbed.
That, the cemetery being intended for all sects and parties indiscriminately,
consecration by any one party would be improper. That a lodge for the
curator, and a shed and yard adjoining and connected with it, for his imple-
ments, planks, barrows, &c., are essential. That a chapel, for all who may
choose to make use of it, is also essential. That the frontage, and a portion
of the ground along the Histon Road, be not included im the plan in the first
instance, in case the cemetery should not succeed ; but that the general plan
be so contrived that the frontage may be added afterwards, without deranging
the cemetery part of the original design. That, the general outline of the
ground being rectilinear, and the surface nearly level, the interior walks,
borders, and beds, should be chiefly rectilinear and level also, as well for the
sake of harmony of forms and lines, as for economy of space. That, in order
to throw the whole into an agreeable shape, and form a reserve ground
[z, in the plan fig. 81. p. 357.) for soil, bricks, and other materials produced
or required in digging graves, building vaults, &c., the walk and hedge at one
end should be formed within the outer fence. That, as moisture in a
moderate degree contributes to the decomposition of animal matter, while in
excess, in a strong clayey soil, it changes muscular fibre into adipocere, and
also because there is a prejudice against burying in a very wet soil, it is
desirable that the ground be drained; but that, as there is not a sufficient
outlet for deep drainage so as to carry off the water from the bottom of
brick graves or vaults, it is desirable that the surface of the ground should be
so arranged as to carry off as much as possible of the rain water falling on it.
That, to contribute to the dryness of the surface, and also because it has been
ascertained that the gases from decaying bodies will rise to the surface from

applied to Public Cemeteries. 355

a very great depth, no trees (except such as may be hereafter introduced for
ornamenting particular graves ) should be planted in the interior of the cemetery,
but only along the borders of the main walks and of the terrace walk, in
order to allow the full effect of the sun and wind to dry the ground, and
renew the air. That the trees proposed to be planted should occupy as little
space as possible; and, hence, should consist of kinds which have narrow
conical shapes like the cypress, a form connected with places of interment by
classical and even popular association. That these trees should be all ever-
greens, as being from their unchangeable aspect more solemn than deciduous
trees; and that they should be of dark shades of green, as being more solemn
than light shades of that colour. That no flowers, flowering shrubs, or
deciduous trees, be planted in the cemetery by the Company, but only in
the reserve gardens, for sale to such persons as may wish to plant them over
graves. That, in order to combine security and a solemn effect with economy,
the surrounding fence be a holly hedge rather than a stone or brick wall ; but
that, for immediate privacy and security, the whole be surrounded with a park
paling outside the holly hedge, to be retained there till the hedge has over-
topped the paling. That the graves should be so arranged that funerals may
be commodiously performed, or any grave visited, without treading on graves
already occupied. That no catacombs be constructed above the surface of
the ground, because the reporter considers every mode of burial, except in
the free soil, as unpleasant in idea; and as more or less dangerous to the
living from the effluvia which unavoidably proceeds from the coffins, even
when bricked up, as that operation is ordinarily performed; and, finally, be-
cause this mode of burial is no security against the disturbance of the coffins
at some future time.

Nevertheless, to meet the opinions and wishes of those who still prefer burying
in vaults and underground catacombs, ample space should be provided for them,
and also for brick graves; while those who desire to plant flowers or flowering
shrubs on the graves of their friends should have full permission to do so ; or,
if the directors should desire to plant flowers and shrubs for the general or-
nament of the cemetery, some may be planted in beds in the situation where
graves are to be made, and of the shape of these graves (see figs. 21. to 28., in
p- 150. and p. 151.); on the principle that the taste of individuals, and even, to
a certain extent, of public bodies, ought to be free.

The general Arrangement of the plan, as founded on these principles, is as
follows.

The Buildings. — The design, estimate, and working plans of the curator’s
lodge, the chapel, and the responsibility that the cost of execution shall not
exceed the estimate, are committed to E. B. Lamb, Esq., architect, whose
estimate amounts to 1000/., leaving 600/. for the arrangement of the grounds.

The Grounds.— The proposed general arrangement of the grounds is
shown in the plan No. 1. [fig. 81.], with the signature of the reporter, and is
as follows.

The entire area of 31 acres is shown enclosed by a holly hedge, planted on
the top of a broad bank of soil. The main entrance is proposed to be made
at the west end, opening into the Histon Road; and a secondary entrance
will be required from the New Huntingdon Road, at the south-east corner,
partly for hearses, but chiefly for carting in and carting out materials.

On each side of the main entrance, a piece of ground, G G, is reserved,
with a view to the following objects. As the curator of the cemetery cannot
be supposed to have full employment for two or three years after the cemetery
is opened, he may rent these two pieces of ground, and cultivate them as
gardens, which, if partly devoted to flowers for sale, might, it is thought, prove
an attraction to the cemetery ; while the cemetery in its turn would form a
motive to walk from town to the gardens, and ultimately lead to an attach-
ment to the cemetery as a place of interment. Or, should the cemetery not
be so generally adopted by the public as it is hoped it will be, these pieces of
ground, being valuable on account of their frontage, may be let off for build-

AA 4

356 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

ing on; or, should the cemetery be prosperous, and more room required, the
spaces alluded to may be added to it.

The chapel is proposed to be placed in the centre of the ground, as most
convenient. The entrance being at the end c, a sufficient area is formed in
front of that end to admit of turning a hearse and four horses. which may
either return by the main entrance a, or go out by the secondary entrance
at D.

A piece of ground is reserved at E for laying down any superfluous earth
which may occur in the course of digging the graves, and more especially in
forming brick graves, vaults, or catacombs. Here also bricks and other
materials used in forming graves, vaults, or catacombs, may be deposited ;
and, some years hence, when the cemetery is in full demand, either in this
piece of ground or near the Huntingdon Road Lodge at w, a shed may be
formed, in order that the earth-box (Vol. tor 1842, p. 200.), with wheelbarrows,
planks, casks of cement, lime, sand, &c., may be kept under cover, and also
as a place for a mason or bricklayer to work in. This shed is placed close to
the side of the approach road, in order that materials may be the more readily
laid down or taken up without the necessity of leading the cart off the road.
F is a piece of ground which may be let as a garden to the cottage or lodge
at D; and, indeed, till the cemetery is in full operation, the reserve ground
E may also, in great part, be let for cultivation for a year or two. It is
thought that the cottage at D, and the ground F attached to it, and also the
shed w, after the cemetery is once established, might be advantageously let
to a statuary mason. The shed w is shown with a chimney in each gable,
in case it should afterwards be thought advisable to turn it into a labourer’s
cottage.

In laying out the interior of the cemetery, the first object was to obtain
a catriage-road down the centre; not only for general purposes, such as cart-
age of materials for building tombs, brick graves, &c., but to allow of the
hearse approaching the graves as near as possible.

The next object was to form borders, u u, &c., to the main road from
west to east, and to the cross roads from south to north. These borders
are 18 ft. wide, planted with trees at regular distances; and they admit of
being divided into spaces for letting, as permanent places of interment for
families who are willing to pay more than for permanent graves in the in-
terior. Between every two trees there may be one burial-place, rendered
ornamental by some description of tomb, monument, or enclosure.

The interior is divided into beds 18 ft. m width, with paths between them
4 ft. in width; and a space 2 ft. in width, and raised about 3in., is shown in
the middle of each bed, on which space all the head-stones are proposed to
be placed on a foundation of brickwork or masonry carried up from the
bottom of the grave, in order that these head-stones, or whatever description
of monument or memorial may be placed at the head of a grave, shall always
stand firm and independent of that grave. (See p. 156.) The paths between
the beds are connected with a common path of 5 ft. in width, which sur-
rounds the beds, and communicates at intervals with the main or central
road; so that a funeral may be performed in any part of the grounds, or a
grave in any part of the grounds be visited, without once deviating from these
paths, or treading on any graves.

The surface of the ground being naturally flat, and very nearly on a level,
there will be no difficulty in carrying off the surface water to the point p,
though there is no outlet for deep drains. It therefore becomes necessary to
render the surface drainage as perfect as possible, and for this purpose the
interior of the compartments is raised in the middle as shown in the cross
section No. 6. [not given], in which a is a level line, and 64 the line of the
ground ; in consequence of which the water will drain to each side to the
green paths under which tile drains will be formed, as indicated by the dotted
blue lines R R, &c. The bottom of these drains will not be more than 18 in.
under the surface, and they will be covered entirely with small stones or

applied to Public Cemeteries. 357

gravel, for the purpose of more immediately and effectually absorbing the
water which falls on the sur-
face of the beds. In order
to carry off the water from
the mainroad, and also from
the walk on the terrace, # = =
small branch drains are to = JJ fis oe in
be formed, as indicated in [4{- : Mga. a E=\¢
the blue dotted lines in the

plan.

Trees are shown planted
along the walks at regular
distances. Those along the
central road are supposed
to be chiefly Taurian pines
(Pinus tairica), because
that species has a dark and
solemn air readily clothes
itself with’ branches from
the ground upwards, and
its branches admit of “ cut-
ting in” to any extent, so
as to form the tree into as
narrow a cone as may be
desirable. Add to these
advantages, that this is one
of the most rapid-growing
of pines. The trees marked
s 8, &c., are supposed to
be cedars of Lebanon; and
the four marked v1, &c.,
deodar cedars. The trees
vv, &c., bordering the
terrace walk, are proposed
to be Irish yews. The
trees round the reserve
ground, £ and F, are to be
either Taurian or black Aus-
trian pines (P. austriaca) ;
the latter a tree that has
most of the properties of
the Taurian pine, with the
advantage of being some-
what cheaper to purchase.

At any future period,
should there be a demand
for catacombs, a range of
these can be substituted for
the curvilinear walk at the
eastern extremity, by re-
moving the holly hedge, and
by forming a handsome
arcade there, with vaults
behind and underneath, as
in the Munich and Kensal
Green Cemeteries.

Details. — The following
is a summary of the details = ee a:
of the ground plan, No.1. £33 a ee
[ fig. 81.: owing to the Fig. 81. Ground Plan of the Cambridge Cemetery.

=
383

(oO © cage a

Li ea Rae

358 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

reduced scale of this plan, several of the letters of reference have been of
necessity omitted.]

A, Principal entrance lodge and gates, opening into the Histon Road.

B, Carriage road.

c, Chapel, standing on a platform ascended by a flight of steps.

p, Entrance from the New Huntingdon Road. #

E, Reserve ground for spare earth, ‘for bricks, stones, mortar, and various
articles required i in digging graves, building brick graves, vaults, &c.

F, Garden to the New Huntingdon Road Lodge. This lodge not being
essential, no plan or estimate of it is given. It is thought that it might let
sufficiently well as a cottage, to render it worth building on that account.

GG, Reserve ground fronting the Histon Road, which may be used as
garden ground, added to the cemetery, or let for building on, as may ulti-
mately be found most desirable.

H H, &c., Terrace walk surrounding the cemetery, and 3 ft. above the
general level.

1 1, &c., Holly hedges, forming the outer boundary, and also the separa-
tion fences between the cemetery and the reserve grounds.

kK K, &c., Seats or benches, for the use of persons walking round the
cemetery.

LL, &c., Borders for graves with monuments, or otherwise rendered
ornamental.

mM, &c., Beds where the graves may either be plain or turf graves, or
graves with head-stones, or may be rendered otherwise ornamental at pleasure.

NN, &c., Space along the centre of these beds, on which alone head-
stones are to be placed on foundations of brickwork or masonry. Brick
graves or catacombs may have the monuments, ledger-stones, or whatever is
used as a covering or finish, resting on their side and end walls.

o 0, &c., Single grass graves.

r p, &c., Brick graves occupying exactly the space of two single ones.

Q Q, &e., Vaults descended to by stairs, and occupying exactly the space
of four single graves.

RR, &c., Tile drains for carrying off surface water, all terminating in the
public drain in the New Huntingdon Road.

ss, &c., Cedars of Lebanon.

7 T, &c., Deodar cedars.

u vu, &c., Lines of Taurian pines.

vv, &c., Lines of Irish yews.

w, Workshed for masons, and repository for planks, wheelbarrows, earth-
box, &c., not to be built till after the cemetery is in full operation.

x x, Histon Road.

y y, Public drain along the New Huntingdon Road.

z, Archway to be formed in the holly hedge as it grows; or, if the funds
permit, an architectural archway may be here formed at the tine the hedge is
planted.

No. 2. [omitted] is an elevation of that side of the cemetery which lies
along the Histon Road.

No. 3. [omitted] is a cross section on the line cc pp, showing a rise
of one toot in the centre of the compartment at a, in order toe throw the water
to the sides at b d.

No. 4. [omitted] is a longitudinal section on the line AA BB.

No. 5. [omitted]. Elevation of the south side of the cemetery fence, in-
cluding the entrance from the New Huntingdon Road.

No. 6. [omitted] is a section across the lodge and the chapel, in the di-
rection ae BC Z.

No. 7. [omitted] is a section along the middle road, to show the fall of
the ground from west to east, and the consequent power of surface drainage.

No.8. [omitted]. A similar section to No.6., but on a scale four times larger.

No. 9. Section across the terrace on the line 11 KK, to the same scale
as Nos. 7. and 8.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 359

No. 10. [fig. 82.] Section across the terrace on the line EE FF, in which
a is the gravel walk ; 4, the grass walk, 5 ft. wide; c, the raised space for the
head-stones between the two rows of graves ; and d, the grass walks between
the double beds of graves.

es

eres
) --—

Dn

Fig. 82. Section across the Terrace, and one of the Double Beds for Graves.

No. 11. [ ig. 83.] Section across the hedge and bank forming the boundary
along the Histon Road, on the line GG nH.
No. 12. [ fig. 35. in p. 158.) A plan showing a vault,
a brick grave, a common grave, and the mode of num-
bering the graves.
No. 13. [fig. 30. in p. 154] Section through a brick I
or stone vault and a common grave.
No. 14. [ fig. 31. in p. 155.) Section through a brick
or stone grave and a common grave.
No. 15. [ fig. 88. in p. 361.] Isometrical view of the (
whole. [Though this view is on a very small scale, it
is sufficient to indicate the style of the buildings, and
the character of the trees : the two gardens in front are ——~“ aT
also shown, the reserve ground partly turned into a Fig. 83. Section across the

: Hedge and Bank formin,
garden, the Huntingdon entrance lodge, and the mason’s the Snoundate along the

shed.] Histon Road.

Designs for the main entrance lodge and chapel were given in by Mr. Lamb,
both in the Gothic and Italian styles. The directors chose those in the former
style, as will appear from a glance at the
isometrical view ; but, as the designs in the
Italian style have great merit, we have had
them engraved, partly on this account, and
partly because the elevations suit the same
plans as those which have been adopted.

Fig. 84. is a ground plan of the chapel,
in which a is the porch; 4, four sittings; c,
four sittings; d, coffin; e, twenty-four sit-
tings; f, twenty-four sittings; g, pulpit; 2,
registry; 2, terrace.

Fig. 85. Elevation of the main entrance
lodge and gates. The ground plan con-
tains a porch, a room to be used as an office,
living-room, kitchen, and back-kitchen, open
court, and shed for implements, &c. The
floor above contains three bed-rooms and
closets.

Fig. 86. is a perspective view of the ele-
vation, and jig. 87. a longitudinal section.
[As stone is remarkably abundant at Cam- ./¢

° “a PYa

bridge, and very easily worked, Mr. Lamb ““—
has designed all the buildings with a view to Fig. 84, Ground Plan of the Chapel.

360 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

j a x

‘i

ees

Cio

iar 00

1 HT
ei

i ALAC

Ti
Fig. 85. Entrance Lodge in the Italian Style, designed for the Cambridge Cemetery.

their being executed in that material. The coins are of hewn stone; the
columns of stone hewn and rubbed ; and the body of the walls of rubble, as
indicated in fig. 86. The roof, in the Gothic designs, is steep, and will be.
covered by a peculiar description of ornamental flat tile, of which a figure

a

Fig. 86. Chapel in the Italian Style, designed for the Cambridge Cemetery.

will be hereafter given. In the Italian design, the roof is flat, to admit of
being covered with tiles, bedded either in Roman cement, or in the new
cement of Mr. Austin; or covered with asphalte. The platform on which

the building stands will be surrounded by a kerb-stone, and the interior laid
with asphalte.]

i S
MASS WS

Fig. 87. Longttudinal Section of the Chapel designed for the Cambridge Cemetery.

Capacity of the Cemetery and the probable annual Expenses and Returns,
— The number of spaces for graves in the double beds, each grave occupying
a space of 8 ft. by 3ft., exceeds 900; and the number of border graves
exceeds 200. Under the surrounding terrace 200 more graves may be ob-
tained, and from 800 to 1000 under the front reserved gardens, and the roads,
walks, and paths; but, as it is not proposed to open the ground under the

applied to Public Cemeteries. 361

terrace, or in the reserved
gardens, till the beds and
borders are nearly full,
nor to bury in the paths and
roads, till the cemetery is
about tobeclosedas such for
ever, we shall take the num-
ber of spaces for graves im-
mediately available as 1200.
In order that these may re-
turn a suitable interest for
the money expended, it is
evident that more than one
interment must be made in
each grave, whether the
grave be a private or family
grave, or a common grave.
_Every common grave we
shall suppose to be 24 ft.
deep, which will give four
interments, allowing 6 ft of
soilover each. The family
graves may either be made
in the free soil, or they may
be brick graves or vaults,
and they may be made of
any depth the proprietors
may choose. The family
graves made in the free soil
we shall suppose to be of
the same depth and capa-
city as the common graves;
and the brick graves may
either be of the same depth
and capacity, or, by embed-
ding the coffins in cement,
or hermetically sealing each
with a flag-stone, the capa-
city of each grave may be
at least doubled.

Hence the 1200 graves
may give at least 4800, or
say 5000, interments ; but,
as the space allowed for
each grave along the bor-
ders is more than double
that allowed in the interior
beds, 1000 interments at
least may be added. Whe-
ther or not 5000 or 6000
interments wiil afford a suf-
ficient return for the capi-
tal expended, and the ne-
cessary annual expense, will
depend on the sum charged
for each interment, and the
number of interments made
in a year.

i)

Wy)

LY)

By

Sse

ura

3)
Wy

By

CG MEL

Fig. 88. Isometrical View of the Cambridge Cemetery

362 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

The Interest of the Money expended, allowing 1 per centasa £
sinking fund to return the principal, we shall estimate at - 120
Salary of the Curator, and Annual Expenses chargeable to
the Cemetery - - - - - - 180

Sum which the Cemetery ought to produce annually £300

In order to show how this sum may be produced, we shall suppose that
there are 200 interments made in a year, and that the sum charged for a single
interment in a common grave is 1/. 10s. which is only 5s. per interment more
than is charged in the Tower Hamlets Cemetery, where from twelve to fifteen
bodies are placed in one grave; and this will give the sum required.

Taking the number of interments which will be atforded by the 1200 avail-
able graves at 6000, that number, at the rate of 200 interments in a year,
will be exhausted in thirty years. The remainder of the ground will afford
at least an equal number of interments, which might extend the use of the
cemetery to sixty years.

To supply 200 deaths per annum, reckoning the deaths at 2 per cent of
the living, a population of 20,000 is required, or about four fifths of the
entire population of Cambridge.

As therefore it would be unreasonable to suppose that so large a propor-
tion of the people of Cambridge would bury in one cemetery, we are forced
to the conclusion, either that the price for each interment must be increased,
or that the shareholders must be content with less interest than 6 per cent.
Suppose we make the calculation at 3 per cent, that will reduce the annual
charges to 240/., which will require only 160 interments at 30s. or 120 at 40s.

Whatever sum is fixed on as the regular price of an interment in a common
grave will give the amount of the fee-simple of that grave ; and thus, ac-
cording to the calculation which we have made of six interments to a grave,
the price of a family grave ought to be at least 6/.; except in the borders,
where, from being a place of distinction, it ought to be higher. This price is
exclusive of every other expense, and also of a fee which will require to be
paid every time an interment takes place.

The price to be charged for a single interment in a common grave should
be fixed on partly from “the market price for such interments in the best part
of the churchvards of Cambridge, but chiefly from the great superiority of
the principle on which the cemetery is founded, viz. that no coffin, nor any
part of its contents, when once interred, can ever by any possibility, humanly
speaking, be again exposed to view.

If, on calculating on the capacity of this cemetery, we were to proceed on
the supposition that the common graves might be opened for reinterments
at the end of fourteen years, the result would be very different. But on
opening at the end of fourteen years, or at any period whatever, it would be
impossible to avoid exposing an immense number of human bones, which
constitute one of the great nuisances in our present crowded churchy ards.

The Mode of conducting the Cemetery is supposed to be as follows.

The choice of a situation for a grave may be made in any part of the beds
in the interior, or of the borders along the main walks ; but, till the cemetery
is nearly full, it is not desirable that graves or vaults should be made under
the surrounding terrace walk. When they are made there, the 5-feet grass
path which separates the terrace from the beds may have one foot in width
added to it from the terrace, and may be laid with gravel from the terrace

walk, which may be covered with grass taken from the 5-feet walk referred to.
The use of the terrace being thurs changed from a walk to a platform for
graves, it will of course no longer be walked upon.

As none of the coffins will ever be disturbed by the reopening of the graves,
as in common burying-grounds, there is no objection to the use of leaden,
zinc, or iron coffins.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 363

The interments may be classed as those made in common or public earth
graves, in private earth graves, in brick graves, in vaults having catacombs,
and in border graves.

Every grave in the cemetery is supposed to be numbered, and this may be
effected in the following manner.

]. The Borders may be considered as divided into spaces by the trees, and
these spaces may be numbered in regular series, beginning with the right-hand
border on entering the cemetery from the main lodge, and terminating with
the last space on the left-hand border. A number-stone may be put in in
every tenth or twentieth bed or space.

2. The Beds in the Interior. Beginning at one end (say with the first bed
on the right hand on entering by the principal ledge), a stone with a smooth
end, 6 or 8 inches by 2 ft., and at least 2 ft. in depth, is to be inserted in the
ground at each end of the middle space of the beds, as at a and 6 in the
plan No. 13. [ fig. 35. in p. 158.]. On the stone a is to be cut the first
number of the bed, 1.; and the last number, viz. L.: and on the stone 8 the
last number of the one side, xxv., or one half of the graves in the bed; and
the commencing number of the second side, xxv1. Thus, in every double
bed throughout the cemetery, the stone at the north end will exhibit the
number of the first and the last grave on that bed, and the stone at the oppo-
site end the number of the last grave on one side, and of the first grave on
the other. Should any two adjoining spaces adapted for earth graves be
occupied as a brick grave, or any four spaces be required as a vault, in these
cases the brick grave would be entered in the cemetery books under the
head of two numbers, and the vault under the head of four numbers.

It is not necessary to begin by putting number-stones to all the beds ; but
when choice is made of a bed at a distance from one that has already been
numbered, a calculation must be made of the numbers that would occupy
the intervening beds, and the two number-stones placed accordingly at the
ends of the bed in which the interment is to be made.

Every brick grave or vault must, therefore, necessarily be a multiple of a
cominon grave, otherwise the numeration will be deranged.

When a bed is to be spoken of as a whole, it can be designated by the first
or lowest number in the bed. Thus, supposing the beds to contain fifty graves
each, we should have beds No. 1, 51, 101, 151, 201, and so on: or, in ad-
dition to the numbers, a letter may be placed on each stone, and we should,
therefore, have beds a, B, c, &c.; and, after a single alphabet was exhausted,
AA, BB, &c.

3. The Graves or Vaults under the Terrace will require to be similarly re-
corded to the border graves, a number being allowed tor every space between
the trees; or two numbers, if that should be thought necessary.

4. When the Reserve Spaces, G & [in fig.81.], are added to the cemetery,
the separation hedge will be removed; and the border, terrace, and beds
extended ; and, hence, the graves there will be recorded according to the modes
already mentioned.

The Zarth Graves, or graves of the simplest kind, are to be made within a
space 8 ft. by 3ft.; which, allowing a margin of 3 in. at the sides, and | ft.
at the end next the 4-feet path, will give 7 ft. by 2 ft. 6in., which is 6 in.
longer than is allowed in the Kensal Green Cemetery, besides allowing
a space of 1 ft. by 3 ft. for a foot-stone or number, if the purchaser of the
grave should think either of these necessary. For a single interment it must
be dug at least 6 ft. in depth; but, if it is intended to make two or more
interments in it, it must be dug 6 ft. deeper for each additional interment ;
and, as the limit to depth need not be settled, any number of interments
may be made in a common grave that the proprietors of the cemetery may fix
on, or in a family grave that its owner may determine.

In order that the sides of the earth graves may remain firm, and not be
pressed in by the loose earth of an adjoining grave, they should chiefly be
formed alternately with firm ground which has not been buried in, or moved

364 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

within six or seven years, or next to brick graves or vaults; but, should
it become necessary to open one grave adjoining another which has been
recently made or opened, recourse can always be had to planks or grave-
boards [figs.37. and 38.]; which, indeed, may be considered absolutely
necessary as safeguards in the case of all graves dug above 6 ft. deep adjoming
ground which has been moved.

Every reopening of a family grave for another interment should be charged
according to the depth when it is an earth grave; say for a depth of 6 ft. 3s.,

12 ft. 6s., and so on ; and, when it is a brick grave or vault, according to the

expense of removing the ledger or covering stone, &c.

To insure the keeping of gravestones, monuments, and flowers planted over
_ graves in order, the fee-simple of the estimated annual expense of doing so
should be paid down by the proprietor of the grave, at the time of putting up
the monument, or putting in the plants [on the principle laid down in p. 218.].

Brick Graves. These require to have side’ walls of from 9 in. to 18 in. in
width, according to their depth; and these walls should be curved, so as to
resist the lateral pressure of the soil, as shown in plan No. 11. [fig. 35. in
p- 158.]. Brick graves, when of great depth, require to occupy the space of
two earth graves, and hence the charges for them ought to be double that
for earth graves, exclusive of the expense of building; but when two brick
graves are built close together, each need not occupy more than an earth
grave, because the party wa!l will save 14 in. in width, thus : —

ft. in.
Width of space allowed for two graves’ - - - =. Cug0
Deduct three walls, each 14 in. thick - - - - 3 6
Leaving a clear space of 2 ft. 3in. in width for each grave 4 6

Length of the ground, including half the width of the space on which
the gravestones are to be placed - - - ae) 0)
Deduct two 14-inch walls - - - - - 2 4
Leaving the clear length of the grave = - - - 6 8

The ordinary dimensions of the coffins which are always kept ready made
by undertakers are 6ft. long by 20in. wide, and 16in. deep ; the largest size
is 7 ft. by 2 ft. 4in., but coffins of this size are very seldom required.

If the walls were built in cement, then 9 in. in thickness would in many
cases be sufficient; and this would add 10 in. to the length and 10 in. to the
width of the clear space, leaving it 7 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. 1 in.; which would afford
ample room for any coffin whatever.

The ordinary mode of burying in brick graves is to let down the coffins
one over another, without covering them with earth, but merely laying a flat
stone or ledger over the mouth of the grave a few inches above the level of
the ground’s surface. In some cases a flag-stone, resting on ledges projecting
from the side walls of the grave, is placed over each coffin as it is deposited ;
and when each flag-stone is securely cemented, so as effectually to prevent the
escape of gas [see p. 216.], agreater number of interments may be made in one
grave by this mode than by any other, and at the same time with perfect
safety to the living.

The Vaults may be constructed in the usual manner, as shown in the
general plan, No. 1. [ fig. 81. in p. 357.] at @ @, and in the enlarged plan
No. 12. [ fig. 35. in p. 158.], and section No. 13. [ fig. 30. in p. 154]. A vault
of 12 ft. in depth, and 2 coffins in width, will contain 12 coffins.

The Books required for conducting this Cemetery are chiefly: 1. An order
bock; 2. A register or record of interments; and 3. A ledger of graves, an
account being opened for each grave, as in the Kensal Green Cemetery. The
other books required do not differ from those in common use. Forms of the
order-book, register, and ledger will readily be obtained by applying to any

applied to Public Cemeteries. 365

of the London Cemetery Companies, or their stationers. [The essential
forms, and the names of the stationers, have been given in p. 221, 222.]

Specification of Work to be done on the Ground, including the Formation of the
Roads, Walks, Drains, &c.

Form the surrounding terrace and hedge banks, agreeably to sections
Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 11., of the best of the surface soil in the interior of the en-
closure; the slopes to be built with a grassy surface, which will be obtained
from the most grassy parts of the surface soil; and the whole to be rendered
solid and compact, by ramming with cast-iron rammers as the soil is laid down.
Form the walk on the surface agreeably to the sections.

Level and smooth the ground on each side of the terrace walk, in order to
be scwn afterwards with grass seeds, with the exception of a space 2 ft. in
width, on which the holly hedge is to be planted. Plant the hollies in April
at 1 ft. apart, and mulch them with littery stable dung.

Form the hedge banks as shown in the section No. 1]., the sides to be of
grassy sods, and the whole firmly rammed; the upper surface being left quite
level, smooth, and clear of grass and weeds, for the space of 2 ft. in width
along the centre, on which is to be planted the holly hedge. Insert the plants
at a foot apart, as above directed.

In depositing the soil both in the terrace banks and the hedge banks, the
greatest care must be taken to place nothing but good soil under the line on
which the holly hedges are to be planted, in order by that good soil to pro-
mote their growth as much as possible.

Surround the whole of the outer holly hedge with a park paling 6 ft. high.

The terrace and banks being completed, level the whole of the interior
surface, so as to have one general slope from the point a in section No 7.
to the point p in plan No. L., the fall being supposed to be about 2 ft., as
shown in the section.

Form, at the same time, that part of the surface which is laid out in beds,
as shown in plan No. |. [fig. 88. in p. 361.], raised in the middle, and
sloping towards the sides, as shown in the enlarged section No. 8.

Form the carriage-road of broken stones below, and gravel above, raised
3 in. higher at the centre than at the sides, as shown in the section.

Form the borders to the main roads with a concealed brick edging next
the walk, as shown in section at No. 8. 56 [see figs. 56. and 57. in p, 217.], and
place a mass of good soil where each tree is to be planted, raised in the centre
1 ft. above the general level, and forming a flattened cone 6 ft. in diameter. As
temporary plants, and for immediate effect, introduce one spruce fir 6 or 8 feet
high, if such plants can be got, between every two pines, and between every
two Irish yews; the intention being that these spruce firs shall be removed as
soon as the pines and. yews attain the height of 6 {t.

Form the interior into beds 18 ft. wide, with a space 2 ft. wide, and 3 in.
higher than the rest of the surface, along the centre of each bed; and form alleys
between them 4 ft. in width, and a surrounding path 5 ft. wide, as shown in
sections Nos. 8, 9, and 10.

Form the tile drains and the branch drains, as shown by the blue dotted
lines in plan No. 1., and also in the sections Nos. 8. and 9., at cc.

Plant the pines, cedars, and yews, as shown in the plan No. 1., taking the
greatest care to place nothing but good soil under and over the roots, and to
unwind and stretch out the roots of all those that have grown in pots.
Protect the cedars with circular constructions of wickerwork, and mulch
the surface round all the trees, and along both sides of the hedge, with littery
stable dung.

_Sow the whole of the surface shown green in the plan No. 1. with peren-
nial rye-grass and white clover, at the rate of 1 bushel of rye-grass, and 1 lb.
of white clover to the acre.

3d Ser.— 1842. VII. BE

366 Landscape-Gardening applied to Cemeteries.

Estimate of Expense.

vs.) OF
2400 cubic yards of Terrace-bank, at 6d. - - - 60 0 O
300 cubic yards of Hedge-bank, at 6d. ah ngs = je GnlOnnO
480 lineal yards of Terrace- walk, 6 ft. wide, at Is. - - 24 0 0
1761 square yards of Road, at 6d. —- - - - 44 0 6
1813 feet of Park Paling, at 2s. - - - - 18! 60
16,300 square yards of Surface, to be levelled and formed into
Beds and Borders, at 2d. - - - - 135 16 8
2900 feet of Tile-drain, at 6d. per foot, including sink-stones
or gratings, where necessary - - - Ste NO ©
2120 Hollies, at 10s. per hundred - - - - 1012 O
94. Pius tatrica, in pots, at Is. each - - - 414 0
20 Pinus austriaca, in pots, ls. each - =e lO naO
14 Cedars of Lebanon, in pots, 2s. 6d. aad - - 115 0
4 Deodar cedars, in pots, 5s. each - - =) he Oey,
76 Trish yews, at ls. 6d. each - : - ay 4 ©
200 Spruce firs at 6d. - - - - os) Oe O
Rye-grass and Clover seeds - - - a 2 OO

Planting the hollies and the above trees with the greatest

possible care, including mulching with Hietery stable-

dung - - 6 0 0
Allow for a temporary Gate Fol the eines ows the

New Huntingdon Road, for unforeseen expenses, and

for superintendence = = = = - 87 1 10
£600 0 0

Should it be desired to reduce the above estimate, the means are as
follows : —

Liss
Omit altogether the gravel walk on the terrace, and let it be a
grass walk - - - = 24° 0. 0
Form only one half of the scuba into ‘beds, leesntne the other
half to be formed by the curator at convenience ; deduct, say - 60 0 0
Drain only one half instead of the whole ; deduct, say - - 50 0 0
Instead of pines, cedars, and yews, plant Scotch pines instead
of the Taurian pines, and spruce firs instead of the Irish yews,
to be clipped into cones and pyramids, by which a saving will
be made of — - - - - - - - 12 00
£146 0 O

Rules and Regulations for the Management of the Cemetery.— The general
management being invested by the company in the directors, they have ap-
pointed a secretary and a curator, and the latter shall appoint graves-men and
body-bearers.

Duty of the Secretary.—To keep the cemetery books, and communicate
between the directors and the curator. To concoct with the directors a scale
of prices for interments, as well as a set of rules and regulations, to be varied
from time to time, as trial and convenience may justify.

Duties of the Curator.—To take his instructions from the secretary. To
receive the burial fees, but no perquisites. To devote the whole of his time,
or only a certain portion of it, to the cemetery, as may be agreed on; the re-
mainder of the time, if any, to be employed in the plots of ground which he is
supposed to rent from the company for a few years at first, &c., as before
explained.

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. 367

To superintend the opening of every grave, and take special care that no
coffin is placed nearer the surface than 6ft.; and that, when more than one
coffin is placed in a grave which is filled in with earth, there shall be at least
6 ft. between the coffins, unless the two coffins are deposited at the same time,
in which case the one may be placed on the other.

To take special care that a protecting stone [before described, p. 216.] be
placed in every grave filled in with earth, that is to be reopened, at the proper
distance (6 ft.) above the last- deposited coffin ; ; and to take care that, when a
grave with a protecting stone is reopened, the protecting stone shall be taken
out, and again replaced at the proper distance, or taken away altogether if
the grave is to be finally closed.

To attend in like manner to the interments made by hermetically sealing
up the separate coffins, whether by intervening flag-stones, or by embedding
them in cement as before described.

To keep the whole of the grounds in the neatest possible manner; to watch
the progress of the trees and hedge plants, and stake them when loosened by
the wind, or water them when dry. To see that all the implements, planks,
&c., are kept i in order, and laid up in their proper places.

To pay the graves-men and body-bearers according to some scale, either of
fees, or by the day, as may be arranged after ascertaining the rates of payment
in the Cambridge churchyards,

[The remainder is omitted, as being either too local to be generally useful,
or so general as to be included in Divisions IL, I11., and VII.]

(To be anes

Art. III. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By JAMrs BARNeEs, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 306.)

Letter XV. The Rust in Grapes.

In the course of my practice I have seen grapes in different
noblemen’s and gentlemen’s places much injured by what is
termed the rust. J have heard various opinions given regarding
the cause of this injurious pest, which I need not now enlarge
on; but I will here briefly state a few facts amongst the many
I have observed, which have caused or induced rust on grapes.
I have been long fully persuaded, or rather convinced, that it
is produced by the treatment they receive inside, and not in any
way through the bottom or border. ‘The season is now so far
advanced that every one who has vines under glass has them
progressing in some stage; and some of your numerous readers,
perhaps, will be able to ascertain in this present season some one
or other of the causes I have observed, and which I am about
to mention. Prevention certainly is better than cure; and, as
the causes which produce either disease or vermin are not natural,
how often do we see the one brought on in attempting to destroy
or expel the other!

A nobleman’s gardener some years ago called on me, and

BB 2

368 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

wondered how it was he never had seen red spiders or rust
amongst the vines under my charge, as he was continually pes-
tered with both. He then had three houses of grapes in dif-
ferent stages coming on, and the red spider was making sad
ravages onh the earliest house, which was at the time Shore
stoning. The man asked me how he could expel the pest. I
readily told him to dredge the flues cautiously with sulphur
vivum; for, without caution, the remedy would prove worse
than the evil. The man used the sulphur on the flues when
hot, and also steamed them when hot; the consequence was,
his grapes that had previously been clear from rust were imme~
diately affected with it.

Another gentleman’s gardener, of the old school, had a fine
large vinery, with the vines trained under the rafters in a com-
plete bundle or faggot. His vines were constantly troubled with
all the injurious diseases and vermin; and he attributed it to
the bad bottom, which was every thing that a man could wish,
lying high and dry, with a subsoil of open loose gravel and
sand, to a great depth. That man always made it a rule to
water the flues when warm, to keep the red spider down, as he
said: which was not only the means of increasing the spider,
but brought him the rust into the bargain: and, no doubt, he
still continues the same unnatural treatment.

I have seen rust brought on grapes by allowing the house to
continue shut too long sauhout air in the morning, and then,
suddenly opening it when the external air was cold and chilly ;
the sudden change produced rust on different parts where the
current of cold air was strongest. I have seen the rust pro-
duced by syringing with cold water; likewise through un-
skilful handling in thinning out the bunches, more particularly
when thinning has been done late in the morning, and the
vapour has been allowed to rise on the fruit before the house
has had air given to it. It is sudden checks that produce rust
generally, such as we ought to guard against in houses, pits,
&c., of all kinds and for all purposes. Out of doors we often
see it produced after a sudden change from still, warm, growing
weather to stormy, cold, and windy weather; not only on
grapes, but on plums, apricots, pears, &c., more particularly
when the fruit has been in a tender, thriving, growing state.

I have always noticed out of doors, after a storm with driving
wind, if the sun break out suddenly on the tender fruit before it
is dry or has had one night’s repose, the rust is certain to make
its appearance; therefore, I always make it a rule to guard
against sudden changes with every thing under glass.

Some day soon I will write you a letter on the system I follow
all through with grape-growing, if acceptable. [It will be par-
ticularly so. |

Bicton Gardens, April 29. 1843.

Protecting Fruit Trees against Walls. 369

Art. IV. On protecting Fruit Trees against Walls. By N.M.T.

Durine your journey through Scotland, as detailed in the Gardener's Maga-
zine, I find a paragraph censuring the Scotch generally for not affording their
fruit trees adequate protection while in bloom. I made a memorandum of the
said paragraph at the time; and, after another year’s experience, I would ask,
Are you certain that protection, even the most popular sort of protection,
confers the benefits imagined ? or, rather, is it not a positive injury? These
questions must appear very foolish to the mass of practitioners : a few years
ago to me they would have appeared superlatively so; but my views are now
changed, and it will not be a trifle that will restore the reputation of such pro-
tection to the place it held in my estimation. Some occurrences make a
deeper impression than others of equal import, from the circumstances which
attend them. This was particularly the case with regard to the experiments
about to be detailed ; and if, by any possibility, I can avoid being too prolix,
I will detail those circumstances, as the best means of rendering the care
with which the experiments were performed apparent, which may, I hope,
induce others to repeat them, as the subject is of much importance.

In 1839, the trees under my care being in a most exposed situation, and
altogether unprotected, I prevailed upon my employer to allow me to procure
enough of the most approved material to sufficiently protect the whole
against the coming spring. Cow-hair netting was at the time being adver-
tised, strongly (and I still think justly) recommended as possessing most of
the qualities requisite for such a purpose. This sort was determined upon,
and purchased accordingly. The material highly pleased me; and, not content
with doing well (as I fancied) myself, I used my utmost endeavours to per-
suade others to do likewise, and in several cases succeeded. But a near
neighbour stoutly resisted all arguments that could be brought to bear on the
subject: I might talk of the blighting influence of cutting winds and hoar-
frosts until I was hoarse; he remained obstinate, declaring that he had no
doubt of his crops being as good as mine ; and, if they were not, he would not
impute the blame to want of protection. Consequently I gave him up as
impracticable, setting him down (as mankind generally do those opposed to
them in matters of opinion) as steeped in the most pitiable ignorance ; to
remove which, I begged him to watch the progress, and mark the result, of
the practice which I (following the best practical authorities, the fruitful
source of so many errors) so strongly recommended ; and concluded witha
wish that the coming spring might be such as would, by its severity, test the
merits of the appliance. In this I was amply accommodated ; the spring was
such that, in this quarter at least, it will be remembered by fruit-growers ;
and, during the continuance of the boisterous, chilling, east winds that then
proved so destructive to the bloom, if I did not feel half-pleased (which I
am afraid I did) to think that my friend’s trees were exposed to its unmiti-
gated severity, I was highly gratified to think mine were snug beneath their
truly comfortable-looking covering. ‘The walls here are supported by but-
tresses, projecting a foot beyond the wall at bottom, and tapering to nothing
at top ; into these strong iron eyes are fixed, through which three strong
wires were stretched at equal distances, to which the netting was securely
fastened, fully extended, presenting a formidable array of bristles, yet withal
obstructing so little light, from the material itself being half-transparent, that
we deemed their removal at any time unnecessary.

For a long time all seemed to do well; the bloom was splendid ; certainly
finer than that uuprotected ; but, when the fruit ought to have swelled off, all
dropped, and the failure was complete. That what is meant by complete failure
may be properly understood, I may state that there were not three dozen
fruit upon 500 square yards of wall. A most striking proof of the injury
done by covering so applied was accidentally furnished upon a wall against

BB 3

370 Protecting Fruit Trees against Walls.

which young low trees were planted: a net covering only the lower half of
the wall completely protected all these, except one; this had reached the
top, consequently there was a deltoid-like piece above the net totally unco-
vered, which, nevertheless, produced more fruit than all the wall besides, the
covered part being as bad as the protected trees generally.

Thus I was compelled to own to my observant antagonist that defeat was
complete ; but I concluded (as half your practical readers must have done)
that the disaster was entirely owing to the misapplication of a principle which
I now, for the first time, doubted. I freely granted this error in judgement ;
and, now that attention was directed to the subject, I resolved upon in-
creased vigilance during another season, when the netting, instead of being
fastened to the horizontal wires, was furnished with rings to slide upon them,
and was, I need not add, carefully removed every day that was the least
favourable. The promise was again great, and success seemed certain; but,
alas! the result was anything but satisfactory ; that is, trees totally exposed
bore better. I now began to think the benefit conferred by covering of at
least a very negative description ; and, in the spring of 1842, the netting was
put in its place, and applied in cases of severity only, and again without any
perceptible advantage; so that I resolved, be the spring of 1843 what it
might, I would leave all to chance. This was strictly adhered to, and the
crops are more than doubled. It may be urged, that the present is a season
that seems to produce an excess of most kinds of fruit : granted; but, upon
the other hand, it has also been a season above all others rendering protec-
tion, according to established notions, indispensable. March here was fine
beyond all precedent; the continued warmth exciting too rapid vegetation,
and rendering the check caused by excessive cold during April so keenly felt.
So great indeed the change, that a thermometer suspended from a branch of a
peach tree while in bloom fell to 28° ; potatoes in the border were completely
killed; strong ice being formed several nights successively. Here, protection
would seem most desirable; yet I have ascertained where it was applied -
without conferring any benefit.

I mentioned in the beginning of this paper that several persons procured
and applied the same sort of protection at the same time; and, being anxious
to know how they had succeeded, previously to sending you this, I visited the
place where it had been most extensively employed, and found, by a singular
coincidence, that this spring there also it had been discontinued; with the
exception of a large apricot, which was sheltered when the change in the
weather became apparent, and there is not the tenth part of a crop upon it.
I do not say protection destroyed that crop; but it proved wholly powerless
to save it. Here, then, is the corroboration of a truly practical man, placed
where fruit is a first consideration, practically convinced that protection, as
usually applied, is totally useless.

I now very much regret that I did not this season, as a conclusive test,
cover part of several trees, the only correct method of determining its value ;
as trees covered, and trees uncovered, however near or similarly situated, are
liable to be affected by unseen agents, and their success or failure thus ren-
dered of little weight.

Without entering at all into the theory of the subject, I have contented
myself with a statement of facts with the hope of causing an investigation;
and have said enough, I think, to effect this. It would be needless to appeal
to your readers generally, as what is every body’s business is seldom per-
formed by any body : but, could you particularise a few individuals that would
be guided by what occurred rather than by preconceived notions, the benefit
conferred by their investigations would be useful to vast numbers that are, at
vast trouble and expense, destroying half the produce of their trees, in case
they are found unnecessary; and lead to something more determinate as to
the mode of application, and the material to be employed, if they are really
useful.

Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 371

I have mentioned the cow-hair netting, as the material employed in the
cases adverted to, and it is possible that vegetable fibre, similarly employed,
might produce a different effect; at least, there is room for enquiry.

The atmosphere being made up of so many, and, after all, of so little
understood, elements, it is impossible to say what changes may take place
by its passing through such an obstruction as even a suspended net; and
considering, also, the incomprehensible agency employed in the fertilisation
of plants, this change may be more serious than at first sight would appear
credible. If electricity, which so universally pervades space, bears an active
hand, the material used becomes momentous, and renders it not improbable
that the millions of hirsute points protruding from a hair net exercise an
influence, injurious or otherwise. But all this I would leave to abler hands,
satisfied with merely naming such points as worthy of being taken into
account in the investigation,

Folkstone, May 13. 1842.

Art. V. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and
Flower-Garden. By the ConpucrTor.

(Continued from p. 308.)

Tue design jig. 89. is for a flower-garden in the Elizabethan style, in a sunk
panel; the beds are separated by grass paths 2 ft. wide, and the surrounding
gravel walks, a and 4, are 6 ft. wide. The walk a is six steps of 6 in. each,
or 3 ft., above the level of the border d, and lower walk 6. The ground is
kept up to the higher level by the parapet wall c, which has piers at regular
distances surmounted by vases ; and at each of the flights of steps there are
two statues ; one on each side of the entrance at the upper steps, and a vase
at each side of the lower steps. To harmonise with these statues there are in
the flower-garden four, in the centre of as many beds, one of which is marked /.
There is supposed to be a fountain in the centre of the basin g, which may
be either a jet or a drooping fountain, according to the height and abundance
of the supply of water. If the supply is direct from a hydraulic ram, a
drooping fountain will be preferable, and the effect of the regular pulsations
of the ram will be found very interesting. The border within the para-
pet wall is supposed to be planted with low-flowering shrubs, chiefly rho-
dodendrons, azaleas, and other Lricacez, including also mahonias, daphnes,
cistus, genista, cytisus, coronilla, &c., selected so as to exhibit a show of
flower from April to September. All the beds of the form e may be planted
with white flowers; those of the form f with purple flowers, one plant of a
species or variety, and so selected and disposed as to have as nearly as prac-
ticable an equal number of species in flower throughout the season, and the
highest plants in the middle of the bed, sloping gradually to the margins.
There ought, however, neither in this bed nor in any other of this design, to
be any flowers planted which grow higher than 18 in., and all the smaller
beds ought to be planted with flowers which do not exceed 9 in. in height.
In all the beds every plant ought to stand distinct, and there ought not to be
two of a kind throughout the whole flower-garden. Hence there will be no
plants in this garden that want either pegging down or tying up ; and if it is
planted with perennials, without either bulbs or annuals, it will occasion very
little trouble to keep it in order, and will look well all the year. Each bed
may have a number, and a list may be kept of the plants contained in it, which
will be less formal than numbering or naming each plant separately, and will
be a better exercise for persons desirous of knowing the names.

The beds of the form marked g may be planted with yellow flowers simi-

BB 4

372 Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden.

Fig. 89. Elizabethan Flower-Garden in a sunk Panel.

larly arranged to those in the bed f; those marked h, with purple flowers ;
the bed marked 2, and those corresponding with it, may be planted with blue
flowers. The flowers in /, and the corresponding beds, may be orange ; and
the four beds, of which one is marked m, may be yellow. Instead of having
the beds / planted with orange flowers, those corresponding with m may have
white flowers, and the orange may be limited to those corresponding with o.
On the supposition that no fountain of any kind is to be placed in the
central basin, so as to form the main object when descending the steps at
both entrances, then the bed e, and the three beds which correspond to it,
may be occupied by pedestals and statues, which, with the statues in the
centres of the beds 4, will give a running architectural foreground to the spec-
tator from the lower walk 6, and a middle distance to the spectator from the
upper or terrace walk a, whose foreground, looking towards the garden, will
be the parapet crowned with vases e. ;
This design may be varied in the following manner : instead of crowning
the supporting wall c with piers and vases, it need not be carried up higher
than the surface of the terrace, and may have a hedge of box planted over it,
which may be kept clipped so as to exhibit piers, either crowned with vases
of box, or with pyramids ; or the hedge may be cut so as simply to form a

Chrysanthemums adapted to Scotland. 373

verdant wall with piers at regular distances ; or it may be cut so as to form
a low open arcade. But, as to produce any of these results will require
the box to grow three or four years, even if it should be 4 ft. high when
planted, an effect may be produced the first year by planting giant ivy, and
training it on a frame of wirework.

Instead of a hedge of box or of yew, a hedge of common juniper may be
planted, and instead of piers or pyramids clipped into shape, Swedish or Irish
junipers may be introduced in the hedge at regular distances, or a hedge of
green holly may be planted, and the standards may be of variegated holly.

In the sunk panel a grass plot may be substituted for the central basin, and
Irish junipers, Irish yews, variegated yews, or cypresses, for the statues in the
centres of the beds &, and for the beds e.

The paths between the beds, instead of being of grass, may be paved with
brick, tiles, or stone, asphalte or cement, or they may be formed of gravel
with box edgings. The centre, in the case of the walks not being of grass,
may either be of grass with a gravel or paved walk surrounding it, or it may
be an open arcade of trelliswork covered with roses; and there may be a
fountain in the centre of this bower of roses, as in the Duchess of Bedford’s
garden at Camden Hill.

In all sunk gardens of this kind, and indeed in all flower-gardens whatever,
great care ought to be taken not to surround them with walls, hedges, shrub-
bery, arcades of roses or other climbers, or in short any boundary which will
exclude the free circulation of air, and the direct rays of the sun, for at least
the greater part of every day throughout the growing season.

For the sake of those who would prefer covering the beds with summer
flowers so as to exhibit one mass of colour produced by one plant in each bed,
we have numbered one half of the beds, which may be planted as below; the
other half being a duplicate of this half.

1, Blue. Campanula carpatica. 16. White variegated. Pelunia eru-
2. Yellow. Cnothera macrocarpa. béscens.
3. Blue. Salvia chamezedryoides. 17. White variegated. Leptosiphon
4, White. Jbéris coronaria. androsaceus.
5. Blue. Clintonia pulchélla. 18. White variegated. Collinsia bf-
6. Yellow. Calceolaria angustifolia. color.
7. Blue. Nemdphila insignis. 19. Lilac. Clarkia élegans.
8. White. The Queen Verbena. 20. Scarlet. Bouvardia coccinea.
9. Purple. Godetia bifrons. 21. Orange. Tropz‘olum minus flore
10. Yellow. Calceolaria rugosa. pleno.
11. Scarlet. Frogmore Pelargonium. 22. Orange. LEschschdéltzia califérni-
12. Orange. rysimum Perowskia- ca var.

num. 23. Yellow. G’nothéra Drumméndii.
13. Orange. Eschscholtzia crocea. 24. Purple. Lupinus nanus.
14, Lilac. Verbena amee‘na. 25. (e in the figure.) White. Ne-
15. White variegated. Verbena ¢eu- moéphila atomaria.

criotdes.

(To be continued.)

Art. VI. List of the earliest and freest growing and flowering Chry-
santhemums adapted for Cultivation in the colder Parts of the Country,
and more particularly in Scotland. By Messrs. CHANDLER AND SONS.

[Tue following list was kindly sent us by Messrs. Chandler and Sons for a
friend in the West of Scotland. The plants are 1s. each, and they were
sent by post.]

Adventure, yeilow. Bicolor, white and yellow.

Arago, buff and red, Beauty, pale lilac.

374 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c.

Conqueror, white. Marchioness, white.
Coronet, white. Mirabile, white and buff.
Campestroni, purple. Magnet, yellow.

Casimir Perrier, small crimson. Marquis, light rose.
Celestial, blush. Minerva, pink and white.
Duc de Conigliano, crimson. Marie, red.

Empress, lilac. Madame Pompadour, dark rose.
Florib@ndum, dark lilac. Princess Marie, light pink.
Flechier, dark rose. Perspicuum, pink.
Formosum, white and yellow. Queen, deep rose.

Goliath, white. Rosalind, pink.

Grande, flesh colour. Surprise, white.

Gouvain St. Cyr, orange. Triumphant, pink and buff.
Imperial, pale lilac. Theresa, red.

La Superbe, blush white. Vesta, white.

Lucidum, white. Victory, white.

Vauxhall Nursery, May 2. 1843.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Agriculture, Botany,
Rural Architecture, &c., lately published, with some Account of
those considered the more interesting.

THE Zoologist: an Illustrated Monthly Magazine of Natural History, and
Journal for recording Facts and Anecdotes relating to Quadrupeds, Birds,
Reptiles, Fishes, Anneldes, Insects, Worms, Zoophytes, §c.; their Habits,
Retreats, occasional Appearance, Migrations, Nests, and Young. Nos. I. to
V. 8vo. London, 1843. Continued monthly.

This is a carefully got up and judiciously conducted periodical, blending
scientific with popular description, after the manner of our Magazine of
Natural History. Among the contributors are Mr. Waterton and many
other field, as well as book, naturalists. The numbers being only a shilling
each, a gardener fond of natural history could not meet with a more suitable
periodical than the Zoologist.

A History of British Birds. By William Yarrell, F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. Illus-
trated by a woodcut of each species and numerous vignettes. 3 vols. 8vo.
London, 1843.

This is by far the best book on birds which has ever been published, and
we can therefore strongly recommend it to our readers.

Reports of Special Assistant Poor Law Commissioners on the Employment of
Women and Children in Agriculture. Presented to both Houses of Parlia-

ment by Command of Her Majesty. 8vo, pp. 378. London, 1843.

There are many facts in these Reports in favour of cottage gardens and
small cottage allotments, from a few poles up to a quarter of an acre in
extent. There are also other facts proving the deplorable state of the cot-
tages in all the districts examined, with the exception of one place in Surrey,
in which it is stated that “great pains are taken generally to improve the
home of the agricultural family, as well by furnishing opportunities for proper
habits in the erection of good cottages, as by the direct encouragement of
prizes for neat cottage interiors and gardens. (p. 148.) The general condition
of the cottages, however, more frequently resembles those in the neighbour-
hood of Blandford. “ The want of sufficient accommodation seems universal.
Cottages generally have only two bed-rooms (with very rare exceptions) ; a
great many have only one. The consequence is, that it is very often extremely

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. 375

difficult, if not impossible, to divide a family so that grown-up persons of dif-
ferent sexes, brothers and sisters, fathers and daughters, do not sleep in the
same room. ‘Three or four persons not unfrequently sleep in the same bed.
In a few instances I found that two families, neighbours, arranged so that the
females of both families slept together in one cottage and the males in the
other ; but such an arrangement 1s very rare, and in the generality of cottages
I believe that the only attempt that is or that can be made to separate beds,
with occupants of different sexes, and necessarily placed close together from
the smallness of the rooms, is an old shawl or some article of dress suspended
as a curtain between them. At Stourpain, a village near Blandford, I mea-
sured a bed-room in a cottage consisting of two rooms, the bed-room in ques-
tion up stairs, and a room on the ground floor in which the family lived during
the day. There were eleven in the family: and the aggregate earnings in
money were 16s. 6d. weekly (Dec. 1842), with certain advantages, the prin-
cipal being the father’s title to a grist of a bushel of corn a week, at Is. below
the market price, his fuel carted for him, &c. They had also an allotment of
a quarter of an acre, for which they paid a rent of 7s. 7d. a year. The follow-
ing diagram shows the shape of the room and the position of the three beds,
A, B, C, it contained. The room was 10 ft. square, not reckoning the two
small recesses by the sides of the chimney, about 18 in. deep. The roof was
the thatch, the middle of the chamber being about 7 ft. high. Opposite the
fire-place was a small window, about 15 in. square, the only one to the room.

Door to Staircase -
FD a =D

Chimney.

A
Bed.
Cc
Bed.
B
Bed.

Window.

“ Bed A was occupied by the father and mother, a little boy, Jeremiah, aged
14 year, and an infant aged 4 months.

“ Bed B was occupied by the three daughters, —the two eldest, Sarah and
Elizabeth, twins, aged 20; and Mary, aged 7.

“ Bed C was occupied by the four sons,— Silas, aged 17; John, aged 15 ;
James, aged 14; and Elias, aged 10.

“There was no curtain, or any kind of separation between the beds.

*“ This I was told was not an extraordinary case ; but that, more or less,
every bed-room in the village was crowded with inmates of both sexes, of
various ages, and that such a state of things was caused by the want of
cottages,

376 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c.

“It is impossible not to be struck, in visiting the dwellings of the agricul-
tural labourers, with the general want of new cottages, notwithstanding the
universal increase of population. Everywhere the cottages are old, and fre-
quently in a state of decay, and are consequently ill adapted for their increased
number of inmates of late years. The floor of the room in which the family
live during the day is always of stone in these counties, and wet or damp
through the winter months, being frequently lower than the soil outside. The
situation of the cottage is often extremely bad, no attention having been paid
at the time of its building to facilities for draining. Cottages are frequently
erected on a dead level, so that water cannot escape ; and sometimes on spots
lower than the surrounding ground. In the village of Stourpain, in Dorset-
shire, there is a row of several labourers’ cottages, mostly joining each other,
and fronting the street, in the middle of which is an open gutter. There are
two or three narrow passages leading from the street, between the houses, to
the back of them. Behind the cottages the ground rises rather abruptly; and
about three yards up the elevation are placed the pigsties and privies of the
cottages. There are also shallow excavations, the receptacles apparently of
all the dirt of the families. The matter constantly escaping from the pigsties,
privies, é&c., is allowed to find its way through the passages between the cot-
tages into the gutter in the street, so that the cottages are nearly surrounded
by streams of filth. It was in these cottages that a malignant typhus broke
out about two years ago, which afterwards spread through the village. The
bed-room I have above described is in one of them.”

It were much to be desired that every landed proprietor would have a
Report made of the actual condition of the cottages on his estate; not by the
resident steward, whose interest it might be to discuise their aera state, but
by a stranger. But much good might be done by the personal inspection of
the proprietor himself. Gentlemen in the country enter into the details of
their farmyards, stables, dog-kennels, and pigsties. Why should not they pay
some attention to the dwellings of human beings? Would ameliorating the
condition of their labourers afford them less satisfaction than providing for
their cows and horses ? But almost every thing in this country depends on
fashion. Could it once be rendered fashionable to improve the dwellings of
agricultural labourers, how wonderful would be the change in the appearance
of the country, and in ‘the comforts of country labourers ; and, in the course of
a generation, in the morals of the working classes. What the consequence will
be, if things are allowed to go on in their present state, with our hourly increas-
ing population, it is fearful to contemplate.

The Art of Living. By Dr. Henry Duhring. 8vo, pp. 144. London and
New York, 1843.

The most useful branch of useful knowledge, Dr. Duhring observes, is that
which “ teaches us, in what manner, and by what means, we may hope to
render our existence as pleasant or happy as it possibly can be.” He does not
propose to enter fully into the subject, but has preferred singling out for dis-
cussion and illustration the five followmg principles : —

“ First Principle.— The nature of human life is twofold, mental and physical ;
and human happiness is the result of the well-being and harmony of both.

“Second Principle.— Providence has constituted us with a view to activity;
and in accordance with this law of our nature, /abour, either of the mind or
body, is the only source or means of our enjoyment.

“« Third Principle. — As the human machine, like a common piece of me-
chanism, wears out most rapidly where there is the greatest friction and
straining, relaxation of both our mind and body is an indispensable condition
to man’s happiness.

“ Fourth Principle.— The study of nature, and the practice of horticulture,
constitute the surest foundation of man’s happiness.

“ Fifth Principle.— There is nothing to be found in the wide world so preg-

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, §c. 377

nant with satisfaction, interest, and happiness, as the associations that cling to
a happy home.”

“ To make us feel, appreciate, and relish whatever pleasures our existence
is capable of affording, delicacy and purity of mind and heart, and health of
body, are the most indispensable requisites. But, above all, let us strive to
improve our mind ; for to insure our happiness against every possible vicissi-
tude, we must endeavour to create for ourselves enjoyments always at our
command, in whatever circumstances we may be placed.”

The work may be read with profit and pleasure.

An Inaugural Lecture on Botany, considered as a Science, and as a Branch of
Medical Education, Read in King’s College, London, May 8th, 1843. By
Edward Forbes, F.L.S., F.B.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College,
London. Pamph. 8vo, pp. 23. London, 1843.

A highly philosophical discourse, in which botany is viewed in its relations
to medicine ; and to a certain extent to agriculture, chemistry, zoology and
geology; and justice is done to the memory of Linnzeus. “ In saying these
few words in favour of the Linnzan system, I know I am pleading an unpo-
pular cause ; but I speak out freely, partly because I mean to proceed on a
different basis in conducting the botanical studies here, and partly because,
after the once over-enthusiastic attachment to the Linnzan method which
prevailed so long in Britain, and which was carried so far as to impede the
progress of botany, a reaction has taken place which threatens to blind the
eyes of the younger botanists to the merits of a device which was, and ever
will be, a most valuable auxiliary of the science.”

Manual of British Botany, containing the Flowering Plants and Ferns, arranged
according to the Natural Orders. By Charles C. Babington, M.A., F.L.S.,
G.S., &c. Small 8vo, pp. 400. London, 1843.

There are already so many British floras that we were curious to know
on what grounds Mr. Babington has added to their number. He himself
says, he could not expect that after tlie labours of Smith, Hooker, Lindley,
and others, and the publication of so invaluable and unrivalled a collection of
figures as is contained in Sowerby’s English Botany, there could be many
questions left undetermined. ‘“ He had not however advanced far in the
critical examination of our native plants before he found that a careful com-
parison of indigenous specimens with the works of eminent Continental
authors, and with plants obtained from other parts of Europe, must neces-
sarily be made; for it appeared that in very many cases the nomenclature
employed in England was different from that used in other countries, that
often plants considered as varieties here were held to be distinct species
abroad, that several of our species were only looked upon as varieties by
them, and also that the mode of grouping mto genera was frequently es-
sentially different.

“The discovery of these facts produced considerable astonishment, and the
author was led to consider what could have been the causes of so remarkable
a discrepancy. The following appears to be the most probable explanation.
It is well known that at the close of the last century Sir J. E. Smith became
the fortunate possessor of the Herbarium of Linnzeus, and was thus enabled
to ascertain, with very considerable accuracy, the British species which were
known to that distinguished man, and to publish, in the most improved form
that he had given to his system, a remarkably complete and excellent Flora
of Britain. Then followed the long-continued separation of this country
from France, and indeed from most of the European nations, by which we
were almost completely prevented from observing the progress which bo-
tanical science was making in other countries, and at the same time our own
flora was continually receiving accessions of new plants which it was nearly
impossible to identify with the species detected and published in France and
Germany. At the conclusion of the war we had become so wedded to the

378 Domestic Notices : — England.

system of Linnezus, and it may even perhaps be allowable to add, so well
satisfied with our own proficiency, that, with the honourable exception of
Mr. Brown, there was at that time scarcely a botanist in Britain who took
any interest in, or paid the least attention to, the classification by natural orders
which had been adopted in France, and to the more minute and accurate ex-
amination of plants which was caused by the employment of that philosophical
arrangement. Let it not, however, be supposed that the author wishes at all
to detract from the value of the Linnean system—a system which was con-
sidered by its author as merely a provisional arrangement, or kind of index to
the known plants; for no hotanist has more strongly stated the value of a
natural classification than Linneus himself, —as he fully believes that without
some such artificial scheme by which newly discovered plants could be cata-
logued for easy reference, the multitudinous species which distant countries
have supplied would long since have formed so enormous and confused a mass
as to have reduced botany to a state little better than that into which it had
fallen at the commencement of the Linnzan era.”

The work is intended to be a field book or travelling companion for bota-
nists, but it has, what we consider a very great deficiency, viz., ‘‘ synonymes
have been almost wholly omitted.” It is true that references to figures are
given, but that, in our opinion, will not compensate for the want of synonymes,
more especially to the travelling botanist; while, in a historical point of view,
it prevents us from connecting the work with other floras of the same kind
which have gone before it. In every other respect we like the book much.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.
Art. I. Domestic Notices.

ENGLAND.

Tue Horticultural Society of London held its first show in the Chiswick Gar-
den on May 13th: it was as well attended as usual, and the specimens of
superior culture, in various instances, surpassed those ever before exhibited.
Their arrangement in the tents also was better. See the Gardener’s Chronicle
of May 20.

The Royal Botanic Society of London held its first exhibition for the season
in its gardens in the Inner Circle, Regent’s Park, on the 24th of May, when
many of the best plants exhibited in the Chiswick Garden were again dis-
played. The meeting was well attended, and the progress made in laying out
the garden seemed to give general satisfaction. In short this garden, without
in the slightest degree interfering with any other, is already affording a very
high degree of enjoyment and intellectual entertaimment to the families in the
neighbourhood. Very great praise is due to the committee of management,
and to the curator, Mr. Marnock.

Waterer’s Exhibition of American Plants, in the King’s Road, has this year,
as before, excited general admiration, notwithstanding the gloomy state of the
atmosphere. The area in which the plants are planted being covered with
canvass suggests the idea that a roof of glass, to be shaded occasionally by
canvass, would be better ; and also that covering an acre or two in some spot
nearer the centre of London would afford an interesting town garden. It
might be furnished with plants from the open ground, so as to form a covered
promenade throughout the year; but we have often before thrown out the
idea. Soho Square would make an excellent garden of this sort, but still
better Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Mr. Waterer deserves very great credit, not only
for the immense expense which he incurs annually in getting up this exhibition,
but for the great taste which he displays in arranging the plants ; mixing the

Retrospective Criticism. 379

warm colours of the azaleas with the cold colours of the rhododendrons and
kalmias, and relieving the tufted masses of dwarfs with occasional standards.
We observed some very interesting foreign varieties. — Cond.

Art. I]. Retrospective Criticism.

CEMETERIES. — In your “ Principles of Landscape-Gardening applied to
Public Cemeteries” you have not forgotten the poor man, even in death. It
is often shameful to witness the disrespect shown to the remains of the poor
after they have travelled through a world of pain and sorrow, and in a coun-
try too that professes to show much benevolence towards the human race.

I have often felt grieved in witnessing the funeral of the poor, the at-
tendance at times being scarcely sufficient to convey them to their last resting-
place, while their oppressors shall have a long train of unnecessary followers
accompanying them to the grave. But the glorious prospects which the
Christian religion holds out to the believer in Jesus, beyend death and the
grave, reconcile the traveller to heaven, in a great measure, to all the scorn
and neglect that may befal him in the way : he knows that,

——_——“ Under ground
Precedency ’s a jest ; vassal and lord,
Grossly familiar, side by side consume.”

You have already shown the pernicious effects the living are exposed to by
a careless neglect of the dead, and it is really a matter of wonder that that
carelessness should still be persisted in. When we think of the disagreeable
effluvyium which proceeds from a dead mouse or dead mole when decomposing
on the surface of the earth or but partially covered, the evil effects upon the
living in the neighbourhood of an improper burying-ground must be incal-
culable.

You have also pointed out (p. 299.) how the funeral expenses have been
lessened about the metropolis; and perhaps it may not be uninteresting to
some of your readers in the country, to be informed of a cheap and con-
venient mode of conveying the dead now in use in various parts of Scotland.

West Plean and Auchenbowie are about three miles from the churchyard
of St. Ninian’s, and it was sometimes found to be very laborious work to
carry a dead body when few attended the funeral, especially when the day
was wet and the roads dirty. Some time ago it was resolved that a hearse
should be got to the place for the use of the inhabitants ; a meeting was
accordingly called, and the thing set about briskly. Plans were drawn out,
and estimates received from the coach builders of Stirling ; one was fixed on,
and we have now a very neat article which cost about 502. A house was
also built for it, which cost nearly 20/, and the whole has only cost the
members of the company 7s. 6d. each. We however, got some assistance
from gentlemen and farmers in the neighbourhood: one gave the ground
for the house to be built on free ; another gave 10/., and another 5/.; while
the farmers carted the stones, lime, and slates, free of expense. One shilling
and sixpence is paid to the keeper of the hearse when it is required ; and a
farmer seldom charges anything for the use of a horse for two or three hours.
A pall or mort-cloth is scarcely ever used since the hearse came to the place.
We have handspokes, and a folding-seat for the coffin to rest on when taken
from the hearse, so that we do not require those belonging to the parish: this
is also a saving. What has been done in one rural district may be done in
another ; and it has been acknowledged, even by those who were indifferent
about it at first, to be a great improvement obtained at a trifling expense.

The members, in forming the regulations regarding the use of the hearse,

380 Obituary.

have not forgotten the poor; even the poorest in the place may have the
use of it for their dead, by applying to a committee appointed for the purpose.
I hope we shall all be preserved from quicklime burying, and from

“ Gloomy aisles
Black-plaster’d, and hung round with shreds of ’scutcheons
And tatter’d coats of arms ;

and also from the rude hands of the grave-digger after our flesh is consumed ;
for it is anything but pleasant to see the remains of parents, brothers, sisters,
and friends treated in a brutal manner by thoughtless mortals. If the plan
were adopted which you have recommended, the air we breathe would become
less tainted, and

“ The sexton, hoary-headed chronicle,”
would be prevented from delivering grave lectures over the skulls of those he
had buried. — Peter Mackenzie. iWest Plean, June 7. 1843.
Cemeteries and Churchyards.— The taste, as well as a general feeling for
improvements in our burial-grounds, is unquestionably on the imcrease ; and,

whatever internal discord there may be in churches, nobody seems disposed.

to quarrel with a plan for bettering and beautifying the churchyards. One
step is wanting ; viz. that it should become the fashion. Since you warmed
me up upon the subject, I cannot tell you with what disgust I have looked
upon the disgraceful condition of the churchyards I happen to have been in.
Sunning Hillis one. There are the remains of very eminent men reposing
there; Sir Home Popham, George Ellis, and General Fitzpatrick: and the
place is overrun with rank dank weeds, suited to cover the remains of dead
dogs, but most offensive when we think of the men whose last resting-places
they dishonour ; or, rather, the dishonour attaches to those who continue the
practice of totally disregarding the state of our burial-grounds. Having
often spoken upon the subject of late, I am glad to think that everybody
acknowledges this; and, when a few examples have introduced the fashion,
we may expect, I think, a general amelioration. In the mean time, I hope
the national cemetery may not be lost sight of. There is a bill now before

parliament, and which is extremely likely to pass, to facilitate the enclosure
of waste lands. Such an act might very much facilitate the business of a
company disposed to carry into execution your plan in the neighbourhood of
Woking. The same machinery for effecting the enclosure of a parish there-

abouts would give a company legal possession of the tract they might purchase -

of the parish as the ground of their operations. The bill itself promises great
general benefit ; and I hope, with all my heart, it may pass. With the aid of
such men as you mention, Mr. Mackinnon and Mr. Hume, and I should add
Sir John Easthope, if he would cooperate, it seems as if a company of the
highest order would soon spring into existence, and produce something worthy
to be deemed general and national. —H. A. M. June 12. 1843.

Art. III. Obituary.

Diep suddenly, on the 6th of June, John Penn, Esq., of Lewisham, aged 72
years. Mr. Penn has been well known for many years as a civil engineer in
very extensive business. Of late years he became much attached ol garden-
ing, and invented the mode of warming and ventilating which bears his name.
He was a man of powerful intellect, ‘liberal in his opinions, most kind and
benevolent to his workmen, and universally respected and beloved.

Dropped down while walking i in his nursery, and, a few minutes after he had
returned to his house, died, on June 1., Mr. John "Milne, Nurseryman, Stoke
Newington.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
AUGUST, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I, Comparative Physiology. By R. LymBurn.
(Continued from p. 352.)

In Chap. III., On the Laws of Organic Developement, Dr. Car-
penter remarks “that, though the labours of the naturalist and
comparative anatomist have not yet established laws of the
highest degree of generality, yet many subordinate principles
have been based on a solid foundation, and many at first doubtful
are daily receiving fresh confirmation. ‘The most: important
part of the process of induction consists in seizing upon the pro-
bable connecting relation, by which we can extend what we
observe in a few cases to all. In proportion to the justness of
this assumption, and the correctness of our judgement in tracing
and adopting it, will the induction be successful. The more
extensive the acquaintance with nature, the more firmly is the
belief impressed that some relation must subsist in all cases,
however little we may be able to trace. It was formerly cus-
tomary to regard similarity of external form and evident pur-
pose as indicating the analogies between different parts, but the
developement of the functions is often found to originate in
sources entirely different. The wings of birds, &c., are formed
by expansions of the general integument over the anterior parts
of the osseous system, while in insects they are formed by prolon-
gations of the respiratory apparatus. In vegetables, the tendril is
developed in the vine from the peduncle or flower-stalk ; in the
pea, from the petiole or leaf-stalk; in Gloriosa, from the point of
the leaf; and, in the singular genus Strophdnthus, from the
point of the petal. Function, therefore, is not dependent on
developement, nor on structural analogy. There is little re-
semblance between the gills of a fish and the lungs of a qua-
druped, or the air tubes ramifying through the structure of an
insect; and those who are in the habit of forming exclusive
notions upon a hasty survey might be led to deny that any
3d Ser. — 1843. VIII. ee

382 Comparative Physvology.

real analogy could exist. The essential character of the func-
tion, however, is to bring the circulating fluid (blood or sap)
into due relation with the atmosphere ; and all that is needed is
a membrane which shall be in contact with the air on one side,
and the circulating fluid on the other. In all the forms of
respiratory apparatus there is the same essential character, and
their modifications are only to adapt them to the conditions of
the structure at large. There is, functionally considered, a
unity of composition, although not really analogous in structural
character. In the vegetable kingdom, organs which correspond
in structure, connexions, and developement, are observed to
assume the most varied forms, and perform the most different
functions.

“It has been maintained by some physiologists, that the
same elementary parts exist in all animals, and the only differ-
ence between the various classes is in the respective develope-
ment of these parts. ‘This is, however, true only in a restricted
sense. In the Vertebrata, the skeleton of the fish may be
shown to be composed of the same parts as that of a bird or qua-
druped, though the form of individual bones may be totally dis-
similar; the lungs of the air-breathing Vertebrata exist in a
rudimentary condition in fishes, some of the higher classes
having the rudiments of a bronchial apparatus. Among the
-Articulata the same correspondence may be traced; but the
classes of this division will not admit of being compared with
those of Vertebrata. There are many plants which bear stamens
only in one set of flowers, and pistils in another; and these
may be caused to produce flowers entirely perfect, by supplying
nourishment enough to develope the rudimentary organs. When
any new function, or great modification of function, is to be
performed, no entirely new structure is evolved for that pur-
pose, the end being attained by a modification in some structure
already present. In all the great divisions of organic beings,
there is a fundamental correspondence amongst the different
organs. Nature appears to have kept in view a certain definite
type or standard, to which she has a decided tendency to con-
form, and departs from the original plan only to accommodate her-
self to certain specific and ulterior objects peculiar to particular
races of created beings. This unity of composition, however, is
sometimes interfered with, by the tendency of one division to
approach to another, producing organs characteristic of an ap-
proximate division. The functional character of the organs
furnishes a more general analogy than any we can trace from
structure alone. ‘The simplest plant differs from the most com-
plex, principally, in that the whole surface participates in all the
operations of absorption, exhalation, and respiration, which con-
nect it with the external world; while, in the more complex

‘a

Comparative Physiology. 383

higher plants, those functions are confined to certain portions of
the surface. The leaves and roots of the higher plants have a
functional analogy with the simple membrane of the alge,
which absorbs and respires. Even in the highest animals, the
organs adapted to those functions are essentially composed of a
simple membrane, a prolongation of the external surface. The
respiratory organs of plants are prolonged externally, like the
gills of fishes: in terrestrial animals they are internal; the
membrane of the tubes or cells exposing a large surface. The
absorbing organs of plants are prolonged into the soil, while in
animals they are distributed upon the walls of a cavity, fitted
to prepare and retain the food. Still the same fundamental
unity exists, and the spongioles in vascular plants, and the
absorbent vessels in animals, have precisely the same essential
character with the membrane which constitutes the general
surface of the sea-weed and red snow. Throughout the whole
animated creation, the essential character of the organs which
all possess in common remains the same; whilst the mode in
which that character is manifested varies with the general plan
upon which the being is constructed.

* In the early stages of formation in organised beings of the
higher classes, before the structure has been progressively de-
veloped, we may observe as great a dissimilarity to its ultimate
condition, as exists between the lower and higher classes. In
the progress of developement we may trace a correspondence
between the advance of the germ to maturity, and the ascent of
the different races as they rise in their permanent condition in
the scale of creation. The functions are more specialised, not
so general; and there is a greater variety of dissimilar parts in
the higher organisms than in the lower; the lower are more
homogeneous, the higher more heterogeneous. A heterogeneous
or special structure arises thus out of one more homogeneous
or general, and this by a gradual change. When the different
functions, however, are highly specialised, the general structure
retains more or less the primitive homogeneity of function which
originally characterised it. The doctrine of the correspondence
between the transitory forms exhibited by the embryos of higher
beings, and the permanent conditions of the lower, refers to
individual organs alone, and not to the whole structure. The
higher animals and vegetables can never be mistaken for those
of the lower classes, though the progress of individual organs
from a general to a special type is discernible in the develope-
ment of the embryo, as well as in the ascending scale. Eccen-
tric developement explains the malformations from arrestment
of developement in the higher animals, causing monstrosity.
The study of monstrosities in the vegetable kingdom has
been peculiarly effectual in the elucidation of the laws regulat-

cc 2

384 Comparative Phystotogy.

ing the metamorphoses of organs, as the stamens or carpels
reverting to the form of leaf, which may be regarded as the
type of them all. In the labiate flowers the suppression of
one *stamen and the shortening of two others result merely
from a deficiency in the evolution of rudiments, and not from
alteration of structure ; as is seen in the snapdragon having
sometimes five stamens, and the petals all regularly spurred.”

It is in the discovery of such general laws as those of develope-
ment noticed in this section, and of the functions in the follow-
ing, that practice is greatly benefited by science. When we
understand the methods in which the operations of nature are
generally performed, we are often enabled to prevent adverse
circumstances from being productive of so much harm, by retard-
ing and preventing their effects; and, vice versd, to promote and
advance the action of those circumstances that are beneficial.
When we can understand the different functions that the dif-
ferent parts of plants perform, and how and where these functions
are developed, we shall have obtained a knowledge which, when

joined to a proper understanding of the action of the stimulating
agents formerly treated of, and of the way in which the food of
plants assists in developement, will enable us to proceed on
correct principles. Much no doubt remains to be done, but
much has already been accomplished; and it is the duty of all
practical cultivators to endeavour to understand that much. Did
not science teach us, in its first rudiments, that the spongioles at
the extremities of the roots were the true absorbent vessels, the
manure might be applied to the stock of the root and become
injurious rather than beneficial. As the absorbent vessels in
animals are placed in contact with the alimentary canal, so do
we find those of plants in contact with the soil, which acts as
the stomach for the reception and preparation of their food.
Liebig characterises the act of digestion in animals as being
principally one of solution, the gastric juice (containing muriatic
acid, and the substance similar to diastase, formed from the
inner membrane of the stomach), with the oxygen of the saliva,
and the heat and action of the stomach, reducing the food into
a soluble state; in the same way as the action of the air, jomed
to. the heat and moisture of the soil, reduces the substances
deposited as food into a state fit for absorption. Digestion has
been said to take place in the leaves; had this been the case,
however, it would have reversed the normal order of develope-
ment, and the above remarks of Liebig restore the order of
developement to its normal condition. Digestion being only a
preparation for absorption, and not a chemical action, which he
distinctly says it is not, prevents the necessity of reversing the
order of developement, and placing digestion subsequent to, in
place of before, absorption. The aeration of the circulating fluid

as 3

Comparative Physiology. 385

is the principal characteristic by which the action of leaves can be
compared to that of animals; the circulation of the fluid being
produced by the power of endosmose and contractility on the
ascending sap, and that of contractility, gravity, and endosmose
on the descending. Digestion appears no part of their action,
the absorption of light appearing only an assistant in the much
greater chemical action required by plants than animals. The
action of plants consisting in the preparation of ternary com-
pounds, as gum, sugar, starch, lignin, &c., and quaternary com-
pounds, as fibrine, albumen, casein, &c., from binary compounds,
as water, carbonic acid, ammonia, &c., necessarily implies more
chemical action than that of animals, whose food is principally
in an organised state, already fit for assimilation, or at least
identical in composition with most of the animal tissues, unless
the nervous, &c. The decomposition of carbonic acid, water,
and ammonia into their elements, and their recombination in
a state fit for assimilation by the different organs, require a
very great degree of chemical power; and hence full expo-
sure to the direct heat and light of the sun is necessary to plants,
to assist the organic action of the leaves in producing these
results.

The vital force, Liebig says, is not needed so much in plants as
in animals, for the preservation of the tissues from oxygenation ;
the non-azotised portions of the tissue may be reckoned as
comparatively destitute of susceptibility to oxidation, when
compared with the azotised portions: hence, he says, the vital
force of plants is principally expended in the preparation of new
matter, and not wasted as in animals by voluntary and involun-
tary motions and preservation of tissues; there is therefore
more available vital force, and plants are more capable of aug-
mentation in bulk and of forming new matter. He likens vital
force, in its developement (not in its character, which he says is
distinct), to that of galvanism; as the action of the zine and
acid produces, when in action, a foree which may be collected
and transmitted along iron rods, so is vital force generated, he
says, from oxygenation, and preserved to assist in voluntary and
involuntary motion, being transmitted along the nerves to
where it is needed. It has not been customary to talk of vital
force as a determinate quantity, creasing from the want of
motion in one quarter, and being transmitted to another
where motion is needed; but the explanation is plausible: the
less waste and motion in plants may accumulate vital force, and
the almost indefinite capability of extent in plants, as compared
with animals, is well known to all practical men, whether it
may flow from accumulated vitality or whatever cause. Miiller
says: “ Plants, having only one mode of manifesting life, namely,
by vegetation, do not require manifold organs in addition to

cc 3

386 Comparative Physiology.

their roots, stem, and leaves; and, with the exception of the
organs of fructification, transformed from leaves in some cases,
present merely a repetition of similar parts, in all of which the
simple relation of branches to leaves is the same. A conse-
quence of this is, that each of these parts has the power of
becoming in its turn an independent living body; the seed dif-
fering from the shoot only in its greater vegetative power.”
Respiration, he says, affords a very important distinctive cha-
racter between animals and plants; being performed in plants
by the whole surface, and in animals confined to an organ which,
in a small space, affords an immense surface for contact with the
atmosphere. ‘The difference, however, is more structural than
functional: plants give off, or expire, carbonic acid constantly,
the same as animals do, though not in so great a quantity; the
inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbonic acid form a con-
stant function, and seem necessary to their existence. The
whole surface, in the dark parts, is said to be capable of this
function in some degree, but in the higher classes of plants it is
principally confined to the leaves; and the surface of animals is
said not to be wholly destitute of this power, even in the more
perfect. It is in the inhalation of carbonic acid by the green
parts of leaves, and the exhalation of oxygen, that plants differ
most from animals. This function is totally different from any
thing to be found in animals: it has been called digestion, but
seems totally different ; and would appear rather a distinct pro-
cess, necessary to plants only from the greater chemical action
required to prepare organised products from inorganic sub-
stances. The heat and light of the sunbeam being necessary to
perfect the great organic chemical action required, the organs
adapted to this function require to be developed externally.
The most remarkable similarity subsists between plants and
animals, Miiller says, in the process of the developement of their
tissues. ‘ The observations of Mirbel had shown that all the
forms of vegetable tissue are developed from cells, which at first
constitute the whole mass of the tissue, but afterwards undergo
various changes in their shape and size, so as to be converted
into woody fibre, spiral vessels, &c. M. Schleiden has more
recently traced the developement of the vegetable tissue at a
still earlier stage. The abundant gum of nascent parts of plants,
such as the youngest albumen of a seed, when examined by the
microscope, is seen to be turbid from the presence of minute
molecules: soon larger granules are also observed in it; around
these granules, by a kind of coagulation, larger bodies are
formed, the cytoblasts, in which the above-mentioned granules
are still visible as nuclei. When the cytoblast has attained its
full size, a small vesicle appears on it; this enlarges and becomes
the cell, in which the cytoblast is for a period still visible, either

Comparative Physiology. 387

attached to its wall or free in its cavity, sometimes permanent.
From the observations of animal physiologists, and particularly
of Schwann, the process of developement and growth of the
tissues of animals are exactly the same. Nearly all the tissues
have been shown to be formed from nucleated cells, previously
developed in a homogeneous formative mass. The order of
developement of the cell and its nucleus or cytoblast, and
secondary nuclei within this, as far as it has been observed,
appears also to be the same in animals as in plants. Some of
the tissues of animals, like the cellular tissue of plants, retain
the cellular form, while others, like the more highly developed
vegetable tissues, assume different forms.” In the growth of
marchantia, Mirbel discovered that they increased by the pro-
duction of new cells alternately between every two of the old;
new rows of cells are thus formed, and they extend laterally by
additions outside, as well as by superimposed rows. The woody
fibres pass downwards from the leaves through the cellular
tissue, leaving openings of cellular matter in exogenous plants
at the medullary rays, which connect the interior and exterior
of the stem. The woody and cellular matter forming the basis
of the vegetable structure are thus developed. While the tissue
is young and succulent it expands and stretches freely, according
to the heat and moisture supplied ; and, from the power of en-
dosmose, produced by the light and heat acting from above,
thickening the sap by evaporation and chemical action, and
attracting the thinner fluid upwards, the expansion is principally
in a longitudinal direction upwards, till the leaves are fully
formed and commence to solidify and ripen the branch, by the
elaborated sap sent downwards. Some plants make the whole
of their shoot at once in the early part of the season, others
have a spring and autumn growth, and some continue extending
the whole season round.

Thus far observation has conduced to establish the theory of
developement. We are thus taught that to encourage the soil,
the stomach of a plant, to perform its functions, the soil must be
properly pulverised in dry weather, as I have often elsewhere
repeated in other essays. ‘Too little regard is had to the me-
chanical operation of the pulverisation of the soil, and taking
advantage of tids of weather; and too little allowance is given
for unforeseen adverse occurrences of weather and soil, in the
experiments instituted in various quarters on manures. To prac-
tical men, it is well known that the state of the soil has often
more effect on growth than the food deposited; if the stomach
of an animal does not perform its functions properly, it will be
in vain to load it with food. The function of absorption is
increased by keeping the soil loose and porous, to enable the

roots to spread and ramify, which is also greatly encouraged by
cc 4

388 Comparative Physiology.

porous substances in the soil, as pieces of charcoal, bones, decay-
ing wood, porous stones, &c. One of the best materials for
encouraging the formation of fibres is rotted leaves, or the char-
coal from the half-smothered combustion of the spray of young
shoots, leaves, &c.: the leaves and young shoots contain all the
substances necessary for keeping vitality active; if the heat is
violent it may dissipate the ammonia and fibrine of the shoots,
and do harm. The light and heat of the sunbeam are also
necessary to produce the phenomena of endosmose, without
which absorption and circulation could not go on; electricity
also will probably assist in the vital activity or irritability of
the tissue, which increases circulation and absorption. To assist
aeration, heat and light are necessary to produce exhalation ; to
promote the interchange of gases, it is necessary that the leaves be
kept free of dust and extraneous matter; and when the state of
weather out of doors, or confinement in houses, has clogged the
leaves, the lungs of plants, it is absolutely necessary to syringe
and keep them clean. ‘The important organic chemical action
of the leaves, so necessary to prepare the food for assimilation,
is also promoted by the same means. Into the functions of
the preparation of the food (or digestion), absorption, circula-
tion, and aeration, science has thus enabled us to obtain so much
insight as greatly to facilitate and augment their action by proper
cultivation. When I come to treat of each of these functions
in a special manner, the subject will be rendered more intel-
ligible than it could be in a general outline.

“Of the remaining functions of assimilation, secretion, and
reproduction, we are more ignorant; of that mysterious power,
which from the simple membrane of the organs (to all micro-
scopical and chemical observations seeming alike) can elicit so
many and such varied products, we are completely ignorant.
Chemical observation of the secreted products, however, and
analysis of particular plants, enable us to know what food it is
necessary to provide for each; immense additions have lately
been, and are still being, made by chemists to our information
on these subjects, and great benefit should redound to practice
therefrom. Of the same mysterious vital power, which from
the rudiments of a branch can prepare such seemingly different
products as the parts of the flower, and can change the repro-
ductive bud into the more perfect though more changeable
organ the seed, we know also comparatively little. Observ-
ation, however, has established that a duly elaborated state of
the food is essential ; and that where light and heat, or the
influence ef the sunbeam, cannot be got in sufficient quantity,
we can assist the operations of nature by lessening the quantity
of sap to be elaborated, and produce the necessary elaborated
state for fructification from a small quantity, which our insuf-
ficient means will not enable us to do from a larger. By

Comparative Physiology. 389

retarding’ nutrition we thus increase the tendency to reproduc-
tion ; and, vice versa, by picking off flower buds, and increasing
food, we increase the tendency to nutritive growth.

Of the manner in which roots, buds, and shoots are produced
we know but little in a general way, unless that accumulations
of matter, especially vascular, favour their production. It is
generally stated by physiologists, that a single cell, in a proper
situation and under proper circumstances, is all that is neces-
sary for the preparation of a bud, the nucleus of all growth.
Some have thought them connected with the medulla: Mr.
Knight thought they were from the alburnum. Masses of buds,
however, may be seen in many cases generated in enormous
quantities, and crowded together without normal order, from
extravasations of sap, on all parts of a plant.

Of that mysterious power which guides the development of
the plant, evolving the different organs according to the normal
manner of the different species, few have attempted to give any
definition. As I noticed before, Muller has likened it to an
idea, a picture of the imagination, to which the actions of
vitality are constrained to conform, thus causing them to deve-
lope after a normal manner, and produce each being after its
own kind from the picture. When alterations are made by
hybridisation, &e., the picture we can imagine to be conform-
ably altered, and we might thus construct a plausible theory; the
great difficulty, however, is to imagine the seat of the sen-
sorium where such picture could be formed. Bonnet and other
Continental writers have adopted a different opinion, and con-
tend that all the parts of a plant are contained in embryo in
the original germ ; and that the actions of vitality only cause a
developement of previously formed parts, and not a formation
of new. Mr. Main, in this country, has been the principal
advocate of these opinions. A membrane or indusium, visible or
invisible, he says, always surrounds the germ, which contains
all the organs of the future plant; all the parts of the plant are
afterwards developed from this indusium, in which they are
contained, he says, in embryo, and developed as the membrane
expands ; and it throws off every year a new layer of liber and
alburnum, in exogenous plants. As I before noticed, how-
ever, if every thing i is contained in embryo previously to being
produced, it does not account for accidental interference of
hybridisation, or adventitious buds ; nor does it allow for leaves
and flowers being mutually transformable. It, however, gives
a tangible shape to our ideas, by allowing us to conceive of
what is invisible, by referring it to something we are already
acquainted with; as we conceive of a spirit having bodily
organs, though we are only assisting the imagination “to com-
prehend, and are entirely ignorant whether we are right or
wrong. If such a thing as an indusium, or germinal membrane

390 Comparative Physiology.

capable of such extension, really exists, it ought not to be con-
fined in its operations by an already full and perfect formation
of parts, but should have only the rudiments of organs, in a
plastic condition, capable of transformation. The tendency of
the cambium, and all semiorganised matter, to throw off a
membrane when exposed, would seem to countenance such an
opinion, though it may only be an effort of vitality to cover the
exposed parts with a skin. In the Gardener’s Chronicle,
some time back, it was noticed, on the authority of accounts
from Egypt, that in some situations it had been found possible,
by slicing and uniting seeds of nearly allied species of the
genus Citrus, &c., to produce plants which, in their develope-
ment, partook of the nature of the different species united.
The most curious case of developement that has come under
my own observation is that of the Cytisus Adam, or purple
laburnum. It has been said by some to have been produced
from the union of the two barks of the bud of a Cytisus pur-
purea, inserted in a stock of the common laburnum, and to be
the product of an adventitious bud developed where the two
barks unite; by others it is said to be a true hybrid from seed.
The flowers are generally of a greyish purple colour, the leaf
and habit of growth resembling the common laburnum. Some
of the branches have been found to sport off to the common
laburnum with yellow flowers; but the most unaccountable
circumstance is, that some plants which were for some time
grafted and pruned, and had the ordinary strong growth and
foliage of the laburnum, have, at the place where ordinary
branches had been pruned off, been found to develope shoots
of the true C¥tisus purpurea, which is so strikingly different in
habit and foliage from the laburnum. A union of indusiums
would best account for the accidental protrusion of parents™,
though it might puzzle us to account for the manner in which
they could be united in the purple laburnum, so as to affect the
colour of the blossom only. The alteration of the pictures of
the imagination, or idea of the living principle (of Miiller),
might be supposed more capable of change, and to embrace a
wider range of variations. To talk, however, of things we have
no means of demonstrating is apt to bewilder, and lead us away
from the truth. The doctrine of preformation of parts is, to a
certain extent, undoubtedly correct, as any one may see for
himself by dissecting buds, bulbs, &c. ; beyond this, however,
we have no correct data to go by. The habit or manner of
growth of trees belongs also to developement, and when we see
round-headed trees change to fastigiate forms, from no cause we
can perceive, as in the Exeter elm, &c., it might puzzle us to

* The two parents (Cytisus Labarnum and C. purpurea, which form C.

Adami?) are found at times to protrude from branches of C. Adam#, as if not
completely united, but only held in mixture.

Comparative Physiology. 391

say whether it was a change of indusiums or pictures. The
training of standard fruit trees in the form of inverted umbrellas,
&e., is surely an improper violation of natural developement.

In Chap. IV., On the general View of the Functions of ani-
mated Beings, and their mutual Relations. “In order to arrive
at any certain general conclusions, the physiologist must collect
and compare all the facts of similar character which the study of
animated creation furnishes. From the simple cellular plants
we should obtain very vague ideas of the character of the
nutritive processes, as we cannot separate them, and investigate
them apart; and, on the other hand, we should form very
erroneous ideas of the essential conditions of these processes, to
study them only in their most complex form and _ specialised
condition. It is only from a comprehensive survey of the whole
organised creation, embracing each extremity of the scale, that
laws possessing a claim to general application can be deduced.
The essential part of the function of respiration is, the aeration
of the blood by an interchange of ingredients between the cir-
culating fluid and the air, from the exposure to the atmosphere,
or to water holding air diffused. The alterations in the ca-
pacity of the chest, which are effected by the actions of the
diaphragm and external muscles, only serve to renew the quan-
tity of air in contact with the membrane of the lungs which
expose the blood to it. They have no share in the aeration of
the blood, except by supplying its conditions. If these could
be supplied independently of them, the essential part of the
function would be performed as well as with them. In all of
the functions, some of the changes are essential, and some super-
added. Reptiles, having no diaphragm, fill the lungs by a
process resembling swallowing. In fishes the blood is sent to
meet the water, which is in apposition with the external sur-
face. In the lower animals a change of water is supplied by
their moving from place to place; or, when fixed to a particular
spot, by means they possess of creating currents, or vortices, by
ciliz, to draw to them a supply of food. In plants the essen-
tial part of the function is performed without any movement
whatever, the wide extension of the surface in contact with
the atmosphere affording all the requisite facility for the aera-
tion of the circulating fluid.

“In all living beings, the appropriation of alimentary ma-
terials from without, their conversion into a nutritious fluid
to supply materials for the growth and renovation of the fabric,
and the excretion of unfit particles, constitute the sum of the
vital acts by which the individual is supported. ‘The main-
tenance of individual life, however, is not all that is required ;
all organised structures must be produced by others previously
existing, no living being ever taking its origin in spontaneous

392 Comparative Physiology.

combinations of inorganic matter. Since the limited existence
of each individual would soon occasion the extinction of the
race, were no provision made for perpetuating it, each organism
has been endowed with the means of preparing a germ which,
when mature, may support an independent existence, execute
all the vital changes, and in its turn originate new beings by a
similar process. This function, common to all living beings,
is termed reproduction. ‘There is a certain degree of antagonism
between the nutritive and reproductive functions. The mate-
rials of the reproductive are derived from the nutritive, and
dependent on it. Where the nutritive functions are particu-
larly active, as in alge, the reproductive is correspondingly
undeveloped; and, vice versd, in fungi the whole plant seems
made up of reproductive organs, and ceases to exist when the
germs are brought to maturity. The parts of the flower are
converted into leaves by an over-supply of nutriment; and the
gardener who wishes to render a tree more productive is
obliged to limit the supply of food by trenching round the
roots. ‘The same ant: agonism may be witnessed in the animal
kingdom. During the period of rapid growth, when the energies
of the system are concentrated upon the perfection of its indi-
vidual structure, the reproductive system remains dormant, and
is not aroused until the comparative inactivity of the nutritive
functions allows it to be exercised without injury to them.
The insect, in the larva condition, is wholly occupied with the
assimilation of food and increase of bulk. The same is the case,
more or less, with all young animals. In the imago, or perfect
insect, the fulfilment of the purposes of its reproductive system
appears to be the chief and only end of its being. In the adult
condition of the higher animals, it is always found that, as in
plants, an excessive activity of the nutritive function indis-
poses the system to the performance of the reproductive; a
moderately fed population multiplying more rapidly than one
habituated to a plethoric condition.

“The absorption of alimentary materials is the first in the
train of vital operations, and is common to plants and animals,
though somewhat differently performed in the two kingdoms.
The alimentary materials taken up by the absorbent system are
carried by the circulation into all parts of the fabric. This
movement is more necessary in the higher classes than in the
lower, where the absorbent surface is in more immediate relation
with the parts to be supplied. In animals, as in plants, this
function is entirely independent of the will, and in health un-
accompanied with consciousness. The muscular apparatus is
concerned in it only to harmonise it with the conditions of
animal existence; and nervous agency merely brings it into
sympathy with other operations of the corporeal and mental

Comparative Physiology. 393

system. Besides conveying to the various tissues the materials
required for their renovation, the current of circulating fluid
takes up, in animals especially, the particles which have dis-
charged their duty im the structure, and which are either to be
rendered again subservient to the process of nutrition, by ad-
mixture with alimentary matter newly absorbed, or to be sepa-
rated from the general mass, and carried out of the system.
This function is termed znterstitial absorption, and is performed,
in the higher animals, by a special vascular apparatus. The

alimentary materials undergo various changes before becoming
part of the organised fabric, which are difficult to trace. The
first perceptible change is, the formation of organisable products by
a new combination of the elements supplied by the food. This
appears to commence, in vegetables, as soon as these elements
are absorbed; and the same may probably be said of animals,
though the preparatory process of digestion seems to partake of
it. The organisation of these products appears to commence in
the circulating fluid. The elaborated sap of plants, and the
chyle and blood of animals, contain these organisable products
in abundance (not merely mixed); and the existence of regular
globules in them results from incipient organisation, a charac-
teristic of nutritious fluids. From these materials the indi-
vidual tissues of the fabric are created and renewed by the
process of nutrition (or assimilation); each deriving from the
blood that portion which its composition requires. ‘To preserve
the circulating fluid in the state required for performing its func-
tions, means are provided for elaborating certain fluids having a
destined use in the economy, and for separating and carrying
out whatever may be superfluous. ‘These are termed secretion
generally, the latter excretion. In proportion to the complexity
of the structure, we find the excreting organs multiplied, and
their products varied, this function being no less important
than absorption. The loss of fluid by exhalation, and of super-
fluous carbon by expiration (a kind of excretion), is constant
in all living beings.”

-The views above stated of Dr. Carpenter on reproduction, or
generation, differ from those of other physiologists. It has been
customary to state that it is produced by excess in the nutritive
system. Liebig, on the same subject in animals, takes this
view, and notices the power of accumulating nutritious matter,
at certain periods, as proofs of this. The accumulation, how-
ever, may be the effect and not the cause, a provision, not
an inducement; the case of insects, which are destitute of this
power while the nutritive functions are most active, would
seem to infer as much. It is perhaps, however, not so certain
that a comparative cessation of the one should take place before
the other commences. Over-fed plethoric beings cannot be said

394 Comparative Physiology.

to possess the nutritive function in a higher degree than mode-
rately fed ones that are more healthy. Precocity may be in-
duced by starvation, but not fertility. The reproductive func-
tion is undoubtedly antagonist to the nutritive, but it is also
dependent on it; and fruitfulness is, perhaps, greatest in animals
when the nutritive function is at full maturity, and before
it declines. In plants the contrary would appear to be the
case, as unhealthy stunted plants are most precocious. In
such, however, the function is never performed with the same
vigour, nor are the seedling plants from these ever so healthy
and strong.* In annual plants, such as grain crops, the quantity
and quality of the seeds increase, generally, as the vigour of
the nutritive function is induced, though it may be carried to
excess there also; yet in these there seems a period of maturity
similar to that in animals. In trees a cessation of the vigour of
the nutritive function does indeed seem necessary to produce
reproduction: it is not till the tree has extended itself, and
until, by the slowness of the more impeded circulation, shorter
and less vigorous branches are produced, that the period of fruit-
fulness commences. This period may be hastened also by
starving the tree, and may be protracted by over-feeding; as in
animals, so also in plants, plethora may be produced and death.
Plants, however, differ from animals in being a congregation of in-
dividual buds, each of which is capable of maintaining a separate
existence, and, under certain circumstances, of becoming seed.
The most essential of these circumstances seems to be, the quality
of the food: to produce that quality the elaboration of the leaf is
necessary ; and, to produce the necessary elaboration, the stimu-
lating and chemical power of the sunbeam is essential. Were
we able to produce the latter at will, we would not be so apt to
err in giving too much food; but, as it is not at our command,
we are necessitated to produce the necessary quality of the
food, by providing a smaller quantity to be elaborated. It is
well known to practical men that this is the case. Most of our
vegetable physiologists, however, contend that it is the quan-
tity of nourishment that produces fruitfulness. Mr. Knight
took this view of the subject. It is well known that taking a
ring of bark from the branch of a fruit tree induces fruit-
fulness in that branch, and this would seem to be brought
about by the less quantity of sap furnished to the branch. Mr.
Knight, however, supposed it to be owing to the accumulation
of the descending sap at the upper lip of the ring, as he found
the wood always of more specific gravity above than below the

* Too little attention has been paid to this. Were the seeds of trees col-
lected only trom vigorous young plants in place of stunted ones, which have
most seed, the young trees would be found to have a more vigorous habit,
and produce more wood.

Comparative Physiology. 395

ring. This was probably, however, owing to the less expansion
by growth above than below causing less wood, and of more
specific gravity. It is not at all probable that more sap would
be conveyed to a ringed than an unringed branch; and the
truth of less sap producing fruitfulness is undoubted, from dry
poor soils producing fruitfulness much sooner than rich moist
soils, and the lopping off of large roots having the same effect.
The healthy strong-growing plant in which the nutritive func-
tion is in full vigour, not plethoric,-produces, however, always
the best fruit, though not the greatest quantity of it: the seeds
also from such trees will furnish the most healthy strong seed-
lings; and perhaps the furnishing of a limited supply of food, and
depressing the vigour of the nutritive system, are more pro-
ductive of precocity than real fruitfulness. The two functions
are undoubtedly in so far antagonist, that the one can only
subsist at the expense of the other; but this would rather seem
to imply a necessity of vigour in the nutritive to supply the
wants of the other. Plethora depresses the vigour of the nu-
tritive function, and, in animals at least, may weaken by exces-
sive stimuli as well as disease. Plants possess a corrective to
plethora in the extension of the system, which is not possessed
by animals. There are no determinate limits to their extension :
and the addition of new shoots and branches is a means of
getting rid of excess in the quantity of food, which must tend to
make the plethoric state less frequent, and make amends for the
want of a sensitive appetite to determine the quantity absorbed.
Trees that are found plethoric and apt to canker in cold wet sea-
sons, become again sound when warm congenial seasons ensue;
much is therefore owing to want of heat and light, to which there
is also a corrective in the diminished quantity of endosmose ab-
sorption occasioned by their absence. When so many causes are at
work, it requires great skill and consideration in the operative
to apply the necessary correctives, at the proper times, and in
the proper manner; and, after all, his efforts may be baftled by
unforeseen and unexpected alterations of the weather.

I have before noticed that when we consider the soil
as the stomach of the plant, in which the food is digested by a
process of solution similar to that in the stomach of animals,
the manner of performing the next function, absorption, seems
to differ little in character in plants from that of animals. The
function of circulation appears undoubtedly to be more under
the power of vital contractile force in animals, and to be more
under the influence of external agents in plants. Though the
power of endosmose, said to be the principal cause of circulation
in plants, does not seem much dependent on vitality, and rather
depends on heat and light for a continuation of its action, it is
the opinion of the best of vegetable physiologists, that this power

396 Comparative Physiology.

will not account for the whole force of the circulation, though
commencing it and being a great assistant ; and the force both of
the descending and ascending current, they ascribe greatly to
the vital contractile power of the vessels through and among
which the sap moves. This opinion is likely to be correct, and
it likewise tends to produce more similarity in character
between the functions of circulation in plants and animals.

Liebig and others seem to be of opinion that the particles
which have discharged their duty in the structure, and are
taken up as waste by the oxygen inhaled, cannot be again ~
rendered subservient to the process of nutrition in the same
system; and if this opinion is correct, if all the waste carbon
must be secreted, this would argue the necessity for interstitial
absorption in plants as well as animals. DeCandolle and others
seem to be of opinion that the carbonic acid formed in this pro-
cess may be again decomposed in the leaf, and the nascent
carbon be again employed in nutrition. On such a subject
there would seem little probability of bemg able to make de-
cisive experiments; it is more natural, however, to suppose that
the effete or worn out particles should be rejected and excreted.

It isa very general opinion, that chemical changes are begun to
be produced in the food so soonasit enters the system of the plant;
and this has been said to be corroborated by the augmented pro-
portion of the organisable products found in the sap as it ascends
the tree. It is uncertain, however, how much of these is derived
from the deposits of starch, sugar, &c., stored up in the alburnum,
&c., the previous season, to serve for nourishment to the young
shoots at the commencement of the growing season; and un-
doubtedly the principal action takes place in the leaves; it is
there principally that the food is prepared for assimilation.
From the ramifications of the vascular system, however, sup-
plying the air found in them, it is probable that aeration and
interchange of gases may take place, toa certain extent, through
the whole of the system of the plant; an organic action may
also be exerted by the membranes of the cells which the fluids
pass through. Some are also of opinion that the sap possesses
vital properties, and may itself exert an action on the sub-
stances imbibed from the soil ; this may be either in the manner
denominated catalytic by Berzelius, in which substances pro-
duce chemical changes without being themselves changed, or it
may be vital power inherent in the sap or blood. ‘The nitroge-
nous excretions from the spongioles probably assist in dissolving
the food in the soil, acting like diastase.

(To be continued.)

Erratum. —in the May Number, p. 192., line 15., for “animal” read
“ mineral.”

Food of Plants, and its Transformation. 397

Art. II. On the Food of Plants, and its Transformation. By
ALEXANDER ForsyTH.

THERE is certainly nothing so essentially necessary for a gardener to be ac-
quainted with, as the nature of the materials of which vegetables are built ;
for, whether he thinks it or not, the multiplying of vegetable tissue is a far
greater and more difficult task to perform than the after-management of it.
Dr. Lindley tells us, in his Introduction to Botany, p. 1., that “ the che-
mical basis of the elementary organs has been found to be oxygen, hydrogen,
and carbon, with occasionally a little nitrogen or azote, combined in various
proportions.” All this may be very true: yet, with all humility, [ would beg
leave to remind those who rely implicitly on the chemist’s word for the ana-
lysis of any living thing, that to resolve any thing, animate or inanimate, that
God has made, into its simple elements or component parts, is, to say the least
of it, a very delicate task ; for the boiling of one thing into gas, or the burning
of another thing into a cinder, to tell their natures by applying tests to the
produce of what the element fire has made to fly off from the one on ap-
proaching it, and what it has left in passing over the other, can give but a
very vague idea of the real and original nature of the thing itself. However,
I shall have a host against me of great and learned men, with hard names
and tales of tests that they have tried, which prove their verdicts to be
very truth; and that for the like of me, a mere gardener, and not even under-
standing gardening in all its branches, to begin to question the correctness of
what “ has been found” in chemistry, is only one more example of the vulgar
errors that ignorant men are always stumbling into: yet, be this as it may,
I only pretend, in the humblest and clearest way I can, to give an opinion
on the workings of nature in the construction of the vegetable kingdom.
Scarcely any thing can enter into the composition of a vegetable that is not
aeriform. The dung, lime, earth, and water, that grass grows out of, are far
from being in the grass in a gross state, for the tissue of which the grass is
built bears more resemblance to water than to any of the other media from
which it arose : but what is water ?—only a mixture of gases of such a nature
that if a little more of one gas were in it, and a little less of another, it would
be so unlike water that it would explode like a cannon, and go flaming far off
into some new form. This is no idea of mine; therefore I am not to be ac-
countable for its accuracy: it is part of the memorandums I made from a
lecture by Professor Hemming (of the Marylebone Institution), at the Hall
of the Mechanics Institute, Brentford, where he decomposed water into hy-
drogen and oxygen, and proved these gases to be real by testing them with fire.
Now, supposing this correct, or nearly so, and supposing Dr. Lindley’s
theory correct of the gases of which vegetables are composed, we come
to the delicate point of how these gases are transformed into the living forms
in which they appear in every green thing: and, leaving out the unprofitable
search after the principle of life, and not attempting to settle the disputed
point as to whether tissue begets tissue, as some have said, I will examine
the media in which tissue is formed, and as these media are more or less
within our control, we are likely enough to be rewarded for our pains in
examining this matter; for I strongly suspect that this is the root of garden-
ing, and that the delving deep into the soil, and turning the lower layer up,
and the top layer down, confer benefits upon vegetation that have not been
dreamed of, for the following reasons. Suppose a new vine border made
of turfy loam, bone manure, &c. &c., well drained to carry off water, and
eke admit air, whether foul gas or clean pure air no matter; there must be
air, and that in great quantities, in the border and under the border. Now,
what becomes of this air so confined? I mean that which lies in the cavities
in the soil. I shall suppose a cubic foot of the vine border to contain about
the bulk of a brick of good dung, such as a mixture of animal dung, bones,
grassy turf, &c., and about the bulk of two bricks of air, the rest being
3d Ser.— 1843. VIII. DD

398 Food of Plants,

common garden earth. Now, if these materials, that is to say, the manures,
were in the bottom of a bottle, and a sort of loose stopper put in the bottle,
such as a tuft of straw, and this manure occasionally well wetted with rain
water, and well warmed with summer heat, there would unquestionably be
formed a gas of some strength, and of such a penetrating kind, that if any
medium, such as a bit of sponge, a piece of porous brick or sandstone were
placed in its atmosphere, it would soon be charged with the gas in various
forms, as to fineness and intensity ; and, from what I have observed, it is in
this gaseous air that the vegetable extends, and where the gas is not there
the spongioles extend not. For example, if you lay a turf on a border, you
will draw the roots near the top, or if you lay a stone or a tile, you will find
the roots right under it ; but if you loosen the soil in such a way that wind
can get in and gas out, you will look in vain for roots extending their feeders
into that medium. I am therefore strongly inclined to suspect that this is
the food of the tissue of which plants are built, and that the more of
this gas is secreted in the soil or media in which roots are placed, the
more quickly will they extend and multiply tissue: and such seems to be

the nature of the sap, that it is stored in small bags or bladders, and in —

this form it lines and covers and overlays all the more essential parts, in
the same way as the white of an egg surrounds the yolk, until hke that it
becomes assimilated with the substance that it first fed and protected ; and, as
if it required a separate chemical laboratory to complete its grand design,
as soon as it passes the collar of the stem, and visits upper air, it takes other
properties, as the tadpole takes to lungs and legs, and hops the meadow, that
erewhile was, like a fish, perfect to live and move in water.

Thus the grubs and worms, that seem only slightly removed in the scale
of existence from the substance on which they feed, are only as it were pre-
pared victuals for a higher order of more perfect animals, such as birds, &e.
But what could be more to the purpose, in the present argument, than the
transformation of insects ? The gluttonous grub fattens upon rude simples, as
leaves and crude fare, yet secretes in this filthy carcass the materials of a
beautiful fly. Now, what nonsense would it not be, to say this fly is only a
modification of gooseberry leaves ? for on that alone the grub fed from which
this grew. Hence I reason, that in plants there is certainly a great deal of
transformation in the secretions they store up: thus, the ball of a turnip is
a storehouse for the feeding of the Hower stem; therefore the highly elabo-
rated sap of the ball of the turnip changes its nature and consistency and
flows into the flower stem, leaving the ball a mere open sponge. Now this
ball of the turnip is an illustration, however clumsy, of the laws that I suspect
regulate the formation of the vegetable tissue. The little bladders full of
vegetable sap, pure white, are oniy, if I may use the expression, the atmo-
sphere or surrounding medium in which the more highly elaborated parts are
formed and fed, or, in other words, the grub of the future flower; for
example, the well dug ground in summer, and well manured, must be more
or less impregnated with certam gases. In this medium the seed of a
plant is placed, and a change must take place; for the dry and thirsty husk
of the seed, like the sponge in the bottle, gets a share of all the gases

that are in the earth and water around it, and begins to develope, swelling _

its bags with sap more or less elaborated by its cotyledons; and, having
the power, that is everywhere so evident in the works of the Creator, to
work out its own perfection, it first elaborates the gases around it into
bladders of sap seemingly tasteless, colourless, and so exceedingly deli-
cate that their formation under these circumstances seems a miracle. Into
these bladders the more elaborate parts of the plant penetrate and feed : thus

a growing tree, or a growing grain of mustard seed, must not, cannot, stand -

still. Like as in the beautiful frond-like appearances that are beheld on the glass
of a window on a frosty morning, or on a piece of water, the imperceptible
particles keep adding to the extremity of every branch, extending its sphere,
so it is with the spongioles or feeders of roots in a living growing plant.

Pie a

and its Transformation. 399

When sap is secreted in the earth, the canals of the plant convey it above the
collar; here another set of organs begin to elaborate it still higher: like the
tadpole with liver and legs, it is now at work in upper air, and acts towards
the attamment of a higher end in the same manner as the grovelling grass
grub after a time ; and, under the action of certain external influences, as
warmth, &c., brings forth, or rather becomes, a being so very different from
what it once was, that no one could have ever dreamed the transformation
possible.

Below the collar of the plant, therefore, the sap, being only one stage
removed from the crude elements that surround it, is exceedingly imperfect ;
and it is only in the simpler forms of vegetable life that cuttings from the root
will produce perfect trees. The sap in the trunk or stem of a plant above the
coliar seems to be a little more refined, and, consequently, reproduces its
kind by cuttings or truncheons more readily than the root does ; for there is
evidence enough to show that the old bark on the stem is far from neutral in the
economy of the plant. Thus the young roots, thick, short, and manifold, that
protrude from the stem of a vine when it is growing in a confined shady
vinery, where the atmosphere resembles the gaseous medium proper for roots,
show that the outer bark, as well as the inner, felt the effects of the medium
they inhabited, and turned it to account by forming tissue in it ; whereas, had
the atmosphere been, like fine summer weather, clear of shade and damp, and
resembling that sort of air that is so favourable to electrical experiments, the
bark of the stem would have had a different office to perform. But it is very
evident that the leaves form the principal laboratory of the plant, for in their
flat plates the sap must be acted upon intensely under a powerful sun ; and
when we consider the round form of trees and plants, and the angle in which
the individual leaves hang with respect to the sun, we find that a tree exposes
more superficial extent of leaf at right angles to the sun’s rays than would be
credited. From what I could calculate of a lime tree, it seemed to have a
surface exposed to sun and wind (that is, counting both sides of the leaf,) of
nearly an acre. On a branch of a chestnut tree about the length of my arm
I counted 100 leaves ; measuring one leaf, it averaged 6in. by 2in. ; and
counting both surfaces, it only required six leaves to the square foot. Thus
on this twig there was in the 100 leaves a surface of more than 16 square
feet; and estimating the tree to contain 1200 such twigs (and this is under the
real number), there was little short of half an acre of surface lined with sap that
must thicken by drying winds, and be almost baked by the direct rays of the
sun acting on so thin a layer. The spray on which these leaves stand, and the
buds in their bosoms, tell how highly refined, and how much more perfect, the
sap now is ; for not only are the buds and twigs better adapted to propagate
from in the form of cuttings, but without the aid of man they have secreted
the rudiments of flowers to reproduce their kind in numberless profusion : and
it seems to take the energy of every organ in the whole tree for this end.
Therefore, the future flower is not a modification of the bark, &c., as some
have said, but a thrice-refined secretion elaborated by the combined forces of
the whole tree, for the noble purpose of representing to future times the type
that the fiat of the Creator first called forth ; and though the petals of the
flower may be coloured richly, for the attraction of insects to do the work of
impregnation, yet there is reason to think that they have some important office
in elaborating the finer secretions necessary for the seed.

But, having premised thus far, I must leave the application of this theory till
a future day.

Alton Towers, Nov. 9. 1842.

(To be continued.)

400 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

Art. III. The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and of Landscape-
Architecture applied to the Laying out of Public Cemeteries and
the Improvement of Churchyards ; including Observations on the
Working and General Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds. By the ConpucTor. 3

(Continued from p. 367.)

VI. Dersicn ror a CEMETERY ON HILLY GRouUND.

Tue lithograph fig. 90. is an isometrical view of a cemetery, supposed to
be situated on hilly ground, the use of which is to show that an uneven
surface may be thrown into beds and borders for graves on the same general
principles as in a cemetery having a flat surface. In this design, there are
supposed to be two chapels included in one building, and entered through
porticoes on opposite sides. The surface of the ground is supposed to rise
considerably from the entrance lodge to the chapel, and to fall from the
chapel to the north-east on one side, and the south-west on the other. If
the reader will trace with his eye the direction of the main road from the
lodge at a, till it returns to 4, he will find that a view of the entire cemetery
may be obtained from it, without going over any part twice; but, as it might
be desirable, on account of the view, to descend along the road which leads to
the chapel, as well as ascend, the branch road c is laid out, in order that
after having entered at a, and returned by 4, c might be entered ; and, after
proceeding as far as d, the visitor might return by the chapel, and come out
where he first entered at a.

It will be observed that there is a border for graves immediately within the
boundary wall, which a walk separates from another border. There are also
broad borders to all the carriage roads; and the interior of the compartments
formed by these borders is laid out in beds 18 ft. wide, separated by grass
paths 3 ft. in width, as in the design for the Cambridge Cemetery.

At the four principal angles of the boundary wall are enclosed yards, in
each of which there is a shed for tools, planks, grave-boards, and other neces-
sary implements and articles.

On the outside of the entrance gates are shown one of Shillibeer’s two-
horse hearses arriving, and one of his one-horse hearses screwed up, so as to
resemble a common mourning-coach, returning. At e, in the interior, is
shown a funeral with a truck-hearse; and, at f; one with a hand-bier.

The great extent of the borders in this cemetery renders it particularly eligible
for being planted as an arboretum.

VII. Tuer PRESENT STATE OF THE LONDON CEMETERIES, CONSIDERED
CHIEFLY AS CEMETERY GARDENS.

From the discussions in the preceding pages, the reader will have anti-
cipated much of what is contained in the present article, in which, indeed, we
shall chiefly recapitulate what has been stated before more in detail. Of the
eight cemeteries which have been formed within the last ten or twelve years
we shall not single out any one by name, but notice chiefly objections which
apply more or less to all of them.

We object to interments made in catacombs above ground, and to all inter-
ments in catacombs, however situated, in which the cell is not hermetically
sealed (instead of placing an open grating before it), the jomts within being
previously covered with a thick coating of cement. In the last-formed
cemetery the catacombs are not yet built ; but, in all the others, so great an
expense has been incurred in the catacomb department, that it must operate
as a serious drawback to the profits of the shareholders. As far as we have
been able to ascertain, interment in catacombs is on the decline, as well in the

LLY GROUND,

ple,
ka

lea. <a ¥ GROUND.
TiG. £4. DESIGN FOR LAYING OUT AND PLANTINGA CENETERY ON WILL

ay

applied to Public Cemeteries. 401

London cemeteries as throughout the country ; and in our opinion it would
be well to tax it in such a manner as to do away with it altogether.

The interments made in a single grave, whether common graves or family
graves, are too numerous in proportion to their depth. The distance at
which coffins are placed apart is seldom more than a foot, sometimes even
the coffin is laid bare, the evils resulting from which are: Ist, that when
an interval of two or three weeks or months elapses between the in-
terments, the earth to be removed is so offensive as to reduce the grave-
digger to drinking, and shock the bystander by the smell of the earth
brought up to the surface ; and 2d, that by placing so many bodies in one
grave the gases of decomposition must, when the grave is filled, unavoid-
ably reach the surface and escape into the atmosphere. The remedy for
both evils is to place and retain a layer of earth of 6 ft. in thickness over each
coffin; because we consider it as proved by the general experience of grave-
diggers throughout Europe, that no evil results from the decomposition of a
body with this thickness of soil over it. The manner in which the soil
operates is this: having been recently moved and the parts separated, the in-
terstices are necessarily filled with atmospheric air; and as the gases are
generated in the coffin they expand, rise into the soil, and displace the at-
mospheric air, or mix with it. In this way this poisonous gas, instead of
rising into the air itself, only forces out of the soil a portion of atmospheric
air equal in bulk to what was generated in the coffin. When the layer of 6 ft.
of soil over the coffin is not next the surface, but perhaps many feet beneath
it, the mephitic air may still be assumed as driven into the soil immediately
above the coffin, so that in whatever position the layer of 6 ft. may be relatively
to the ground’s surface, it may always be assumed, for all practical purposes,
to contain the greater part of the mephitic gases which escape from the
coffin. A certain proportion of these gases will also escape laterally, at least
in all soils through which water will filtrate freely, such as gravels and sands ;
but scarcely any will pass laterally through clays, and none through the sides
of a brick grave, unless these are built chequered with openings, as has been
recommended in p. 155.

If the principle of having 6 ft. of soil over every coffin were adopted, the mode
suggested in p. 98. and p. 216., of having movable covering stones to be inserted
after every interment, as soon as 6ft. of soil had been filled in and well
rammed, would be found a useful guide to the grave-digger, who would stop
whenever he came to the stone, and take it out and reserve it till after the in-
terment was effected.

All the inconvenience that would result to cemetery companies by com-
pelling them to have 6 ft. of soil over every body would be merely that of
excavating to a greater depth ; and, as we have said before (p. 216.), there can
be no reason why graves should not be as deep as wells.

In some of the London cemeteries the coffins in brick graves are placed
one over another, and separated only by two iron bars, the ends of which are
inserted in the side walls, the space between the Jast-inserted coffin and the
ledger or covering stone at the surface of the ground being left open, and
consequently the whole of the coffins in the grave communicating with its
atmosphere. It is evident in this case that all the gases of decomposition
will escape into the open space, and, by their expansive power, force out part
of the mortar or cement under the covering stone; but, even if it should not
do this, there must be great danger every time the covering stone is taken
off, and more especially as it is necessary for a man to descend to the last-
deposited coffin, in order to insert two bars over it to bear the coffin about to
be deposited. The remedy for this evil is to cover every coffin with a flag-stone
or slate, resting on ledges projecting from the side walls, and rendered per-
fectly airtight, by covering the joints with a coat of cement of several inches
in thickness; or, in default of this mode, embedding and covering the coffin
with cement in the manner already described in p. 217. By no other mode can
so many coffins be got into one grave, and with perfect safety (if the opera-

DD 3

402 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

tion of sealing up is effectually performed) to the grave-digger and the
public.

We object to the system of laying out a cemetery in imaginary squares, for
various reasons: it does not allow of an obvious order and arrangement of the
graves; it does not admit of walking among them on a continuous path ; it
affords a very unsatisfactory mode of registration, since it depends on the
accuracy of the mapping of the graves in the map book ; it renders it next to
impossible for the relations of the deceased to find out the grave without the
aid of some person connected with the cemetery, unless the grave has a
monument ; it prevents an efficient system of grass paths from being formed ;
and it totally prevents the establishment of a permanent system of surface
drainage by having the drains under the paths. It will not be denied, we
think, that in all the London cemeteries there is an appearance of confusion
in the placing of the graves and monuments; there is no obvious principle of
order or arrangement ; no apparent reason, except in the case of graves
placed along the margins of the walks, why monuments should be situated
where they are, rather than any where else ; the greater part of them seem
to be put down at random; and, in the crowded parts of the cemeteries, the
time is fast advancing, when, as in the Pere la Chaise Cemetery, no monu-
ment will be approachable, but by scrambling through between a number of
other monuments. In our opinion all the cemeteries require reformation in
this particular without a day’s delay.

As the greater number of the London cemeteries are on a retentive clayey
soil, a system of surface drainage is absolutely necessary to allow the grass
to be walked on with comfort during the greater number of days in the year :
but we pronounce it to be impossible to execute a system of surface drainage
which shall be permanent, where the imaginary square system is adopted ;
because, in the carrying out of that system, every drain is liable to be inter-
rupted by a grave either made or to be made.

The system of laying out the roads is objectionable in some of the ceme-
teries; because it is not continuous, but interrupted by branches claiming to
be equally important with the main road. The purposes for which a road is
made are, to allow of using, and also of displaying, the country, estate, or
scenery, which it passes through; and hence in every country residence,
garden, and cemetery, there ought to be one master road, by going along
which the whole residence, garden, or cemetery, might be surveyed, without
the attention being drawn off by side or branch roads of equal breadth and
importance with the mainroad. The whole of some of the London ceme-
teries could not be seen without going over a considerable part of the roads
twice, a circumstance which, with reference to use, is attended with loss of
time, and, in regard to effect, with diminished force of expression. In some
the main road, even when conducted near a straight wall, is made to ser-
pentine in a manner which, being unaccounted for either by natural or arti-
ficial obstacles, such as inequalities of surface or trees, is quite ridiculous.

There ought not to be a road or a walk in any cemetery, the direction of
which is not accounted for, by the boundary fence, the inequalities of the
surface of the ground, by cemetery buildings or tombs, or by the disposition
of trees and shrubs.

In all the cemeteries there is a great want of gravel walks, which always
afford fine opportunities for borders of graves, with intervening trees or
shrubs. (See the plan fig. 90.)

The planting of all the cemeteries is, in our opinion, highly objectionable,
for various reasons already given. It is too much in the style of a common
pleasure-ground, both in regard to the disposition of the trees and shrubs,
and the kinds planted. Belts and clumps can never be required in a ceme-
tery either for shelter or shade ; because nothing is so desirable as to have a
free current of air, and admit the drying influence of the sun; and because
it is impracticable to form graves in clumps and belts. By scattering the trees
and shrubs singly, graves may be everywhere formed among them ; and, by
placing trees continuously along the roads and walks, shade is afforded to

)
st;

ound Sty

ys
i

~
a
2

VA S- &

x

Plea

the |

phew
Cr"

Planted

ara
=, \

aay he

applied to Public Cemeteries. 403

those who are on them, and a foreground is established to the scenery
beyond. But the plantations in most of the London cemeteries appear to
have been made without the guidance of any leading principle. In one we
have a thick belt round the margin, occupying one of the finest situations
which any cemetery affords for border graves ; in another we have scarcely
any trees along the walks, while we have a number grouped together along
the centre of the compartments, where they lose much of their effect ; in
another we have clumps scattered throughout the grounds without any con-
nexion among themselves, or with any thing around, destroying all breadth
of effect, and producing neither character nor expression. In one cemetery
there are so few trees that the whole of the ground and the buildings are
seen at one glance as soon as we enter the cemetery gates; in another trees
have been planted which it might have been foreseen would never thrive.

The kinds of trees we object to, because they are chiefly deciduous, and
such as produce light-foliaged bulky heads, while fastigiate conical dark
needle-leaved evergreens shade much less ground, produce much less litter
when the leaves drop, and, by associations both ancient and modern, are
peculiarly adapted for cemeteries.

The Norwood Cemetery Company has published an engraved view of its
grounds, of which fig. 91. is a fac-simile; and, to show the different effect
which dark-foliaged fastigiate and conical trees would have had, we have
prepared fig. 92., in which it will be observed that the foreground and distance
are the same as in fig. 91., and that we have confined our alteration to the
middle of the picture. We do not say that every one who compares the
two pictures will prefer ours to the other, because we do not allow every one
to be a judge in this matter ; but we do expect that all will acknowledge
that there is a distinctive character in our view, and this is what we chiefly con-
tend for. Every one knows that this character is aimed at in the new ceme-
teries formed on the Continent, and that the cemeteries of the ancients were
characterised by the cypress. To show that this is also the case with the
cemeteries of the East, we have given some views of Oriental cemeteries.
See jigs. 93, 94, and 95.

In several of the cemeteries pines and firs have been planted without pro-
perly preparing the soil, in consequence of which they have become stunted
and diseased, so as to disfigure rather than to adorn. On the whole it ap-
pears to us, that almost all the cemeteries have not only been badly planted,
as far as respects design and taste, but even in regard to execution, and in
particular in the preparation of the soil.

The next point on which we would remark is the management of the tomb-
stones, many of which, we are happy to say, exhibit progressive improvement
in taste. Many, at the same time, appear to have been placed on insufficient
foundations, and are in consequence already leaning to one side. Every head-
stone, monument, or tomb, to be secure and stand permanently upright, ought
either to be founded on ground which has not been moved, or built on piers or
walls of brick or stone carried up from the bottom of the grave.

The keeping of the new London Cemeteries is in general good, though it
is very far from what it might be. In some it is highly discreditable, sheep
being admitted to eat the grass, to save the expense of mowing, and the
young trees being in consequence cropped by the sheep, and poisoned by their
wool. In general a sufficient number of hands are not allowed for high keep-
ing, and day-work is had recourse to, where letting by the job would be more
economical to the company, and satisfactory to the labourers. The mowing
of the grass, and the keeping of the roads, might be let by contract, and
the grass kept much shorter than it is at present; because the contractor
would soon discover that the shorter he kept the grass, the less mowing would
be requisite : whereas at present, by way of being economical, the grass is
allowed to attain several inches in length between each growing; or its roots
are nourished by the dung of the sheep that graze on it.

In conclusion, we have to observe that, in our visits to the different London

DD 4

myud iii oe
Ne

ett 9 een

Cemetery of Eyub, near Constantinople.

—————————

Fig. 93.

===
SSS

Landscape-Gardening applied to Public Cemeteries. 405

cemeteries, we have received the greatest civility and attention from the su-
perintendants ; and, at the respective offices in London, every information has
been afforded us by the secretaries with the greatest readiness and politeness.

As examples of the Eastern mode of planting cemeteries with cypress-like
trees, we shall give from the Encyclopedia of Gardening, by the permission
of the proprietors, engravings of the Turkish cemeteries at Pera and at Eyub,
both near Constantinople, and of the Cemetery of Hafiz in Persia. We
shall add two examples of Chinese cemeteries, in which are planted trees of
various forms and characters.

The Turkish burying-grounds “ are generally favourite places of public resort.
The principal promenade in the evening, for the inhabitants of Pera, is a very
extensive cemetery, which slopes to the harbour, is planted with noble cy-
presses, and is thickly set in many places with Turkish monuments. The
opulent Turks have their graves railed in, and often a building over them, in
some of which lights are kept constantly burning. The inscription on the
head-stones is usually a sentence from the Koran, written in letters of gold.
The Turks, like the Welsh, adorn the graves of their friends by planting
flowers upon them, often the myrtle, but sometimes the amaryllis. (//g. 9+.)

Van
PEUUAA SAL CVACADEL CAL ERFULLSLOLUUSULQLSU RO CATE BEES OUARTA EL
Ff

ni

(Williams's Travels, &c., p. 201.) The vicinity of a cemetery is not in the
capital of Turkey judged by any means disagreeable, and no spot is so
lively and well frequented as the Armenian and Frank burying-ground, at the
outskirts of Pera, called Mnemata, or the tombs. It is shaded by a grove
of mulberry trees, and is on the edge of some high ground, whence there is
a magnificent view of the suburb of Scutari and a great portion of the Bos-
phorus. (Hobhouse’s Travels in Albania, vol. ii. p. 837.) The cemetery of
the Turks at Constantinople is the fashionable quarter of the Franks, and
the pleasure-ground of the Levantines. It is the only place of recreation in
Pera. (Madden's Turkey, p. 204) The Turkish cemeteries are generally
out of the city, on rising ground, planted with cedars, cypresses, and odori-
ferous shrubs, whose deep verdure and graceful forms bending in every breeze
give a melancholy beauty to the place, and excite sentiments very congenial
to its destination. (Mustace’s Travels, &c., p. 45.) The Cemetery of Eyub,
near Constantinople, is crowded with graves ; those which contain males
have generally a turban at the head of the flat tombstone, and nearly all have
plants growing from the centre of the stones. (jig. 93.) The magnificent

yuryg ur ‘squoy fo 3104 24; fo Rlajauay IY G6 Pace

= ane pea am
= : SSE POT (a f
= : : Si % ee
=> Ss =
; == Se ee
= See
on
* =e
ae
Ree
a?
Cm
=)
—S
er
Se
~

Ti

Io; iy im

= Ss
af —=
SQ S

See
i \~ 7

Landscape-Gardening applied to Public Cemeteries. 407

burial-cround of Scutari extends for miles in length, and among high and
turbaned tombstones, with gold-lettered inscriptions, mournful cypresses are
thickly planted. (Alexander’s Travels from India, p. 240.) There is a very large
burying-ground, shaded by an extensive forest of cypresses at Bournabat, a
village of elegant country houses built in the European fashion, belonging to
the merchants of Smyrna. (Hobhouse’s Travels in Albania, vol. i. p. 640.)”
(Encyc. of Gard., ed. 1834, p. 300.)

Persian Cemeteries. —* There are said to be 1001 mausoleums at Shiraz; those
of Chodsja Hafiz and Saadi Sjeraft (both celebrated poets) are the most beau-
tiful. The burial-place of the first ( fig. 96.) is situated at Muselli, an estate pos-

HLL
HUE MEL

"
M a if ira elt i oT

The Cemetery of Hafiz.

Ta

Fig, 96.

sessed by Hafiz, who, it is remarked, was not buried by the nation, but had the
expenses of his funeral defrayed out of his own private fortune. His cemetery
is square and spacious, shaded by poplars (a rare tree in Persia), and having a
lion carved in stone on each side of the entrance. The wall is built of brick, and
coincides in direction with the cypress trees of the surrounding garden. The
ground is strewed with tombstones, and divers sepulchral memorials of those
who had desired to be buried under the guardian influence of the poet. En-
tering from the neighbouring garden, which was bequeathed to the cemetery,
the keeper conducts a stranger into the place of the sepulchre. This is sur-
rounded by lattice-work, and contains three tumuli besides the grave of the
poet ; one encloses the remains of a secular prince, and the other two illus-
trious individuals, who, when living, were disciples of Hafiz. In the place
of the sepulchre sits a priest, who repeats verses from the Koran in praise
of the illustrious dead, and enumerates their virtues; when he has finished,
another, and afterwards a third, in the open burying-place, take up the same
theme ; so that the lamentations are incessant. The tombs are placed ina
row ; and the form ofall of them is the same. They are about the size of a sar-
cophagus, and have each a large stone, about a man’s height, at both ends.
The stone of which they are made is of a common kind, and unpolished. On
each side are sculptured verses from the Koran, and on the stones placea at
the feet are elegant epitaphs. Hafiz died a. p. 1340. (Kaempfer’s Amen.
Exot., &c., fas. . rel. vi. p. 367.)” (Encyc. of Gard., ed. 1834, p. 371.)

~ Inthe Chinese cemeteries ( figs. 95. 97.), trees of various descriptions are intro-
duced, and the tombs are of very remarkable forms. “ About Canton and Macao
the high lands are very little cultivated, being generally set apart for burying the
dead ; those about Canton are entirely occupied as cemeteries, the low grounds,
which can be covered with water, being the only ones which will produce
rice. (Dobell’s Trave's, &c., vol. ii. p. 191.) Sometimes, however, the

SS Ant os
See

SNE =
ee se Za =
a
=
es = = SSS
EE << =
EEE EE a

1
ANS oe

a

>

Sha

Chinese Cemetery, near the Yellow River.

Fig. 97.

The Hornet. 409

Chinese choose a valley for a cemetery, as that of the Vale of Tombs near
the lake See Hoo. (jig. 95.) The Chinese burying-place near the Yellow
River (jig. 97.) is a specimen of a cemetery on high ground.” (Encyc. of
Gard., ed. 1834, p. 338.)

( To be continued.)

ArT. 1V. On the Hornet. By J. WicuHtTon.

Some persons doubt if the hornet mentioned in Holy Writ be the same kind
as our hornet: they ground their doubt on the fact that hornets, like wasps,
will seldom attack or sting any one without provocation. This, however, is
groundless ; for He who sent the hornet as a scourge on the Canaanites
would make them fulfil it; and, though we are not told of the fulfilment of
the scourge, still we may conclude that it was fulfilled, and that too dread-
fully. But be all this as it may, though the hornet be not the largest stinging
insect we have, still it is the most formidable one. Fortunately hornets are
not so numerous as their fellow species the wasps, otherwise they would
strike terror, especially to those that startle at the sight of a wasp or a bee.
I have conversed with several who have been stung by hornets, and they
said the pain was great: I have been thrice stung by them myself, and, except
in one, the pain was not much greater than I have felt from the sting of a
wasp; and that was not enough to make mie believe the old saying, that
“nine hornets could sting a horse to death.” Some feel more pain from a sting
than others ; there are even instances of persons dying from the sting of a
bee, but such are rare occurrences, such as that of a prick from a pin or
thorn causing death. However, I wish none to be stung by hornets; my
object is only to mention something about their habits. In doing this, I find
I can glean but little from authors: they merely say that the hornet is a
species of wasp, and their habits are similar. Professor Wilson, however,
observes that the Véspa Crabro (the hornet) has never appeared in Scotland.

Though the hornet is a species of wasp, indeed it may be called the king
of the wasps, yet it differs a little from the wasp in its habits: for instance,
the hornet rarely builds its nest in the ground, and we never find it sus-
pended from a branch in the open air. A dry hollow tree, and somewhere
under the roof of a shed or barn, are the favourite sites of the hornet. When
in possession of either of the latter places, their nest may be seen fixed to a
spar by several little props or pillars, having a large opening below : in this
respect it differs from the wasps’ nests, especially those seen upon a branch ;
they are closed below, except a smal] hole or two to enter at. The opening is
to allow the excrement from the insects to pass through, it being far greater
than from wasps ; so much so, that from a strong colony of hornets a filthy
fluid is always dropping. In spring, the hornet, like the wasp, begins her nest
alone. Both collect their materials from decayed wood, and the hornet
chooses that which is more decayed. It seems doubtful if either use saliva
or resin from trees in working up the materials. Hornets may be seen enter-
ing their nest with clear drops in their mouths, which differ neither in touch
nor taste from water: whether this fluid is to carry on the structure, or to
feed the brood, I cannot rightly say; but I suspect it is for the former
purpose. The materials, being so very dry, of course require moisture before
they can be formed into paper, which is of a coarser texture than that formed
by the wasp. Both rear their structures nearly alike, except that the hornets’
cells are made larger ; viz. the combs are ranged horizontally, and form many
distinct parallel stories, supported by many little pillars; more are added as
the weight increases, and they are sometimes attached to the cocoons of the
insects while in their cells, and are cut through when they come forth. The
mouths of the cells are downwards ; consequently the tops of the combs are

410 The Hornet.

composed of the bases of the cells, and form nearly a level floor, on which the
insects can pass and repass. The spaces between the first-formed, or workers’,
combs in the hornet’s nest are about half an inch high, in those of the queen
lin.; but the spaces in both are reduced by the cocoons of the insects,
especially that of the queen, which protrudes beyond the rest. Though
hornets’ cells are larger than those of wasps, still they are not so numerous,
and of course their progeny is less, except the queens and drones, which are
far greater, and are reared last in the colony: they amount to several hun-
dreds ; indeed, the whole cells in autumn are occupied by them. The drones
are principally in the workers’ cells, but they are found also in those of the
queen : those bred in the latter appear to be of a larger size. It is not so
with the wasps; among them the drones and queens are bred together in
larger cells in the last-formed combs, and working wasps are reared until the
colony disperse.

I have made these remarks from a hornet’s nest taken from a hollow tree
on the 25th of Sept. At that time the wasps were getting weak, and careless
about their nests, while the hornets were in full vigour. The nest contained
nine divisions of combs, full of eggs and brood ; even the last comb, or rather
the embryo of one, being only five cells, just begun, contained eggs a little
larger than wasps’; but, like theirs, deposited on one side, a little from the
bottom of their cells. This affords room for the excrements from the grubs,
which was the black substance found in the empty cells when the colony was
upset. It contained more drones and queens than workers ; several hundreds
more came forth. During a month nine kept the nest in a hothouse ; but,
strange to say, not one worker, their cells being full of brood drones, as
already noticed. I put one worker into the nest: though wingless, he foraged
about, and, on the least alarm, he was always the first to appear. When
pressed with hunger, he came with the rest and ate from my hand. I cannot
say whether the drones or young queens take any part in the colony ; the
former quit in search of food ; they are larger than the workers, are known
from them by their long dark feelers or horns, and by having no sting. The
queens are larger ; I never saw them abroad in search of food ; probably they
are fed by the workers, and before becoming torpid eat the dying larve. It may
be worthy of remark, that, though there were many males and females in the
nest alluded to, I could not discern them meeting to insure a future increase;
as the drones and workers perish at the end of the season, it must take place
before then. The queens, like those of the wasp, hide themselves during
winter amongst dry moss, &c., in a torpid state, until the warmth of spring
calls them forth to begin fresh colonies.

Since the above was written, Dr. Neill, who is well known as a naturalist
as well as a horticulturist, sent me word that he has never met with the
Véspa Crabro in Scotland. I cannot do better than give his own words on
this subject: —“I sent the hornets to the Rev. J. Duncan, in whose rich
collection they will have a place. He writes me thus: ‘I have no hesitation
in saying that you may assure your correspondent that the hornet does not
occur in Scotland. Ihave stated this as my belief in a paper on the Wasp,
in the 12th volume of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. I never saw a
hornet in this country, nor ever heard of one occurring. It extends much
farther north on the Continent ; but we cannot infer from that that it should
likewise be found here. It is so conspicuous and formidable an insect, that,
had it existed here, it is not likely it would have been overlooked.’ From
such evidences, especially the Rev. J. Duncan’s, who may be styled the Scot-
tish Kirby, we may conclude there are no hornets in Scotland ; and it is very
natural for us to ask why. Want of proper food cannot be the cause, for
wasps find nourishment there. The wet and cold variable springs in Scotland
may have something to do with it, by arousing the insects at an improper
time ; but not all, for the hornet can endure, perhaps, more cold than the wasp,
they are often abroad both night and day after the wasps disappear. I may
add, that I once exposed hornets abroad during a cold night ; in the morning

Insects which attach the Raspberry. 411

they were covered with rime frost, and dead to appearance; but when placed
in the warmth they soon began to hum. Perhaps the cause may be owing to
something peculiar in the insect for local districts; for mstance, it is said that
the hornet is not found in Cambridge or Lincolnshire: the fact that they
abound in Norfolk, an adjoining county, is in favour of this. There is one
thing, however, much against it; that is, hornets are never so numerous as
wasps ; yet there are more queens reared in their nests than in those of wasps.
This argues in favour of the climate and food being more against their
increase. The hornet may be considered more an inhabitant of woods than
the wasp ; and, as regards food, though they visit the garden and orchard in
search of it, still their greatest supply is from the forest. They will unbark
the young shoots of trees; for instance, the ash: frequently the shoots
appear as if they had been eaten by rabbits. This shows they have great
power in their mandibles ; and it is a curious fact, that, like some other insects
when in confinement, in a pill-box for instance, they do not attempt to escape
by cutting through it, which they could do in a few minutes.”

Hornets have been very numerous during the last season. I have assisted
in destroying many of their nests, which gave me an opportunity of observing
their manner of defence. If their nests had not been previously disturbed,
they might be approached with safety; if otherwise, not. At first, when the
attack is made, those that issue from the nest show bold resistance, yet
seldom sting without giving notice of their intention, by whizzing with great
force close by one’s ear; but, for all their strength and courage, they sooner
give way than their weaker fellows the wasps: these are waspish to the last,
while the hornets that escape hum off in the distance.

Cossey Gardens, April 4. 1843.

Art. V. Some Account of the Insects which attack the Raspberry.
By J. O. Westwoop, F.L.S., Secretary to the Entomological So-
ciety of London.

THERE are but few species of insects which materially injure
the leaves or fruit of the raspberry. ‘This plant, like most vege-
tables, has, of course, its aphis and its lepidopterous caterpillars
which gnaw the leaves; but the obnoxious species may be con-
sidered as consisting only of the grub of a moth which attacks
the bud, and that of a beetle which attacks the fruit. Of the
former, the individuals are produced in the preceding autumn,
and are thus of a considerable size when the spring developes
the buds, into the base of which they burrow and penetrate to
the heart, consuming the embryo flowers and leaves in the same
manner as I have described in my account of the caterpillar of
the apricot moth. The buds thus attacked may be easily known
by their faded appearance, and should be hand-picked and de-
stroyed.

The other insect above mentioned does not commence its
attacks until the fruit approaches maturity. Many of the
berries may now be perceived more or less shriveled, with the
seed-vessels dried up. If one of these be opened, the central
core of the fruit will be found more or less burrowed, as well as
the fruit, the seeds of which are left bare and dry, especially at

412 Insects which attack the Raspberry.

the top, the remainder
not being full-sized,
and generally pre-
maturely ripe and dis-
coloured. This is done
by a whitish grub, of
about a quarter of an
inch long, and rather
cylindric in figure;
with the under side
of the body and sides,
and articulations of
the segments, dirty
white; the head and
a dorsal plate on each
ring brownish buff,
with the sides and a
central longitudinal
line on each plate
brown, thus giving
the appearance of
three dorsal lines of
brown. The head is
horny, and furnished a, Full-grown raspberry. 6, Raspberry attacked by the larva, and
with horny jaws and 7°rhesame opened, toshow the larva on the core, into whieh 4
short feelers, as well puprowe The larva. e, The perfect insect flying, of the
as with the various

membranous parts usually present, composing the under portions
of the mouth of the larve of Coledptera. The grub is also
furnished with six short scaly articulated feet. It has also two
short scaly horns on the upper side of the extremity of the
body ; the under side being furnished with a fleshy retractile
tubercle, which the insect uses as a seventh foot. When full
grown it descends to the earth, where it buries itself to a con-
siderable depth, forming for itself a small oval cocoon of earth,
with the inner surface quite smooth. Here it assumes the
ordinary pupa state to which all coleopterous insects are sub-
ject. Some individuals which I reared did not arrive at the
perfect state till the following spring, when they produced the
Byturus tomentosus, a small buff or slaty brown coloured oval
beetle, with knobbed antenne, which is to be seen flying about
the raspberry plants in the spring and summer, and which is
also very partial to the hawthorn and blackberry.

I am the more desirous of stating the result of my own ob-
servations, because Mr. Curtis, in his account of this beetle,
appears to be in some doubt whether the maggots found in the
fruit of the raspberry are those of this insect; whilst Messrs.

Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and Gardeners. 413

Kirby and Spence state that, when in flower, the footstalks of
the blossom are occasionally eaten through by the Derméstes
(Byttrus) tomentdsus, which they once saw prove fatal to a
whole crop. They also add, “that bees frequently anticipate
us, and, by sucking the fruit with their proboscises, spoil it for
the table.” A more nauseous annoyance is, however, sometimes
produced by some of the winged bugs (chiefly species of CApsus),
which protrude their rostrums into the fruit, leaving behind a
taste very much like the smell of the bed-bug.

The following are the systematic details of the species in
question : —

Order, Coledptera (or beetles).

Section, Pentamera (with 5-jointed tarsi).
Family, Nitiddlide.

Genus, Byttrus Laéreille (Derméstes Fabr.)
Species, Byturus tomentosus Fabr.

Variety, Derméstes fumatus Fadr.
Synonyme, Silpha testacea ? Linneus.

Length, about one sixth of an inch; " f
body oval, densely clothed with lu- | ¥
teous, yellowish, brownish, or greyish ¢
pubescence; the forehead depressed
and punctured; the eyes large and fFig.o9. The Raspherry Bectle.
black; the thorax punctured, as well TheJarva magnified. g, The cocoon of

earth, opened at one end. f, The pupa,
as the elytra ; the legs, antenne, seen on the under side, magnified. z, The
5 perfect insect (the lines show the natu-
and mouth pale buffish, or ochre- tal length), magnified.
coloured ; the body beneath dark brown, with the extremity
lighter-coloured.

Hammersmith, Sept. 15. 1842.

Art. VI. Dinbur Castle, its Gardens, and its Gardeners. By PrtEeR
MACKENZIE.

(Continued from p. 110.)

‘ Wuen the night arrived on which Colin Forbes was to take his turn in
imparting useful information to his comrades, he told them that what he in-
tended to communicate might be thought by some to have little connexion
with gardening, but he hoped, before he was done, he would be able to show
that the subject was worthy of a gardener’s consideration.

Hydrodynamics formed the science to which he intended to direct their
attention for a short time; and he glanced in their order at the four principal
parts into which it is divided, viz. Hydrostatics, which explain the laws of
the equilibrium of such fluids as water; and Hydraulics, which explain the
laws of their motion ; Aerostatics, which treat of the laws of the equilibrium
of such fluids as air; and Pneumatics, which treat of their motion. ‘“ Before
I proceed any further,” said Colin, “ I will inform you of the circumstance
which first turned my attention to the subject. In the first year of my ap-
prenticeship, whilst we were enlarging the pleasure-ground, part of the opera-

3d Ser. — 1843. VIII. EE

414 Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and Gardeners.

tions were extended into a field but poorly supplied with water. In the
course of working we came upon a small spring, which the gardener thought
would be of great benefit to the cattle if it were conveyed to a proper place
for their use. A gentleman happened to be present who held a situation
under government, and whose business it was to superintend ground work.
His opinion was that it would be useless to expend money upon the spring ;
because it appeared so weak, and the field so level, that, when the water began
to collect, its own weight would prevent the spring from running. The
gardener, however, thought differently. He believed that, however weak the
spring might be, it would rise to its level although it had a lake to oppose it ;
and the spring, for any thing he knew, would balance an ocean; or else he had
been wrongly instructed. The gentleman was not at all pleased at haying his
opinion controverted by one whom he considered his inferior ; but both were
willing that a temporary dam should be made in order to test their knowledge,
and I watched the rising of the water from day to day until it ran over its
appointed boundary. The gentleman obtained a lesson which he would
perhaps remember all the days of his life, and the cattle obtained water, which
was a great benefit both for them and their owner. Sometime after I fell in
with part of Playfair’s Oudlines of Natural Philosophy, which gave me a little
help on the subject. I also procured an odd number of Nicholson’s Journal,
containing an article entitled ‘ A Summary of the most useful Parts of Hydrau-
lics, chiefly extracted and abridged from Eytelwein’s Handbuch der Mechanik
und der Hydraulik? These short treatises gave me new views of common
things.”

Colin Forbes then began to explain to the other lads the equilibrium of
fluids, and taking his spirit level showed Bauldy how to use it. He showed
them that it is upon the tendency of all the particles of fluids to come to a
level that the making of leveling instruments depends : and, if the person who
opposed the collecting of the water had remembered that, if a communication
by means of a tube or pipe, either straight or crooked, be made between the
water in one vessel and that in another, the surface of both will be at the same
level before the water is at rest, and if he had also remembered that the water
in the spout of a teapot will balance all the water in the pot, he would never
have acted as he did. If persons would accustom themselves a little more to
observation and thinking, they would be less liable to fall into blunders. It
is no uncommon thing for gardeners to superintend the formation of ponds
and lakes in pleasure-grounds, and it is of great importance to know some-
thing about the nature and properties of the materials they have to deal with ;
for accidental circumstances frequently cause much mischief, not easily
repaired. He once knew a flower-garden nearly ruined by the breaking down
of a small lake; gravel was washed upon the ground, and many of the shrubs
removed by the force of the water. Whereas, if proper attention had been
paid in the erection of the dam, the disaster would have been prevented. He
then gave some illustrations of the pressure of fluids, and made them acquainted
with the hydrostatic paradox. He laid down the rules for finding the pressure
of water upon level and sloping surfaces, and for finding the centre of gravity,
and the centre of pressure, as well as the specific gravity, of bodies in general ;
and demonstrated the principle on which the siphon works, and its applica-
tion to horticultural purposes. He also noticed capillary attraction, and ex-
plained to them how glass in garden erections is broken by means of it in
winter, when broad overlapping is practised in glazing. He informed them
of some of the important offices that are supposed to be performed in nature
by capillary attraction, such as the distribution of moisture in the soil, and the
rise and circulation of sap in vegetables by means of their fine capillary tubes.

After having explained that part of the science which makes us acquainted
with the proportion of the equilibrium and pressure of fluids, he next turned
to Hydraulics, that division of “natural philosophy which treats of the motion
of liquids, the laws by which they are regulated, and the effects which they
produce.” He endeavoured to make them understand that important theorem,

ome

Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and Gardeners. 415

viz. “ The velocity with which a liquid issues from an infinitely small orifice in
the bottom or side of a vessel that is kept full, is equal to that which a heavy
body would acquire by falling from the level of the surface to the level of the
orifice.” He next informed them of many things which they did not know
respecting the motion of water in various channels, such as rivers, pipes, &c. ;
pointed out to them the wise provision of Providence in regulating the flow of
water in rivers, and preventing it from bringing destruction on the earth; and,
by means of the garden-syringe and garden-engine, explained the difference
between the ordinary lift-pump and forcing-pump, and the principles on
which they act.

It would occupy too much of the pages of this Magazine to state all the
varied and interesting information that Colin Forbes imparted that night, in
the bothy, to his attentive listeners. He tried to make his statements as
plain as he could, illustrated his discourse with very simple apparatus. Some
may be deterred from the pursuit of science when they see or read about the
splendid apparatus employed in the lecture rooms of wealthy institutions, but
it will often be found that the same truths may be conveyed to the minds of a
homely audience by means of simple things, easily got, and costing little.

It happened that Bauldy Black was cook in the bothy on the night on
which Colin Forbes was to deliver his discourse. Bauldy was rather later
than he should have been in preparing the supper, and, during the time he was
cooking, Colin was arranging the few things he had collected in order to make
his remarks better understood ; when it was agreed that he should proceed
with his discourse while the supper was cooling. Finding that his remarks on
Hydraulics had occupied more time than he intended, he determined on
leaving the remainder for another occasion, to the great delight of Bauldy,
who appeared very impatient to question him on some things. He told Colin
very plainly that he “could na tak in some o” the things that he heard him
say.” Colin asked him to mention the things he had said which he did not
believe, and he would try and help him to understand them better. ‘ Weel,”
said Bauldy, “didna ye say that a wee drap water in a dish could be made to
balance as much as if the dish had been fu o’ water? J canna believe that sic
a thing can happen.” —“ Well, Bauldy,” said Colin, “ would you like if I were
to tell you that you were a poor hand at making porridge ?” —“ No, I wouldna
like it, for I will tak in hand to mak parritch wi ony man in Scotland or his
wife either; and nane o’ yer gruel-like parritch would I mak, that might run a
mile on a deal board and burn a body at the end o’t ; and I’ll warrant ye'll get
them to yer supper this night that the skin hasna cracked in the coolin, and
ye may whommil them out on yer loof and nae scaith come o’er them.” — “ Well
that is just what I want,” said Colin ; “for you know that when they are well
made, like most other substances, they contract in cooling, and a small space is
left between the sides of the basin and its contents.” —“ That’s 2’ true,”’ re-
plied Bauldy.—‘“ Well, if you pour a small quantity of milk into that space
you will find that it floats the porridge in the basin.”—“ TI hae done that
mony a time,” said Bauldy; “but what does that signify ?”—“ That small
drop of milk will press as heavily as if the basin were full of milk, and you sus-
pended the porridge so as to have no weight on the basin.” —“ Weel, weel,
that will soon be tried,” said Bauldy. So awayhe went and got a clean piece
of net, and, turning his porridge out of the basin, placed his supper in the net.
According to Colin’s direction he poured a few spoonfuls of milk into the
basin, and placing it in one scale put weights in the opposite one. He then
gently lowered the porridge in the net into the basin. The milk rose in it
and brought down the opposite scale, so that it required more weight to
balance it. When it was brought to balance, the height which the milk rose
to in the basin was marked, and he was directed to take out the porridge,
which he suspended in his hand, and let the basin remain in the scale. He
was then told to pour milk into it until it would balance the weights in the
other scale. He thought a small quantity would do it, and as he kept pouring
he often looked at the other scale, but it showed no signs of rising until the

EE 2

416 Notice of Dalvey,

milk in the basin was nearly as far up as the mark made when the first
weighing was done; and, when he saw that it required to rise to the mark
before it came to the balance, his wonder was at its height, and he hoped that
Colin would forgive him for doubting the truth of the statements he had
made.

Walter Glenesk said that he had received much information from that part
of the discourse whcih treated of the specific gravity of bodies ; for in some
systematic arrangements of simple minerals it formed one of their essential
characters: for instance, in combustible minerals the specific gravity seldom
exceeds 2, water being equal to 1; and in metallic minerals it is commonly
above 5 and upwards; while in earthy minerals the specific gravity is generally
less than 5. “ And although I knew these things,” said Walter, “ T was not
aware that the specific gravity of bodies was so easily ascertained; nor did I
know that a hydrostatic balance was so easily made.”

“I think you stated,” said Sandy Macalpine, “ that the rise and circulation
of the sap in vegetables are performed by means of their fine capillary tubes.
I believe that vegetable physiologists differ in their opinions respecting the
channel through which the sap flows ; some saying that it is through the tubes
of the woody fibre, others that it is by the intercellular passages, and the cause
of the upward flow of sap in vegetables is to be found in evaporation and
endosmose.” — “ Endosmose! what in a’ the warld is endosmose ?”’ said
Bauldy, “ that causes the sap to rise in vegetables.” —“ It is,” replied Sandy,
“the transmission of gaseous bodies, or vapours, or liquids, through mem-
branes or porous substances, from without inwards. Many operations of
nature which philosophers could not satisfactorily account for are explained
by this law ; for instance, the mechanical mixture of the various gases of the
atmosphere. The gases are of different densities, and yet they are said to be
blended together in certain proportions without entering into chemical com-
bination. It has been found that dense fluids will combine with those that
are more thin; and it is asserted that when evaporation takes place in the
leaves of vegetables the fluids in the leaves become thick, and, the thick sap
of the leaves combining with the thinner sap of the branches, circulation 1s set
going. Well may we say, with the royal poet of Israel, ‘the works of the
Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein ;’ and those
who delight in studying the works of an Infinite mind will find

‘ Wondrous truths, and manifold as wondrous.’

And those who have dived into the secrets of nature, and studied hard in
the boundless domain of creation, have still much to learn respecting the
humble plant by the wayside, or the little-thought-of flower that blooms and
dies upon the mouldering towers of our ancestors. Yet there are minds that
can read lessons of instruction in ‘ flowers passing away ;’ and, while living in
the fleeting sepulchre of this world, can enjoy much of its transient gleams of
sunshine, and can also be partakers of that enduring felicity that is seated in
Heaven.”
West Plean, April 8. 1843.

Art. VII. Notice of Dalvey, the Seat of Norman MacLeod, Esq.
By A. Branpen, Gardener there.

AGREEABLY to your request, I send you some account of these gardens, and
of the state of gardening, and of other gardens of note, in this quarter.

The State of Gardening in this Quarter.— Gardening here is in a more
forward state than you Southerns might imagine, taking into account this our
northern locality and distance from the metropolis, the grand centre from
which most new and good things in the floral way emanate.

The gardeners here (as in most other places where I have been) I consider,

a

the Seat of Norman MacLeod, Esq. 417

as a body, to be a most industrious, intelligent, and persevering set of men ;
many of them reading one or two of the gardening periodicals, several of
which, through the kindness of my employer, I am enabled to peruse; and a
number of them are either natives of, or have visited, the southern parts of
this, or been in the sister isle, where gardening is carried on more extensively
than it is here. These few general remarks I have thrown out in the mean
time, leaving particulars to a future opportunity, or a more able pen.

Dalvey Gardens. — First let me refer you back to your Volume for 1838,
p- 462., where you will find a general notice of these grounds by my prede-
cessor, the then gardener. My task is by that notice lessened to adding a few
particulars to the account there given. The houses which were then three
are now five ; the fourth one being a span-roofed stove, divided by a partition
in the middle, one end for the culture of orchidaceous plants, and the other a
general stove. The fifth is a pit for heaths, with ventilators in the walls for
the admission of air when the weather will not admit of the lights being drawn
down. The side walls are of stone, with a temporary erection of boards along
the sides (with the ventilating tubes through) for the purpose of holding dry
leaves, which effectually protects the walls from frost, the roof being protected
with hurdles thatched with bent (coarse grass or rushes). The sides of the
hurdles are 3in. deep, made of boards 1 in. thick, fitting on the roof like
common lights on rafters. In this pit, both last season and this, we have kept
pelargoniums, calceolarias, heaths, &c., all of which, at present, look healthy and
well. The pathway goes along the back, with a door at each end, by which
means the plants can be examined be the weather what it may, which is a
decided advantage over the ordinary sort of pits, where the lights have to be
removed for that purpose; also the ventilators in the walls preclude the possi-
bility of damp lodging beneath. The plants stand on a platform of rough
boards near the glass, and are plunged to the rims of the pots in river sand.
This is the best material to plunge pots in I have yet tried, being moist, cool,
and clean, and worms cannot run into it. This practice saves frequent water-
ing, which is a great advantage in a pit of this sort, as the less water used the
less chance there is of damp accumulating ; for when damp is once generated
it is not so easily dried up again in moist or cloudy weather. Under the plat-
form are stowed away pentstemons, salvias, fuchsias, and such like things, for
bedding out in summer.

The general stock of plants mentioned in the former communication is still
extending. There is also here a quantity of the Himalaya pines.

The garden (independently of the kitchen ground) is about five acres in
extent, and has originally been Jaid out, in the Dutch style, as a kitchen-gar-
den, with broad main walks, which are still retained, and taken advantage of
for effect, as will be seen below. The kitchen crops have been removed, bit
by bit, to give place to flower borders, turf glades, and other ornaments, and a
more subordinate place assigned to this department, along with the framing-
ground, hardy pits, &c., behind the walls at the north and east sides, which is
well protected from northerly gales by a rising ground covered with forest
trees.

Taking the above as a preamble, we will now enter the garden gate. On the
left is a border facing the south, with a wall behind, which last season was
planted with three rows of dahlias, according to their heights. This border,
when the plants were in bloom, had a most dazzling effect. It is now planted
with rose stocks, to be worked in summer with choice kinds ; and pillar or
climbing roses are planted against the wall. On the right is the Dropmore
flower-garden, spoken of in the former communication ; at the end of the
border is the stove ; further on is the camellia-house, occupied chiefly with
camellias, a few tall New Holland plants behind, and azaleas and heaths
in front. Before this house is a grass glade; on a circle in the centre stands
a large horsechestnut, which affords an agreeable shade for a seat in summer.
Interspersed through the glade are several circles of rnododendrons (the circle
is a favourite figure here), rustic vases, and single plants of juniper, forming a

EE 3

418 Notice of Dalvey. |

very agreeable whole. Further on is a border of Lilium tigrinum ; on the op-
posite border, Lupinus polyphyllus. At right angles to this are borders of
common roses, right and left, terminating in an oblong sheet of gravel, whereon
stand two large beech trees. These trees form an excellent shade for a
luncheon party, for which the oblong was designed. To the left of this, by a
winding walk, is a small terraced flower-garden, in the face of a sunny bank.
On the left of the walk is a bank of rhododendrons, on the right a mass of the
smaller periwinkle, which is thriving in mere sand, under two large elm trees.
Returning from this and passing along the north wall and kitchen-garden gate,
we come to a main walk parallel to the one with the rose borders. After
passing under some shady trees, we come to the end of the pzeony border,
which is about 300 ft. long by 20 ft. broad. Behind this is a hedge of common
furze, then a pathway, and afterwards a row of Cédrus Deodara, alternate with
Portugal laurel. In the border there are three rows of Lupinus polyphyllus
of different varieties ; then two rows of varieties of herbaceous pzeonias ; and
in front two rows of the pretty little Aquilégia glandulosa. This border,
when in bloom, is perhaps the most showy thing in the garden. At the end
of this, to the right, is a booth for the flowering of calceolarias, geraniums, and
other summer plants. This booth was devised as we were not able to show
off the plants to advantage in the houses, owing to their being so crowded ;
and it was found last season to answer admirably. The booth is the same size
as the tulip awning, viz. 50 ft. long by 13 ft. broad, so that the tulip canvass,
which is fitted on rollers (on Mr. Weeks’s plan), goes on this when it comes
off the tulips. The booth I shall here describe. It is merely a skeleton shed,
with posts, rafters, ridge bar, and wall plate, and movable wooden shutters for
the sides, made of very thin deal, with half-inch openings between the boards
to admit air. The inside is fitted with a stage of two shelves running all
round, and a flat top. The pathway also goes all round. The ends are
boarded, the same as the shutters, in which are the doorways. The subdued
light through the canvass shows the plants to much advantage, which you have
no doubt observed in Chiswick show, or other places where plants are exhi-
bited in a somewhat similar way. We now return to the greenhouse and
vinery, heated by our hot-water apparatus, on the level principle; at the west
end of which is a mass of hollyhock ; at the east end the heath-pit described
above, backed by a plantation of young fruit trees, which forms a small orchard.
In front of the vinery is a grass plot, with an oval in the centre filled with
rhododendrons and a Magnolia purpurea.

Several alterations and improvements are in contemplation, the principal
one of which will be carried into effect so soon as the weather is sufficiently
open, viz. planting the different sorts of the Himalaya pines at sufficient dis-
tances along the main walks, so that, some time hence, they will form pine
avenues ; the borders, walks, plants, &c., to be left until the pines form suf-
ficiently attractive objects to dispense with them.

In the above rough sketch, joined to my predecessor’s communication, will
be found the leading features of Dalvey garden, which I now submit, with the
permission of my most worthy employer ; than whom a more devoted admirer
of Flora does not exist; who lives on and loves his native ground; who
encourages horticulture in particular, and all rural affairs in general, to the
utmost of his power. Would that more of our landed country gentlemen
were of the same mind! Then would they not only live on, but take an interest
in, their hereditary possessions; giving employment to the mass of the popu-
lation in the improvement of their estates, to the enriching of themselves and
future generations ; banishing our now proverbial poverty from the land, and
spreading happiness and comfort through the length and breadth of our now
over-populated country. Then would that money be spent among us which
is gained on the soil, but which at present is drained off to our more favoured
neighbours.

Dalvey Gardens, Feb, 1. 1843.

}

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. 419

Art. VIII. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By JAmMEs BARNeEs, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 368.)

Lerrer XVI. Culture of the Potato. Mismanagement it is subject to.
Cause of Curl and Dry Rot.

I WILL now give you my opinion on the culture and growth of
that invaluable vegetable the potato; the abuse and mismanage-
ment it is subject to; the cause of curl, and of that enemy the
dry rot, &c. &c. It may be thought by some that I know more
about eating a potato than about the proper method of grow-
ing them; and certainly the art of cooking them is a greater
trouble than growing them, about which I mean to say no more

than I have myself observed. I hope it may be useful to some.

I shall give my honest opinion, and facts are stubborn things.
I have had considerable practice in growing potatoes in pots, in
cellars, in sheds, in pits, in frames, in hothouses, hooped and
matted in the open ground, in borders in the open garden, and in
the open field. I have practised in all these ways for several years;
but I do not pretend to say that my methods are superior to any
other person’s; one thing I can say, that no person has ever
beat me yet at any exhibition of early frame potatoes ; ; but I
do not wish to boast.

Now the greatest fault I have always observed is in pre-
paring the seed; how can you expect to have a good crop of
potatoes if the seed is bad and has lost its virtue? For in-
stance, I have often seen, at this time of the year, potatoes
hurried out of the ground, chucked together in large heaps, or
clamps as they are called in some places, wet and dirty as it
may be. I have many times seen those heaps allowed to heat,
and the steam passing from them as if from a dunghill; of
course that must be wrong. I have thought, for many years,
that the steam, or reek, which passes off must be so much
virtue lost. I have seen these very heaps kept for seed, and
allowed, in the spring of the year, to grow all together in one
mass of shoots and roots, and to become so hot in the middle of
the heap that you could scarcely bear your hand in it: the
hotter they get, the faster they grow; and the faster they grow,
the hotter they get: then perchance they get moved, and the
shoots are pulled off to give a check, to keep them from grow-
ing. Can such potatoes as these be either fit to eat, or in a
proper state to plant? My opinion has always been that the
principal virtue is thus lost. But, notwithstanding, they are
planted again, and if cut, which is the usual practice, they per-:
haps lie about for several days after, sometimes for weeks ; and

EE 4

420 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

then are put into the ground after making what is considered a
good preparation for it. If it comes on very wet weather, a
great many of them slop away, as it is called in Devonshire,
and the remainder become weak, and look spindly and thin all

the summer. If it should be a hot and dry time when planted, —

and the weather continues dry for some time after planting, of ©

course they get dry rot, which is plain for anybody to see. I

have seen this hundreds of times in different places, and have —
often pointed it out; but nobody would ever admit it was their |

own fault: it was either the fault of the ground, or of the sea-

son; they had done everything they could. According to my ©
observations, my opinion is that the curl is principally occa- —

sioned by using imperfect seed that has not been sufficiently

ripened; such, for instance, as. late-planted potatoes: many —

select them because they are not fit to eat, and, therefore, think
they will do to plant. An early frost having come, and cut
them all down before they have got half their natural growth,
it makes them so watery and waxy that they are not eatable,

and, therefore, they bundle them close together somewhere to —

give them a sweat; and think they will then do for seed.

In planting potatoes, I have for many years observed that

three parts out of four are planted too late, which is a very
great disadvantage in more ways than one. First, the seed
gets exhausted ; 2dly, a considerable portion of the most valuable
part of the season is lost ; 3dly, if it should set in a dry summer
a great portion of the seed is lost, and what does spring up is
only weak. If it should set in a wet summer they slop, and
what remains does not ripen. My system is to plant all seed
whole; neither large nor small potatoes, but a middling size,
from the size of a pigeon’s ege to that of a bantam’s. When
they are first dug up they ought to be sorted for that purpose ;
and they should be exposed to the sun and air to harden; and,
when put away, laid in lofts or on shelves, or in places where
they will neither grow nor get heated.

The greater part of the potatoes I have seen planted in
Devonshire has been done too late by six or eight weeks; and,
if it were not for its beautiful climate and soil, what could they
expect to get, as the preparation they make is but poor. In the
first place, generally speaking, they plough the ground only to
the depth of 4 or 5 inches; I think that is not doing much
towards it: 2dly, the earth between the rows does not get half-
hoed, nor stirred about enough, after the potatoes are up. My
own opinion is fully made up, that the ground should be broken
up deep, stirred and worked about in every possible way (par-
ticularly in dry weather), for every thing that is planted;
the best manure is that supplied by the atmosphere, without
which nothing can thrive. I do not mean where the subsoil is

Culture of the Potato. 42]

barren and unfit to turn up on the top of the other; but, at all
events, break it: even if you let it lie where it is the atmo-
sphere can penetrate and the water can pass through freely ;
but neither can do so, except you keep the earth open. For
instance, if you go to any wood or hedge-row, and grub up
trees that have sprung up naturally, without the assistance of
man, you will there find the nature of the earth is porous;
partly from roots decaying, and partly by moles, mice, worms,
and insects working through in all directions, which, of course,
allows both air and water to pass through in its natural way.
Why should we, under pretence of cultivating and assisting
nature, puddle and trample the earth for four or five inches on
the surface, to stop up all the pores? It seems strange, but I
am sorry to say I have seen it so, and so it is likely to continue.
I have never had the pleasure of seeing but one subsoil plough
since I have been in Devonshire; and what gave me pleasure
did not,do so to others. I laugh to think of the many curious
remarks I heard made on that “ugly plough,” as it was called ;
they were certain it never would answer hereabouts.

Whilst I think of it, I must tell you how they get up their
potatoes in Devonshire, which, I think, will make you laugh
too. ‘They do not take them up with a fork of any kind, but
have what they call a “ tibble;” that is, two bills, what you
would, perhaps, call a mattock. I have always heard it so called
everywhere but in Devonshire. What we call a fork, too, they
call a pick. Well, they go into the garden with this tibble and
a maun (they call a basket of any size a maun); they thrust
this tool amongst the potatoes with all their might, the same as
we used to do at Norwood amongst the oak stubs in clearing
the woods. As soon as two or three potatoes are rooted out,
they let go their tool and pick them up ; then taking hold of the
tool again, as before, they root out two or three more. This is
their manual of grubbing up potatoes : in wet bad weather you
may guess they lose nothing by the job; for they and their
tibble are besmeared all over with slub. I think there should
be some fine enforced for robbing the fields of so much good
earth. I have often asked them why they did not get proper
potato forks, and have told them that they would take up a
larger quantity, and in better condition; and that they ought
to have some to fork out, others to pick up, and bag: but they
always replied that it would never answer in this part of
the country, and that a man could get up a larger quantity
with the tibble; though they acknowledged they had never
tried my way, or used any kind of fork, but had seen them
ploughed out.

I omitted to observe in the proper place that when potatoes
are allowed to grow in a shady situation, under hedges or

422 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

trees, they do not come to proper perfection, and are mixed with
the others which were grown in the open field, which accounts
for some being found waxy or watery amongst the others when
cooked; likewise in the next season, when planted again, for
finding a few in one row and a few in another curled.

As I have before observed, all potatoes that are meant for
seed should be ripe, and hardened by the sun and air before
stowing away; that they should be kept im an airy dry situ-
ation, and never allowed to grow until they are planted out, under
any consideration; that a thoroughly good winter fallow should
be made, and the ground well broken up at this season of the
year, and laid as rough as it can possibly be made, for the sun,
wind, and frost to penetrate through it. Any good stable-
dung, cow-dung, dung from the pigsties, or any other good
manure, will grow potatoes well, if the ground is only properly
prepared, and thoroughly sweetened with the atmosphere; taking
care to plant them in good time for general crops. Ielike to
have them all in between the middle of March and the last week
in April.

For the growing of potatoes in pots in hothouses, &c., to have
them good in January, they should be planted the first week in
October in a 60-sized pot, placed at the back end, or in any
part of the hothouse where you can put them thick together ;
as fast as they get up and are three inches high, take them
out into a colder place, such as a vinery or a peach-house.
When you have a quantity in readiness, fill as many good-sized
pots as you canspare; get some good, open, rich, sweet mould ;
fill the pots three parts full, not sifted but rough; place them
where you intend them to stand in rows. A peach-house is
the best place ; in one where you intend beginning early, you get
the first crop off before the leaves of the peach trees shade the
house at all. In planting them into the larger pots from the
sixties, pull offall the shoots except the one that 1s the strongest 5
never allowing more than one shoot to each plant at this season
of the year: put three or four plants into a jarge pot, accord-
ing to the size. Be careful never to water with cold water, or
they will come on very slowly; also be sure you do not over-
water them, or the flavour of the potato will be lost; a little
manure liquid, with some soot in it, once, is a fine thing. When
fit to earth up, fill up the pots; and when they have made their
growth, leave off watering them altogether, if you wish to have
a good-flavoured and dry potato. If you have not small sixties
to spare, use pans, shallow boxes, or an old basket, or lay them
inside of a hotbed, either in a frame or in a hothouse, which
will hatch them quite as well.

For growing them in pits or frames, I make a very slight
hotbed with a few leaves and rubbish (for bottom-heat does not

Culture of the Potato. 423

suit a potato by any means). Get some good, prepared, sweet,
open earth, and put it all over the bed 12 or 14 inches deep; have
your seed all ready hatched as before recommended; turn them
all out as near of a size as possible, taking care to pull off every
shoot but the strongest one. With bestowing this care and
attention I have had as fine crops this way as I ever saw out of
doors. I always grow the Albion, or Dwarf ash-leaved Kidney,
for all early purposes; having proved it to be the best sort for
that. I have now at this time my third crop planted: the first
is all up as strong as on May-day ; the second coming on; the
third just planted; and so I continue to plant again into the
sixties as fast as I turn the others out.

I hatch the whole for all early work, likewise for hooping,
and the first turned out on the border; they will stand in any
corner out of the way to hatch. In heoping or sheltering
potatoes with mats or canvass, I make it a rule to throw out
4 ft. in width across the garden where I take up my asparagus
for forcing, throwing the earth out right and left to sweeten, to
the depth of a foot ; then the dung and leaves which come away
at that season of the year from the sea-kale, that has been in use
all the winter, is put into this trench about 12 or 14 inches
thick, and the earth thrown back over it. I next take the
scarlet-runner sticks, and lay them on and across; tie them to
the height of about 12in. above the bed, and then turn the:
potatoes out as above recommended, all ready hatched either in
pots, or any of the conveniences which at that season of the year
are plentiful, such as pine-stoves, vineries, cucumber and melon
beds, &c. It is astonishing what time you gain by having them
always ready hatched: not only that, but it requires so little of
any sort of fermenting materials; only wanting a very slight
warmth, just to start them at first going off, for potatoes do not
like bottom heat. By hatching a few to turn out into a sheltered
situation in the borders or elsewhere, and by following the
practice I have recommended, I find I have always a plentiful
supply of good new potatoes all the season, until such time as
they come naturally out of doors.

To prepare for the out-of-door potatoes, it is only necessary
to do as I have before stated. Get the ground well-worked,
sweetened, and manured, and planted in the proper season with
whole seed that has neither been heated nor allowed to grow
before planted. If what I have recommended is attended to,
the curl, dry rot, or sloping, will never trouble you; but
you will be satisfactorily repaid for all the labour and expense
you have been at to bring them to perfection.

To grow them in cellars or sheds is nothing more than pro-
curing a quantity of last year’s old potatoes in August and
September, and stacking them in rows on shelves, or on the

424 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

ground with a quantity of old tan or light earth between them,
when numbers of young potatoes of a bad quality form them-
selves. It is not much practised now by the London market-

gardeners, but it was twenty years ago, when the London pur- -

chasers soon got tired of them.

To cook a potato well, the following is the best and most
simple method I know of. An iron saucepan is the best for
cooking them in, as the copper ones, if not quite clean, are apt
to be dangerous. They should be dressed with the skins on, and
not be drowned with water ; done quickly, and the water poured
off directly they are about done, shaking a little salt amongst
them, leaving them near the fire, with the cover of the saucepan
loose, so as to admit of the steam passing off. This will insure
you a dry mealy potato.

Exchanging seed, one neighbourhood with another, is very
essential; and a very beneficial improvement will be obtained
thereby, both in crop and quality. All seed should be changed
once in two years; not only potatoes but all sorts of corn and
vegetables; the benefit of a general system of exchanging
throughout the whole country would be very astonishing.

I have known, for some years, that it is the opinion of
various persons that over-ripeness in the seed potatoes is the
cause of their curling. Of this I have no doubt whatever,
although in my own practice I have had no proof of it; having
always made it a standing rule to take up all kinds of potatoes
before getting over-ripe, ‘that i is, as soon as they are moderately
ripe. I have had practical proof that, if the unripe and imperfect
seed potatoes are planted, they cause the curl; therefore, it
appears quite reasonable to me to hear of over-ripe seed
potatoes getting the curl, as well as those which are unripe.
The former curl because they have lost part of their properties
and substance; the latter curl through not possessing these

properties and substance at all. ‘The same is the case with all

kinds of fruit, either under-ripe or over-ripe; of course, either
way, it does not possess its full properties. Corn over-ripe,
every one knows, more particularly wheat, loses a considerable
quantity of its properties: with all kinds of seeds the effect is
the same; of which I, myself, have in many instances had
ample proof, which, at present, I will not enlarge on.

In a short time I think of giving you a rough sketch of my
management of the kitchen-varden, cropping, tr enching, hoeing,
&e. &e.

Bicton Gardens, Nov. 7. 1842.

P.S.— June 29. 1843. Having met last week an old expe-_

rienced farmer, I asked him how his potatoes were looking this
season. He informed me that they were very indifferent ; that

a

Wash

Culture of the Potato. 425

he had been a considerable distance about the county, and found
those of many persons much worse than his own; that many
acres were ploughed up as a complete failure; and that in many
situations he had observed the missed places planting with fresh
seed. My own opinion is, that planting and filling up with seed
more exhausted than the first is of but little use; for this
reason, if any of them should grow they will be much later than

the others, and spoil the sample, particularly if they should be

for sale. I should recommend calculating on the crop; then, at
certain distances, taking up with a spade the plants of so many
rows, and planting them in the vacancies, right and left, as they
are taken up. ‘The cleared ground could then be planted with
other potatoes, or sown with turnips, to be pulled off early. No
vegetable that I am acquainted with transplants better than the
potato, if properly done; it is the means of checking the over-
luxuriance of the stalk, and increasing the size of the tubers.

I asked the above-mentioned farmer what was the principal
failure or disease so prevalent amongst the potato crops, and the
cause of it. The latter he could not account for otherwise than
that it was his opinion, and that of most others he had con-
versed with, that it was through the wet unkind season;
although, to their surprise, the dry rot was very prevalent, as
well as sloping, or wet rot. Besides, he says, there is another
failure very prevalent this season, that much of the seed pro-
duces underground tubers without shooting up, or producing
any stems. ‘ What could be the cause of that,” says the farmer;
‘if not the wet cold season ?” —“ Exhaustion of the seed before
planting,” I answered, “is the cause of each disease you com-
plain of.” —‘“ How can that be,” asked the farmer, “when last
autumn was one of the finest I ever remember for ripening the
potato crop; so that many persons’ potatoes were ripened and
taken up several weeks sooner than usual? Besides, we had a
very mild favourable winter; no frosts to injure them in any
way.”—‘* The more likely to get exhausted,” I replied, “by
heating and growing.’’—* Very likely, very likely,” replies the
farmer, “I am sure; though I never once gave that a thought,
although we have suffered from dry rot and sloping for years,
hereabouts. On second thoughts,” he says, “ that cannot be
the cause of all three of these diseases: dry rot, sloping, and
tubering under ground without sending up stems.”—“ I am per-
fectly satisfied it is,” I replied. “ The dry rot affects those most

from the middle of the heap, that have been the hottest. Those

have gone sleepy, dead, and druxy [? drowsy], like an over-ripe
apple, looking fair to the eye although perished ; and they are
to be found amongst old potatoes, for several months in spring
and early summer, on many people’s tables, spotted, black, and
flavourless, amongst others tolerably good. The sloping, or

426 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

moist rot, is caused by the same; but, probably by their being
nearer the outside of the heap, the steam and moisture cause
them to grow freely, or, I should say, shoot in the heap freely.
Thus potatoes that were good in autumn are found in spring to
be waxy, watery, and black. Pulling the shoots off in spring,
and exposing the seed to the atmosphere, which is very fre-
quently done with the seed potato when it is considered safe
from frost and they are are not required to eat, are the means of
producing tubers without stems; and I will give you my reason
for forming that opinion. When a boy I was set to clear out
the bins in a potato cellar. I particularly noticed in one bin,
near a window that had been standing open for a considerable
time to allow the air to draw through to dry and sweeten the
cellar, and where the morning sun shone in, that the few old
potatoes there left had mostly formed plenty of tubers, and but
few shoots. I well knew they had their shoots and roots pulled
off two or three times in the previous winter and spring. Boy-
like, I collected some of the largest of the young tubers, took
them to some of the garden men just by, telling them there
were larger young potatoes in the cellar than they had out of
doors. On going to London afterwards to follow my business at
market-gardening, I observed new potatoes were produced from
potato cellars before we could grow them by forcing. It was a
practice in some of the gardens to stack a quantity in old tan or
light earth, in cellars or sheds, to cope with the others; but
sometimes they grew all in one matted mass of roots and shoots.
In my efforts to get over this difficulty, I remembered the
potato bin; and by allowing them to grow a considerable length
before making use of them, pulling off clean all roots and
shoots, and exposing them to the sun and wind for a time,
they answered expectation tolerably well, only that a large
quantity was always lost with dry rot and wet rot, instead of
producing tubers.

I am perfectly satisfied, from practice only, that were the
seed properly sorted out in autumn, and prepared and taken
care of through the season afterwards, as before recommended,
we should hear of but few complaints about any disease amongst
the potato crops: ‘ prevention is the only profitable cure.”

Hearing so much of disease in this valuable vegetable this sea-
son, and observing questions asked in the Gardener’s Chronicle,
and remarks made in that and other papers, I have been induced,
in my humble way, to state the above, which I have entirely
learned by practice. I also feared that I had not explained
myself sufficiently, in the foregoing letter, on the subject of
potato-growing.

System of Kitchen-Gardening. 427

Letter XVII. System of Kitchen-Gardening. Culture of the Strawberry,
Asparagus, Sea-kale, Celery, and Cauliflower.

In my last I promised I would give you a short account of my
rough System of Kitchen-Gardening, which, I am sorry to say,
is still in a very imperfect state; not one job having been done
in Bicton kitchen-gardens yet to please me. They, as you
observed when here, are on a level (an artificial level though),
well supplied with water all the year round, from a beautiful
stream which runs through it. The ground a sandy loam; the
subsoil a body of dry, coarse, red sand, inclining rather in some
places to a sort of rocky flat stones. ‘This garden was formed
at an Immense expense, having thousands of loads of loam to
make the borders, &c., and yet in places the sand is still near
to the surface: but since you were here I have got home about
500 yards of beautiful loam and marl; intending to make a good
preparation for every tree that is planted, and to wheel a
quantity of it on every piece of ground, as the crops are cleared
off, giving the ground a good trenching, breaking the subsoil
with a strong fork and leaving it where it is. I make it a standing
rule to return as much as possible of the refuse of vegetables
back to the ground again, by trenching down cabbage leaves,
broccoli stumps, pea haulm, and all such articles, in a green
state. The benefit to the soil is great, and the saving of labour
considerable; for I have seen much time lost in clearing a piece
of ground of the vegetable rubbish on its surface, previously to
trenching.

Now the kitchen-gardening business, before I came here,
had been done in a very different manner from what I had been
in the habit of seeing done and practising myself. The tools
the most paltry I ever met with. It is some trouble to get a
Deyonshire man to use a spade with an eye to it. Their spade
(which no doubt you noticed when in this county) is an ugly,
home-made, heart-shaped bit of heavy iron, with a great socket
to it; and they form the handle of it themselves, by cutting a
great, heavy, lumbering stick out of a hedge, 6 or 7 feet
in length, about the size of a Kentish hop-pole, so that they
can always use it without bending their backs; although the
generality of men in Devonshire are a shortish race. How-
ever, this long-handled spade and the homespun tibble are
almost the only tools you can get them to use; and they have
the ugliest-made wheelbarrow too, the most awkward and
cumbersome that can be imagined. Any kind of improved tool
they appear to dislike; so that you need not wonder at our
being a little out of order. For instance, a few days since, a
load of potatoes was wanted from the field, for the use of the
house. I had already had two potato forks from Essex. Some

428 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

of my men saw them, and asked my foreman (who is a Scotch-
man, and had seen such forks before) what use they were of; —
and when he told them, and added he expected I was going to
teach them how to take up potatoes, they laughed, and said
that I should find I was mistaken, for such things would not
answer hereabouts. I took a couple of my forks, and a boy to
pick up, and I set to work myself, and told one of my men to
take the other, and look at me, and follow on digging with
it; and they all confessed they never saw such a quantity of
potatoes turned out in so short a time before, but they still did
not exactly relish taking them up in that way.

I found their system of working in the kitchen-garden was
puddling it over; with scarcely depth enough, when digging,
to cover an earwig. They had amongst them but one bit of
a spade the length of my hand, and two long-handled spades,
so worn that there was no fear of the men over-fatiguing them-
selves by lifting too great a weight; one two-pronged fork
with a broken handle; one old drain-hoe; and two old Dutch
hoes: and this was about the stock of tools I found in Bicton
kitchen-gardens, and I thought them the most miserable lot I
had ever met with. However, I had fortunately brought a set
of my goose-necked hoes with me; but I could not persuade
any of them to use them, for weeding was the order of the day,
and my hoes appeared to them the most ridiculous things imagin-
able. I wondered how the work was done with such tools; but
soon found hoeing and raking to keep a smooth surface formed
their method (for they had an old rake or two), and digging
shallow and breaking fine, picking out all the stones (the very
thing I thought the ground wanted more of ). The strawberries
were old, and all run together into a mat, which is the surest
way to keep up a stock of different kinds of weeds for seed, so
that they must remain in the garden; it likewise was a good
harbour for slugs and snails to breed in, and for the birds to
feed and hide themselves in. I soon found that when showery
weather set in everything was devoured by slugs, which the
men told me it was a wonderful garden for; and they accounted
for it by saying it was a newly formed garden taken out of a
field. I could not agree with them, so I set to work and de-
stroyed an amazing quantity in a short time by the following
method. Getting some fresh grains from the brewhouse, I
went round, inside and out, dropping about a table-spoonful of
them as I walked, at small distances in all directions, at dusk
in the evening; I then went round with a pail of fresh-slacked
lime from nine to ten o’clock the same evening, and found them
heaped on each other like bees when swarmed: by dusting them
with lime, I killed those that were so collected. I sent a
woman or boy round with a pail and trowel the next morning,

>A,

Culture of the Strawberry and Asparagus. 429

to take them up, and bury them. It was astonishing what a
quantity was destroyed by following this method closely for a
month or six weeks: but it is the best plan to keep slugs away
altogether, which is easily done by trenching, ridging rough,
and continually hoeing and stirring the ground, which is con-
genial to ali vegetation, but destructive not only to slugs, by
turning them and their broods out, but to every other sort of
vermin, which it lets have no peace, and either destroys them
altogether or drives them away, as they do not like such usage.

No strawberry plants ought to be planted less than 2 ft.
apart each way, and never allowed to stand more than two
years, taking care always to keep all runners cut closely off;
by these means there is a greater weight to be obtained, finer
fruit, and better flavoured, as the sun and air can circulate more
freely amongst them; and mulching them with clean short grass,
just as they come into bloom, keeping them clean and the ground
moist, makes them flourish. If they are obliged to be watered,
it must never be done with a rose on the watering-pot, but by
pouring round the roots from the spout, so that they get a good
soaking without wetting the fruit; for it spoils the flavour of
the fruit if it is over-watered. The best-tasted and most pro-
lific strawberries that I know of are Myatt’s British queen,
Myatt’s Eliza, Myatt’s pine, Downton, Keen’s seedling, and the
old true Scarlet pine. I find that the plants that have been
forced, by being turned out as soon as done with into a good
bit of ground well prepared, always make fine stools for the
next season, or bring a good crop the same autumn, which is
found to be very useful. Any good holding loam will grow
strawberries, and bring them to a good flavour, if well prepared
and sweetened by the atmosphere first; and some good rotten
dung worked in amongst it, and a little soot sprinkled in
amongst them and hoed in in the month of April, will make

an astonishing difference in the quality and flavour of the fruit ;

and, if the ground has become steely* and unkind by heavy

rains, sow some charcoal dust amongst them, and hoe it in,
which will soon purify the earth, and improve the crop won-

- derfully.

Asparagus, to be grown well, should have the ground well
prepared, broken up to a considerable depth, and well manured,
with some sea-weed or salt worked into the ground ; which should
be trenched in autumn or early winter, and laid in rough ridges so
that the air, sun, and frost can penetrate through it. Forking the

* Steely. Clayey soil that has been poached when wet, and when the water
cannot get away, is, when dry, difficult to penetrate with the spade or hoe, and
in that state is said to cut out steely, or leathery. When wet it is shining,
close, and tough, like liver; and when dry, hard, steely, and unkind, like
iron.

3d Ser. — 1843. VIII. Fr

430 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

ground at every opportunity with a strong fork or pick-axe
on every frosty morning, routing and turning it about when
frozen, will not only sweeten and mellow it, but will kill all
slugs and other insects. Never put in your asparagus plants
until April; when the young plants are grown or shot 2 or
3 inches they always do best: if planted before they begin
to grow, and the weather should turn out cold and harsh,
oftentimes there will be many plants that will lie dormant and
not break at all, which causes so many blanks in the beds. If
you intend sowing the seeds, do so a month earlier in drills
2 ft. apart; which should also be the distance at which to plant
them ; thinning out the plants sown from 12 in. to 18 in. apart
in the drills; never putting more than two rows of plants in
each bed of 4 ft.; and leaving from 24 ft. to 3 ft. alley, which is
essential, and is a good shaded situation in hot dry summer
weather to grow the late cauliflower and Cape broccoli. ‘The
system of covering the beds with earth to such a depth as is
done by the London market-gardeners early in the spring I do
not approve of, always considering it completely in opposition
to nature. They say they cannot get a sale for it amongst the
London people if it is not a considerable length: but of what
use is it? The London people cannot eat those long, tough, hard
stalks; for after all only the very top can be eaten. I always
find that noblemen and gentlemen’s families are most fond of
asparagus in its natural beautiful green colour, and just long
enough for the cook to tie mto a bunch; then you do not rob
and smother the plants, but have asparagus fit to eat, tender,
and high-flavoured. It is one of the most wholesome and deli-
cious vegetables grown, but wonderfully abused.

Sea-hale should have the ground prepared in a similar manner
to asparagus, with salt and sea-weed, which it is very fond of;
planting one-year-old small plants that have been saved on
poor ground, the rows 2 ft. apart, and 2 ft. from plant to
plant in the rows, not two or three together as is generally done;
for, if the preparation is good, one plant is always sufficient. It
is as beautiful and delicious a vegetable as any that is grown, for
winter purposes, if grown and blanched as it ought to be; but
it requires time and attention to bring it properly to perfection.
If it is hurried with too much heat, it is spindly, weak, and
without flavour; if too slow, it is as bitter and worthless. In
my opinion, it is in its full perfection when from 4 in. to 6 in.
long. When cutting it, take care always to cut the crown just
under the earth: this should be particularly attended to.- If the
crown of the plant is left above the ground to be exposed to the
frost after it has been forced, it causes the canker so generally
complained of amongst sea-kale; but take care always to leave
a little litter or leaves amongst it, so that the frost may not

Culture of Celery. 431

penetrate to the- crown, and then you will have healthy and
wholesome sea-kale. But it is plain enough that, if it is other-
wise, it is our own fault, the same as it is with the seed
potato.

Celery is one of the most wholesome and useful of all vegeta-
bles, but subject to mismanagement to a great degree. In the
first place, it is generally sown too early. The main crops should
never by any means be sown sooner than the first or second
week in April, and then on a very slight hotbed, covering a
part of the bed with a light or hand-glasses, by which means you
get plants of two different ages; taking care to sprinkle your
beds and plants, when up, with water a little warmed. Keep the
earth stirred often with a pointed stick to keep it open. As soon
as the plants have two leaves besides the seed leaves, prick a
quantity very carefully on another slight hotbed. If you want
to grow celery extra large, then prick it again in about 16 or
18 days; then the third time, leaving the same interval between.
Keeping them watered with good water, and hoeing them
often, will be the means of haying strong well-rooted plants: but
they must not be allowed to stand, after the third time trans-
planting, more than 10 days or a fortnight, or the fibres will
have spread such a distance that they will be subject to get
broken off when taken up; which should be done with great
care, with a trowel, with all the earth which will adhere to the
plants. I must here make one important remark, which is,
in planting in any stage of its growth never plant deep;
always leave the collar and seed leaves above ground, and, as
you must have plenty of room to plant it as high as you please,
do not thrust your celery plants down into the cold gravelly or
sandy subsoil beneath, for if you do it will never be good.
You cannot possibly have good celery if you sow it too early,
and then allow your plants to stand in the seed bed until it is
drawn up weakly and spindly. I have seen some transplant it,
and allow the plants to get again drawn up weak and naked-
rooted, and then set to work in good earnest, because they saw a
neighbour do so the day before, in planting his celery. So they
dig out a trench 1 ft. wide, and about the same in depth; put
in some dung; turn up the subsoil amongst it, or on the top of it,
that possibly had never been moved before; and then thrust into
this trench their long weakly plants a good depth, as it is called,
to keep them up; they next earth them up early to smother them
more, and expect to have good celery from this management, and
when they find it fail, put it upon the soil or the season. My
system is simply this. J always trench every bit of spare ground,
and throw it in ridges as soon as any crop is off. Now many
people will say: “ We have not got time to do that; we have

not strength enough; besides we are forced to keep the ground
FR 2

432 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

cropped to that degree that there is no chance of trenching :”
but I contrive to find time in some way to trench all spare
ground; by which means I always have a bit ready for suc-
cessional crops, which is planned in my mind from time to
time. I take my line and spade to one of those pieces of
ground, measure it out, at least 6 ft. from row to row,
stretching the line from end to end across the ridges, and merely
shovel out a shape of a celery trench 2 ft. wide; if the ground
has not previously been well manured, I of course shovel out
the trench something deeper, to admit of manure, which should
be good, strong, tolerably rotten dung of any kind. I then take
the plants up carefully with a trowel, with good balls of earth;
and plant them, if required extra large, from 12 in. to 15 im. from
plant to plant, if of the usual size from 10 in. to 12 in.; taking
care never to plant deep into the subsoil, or to put the plant
below the collar, for I would sooner see half of the roots ex-
posed, than the eighth part of an inch of the heart buried. In
earthing up, never by any means begin too early, for by that
plan much of the celery gets considerably injured: and, instead
of muddling it about with earth ten or twelve times, once or twice,
or at most three times, earthing is quite sufficient to bring it to
proper perfection. Every body knows that celery is fond of
plenty of water, likewise of manure liquid: but im hot weather
never water it over-head with a rose on your watering-pot; but
pour abundance about the roots out of the spout, with a brushy
stick put into the spout of the watering-pot, so as to cause the
water to come out more gently, and not wash out the roots;
using a watering-pot at the same time in each hand, it keeps a
man better on the balance.

To combat that destructive insect and rust which have attacked
and destroyed so much celery of late years, I find there is nothing
equal to soot dusted all over the plants when the leaves are
moist, so that it will adhere. For instance, I had the whole of
the celery attacked in these gardens last September, so that to
all appearance it would be scorched up in a few days. It did
not happen to be showery weather at the time, so I took the
garden engine and gave it all a good washing, having a man to
follow me dusting the soot all over it. Having thirteen rows i
the garden, I dressed twelve of them twice, which perfectly
cleansed them; the thirteenth is now remaining there scorched
up from end to end as if it had been fired, without one head fit
for use. I mean to allow this bed to stand for a time, that any
gardener who may happen to call to see me may be convinced of
the correctness of my remarks.

Ihave worked amongst many acres of celery: 13 acres are the
most that I have cultivated in one garden during one season ;
but I have seen three crops taken off the same piece of ground

Culture of the Cauliflower. 433

in that time; and a great deal of it twice cropped with celery in
the same season, which is of rare occurrence except in a London
market-garden. Of course the plants must be well prepared and
strong ; and done justice to in planting with a good preparation :
but a London market- garden is the place to see all things well
prepared for.

Cauliflowers, as I have before told you, I make a point never
to sow sooner than from the 18th to the 25th of September ;
sowing the seed in boxes, frames, or pans, close to the glass.
The last of my late cauliflowers I sow about the 15th October,
in pans in a little bottom heat, and always make it a rule to
prick at this season of the year in thumb pots first, having
at this time plenty of spare pots that flower-garden plants
have been turned out of. I keep them shifted on in some old
melon mould until February, when the plants are become very
strong; making it a rule to trench, ridge, and manure my first-
cleared celery ground, for the purpose of placing hand-glasses
for the first crop. When prepared, if the ground should be wet
and cold, I take care to throw out a sort of trench the width of
the hand-glasses; mark out a place for each glass; throw out a
little of the earth where each glass is to stand, and put in a
small quantity of dry dusty mould, old dry mushroom bed, or
such like; which I always take care to have ready prepared in
the corner of some shed, or covered up with straw mats, which
are made by the men in rough weather. I always find in
winter plenty of dry dusty rubbish handy and useful for saving
many things from cankering, as well as for saving cauliflowers
from getting black legs; which every grower is acquainted with,
and by which disease many crops are lost. When the hand-
glasses are prepared as above, I turn out about four of these
large plants under each glass, keeping them well aired at all
suitable times. They grow remarkably free, let the weather be
what it may. If the weather proves dry in March, I get
manure water prepared, put into it a quarter of a pound of nitrate
of soda to one hogshead of tolerably strong cow-dung water ;
taking care to add to it a few gallons of hot water to make it a
little warm, which well repays the trouble, for they will grow
through the cold March winds like as in May, and fine cauli-
flowers I always get early in April. This season I find I did
not have any account kept of cutting them until April 15th;
but, by growing and shifting some along until I get them
ito No.8. pots, and placing them for a few weeks in a
vinery that is just put to work, or a peach house, I have had
cauliflowers early in March. They are found very useful at
that season of the year in every family; as they come before the
spring vegetation begins to do much, and the winter stock is
getting exhausted. I continue to sow just a pinch of cauli-

FF 3

434 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

flower seed about every 20 days through the season, from the
first week in January until the 15th of October; and I have
never been without cauliflowers one day since the 15th of April
last. I have at this very time cauliflowers as close, fine, and
white as they were in May last, with every appearance of having
them as good until January next; having 200 fine plants of
different ages potted in the large pots in which I grew my
balsams, cockscombs, globe amaranthus, &c., and placed in
the melon pits, &c., and other sheltered corners. These pots
would be doing nothing at this time of the year, if I did not
use them for this purpose. It is only to get up an hour
earlier in the morning to get these extra jobs done, which is
good for the health and I think nothing of the trouble; it is a
pleasure, and where there is a will there is a way. So, if you
have no melon pits nor frames, it is always easy to throw out a
4 ft. trench right and left, and form a home-made pit; getting
some of your kidneybean sticks to put over it; and covering
with mats, straw mats, heath, or fern.
Bicton Gardens, Nov. 21. 1842.

Letrer XVIII. On the Gooseberry Caterpillar.

In the course of my practice, I have seen in some seasons great
destruction caused by the gooseberry caterpillar. When a boy,
I would sooner do any job than pick caterpillars, on account of
their strong disagreeable smell, and the tediousness of the job.
In the year 1817, in the garden where I was then employed,
the gooseberry bushes were attacked by such multitudes of ca-
terpillars, that some were very soon stripped entirely of their
leaves. All hands were put to picking them off, and other
remedies were tried. At the time, I saw a heap of soot ina
back yard, which the sweeps had that morning cleaned out of
the house chimneys, and, knowing of a quantity of fresh wood
ashes under a large copper furnace used for brewing, I took a
quantity of each and mixed them together, and gave the bushes a
good dredging with it when damp, and in two or three applica-
tions had the pleasure of seeing the whole of the caterpillars
expelled. .

The gooseberry bushes, and all the fruit trees in that garden,
were covered with lichens and moss. The following autumn, it
was observed, every tree that had been dressed for the caterpil-
lar was quite clear of the moss and lichens; the remedy was
therefore in damp weather in winter applied to all the fruit
trees about the garden, which were completely cleansed by it.
A quantity of both soot and wood ashes was collected and laid

On the Gooseberry Caterpillar. 435

in separate heaps in a back shed on the floor, to be in readiness
in case of another attack of the caterpillar the following spring.

~The gooseberry bushes were attacked again the following
spring, and the above remedy applied with but very indifferent
success; and as they were not very numerous, and were soon
picked off, no farther notice was taken of them.

I never forgot the successful application of the soot and wood
ashes, and, as seasons have passed on, I have continued using
it; sometimes with tolerable success, at others without any. I
have often noticed the great improvement it made in the luxu-
riance and growth of the trees afterwards, if it happened to be
showery weather. In 1841, the gooseberry bushes in Bicton
gardens were attacked by multitudes of the caterpillar; and
making it a rule at all times to keep soot and wood ashes by me,
and having a quantity at the time in a shed, I tried it without
success, and was obliged to put all hands day after day hand-
picking them. ‘They got so numerous that they attacked cur-
rants as well. In 1842 they came more numerous than ever;
every thing was tried that could be thought of; all other work
getting behind by attending to them. A host of boys was em-
ployed to pick by task, and some men and a woman. One batch
was no sooner cleared than another was attacked: with all the
exertion we could make, a great quantity of trees were com-
pletely stripped of their leaves, exposing the fruit to be shriveled
by the sun.

Last autumn I was much perplexed every time I passed the
trees in so deplorable a condition. It struck me all at once, one’
evening, that the properties of the soot and ashes were lost
to some extent by lying on the floor, or possibly by getting
a little damp in some way. I so well recollected, as if had hap-
pened only the day previous, that in the year 1817 I had seen
it destroy and expel the whole. I recollected too that the soot
was fresh cleaned out of chimneys where coal was burnt, that
the wood ashes were fresh and dry from under the furnace where
different kinds of wood were burnt, such as oak, elm, Scotch
fir, larch, some birch, and Spanish chestnut; for I saw the
brewing-men sawing and taking it from a large stack under a
row of large high yew trees. This last winter, in collecting soot
and wood ashes, I had it put into old dry boxes and cement
casks, keeping the bottoms clear from the floor by bricks or logs
of wood, and covering it down so that no dampness could get to
it; and on the bushes being attacked this spring again by thou-
sands of the black army, as my men call them, as they do also the
turnip caterpillar, we set to dredging the bushes early of a morn-
ing when they were damp, or after a shower, and by perseverance
we soon completely cleared them of the whole in their infant
state, without their doing any mischief whatever. At the same

FE 4

436 Rhododendrons cultivated at Dysart House,

time, through its being showery, and the rain washing it down
to the roots, the bushes are so astonishingly improved that no one
could suppose them the same naked starved trees. I have been
perfectly convinced now, in many instances, that if either soot or
wood ashes get any way damp, part of their properties or vir-
tues is lost; for instance, if smelled to when fresh, the mixture
will make the nose twinge, which it will not do after being kept
in a damp place, although to all appearance it is not damp.

Tt is a curious fact that in the course of years I should not
have given it a more serious consideration, and discovered the
cause before the lapse of a quarter of acentury. No doubt but
many things get lost sight of, particularly different manures,
through their not happening to be properly applied. Now I have
discovered the cause, I can judge quite as easily by the feel of
soot and ashes, as I could by the smell. Soot alone will destroy
the caterpillars; but, by mixing wood ashes with it, the mixture
does not fly about so much and get wasted, and it adheres much
better to the trees. Wood ashes, when of their full strength,
and used in damp weather, when they can adhere to the tree,
will kill and clean any kind of moss or of lichen, and is the only
article I ever use now for that purpose.

-Bicton Gardens, June 1. 1843.

Art. IX. List of Species and Varieties of Rhododéndron cultivated
at Dysart House, with’ Remarks on their Management. By Joun
Briair, Gardener there.

As suggested by you, I now forward you a list of the different varieties of
rhododendrons grown here, with their times of flowering ; and, in order to
make the list as useful as possible, I beg leave to make a few observations
explanatory of the climate, locality, and soil, in which these varieties are
grown.

The flower-garden here, the property of the Earl of Rosslyn, is situated
close by the sea, standing about 53 ft. above its ordinary level, and sloping
towards the south-east. From its proximity to the sea, the frost is not so
severe as it would be further inland ; the thermometer being seldom or never
below 10° in the most severe winters (1837-8), from its southerly exposure,
and ranging from 80° in the shade to 120° (in 1842) out of it. However,
the south-east winds need to be guarded against, not only from the intensity
of their cold, but also from their violence.

Portugal laurels on the exposed side, and common hurdles interwoven
with spruce fir branches on the other sides, form an excellent protection.
The finest of these varieties grow about 212 ft. from high-water mark ; while
some of the more common kinds grow within 12 ft., and not 3 ft. above its
level, with little or no shelter. The soil used in the garden is a mixture of
peat earth and sand, not broken very small; the depth varying from 2 ft. to
4. ft., according to the size of the plant. However, I have been in the custom
of planting them, after they have grown to a considerable size, in the woods,
where they thrive uncommonly well. They form an excellent underwood,
more particularly the R. catawbiénse var., which is very hardy, and is more
able to stand the drip of trees than the other varieties. The natural soil in

with Remarks on their Management. 437

these woods is a black light loam; but, in some places, the rhododendrons

are planted in strong soil, where they also do well.

_ They all require to be well watered, more particularly when in flower, which
continues their bloom much longer, and causes them to push out strong

healthy shoots.

The best way of propagating them is from seed, which being sown in a
gently heated frame, the plants soon make their appearance, and, if properly
attended to, will flower in four or five years.

I have remarked, also, that the warmer the season is, the better they
blossom the following one; the flower buds being more numerous, and brought
to a greater degree of maturity.

Last of the Rhododendrons in the Collection at Dysart House.

Rhododéndron arboreum.

Rh. Knight’s hybrid varieties, Nos.

album. Ttoples

roseum. Lord Caernarvon’s seedling.
new var. - lapponicum.

cinnamomeum. longiflorum.

Album fimbriatum.
Azalea, a hybrid.

Murray’s hybrid.

multimaculatum.

Rhododendron maximum, hybrid. myrtifolium.
campanulatum. maximum.
campanulatum var. album.
andromedezefolium. roseum,
augistum. Nobleanum.
alta-clerénse. nepalénse.
azaledides. oculatum.
anthopogon. odoratum.

Blair’s hybrid, varieties Nos. 1. pulchérrimum.
to 7. ponticum.
carnarvonianum. arboreum.
caucasicun. spléndens.
catawbiénse. palchrum.
speciosum. foliis argénteis.
grandiflorum. aurels.
album. contortum.
magnoliefolium. fronddsum.
splendens. roseum.
campanulatum. kalmicefolium.
var. flore pleno.
chrysanthum. salicifolium.
Chameecistus. ovatum.
Cunningham’s hybrids, C, E, H, macrophyllum.
I, K, L, M, N, O, P. rubéscens.
datricum., nepalénse,
atrovirens. album.
altaicum. pictum.
europz‘um hybridum. punctatum.
ferrugineum. ferrugineum.
hirsutum. Azalea, hybrid.
foliis variegatis. Rhododéndron, Blair’s seedling.
erandiflorum. Russellidnwm, two varieties.
guttatum, Rollissoni.
Glenniednum. Smithz.
Herbertidanum. spléndidum.
imbricatum. var.
Knight’s favourite of 1838. ventstum.

And about fifty others, hybrids, without names. In all, 109 species, varieties,
and hybrids ; 28 of which are not named, and 81 named.

438 Rhododendrons cultivated at Dysart House.

Diary, showing the Time when those Rhododendrons which flowered at Dysart im
1842 were in their greatest Perfection.

Jan. 1. Rhododéndron Album fimbriatum - White, with red spots.

27. arboreum var. - - - Scarlet.

Mar. 1. arboreum - - - Scarlet.

10. lapponicum - - - Purple.

20. dauricum - - - - Purple.
atrovirens - - - Purple.
altaicum - - - Purple.

Me pulchérrimum = - - - Scarlet.
Nobleanum - - - Scarlet.

April 1. anthopogon - - - Pale yellow.

10. campanulatum = - - - White.

i8. alta-clerense - - - Scarlet, with dark spots.

23. caucasicum - - Yellow.
Knight’s favourite a 1838 (fine) - Scarlet.

30. ponticum arboreum - - Scarlet.
multimaculatum - - - Pale spotted.
tigrinum - - - - Pale spotted.

May 4. Glennieanum - - - Pale pink.
8. Russellidnum (fine) - - Scarlet.
14. Cunningham’s hybrid - - Pale yellow.
spléndidum - - - White.
Chamecistus - - - Rose pink.
25. catawbiێnse - - - Purple.
30. speciosum = - - Rose purple.
grandiflorum —- - Dark purple.
album - - White.
spléndens - - Dark purple.
June 6. pictum - - - - White, with dark spots.
guttatum - - - - White, with yellow spots.
arboreum roseum - - Rose.

14. ponticum - - . - Purple.
spléndidum - - - Pale purple.
pilchrum = : - Pale purple.
contortum == - - Purple.
foliis argénteis - - Purple.

atreis - < - Purple.
frondosum = - - Purple.
roseum - - - Rose.
kalmiefoliam - - - Purple.
flore pleno- - - - Purple.
salicifolium = - - Purple.
ovatum - - - Purple.
macrophyllum - - Purple.
rubéscens —- - - Purple.
nepalénse = - - - Purple.

24. album - - - White.
Cunningham’s hybrid, grandiflorum Pale yellow.

July 1. punctatum - - - Pink.
ferrugineum - - - Pink and scarlet
Azalea, hybrid - - - - Pale yellow.
Rhododéndron, Mutay,: bybrig - Rose scarlet.
12. odoratum - - Pale pink.

Azalea and Rhododéndr on hybrid - White and yellow
R. ferrugineum - - Scarlet.

hirstitum - - - Scarlet.

foliis variegatis == - Scarlet.

Notice of a Collection of Spireas. 439

26. maximum - - - Pink.
album - White.
30. roseum - - - Rose.
Aug. 18. anthopogon, second time of flower-
ing = - - - Pale yellow.

I may observe, in conclusion, that the time of flowering varies much accord -
ing to the season.
Dysart House, near Kirkaldy, May, 1843.

[The above communication Mr. Blair kindly promised to prepare for us
when we paid a visit to Dysart House in September, 1841: it was read at a
meeting of the Caledonian Horticultural Society in June, 1843, and forwarded
to us afterwards by the Secretary.]

Arr. X. Notice of a Collection of Spireas, North American Oaks,
Abiétine, and Cupréssine, made in the Spring of 1843. By the
ConpucrTor.

Brine desirous of having immediately under our eye as many species and
varieties as we could get of the genera mentioned in the following list, and in
particular of the North American oaks, the Abiétinze, and the Cupréssinz, in
order to study these tribes in a young state, we procured from the Horticul-
tural Society's Garden, from Messrs. Loddiges, and from some other nursery-
men, plants of the kinds enumerated below. We have given the names which
we received with the plants, and those of the parties from whom we received
them, for the benefit of other collectors, as well as to show what a very con-
siderable number, of Cupréssinze for example, may be obtained in British
nurseries. We have not included in the list the higher-priced species of pines
and firs, because plants of these we did not think it right to request from
parties possessing them, except in the case of the Horticultural Society.
As the nomenclature of spirzeas is in a state of some confusion, we are
very anxious to increase our list of that most beautiful genus, and shall
feel particularly obliged to any person who will send us plants which appear
from their names to be of different kinds from those we have got. There are
also some of the low-priced Abiétinze which we do not yet possess, and which
we should be glad to receive from those who can spare them. For the plants
already in our possession, we beg to return our best thanks to the Horti-
cultural Society, to Messrs. Loddiges, to Mr. Knight, Messrs. Lee, Messrs,
Whitley and Osborn, Messrs. P. Lawson and Son, Mr. May, Mr. Charlwood,
Mr. Rivers, Mr. Low, Messrs. R. Donald and Son, and Messrs. C. Sclater
and Son.

SPIREAS.

opulifolia Z. (Lodd.) S. inflexa H. S. G. (Lodd.)

o. nana Lodd. (Lodd.) S. argéntea Lodd. Coll. (Lodd.)
chameedrifolia LZ. (1odd.) S. nana Lodd. Coll. (Lodd.)

ec. subracemosa Ser. (W.and O.) 8.4%. thalictrdides Palf. (Lodd.)
ec. ulmifolia Scop. (Lodd.) S. nutans Royle, (Lodd.)

c. flexuosa Fis. (Lodd.) S. corymbosa Rafin. (Lodd.)

c. sibirica Hort. (Lodd.) S. vacciniifolia D, Don. (Lodd.)
ce. datirica Hort. (Wodd.) S. laxiflora Lindl, (H. 8.)

. c. betulzfolia Lodd. (Lodd.) S. bella Sims. (W. and O.)

S. trilobata LZ. (Lodd.) S. salicifolia LZ. (Lodd.)

S. alpina ZL. (Lodd.) S. s. carnea Att. (W. and O.)

S. hypericiolia Dee. (Lodd.) S.s, paniculata Willd. (W. & O.)

mtnintninnntats

440 Collection of Spireas, Oaks, §c.,

. latifolia Willd. (W. and O.)
grandiflora. (Lodd.)
.minor Lodd. (Lodd.)

. rosea Lodd. (Lodd.)
canadénsis. (Lodd.)

arctica. (Rivers.)

incarnata Lodd.

lanceolata Hort. (Lodd.)

. tomentosa L. (Lodd.)

. levigata L. (Lodd.)

Nortu AMERICAN OAKS.
I. White American Oaks.

Quércus Alba LZ. (May of Leeming Q. microcarpa Lodd. (Lodd.)
Lane, Bedale, Yorkshire.) Q. stellata Willd. (Lodd.)
Q. macrocérpa W. (Lodd.)

. arizefolia Smith. (W. and O.)
rotundifolia Lindl. (H. 8.)

. Scopa Lodd. (Lodd.)

fissa Lindl. (Lodd.)
Tobolski Lodd. (Lodd.)
Nikoudiértii Lodd. (Lodd.)
. sorbifolia LZ. (Lodd.)

. s. datirica Lodd. (Lodd.)

. Lindleyana Wall. (H. 8.)

a Tac}

Annnnnannaitn
RRrnnrnnrnnn

Il. Chestnut Oaks.
Q. Prinus Z. (Lodd.) Q. P. tomentosa Mx. (Charlwood.)
Q. P. montana Willd. (Lodd.)
III. Red American Oaks.

. rubra Z. (Charlwood.) Q. tinctoria Willd. (odd.)

. champaniénsis Lodd. (Lodd.) Q. nigra Wang. (May.)

. coccinea Willd. (Charlwood.) Q. palastris Willd. (odd.)

. falcata Mz. (Lodd.) Q. Catesbe sempervirens. (Rivers.)
. triloba Willd. (odd.)

LV. Black American Oaks.

SOL6O

Q. nigra Z. (Lodd.) Q. aquatica Soland. (Lodd.)

Q. marylandica Ray. (Lodd.) Q. Banisteri Michx. (Lodd.)
V. Willow Oaks.

Q. Phéllos L. (Lodd.) Q. heterophylla MZv. (Rivers.)

VI. Live Oaks.
Q. virens Ait. (Rivers.)

TAXA‘CER.

The species and varieties which we have collected are as follows, to
which we should be glad of such additions as can be got : —

Taxus baccata fastigiata. T. b. bariénsis Anight. (Knight.)
Tb. horizontalis Lawson. (P.Law- 7’. canadénsis W. (Lodd.)
son and Son.) ZT’. japonica Lodd. (Lodd.)

ZT’. b. foliis atireis Hort. ( Knight.)

PINES.
I. Leaves 2 in a sheath.

Pinus sylvéstris vulgaris. (Charl- PP. tatrica Hort. (H. S.)

wood, and P, Lawson and Son.) P. (L.) pyrenaica £. (Lawson.)
P.s. wncinata. (Lawson.) P. Pinaster Ait. (Lawson.)
P. s. haguenénsis Arb, Brit. (Law- P. P. maritimus. (Lawson.)

son.) _ P. Pinea L. (Lawson.)
P. Uaricio Poir. (Lawson.) iP. Peereticaworcm (tense)
P.{? Laricio] neglécta Law. (Lawson.) P. halepénsis Ait. (H. S.)
P. (L.) austriaca Hoss, (Lawson.) P. brattia Ten. (H. 8.)

Syn. P. nigricans Hort. (H.8.) P. piingens Miche. (Lawson.)

made in the Spring of 1843.

Il. Leaves 3 in a sheath.

Pinus rigida Mill. (TH. 8.)
P. (r.) serétina Miche. (Lawson.)
me keocote S. & D. (H. 8.)

44]
P. patula S.§ D. (H. S.)
P. Gerardiana W. (H. S.)
P. Chilghoza Elphinstone. (H. S.)

III. Leaves 5, rarely 4, in a sheath.

P. Hartwegz Lindl. (H. 8.)
P. Montezume L. (H. S.)
P. macrophylla L. (H. S.)
P. Psetdo-Strobus. (H. S.)
P, filifolia Lindl. (H. 8.)
P. tenuifolia H. S. (H. 8.)
P. oocarpa Schd, (H. S.)

Firs, Larcues, AnD CEDARs.

I. Leaves tetragonal, awl-shaped, scattered in insertion.

A’bies excélsa communis Dec.

. Clanbrasilidna. (Lawson. )

. orientalis Tourn. (H. S.)

. nigra Poir, (Lawson.)

n. var. gracilis Lawson. (Lawson.)
. Smithzana Arb. Brit.
. Morinda Hort.
. Menziészi Doug.
. canadénsis Mx. (Lawson.)
Picea pectinata. (Lawson.)

P.(p.) cephalonica Arb. Brit. (H. 8.)

bo bs a A hs BS

P. odcarpoides Benth. (H. 8S.)
P. apulcensis Lindl. (H. 8.)

P. occidentalis Swz. (H. 8.)

P. Cembra LL, (awson.)

P. Strobus L

P. (S.) excélsa W. (H. S.)

P, Ayacahwte Ehr, (H. S.)

P. (p.) Pichta Arb. Brit. (H. 8.)
P. balsamea Arb. Brit, (Lawson.)

P. (b.) Fraser? Arb. Brit. (Lawson. )

P. Webbidna Arb. Brit. (H. S.)

1 spectabilis Lam. Monog. Lawson.)

Larix europe‘a communis Lawson.
(Lawson 5

L. sp. from France, Laws. (Lawson.)

L. microcarpa Laws. (Lawson.)
Cédrus Libani Barr, (Lawson.)
C, Deodara Roxb. (H. S.)

P. (p.) Pinsdpo Arb. Brit. (H. 8.) | Araucaria imbricata Pav. (Low.)
CUPRE’SSINE.

Thuja occidentalis L. J.c. suécica Ait. Hort. (W. and O.)

T. (0.) plicata Donn. (Lodd.) J. c. hibérnica Hort. (W. and O.)

T. Waredna Booth Cat. (Lodd.) J.c. pendula. (Rivers.)

T’. orientalis L. (Lodd.) J. alpina Rati Syn. (Lodd.)

T. o. tatarica Arb. Brit. (Lodd.) J, datwica Hort. and Booth. (Lodd.)

T’, o. japonica Hort. (Lodd.) J. cracovia Lodd. (Lodd.)

T. o. pyramidalis Knight. (Knight.) J. oblénga Ard. Brit. (Lee.)

To. hybrida Hort. (Knight.) J. canadensis Lodd. Cat. (Lodd.)

T. o. nepalénsis Lodd. (Lodd.) J. Oxycedrus LZ. (Lodd.)

T. pendula Lamb. (Knight.) J. drupacea Lab. (Knight.)

Callitris quadrivalvis Ven. (Lee.) J. tetragona H, B. et K, (Lee.)

C. flagellif6rmis Hort. (Lee.) J. virginiana L. (Lodd.)

Cupréssus sempervir. L. (W.andO.) J. vy. horizontalis. (Rivers.)

C. fastigiata Hort. (Knight.) J. horizontalis Lodd. (Lodd.)

C. expansa Hort. Par. (H. 8.) J. gossainthanea Hort. (Lodd.)

C. horizontalis Mill, (‘uodd.) J. Bedfordidna Hort. (Knight.)

C. thydides L. (W. and O.) J. bermudiana LZ. (Hz. 8.)

C. ¢. foliis variegatis Hort. (Donald.) J. flaccida Schiede. (Hi. S.)

C. lusitanica Tourn. (W. and O.) J. Sabina Arb. Brit. (Lodd.)

C. torulosa Lamb. (H. S.) J. (S.) tamariscifolia Ait. (Lodd.)

C. Lambertiana H. 8. (H. 8S.)

C. thurifera H. B. ct K. (Lodd.)
C. Tourneférti Audibert. (Knight.)
C. australis Pers. (Lawson.)

C. religidsa Lee. (Lee.)
C.sp. from Himalaya Law. (Lawson.)
Juniperus communis LZ. (W. and O.)

J. (S.) foliis variegatis Mart. (Lodd.)
(S.) prostrata Arb, Brit. (Lodd.)
(S.) nana Smith. (Knight.)

(S.) sibirica Hort. (Lodd.)

(S.) Hudsonidna Pin. Wob. (Lod.)
pheenicea Z. (Lodd.)

(P

Js
J,
J.
J.
J.
J. (p.) lycia Z. (Knight.

442 Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden.

J. thurifera Z. (Lee.) J. vepanda Hort. (Knight.)

J. excélsa Willd. (Knight.) J. hispanica Mill. ( Knight.)
J. squamata Don, (H. 8.) J. chinénsis LZ. (Lodd.)

J. recirva Ham. (W. and O.) J. dealbata Hort. (Lee.)

Jf Ty eies 226 Sy (KEES) J. Smithidna Arb. Brit. (Lee.)

Art. XI. Arboricultural Notices.

U’iMus montana péndula, which we have long tried to find the origin of, was,
we lately learned from Mr. Booth of Hamburg, found in a bed of seedlings
in the Perth Nursery, a year or two after the peace. Mr. Booth purchased
the plant, and from it arose the whole stock here and on the Continent.

Iver Aquifolium fastigidtum exists in a garden in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, near the new cemetery, as well as in a garden in Derby.

Iver Agquifolium péndulum, a very strongly marked variety, has also been
lately discovered in Dalkeith Park, and, we believe, will soon be in the trade.

New Varieties. —Nurserymen should look over their beds of seedlings
before they are transplanted, with a view to discovering pendulous varieties
and fastigiate varieties, which, probably, every tree in existence is liable to
sport into. We have, within the present century, found both of them in the
common oak, the Scotch elm, and the common hawthorn; and one sport in
several species, such as the pendulous common ash, sophora, &c. They should
also, in the leafing season, look after varieties that come early into leaf, such as
the Glastonbury thorn; in summer, those that sport in their foliage, such as
the one-leaved ash, the eagle’s claw maple, and the fern-leaved oak ; and, in
autumn and winter, those that retain their leaves longer than usual, such as
the evergreen privet. The time will probably one day come when every
species will have its fastigiate, its pendulous, its early, its late, its variegated-
leaved, and its abnormal-leaved, varieties.

Fagus antarctica and betulotdes.— We have lately had an opportunity of
seeing these interesting beeches in Kew Gardens. They are in a healthy
state, and, we understand, strike from cuttings without difficulty ; so that,
thanks to the excellent system now pursued at Kew of distributing and ex-
changing with other botanic gardens and with the nurserymen, these trees
will soon be as generally diffused as their merits will entitle them to be. (See
Sir W. Hooker’s Notes on the Botany of the Antarctic Voyage, p. 54.)

Art. XII. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and
Flower-Garden. By the ConpucrTor.

(Continued from p. 373.)

Tue design, fig 100., is a plan of the Roccoco Garden of Baron Hiigel in the
neighbourhood of Vienna, mentioned with so much praise in an article on the
baron’s country residence in our preceding volume, p.!50. For the plan we
are indebted to a friend, who procured it at Vienna about a year ago. This
gentleman observes on it, that, though the beds did not look so well in reality
as they do on paper, from the acute angles of the lobes of the larger masses,
and from the inequality of the heights of the flowers with which they were
planted at the time he saw it, yet, as it is always supplied with the best kinds of
flowers, and kept in the very highest order, it is the admiration of every one.

a and 6 are beds, we suppose, of low shrubs; ¢, circular bed, separated by
a zone of turf, e, from the bed d; f, border of turf; g,h, gravel walks; 2, bed
with a pedestal and statue in the centre; /, a small oval bed, separated from /,
by a zone of turf; m, ~, acute-lobed beds on turf; 0, p, beds with lobes, ter-
minating with less acute points.

44 Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden.

The section A B shows that the walks are considerably below the level of
the compartments containing the beds, and that the edgings to those walks
are sloped down ; and, if the section is correct according to the scale, these
slopes exceed a foot in perpendicular depth ; a taste not uncommon in France
and Germany, but rarely to be met with in England. It gives the walks the
character of ditches.

The running pattern on the circumferential border originated in England,
we believe, by the Dowager Duchess of Bedford, about the year 1800, is ca-
pable of producing a very brilliant effect, by planting the circular beds (c) with
brilliant colours, each alternating with white; for example, beginning at c, and
proceeding to the right, we might have dark red, white, blue, white, yellow,
white, scarlet, white, purple, white, and so on. The interlacing beds (d)
might be planted exactly on the same principle, but omitting white. Proceed-
ing to the right from the bed d, which may be yellow, the next may be crimson,
the next purple, then orange, then blue, and so on.

If we were asked our opinion of this design, we should say, in one word,
that the dug beds in the interior were not in harmony of form with those of
the surrounding chain pattern; they have scarcely a single line in common.
This must be obvious at the first glance to every man with the eye of an artist.
But we will go a little into detail for the sake of others.

The beds, with the exception of those of the chain pattern with which the
figure is surrounded, are not appropriate to the subject. Beds with so many
acute recesses and sharp-pointed prominences can very rareiy be covered
with plants in such a manner as not to render the form of the dug ground
more prominent than the form of the surface covered by the flowers; now the
dug ground being merely the means of attaining the end, this can never be
in good taste, because it is not consistent with good sense to render the
former of more importance than the latter. This would be true, even if these
beds were artistically designed ; but they are wholly deficient of merit as works
of art. Beds for flowers in a flower-garden may either be composed of geo-
metrical lines and forms, as in Elizabethan flower-gardens, or of arabesque
shapes, as shown in the French gardens in the Louis XIV. style; but to what
style of art can we refer the beds m, », 0, p, which remind us of the leaves of
A‘rum Dracinculus, or some exotic aroidaceous plant. If they were sufficiently
large to occupy twenty or thirty acres each, and to be planted with trees and
shrubs, which would effectually prevent more than one or two sides of the
figure from being seen at one view, then we should say that, with the excep-
tion of the acute points of the lobes, the shapes might pass ; but, for a flower-
garden, where the whole of each bed will be seen at once, they are, from want
of harmony, and from their unfitness for being covered, totally inadmissible in
this design or in any other. A minor argument is, that the shape of such beds
cut out in turf, unless they have concealed brick, stone, or wood edges, can
never be kept correct; and it is a principle in the arts of design, that every
design should be suitable to the purpose for which it is to be used, and to the
nature of the materials employed in its execution. Another minor objection
is, that the beds m, n, 0, p, &c., have not sufficient relation to the boundary
lawn on which they are placed. A far better effect would have been produced,
in our opinion, by simply marking off a grass margin all round each compart-
ment, and considermg the interior as the bed. The beds would then have
been of the exact shape of the compartments, less the width of the surround-
ing verge. It is true that this would not have harmonised these beds with the
surrounding circular forms, but it would have harmonised each bed with the
form of the compartment on which it was placed, and rendered it fit for being
covered with flowers. But even the required harmony might have been given
in a considerable degree by gently curving the edges of the beds, and by sub-
stituting circular beds for i and & Had the two beds 2 been circular, and not
of their present discordant shape, they would have harmonised beautifully with
the surrounding row of circular beds (c); and, had the beds marked /& been

Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices. 445

circular, instead of oval, and a little larger than c, they would have formed beau-
tiful connecting links between the larger circular beds (i) and the smaller (c).

Much of the effect of every flower-garden depends on the manner in which
it is connected with the surrounding scenery. From the description of Baron
Hiigel’s residence, already referred to, we are not able to form an opinion on
this subject. It is said to be a garden within a garden, and to have become
the model garden of Austria. If the last is the case, we can only say that we
are sorry to hear of the diffusion of so much bad taste. We have no doubt,
from the intellectual activity of the Austrian head gardeners, and especially
such men as M. Charles Rauch, this design will be the means of leading to
something better. Whoever contrived the design has had little or no artistical
knowledge, otherwise he would have given artistical shapes to the beds m, n, 0,
p; and he has not had a proper conception of what the shapes adapted for a
flower-garden ought to be, otherwise he would have had no beds that were not
of comparatively simple forms, with no acute angles, whatever might be his
talents for designing forms of intricacy.

( To be continued. )

Arr. XIII. Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices of
the Kinds of Plants newly introduced into British Gardens and
Plantations, or which have been originated in them; together with
additional Information respecting Plants (whether old or new)
already in Cultivation : the whole intended to serve as a perpetual
Supplement to the “ Encyclopedia of Plants,” the “ Hortus Bri-
tannicus,” the “ Hortus Lignosus,” and the “ Arboretum et Fruti-
cetum Britannicum.”

Curtis’s Botanical Magazine ; in monthly numbers, each containing
seven plates; 3s. 6d. coloured, 3s. plain. Edited by Sir William
Jackson Hooker, LL.D., &c., Director of the Royal Botanic Garden,
Kew.

Edwards's Botanical Register; in monthly numbers, new series,
each containing six plates; 3s. 6d. coloured, 3s. plain. Edited by
Dr. Lindley, Professor of Botany in the University College, London.

Paxton’'s Magazine of Botany, and Register of Flowering Plants ;
in monthly numbers ; large 8vo; 2s. 6d. each.

Ranuncula\cee.
1638. TRO’LLIUS
acatilis Lindl. stemless Y A or 32 jl Y Cashmere 1842. D s.l.p Bot. reg. 1843, 32,
A very pretty hardy herbaceous plant, the seeds of which were sent by Dr.
Royle from Cashmere. The flowers are of a golden yellow, and spread open
like those of an anemone, instead of having the globe-like appearance of the
common 7’ré/lius europze‘us. The plant was first mentioned in the Miscellany
to the Bot. Reg. for 1842. (Bot. Reg., June, 1843.)
1641. HELLE’BORUS
olympicus Lindi. Olympian Y A or 2 jn G Bithynia 1842. D s.p_ Bot. reg, 1842, 58.
This very handsome species of hellebore is a native of the Bithynian
Olympus, whence it was sent to the Horticultural Society by Mr. Sandison,
Her Majesty’s consul at Brusa. It has very handsome palmate leaves, and
pale green flowers, which are white at the tips of the sepals. It is quite
hardy, but it should be grown in peat soil, in a moist situation. ( Bot. Reg.,
Oct. 1842.)
Dilleniacee.
Cando6llea tetrandra Lind|. This is a larger and much handsomer plant than

Candollea cuneiformis. The leaves are about 2 in. long, broad in proportion,
3d Ser. — 1843. VITI. GG

446 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

and coarsely toothed. The flowers resemble those of Hibbértia volubilis,
but are four times as large, and of a paler yellow. The petals are also flat,
and the stamens regularly arranged in bundles of four each. (Bot. Reg., June,
1842, Misc.)

Berberidez.

Bérberis umbellata Wall. A very handsome new hardy shrub, raised by
Wm. Wells, Esq., of Redleaf, from Nepal seeds. ‘ The branches and spines
are remarkably slender.” The flowers are small, and are produced in long
stalked clusters, Thé leaves are narrow, and glaucous beneath, with very
distinct veins. (Bot. Reg., June, 1842, Misc.) :

Mahonia pallida Hart. A very beautiful half-hardy evergreen Mexican
shrub, which was raised in the garden of Sir Charles Lemon at Carclew, in
1831. The flowers are produced on a slender raceme about 9 in. long ; they
are on short pedicels, and are of a pale straw colour. The berries are glo-
bose and purple. (Bot. Reg., March, 1843, Misc.)

Pittosporacee.

Pittosporum bicolor Hook. A small shrub with chocolate-coloured flowers
and deep-green leaves, which are silvery beneath. It is a native of Van
Diemen’s Land, where its seeds were collected by Mr. Backhouse of York,
during his travels in that country, and it has flowered in the greenhouse of
John Willmore, Esq., of Oldfield, near Birmingham. (Bot. Reg., March,
1843, Misc.)

Winteraceze.
1615. IZLV’CIUM

religidsum Z. holy 2 _]| or 4 mr YG. Japan 1842. C s.p Bot. mag. 3965.

The sacred illicium of Japan has long been confounded with the aniseed
tree of the Chinese, but Dr. Siebold has proved that the two are distinct
species, and that the present plant, which has yellowish green flowers, is the
one used in religious ceremonies by the Japanese. It is said that in Japan the
plant attains the height of a cherry tree, but the only one at present in Great
Britain is not more than 4ft. high. It is in the Royal Botanic Gardens at
Kew. (Bot. Mag., Sept. 1842.)

Malvacee.
2004. MA/LVA

campanulata Pazé. campanulate # pr 1 jn.s. Li ..... 1838. C co Paxt. vol.ix. p.173.

This is a very pretty suffruticose plant, with bell-shaped flowers and nu-
merous stems. The leaves are very deeply cut ; and the flowers, which are
of a pale lilac, are produced in clusters at the points of the shoots. After it
has done flowering, the stems should be cut down, and the pots placed in a
cold frame during the winter. If planted out in the month of May, it will
make a beautiful bed in the open garden. It is generally propagated by di-
viding the roots, as it does not ripen its seeds freely. The origin of this plant
is not known; but it was first found in Mr. Henderson’s nursery, Pine-
Apple Place, about the year 1838. (Pawxt. Mag. of Bot., Sept. 1842.)

Ternstremiacez.
1612, SAURAU’JA

spectabilis Hook. showy #{[] or 10 su W. Bolivia 1838. C co Bot. mag. 3982.

This very handsome plant is a stove shrub, which will apparently grow to a
considerable size. It flowers abundantly ; a specimen in Mr, Knight’s nur-
sery at Chelsea having borne, when only 20 in. high, no less than thirty-seven
large panicles of its pretty, white, fragrant flowers. The leaves are of con-
siderable size, and of very delicate texture. (Bot. Mag., Dec. 1842.)

Malpighiacee.
3656. STIGMAPHY’LLUM
heterophyllum Hook, § [.) or 10 d Y¥ Tucuman 1841. GC s.1 Bot. mag. 4014,

This genus is nearly allied to Banistéria, and the flowers are of the same

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 447

light yellow. It was reared by Mr. Veitch of Exeter from seed sent from
Buenos Ayres, but Sir W. Hooker informs us that its native country is Tu-
cuman. “ It is a ready flowerer, and promises to be worthy of cultivation in
every stove or warm greenhouse, making a beautiful object if trained against
trelliswork.” (Bot. Mag., May, 1843.)

Geranidcee.

1932. GERA‘NIUM [1842, 52.
erianthum Dec. woolly-flowered Y A pr 2 jn.jl C California 1840. D co Bot. reg.

This is a “ robust hardy perennial, of easy culture, growing from | ft. to 2 ft.
high in any good garden soil. It flowers freely during the months of June and
July, and is easily increased by dividing the old plant when in a state of rest,
or by seeds.” The seeds should be scwn as soon as they are ripe, and then
the plants raised from them will flower the following season. (Bot. Reg.,
September.)

Tropeéolaicee.

1148, TROPZ‘OLUM (1842, 65.; and Paxt. Mag. Bot. vol. ix. p. 247.
azureum Miers azure Rw] or 3 aus B Chili 1842. C s.l.p Bot. mag. 3985.; Bot. reg.

This plant was first mentioned by Mr. Miers in his travels in Chili, but it
appeared so improbable to botanists, that a blue flower should be produced in
a genus the flowers of which are generally yellow, that for some time the
fact was not believed. The reason of this doubt was the hypothesis published
by Professor DeCandolle respecting what were called the cyanic and xanthic
series of colours in flowers; according ‘to which it was supposed, that when
a pure yellow had been observed in the flowers of any particular genus, no
species of it could have flowers of a pure blue. The incorrectness of
this assertion might have been perceived from the first, as in the genus Ane-
mone there are bright yellow flowers in A. palmata, and bright blue ones
in A. apennina ; but, coming from so high an authority as that of Professor
DeCandolle, the hypothesis was long believed, and its fallacy is only now be-
ginning to be acknowledged. The blue Tropz‘olum “ is increased by cuttings,
taken off before the plant begins to flower. The young plants, when struck,
should not be either potted off, or the tops tied up, but allowed to grow and
hang down over the pot.” When the plant is trained for flowering, it should
be tied to some ornamental wirework in the same manner as T. tricolorum.
When the plants have done flowering, they should be allowed a period of
rest till they begin to move the following season. (Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842.)

Ovalidacee.
1414. O’X ALIS [1842, 64.
rubrocincta Lindl. red-edged A tJ pr 1 s Y Guatemala 1841. D rm _ Bot. reg.

A pretty little plant with bright yellow flowers, and rather remarkable
leaves, which are very succulent and brittle, breaking almost like glass. They
have a broad reddish-purple edge, and are dotted with purple beneath. The
seeds of this species were among the earth sent with some plants from Gua-
temala. (Bot. Reg., 1842, 64.)

Rutdcee.

ACRONY’CHIA Forster. (From akros, the top, and onuz, a claw ; an incurved point to each petal.)
C co Bot. mag. 3994.

Cunninghamz Hook. Mr. Allan Cunningham’s %j_} or 7 my.jn W Moreton Bay 1838.

This handsome shrub was discovered at Moreton Bay by the late Mr. Cun-
ningham, the botanist, and sent by him to the gardens at Kew. The flowers
greatly resemble those of the orange, and have nearly the same fragrance, but
combined with the aromatic warmth of ginger. The leaves smell like turpen-
tine. It is a free-growing shrub, and only requires the ordinary treatment of
greenhouse plants.

1154. CORREA [p- 267.

bicolor Part. two-coloured “% ~_} or 2 s.o R.W hyb. 1838, C 3,1 Paxt, mag. bot. vol. ix,

GG 2

448 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices.

A pretty hybrid raised between C. pulchélla and C. alba It requires only
the common treatment of greenhouse shrubs. (Pazt. Mag. Bot., Jan. 1843.

Celastrinee.

Catha paniculata Scheid. A shrub about 3ft. high, supposed to be a
native of the East Indies. The flowers are greenish, and without fragrance.
(Bot. Reg., May, 1843, Misc.)

Ceanothus divaricatus Nutt. A Californian shrub, loaded with clusters of
blue flowers. The branches are spiny, and the leaves are of a beautiful deep
glossy green. (Bot. Reg., May, 1843, Misc.)

Leguminose.
1940. HO‘SVEA 30090 piingens var. major.
A large-flowered variety of this well-known species. (Pact. Mag. Bot.,
April, 1843.)

[vol. x. p. 103.
spléndens Paat. splendid “ _] pr 2 my.jn B Swan River 1840. co Paxt. mag. of bot.

A pretty little species of Hovea producing its flowers in pairs. The stand-
ard is a bright blue, with a white ring at the bottom, and the wings and keel
are purplish. The following observations are interesting, as regarding the
culture of plants of this genus. “ Unless the roots of these plants are care-
fully watered, and the soil kept well drained, there is no tribe more likely to
die off in a sudden manner, when they have attained any size. They should
be potted high in the centre of the pot, so as to have the junction of the
roots with the stem almost bare ; and we would prefer a soil with more of
light open loam in it than one containing so much heath-mould as is commonly
used. But, whatever soil be chosen, it should be well mixed with pieces of
broken stone or potsherds for drainage.” (Paxt. Mag. Bot., June, 1843.)

racemuldsa Benth Ww |_|} pr 2 my IL. SwanRiver 1841. C s.p _ Bot. reg. 1843, 4.

This is also a native of the Swan River colony, and was introduced by
Captain Mangles. The flowers are small, but very pretty. They are lilac with
a little yellow at the base of the stamen, and they are produced in racemes.
(Bot. Reg. Jan. 1843.)

3584, LA/LAGE [mag. bot. vol. ix. p. 171.
hoveefolia Paxt. Hovea-leafed w \_] or 2 f Y.R.P NewHolland 1841. C sp Paxt.

This is a very pretty little plant, still more showy than L. ornata. It
requires an airy situation with abundance oflight. (Paat. Mag. Bot. Sept. 1842.)

1248. OXYLO'BIUM 30400 capitatum Bot. Reg. 1843, 16. (1843, 36.
Obovatum obovate @ ;_] pr 2 ap R.Y Swan River 1841. C sp ‘Bot. reg.

This is the same plant as that called by Mr. Bentham O. cuneatum, on
account of its wedge-shaped leaves, but Dr. Lindley does not think there is
any specific difference between it and Mr. Bentham’s O. obovatum. It “is
best cultivated in rather poor soil, and great care should be taken never to let
it suffer for want of water, as in that case it rarely recovers.” (Bot. Reg.,
July, 1843.)

1248. OXYLO‘BIUM 10514 Pultenée.
1943 BOSSIA*4

virgata Hook. twiggy “ \_J] pr 2 jn Y.R Swan River 1841. s.p Bot. mag. 3986.

A Swan River species with elongated twiggy branches, which are flattened

and winged. The flowers are very small, and of no beauty. (Bot. Mag.,
Dec. 1842.)

paucifilia Benth. A little Swan River spiny bush, with yellow and crimson
flowers. This plant was flowered by Mr. Low of Clapton. Bossize\a erio-
carpa (see Hort. Brit., p. 614.) has lately flowered with Mr. Groom of
Clapham ; but the flowers are of a dingy nankeen colour. The habit of the
plant, however, and its leaves, are much handsomer than those of most other
species of the genus.

On the Rust in Grapes. 449

Art. XIV. On the Rust in Grapes. By AviqQuis.

I HAVE just been tying down the young shoots of some vines, and, while
doing so, I began to think on the variety of opinions existing with respect
to rust on grapes; some referring the cause to one thing and some to another.

After what has been said on the subject by far more able men than myself, it
will, perhaps, be thought presumption in me to say anything at all about it ;
but, with your leave, 1’ll just tell you, and those who like to read it, what I
know about it. I do not pretend to say that I could cure it at all times ; but
this I know, that whereas it was once a common thing with me, now I never
see it. As itis possible some one may be situated as I was at the time I used
to have rust in abundance, I will proceed to state how I imagine I got rid of it.

About twenty years ago I entered upon the situation [ still hold. The
vines, I should suppose, were full twenty years old then. They appeared to
have been planted with very little preparation, in a very indifferent soil, with
plantations of trees and shrubs within fifteen yards of the house, and so situ-
ated as to render it almost, ifnot altogether, impossible to improve the border,
so that I had little chance of doing them any good, if the evil existed in the
border, as I then thought it did, and as others think now. Since that period,
however, I have come to the conclusion that internal management has quite
as much to do with it as the soil in which they grow. My first attempt inside
the house was to remove the flues, from going almost close to the wall, to
about 2 ft. from it, in order that the vines should not be burnt at the bottom
of the stems, where they entered the house, while they were cold at the top.
I then had the wall cut down where the stems had been led up through to
reach the rafters, in doing which I discovered that only a small hole up the
centre of the wall had been left when the vines were young, and that, in some
instances, they had so completely filled it, that the little rough bits of mortar
had got embedded in the vines, in such a way as to make one wonder how they
lived at all, rather than that they did no better. To remedy this, I had the
wall cut clean through from bottom to top, leaving an opening of about 4 in.
wide for the vines. I then had the outside built up with very thin bricks,
in cement, from the border to the plate on which the front sashes slide, a
height of about 2 ft., the inside being left quite open. By this means you
will readily see that, instead of the vines being squeezed in the dry brick-
work, they were left free to enjoy the moist atmosphere of the house, which
moisture is caused by damping the flues and constructing the tops of them so
that they will hold water from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the
degree of heat required; a precaution quite necessary with those who, like
myself, are obliged to put up with the old-fashioned brick flues, though, by
the by, if they are well constructed and properly managed, they are not so
far inferior to hot-water pipes as some people would have us believe. Having
arranged matters to my satisfaction, so as to beable to keep up the required
degree of heat, which you will remember must at that time be done to a great
nicety, as it would have been but little use then to have talked of trying from
10° to 20° less heat at night than what was required by day (for that would
have been thought quite sufficient to destroy almost every thing in the house), I
used all my endeavours to produce a good crop of grapes, and in this I suc-
ceeded, and was much pleased with them, till, after having thinned them, I
perceived something brown upon them, which was chiefly confined to the
Black Hamburgs. Up to this time I do not recollect ever having seen or
heard of rust; for I dare say you recollect that at that time horticul-
tural knowledge did not travel at the railroad pace it has done since your
Magazine and the weekly gardening papers have been published, conveying
misfortunes and remedies from one end of the country to the other in a
few hours. What was the cause, or what the remedy to remove it, I was
quite ignorant of; but from the circumstance of only some bunches being so,
while others were free from it, I could not come to the conclusion that it was
in the soil. Iwas, however, obliged to let it remain, with the hope that at

GG 3

450 On the Rust in Grapes.

some future time a remedy would be discovered for it ; but this was not all,
for, as soon as the berries began to colour, I discovered the stalks of many of
them, especially those at the end of the bunches and those at the end of the
shoulders, turning black, or, as | believe it is now termed, shanking. This was
at once attributed to the cold wet bottom on which the vines grew, but, for-
tunately for my argument, this, as I stated before, could not be altered. These
berries were of course soon got rid of, as they made the bunches look bad.
I began now to look forward to the time when they should become black,
but here again I was disappointed, as many of them never got beyond red,
while many others did not even get to that, neither did they acquire that firm-
ness in the skin which they ought ; for, although large and sweet, they were
pale and soft. Having gone through all the various stages of one year’s
growth, I could think of nothing short of fresh borders to remove the evil, till
towards the end of the summer I observed that at the upper end of the shoots,
where some of the buds had started and brought fruit, these bunches being
left to themselves, without thinning, and fully exposed to the opening of the
top sashes, had, notwithstanding this apparent neglect, become quite black,
firm-fleshed, and free from shanking or rust, though of course very small, as
they were not considered worth notice. Now, Sir, if the evil existed in the
soil, do you not think it would have affected the latter as well as the former ?
1 thought so, and therefore did nothing to the border beyond adding some
fresh loam to the top, and continuing to dress it every year or thereabouts
with rotten dung, making ita rule never to dig the border, but, previously to
laying on the dung, just break the crust at top. But to return: how long things
went on in the above way I cannot at this time remember, but, as it regards the
rust, it was suggested that probably the handling of the berries in thinning
might cause it. I therefore selected several bunches from various parts of the
house, and rubbed them all over; I then marked them and left them to their
fate, and Lhad the satisfaction to see that they were rusted beyond any IT had
ever seen, and felt perfectly satisfied that for the future it might be greatly
prevented ; and since | have taken care that they should not be handled or
rubbed, I do not believe I have had any rust.

I have recently seen something of this sort stated elsewhere, and contra-
dicted; but, as far as my experience goes, I can assert that it is true. Having
got over this difficulty, I began to think of getting over the others. By this
time, I had received a hint from some one (I think the late Mr. Knight) re-
specting night temperature and morning air. This seemed so reasonable that
I at once gave up the idea of keeping the thermometer so regular as before,
and since that time I have grown as good grapes as can reasonably be ex-
pected from the same vines, and have as good a crop as I would wish to
see. The house is about 60 ft. long, 15 ft. wide, rafters 17 ft., with one shoot
or shoots up each rafter, and the same up the middle of the light pro-
ducing about forty bunches to a light. Of course I do not mean to say
that vines thus situated and thus cropped will produce grapes like those on
prepared borders of modern times, but quite sufficient for the demands of
most families.

These remarks have been occasioned by reading the various opinions on
the subject in different works, some of which seem to me to carry little weight
with them. Therefore, before any of your readers incur a great expense to
remedy the evil complained of, I would beg to advise them to try a more
natural method of growing them, if, like me, they have hitherto treated them
more tenderly than they require. Should these observations, coming from
this remote spot, prove acceptable to you or your readers, perhaps at some
time or other I may be mduced to trouble you again. I hope you will excuse
what has been thus hastily thrown together by one who at that time never
thought of becoming a writer in the Gardener’s Magazine, and will, perhaps,
be thought by some, that it were better if he had still been turning the clods
of the valley.

Middlesex, April, 1843.

General Notices. 451

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

- Art. I. General Notices.

CoNnsUMING the Smoke of Hothouse Furnaces. —The injury done to plants by
the portions of soot which are carried up the chimney flues of the furnaces
for heating hot-water apparatus, steam boilers, and common smoke flues, and
diffused in the atmosphere, is considerable; and the unsightly appearance
produced is a worse evil than even the injury. As hothouse fires are seldom
required to burn bright there is no way of getting rid of the nuisance eftec-
tually, except by burning coke or wood ; but in some cases where one large
furnace heats all the hothouses of an extensive range, as used to be the case
formerly at Messrs. Loddiges, Hackney, then some mode of burning the
smoke may be adopted. We have in p. 314. noticed Mr. Juckes’s plan, which
we have since seen at work in the establishment of Messrs. Easton and Amos,
and consider by far the most effectual smoke-consuming apparatus hitherto
invented; and we have now to describe that adopted in the printing-office of
the Messrs. Chambers of Edinburgh, the proprietors and publishers of that
admirable work, Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal. Messrs. Chambers employ a
four-horse high-pressure engine. At first they adopted Ivison’s patent pro-
cess for burning the smoke, which answered well, but they altered to a plan
which answered better, and which is thus described.

“The furnace, which is of the usual construction, we keep closed with an
iron door. All the air required for combustion is admitted from the ash-pit
beneath. We, however, keep the mouth of the ash-pit closed also, and admit
air into it by a tube near the bottom on one side. Into the ash-pit is like-
wise conducted the pipe of waste steam from the engine, by which a constant
stream of steam mingles with the air, and ascends into the fire above. This
administration of steam with atmospheric air to the flame of the furnace de-
stroys the smoke. In point of fact, no smoke is observable from the chimney ;
certainly not more at least than from a small room fire, except when the
process is deranged by opening the furnace door to shovel in coal. The coal
being supplied and the door shut, the smoke instantly dies away, and speedily
disappears. The air-tube into the ash-pit is not conducted immediately from
the outer atmosphere, but from a series of tributary tubes from the respective
floors of our printing-office, by which means the foul air of the house is
drawn away and consumed. Of course the tube from the outer air will have
the same effect. To any steam-engine furnace this plan can be applied at a
most insignificant cost, and without any structural alteration.” (IV. Chambers,
in the Scotsman, May 13. 1843.) In our Volume for 1837, p. 370., a mode of
adding strength to the fire of a washing-house boiler by admitting the waste
steam from the boiler into the ash-pit, immediately under the bars of the grate,
is described ; and from the above information by Mr. Chambers it would ap-
pear that smoke is consumed, as well as strength added to the fire.

Having sent the foregoing paragraph to an eminent engineer, he returned it
with the following remarks :—

“ Hothouses, conservatories, &c., have generally low chimneys, hence com-
bustion is very imperfect ; a jet of steam introduced beneath the bars quickens
the draught, and prevents the bars from becoming choked by clinker. In
factories where condensing engines are used, working with high chimneys, this
plan would not be economical, and the steam thrown beneath the bars might be
said to be nearly all waste; the chimney causes sufficient draught and com-
bustion. In factories where non-condensing engines are used a jet of steam
from the exhaust pipe will do good by working the damper lower and accele-
rating the draught by the steam beneath the bars, as the steam would
otherwise be thrown useless into the atmosphere, while cold air must be
introduced to support combustion ; and I doubt not but that a certain portion
of steam would be found more beneficial, believing it to be composed of ele-

GG 4

452 General Notices.

ments more pure and suitable for combustion than an equal volume of at-
mospheric air.— EZ. A. May 29. 1843.” — Cond.

Asphalte Walks, for the entrance walks to small suburban villas and street
houses having front gardens, may be strongly recommended, from their always
being in order, never yielding to the feet in the wettest weather, lodging no
water, and requiring no weeding or cleaning, farther than sweeping off any
leaves or other matters that may fall on them. — Cond.

Rockwork in the Walton Nursery, Liverpool.— A friend having described
this rockwork as the most remarkable he had ever seen, and recommended us
to get a description of it, we wrote to Mr. Skirving, and the following is an
extract from the answer of his foreman of the landscape-gardening depart-
ment, Mr. Henderson : —

«With respect to the rockwork in this nursery, I regret to inform you that
the person (William Newman), a natural genius, who has done himself so
much credit in erecting rock grottoes, &c., in this neighbourhood, died sud-
denly a week or two previously to your note reaching us. Having sent for him
for the purpose of forming a rock, &c., for a gentleman near Liverpool, on his
way from London per railway he got wet and caught cold, which (in a frame
predisposed) brought on fever, and carried him off in a few days ; leaving a
wife and seven children wholly unprovided to deplore an irreparable loss.

« His eldest son (only twenty years of age) having been for some years the
constant companion and assistant of his father, we are now anxious to esta-
blish in his place, he being the only support and dependence of his mother
and her family ; and we think he will in a short time be quite equal to his
father in taste and execution. I enclose two of his pencil sketches, which
may convey to you some idea of the progress he has already made, and enable
you to form an opinion of his work. For an individual who has been denied
the advantages of education, or any opportunity for mental improvement, or

time for study, except that connected with unremitting labour, I think he

evinces something of latent talent.

“ Tn two instances where he has finished work, I could see little to find fault
with, except that of not having his blocks or masses large enough, rather
frittering them into pieces too small, or divisions rather insignificant ; the
hint was sufficient. I find he has already corrected himself in this particular.

“He is at present employed for Thomas Sands, Esq., Aighurth, near this
town. His mother lives (and of course it is hishome) at No. 2. Hamilton
Street, Wandsworth Road, London.

“ Should you feel satisfied that he is worthy your support and interest as an
artist, it will, I assure you, be an act of charity towards the widow and the
orphan to lend him a helping hand. I know that he is now remitting to his
mother regularly the larger portion of his weekly earnings.

“ The following is, I fear, a very imperfect description of the rock here.

“The rockwork in the Walton Nursery is placed at the boundary of the
small lawn and pleasure-ground attached to the dwelling-house, and divides
the former from the nursery grounds. It is, properly speaking, an arch thrown
across one of the main walks, but has wings, or rugged masses, extending into
and losing their terminations among dense evergreen shrubberies.

‘The skeleton, or shell, of rockwork, being hollow and filled with soil, is
formed of common walling stene, and the fused or vitrified masses from brick-
kilns; these masses are afterwards covered with Roman cement, and formed
into blocks, recesses, and projections, or overhanging crags, just as may suit
the taste or fancy of the artist. Apertures and interstices are left for receiv-
ing alpine shrubs and rock plants. The whole is left to dry properly ; then
it is painted with oil paint, so as to have all the appearance of veined or stra-
tified granite ; of course the sky outline is broken and pointed generally. All
shell, coral, or vitrified materials are rejected, except where the proprietor of
the grounds insists on their introduction. I now allude to rockwork ; grot-
toes are another matter.— William Henderson, Walton Nursery, July 8. 1843.”

Domestic Notices: — Lngland. 453

Such of our readers as have it in their power to recommend the young
artist and dutiful son, the distressing situation of whose family is described
by Mr. Henderson, will, we are sure, consider it a duty to do so. To many
gentlemen and ladies anxious to put up rockwork, but who do not know how
to set about it, such a workman as Mr. Newman, who joins the artist to the
artisan, would be a treasure.— Cond.

Baillie’s rounded enamelled Case Lock, with secret and secure fixings, is
a great improvement on locks of the common kind; and we can safely recom-
mend it both for villas and cottages, and for the doors of greenhouses. For
the latter it is particularly adapted from the sharp angles, which in the case of
common locks are very apt to tear ladies’ dresses, being entirely done away
with. Altogether this lock is a very great improvement, and it costs very
little more than locks of the common kind.— Cond.

Art. II. Domestic Notices.

ENGLAND.

THE Exhibitions in the Horticultural Societys Garden on June 17. and July 12.
were, as usual, well attended: on the former day there were 11,060, and on
the latter 7560; the total number of visitors at the three exhibitions was
23,335 persons. Among the articles exhibited on July 12. was a collection
of Mexican pines and firs in pots, raised in the garden by Mr. Gordon, chiefly
from seeds sent home by M. Hartweg; the plants were beautifully grown,
and nothing could be more vigorous than the shoots produced by most of
them, especially those of Picea religidsa. There was also a vigorous plant of
Thuja péndula, which appears to be a sport from Thuja orientalis, as M. Leroy
of Angers found it in a bed of seedlings of that species. The Duke of
Devonshire, with his usual liberality, threw his grounds open to the visitors to
the garden on July 12., who seemed highly gratified with His Grace’s kindness.

The grounds of the Chiswick Villa, so much admired in the time of Lord
Burlington and Kent, were in better order than we ever saw them before.
Breadth has, in some degree, been restored to the sloping lawn, by removing
(or perhaps they may have died) a number of the trees and shrubs with
which it was dotted over. Much, however, requires to be done at this place
to render it what it ought to be. The first thing that we should do would be
to cut down the old cedars close to the entrance-front, which destroy the
effect of the beautiful architecture of the house ; we would then form a
terrace on the side of the house next the sloping bank, out of which terrace
we would lead a proper walk to the surrounding or boundary walk, which at
present is entered in a mean insignificant manner, as if it were of little con-
sequence, though it is the main walk of the place. Nothing can be more
awkward than the junction of the winding approach road with the broad
straight avenue which leads to the entrance-front of the house, unless it be
the termination of that avenue at the house without any expansion whatever.
The other end of the avenue terminates equally abruptly, without expansion
or terminating object, so that it appears totally unconnected at that end, and
gives no idea of continuity. At such a place as this one would expect the
undergrowths among the trees to be chiefly flowering evergreens; and near
the water at this season, for the place is naturally exceedingly green and dull,
we expect azaleas in masses. The rhododendrons, we are happy to see,
are being increased in number ; and the azaleas and other flowering shrubs with
warm colours, and for winter red-barked dog-woods and yellow-barked willows,
will doubtless appear in due time. There are some large and also curious
specimens of trees in these grounds, all of which have been noticed in our
Arboretum Britannicum ; but we cannot help directing attention to the birch,

454 Domestic Notices : — England.

the trunk of which is now about a foot in diameter, which is growing out of
the heart of the trunk of a cherry tree, which, though only alive in the outer
rim, still continues to grow and increase. Near this is an immense Oriental

plane, which last year ripened its seeds. It is to be regretted that nursery- _

men continue to neglect this beautiful and very hardy tree, preferring that
comparatively worthless one the Occidental plane, because it strikes more
readily by cuttings. Magnolia macrophflla has this year produced some
dozens of flowers ; ; but the fine specimen of Quércus virens that we figured
is dead. The walk from the Horticultural Society’s garden to the orna-
mental grounds of the duke’s villa passes through His Grace’s kitchen-
garden, the surrounding walls of which, we observed, were crowned or rather
coped with a row of plants of I‘ris germanica. A gutter, lined with Roman
cement, we were informed, was made along the top of the wall to retain the
soil in which the plants are planted, and they are watered occasionally. This
taste, being that of a duke, will of course be admired ; but, notwithstanding the
very great respect which we have for the Duke of Devonshire as an extremely
liberal and kind-hearted man, we cannot bring ourselves to look with pleasure
on aquatic plants placed in such a position. If a fringe of flowers were to
be placed there, Hrysimum Perowskidnum, wallflowers, iberis, snapdragons,
pinks, and a host of evergreen Cruciferae, Labiate, Caryophyllez, &c., that
would have kept up a bloom throughout the summer, might have been
employed. Nevertheless, the Duke of Devonshire, as well as every othe

individual, has a right to indulge in his own particular taste; but when we
express our admiration of one part of a residence or scene, we may be per-
mitted also to mention those parts of it of which we cannot approve.
One advantage of covering the top of a wall with irises is, that they will not
shed their seeds on the grounds below, which cannot be said of the flora of
the wall tops of some kitchen-gardens and even botanic gardens: Kew, for
example, as it used to be.

The second Exhibition of the Royal Botanic Society in the Regent’s Park, on
June 28., was still better attended than the first, and it is gratifying to find
that these exhibitions are bri inging forward a new class of visitors altogether
to garden exhibitions, viz. families who can spare an hour or two to go toa
place within a ride of a few minutes, or a short walk of their residence, who
could not spare a day and the expense of a carriage of some kind during the
whole day, to go to Turnham Green. The mount in these gardens is a great
attraction, and the natural arrangement of herbaceous plants will soon become
exceedingly interesting. When the winter garden is once compieted, the attrac-
tion, for that season, will probably surpass that of every thing of the kind in
the neighbourhood of London.

Kew Gardens, since they have been put under the direction of Sir W.
Hooker, have undergone very great improvements, which fully justify the
government in having employed that enthusiastic botanist and active-minded
accomplished man. ‘The wall which separated the botanic garden from the
pleasure-ground has been thrown down, so as to admit views to glades among
the trees and shrubs ; some new houses have been built, and others have
been altered and greatly improved. The araucaria has been relieved from the
brick parapet that surrounded it, and several cart-loads of suitable soil have
been placed at the extremities of the roots, and the whole turfed over. We
should have preferred omitting the turf, and mulching the ground as far as
the roots extended, and a little further, with the leaves of pines and firs, in
order the more readily to admit the air and rain to the roots, and supply
them with the saline ingredients common to the Conifere. Pines and firs in
a state of nature always destroy the grass and other herbaceous plants that
spring up under the shade of their lower branches, but unfortunately this
tree has lost its lower branches, and therefore requires the aid of art to do
what they would have done. We were much gratified to observe a very
complete collection of British plants arranged according to the natural

Domestic Notices: — Scotland. 455

system, and correctly named; but we cannot altogether approve of an
avenue of standard roses carried through the middle of the botanic garden.
Shrubs of kinds which make small and curious heads, such as different species
of Caragdna, as may be seen in Lee’s nursery, and a variety of other things of
the kind, a list of which will be found in the concluding article on cemeteries,
which will appear in the October Number of this Magazine, would, we think,
be preferable. We were also glad to see the heaps of rubbish commonly
designated rockwork done away with, conceiving them, unless constructed
in a very different manner from what they have ever been at Kew, as
totally unsuitable for botanic gardens. In a pleasure-ground, a rockwork is
chiefly to be considered as a pictorial feature ; in a botanic garden it ought
never, in our opinion, to be resorted to, except for such rock plants as will
not thrive on the general surface of the garden. We would apply this prin-
ciple equally in the case of marsh plants and aquatics. The next thing that
we should like to see done at Kew would be an extension of the arboretum,
or rather the planting of a new one, to extend along the whole of the cir-
cumferential plantation of the pleasure-ground. The length of the walk
would be, we believe, nearly two miles, and this would allow of most, or all,
of the trees attaining their full size, and also of adding any new species or
varieties in their proper places from time to time, as they were introduced or
originated. We have elsewhere (see Arb. Not.) mentioned the Antarctic
beeches ; and we also saw some species of Clématis, Jasminum, Rubus, and
Dacrydium, from New Zealand, some of which may possibly be hardy, more
especially Dacrydium Jai. As these plants, and a number of others, are
about to be sold by auction, those that are worth cultivating will soon be
extensively propagated. — Cond.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England held their great annual meeting
at Derby, on July 11, 12, and 13. It was well attended, ‘and the exhi-
bition of new implements was far greater than had ever before taken place.
For a full account of all that passed, as well as for engravings of some of the
implements, we refer to the New Farmer’s Journal and Supplement of July 17.,
and to Johnson’s Annual Register of Agricultural Improvements for 1843.—Cond.

SCOTLAND.

Testimonial to Dr. Neill.— On June 22. the Scottish practical gardeners,
amounting to 600 presented their testimonial to Dr. Neill, to whom garden-
ing and Scotch gardeners, all over the world, but more especially in Scotland,
are more indebted than to any man alive, or that ever has lived. Dr. Neill
is not only a scientific naturalist and horticulturist, but, as every one knows
who has had the happiness to become acquainted with him, one of the
kindest-hearted of human beings.

“The testimonial is a handsome silver vase, supported on a triangular
pedestal, and standing on an appropriate plateau. The lid of the vase is
surmounted with a figure of Britannia in the Scottish form, and, with this
exception, is plain, and rests on the projecting border of the vase, which is
composed of a broad wreath of the vine, in fruit and foliage. Below this
wreath the vase narrows much, forming the neck; and afterwards shoulders
out in a graceful manner. On the centre compartment, on one side of the
vase, is placed an excellent medallion likeness of Dr. Neill, surrounded with a
wreath of flowers, composed of Nierembérgia calycina, Philibértia grandiflora,
and Tweédia certlea. On each side of the wreath is arranged a festoon of
fruit, composed of the principal varieties now in cultivation, both from tropical
and temperate climates. The fruit is separated from the flowers by two
ornamental honeysuckle scrolls undulating to the pedestal ; on the top of each
is placed a juvenile figure, the one representing Spring, and the other Summer,
each bearing its appropriate emblems. On the centre of the opposite side of
the vase, corresponding with the medallion, is placed the inscription, in the
following words : —

456 Domestic Notices: — Scotland.

PRESENTED
TO
PATRICK NEILL, LL.D. F.RS.E., ETC.
SECRETARY OF THE
ROYAL CALEDONIAN HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY,
BY
SIX HUNDRED PRACTICAL GARDENERS,
NATIVES OF SCOTLAND,
IN TESTIMONY OF THEIR HIGH ESTEEM
FOR HIS PERSONAL CHARACTER,
AND GRATITUDE FOR THE ZEALOUS AND LONG-CONTINUED
DEVOTION OF HIS TIME AND TALENTS
TO THE CAUSE OF HORTICULTURE,
AND THE INTERESTS OF
ITS CULTIVATORS.
EDINBURGH, XXII. JUNE M.DCCC.XLIII.

Surrounding the inscription is placed another wreath, composed of Nierem-
bérgia intermedia, Manéttia cordifolia, Tropze‘olum pentaphyllum, and Physi-
-Anthus albicans. The plants forming these wreaths were first figured in the
botanical periodicals, from specimens cultivated in Dr. Neill’s gar den at Canon-
mills, and most of them were introduced into Britain by himself. Two festoons
of fruit also adorn this side, cor responding with those described, and sepa-
rated from the flowers by two honeysuckle scrolls, surmounted by figures
emblematical of Autumn and Winter. The handles represent vine branches
entwined together, and diverging at top and bottom, clasping the vase.

“The vase is united to its triangular pedestal by a collet composed of
acanthus leaves, and spreading out at top and bottom. On the upper surface
of the triangular pedestal are placed three female figures emblematical of
Flora, Pomona, and Ceres. On the tablet of the pedestal, immediately below
the medallion, is placed the Neill crest, surrounded with a wreath of the
Scotch thistle. On the second tablet is represented a span-roofed green-
house, stove, and vinery, being an exact perspective representation of the
hothouses in Dr. Neill’s garden at Canonmills. On the third tablet is repre-
sented a group of garden implements in common use at the present day.
Three beautiful representations of some of those plants which have been
named in compliment to Dr. Neill are placed on the small square tablets
occupying the corners of the triangular pedestal immediately above the feet ;
viz., Alstreeméria Neillz, Hrica Neillis, and Nefllia thyrsiflora, the last of
which is a genus native of Nepal, and named in compliment to Dr. Neill by
the late Professor Don of King’s College, London.

“<The plateau or stand is also richly embossed with flowers, and the centre
composed of thick plate mirror.

“ The vase, with its plateau, is the workmanship of Messrs. Mackay, Cun-
ninghame, and Co., 47. New Buildings, North Bridge, Edinburgh. It stands
2 ft. high, and is considered by experienced judges to be the most elaborate
piece of plate ever manufactured in Edinburgh.”

Great praise is due to Mr. M‘Nab, jun., for his extraordinary activity in
procuring the cooperation of so many individuals in so short a time. We
understand, also, that Mr. M‘Nab was in a great measure the author of the
design of the vase, of which, as well as of a portrait of Dr. Neill, we may
probably, at some future time, be able to give engravings.

At the presentation dinner, a great number of persons, particularly practical
gardeners, were present ; and Mr. Sang, nurseryman, Kirkaldy, a man in every
way after Dr. Neill’s own heart, and, if we may be permitted to say so, also
after ours, was placed in the chair. Mr. Sang was supported on the right by
Dr. Neill ; Professor Traill ; Mr. Gray, banker, Greenock ; Mr. Mackay, jewel-
ler ; Mr. Stevenson, civil engineer ; Mr. Graham of Robhill, W.S.; Captain
Gemmill ; Mr. Stephens, Editor of the Agricultural Journal, &c.: on the left
by James Wilson, Esq.; Charles Cobbold, Esq.; Mr. Geo. Logan, W.S. ;

Domestic Notices: Scotland. 457

Mr. A. Symington ; Mr. Isaac Anderson, S.S.C.; Dr. Spittal ; Charles Wm.
Wright, Esq., &c. The croupiers were Mr. Murray of the Glasgow Botanic
Gardens; Mr. Mackintosh, Dalkeith Park; and Mr. Smith, Hopetoun House.
Among the company were many eminent horticulturists, assembled from all
parts of Scotland, to do honour to the merits of Dr. Neill.

After the presentation, and the usual loyal toasts had been proposed,

The Chairman said: “ My first duty is to return you my sincere thanks for
the high honour you haye done me in placing me in my present situation on
such a day, a day of no ordinary felicity to me, and to those gentlemen who
are here assembled, when we have amongst us such a highly respectable and
learned individual, and such a perfectly successful horticulturist, as Dr. Neill.
(Cheers.) Whatever I might say in his honour is already in your minds;
and the feelings which have brought you here render praise from me altogether
unnecessary. I do not know where I should begin in any observations I may
make upon that gentleman. I have known him long; but I did not know him
before he was a most enthusiastic horticulturist. I found him four and thirty
years ago devoted to that pleasant science; and I found him not then a
novice ; for even then he would bear a comparison with the most intelligent
of his compeers. (Cheers.) He has never ceased, from that time up to this
day, to continue in that most desirable and gratifying pursuit; and he has
never permitted an opportunity to pass without embracing it to bring any
plant into notice which might be useful ; and one of his chief excellences is,
that he never permits an opportunity to pass without endeavouring to confer
some favour upon horticulturists. Many of the young men whom I see
around me can bear testimony to this, that when they have devoted their
energies under their master’s directions to produce something that may attract
notice, they at once look up to Dr. Neill, and they invariably receive from
him kindness, attention, and courtesy. (Cheers.) It is that feeling that has
brought so many of us together at this time. But what are we? We are
only a trifling portion of those gentlemen who have resolved to express their
admiration of Dr. Neill. There are here but two or three of his neighbours.
His admirers stretch not only over Great Britain; they stretch over the
Continent ; they have found their way into Asia; and very many of the sub-
scribers to the Neill testimonial live in America. (Cheers.) I cannot look
upon this scene, and contrast it with the time to which I before alluded,
without feelings somewhat peculiar. Then our exhibitions were little cared
for by the public till Dr. Neill excited them to attend, by bringing forward
annually the choice productions of the Horticultural Society, of which he was
then, and has since continued to be, the indefatigable secretary. We, the
practical gardeners, also brought forward our productions, and with them we
brought our little descriptions of them; but, as you may expect from what
you have heard of me, they were ill filled up. (Laughter and cheers.)
But they never appeared before the public in that state; they got a new coat
on their back, and we got all the honour of it; but there sits the gentleman
who did it. (Cheers.) Then look at the Horticultural Memoirs from the
year 1809 to the present day ; look at the whole of them. It was this gentle-
man’s careful hand that went over every one of them, generally speaking, and
put them into a decent dress. We see horticulture now raised to a position
of great eminence; we see people looking upon the wonderful productions of
nature wherever they get an opportunity of doing so; and the gentleman who
assisted us to attain this pitch of eminence was my friend Dr. Neill. ( Cheers.)
I have no need to say a word more; you all know, better than I do, his
merits. I live at a distance; Dr. Neill is among you every day: but I see
that he is every where respected. I believe that he is a gentleman of high
attainments, of cultivated mind; and I see that he has taken the highest
honours which science confers upon any of her worshippers (cheers) ; and
I am sure, judging from ourselves, he could not get these honours unless
he well deserved them. (Cheers.) There are no fewer than 600 bre-
thren united together; and we who are here represent our brethren scat-

458 Domestic Notices : — Scotland.

tered over the world, as I have ‘already mentioned ; and they have thought it
right to express their feelings of gratitude, their feelings of pleasure in a small
mark of esteem, as a testimony of their regard to the worthy Doctor; and
the purport of this meeting is therefore to present that learned and excellent
gentleman with this mark and token of the esteem the horticulturists of
Scotland have for him. I proceed, therefore, without farther preface, to
present the testimonial to the Doctor.” (Here the chaplet of flowers in
which the vase had been covered, was removed amid the cheers of the
audience.) The chairman proceeded. ‘“ Dr. Neill, permit me, as the repre-
sentative of 600 brethren of Scottish practical horticulturists, as a token of
their admiration and gratitude for what you have done for their science, to
present you with this small testimonial, which they beg you to accept, with
their warmest wishes for your long life and happiness. May you live in
happiness and high felicity, not among us, but in the community where you
reside ; and when at last you close your eyes, may you go to the great Parent
of all, and there enjoy the reward of your works!” (Loud applause.) Before
sitting down, the chairman explained to the meeting that this was exclusively
a Scottish testimonial, as the contributions of several English gardeners had
been declined.

Dr. Neill rose, evidently under considerable emotion, and said: “I assure
you it would be vain in me to attempt giving utterance to the feelings which
now agitate my breast, and you cannot wonder after what has just been said
and after all that has passed. I must just beg of you to look into your own
generous breasts, and to imagine what ought to be the feelings of gratitude in
my mind, and to give credit to me for such feelings. One thing I am sure of,
that my merits have been much overrated. I have no claims upon your
attention, except those of long and willing service as secretary to the Cale-
donian Horticultural Society. (Cheers.) I am aware that this meeting has
no proper connexion with that Society; but I hope you will pardon me for
alluding to it, because it is only from my connexion with that Society that I
have come in contact with the practical gardeners of Scotland, and it is to
them I owe this great meeting. With regard to the observations made by
our excellent chairman, it is now thirty-four years since I met with him in
that Society, soon after its institution, when Dr. Duncan, the father and
founder of the Society, was good enough to} propose to conjom me with
Walter Nicol, as joint secretary. He was a most distinguished horticulturist
of his day, and eminent in his profession as a landscape-gardener. He also
was, however, soon carried to the grave, and I was then associated with
Mr. Thomas Dickson, a scientific name, and a name well known in the annals
of Scottish horticulture. He, too, also soon departed, and for the last quarter
of a century I have been the sole secretary. No doubt, the office is attended
with occasional labour ; but it has been upon the whole a pleasant office to
me. Although there is no salary attached to it any more than there is to
the office of treasurer, yet I must confess that I have not been without my
rewards, and I cannot fail on this occasion to mention and to acknowledge
them. So long ago as 1817, I received the gold medal which I now wear ;
and in 1821, when I was absent on the Continent, the Society was kind
enough to vote me a massy piece of plate—a salver, with an inscription
written by Sir George Mackenzie. And, as if that were not enough, to my
great surprise and most unexpectedly, last autumn, Lord Murray proposed
that my bust should be placed in the New Hall, executed in marble by
Mr. Steell, the most eminent sculptor of the day. (Loud cheers.) And now,
to crown all these proceedings, the practical gardeners of Scotland have come
forward with this testimonial, and I must confess that is a consummation
which I never anticipated. (Cheers.) Your chairman has mentioned that
no fewer than 600 Scotch horticulturists have united in contributing to it.
That is most overwhelming. It is tar, indeed, beyond what the warmest
imagination of my youthful fancy ever led me to expect. It is also delightful
to me to see placed in the chair the father of our profession ; and to see him

Retrospective Criticism.— Queries and Answers. 459

supported by the curators of the botanic gardens in Edinburgh and Glasgow,
by the chief gardener to the noble president of the Horticultural Society,
himself a distinguished writer on horticulture and an excellent practical
gardener, and by Mr. Smith of Hopetoun House, the earliest and most suc-
cessful practical gardener in Scotland, and also a writer on horticultural
science. (Cheers.) I assure you that a simple vote of thanks from this
assemblage representing, as it does, 600 of the practical gardeners of Scotland,
—a vote of thanks would have been enough, and more than enough, for me.
But no: so far were they from confining themselves to thanks, that they
had embodied their thanks in this testimonial which the chairman had repeat-
edly chosen to designate as small, but which I will call costly, splendid, and
lasting. (Hear.) It is the most magnificent piece of workmanship of the
kind which I have seen. I observe that the floral decorations have been
selected with scientific taste, and my offices have been placed on it ; that is,
indeed, flattering ; but it certainly appropriates the thing most completely,
and I will say that it has been executed with consummate taste, and does the
utmost credit to the state of art in Edinburgh. (Cheers.) I feel the deep
obligations which you have placed me under. I am sensible that my merits
have been much overrated; but_be assured of this, that, as long as life lasts,
[shall retain a grateful sense of your kindness ; and I believe that the events
of this evening will be among the last things which will fade from my
memory.” (Loud cheers.)

Dr. Neill again rose and proposed in a second speech, as a toast, “ Scottish
Gardeners and Horticulturists,” which was answered by Mr. Smith of
Hopetoun House. The chairman proposed the health of “ Mr. James
M‘Nab of the Experimental Gardens,” who had bestowed no ordinary ex-
ertion in getting up the testimonial, &c. Many other professional and local
toasts were given, prefaced with appropriate speeches, and the company
separated in the happiest mood, about 10 o’clock. For farther details we
must refer to the Scotsman of June 24th, and Edinburgh Evening Courant of
the same date.

Lhe Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland held their half-yearly
meeting on July 4th, when evidence was given of a spirit being at work by no
means inferior in point of activity to that stirred up in England by the
English Agricultural Society. (Scotsman, July 8. 1843.)

A new public Cemetery at Edinburgh has lately been opened to the public.
Tt is in a most delightful situation at Warriston, about two miles from town,
and commanding fine views of the sea, Edinburgh Castle, Calton Hill, Arthur’s
Seat, and the Costorphin and Pentland Hills. We have not seen the plan,
but, when we do so, we shall notice the subject again, hoping in the meantime
that the arrangement is such that now, and in all future time, every grave may
be examined, without stepping over any other grave. — Cond.

Arr. Ill. Retrospective Criticism.

ERRATA.—In Vol. VII. p. 665., line 24. from the bottom, for “ ten miles,”
read “ four miles.”

In the Vol. for 1842, p. 189., some observations are made respecting the
river Delaware, which might lead the reader to believe that that river was
sometimes obstructed by ice as early as October 15., whereas, Dr. Mease in-
forms us, it is never frozen in October, and rarely before Christmas.— Cond.

ArT. IV. Queries and Answers.

A CATERPILLAR on Geraniums, §c.—I have often heard gardeners and ama-
teurs complain of the shoots and leaves of their geraniums being eaten very

460 Queries and Answers.

much by an insect that is not easy to discover. Many suppose it to commit
its depredations in the night. Ihave often discovered it feeding at different
times in the day ; and I beg to enclose one of them that was caught feed-
ing at mid-day. I do not know the name of it, but would feel greatly obliged
to you for its name. It is not a small quantity that it eats ; and this you will
readily discover, by putting it under a good-sized glass along with a branch
of geranium. Should it arrive alive you will be able to see its manceuvres,
which are very curious. When it has climbed up on a plant to a favourite
feeding place, it fixes itself firmly to the part with two very strong claws not
far from its head, with its body hanging down perpendicularly, in readiness
to drop on the earth at the approach of an enemy. On going near, or in the
least way touching the plant it is feeding on, it drops off instantaneously like
a log, and there it will lie nearly straight, and quite motionless ; and, by its
resembling an old bit of dead stick or root, and so much the colour of the
earth it often escapes detection. It is certainly a very curious insect to look
at through a microscope.— James Barnes. Bicton Gardens, May 23. 1843.

[We sent the insect to Mr. Westwood, who returned the following obser-
vations on it.]

The caterpillar you sent me from Mr. Barnes, which annoys him by feeding
on his geraniums, is that of one of our most interesting species of Geométridz,
the caterpillars of which are so well known under the name of loopers, from
their geometrical mode of progression, so well described by Kollar, in his ac-
count of the Geémetra brumata (p. 213. of Miss Loudon’s translation of
Kollar’s Treatise of Insects injurious to Gardeners, Foresters, and Farmers.
London, Smith, 1840.).

The insect in question is the caterpillar of the Gedmetra (Ourapteryx) sam-=
bucaria, or swallow-tail moth, an insect not uncommon in gardens, but which
I am not aware has hitherto been noticed as attacking the geranium. As,
however, it feeds on many kinds of plants, it is not surprising that the strong
shoots of a geranium should suit its taste. It is remarkable, structurally, by
having two sharp points at the hind extremity of the body, just above the
two caudal feet, whereby it firmly attaches itself to the stems, and not by
those next the head, as Mr. Barnes notices. In its habits it does not differ
from the greater number of the species of the family to which it belongs. The
perfect insect is distinguished from all our native species by its pale brimstone-
coloured wings, and by the hind pair terminating in a pair of short tails (ana-
logous ? to the points at the extremity of the body of the caterpillar). Lyonnet
found some of these caterpillars in the autumn upon a sallow, on the leaves
of which they feed, fasting during the winter, and resuming their feeding in the
spring ; others were found on an apricot tree at the end of April, and they
assumed the chrysalis state about the middle of May. Some of them, however,
continued feeding till the middle of June, and it was not until the 8th of July
that the perfect moths were produced. They fly by twilight, and are very
easily distinguished by their large size (being larger than the small white
garden butterfly), and pale colour. Their flight is feeble, as the size of their
wings and slenderness of the veins clearly prove.

Although the caterpillars certainly bear a great resemblance to a dried bit
of stick or dead twig, yet the practised eye will soon detect them, and I know
no more serviceable mode of destroying them than carefully to look over the
plants on which the gnawed leaves indicate their presence, and then to crush
them to death under toot. The perfect insects may be caught without diffi-
culty with a small gauze hand net.

The insect is figured in all its states by Curtis (British Ent., pl. 508.) ; Do-
novan (Brit. Insects, 5. pl. 170.) ; Albin., pl. 94.; and Wilkes, pl. 78.—J. O.
Westwood. Grove Road, Hammersmith, May 25. 1843.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
SEPTEMBER, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I, Comparative Physiology. By R. LymBurn.

(Continued from p. 396.)

In Book II. On Special and Comparative Physiology, Chap. V.
On Ingestion and Absorption of Aliment in general, he says: —“ The
peculiar characteristic of living beings has been stated to be
the power which each possesses of maintaining, for a certain
period, its form and structure, in defiance of the physical pro-
perties of its parts, which are at the same time undergoing
alterations both in composition and form. In the developement
of the germ, it is not so much the structure itself which is fur-
nished by the parent, as the capability of forming that structure,
by the conversion of external materials into organised tissues,
possessed of peculiar properties, by the process of assimilation,
These materials constitute the aliment necessary for the deve-
lopement of the living system, and in proportion to the ac-
tivity of its operations will be the occasion for their supply.
The larve of the flesh fly are said to increase in weight 200
times in 24 hours. The Bovista gigantea, a fungus of the
puff-ball tribe, has been known to increase in one night from
the size of a mere point to that of a huge gourd, estimated to
contain forty-seven thousand millions of cellules.”

From the opinions above stated, it will be perceived Dr. Car-
penter takes a different view of developement from that enter-
tained by Bonnet, Main, and others. The different opinions on
this subject are given at great length in the late edition of
Miiller’s Physiology, who, as we stated before, considers the
power only of reproducing the individual to reside in the germ.
It is potentially not actually, he says, the new being. The ob-
servations of Schwann have shown “that in a preexisting struc-
tureless substance, which may be situated either within or on
the exterior of cells already formed, new cells are developed in
a manner regulated by determinate laws, and these new cells

3d Ser. — 1843. IX. HOW

462 Comparative Physiology.

undergo various modifications and transformations by which
they are converted into the elementary organic tissues.” At
p- 1437. he describes buds as being the result of superfluous
matter, separated in an undeveloped state of organisation from
the system, the special organisation of the system being subse-
quently developed by its connexion. When we see sap, extra-
vasated on parts of plants that have been cut accidentally, formed
into masses of buds from its connexion merely with the living
tissue, it must strike us that here at least is an accidental form-
ation that could not have been contained in embryo in the
germ, and that the doctrine is at least too far stretched when
it is maintained that all the parts ever to be developed are con-
tained in the germ. So well is this fact known to gardeners,
that they are in the habit of cutting notches in bare stems to
produce buds from the extravasation of sap, when they wish
to clothe the stem with shoots without cutting in the head.
The activity of the living principle varies much in the different
species of living beings; it varies also in different individuals of
the same species, and at different periods in the same individual;
and it is not from the quantity of aliment introduced into the
stomach of the animal, or into the soil the stomach of the plant,
that we can correspondingly produce growth. Much depends
on the activity of the absorbent vessels, and on the activity of
the assimilating organs after being absorbed. It arises from
this that a check given to growth in young seedling crops is per-
manently injurious and should be guarded against, and that if
we can by any means, as cutting in the shoots of young plants,
give accelerated activity to the vital principle, it is likely to
continue, if fostered. Aliment is essential, and growth cannot
be carried on without it, but other things must be attended to
besides merely exhibiting food. By keeping the soil open
and porous we increase heat, introduce air, and facilitate the
healthy action of the stomach of plants.

«¢ The supply of aliment is required not only to develope the
organism, but for its maintenance also. The tendency to de-
compose exists not only in dead organic matter, but in the
living tissues; and, as already stated, it is probable the peculiar
influence of vitality is exercised not so much in resisting that
tendency as in providing for its effects by the removal of all
particles in a state of incipient decay: the supply of new ali-
mentary materials must be equal in quantity and regularity.
This may be regarded as the principal source of the continued
demand for nutriment in the adult system. The regeneration
of organs and tissues, after what appeared their total destruction
by disease or accident, is a process no less remarkable than their
first formation, and no less evidently displays the foresight of
the original Designer. In the harder parts of animals and vege-

Comparative Physiology. 463

tables the absorption of old and deposition of new particles take
place so slowly in the natural condition as to be scarcely per-
ceptible; but when disease or injury calls the actions of repa-
ration into play, they are effected with a rapidity and certainty
not surpassed in any other parts of the system. The constant
movements of the body produce a waste or wearing away of the
material, both of its harder and softer structures; hence arises
one cause of the increased demand for nutriment from continued
muscular exertion.”

Vitality has been generally supposed to exert a resisting
force, preserving the materials endowed with vitality from che-
mical decomposition. Some, however, have carried the opposite
doctrine so far as to maintain that matter endowed with life is
more susceptible of change. Undoubtedly, where life is most
active in plants, the parts are more susceptible of decomposition
when vitality is paralysed, than in the more solid tissues; but
the preserving power of life 1s perhaps only the more dis-
played in preserving parts so susceptible of change from de-
composition. Liebig seems to consider life as exercising a
resisting power; the more that nitrogen abounds in the tissue,
he considers, the greater is the susceptibility of change. The
actions of the mind waste the nervous system, he says, and those
of the body the muscular, producing inert dead matter, which
is removed by the oxygen inhaled and made use of in the form-
ation of bile and urme. ‘The vital force he describes as pro-
duced by the oxidation of carbon and hydrogen, especially the
former; and the source of carbon as confined to the waste or
decayed particles of the body and the non-azotised constituents
of the food, as starch, sugar, &c., which, he says, may be called
the food of the liver. When these are exhausted the fat of
the body is next consumed ; and starvation ends in a defi-
ciency of vital force bemg generated from a want of carbon,
and the tissues thus deprived of vitality becoming subject to
chemical decomposition. Miiller seems to entertain similar
views of the resistance opposed by vitality to chemical agency,
and it seems to be the most general opinion.

“ One of the most striking differences between animals and
vegetables is to be found in the aliments on which they are
respectively supported, and the mode of their éngestion or mtro-
duction into the system. The essential nutriment of plants
appears to be supplied by the inorganic world, chiefly water
with saline impregnations, and carbon ; the water partly from
the soil and partly from the moisture of the atmosphere; the
carbon principally from the carbonic acid of the air; but most
plants require for their healthy growth that it be introduced by
the roots also. It appears that the organic matter which rich
soils contain is itself applied to the nutrition of the plant, by

HH 2

464 Comparative Physiology.

being decomposed into carbonic acid and dissolved in the water
of the soil. It is found that those soils which contain the most
steady and equable supply of carbonic acid are the most fayvour-
able to vegetable growth. It is only within a short period that
the dependence of the activity of vegetation on a due supply of
nitrogen has been ascertained. Nitrogen in the form of ammonia
is regarded by Liebig as the most powerful stimulant to the
vegetative processes, when the other requisite conditions are
supplied. It is interesting to remark that none of the elements
of vegetables are introduced in a simple or uncombined state
into the plants; oxygen and hydrogen are combined in the
state of water, oxygen and carbon in the state of carbonic acid,
and hydrogen and nitrogen in the state of ammonia. The only
class of plants that seems dependent for support on matter al-
ready organised is that of Fungi; a group of peculiar interest
from their rapidity of growth, their universality of diffusion as
dormant germs ready to be developed, and the importance of
the offices they perform, like insects being denominated the
scavengers of nature. The large quantity of carbonic acid
which their absorbent system furnishes prevents the necessity
of deriving any additional supply from the atmosphere. The
proportion of nitrogen contained in their tissues is much greater
than in any other vegetable, so that fungin, a proximate prin-
ciple which may be obtained from them, is as highly azotised as
animal flesh. Vegetables seem to constitute the intermediate
link, in the scale of creation, between the Inorganic World and
the Animal Kingdom; the latter being altogether dependent for
its support, and even existence, on the Vegetable Kingdom.”
According to Liebig, the food of animals consists principally
of substances which are similar in composition to the tissues of
the body. The vegetable fibrine or gluten, albumen and caseine,
are similar to the same substances found in animals. They are
also similar to each other, differing only in the quantity of
saline earthy matters they contain, and have all for their basis
the same proportions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
This basis he reckons a separate substance, and it has been deno-
minated proteine by its discoverer Mulder, who found that it
was separated by potash from vegetable fibrine, albumen, and
caseine, in the same way as from the same substances in ani-
mals. This substance, proteine, united to earthy saline sub-
stances, he says, is the basis of all the animal tissues, with the
exception of the nervous, and requires only to be dissolved in
the blood, and assimilated by each organ in its own way; che-
mical decomposition and recomposition not being required ex-
cept for the formation of such as nervous matter. The non-
azotised substances of the food, he says, are formed into bile
along with the waste of the body, to carry on respiration, what

Comparative Physiology. 465

is not presently needed being deposited in the state of fat, for
future exigencies. Plants, on the contrary, require great che-
mical decomposition and recomposition, their food consisting
principally of inorganic substances. It is, however, carrying
simplification too far, to assert that organised substances form
no part of their food. When organised substances are so far
broken down by chemical decomposition that they become so-
luble, they will undoubtedly be absorbed and converted into
food. I lately stated, in a former essay, the opimions of
Professor Gazzin, that straw and other vegetable matter,
broken down into small pieces by putrefaction, formed a main
source of the food of plants. DeCandolle, also, says that
soluble organic matter is taken up by the water absorbed, con-
verted into carbonic acid in the plant, and this again decom-
posed in the leaf; carbon not being available, he states, in
forming the sap of the plant, unless recently extracted, or in
what is called a nascent state. Miiller, page 40., says: “ It
appears from the experiments of Hassenfratz, Saussure, &c., that
plants grow very imperfectly in carbonic acid and water alone,
and that it is only when they are at the same time nourished by
organic compounds in solution, which have not wholly undergone
decomposition, that plants generate organic matter from binary
compounds.” The old opinion, that plants get their carbon
wholly from the air, has lately been greatly upheld by the
writings of Liebig, Dumas, and others; who, perhaps from a
wish to simplify the subject, have given the weight of their
opinions on that side. The former admits, however, that young
plants get their carbon by the roots from the soil; and the latter
notices the immense quantity of carbonic acid found by Bou-
cherie to issue from the trunks of some cut down trees as
rendering the subject doubtful. Schlieden, one of the most
profound physiologists, seems to be of opinion that it 1s prin-
cipally got by the roots from the soil, and appears doubtful of
much being got from the air by the leaves. The water of the
soil, he thinks, is generally saturated with carbonic acid; at
ordinary pressure the water is capable of containing a quantity
equal to its own bulk, and, where the pressure is considerable,
much more. Dr. Mohl is said, in the Chronicle of 20th May,
to have lately published similar opinions. It has been said that
the fact of plants growing on bare rocks, newly thrown up by
volcanic agency, is a proof of their getting most of their carbon
from the air. ‘The growth of such plants, however, cannot be
called vigorous, and, besides, great part of their carbon is pro-
bably got from the rain water which feeds them washing down
the carbonic acid of the air; voleanoes form also a great source
of carbonic acid; it may abound in the fissures of such rocks,

and every little pool of water on the rock will absorb carbonic
HH 3

466 Comparative Physiology.

acid from the air: the air above water always contains less car-
bonic acid from this cause. On the whole, therefore, it appears
that though undoubtedly carbonic acid is absorbed by the leaves
of plants, it seems wrong to say that it is wholly got in that
way, and doubtful whether it is the principal source, much of
what is got from the air being probably that washed down by
the rain and absorbed by the roots. Some plants are no
doubt able to prolong their existence without having their roots
fixed in the soil; but the growth is not vigorous, and no prac-
tical man will be of opinion that it is of no use to bury the
carbon of the manure in the soil. When a tree has its stem cut
by the ground, if the roots are left untouched, the after-growth
is so vigorous as soon to fill the former space, and even produce
more wood than if it had been left uncut; but if the roots are
cut off it languishes and dies, though supplied with moisture.
Cuttings never grow much till they begin to root, and those
that do so first in a pot of cuttings always outstrip and lull the
others. In houses, from the air bemg confined, and not so
frequently renewed, the carbonic acid of the air cannot be
furnished in so great quantity; yet, if vines are well supplied
at the root, they are not found to suffer from a want of carbon
in the air of the house. JLiebig, in his Agricultural Chemistry,
says most of the carbon from the air to the leaves is pro-
bably from carbonic oxide; and this, from its being much lighter
than carbonic acid, is probably the case. Carbonic oxide, as
compared with atmospheric air, is only 0°972, carbonic acid 1°527,
reckoning air as 1. Another source of carbon to plants is
humic acid, which contains much more carbon than carbonic
acid. From its extreme volatility and aptitude to change, and
from its being seldom got in analysis of soils, Liebig and other
chemists have stated their opinion that it cannot be a great source
of carbon to plants, and that the humus of the soil is principally
converted into carbonic acid. Professor Sprengel, however,
who, with great scientific knowledge, appears to have studied the
subject much in practice, seems to consider it a great source of
food; and recommends the alkalies in composts, principally on
account of their tendency to cause the formation of humic acid
from the humus of the manure, in place of carbonic acid. In
the excellent papers copied from his works into the Gardener's
Chronicle, humic acid appears to be considered a most essential
part of the composts he describes. The experiments of Dr.
Madden, also, have thrown great light on this subject. He found
that in passing ammonia through humus or soil containing
humus, humic or ulmic acid was always formed in quantity
corresponding to the ammonia introduced, and was found in the
water drained off in the state of ulmate of ammonia. The
action of ammonia on humus (or semidecomposed vegetable

Comparative Physiology. 467

matter) in the soil is thus likely to be a constant source of
carbon to plants, in the ulmate of ammonia absorbed by the
water and introduced by the roots. To the contrary argument
of its being seldom found in analysis of the soil, he replies,
that, in soil where it is spread and mixed, the mass used for
analysis is generally too small to admit of the minute quan-
tity contained being perceptible; the soil also, he says, acts
chemically on it when not directly taken up by the roots of
plants, and absorbs the humus again till again acted on by
ammonia. The excrements of plants probably contain nitro-
gen, from the fungi found parasitical thereon; and, as it will
probably be in the state of ammonia, this may account for the
action of the spongioles of plants on their food, so generally
believed in, but which has hitherto eluded demonstration. This
belief is strengthened by the fact that nitrogen is found to
abound more in the roots than in any other part of the plant.
At all events, there seem good grounds for believing that much
of the carbon of plants is furnished to them in the state of ulmic
or humic acid, which will be decomposed in the leaf, and give
off oxygen similar to carbonic acid. It at least appears pre-
mature to assert that carbonic acid is the sole source, and much
more so to confine it wholly to absorption by the leaves.
Nitrogen is so far indispensable to plants that no vegetable
organ can be formed without it. Dumas says: “ The researches
of Payen have proved that all the organs of the plant, without
exception, begin by being formed of an azotated matter analogous
to fibrine, with which at a later period the cellular, ligneous, and
amylaceous tissues are associated. This azotated matter, the
real origin of all the parts of a plant, is never destroyed; it is
always to be found, however abundant may be the non-azotated
matter which has been interposed between its particles. This
azote, fixed by plants, serves therefore to produce a concrete
fibrinous substance, which constitutes the rudiment of all the
organs of the vegetable.” Liebig says: “ When the newly ex-
pressed juices of vegetables are allowed to stand, a separation
takes place in a few minutes. A gelatinous precipitate, com-
monly green, is deposited, and this, when acted on by liquids
which remove the colouring matter, leaves a greyish white sub-
stance, the vegetable fibrine.” Ammonia is to be found, he says,
in an uncombined state in the juices of the plant, wherever life
is most active. The preparation of this vegetable fibrine, so
essential in the formation of all the organs, will be indispensably
necessary before growth can proceed; and for this purpose nas-
cent carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen will be required.
It is probable that carbonic acid, water, and ammonia will, by
their decomposition, form the principal source of these substances.

Any organic matter absorbed in a semidecomposed state will
Hu 4

468 Comparative Physiology.

likely be reduced to carbonic acid first, and the decomposition of
humic acid will furnish the same products as that of carbonic
acid. It is perhaps however too much to assert that binary
compounds alone are capable of affording nourishment to plants ;
it has not yet been proven that the simple elements will not
unite unless in a newly decomposed or nascent state, though un-
doubtedly the most suitable. Oxygen is absorbed in greater
quantity than needed for respiration. Liebig says it is essential
to vegetable life, and gives as the reason why stagnant water at
the roots destroys plants, that it has lost its oxygen. Nitrogen
is also soluble to a certain extent in water, and likely is partly
furnished to the plant in this form. There are other binary
compounds also, besides carbonic acid, water, and ammonia,
which may constitute food. Air is found in all the vessels of
plants, sometimes containing more oxygen and sometimes more
nitrogen than usual, evidently showing it has been acted on by
the organsof the plant; and in this way both oxygen and nitrogen
may be supplied. The fact that beans and other crops carry
off much nitrogen, without exhausting the soil, seems conclusive
on the point that the nitrogen of the air is absorbed by plants;
and is allowed by Boussingault and others. Sulphuretted and
carburetted hydrogen, especially the latter, which Dumas de-
scribes as being generally equal in quantity to the carbonic acid
of the atmosphere, are probably made available, especially in the
volatile oils formed in leaves, fruits, and barks. Inorganic com-
pounds, though consisting of more than two elements, are yet
generally combined in binary forms, as acids with bases, &c., which
are not decomposed into their elements before combining, as in
organic combinations. Nitric acid, combined in quaternary forms
of binary combinations with alkaline bases, as nitrates of ammo-
nia, potash, soda, and lime, supplies undoubtedly sources of food
also. Theammonia itself is generally absorbed in a quaternary form,
as carbonate and humate of ammonia. The ternary compounds of
eum, sugar, starch, &c., of plants, when they become or are ren-
dered soluble in the water of the soil, will certainly be as avail-
able for food as the same substances stored up in the plant. It
does not appear necessary that they should all be reduced into
their elements ; if soluble before being so, they may be decom-
posed in the plant; and so also with organic substances in general,
whether ternary or quaternary. It simplifies and makes the
subject easier of comprehension, to endeavour to confine the
substances used as food to the fewest numbers possible; but in
attempting this we may err in restricting the operations of nature
too far, which are not generally confined to one particular
method.

‘Tt is a general law of vitality, that the materials of nutrition
can only be introduced into the living system in the fludd state ;

Rag

Comparative Physiology. 469

the ingestion of solid aliment by the higher animals does not
contradict this principle, when the character of the nutritive
organs are examined. Whilst the roots of vegetables ramify
through the soil in pursuit of nutriment, animals, whose locomo-
tive powers are necessary to search after food, may be said to
earry their soil about with them, for their absorbents are dis-
tributed on the walls of the digestive cavity, just as those of
plants are prolonged into the earth. This cavity is in all in-
stances formed by a reflection of the external surface, and in the
lower classes is merely a bag with one opening, which may be
regarded as all stomach. ‘The food is acted on mechanically by
the motion of the walls, and chemically by the secretions poured
from their surface separating the nutritious parts, and reducing
them to a fluid form. The process of animal digestion has no-
thing to do with organising or vitalising the materials submitted
to it. Some physiologists have regarded the possession of a di-
gestive cavity as the most prominent characteristic of animals,
but there is no doubt that many of the lower classes, during a part
of their existence at least, are nourished by absorption from the
exterior surface alone. The earth has been justly spoken of as
the common stomach of vegetables; but the pitchers and traps
of some plants approach the nature of a stomach, the insects ap-
pearing to serve as nutriment to them. In all cases, however,
where previously organised matter influences the growth of
plants, it is whilst in a decomposing state, and separated into
its ultimate elements or very simple combinations of them. In
animal digestion, on the contrary, the proximate principles of the
food appear immediately subservient to the formation of others
of a higher order, any tendency to decomposition being checked
by the antiseptic qualities of the gastric fluid. The earth-worm
and some beetles, which swallow earth, do so only to obtain the
remains of the organised matter mixed with it. All the tribes of
plants have their peculiar animals and insects which feed on
them, and keep them in check; and all the classes of animals have
their carnivorous tribes, adapted to restrain the too rapid increase
of the vegetable feeders. Those animals which obtain their food
with most facility seem least able to endure privation.

«Tt has been stated that all alimentary materials before being
introduced into the living system must be presented to it in a
fluid form. ‘The changes involved in its passage through the
membrane, or external integument, constitute the function of
absorption. The transmission always takes place through some
tissue of a membranous character, and never through open
mouths of vessels. The skin of the higher animals, and the
cuticle of plants, participate more or less in the function of ab-
sorption, even where a special absorbent system is provided; in
the inferior tribes the external integument is its sole medium.

470 Comparative Physiology.

Mere capillary attraction has nothing to do with absorption, but
the remarkable phenomenon to which the term endosmose has
been given by its discoverer, Dutrochet, bears so strong a re-
semblance to this vital function, that it 1s scarcely possible to
disbelieve its partial concern in it. If a solution of gum or
sugar be put into a tube closed at one end with a piece of
bladder or other membrane, and the closed end immersed in
water, a passage of water will take place through the membra-
nous septum, the solution in the tube being greatly increased in
quantity and diminished in strength. At the same time there is
a counter-current in the opposite direction, a portion of the
gummy or saccharine solution passing through the membrane
to the water, but in much less quantity. The first current is
termed endosmose, and the counter-current exosmose. It is not
universally true that the activity of the process depends on the
difference in density of the two fluids; sometimes the stronger
current is from the denser to the lighter; but with such as are
generally contained in the roots of plants it appears to be so. No

endosmose takes place between fluids which will not mingle, as:

oil and water, and very little between such as act chemically on
each other. Organic membranes are the best septums, but
lamina of pipe-clay will evidently produce the phenomenon
also, and it appears that physical laws alone are concerned im it.
The passage of fluid through the living membranes has been
considered purely vital; but, if we regard the other vital actions
as furnishing the conditions of endosmose, the absorption itself
may be due to the phenomenon. After death, the quantity of
fluid which first penetrates does not find the conditions changed
as in vitality, and saturates the tissues, preventing the admission
of more. When the fluid absorbed is drawn off for the purposes
of the economy, a demand for a new supply is created, and the
action becomes regular and subservient to life. From the dif-
ferent times which saline solutions take to pass, as prussiate of
potass in 5 hours, sulphuric acid in 6 hours, acetic acid and
muriate of soda in 24 hours, it appears that what has been
termed the selecting power of absorbent surfaces is not due so
much to their peculiar vital properties as to the physical relations
between their tissues and the substances brought into contact
with them.”

(To be continued.)

Errata. — \n p. 344. line 2. for “ albumen” read “ alburnum.” In p. 352.
line 8. from bottom, for * Con.” read “ edition.”

Food of Plants, and its Transformation. 471

Art. II. On the Food of Plants, and its Transformation. By
ALEXANDER ForsyTH.

(Continued from p. 399.)

THINKING, therefore, that the formation of gas in the ground would be
found the first and main spring in the accumulating of vegetable tissue, and
consequently of every kind of garden produce, I bethought me of the means
of raising this gas by holding the face of the earth up to the rays of the sun,
and placing the requisite materials under the surface, in such a manner that
when heat arose there might also arise gas, or something that had been gas,
and was now vegetable tissue, in an active living form; and though some may
think, from the ordinary methods of producing gas by the action of fire, that
I should have had many a long summer day to wait before the sunshine should
boil me up a gas out of garden earth to grow tissue in, I can assure such that
the first cloudless sunbeam that comes upon the soil at right angles will not
leave the mass in the same state as it found it.

Let us try a common lens, or burning glass, say of one inch diameter ; and,
out of the few rays that fall upon that surface, see if we cannot get such a
quantity of heat, that when it is bundled together it makes a nice little fire.
Ah! here then is a fire already kindled and to be relied on, provided we can find
earth at right angles to its rays, and the materials to make the gas with,
These two points therefore must set limits to my present enquiry, namely,
the getting the materials to make the gas of, and the manufacture of it ; or,
in other words, the distillation of the spirit that is the food and life of the
vegetable tissue, out of the ruins of any substance that may contain it, whe-
ther animal, vegetable, or mineral.

First, then, the getting of the materials ; and, instead of giving a list of
every substance and matter, clean or filthy, that might be made available for
good manure, I will give an example of one, perhaps the most abused, most
abundant, and the most valuable. I mean grass, whether young or old, short
or long, in the form of old grass turf with the roots and soil, or young short
herbage from the lawn, seven days old, and only one inch long.

Instead of putting this to the old score on the top ofa hillock under a tree,
as you have done at the Derby Arboretum, and as you saw done at Bicton,
I put this valuable article into the mash-pool with as much care as if it were
malt ; that is to say, I put it under water to prevent its evaporation, and to
get the essence or substance of it into the water. “ Ah!” you will say, “this is a
poor broth to feed plants on, green grass and water.” Therefore, to do away
with any erroneous idea on this head, and to bring this argument to bear upon
every cottager who has a garden, as well as upon every professed gardener, I
will assume that good cow-dung is allowed by all to be an excellent manure,
and if the gardener, whether cottager or not, had plenty of this article, he
would soon enrich his garden ; but how to get cow-dung without the cow,
and without buying it, ay there’s the difficulty.

Well then, what do cows eat all the summer long? Only grass; and out of
that grass they grow fat, give a great quantity of milk, and yield manure.
This manure seems to be the draff or dregs, the worst and most worthless of
the productions yielded from the grass. If then grass yields such valuable
draff after it has been distilled and rectified in the stomach of the cow, what
would not the ma/t (I mean the grass) do, if the spirit were left in it? Surely
it would be better draff than ordinary ; and it 2s too: therefore I mean to
assert that very superior cow-dung may be manufactured from mown grass,
without troubling the cows. Let it not be thought that grass is necessary :
no! any green thing belonging to the vegetable kingdom, and the greener
the better, will do, and if in flower it is to be preferred : but I must enu-
merate an example or two of the most abundant and available articles. Heath
and fern, broom and gorse bushes, root and branch. These are the store-

472 Food of Plants,

houses from which to draw manure. No more of the lazy trick of setting it
on fire, as is done too often ; and a more diabolical act is scarcely to be con-
ceived, than consuming by fire the valuable produce of the earth. Let any
one take a waggon-load of heath in bloom, and chop it short, that is to say,
to lengths of nine inches, and then put it into the mash-pool till it is tho-
roughly soaked with water, in which its own softer parts have been dissolved
by maceration, and without any further preparation let this be drilled into the
earth in the manner that Scotch and other farmers drill in their dung for
turnips and potatoes ; and if other ordinary culture and management are pro-'
perly attended to, there will be good reason to hope for a remunerating crop
of potatoes.

lam well aware of the tanning matter contained in the bark, &c., of wood,
of which so much has been said and written; and I know that fresh tanner’s
bark is no manure; and, lest this idea should deter any from trying other mace-
rated vegetable matter, I must be allowed to hint that, though fresh tanner’s bark
is no manure, yet rotten tan is proved to bea very valuable ingredient in the soil
where young vines are planted, and when it is reduced sufficiently to pass
through a riddle of a quarter-inch mesh. Let its merits be tried as vegetable
mould in the culture of pot plants, as calceolarias, &c., and experience of its
beneficial influence will, [ have no doubt, soon mend its character. But it is
not the macerated remains of any particular plant or tribe of plants that is to
be taken asa sample of the sort of manure I am speaking of ; it is the mass of
mixed manure formed of the waste of vegetables, and preserved from evapo-
ration and heating by being kept under water, instead of being thrown in a
heap, dry or half-dry, as is usually done: and it is from distinct observation, for
a series of years, of the store heaps that some Scotch farmers and others
make who are anxious to grow turnips, that I have come to the following
fixed points upon the subject, from which the foregoing and following con-
clusions were drawn.

The manure secured by these persons in the summer and autumn, when cast
into a proper pit, and trodden down by pigs and other stock till it was quite
firm and free from heating, came out the following June as green as if it had
been in one of the well known preserve jars of Cox and Co. of Reading ;
whilst some other wiseacres had carted similar manure into a square heap on
the headland of their turnip field in the frosty weather in winter, and by June
the store heap (thus made in January ) had lost certainly one third of its bulk,
and more of its value. Therefore, manure should be made when we can, and
preserved under water free from heat, for certainly it is one of those things
that will take to itself wings and fly away; and I think, in many cases, the crop
of leaves from such as an oak or the like may, if properly husbanded, be more
valuable than the crop of fruit on an apple tree. When we consider that
ever to be regretted waste of the finest manure, [ mean night soil, it is no
wonder that human beings want the fruits of the earth, when they stain the
air with filth that might fatten acres for many a fertile year to come. Let
any one try dry earth from his garden, dry fern from the woods, turves from
the lanes, or any such absorbing stock, and when a cubic yard of this has
lain in the mash-pool for one month, and has, by the agency of the water,
become incorporated with one cubic foot of night soil, which is only one part
to twenty-seven, he will find this a very strong manure ; and it is therefore
no wonder that it was a little too strong both for the nostril and the garden,
when it was twenty-seven times more concentrated. The waste then in that
alone is ruinous to cottage gardening ; for, if a person has a cubic yard of
this, a little management will make, without expense, twenty-seven cart-loads
of manure out of it, and this twenty-seven yards would go far to give bim an
acre of turnips, &c. We have lately seen published the marvellous account
of wheat having been grown upon a bare rock, the seed covered with straw
only. Now it would certainly have been a very great wonder if it had not
grown so; for rotten straw is no stranger for the roots of wheat to meet with
and live by: and as the straw on the rock got wet and heat, it soon was much

and its Transformation. 473

akin to my present macerated mass of vegetable tissue, and helps me out in
the idea that such wasted culm is capable of being recompounded into perfect
plants, available to the sustenance of men and animals. But a volume might
be written on this subject, showing how the mash-pool would reduce the
oak itself to vegetable mould by maceration and drying a few times re-
peated, and how peat, such as is used for fuel, might be enlivened from its inert
state, and assimilated with some recent vegetable matter, as mown grass, thus
becoming a valuable vegetable body, neither too vapourish, like the grass,
nor too sullen, like the saturated mossy sod.

The grand point is the communication established by means of water,
wherein the superabundance of one article, or property, of any ingredient
becomes equalised and common to all the other bodies that may be mashed
up withit. I need scarcely tell any one that the mash-pool is an isolated and
very small pool, or rather tank, and that the materials in it are merely em-
bedded in water, that is to say, enough to keep them nearly under water.
Let no one imagine that to throw dirt into a Jarge pool is the way to make
good manure of it. I put water to it: I do not cast it on the waters.

Let us suppose, then, that a quantity of this manure, or indeed of any other,
is got, we come to the beneficial employment of the same under ground.
Now, it will scarcely be credited that such plants as the common onion will
send their feeders six feet deep into the earth ; yet such is the fact, as any one
may satisfy himself of by giving them a trial; and, though I give this as a
plain example, it is the case with innumerable other crops. Now, when the
feeders find food (whether that food be gas, as I imagine, or any other grosser
substance, no matter), there they extend and fatten the body of which they
are the mouths. A field for these, therefore, is now our object: this field
must be sunny in the highest degree, that is, the greatest amount of surface
must be exposed to the sun, and that surface as much as possible at right
angles to the stronger rays. I have often touched the surface of an oaken
door with an eastward aspect and could scarcely bear my hand on it, even
before breakfast on a sunny morning. Now this same sunshine was acting
equally strong on the banks or ridges I am about to mention, whose lines,
running north and south, left the beveled sides of their eastward slopes at
right angles to the morning rays ; consequently those ridges had the steam up,
and the spongioles of the plants in them going a-head, and tissue forming in
this hotbed before breaktast, and before the same rays could awaken the
feeders of the plants growing on a flat surface, on account of the obliquity of
the face of the soil to the sunbeams. I have no doubt but that it is to this
source that the excellence of ridge and furrow drilled crops of turnips and pota-
toes is to be referred, and [ have good reason to think that loosening the earth
about many crops is of no service to them, but highly injurious; for I find
from experience that hacking a thing half out of the earth and breaking and
bruising its feeders, under pretence of loosening the soil about it, is not the
way to forward its perfect developement. As the details necessary to esta-
blish this point would take me more time and pains than I can spare now, I will
bear the odium of this hint, and be called “ in error,” if you please, till I can
give the reasons for this way of thinking.

I now proceed to show the form in which garden soil should lie when bedded
out for crops; and considering cottage as well as castle gardening, I shall
take the potato crop for an example to illustrate the “ Banking System” of
culture.

Those who have made asparagus beds, such as you generally see about
London, will have the idea at once ; but to prevent error, I will give it in feet
and inches. Divide the land into sections, or beds, of 4 ft. wide, with 2 ft. of
an alley. Dig this bed, and, if necessary, dig in a good layer of dung ; and,
when this is dug nicely and deeply, lay the manure for the potatoes on the
top of the bed, and plant one line of egg-sized whole potatoes down the centre,
and one on each side, a foot from the centre: thus making three rows in a
space (counting the bed and alley) of 6 ft. ; which, in flat planting, would be

474 Arboricultural Notices.

2 ft. from row to row. I mention this to show that there is no waste of room
more than ordinary. The soil in the alley is now to be excavated, and laid on
the bed from 4 in. to 6 in. deep: this quantity will therefore lower the alley at
least a foot below its old level, and with the rise and the slope will give a
slanting surface of 2 ft. facing the morning and evening sun at right, or nearly
right, angles ; and will give the 4 ft. bed a surface exposed to sun and shower
of at least 7 ft., that is, three fourths more than flat beds, as shown in fig. 101.

ioe g age
Je

Fig. 101. Section through Ground, showing that a much larger Surface ts exposed to the Action of
the Atmosphere by laying tt up in Beds, than by retaining tt in an even State.

As there is no earthing-up wanted, you have no deep hacking and hoeing; and,
be it remembered, as the land is only once on the spade, no double digging or
trenching. If the weeds between the rows were to grow as they might, they
could never choke the crop, because they are beggared for want of manure in
the first instance, for there is not a forkful between the beds ; and, if they start
with or before the potatoes, they will have at least 18 in. to grow before they
come to the level of the ground line where the potatoes spring from. I have
given this system a fair trial on the worst of land, and with various crops, as
potatoes, onions, &c., and have no doubt of its superiority, especially on ill
drained stiff clay, which it goes far to correct and cure, being a regular summer
fallowing: and in the case of shallow land, for carrots or the like, the depth
can be doubled by making the alleys wider, and thus laying one half on the
other; for the air will circulate between the beds equally well for the crops,
whether the alley be rich mould or barren sand.

Begging pardon for this lengthy explanation, I must conclude by saying I
have spoken from experience ; for I have cultivated several acres in this way
for years past, and have detailed the system with truth and faithfulness for the
benefit of those who have no better way, begging those who know better to
help their neighbours, and me their humble servant.

Alton Towers, St. Andrew's Day, 1842.

Art. III. Arboricultural Notices.

Quz’rcus pedunculata frictu longissimo, or glande longipedunculata, the long-
fruited common oak, i8 a variety strongly marked both in its foliage and fruit.
The general form of the leaves is lanceolate, compared with those of the
common oak, widest in the middle, and equally pointed at both ends; and
the lobes are acutely pointed. Length of the leaves 6in., and breadth in the
widest part 12 in; length of the acorn, taken out of the cup, 12 in., breadth
iin. The tree from which, through the kindness of M. Charles Rauch, we
received a specimen and some acorns, is in the Imperial Park at Laxemburg,
near Vienna, where it is 60 ft. high, with a trunk 4 ft. in diameter. We have
distributed the acorns, but are very doubtful whether, after having been kept
so long (July 25.), they will grow.

Trees at Smeaton, near Dalkeith, the property of His Grace the Duke of
Buccleugh, measured by order of His Grace for the Arboretum Britannicum in
December, 1838, but inadvertently not forwarded.

Cédrus Libani, with a trunk containing 115 cubic feet, and 15 limbs contain-
ing 91 ft.; in all 206 ft.
Castanea vésca, containing in the trunk and limbs 146 cubic feet ; another

Landscape-Gardening applied to Public Cemeteries. 475

sweet chestnut, containing in the trunk 165 cubic feet, and in the limbs

101 cubic feet ; in all 266 ft.

Pinus sylvéstris and Pinus uncindta one and the same species.—We never
had the slightest doubt of this, having often seen both in Scotland and
England (in the grounds of Syon House for example) hooked cones, and
cones with the scales not hooked, on the same tree. A hooked and plain
cone have lately been sent us from a young tree at Hendon Vicarage, by
the gardener there, Mr. William Lawrence, a proof, not only that P. sylvés-
tris and P. uncinata are not different species, but that they are not even
varieties.

Art. IV. The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and of Landscape-
Architecture applied to the Laying out of Public Cemeteries and
the Improvement of Churchyards ; including Observations on the
Working and General Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds. By the Conpucror.

(Continued from p. 409.)

VIII. Country CHURCHYARDS ; THEIR PRESENT STATE, AND MEANS oF
IMPROVEMENT.

Wuar traveller or tourist is there that does not make the churchyard
of the village one of the first scenes which he visits; and does not re-
ceive from it his first impressions of the clergyman, the people, and conse-
quently of the general character of the inhabitants? If such be the effect
of a glance at the churchyard on the passing stranger, what must it be on
those to whom its image is constantly present, and by whom it is associated
with all that is reverential in feeling? To the local resident poor, un-
cultivated by reading, the churchyard is their book of history, their bio-
eraphy, their instructor in architecture and sculpture, their model of taste, and
an important source of moral improvement. Much, therefore, must depend
on the manner in which churchyards are laid out, and the state in which they
are kept. A country labourer may not have the habits of attention and ob-
servation sufficiently developed to derive improvement from the style or taste
displayed in the architecture of the church; but there is not one countryman
that does not understand the difference between slovenliness and neatness,
between taste and no taste, when applied to walks, grass ground, and gardens.
All of them, therefore, may have their taste for neatness and order improved,
or their habits of slovenliness confirmed, by the weekly impressions made on
them while passing through the churchyard to the church; and, while their
habits of life are thus improved or deteriorated, their hearts are softened and
ameliorated, or hardened and diseased, by viewing the graves or monuments
of their friends and relations neatly kept or utterly neglected, and reflecting
that they also must soon take their place among them and be neglected in
their turn. The intellectual and moral influence which churchyards are calcu-
lated to have on the rural population will not, we think, be disputed. Every
person, indeed, who has been brought up in the country must feel this. How
far then does the appearance of our churchyards answer the important educa-
tional ends which they are calculated to effect ? It will not be denied, we think,
that very few of them are kept in a manner to answer the end proposed, and that
avery great many are ina state of deplorable neglect. In many cases we find
the lawn and pleasure-ground of the clergyman displaying the greatest order
and neatness, while his churchyard has no care bestowed on it ; or is perhaps
disfigured by the state of the surface, or the want of repair of the surrounding

476 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

LUO RL
B gies we chee OUOGHG
BOO 00 comO\NO BANG alt BAG Sat Tr

a ef e

tI te,
oe anne Tif
te ted q
i w) cee ite

Fig. 102. A Churchyard no longer used for burying in, with Lines showing the Direction in which
Walks may be made, without removing any Head-stones or other Monuments.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 477

fence. But the wretched state of the churchyards has been, perhaps, suffi-
ciently dwelt on both in this and in other publications, and we shall therefore
confine ourselves to pointing out the causes of their present state separately,
and suggesting the modes by which these causes may be removed.

Want of Order.—The cause of this evil in churchyards is, that they have
not been originally laid out on any regular or systematic plan. Not only is
there no gravel or paved walk round the churchyard in many cases, but in
some there is nothing more than a footpath from the yard-gate to the door of
the church. In many churchyards it is too late to remedy this evil in an
effectual manner, but we have never seen one in which it might not be
removed to a considerable extent, without that which at first sight seems
absolutely necessary, levelling the turf mounds over the graves. This is to
be avoided by bringing in soil sufficient to raise the space between the grave
mounds to a level or even surface, varying the direction of the walk, and
expanding, contracting, branching, divaricating, and inosculating it, so as never
to disturb a gravestone or any description of stone monument. The idea of
such a walk is given in the sketch fig. 102., in which it is indicated by the
lines aa; and the effect, after the trees have been planted, is shown in
Jig. 103., p. 479. In this figure is also exhibited an addition made to the
old ground, laid out in a regular manner. In the interior of the ground,
grass paths ought to be formed to the graves to which there is not
direct access from the gravel walks, to enable spectators to view the
tombs without the appearance of treading on graves. The walk would
seldom require to be raised more than 18 in., and it ought to have a
grass margin on each side of the same height as the gravel, of at least 2 ft.
in width. Where a flat gravestone was to be crossed over, it might be raised
up to the proper level; some other descriptions of stone might be sunk ; and,
in cases of great difficulty, a gravestone might be crossed by a_ bridge
composed of a flag-stone of the width of the walk, supported on two piers ;
but such would be of rare occurrence. When they did happen, advantage
might be taken of the circumstance to make a raised seat, which would give a
bird’s-eye view of part of the churchyard; or a handsome open structure
might be erected in harmony with the scene, and suitable for taking shelter in,
or for strangers to witness the performance of a funeral. We never saw a
case where a bridge would be necessary; but we suppose one, in order to
show the resources of this mode of improvement, and, if possible, to convince
our readers that there is not a churchyard in the country that might not
be surrounded with a gravel walk, leaving a border between it and the wall ;
provided the clergyman and the other parties whose duty it is were to set
earnestly about it. Cross green paths might be formed 2 or 3 feet in width,
and they may be even more irregular than the surrounding gravel paths.

Another source of disorder and also of waste ground in churchyards is, that
no systematic plan has been laid down and followed in allotting the graves.
The graves are put down at random, leaving spaces between them either too
narrow for graves, or of shapes so irregular that they cannot be filled up, so
that in many churchyards a large proportion of the ground is thus rendered
useless. It most frequently happens that the places are chosen by the de-
ceased during their lifetime, or.by their friends afterwards ; and, some persons
haying partialities for particular parts of the ground, especially high and dry
parts, the graves are crowded together in such parts, while in others there are
comparatively few. Many persons have an objection to being buried on the
north side of a church, probably from the comparative dampness and gloom-
iness of that side as compared with the south side. Hence we often see the
south side of a churchyard crowded, while the north side is comparatively
without graves. The radical cause of this evil is the placing of the church in
the direction of east and west, in consequence of which a considerable portion
of the churchyard is in shade during the whole of the winter, and the greater
portion of every day throughout the year, whereas, had the church been placed
in the direction of S. W. and N. E., or of N. W. and 8. E., the sun would

3d Ser. — 1843, TX. II

478 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

have shone on every side wall of the church, and consequently on the ground
on every side of it, every day in the year on which he appeared, and hence
the churchyard would have been every where equally dry and inviting.

Every grave is a parallelogram in plan, and for practical purposes these
parallelograms may be considered as all of the same length and breadth. It
is obvious, therefore, that, to get as many of these parallelograms as possible
into a limited space, they ought to be placed in rows side by side. Supposing
the walks to ke bordered with spaces sufficient for a single or a double row of
graves, as we have recommended for adoption in laying out cemeteries, then
the interior should be laid out in double beds, in the manner which we have
already described as calculated to make the most of any given space (see
Jig. 35. in p. 158.). The beds need not in every case be regularly formed like
the beds of a garden; but, whether this is done or not, they should be marked
off with sunk stones at the angles and at each end of the central space on
which the gravestones are to be placed, in order that the true position and
dimensions of the beds may never be doubtful, and may never undergo any
change through the carelessness of the grave-digger. An arrangement of this
kind would not hinder parties from choosing graves in any part of the ground
as at present; while it would prevent the great waste of surface that now
takes place, and obviate the necessity of ever walking over graves, either to
look at gravestones, or for the performance of funerals. In whatever
manner a churchyard is arranged, leaving the choice of ground free is decidedly
advantageous, both in point of utility and appearance. In point of utility, it
is better that the whole of the churchyard should be open to the choice of the
parishioners, and thus the graves scattered over it, and consequently the water
and the gases of decomposition diffused over a large underground space,
and thus diluted and weakened, than that they should be concentrated in one
spot, and their bad effects aggravated ; and it is more picturesque to have the
graves and tombstones scattered here and there over the whole ground, than
to have one part closely filled with graves and tombstones, and all the re-
mainder without any.

Want of Perpendicularity in the Monuments and Gravestones.— From not
placing the head-stones and other monuments on secure foundations, they
are, in almost every churchyard, seen leaning in all directions; and, when com-
posed of more than one stone, the jomts are cracked, and the whole threatens
to fall in pieces. This is an evil which admits of a remedy both with a view
to the past and the future, without the slightest degree of desecration, though
the expense of resetting monuments in a churchyard crowded with them
might be found inconvenient. With respect to monuments to be erected in
future, it will be sufficient for the manager of the burying-ground to
insist on the monuments being placed on solid ground, or on a sure foun-
dation of masonry or brickwork, as deep as the grave, as already indicated
with reference to cemeteries in p. 156.

The slovenly State of the Grass and Herbage is the next evil which we shall
notice. The surface of most graveyards is covered with long grass and rank
weeds; and, though this is apparently a less evil than those which have been men-
tioned, it is inreality a greater one, because its removal requires little or no outlay.
Hence it bears on the face of it the most unequivocal marks of negligence and
slovenliness, instead of setting an example of neatness, care, and respect. In
crowded churchyards the soil, from the water of decomposition, is necessarily
rendered much damper than in ordinary ground, and it is proportionately
richer. Hence the extraordinary vigour of the grass, docks, nettles, thistles,
brambles, &c., and other large plants, which it produces ; and the annual decay
of this vegetation, saturated with the gases which emanate from the masses of
putrefaction below, must be productive of malaria, more or less according to
circumstances. The unoccupied corners and those parts of churchyards most
distant from the eye, or from their dampness or other causes least frequented,
are particularly obnoxious in these respects ; and hence one of the great ad-
vantages that would result from having every churchyard surrounded by a

applied to Public Cemeteries. 479

a.

=

A ~ _- A oa
HL se i.

ee bh
the
ta

a)

k al
{ a

Kea AH
TATA

onrrrr ee t eee ee! ey) “
Fig. 103. 4 Churchyard no longer used for burying in, planted as a Cemetery Garden, and a new

tece of Ground added and laid out.

ie Th

480 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

gravel walk, with a border between that walk and the boundary fence. The
next remedy for the evil of rank grass and weeds is, to carry off as much as
possible of the surface water. This may be effected by forming the surface
in such a manner as to favour the descent of the water which falls on it to
gratings connected with drains, or to surface gutters, which shall carry the
water out of the churchyard. The tile-draining system may in many cases be
applied under the green paths and gravel walks; and, where there are springs,
it is almost needless to state that deep underground drains should be made
under the main walk. By thus effectually drying the surface, the grass will
grow much less luxuriantly and be easier kept under by mowing, clipping, or
shearing, than when left in the moist state now so general in churchyards.

The grass should be kept constantly very closely cropped, by the scythe,
the hedge-shears, the sheep-shears, or the hook. In some churchyards
the grave mounds are so clumsily made, and laid up in such rough lumps,
that it is difficult to mow the grass which grows on them, and in this case the
reaping-hook or shears ought to be used. In most parishes there are aged
persons, male or female, who would gladly undertake this work ; and a very
good mode of getting it executed would be to divide the ground into portions,
and let out the keeping of each portion to persons whose pride it would
be to keep their charge in as high order as possible. By this means some in-
terest would be given to what is now a heartless kind of labour, and the com-
petition would insure efficiency. The mowers or clippers would soon discover
that the shorter they kept the grass the less it would grow, and the less would
be their labour. Clipping, however, would only be necessary occasionally ; for,
wherever the grave mounds are neatly formed and smooth on the surface,
they may always be mown with the scythe, which is much better than cropping
with the reaping-hook, the mouth of the operator in the former case being
so much farther from the soil and its exhalations.

In some churchyards sheep are admitted with a view to crop the grass,
which they do effectually when in sufficient numbers, and when aided by the
spud to eradicate broad-leaved coarse-looking plants which sheep will not eat ;
but, as in the case of sheep being admitted into churchyards, it is impossible
for any person to ornament a grave with shrubs or flowers, and, as the
poor have frequently no other means of showing their respect for the dead,
we would prohibit the introduction of sheep into churchyards except where
a portion of the ground had not been buried in, and that portion we would
separate from the rest by a fence of wire hurdles, and keep it short by sheep
to save the expense of mowing.

Desecration.— Not only sheep, but cows, horses, and swine, are admitted to
graze the churchyards in some places; and, in the intellectual town of Had-
dington, the minister of the cathedral burial-ground not only allowed his
sheep to graze in the churchyard, but carted in turnips to them there, and
fattened them for the butcher. In many parts of the country, particularly in
Scotland, the boundary fences of churchyards are in such a state that swine
and dogs have free access to them, and the former are allowed to tear up the
grave mounds, and even to burrow into the graves. Where houses are built
on the margins of churchyards, as they frequently are in small country towns*,
the waste water and other refuse from the house are thrown from the windows
among the graves; and, shocking as it may be to relate, in some parts of

* The churchyard of Carlow is in the centre of the town, and so closely
surrounded by tenements, that in some places the wall of the dwelling-house,
often loosely built, alone divides the bed of the occupant from the (perhaps
newly tenanted) grave ; this, although rendering the air sufficiently insalu-
brious, is not the only cause of impurity, as the annual decay of noxious
plants, luxuriant in a place so rank and untrodden as our graveyards, uni-
versally neglected, are, where vegetable decomposition above ground is as
much a consequence as animal decay beneath, injures most seriously the
surrounding atmosphere. (Health of Towns, p. 197.)

F

applied to Public Cemeteries. 481

Scotland, as there are no privies, either public or private, for the common
people, the churchyard is the place of common resort. That we may not be
accused of exaggeration, we shall refer to the burying-ground of the established
church in Stranraer, as it was in 1841. A more hideous spectacle of the kind
we never saw; but it is doubtless in a better state now, because the Earl
of Stair, with his accustomed liberality and public spirit, has since presented
the town with a piece of ground for a general cemetery ; and is about to
erect another structure for public convenience equally necessary. Badas the
churchyards are in England, they are much worse in Scotland; for there the
extra-professional pursuits of the clergy are more frequently directed to farm-
ing than to matters of taste.

The charnel-house, or bone-house, needs only to be mentioned to excite
disapprobation; for, if churchyards were properly managed, no fragment of a
coffin or human bone would ever be disinterred or seen by the living. There
are two modes of effectually attaining this object: the first is by never
placing more than one coffin ina grave ; or, if more are placed in it, either in-
terring them at the same time, or placing the first coffin so deep as to admit of
a stratum of 6ft. in thickness between it and the second coffin; the last-
deposited coffin, in either case, being not less than 6 ft. under the surface of
the ground: and the second mode is by placing on the last-deposited coffin
a guard, or following stone, as already suggested in p. 98.

Allowing public passages to be made through churchyards is a common
source of desecration ; but, as these passages are generally conducive to the
convenience of the living, they cannot be dispensed with ; therefore, to pre-
vent desecration, they ought to be fenced off on each side.

No kind of games ought ever to be allowed in churchyards, nor dogs ad-
mitted if possible, nor smoking, nor in short any thing that would indicate a
want of reverence for the dead.

By far the greatest desecration which takes place in churchyards results
from their crowded state, in consequence of which a grave cannot be dug
without disinterring coffins and bones. There is no remedy for this evil but
the enlargement of churchyards, which is required im every part of the country,
and should be effected from time to time, according to some principle or rule
derived from the population returns, and the average annual burials.

Want of Trees and Shrubs.— We have often stated it as our opinion, that
country churchyards might be greatly increased in interest, by being carefully
and systematically laid out, and moderately planted with proper kinds of
trees and shrubs. These being named would create a great interest in them,
and the whole of the ground being very neatly kept would diffuse a taste for
order and neatness among the parishioners. This improvement is beginning
to take place in various parts of England, though but rarely in Scotland,
where flowers are considered light and gaudy, and where the great object to
be attained is to subject the mind to the bondage of fear, by continually re-
minding the spectator that “he also must die*, and that death is only the

“From whence you come, or whosoe’er you be,
Remember, mortal man, that thou must dee.”
Lines on the Sundial in the Garden at Brougham Castle.

“ Alas! the little day of life
Is shorter than a span,
Yet black with many hidden ills
To miserable man.”
Lines on a common Tombstone in Kirkmichael
Churchyard, Wigtonshire,
one of the most gloomy scenes of the kind in the West of Scotland: it
contains “the corpse of Gilbert McAdam, who was shot by the Laird of
Cullean and Ballochmill, for his adherence to the word of the Lord, and the
work of Reformation, in July, 1682.”
113

482 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

door to everlasting life.” (Gard. Mag., 1842, p.617.) Far be it from us to
dispute the justness of this taste, relative to those who hold particular opinions ;
for our own part we prefer the decorated churchyard, but we would no more
decorate it in the manner of a flower-garden, than we would dress a mourner
in the same manner as a bride or a bridegroom.

We shall show at the end of this article the mode in which we think trees
and shrubs ought to be introduced in new churchyards, and for those already
long occupied we shall give a few general directions.

Suppose a walk to be formed ‘immediately within the boundary, leaving a
border, regular or irregular in width, as the state of the graves and grave-
stones may admit, then a few trees may be scattered along each side of
it, singly, so as to form a running foreground to the interior “of the church-
yard, and to break the formality of the boundary fence. As the walk may
be supposed to be very irregular in direction and in width, the distance be-
tween the trees should be irregular also ; and occasionally two trees, or a tree
and a shrub, or a tree and a honeysuckle or other climber, may be planted
in one hole. In the interior of the compartments, where the ground is already
so completely filled up that there is no chance of any other graves being formed,
a few trees and shrubs may be so placed as to group with some of the more
conspicuous of the gravestones, and along the cross green paths one or two
trees may be planted at the angles or turns of the walk, by way of accounting
for these turns. But, whether in planting in the interior or along the green
paths, care must be taken to preserve lengthened glades or vistas to be seen
from the main gravel walks. These vistas should not extend from one boundary
wall to the other, so as to show everywhere the length and breadth of the
ground, but should rather terminate in an apparent mass of trees or bushes,
or in a view of the church, so as to leave abundant exercise for the imagina-
tion. Along the boundary fence, if a wall, which is generally the case, we
would plant creepers, evergreen and deciduous, but chiefly the different kinds
of ivy, as being evergreen, and Virginian creeper, Rhis radicans, &c., which,
like the ivy, adhere to the wall, and consequently require little care. Where
the expense of training was not an object, we would introduce roses, mag-
nolias, laurustinus, Cydonia japonica, Chimonanthus fragrans, and various
other shrubs, deciduous and evergreen, adapted for walls. Where the fence
was athorn hedge, we would measure it into regular spaces, so as to train up
shoots from the top of the hedge at regular distances, in order to form arti-
ficial heads, round or square, at such places; or we would train up a single
stem, and graft on each a different kind of thorn, or other rosaceous tree or
shrub. On a holly hedge we would graft variegated hollies, and on a yew
hedge the golden yew, which makes such a splendid appearance grafted on
the common yew at Elvaston Castle. If we had to plant a holly hedge or a
yew hedge round a churchyard, we would form piers or pilasters at regular
distances in both, which should be carried up higher than the hedge, and
terminate in balls. The piers, in the one case, should be variegated ‘hollies,
and in the other variegated yews. If we had to plant a hawthorn hedge, we
would form the piers of green holly.

Where a churchyard, though long in use, was not yet filled up, we should
take care to plant no trees and shrubs, the permanent effect of which was
essential, in situations where they would have to be removed when a grave
was dug. We should place them chiefly along the walks, at such distances as
to leave room for one or two graves between every two trees.

In few or no cases would we plant large-growing deciduous timber trees in
churchyards, such as the oak, ash, elm, beech, white or black Italian poplar,
Huntingdon willow, alder, sycamore, &c.; because, from the size they attain,
they would interfere with the effect of the church and of the monuments.
We should confine ourselves to low-growing trees, and, where only a few could
be planted, to evergreens of fastigiate forms.

Want of Monuments.—Monuments form a great source of beauty and interest
in churchyards, and it is gratifying to observe, in the neighbourhood of the

applied to Public Cemeteries. 483

metropolis and of other large towns, that as they increase in number they are
improving in taste. Every encouragement, we think, ought to be given to
their introduction in village churchyards, on account of the effect which they
cannot fail to have on the taste of the inhabitants, and more particularly on all
those connected with the building arts, such as carpenters, masons, brick-
layers, &c. It seems unfortunate that the revenues of the clergy are made to
depend partly on the permission granted to put up monuments, and thus a
man is taxed for his reverential feeling, and for erecting an instructive and
beautiful object, which he would, probably, have rendered more beautiful still
by the amount of fees paid to the clergyman.* A better mode would be to
encourage the erection of monuments, by giving the ground as a present on
condition of the monument being proportionately handsome. We would en-
courage every kind of monument, from the most frail to the most permanent,
as tending to cultivate reverential feelings and improve the taste; and we
would encourage the naming of all the trees and shrubs, as tending to excite
curiosity and intellectual exercise.

The churchyard at St. Michael’s, at Dumfries, is perhaps the most remark-
able in Britain, on account of the number and good taste of its tombstones.
The appearance of these at a distance is singularly grand and picturesque.
Erecting tombstones at Dumfries is quite a
mania among the middle classes, which has
been brought about chiefly by the cheap and
easily wrought red freestone, and the talents
of the late mason and scuiptor, Mr. Alexander
Crombie. The cheapness of these tombstones,
compared with the price of similar erections =—— ==
about London, is so great, that we are per- = =
suaded they might form a profitable article of SS
commerce for the metropolitan cemeteries. To
enable those concerned to judge how far this =

may be the case, we give, through the kind- SS === =|
ness of Walter Newall, Esq., architect, Dum- \\ = =

fries, figures from the designs of two monu- ‘== : |
ments, not long since erected at the heads of \ =.= =

the graves of two nurserymen, Messrs. Hood, \\ a= == =

father and son; that of the father (jig. 104.) Ni :

cost 38/., and that of theson, William (jig.105.),

251. The carriage to London, by Whitehaven, -

we are informed, mous not amount to 5/. for =|

each of these monuniénts. (Gard. Mag. for =

1831, p. 529.) : | _
The improvement of the church is chiefly Agia FN Reet tame cee epee CE 2)

the business of the architect; but the gardener Fis- 10f Monumennto Mr. Hood, sen., in

: 5 : 6 umfries Churchyard.

may in various cases cooperate with him, or

even supersede his exertions. It isdesirable in all cases that a church, like

every other large building, should stand on a level terrace or platform ; but,

as most old churches are buried or earthed up by graves in such a manner as

that the ground is higher without than it is within the church, this platform

* The fees for permission to erect the simplest and cheapest of all stone
memorials placed by graves, a head and foot stone, vary in the London church-
yards from 2/. 2s. to 6/. 6s.; for permission to place a flat stone over a grave,
from 4/. 4s. to 12/. 12s.; and the price for more ambitious monuments varies
from 5/. 5s. to 105/. For the right to erect “stones and vaults” in the
Hackney churchyard, though it was greatly enlarged some years ago, from
three to forty guineas have been paid. (Claims of the Clergy, p. 25.)— See An
Examination of Mr. Mackinnon’s Bill, p.117.; Cauch’s Huneral Guide ; and

Health of Towns, &c.
I1 4

484 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

or terrace can seldom or never be formed, without incurring a degree of de-
seeration that would be unjustifiable. Still, in a majority of cases, a space
round the walls of the church might be
cleared away to the width of 2 or 3 feet,

and of such a depth as to be at least 6 in.

below the level of the floor of the church. Wn)
This space ought to be carried com- :
pletely round the church on a perfect © —
level, or with merely a very gentle in- 5
clination from the middle of the building —
to each end, for the purpose of carrying E
off surface water. Under this space ee
there should be a tile-drain within a few
inches of the surface to carry off rain = =
water, or a deep drain if the subsoil re- =. SSS
quires it. The ground round this narrow LE :
level platform should either be supported —{

by brickwork or sloped down with turf,

according as the graves are nearer or EB =

more distant; and both the width of the
platform and the angle of the slope may = =
be irregular, if circumstances should ————
require it. The grand essential object is
to get a level base for the walls to rise
from, the surface of which shall be 6 in.
lower than the surface of the floor of
the church. The walk to the church
door will require to descend to this plat- *##-_1__1__1_1 —J jj,
form by an inclined plane, and there will
of course be one step of ascent to the
porch of the church.

It is unnecessary to state that the walls and roof of the church should be |
kept in good repair, and that in many cases ivy and the Virginian creeper
might be planted against it ; but we cannot recommend roses and other plants
requiring dug soil at the roots, on account of the injury they would do to the
platform, and the expense that would be incurred in training. It is always
much better not to attempt to do more than can be done well.

Perhaps it would greatly facilitate the improvement of churchyards, the
erection of handsome monuments, and the economy of burial to the poor, if
the fees of the clergymen from the church and churchyard were commuted
for a fixed sum to be raised annually by a general rate on the parish ; but this
is a part of the subject not within our province.

Laying out and planting a new Churchyard. —Churchyards, like every other
description of yard or garden, ought to’be laid out, planted, and managea,
with reference to their use; and the scenery produced should, m its ex-
pression and general effect, indicate what that use is, or, at all events, be in
accordance with it. A churchyard ought not to be laid out so as to be mis-
taken for a pleasure-ground, a shrubbery, or a flower-garden ; neither, on the
other hand, ought it to be left in a state of utter neglect, without regular
walks, and overgrown with weeds and rank grass. The uses of the churchyard
are, as a place of burial, as an enclosure and protection to the church, as a
place sacred to the memory of the dead, as a place of weekly meeting for
solemn purposes, and as an approach to the church. All its uses are of a
serious and important nature, and it is therefore to be considered as a grave
and solemn scene. Now, the question to be solved in laying out a church-
yard is, what trees, what treatment of the surface of the ground, the grass,
walks, graves, gravestones, and tombs, will be most conducive to solemnity of
effect. The expression of the exterior of the church is grave and solemn, by
its long-established association with our religious feelings; and it therefore

Fig. 105. Monument to Mr. Hood, jun., in
Dumfries Churchyard.

a

applied to Public Cemeteries. 485

may be considered as having a similar influence on the scenery around. The
feeling of solemnity is one more of a passive, than of an active, nature: it
neither needs much cultivation, nor much exercise of the imagination.
Strong contrasts are not required to excite this feeling, nor varied and in-
tricate scenery to prolong it. On the contrary, this will be more decidedly
the effect of sameness of form and colour, and their repetition. The solemnity
of a churchyard has its origin in the uses of the place, and will only be in-
terfered with or weakened by the introduction of such objects as interfere
with these uses. Simplicity, therefore, ought to be a governing principle in
every thing relating to churchyards ; and, as the appearance of neglect or
slovenliness always. implies want of respect, order and neatness are next in

importance. By order, we mean the avoiding of every thing like confusion

in the placing of the graves, tombs, and gravestones, and the disposition of the
trees: and, by neatness, we allude more particularly to keeping the turf short
and smooth ; the walks firm, even, and free from weeds ; the gravestones
upright ; and the tombs in a state of repair.

The character of a churchyard, as a place of burial, will always be more or
less influenced by the character and manners of the people to whom it belongs.
In Britain, churchyards have much less care bestowed upon them than in
Central Germany, and in some parts of France, Belgium, and Holland. The
sentiment of respect to the memory of deceased persons in these countries is
shown by planting flowers over the graves, and frequently cultivating them
there for some years afterwards. Among the Moravians, on the Continent,
the churchyard is sometimes laid out in compartments, with walks between,
like a garden; and the compartments are kept dug, and planted with flowers
and ornamental plants. Two powerful arguments are advanced in favour of
this practice: the first is, that a churchyard so managed costs less than if it
were in turf, and kept short by mowing; the second, that the surface of the
ground has always the same appearance, there being no gravestones or tombs,
and the ground being left level, and replanted with the plants which stood on
it before, after every interment; these having been carefully taken up, and
placed on one side, before the grave was dug. It is evident that this mode of
treating a churchyard, however consonant it may be to the ideas of those who

adopt it, is not in accordance with our desiderata. It does not indicate its

use, as it has neither raised graves, tombs, gravestones, nor any other ap-
pearance of its being a place of burial; and it is not calculated to excite
solemn emotions, as it has all the gaiety of a flower-garden.

In Britain, respect for the dead is not generally shown by the introduction
of flowers over their graves ; but the practice prevails in some places throughout
the country, more especially in Wales, and is not unfrequent in the metro-
politan and other cemeteries. Perhaps it ought to be commended and
encouraged, as rendering burial-grounds inviting as places to walk im, and as
the frequent recollection of deceased friends has a tendency to sober the
mind and cultivate the affections of the living. In every part of Germany
where the inhabitants are in the habit of cultivating flowers on the graves of
their friends, or even of visiting these graves annually on a certain day and
decorating them, the inhabitants are a reflective, and very humane and
amiable, people ; ; for example, at Munich. The introduction of flowers in
churchyards, therefore, where they are planted over the graves by the re-
lations of the deceased, is a very different thing from their introduction in the
margins of plantations of trees and shrubs, in imitation of shrubberies, as is
done in some of our public cemeteries; to the utter neglect, as we think, of
appropriate character and expression.* Bearing in mind, ther efore, the three

* Hanover Chapel, Brighton, has a burying-ground which is quite unique.
A straight avenue of elm trees leads from the entrance gate to the door of the
chapel; and on each side of the gravel walk, which runs down the centre of
the avenue, is a narrow margin of smooth highly kept grass. Next there is

486 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

principles of simplicity, order, and neatness, as guides in laying out church-
yards, we shall next proceed with the details.

Situation and Soil.—It is almost unnecessary to observe that a country
church ought either to be built adjoining the village for which it is intended,
or, if it is to serve two or three villages, in a situation central to them. The
surface of the ground ought to be an elevated knoll, in order that the church
and the spire may be seen on every side, and, if possible, throughout the
whole extent of the parish. The knoll should be sufficiently large to admit
of its summit being reduced to a level, or, at all events, to a nearly level,
platform, or piece of table land, about the size of the churchyard ; a level
surface being more convenient for the purpose of interment than a sloping
one, for a reason that will be given hereafter. Besides which, the ground
plan of a church being a parallelogram, to see it rising out of a round knoll
would be contrary to every idea of a suitable and secure foundation. Where
there is no want of room, or not many burials likely to take place, the surface
of a churchyard, instead of being levei, may be quite irregular ; but, in this
case, the places for graves, and the walks of communication to these places,
must be rendered easily accessible, and, to a certain extent, level. This can
always be effected by laying the ground out in terraces ; a mode of disposition
which may be as advantageously adopted in churchyard gardening, as it is in
gardening as an art of culture. The soil should, if possible, be sandy or
gravelly, as being most suitable for promoting animal decomposition ; and
also because there is a general prejudice in favour of being buried in dry soil.
The worst of all soils for a churchyard is a stiff wet clay ; which, by its com-
pactness and retention of water, prevents the natural decomposition of the
body, and changes it into an adipose substance.

The Size of the Church, and the Extent of the Churchyard, will depend on the
population for whose service they are intended ; and on the probable slowness
or rapidity of its increase. The form of the church may be considered as
fixed, by precedent and immemorial usage, in that of a parallelogram, with or
without projections at the sides, so as to give it the form of a Latin cross;
and having a tower, steeple, or cupola, at one end, for the church bells and a
clock. There are some examples, however, of churches having been made
semicircular, circular, or polygonal, in the plan, so as to suit them to par-
ticular situations.

The form of the churchyard is not fixed, like that of the church, but will

on each side a neat low wire fence, and beyond this is the burying-ground, the
greater part of which is dug and planted with herbaceous plants, interspersed
with low trees and flowering shrubs, and divided by walks, in some places
straight, and in others winding. The whole is interspersed with graves and
gravestones; and, as the gates in the wire fence are all kept locked, no person
is allowed to walk among the graves who is not admitted by the gardener.
Every recent grave is covered with a mound of green turf, kept smooth by
clipping or mowing, and all the rest of the ground is kept dug and planted ;
so that no flowers can be said to be grown on the recent graves, but only
beside them. The recent graves are those in which interments have taken
place within two or three years; and are always known by being covered

with green turf, which is kept fresh by watering, and short and thick by fre-.

quent mowing. Nothing that we ever saw ina cemetery or churchyard comes
up to the high keeping displayed in this one. The walks and their edges
were perfect; the grass every where like velvet ; the dug ground as fresh and
garden-like as if it had been recently dug and raked ; the flowers neatly staked
and tied up, where tying was required ; and not a single decayed flower or
leaf could we observe any where. The boundary walls were covered with
ivy and other climbers, and we observed trained on them one or two fig trees
and some other plants of the tree kind; but, as in consequence of the wire
fence we could not get into the interior walks, we speak only of what we saw
from the avenue. (Gard. Mag., 1842, p. 349.)

applied to Public Cemeteries. 487

naturally be determined jointly by the form and position of the church, and
the form of the ground which surrounds it. If the ground be level, or nearly
so, then the outline of the churchyard may coincide with that of the church,
so as also to form a large parallelogram, in the direction of east and west, that
being the prescribed bearing of all Christian churches. There is, however, as
we have already seen (p. 477.), a great disadvantage in placing the church so
as to bear east and west, which is, that the north side, both of the church
walls and the part of the churchyard next them, is kept great part of the year
in the shade, and the ground is consequently rendered damp, and uninviting to
bury in. We are happy to find that in some parts of the country the advan-
tage of a diagonal bearing is beginning to be understood and acted on, both in
dwellings and churches. Indeed, no single building or row of houses, or
street, should be set down in the direction of east and west, unless there
is some very decided reason for doing so.

If the church be situated on the summit of a conspicuous conical hill, or
dome-like knoll, then the outline of the churchyard will be determined soleiy
by the ground, and may be circular, oval, or roundish ; and we may here ob-
serve, that, when cases of this kind occur, as they are not very common, we
think the ground plan of the church ought to be round, or roundish, also. In
general, the position and form of the churchyard ought to be such as will have
a good effect from all the different parts of the surrounding parish from which
it is seen; while, at the same time, it should look well from its immediate
vicinity, and also from the different doors and sides of the church.

The Site of the Church should be central to the natural shape of the ground
which is to constitute the churchyard, when that shape is in any way remark-
able; but, where the surface of the ground is level, the church may be placed
nearer one end of the parallelogram, or other-shaped piece of ground, which
forms the churchyard, than another ; or even nearer to one side, provided
this is not attended with injustice to the parishioners. In general, the exact
position of the church within the churchyard, when not determined by natural
circumstances, ought to be regulated by the number of sides on which it is
approached. If the parish lie equally round the church on every side, there
will be at least four gates to the churchyard, corresponding with the four car-
dinal points ; and in that case the church ought to be in the centre of the
churchyard ; but, if there be only a gate at one end, or if there should be
several gates all nearer one end than the other, the church ought to be
placed accordingly.

The Ground Plan of the Church, its exact position in the churchyard, the
boundary lines of the latter, and the different churchyard doors or gates being
fixed on, before any thing farther is done, the church ought to be built ; and
we shall suppose that its elevation is so designed as to appear to rise from a
platform of gravel or pavement, of from 10 ft. to 20 ft. wide, according to the
size of the church ; this platform, or terrace, being supported by a sloping
bank of turf, at an angle of 45°, and furnished with flights of steps opposite
each of the churchyard gates. Underneath the surrounding platform there
ought to be a deep barrel-drain or box-drain, for receiving the rain-water from
the roof of the church, and thus keeping the foundations dry; and from this
drain there ought to proceed others of the same kind, under each of the walks
which lead from the church platform to the boundary wall. These last, besides
carrying away the water collected in the drain which surrounds the church,
will dry the subsoil of the churchyard generally, and enable it the better to
absorb the water of decomposition; and receive the surface water from the
walks, through gratings placed at regular distances.

The Boundary Fence of the churchyard should be such as to exclude every
kind of domestic quadruped ; but it is not, in general, necessary that it should
be so high as to prove a barrier to man; because it may fairly be supposed that
most persons will reverence the interior more or less, and that those who
are without this reverence will have, in general, nothing to gain by breaking
into such a scene. We here exclude altogether the consideration of body-

488 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

stealing, which a recent judicious law has rendered no longer a profitable busi-
ness, more especially in country places As swine and rabbits are particularly
offensive in churchyards, especially where the soil is sandy, the boundary fence
should either be a low wall of 3 ft., surmounted by a holly or thorn hedge; or
a wall of 6 or 7 feet in height, without any hedge. In the latter case, the
inner face of the wall may be planted with common ivy. Where the church-
yard is to be united with the adjoining lawn, garden, or pleasure-ground of the
parsonage, the boundary fence on the side next the residence may be an open
iron railing ; and, where it is to be united with a pleasure-ground on a large
scale, or a park, it may either be surrounded by an open iron railing, or by a
deep anda wide sunk fence. If a hedge is in any case determined on as the
boundary to a churchyard, it ought to be kept much broader at bottom than
at top, in order that it may grow quite thick and close there; and the only
plants fit for such a hedge are the common white thorn and the holly.

The Walks of a Churchyard are of two kinds: those for proceeding from the
different gates in the boundary fence to the church doors, for persons going
to, or returning from, the church; and those which make the circuit of the
churchyard, for the more conveniently viewing the tombs and graves, and for
conducting funerals. The walks proceeding from the entrance gates in the
boundary fence to the church doors should be always in straight lines, and of
a width proportionate to the size of the church and churchyard, but never
narrower than 6 ft.; because this is the least width which will allow two per-
sons abreast, carrying a coffin between them on handspokes, to pass solemnly
along ; the width, indeed, should be greater rather than less, because nothing
can be more indecorous than to see a funeral procession crowded and huddled
together for want of room. In every case, we would, if possible, place the
entrance gates so that the walk from them to the church, whether to its sides
or its ends, might always meet the building at a right angle.

With respect to the walk round the churchyard, it should in every case, and
whether the churchyard were smail or large, be at a distance of at least 10 ft.
from the boundary wall, in order to leave a border sufficiently broad for a
range of graves to be placed at right angles to the wall. This walk should be
of the same breadth as the others ; and, like them, in no case less than 6 ft.
for the reasons already mentioned. In most churchyards this boundary walk,
and the cross walks necessary as approaches to the church, will be sufficient ;
but, where this is not the case, cross walks from the boundary walk to the
terrace round the church may be added ; or a second surrounding walk may
be formed, half-way between the terrace or walk round the church, and the
circumferential walk.

The grassy Surface of a Churchyard, when it is newly laid out, should, of
course, be even; and the nearer it is to level, the more convenient will it be
for all the purposes of interment. Whether even or uneven, it should always
have a descent from the church, rather than towards it, for the sake of throw-
ing off the surface water; and in strong clayey soils, in moist climates, pro-
vision ought to be made by surface gutters, even in the turf, for conveying the
water to underground drains, or directly along the surface to the boundary of
the churchyard.

Trees in Churchyards.—The number of trees which may be introduced into
a churchyard depends on its situation and soil; the great object, next to that
of leaving abundance of room for the graves, being to preserve dryness, in
order to permit the escape of the mephitic effluvia that may rise to the
surface, which can only be effected by the admission of abundance of light and
air. Where the soil is clayey, and the situation low, very few trees are
admissible ; and these few should be small fastigiate-growing kinds, that neither
cover a large space with their branches, nor give too much shade when the
sun shines. In an elevated open situation, where the soil is sandy or gravelly,
the trees in a churchyard may be comparatively numerous ; because the shelter
which they will afford in winter will produce warmth to persons crossing the
churchyard to church ; and, from the airiness of the situation, and dryness of

applied to Public Cemeteries. 489

the soil, they will not produce damp when their leaves are on in summer, but
will freely admit of evaporation from the surface.

Supposing a new churchyard to be planted, we should place the trees
chiefly at regular distances, in rows parallel to the walks. There are very few
churchyards that would bear more trees than a row on each side of the cir-
cumferential walk, and also on each side of the walks leading from the
entrance gates to the church doors; while, in cases of limited extent, and a
clayey soil, a row of trees, planted at regular distances along the boundary
fence, will, perhaps, be as many as can be introduced without producing
damp ; and, in others, a few trees along each side of the principal walk from
the entrance gate of the churchyard to the church will, perhaps, be enough.
It must not be forgotten, that the principal part of the area of a churchyard,
in general, lies from east to west; and, consequently, that all trees planted in
that direction will throw a shade upon the ground the greater part of every
day that the sun shines, throughout the year. For this reason, where the soil
is so damp, or the situation so confined, as to render it advisable to introduce
but very few trees, these ought either to be in lines along such of the ap-
proaches to the church terrace as lie in the direction of north and south; or
to be introduced as single trees, at the intersections of the cross walks with
the boundary walk.

The kinds of trees to be planted in a churchyard form a subject of as great
importance as their number ; because a single tree of some species will pro-
duce more bulk of head, and consequently more shelter, shade, and damp, than
half a dozen trees of some other kinds. As a guide in the choice of the kinds
of trees, it may be adopted as a principle, that none ought to be planted
which will grow higher than the side walls of the church; because to conceal
the church by its appendages or ornaments is inconsistent, not only with good
taste, but with common sense. By good taste, in this instance, we mean
allowing the church to have its proper expression, as the principal and most
dignified object in the landscape. Thorns, hollies, maples, sycamores, yews,
mountain ash, wild service, &c., are suitable trees for the churchyards of very
small churches ; and the common maple, some species of oaks, such as the
evergreen oak, the Italian oak, and some of the American oaks, with a host of
other middle-sized trees, are suitable for the churchyards of churches of the
ordinary size. There are very few country churches, indeed, which have even
their towers or spires sufficiently high to admit of the stronger-growing elms
or poplars being planted in their churchyards. The Oriental plane (not the
Occidental) may be especially recommended, on account of the stone-like hue
of its bark and foliage, its finely cut leaves, and agreeable shade, for churches
of both the largest and the middle size. The purple beech would harmonise
well in churchyards with the dark yew ; and the flowering ash is, also, a very
suitable tree.

As all trees in churchyards must be liable to have their roots injured by the
digsing of graves, this is one grand argument for planting the trees alongside
the walks ; because in that case there will be always one side of the tree the
roots of which will remain untouched, viz. those which spread under the
walk. For the same reason, trees with roots that spread near the surface,
such as the pine and fir tribe, should seldom be made choice of. Were it not
on this account, the cedar of Lebanon would be one of the most fitting of all
trees for a churchyard, from the sombre hue of its foliage, and its grand and
yet picturesque form ; from the horizontal lines of its spreading branches
contrasting strongly with the perpendicular lines of a Gothic church; and,
above all, from the associations connected with it, on account of its frequent
mention in Holy Writ. For all these reasons, it were much to be wished
that, in all new churchyards, two or three spots (each of about 30 ft. in dia-
meter) were set apart, not to be broken up for interments, and each planted
with a cedar of Lebanon. In many old churchyards in the country, a spot
sufficiently large for at least one cedar might easily be spared ; and the cler-
gyman or the churchwardens who should plant a cedar on such a spot, and

490 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

fence it sufficiently while young, would confer a grand and appropriate orna-
ment on the church, and would deserve the gratitude of the parishioners.

No trees should be planted in a churchyard the natural habit of which is
to grow near water, such as willows, alders, &c. ; because the expression
conveyed by such trees, being that of a moist situation, is altogether unsuit-
able for a churchyard ; nevertheless, as the public in general do not partici-
pate in these associations, one of the most popular trees in churchyards every
where is the weeping willow. On the whole, the cypress, the yew, the Irish
yew, the red cedar, the Swedish and Irish junipers, the Juniperus rectrva,
the Oriental arbor vite, the different species of thorns, the common Mont-
pelier, mountain, and other maples, the wild service, the whitebeam tree and
its hybrids, the holly, and a few others, are the most suitable low trees for
churchyards; next, those which grow about the height of the Norway maple;
and, lastly, those which rank in point of size with the Oriental plane.

The System of Interments in Churchyards is, in general, very imperfect ; and,
indeed, in many cases no system whatever is adopted. The obvious prin-
ciple is, to place the tombs near the eye, and consequently near the walks;
and to place the graves without gravestones in the interior of the com-
partments. For this reason, we would reserve a strip of ground, 10 or 12 feet
in width, along both sides of the walks (which would include the whole of the
space between the boundary walk and the boundary wall); these strips
should be devoted exclusively to family burial-places, whether merely indi-
cated by corner stones, or railed in, or containing gravestones or tombs.
The whole of the compartments being thus bordered by strips for family
burial-places or purchased graves, the interior of each compartment might
either be laid out in strips parallel to the borders, with gravel walks between;
or devoted to graves without marks, laid out in the manner of a garden, with
regular alleys of turf between. The manner of arranging these graves, and all
the regulations respecting them, should be much the same as those recom-
mended for cemeteries, p. 158.

In Germany, it is customary, in some churchyards, to bury all the children
under a certain age, who are not to have grave-marks, in a compartment by
themselves ; not only because the waste of ground occasioned by placing
large and small graves together is thus avoided, but because it is found that,
in the case of children, the ground may be used again much sooner than the
ground in which adults have been buried. But we do not think it necessary
to recommend such a practice for Britam, where churchyards are, or may be,
increased in size with the increase of population; and where it is desirable
that no grave should be opened after it has once been filled.

On the Continent, as well as in many parts of Britain, the extent of the
churchyard in country parishes remains the same as it was several centuries
ago; the consequence of which is, that, in districts where the population has
increased, the graves are crowded together so as to obliterate one another,
and the ground raised considerably above the surrounding surface, as well as
above the floor of the church. Every time a grave is dug in such church-
yards a great number of bones are thrown up; which are deposited in the first
instance in the charnel-house, and, in many cases at least, sold afterwards to
bone collectors, who ship them to Britain, along with the bones of quadru-
peds, to be crushed for manure. (See Gard. Mag. for 1842, p. 546.)

Fig. 107. is the ground plan of a churchyard laid out agreeably to the
foregoing principles; and jig. 106. is an isometrical view, supposing the trees to
have been ten or twelve years planted, and some of the gravestones and tombs
to have been erected. The churchyard is of small size, and is adapted for an
agricultural parish, where the majority of the inhabitants are in moderately
good circumstances, and whence it is supposed the superfluous population
will migrate to the towns, and leave the number of permanent inhabitants
comparatively stationary. There is only one entrance to the churchyard (at a
Jig. 107.), over which there is an archway for the protection of persons waiting
during rain or snow. The walk is 8 ft. broad, and proceeds direct to the steps

applied to Public Cemeteries.

Fig. 106. Isometrical View of a Churchyard adapted for an agricultural Parish.

492 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

(6) which ascend to the platform on which the church stands. The circum-
ferential walk (c) is 6 ft. wide, with a border for tombs and gravestones on
each side, 12 ft. wide. There is also an inner walk (d) of the same width,
between which and the platform on which the church stands there is another
12 ft. broad for tombs. The space for graves without marks lies on each side
of the walk e, and is in 14 divisions, with room in each for 24 graves. Each
of these divisions is separated by a grass path 2 ft. wide. The two surround-
ing borders, intended for tombs, are planted with trees 20 ft. apart. At the
angles (ff), these trees are cedars of Lebanon ; at the main entrance (g g),
they are yew trees; and the remainder of the trees are different species of
thorns (Crate‘gus) (), and evergreen cypresses (2), alternately ; except
opposite to the side entrances to the platform, and at the angles adjoining the
cedars, where there are yew trees marked kk &k. Whatever tree is in-
troduced on one side of the walk, the same sort is also planted on the other ;
for the sake of preserving uniformity in the perspective. The number of trees
wanted for this churchyard will be 8 cedars of Lebanon, 20 yews, 28 cy-
presses, and 32 plants of Cratz‘gus. The latter may be of the following 16
species or varieties : —
C. coccinea. C.
C. c. corallina, C. Oxyacantha rosea.
C. punctata. C. O. multiplex (flore pléno).
C. Cris-galli. C. O. melanocarpa.
G:
Cl

. Aronia.

C. C. salicifolia. O. pre‘cox.

C. orientalis (odoratissima). . glandulosa.
C. tanacetifolia. C. heterophylla.
C. t. Celsiana. C. flava.

Half the yews may be of the upright Irish variety ; but the cypresses should
be all of the common upright-growing kind. In many parts of England, and
generally in Scotland, the climate is too severe for the cypress ; but in all
such places the Irish yew, Irish juniper, Swedish juniper, weeping Nepal
juniper (Juniperus recirva), the upright-growing variety of the Oriental arbor
vitee, or the Pinus Cémbra, may be substituted. The common holly is also
not abad substitute; and, if deciduous cypress-like trees were required, we
know of none more suitable than the Quércus pedunculata fastigiata and the
Cratee‘gus Oxyacantha stricta.

The parties wishing to bury in the borders are not to be considered as
obliged to erect tombs of any sort, or even to enclose the spot which they
have purchased with an iron railing ; all that they will be held under obliga-
tion to do will be, to confine their operations within the limits of the paral-

lelogram which they may purchase (and which may be either single, as shown ©

in the plan at ¢, or double, as at w), and the four corners of which will be
indicated by four stones let into the soil at the expense of the parish. The
party purchasing the ground may erect any description of gravestone, tomb,
statue, or monument, he chooses within it; or he may leave it in naked turf,
which will be mown or clipped at the expense of the parish ; or he may plant
it with shrubs and flowers, in which case he must keep it in repair himself.
We have suggested the idea of not rendering it compulsory to erect tombs
or iron railings, in order that we may not seem to exclude those who
cannot afford the expense of such memorials, from purchasing a grave to hold
in perpetuity. A poor man may be willing to afford the price of a grave, in
order to preserve the remains of his family from being disturbed; though he
might not be able to afford the farther expense of decorating it, by setting
up a gravestone or erecting a tomb.

The Church shown in the figures is on what is supposed to be an improved
design, suggested by an architect in the Architectural Magazine ; and it differs
from the ordinary plan of churches in the manner of the entrances, and also
in the general form being nearer that of a square than is usual. The author
of this plan adopts it as a principle, “ that the point in the outer walls from
which each pew, and each class of pews, can be gained by the shortest pos-

applied to Public Cemeteries. 493

LT TTT)
TUTTI TONAL pT

go (IIIT «(TT
lS
ITT TITIAN

EIT

&

Te ME Ml): =?

u ie

4

Set *. Zh
EAE ENO SS
rar LBNSS

Zz Sy, a | | g i 2
= RN } Y a Fl
2A ee Ke nj 5 ix &
= GRINS id a ue “
atl Oe
8 a ea ;
= ~? 2 Wa
i x _ Lies SS Se,

a Wt % ‘ |

Fig. 107. Ground Plan of a Churchyard adapted for an agricultural Parish.

| 3d Ser. — 1843. IX. K K
|

494. Landscape-Gardening applied to Public Cemeteries.

sible distance, is the best situation for an entrance; and for the following
reason: that a person entering a church after the congregation has partly
assembled, or, as frequently happens, after service is commenced, may gain
his sitting as soon as possible, and avoid at least one half the disturbance
otherwise created, by having only half the length of an aisle to traverse.”
With respect to the general form, this architect considers “ that plan the best
which concentrates the greatest number of benches or pews within a given
distance of the preacher ; and hence he prefers a square to a parallelogram.”
He adds: “ Never let the inner entrance door of a church, open under a
gallery, or the effect of the interior of the church will be irrecoverably lost.
If you will have western entrances and western galleries, contrive to have
porches or cloisters, so as to take you to the gallery front before you enter the
body of the church.” (Arch. Mag., iv. p. 568.) The ground plan in jig. 107.
is made in accordance with these principles : // are the entrance porches ;
m m, staircases, from which the body of the church is entered through lobbies
at x. The inner lobbies are formed by two pairs of folding doors, with a
space between, equal to the thickness of the walls of the towers which con-
tain the stairs. The inner doors of the lobbies may be glazed with stained
or painted glass. If the body of the church be fitted up with benches, the
effect would harmonise better with this style of architecture ; and, in the
opinion of several clergymen with whom we are acquainted, this arrangement
would be more suitable to the spirit of Christianity, according to which all
are equal in the sight of God. It is worthy of remark, that in the Russian
churches there are no benches or seats of any kind whatever, and nothing to
prevent the meanest slave from standing by the side of the highest noble,
or even of the emperor himself. The portion of the sittings marked 0 0, to
the right and left of the pulpit, our architect considers should be free. The
communion table is to be placed at p, the pulpit at g, and the reading-desk at
r. ‘“ The vestry and singers’ seats (s) should be divided from the body of
the church by a pierced screen, finished upon the same level with the gallery
fronts ; and above this screen should be a niche and canopy to the pulpit, de-
signed as much as possible to improve the sound.” (Jd., p. 571.) Whoever
wishes to enter into farther detail on the subject of churches, and to see
plans and elevations on a large scale of the one shown in jig. 106., may con-
sult the Architectural Magazine, vol. ii. p. 393., vol. iv. p. 237. and p. 566.,
and vol. v. p. 223.

The Parsonage House and Grounds will, in general, be most conveniently
situated adjoining the church and churchyard; and the church will always
form a most appropriate object in the principal view from the parsonage. The
churchyard, also, may sometimes be seen as a part of the view; and at other
times it may be so united with the grounds of the parsonage as almost to
seem a continuation of them. In the greater number of situations, however,
we believe the clergyman will prefer having his residence at a short distance
from the churchyard; not only from the idea that there may be mephitic ex-
halations from it (especially in churchyards where the graves are crowded
pell-mell together, and opened without any regular system), but also because
familiarity with the interments taking place in it may lessen the sentiment of
solemnity excited by them in his children and domestics, and may obtrude
that expression more powerfully than is desirable upon the minds of strangers

who may be his guests. Another and a decisive reason why the church and |

churchyard should generally stand alone is, that the expression of solemnity
is heightened by this circumstance. Solitariness is unquestionably a powerful
ingredient in all feelings which are the opposite to those of gaiety; and, on
this account, the church and churchyard should stand completely isolated,
and, as we have said before, they should, if possible, be so elevated as to be
seen from all the surrounding country. (See the subject of Parsonage Houses
treated of in the Suburban Gardener, p. 607. to p.615.; in which the plan of
Dunchurch Vicarage, laid out from our designs in 1837, is given as an example

of the pleasure-grounds of a parsonage united with the scenery of an ad-
joining churchyard.)

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. 495

Art. V. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By James Barnes, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 436.)
Letter XIX. Crane-necked Short-handled Hoes.

I now give you an account of the different uses I make of my
little crane-necked
hoes. (fig. 108.)

in fig. 109., IL use §~
for cutting and
thinning out all
kinds of vegetable
crops to their final
distance, such as carrots, early turnips, parsneps, onions, lettuce,
&c.; and for stirrmg the surface amongst any growing crops,
where there is not
room for a larger
hoe.

Nos. 3. and 4., in
jig. 109., are for the
same purpose, the
first time of thin-
ning ; and for hoeing
such crops as do not
require to be made
so thin, as well as
among all kinds of
plants that are
pricked out, such
as celery, cauliflow-
ers, broccoli, cab-
bage, &c.

Nos. 5. and 6., in
Jig. 1 10., LT use for all Fig. 109. Elevations of Crane-necked Hoes.
kinds of seed beds ;
for radishes, carrots, &c., in frames and pits; for small seedlings
just pricked out in frames, pits, under hand-glasses, or in hooped
beds; amongst peas in rows, when they first come up; or any
other small crop where there is not room for wider hoes, and the
surface requires breaking. I make it a rule never to have any
hand-weeding done, except in the gravel walks; as I am well
convinced there is much mischief done by incautious and thought-
less people weeding amongst crops.

Nos. 7. and 8., in fig. 110., I use for stirrmge the surface of
potted plants, seed-pans, &c. No. 8., with a sort of pointed

K K 2

— 2 Mm.

Fig. 108. Crane-necked Hoes.

496 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

blade, I find very useful for moving the < 4%%
soil round the rims of the pots, to clear
out any obstruction that is likely to pre- 5
vent a free diffusion of water.

I well know it is an idea many people
have, that it is loss of time to hoes
before they have a crop of weeds; and
they have encouraged their growth for
a considerable time, as if they were in
some fear of losing the stock of them.
In good cultivation a weed ought never
to be seen. I do not agree with those
that tell us one good weeding is worth
two hoeings: I say, never weed any crop Fig. 110. Crane-necked Hoes of the
in which a hoe can be got between the |
plants; not so much for the sake of destroying weeds and vermin,
which must necessarily be the case, if hoeing is well done, as for
increasing the porosity of the soil, to allow the water and air to
penetrate freely through it. I am well convinced, by long and
close practice, that oftentimes there is more benefit derived by
crops from keeping them well hoed, than there is from the manure
applied. By keeping the surface of the earth clean, open, and
healthy, nature supplies herself: it is not only the means of
eradicating weeds and vermin, but through it (stirring the soil)
vegetables profit in every way; they are clean, healthy, and of a
finer flavour. Had not our country produced weeds, I am apt
to think, we should never have thought of using the hoe, or any
other fertilising tool. My rule is to hoe, fork, and stir the
surface, at every opportunity, when it is in a proper state for
performing these operations. | Weeds or no weeds, still I keep
stirring the soil; well knowing, from practice, the very beneficial
effect which it has. It is attended with little trouble, and only re-
quires to be adopted as a system. Raking the surface fine I have al-
most wholly dispensed with, in every department, as I have plainly
seen the ill effects of it many times; and this is a season it must
be much felt, particularly on all kinds of heavy soils: the heavy
rains will run the surface together, and bind it so as to become
caked, “livery,” and “ steely.” [See p. 429.] By hoeing with
judgement and foresight, the surface can be left even, wholesome,
and porous; and three hoeings can be accomplished to one
hoeing and raking. Much injury is done by raking the surface
so very much, in more ways than one. It is not only the means
of binding and caking the surface, but it clears the stones off as
well. The earth in its natural state has stones, decayed roots,
and vegetation, to keep it open and porous, and, by their decom-
position, gradually to add to the earths of the soil. It also
contains naturally numerous insects, worms, and moles. If the

Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 497

earth is sufficiently drained, either naturally or otherwise, and
the surface kept open, there is no fear of suffering either from
drought or moisture; and it is healthy for the animal as well
as the vegetable kingdom. -

Bicton Gardens, June 6. 1843.

Art. VI. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and
Flower-Garden. By the Conductor.

(Continued from p. 445.)

Tue design, fig. 111., is for the distribution of a collection of herbaceous
plants according to the natural system. It has been carried into execution
in the Vice-Regal Gardens at Monza, near Milan, by Signor Giuseppe Manetti,
the director of these gardens. To this distinguished honour M. Manetti,
who has been our correspondent for many years, has been recently elevated ;
and the appointment appears to us to do equal honour to him and to his royal
master.

The ground possesses no advantages in point of form or surface, and is
rather limited. If the area had been of greater extent, M. Manetti observes,
the genera would have been separated from each other by a line of different-
coloured plants, such as Arméria vulgaris ; but there was no room for any
thing of this kind. The plants included in this collection are chiefly such
as are not common in Italy. The arrangement is as follows; the spaces be-
tween the beds being turf, and the main walks gravel; the whole surrounded
by a wall, except at the west end.

A, THALAMIFLO'RE. 9. Umbelliferee. D. MONOCHLAMY DER.
1, Ranunculacez. 10. Araliacez. 1. Plantaginez.
2. Berberidee. 11. Rubiacez. 2. Nyctagines.
3. Podophyllacez. ie Ie: 3. Polygonee.

4, Papavericer. Se ESSE: 4, Euphorbidcee.
5. Fumariacee. 14, Composite. 5. Urticee.

6. Cruciferz. 15. Lobeliacee. 6. Resedacez.

7. Cistinez. 16. Campanulacee. 7. Piperacez.

8. Violariée. .

9. Caryophyllez. C. COROLLIFLO‘RE. Bo TENG ELBE
10. Linez. 1. Orchidez.
11. Malvacee. 1. Apocynee. 2. Iridez.
12. Hypericinee. 2. Asclepiadee. 3. Amaryllidee.
13. Geraniacee. 3. Gentidnee. 4, Hemerocallidez.
14. Zygophyllee. 4. Bignonidcee. 5. Smilacez.
15. Rutacee. 5. Convolvulacez. 6. Asphodélez.

3 6. Polemoniacee. 7. Tulipacee.

ee LE TBE 7. Boraginez. 8. Melanthacez.
1. Leguminosz. 8. Solanez. 9. Ardidex.

2. Rosacez. 9. Scrophulariacez. 10. Jincez.

3. Onagrarie. 10. “Labiate. 1l. Cyperdcee.

4, Lythrariacez. 11. Verbenacez. 12. Graminez. °
5. Melastomacee. 12. Acanthacee. A

6. Passiflorez. 13. Primulacez. By SCR OL GENE:
7. Crassulacez. 14. Globulariz. 1. Filices.

8, Saxifragez. 15. Plumbaginee. 2. Equisetacez.

KK 3

1

WD
iS)

Oss

@ OM Oe? ABe 26 0%B

LLL LLL

——————

yo soft
Lt

20 30
—

sual

£/0 o-
Seem

Natural Arrangement of Herbaceous Plants in the Vice-Regal Gardens at Monsd,

Fig. 11].

Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices. 499

G. HALF-HARDY PLANTS.

Jasminum heterophyllum, Erythrina Crista-galli, Poinciana Gilliész, Pit-
tosporum Tobira, Siphocdmpylos bicolor, Raphiolepis salicifolia, Diospyros
Kaki, Clianthus puniceus, Edwardsia microphylla, E. grandiflora, Bupleirum
coriaceum, B. fruticosum, Passiflora ceertlea, P. czerilea czertileo-racemosa,
Escallonza montevidénsis, E. rubra, E. floribimda, Fuchsia venista, F. falgens,
F. corymbiflora, Hoveénia dilcis, Azalea indica, Callistémon lanceolatus,
Illicium floridanum, Grabéwskia boerhaaviefolia, Latrus Borbonia, Serissa
foe’tida, Hlewagnus argéntea, Biddlea globosa, Cytisus nubigenus, A’rbutus
Andrachne, A. Andrachne serratifolia, Genista thyrsiflora, Ligistrum lucidum,
Z. nepalénse, Ceanothus certleus, Benthamia acuminata, B. fragifera, Olea
fragrans, O. fragrans longifolia, Pernéttia mucronata, Caméllia japonica, Cneo-
rum bicolor, Duvatia depéndens, Podocarpus macrophyllus, &c.

Monza, near Milan, July 10. 1843.

( To be continued. )

Art. VII. Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices of
the Kinds of Plants newly introduced into British Gardens and
Plantations, or which have been originated in them; together with
additional Information respecting Plants (whether old or new)
already in Cultivation: the whole intended to serve as a perpetual
Supplement to the “ Encyclopedia of Plants,” the “ Hortus Bri-
tannicus,” the “ Hortus Lignosus,” and the “ Arboretum et Fruti-
cetum Britannicum.”

Curtis's Botanical Magazine ; in monthly numbers, each containing
seven plates; 3s. 6d. coloured, 3s. plain. Edited by Sir William
Jackson Hooker, LL.D., &c., Director of the Royal Botanic Garden,
Kew.

Edwards's Botanical Register; in monthly numbers, new series,
each containing six plates; 3s. 6d. coloured, 3s. plain. Edited by
Dr. Lindley, Professor of Botany in the University College, London.

Paxton’s Magazine of Botany, and Register of Flowering Plants ;
in monthly numbers; large 8vo; 2s. 6d. each.

Leguminose.

3673. ZV’’CHYA
villdsa Lindl. hairy § tJ or 3 su R Swan River 1841. Bot. reg. 1842, 68.

A very pretty free-growing species of this genus, which succeeds best in a
mixture of loam and peat not broken fine, and with the pots well drained.
“‘ It is easily increased by cuttings, or by seeds which are produced freely when
the plants get large.” (Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842.)

1976. AMI’CIA 17668 zygomeris Bot. Mag. 4008.

2136. LA’THYRUS
nervosus Lam. nerved, RB tJ pr 3 su B_ South Brazil 1840. D co Bot. mag. 3987.

A greenhouse plant with blue flowers and glaucous leaves. It may be
planted out in summer, when it will flower in the open border. (Bot. Mag.,
Dec. 1842.)

[3996.

pubéscens Hook et Arn. downy & tj pr 3 my P.B South Brazil 1840, D co Bot. mag.
A hardy greenhouse plant, with trailing stems of 2 or 3 feet long, and
clusters of purplish blue flowers. The whole plant is covered with a soft
silky down. (Bots Mag., Feb, 1843.)
KK 4

500 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

2837. ACA‘CIA 24647 bifldra Part. Mag. Bot. vol. ix. p. 221.
spectabilis Benth. A beautiful species with glaucous leaves, and erect
racemes of deep yellow balls of flowers. Introduced from the Swan River by
Messrs. Lucombe, Pince, and Co. of Exeter. (Bot. Reg., May, 1843, Misc.)

2072, INDIGO/FERA : [reg. 1843, 14.
stachyodes Lindl. long-spiked S.J or 6 s L.C North-east of India 1839. C r m Bot.

The seeds of this plant were collected at Bhotan, in the north-east of India,
4.000 feet above the level of the sea. It forms a handsome greenhouse shrub,
flowering nearly all the summer, and it is increased by cuttings of the young
wood. (Bot. Reg., March, 1843.)

DésuaDon Dosua “tJ or 6 s Pk Nepal 1840. C r m _ Bot. reg. 1842, 57.

This is a very pretty species of Indigéfera, with abundance of deep rose-
coloured flowers mingled with the leaves. It appears almost hardy enough to
stand in the open border, and there is no doubt that in Devonshire and
Cornwall it would be quite hardy and very ornamental. It grows best in a
rich soil. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1842.)

Rosaceae.

Spire\a fissa Lindl. This hardy shrub, which was supposed to be new,
flowered in November, 1841, and proves to be the same as the Spire’a ar-
géntea of Mr. Bentham. As, however, there is another Spire‘a argéntea,
this plant will probably retain its specific name of fissa, which alludes to the
appearance of the leaves when young, as they seem to be split up into nu-
merous coarse teeth. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1842, Misc.)

Sievérsia elata Royle. A hardy herbaceous plant from Nepal. The flowers
are large and handsome, and they are produced in panicles of three or four
flowers each. (Bot. Reg., July, 1842, Misc.)

Combretacee.
1203. COMBRE‘TUM 10200 grandifldrum Pazt. Mag. Bot. vol. ix. p. 169.
Onagracee.
1188. FUCHSIA
alpéstris Gavd. mountain RwtJ or 20 su S_ Brazil 1841. C 1p Bot. mag. 3999.
This very distinct and elegant species of Fachsta was found by Mr. Gardner,
during his last visit to the Organ Mountains. The flowers are of the same
shape as those of F. coccinea, but they are smaller, and the sepals are of a
bright rose colour, with dark purple petals. The leaves are very handsome,
being entire, with a long point, and densely pubescent ; the margins are slightly
revolute ; and, in the old leaves, the margin, midriffs, and large veins are dark
red. (Bot. Mag., Feb. 1843).

spléndens Zucc. splendid & or 6 su S.G Mexico 1841. C rm _ Bot. reg. 1842, 67.

The flowers of this species bear considerable resemblance to those of
F. falgens, but they have much shorter tubes; and the stamens, which pro-
ject a good way beyond the mouth of the corolla, have large pale yellow
anthers. “ When very young, the foliage and lengthening branches are quite
hoary with down. It is a native of Mexico, where it was found 10,000 feet
above the level of the sea; so that it is probable it will prove the hardiest
of its race.” (Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842.)

GODE‘TIA [6l.
grandiflora Lindi. large-flowered © or 2 j.au Pk California 1838. S co Bot. reg. 1842,
This is a very handsome annual, with very large flowers of a peculiarly
delicate texture, which bear some resemblance to those of G. rosea-alba,
but are much handsomer. The plant formed a bush of about 2 ft. high, and
is well deserving of cultivation ; but, unfortunately, no seeds were saved
of it. (Bot. Reg., Nov. 1842.)
Melastomacee.

1360. PLERO‘MA * A (4007.
Benthamzanum Gard. Mr, Bentham’s [7) or 6 au.o P Brazil 1841. C p.l Bot. mag.

=

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 501

This is a very handsome plant, with large purple flowers, which sometiines
measure 2 in. across, and are quite white in the centre. It was found by Mr.
Gardner on the Organ Mountains, in rather boggy soil, at about 3000 ft.
above the level of the sea. (But. Mag., April, 1843.)

MEDINI'LLA (bot. vol. ix. p. 79.
erythrophylla Blwme red-leaved # {| or 2 su Pk East Indies 1837. C p.l Paxt. mag.
A handsome greenhouse or stove shrub, with clusters of rose-coloured

flowers, with blue anthers. The leaves are reddish when young, though they

become afterwards of a pale green. The plant should be grown ina mix-

ture of turf and heath mould, and watered freely during the summer months.

(Pact. Mag. of Bot., May, 1843.)

CENTRADE‘NIA G. Don. (Kentron, spur, adén, gland; spur-like glandular appendages to anthers.)
rosea Lindl. rose-coloured *% 1) pr 1 ja W. Mexico 1840. C sp _ Bot. reg. 1843, 20.
A very pretty little greenhouse shrub, which seldom grows more than a foot
high, but has such a number of branches that it appears a perfect mass of
flowers. The flowers are small, but they are very pretty; as they are white,
tinged with pink. “It isa soft- wooded species, growing a foot high in a sandy
peat, and striking readily from cuttings.” It is frequently ca!led in the nur-
series Doncklaéria diversifolia. (Bot. Reg., April, 1843; and Paxt. Mag. of
Bot., June, 1843.)
MARCE‘TIA Dec. (Named in honour of Dr. Marcet of Geneva.)
excoriata Dec. loose-barked # ((]) pr 1 su W Mexico 1842. C. s.p Bot. reg. 1843, 31.
This pretty little plant belongs to a genus very little known in England,
though it is met with occasionally on the Continent. The species are all
natives of tropical America, where they are found in the mountainous dis-
tricts, in sandy places ; and where they have almost the habit of heaths.
This plant, which is probably the only one of the genus in Great Britain,
flowered in the splendid collection of the Duke of Northumberland at Syon.
(Bot. Reg., June, 1843.)

Myrtaceae.

HYPOCALY’MMA Endl. (Hupo, under, kalumma, veil; the bracts hiding the calyx from below.)
robistum Endl. robust _] or 1 my Pk NewHolland 1842, C lp Bot. reg. 1843, 8.
This very pretty little plant has flowers so much like those of a peach,

except in being smaller, that it is often mistaken for a small almond or peach
tree in New Holland; particularly as rose-coloured flowers are so very rare
among the myrtles. This plant flowered in the greenhouse of Messrs, Lu-
combe and Pince of Exeter. It requires to have the pots in which it is
grown well drained. The leaves, when bruised, smell like lemon. (Bot.

Reg., Feb. 1843.)

Passifloree.

1923. PASSIFLO‘RA
actinia Hook. sea-anemone-like § [) cu 10 f G Brazil 1842. C co Bot. mag. 4009.

This very singular passion-flower is named in consequence of its resem-
blance to those marine animals, so common on rocky coasts, which are known
by the name of the sea-anemone, or actinia. Its flowers are very fragrant.
This species is a native of the Organ Mountains of Brazil ; and it requires
the usual culture of stove plants. (Bot. Reg., April, 1843.)

Loasacez.

2193. LOA‘SA, or CAIO’PHORA [bot. vol. ix. p. 269.
Herbérté Paxt. the Rev. W.Herbert’s WJ or 6 su S hyb. 1842. S. sp Paxt. mag.
This very splendid annual is a hybrid between ZL. lateritia and L. pent-

landica, It is a very handsome greenhouse climber, and will flower freely in
the open air during the summer and autumn. (Pazt. Mag. of Bot., 1843.)
1447. PORTULA‘CA spléndens, garden variety.

This is a garden variety of Portulaca Thellusonw. “ It is a tender annual,
growing about a foot high, which flowers most abundantly from July to Sep-

502 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices.

tember, if treated in the following manner. The seed should be sown about
the middle of March, in pots filled with a mixture of sandy loam, old lime
rubbish, and well decomposed cow-dung, in equal portions. The plants
should be raised in a hotbed, and, when large enough, should be potted off
singly into small 60-pots, filled with the same kind of compost as that in
which the seeds were sown. The young plants, when potted, should be
again returned to the hotbed ; and, when well established, their pots being
well filled with roots, should be re-potted into upright thirty-twos, draining
the pots well, and covering the surface of the soil with a thin covering of
fine sand. After this, the pots should be placed on the front shelf of a
greenhouse, where they are freely exposed to the sun, but guarded from
wind and rain, the first of which destroys the flowers, and the latter the
plants. Care must also be taken in watering the plants, as on this much
depends of the success in their management ; for they are very subject to
damp off close to the soil.” (Bot. Reg., July, 1843.)

Cactee.
3359. ECHINOCA’CTUS
centetérius Pfeiff2 many-spined w —] or 3 jl Y.R Mexico 1840. O s.p Bot. mag. 3974.
This is a very handsome species: the flowers are copious and very large,
each being nearly 3 in. across. The petals are of a pale yellow, with a
reddish streak down the centre. The species is remarkable for the great
number of its spines. (Bot, Mag., Oct. 1842.)
1471. MAMMILLA‘RIA
pycnacdntha Mart. densely-spined # —] or 3 jl Y Mexico 1841. O s.p Bot. mag. 3972.
This plant is remarkable for the large size of its flowers, and their great
abundance. The plant itself is about 6 in. high, and the same in width, and
the flowers are produced on the summit five or six at atime, each about 3 in.
in diameter ; so that the flowers take up nearly half the height of the plant.
They appear in July, and numerous offsets also are produced from the apex
of theplant. (Bot. Mag., Oct. 1842.)

turbinata Hook. top-shaped “& 1] gr +i jl Str Mexico 1838. O s.p Bot. mag. 3984.
This curious plant is only about as large as a moderately sized apple. It is
of a singularly pale glaucous hue. The flowers are about an inch in diameter,
and seldom more than two or three open at a time. (Bot. Mag., Dec. 1842.)

Cereus biférmis Lindl. A pretty plant from Honduras, with bright rose-
coloured flowers. (Bot. Reg. June, 1843, Misc.)

Céreus speciosissimus var. minimus. A very small-flowered variety raised by
Mr. Scott, gardener to George Barclay, Esq., of Bury Hill. (Bot. Reg., Sept.
1842.)

Grossulacee.

719. REBES :
Albidum Paxt. whitish % or 4 ap W.Pk hybrid 1842, C co Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x. p. 55.
This very beautiful plant was found in a garden at Inveresk, near Mussel-

burgh. ‘The flowers are of a very delicate French white, with a pink eye ;
while the plant has larger racemes of flowers than R. sanguineum, and is a
more profuse bloomer. It forms a very pleasing contrast to the deep red
flowers of R. sanguineum, and is a most desirable acquisition to the shrubbery
and flower-garden. It is propagated in the same way as #. sanguineum (by
cuttings or slips), is of the same robust habit of growth, and, like that species,
thrives well in almost any sort of soil or situation.” (Paxt. Mag. of Bot.,
April, 1843.)
Rubiaceae.

602, RONDELE‘T/A
longifldra Cham. long-flowered “ ([] or 2 au B Brazil 1841. C co Bot. mag. 3977.
This beautiful blue Rondeletia is another instance of the fallacy of the doc-

trine of blue and red and yellow flowers not being found in the same genus, as

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. 503

most of the other species of Rondeleétia have red and yellow flowers. This
plant is highly worthy of cultivation. It flowered, for the first time in
England, in the stove in Mr. Veitch’s nursery near Exeter. The flowers
have an agreeable smell, like those of the Auricula. (Bot. Mag., and Pact.
Mag. of Bot., Nov. 1842.)

389. MANE’TTIA [vol. x. p. 27.
bicolor Paxt. two-coloured § J pr 3 f.mr C.Y Brazil 1842. C s.p.l Paxt. mag. bot.

This is a pretty little plant with small lively-looking flowers. A native of
the Organ Mountains in Brazil, whence it was introduced by Messrs. Veitch
and Son of Exeter. (Paxt. Mag. of Bot., March, 1843.)

Rhodostoma gardenioides Scheid. A little inconspicuous bush allied to
Gardénia. (Bot. Reg., May, 1843, Misc.)

Habrothamnus fasciculatus Endl. This very handsome shrub, Dr. Lindley
tells us, is in the possession of M. Van Houtte of Ghent. “It forms a
bush 5 or 6 ft. high, with broad ovate-oblong leaves, and heads of crimson
flowers about the size of those of Burchéllia capénsis, or larger. These heads
are arranged in a panicle, so as to render the branches a complete mass of
blossom.” (Bot. Reg., July, 1843, Misc.)

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Agriculture, Botany,
Rural Architecture, c., lately published, with some Account of
those considered the more interesting.

BaxtTer’s British Flowering Plants. No. 128., completing the work. 8vo.
Oxford and London, 1843.

Weagain strongly recommend this work, as we have frequently done before ;
and we congratulate its indefatigable author on its completion. Its value is
greatly increased by copious indexes, tables of contents classified, an ample
list of books quoted or referred to, a list of the few errata which have oc-
curred, and ample directions to the binder with respect to the plates.

Catalogue of Hardy Trees and Shrubs cultivated and sold by Whitley and Osborn,
Fulham, near London. One sheet folio, to go by the penny post. Fulham
Nursery, 1843.

This is undoubtedly the most complete catalogue of hardy trees and shrubs
that ever was published in this or in any country. A sign, the same as in our
Abridged Arboretum, indicating the habit of the plant, 1s placed before each
species and variety ; and the authority for the name, and the height which the
plant attains, or is supposed to attain, in the climate of Britain, after it.
Those plants that require sandy or dry peat, bog or moist peat, or sandy loam,
are also indicated; but the shortest way to give an idea of this catalogue will
be to copy the table of contents : —

“ The nomenclature is the same as that of the Arboretum Britannicum and
the Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs, except the very few names marked
with a *, which we have not been able to identify with these works, or which
have been introduced since their publication. Where no authority is given
after the name, the Arboretum Britannicum and the Encyclopedia of Shrubs
are to be understood as such. The heights given are approximations to what
it is supposed the plants will attain in this country, in order to serve as some
guide in planting them out. In giving the heights of trailers and creepers,
the length of stem has been followed, as in the case of climbers and twiners.

“ To facilitate the naming of trees and shrubs sent out from this nursery,
Messrs. Whitley and Osborn can supply their customers with lead labels,
5k in. long by 23in. broad, and 2 in. thick, with the scientific name, English

504 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c.

name, and native country, stamped with steel types, at 24d. each. These
lead plates, having a small hole at each corner, may be bent, applied, and
fastened by nails to oak or larch stakes ; or they may be fixed with putty, in
sunk panels, in such bricks as were used in the Derby Arboretum. [Vol. X VI.]

Decipuous TREES. Decipuous Suruss.
Signs. No. Signs. No.
¥ Round-headed_ - - - 471 3 Of the largest size - - 129
4 Fastigiate-headed - - - 16 s Middle size - - - - 379
& Spiry or Fir-headed, with the «« Under-Shrubs~— - - - 20
lateral branches pendent -£ Twining Shrubs - < - 33
(larch) - - = = 2 -& Climbing Shrubs - - - 47
% Spiry or Fir-headed, the late- * Trailing Shrubs) - - - 20
ral branches horizontal (de- rx Creeping Shrubs - - - 4
ciduous cypress) = = J EVERGREEN SHRUBS.

B | Oo =
Pendulous-headed 24, 22 OF the lateést size fi kee

EVERGREEN TREES. x Middle size - = E - 167
2 JRommddhexled o - . 59 % Under-Shrubs” - - = 10s
& Fastigiate-headed - g & Twining Shrubs - = a

\& Spiry or Fir-headed, with the 4 Climbing Shrubs - z po ily

Bee & Trailing Shrubs) - = - 25
Gs ; branches Pood ene 91 & Creeping Shrubs - : aed
Spiry or Fir-headed, with the ABBREVIATIONS.
lateral branches horizontal p- peat.
pines) - - - - 90 b. p. bog or moist peat.
® Pendulous-headed - - 2 s.1]. sandy loam.”

Total number of species and varieties, making a deduction for those to
which two signs are put, 1608.

Lest it should be thought that there is anything exclusive in printing a
catalogue with signs, it may be useful to observe that nurserymen in general,
and curators of botanic gardens, having their catalogues printed by Mr. Spottis-
woode, and willing to go to the small extra expense, may have signs placed
before all the species and varieties, whether ligneous or herbaceous, hardy or
house plants, as in our Hortus Britannicus, Abridged Arboretum, and other
works in which signs of habits, and of natural or garden habitats, are used.

Account of the Museum of Economic Geology, and Mining Records Office,
established by Government, in the Department of Her Majesty's Commissioners
of Woods and Forests, under the Direction of Sir Henry de la Beche, F.R.S.
and G.S., Nos. 5. and 6. Craig’s Court, Charing Court. Open to the Public

‘gratuitously. By T. Sopwith, F.G.S., &c. &c. 12mo, pp. 120, plates and
woodcuts. London, 1843.

“The Museum of Economic Geology, No. 6., Craig’s Court, Charing Cross,
is open to the public gratuitously every day in the year, Sundays, Good
Friday, and Christmas Day alone excepted, from ten o’clock in the forenoon
to four in the afternoon in winter (November to February, both inclusive),
and until five o’clock during the rest of the year.

“ The following account has been drawn up and published, from a conviction
that this museum eminently deserves to be extensively known, inasmuch as
it is not less important for the objects sought to be attained, than it is
interesting and instructive from the varied and popular nature of its con-
tents.” (Preliminary Notice, p.8.) This work, like all those by Mr. Sop-
with, is very scientifically and carefully got up; the engravings are eminently
instructive, and the little book is remarkably cheap.

Sketch of Furness and Cartmel, comprising the Hundred of Londsdale north of
the Sands. By Charles M. Jopling. Post 8vo, pp. 275, with two maps,
many woodcuts, and vignettes. London and Ulverston, 1843. -

A local guide, highly creditable to Ulverston, and giving a very good idea
of that part of the country, its antiquities, its geology, its principal country

==

General Notices. 505

seats, and its history and biography. The description of Conishead Priory,
the seat of Colonel Braddyll, about two miles from Ulverston, is illustrated
by three engravings, and gives a very graphic idea of that splendid abbatorial
residence. The botanical part of the description is drawn up by the head
gardener, Mr. Aiton, who also furnished the list, arranged according to the
natural system, of plants found indigenous in the neighbourhood of Furness.
This list contains a large proportion of comparatively rare species, and it
might have been lengthened, we are informed, had there been room. The
names generally are correctly spelt, though there are a few defects in this
particular in the list of exotics at Conishead Priory, in p. 159. and 160.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.
Art. I. General Notices.

RENDLE’s Tank System of heating by hot Water. —“ Our attention has
lately been called, by Mr. Beck of Isleworth, to a somewhat novel method of
heating by hot water, which appears worthy of being more generally known.
The apparatus now in use at that gentleman’s residence is upon a very small
scale ; but the principle upon which it acts is capable of being carried out to
any extent, and is at once so simple and economical, that we shall attempt to
describe it briefly to our readers.

“ The originality of this invention lies with Mr. Rendle of the Plymouth
Nursery, who, in June last, forwarded to the Horticultural Society a paper
upon the subject, which was read at one of their meetings, and of which an
abstract was given at p. 422. of the Chronicle of last year. The main point
in which it differs from other methods is, that the hot water, instead of circu-
lating round the house in pipes or open gutters, is contained in the centre of
the building in a wooden tank, upon the lid of which is a layer of bark or
sawdust, raised 3 or 4 feet above the floor, for the reception of pots of cut-
tings, plants, &c. This tank is divided lengthways by a partition in the
centre, with the exception of about 2in., which are left open at one end to
allow the water to circulate ; its opposite extremity is connected with a small
boiler by means of a pipe. The water, upon becoming heated in the boiler,
flows through the pipe into the tank, and, after passing round the latter,
returns to the boiler by another pipe: in this manner the circulation of the
water is kept up.

“ The tank in Mr. Beck’s house is about 11 in. deep; but he is satisfied
that 6 or 8 inches in depth would be amply sufficient. Its lower part is
formed of wood, and the upper of slate, one portion of which is covered with
tan for plunging in cuttings, &c.; the remaining part is left bare, so that, on
sprinkling it with water, a copious vapour is obtainable. The waste of water
in the tank is trifling; when, however, it requires to be replenished, it is
easily effected by means of a small orifice left for that purpose in the slate
covering.

“ The boiler, by which this comparatively large body of water is heated, is
of diminutive size, and, perhaps, we cannot give a better idea of it than by
supposing one of Rogers’s to be divided crossways into two; the lower
portion, hermetically closed, will then represent the boiler in question. As
in Rogers’s, the fire is contained in the centre, and is supplied with fuel from
the top. It stands upon a grating raised a few inches from the floor, and is
surrounded at the distance of 2 or 3 inches by an iron case, from one side
of which the smoke makes its escape through a small chimney. This outer
case, or covering, is alinost double the height of the boiler ; and, the more
effectually to prevent the radiation of heat from its sides, an iron cylinder
slides down through the opening by which the fire is fed, and fits exactly
within the top of the boiler. Tiis answers the double purpose of containing
a body of fuel, which settles down and supplies the fire during the night ;

506 General Notices.

and, when the lid is placed upon the outer case, of checking the draught of
the fire, which is only continued through some small passages cut in the sides
of the cylinder. A small opening also communicates with the fire from the
outside, through which the former can be stirred when necessary.

“Tn a boiler of this kind, many improvements could doubtless be suggested.
Mr. Beck is of opinion that a great advantage would be derived by having
the boiler, as in Rogers’s improved, in the form of a dome above the fire,
and by having the latter fed on one side by means of a shelving hopper,
covered in, and placed as near as convenient to the top of the apparatus.

“ During the time in which this system has been in working, the water has
never been within many degrees of the boiling temperature, yet the ther-
mometer within the house has seldom, on the coldest nights, fallen below 60°
or 65°. Its great advantages are, that the tank in which the water circulates
will, with such modifications as circumstances may require, serve as a stage
for plants, either in the centre or round the sides of a house, by which the
expense of hot-water pipes will be dispensed with ; and its extreme sim-
plicity, which is such that any person situated at a distance from engineers
might, with a little ingenuity and the assistance of a carpenter and black-
smith, erect an apparatus of his own; since any boiler which would create a
circulation of water would answer as well as the one above described, although
it might not be equally economical. We may also state that the atmosphere
of the house in which this system is adopted is remarkably pure.” (Gard.
Chron., Jan. 14. 1843.)

“T read with pleasure your notes at p. 19. of the Chronicle respecting a
‘new plan of heating, observed at Mr. Beck’s of Isleworth ; and also that
you do me the justice to ascribe the originality of its Invention to me. As
you have now brought it prominently betore the public, perhaps a few obser-
vations from myself may prove acceptable.

“Tt is a plan which can scarcely be recommended too strongly; for, not
only is it adapted for the smallest propagating-house, but also for plant
structures of the largest size. You have clearly explained the principle of
the apparatus to your readers, therefore description from me would be
superfluous. My tank or cistern is about 20 ft. long, and 5 ft. broad ; it is
situated in the centre of a house, and, except at the end where the boiler is
fixed, is surrounded by a walk. The boiler is one of Rogers’s, and acts
admirably. The depth of the tank is only 6in., and this is quite sufficient.
On the top I have placed large slate slabs, cemented to each other, to prevent
a superfluity of steam from escaping into the house.

“When first I thought of this excellent mode, I imagined that, to keep up
a sufficient heat in the house, I should be obliged to retain a constant fire ;
but such is not the case. If the fire is lighted for two hours in the morning
and evening, it is quite sufficient to maintain a steady and genial bottom heat ;
as the large body of water in the reservoir, when once heated, remains warm
for a considerable length of time. The thermometer is generally on an average
at 65°.

“In a small house this principle can be adopted for less than 5/.; and in
larger ones, at a cost at least one half less than that of hot-water pipes. As you
justly remark, a common blacksmith and carpenter are all that are required to
put it up. I doubt not but before many years it will be universally adopted
by all those who grow pine-apple, melon, cucumber, or even stove and orchi-
daceous plants, when we shall find dung, leaves, and other fermenting mate-
rials excluded from the pinery and stove, and used only for manures. Even
I, who can procure tan and dung at a very low rate, am a saver of at least
20/. a year by this discovery; therefore the saving must be very great in a
larger establishment, where hundreds of loads of dung, tan, and leaves are
consumed annually.

“ On the 28th of December last the apparatus was set at work, and my
foreman commenced propagating dahlias, which are potted and placed on the
top of the slates, and surrounded by sawdust. They are now breaking
luxuriantly ; hundreds of cuttings are already off, and plunged in sawdust in

General Notices. 507

another part of the tank. I have used the apparatus for more than eight
months, and have been highly successful in striking some thousands of plants.
It is certainly the most complete plan that possibly can be adopted for a
propagating-house.” (W. HE. Rendle, Plymouth Nursery; in Gard. Chron.,
Jan. 21. 1843.)

The idea of heating by a tank of hot water was put in practice many years
ago in St. Petersburg by Count Zubow, and published in the Horticultural
Society’s Transactions in their volume for 1820, p. 430. The water was there
heated by steam; but Mr. Rendle’s, and also a mode adopted by Mr. Lindsay
in the Hammersmith Nursery, are far simpler and more economical. Mr.
Lindsay’s method (see fig. 67. in p. 267.) is still more economical than Mr.
Rendle’s. We have also before us plans and a description of a very eco-
nomical mode which has been adopted at Vienna, and which we hope to
publish in due time. Pipes of earthenware are used about Paris, or brick
flues cemented inside, as suggested by Mr. Beaton. — Cond.

Articles of Cream-coloured Clay.— Paving Tiles for Walks, and Edgings for
Beds in Flower-Gardens, of a very beautiful cream-coloured and durable ma-
terial, have been sent us by Messrs. Wyatt and Parker. How far the price
may answer we cannot say, but in every other respect the improvement seems
great indeed. We may say the same of a very beautiful name plate of this
material, intended as a substitute for such plates as have been used in naming
the trees in Kensington Gardens. The letters are black, filled into hollows
indented by type, and afterwards burnt in; and must, of course, last as long as
the material. Of course these name plates can be made of any size, and they
are intended to be fitted into a cast-iron frame with a wrought-iron shank,
with a disk on it either of cast or wrought iron. Whatever may be the cost
of these earthenware labels at first, they are certain to be much cheaper in
the long run than painted iron labels, which will require to be renewed every
four or five years.

An Edging of Seyssel Asphalte, in lengths of about 3 ft., in thickness about
24 in., and in depth about 6 in., has been forwarded to us. It has the great
advantage of bending when slightly heated, so as to form curved lines of any
description ; but its dark grey colour we are afraid will be somewhat against
it, at least for a year or two after it is put down.

Palmer’s Universal Steamer has been recommended to us by a head gar-
dener as the very best cooking utensil he knows for a journeyman gardener’s
cooking-room. We have tried one, and found it a great improvement on the
common tin steamer, and the price is very moderate. Any London iron-
monger can supply it.

Palmer’s Improved Economical American Oven is recommended by the same
gardener, for those bothies where the men can afford to have roast meat.
We should say that it will prove as valuable a utensil for the family of the
head gardener, as the steamer will for his men. We have had a leg of mutton
roasted in one, and also a loaf of bread baked, and found both excellent. The
editor of the British Farmer's Magazine, speaking of the common American
oven says: “It is one of the most valuable inventions of the kind we know,
and ought to be in every farm-house and every cottage in the kingdom. Our
own family bread is chiefly baked in one of these ovens placed before the fire,
and better bread there cannot be from any oven whatever. For roasting (not
baking) small joints, we know nothing equal to it.” (B. F. MW., as quoted in
Supp. Cott. Arch., p. 1290.) ‘‘ One fault alone remained to the American
oven, the inability of basting the meat, and the consequent unavoidable
waste of dripping, which, owing to the extraordinary reflective power of the
American oven, was so burnt and dried up as to render what little remained
quite useless. To remedy this evil, the Palmer’s improved economical Ame-
rican oven is so constructed as to carry off all the dripping and nutritious
quality of the meat, hitherto wasted, into a dripping-pan, placed in such a
position that the meat can be thence basted with the dripping without re-
moving the oven from the fire, or interfering in any way with the progress of
the cooking.” — Cond.

508 Retrospective Criticism.

Art. Il. Retrospective Criticism.

THE Study of Bees, and of Chemistry and Vegetable Physiology. (p. 576.) —I1
would be sorry if Mr. Wighton should think I undervalued the study of bees.
I certainly did not mean to express myself in that way. He seemed, how-
ever, from his manner of expression, by boasting of an ignorance of alkalies,
to undervalue the study of chemistry. I certainly was not of opinion that
his pretended ignorance was real, but thought it proper to defend the neces-
sity of the knowledge of chemistry, to a certain extent, to gardeners. There
may be differences of opinion as to the comparative space that chemistry
ought to occupy in the education of a gardener ; but, certainly, it was not
rating it too high, to wish a tithe of the time bestowed by Mr. W. on bees to
be devoted to that purpose. His work lately published on bees bears evi-
dence of its having originated in a vast deal of attention to the subject. In
many situations, however, it may be found that a knowledge of chemistry is
of more consequence, in others it may not; education should be as much as
possible suited to the future prospects in life ; and much more attention may
be required, in particular instances, to certain branches than to others.
Gardeners, however, as at present situated, are subject to so many changes of
place, that a very extensive course is required. When employers come to
be better convinced of the benefits resulting, both to man and master, from a
servant considering his situation as fixed, and thus being enabled to bring out
the capabilities of the grounds intrusted to his charge (which a lifetime is
generally short enough to accomplish), it may be more in the gardener’s
power to know to what branches of education he should most devote his
attention. I do not recollect exactly what I said in the Gazette about
excretions from roots. Iam of opinion, however, that it is most likely the
excretions from roots give rise to the fungi found there; the fungi found
there are more likely, as fungi in general, to feed on morbid excreted matter,
than on the sound living tissue of the root: the subject, however, is open to
discussion. As to the other parts of the essay, it is needless to make repe-
titions. I take the meaning of the word virgin soil to be, wntouched; when
pasture has lain long untouched, the soil may get consolidated so far as to
regain the property inherent in virgin soil of keeping porous when made so,
which no long-worked soil will do. This property, however, is quite inde-
pendent of any substance contained in the soil; its good effects are more
perceptible in light fertile loamy soils than in clayey, but it exists in all new
soils ; and, like a layer of charcoal spread on the surface, keeps up the proper
communication between the soil and atmosphere, which is indispensable to
fertility. é is a physical property belonging to its natural constitution, which
gives effect to the mechanical operations of pulverising, which are soon
obliterated in effete worn-out soils, by their tendency to dissolve into powder.
This is quite independent of any organic matter accumulated in the pasture,
or saline substances washed into the subsoil; it is a natural principle in the
constitution of the soil denoting vigour, while long working is productive of
an exhaustion which no manures we can apply will altogether remove. The
arguments I brought forward on this head in the former essay are what
I have considered as solving the question in my own mind, perhaps better
than I have*been able to explain myself; but I am open to conviction, and
may be mistaken, and there is nothing like proper discussion for eliciting the
truth. The benefits pointed out by Mr. W. are great, but more in the power
of manures to remeily ; the other, nothing but time to consolidate, or trench-
ing, will amend. I hope, however, that both essays will have been found
beneficial as expressions of opinion, on which the readers of the Magazine
will form a judgement for themselves. — R. Lymburn. Kilmarnock, November,
1842.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
OCTOBER, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I, Comparative Physiology. By R. Lympurn.

(Continued from p. 470.)

THE roots of plants are peculiarly fitted for ramifying in the
soil; they are not elongated by expansion like stems, but
Increase by additions from within to the point, and, not being
confined in their developement by joints, ramify wherever they
meet with obstructions, or food is found in abundance. They
can enter the smallest crevices, and by the additions from within
force their way onwards; and, when food is at a distance, the
rapidity with which they elongate in quest of it is astonishing.
When they meet with porous substances containing absorbed
food, they ramify round them in all directions; and, in rotted
leaves or well rotted manure, the fibres are always more
abundant than in poor soil. The stomach of plants can only be
represented by the soil. As the food of plants requires more de-
composition than that of animals, a greater chemical power is
found in the soil; and, as plants organise their tissues from
nascent elementary substances, much decomposition is required,
and the heat of the soil and admission of air cannot be too
much attended to. Pitchers and other appendages may assist

the general absorbing power, which is found on the whole

surface of the plant, especially on the under side of the leaves;
and, in particular circumstances, this general power may take
the place of the special absorbing apparatus of root, and may
shadow out the possibility of digestive cavities becoming suitable
for plants as well as animals. In as far however as practice is
concerned, and for plants under general cultivation, the soil
alone can be considered as the stomach; and the necessity of
keeping this in proper order becomes at once apparent, and
cannot be too much attended to. ‘To keep up a proper degree
of heat and moisture in the soil, a certain degree of porosity is
required; and when the soil is dug deep in dry weather and
3d Ser. — 1843. X. LL

510 Comparative Physiology.

broken small, and when the texture of the soil is such as to
preserve that condition for a length of time, the powers of the
stomach are such that a much creater effect will be produced,
than in adverse circumstances where many times the quantity
of food has been deposited. ‘The same quarter of the garden or
nursery grounds, especially if the soil is a strong loam inclining
to clay, if cropped in separate portions and at different times,
will have one part, which was worked dry and got a few dry
days after working, producing an excellent crop, while another
portion equally well worked and manured, which has unfor-
tunately been subject to saturating rains before the particles of
soil were dried sufficiently, will be found much worse. If small
seedling crops have been sown there is frequently a total
failure; and with stronger crops the growth is weak and yellow,
compared with that where, the soil being worked dry and keeping
open, the proper action of the stomach is preserved. It is in
this way that turf buried, or deposit of roots left from previous
crops, acts; or trenching of the soil and bringing up a new
surface, which from long lying has recovered its powers of con-
stitution, and is not so apt to run off into powder and close up
the pores, as old effete long-worked soil does ; it is from these
deposits and the renewed constitution of the soil preserving an
open porous state, that such astonishing effects are at times pro-
duced. I have often seen the crops twice as large from these
circumstances alone, and the trees as large in one piece of the same
quarter at one year’s growth as in another piece at two years’
growth, when there was no difference of the manure and ‘other
preparations. If the soil is too loose and sandy, or from long
working falls into powder too easily, or if it is a strong clay not
admitting of breaking freely into pieces, no manure will remedy
these defects, unless deposited in such quantities as to alter the
texture of the soil; and it is the same with good land, which has
unfortunately been battered with heavy rains immediately after
pulverisation, especially on clayey loams, which in good seasons
and under proper circumstances often produce the best crops.
Farm-yard manure acts much in the way of keeping the soil
open and absorbing moisture, and this is one of the reasons why it
will be found generally superior to concentrated manures, unless
where carriage is expensive; by its gradual decay it keeps the
soil porous : ‘and concentrated manures will always be found of
most value, especially those like guano containing much nitrogen,
when mixed up with bulky substances, as sawdust of deciduous
wood, peat-moss, scourings of ditches, or refuse of gardens,
weeds, &e.

The changes on the substances absorbed by the spongioles
of plants are probably confined to the rejection of insoluble sub-
stances, changes in the substances taken up being more proper

a

Comparative Physioiogy. 511

to secretion or assimilation. ‘The absorbents, or especially the
absorbing glands, of animals have been thought to produce some
changes on the chyle, but this seems uncertain ; and these vessels
appear to be endowed with more sensibility than those of plants.
The power of endosmose seems similar to that described as hy-
groscopicity by DeCandolle, but more intimately and fully exa-
mined by Dutrochet. It is stated by DeCandolle, Muller, and
others, that the connexion of endosmose with electricity, which
Dutrochet fancied he had made out, has not been confirmed; it
is probable, however, from the connexion of electricity ge-
nerally with all action, that it will be concerned either as cause
or effect. Some have attributed the power to a compound and
greater attraction subsisting in a dense fluid from its more
compound nature, than in a fluid comparatively more simple;
others say that the tissue of the bladder has more attraction for
some substances than others, and causes those substances to be
longer in passing through the pores. Dr. Carpenter seems to
be something of this opinion. Saussure, who made many expe-
riments on this subject, was of opinion that they passed more or
less quickly according to their liquidity, which would mecha-
nically allow of their passing the pores more easily. Professor
Thomson* objects to this, that more water would require to be
absorbed ; the quantity of water absorbed by plants under proper
_ circumstances ss, however, so great as to modify this objection ;
the thinner the fluid it should certainly pass the more easily,
and, if we suppose the operations of nature to be conducted on
the most perfect plan, the membrane set apart for absorption
should not have that faculty interfered with by another che-
mical power possessed by the same organ. Vogelt found in his
experiments that most plants, if supplied at the roots with an
unlimited quantity of saline substances in solution, would absorb
so much, even of those found beneficial in smaller quantities, such
as nitrate of potash, &c., as to cause death. The sulphate of —
copper he found, like Saussure, most rapidly absorbed; and this
and others partially decomposed, by the abstraction of oxygen
reducing the salt to the state of a protosulphate ; other saline
substances were found unaltered after death. He found that
chara and some other plants would not absorb the salts of
copper; this he attributes to their containing much carbonate of
lime, but it is probably owing to the peculiar formation of the
invisible pores, which all absorbing membranes are supposed to
possess. Capillary attraction is thought to assist in absorption
by furthering the ascent or removal of the imbibed fluid, so as
to allow the denser descending sap to renew the phenomena of

* Thomson’s Organic Chemistry of Vegetables, p. 974.
+ Gardeners’ Chronicle, May 23. 1843.
LL 2

512 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

endosmose. Some think the fact, that imbibition is sometimes
found to have the strongest current from the denser to the lighter
fluid, a proof that some other power than endosmose is con-
cerned in imbibition; others say it is the same phenomenon
modified by some peculiarities of the fluids themselves, or of the
vessels they circulate in. In animals at least, absorption, if pro-
duced by endosmose, must, it is said, be held in check by vita-
lity preventing the mingling of fluids, and causing it to act in
some cases and cease in others.

The fact of the existence of an exosmose as well as endos-
mose current seems to infer the truth of the theory of the excre-
tions by the roots of plants, now generally admitted by most
physiologists and chemists, though still doubted by some very
eminent men. The experiment of Dr. Madden, in which, haying
washed the roots of a plant of groundsel, and introduced one half
of them into a phial contaming water mixed with ulmate of
ammonia, and the other half into a phial of pure water, he found
at the end of a few days an excretion of a gummy-looking sub-
stance in the pure water, seems to confirm and corroborate those
of Macaire. The fungi found so abundantly on the roots of some
plants, as those of Scotch fir, spruce, oak, &c., must be fed by
morbid excreted matter from the roots, probably of a nitro-
genous nature, as nitrogen forms so large a proportion of these
plants.

Besides capillary attraction and vital contractility, which as-
sist the power of endosmose by furnishing the conditions needed,
of removing the thinner imbibed fluid and supplying its place
with denser sap, it is thought by many, from the peculiar force
with which imbibitions take place in the living spongiole, as com-
pared with the phenomena of endosmose in dead membranes,
that a peculiar vital force is also concerned, which may very
likely be the case. Besides the absorption by the roots, water
and its contents are absorbed by other parts of plants, especially
by the under side of the leaf.

(To be continued.)

Art. II. The Principles of Landscape-Gardening and of Landscape-
Architecture applied to the Laying out of Public Cemeteries and
the Improvement of Churchyards ; including Observations on the
Working and General Management of Cemeteries and Burial-
Grounds. By the ConpucTor.

(Continued from p. 494.)

IX. Lists or Trees, SHRUBS, AND PERENNIAL HERBACEOUS PLANTs,
ADAPTED FOR CEMETERIES AND CHURCHYARDS.

In the following selections we have chiefly included plants that are quite
hardy, and that, when once properly planted and established, will grow in turf

res

applied to Public Cemeteries. 513

or other firm soil without having the surface annually dug, or kept clear of
weeds or grass. We have avoided most of the species of such genera as
Cytisus, Genista, Colutea, Rbes, Rosa, &c., which not only require dug soil,
but are short-lived, or are very apt to die off. To those who do not require
such lists for cemeteries or churchyards, they will be useful as indicating the
principal permanent trees and shrubs adapted for pleasure-grounds, which are
sold in British nurseries. The number might have been increased, but we
have judged it best to be comparatively select.

Our classification of the trees and shrubs is founded on their different degrees
of suitableness for burial-grounds ; and we have given references to our Arbore-
tum Britannicum, where portraits of the entire tree, and copious details, bo-
tanical, descriptive, historical, geographical, &c., will be found ; and to the
Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs, which is an abridgement of that work, in
which engravings will be found of every species, and such details as are neces-
sary as guides to their culture, management, and uses in plantations. We have
added after each species the height which it generally attains in the climate of
London, and the price of good plants in the London nurseries when one
plant only is ordered ; when several are wanted, of course the price will be
lower, according to the number. We can vouch for their being obtained
correct to the names, and at the prices mentioned, at the Fulham Nursery.

EVERGREEN TREES.

Evergreen Trees with Needle Leaves, and the Branches fastigiate and vertical.

Cupréssus sempervirens Encyc. of Trees and Shrubs p. 1073. Arb. Brit.
p. 2464., the Italian Cypress. Height 30—40 ft. Is. 6d. The best of
all trees for a cemetery, but not suited for exposed situations.

Taxus baccata fastigiata HL. of T. p. 939. A. B. p. 2066., the Irish Yew.
Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d. The second best cemetery tree, and quite
hardy.

Taxus taccits erécta Li. of T. p. 940. A. B. p. 2066., the upright Yew.
2s. 6d. Third best.

Juniperus communis suécica EL. of T. p. 1081. A. B. p. 2489., the Swedish
Juniper. Height 10O—12 ft. 1s. 6d. Equally good with the Irish yew,
except that it is of a lighter colour.

Juniperus communis hibérnica Z. of T. p. 1082., the Irish Juniper. Height
6—8 ft. 1s. 6d. Equal to the Swedish juniper.

Juniperus excélsa E. of 7. p. 1088. A. B. p. 2503., the tall Juniper. Height
20—30 ft. 10s. 6d. This promises to be an excellent cemetery tree, in
climates suitable for the Cupréssus sempervirens,

Evergreen Trees with Needle Leaves, of narrow conical Forms, the Branches
horizontal.

Cupréssus sempervirens horizontalis E. of 7. p. 1073. A. B. p. 2465., the
spreading Cypress. Height 30—40 fio nlisiad:
Juniperus virginiana EL. of T. p. 1084. A. B. p. 2495., the red Cedar. Height

30—40 ft. 1s.6d. Suitable, and very hardy.
Juniperus pheenicea L. of T. p. 1087. A. B. p. 2501., the Phoenician Juniper.

Height 10—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Juniperus chinénsis Z. of 7’. p. 1089. A, B. p. 2505., the Chinese Juniper.

Height 15—20 ft. 2s. 6d.
Thuja occidentalis L. of T. p. 1068. A. B. p. 2454., the American Arbor
Vite. Height 40—50 ft. 1s. 6d.
LL 3

514 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

Thija orientalis E. of T. p. 1070. A. B. p. 2459., the Chinese Arbor Vita.
Height 18—20 ft. 2s. 6d. More suitable, and also hardier, than the
preceding species.

Evergreen Trees with Needle Leaves, conical in Shape, the Branches horizontal,
but somewhat taller than those before enumerated.

Abies Alba E. of T. p. 1030. A. B. p. 2310., the white Spruce Fir. Height
40—50 ft. 2s. 6d.

Abies nigra E. of T. p. 1031. A. B. p. 2311., the black Spruce Fir. Height
60—70 ft. 2s. 6d.

Picea balsamea E. of T. p. 1044. A. B. p. 2339., the Balm of Gilead, or
American Silver Fir. Height 20—30 ft. Is. 6d.

Picea pectinata stricta (Rivers) Gard. Mag. 1843, p. 61., the upright Silver
Fir. 5s.

Evergreen Trees with Needle Leaves, less conicalin Shape, but peculiarly suitable
for Churchyards and Cemeteries.

Taxus baccata E. of T. p. 939. A. B. p. 2066., the common Yew. Height
20—30 ft. 1s. 6d. A very suitable cemetery tree where a spreading head
is not an objection.

Taxus baccata argéntea, the Silver Yew. 2s. 6d.

Taxus baccata atirea, the Golden Yew. 3s. 6d.

Abies canadénsis EL. of T. p. 1035. A. B. p. 2322., the Hemlock Spruce Fir.
Height 30—60 ft. 2s. 6d.

Evergreen Trees with Needle Leaves, of conical Shape, the Branches horizontal,
but of larger Growth than the preceding Kinds.

Abies excélsa E. of T. p. 1026. A. B. p. 2293., the common Spruce. Height
60—80 ft. 6d. The cemetery tree of Sweden and Norway. The twigs
are strewed over the corpse before the coffin lid is closed, and also over
the floor of the room containing the corpse, and on the grave after the
interment has been completed. The tree admits of being cut or clipped
into any form. It is the principal tree in the large mountain cemetery at
Rouen. (See Gard. Mag. for 1841, p. 291.

A’bies Smithiana E. of T. p. 1032. A. B. p. 2317., the Khutrow Spruce Fir.
Height 50ft. 5s. :

Abies Douglas E. of T. p. 1033. A. B. p. 2319., Douglas’s Spruce Fir.
Height 100—i80 ft. 10s. 6d.

A’bies Menzicsti E. of T. p. 1034. A. B. p. 2321., Menzies’s Spruce Fir.
oS.

Picea pectinata E. of T. p. 1037. A. B. p. 2329., the Comb-like-leaved Silver
Fir. Height 80—100 ft. 1s.

Picea cephalonica E. of T. p. 1039. A. B. p. 2325., the Mount Enos Fir.
Height 50—60 ft. 2s. 6d.

Picea Pinsapo BE. of T. p. 1041., the Pinsapo, or Malaga Silver Fir. Height
60—70 ft. 5s.

Pinus Cembra E. of T. p. 1016. A. B. p. 2274., the Cembran Pine. Height
50—80 ft. 2s.6d. A slow-growing, narrow, conical tree; very hardy;

and not unsuitable for small burying-grounds, when the Irish yew or
Swedish juniper cannot be got.

+S

applied to Public Cemeteries. 515

Evergreen Trees with Needle Leaves, of conical Shapes, the Branches horizontal,
but attaining a large Size, which nevertheless admit of being cut in so as to form
narrow conical Trees suitable for large Cemeteries.

Pinus sylvéstris E. of T. p. 951. A. B. p. 2153., the Scotch Pine, or Scotch
Fir. Height 60—100ft. 6d. The tree of death and mourning in
Russia is the pine, which may be called the Northern Cypress. The poor
strew the coffin, at the time of exhibiting the corpse, with pine twigs;
and, at the funerals of the wealthy, the whole way from the house to the
churchyard is thickly strewed with branches of the same tree. Hence
those streets of Petersburg through which funerals frequently pass are
almost always covered with this sign of mourning. (Kohl's Russia, vol. 1.
p- 214.) The badge of the Highland clan M‘Gregor.

Pinus Laricio EL. of T. p. 956. A. B. p- 2200., the Corsican, or Larch, Pine.
Height 60—150 ft. Is. 6d.

Pinus austriaca LE. of T. p. 958. A. B. p. 2205., the Austrian, or Black, Pine.
Height 60—80 ft. 6d. Dark foliage, very hardy, and bears cutting in.

Pinus tairica E. of T. p. 959. A. B. p. 2206., the Tartarian Pine. Height
60—70 ft. 2s. 6d. A dark-foliaged tree, very hardy, and admitting of
being clipped or cut into narrow conical forms. Altogether the noblest
of the European pines.

Pinus Strobus Z. of 7. p. 1018. A. B. p. 2280., the Weymouth Pine. Height
50—80 ft. 9d.

Cédrus Libani EZ. of T. p. 1057. A. B. p. 2402., the Cedar of Lebanon.
Height 50—80 ft. 5s.

Cédrus Deodara KE. of T. p. 1059. A. B. p. 2428., the Deodar, or Indian,
Cedar. Height 50—100 ft. 7s. 6d.

* Of the same Kind, attaining a less Size.

Pinus Pinea E. of T. p. 965. A. B. p. 2224., the Stone Pine. Height
15—20 ft. 2s. 6d. More frequently seen as a bush than as a tree, but
very ornamental, and its associations are classical.

Pinus inops £. of T. p. 970. A. B. p. 2192., the Jersey, or poor, Pine.
Height 40—50 ft. 2s. 6d.

Pinus mitis £. of T. p. 974. A. B. p. 2195., the soft-leaved, or yellow, Pine.
Height 50—60 ft. 2s. 6d.

Pinus pumilio EZ. of T. p. 955. A. B. p. 2186., the dwarf, or Mountain, Pine.
Height 10—20 ft. 2s. 6d. The foliage dark, and the tree very hardy,
and suitable for a burial-ground of limited extent.

Evergreen Tree with Chaff-like Leaves, of a singular Appearance, and well
adapted for Churchyards and Cemeteries.

Araucaria imbricata LZ. of T’. p. 1062. A. B. p. 2432., the Chili Pine. Height
50—100 ft. 5s. A very singular tree, of slow growth, and, as it is certain
of attracting general attention, when planted in a cemetery, it ought to be
surrounded with a wire fence for five or six years to protect it from
accidental injury.

Evergreen Trees with Needle Leaves and pendent Branches, peculiarly well
adapted for being used in Cemeteries so as to droop over Monuments.

Juniperus recirva E. of T. p. 1089. A. B. p. 2504., the recurved Nepal
Juniper. Height 5—10ft. 2s. 6d. A weeping tree, and on that account
peculiarly suitable for cemeteries. Very hardy.

Juniperus virginiana péndula (Rivers) Gard. Mag. for 1843, p. 61., the pen-
dulous red Cedar. Hitherto rare. 10s.

LL 4

516 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

Juniperus communis péndula (Rivers) Gard. Mag. for 1843, p. 60., the pen-
dulous common Juniper. Rare. _ 5s.

Thija péndula LZ. of T. p. 1071. A. B. p. 2461., the drooping Arbor Vite.
21s. Said to be a hybrid between the red cedar and the Occidental arbor
vitae, raised by accident in Messrs. Loddiges’s nursery. There is a fine
specimen in the gardens at Kew. Rare, but quite hardy.

The foregoing kinds may all be considered as cemetery trees, par excellence.
Those which follow are for the sake of variety in cemetery gardens of con-
siderable extent, say fifty acres, and for cemetery arboretums.

Evergreen Trees with broad Leaves, of small Size and narrow conical Forms,
which may be used in Cemeteries.

Cérasus Laurocérasus stricta (Rivers) Gard. Mag. 1843, p. 57., the up-
right-growing common Laurel. 2s. 6d.

Quércus J‘ex Fordi, Ford’s Evergreen Oak. 3s. 6d. A very handsome low tree
or shrub, and one of the best broad-leaved evergreens for a cemetery.

* Of less fastigiate Forms, and small Size.

Bixus balearica EL. of T. p. 704. A. B. p. 1341., the Minorca Box. Height
15—20 ft. Is. 6d.

Baxus sempervirens arboréscens #. of JT. p. 703. A. B. p. 1333., the Tree
Box. Height 15—30ft. 9d. The badge of the Highland clan Mac-
intosh.

Biaxus sempervirens variegata. 6d. The badge of the clan Macpherson.

*& Of the same Kind, less fastigiate, and of larger Size.

IMex Aquifolium EH. of T. p. 157. A. B. p. 505., the common Holly.
Height 20—30 ft. 6d. Decidedly the best broad-leaved evergreen
tree for a cemetery.

I ex baledrica . of T. p. 160. A. B. p. 516., the Minorca Holly. Height
10—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Ilex opaca E. of T. p. 160. A. B. p. 516., the opaque-leaved, or American,
Holly. Height 10—20 ft. 3s. 6d.

Cérasus Laurocérasus EF. of T. p. 295. A. B. p.'716., the common Laurel.
Height 6—20 ft. 6d.

Cérasus lusitanica Z. of T. p. 294. A. B. p. 714., the Portugal Laurel.
Height 10—20ft. Is. 6d.

Quércus ‘lex E. of T. p. 880. A. B. p. 1899., the common Evergreen
Oak. Height 15—30 ft. Several varieties. From 2s. to 5s. each.
Quércus Stber L. of T. p. 884. A. B. p. 1800. and 1911., the Cork Tree.

Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Quércus Tairneri E. of T. p. 885. A. B. p. 1922., Turner’s Oak. Height

40—50 ft. 2s. 6d.

Evergreen Trees with broad Leaves and Shoots more or less pendulous, adapted
for being planted singly to hang over Graves.

Cérasus Laurocérasus célchica (Rivers) Gard. Mag. 1843, p. 57., the pen-
dulous-branched common Laurel. 5s.

Tex Aquifolium péndulum £. of 7. p. 1113., the drooping-branched com-
mon Holly. Rare ; not yet to be purchased in the nurseries ; but capable
of being easily and extensively propagated by budding on the common
holly. The badge of the clan Drummond.

Quéreus Cérris fulhaménsis péndula (Rivers) Gard. Mag. 1843, p. 59., the
weeping Fulham Oak.

Quércus Ilex péndula, the drooping-branched Evergreen Oak.

applied to Public Cemeteries. ay 7

DECIDUOUS TREES.

Deciduous Needle-leaved Trees of fastigiate Shapes, which may be used in
Churchyards.

Larix americana E. of T. p. 1056. A. B. p. 2399., the American Larch.
Height 80—100 ft. 1s.

Larix europe‘a communis E. of T. p. 1054. A. B. p. 2350., the common
Larch. Height 80—100 ft. 6d.

Taxddium distichum E. of T. p. 1078. A. B. p. 2481., the deciduous
Cypress. Height 50—80 ft. 2s. 6d.

* With pendulous Branches.

Larix europea péndula E. of T. p. 1054. A. B. p. 2350., the weeping
Larch. ‘7s. 6d.

Taxodium distichum péndulum £. of JT. p. 1078. A. B. p. 2481., the
weeping deciduous Cypress. 5s.

Deciduous broad-leaved Trees of fastigiate Forms and small Size.

Amelanchier florida E. of T. p. 414. A. B. p. 876., the flowery Amelanchier.
Height 10—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Amelincher sanguinea E. of T. p. 413. A. B. p. 875., the blood-coloured
Amelanchier. Height 10—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Cotoneaster acuminata FE. of T. p. 409. A. B. p. 872., the acuminated-
leaved Cotoneaster. Height 10—15 ft. 1s. 6d.

Crate’gus Oxyacantha stricta H. of T. p. 375. A. B. p. 832., the upright
Hawthorn. 2s. 6d. Very hardy, and very suitable for a cemetery where
deciduous trees are admitted.

Crategus tanacetifolia EH. of T. p. 372. A. B. p. 828., the Tansy-leaved
Thorn, Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Gymnocladus canadénsis #. of T. p. 255. A. B. p. 656., the Kentucky
Coffee Tree. Height 30—60ft. 2s. 6d.

* Of larger Size.

Pépulus balsamifera EH. of T. p. 830. A. B. p. 1673., the Balsam-bearing
Poplar. Height 40—50 ft. Is.

Poépulus fastigiata EH. of T. p. 827. A. B. 1660., the Lombardy Poplar.
Height 50—150 ft. 3d.

Quércus pedunculata fastigiata H. of T. p. 849. A. B. p. 1731., the py-
ramidal Oak. 3s. 6d. Very suitable from its decidedly fastigiate mode
of growth, and narrow conical shape. The common oak, of which this
is a variety, is the badge of the clan Cameron.

U’\mus montana fastigiata E. of T. p. 721. A. B. p. 1398., the fastigiate
Elm. 1s. 6d.

Deciduous low Trees with round compact Heads.

Acer O’palus LE. of T. p. 89. A, B. p. 421., the Opal, or Italian, Maple.
Height 8—12 ft. Is. 6d.

A‘cer monspessulanum FE. of T. p. 92. A. B. p. 427., the Montpelier Maple.

_ Height 15—40 ft. Is. 6d.

Acer créticum L. of T. p. 94. A. B. p. 430., the Cretan Maple. Height
10—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Cérasus Mahaleb E. of T. p. 288. A. B. p. 707., the perfumed Cherry Tree.
Height 10—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Liquidambar imbérbe E. of T. p. 933. A. B. p. 2053., the beardless
Liquidambar. Height 10—20 ft.

518 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

O’rnus europea FE. of T. p. 651. A. B. p. 1241., the European flowering
Ash. Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.
O’strya vulgaris £. of T. p. 920. A. B. p. 2015., the Hop Hornbeam.
Height 30—40 ft. Is.
Pyrus A‘ria £. of T. p. 432. A. B. p. 910., the White Beam Tree. 1s. 6d.
Pyrus aucuparia EL. of T. p. 439. A. B. p.916., the Mountain Ash. Height
_ 20—30 ft. 6d. The badge of the clan M‘Lachlan.

Deciduous Trees of small Size, with Heads more or less irregular, most of
which are remarkable for the Beauty of their Flowers or Fruit.

A‘cer campéstre FE. of T. p. 93. A. B. p. 428., the Field Maple. Height
15—30 ft. 1s,

Acer spicatum £. of T. p. 80. A. B. p. 406., the spike-flowered Maple.
Height 18—20 ft. ls. 6d.

A’cer striatum E. of T. p. 81. A. B. p. 407., the striped-barked Maple.
Height 10—20 ft. Is. 6d.

Acer tataricum £. of T. p. 80. A. B. p. 406., the Tartarian Maple. Height
20—30 ft. Is. 6d. P

Amyegdalus communis £. of 7. p. 263. A. B. p. 674., the common Almond
Tree. Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Amygdalus communis macrocarpa EH. of T. p. 264. A. B. p. 675., the large-
flowered Almond. 2s. 6d.

Armeniaca vulgaris &. of 7’. p. 267. A. B. p. 682., the common Apricot
Tree. Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Bétula nigra £. of T. p. 843. A. B. p. 1710., the black Birch. Heiene
60—70 ft.

Bétula populifolia Z. of T. p. 841. A. B. p. 1707., the Poplar-leaved Birch.
Is. 6d.

Bétula populifolia laciniata £. of ZT. p. 841. A. B. p. 1707., the cut-leaved
Poplar Birch. 1s. 6d.

Broussonétia papyrifera #. of T. p. 710. A. B. p. 1361., the Paper Mul-
berry. Height 10—20 ft. 1s. 6d.

Caragana arboréscens EL. of T. p. 237. A. B. p. 629., the Siberian Pea
Tree. Height 15—20 ft. 1s. 6d.

Cérasus Padus E. of T. p. 289. A. B. p. 709., the Bird-Cherry Tree.
Height 12—40 ft. 9d.

Cérasus virginiana £. of JT. p. 291. A. B. p. 710., the Virginian Bird-
Cherry Tree. Height 30—40 ft. Is. 6d.

Cércis Siliquastrum £&. of T. p. 257. A. B. p. 657., the common Judas
Tree. Height 20—30 ft. 1s. 6d. Abundant in the Protestant cemetery
at Lisbon, and in the Turkish cemeteries at Constantinople. (Yacht
Voyage, vol. i. p- 20. and p. 37.)

Corylus Colarna &. of T. p. 923. A. B. p. 2029., the Constantinople Hazel,
Height 50—60 ft. 2s. 6d.

Crate‘gus E. of T. p. 352. A. B. p. 813., the Thorn. Fifty species, all
beautiful. 2s. 6d. each.

Cydonia vulgaris H. of T. p. 450. A. B. p. 929., the common Quince Tree.
Height 15—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Cytisus alpinus £. of ZT. p. 215. A. B. p. 591., the Alpine, or Scotch,
Laburnum. Height 20—30 ft. Is. 6d.

Cytisus Labtrnum E. of T. p. 214. A. B. p. 590., the common Laburnum.
Height ZO res 1s

Diospyros Lotus £. of T. p. 625. A. B. p. 1194., the European Lotus, or |

common Date Plum. Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Elzagnus horténsis L. of 7’. p. 696. A. B. p. 1321., the garden Elzagnus,
Oleaster, or Wild Olive Tree. Height 15—20 ft. Is. 6d.

Gleditschia sinénsis £. of 7. p. 252. A. B. p. 654., the Chinese Gleditschia.
Height 30—50 ft. 2s. 6d.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 519

Halésia tetraptera E. of T. p. 620. A. B. p. 1190., the common Snowdrop
Tree. Height 15—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Hippophae Rhamnéides fémina EL. of T. p. 698. A. B. p. 1324., the female
Sea Buckthorn. Height 15—20 ft. 1s. 6d.

Kolreutéria paniculata E. of T. p. 135. A. B. p. 475., the panicled-flower-
ing Kolreuteria. Height 20—40 ft. 1s. 6d.

Magnolia acuminata LE. of T. p. 29. A. B. p. 273., the pointed-leaved Mag-
nolia. Height 30—50 ft. 5s.

Méspilus germanica E. of T. p. 415. A. B. p. 877., the common Medlar.
2s. 6d.

Méspilus Smithi E. of T. p. 416. A. B. p. 878., Smith’s Medlar. Height
15—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Morus nigra E. of T. p. 706. A. B. p. 1343. 3s. 6d.; and M. alba E. of T.
p. 707. A. B. p. 1348. 1s.; the common-fruited and white-fruited Mul-
berry Tree. Height 20—30 ft.

Ptélea trifoliata E. of T. p. 144. A. B. p. 489., the three-leafleted Ptelea,
or shrubby Trefoil. Height 6—10ft. 1s. 6d.

Pyrus E. of T. p. 417. A. B. p. 879., the Pear Tree. Ten species. 2s. 6d.

Quércus Ai’gilops E. of T. p. 860. A. B. p. 1861., the great prickly-cupped
Oak. Height 20—50 ft. 2s. 6d.

Quércus E’sculus E. of T. p. 853. A. B. p. 1844., the Italian Oak. Height
20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Sambicus nigra laciniata E. of T. p. 513. A. B. p. 1027., the common, or
black-fruited, Elder. 1s.

Sambucus racemosa LE. of J. p. 515. A. B. p. 1031., the racemose-flowered
Elder. Height 10—12ft. 1s. 6d.

Sophora japonica E. of T. p. 196. A. B. p. 563., the Japan Sophora. Height
40—50 ft. 1s. 6d.

Virgilia litea E. of T. p. 198. A. B. p. 565., the yellow-wooded Virgilia.
Height 10—20 ft. 5s.

Deciduous Trees of larger Size, remarkable for the Beauty of their Flowers, or
the Singularity or Fragrance of their Leaves.

A’cer Pseudo-Platanus purptrea EL. of JT. p. 86. A. B. p. 415., the purple-
leaved Sycamore Maple. 1s. The maple is the badge of the clan
Oliphant.

4H’sculus rubicinda E. of 7’. p. 126. A. B. p. 467., the reddish-flowered
Horsechestnut. Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Ailantus glandulosa E. of T. p. 145. A. B. p. 490., the glandulous-leaved
Ailanto. Height 50—60 ft. 1s. 6d.

Anus cordifolia EH. of T. p. 835. A. B. p. 1689., the heart-leaved Alder.
Height 15—20 ft. Is. 6d.

Alnus incana L. of T. p. 834. A. B. p. 1687., the hoary-leaved Alder. Height
50—70 ft. 1s. 6d.

Céltis australis HE. of T. p. 727. A. B. p. 1414., the European Nettle Tree.
Height 30—40 ft. 2s. 6d.

Fagus sylvatica purpurea L. of T. p. 905. A. B. p. 1950., the common purple
Beech. 2s. 6d.

Liquidambar Styraciflua EF. of 7’. p. 932. A. B. p. 2049., the Sweet-Gum
Liquidambar. Height 30—50 ft. Is. 6d.

Liriodéndron Tulipifera Z. of 7. p. 36. A. B. p. 284., the Tulip Tree. Height
50—90 ft. 2s. 6d.

Maclira aurantiaca E. of T. p.711. A. B. p. 1362., the Osage Orange. Height
30—60 ft. 3s. 6d.

Negindo fraxinifolium E. of T. p. 122. A. B. p. 460., the Ash-leaved Ne-
gundo. Height 15—30ft. Is.

Pavia discolor EH. of T. p. 133. A. B. p. 472., the two-coloured-flowered
Pavia. Height 3—10 ft. 2s. 6d.

520 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

Pavwa flava E. of T. p. 130. A. B. p. 471., the yellow-flowered Pavia. Height
30—40 ft. 1s. 6d.

Planera Richard: E. of T. p. 726. A. B. p. 1409., Richard’s Planera. Height
50—70 ft. Is. 6d.

Piatanus orientalis #. of T. p. 928. A. B. p. 2033., the Oriental Plane.
Height 60—80 ft. 1s. 6d.

Pépulus balsamifera H. of T. p. 830. A. B. p. 1673., the Balsam-bearing
Poplar. Height 40—50 ft. 1s.

Quércus coccinea H. of T. p. 869. A. B. p. 1879., the Scarlet Oak. Height
80 ft. 1s. 6d.

Quércus palustris EH. of JT. p. 872. A. B. p. 1887., the Marsh, or Pin, Oak.
Height 80 ft. 1s. 6d.

Quércus rubra EF. of T. p. 868. A. B. p. 1877., the red, or Champion, Oak.
Height 80—90 ft.

Robina Pseud-Acacia E. of T. p. 233. A. B. p. 609., the common Robinia,
or false Acacia. Height 70—80 ft. 1s.

Robinia viscosa KE. of T. p. 235. A. B. p. 626., the clammy-barked Robinia.
Height 15—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Salisburza adiantifolia HZ. of T. p. 945. A. B. p. 2094., the Maiden-hair-leaved
Salisburia. Height 60—80 ft. 3s. 6d.

Salix aurita £. of T. p. 776. A. B. p. 1560., the round-eared Sallow, or Willow.
ls. 6d. The badge of the clan Cumming.

Salix caprea E. of T. p. 776. A. B. p. 1561., the Goat Sallow, or Willow.
Height 15—30 ft. 1s. 6d.

Salix pentandra EL. of T. p. 754. A. B, p. 1503., the Sweet Willow, or Bay-
leaved Willow. Height 18S—20ft. 1s. 6d.

Salix vitellina HZ. of JT. p. 763. A. B. p. 1528., the yellow Willow, or Golden
Osier. Height 30—50 ft. Is. 6d.

Deciduous Trees with pendulous Branches, adapted for being planted singly by
Monuments, or over Graves as Substitutes for Monuments (Trauerbaume,
or Trees of Sorrow, Ger.).

Amygdalus Pérsica péndula (Rivers) G. MM. 1843, p. 57., the pendulous-

branched Peach.

Bétula alba péndula L. of T. p. 838. A. B. p. 1691., the weeping Birch. Is.

The birch is the badge of the clan Buchanan.

Cérasus Padus bractedsa E. of T. p. 290. A. B. p. 702., the bracteolate

weeping Bird-Cherry. Is. 6d.

Cérasus Padus péndula (Rivers) G. M. 1843, p. 57., the weeping Bird-Cherry.

Cérasus semperflorens E. of JT. p. 281. A. B. p.701., the ever-flowering

Cherry Tree. Height 10—20 ft. Is. 6d.
Crate‘gus Oxyacantha péndula £. of 7. p. 376. A. B. p. 832., the weeping
Hawthorn.

Cytisus Labarnum péndulum ZL. of 7’. p. 215. A. B. p. 590., the weeping La-

burnum, 2s. 6d.

Cytisus alpinus péndulus EZ. of T. p. 216. A. B. p.791., the weeping Scotch

Laburnum. Height 20—30ft. 2s. 6d.

Fagus sylvatica péndula LH. of T. p. 906. A. B. p. 1876., the weeping Beech.

3s. 6d.

Ficus sylvatica purpurea péndula (Rivers) G. M. 1843, p. 60., the purple

weeping Beech.
Fraxinus excélsior péndula EH. of T. p. 641. A. B. p. 1214., the weeping
Ash. 3s. 6d.

Fraxinus /entiscifolia péndula E. of T. p. 645. A. B. p. 1231., the weeping
Lentiscus-leaved Ash. 3s. 6d.

Pavia rubra péndula, the weeping Horsechestnut. 2s. 6d.

Populus trémula péndula E. of T. p. 822. A. B. p. 1509., the weeping
Poplar. 1s, 6d. The poplar is the badge of the clan Ferguson.

Sein if

applied to Public Cemeteries. 521

Pyrus spuria péndula EZ. of T. p. 445. A. B. p.925., the spurious Service
Tree. Height JO—12ft. 2s. 6d.

Tg pedunculata péndula EL. of T. p. 849. A. B. p.1731., the weeping
Oak.

Robinia Pseud-Acacia péndula EZ. of T. p. 234. A. B. p.609. Gard. Mag.
1843, p. 56., the false Acacia.

Salix babylénica E. of T. p. 757. A. B. p. 1507., the weeping Willow.
Height 30—50 ft. Is.

Salix americana péndula (Rivers) Gard. Mag. 1843, p.59., the American
weeping Willow.

Sophora japonica péndula £. of T. p.196. A.B. p.563., the weeping Sophora.
Height 30—40 ft. 10s. 6d.

Tilia alba péndula, the white Hungarian Lime. 3s. 6d.

Ulmus montana péndula EF. of T. p.721. A. B. p.1398., the weeping Elm.
2s. 6d.

EVERGREEN SHRUBS.

Evergreen Shrubs with Needle Leaves, and the Plants of great Duration, all well
adapted for Cemeteries where Shrubs are introduced.

Cupréssus thydides EH. of T. p. 1074. A. B. p. 2475., the white Cedar.
Height 10—15ft. 2s. 6d.

Juniperus communis F. of 7. p. 1081. A. B. p. 2489., the common Juniper.
Height 3—5 ft. 1s. The badge of the clan Murray.

Juniperus daurica £. of T. p. 1082. A. B. p. 2489., the Daiirian Juniper.

Juniperus Oxycedrus EF. of JT. p. 1083. A. B. p. 2494., the brown-berried
Juniper. Height 10—12ft. 3s. 6d.

Juniperus Sabina EF. of T. p. 1085. A. B. p.2499., the common Savin.
Height 7—8 ft. 1s. 6d. Several varieties.

Taxus baccata microphylla (Rivers) Gard. Mag. 1843, p. 60.

Taxus canadénsis H. of 7. p.942. A. B. p.2093., the Canada, or North
American, Yew. 3s. 6d.

Evergreen Shrubs with broad Leaves, and the Plants of great Duration.

Arbutus U‘nedo F#. of T. p.573. A. B. p.1117., and several other species.
From 6d. to 5s. The arbutus is the badge of the clan Ross.

Aticuba japonica E. of T. p. 511. A.B. p. 1026., the Japan Aucuba. Height
6—10 ft. Is. 6d.

Bérberis dilcis E. of T. p.47. A. B. p.305., the sweet-fruited Berberry.
Height 2—5 ft. 1s. 6d.

Bixus sempervirens myrtifolia H. of T. p.704. A. B. p. 1333., the Myrtle-
leaved Box Tree. 9d.

Collétéa hérrida EZ. of T. p.176. A. B. p. 541., the bristly Colletia. Height
3—4:ft. 3s. 6d.

Cotoneaster duxifolia H. of T. p.411. A. B. p.873., the Box-leaved Coto-
neaster. Is. 6d.

Cratee‘gus Pyracantha 2. of T. p. 385. A. B. p. 844., the fiery Thorn. Height
4—6 ft. 1s. 6d.

Daphne Lauréola ZL. of T. p. 688. A. B. p. 1309., the Spurge Laurel. Height
3—4 ft. 6d.

Daphne péntica EL. of T. p.688. A. B. p.1310., the twin-flowered Spurge
Laurel. Height 4—5ft. 1s. 6d.

Garrya elliptica H. of T. p.926. A. B. p. 2032., the elliptic-leaved Garrya.
Height 8S—10 ft. 2s. 6d.

Mex Aquifolium £. of T. p. 157. A. B. p.505., the common Holly: most of
the variegated sorts. Height 20—30 ft. 1s. to 5s.

Ligastrum vulgare sempervirens H. of T. p. 629. A. B. p. 1199., the evergreen
Privet. 6d.

522 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

Phillyrea média FE. of ZT. p.632. A. B. p. 1204., the lance-leaved Phillyrea.
Height 10—15ft. 2s. 6d.

Quércus hybrida nana E£. of T’. p.886. A. B. p. 1924., the dwarf hybrid Oak.

Rhamnus Alatérnus L. of T. p.171. A. B. p. 529., the Alaternus. Height
10—20 ft. 1s. 6d.

Rhamnus hybridus EF. of T. p. 172. A. B. p.531., the hybrid Alaternus.
Height 10—12 ft. Is. 6d.

Ulex europea fl. pléno E. of T’. p. 200. A. B. p. 571., the double-blossomed
Furze. Is.

Vibarnum ee EF. of T. p. 516. A. B. p. 1032., the Laurustinus. Height
8—10ft. Is.

DECIDUOUS SHRUBS.

Deciduous broad-leaved Shrubs, the Plants of compact Growth and of long
Duration, adapted for Cemeteries.

Alnus viridis E. of T. p. 836. A. B. p. 1689., the green-leaved Alder. Height
5—6 ft.

Bérberis aristata E. of T. p.49. A. B. p.307., the bristled-tooth-leaved Ber-
berry. Height 6—10ft. 1s. 6d.

Bérberis asiatica E. of T. p. 49. A. B. p. 306., the Asiatic Berberry. Height
6—S8 ft. 3s. 6d.

Bérberis crética E. of T. p. 44. A. B. p.304., the Cretan Berberry. Height
3—4 ft. 2s. 6d.

Bérberis ibérica E. of T. p. 45. A, B. p, 304., the Iberian Berberry. Height
3—5 ft. Is. 6d.

Bérberis sibirica E. of T. p. 42. A. B. p.301., the Siberian Berberry. Height
2—3 ft. 2s. 6d.

Bérberis sinénsis E. of T. p. 46. A. B. p. 304., the Chinese Berberry. Height
3—5 ft. 2s. 6d.

Beérberis vulgaris E. of T. p.42, A. B. p. 301.,the common Berberry. Height
6—10 ft. 1s. 6d.

Bétula nana H. of T. p.840. A. B. p.1705., the dwarf Birch. Height
6—8 ft. Ls. 6d.

Bétula pure E. of T. p. 840. A. B. p. 1705., the hairy dwarf Birch. Height
2—83 ft. 1s. 6d.

Caragana arboréscens E. of T. p. 237. A. B. p. 629., the Siberian Pea Tree.
Height 15—20ft. 1s. 6d.

Cérasus hyemalis EH. of 7. p. 285. A. B. p.'704., the Winter Cherry Tree.
Height 3—4 ft. 1s. 6d.

Cérasus nigra LZ. of T. p. 284. A. B. p.'70+4., the black Cherry Tree. Height
6—10 ft. 2s. 6d.

Chimonanthus fragrans E. of 7’. p. 445. A. B. p. 938., the fragrant-flowered
Chimonanthus. Height 6—8 ft. 3s. 6d.

Chionanthus virginica EH. of J. p. 634. A. B. p. 1206., the Fringe Tree.
Height 10—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Cornus alba EL. of T. p. 503. A. B. p.1011., the white-fruited Dogwood.
Height 4—10 ft. 9d.

Cérnus alba stricta EL. of T. p. 503. A. B. p. 1012., the straight-branched
Dogwood. Height 6—10ft. 1s. 6d.

Cornus alternifolia EZ. of J’. p. 501. A. B. p. 1010., the alternate-leaved Dog-
wood. Height 15—20ft. 1s.

Cornus mas £. of T. p. 505. A. B. p.1014., the Cornelian Cherry Tree. Height
12—20ft. 1s. 6d.

Cornus sanguinea E. of T. p.502. A. B. p.1010., the common Dogwood.
Height 4—15 ft. 9d.

Corylus Avellana HE. of T. p. 921. A. B. p. 2017., the common Hazel.
Height 20ft. 9d. The badge of the clan Colquhoun.

Cérylus Avellana purpurea, the purple-leaved Hazel. 1s. 6d.

applied to Public Cemeteries. Soa

Cotoneaster frigida EH. of T. p.407. A. B. p.871., the frigid Cotoneaster.
Height 10—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Cotoneaster frigida affinis LH. of T. p. 408. A. B. p. 871., the related Coto-
neaster. Height 10O—20ft. Is. 6d.

Cotoneaster nummularia EL. of T. p. 409. A. B. p. 872., the money-like-leaved
Cotoneaster. Height 10—15 ft. Is. 6d.

Cotoneaster vulgaris EL. of T. p. 406. A, B. p.870., the common Cotoneaster.
Height 4—5 ft. Is. 6d.

Cratze‘gus parvifolia HZ. of 7. p. 383. A. B. p. 841., the small-leaved Thorn.
Height 4—6 ft. 3s. 6d.

Cratz\gus virginica EH. of T. p. 384. A. B. p. 842., the Virginian Thorn.
Height 4—5 ft.

Cydonia japonica LE. of T’.. p. 452. A. B. p. 931., the Japan Quince Tree.
Height 5—6 ft. 1s. 6d.

Cydonia sinénsis E. of T. p. 451, A. B. p. 931., the China Quince Tree.
Height 10—12 ft. 2s. 6d.

Daphne Mezcreum K. of T. p. 687. A. B. p. 1307., the common Mezereon.
Height 3—4 ft. Is.

Eudénymus europe‘us LE. of JT’. p. 149., A. B. p.496., the Spindle Tree.
Height 6—12 ft. 9d.

Huoénymus latifolius EL. of T. p. 150. A. B. p. 498., the broad-leaved Euony-
mus, or Spindle Tree. Height 10—20 ft. 1s. 6d.

Gleditschia sinénsis purpurea E. of T. p. 252. A. B. p. 654., the Chinese
Gleditschia. 2s. 6d.

Hamamélis virginica EL. of T. p. 499. A. B. p. 1007., the Wych Hazel. Height
20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Ligistrum vulgare E. of T. p. 629. A. B. p. 1198., the common Privet.
Height 6—10 ft. 4d.

Palitrus aculeatus EH. of T. p. 168. A. B. p. 527., Christ’s Thorn. Height
15—20 ft. 1s. 6d.

Pavia macrostachya LE. of T. p. 133. A. B. p. 473., the long-racemed Pavia.
Height 10—15 ft. 2s. 6d.

Philadélphus coronarius EF. of T. p. 460. A. B. p. 951., the Mock Orange.
Height 10—12 ft. 9d.

Prinos deciduus E. of T. p. 164. A. B. p. 520., the deciduous Winter Berry.
Height 3—5 ft. Is. 6d.

Prinus maritima EZ. of T. p. 275. A. B. p. 691., the sea-side-inhabiting Plum
Tree. Height 6—8 ft. 2s. 6d.

Prinus spinosa E, of T. p. 271. A. B. p. 684., the common Sloe Thorn.
Height 10—15 ft. 1s. 6d.

Pyrus arbutifolia HL. of T. p. 446. A. B. p. 925., the Arbutus-leaved Aronia.
Height 4—6 ft. 2s. 6d.

Pyrus Chameeméspilus £. of 7. p. 449. A, B. p. 928., the dwarf Medlar.
Height 5—6 ft. Is. 6d.

Pyrus pubens Z. of T. p.448. A. B. p.927., the downy-branched Aronia.
Height 4—5 ft. 3s. 6d.

Pyrus sptria E. of T. p. 444. A. B. p. 924., the spurious Service Tree.
Height 10—20 ft. 2s. 6d.

Quércus Banisteri E. of T. p. 876. A. B, p. 1893., the Holly-leaved, or Bear,
Oak. Height 3—10 ft.

Rhamnus alpinus L. of TJ. p. 175. A. B. p. 536., the Alpine Buckthorn.
Height 5—10 ft. Is.

Rhamnus catharticus L. of T. p. 172. A. B. p. 531., the purging Buckthorn.
Height 10—12 ft. 1s.

Rhamnus Frangula L. of T. p. 177. A. B. p. 539., the breaking Buckthorn,
or Berry-bearing Alder. Height 8—10 ft. Is. 6d.

Rhamuus latifolius LH. of 7. p. 177. A. B. p, 538., the broad-leaved Buck-
thorn. Height 10—15ft. Is. 6d.

524 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

Rhis Cétinus EL. of T. p. 187. A. B. p. 549., the Venetian Sumach. Height
4—6 ft. 1s. 6d.

Rhis glabra E. of T. p. 188. A. B. p. 551., the Scarlet Sumach. Height
5—18 ft. Is. 6d.

Rhias typhina £. of T. p. 187. A. B. p. 550., the Stag’s Horn Sumach.
Height 20 ft. 9d.

Rhis venenata HL. of T. p. 189. A. B. p. 552., the poisonous Rhus, Poison
Wood, or Swamp Sumach. Height 15—20 ft. 1s. 6d.

Sambiicus racemosa H. of T. p. 515. A. B. p.1031., the racemose-flowered
Elder. Height 10—12 ft. 1s. 6d.

Shephérdia argéntea E. of T. p. 700. A. B. p. 1327., the silver-leaved Shep-
herdia.“ Height 12—18 ft. 1s. 6d.

Shephérda canadénsis E. of T. p. 700. A. B. p. 1327., the Canadian Shep-
herdia. Height 6—S ft. 6d.

Spireea aviefolia E. of T. p. 309. 4. B. p.731., the White-Beam-tree-
leaved Spireea. Height 6—8 ft. Is.

Spire’a chameedrifolia Z. “of T. p. 300. A. B. p. 724., the Germander-leaved
Spirea. Height 2—8ft. 9d.

Spiree’a hypericifolia E. of T. p. 303. A. B. p. 726., the Hypericum-leaved
Spirea. Height 4—6ft. 9d.

Spiree‘a opulifolia igh of T. p. 299. A. B. p. 723., the Virginian Guelder
Rose. Height 8—l0ft. 9d.

Staphylea trifolia #. of 7. p. 147. A. B. p. 493., the Bladder-nut Tree.
Height 6—12 ft. Is.

Symphoricérpos montanus E. of T. p. 542., the Mountain St. Peter’s Wort.
Height 5—6 ft. 1s.

Symphoricarpos vulgaris EH. of T. p. 541. A. B. p. 1058., the common St.
Peter's Wort. Height 3—6 ft. 9d.

Syringa Josike‘a E. of T. p. 637. A. B. p. 1201., Josika’s Lilac. Height
6—12 ft. 1s. 6d.

Syringa pérsica E. of T. p. 637. A. B. p. 1211., the Persian Lilac. Height
4—6 ft. 9d.

Syringa rothomagénsis E. of 7. p. 637. A. B. p. 1212., the Rouen Lilac.
Height 6—@ ft. 9d.

Syringa vulgaris EF. of T. p. 636. A. B. p. 1209., the common Lilac. Height
8—10ft. 9d.

Syringa vulgaris alba E. of T. p. 636. A. B. p. 1209., the common White
lilac. 9d.

Vibarnum dentatum HE. of T. p. 521. A. B. p. 1038., the toothed-leaved Vi-
burnum. Height 4—6 ft. 1s.

Vibarnum Lantana £. of 7. p. 520. A. B. p. 1035., the Wayfaring Tree.
Height 12—15ft. 1s.

Vibirnum Lentago EZ. of T. p. 517. A. B. p. 1033., the Lentago, or pliant-
branched Viburnum. Height 6—10ft. Is. 6d.

Vibtrnum O’pulus £. of 7’, p. 522. A. B. p. 1039., the Guelder Rose. Height
6—12 ft. 9d.

Xanthdéxylum fraxineum EL. of T. p» 142. A. B. p. 488., the common Tooth-
ache Tree. Height 10—15 ft. 2s. 6d.

LOW TREES AND SHRUBS FOR WALLS.

Select low Trees or Shrubs for a Cemetery or Churchyard Wall, where the
_ Expense of Training is not an Object.

* Evergreen or Subevergreen.

A’rbutus Andrachne LE. of T. p. 575. A. B. p. 1120., the Strawberry Tree.
Height 20—30 ft. 5s.

Aristotélia Macqui E. of T. p. 183. A. B. p. 543., the Macqui Aristotelia.
Height 6 ft. 1s. 6d.

cs.
Zi .

a

applied to Public Cemeteries. 525

Ceanothus azureus £. of T. p. 180. A. B. p. 539., the Red Root. Height
6—10 ft. 2s. 6d.

Crate‘eus mexicana FE. of T. p. 384. A. B. p. 843., the Mexican Thorn.
Height 1O—15ft. 2s. 6d.

Escallonia rubra EL. of T. p. 490. A. B. p. 993., the red-flowered Escallonia.
Height 3—6 ft. Is. 6d.

Euénymus japonicus £. of 7. p. 153. A.B. p. 501. 1s. 6d.

Lairus nobilis #. of T. p. 681. A. B. p. 1297., the Sweet Bay. Height
30—60 ft. 1s. 6d.

Ligistrum lucidum £. of 7. p. 630. A. B. p.1201., the shining-leaved Pri-
vet, or Wax Tree. Height 10—20ft. 1s. 6d. >

Magnola grandiflora E. of T. p. 22. A. B. p. 261., the large-flowered Mag-
nolia. Height 20—30 ft. 3s. 6d.

Mahonia fascicularis EZ. of 7’. p. 50. A. B. p. 309., the Ash Berberry. Height
5—S8 ft. 7s. 6d.

Photinia serrulata EL. of T. p. 404. A. B.p. 868., the serrulated-leaved Pho-
tinia. Height 12—15ft. 2s. 6d.

Yucca gloridsa EH. of T. p. 1101. A. B. p. 2521., the glorious Adam’s Needle.
Height 5 ft. 5s.

** Deciduous.

Amyedalus orientalis EZ. of T. p. 265. A. B. p.679., the Eastern Almond
Tree. Height 8—10ft. 2s. 6d.

Biddlea globosa E. of T. p. 670. A. B. p. 1276. the globe-flowered Bud-
dlea. Height 12—15ft. 1s. 6d.

Deitzia scabra LE. of T. p. 466. A.B. p. 950, the scabrous Deutzia. Height
4—6 ft. 1s. 6d.

Hibiscus syriacus E. of T. p. 62. A. B. p. 362., the Althea Frutex. Height
6 ft. Nine varieties. From 6d. to Is.

Magnolia conspicua £. of T. p. 33. A. B. p. 278., the Yulan, or conspicuous-
flowered Magnolia. Height 20—30 ft. 5s.

Magnolza c. Soulangeana E. of T. p. 33. A. B. p.272., Soulange’s Magnolia.
Height 15—20ft. 5s.

Magnolia cordata FE. of T. p.30. A. B. p.275., the heart-leaved Magnolia.
Height 20—30 ft. 3s. 6d.

Magnolia purpurea £. of T. p.35. 4. B. p. 282., the purple-flowered Mag-
nolia. Height 3—5 ft. 2s. 6d.

Rtbes atreum pre'cox L. of T. p. 487. A. B. p.989., the golden-flowered
Currant. Is.

Ribes Menziésti E. of T. p.475. Menzies’s Gooseberry. Height 4—5 ft.
ls. 6d.

Ribes sanguineum FE. of T. p. 486. A. B. p. 988., the bloody, or red-flowered,
Currant. Height 4—8 ft. 9d.

Ribes speciosum L. of T. p. 474. A. B. p. 974., the showy-flowered Goose-
berry. Height 4—-8 ft. Is. 6d.

Robinia hispida EL. of T. p. 236. A. B. p.627., the Rose Acacia. Height
6—20 ft. Is. 6d.

Robinia macrophylla EL. of T. p. 237. A. B. p. 628., the large-leaved Rose
Acacia. 1s. 6d.

Robinia résea E. of T. p. 237. A. B. p. 627., the rosy-flowered Rose Acacia,
ls. 6d.

CLIMBERS.
Climbing Shrubs adapted for a Wall where the Ground is not dug.

* Evergreen.

Hédera Hélix E. of T. p. 497. A. B. p. 1000., the common Ivy. Height
Z0—60 ft. Seven varieties, all beautiful. From Gd. to ls. 6d. The
badge of the clan Gordon.

3d Ser.— 1843. X. MM

Ou
bo
o>

Principles of Landscape- Gardening

** Deciduous.

Ampeldpsis hederacea FE. of T. p. 139. A. B. p. 482., the five-leaved Ivy.
Height 30—50 ft. 1s. 6d.

Aristolochia sipho E. of T. p. 701. A. B. p. 1329., the tube-flowered Birth-
wort. Height 15—30ft. 2s. 6d.

Clématis Flammula £. of T. p.3. A. B. p. 233., the sweet-scented Virgin’s
Bower. Height 10—15 ft. Is. 6d.

Clématis Vitdlba EH. of T. p. 5. A. B. p. 235., the Traveller’s Joy. Height
15—30ft. Is.

Jasminum officinale £. of T. p. 656. A. B. p. 1250., the common Jasmine.
Height 40—50ft. Is.

Lonicera E. of T. p. 526. A. B. p. 1042., the Honeysuckle. Ten sorts. From
6d. to 1s. 6d.

Lycium barbarum E. of T. p. 666. A. B. p. 1270., the Barbary Box Thorn.
Height 20—30 ft. 9d.

Menispérmum canadénse EL. of T. p.40. A. B. p.296., male and female, the
Canadian Moonseed. Height 8—12 ft. Is. 6d.

Periploca gre‘ca E. of T. 659. A. B. p. 1257., the Greek Periploca. Height
20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Physianthus albicans E. of T. p. 659. A. B. p. 2581. 2s. 6d.

Rhis radicans E. of T. p. 190. A. B. p. 555., the rooting-branched Sumach.
Height 10—20 ft. Is. 6d.

Rhiis suavéolens EL. of 7. p. 19). A. B. p. 557., the sweet-scented Sumach.
Height 1—4 ft. 1s. 6d.

Rhis Toxicodéndron LE. of T. p. 190. A. B. p. 556., the Poison-tree Rhus, or
Sumach. Height 1O—20. Is. 6d.

Rosa arvénsis E. of T. p. 344, A. B. p.772. Several varieties, quite hardy.
From 6d. to 2s. 6d.

Vitis cordifolia E. of LT. p, 138. A. B. p.480., the Chicken Grape. Height
10—20 ft.

Vitis Labrasca EF. of T. p. 137. A. B. p. 479., the Fox Grape. Height
10—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Vitis riparia E. of T. p. 138. A. B. p. 480., the river-side, or sweet-scented,
Vine. Height 20—30 ft. 2s. 6d.

Vitis vinifera apiifolia Z. of T. p. 137. A. B. p. 478., the Parsley-leaved
Grape Vine. 2s. 6d.

Vitis vinifera foliis incanis EL. of T. p.137. A.B. p.478., the hoary-leaved
Grape Vine. 2s. 6d.

Vitis vinifera foliis rubescéntibus H. of 7. p. 137. A. B. p. 478., the Claret
Grape. 2s. 6d.

Wistariz frutéscens EH. of T. p. 249. A. B. p. 647., the shrubby Wistaria.
Height 20—30 ft. 1s. 6d.

Wistaria chinénsis EL. of T. p. 249. A. B. p. 648., the Chinese Wistaria.
Height 50—120 ft. 2s. 6d.

Climbing Shrubs where there is a dug Border.

* Evergreen or Subevergreen.

Bignonia capreolata E. of T. p. 660. A.B. p 1259., the tendriled Bignonia,
or Trumpet Flower. Height 15—20. 2s. 6d.

Lonicera grata EL. of 7. p. 531. A. B. p.1048., the pleasant, or evergreen,
Honeysuckle. Height 15—20ft. Is. 6d.

Lonicera sempervirens EL. of T. p. 531. A. B. p. 1049., the evergreen Trumpet
Honeysuckle. Height 6—10ft. Is.

Rosa sempervirens E. of T. p.345. A.B. p.'773., the evergreen (Field)
Rose. Height 20—40 ft, Is.

applied to Public Cemeteries. o2'e

** Deciduous.

Lonicera E. of T. p. 526. A. B. p. 1042., the Honeysuckle. Several species
and varieties.

Rosa E. of T. p. 321. A. B. p.'748., the Rose Tree. Several species. From
4d. to 2s.

UNDERSHRUBS.

Undershrubs of very small Size, frequently planted over Graves.

* Evergreen.

Vinca major and minor, the greater and lesser Periwinkle, 6d. Common in
burying-grounds in the Tyrol, and probably used there in consequence of
the notice of the plant by Rousseau: “ Voila la Pervenche!”

Hypéricum calycinum, the Tutsan St. John’s Wort. 4d.

Rosmarinus officinalis, the common Rosemary. 4d.

Rita graveolens, the common Rue. 4d.

Thymus vulgaris, the common Thyme. 2d.

Lavandula Spica, the common Lavender. 3d.

Oxycoccus palustris, the common Cranberry. 6d. The badge of the clan Grant. ~

Vaccinium Vitis idzea, the red Whortleberry, or Cowberry. 6d. The badge
of the clan Macleod.

E’mpetrum nigrum, the Crowberry. 6d. The badge of the clan M‘Lean.

Calluna vulgaris, the Ling. 6d. The badge of the clan Macdonell.

Erica Tétralix, the cross-leaved Heath. 6d. The badge of the clan Mac-
donald.

Erica cinérea, the fine-leaved Heath. 6d. The badge of the clan Macalister.

** Deciduous.

Artemisia Absinthium, the common Southernwood. 3d.

Salix herbacea, the herbaceous Willow. 6d.

Hypéricum Kalmidnum, Kalm’s St. John’s Wort. 6d. Common in the
cemeteries at Carlsruhe, and in other parts of Baden and Wiirtemberg.

Hypéricum elatum, hircinum, and prolificum. 6d. each.

Androsze‘mum officinale, the common Tutsan. 6d.

Myrica Gale, the sweet Gale. 6d. The badge of the clan Campbell.

Rubus saxatilis, the Roebuck-berry. 6d. The badge of the clan Macnab.

SHRUBS FOR GRAFTING STANDARD HIGH.

List of Shrubs which, when grafted standard high, form ornamental Plants of sin-
gular Shapes and Habits of Growth, well adapted for planting singly beside
Graves or Tombstones, for marking any particular Spot, or for creating
Variety in a Shrubbery Walk, or in the Glades of a Pleasure-Ground. The
price varies from 2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d.

* Evergreen.

Arctostaphylos Uva trsi. Thuja péndula, on the common Arbor
A’rbutus alpina. Vitee.
Cotoneaster rotundifolia, microphylla, Pinus Pinea, on P. sylvéstris.
and buxifolia. Pinus pumilio, on P. sylvéstris.
Philly¥rea, all the sorts on the Ever- Pinus Banksidna, on P. sylvéstris.
green Privet. Pinus inops, on P. sylvéstris.

#* Deciduous.

Calophaca wolgarica. Caragdna spinosa.
Caragana pygme*a. Caragana tragacanthoides.
MM 2

528

Caragana Chamlagu.

Cérasus Chameecérasus.

Cérasus prostrata.

Cérasus pumila.

Cérasus depréssa.

Cérasus pygme'‘a.

C¥tisus sessilifolius.

Cytisus alpinus, on C, Labarnum.

C¥tisus scoparius, the common
Broom, on C. Labarnum.

Cytisus scoparius albus.

Cytisus purpureus, on C. Labarnum.

Fraxinus excélsior atrea, and other
varieties.

Genista triquetra.

Halimodéndron argénteum.

Jasminum officinale, and other species,
on the common Ash, or on the

Principles of Landscape-Gardening

Pavia discolor.

Pavia rubra humilis.

Pavia macrostachya.

Pyrus spuria.

Pyrus spuria pendula.

Pyrus arbutifolia.

Pyrus arbutifolia serétina.

Pyrus melanocarpa.

Pyrus floribanda. P. depréssa.

Robinia Pseud-Acacia umbraculi-
fera.

Robinia Pseud-Acacia tortudsa.

Salix purpurea. S. herbacea.

Spartium janceum, on the Laburnum.

Syringa pérsica, and its varieties, on
the common Ash.

Syringa vulgaris, on the common
Ash.

common Lilac. Técoma radicans, on the Catalpa.

PERENNIAL HERBACEOUS PLANTS.
Perennial herbaceous Plants adapted for Cemeteries and Churchyards.

For planting in dug ground, whether in beds or over graves, every description
of herbaceous plant, except those which require peat soil, is eligible ; but
for planting on turf to form single specimens, or what gardeners call * lawn
plants,” a selection requires to be made of such as have peculiar properties.
These are : considerable bulk above ground ; great natural hardiness of stem
and foliage and durability of root; under-ground buds, or strong surface stocks,
that will be secure from injury during the winter or dormant season ; a com-
pact habit of growth both of the roots and top; and sufficient natural vigour
not to be injured by the compact texture of a grassy surface. The common
pony, the rhubarb, and the asparagus, are good examples of the kind of plant
required ; and the following list includes such plants, and a few others which
may be procured in the principal botanic gardens and nurseries. The prices,
when a single plant is ordered, vary from 3d. to 1s. 6d.

Herbaceous Perennials with strong under-ground Buds, and compact Heads that do
not require the Support of Stakes.

Clématis ochroletica, the yellowish white Virgin’s Bower.

Thalictrum majus, the greater Meadow Rue. Height 3 ft.

Aconitum variegatum, the variegated Aconite. Height 5 ft.

Actee‘a spicata, the spiked Bane-berry. Height 3 ft. The berries are poison.

Peonia albiflora, P. officinalis, P. tenuifolia, and others ; the white-flowered,
common, and slender-leaved pzeonies. Height 2 ft.

Macleaya cordata, the cordate Macleaya. Height 6 ft.
support in exposed situations.

Crambe maritima and C. cordifolia, the common and the heart-leaved Sea-kale.
Height 1 ft. 6in. and 6 ft. The latter is a noble plant.

Lunaria rediviva, the revived Honesty. Height 3 ft.

Datisca cannabina, the Hemp-like Datisca. Height 4 ft.

Althze‘a officinalis, the officinal Marsh Mallow. Height 4 ft.

Geranium ibéricum, the [berian Crane’s Bill. Height 1 ft. 6 in.

Dictamnus Fraxinélla, the Fraxinella. Height 3 ft.

O’robus niger, the black Bitter Vetch. Height 3 ft.

O’robus yérnus, the spring Bitter Vetch. Height 1 ft.

Height 2 ft.

The stems require

applied to Public Cemeteries. 529

Spirze‘a Ariincus, the Goat’s-beard. Height 4 ft.

Lythrum virgatum, the twiggy Lythrum. Height 3 ft.

Eryngium planum, the flat-leaved Eryngo. Height 3 ft.

Eryngium alpinum, the alpine Eryngo. Height 2 ft.

Eryngium ameth¥stinum, the amethystine Eryngo. Height 3 ft.

Aralia racemosa, the racemose Aralia. Height 4 ft.

Zchinops sphzrocéphalus, the round-headed Globe Thistle. Height 5 ft.

Echinops Ritro, the Ritro Globe Thistle. Height 3 ft.

A’ster sibiricus, the Siberian Starwort. Height 2 ft.

Solidago bicolor, the two-coloured Golden Rod. Requires a stake in exposed
situations.

Stenactis speciosa, the showy-flowered Stenactis. Height 2 ft.

Solidago flexicailis, the crook-stalked Golden Rod. Height 2 ft.

Inula Helénium, the Elecampane. Height 4 ft.

Telekia cordifolia, the showy Telekia. Height 4 ft.

Helianthus multiflorus, the many-flowered Sunflower. Height 6 ft.

Campanula latifolia, C. macrantha, C. Trachélium. and C. glomerata ; the broad-
leaved, large-flowered, Throatwort, and clustered, Bellflower. Height
from 2 ft. to 3ft. These plants, in exposed situations, require stakes.

Phlox paniculata, P. corymbosa, and P. acuminata, the panicled-flowered,
corymbose-flowered, and pointed-leaved Phlox. Height 3 ft. to 5 ft. ; in
exposed situations requiring stakes.

Gentiana lutea, the yellow Gentian. Height 4ft. Requires an open airy si-
tuation, and a stake if it be much exposed.

Phlox glabérrima, the smoothest Phlox. Height 3 ft.

Symphytum bohémicum, the Bohemian Comfrey. Height 3 ft.

Scopolia carnidlica, the Carniolan Scopolia. Height 1 ft.

Betonica grandiflora, the great-flowered Betony. Height 1 ft. 6 in.

Salvia glutinosa, the glutinous Sage. Height 3 ft.

Lysimachia vulgaris, the common Loose-strife. Height 3 ft.

Lysimachia verticillata, the whorled Loose-strife. Height 1 ft.

Lysimachia thyrsiflora, the thyrse-flowered Loose-strife. Height 14 ft.

Statice latifolia, the broad-leaved Sea Lavender. Height 1 ft.

Rumex alpinus, the alpine Dock. Height 4 ft.

#heum palmatum, the palmated Rhubarb. Height 5 ft.

Rheum Emodi, the Southern Rhubarb. Height 8 ft.

Euphorbia hibérnica, the Irish Spurge. Height 1 ft.

Urtica nivea, the snow-white-leaved Nettle. Height 6 ft. Requires a stake
in exposed situations.

Iris sibirica, and J.s. flore albo, the common and white-flowered Siberian Iris.
Height 3 ft. and 23 feet.

Avrum Dracinculus, the common Dragon Arum. Height 3 ft.

Fankia subcordata, the subcordate-leaved Funkia. Height 1 ft.

Fankia ovata, the ovate-leaved Funkia. Height 14 ft.

Allium Victorialis, the Victorialis Garlic. Height 2 ft.

Asparagus officinalis, the common Asparagus. Height 4 ft.

Veratrum nigrum, the dark-flowered Veratrum, or black Hellebore. Height
3 ft.

Veratrum album, the white Veratrum, or white Hellebore. Height 5 ft.

Uvularia grandiflora, the large-flowered Uvularia. Height | ft.

Herbaceous Plants with the same Properties, except that the Roots are less
compact, though still not creeping.

Sida Napz‘a, the Napza Sida. Height 4 ft. Requires a stake in exposed
situations.
Baptisia australis, the Southern Baptisia. Height 23 ft.
Galéga orientalis, the Oriental Goat’s Rue. Height 4 ft. :
Epilobium angustissimum, the narrowest-leaved Willow Herb. Height 2 ft.
MM 3

530 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

Astrantia maxima, the greatest Masterwort. Height 2 ft. In very mild
winters does not die quite down to the ground.

Phyteiima campanuloides, the Campanula-like Rampion. Height 1 ft.

Cynanchum Vincetéxicum, the Vincetoxicum Cynanchum. Height 2 ft.

Borago orientalis, the Oriental Borage. Height 2ft. In mild winters does
not die quite down.

Acanthus mollis, A. spindsus, and A. spinos{ssimus, the soft, prickly, and most
prickly, Bear’s-breech. Height 3ft. In sheltered situations these plants
sometimes retain a little foliage through the winter. They are interest-
ing on account of their foliage, which, according to some, gave rise to that
of the Corinthian capital; but the adherent petioles of palm leaves are
much more likely to have been the original type.

Hemerocallis flava and H. falva, the yellow and copper-coloured Day Lily.
Height 2 ft.

Herbaceous Plants of vigorous Growth and compact Habit, but which do not lose
the Whole of their Foliage in Winter. ;

Aconitum Napéllus, the Monk’s-hood Aconitum. Height 4 ft.

Papaver orientalis and P. bracteata, the Oriental and bracteate Poppy.
Height 3—4 ft. In exposed situations these may require to be staked.

Geranium sanguineum, the bloody Crane’s Bill. Height 1 ft.

Geranium lividum, the livid-flowered Crane’s Bill. Height 13 ft.

Geranium refléxum, the reflexed-flowered Crane’s Bill. Height 13 ft.

Lupinus polyphyllus, the many-leaved Lupine. Height 2 ft.

Astrantia major, the greater Masterwort. Height 2 ft.

A’ster Améllus, the Amellus Starwort. Height 2 ft.

Agrimonia Eupatoria, the Eupatoria Agrimony. Height 3 ft.

Phlomis gigantéa and P. sdmia, the gigantic and Samian Jerusalem Sage.
Height 3 ft.

Lamium Orvala, the Orvala, or Balm-leaved, Archangel. Height 12 ft.

Betonica stricta, the strict Betony. Height 14 ft.

Melissa officinalis, the officinal Balm. Height 1 ft.

Evergreen herbaceous Plants of compact Habit, which will grow on a grassy
Surface.

Helléborus fce’tidus, the fetid Bear’s-foot Hellebore. Height 12 ft.

Helléborus niger, the black Christmas Rose. Height | ft.

Helléborus olympicus, the Olympian Hellebore. Height 1 ft.

Malva moschata, the Musk Mallow. Height 2 ft.

Saxifraga crassifolia, the thick-leaved Saxifrage. Height 1 ft.

Saxifraga cordifolia, the heart-leaved Saxifage. Height 1 ft.

Valeridna ribra (Centranthus ruber Dec.), the red Valerian; and C. r. flore
Albo, the white-flowering Valerian. Height 13 ft.

Férula communis, the common Giant Fennel. Height 10 ft.

Verbascum ferrugineum, the rust-coloured Mullein. Height 3 ft.

Potérium Sanguisérba, the Sanguisorba Burnet. Height 2 ft.

Rohdea japonica, the Japan Rohdea. Height 2 ft.

Iris foetidissima and J. f. variegata, the common and variegated Gladiolus Iris.
Height 13 ft.

Statice latifolia and stellulata, the broad-leaved and the stellulate Sea Laven-
der. Height 1 ft.

Asphodelus luteus, the yellow Asphodel. Height 3 ft.

Anthéricum Lilidstrum and A. Liliago, the Liliaster and the Liliago Antheri-
cum. Height 14 ft. and 1 ft.

Yucca filamentosa, the filamentose Adam’s Needle. Height 2 ft.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 531

Herbaceous Plants, of bold Growth, which produce many upright Stems ; and, in
exposed Situations, will require Stakes from the Middle of June till September
or October.

Clématis erécta, the upright Virgin’s Bower. Height 3 ft.

Clématis integrifolia, the entire-leaved Virgin’s Bower. Height 2 ft.

Thalictrum glaicum, the glaucous-leaved Meadow Rue. Height 5 ft.

Delphinium elatum, the tall Bee Larkspur. Height 6 ft.

Delphinium aztreum, the azure Larkspur. Height 6 ft.

L¥chnis chalced6nica, the Chalcedonian Lychnis. Height 2 ft.

Sida dioica, the dicecious Sida. Height 6 ft.

Sanguisorba canadénsis, the Canadian great Burnet. Height 3 ft.

Sanguisérba officinalis, the officinal great Burnet. Height 4 ft.

Ligisticum Levisticum, the common Lovage. Height 6 {t.

Scabiosa leucantha, the white-flowered Scabious. Height 3 ft.

Rudbéckia purptrea, the purple Rudbeckia. Height 5 ft.

Silphium perfoliatum, the perfoliate Silphium. Height 7 ft.

Silphium laciniatum, the jagged-leaved Silphium. A splendid plant, which
attains the height of 10 or 12 feet on a lawn.

Symphytum aspérrimum, the roughest Comfrey. Height 6 ft.

Herbaceous Plants with creeping Roots, which will thrive on a grassy Surface, and
may therefore be introduced in Burying- Grounds, or on Lawns.

Monarda didyma, the twin, or Oswego Tea, Monarda. Height 3 ft.
Tanacétum vulgare, the common Tansy. Height 2 ft.

Gnaphalium margaritaceum, the pearly Everlasting. Height 13 ft.
Galium Mollugo, the great hedge Bed-straw. Height 2 ft.

Convallaria Polygénatum, Solomon’s Seal. Height 2 ft.

Convallaria majalis, the Lily of the Valley. Height 6 in.

Epilobium angustifolium, the narrow-leaved Willow Herb. Height 4 ft.
Eryngium campéstre, the field Eryngo. Height 2 ft.

Centauréa montana, the mountain Centaurea. Height 14 ft.

Myosotis palistris, the Forget-me-not. Height 6 in.

BULBS.

The genera Erdnthis, Galanthus, Crocus, Scilla, Hyacinthus, Erythronium,
Colchicum, and some others of low growth, which flower in early spring or
late in autumn, may be planted on graves, or at the base of gravestones,
where their foliage, after they have done flowering, will be out of the way of
the scythe. The following may be planted singly on a grassy surface.

Adonis vernalis, the spring-flowering Adonis. Height 9 in.

Lilium candidum, the white Lily. A favourite flower in Catholic countries.
Height 3 ft.

Lilium. Most of the other species in sheltered situations.

Fritillaria imperialis, the Crown-Imperial Fritillary. Height 4 ft.

Scilla esculénta, the Quamash Squill. Height 1 ft.

Gladiolus comminis, natalénsis, and other species of the Corn Flag. Height
2—4 ft.

Amaryllis formosissima, the Jacobza Lily. The lily of Turkish cemeteries,
and the badge of the Knights of St. James of Spain.

Narcissus. All the species.

Sternbérgia liitea, the yellow Sternbergia. Height 6in. Supposed by Sir J.
E. Smith to be the lily alluded to by our Saviour in his sermon on the
Mount.

Leucdjum zstivum, the summer Snowflake. Height 14 ft.

MM 4

532 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

Ornithégalum. All the species.
Tulipa sylvéstris, the wild Tulip. Height 1 ft.

FERNS.

Struthidpteris germanica, the German Struthiopteris. Height 2 ft.

Struthidpteris pennsylvdnica, the Pennsylvanian Struthiopteris. Height 2 ft.

Osminda rezalis, the royal Osmunda. Height 2 ft.

Ptéris aquilina, the common Brake. The badge of the clan Robertson.
Height 3—4: ft.

Asplénium Filix mds, and A. Filix foe’mina, the male and female Fern.
Height 2—3 ft.

Aspidium aculeatum, A. lobatum, and A. rigidum; the common prickly, the
lobed-leaved, and the rigid Shield Fern. Height 6 in. to 2 ft.

PLANTS USED AS BADGES.

Plants which form national Badges.

Countries. Names of Plants.
ENGLAND. The Rose, Rosa sp.
ScorLanD. The Thistle, Cnicus lanceolatus.
IRELAND. The Shamrock, O’xalis Acetosélla Z., according to Mr.

Bicheno; but commonly considered to be the white clover,
Trifolium répens L.
FRANCE. The Fleur-de-lis, I‘ris sp.

List of Plants which form the Badges of the Highland Clans.

These plants, many of which are trees or shrubs, are frequently planted
over graves by Highland families settled abroad; they are also occasionally
planted in gardens both abroad and at home, and in some cases they are
sculptured on tombs. Our authority for the following list is Blackwood’s
Magazine, vol. xii. p. 271.

Names of the Clans. Names of the Plants used as Badges.

BuCHANAN. Bétula alba L., the common Birch.

CaMERON. Quércus pedunculata W. (Q. Robur L.), the common British
Oak.

CAMPBELL. Myrica Gale L., the Sweet Gale, or Dutch Myrtle.

CHISHOLM. Anus glutinosa, the Alder.

Cotaunoun. Cérylus Avellana Z., the common Hazel.

CUMMING. Salix caprea Z., the great round-leaved Sallow ; or any other

native species.
Drummonp. J\lex Aquifolium L., the common Holly.
Farqunarson. Digitalis purpurea L., the purple Foxglove.

FERGUSON. Populus alba L., the great white Poplar, or Abele. =

Forses. Cytisus scoparius L., the common Broom.

FRAZER, Taxus baccata L., the Yew.

GorDON. Hédera Hélix L., the common Ivy.

GRAHAM. Daphne Lauréola, Spurge Laurel.

GRANT. Vaccinium Oxycéccus L., the Marsh Whortleberry, or Cran-
berry.

GUNN. Rhodiola rosea L., the Rose Root.

Lamont. Pyrus Malus L., the Crab-Apple Tree.

MACALISTER. Jrica cinérea L., the fine-leaved Heath.
MacponaLp. Erica Zétralix L., the cross-leaved Heath.

MAcDONELL.
M‘Dovucatt.

MAcFARLANE.

M‘GreEGorR.
MaAcINTOSH.
M‘KeEnziIe.
M‘Kinnon.
McLacuuan.

McLean.
Mac.Leop.

Macnas.
M‘NEILL.

MaAcrPHERSON.

M‘QuarRIE.
MAcRAE.
M‘Ray.
MENZIEs.
Munro.

Murray.
OGILVIE.
OLIPHANT.
RoBERTSON.
Rose.

Ross.
SINCLAIR.
STEWART.

SUTHERLAND.

Tuis lodge (fig. 112.) is referred to in p. 155.

applied to Public Cemeteries. 533

Callina vulgaris Salisb., the common Ling.

Cupréssus senipervirens L., the Cypress.

Rubus Chamemorus L., the Cloudberry.

Pinus sylvéstris Z., the Scotch Pine.

Baxus sempervirens L., the common Box Tree.

Lichen rangiferinus L., the Reindeer Lichen. ~

Hypéricum palchrum, St. John’s Wort.

Pyrus aucuparia Gert., the Quicken Tree, Mountain Ash, or
Rowan Tree.

E’mpetrum nigrum L., the black Crowberry, or Crake-
berry.

Vaccinium Vitis idz‘a Z., the red Whortleberry, or Cow-
berry.

Rubus saxatilis, Roebuck-berry.

Ficus vesiculosus, the Sea Ware.

Biaxus sempervirens variegata L., the variegated Box Tree.

Primus spinosa L., the Black Thorn.

Lycopodium alpinum Z., the Savin-leaved Club Moss.

Scirpus lacastris Z., the Bulrush.

Fraxinus excélsa Z., the Ash.

Eagle’s Feathers ; or, according to the Vestiariwm Scoticum,
the Juniper.

Juniperus communis Z., the common Juniper.

Cratee‘gus Oxyacantha L., the Hawthorn.

A‘cer campéstre, common Maple.

Ptéris aquilina L., the common Brake.

Rosa canina L., the Briar Rose.

Arbutus alpina L., the black Bearberry.

Lycopodium clavatum, common Club Moss.

Cnicus lanceolatus, Spear Plume-thistle.

Phiéum praténse L., the Cat’s-tail Grass, or Timothy Grass.

SUPPLEMENTARY ENGRAVINGS.

We consider it as peculiarly

appropriate for a cemetery, on account of its church-like towers; one of which

Fig. 112.

Entrance Lodge to the Newcastle Cemetery.

is used as a belfry, and the other contains a clock. The design is by John
Dobson, Esq., of Newcastle upon Tyne, the contributor of several beautiful
cottage villas to the Supplement to our Encyclopedia of Cottage Architecture.

534 Principles of Landscape- Gardening

The tiles repre-
sented in fig.113. are
the invention of Mr.
Reed, tile - maker,
at Bishop Stortford,
and have only lately
come intouse. They
are formed and put
together exactly on
the same principle as
the new French roof-
ing tiles, described
and figured in the
Supplement to the
Encyclopedia of Cot-
tage Architecture,
p- 1260.; and, like
them, they are com-
pletely weather-
tight, even when
used with little or
no cement. They Fig. 113. Roofing Tiles used in the Cambridge Cemetery Chapel.
are the handsomest English tiles that we know of, and peculiarly suitable for
ornamental cottages, lodges, &c., in the old English style.

\
N
\’

APPENDIX.

BeEroreE publishing the preceding sheets, we sent a copy of them to a much
esteemed correspondent at Leeds, Thomas Wilson, Esq., in whose taste and
judgement we have the greatest confidence, and the following are his criti-
cisms and suggestions. We have preferred giving them in his own words,
although we are aware they were written rather as hints for ourselves, than
with the expectation that they would be published in the form in which they
were sent us.

—=

THERE is nothing that is so little creditable to the national taste as the
mode of conducting funerals. It is easy to account for it however. We are
a trade-ridden people; and allow, from habit and indolence, tailors to be
judges of taste in our dress, and milliners in that of ladies ; and yet, in the pre-
sent state of education in this country, how is it possible that the former, at
any rate, should have the knowledge and the cultivation necessary to qualify
them to judge in such matters? So with our undertakers: except in the me-
tropolis, they are men of very limited cultivation ; and, besides, the subject is
one on which people are so sensitive, in those cases where they are individually
concerned as directors of funerals, that no man likes to go out of the beaten
path ; and we remain, therefore, with parcels and patches of ceremonies and
costumes as unsuitable to that which is associated with them, as bag wigs
and court dresses with our ordinary attire. The reform in this, as in all
other cases, must come out of the people themselves, when they are more
enlightened ; and especially when they are trained to comprehend the nature
of their own minds, and to reason logically, instead of being governed by
conventional practices; and particularly when correct principles of taste are
established and acted upon, and deduced from the nature of things and from
optical principles, and not regarded as a peculiar subject to be comprehended

applied to Public Cemeteries. 535

only by a few gifted individuals. I incline to believe that they are susceptible
of mathematical demonstration, within limits nearly as rigid as any other
branch of human enquiry.

Page 103. “ The ancients contemplated death without terror,” &c. I do not
at all agree with the writer quoted, as to the feelings of the ancients respect-
ing death ; but I have not time to seek for instances to support my views.
I would, however, just allude to their constant and guarded avoidance of the
term death, by the use of the euphemismi, sleep, or repose, fallen asleep,
departed, &c.

P. 104. “ The influence of cemeteries and churchyards in improving the taste,”
&c. I should rather consider the cemetery as the result of the taste of the
community, than the cause of it ; and I think, on reflection, you will admit
that your suggestions, as to making it a place of instruction, are only applica-
ble to the transition state of
society in which we live. i

D

P. 142. The“ situation”
should not be fixed on aN
without reference to the eres Ske
geology of the country ; for Set ays =

Instance, ifallrisk of mjury A _ Soe a
to springs is to be avoided, ee ee MS
it should be placed some- F Sea TE aioli irra ea g

where between a, b, and ec, in =:
Sig. 114.; and drains should Fig.114. Geological Diagram, showing the Strata in which In-

Be made, 2a BO 0) d, to pre- terments may be made, without injuring the Springs and Wells.
vent any moisture from the porous strata descending lower, and there should
be no habitations on these strata.

P. 143. line 9. from the bottom. “ One main road, so as to allow of a hearse,”
&c. I should prefer an arrangement like the following. Let the entrance to
the chapel be under an extensive portico, which would admit of the whole
procession being under cover: here the coffin should be taken out, and the
hearse admitted no farther. If the grave be at a distance from the chapel, a
somewhat low bier on wheels might be provided, which would move without
much exertion on flagged or macadamised roads. Fig. 115. is a rough sketch of
the way in which I would ar- 5 = wae ee Ena
range a cemetery chapel, and
conduct the procession. The g
porch would be a protection 5 *
to the whole train in wet wea- a
ther. Let the procession enter ; -
at d, and the hearse proceed

UML

Vina O YP
&

to a, the first carriage stopping © | =

at 6. When the coffin arrived AN

at c, the mourners would en- “ is)

ter from g; and they would e F
Q 1s) Ga Ls} (3) g (a)

thus be spared all risk of see-
ing or hearing the arrange- Fig. 115. Plan for a Cemetery Chapel.

ments attendant on removing so heavy a weight as a coffin, which often cause
alarm lest any accident should occur, and which, however carefully managed,
are so trying to the feelings of those whose thoughts should not be rudely dis-
turbed. By rollers fixed in the floor of the hearse, the coffin might be more
easily withdrawn, and placed on a frame so contrived that the bearers might
take their places, while the coffin was suspended shoulder height. After the
service, it might proceed, without turning, through h.

P. 146. line 4. “ Requires no mapping.” Wow am I to find any person’s
grave, if there is not a plan of the cemetery kept? If the friends of the
deceased know it, how are his grandchildren to discover it ?

P. 147. last paragraph. “A mason’s yard, with the sheds,” &c. By no means
admit workshops within the cemetery at any rate ; nor a mason’s or statuary’s

536 Principles of Landscape-Gardening

within hearing. There should be no sound of tools, giving “ dreadful note of
preparation,” to disturb the silence of the place.

P. 153. “ Entrance Lodge to the Tower Hamlets Cemetery,” &c. In fig. 29.
a, the substitution of folding doors for one swing door would be a great im-
provement ; as it is now, you must shut yourself into the vestibule 6, before
you can see the door leading to c.

P. 162. “ The Grave-Box,’ &c. Why should not the grave-boxes be con-
structed, like contractor’s waggons, to tilt up; and, like them, be placed on
wheels ?

P.217. “ Sixthly,... and therefore we would render it expensive,” &c. Upon
reflection, I think you will allow that we ought not to do that indirectly, which
public opinion will not support us in doing directly. Ifa practice be admitted
to be wrong, then prohibit it altogether. To check it by taxing it is tyranny :
it is admitting passion, and not reason, into legislation; and it is also
false, on the same principles as the old sumptuary laws are admitted to
be wrong. Let acts of parliament stop outside the grave: all on this side
of it, in this act of parliament nation, is governed by statute. No sooner, in
these days, does a kind and benevolent spirit detect a hardship or a wrong,
than it flies to parliament for a remedy; forgetting that, if we are to deal with
effects, we must have millions of laws ; but, if we deal with causes, very few
will suffice, and those few will soon be superfluous.

“ Interments in catacombs or vaults.” With respect to interments in vaults
or catacombs, as they will probably be continued, it is worth while consider-
ing whether there should not be provided some outlet for the gas, by a drain
running at the back, and communicating with a chimney in which a current
of warm air would aid the draught, or with a chamber in which it might be
absorbed or decomposed. In fig. 116., aa are catacombs ; 6 6, channels com-

Fig. 116. Diagram showing how the Mephitic Gas may be collected and carried aff from Catacombs.

municating with a drain c; d, a chimney or chamber, in which there may be
a fire for rarefying the air and creating a draught.

“ Seventhly. . . . We would allow individual taste,’ &c. There should be a
veto somewhere, to exclude inscriptions improper, inaccurate, or ludicrous.

“ Monuments.” It appears not to come within the scope of your work to
give designs for monuments ; and, perhaps, it would render it more costly
than you purpose; but, if this work should, as I feel sure it ought and must,
attract great attention, you might follow it up by a dissertation on the style of
raonuments, with examples. Such a manual would be a great boon to many a
wounded spirit, that has now no other means of satisfying its desire to per-
petuate some beloved object, than by consulting some rude village or town
marble-mason, whose business-like ideas and technical expressions are in sad
contrast with the thoughts of his employer.

P, 221. “ Order Book.” If this work is to be a manual, at least for direc-
tors of cemeteries, if not for the managers, it might be useful, in the Appendix,
to give the best forms of these books. Most of the books so used are
susceptible of great improvement. If the present modes were thus made
public, you might, through the Gardener's Magazine, from time to time,
receive and record various suggestions for their improvement.

“ Register Book.” 1 have expressed an opinion that the books in use might

applied to Public Cemeteries. Foe

be improved ; and, as an instance, I offer the following arrangement as much
superior to the one you have given, because grouping together facts that are of
the same kind or time. I have not considered whether it contains all that is
desirable ; I merely take it as it is, and rearrange it thus. No. of inter-
ment; name, description, and residence of the deceased ; age; disease (this
will, however, be of no value unless it be certified by a medical man) ; date
and hour of burial; officiating clergyman; sexton; undertaker: all these -
relate to the past. The following refer to the future: No. of grave ; in what
part of cemetery; monumental distinction, purchaser, and date ; amount for
interment; sum paid for keeping in order the grave, &c., and time during
which, &c.

P. 222. “Ledger.” Ithink there ought to be a corresponding ledger,
showing what duties are to be performed towards each grave, in double form.
First, classed numerically, No.1. Stone to be kept in order for ten years ;
date at which the liability commences and ceases. No. 5. Flowers to be
planted, &c. &c.

Again, in another form. Gravestones to be kept in order: Nos. 7.
12., &c., &c. Flowers to be planted: Nos. 5. 9. 13., &c. &c. Or, perhaps,
the same end might be obtained by having a map with a distinctive colour
for each kind of duty, so that the attendants and managers might see at a
glance that the whole was correctly performed.

“Map Book.” The scales adopted should be uniform, and should be some
multiple of the scale used in the township plan or government survey.

“ Rules and regulations,” &c. If you propose to make your work a manual,
then add a code of these rules, compiled from the best existing codes, with
additions. Perhaps these details might accompany the collection of monu-
ments which I before suggested.

P. 298. “ Temporary cemeteries,” &c. The best purpose to apply what
you have designated temporary cemeteries to, would be to plant them and
keep them in timber, and so insure that the ground need not be disturbed, at
any rate not to a depth that would interfere with the interments.

P. 299. * Shilhbeer’s hearse” was introduced here [Leeds] a few weeks since,
and struck me as a great boon to those who wish to rednee the cost of
funerals, and yet fear to do what may be considered not respectful towards the
deceased. I cannot say whether it has been much used or not, but I have no
doubt of its soon being employed when it is fully known,

“ Mr. Jukes’s truck-hearse” would, I suppose, answer within the cemetery,
as I have already suggested. I should think it is susceptible of very great
improvement. The retarding ought to be effected by some mode more consistent
with the solemnity required.

P. 300. “ Funeral processions,’ &c. I wish you had enlarged more on the
subject of funeral processions and attendants. It would be improper to treat
the subject with levity ; but it may be safely asserted that the whole of the
arrangements are suitable only to a barbarous age. The dresses and deco-
rations are even childish, and many of the accompaniments any thing but
appropriate. The heavy and ponderous ornaments are intended to convey an
idea at once of solemnity and magnificence ; but how badly are they supported
by the appearance of the jaded and foundered horses, and the uncouthness
of the drivers! This is a part of the subject that I hope you will take up,
and illustrate it by drawings contrasting the present modes with others more
consistent with good taste. It is in vain, at present and at once, to advise the
middle classes to retrench in these expenses ; but it may be possible to per-
suade them to adopt more rational modes of proceeding.

P. 354. “ The soil of the Cambridge Cemetery,” &c. I think borings should
have been taken, to the depth of 10 or 12 feet at the least, and the result
stated, as well as the direction of the dip, if any, of the strata.

P. 358. line 5. “ Steps to the chapel,” &c. I should object to a flight of
steps, even at the risk of injuring the appearance of the building, as unsuitable
to the purpose and inconyenient to those who carry the body ; if it nust be

538 Landscape-Gardening applied to Public Cemeteries.

elevated, let the ground rise gently: but, if you will have steps, let them be
not less than 7 ft. broad, that the bearers may have room to stand at each
rise.

P. 401. line 15. “ No evil results,’ &c. That is, of course, no appreciable
evil; but I incline to think that the gas will still escape, and, though in small
quantities, be injurious : now, could not some substance be found, that might
be placed round the coffin, which, having a greater affinity for some of the
elements of the gas than the other elements have, would decompose it, and
render it innocuous ? The next consideration is, at what expense could this be
done? I need not say this is a very different matter from putting lime info
the coffin (p. 297.); the object here is not to decompose, but, when the products
of decomposition are formed, to render them harmless. As to expense, I
believe that is, in all cases, only a question of time. I mean that, if we can
once accomplish an object at any cost, we shall ultimately, by some means or
other, do it economically. Expense depends on modes, not on principles, in
these matters.

P. 401. “ Graves as deep as wells,’ except that the cost would soon be such
as to defeat the object. This object might be attained where there had been
quarries excavated, by filling the ground up gradually; but this would also be
an expensive process.

P. 405. line 14. from bottom. ‘ WMnemata, or the tombs.’ Is it not the
Greek word pynpara? and, if so, it means recollections, remembrances, me-
mories; and forms a beautiful instance of their euphemismi, as applied to the
tomb.

P. 480. “ The practice of admitting cattle into churchyards” has arisen out of
an abuse of the law. When a church was founded, as almost all our churches
were, by the great |..ndowners of the time for the use of their tenants, a church-
yard was added for interment. By legal construction, the incumbent is con-
sidered as a corporation sole, and the freehold vested in him to preserve it for
the uses of the church; but he has gradually come to look upon it as if it were
as much his, for any purposes, as any other freehold, subject only to the limit
of the right of interments. Hence his claim (which is good in law but not in
justice, nor consonant to the feelings of these times,) to stock it as well as
any part of the glebe. It ought not to require an enactment to remove this
encroachment: the bishops or archdeacons have only to discourage it; and
the public has only to direct attention quietly and generally, but not offen-
sively and personally, to it, and it will be prohibited. It is quite clear
that this practice must be discontinued, before any useful attempt can be made
to beautify our churchyards.

P. 481. line 32. “ The enlargement of churchyards” should be provided for
by forming them at first, or on their first alteration, so as to admit of additions
at the least cost It would seem to be the best way, to provide for the
addition on one side, and that the narrowest, so as to destroy the shortest
possible length of fence. To enable this to be done, bailding within certain
limits of a churchyard should be prohibited, and a power given to certain
persons to take land for the purpose.— 7’ Vi”. Crimbles House, March 24.
1843.

Fig. 117. Hand-bier referred to in p. 300.

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. 539

Art. III. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By JAMES Barnes, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 497.)

Letter XX. The Crane or Goose-necked Hoes: Objections to them answered.
Misa Cavendishii, M. Dacca, and M., sapiéntum.

THe objection you think likely to be made against the crane
or goose-necked hoes, that the workman is obliged to stoop, and
take one in each hand, is the very same the West-country man
makes to the spade used in every other part of the kingdom I
have seen. It is no trouble to a workman with a good eye-
handled spade to work double with them ; and with much better
effect, too, than he could with one long-handled, ugly-shaped
spade. JI am glad you noticed them in Devonshire, and the
manner of using them. The work done with these hoes is evi-
dently far superior to that executed with any thing in the shape
of a long-handled two- or one-handed hoe, amongst small crops
requiring to be hoed and thinned out with the greatest regu-
larity ; and for this reason, that the workman has both his eyes
and his strength close to his work, and his hands to make short
quick strokes ; and, when tired of using both hands at once, he
can change about, hoe right and left, resting one hand alter-
nately on his knee, by which means one side is getting rest,
whilst the other side is working. Every man, when young,
should learn to use, not only the spade and the hoe right and
left, backwards and forwards, but also every other tool that he
employs. He would not only find great ease from such a practice,
but would not be so liable to have different complaints and dis-
eases settle on him, besides getting more work done in a
superior manner. Is it natural for us to throw our whole
strength on one side more than another, to impose more on one
eye, or on one limb, than another? I am aware that great pre-
judice has existed against using the above hoes in gardens. I
believe they are not well calculated for fat or gouty people; but
I often fancy it would be good for their health, if they could
only be persuaded to make use of them of a morning for three
hours before breakfast. I have used them many times sixteen
hours a day in a London market-garden, and with interest too.
I am often sorry to see men, in this enlightened country, make
use of tools in a very awkward back-handed way, for the want
of being shown how to use them better; and many masters,
from want of practice themselves, do not know how to show
their men the proper way to take hold of a tool, nor at which
end of the job to begin.

Agreeably to your wish, I take the present opportunity of
informing you respecting the fruit of the Misa Cavendishzz,

540 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

which you tasted when here. I gathered the eleven last of the
fruit on December 2.; making in aJl 427 ripe and perfect fruit
gathered off the same plant. I am pleased to say one of the
Misa Dacca is showing fruit, very fine; it was only a small
sucker planted out last March. The M. sapiéntum, planted on
the same day, has its leaves at this time doubled against the top
of the house ; and the trunk, which, when I measured it for you,
was 14 ft. 6 in. high, and the base of the stem 3 ft. 3 in. in cir-
cumference, is now more than 16 ft. high, and the trunk
3 ft. 7in. in circumference at the base, although I have kept
them cold and short of water now for some time.
Bicton Gardens, Dec. 12. 1842.

Letter XXI. System of Kitchen-Gardening continued. Culture of the Cab-
bage, Broccoli, Pea, Bean, Onion, Carrot, Parsnep, and Spinach.

THE most useful of all vegetables is the Cabbage, both for man
and beast; and every person who has a little bit of garden
ground attempts to grow-and cultivate it, or some of the
numerous family of Brassica. It is to be seen in every garden,
whether large or small, during some part of the season; and
almost every town and village has its own peculiar sort: but
some of them are not worth cultivating, although they will tell
you they will do for the cows and pigs; yet cows and pigs like
a good cabbage as well as we do, and it is no more expensive to
cultivate a good one than a bad one. Cabbages will grow on
any good ground; but, like every thing else, are fond of good
manure, and of ground well prepared and sweetened. I believe
I have grown every new sort I have ever heard of; and up to

this time I find none to excel the Matchless, the Nonpa-

reil, and East Ham Cabbage, for quickness, beauty, and good
flavour, growing close to the ground, and having no waste
loose leaves to encumber them. The true Nonpareil will come
in the quickest by fifteen or twenty days. The East Ham is
the largest. The Matchless is the smallest, and of a very fine
dark green colour for cooking «as coleworts and greens, and is
either the same, or very much like what I used to see grown in
the first-rate market-gardens about London for years. The
three above-named cabbages, true to name and sort, will give
satisfaction to every grower, if a good preparation be made
for them. They are quite distinct, and I think I should
easily know them from each other wherever I might see them
growing.

They cultivate the worst sorts of cabbages in Devonshire I ever
saw. I recollect well, on first entering Bicton kitchen-gardens, I
saw a large piece of something planted out cabbage-fashion. I
asked the foreman what it was, and he told me it was the spring

Culture of the Cabbage. 541

cabbages, and that they were the best sort in England, the
Paignton and early Cornish. I told him I never before saw such.
wild, long-leafed, long-legged plants, to be called cabbages, and
be said to be fine when they came in. However, I had a pinch
of East Ham with me, of my own saving; I sowed a little in a
pan or two in the January following, pricked them early, and
got them good plants by the first week in March. I then
planted them out; and had pretty cabbages from them, five
weeks sooner than from those ugly-looking ones that had been
hoed every dry day, and nursed and taken every possible care
of all through winter. Scarcely any of these were fit to cut
before we had peas and beans ; how, then, could they be called
spring cabbages? I like to see pretty cabbages in March,
April, and May, and that is the time they are looked for; I
have always found it so, and not when other vegetables are
plentiful. As soon as possible I trenched them all in for
something else to grow on; never meaning to cultivate, myself,
any more of those wild sorts, whilst I know of better ones to be
erown at the same cost: but no doubt it would require much
persuasion to convince some of the West-country men that there
are any better sorts than they have been accustomed to cul-
tivate.

I generally sow the seed for my early cabbages about the
25th of July; prick them early at 3in. apart each way; then
again at 6in., which makes them strong and short-legged. It
is my usual practice to grow them on the piece of ground the
onions have been raised in. As soon as possible after these
haye been cleared off, the ground is well dunged and trenched,

and laid up in ridges, as rough as possible; and at about every

12 or 14 feet a sloping bank is cast up, by throwing two
trenches into one, which breaks the cold winds from the cab-
bages, and supplies fine places for winter endive, brown Cos let-
tuce, cabbage lettuce, cauliflower, late cabbage plants for spring
planting, and many other things; lying dry and healthy, and,
when carefully done, having a very neat appearance. Of course,
I sow about once a month all summer and spring for coleworts.
I generally make it a rule to prick my spring cabbage plants on
my cucumber ridge, which was the case this season; the ridge
being 100 ft. in length, and when forked down about 8 ft. wide,
all of good fresh earth from the frames, and waste soil from the
potting-shed, which I always save; and I will warrant that not
one handful of it had been near where a cabbage had been
grown. Six kinds of cabbages were pricked ; the principal part
of them were the three I have before mentioned, and the rest
three new sorts for proving. However, to my great disap-
pointment, after making every necessary preparation for their
being planted out permanently, I found some of the sorts nearly
3d Ser. — 1843. X. NN

542 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

all clubbed and tuberous-rooted; of the Matchless eight out of
ten were in this state. J must observe, that I am as fond of
preparing for and planting out a cabbage, as I am of tending the
most beautiful or rarest plant in the hothouse or greenhouse ;
and I always make it a rule to have a hand in it myself.

I have heard many remarks made on the cause of the
clubbing of plants, and many pretended cures for it; but I
have not yet heard or seen any that have been satisfactory
to myself. I have watched the disease in its various forms for
many seasons, and thought much concerning it; and I have at
last formed my own simple opinion as to its cause: but my
view is not yet sufficiently matured for publicity. One thing
is my firm belief, and that is, that neither the club root nor
tuberous root is caused by any insect whatever; but that, after
it is formed, it becomes a harbour for all kinds of insects.

There is another disease, the worts, to which the roots and
stems of cabbage plants are subject. These are caused by a small
thick, short, white maggot; and I have seen these worts so
close together, and swelled so large, that people called them
club root, though entirely distinct.

There is, in the summer, another enemy to cabbage plants, in
the shape of a small white maggot, rather longish, which attacks
them under ground in such numbers that they entirely eat off
all the roots, and bark the stems. A hot day comes, and down
the plants all drop. This enemy is well known amongst cauli-
flowers in the summer months, and amongst all the broccoli
tribe, &c. The only remedy I ever could find to stop it in
time is soot-water, poured round the stems from the spout of a
watering-pot: but it is of no use doing it after the enemy has
stripped the stem. There is still another destructive grub,
generally very numerous after a dry summer: a large brown
erub, 1 in. or 13 in. in length, that eats off the plant about

3 in. below the ground; hides generally within 3 in. of the
plant, and is easily detected by stirring the earth. ‘The plant
is otherwise subject to many kinds of vermin above ground,
such as the black dolphin and many varieties of aphis, and cater-
pillars, slugs, and snails. The two last-mentioned need not be
suffered long, except by slothful people; for cleanliness and
continually hoeing and stirring the ground will soon disagree
with them. That is the only method to keep all away, except
the caterpillar ; and to destroy these I know of no better means
than picking them off and killing them.

I believe there is many a practical man who has never
observed the difference between the club, the tuberous, and the
worted rooted diseases, but has set it down in his own mind,
that they are one and the same disease, caused by an insect.

Every practical man must have observed amongst his broccoli,

oS: i

Culture of Broccoli and Peas. 543

here and there, one that never headed further than cabbaging,
showing at once what broccoli originated in. It is also plain
that the Brussels sprouts originated in the Savoy; and Iam not
sure that it will not prove that. the turnip originated in the
cabbage, or the cabbage in the turnip: one thing I am certain
of, that the cabbage is to be found with both tuberous roots and
bulbous roots; and the Swede turnip is to be found fibrous-
rooted like the cabbage, or more in the way of rape. All these
observations I have often made, and I mean to watch them still
more closely.

I make it a rule to have two sowings always of the Winter
Broccoli, the first about the middle of April, and the second
about the middle of May. I prick the plants early, get them
strong, and plant them between the crops of peas, one row on
each side of a row of peas, which shades them for a time, and as
the peas are pulled away from them, the ground is forked, &c.
They soon get strength, and grow away.

I always take care to have all ground trenched well in
winter for Peas, and well manured, except for the first crop,
which I find comes in quicker by being sown on the ground
whilst it is rather poor. Stopping them just as they begin to
come into bloom causes them to set all together and quickly. I
take care to have the second crop to follow immediately. I
have grown almost every sort of peas that I ever heard of up to
the present time; and I find that for the first crop there is no
kind better than the Warwick, which I sow at the bottom of
sloping banks the first week in December; and find that by so
doing they are just ready to come through the ground about
Christmas, about the time frost sets in. If they make their
appearance above ground, and the frost does come, I take care
to cover them with dry dusty soil of any kind, which I always
have in readiness: it keeps them healthy, and free from canker
and shanking off. For succession I sow the Frame pea, and a
few Charlton; and for general summer crops the Scimitar Blue,
New Green Marrow, Milford’s Marrow, which is a fine pea, and
Knight's Tall Marrow, the best-flavoured and most useful of all
peas. All the last-mentioned sorts cannot have the ground too
well trenched, manured, and prepared; particularly Knight’s
tall marrow, which will not do on poor ground. I have had
them 16 ft. high, kept up with poles and ropes. Sow or plant
the seed 3in. apart. They always grow up very weak, and
continue so for some time; but as the season advances they
gain strength wonderfully, and branch out, if stopped when 2 ft.
high. If you take care to stop them again when about 4 or 5
feet high, and once or twice afterwards, according to their
strength, you will cause them to be from 3 ft. to 4 ft. in thick-

ness in the row. If they show bloom before I am likely to
NN 2

544 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

want them, I pick all off for a time. I reckon on them to serve
the table every day all through the driest and hottest part of
the summer, from July to September; and I have had most
wonderful crops from them, when treated in the above manner.
I have never heard a single person say but that they were the
best-flavoured of all peas. It is of no use to think of having a
fine lasting crop of peas, if there is not a thoroughly good pre-
paration made for them. If a good preparation be made for
them, and the ground fresh, that pest the mildew will not
trouble much, for it is nothing but drought and poverty that
causes the mildew in late crops.

Beans, every practical man knows, like a good holding loam,
and can be much forwarded, as well as peas, by being sown in
pans, in frames, vineries, peach-houses, &c., and then planted
out in a warm border or on the sides of ridges or sloping banks.
The best early bean I am acquainted with is the Mazagan, to be
succeeded by the Wonder Long Pod and Windsor Broad Bean.
Cutting off every alternate row, just as they are coming into
bloom, which rows should not be planted nearer than 3 ft.
apart at first, makes a very great improvement in the crop left;
and those that are cut down break out again and make a good
successional crop. The black dolphin is the worst enemy I
know of amongst beans, and attacks them about the time they
come into bloom. It is easily got rid of with a garden engine
and soap-suds, which will clear every living one off; but, if not
well attended to, oftentimes the crop is much injured by this
pest.

The Onion is one of the most wholesome and useful of all
vegetables. It also requires the ground to be well trenched,
laid in rough ridges all the winter, and forked and tumbled over
as roughly as possible every frosty morning with a strong fork
or pick, which sweetens it and kills all vermin. Sow in drills
1 ft. apart, and not until the ground is thoroughly pulverised ;
choosing a fine day to level down, any time between the Ist and
20th of March; and even then, if your ground is not in
thoroughly good condition, defer it for another week: but you
need not sow them on Valentine’s day, because you heard your
grandfather say that he had always done so, let the wind blow
whichever way it might. No better sorts of onions do I know
of for general purposes throughout the year, than the Deptford,
Reading, New White Globe, and Old Brown Globe, or James's
keeping. The Two-bladed is a beautiful onion for putting in
the earliest in the spring; but it is not much known except in
the London market-gardens. The Silver-skinned is the best for

ickling. Sow the seeds in the drills with manure, charcoal-
dust, bone-dust, or well-pulverised night-soil, which are all fine
manures for growing crops of onions, Take care to run the

Culture of the Bean, Onion, and Carrot. 546

Dutch hoe up between the drills as soon as the onions can be
seen ; and the small hand goose-necked hoes, one in each hand, as
soon as the whip (as it is termed in a market-garden) is clear out
of the ground. Every practical man must know that an onion
comes out of the ground doubled like a whip and handle. A
good small-hoer, in the neighbourhood of London, is certain of
finding plenty of employment, and, as the work is let by mea-
surement, he has the opportunity of earning high wages; but it
is astonishing what mischief a bad workman makes amongst
crops by muddling and trampling about. I have known five
pounds an acre given for hoeing the onions during the season,
that is, for three times; but it is now done for much less, and
I have seen many men attempt to hoe with a hoe in each hand,
that could never learn to use it properly with one.

The Carrot is a very useful vegetable, and much sought for in
every family almost every day in the year, and is a very useful
hearty food for cattle. J am only surprised that more are not
grown by farmers for the cattle. The ground about this
neighbourhood is the finest for carrot-growing I ever met with,
a beautiful sandy loam; and I have this season grown a greater
weight of the straightest well-coloured carrots, than ever I
saw in Surrey, Kent, Essex, or Middlesex. I have sometimes
talked to the farmers in this neighbourhood about growing
carrots, and the answer I have always got is, that they are
sure they would never answer hereabouts; but I could never
discover that any had tried it. They crop with so and so
during the spring, because their grandfather had done it before
them, fifty years ago, and then find out in some way when it is
harvest time; but complain wonderfully because the land has
only brought from fifteen to twenty-five bushels per acre. The
very same land, in my humble opinion, under the present im-
proved method of cultivation in some neighbourhoods that I
have seen, would yield double the above quantity. To grow
carrots they must not scuffle over the land as they now do, or
they will not get them much longer than my thumb; but
they must let the subsoil plough go to work; when for several
seasons the crops that followed would be much benefited by
the change, and by the soil being broken deeper than it ever
had been before. I cannot understand why some of the men
do not try to break their ground deeper. When in conversation
with any of them about it, they always acknowledge it would
be better for every thing; but still they have not the resolution
to put it into force on ever so small a scale. The only excuse
I ever heard is, that the rents, rates, &c., are so high they
cannot manage it; and my argument is, that that would be
the way to get something to pay them with. The best sort of
carrot for colour, length, and general crop is the Surrey; and

NN 3

546 Notice of a Visit to Bicton Gardens.

the Horn for framing and all early purposes. Never sow them
till the latter end of March or beginning of April, for a general
crop, and sow in drills 1 ft. apart; and hoe in the same sort of
way as for the onions, taking them in time as soon as seen
above ground.

Parsneps will grow good with the above management, but
like a richer and heavier soil, and should be sown in drills.

Spinach I always sow in drills the same distance, making a

ood preparation, and sowing the principal winter crop about
the 12th of August; indeed, I sow every thing in drills.

Lettuce all the summer months I sow in drills, and thin and
hoe out, as they are so apt to get checked when planted out in
hot weather, and to run to seed; but sowing in drills, with
constant hoeing, keeps them growing healthily.

I think I shall not dwell longer at present on kitchen-
gardening, but give you an occasional letter on any subject
that I may hereafter consider useful. To sum up all in a few
words, trench the ground and throw it into rough ridges imme-
diately after any crop is done with; choose good and proper
seasons for every crop, that is, the right season for putting it
into the ground. Hoe and fork the ground at every oppor-
tunity; but never get trampling on it when in a very wet
state, or it will soon become soured and unkind. By following
the above method you will never be troubled much with slugs,
snails, or any other sort of vermin, but have all vegetables sweet,
clean, and wholesome.

Bicton Gardens, Nov. 30. 1842.

[In answer to several enquirers, we beg to state that Mr.
Barnes’s mode of pine-growing will be given in the December
or January Number, we are not certain which. A gardener,
who writes to us on this subject, says that he was at Bicton on
the 8th of September, and saw queen pine-apples which num-
bered sixteen pips in depth!! He fully corroborates all Mr.
Cruickshank says (p. 547.) as to the vigour of the greenhouse
and hothouse plants; and he mentions a musa sucker, which

had grown 33 ft. high between January and June last. |

Art. 1V. Notice of a Visit to Bicton Gardens in August 1843, with
Remarks on the Culture practised there, and on the State of some of
the Plants. By JAMEs CruicKsHANK, Gardener to the Right
Honourable the Earl of Lonsdale, at Lowther Castle.

Turoven the kind permission of my present employer, the
Earl of Lonsdale, I have lately visited Bicton Gardens, so fully

On Laying out and Planting the Flower-Garden. 547

described by yourself last season (see our Vol. for 1842, p. 552.),
and by the original but straightforward letters of Mr. Barnes,
the gardener there.

I must confess his description of the plants, and his mode of
treating them, seemed to some of us in the North not a little
marvellous; or, at least, we put them down, as we do some of
the advertisements of dahlias, as not to be depended on: but,
haying seen the gardens and plants at Bicton, I am bound to
state, in justice to Mr. Barnes, that I never was so surprised
and pleased in my life. There are not many places that a gar-
dener can visit but what he may find fault with, or have reason
to do so on careful examination ; but I must say I carefully in-
spected the gardens at Bicton, and found every department in
the highest state of cultivation, both as regards the crops, and
the keeping and general management of the gardens and plants,
which are such, as, in my humble opinion, do Mr. Barnes great
credit.

The plants have been so fully described by yourself, and Mr.
Barnes in his series of letters, that it would be useless for me
to attempt a description; but I cannot avoid mentioning some
of the most extraordinary specimens that I have ever seen, VIZ.
Lechenaiiltza formésa and L. biloba, the ericas in general, and
Erica Masson? such a splendid specimen that I do not think
there is the like of it in England, or in the United Kingdom.

If any gardener should have the least doubt of what I have
stated, I would advise him to visit Bicton and judge for himself.
I am sure Mr. Barnes will be very glad to show a brother gar-
dener any thing there is to be seen there.

Lowther Castle Gardens, Aug. 19. 1843.

Art. V. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and
Flower-Garden. By the ConpucTor.

(Continued from p. 499.)

Tue designs figs. 118. and 119. are flower-gardens characterised by curvilineal
walks ; and the reason of this is, that these designs are adapted for a surface
either raised in the middle and falling towards the sides, or raised at the sides
and falling to the centre.

Hitherto the designs that we have given in this article have been for
surfaces comparatively flat and level ; but the two now before us are calculated
for hilly ground or hollows. The reason why curvilineal walks are adapted
for hilly ground is, that all sloping surfaces are most easily ascended or de-
scended in directions oblique to their line of slope. When a slope is perfectly
regular, like an inclined plane or the glacis of a fortification, the oblique walk
by which it is to be traversed may be a straight line, but in every other case
curvilineal lines will be found preferable, because less fatiguing, and conse-~
quently more agreeable to walk on.

NN 4

548 On Laying out and Planting

Such designs as those before us are peculiarly suitable for some parts of
Scotland, where, in the case of a hollow, the plants may be such as require
moist soi] or peat earth ; and, in the case of a hill, such as delight in dry
sandy soil.

In England we have seen such gardens (certainly on a smaller scale than
those here: represented) formed on artificial knolls ; and we could refer to

ESS LW 5 ee" e°é’ © 6 ”° € 8 y ”y ®? e ° '*v € == 6t5™E

Fig. 118. Flowe2-Garden adapted for a Hill with a Sandy Soil.
Scale 24 ft. to an inch.

one in which the walks are not laid with gravel or edged in any way, but
planted with different species and varieties of dwarf thyme, such as mother

of thyme, lemon thyme, green thyme, variegated thyme, &c. For example: —

in the design, fig. 118., the longest walk consists of a series of loops inter-
secting one another: this walk may be planted with mother of thyme, and

the short straight walks which join the loops may be planted with green —

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 549

thyme ; the central walk, including the segments which touch on the water,
may be planted with variegated thyme; and the intermediate walk, which
consists of four semicircles joined together, may be planted with lemon
thyme, which would contrast well with the hoary grey of the mother of thyme,
the deep green of the green thyme, and the white variegation of the variegated
thyme.

As a further. contrast, the small beds, forming, as it were, horns to the
octagon basin in the centre, are proposed to be planted with dwarf box, to be
shorn quite short in every month of June, so as to present a compact, dark,
evergreen surface. The beds for flowers should be planted or sown with
dwarf sorts having brilliant colours, so as to contrast strongly with the green
of the paths. The outside margin between the paths and the walk 4, and
also the broad flat border c, we propose to be pianted with dwarf box; and
among this green box we propose to plant variegated tree box, so disposed
as that, when it is grown a few inches higher than the green box, it may be
clipped into an arabesque pattern, in which the forms and lines exhibited in
the main figure shall be prevalent ; while, at the same time, these lines shall
be so combined with straight lines as to harmonise with the boundary lines of
the walk 4, the narrow border at the base of the parapet, and the parallelo-
gram beds at d. Each of the parallelogram beds (d), it will be seen, contains
a pedestal for a vase, though the engraver has omitted the basement of stone
on which they stand, and which is made to connect them with the gravel of
the walk. Without this connexion, or something equivalent, they would not
be architecturally placed ; for, as we have often stated, architectural or
sculptural objects ought never to appear but where they are in some way or
other connected with architecture or sculpture. Hence few things are in
worse taste than pedestals rising out of turf or dug beds. There may bea
fountain in the centre, where the situation admits of one; but at all events
there should be a basin of living water, without which, as Switzer observes,
a flower-garden is “ drought and misery.” a is a walk connecting the scene
with the house, the conservatory, the kitchen-garden, or whatever other archi-
tectural feature it is to adjoin. No detached shrubs whatever are intro-
duced in this design, except a few very low ones, to be trained to the
wall at c; nor any tall herbaceous plants, because the stagnation of the
air which these would produce would be highly injurious to the different
kinds of thyme, and prevent them from giving out their fragrance when
walked on. It may be proper to observe, that the boundary lines of the walk
6 are to be made curvilineal at the angles, so as to harmonise with the larger
beds ; and that attention to the principle of harmony must be had in designing
the parapet, and in working pedestals into it, and placing vases on them, so as
to harmonise the low wall with the pedestals and vases at d d. Main en-
trances, or subordinate entrances, may also be made opposite these pedestals.

Persons who have any predilection for the fragrance of any of the varieties
of the thyme recommended for planting the paths in this design, will have no
difficulty in reaching the paths containing that variety, and the fragrance, par-
ticularly on days in which there is not much sunshine, and in the mornings
and evenings, will be found most delightful. When it is inconvenient to plant
the whole width of the paths with thyme, edgings will have the effect to a
certain extent, as they are necessarily more or less trod upon; and those who
do not wish to take so much trouble may have the walks of gravel and sow
mignonette in the edgings. As to the flower-beds, a very rich effect will be
produced by planting them with dwarf dahlias of dark colours, and pegging
them down. By supposing the walk é to be 6 ft. wide, a scale to the whole
will be easily obtained, viz. 24 ft. to an inch.

The design jig. 119. is supposed to be adapted to a hollow where the soil
is peat, and, as appears by the five basins of water, either naturally moist, or
within ready access to an abundant supply. None of the plants planted in
this design should ever be such as rise above a foot in height, but the prefer-

550 On Laying out and Planting

ence ought to be given to those which do not exceed two thirds of that
height. These kinds may be all the truly dwarf sorts of the Linnean genus
Erica ; indeed the design would make an excellent ericacetum, or, if the
soil is dry, it would, planted with dwarf helianthemums, make an excellent cis-
tinetum. Among the peat-earth plants that may be used are, Azalea procim-

SSS SSS SSS SSE SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SOE

Fig. 119. Flower-Garden adapted for a Hollow with a Peaty Soit.
Scale 24 ft. to an inch.

bens, Epigze‘a répens, Gaulthéria procimbens, E’mpetrum nigrum, Kalmia
angustifolia nana, Daphne Cnedrum, Rhododéndron caucasicum and R. Cha-
mecistus, Vaccinium Vitis idee‘a, V. i. major, and V.i. minor. The edgings
to these beds may be made of Vaccinium Vitis idze’a.

If the source of water be sufficiently high, there may be small jets or
drooping fountains in the five basins; and, if possible, it should be so con-

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 551

trived that the water should enter in one basin, then proceed to a second,
then to a third and a fourth, passing off by the fifth ; thus, by a constant
circulation, however gentle, the water will be kept clear and fresh.

The walk a@ connects the garden with the house, or whatever other archi-
tectural feature may be judged proper. ec is a broad border of turf, with a
narrow border of a few low shrubs. The rest requires no farther explanation
at present.

Before proceeding farther with this article, we shall make some observations
applicable to the whole of the designs which we have hitherto given, to which
we beg the particular attention of the practical gardener and the amateur, if
the latter is not already master of the general principles of composition in
ljandscape-gardening.

It will be observed that, in every design we have given, there are beds of
comparatively large size, some quite small, and others of intermediate dimen-
sions ; the smaller beds being for the most part of the same character of form
as the larger ones. Now the object of the smallest of these beds is, by
contrast, to support the magnitude of the larger ones ; and the object of the
intermediate beds is to preserve a harmonious gradation of form and magni-
tude throughout the whole design. The principle of contrast becomes thus
one of the fundamental principles of composition ; and this holds, not only in
architecture and landscape-gardening, but in all the fine arts, and even in
literary composition. An architect, in a magnificent elevation, contrives to
bring in one or two small openings to give effect to the largest ones; he studies
this even in the members of his cornices, architraves, and pediments, and if he
has but little shade over the general face of his elevation, in consequence of
its being without projections or recesses, he crowns the whole with such a
far-projecting cornice, as throws down one grand belt of shade, sufficient,
by its width and its intensity, to form a contrast to the whole face of the
elevation. The Reform Club-house in Pall Mall by Mr. Barry, and some
designs in our Encyclopedia of Cottage Architecture, by Mr. Lamb, are fine
examples of the sort of contrast to which we allude. In every painting there
is a prevailing mass of some particular colour in one part of the picture, but
in other parts there are subordinate masses and very small indications of the
same colour, put in by the artist in order to support and harmonise the prin-
cipal mass. The same may be said of the shades of a picture, and even of
the forms. See Burnett On Painting, and Howard On Colour as a Means of
Art. For example, you do not find in the picture of any good artist, who has
been allowed to follow his own taste, a landscape having Highland mountain
scenery in the distance and a smooth unbroken lawn in the foreground ; but
the lawn is broken up or varied by forms, perhaps those of the shade of the
castellated mansion, or of the foreground, broken up on purpose, so as to
produce such a piece of ground as nature requires, but still differing from
the vegetation of the locality, in being planted with exotic shrubs. The
same application of the principle of contrast is attended to in historical
pictures, as may be seen even in Hogarth’s, where the main subject is the
wrangling of human beings, and the contrasting one some dogs or cats fight-
ing. Every piece of music has its accompaniment. In all dramatic pieces
there is not only a plot, but a by-plot ; and there is the same in novels and
romances.

Footmen, even in giving the fashionable raps of the London street-door,
contrive to combine loud sonorous raps with smaller, and very small ones;
the whole forming a sort of harmony that is not very easy to imitate. The
post gives two knocks; but an ordinary professional teacher of music or
languages is only entitled to give one, yet this, in contrast with a very small
knock, he contrives to render effective in distinguishing his knock from that
of a common servant.

* First one, and then a little one behind,
As if the knocker fell out of his fingers.”

552 On Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden.

The last paragraph on knockers might perhaps have been spared as of no
great use, but it will serve, by contrast, to enhance the value of those on
architecture and painting which preceded it.

Now so entirely ignorant are most practical persons of these principles of
composition and their application, that we will venture to say that if any one
of the fifteen, or whatever the number may be, designs given in this article
were sent to a gentleman’s gardener or nurseryman to be laid out, the first
thing he would do would be to get rid of all the smaller beds, swelling out
the larger ones so as to occupy an additional space equivalent to that gained
by obliterating the small beds; or probably letting the large beds alone and
occupying the place of the small beds with lawn or gravel; or perhaps with
some favourite tree or shrub that he might have and wish to dispose of. We
are justified in using strong terms when speaking on this subject, by what we
have seen in the neighbourhood of London, and in fact in every part of the
island.

With regard to gentlemen’s gardeners we can with still more confidence
say, that, if any of these designs were given to them to carry into execution,
they would do precisely what the nurseryman would do, unless prevented by
the peremptory fiat of the master or mistress, in consequence of either or both
having a knowledge of the principles of composition.

But some gardeners will go much farther than this; and, after the artist has
got his design laid out on the ground, explaining every detail to them as the
work proceeded, and after it has been finally approved of by the master or
mistress, will, when the artist is gone, make alterations according to their
own taste. A notable instance of this kind occurred to us about two years ago,
the details of which we may probably give hereafter.

Let it not be imagined from this that we do not wish gardeners and nursery-
men to lay ont flower-gardens and pleasure-grounds; on the contrary, the
whole of our publications, and more especially our various articles in this
Magazine, have been written with a view to bring forward young men in
gardening as an art of design and taste. It must be confessed, however, that
it is hardly possible for a young man to acquire much knowledge of gardening
as an art of design and taste, and at the same time get a competent knowledge
of the principles of horticulture as founded on botany, chemistry, geology,
and meteorology, together with sufficient time to apply these principles, or
see them applied in different parts of the country: in a word, to have sufficient
knowledge as a journeyman to qualify him for a master’s place at the age of
twenty-five or thirty. The wonder is, that with such low wages, such
unhealthy gloomy lodgings, with so many hours work per day, and the neces-
sity of perusing a number of books, that they should have made themselves
what they are. We can, therefore, excuse them for their want of knowledge
in our department ; but we cannot avoid condemning that overweening self-
conceit so general among young gardeners, and especially Scotch ones, which
leads them to think that they know a great deal more than they do, and
hence to interfere in matters that they do not thoroughly understand,

Nothing can be more common than when an artist goes to a country
residence and walks round with the gardener, to hear the artist who has been
last employed there decried, and any thing good that he did attributed to the
suggestion of the gardener or his employer. It is natural for persons who
have not had their moral powers properly cultivated, to wish to be able to say
such things of every man as may bring him down somewhat nearly to their own
level. This is human nature in an uncultivated state; but young gardeners,
who ought to be phrenologists to a certain extent, and guided by such moral
principles as have been adopted by the West London Gardeners’ Asso-
Garon ought to know better. We intend to resume this subject in our next —

umber.

(To be continued.)

ETints on ornamental Planting. 553

Art. VI. Hints to Proprietors who intend planting Pleasure- Grounds,
Shrubberies, or other ornamental Plantations. By the Con-
DUCTOR.

Few will deny that the chief source of the beauty of shrubberies and orna-
mental plantations is, the variety of trees and shrubs which are displayed in
them. A good deal, no doubt, depends on the character of the ground, the
distance, and the arrangement ; but still the grand source of the beauty and
interest, more especially in the present times, when every body is a botanist,
and every gentleman under fifty an arboriculturist, is the number of species
and varieties of handsome trees and shrubs. In the time of Uvedale Price,
when there was not a twentieth part of the species and varieties of trees and
shrubs in cultivation which are now in the country, the great object of the
landscape-gardener was to create picturesque beauty ; and even so late as the
time of the publication of the late Sawrey Gilpin’s book (see Vol. VIII. p.700.,
and Obit. p.332.), the trees and shrubs recommended by him, both in his book
and in his reports, were chiefly ‘‘ cedars, cypresses, stone pines, and filereas ”’
(meaning pinasters and phillyreas). Inthe present day, however, we not only
study to display, in pleasure-grounds and shrubberies, the picturesque, but the
gardenesque ; and accordingly there is no limit to the variety of trees and
shrubs that may be introduced, and that with admirable effect.

We are persuaded that there are very few country gentlemen, or amateur
gardening ladies, who have either any idea of the number of species of trees
and shrubs which are cultivated in some nurseries, or of the very low price at
which these may be purchased, In our preceding Number, p. 504., we gave
an analysis of the recently printed sheet catalogue of hardy trees and shrubs
of Messrs. Whitley and Osborn of the Fulham Nursery, to show the number
of species and varieties it contained, amounting altogether to 1591 species
and varieties. We have since got Messrs. Whitley and Osborn to put the
prices to their catalogue, and the following is an analysis of it, with reference
to the number of species and varieties that may be procured for different sums
from 10/. to 2307. It must be borne in mind that the prices are supposed to
be for a single plant, or at most two plants of a kind, the object being to
supply collections for arboretums, or collections for shrubberies or pleasure-
grounds: but, if several plants were required, the prices would be greatly
reduced ; some of the plants, as the common elm, Scotch pine, and spruce fir,
for example, when bought by the thousand, to less than a tenth of what is
here charged. This, however, applies to but very few species and varieties.
Tt should also be taken into account that none but vigorous plants are sent
out of the Fulham Nursery, a precaution absolutely necessary when only one
plant of a kind is sold ; and that these plants are all correctly named, we
can assert from personal examination while preparing the Arboretum Britan-
nicum.

Analysis of Messrs. Whitley and Osborn’s Catalogue of Hardy Trees and Shrubs
for 1843-4, with reference to the Prices of the Plants.

Number of Trees from 3d. to 6d. = 95 a2 8 Gh. ES tek
ake Shrubs from 3d. to 6d. - 16
Species and varieties — 21 for 0 9 11
Trees at 9d. - - - 8
Shrubs at 9d. - - - 57
Species and varieties — 65 for 2 8 9
Trees at Is. - - - 32
Shrubs at ls. - - - 112
Species and varieties -— 144 for 7 4 0

All the preceding species and —
varieties, viz. = - 230 oye 10) @

554 Hints to Proprietors

Number of Trees at 1s. 6d. - = 206 £ os. d. & saws
Shrubs at ls. 6d. - - 400
Species and varieties -— 606 for45 9 0
All the preceding species and —
varieties, viz. - - 836 for 55 11 8
Trees at 2s. = - - 2
Shrubs at 2s. - - - 5
Species and varieties — 7 for 014 0
Trees at 2s. 6d. - - 247
Shrubs at 2s. 6d. - - 177
Species and varieties -— 424 for 53 0 0
All the preceding species and —.
varieties, viz. - = 1267 for 109 5 8

Trees at 3s. 6d. = - 54
Shrubs at 3s. 6d. - - Al
Species and varieties — 95 for 16 12 6
Trees at 5s. - - e 8)
Shrubs at 5s. - - - 127
Species and varieties -— 166 for41 5 O
Trees at 7s. 6d. - - 13
Shrubs at 7s. 6d. - -
Species and varieties
Trees at 10s. 6d. = -
Shrubs at 10s. 6d. - -
Species and varieties
Trees at 2ls. - - -
Shrubs at 21s. - -
Species and varieties
Trees and Shrubs at 30s.

22 for 8 5 O

13 for 6 16 6

14 for 14 14 0

we | wc | eel wl Bol aol «©

Species and varieties 2for 3 0 O
Trees at 31s. 6d. - -
Shrub at 3ls. 6d. - -

Species and varieties 4for 6 6 O
Trees at 42s. - - -
Shrubs at 42s. - -

Species and varieties 5 for 1010 0
Tree at 63s. - - - ioe 8. 8 O
Trees at 105s. - - 2for 10 10 O

—— 121 2 0
Total species and varieties - 1591

clusive of 193 species and varieties, to which, there being ¢ £230 7 8

no strong plants for sale, no prices are affixed in the catalogue

It would thus appear that 230 species and varieties of trees and shrubs,
none of which exceed 1s. each, may be obtained at a cost of 10/. 2s. 8d. ; 606
species and varieties at Is. 6d. may be obtained for 45/. 9s. ; and 431 species
and varieties may be added to the above, the prices var ying from 2s. to 2s. 6d.,
for 53/. 14s.; in all 1267 species and varieties for 109/. 5s. 8d.

We shall not go into the details of any of the higher prices, because, in
general, we think 2s. 6d. per plant quite enough for all ordinary occasions.
It will be observed by the analysis, that the total number of species and
varieties of plants which are charged from 3s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. is only 283, and
which amount to 661. 2s. 6d.; 13 plants are charged at 10s. 6d., and from one
guinea to five guineas only 28 plants. The plants for which more than 7s. 6d,
are charged we consider exclusively for amateurs or the very wealthy: the
prudent and economical proprietor will wait a year or two, till, by propaga-
tion, or the introduction of seeds from foreign countries, the price of these
plants be reduced to 2s. 6d.

Now it so happens that there is no other collection of trees and shrubs in

Total cost of Messrs. Whitley and Osborn’s collection, me}

on making ornamental Plantations. 555

Great Britain that is so complete, and so correctly named, as that of Messrs.
Whitley and Osborn. There are very large collections, such as that of
Messrs. Loddiges, and the nomenclature of that collection is exemplified in
the Abney Park Cemetery. Mr. Rivers of Sawbridgeworth has also a very
good collection, with many rare kinds, as we have seen, p.55. Mr. Gregory
of Cirencester, and Mr. May of Leeming Lane, have large collections, and
there is a very full one at Messrs. Dickson’s of Chester. In the nursery of
Mr. Masters of Canterbury, we believe, there is a good collection, as there may
be in various other English nurseries that we cannot recal to mind. We saw
the principal nurseries in Scotland in 1841, and we can vouch for the kinds
being comparatively few and wretchedly named, except in Lawson’s nursery.
George Don, by order of the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, having
correctly named all the trees and shrubs supplied by Messrs. Loddiges to St.
James’s Park and Kensington Gardens, any country nurseryman may bring or
send in specimens, and correct their names by these living plants. We mention
this, because the first thing that will be said by a certain class of nurserymen
will be, that we have some pecuniary interest in recommending Messrs. Osborn.
We reject the insinuation and the insinuators with contempt.

It may safely be stated that there are very few nurserymen, either in the
neighbourhood of London or throughout the country generally, that propagate
more than twenty or thirty kinds of hardy trees and shrubs; and how, under
these circumstances, is it possible that they can supply country gentlemen
with much variety in their pleasure-grounds? The nurserymen, indeed, do
not pretend to offer much variety. When a gentleman employs them to plant
a pleasure-ground or shrubbery, they plant it with articles by the score or by
the hundred, and probably add to these some new Himalayan or Mexican
plants, which give the idea of something new and rare, and at the same time
swell out the amount of the bill. This thirsting after rarity and novelty, to
the exclusion of what is good and beautiful, we hold to be in very bad taste.
We find in country nurserymen’s advertisements at this season of the year,
when planting is expected to commence, a large stock announced of hollies,
Portugal laurels, common laurels, laurustinus, and other “ leading kinds ” of
evergreen shrubs. Gentlemen, and also their gardeners, are generally anxious
to add a plant or two to their pleasure-ground once a year, and some new
pine or fir, or other extravagant-priced plant, is generally fixed on, which is
often planted in some crowded improper situation, where in a year or two it
gets killed and is no more heard of.

Now what we would recommend to gentlemen or ladies, when they desire
to plant a shrubbery or pleasure-ground, is this. First, procure one plant, or
two if you have room, of all the low-priced trees and shrubs, or at least as
many of them as you have not already specimens of, or as your ground will
hold (and an acre will contain at least 500 plants independently of the spaces
required for glades and walks); then, after procuring the 230 kinds that
you can get for 10/., add as many as you can afford from the plants at Is. 6d.
each, of which, by the analytical table, you will find 606 species and varieties,
which can he got for 45/. If you have still more room, there are 424 beautiful
flowering trees and shrubs that you can procure for 2s. 6d. each, or 537. We
do not recommend you to go to a higher price, but we insist upon you, if you
wish to make your pleasure-ground or shrubbery what it might be at the least
possible expense, to beware of the common stuffing generally sent in for
planting shrubberies and pleasure-grounds by nurserymen. Beware also of
all high-priced plants, if you wish to accomplish a great deal with limited
means, and if you do not intend to run the risk of great losses.

Gentlemen’s gardeners can hardly be very eager for reform in planting
pleasure-grounds and shrubberies, except those who have been some time
in the Horticultural Society’s garden, or in the Fulham Nursery, or have
studied in the Derby Arboretum ; because, there really is no other garden or
nursery in Britain where the kinds are correctly named.

It is for gentlemen and gardening ladies themselves to bring about this
reform ; and, to do so, they have only to insist on planting collections, instead

556 Domestic Notices: — Scotland.

of a few kinds for ever repeated. This will effect a double good ; it will
establish collections in pleasure-grounds, and add immensely to their interest ;
and it will render necessary the propagation of a great number of species and
varieties in nurseries, which will greatly increase the business.

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.
ArT. I. Domestic Notices.

SCOTLAND.
Yu’cca gloridsa.— Among the various productions of Flora which adorn
the far-famed gardens of Britain, none rank so high in the estimation of the
florist as some of those wonderful plants in the different tribes which com-
pose the natural orders Amaryllidec, Bromelidcee, Asphodélex, Tulipacee,
&c.; so much so, that the celebrated Linnzeus designates them, “the nobles
of the vegetable kingdom.” Our Saviour, in his sermon on the mount, when
exhorting his disciples to take no thought for their raiment, points out to
them the grandeur of some one or other of the plants supposed to be in one
of the above natural orders, by saying, “ Consider the lilies of the field, how
they grow, they toil not, neither do they spin ; and yet I say unto you, that
Solomon, in all his glory, was not arrayed like one of these.” Among the
most magnificent of these noble plants which have flowered in Scotland, the
following have been considered as splendid specimens of their kind : — the
Doryanthes excélsa of New South Wales, which flowered in the nursery of
Mr. Cunningham of Comely Bank, Edinburgh, in the year 1824, the flower
stem of which attained to the height of (I think) 29 feet, finely branched, with
many hundreds of splendid flowers; two plants of the same sort, which
flowered successively, a few years afterwards, in the garden at Woodhall near
Hamilton, and were noble specimens ; the Agave americana, or American
aloe, which flowered in the princely gardens at Drummond Castle, in the
year 1832, with a flower stem 23 feet high, and beautifully branched like a
chandelier, with a large umbel of flowers on each branch; and the Yicca
gloriosa, which flowered in the garden at Blairdrummond, in the year 1835,
the flower stem of which attained to the height of 12 feet, branched in a
pyramidal form, with 1245 flowers. The above plants, when in flower, attracted
a great concourse of visitors, not only on account of their elegance and
splendour, but also on account of their being but seldom flowered in perfec-
tion in this quarter cf the world. There is at present a very fine specimen
of the Yucca gloriosa in flower in the garden at Blairdrummond. The height
is 9 ft. 6 in., with 40 branches, bearing in all 1150 hexapetalous bell-shaped
flowers. The flowers are arranged in threes, around the stem of the lateral
branches, and are on short footstalks. The flowers are of a light cream-
colour inside, and tinged with pink outside. The Vacca gloriosa is of the 6th
class and Ist order (Hexandria Monogjnia) of Linneeus, and the natural
order Tulipacee or Liliaceze of Jussieu, is a native of America, and was
introduced into this country in the year 1596. The plant at present in flower
at Blairdrummond is a sucker from the root of the plant that flowered in
1835, and is at present seven years old. The first winter after being removed
from the mother plant (which died down to the surface of the ground), it was
kept in a pot in the vinery, and in spring planted out in the open border in
front of one of the peach-houses, and copiously watered several times during

the succeeding summers with liquid manure. A slight covering of silver-fir *

branches has been sufficient to protect it from the frosts of winter, and last
winter a mat was only thrown over it a few nights when very hard frost
occurred. Its flowering this summer may be attributed to its getting very
dry at one time last summer, and the check it would receive by being so
seldom protected last winter. (J. D., Blairdrummond, in the Stirling Adver-
tiser for Aug. 25, 1843.)

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
NOVEMBER, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I, Comparative Physiology. By R. Lympurn.
(Continued from p. 512.)

On Absorption in Vegetables he says: “In the lowest plants we
find this function performed under its most simple conditions.
The simplest alge, as Protocéccus nivalis, consist of individual
cellules, each capable of nutrition and reproduction. The higher
confervye and sea-weeds consist of masses of cellules united into
a leaf-like expansion, which performs the nutritive and repro-
ductive functions on all parts of its surface, any semblance of
stem and roots appearing only to give the means of attachment.
The lichens are similar in form and structure to the alge, but
the different situation appears to produce a separation in the
functions; reproduction being confined to the upper surface,
which from exposure gets hard and dry; while it is by the lower
surface, usually soft and pale, that the nutriment is probably
absorbed, and it is frequently furnished with hair-like appendages
resembling roots. The lower groups of fungi seem to imbibe
by their whole surface, while the more complex mushrooms
have the reproductive system separated from the nutritive by a
stalk, whose base is prolonged into radical fibres, by which, and
probably also by the hairs on the surface, the food is introduced
into the system.

* In ascending through the tribes of Cryptogamia the func-
tions get more specialised, though when these special organs are
undeveloped, or insufficiently supplied, the general surface can
supply the deficiency. The whole surface of the radical fibre in
Cryptogamia is endowed with the power of absorption, except in
ferns, which approach Phanerogamia, or flowering plants; in
which fluid is admitted through the succulent extremity alone,
the function being more actively performed in proportion to the
diminution in amount of surface they expose. The simplest
form of roots consists of single fibres from the base, as in hya-
cinth and other bulbs and tubers; but more often the fibres pro-
ceed from ramifying branches of woody texture, as in trees and

3d Ser. — 1843, XI. ome)

558 Comparative Physiology.

shrubs. Each fibre differs from those of cellular plants by the
possession of a bundle of vessels (woody fibre and ducts) which
occupy its centre. The spongiole is the growing point of the
root, the soft lax texture of which possesses in an eminent de-
gree the power of absorption. As the radical fibre elongates,
the spongiole becomes consolidated into the general structure of
the root. The extension takes place by the addition of fresh
tissue to the points, in the direction of least resistance, causing
the root to grow towards moisture, not from mstinct but from
less resistance. The long descent of roots along bare rocks,
perpendicularly and horizontally in quest of earth, is, however,
difficult to explain. The absorbent power of the spongioles ap-
pears limited by the size of the pores, which, though hitherto
undetected, must have a sensible diameter. The most finely
divided particles in coloured solutions, and the most watery
portions of solutions of sugar, gum, &c., are always taken up
first. The power of selection, however, would seem to extend
beyond this, as of some substances in solution, some plants will
take one and some the other, and some neutral salts are re-
jected altogether. It does not appear, however, that the select-
ing power is employed to prevent the introduction of deleterious
matter. From the little at present known on the subject, it
seems a reasonable inference that the rejection of any particular
ingredient in the fluid in contact with the roots, results either
from the want of adaptation in the form or size of its molecules
to the pores of the spongiole*, or from an organic change effected
by it on their delicate tissue, such as is proved by the experi-
ments of M. Payen to occur when tannin enters into the solu-
tion, even in very minute proportion.”

From the similarity between lichens and alge above noticed,
it may be inferred that what have been reckoned instances of
equivocal generation may rather be due to the circumstances
they are placed in causing the same plant to assume a different
appearance ; and what have been reckoned of distinct genera and
species may, after all, only be different states of the same plant.
It is not at all probable that the action of roots, and their food,
on each other, can claim the high rank of instinct. That roots
do act on the food, however, is generally believed. In two pots
of charcoal exhibited for experiment in the Horticultural So-
ciety’s gardens, the one having a growing plant inserted in it,
the other without any plant, but treated in exactly the same
manner in every other respect, it was found that much more of
the charcoal was consumed in the one which had the growing

* Dr. Daubeny has found in his experiments, that salts of lime, magnesia,
and others that are isomorphous, are absorbed by the same plants; while
they refuse such as those of strontia, which have a different crystalline
arrangement.

Comparative Physiology. 559

plant inserted; evidently pointing out that the fibres had ex-
erted some influence in dissolving as well as absorbing the
food. As I mentioned before, it is probable that the excretion
of some nitrogenous substance from the roots (nitrogenous
substances, as diastase, &c., bemg powerful solvents) greatly
assists in such action; though the contact of the roots, further-
ing the removal of carbonic acid, &c., as formed, may be part of
the cause also. The spongioles may also act, as living vessels
are generally supposed to do, on their food by attraction ; and
their vital powers may produce some action in which electricity
is concerned, though not to such extent as the assimilating
organs. There is no proof, however, of streams of electricity
issuing to decompose the food, as supposed by some. It is eyi-
dent also, that the food exerts some influence on the direction of
the roots, perhaps something of the nature of stimulus. Mr.
Knight, in his experiments, found that, when he buried the ma-
nure deep in the ground, the roots of the plants sown on the
surface descended at once in a spindle form, without any ten-
dency to ramify; but when he spread the manure near the sur-
face, the roots of the same kind of plant ramified in all directions
in quest of the food. He found, also, that, when he made
trenches of loose ground in the midst of solid ground, the roots
preferred ramifying in the loose soil to penetrating the solid,
showing their tendency to extend in the direction of least resist-
ance. More food would also be found in such situations. In
quagey miry land, the roots of the plants that thrive thereon
are found to prefer running along the surface to obeying the
natural impulse of gravity, though no resistance is presented to
their penetrating downwards, preferring the situation where
food of the best description is to be got. Mr. Knight considered
that gravity was the cause of roots descending, which impulse,
he said, they would always be found to obey, unless prevented
by resistance or the presence of food; such instances as the
above, of roots travelling long distances perpendicularly and
horizontally in quest of earth, he explained on these principles.
In the experiments above narrated on manure buried deep,
and merely pointed into the surface, Mr. Knight found the crop
on the portion manured on the surface to exceed that where it
was buried deep in an immense degree; showing the benefit of
feeding seedling crops as soon as possible after the evolution of
roots. Much of the success of seedling crops, especially such
as turnips, depends on starting them with vigour. Of the bad ef-
fects of tannin on the roots I have had experience in cauliflower
and other plants sown above hot tanner’s bark, when deficient
of fermenting stable manure. The plants vegetated strongly,
and had a good appearance, but, after pushing the third or fourth
leaf, set up altogether in growth, and got hard and woody in
002

566 Comparative Physiology.

texture, and of a brown colour, as if pervaded with the tannin.
It probably acts by its astringent property causing the pores of
the spongiole to contract.

Dr. Madden thinks it possible that plains may have an in-
stinctive relish for that kind of food which contains the requi-
sites needed for their present wants in greatest perfection. It
does not appear, however, that plants have any thing like in-
stinct in the power of selecting by the spongioles; this 1s pro-
bably confined to the assimilating organs. It has been said that
the power of selecting is proved by such plants as peas having
little silex in their composition, while others, such as grain crops
(grasses), are found to abound in silex in the stems. The one plant
abounding in one substance in which the others are deficient,
though growing beside each other, and having the same food
supplied to the roots, is thought to be a proof of a selecting
power in the spongioles. This power, however, more probably
resides in the assimilating organs of the grasses possessing a
power of appropriating silicates, which those of the pea do not
possess. In the experiments before noticed of Vogel, it was
found that plants in general absorb rapidly so much of saline
substances as to destroy them, even of such as nitrate of potash,
which is well known to benefit plants in small quantities.
Saussure found solutions of sulphate of copper and sugar to
kill plants more rapidly than most other substances, which were
the two of which the greatest quantity was absorbed.*

It is evident, therefore, that, as small quantities of the delete-
rious substances of Vogel are to be found in many soils natu-
rally, and as even the “most nourishing, as sugar, were found
to be hurtful in excess, plants must possess a power of ex-
creting deleterious substances, which would otherwise collect and
destroy. The fluid in the soil may be absorbed by the pea and
the grass of the same quality unaltered, only the pea will have
to reject and excrete the silicates that are not needed for its
stalk; and so with any plant for any substances not needed.
Some few plants may possess a particular power of rejecting
some substances, as the chara found by Vogel not to absorb
sulphate of copper, probably from the form of its pores. But
few instances are on record, however, of such powers being
possessed ; on the contrary, it seems generally allowed, that all
soluble substances, deleterious or not, are absorbed indiscrimi-
nately. It follows, therefore, as some deleterious substances
may very soon collect in such quantities as to be hurtful, and as

* He also found that, when the roots were cut, all substances were ab-
sorbed with equal rapidity, showing that the form and size of the invisible
pores had regulated the quantities before they were cut. Boucherie, it is
said, in the absorption of saline substances by trees, found the cut ends of
certain trees to reject some substances which other trees took up.

kK

Comparative Physiology. 561

all, even the most nourishing, have a limit beyond which they
are in excess and prove hurtful, that plants must possess a power
of excretion; and, as many of these substances are not easily
evaporated, that they must be excreted by the roots. Liebig
(who takes the excretionary power as undoubted), in his Agr7-
cultural Chemistry, in the excellent chapter on alkalies, notices
that every plant has certain kinds of acids and alkalies that
it prefers, but, in certain situations, is found to change these
for others, when the proper kinds are not contained in sufficient
quantity in the soil. Marine plants possessing soda in their
natural situations, are found to have the soda replaced by potash
in soils deficient of the former and abounding in the latter.
Trees generally found to have their acids united to potash
have, in saline soils, been found to have the potash replaced by
soda. In some soils, where there was a deficiency of matter to
furnish materials for the ordinary vegetable acids, they have
been found replaced by mineral acids, as the sulphuric, &c.
All these instances point out that, where the normal acids and
bases are found in sufficient quantity, all others not suitable,
though capable of passing the pores, and certainly carried
up in the ascending sap, as proven by their being sometimes
assimilated, are yet, when the normal substance is to be had,
undoubtedly rejected and excreted. Even the normal sort, if
in excess, must also be excreted. Liebig notices that the quan-
tity of potash in wheat was found to decrease much in amount
as the plant came to maturity. Schlieden (who has doubts as
to plants possessing the faculty of excretion by the roots) says
this is owing, not to the wheat parting with its potash, but to
less being assimilated by the ripening plant; and, as the other
parts increase more than potash at this period, the proportion is
less, though the original quantity is not diminished. ‘This,
however, does not alter the case; for, if the water absorbed
contains nearly the same quantity of potash as before, which is
generally likely to be the case, if less is assimilated more must
be rejected. No doubt the young growing parts possess most
unassimilated alkalies in the circulating sap; but the quantities
of these contained in a soluble state in the water of the soil are
generally much more than needed. Professor Johnson describes
potash, soda, &c., as carriers of organic substances, dissolving
and uniting to the vegetable substances found in the soil, which
they part with, giving them up to be assimilated, and are again
excreted to dissolve fresh portions and be again absorbed. On the
whole, the general opinion seems to be, and is most likely to be
correct, that many substances are taken up besides those needed,
and must be rejected, as also needful substances when in excess 5
and this is likely the cause of what has been ascribed to selec-
tion. It has been also said that, as leaves reject nitrogen, so
003

562 Comparative Physiology

may spongioles possess a power of rejecting also: it is not
proved, however, that leaves reject or cannot absorb nitrogen,
nor does it follow that spongioles are similar though it were.
It may not appear proved that roots have the power of absorb-
ing gaseous substances as such, unless dissolved in water ; at least
it is said in experiments on record that they do so, and some
assert they cannot. Thomson says Saussure has proved that
roots absorb oxygen as well as leaves; and Liebig talks of it as
certain. If oxygen is absorbed by the roots in this way, so may
atmospheric air and nitrogen.

“ The quantity of fluid absorbed, and the force with which it
is propelled upwards in the stem, vary in different species and
individuals, also at different periods of the year and day. It
seems intimately connected with the activity of the other pro-
cesses of vegetation, and especially with the quantity of vapour
transpired from the leaves. Hales found that, when the sap of
the vine was rising rapidly, a column of mercury, 26 in. high,
nearly equal to 31 ft. of water, might be supported by the pro-
pellent force of the absorbent organs: the power diminished,
and after a time ceased altogether, when the upper part of the
plant was cut off The mere act of absorption, there is much
reason to believe, is due to the physical property of the mem-
brane to produce endosmose; the difference of the density of
the fluids necessary for the commencement and continuance of
this action being supplied, in the first mstance, by the store of
nutritious matter obtained by the embryo trom its parent, and
latterly by the mixture of a portion of the dense elaborated
descending sap with the crude ascending fluid. Professor
Henslow likens the carrying off of the sap as imbibed by vital
action, producing further demand, to the combustion of oil in a
lamp. DeCandolle’s axiom (that when a particular function is
not sufficiently carried into effect by the organs ordinarily ap-
propriated to it, it is performed wholly or im part by another)
is the result of the general principle, before laid down, that the
general surface of a plant can perform, in a considerable degree,
the functions of all the rest. When the roots are absent or
imperfect, as in Orchidex, absorption is performed through the
leaves; and when these are absent, as in Cicti, through the
stem. Bonnet experimented on plants of Mercurialis, by im-
mersing the roots only of some plants in water, while the leaves
only of other plants were allowed to touch the fluid; and he
found, after five or six weeks, that those which imbibed by their
leaves only were nearly as vigorous as those that had absorbed
by the roots. It is by the under surface of the leaf, where the
cuticle and cellular tissue are least compactly arranged, that
absorption is performed with the greatest rapidity. The downy
hairs so plentiful on some plants seem to contribute to this func-

Comparative Physiology. 563

tion, acting like rootlets, and are always most prevalent in the
same species, and even in the same individual when trans-
planted, in hot dry situations. Plants faded by intense light
and heat are refreshed obviously by moisture in the air.

“ In the younger stages of the higher plants, as they approach
to maturity, we may trace the same progressive stages of develope-
ment in this function as has been done from the lower to the
higher plants. The embryo, at its first appearance in the ovule,
is nothing but a single cell, like the lowest plants, and gradually
absorbs by its whole surface as those do. In the early stages of
germination, the first prolonged radicle resembles that of the
fungi or mosses ; it is not till the true leaves are developed that
the root begins to ramify and produce perfect fibrils, having
woody fibre and vessels in the interior, terminated by spongioles.
The special structure is thus constantly observed to arise out of
one more general; and, even where the special form is most
highly developed, the general structure retains, in some degree,
the primitive community of function which originally charac-
terised it.”

The force by which the sap is propelled upwards, which be-
longs more properly to the function of circulation, has by some
been described as proceeding from electrical attraction and re-
pulsion, producing currents like magnetism. Currents of elec-
tricity are supposed to pervade all bodies, and have been said to
render the human body susceptible of being mesmerised, or put
into a magnetic sleep. Others say that electricity affects all
vital action, and will probably be present as partly either cause
or effect. The contractile power of the vegetable tissue, which is
believed by many the principal agent both in the ascent and
descent of the sap, is probably affected by electricity, or elicits
it by its action. Professor Thomson ( Veg. Chemis., p. 986.) says,
“it 1s impossible to account for the motion of the sap in plants
wholly by any mechanical or chemical principles whatever.” The
vessels themselves, he says, certainly contract, and many phi-
losophers have ascribed the ascent to irritability ; there are not
wanting proofs that plants are possessed of it, and Saussure has
given a precise view of its mode of action. This power may
reside in the vessels along which the sap moves, or in the cells,
as DeCandolle supposes. Miiller (p. 299.) says: “ It has been
proved by Dutrochet, that the organs which effect the ascent
of the sap in plants during the spring are the terminal parts of
the root ; that the whole force by which the sap is impelled up-
wards is a vis a tergo exerted in the roots. That the attraction
of the upper part of the stem is not the cause of ascent was
proven by the stem of a vine, cut by Dutrochet at 6 ft. from
the ground, continuing to pour forth sap uninterruptedly. That
it did not reside in the stem was proven by the flow at the

00 4

564 va Comparative Physiology.

upper part of the stem ceasing the moment it was cut by the
ground; while the portion of the root im the ground still con-
tinued to pour forth sap, though successively cut after clearmg
away the soil, till the terminal parts of the root were reached,
thus showing the seat of the constant absorption of the sap,
necessitating the ascent, to be there. The ascent by the
central vessels of the fibre was shown by a cut radicle placed mm
liquid, with the conical point immersed, being found, by the aid
of a lens, to have its cut surface covered with moisture, which
issued first from the central part. Agardh attributes the ascent
of the sap to a polarising action of the roots and leaves, by
virtue of which roots attract and leaves exhale, like the oppo-
site poles of a magnet.” To give the propelling power, how-
ever, the name of a vis a tergo is no definition. If the polarity
produced by currents of electricity were generally admitted, or
had rested on proof by experiment, not on assumption, then we
would have had a force from behind capable of definition. The
endosmose power is at present received as the main agent in
absorption. Coupled with this, we have the opinions of De-
Candolle, Knight, and others, who supposed the propellent power
principally a vital action produced by the contractility of the
tissue. On these principles, the phenomenon of endosmose
should be greatly assisted by the exhalation from the leaves, as
it was found by the experiments of Hales to be; and, though in
the above experiments of Dutrochet the vine was found to pour
forth sap for a time after being cut, it could only arise from the
peculiar force of the circulation in that plant (which is described
in the Library of Useful Knowledge as having been sometimes
found to support a column of mercury 38 in. high), and could
only continue so long as the descending sap had power to thicken
the ascending fluid sufficiently to produce endosmose. Had the
leaves been on the stem, the quantity absorbed, and, of course,
the propellent force, would have been found greater. Had the
lower end of the cut stem been immersed in fluid, it would
have continued for a time to issue at the upper end as before ;
and, had the spongioles been removed from the water of the
soil, the phenomenon of circulation would probably have ceased
altogether, showing the absence of any vis a tergo.

In very soft herbaceous plants, the cut ends of stems and
under surfaces of leaves are found to carry on growth for a
considerable time, and some succulent plants, as Ficus elastica,
which do not require much water, are found to thrive nearly
as well with the roots out of the soil as in it, provided the
atmosphere is moist; all these point out the general spread of the
function of absorption, produced wherever the tissue is soft and
circumstances render it necessary. For plants in general, how-
ever, wherever a special apparatus of roots is provided, their

Comparative Physiology. 565

being deposited in the earth is found essential to produce per-
fect growth: the hyacinths grown in glasses are never found
to have the same luxuriance nor produce new roots in the same
perfection as those grown in the soil. The flagging of foliage
so perceptible in warm sultry weather has been generally
ascribed to increased exhalation, and has been found to cease
when the air gets suffused with moisture. By some it has been
reterred to electricity, as a main cause; and, as the same moisture
which assists absorption also conducts off electricity, it may
be difficult to say how far the opinion is right. The stomata
are allowed to be the breathing-pores for the inhalation and
exhalation of gaseous substances; the exhalation of water is also

coo)
confined to the same organ, at least tothe under surface of the

ro)

leaf, where they generally reside. As an illustration of change
of function, it is probable that when absorption is insufficiently
performed from the want of roots, or circumstances prevent
their efficiency, the stomata, when placed in contact with mois-
ture, perform the office of absorbents also. In such succulent
stems as Cacti this is probably a normal function which they
perform constantly, and the refreshing dews of the evening are
probably introduced principally through their instrumentality
in all.

The next section, on Digestion and Absorption in Animals, is
very interesting; indeed, the sections devoted to animals are in
all the functions the most interesting, from the complexity of
the function as it becomes more specialised; but the intention
of the present essay being only to introduce as much of animal
physiology as will serve to illustrate that of vegetables, this will
be found sufficiently done in the extracts from the functions
considered generally. For those who wish to make themselves
masters of the details, and to have more than an outline of the
subject, which is all that can be done in an essay, the book itselt
will be indispensable.

In Chap. VI., On the Circulation of the Nutritive Fluid
generally considered, he remarks: ‘‘ In beings of the most
simple organisation, where the materials of the tissues are sup-
plied throughout the whole surface by the constant permeation
of external nutriment, no transmission of fluid from one portion
of the system to another seems necessary; and accordingly we
find no evidence of it, either in any structure set apart, or
in any visible motion of the fluid. In more complex organ-
isms, however, where a small part only of the surface is
appropriated to absorption, it becomes necessary that means
should be provided of conveying to distant parts the nutri-
ment they require. This is effected by the circulation of the
fluid absorbed through vessels and passages adapted to that
purpose, and its developement is proportional to the limitation

566 Comparative Physiology.

of the absorbing system. Besides the conveyance of the nutri-
ent fluid to the remoter parts of the system, the crude aliment
must be exposed to the influence of the air before becoming fit
for its ultimate purpose, and the fluid once passed through the
tissues must undergo a similar process to restore it to its proper
condition. This process, respiration, requires the circulating
fluid to pass through certain organs during some part of its
transit, which bring it into relation with the atmosphere. The
uninterrupted performance of this function is therefore necessary
to the continuance of life, since the nutrition of the tissues de-
pends wholly on the materials thus supplied; and the constant
stimulus of the vital fluid is necessary to excite them to the
performance of their appropriate actions.”

Dr. Carpenter has adopted the opinion that the ascent of the
sap is by the woody fibre and dotted ducts (vasiform tissue)
of the alburnum. DeCandolle and others, however, are of
opinion that it passes through the intercellulary passages of
the cellular matter around the fibre and ducts, that the cells
separate to allow of the passage (the fluid not passing through
them as imagined by some) and again close when it has passed,

acting like the valves of the veins in animals, and assisting in.

the ascent. The sap, on examination, has sometimes, especially
during the greatest ascent in spring, been found in the ducts;
but this may have arisen from the wound made, or from the
excess of sap at peculiar periods. They are generally found to
contain air; and, like other modifications of spiral vessels, this
is probably their destined function. Changes are supposed to
take place and continue in the sap so soon as it enters the plant ;
and though these may be partly produced by the vital nature of
the membranes it passes, or of the descending sap it is mixed with,
they are likely to be more promoted by aeration than any thing
else, and the sap probably passes principally along the ducts for
that purpose. Like insects, plants are pierced with air-vessels in
all directions, in the leaves, flowers, and young shoots ; the spiral
vessels communicating with the stomata perform the function
of aeration in its most perfect form, which is by permeation in
plants, the spiral vessels being closed at the ends, not in a con-
tinuous tube like the trachee of insects. The stomata are
always connected with vessels; some say their number is de-
termined by them. In exogenous trees the function is pro-
bably continued through the whole trunk by the dotted ducts,
which, it is likely, serve the same purpose as the spiral vessels
interspersed through the wood of endogenous trees. It must
be evident that the spiral vessels interspersed through the
trunks of the latter are intended for the purpose of aeration ;
the wood is also more sparingly furnished with vasiform tissue,
the whole bundle of vessels being by many considered as ducts.

b 3

Z ;
is

Tt is not likely that the more perfect exogenous stem would
be without an aerating apparatus also ; and the dotted ducts,
from their great abundance and being more open at the ends,
are probably the vessels destined for that purpose. They have
been reckoned cellular, not vascular, by some, though others con-
sider them vascular; but it is not easy to point out the limit
between cells and vessels, and their lengthened form and dotted
sides seem to indicate a vascular nature. When they are
wanting, as in pines, their place is probably supplied by the
large glandular tubes of the woody fibre. The apparent neces-
sity also for an apparatus of the kind would seem to point out
their office. The necessity of oxygen to stimulate the vital
fluid, though not so great in plants as in animals, is yet found
to be indispensable, no plant thriving unless both the air
and water of the soil contain it; stagnant air and stagnant
water being injurious to both leaves and roots. Other gases are
probably introduced by the same means. In the higher animals,
the aeration being confined to the lungs, there is more necessity
for the fluids being returned, and a greater circulating power is
required. In plants, where the vital force is principally confined ©
te the young shoots, the aerating system is more perfect there ;
but, being perforated like imsects with air-vessels which aerate
through the whole extent of the young tissue, the sap circula-
ting through the nutrient vessels is not returned again in such
quantity to the leaves as the blood to the lungs. Through-
out the whole circulation, however, there is a mixture of de-
scending and ascending sap. ‘The circulation in insects is also
so feeble that it was at one time denied to exist.

On Circulation in Vegetables, he says: —“ In the lower alge,
entirely cellular in their structure, there appears so little com-
munication between the parts, that if a portion be suspended
out of the water it will die, while the portion immersed con-
tinues to live. Among lichens or wherever there is an approach
to a stem, the cellules are found to elongate. In mushrooms
the nutriment received by the radical fibres at the base of the
stem is transmitted by its elongated cells, and probably by the
intercellulary spaces, to the expansion on its summit, where it is
diffused in every direction. In the classes where a complete
stem is developed with radical fibres and veined leaves, the
cellular tissue of the stem and veins of the leaves is elongated
so as to resemble fibro-vascular tissue; and there can be no
doubt the circulation is through this channel, as stomata have
lately been found on them. It appears that where there is no
tendency to prolongation in a particular direction, the round
vesicles of cellular plants transmit fluid with equal readiness
towards all sides; but, wherever the function of absorption
begins to be restricted to part of the surface, there is a tendency

Comparative Physiology. 567

568 Comparative Physiology.

to elongation of the cells in the direction m which fluid is con-
veyed.

“In Phanerogamia, the annual layer consists of dotted ducts
and woody fibre, mixed with cellular tissue; the vessels at the
inner side of the ring, and the fibres external. In long slender
stems requiring rapid circulation, as the vine, and in dense stems,
as oak, mahogany, &c., which do not transmit so readily, the
vessels are largest in diameter. In the bark the cellular matter
predominates over the fibro-vascular; there are also more in-
tercellular spaces or passages than in the stem, as well as those
branching and anastomosing tubes, which appear destined to the
conveyance of elaborated sap, termed daticiferous vessels. The
footstalk of each leaf is connected with the wood and bark, the
upper stratum of vessels in the leaf and stalk being connected
with the wood, and the inferior with the bark. These surfaces
remain distinct while the leaf continues, their functions being
importantly different.

‘“¢ The course taken by the sap is the following. The fluid ab-
sorbed by the roots is conveyed upwards through the stem, by
the woody fibre and ducts of the alburnum, to the upper surface
of the leaf. Much of the watery portion is then exhaled, and
an interchange of gaseous ingredients takes place with the at-
mosphere, by which a large quantity of carbon is added. The
fluid transmitted along the inferior stratum of vessels to the
bark contains the peculiar secretions of the plant, and is adapted
to supply the demands of its nutritive functions. This fluid,
now termed elaborated sap, proper juice, or latex, descends
through the cellular tissue and intercellular passages of the
bark, furnishing the materials of the new layers which are being
added to the alburnum and inner bark; and a portion is carried
to the interior of the stem by the medullary rays. Very little
reaches the roots, and none, unless the small quantity which
mixes with the ascending sap, is again sent through the system.

“The movement of the elaborated sap in its proper vessels
has recently been made the subject of much careful observation.
Schultz, who first noticed it in plants with milky juices, thought
it peculiar to them; but there is now good reason to believe
that it is common to all vascular plants. The channels are not
_ straight tubes like the ducts in which the sap ascends, but of
irregular shape, slender, and inosculate freely with one another
like the capillaries of animals. They are arranged like the net-
work of passages in many of the lower animals, as Plandarie,
which have no central organ of impulsion. The movement had
been termed cyclosis, to distmguish it from the rotatory nu-
tritive movement observed in single cells. It may be observed
im thin shces of the bark under the microscope, the stipules of
Ficus eldstica, the leaves and valves of the fruit of Cheliddnium

vate

e

Comparative Physiology. 569

majus, or the interior sepals of Calystégia sépium. It seems
to take place in all directions, the currents often contrariwise in
contiguous vessels. Sometimes one of the currents oscillates and
stops, and either the same is recommenced or a new current in
the same direction. It is owing to this variety in the course of
the streams, that, if a stem containing milky juice be cut across
in two places, the latter will flow out from both ends of the
piece so isolated ; and, as the same takes place in species which
have a transparent proper juice, it is reasonable to infer that a
similar circulation takes place in them.

“ The cause of the ascent of the sap has long been disputed,
some attributing it to mechanical, and others to vital inex-
plicable, influences. ‘The endosmose of the roots is a partial,
but not the entire, cause of the ascent, since it only continues
provided the functions of the leaves occasion a demand for it.
The upward flow of sap in the spring begins near the buds, and
may be progressively observed to extend to the branches, trunk,
and roots, the latter not commencing their action until the su-
perincumbent column has been removed. The demand for
fluid occasioned by the vital processes of the leaves is the cause
of the ascent, the propulsive power of the roots raising it to the
power of that influence. The cause of the descent cannot be
distinctly ascertained ; it has been supposed partly due to gravity,
but, though affected by it, cannot depend on it, as it takes place
in pendent branches and bent stems. It is assisted also by vi-
brations of the wind. The descending may be called vital cir-
culation to distinguish it from the ascending movement of crude
sap. It is quite certain that it is independent of any contraction
of vessels, and that it is closely connected with the activity of
the nutritive principles. ‘The analogy of the cyclosis of Schultz
with the capillary circulation of animals has been already noticed ;
the latex is most abundant in parts in progress of developement,
and the movement is much influenced by temperature. The
cause of the movement appears to be a new set of attractions
and repulsions, created between the particles of the fluid and the
walls of the vessels through which they move, by the changes to
which both are subjected in the process of nutrition. The
obvious independence of the cyclosis on any thing like a central
organ of impulsion supports the belief that the capillary circu-
lation is maintained in the lower animals, and modified in the
higher, by influences originating in itself, and is never entirely
dependent on the action of the heart.

In the embryo the absorption takes place through the whole
surface ; there is no transmission of fluid, nor any vascular struc-
ture ; and it is therefore on a level, as to circulation, with the
simplest cellular tribes. It is not until the true leaves are ex-
panded that we find a distinct formation of woody or vascular

570 Comparative Physiology.

structure. It is very interesting to remark that the ducts of
young plants often present the appearance of those of ferns,
having the spiral fibre disposed within them, and afterwards
are converted into dotted ducts; showing that these are often
formed upon the type of a spiral vessel, and reconciling the
conflicting accounts of some who maintain they are of vascular,
and others that they are of cellular, structure.”

DeCandolle, in his Vegetable Physiology, says some con-
sider life or excitability to be diffused through the organs, cells,
and vessels; many that it exists in the vessels only; but he
himself is of opinion that it exists principally, if not wholly, in
the cells. Life can be carried on without vessels, while it is
never done without cells. It is now found, he says, that the
vessels, once supposed contractile and to carry sap, convey air
only; and that in most cases the sap ascends by the intercel-
lulary ducts; the supposed peristaltic motion of the vessels of
Saussure being now ascribed to the cellular tissue ; it is,
therefore, the contractile force of the cells which causes the
motion of the sap. The contractile force in cells is, he says, a
modification of the systole and diastole of the heart, causing the
emission of milky fluids when the cells are irritated, and the emis-
sion of the same from both ends of a piece of the stem, Hum-
boldt having found it did not flow from pieces of the stem of
euphorbia killed by electricity. The vital vessels of Schultz,
which contain milky juices, are, he says, cells, and possess great
contractility. Also, when plants are killed by poisons, the cells
are found destroyed, while the vessels are often unhurt. The
dotted ducts he denominates elongated cellules ; but, as neither
these nor the tubes have valves, as in animal veins, they are
not fitted for the ascent of the sap; and as the sap would cir-
culate through the cells with difficulty, it must take place, he
says, through the intercellulary passages, principally along the
woody fibre. The cells contract to allow the sap to ascend, and
again expand and act as valves in maintaining what has as-
cended. M. Bischoff, he says, in experimenting with coloured
solutions, found the colour to infuse into the vessels when the
water was boiled, but, when the water contained air, the vessels
were filled with the air and did not admit the colour. Mr.
Knight was once of opinion that the ascent took place through
the alburnous tubes : but, having found them full of air alone
when the sap was rising briskly, he experimented by stopping
the alburnous tubes and vessels; and, still finding the coloured
infusions to rise, he concluded that the sap moved through the
cells of the cellular matter, but that, when a great flow of sap
takes place, it may permeate the walls of the tubes and vessels,
which, though usually containing air, appear thus filled with

Comparative Physiology. é 571

sap.* In extracting for examining also, the wounds may cause
them to be filled. A great assistant in the ascent, he thought, was
the alternate contraction and dilatation of the so-called medullary
rays, which he proved by experiments were formed from the
bark, when all connexion with the medulla was cut off by
hardening the alburnum. ‘The office of the true medulla he
conceived to be to assist in nourishing the young leaves on the
annual shoot. The action of the rays, which he called silver
grain, he thought greatly assisted by heat: when the top of a
vine inside was excited, the roots outside were found to empty
a bottle of water; while other roots with the stem outside,
and not excited, did not take up any water in a bottle attached
to them. In the Library of Useful Knowledge it is said: It
is not to be doubted the sap ascends by the woody tissue, but
whether through the tubes of woody fibre, or by the intercel-
lular passages, has not been, and probably cannot be, decided.
The dotted ducts and tubes appear to have fluid when the sap
is most rapidly flowing in spring, but it is equally certain that
the dotted ducts, at least, are empty afterwards. Are we to con-
clude that they perform one office in spring, and another after-
wards; or are the appearances of being filled with fluid in the
spring owing to the overflow of sap into them when cut
through? There is no satisfactory answer as to this yet on
record.” The endosmose power of absorption, assisted by eva-
poration, and descent of the thickened sap from the leaves, the
editor thinks the cause of ascent. Some who experimented
with coloured solutions found, if the water contained air, the
vessels contained no colour; if the water were boiled, the
colour entered the vessels, because there was no air to fill them
in the water.

The subject appears beset with difficulties. The course of
the ascent is by all allowed to be most rapid and powerful
along the bundles of tubes and ducts in the centre. DeCandolle
describes the woody fibre as intermixed and surrounded with
ducts; these bundles of fibro-vascular tissue are likely to
assist the ascent by capillary attraction, as the threads of the
wick of a candle or lamp feed the flame. Nature is not con-
fined to one power in its movements; there may be many as-
sistants in the ascent. The ascent of fluids around cells can
never be so direct or forcible as along longitudinal tubes lying
in one direction. The first appearance of the rise of sap is
always seen in the centre, in young spongioles and annual
shoots; and the principal direction, and greatest force of the

* The many experiments of Mr. Knight are so carefully executed, and so
simply and lucidly explained in his Physiological Papers lately published, that
they greatly assist in obtaining a practical knowledge of Vegetable Physiology.

572 Comparative Physiology.

ascent, are undoubtedly always along the fibro-vascular tissue,
though probably not confined to it. If the tubes and ducts
are air-vessels, which they appear to be, the stimulus of
oxygen is likely to assist in the ascent. The normal destination
of the woody fibre seems to be, like the bones of animals,
to strengthen and solidify the system; their toughness and
straitened diameter do not fit them well for absorption and
conveyance rapidly: that of the ducts seems to be air-vessels,
their vascular structure being generally allowed. Independently
of the experiments of Mr. Knight, which would seem decisively
to point out that they do not generally carry sap, the lengthened
tubes and ducts do not seem so capable of producing the
phenomena of endosmose as cells and intercellular passages.
If we confine the power of ascent to endosmose, and dismiss
capillary attraction, stimulus of air-vessels, and excitability,
the ascent would be most likely principally through the cellular
tissue, which does not appear to be the case. The contractile
_power of the tissue of vegetables, when excited by sap and
its motions, seems generally allowed, and is very probably a
main agent in the ascent, assisted by the endosmose power of
absorption, capillary attraction, and the stimulus of the air-
vessels. It is a vital power which probably exists in all
organised beings; it is concentrated in the higher animals, as
well as diffused; but diffused only in the lower animals and
plants, and will be greatly promoted by heat, as ascent of sap is
found to be. Larger air-vessels are probably needed in such
rapid circulation as that of the vine; and the impenetrable dense
system of the oak, &c.; and the larger glandular tubes of pines
seem to fit them as substitutes for ducts. The spaces found
between the cells, ducts, and fibres are likely to be the main
channel, if contractile force is the main agent; if endosmose is
the main power, then the cells and spaces adjoining the tubes
and ducts are most likely to be the channels, probably the cells
principally.

On the descent and circulation of the sap, Mr. Knight
thought the course of descent to be by the proper vessels through
the bark to the roots, giving off the elaborated sap in its descent
to form the new layers of alburnum and liber, and communi-
cating by the medullary processes and intercellulary passages
with the interior of the stem. Gravitation and vibration he
considered great helps to descent, as he found the free parts
of trees, partly tied for experiment, to thicken much more in
diameter than the parts kept from moving; but, as the elabo-
rated sap must proceed upwards in inverted cuttings and
pendent branches, he considered the principal force to reside in
the vital action of the proper vessels themselves. Mr. Niven says
that, in a stem of elm tree, excavated in the centre, and left

Comparative Physiology. 573

standing on pillars of bark and alburnous wood, for experiment,
he found the first appearance of descending sap im the pith and
the layers of wood near it, before it appeared in the bark, and
before the leaves were out. He also found it continue to de-
scend in other trees, though imperfectly, when the bark and
alburnum to a considerable depth had been removed for ex-
periment; thus showing that the whole wood partakes, though
imperfectly, in the descent; the trees getting sickly after this
experiment. Professor Thomson says both ascent and descent
are assisted by the contractile power of tissue, which is stimulated
to action by the sap. The proper vessels by which it descends
are, he says, intercellulary passages, and by these also it ascends.
Camphor, it is said, has been found to stimulate and increase
growth. DeCandolle thought the course of the descending sap
by the intercellular passages also; that it was by open vessels
he thought proved by the fact that the under side of horizontal
branches is always thickest, which would not be the case if by
closed vessels. Sap generally, he asserts, follows the course of
fibres either in ascent or descent most readily, though not
wholly or always. Contractility, he says, is the cause of all
internal force in the circulation of juices. Young incipient
ovules, by their contractile force, cause the sap to deviate and
be drawn to themselves. It is this also which opens and shuts
the valves of stomata, forcing the water out contrary to endos-
mose and capillarity. It forces the sap upwards in drooping pistils
and pendent branches. It is also this, he says, which causes the
circulation in the cells of Chara, &c., and in the laticiferous
vessels of Schultz, which resemble cells in texture. Miiller says
there is an attraction between the blood-vessels and blood in the
capillaries, as it sometimes causes accumulation, but does not
see how it can cause circulation; he does not take notice of re-
pulsion. The force of circulation in the capillaries he thinks
wholly dependent on the action of the heart. Circulation in
Diplozoon and other Entozoa, Ehrenberg discovered to be by
vibratory cilia, and the same in detached parts. In Plandariz,
Echinodérmata and other low animals, the motion of the blood
is, he says, effected by one or more contractile vessels. In
Annélida the contractile organs which give rise to the motion
of the blood are situated at different points of the circle; in
some the dorsal vessel acts the part of the systemic heart.
At page 42. he says, the motions of stamens, leaf-stalks, &c.,
have too much resemblance to the irritability of muscles, not
to be compared with it. At page 43., he says, plants possess
irritability, not sensibility, which is consciousness. In the
_ Library of Useful Knowledge it is said, different portions of
the elaborated sap probably descend by different directions,
partly by the fibres of the bark, and partly by the cellular por-
3d Ser. — 1843. XI. PEE

574. Comparative Physiology.

tion of it, and along the medullary rays, the force which carries
along this last not being defined.

Gravity and vibration are causes of descent that are obvious
and easily understood; vibration probably assists, as I before
noticed, in the removal of unsound particles, and may help in
this way to consolidate. Plants exposed to the action of
moderate winds are always more firm, healthy, and vigorous than
those confined. The assistance of gravitation in descent is seen.
in the fact that all branches have their vigour much lessened
when depressed artificially in traintmg, and the tendency of the
branch to start a shoot in the vertical direction from the
upper part of the bend. Most writers seem to acknowledge
the necessity of an internal vital foree; and the most ob-
vious and most generally referred to is that of a contractility,
similar, though of a lower kind, to the contractility of the heart.
Dr. Carpenter does not say how it is certain that it is imde-
pendent of contractility of vessels. DeCandolle says that,
though general through all the tissues, the contractile fone
principally resides in the cells. The force, which he describes,
of attraction between the nutriment and the walls of the vessels
or cells through which it moves, is generally allowed, but can
be no more explained than other vital actions. That of repul-
sion has not been so generally allowed; and how the same sub-
stances that once. attracted will repulse, cannot be understood
unless from some chemical changes giving rise to opposite states
of electricity. It is noticed that a current of electricity, con-
ducted along the laticiferous tubes, stops the circulation. The
power of contractility has been said to be elicited by electricity ;
and the two powers may be the same under different names. The
course of the downward flow seems most likely to be through the
intercellular passages, and most forcibly along the fibro-vascular
portion of the bark, and along the fibres and ducts of the lber,
as along those of the alburnum in ascending. Ié is highly pro-
bable also that networks of capillary vessels or tubes exist, and
may assist in carrying off waste as well as depositing. ‘The
oxygen of the air may be united to sufficient particles in the
young soft wooed, or the newly deposited layers of the old; and
they may be absorbed and carried off by vessels similar to the
laticiferous, but would require to be situated in, or connected
with, the alburnum as well as bark. The constant extrication
of carbonic acid from the stomata would seem to infer a neces-
sity for something of the kind; and the circumstance of unsound
portions being seldom found in healthy well-ripened young
wood, and being sometimes found partly to disappear from very
young shoots by the further growth of the same season, is also
favourable to the opinion. Tf shoots kept from moving were
found to give off less carbonic acid than those kept in a » yibra-

Comparative Physiology. 575

tory motion, it would tend to confirm this opinion. Old wood,
being comparatively inert, could have no share in such a process.

A great deal of action undoubtedly takes place in the leaf;
plants requiring to prepare organic compounds from their ele-
ments principally, or wholly, require greater chemical power to
assist organic action. From the similarity between organic action
and chemical, and from chemistry being able to imitate some
organic actions, it has been assumed by some that the whole
action taking place there is chemical; and it has been customary
to talk of the peculiar secretions as prepared there, and sent
down the channels of conveyance in a prepared state. It is
more likely, however, that, as in animals, the elaborated sap of
the plant, like the blood of the animal, contains only matter
capable of enabling the secreting and assimilating organs to
prepare their several products, each in its own way. ‘The
sap has not yet been analysed at its outset from the leaf, so as
to show whether it contains the peculiar secretions in a prepared
state, or only the proximate principles necessary to enable the
organs to perform their functions, which is more likely. The
action is also probably as much organical as chemical, though
it will be difficult to define between these; yet the chemical
power of light cannot separate carbonic acid, water, and ammonia
into their elements, without the organic action of the leaf, in the
same manner as it does by its assistance; and, though the leaf
cannot perform its action without the assistance of the light,
the latter may perhaps act greatly by stimulating the organic
action of the leaf, as well as by its chemical powers. ‘The full
intense white light of the sun is necessary to produce perfect
action; the blue rays are the most indispensable, showing the
chemical power resident in them to be the most necessary ; but
they must have organic assistance, and are most efficient when
combined with all the rays into the perfect sunbeam.

The laticiferous vessels cannot be the main channel of the
returning sap, as they do not contain fluids capable of supplying
the wants of the nutritive or assimilating organs. According
to the analysis given by Professor Thomson of the milky juices
( Vegetable Chemistry, p. 792, 793.), they abound mostly, be-
sides water 73 to 77 per cent, in fixed oils, resins, caoutchouc,
and cerin and myricin, the constituents of bees’ wax; all sub-
stances containing a superabundance of hydrogen, unfitting
them for assimilation, independently of their being in a state
requiring decomposition before becoming nutritive, for which
there is no apparent reason: of nitrogen, an indispensable
requisite, they contain only a trace. It is clear, therefore, that
the fluids circulating in the laticiferous vessels are unfit for the
general nutrition of the plant; and, as these have been deno-
minated latex and peculiar juices, that either of these terms

rpP 3

576. Comparative Physiology:

is improper and insufficient, when applied to mean the elabo-
rated sap, proper juice, or nutritive fluid of plants, which they
have too generally been. It is clear, also, if we adopt the idea,
that the nutritive fluids, capable of serving the general purposes
of the plant, circulate through such capillary vessels, then there
must be other similar vessels in these plants containing those
nutritive fluids, which may hereafter be found to be the case.
The nutritive fluid must contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
im something near the proportions required to form the system
in general; to which mucilage seems to be the nearest approxi-
mation of any of the organisable or proximate products. It
must also contain nitrogen, indispensable in the formation of all
new matter, besides being assimilated by many of the organs ;
this may be in the state of fibrin or gluten, so easily separated
from the vegetable juices, or in the state of proteine, the basis
of fibrin or gluten, albumen, and caseme, which differ only in
their saline earthy ingredients. The nutritive fluid must also
contain the saline earthy ingredients required for so many of
the organic products. The cambium, the main product of the
elaborated sap, is principally composed of mucilage. The muci-
laginous juices have not been so much submitted to analysis as
the milky juices; but the analysis of mucilage of lintseed, given
Vegetable Chemistry, p. 674., shows their fitness for the purposes
of general nutrition. It contains, besides 7-11 per cent of ashes
of saline matter, the following proportions of organic, viz. : —

Carbon - - - 34°30
Hydrogen - - - 5°65
Oxygen = = = 52:78
Nitrogen - - = 20
100

The excess of hydrogen and oxygen above carbon is owing
to the mucilage containing 10 per cent of water, which is pro-
bably contained im tissue in a free state. Miiller says all the
animal tissues contain + of water in a free state, and, if this be
pressed out, they cannot live. Seeds also contain free water,
and, if this be dried up, they die. Water seems necessary to pre-
serve the capability of living in the tissue.

From juices of this description the general products of the
system might be formed; and if mucilaginous juices similar to
the above are found by subsequent observation to circulate
in masses of capillary vessels similar to the laticiferous, and in
sufficient quantity to furnish a channel for the general current,
we may then adopt the opinion that the general circulation
passes through vessels of this description. Hf not, we must resort
to the old opinion, that such products are peculiar secretions
circulating in peculiar vessels, and not the general channel of
circulation as supposed by Dr. Carpenter.

Besides the assistance of gravitation, vibration, contractility,

Comparative Physiology. 577

and attraction and repulsion, in the descent and course of the
elaborated sap down the bark and along the medullary rays,
and perhaps also in masses of smaller vessels, to furnish the
nutriment needed for the different parts of the system, the
power of endosmose is an assistant in the circulation, in such as
the bursting of anthers, capsules, &c., and generally wherever
thinner fluids are attracted to the more dense. If it is correct,
as stated, that endosmose often takes place from thicker to
thinner fluids, it may be found more general than supposed
through the circulation. If due to electricity, it may also be
found that the same electricity which produces the elective
affinity of the physical causes, may likewise be concerned, by
acting on the excitability of the membrane, in causing the much
greater power of endosmose through organised membrane, than
through porous inorganic septa, which is found to take place.

In Chap. VII, On Interstitial Absorption, he says: — “ The
circulating system not only serves to convey to the remoter
parts of the organism the materials required for the nutrition of
their tissues, but in the lower animals returns to the central
reservoir the portion which has not been so employed, and those
particles of the solid structure which, from tendency to decom-
pose or other causes, are unfit to be retained in it. In the
Vertebrata, which possess a special set of vessels for the ab-
sorption of chyle from the intestines, allowing the portion not
absorbed to pass on and be rejected, we find also a system of
tubes ramifying through every part, to which the function of
absorption seems more particularly delegated. The lymphatics,
as they are termed, are distributed through almost every tissue
in the body; they are especially abundant beneath the skin,
forming a close network so universally diffused, that, if success-
fully injected, it is scarcely possible to find a spot not traversed
by them. They commence, like the lacteals, without open ex-
tremities, deriving their contents by imbibition or endosmose
from the surrounding tissue; they unite into large trunks, and
by these the fluid taken up by the absorbent extremities is
conveyed to the principal veins. The cause of motion in the
lymphatics, besides the endosmose one of absorption, is probably
peristaltic, by which their fluids are propelled forward, the reflux
being prevented by the valves with which they are plentifully
supplied. The veins themselves, in many cases, participate in
the function of absorption more actively than the lymphatics.”
The lymph taken up in this way is said to be nearly identical
with the fluid portion of the blood, or serum, containing the
portion called serosity, supposed to consist partly of effete
particles, furnishing the matter excreted by the kidneys, &ec.
The waste of the system is supposed to be taken up by these
means and conyeyed into the circulation, where part of the car-

?

PP 3

578 Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and its Gardeners.

bon is oxidised and given off in respiration; part of the carbon
and hydrogen of the waste, and the non-azotised portions of the
food, being separated by the liver to form bile, which, after
assisting in forming the chyme into chyle, is partly excreted
with the matter of the food rejected (Liebig says all the waste
of the body and non-azotised parts of the food pass through the
liver), The nitrogen and saline earthy substances of the waste
are carried off and excreted by the kidneys. ‘These matters,
belonging to Animal Physiology, are foreign to the objects of
our present essay, were it not for the presumption they af-
ford, that something of the kind may yet be found to exist in

plants.
( To be continued. )

Art. II. Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and its Gardeners. By PETER
MACKENZIE,

(Continued from p. 416.)

In the explanatory introduction to the natural arrangement of
your Hortus Britannicus, you have given directions how gar-
deners may know the quantity of ground required in the for-
mation of arboretums or herbaceous grounds; and, after giving
directions how to find the square root of all the smaller squares
which would contain all the hardy herbaceous plants of a tribe
or order, you say that “every gardener knows, or ought to
know, how to modify this square to a parallelogram, a triangle,
or a circle, of the same capacity.” I believe that there are too
many gardeners deficient of much knowledge which they ought
to be in possession of; and, perhaps, among the various branches
of the tree of knowledge, that of practical geometry is not cul-
tivated to the extent which it ought to be. There are some to
be found who would have some difficulty in telling the number
of square feet or square yards that may be in their onion beds,
although they may be in squares or parallelograms. Perhaps
geometry was more studied by gardeners and foresters a hun-
dred and twenty years ago than it is at the present day. Although
many of the young men employed in gardens may have had a
tolerable education before they commenced working, there are
few of them who have studied the first properties of the circle ; or,
a circle being given, to inscribe in it, or describe about it, an
equilateral triangle, a square, a regular pentagon, or a regular
pentadecagon : neither have they studied the many useful things
that are performed by means of the triangle, or made themselves
familiar with the different measuring units employed in the
various subjects of measurement. Perhaps it may be of little
use to them to be acquainted with the measuring unit of the
astronomer, or the square mile of the geographer ; but it will

Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and its Gardeners. 579

be of great use to them to be acquainted with the measuring
units of the land-surveyor, the carpenter, the glazier, the mason,
and bricklayer. It sometimes happens that gardeners are re-
quired to measure artificer’s work, and they sometimes look
awkward enough when they cannot do it. It was not a bad
thing in some of the old works on gardening, to have a chapter
giving directions how to measure, divide, and lay out land: for,
although there are many books on the subject to be had, yet
many journeymen gardeners may be without them; and, though
it may be a simple thing to measure a square, a parallelogram,
or a triangle, or to raise a perpendicular, or draw an oval figure,
yet there are not a few who may be looked upon as good gar-
deners, who would perhaps find some difficulty in doing them
properly, when it was required of them to do them. I speak
from what I have seen in royal gardens and downwards. There

are few gardeners but have some works on gardening, and, if a

few simple directions were given how to measure geometrical
figures in some part of the book, it might assist them greatly at
times. But, towards acquiring a knowledge of the superficial or
solid contents of bodies, nothing is equal to the doing of the
thing ; an hour’s practice is worth many hours’ study with books.

The gardener of Dinbur Castle was well aware of the ad-
vantages that were gained by active perseverance after know-
ledge, and he wished to impart to his men such information as
would be useful to them; he was destitute of that narrow-minded
imbecility which will not communicate with other minds which
are reckoned beneath him; he believed that the more useful
knowledge was disseminated, the probability would be greater
of having physical obscurities dispelled, and, though one failed in
accomplishing the object of his desire, others might be successful
in discovering some of the inexhaustible fountains of knowledge
which a bountiful Creator has placed within the reach of finite
minds to open.

One evening in summer when the labours of the day were
past, when the lads in the bothy had partaken of their evening
meal, and had rested themselves a little, their master came among
them with his measuring-chain and cross-staff, picket staves,
and arrows. He soon told them that the object of his visit was
to give them a few lessons in land-surveying, and, though it was
upon their own time, he hoped they would give him their attend-
ance for a few hours, for he trusted it would be to their own
advantage in after life, when they would have charges of their
own. All showed their readiness to attend their master. They
went into a pasture field, where they were to commence opera-
tions, and, although some of them knew a little of land-surveying
already, yet he thought it would be as weil to give them a few
instructions relating to the geometrical figures in which pieces

PP 4

580 Dinbur Castle, its Gardens and its Gardeners.

of land are commonly found to be; so, instead of giving his
lessons on paper, which is a common practice, he marked off
with his picket staves a large square, and showed that by mul-
tiplying the base side by the perpendicular, the number of
square links, or feet, or yards, would be found. After Bauldy
had understood how to find the contents of a square, he next
formed a parallelogram, and showed that the area is found by
multiplying the length by the breadth. He next formed the
rhombus, and directed them to multiply the base by the perpen-
dicular height, and they would find the area: he also showed
them the difference between the rhombus, and the rhomboides
from the rhombus. He proceeded to the triangle, and showed
them various ways of finding the area; first, by multiplying the
base by a perpendicular demitted from the opposite angle, half
the product is the area; or, by multiplying the base by half of
the perpendicular, or the perpendicular by half of the base. After
the triangle he formed the trapezium, and, dividing it into two
equal parts by a diagonal line, and demitting perpendiculars from
the other angles and multiplying the diagonals by the sum of the
two perpendiculars, showed them that half the product is equal
to the area. Next in order he described the trapezoid, the
regular polygon, the circle, circular ring, segment of a circle,
and the ellipse.

Having gone over the various forms in which the different
parts of our earth are commonly found, or a combination of
them, he found that he had not time to measure the fields which
he intended. The sun was descending towards the highland
mountains, and the long shadows of the evening were gathering
around them, so it was agreed that they should draw their opera-
tions to a close, and resume them again atan early opportunity.

When they were leaving the field the attention of Bauldy
appeared to be fixed upon a beautiful Lombardy poplar that
was growing near the place where they were. At last he said,
«Weel master, I hae aften wondered what the hight o’ that tree
may be, but I dinna ken how to reach the top ot.” —“ But you
may soon know the height of it, Archibald, without going to
the top of it,” replied his master. ‘ The sun has not yet set,
and the shadow of the tree is very distinctly seen upon the field,
so that the leneth of the tree’s shadow may be easily known.”
He knew the length of one of his picket staves, and measured
its shadow and also the shadow of the Lombardy poplar; he
applied the rule of three to the three given numbers, and in a
few minutes he told Bauldy that the height of the tree was
about 70 ft. Bauldy thanked his master for the information he
had given him, and added that it was “a braw thing to hae
lair, for it made them that made a gude use o’t like a different
set o’ folk althegither.” — “I am glad to see you, Archibald,”
said the master, “so desirous to obtain useful acquirements, and

Horticultural Tour from Lowther Castle to Exeter. 581

I hope the instructions you receive in the bothy will not be lost
upon you.” — “My mind,” replied Bauldy, “when I came to
wark with you, was something like the wild brier that ye
braught frae the wood, that braught forth naething but single
roses and dog-hips ; but ye planted it in the garden, and ye put
bud after bud upon it, and noo it bears beautiful roses o’ the
Aurora, and the Elysian, and Isabella, and Amaranth, and Rosi-
nella: and every lesson that I receive I try to bud it in my
mind, and few o’ them dies; and when I get the name of a
plant frae Sandy, or a lesson in arithmetic frae Colin, or the
name o’ a stane or an insect frae Wattie, J try to mind them a’,
and I pay them back sometimes wi’ a sang, or, when they hae laid
aside their books for a night, I give them a tune on the fiddle,
and I am glad when I can tell them something about music that
they dinna ken.” — “ Well, well, get on with your knowledge
and your friendships,” said their master, “and may ye all be
happy! So good night with you all; I hope we shall soon meet
again.”
West Plean, Sept. 14. 1843.
( To be continued. )

Art. III. Notes made during a Horticultural Tour from Lowther
Castle in Cumberland to Exeter in Devonshire. By J. CruicK-
SHANK, Gardener at Lowther Castle.

AFTER calling at some of the small places at Sidmouth and its
neighbourhood, where there is little else to be seen besides the
beautiful scenery from the cliffs, and finding my time limited,
I called to see the nurseries at Exeter, so fully described by
you in p. 35. to 38. These far surpass what I expected them
to be: I cannot pretend to give a description after you. I
found the grounds in the very best order, and the plants in the
best health. The propagating-house of Messrs. Veitch and
Son is the finest thing of its kind I have ever seen. ‘To these
gentlemen I am indebted for their kind attention.

At the request of my kind employer, who wished me to see
Tidworth (Thomas Ashton Smith, Esq.), I took the coach from
Exeter to Andover, and I could not help remarking to the
guard that it was certainly coaching in the olden time. We
left Exeter at 5 o’clock in the afternoon, and reached Andover
at a quarter to 7 the next morning. The coachmen and guards in
that part of the country seem never to have heard of Croals’s
(of Edinburgh) patent drag, which does not lose time in put-
ting on the skid. I was quite delighted with the country,
with its beautiful little hills and dales, and was sorry when
night came on. I could not but think, when we got near
Salisbury, what a contrast between the small fields of the

582 Notes made during a Horticultural Tour

Devonshire farmers, looking like a piece of patchwork, and
those of the Wiltshire and Hampshire farmers. The hedges in
Devonshire are the worst I have ever seen; and in their im-
plements of labour, waggons, carts, wheelbarrows, spades, horse-
harness, ploughs, &c., they are many years behind us. How a
ploughman from the North would be surprised to see them
struggling to get along with three, or sometimes four, horses;
so badly managed, that it appeared to me as though the horses
pulled in turn: as much as to say, I pulled last time, you must
pull this! I saw, when walking with Mr. Barnes in the neigh-
bourhood of Bicton, four heavy oxen yoked to one plough in
the most primitive way I know, with wooden hames over their
necks ; the two leaders pulling by a chain. As might be
expected, when turning at the ends, they got their feet over the
chain; and then, of course, they came to a stand-still, until the
assistant boy or man got it put to rights again. JI found it was
of no use to try to persuade the person in charge of the plough
that two of his oxen were quite equal to do the work better
and quicker, in that beautiful sandy loam, than four.

Tidworth. — The house is situated in a bottom. It is a plain
substantial-looking building; and would, I think, have looked
much better had it been built on the rising ground behind it.
There is a good architectural conservatory joined to the house.

The plants are very well grown, very clean, and there was a
very good show of flowers, of the commoner sorts of green-house
plants.

There is an extensive flower-garden, in the very highest order
and keeping ; well filled with flowers, and much enlarged since
Mr. Saunders has been there: if I recollect properly, it has
been relaid out by him.

The kitchen-garden is large, and is kept in excellent order.
There are five vineries with excellent grapes. One house is
entirely planted with muscats of different sorts. ‘The vines
are planted in a pit in the middle of the house; and, for the
time they have been planted, I never saw vines doing better,
both as regards a beautiful crop of grapes and the wood for
another season, which is both short-jointed and vigorous, and
bids well for a splendid crop next year. The vineries are each
AO ft. long by 15 ft. wide. There are two good pine stoves
AO ft. long by 15 ft. wide. The pines are well grown. ‘There
were some very good fruit at the time I visited the place.
Mr. Smith told me himself that he had three pines on his table
at one time, last June, that weighed two stone. He walked
round the gardens with me himself, and through all his houses,
stables, &c. He seems to take a great delight in his forcing-
houses, stables, and dog-kennels.

There are also two peach houses 40 ft. long by 15 ft. wide.
The peaches were nearly over when I was there; but, from the

from Lowther Castle to Exeter. 583

state of the trees, they appeared to have borne an excellent
crop.

athere is a house built here, of the most extraordinary dimen-
sions, for the purpose for which it was built, that I have ever
seen. It covers a quarter of an acre and eight square yards of
sround; 303 ft. long by 23 ft. wide, with a span roof, glass
ends, and front sashes nearly to the level of the ground, and it
contains 14,978 ft. of glass. There are large folding-doors at
each end. There is a gravel walk down the centre of this
house, wide enough for a lady to drive her carriage and turn
round at each end of the house without going out of it, or in
the centre, as may be convenient. The house is heated by hot
water, and fitted up with stages sloping from each side; a
trelliswork is fitted up all round the front and ends, and an
immense quantity of peas and strawberries are forced in it with
the greatest success; as Mr. Smith told me he had green peas
every day, if he wanted them, from the middle of December
until they came in out of doors, and strawberries from the
middle of February until they were fit to gather in the open
air. ‘The stages are filled with small greenhouse plants, gera-
niums, cinerarias, bulbs, and other winter-flowering plants ;
and below the stages are grown seakale, rhubarb, asparagus,
and salads of various descriptions, which afford an ample sup-
ply for the table. There are also trees budded at certain heights
to suit the stages, such as cherries, plums, and apricots, the
trees being planted in a border below the stage; but, as the roof
is a fixture, they found they could not give the trees that rest
which nature requires. I was glad to hear from Mr. Saunders
that Mr. Smith is building a house 90 ft. long for forcing cher-
ries, &c.; and that all the trees are about to be removed from
the large house, which, in my opinion, will much improve it.

The stables, as might be expected, are good ; each horse has an
enclosed box by himself, as Mr. Smith allows none to be tied up.

There is also here one of the largest rides I have ever seen,
for exercising horses in bad weather, covered in and kept in first:
rate order.

The dog-kennels are good, and as clean as any place of the
kind can be. ‘The water which supplies these kennels, the
house, and the gardens, is raised from a deep well on the top
of the hill, by an engine of several horse-power. While look-
ing at the kennels, I could not but contrast in my mind the
splendid lodgings appropriated for Mr. Smith’s dogs, and the
miserable damp hovels, in back sheds, generally set apart for
under-gardeners. But, in my opinion, the gardeners are much
more to blame than their employers. I speak from experience
when I state, I never had any difficulty in the situations I have
held, on having the thing properly explained to my em-
ployers, of having proper places built for that purpose. When

584 Descriptive Notice of some of

Icame here, between five and six years ago, His Lordship was
kind enough to allow me to build proper places for the young
men here, and at Whitehaven. Men in such situations have a
right to expect protection and comfort from their masters. I
am glad when I see men ina clean place, comfortable and happy;
it is a great inducement to them to stop at home and study
their business. I have been induced to say this much, having
suffered from having to live in such miserable places as I never
wish to see any young man in.

I was glad to see the spirited manner in which every depart-
ment is carried on at Tidworth: there seems to be no want of
help there. — Lowther Castle Gardens, Oct. 16. 1843.

Art. IV. Descriptive Notice of some of the Gardens and Scenery
around Stirling, the Strath of Monteith, and Strathearn. By
JAMES DRuMMmonpD, Gardener at Blair-Drummond.

INTRODUCTION.

Wuen Mrs. Loudon and you were in Scotland, in 1841, you
visited some of the noblemen’s and gentlemen’s seats in the
neighbourhood of Stirling; but, as your time was very limited,
and the weather very wet, you regretted that you could not do
justice to your tour in that quarter, as you had to pass some of the
places you wished to see, and others you only got a glimpse of.

I believe, some time ago, I promised to give you a descriptive
notice of the gardens at Keir, the seat of Archibald Stirling, Esq.,
of which you gave but a very short notice in your interesting
periodical, the Gardener's Magazine.

As there are a great many fine gardens and forest trees
around Stirling, the Strath of Monteith, and Strathearn, I in-
tend (if time and health permit me) to give you a short de-
scription of some of them, in the following order.

Keir Gardens, new pinetum, park, and some of the large trees.
Kippinross Garden, a drawing of the brass plate on the large
sycamore, measurement of other large trees, &c. Dunblane, the
old cathedral, and other buildings. Holm Hill, Anchorfield, and
Mr. Barty’s select collection of plants. Returning down the
left bank of the river Allan, by Kippenret Glen, 1 shall take
notice of some rare plants to be found there, then pass on to
Airthrey mineral wells. From the wells to Stirling Castle hill,
taking notice of some of the plants to be found on the hill;
leaving the Messrs. Drummond’s nursery, and some of the gar-
dens to the south-east of Stirling, till another opportunity.

Leaving the Castle hill, I will proceed south-west along the
Touch and Campsie hills, having in this route, between the hills
on the left hand and the river Forth on the right, Touch House,
the fine cedar of Lebanon, Oriental plane, and other trees; Gar-

the Gardens and Scenery around Stirling. 585

eunnock House, garden, and large Spanish chestnut trees;
Leckie House, garden, and fine Scotch fir trees; Bouquhan
House, garden, and trees; Kippin village and churchyard ;
Arngomery House, the large yew tree and others.

After passing Arngomery, I will cross to the north side’ of
the Forth by Cardros Bridge, take notice of the fine park, large
trees, and beautiful grassy lawns and gardens at Cardros House;
port of Monteith; the Loch islands, and religious building, now
in ruins, also the fine large old Spanish chestnut, and other
trees in the islands: then turning eastward, between the Forth
on the right and the Teith on the left, take notice of the garden,
the ponds, the fine park, and large transplanted trees at Red-
nock House; Lendrick Castle and parks; Deanston garden, and
fine collection of showy border plants, and new greenhouse.

Taking a very short notice of Blair-Drummond, as you have
been kind enough to notice it particularly in a previous Number
of the Gardener's Magazine, I will cross the river Teith by the
old bridge near Doune, and notice the village, the old castle,
Cottage Garden Society, and the garden at Newton, and fine
old trees in the vicinity of the old castle of Doune; Kilbride
Castle, a little to the north-east, and Doune Lodge, a little to
the north-west of Doune. I will then proceed westward, along
the north bank of the Teith to Cambusmore, the Gart, and the
village of Callander; then, entering the pass of Lenne, up Loch
Lubnaig side, giving the girts of some fine large Scotch firs
growing at the top of the loch. Then passing through Strath-
tyre to Loch Earn head, give a description of some of the
scenery on both sides of the loch; HEdinample Castle; Ard-
vorlich House and large thorn tree; St. Fillan’s, at the foot of
the loch; the scenery at Dundum, south side of the Earn;
Dunira House, gardens, and fine range of hothouses and melon
pits, on the north side of the Karn; Dalchonzie House and
little paradise of a garden, on the south side of the Earn; Abe-
ruchill Castle farther on, on the same side, with its straight,
wide, and extensive avenues of large old trees.

Crossing the Earn by the bridge of Ross, to Comrie, I will
give a short notice of that interesting village; Dunmore Hill, a
little above the village, with the stately column of solid granite,
erected in memory of Lord Melville, which surmounts it, and
the impetuous, roaring, mountain stream which falls into the
deep, dark, cauldron or horrible abyss which lurks among the
shagey rocks and coppice wood at its eastern base. Leaving
the village of Comrie, I will proceed to Lawers House, and
notice the garden, park, extensive avenues of stately trees, &c. ;
farther on, to Ochtentyre House, fine ponds, large trees, garden,
and large laurels. Crossing to the south side of the Karn, I will
give a short notice of Strowan House, &c. From Strowan House
to Crieff, on the north side of the Earn; from Crieff to Fern-

586 Classical Garden of the Mason School,

tower; Monzie, and the large larches; Culteque; Abercarney
House and gardens; Millearn House, with its gardens and
ereenhouses; Gask House, garden, and large Spanish chestnut
and other trees; Balgowan House, parks, and large cedar of
Lébanon; Methven Castle, garden, &c.; Lyendoch Cottage
garden ; scenery on the river Amond, Bessy Bell’s and Mary
Gray’s graves; Perth nurseries ; Hill of Kinnoul; Hill of Mon-
erieff; Moncrieff House and gardens; Duplin Castle, garden,
and large trees. After leaving Duplin, I will cross the Earn
by the bridge of Forteviot to Invermay; then along the south
side of the Earn to Dunerub; Auchterarder House; Strathallan
Castle; Culdees Castle, and Drummond Castle; from Drum-
mond Castle along the Crieff and Stirling road to Ardoch, and
then from Ardoch to Stirling, &c. &c.

This route will, of course, occupy a series of letters; but
having visited all the places above mentioned, and lived at,
and in the neighbourhood of, some of them, and having mea-
surements of a great many of the trees, and other notes re-
garding all or most of them, I shall, as the evenings are now
getting long, have ample leisure and opportunity to engage in
this delightful task. If you consider that my letters may be of
any benefit to any of your readers, and worthy of a place in the
Gardener's Magazine, their insertion will be ample compensation
for my labour. I will take notice of the habitats of some of the
most interesting of our Scottish plants as I go along. My
next, if well, will be a visit to Keir Gardens.

Blair-Drummond Gardens, by Doune, Oct. 19. 1843.

Art. V. A Classical Garden of the Mason School of Design, pre-
valent about the Middle of the last Century, exemplified in the Grounds
of Stoke Park, near Windsor, the Seat of John Penn, Esq. Com-
municated by Ropert Osporn.

[The following communication has been in our possession since 1833; see
our Vol. for that year, p. 529. We owe many apologies to Mr. Osborn for
not having before published it. We have not engraved the very beautifully
drawn map which accompanied the MS., because, to reduce it so as to come
within our page, would render it of little use. We consider the description
of great interest, as showing the style of laying out flower-gardens, and orna-
menting them with statues, busts, inscriptions, &c., so strongly approved of
by Mason the poet, and exemplified by him at Newnham-Courtnay, near
Oxford, between 1770 and 1780. The present possessor of Stoke Park is
Granville Penn, Esq., and under his direction the place has undergone some
alterations, which are decided improvements. At this time, 1843, it is in ex-
cellent keeping.

In compliance with your request, I send you a little plan of Stoke Park
(drawn by my son William), the seat of J. Penn, Esq., grandson of the
celebrated Wm. Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, and original proprietor
of that province ; but I am apprehensive that, being upon so small a scale, it
will be of little use to you.

exemplified in the Grounds of Stoke Park. 587

The park contains about 300 acres within the paling. It lies nearly due
north from Windsor, and is distant from it four miles. To render this park
what it is, the skill of artists of the first celebrity (Richmond, Brown, Repton,
Wyatt, &c. &c.,) has been called in to aid in beautifying and adorning, and
generally, it is allowed, with the happiest success ; the architectural struc-
tures, the artificial rivers, and sylvyans cenery, forming most picturesque and
pleasing combinations.

The house is a large modern building composed of Grecian and Roman
architecture, having four fronts. The south one, or garden front, commands
a magnificent view of Windsor Castle ; the forest, with St. Leonard’s on the
right, and the Surrey hills on the left. In this view (and the like may be said
of all the rest), the boundary of the park is perfectly concealed, and the
grouping of the trees so judiciously contrived, and made to blend so well with
the intermediate and distant country, as to give these grounds the effect of
indefinite extent.

The view from the east front (though not of that bold character as the
former ) is a much-admired vista, terminated by a swelling wood of dark pines
at a distance of three miles, called Black Park, belonging to R. Harvey, Esq.,
giving fine relief to the monument erected in memory of Gray, a handsome
stone sarcophagus on a lofty pedestal, with inscriptions in the panels of its
four sides. In three of these are quotations from his works, and in the fourth
the following memento : —

THIS MONUMENT,
IN HONOUR OF THOMAS GRAY,
WAS ERECTED A.D. 1799,
AMONG THE SCENES CELEBRATED BY THAT GREAT LYRIC AND ELEGIAC
POET.

HE DIED JULY 30. 1771,

AND LIES UNNOTICED IN THE CHURCHYARD ADJOINING,
UNDER THE TOMBSTONE ON WHICH HE PIOUSLY AND PATHETICALLY
RECORDED THE INTERMENT OF HIS AUNT
AND LAMENTED MOTHER.

This spot is much resorted to by persons of taste, both on account of its
beauty, as well as to contemplate those scenes which are supposed to have
inspired the muse of Gray to compose some of the most beautiful of his
poems. From here may be seen, at the east end of the church, under the
window, the gravestone under which the mortal remains of the poet are “ for
ever laid.” The picturesque chimneys, and a remnant of the old manor-
house, the subject of Gray’s “ Long Story,” is also seen a little to the right cf
the church. When seated on the plinth of this monument, and looking west-
ward, the eye takes in, in beautiful succession, over beds of flowers in the
foreground, the noble mansion at a distance; fine forms and masses of wood,
producing great variety of light and shade ; the church and churchyard; at a
distance, in an opening in the park, a lofty column supporting the statue of
Sir E. Coke; and the picturesque old mansion ; the harmonising effect of these
objects composing a finished picture. But to go back to the east front of the
house; the bridge is a great ornament to this view, both from its position and
its form, which is a small segment of a circle, with balustrades and three
semicircular arches, the whole built of stone. The spire of the church, too,
is an important object in this view, seen rising out of a mass of wood that
“ crowns the watery glade.”

The north front, being that of approach, has but little to recommend it to
notice, the whole space on this side the pales being very flat; and, although it
is well wooded, yet there are a heaviness and formal squareness in the outlines
ill adapted, in my opinion, to gratify the eye accustomed to view these things
with taste and discrimination. The monotony, however, is somewhat relieved
by a high wood at a distance, and also by the lofty Doric column (before no-
ticed) supporting the statue of that great lawyer Sir Edward Coke, who died,
at an advanced age, in the old manor-house.

588 Classical Garden of the Mason School.

Mr. Penn, some years ago, had designed to attempt an improvement in this
part of his grounds, by excavating and raising mounds of earth, making breaks
into the woods, &c. &c.; but the uncertainty of producing an effect commen-
surate with the magnitude and expense of the undertaking deterred him for
the time from putting his plan in execution.

The flower-garden lies to the westward of the house, and is formed upon
the plan presented to the reader of poetry by Mason, in the fourth book of his
English Garden. A number of busts, upon terms of antique shape, are inter-
spersed among trees and shrubs, each having an inscription upon a tablet in
front, selected by Mr. Penn, mostly from the works of the author to which it
is affixed ; those of Latin, Greek, and Italian having, for the benefit of the
unlearned in these languages, a translation upon a movable panel at the back,
which lifts into view.

Upon first entering the garden, a walk of a considerable length, of an easy
sweep, presents itself to view, leading out of which, a little way along to the
right, is a recess containing about a quarter of an acre, ornamented by clumps
of shrubs and flowers upon a fine turf, surrounded by a gravel walk, by the
verge of which, appropriately placed, are the busts of Dante, Tasso, and Ari-
osto; and, centrally, a plain green-pedimented summer-house, in which are
placed miniature busts of Montesquieu, Moliére, Racine, Boileau, Corneille,
Fénélon, Voltaire, and Rousseau; all, with the exception of the two last,
being tastefully embraced by branches of palm in basso relievo, Return-
ing again to the principal walk, the eye is directed to the busts of Horace and
Meecenas ; and, next, to that of Mason, conspicuously placed ; retiring behind
which, by narrow walks through a thicket of shrubs, you are brought into a
broad walk, which Mr. Penn has classically designated the “ Peripatetic’s
walk.” Bordering upon this, and other winding branches from it, are placed
the busts of Cicero, Seneca, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno. Turning
back, and proceeding along the principal walk, you are brought to the broad
part of the garden, facing which, and commanding a view of Windsor Castle,
is the Temple of Fancy, a Doric structure after the plan of the temple dedi-
cated to the Muses on the banks of the Ilissus, containing a bust of Shake-
speare. From here may be seen the busts of Anacreon, Pope, and Gray.
A little further on, beneath the branches of a magnificent oak, Petrarch is
placed.

We are now brought to the termination of the principal walk, meeting
another at right angles, which, pursued a little to the right, brings us to a
bust of Waller (appropriate to the inscription taken from Akenside), opposite
an opening to the park. In a small recess we next come to an elegant urn of
Bath stone, dedicated to the Right Hon. Lady Juliana Penn, whereon Mr.
Penn, with a “ filial respect and love,” has attempted to record some of the
virtues of his amiable mother. The walk leads now, through a thick shrub-
bery, to the termination of the dressed part of the grounds and a bust of
Thomson, opening to the view a scene admirably contrasted by its wildness
with the one we have just left, and carrying the eye over to Windsor Castle
and Eton College. You may either pass on through a wicket-gate, and re-
enter opposite the bust of Virgil, or return a little and approach the same spot
by a walk within the boundary of the garden. From a seat here, surrounding
the base of an oak, is seen, in rather a romantic situation, overhung by a
“spreading beech,” the ice-house, disguised by a wall of artificial rockwork,
presenting a cave-like appearance ; over one of the openings of which is in-
scribed the word “ Tityri,” associating it with the bust of Virgil, which is
near this spot ; the classic reader will readily enter into the spirit and mean-
ing of this. There is a pleasing variety and effect of seclusion from the dell-
like appearance of this part of the ground. The next object we come to is a
fine youthful head of Milton, modelled by Chenie from an original portrait.
After passing a glade commanding an angular view of the house, together with
an extent of park, we are brought to another portion of flower-garden, situ-
ated, as it were, in the centre of a wood enriched with rare shrubs and flowers ;

Ffints for the Improvement of the Town of Southampton. 589

a gravel walk surrounds it, by the side of which, at about equal distances, are
placed Newton, Locke, and Bacon ; pursuing the walk from this last, you
suddenly come upon Spenser and Chaucer ; and, lastly, a handsome stone
urn, dedicated by Mr. Penn to his cousin, the Honourable Richard Thomas
Dawson, son of the late Viscount Cremorne.

Having now perambulated the flower-garden, there is little more to interest
the attention. The walk to the church and shrubbery adjacent to the church-
yard deserves, however, some little notice. The walk leads through a wilder-
ness of thorns, and, crossing an artificial waterfall by a wooden bridge, shortly
after enters the park; by crossing which, either upon the grass or by fol-
lowing the carriage road, at a distance of about 200 yards, we come to what
is called the church shrubbery, which commands a private entrance to the
church through a neat small cloister ornamented with painted glass. The
shrubbery has several chairs, interspersed with inscriptions from the “ Long
Story,” illustrated by vignette views painted upon the backs. One of these,
upon an artificial mound, commands a very picturesque view of the church and
churchyard, immediately over the graves of Groom and Tyacke, the two
domestics made mention of by Gray in his “ Long Story.” It is but a short
distance hence to the kitchen-garden, one of the remaining appendages to
the old manor-house ; but, though of considerable antiquity, it is very pro-
ductive, and has a good pinery, vinery, &c., with small fish-ponds in it.

Stoke Park, Oct. 1833.

Art. VI. Hints for the Improvement of the Town of Southampton,
with a short Notice of the Vineyard at Shirley. By the Coyn-
DUCTOR.

THE business which took us to Southampton was our being
employed by the town council to make a plan for a General
Cemetery ; and being rather poorly, and finding the air of the
town agree with us better than that of the Isle of Wight, which
we had previously tried, we remained there a month.
Southampton is a town rapidly increasing in houses and popu-
lation, but, unfortunately, it seems to have been badly managed ;
the town council consisting of two political factions, the object of
one of which was to defeat the measures of the other. <A better
feeling now prevails, and both parties are uniting for the general
good. The corruption of the citizens who are electors is well
known to all who read the newspapers. <A. citizen observed to
us on this subject, that “the devil is not so black as he is painted,
nor are the citizens so corrupt as attempted to be shown before
the election committees for party purposes, and as appeared by
the newspapers at the time.” As a proof of the influence of the
radical faction, we may state that above a year ago the other
party had fixed on a situation for a cemetery, high, dry, and
with the soil of gravel to an unknown depth; but, under the
pretence of its being half a mile too far from town, the bill in
parliament for authorising it was defeated by a sort of trick,
notwithstanding the horrors which, as is proved in the Report
on the Health of Towns, were then daily taking place in the
3d Ser. — 1843. XI. Qe

590 Flints for the Improvement

churchyard of St. Mary’s. This burying-ground, which is the
largest in Southampton, so long as it continues to be buried in,
cannot fail both to contaminate the air of the locality and the
wells of the vicinity. The consequence of the defeat of the
bill alluded to is, that the council have been compelled either to
do without a cemetery, or to fix upon a spot by no means so
eligible for the purpose to which it is to be applied, as could
be wished; it is, however, nearer town.

The alternate System of Burying. —In our design for this
cemetery, we introduced a new principle, viz. that of providing
in perpetuity for the superfluous earth dug out of the graves.
Thus, suppose four coffins deposited in one grave, either at once
or at different times, it is obvious that there must be a quantity
of superfluous soil equal to the space occupied by the coffins ;
and somewhat more, from the soil taken out being broken into
small pieces, and thus taking up more space than it did when it
was in one mass. In country churchyards, where seldom more
than one coffin is deposited in a grave, very little inconvenience
arises from the earth that cannot be returned to the excavation,
it being generally raised over the grave in the form of a mound ;
but in cemeteries got up on speculation, where, in order to
make the most of the ground, a dozen coffins or more are some-
times deposited in the same grave, and where there are also
many brick graves and vaults, the quantity of superfluous earth
1s enormous, as may be seen by the immense heap which has
accumulated in the course of seven years in the Kensal Green
Cemetery, and which the directors are now advertising to be
given away; because, being consecrated soil, it cannot be sold.
The principle which we have introduced into the cemetery at
Southampton is, to divide the ground to be buried in into
regular spaces; say into beds 16 ft. wide, with paths 4 ft. wide.
Only every alternate bed is to be buried in at first, till that bed
is completely full; and a calculation having been made of the
quantity of superfluous earth that will be produced, the bed not
to be buried in is to be excavated to such a depth (say from
18 in. to 3 ft., according to the number of coffins it is calculated
will be placed in a grave) as will contain all the superfluous soil,
without being raised more than a few inches above the general
surface. The soil thrown out is to be laid on the surface of the
bed that is to be buried in; and the intervening paths, the sur-
rounding borders, and, in short, the whole surface of the ceme-
tery, is to be adjusted in conformity with this arrangement.
When the bed or compartment to be buried in is completely
filled, then begin to bury in the adjoining bed or compartment
in which the superfluous soil was put, and place the superfluous
soil from this bed on the surface of that which has just been
filled with coffins. It will raise this surface by the time the

of the Town of Southampton. 591

second bed or compartment is filled with coffins, from 18 in. to
2 ft., not in general more; because there is not only the surface
of the grave to be covered, but the space between the graves,
and also the common path between the two compartments. The
head-stones, if any, will be somewhat earthed up; but they can
always be raised at a moderate expense. Besides, in a well-
planned and conducted cemetery, we think there ought to be no
head-stones or monuments allowed, except in the borders which
accompany the roads and walks, and in such other parts of the
cemetery as may be exclusively devoted to that purpose.

It is obvious that this mode of alternately earthing-up and
burying may be carried on for an indefinite number of years,
even till the surface of the compartments is raised 20 or 30 feet
above the natural surface, and consequently above the surround-
ing borders and walks. ‘The burying part would in that case
require to be ascended to by forming a portion of the 4 ft.
path at each end of the beds into inclined planes of easy ascent.
In the Southampton Cemetery, we have, in addition to 16 ft.
beds of the kind described, designed large squares, exclusively
for graves which are to have no monuments of any kind; and
these, we have shown in our Report, may continue to be buried
in till the ground is raised as high as an Egyptian pyramid, or
until the custom of burying, and suffering bodies to be decom-
posed in the soil, gives way to the practice of burning them.
We are persuaded that the latter mode of disposing of the great
mass of the dead will be adopted in this country much sooner
than even the most enlightened people at present imagine. The
truth is, that very few persons indeed are aware of the diseases
caused by crowded churchyards and vaults in churches; partly
from the effluvia which they diffuse in the atmosphere, but prin-
cipally from the contamination of the wells. Hvery large town
will then have a funeral pile, constructed on scientific principles,
instead of a cemetery; and the ashes may be preserved in urns,
or applied to the roots of a favourite plant.

An intermediate improvement, and one required without
delay for Southampton, is, authority to compel corpses to be
buried several days sooner than they are at present ; and what
would be a valuable addition to this enactment, would be the
establishment of one or two receiving-houses for the dead, such
as those we have described p. 298., and to which every dead
body, where the master of the house would not undertake to
inter it in four days, should be carried in four and twenty hours
after life was extinct. This is more imperiously demanded for
Southampton than for any other town that we know, owing to
the low situation of a great part of the town, and the great heat
and moisture of the atmosphere. While we resided in the town,
there were six successive days during which a thermometer

aa 2

592 . Hints for the Improvement

placed in the shade, in the entrance passage to a shop, varied
from 75° to 83°.

The situation of the old town of Southampton is low, flat,
and very little raised above the water’s edge; but in that part
of the town which extends beyond the ancient walls the ground
rises considerably, though gradually. The town is approached
from London through a very handsome avenue of elms, on both
sides of which is a common of 360 acres in extent, perhaps the
finest thing of the kind in England. It is particularly unri-
valled for its scattered oak woods, which are beautifully inter-
spersed in some places with glades of turf, and in others with a
broad expanse of heathy surface, intermixed with an endless
variety of groups of hollies and thorns, many of the latter pro-
ducing scarlet blossoms. Though this common extends two
miles from the town gates, yet we have no doubt the time is
not very far distant when it will be as much surrounded by
houses, and, as it were, enclosed in the town, as Hyde Park and
the Regent’s Park are enclosed in London. It would appear
from the newspapers that some attempts have been lately made
to let a part of this beautiful common for building on: but we
do hope that all such attempts will be defeated; as, should an
encroachment of this kind be once made, no one can tell where
it would stop. Beyond Southampton Common is Shirley Com-
mon, an immense mass of gravel, high, dry, and airy, and, we
should think, one of the healthiest situations in England, as
well as a very beautiful one from the woods in the distant
horizon all round it. We remained a month in Southampton,
but we know very little of the neighbourhood, er even of the
town, being the whole time so much an inyalid as to be able to
walk only in the High Street, along the shore, and in Bernard
Street, im which we lodged. We mention this to show on what
a very slight knowledge of the place the following remarks are
founded. We have made them, however, feeling confident that
they may be of some use as suggestions to those who m y haye
occasion to study the improvement of this town, or any other
similarly situated.

Covering the Bay with Water when the Tide is at the lowest. —
Southampton has at present a bad reputation from the number
of acres of mud slightly covered with marine grass, which are
exposed to the action of the sun and air every time the tide is
out. One of the first things that ought to be done, in our
opinion, is to remove this mud to such a depth as would allow
of the whole bay being constantly covered with two or three
feet of water, even at the very lowest tides. This might be
effected in two or three ways at no great expense. First, by
filling small boats with the mud at low water, and during high
water pulling these boats ashore and emptying them by cranes,

of the Town of Southampton. 593

so as to form the mud into a platform, quay, or whatever might
be desirable; or, secondly, by greatly extending the sea wall
into the bay, ‘and fillmg up the space between it and the present
shore with mud from the bay. Both modes might be adopted
according to circumstances. It is quite unnecessary to enter
into details.

Sewerage. — The situation of the sea wall being fixed on, not
only throughout the whole of the present length of the town,
but to whatever extent it may be supposed to reach up and
down the river in the course of fifty years, say somewhere
beyond Blechendon Terrace, or perhaps even as far as Mil-
brook Point or Milbrook itself at the one extremity, and nearly
as far as Netley Fort on the other, the distance at which
lines of houses are to be kept from the river should also be fixed
on. Then construct a sewer also the whole of this length, be-
tween the houses and the water, taking care to provide for the
free egress of streams of water to the river, by conducting
them in inverted siphons under the sewer in some cases, and in
others, where the clear water is of some extent, as in that of the
river Itchen, carrying the sewer (in a cast-iron pipe, perhaps 2 ft.
or 3 ft. in diameter, and joined so as to support itself) over the
stream. ‘This arch may be of a sufficient height to allow masted
ships to pass underneath. ‘The sewer also should have occa-
sional safety sluices, to admit of turning its contents at once
into the bay in case of extraordinary rains, or other cases that
might endanger the bursting of the sewer. ‘This main sewer
we would carry down for a mile or two parallel to the margin
of the bay, raising the bottom of the sewer gradually to the
surface, so as at the extreme end to deliver its contents there in
such a situation, and in such a manner, as would render them
available for irrigation or other agricultural purposes.

The object of this main sewer is to intercept all the other sewers,
so as to prevent now, and at all future times (with the exception
of cases when the safety sluices are opened), any of the sewers
from emptying themselves into the bay. When the town extends
in all directions, a second, and perhaps a third, intercepting
sewer may be required in the interior of the town; the direction
of these may be, if the surface will admit, somewhat parallel to
the main sewer; and they may be so conducted as to deliver
the sewerage on the surface at higher levels than that of the
lower or main sewer, so that the contents shall be applicable to
higher grounds.

"The principal objection that we can foresee will be made to
our plan of having the main sewer close to, and parallel with, the
edge of Southampton Water, would be the difficulty of conduct-
ing such a sewer across the river Itchen; but over this river,
or one as wide as the Thames, a sewer might be conducted, as

Q

QaQoao

594 Hints for the Improvement

we have already stated, by a siphon supported at any height
that may be required. Let it always be recollected that
when a siphon is introduced into a sewer, no very weighty
materials will be carried over by it, so that the tank or well in
which the longer leg of the siphon is inserted will receive the
grosser parts of the sewerage, which may be carted away as often
as is found necessary.

If some plan of sewerage, such as we have above suggested,
were adopted at Southampton, the water of the estuary would
be kept perfectly clean and wholesome ; but if some such plan
be not adopted, even if the mud were taken out, the deposit of
the sewers would soon occupy its place and rise above the water,
and render the shore, in time, much more unwholesome than it
is at present ; and this unwholesomeness must necessarily increase
as the town increases in size.

How the sewerage of Southampton is managed at present
we know not; but that it is in a very bad state we had the
evidence of our senses in walking along the streets that we have
mentioned, and it is doubtless a great deal worse in the obscure
streets and by-places, into none of which did we enter.
Wherever a town is to be formed on the banks of a river, a lake,
or an inlet or bay of the sea, this mode of having an intercept-
ing sewer parallel with, and close to, the clear water, will be found
an exemplification of the true principles of sewer arrange-
ment. In a populous country like England, the large rivers,
such as the Thames, ought to have side sewers, which may be
open ditches in parts of the country not built on, from the
source to the mouth; and the tributary rivers ought also to
have their sewers. The clear streams can always be admitted
under the sewer, or the sewer may be carried over the river by
an upright siphon; the sewerage can always be delivered on
the surface for agricultural purposes by divergent ditches;
which, instead of following the slope of the sewer, shall proceed
from it in a very gently sloping direction, till the bottom of the
ditch is at last on the surface, and the water running over and
manuring the fields.

Direction of Streets. —In a town that has the character of
being damp, it is of great importance to lay out the streets in
such a manner, more especially in the lower parts, as that the
sun may shine on the whole surface of the street, and also on
the fronts of the houses on both sides, every day in the year in
which it appears. For this reason, as many of these streets as
possible should be in the direction of south and north, and as few
as possible in the direction of east and west. All the diagonal
directions are admissible, and to be preferred in proportion as
they deviate from the east and west line towards the south line.
A street in the direction of east and west has the houses on the

of the Town of Southampton. 595

north side too hot during summer, and the houses on the south
side do not enjoy the direct rays of the sun for a number of
weeks during winter. The same observations will apply to a
house which stands east and west; but, as we have already said
so much on this subject in our Cottage Architecture, as well as
in this Magazine, we drop it abruptly.

Architecture of Street Buildings.— We have seldom seen a
town where so many buildings have been recently erected, and
so very little taste exhibited in them. With the exception of the
buildings at the railway station, and the villa of Mr. Hoare at
Shirley, we really cannot refer to one as a specimen of good taste.
It is true our walks have been very limited, and we have not
seen the Infirmary, but we have ridden through the continuation
of the High Street. There are two Banks and two warehouses
that are negatively good, because they do not offend by mis-
placed ornament, that is, ornament placed out of the regular
order in which it ought to be introduced. To show what we
mean by bad architecture and bad taste, we shall take a street of
six-roomed houses, viz. Bernard Street, lately built by an indi-
vidual who could be under no control as to his elevations but
that of his own wishes. ‘The street is of a very sufficient
width, being of one third more than the height of the houses.
The line of frontage is ornamented with pilasters supporting a
small entablature; and in each of these pilasters there is a
sunk panel which is surrounded with mouldings like those of a
room door, or inside window-shutter. To sink panels in pi-
lasters, and ornament these panels with mouldings, is to destroy
altogether the simplicity and dignity of the pilaster, and to
reduce it to the rank of a mere piece of joiner’s work. Before
any pilasters were added to such an elevation, there ought to
have been facings to the doors and windows. ‘There is a cer-
tain gradation of architectural ornament in which alone it can
be introduced with propriety. In every building, the first addi-
tions to what is merely necessary are architraves, that is, facings
or finishings of some sort to the doors and windows; the second
is the cornice or other termination to the walls which support the
roof; and the third consists of the chimney tops. After this, the
expression of construction may be given to the walls by pilasters,
piers, buttresses, or whatever is required for the architectural fic-
tion that is to be adopted; for pilasters being originally square
pillars of stone or wood of the full thickness of the wall, the
spaces between them being filled in with materials that took no
part in supporting the roof, the raising of the appearance of pilas-
ters on the face of a stone or brick wall, in plaster or stone, is a
mere fiction adopted to carry out the style. There is not, how-
ever, one architect in a score that knows his art scientifically, or
can give a scientific reason for what he does.

aa 4

596 Hints for the Improvement

We would strongly recommend that the town of South-
ampton should imitate the city of Philadelphia, and have a com-
mittee of taste, composed of architects, engineers, and amateurs,
with power to call in the assistance of professional men from
London or elsewhere, to which all designs for buildings what-
ever should be submitted before any attempt was made to carry
them into execution. We would by no means have all the
designs corrected by one architect, as is the case im some
cities on the Continent, however great the genius and abili-
ties of that architect might be, lest we should introduce a same-
ness of manner; but, when a design was disapproved of, we
would desire the parties to bring fresh ones, pointing out the
faults of those that we rejected, by which means we should
hope to unite a certain degree of originality with sound sense
and good taste.

It seems that in Southampton there is a great objection to
employing any other talent than that of persons located in the
town, which is a most contracted idea, calculated to perpetuate
things as they are, and impede every great improvement; in
short, calculated to have the same effect as the doctrine of pre-
cedents, which is now held up as an infallible guide in Gothic
architecture by the Camden Society, which may truly be called
a society for impeding the progress of architecture in the Gothic
style. Precedents, whether in architecture, agriculture, or any
other art, we hold to be the greatest bane to all improvement.

Public Walks. —These should be provided for in different
parts of the town, and especially all along the shore from one
end of the quay to the other. It is a delightful thing to see
trees growing vigorously along the sea-shore; but in addition
to the elms and limes, which are the only kinds growing there
at present, we would add common, Neapolitan, Norway, and
other maples, hoary poplars, Turkey oaks, and a number of
others which stand the sea breeze. Some broad streets might
be planted with rows of trees on each side; and something of the
nature of a boulevard or of a zone, such as we have recommended
for the extension of London (Vol. for 1829, p. 687. fig. 171.),
with trees and broad expanses of turf, might be carried from the
quays up to some open places in the New Town, so as to
form very handsome drives and walks, and to insure breathing-
places of several acres of turf, and ventilation for all the im-
habitants. The walks which now exist are very deficient in
good seats: and there ought also to be covered seats along
the quays for protection from the sun during summer, or the
rain during winter.

If a suitable situation could be found, an arboretum, or a
complete collection of trees and shrubs, would be a very de-
sirable addition. We hope, however, that no attempt will be

he

of the Town of Southampton. 597

made to plant an arboretum on less ground than forty or fifty
acres. That extent of ground might be purchased on a build-
ing speculation, the interior planted as an arboretum, and the
circumference built on, either with detached villas, or with
continuous rows of houses, as in the Regent’s Park.

An additional supply of water to the town is now sought for
by sinking an artesian well, the depth of which at present is
1170 ft., and the cost hitherto is 12,0007. The chalk is be-
lieved to be nearly gone through, so that it is hoped water will
speedily be obtained, and we trust this will be the case. If
this resource should fail, however, there are others which can
be rendered available, so that there is no doubt of the town
being in time abundantly supplied with excellent water.

The Vegetable and Fruit Market at Southampton is a century
behind Covent Garden. We could not have believed it possible
that such wretched cabbages, turnips, and even potatoes, could
have been exposed for sale; and the fruit, more especially the
apples and pears, is still worse than the vegetables. A spirited
market-gardener from London, who might settle in the neigh-
bourhood of Southampton, would be sure to do well, as fine
fruit and vegetables generally only need to be seen to command
asale. As to flowers, we do not recollect ever seeing so large
a town with so few, on the window-sills, in the shops, or in
the little front gardens, of which, however, there are scarcely
any. How different from Brighton! though the latter place is
much more exposed to the sea breeze, and in acolder climate.

Ewening Shelters for Working Men.— Some years ago, in
autumn, we stopped all night in the little town of Romsey, and
we were struck with the number of workmen standing in
groups in the market-place, and before the doors of public-
houses, even after it was dark. It immediately occurred to us,
that a plan which has been adopted by some of the tradesmen
of London for their unmarried journeymen and apprentices,
would be a very great source of comfort to the Romsey la-
bourers, whom we presumed to be also single men, with no other
home than perhaps a garret bed, and consequently without any
place in which they could spend the evening, except the
public-house. What we then proposed for Romsey, we now
propose for Southampton, viz. that there should be rooms
opened here and there throughout the town, furnished with a
table, forms, and seats; and, when the nights were dark and
cold, with a fire and candles. On the table there should be a
number of cheap publications, such as Chambers’s Journal, the
Penny Magazine, &c. One man should have the care. of the
room, and should be entitled to charge a halfpenny for every
one who entered it. It should also be a part of his duty, if the
company in the room requested it, to read aloud to them, or

598 Hints for the Improvement

in some way or other to amuse them, no smoking or drinking
being allowed. It is obvious that this would add greatly to
the comfort of that part of the labouring population who had
no regular home, even if they did nothing but sit and sleep
there; and the expense to the town would not be great. The
moral character of the population would, in time, be very con-
siderably improved. The rooms might be taken in some of the
back streets, where houses are cheap. We have no doubt there
are many young men in Southampton that would volunteer to
deliver lectures, or to recite amusing or instructive passages
from books, or otherwise to entertain the occupants of such
rooms for an hour or two in the long winter evenings. The
rooms ought to be closed at 9 o’clock at the very latest, for
every labouring man ought to be in his bed at that hour.

Naming the Streets and numbering the Houses.— Great im-
provements have been made within the last few years in the
raised letters used in naming streets, particularly in Paris and
Edinburgh. The best mode, we believe, is that described by
the late Sir John Robison, under the signature “ Civis.” (See
p- 88.) The numbers of the houses ought, as in Paris and many
of the new streets in London, to have the odd numbers on one
side, and the even ones on the other: and the numbers ought
always to commence at the same extremity of the street, at the
end nearest say the south for streets m the direction of north
and south, and at the east end of streets running east and west.
By examining the map of Paris, many excellent hints will be
obtained for street arrangements.

Regulating the Charges made by Cabs, Flies, &c.— The impo-
sitions of the cabinen, coachmen, and flymen, plying at the
termini of the railroads, is notorious to every railroad traveller ;
and, indeed, the drivers of hackney vehicles, wherever they may
be stationed, or by whom employed, seldom fail attempting to
overreach their employers. The remedy for this, in the interior
of towns, appears to us to consist in appointing a great number
of places, where every quarrel with regard to charge may be
adjusted; and, in regard to railroads, we think an officer ought
to be appointed by the directors to determine all fares of cabs,
flies, or coaches, and that the determination of this officer should
be considered to be final by all those who ply for fares at the
termini. ‘This officer should be stationed as a sort of outpost, in
such a situation as that all the carriages going in and out should
pass before him; and the driver of each hackney vehicle as it
passed in, of which the fare was not agreed on between the driver
and the hirer, should apply to the officer, showing the luggage,
&e., and stating whence he came, or whither he was going, so
that the charge’ might be settled at once. Some arrangement
of this kind appears to us absolutely necessary ; and we think

of the Town of Southampton. 599

the directors of railroads, who have already done so much for
the comfort of the public, ought not to grudge the additional
charge which such an officer as the one we contemplate would
involve.

Perhaps, in the interior of towns, a number of the more
respectable shopkeepers might be found willing to undertake
the office of settling cab and hackney fares; and of course no
cab, or other public vehicle plying for hire, ought to be licensed,
whose proprietor would not assent to this arrangement.

The names of the shopkeepers who would undertake to settle
fares, the fares themselves, and all other regulations concerning
them, ought to be printed in a distinct type, and fixed up in a
conspicuous place in every public vehicle, as in Paris. As a
proof that this would be useful in Southampton, we may state
that, when we were there, we were charged 2s. 6d. from the
terminus to the pier on one occasion, though the fixed fare, as
we learned afterwards, is only 1s.; and on another occasion we
also paid 2s. 6d. where the fixed fare was Ils. The circum-
stance of the fares being fixed was of no use to us, because we
had no opportunity of knowing them till after we had yielded
to the imposition; whereas, had the fares been printed and
fixed up in the vehicle, as in Paris, we or any other stranger
would have been immediately aware of the right sum we ought
to have paid.

The shops, owing to the warm moist air of Southampton, are
infested with flies to an almost incredible degree; but, as most
of these shops are without cross lights, the flies might be easily
prevented from entering them by the very simple, economical,
and efficient mode adopted in the butchers’ shops in Italy, and
first brought into notice in this country by William Spence, Esq.,
being published in the Trans. Ent. Soc., and also in our Vol. for
1836, p. 264., and Mag. Nat. Mist., 1834, p. 271. This mode
consists in the application, against the open door or open window,
of a very wide-meshed black net; and we observed, in the
summer of 1842, that the plan has been adopted by the butchers
of Torquay, with perfect success. In Southampton it is much
wanted, not only in the butchers’ shops, but in grocers’, confec-
tioners’, and fruit shops. The inhabitants, however, have not
a sufficient repugnance to flies, beetles (which are singularly
abundant, at least in Bernard Street), and other vermin, with the
exception of the rat and the mouse, to care much about them.

The Vineyard, C. Hoare, Esq., at Shirley, about two miles
from Southampton, is a very interesting place, from the ex-
periments on vines now carrying on there by the proprietor.
The house is a gem of beauty, by Mr. Elliott of Chichester.
The principle of the concentration of the sap is carried by Mr.
Hoare to an extreme degree; and it will not be surprising to us

600 Notice of the Vineyard at Shirley.

if he effects a great revolution in grape-growing, both im the
open air and under glass. The grounds of this villa occupy two
banks almost entirely of gravel, ‘and which, before the land was
purchased by Mr. Hoare, erew little else but heath, dwarf
furze, and brambles. The bank on which the house is placed,
and the vineyard established, is a curve, the tangent to which
would probably form an angle of from 35° to 45° with the
horizon, and faces the south-east. The greater part of this
bank is to be devoted to the culture of the vine, against low
brick walls about the height of those at Thomery, in glazed
pits, and larger glazed structures, and perhaps trained round
hollow brick columns, provided some experiments now in pro-
gress succeed as well as they promise to do. On the upper part
of this bank stands the house; and in the bottom, between the
two banks, is a running stream. On the opposite bank Mr.
Hoare has planted a pe wood, which has already an excellent
effect, besides its utility in shutting out the rising village.

As something more may probably be expected from us re-
specting the mode of cultivating the vine at Shirley, we may
observe that Mr. Hoare does not profess to have any thing new
on that point. It is based, he says, on the principles laid down
in his 7'reatise, without the slightest deviation whatever. In-
deed, the result of every year’s experience strengthens and con-
firms those principles, and proves to Mr. Hoare, beyond the
possibility of doubt, that they cannot be transgressed with
impunity. He further observes that some of the principles he
has laid down may even be carried to a greater extent than he
has stated, and with very considerable advantage. Two of
these, he says, are, that which enforces the necessity of having
a perfectly dry soil for vines to root in, and that of limiting the
quantity of fruit that a vine ought to be permitted to bring to
maturation. Mr. Hoare hopes shortly to establish the fact that
vines will perfect their fruit, with far greater ease and certainty,
when planted in a mass of dry materials to the exclusion of soil,
than they have hitherto done when planted in the usual way.
And he flatters himself that this will ultimately be one of the
ereatest improvements ever yet introduced into the horticul-
tural practice of this country. With reference to the sorts
Mr. Hoare cultivates, the two principal are the White Mus-
eadine and the Black Hamburgh, which he considers are the
very best that can be grown for general purposes.

On asking Mr. Hoare’s opinion of Mr. Roberts’s practice of
thinning the buds while the leaves are yet on, his answer was,
that he thought it a good one; and, in fact, another step taken
in the right direction, viz., in concentrating the sap, which must
be constantly attended to in this country on account of the
deficiency of solar heat. The direct advantages of the practice

Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management. 601

arise from its placing at the disposal of the remaining buds a
much greater quantity of organised matter than they would
otherwise possess, which enables them to nourish and mature
the fruit they produce to a proportionately greater extent. It
is, in fact, neither more nor less than undereropping, which
Mr. Hoare 1s so constantly and so strenuously insisting upon in
his book, and in his interviews with gardeners ana amateurs, by
ereat numbers of whom he is visited. Mr. Roberts’s practice,
Mr. Hoare observes, would be of no benefit on the open wall.
There are many statements and recommendations in Mr.
Roberts’s book, in reference to the glass culture of the vine,
which Mr. Hoare does not approve of; and, in short, he con-
siders the disbudding with the leaves on as the only part that
claims either to be new or of much value.

Art. VII. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By JAmMes BARNes, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 546.)

Lerrer XXII. The principal Causes of Canker in Peaches, Nectarines, and
Apricots.

HAVING promised you, when here, a few of my own practical
observations on what I consider the principal cause of canker in
peaches, nectarines, and apricots, | now send them to you. Every
person that is in any way whatever acquainted with those fruits
knows they are not natives of this country, and that they require
the protection and assistance of a wall, &c.; but we never shall
have good and certain fruit-bearing trees, of the above kinds, in
this country, for many years together, until we give them some
farther protection than a bare wall. I have been perfectly
satisfied, for some years, that the winters we get are the principal
cause of the canker in our fruit trees; and presently, in my
humble way, I will attempt to point out several instances that I
have observed in the course of my practice.

In the years 1815 and 1816, I recollect assisting to make a
new kitchen-garden in a field, where the surface soil, for about
2 ft. in depth, was a beautiful sandy loam; the subsoil a sand:
in some places there were spots of marl to be seen in trenching it,
which was well done; in others a shell rock, that is, thin layers
of flat stone; and altogether as fine a bottom, for the well-doing
of fruit trees and kitchen-g ardening generally, as one could wish.
Where it was considered more soil was required, it was carted
from an adjoining field, taking the surface spit of an old pasture,
and an old hedge-bank. A 12 ft. wall was built all round it,

602 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

and a slip or belt fenced in with pale fencing from 30 ft to 36 ft.
from the wall, all round; so that both sides of the wall were
brought into use. The wall was furnished with some of the
best-trained fruit trees that could be got at that time; some
from Lee and Kennedy’s, others from France. They were
planted with great care, keeping the roots well to the surface;
and they grew away to such a degree, that, to throw them into
a bearing state, in the spring of 1818 we root-pruned many of
them, which was the means of their making as beautiful, thick,
short-jointed, and full-eyed wood, as one could wish to see.
Indeed, in the ensuing summer, which was a very long, hot, and
dry summer, there was a beautiful crop of fine fruit on many of
the trees; and, in 1819 and 1820, I think I never in my whole
practice saw handsomer, better-trained, and more fruitful trees,
or trees that brought fruit to better perfection. Root-pruning
occasionally any tree that is too luxuriant is the means of
immediately bringing it into a bearing state. The trees entirely
covered the wall in most places by 1820, and it was truly a
pleasure to be with them pruning, nailing, &c. On the 21st of
December of that year it set in a very cold strong-blowing north-
east wind, and froze very severely: it continued blowing and freez-
ing for many days. On the 20th of January, 1821, the wind
shifted full south, and on the morning of the 21st every thing
was loaded with ice and rime; and the thermometer exactly at
zero at five in the morning. On taking hold of iron it stuck to
my hands; and the foggy rime so twinged my nose, that I was
obliged to put my hand to it. Having some distance to go that
morning, I could hardly keep my nose warm for some time.
The sun rose clear and bright, and melted off the rime; and
almost every plant that was green, on which the sun shone, was
roasted up, and died. I recollect what a strong smell it caused in
the market-gardens about London. There was scarcely a green
vegetable left. The evergreens suffered greatly, and the above-
described fruit trees were so punished that they were completely
crippled. I recollect they never flourished after; many of them
were cankered all over, where the sun was the most powerful.
When the pruning and nailing season came the young wood was
full of spots, and when the sap rose all these spots became
gummy. Likewise in many places about the old branches, par-
ticularly about the stem of the tree above where it was worked,
were other spots, where the bark died, and went dry, like as
if it had been burnt. The consequence was, when the trees
should have come into bloom, much of the bud had fallen off;
and much of it that did have strength to expand was so feeble
and weak that but a very scanty crop of fruit was the result the
following summer, and that but poor and small; then, when the
leaf should have expanded, it took to curling up and blistering.

Principal Causes of Canker in Peaches, §c. 603

With all the washing and picking over, it was continually
smothered with the aphis of different kinds. After midsummer
many of the old branches died piecemeal; and the young wood that
the trees did make was poor, and much subject to the red spider
in the latter end of summer. In the course of about three years
after, every peach, nectarine, and apricot, except part of one old
Royal George peach, was dead and gone. All the fault was laid
to the subsoil; not the least idea, or the least remark, was ex-
pressed about the severe frost, only that it had killed all the furze
on the commons, almost every evergreen, and all the vegetables:
not so much as one cabbage or broccoli was left in the whole
garden. ‘Time passed on, and I happened to be in practice in
different places. I was in the habit, for years, of going to see
every place of any note every opportunity I had; and, in damp
foggy situations, I have often seen the wall trees very much
punished by the frost in the above-described manner. When
the winter of 1838 came it gave me an opportunity of observing
the effects more fully than heretofore ; for I believe it killed
thousands of wall trees, and punished them so severely that they
have died a branch at a time since.

On entering Bicton Gardens in 1840, where the frost had
not been so severe, I thought I never had beheld a finer lot of
peach, nectarine, and apricot trees, covering a large space of
wall. In January, 1841, we had three days of continued driv-
ing thick fog, like mizzling rain, the thermometer standing in
the day at 30° and at night at 28°; so that every thing that
caught this driving south-east fog was glazed all over with ice.
The fog cleared off the third night; the stars twinkled, and
there was 17° of frost at six o’clock the followmg morning: the
sun rose bright and clear, and continued shining until noon.

When pruning these poor trees in the spring, I had the mor-
tification of again seeing what I have before stated, viz., the
young wood full of spots. When the season advanced most of
the buds dropped off; the others opened very weak, the prin-
cipal falling off without setting any fruit; and several of the
finest and most luxuriant trees actually died before the follow-
ing October. Some have died since; others have lost large
branches; and others again are full of those spots on the old
wood, where it was exposed to the frost and sun, looking like
burnt places, the bark having been drawn away from the wood,
and never adhering to it again. ‘The plum stocks that many of
them were worked on did not suffer in the least, but filled the
ground with suckers all round, as far as the large roots ex-
tended; and on taking them up I carefully examined them, and
found the roots sound and good; full of strength and vigour.
The preparation made for them, and the subsoil too, are very
similar to what I have before described; lying very healthy
and dry, nothing, I think, can well be better.

604 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

The same season I noticed many of the standard plums,
apples, and pears, expand their blossom very weakly, and it fell
off. The leaf and young shoots were curled up and smothered
with honey-dew, and varieties of aphis; the trees on the west
walls suffering least. I always found the trees that were most
injured were those which were covered with white rime or hoar-
frost after much wet, or in moist situations. A dry hard frost
does not seem to have any injurious effect on them; but damp-
ness with a severe frost, of course, is the cause of rime or hoar-
frost, which causes those spots and blisters on both old and
young wood, by raising the bark from the wood, or more pro-
perly speaking, causing the moisture the wood contains to ex-
pand, and leaving, when the frost is gone, a cavity between the
bark and wood of those parts so affected. Of course, the tree
that is the most luxuriant and unripe is the greatest sufferer :
the young wood looking spotted and gummy; the old wood
having dead spots of great length in some instances, and after a
time cracking and oozing out gum; and those branches which
have the bark loosened all round are soon observed to die away.
Some others, that are only partly affected, will flourish for
several seasons, and bring tolerable fruit. In some instances I
have seen the bark that was so affected cut away, and new bark
enticed to grow over the wound. I have frequently observed
the stem or stock of the tree, in a most healthy state, oozing
out gum in great abundance at, or a little above, the place
where it had been worked.

What makes it appear to me the more probable that my own
observations are not far from being right is, that you never see
a peach or a nectarine tree get the canker in a house that has
the borders properly made, that is to say, well dramed; soil
not being so much an object as good drainage and a healthy
dry bottom; trees can always be well fed and assisted when
they require it. But, if you uncover the house by taking the
lights off before the wood is properly ripened, and allow the
wood to get frozen, it will not be long before you will see the
effects of canker making its appearance; or, if by chance you
leave the top-lights down, to expose the trees of a late house, in
a severe frost, you will be certain to see the ill effects of it the
next spring and summer. On the other hand, if a tree is
bruised in any way, or pruned at an unseasonable time, you will
certainly soon see your old complaint, the canker, make its
appearance. ‘There is more judgment required in thoroughly
ripening the wood, than in ripening the fruit.

How can it be expected that any fruit-bearing tree, with its
wood in a soft unripe state, can produce fruit in perfection ?
Is it not a most unreasonable thing for any one to expect?
How can any man expect to ripen the wood of either peach or

Notes on the One-Shift System, and on Charcoal. 605

wi, by hurrying the lights off the top of the house? Is it not
most unreasonable to expect such a thing? Why take the
lights off at all? Is not man wise enough to give the trees
what assistance they require without ?

I find, by taking pains and persevering to ripen the wood, I
am saved a wonderful deal of vexation and disappointment
“fterwards, both with disease and vermin; and I am perfectly
satisfied, were this more attended to, and the trees protected in
severe weather, we should not hear much of canker, of the trees
blooming so weakly, of the fruit not setting well, or of its
falling off after having set. And, again, at the stoning season
we should not hear of thei falling off in such abundance,
Besides, how can a tree make perfect wood for the next year,
if the previous year’s wood was not ripened and perfect? I say
the remedy lies with ourselves.

I have seen many gardeners take the lights off both peach-
houses and vineries, and I have heard them say it was to ripen the
wood. I say, ripen the wood first, and then, if you think proper
to expose them for a time, do so; but do not let them stay to be
punished and crippled with severe frost, and then, say it is the
fault of the border, or the subsoil, or want of sufficient drainage ;
for I think people will get wise enough, after a time, to know
better. I hope to see the time when we shall not see so much
badly coloured fruit, so much canker and shriveling.

I am perfectly aware that there has been a great contention
amongst gardeners respecting the cankering of fruit trees;
therefore I hope my humble, but practical, opinion will not be
the means of causing any misunderstanding.

It is my intention, for the future, always to protect wall
trees, under my charge, against severe frost.

I will endeavour, when treating on the forcing of peaches, to
give a recipe for washing them.

Bicton Gardens, Jan. 9. 1843,

Lerrer XXIII. Notes on the One-Shift System of Potting, andon Charcoal,

Many of our most extensive practical men of this country have visited
Bicton this season; and, with much pleasure, I find through them that my
method of plant-potting is most extensively and satisfactorily practised. I
have read, too, with some interest, this summer, a said to be new method of
potting plants: I imagine it is founded on the rough soil and stone system
of potting. It was no sooner made known than plants were exhibited, and
said to be grown on this so-called one-shift system; although, to any experi-
enced man, the plants were well known to have been growing for years previ-
ously on the old system. For my own part, I think but little merit is due to
this system at present ; for I hear, on good authority, from different quarters,
that many valuable plants have been Jost through going to the extreme with
the one-shift. Notwithstanding it is said to be a more natural treatment for
plants, I am at present of a different opinion, more particularly with hard-
3d Ser. — 1843. XI. RR

606 Notice of a Visit to Bicton Gardens.

wooded plants ; although many practical men are aware I have been in the
practice, for years, of giving plants very extensive shifts : how else could it be
possible to have plants growing in a small 60-sized pot, and the same plants m
a few months large specimens in a No. 1- or 2-sized pot, amongst lumps of soil
and stones larger than a 60-sized pot itself? For my own part | shall always
shift a plant, if possible, when it requires it.

Mr. Ayres, in his Weekly Calendar to the Amateur, in the Gardener’s
Chronicle, in the beginning of this summer, makes an observation on the use
of charcoal. He says, “ I attribute my whole success in plant-growing to the
use of it ;” observing that the charcoal I make use of is all made from
vegetable refuse. Possibly, if Mr. Ayres should happen to read my method
of plant-growing for the next year, he will discover there is something else
besides charcoal used by me; and that I find charcoal made from an old gate
post, for different purposes, answers as well as other vegetable refuse. Although
it has not exactly the merits of Old Parr’s or Morison’s pills, I hope never
to be without it for plant, fruit, or vegetable growing.

Bicton Gardens, Sept. 20. 1843.

Art. VIII. Notice of a Visit to Bicton Gardens, in October, 1843.
By Tuomas Bray, Gardener to E. B. Lousada, Esq.

I wave been in the habit of visiting the noble gardens at Bicton for the last
six years. A few days since I visited Mr. Barnes, the gardener, and I found
him just in the act of cutting two Queen pine-apples. As they were such
handsome fruit, I beg to forward you the dimensions, weight, &c., of them.

Weight. Length. Circumf. Length of Crown. Length of Stalk.
Ist. 6]b. 202. 11 in. 18in. 21n. 3 in.
2d. 5lb. Voz. 103 in. 17 in. 2in. 3in.

A third not cut, but equally handsome, and regularly swollen. These are
not singular, nor any novelty there ; for at all seasons of the year fine pines are
to be seen at Bicton. Mr. Barnes thinks he will improve, even on these;
for he picks out some fault himself in every thing he produces ; and, judging
from the extraordinarily robust, healthy, and vigorous succession pine plants
he has, I think he is going a fair way to improve.

I can only say, all the other houses, and every department, are in equally
good keeping, and fully bear out all that has been said of them this last year in
your valuable Magazine. I have observed in the present month’s Magazine
it is likely we shall soon see Mr. Barnes’s method of pine-growing. It ap-
pears to me so different from all others, that it is likely to cause a greater
sensation amongst pine-growers generally than any thing before produced ;
and I am sure it will be viewed with much interest. In every house you go
through at Bicton there are some novelties to be seen: the orange, camellia,
New Helland, and heath-houses, have ail rare specimens, in the most vigor-
ous condition. The extraordinary specimen of Hrica Massoni, [ must say, is
at this time truly grand, with upwards of 300 heads of its beautiful wax-like
flowers expanded. It is worth going any distance to see.

In the large palm-house, with its noble and interesting plants, I observed at
this time in fruit four varieties of Musa; viz., M. Cavendish, M. Dacca,
M. sapiéntum, and M. paradisiaca. A noble plant of Doryanthes excélsa
has lately been in flower, and there are many other equally fine plants.

The orchideous, stove, greenhouse, and conservatory plants are all equally
healthy ; and in each house there are many beautiful and rare specimens.

The vinery I must not forget, which, in my humble opinion, far surpasses
every thing grown in the way of grapes, with its fine handsome bunches and

Design for Five Suburban Dwellings. 607

large berries well coloured. In a word, from the mushroom to the pine-
apple, it far exceeds all that I have ever seen.
Peak House Gardens, Sidmouth, Devon, October 7, 1843.

Art. IX. Design for Five Suburban Dwellings, forming a continuous
Range, with their Gardens. By lt. Varpen, Esq., Architect and
Landscape-Gardener.

[We request the attention of the architects and builders of Southampton
to this article.]

Tuts range of buildings, of which fig. 120. is a general plan, with the dwell-
ing-houses fronting the main road, and the stable offices placed along the back
road, with the gardens between, may be increased to any number of houses, by
repeating the end houses, without materially affecting the composition. It is
of little consequence whether the fronts be of light-coloured brick with cement
or stone dressings ; wholly covered with cement ; or cased with wrought free-
stone; except that the last mode makes the weaker wall. The centre house
is considerably the largest. It is entered from a portico of six Doric columns
(fig. 122. a), the access to which is through the three centre intercolumni-
ations, and is approached by three steps. Each of the end intercolumniations
has the podium extended the full width of the area that gives light to the base-
ment story, in order to receive the ends of the steps, and to support a metal
railing to fence the portico from the area. In the flanks of the portico, the
railing is straight, but in front semi-elliptical ; and it is not to be let into the
columns, but to be supported by strong standards placed tolerably close to
them, so as to obviate the ill effect of attaching any thing, however small, to

the shafts of the columns. The portico is surmounted at the ends with two
enriched masses, that will be seen to great advantage against the plain wall
of the house; they are connected by gradients or little steps.

The windows of the principal chambers are connected by architecturai
dressings, for the purpose of overcoming what would otherwise be an ob-
jectionable arrangement, viz., that of having the piers between the windows
narrower than the openings ; and it likewise has the effect of forming a
central object more enriched than the rest of the design, the result of which
is generally good.

This centre house has a pediment over it, to mark it as the principal
feature in the composition; and the pediment is crowned with an ornamented
acroterion. The windows of the principal floor, on each side of the portico,
are in deep recesses between antz that correspond with those of the smaller
porticoes, which connect what may be considered as the wings. The windows
above these are small, with semicircular heads, over which the wall is solid ;
a plain surface here being requisite to give breadth and repose to the compo-
sition. The two side attics must, therefore, be lighted by flat windows in the
roof.

The entrance from the portico is into a passage having a groined roof
supported on ante, A door on the right hand conducts to a small morning
room or study (0), 14 ft. by 10 ft. 6in., fitted up in an unpretending manner.
At the end of the passage is another passage somewhat wider, crossing it at
right angles, likewise having a groined roof supported on ante. At the point
where the two passages intersect each other, the groining is circular, and this
is an appropriate place for suspending a lamp. At the end of the passage,
opposite to the entrance from the portico, is the door into the drawingroom
‘(e), an apartment 27 ft. long and 14 ft. broad, lighted by three windows, and
having at each end a fireplace between two arches, so as to allow of the
cornice being carried all round the ceiling without breaks. The transverse

RR 2

608 Design for Five Suburban Dwellings

Back Road.

Ff | o lh 1H | y He |
Sie oc
sa iq Nu

cet)

gerGhs
ear
T

In i
: i
a

i

Ses uel

>

Fig. 120. General Ground Plan of Five Suburban Dwellings with their Gardens.

passage has, on the right hand at the end, a door to give access to the
library (d). This is a room that partakes of the gallery form ; it being 34 ft.

long and 10 ft. broad; but this length will not be unsightly, as a portion is
par ted off from each end by columns and ante. On the contrary, this form
will be particularly convenient, from its presenting a very large surface of
walling for the bookcases. The fireplace is in the centre of one side, and is
opposite to the door. By this arrangement, an air of extent and magnificence

609

S
S
Re
Ke}
3
Ss
=
8
8
=
S
S
8
=
§
Q
-

"O6l Sh

AO} [[OA\ Sv “suorjoafotd so1.1a}xe aary ‘

610 Design for Five Suburban Dwellings

will be obtained when the library door is open, as the chimneypiece will
form a handsome object for terminating the vista along the passage, and the
pier-glass over it will reflect back the passage along its whole extent, up to
the niche and statue at the farther end.. The windows are one at each end,
which will be found sufficient to light the whole room, notwithstanding its
great length, as they are very wide. Between the columns and the front
window is a door into the morning room or study (6).

The left-hand portion of the transverse passage has a niche at the end for
the reception of a statue, and it conducts to the dining-room, staircase,
garden door, basement, &c. ;

The dining-room (e) is 19 ft. by 14 ft., and consists of a square part lighted
by two windows, and an elliptical part on the entrance end having a large
window of painted glass at one end, and the door at the other; the fireplace
is in the centre of the flat side of the elliptical end, but formed so as to dis-
pense with a projecting chimney-breast, as that would interfere with the
simplicity of the curved form. The flue, which is 9 in, by 14 in., may be
carried up in the 18 in. wall, without any such addition ; and the projecting
jambs for receiving the grate need not be higher than the mantel-shelf, and
may be covered with marble, so as to form a bold chimneypiece. There are
two large niches on each side of the fireplace that will contain groups of
statuary, or articles of furniture. The elliptical portion of the room is to
have a domed ceiling, which will be separated from the flat ceiling of the
square part by an elliptical arch. The effect of this room will be novel, most
likely pleasing, and certainly very picturesque. The form is the result of
necessity, the difficulty being to arrange in any other manner the unequally-
sized and arranged windows. The sideboard can stand in the square part,
opposite the windows, which will leave room for a good large dining-table,
that may have the end nearest the fireplace semicircular.

The staircase is to be of stone, and to have a massive metal balustrading.
It will be lighted by a skylight, and a window on each of the chamber floors.
Under the chief flight of stairs, there must be a descent of three steps to a
landing (f), where will be the staircase to the offices in the basement, and
the garden door entering into a covered porch, having the garden in front and
a water-closet on the left hand.

The other houses have porticoes (g), each formed by two engaged and two
isolated ante, and approached by three steps that are between the ante,
and each portico serves as the entrance to two dwellings. The doors are
opposite the side intercolumniations, and in the centre and at each end of
the pronaos is a niche in the wall for the reception of a statue. All these
houses have the same accommodation. From the portico, the entrance is
into a hall (2) 16 ft. by 10 ft., communicating with the staircase and the
body of the house by an open archway, and with the garden porch (/) by a
glazed door. The ceiling of the hall is groined, and has a large compartment
coved, within which is an ample skylight of the same form, indicated by the
inner oval dotted line. The fireplace is on the right hand in two of the
houses, and on the left hand in the other two. The staircase is of the same
kind as that described for the centre house, except that the ceiling under the
landing is groined in the same manner as the entrance hall. (See the small
dotted oval in the plans.) The doors into the principal rooms are from the
foot of the stairs.

The dining-room is 16 ft. long and 15 ft. 6 in. wide ; it is lighted by two
windows in the side, looking into the garden, and has the fireplace at the end
opposite the door.

The drawingroom (7m) is 25 ft. by 17 ft., lighted by three windows in the
side, and having the chimney-piece in the centre of one end, and a niche oppo-
site to it [overlooked by the engraver when reducing this small plan from
the large one}. There will be no occasion for chimney-breasts to any of the
rooms, as the fireplaces and flues may be all constructed in a manner similar to
those in the dining-raom of the centre house.

at

forming a continuous Range. 611

The kitchen and offices are in the basement, and the staircase from them
is brought up under the principal stairs. The water-closet is entered from the
garden porch.

The external sides of the houses are all alike, and are very plain (see
Jig. 121.). There is on the chamber floor one window in the centre to give
light to a small bed or dress-
ing room; and there is on
each side of it a niche for
the reception of statues.
The chimneys rise in the
centre and form a bold pe-
destal that is connected
with the angular blocks by

Fig. Wane End View Fig. 124. Side View of the Chim- eradetti. This pedestal is
She he sChemaney atone. ASUS surmounted by an enriched
band or crowning, sculptured with honeysuckle and lotus, as shown in
Jigs. 123. and 124.

The Gardens for the Five Suburban Dwellings. — The whole plot of ground in
this design consists of two acres and a quarter; each of the buildings haying
one rood and a half, of which one rood is devoted to the pleasure-garden,
and the remainder occupied by the stable-yard, site of dwelling-house, and the
front garden.

This plan is not arranged with regard to any particular aspect, as the ter-
race must be placed parallel to the general line of road on which it verges.
On this account, the gardens are laid out so as to be suitable to any locality,
by merely shifting a few of the flower-beds to the most sunny parts, if the
places shown for them happen to be too much in shade: this may be done
without deranging the general plan.

The ground is supposed to be level, but a slight rise or a few inequalities
will not be injurious. Each garden is laid out differently, so five designs are
given in this one plan (jig. 120.) for the arrangement of the grounds attached
to suburban residences placed in rows of this description.

The front garden is common to all the houses, and the entrance is at either
end through a wide carriage gateway, by a 13 ft. road that sweeps boldly
round to the front of the terrace. No flower borders are here introduced, as
it is doubtful whether the inhabitants of the houses could be brought to agree
among themselves to bear the expense of proper cultivation. If such an
arrangement could be made, they might be introduced with good effect.

The gardens could not be equally apportioned, owing to the houses being
placed at some distance from the side walls, which gives the end ones more
than the rest ; although, to obviate this difficulty, the separating walls have
been made to bend away from the centre as much as could be ventured upon.

The garden @ has a walk 6 ft. 6in. wide, that conducts from the back
doorway, in a serpentine line, to the farther end of the ground, sweeping in
its course round a thicket of shrubs, that serves to conceal from the house
the farther part of it, and thereby leaves to the imagination the task of deter-
mining the extent of the lawn in that direction. At the further end of the
ground the walk bends suddenly round, and runs parallel to the yard wall for
a short distance; here it must be sunk about a foot, that it may not be visible
from the windows of the dining-room ; and the turf on each side must slope
gently down to it ina natural manner. The shrubbery, formed against the
yard wall for the purpose of a screen, must be of evergreens, and may or may
not be faced out with flowers. From this part there is an entrance to the
stable-yard. The main walk now takes a direction homeward between the
boundary wall and a close screen of shrubs, which conceals it from the house
and from the other parts of the garden. The wall may be covered with Irish
ivy, if the aspect is such as will not allow of flowering creepers growing freely
against it, but it must be well covered with leafage of some kind ; and the
border against it, which is 18 in. wide, must be kept well stocked with such

RR 4

612 Design for Five Suburban Dwellings.

hardy herbaceous plants as will thrive in so shady a situation, The walk now
ends in that which conducts from the back door to a gate in the front fence,
through which it passes to the front garden. The junction of the two walks
is not visible from the dining-room, and the last-mentioned walk is made to
curve boldly round the house, to give an idea of extent in that direction.

The flower-borders introduced on the lawn must be kept very neatly, and
always well stocked, and the outline of each preserved with great care.

The area may either have a perpendicular wall against the garden, or a
sloping one of large rough flint, in the interstices of which specimens of the
cistus and other small rock plants may be introduced with good effect, as they
will be seen from the dining-room windows.

The yard contains a fuel-house, shed, coach-house, and three-stalled stable,
with loft and man’s sleeping-room over it. The coach entrance to the yard is
from a back road that runs parallel to the entrance road.

The garden 6 is laid out with more formality than is the preceding design.
One broad gravel walk runs in a straight line from the back door of the house,
to the stable yard, and communicates with it by an ornamental arched gate-
way, the effect of which, as the terminating object of a straight pathway, is
good, as may be seen in the Horticultural Gardens at Chiswick and elsewhere.
On each side of this walk is turf, bounded by shrubbery, and having flower
borders cut out upon it. The first objects from the house are, a Jong bed on
one side, and a parterre on the other adjoining the kitchen area. The second
feature presented is a mass of flowers and shrubs on each side, made to look
as if they were arranged on stands, by being planted in earth thrown up in a
regular form, at the highest angle it will retain against the wall; and, if these
are neatly kept, an effect of high cultivation will be produced, that will be
very pleasing so near to the dwelling-house, and in so small a garden. The
walls above and on each side must be covered with flowering creepers, placing
those that are evergreen nearest to the house. Beyond these flower-banks
are projecting thickets of evergreen shrubs, that partially shut off the lower
part of the garden, for the purpose of increasing its apparent magnitude. At
a little distance from these is a walk that leaves the main one at a right angle,
and conducts to a seat, and thence running between the boundary wall and a
close shrubbery, reenters it again at the bottom of the garden. Wherever
the walls have a shrubbery close against them, they are to be covered with
Trish ivy.

The garden c is not larger than the rest, though belonging to the centre
house, which is the principal of the range. It is laid out in a uniform manner.
The area is skirted by a straight walk, from which springs a semicircular one.
The space enclosed between them is taken up with parterre work of a radiating
pattern, on turf. From the circumference of this, opposite to the centre, is a
straight walk terminating in a circle of gravel, having for its centre a fountain,
if such is attainable ; if not, a statue, a sun-dial, a stone flower-stand, or some
other interesting artificial object. The lawn on each side of this walk is cut
off from the rest of the garden by an evergreen thicket, which serves to
conceal the directien of the walks that leave the gravelled circle, and likewise
the extent of the ground beyond. At the point of these thickets, next the
walk, are to be placed handsome vases, containing aloes or yuccas; and, in
the nook that is formed between the thicket and the wall, other vases of a
larger description, on rich architectural flower-stands. These various objects,
so arranged, will be found to group well together; and the effect of some
being immediately backed with foliage, and the others open to the scenery
beyond, will be highly picturesque ; and the whole will have a character of
richness and elegance, as seen from the windows of the drawingroom, that
cannot fail to please. This character will be kept up and increased by the
flower banks, climbing roses, and choice creepers, against each of the division
walls; and by the walls themselves having small tazzas containing flowering
plants placed on them at equal distances, around which, so as partially to
conceal them, the roses might be allowed to grow. The farther part of the

;

Pleasure and Advantage of Ornithology. 613

garden is of a less artificial character. The walk leaves the gravelled circle
on one side, and, after skirting round between the shrubbery and the foliage-
clad walls, reenters on the opposite side. The walk at the end of the garden
must be sunk, so as not to be visible from the windows of the principal floor
of the house, that apparent extent may be given to the premises, by not dis-
playing the junction of the two walks that leave the gravelled circle in
opposite directions. The imagination will supply the connexion, and no
doubt picture it as being at a considerable distance off; most likely beyond
the yard and stable buildings. Against the yard wall a flower bank is to be
placed, having lofty shrubs to form the back of it.

The garden d is laid out with great simplicity. The walk leaves the back
door of the house in a serpentine manner, sweeping round a clump of shrubs
that abuts against the division wall, and which serves to intercept the view of
the farther part of the walk, and leaves the mind to supply, by imagination, its
subsequent direction, and the extent of the demesne on that side. Yet it
continues in fact almost in a straight line, following the wall to the farther
end of the ground, then turning sharply along by the yard wall, where it is
sunk in a manner similar to those at the extremity of the other gardens, and
continues skirting the side wall, and finally falls into itself just by the clump
spoken of before. Two vases may be introduced in this garden with good
effect, as they will combine well with the tazzas placed on the wall between it
. and garden c. The walls, where not concealed by shrubbery, are to be
covered with creepers, and two raised earth flower banks are to be placed
against them near to the house.

The garden e is the same size as garden a, and is laid out in a similar style.
The walk which from the dining-room appears to be the main one sweeps
directly from the back door, round the house, to the gate in the fence parting
off the front garden. This circuitous direction will afford great play to the
imagination in determining the boundary of the premises, especially as but
one walk branching from it can be seen from the windows at the back of the
house, and that, from its going off by the side of the wall, will appear requisite,
and, from its not being again visible (it being sunk where it crosses the lawn)
will rather add to, than detract from, the apparent magnitude of the demesne.
The walk that conducts round the garden is, for the most part, planted off
from the lawn, and entirely so from the house. The parterre is radiating
and placed round the circular walk; and the other flower beds between the
walk and the area are continued round the corner of the house ; all which
will further the idea of the principal part of the grounds being also in that
quarter ; and this, combined with the open vista which is visible along the
lawn, will present from the dining-room windows the effect of what may be
considered, for a suburban residence, a very extensive garden.

4

Art. X. What Gardeners might learn by attending to the Habits of
Birds. By Joun Dun op.

Mucu rational amusement might be found by gardeners in studying the habits
of birds and insects, instead of frequenting the pot-house, as many of them
do. Although I have been a strict observer of nature for years, vet there is
scarcely a week passes in which I do not discover something which I before
knew nothing of. For some weeks past I have been much amused with a
pair of wrynecks ( Yanx Torquilla), which had nestled in the hole of a tree in
our garden, where they hatched four young ones. In a few days afterwards
I found several shells of the common snail ( Helix nemoralis) lying around the
tree, which daily increased in numbers. I had the curiosity to watch the old
ones, never before having heard of their feeding their young upon snails, and
I was truly astonished at, the dexterity with which they would lay the shell

614 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

upon the ground and open it, in the manner of those which I have sent you.
Ninety of these shells have they emptied under the tree, and many more they
must have destroyed elsewhere. This was before they took wing ; how many
more they will require before they can feed themselves I know not. But
what I have seen is well worth the attention of gardeners, who often destroy
them for amusement upon their first arrival in this country ; and for want of
knowing that they are truly the gardener’s friend, and ought to be protected
by them. It was truly amusing to see the parents, after the young were fully
fledged, trying by every means to induce them to leave the nest and take
wing ; they would sit upon the tree within sight of the hole, with a snail in
their mandibles, twisting their necks in a thousand fantastic forms, to induce
their young ones to come out. They have at last succeeded ; they are gone,
and I am afraid I shall see no more of them before next April, when I expect
they will again pay me a visit.
Worcester Park, Aug. 7. 1843.

Art. XI. Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices of
the Kinds of Plants newly introduced into British Gardens and
Plantations, or which have been originated in them; together with
additional Information respecting Plants (whether old or new)
already in Cultivation: the whole intended to serve as a perpetual
Supplement to the “ Encyclopedia of Plants,” the “ Hortus Bri-
tannicus,” the “ Hortus Lignosus,” and the “ Arboretum et Fruti-
cetum Britannicum.”

Curtis's Botanical Magazine ; in monthly numbers, each containing
seven plates; 3s. 6d. coloured, 3s. plain. Edited by Sir William
Jackson Hooker, LL.D., &c., Director of the Royal Botanic Garden,
Kew.

Edwards’s Botanical Register; in monthly numbers, new series,
each containing six plates; 3s. 6d. coloured, 3s. plain. Edited by
Dr. Lindley, Professor of Botany in the University College, London.

Paxton’s Magazine of Botany, and Register of Flowering Plants ;
in monthly numbers ; large 8vo; 2s. 6d. each.

Dilleniaceze.

2185. CANDO/LLEA [1843, 50.

tetrandra Linmd?. tetrandrous 2 \_| or 7 jn Y Swan River 1842. C s.p.l Bot. reg. for
This is a very handsome greenhouse shrub, with both its leaves and flowers
nearly twice as large as those of the common species. It has been already
noticed, p 445. The name alludes to the stamens being disposed in four very
distinct bundles. The species is remarkable for the bright orange colour and
large size of the aril of its seeds, which is nearly as much cut as that of the
nutmeg ; and, in fact, bears considerable resemblance to mace. It is a hardy
greenhouse plant, of very easy culture, which will flower freely in a pot,
though it blows better when planted out in a bed. In all cases care should
be taken to keep the collar above ground, as it is very liable to suffer from
damp during winter. “ Water should be liberally given during the summer
months, and plenty of air at all times when the weather permits, applying no
fire-heat except to keep off frost. It is readily propagated by cuttings under

ordinary treatment.” (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843.)

Caryophyllacee.

3670. VISCA‘RIA
oculata Lindl. dark-eyed © or 2 su Pk Algiers 1843. S co Bot. reg. 1843, 53.

This plant bears ccnsiderable resemblance to the common annual Agro-
stémma Cce'li-Rosa, but it has a dark eye, and “its petals have a short and

supplementary to the Eine. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 615

slightly emarginate appendage, and not a long bifid one. In the form of the
calyx there is this difference, that in the plant before us it contracts suddenly
about the middle, while in Coe‘li-R6sa it narrows very gradually. Further-
more, the surface of the seed-vessel here is rough, with fine granulations, but
in Cee‘li-Rosa it is smooth.” This plant is a hardy annual, requiring the usual
treatment of plants of that kind. Its seeds were gather ed on dry hills, about
thirty miles from Algiers, and it flowered for the ‘first time in this country in
the nursery of Messrs. Backhouse at York. ( Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843.)

Malpighiaceze.
Stigmaphyllum jatrophefolium Adr. de Jus. This is a pretty stove plant,
producing abundance of yellow flowers and palmated leaves. (Bot. Reg., Aug.
1843, Misc.)

Melidcee.

Turre‘a lobdta Lindl. A very curious stove shrub from Sierra Leone. It
has white flowers, about the size of those of the orange tree. (Bot. Reg.,
Sept. 1843, Misc.)

Tropeolacee.
1148. TROPA*OLUM 9317 polyphyllum Bot. mag. t. 4042; and Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x. p. 175.

This pretty species of Tropz‘olum, though marked in the Hort. Brit. as in-
troduced in 1827, is stated in the Botanical Magazine to have been only “ lately
introduced” into this country ; and in Paxton’s Magazine it is said to have
been introduced in 1839. It is a very pretty plant, producing a great abun-

dance of bright yellow flowers and small, palmated, glaucous leaves. (Bot.
Mag., Oct. 1843; and Paxt. Mag. of Bot., Sept. 1843.)

Rutdcee.

ERYTHROCHITON Nees ct Martius. Rep-coaT. (From erwthros, red, and chiton, a coat.)
[1843, 47.
brasiliénsis Nees et Martius Brazilian @ ([) or 10 jl W_ Brazil 1842. C 5.1 Bot. reg.

This plant forms a small tree about 10 ft. high, “ with the habit of a Theo-
phrasta, the stem being altogether unbranched, and the long leathery leaves
collected at one end.” The flowers are white with red calyxes, and hence
the name of the genus, which signifies red-coat. It is found i 10 “close shady
places in the virgin woods of Brazil, preferring a granitic soil ;” and it flow-
ered at Syon for the first time in Eur ope. “It is one of those ek: trees
of the tropics whose foliage is filled with a sweet volatile oil, like that of the
orange, and whose aromatic tonic bark is valuable as a remedy for the fevers
of such countries.” (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1843.)

Leguminose.

1964. CY’TISUS [40.
Weldénz Jacq. Baron Welden’s 3 or 10 ap.my Y Dalmatia 1840. C co Bot. reg. 1843,

This very beautiful species of Cytisus differs from the laburnum in its
flowers growing in short erect racemes, instead of in long drooping ones. Its
leaves are so like those of the laburnum that it can scarcely be distinguished
from that plant when not in flower. It is exceedingly poisonous, and even
the smell of its flowers is said to produce the headache. It has been fre-
quently alluded to in this Magazine, and is described and figured in the
Encyclopedia of Trees and Shrubs, fig. 343. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1843.)

2837. ACA‘CIA [4041.
rotundifolia Hook. round-leaved * ,_] or 3 ap Y New Holland 1842. C s.p.l1 Bot. mag.

This species was found near Hunter’s River by Mr. James Backhouse,
during his very interesting travels in New Holland. “ It is a straggling plant ;
but when trained upon a trellis in a garden-pot it makes a very elegant ¢ appear-
ance with its graceful drooping branches and copious heads of blossoms, more
copious than the leaves.” (Bot. Mag., Sept. 1843.)

29363. spectabilis Bot. Reg., 1843, 46.
Dr. Lindley observes of this plant, that “the leaves and branches are

616 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

covered with the most delicate bloom, and the flowers, produced in large
masses at the ends of the shoots, are of the clearest and softest yellow.” He
adds, “ that it belongs to the same section of the genus as A. discolor and A.
dealbata,” but that it is probably more tender than they are, as it is a native
of a warmer latitude. It is easily distinguished by its broad, smooth, glaucous
leaflets, and by the gland fcund in those species in connexion with the petiole
being replaced by a depression.” (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1843.) This species was
before alluded to in p. 500.

2059. LIPA‘RIA
parva Vogel small #\_) or 2 mr.ap Y CapeofGood Hope 1840. C co Bot. mag. 4034.

This is a small erect shrub, with very handsome heads of golden yellow
flowers. (Bot. Mag., Aug. 1843.)

3581. LABICHZ*4 [bot. vol. x. p. 149.
bipunctata Pazt. two-pointed w | or 3 mr.ap Y Swan River 1840. C s.p Paxt. mag.

A pretty little greenhouse shrub with bright golden yellow flowers, some-
what resembling those of Etthales macrophylla, and requiring the usual
treatment of New Holland undershrubs. “ The species is named bipunctata,
on account of some of the leaves having their points split into two. This
characteristic is, however, by no means general, and looks almost as if the
point had been split artificially.” (Paxt. Mag. of Bot., Aug. 1843.)

1260. GASTROLO‘BIUM
acitum Hook. acute # \_} or 12 mr Y.R Swan River 1842. C s.l.p Bot. mag. 4040.

A pretty little greenhouse shrub, raised from seeds sent from the Swan
River to the Kew Garden by Mr. Drummond in 1842. (Bot. Mag., Sept.
1843.)

Brongniartia sericea Schlech. “ A downy shrub ; when out of flower look-
ing something like an amorpha, with leaves pubescent on the midrib and
beneath, but smooth above when full grown. The leaves are pinnate, and the
flowers of a dingy purple, the petals being almost hidden by their large green
calyx. The plant “has little beauty, and is too tender for the climate of
London.” (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1843, Misc.)

Spherolobium acuminatum Benth. “ A little Swan River shrub, with rush-
like stems, and whorls of orange-red papilionaceous flowers.” (Bot. Reg.,
Aug. 1843, Misc.)

Rosdcee.

Lindléya mespilotdes Humb. et Kunth. This rare plant, which is a native
of Mexico, has lately flowered in the Horticultural Society’s Garden. It is
an evergreen tree, with “ something of the appearance of Cratze‘gus mexicana,
but has a dry capsular fruit.”’ (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1843, Misc.)

Onagraria.

1188. FU’/CHSIA (vol. x. p. 151.
exoniénsis Pazt. Exeter %¢\J} or 4 jlau C.P hybrid 1842. C r.m_ Paxt. mag. bot.
This is a very handsome hybrid, raised by Mr. Pince of the Exeter Nur-

sery, between F. cordifolia and F. globosa. The flowers are large, with a
long tube, and of the most brilliant colours. (Part. Mag. of Bot., Aug.
1843.)

Myrtaceae.

1493. EUCALY’PTUS [L_s.p Bot. mag. 4036.
splachnicérpon Hook. Splachnum-fruited @ tJ or 16 Y ap.jl King George’s Sound 1840.
This is a very handsome plant, which, in British gardens, only attains the

height of about 16 ft. ; but which, in its native country, is said to become an
immense tree. The flowers are the largest of the genus. (Bot. Mag., Sept.
1843.)

Hypocalijmna angustifolium End]. “ A charming sweet-scented greenhouse
shrub, raised from Swan River seeds by Messrs. Pope and Sons of the
Handsworth Nursery, Birmingham.” The flowers are white. (Bot. Reg.,
Aug. 1843, Misc.)

+.
u
¥
r
‘

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 617

Verticordia densiflora Lindl. A little heath-like shrub, belonging to the
fringe myrtles of New Holland, with corymbs of delicately formed pink
flowers ; but they are not bright enough, nor in sufficient mass, to produce a
striking effect. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

Cactacee.

475. RHI’/PSALIS
brachiata Hook. brachiate # L_} cu = mr W Buenos Ayres 1843. C s.p Bot. mag. 4039.

A curious species of this genus, with numerous branches very close together.
The flowers are small, and not showy. (Bot. Mag., Sept. 1843.)
Rubidcee.

638. GARDE‘NIA_ 5 [Bot. mag. 4044.
Sherbotrnig Hook. Mrs.Sherbourne’s § ([) or 3 jn W.R Sierra Leone 1842. C co

A very handsome species of the Cape jasmine, characterised by the deep
crimson ‘inside the mouth of the tube of the corolla. It is a native of Sierra
Leone, and requires the usual treatment of stove shrubs. (Bot. Mag., Oct.
1843.)

Randia oxypétala Lindl. This species of Randia is a native of India. “ It
forms a dense and somewhat spiny shrub, with shining, small, oval, densely
crowded leaves ; and solitary, terminal, stalkless flowers, which are yellowish
and sweet-scented.” It is rather tender in the neighbourhood of London.
(Bot. Reg., Sept. 1843, Misc.)

Composite.
2451. OTHO’NNA 22343 frutéscens Bot. Mag. 3967.

2335. SENE‘CIO (mag. 4011.
calamifodlius Hook. reed-leaved # ._j or 1 au Y Capeof Good Hope 1730. C s.p Bot.

This species is remarkable for its fleshy succulent leaves, which resemble
those of a mesembryanthemum. Its flowers are large and yellow, and are
produced in great abundance. (Bot. Mag., April, 1843.)

BARNADE‘SIA Lin. fils. (Called after Michael Barnadex, a Spanish botanist.) [1843, 29.
rosea Lindl. rose-coloured w% t_} or 1 my Pk South America 1840. C s.p.1 Bot. reg.

This very singular genus consists of small plants, natives of South America,
which, in their native country, form spiny bushes, with very singularly shaped
flowers. This species requires a warm greenhouse, in which the temperature
during winter averages 47°. The plant is very liable to suffer from damp.
(Bot. Reg., June, 1843.)

Corvisartia indica Dec. “ This is a coarse herbaceous plant, with large heads
of yellow flowers, in all respects extremely similar to the elecampane.” The
species is a native of Cashmere and other parts of the North of India. (Bot.
Reg., Aug. 1842, Misc.)

A’ster cabulicus Lindl. This is a small half-shrubby bush, which is quite
hardy, and has rough willow-like leaves. The whole plant smells like worm-
wood, and the flowers, which are at first white, become afterwards of a pale
lilac. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1843, Misc.)

Lobeliacee.

3646. SIPHOCA’/MPYLOS Ags, and Paxt. mag. bot. vol. ix. p. 223.
betulefolius G. Don Birch-leaved w[_] or 3 jl -Y Brazil 1840. C. co Bot. mag.

The flowers of this plant bear considerable resemblance to those of S,
bicolor. The leaves are, however, much handsomer than those of that
species. The stem is rather suffruticose than shrubby, as it is frequently
only woody at the base. It has, as yet, only been tried in a stove, but will
probably prove quite as hardy as S. bicolor, and it has the same peculiarity of
remaining a long time in flower. This species is a native of the Organ Moun-
tains of Brazil; and it is stated by Sir William Hooker that it flowered for
the first time in Europe in Kew Garden in July, 1842; but in Paxton’s Maga-
zine it is stated that it was in flower some months previous to that time in the
Epsom Nursery. (Bot. Mag., Oct. 1842; and Pavt. Mag. of Bot., Nov.
1842.)

(4015.

longipedunculatus Pohl long-stalked «(1 or 3 ja R.Y Brazil? 1840. C co Bot. mag.
This plant has not such showy flowers as either of the other species ; but

618 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

it is remarkable for the length of its peduncles. ‘“ The stems are long and
trailing rather than climbing, and should be fastened to a wire trellis, when
the plant makes a handsome appearance.” Sir W. Hooker adds that his
specimen “ flowered in January, 1823 ;” but this is probably a misprint for
1843, as the plant does not appear to have been in the country twenty years.
(Bot. Mag., May, 1843.)
Campanulacee.
607. CAMPA’NULA

Leeflingz? Leefling’s ©] or 3 jl P Portugal 1842. S$ r.m_ Bot. reg. 1843, 19,

This is a very beautiful little plant, which requires protection during winter,
if sown in the autumn; and plenty of air if sown in the spring, and kept in a
cold frame, “as the plants are very delicate and apt to damp off. It may be
grown in the open border, if planted in a warm and dry situation after the
danger of spring frosts is over.’ It is a very valuable plant for either a pot
in a greenhouse or a box in a balcony, from the great abundance of its
blossoms, and the long time it continues in flower. (Bot. Reg., April, 1843.)

: [p. 31.
grandis Fisch. et Mey. large _AJ or 3 au P Natolia 1842. D co Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x.

This is a very handsome plant with the habit of growth of C. pyramidalis,
but with larger and more showy flowers. The flowers, indeed, are sometimes
as much as 3 in. across. The plant requires the same treatment as C. pyra-
midalis, but it has the advantage of blooming splendidly when kept in small
pots, when the height of the flower stems does not exceed a foot or 9 in.
When treated like C. pyramidalis, the plant is still stronger and more robust,
and the flower stalk frequently grows 4 ft. high. (Bot. Reg., June, 1842,
Misc. ; and Pazrt. Mag. of Bot., March, 1843.)

1698. GE’SNERA discolor Lindl.; Gesnérza polyantha Dec. Bot. mag. 3995.

ACHIME‘NES [4012.; and Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x. p. 145.
grandiflora Dec. large-flowered A \_] spl 1 jn Ro Mexico 1842, C rm _ Bot. mag.
This very splendid species was first discovered in Mexico, whence it was

sent to the Continent, and afterwards reached England through Ghent. It

should be cultivated like the other lately introduced plants of this genus; and,
according to Paxton’s Magazine, it “ requires a light nutritive soil composed

of fresh loam and a large proportion of leaf mould, or a somewhat less amount

of decayed manure. It must not be stinted for pot room, and should be

started into growth in a stove or pit supplied with bottom heat, where it

may be kept till it is about to flower. When in a flowering state, it may be
gradually removed to a warm greenhouse or cool stove, where it will bloom
profusely.” (Paxt. Mag. of Bot., Aug. 1843 ; Bot. Mag., May, 1843; and

Bot. Reg., Aug. 1842, Misc.)

multifldra Gavd.. many-flowered {)) pr 1 au P Brazil 1842. S co Bot. mag. 3993.

This species, though not so showy as most of those lately introduced, is
yet very pretty, and has a singular appendage on the limb of the corolla: in
other respects, it bears so much resemblance to some of the kinds of Gloxinia
that it might easily be mistaken for a species of that genus. (Bot. Mag., Jan.
1843.)

hirsita Lindl, A very handsome species with large, rich, rose-coloured
flowers ; a native of Guatemala. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

1702. GLOXI’NIA ‘
tubifldra Hook. tube-flowered [AJ cu 2 au W South Brazil 1841. D co Bot. mag. 3971. :

This is a very singular species, from the great length of the flower tube,
which is often 4 in. long. The flowers are white and downy, and they are
produced in very great abundance. The plant partakes more of the habit of
a Gesnéria than of a Gloxinia. (Bot. Mag., Oct. 1842.)

1797. COLU’MNEA E
spléndens Paat. splendid 2.([[] cu 2 n S Brazil 1841. C co Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x. p.5.

This species is also called Colimnea grandiflora and Nematanthus Guille-
minidna, and it certainly appears to belong to the latter genus in the shape of

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 619

its flowers. The leaves are thick and fleshy and of a very bright green, and
the lower part of the branches is covered with a nearly white, smooth bark,
which has a very striking effect when contrasted with the intense green of
the leaves and the deep scarlet of the flowers. Its habit of growth is
evidently to become pendent, but it may be treated as a sort of low climbing
shrub, and it will probably “blossom occasionally throughout the whole
year.” (Paxt. Mag. of Bot., Feb. 1843.)

NEMATA’NTHUS Dec. (From néma, a thread, and anthos, a flower ; thread-like peduncles.)
longipes Dec. long-peduncled 2 (J cu 2 d S_ Brazil 1841. C co Bot. mag. 4018.

This appears to be the same plant as that figured under the name of Co-
lamnea spléndens in Paxton’s Magazine, and, if not the same, is evidently very
nearly allied to it, and requires the same treatment. It has flowered in
December, January, and May. (Bot. Mag., June, 1843.)

HYPOCY’RTA Mart. (Hupo, beneath, and kurtos, gibbous ; a projection of one side of the corolla.)

P (mag. 4047.
strigilldsa Mart. rough-leaved [A) cu 2 my S.Y Organ Mountains 1842. D co Bot.

This is another of the numerous plants for which the botanical world is
indebted to Mr. Veitch of Exeter, and which he has imported from Brazil.
The present species is, however, more curious than beautiful, as its corollas,
from their peculiar shape, have the appearance of being deformed. (Bot.
Mag., Oct. 1843.)

Drymonia punctata Lindl. “ This curious plant has the habit of a Sinningia
with a creeping stem, and it was introduced from Guatemala by M. Hartweg.”
The flowers are of a pale cream-colour, and the leaves of a light green witha
crimson midrib. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842, Misc.)

Evicacee,
1339. RHODODE/NDRON

fragrans Past. fragrant “ |_] pr 3 my Li hybrid C s.p Paxt. mag. bot. vol.x. p. 147.

This is said to be a plant raised by Messrs. Chandler more than twenty years
ago, and it appears to be the same as that generally called R. azaledides, see
Hort. Brit. (Pazxt. Mag. of Bot., Aug. 1843.)

Rollisonz? Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1843, 25.

This is a garden variety of R. arboreum, “remarkable for its deep-red
flowers and the closeness with which they are arranged.” It is more tender
than the common tree rhododendron. (Bot. Reg., May, 1843.)

521. AZA‘LEA 4341 indica var. Bot. Reg. 1842, 56.

This beautiful double red azalea was imported from China by W. Wells,
Esq., of Redleaf. It is much handsomer than any of the double-flowering
kinds that have been originated in this country. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1842.)

1173. ERISCA

Neill? Paxt. Dr. Neill’s hybrid.

This a hybrid between £. aristata and LZ. linnzeo?des. It is an elegant plant,
with deep-pink flowers softening into white in the limb. (Pazt. Mag. of Bot.,
Oct. 1842.)

Pieris ovalifolia G.Don. A fine evergreen shrub, a native of the north of
India, having white flowers tinged with pink. (Bot. Reg., July, 1842, Misc.)
COMAROSTA/PHYLIS Lndi. (Komaros, the arbutus, staphylis, a bunch of grapes.) (1843, 30.

arbutdides Lindl. Arbutus-like # _| pr 6 0 my W Guatemala 1840. C s.p Bot. reg.

This plant very much resembles an Arbutus, but the fruit, instead of being
many-seeded, is a 5-celled drupe. The plant is a pretty, half-hardy, evergreen
shrub growing 5 or 6 feet high, and flowering abundantly. (Bot. Reg., June,
1843.) ;

MACLEA‘NIA Hook. (In honour of John Maclean, Esq., of Lima.)
angulata Hook. angled-flowered “ (_.) or 3 jn S.Y Peru 1842. C co Bot. mag, 3979,

A very handsome stove shrub with the habit of Thibatdia. The flowers are
of brilliant colours, and are produced in great abundance, (Bot. Mag., Novy.
1842.)

620 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

Ebenacee.
9889. DIOSPY‘ROS 25185 edulis; Diospyros Sapota Roxb. Bot. Mag. 3988.
Jasminee.
Jasminum subuldtum Lindl, A Chinese shrub with yellow flowers. (Bot.
Reg., Aug. 1842, Misc.)

Apocyndcee.

537. ECHI‘TES [reg. 1843, 27 ; and Paxt. mag. bot. vol. ix. p. 199.
atropurpirea Lindl. dark purple g§ [J or 10 jl D.P South Brazil 1842, C s.l.p Bot.

This is an exceedingly graceful plant with slender climbing stems, and very
dark purple flowers. “ In cultivation it requires the temperature of a stove,
and may be trained to the rafters of the house, or to a wire trellis spread
entirely over the roof.” Care should be taken not to suffer it to become too
wet. ‘“ From the weakness of its shoots, it will need pruning in the winter,
and may perhaps be improved by having its branches stopped while they are
growing. It is not till after a specimen has been established for two or three
years that it acquires the ornamental character which naturally belongs to it,

but it then blossoms throughout the summer in the greatest prodigality.”
(Paxt. Mag. of Bot., Oct. 1842; and Bot. Reg., May 1843.)

(mag. 3976 ; and Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x. p. 25.
spléndens Hook. splendid § [_] or 10 jl o Ro Organ Mountains 1841. C s.1.p Bot.

This is one of the most splendid climbing plants in British hothouses, and
it appears likely to flower nearly all the summer, as a specimen in the stove at
Mr. Veitch’s Nursery near Exeter continued producing flowers from July to
October, at which period the greater part of the leaves of the plant fell off
with the flowers ; thus proving that the plant was partly deciduous. The habit
of the plant is very luxuriant; the leaves are of unusual size, and the flowers,
which are borne in large clusters (expanding only one or two at a time), are
each often 3 or 4 inches in breadth. After the leaves fall, the plant “ should be
kept in a state of rest through the months of November, December, and Ja-
nuary.” (Paxt. Mag. of Bot., March, 1843 ; and Bot. Mag., Nov. 1842.)

[mag. 3997.
hirsdta Ruiz et Pav. hairy g§ (() or 10 s Y.Ro Organ Mountains 1841. C s.l.p Bot.

This species, though not so handsome as the preceding ones, is yet well de-
serving of cultivation, from the agreeable variety afforded by its colour, which
is yellow tinged with rose. (Bot. Mag., Feb. 1843.)

Gentianez.

LEIA’/NTHUS Grise. (From /e7os, smooth, and anthos, a flower.) [mag. 4043.
nigréscens Cham. et Schlecht. blackish J] or 3 su Bksh Guatemala 1842. C co Bot.

This is a very remarkable plant from the colour and profusion of the flowers,
which form a large panicle about 2 ft. high and 14 ft. broad. A great many
flowers “are in beauty at one time, and they continue in perfection a very long
time, if kept cool and protected from the too powerful rays of the sun.”
In a shady greenhouse, the flowers of this plant “have been equally profuse
and perfect for a period of four months.” (Bot. Mag., Oct. 1843.)

1706. BIGNO‘NTA 15361 picta Bot. Reg. 1842, 45; and Pazt. Mag. Bot. vol.x p.125.
28670. jasminGides, Técoma jasminOides Bot. Reg. 2002; and Bot Mag. 4004.

This beautiful species, though figured in the Botanical Register so far back as
1837, having been accidentally omitted in the Hortus Britannicus, it has been
thought advisable to give the reference to it in the Botanical Register here,
on the occasion of its being again figured in the Botanical Magazine for
March, 1843.

Convolvulacea.

3619. PHARBI‘TIS [mag. bot. vol. ix. p. 243.

ostrina Lindl. purple & (.) or 20 su D.P Cuba 1839. O co Bot. reg. 1842,51; Paxt.

This is a handsome species of Pharbitis, producing abundance o° its very

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 621

dark flowers from May during the whole of the summer. It has the habit of
a Batatas. “ The roots are large and tuberous, the stem perishing every
winter, but growing out rapidly in spring to the length of 20 ft. or more.”
(Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842 ; and Paat. Mag. of Bot., Dec. 1842.)

491. IPOMQE*A 4165 blanda; Ipomce‘a cymdsa Choisy Bot. Reg. 1843, 24. [3978.
Tweediéz Hook, Mr. Tweedie’s tJ pr 6 su Rsh P Parana 1838. C co Bot. mag.

A pretty little plant with heart-shaped leaves and small flowers. (Bot.
Mag. Nov. 1842.)
Boraginacee.
445. EXCHIUM
petre‘um Trati, rock “ pr 2°’my Pk.Li Dalmatia 1842. C s.].p Bot. reg. 1843, 26.

This is a very gay little plant, from the brilliancy of the colours of its
flowers, and the neatness of its leaves. It flowers freely in spring, “ but it is
very difficult to preserve through the winter, as it is very subject to damp off,
even when the plants are old.” (Bot. Reg., May 1843.)

Solandcee. N

583. CE’STRUM (4022.
viridiflorum Hook. green-flowered # [_] fra 2 au G South Brazil 1836. C co Bot. mag.

This species of Céstrum is remarkable for the delicious fragrance of its
flowers, which is most powerful at night. The flowers are inconspicuous
from their colour, but they are produced in great abundance, and remain on
for several months. (Bot. Mag., June 1843.)

Solanum concdvum Lindl. A handsome greenhouse climber, with narrow,
concave, dark-green leaves, and panicles of violet-coloured flowers. It is a
native of Chili, and has been several years in this country. (Bot. Reg., Aug.
1842, Misc.)

Scrophularinee.
1717. PENTSTE‘MON 15461 gentiandzdes var. spléndens Pazt. Mag. Bot. vol. ix. p. 175.
This is a variety raised from Mexican seeds, the flowers of which are much
larger than those of the species, and of a more brilliant colour. (Pazxt. Mag.
of Bot., Sept. 1842.)

TETRANE‘MA Benth. (From fetra, four, néma, a filament; but four, while Pentstémon has five.)
mexicanum Genth. .Mexican ;A) pr 1 su Rsh P Mexico 1842. C co Bot. reg. 1843, 52.

This is a pretty little greenhouse plant, “ quite peculiar in its appearance,
in consequence of its almost stemless habit and the profusion of little corymbs ”
of showy flowers. It is rather tender, and should be kept nearly dry, in a
house between a stove and a greenhouse, during winter. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843.)

1789. DIGITA‘LIS 15912 purpurea var. supérba Pact. Mag. Bot. vol. x. p. 29. :
This is a variety with very large pinkish-white flowers, which have deep
purple blotches in the lip. These blotches are very striking, and are rendered
the more so by each having a rim of white round it. (Pawxt. Mag. of Bot.,
March, 1843.)

1808. SCHIZA’NTHUS
cAandidus Lindl. white OJ pr 1 au W _ Coquimbo 1840. S co _ Bot. reg. 1843, 45.

The flowers of this species are of pure white, without a stain of any other
colour, and the leaves are pinnatifid with the segments widely apart. (Bot.
Reg., Sept. 1843.)

' 472, PHLO’X

Van Houtte’s garden variety, Bot. Reg. 1843, 5.

“This is a variety of remarkable beauty, looking as if P. suaveolens had
been crossed with P. caroliniana.” It was raised by M. Louis Van Houtte,
nurseryman of Ghent. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843.)

Verénica nivea Lindl. This is a suffruticose plant with white flowers, a
native of Van Diemen’s Land. (Bot. Reg., June, 1842, Misc.)

Pedicularis megaléntha Wall. This plant is rather pretty, from its large
yellow flowers, which grow in long terminal spikes. The foliage, however, is

3d Ser. — 1843. XI. Ss

622 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

rather pallid, which gives the plant an unhealthy appearance. (Boi. Reg.,
Aug. 1842, Misc.)

Labiate.

BE‘CIUM Lindi. (“From békion, a name assigned by Dioscorides to the sage ; resemblance.”)
bicolor Lindl. two-coloured w \_}) or 2 au W Abyssinia 1842, C co Bot. reg. 1843, 15.
This plant, Dr. Lindley observes, “evidently belongs to the ocymoideous

labiate plants, but does not agree with any of the published genera. Its sin-

gular calyx seems by itself to mark it sufficiently; independently of which,
the plant differs from Plectranthus and its allies in the equal size of the two
lips of the corolla; and from O’cymum and its allies in the long declinate
stamens, distinctly bilabiate corolla, and whole habit.” It is an ornamental
greenhouse plant, with large white flowers having lilac veins, and long
violet-coloured stamens. (Bot. Reg., March, 1843.)

1693. SCUTELLA‘RIA [vol. x. p. 99.
spléndens L. K. et O. splendid y (Qj or 2 au S Mexico 1841. C co Paxt. mag. bot.
The flowers of this species are as brilliant in colour as those of the com-

mon scarlet Verbéna. As yet it has only been kept in a stove, but it will

probably prove as hardy as any of the other species. (Paxt. Mag. of Bot.,
June, 1843.)

Verbenacee.
1738. LANTA‘NA 15580 crocea Pazt. Mag. Bot. vol. x. p.53.

Scléroon oléinum Benth. This is a little Mexican shrub of no beauty, but
which is said to have “ the appearance of an Olive, the flowers of a Verbena,
and the name of Daphne.” (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1843.)

Acanthacee.
61. ERA’NTHEMUM

montanum Rozd. mountain & [_) or 2 ap.my ‘Li India 1840. C Bot. mag. 4031.
A very beautiful flowering shrub, which requires a stove in British
gardens. The stems are somewhat weak, and the flowers are produced in
the greatest abundance. (Bot. Mag., Aug. 1843.)

Primulacee.
451, PRIYMULA 30555 denticulata Bot. Reg. 1842, 47; and Bot. Mag. 3959.
450, ANDRO’SACE
lanugindsa Wall. woolly-leaved A pr 3% au Li Himalaya 1841. D co Bot. mag. 4005.
A pretty little alpine plant from the Himalayan Mountains. The flowers
are of a pinkish lilac with a yellow eye, and the foliage and branches are

densely clothed with long silky hairs. The plant appears to be quite hardy.
(Bot. Mag., March, 1843.)

Plumbaginee.
929. STA’TICE 7514 monopétala var. denudata Bot Reg. 1842, 59.

This is the plant sometimes called Statice suffruticosa, but Dr. Lindley

informs us that it is only “a well-marked variety of Statice monopétala.” (Bot.
Reg., Oct. 1842.)

Begoniacee.

2654. BEGO‘NIA [reg. 1842, 44.
crassicatlis Lindl. thick-stemmed yy [A] cu 3 f W Pk Guatemala 1841. C co Bot.
This plant has the singular property of producing its panicles of flowers

without the leaves. In the month of February the flowers “appear in pro-
fusion upon rugged, fleshy, gouty stems, and the leaves are not formed till
some weeks later.” The species is not at all ornamental. (Bot. Reg.,
Aug. 1842.)
[Bot. mag. 3990; and Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x. p. 73.
coccinea Huok. scarlet-flowered % [J or 1 su.aut S Organ Mountains 1840. C r.m
This is decidedly the most splendid plant belonging to the genus, as its
flowers are of a most brilliant scarlet, and arranged in a most graceful man-
ner. The capsules are also of a bright red, shaded off between the angles

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 623

almost to white. The plants continue a long time in flower, and will pro-
bably blossom throughout the greater part of the year. Considerable care is
necessary in the culture, and particularly in striking the cuttings, to prevent
the plants from damping off. (Bot. Mag., Jan. 1843; and Part. Mag. of
Bot., May, 1843.)

[Bot. mag. 3968.
hydrocotylifolia Hook. Penny-wort-leaved y [A] or 34 su Pk ? South America 1840. C co
A very pretty species, with small leaves and small panicles of rather large

flowers. It is very inferior in beauty to B. coccinea. It was received by Sir
W. Hooker from the Berlin Garden, but its native country is not stated.
(Bot. Mag., Sept. 1842.)

Proteacee.

303. ISOPO‘GON
scaber Lindl. rough-leaved *%\_} cu 3 ap Pk Swan River 1842. C s.p Bot. mag. 4037.

This is a handsome species of the genus ; the heads of flowers are large and
of a deep pink, “exhibiting numerous styles and anthers in a circle as they
expand, and these heads are nestled, as it were, among the green foliage.”
(Bot. Mag., Sept. 1843.)

I. roseus Lind]. This species appears very much like the last, as it has
“rather a glaucous rigid foliage, deeply divided into three lobes, which are
3 or 5-cleft, and spiny-pointed.” The flowers are reddish purple, in cones sur-
rounded by the leaves at the end of the branches. (ot. Reg., June, 1842,
Misc.)

322, LOMA'TIA 2695 ¢licifdlia Bot. Maz. 4023.
326. DRYA’NDR4 28824 arctotoides Bot. Mag. 4035.

Rleagnacee.

341. ELZZA’GNUS
parvifolia Wall. small-leaved # fra 10 jn W NorthofIndia 1842. S 1 Bot. reg. 1843, 51.

This is a very elegant species of the genus Hleagnus. The flowers are
whitish and very small, but they “are deliciously sweet.” It appears quite
hardy, and will grow in any good loamy soil; but it “is only increased by
seeds or by suckers, which are sometimes produced when the plants become
old.” (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843.)

Asdrin@é or Aristolochiacee.

2582. ARISTOLO‘CHIA
gigas Lindl. giant & ((|) cu 6 jnjl P Guatemala 1841. C s.p.l1 Bot. reg. 1842, 60,

This has the largest flowers of the species of Aristolochia yet introduced.
Its name, in its native country, is said to signify a Jew’s ear; but it is much
more like the ear of an elephant. It requires the usual culture of the stove
species of the genus. (Bot. Reg., Nov. 1842.)

Cycadacee.

Dion edule Lindl. This is a very singular plant, which, when growing, has
a simple stem like that of a Zamia, but buried in wool. The leaves are about
2 ft. long, with about 60 pairs of sharp-pointed leaflets ; and the fruit consists
of rigid woolly scales ; which “ are heart-shaped at the base, and bear on each
lobe a single nut about as large as a chestnut.” (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1843,
Misc.)

Orchidacea.

2565. AE/RIDES [veg. 1842, 55,
crispum Lindl. crisp-flowered £ () or lmy Pk W East Indies. 1840. D p.r.w Bot.
Synonyme: A. Brookz Paxt. Mag, Bot. vol. ix. p. 145.

This species is an exceedingly beautiful one, and of remarkably vigorous
habits. It produces a long twisted stem with luxuriant leaves, and a raceme
of flowers “from 1 ft. to 18 in. long, and bearing several side branches. The
fragrance of the flowers is superior to that of A. odoratum, and they last for
an extraordinary length of time in a cool place, remaining perfect when de-
r ss 2

624 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

tached, and kept out of water nearly a week.” The plant should be grown
on a block of wood, or in sphagnum moss. (Bot. Reg, Oct. 1842 ; and Pax-
ton’s Mag. of Bot., Aug. 1842.)

A, virens Lind]. A native of Java, with large sweet-scented flowers, which
are white, and spotted with green. (Bot. Reg., May, 1843, Misc.)

Acianthéra punctata Scheid. A small orchidaceous plant, a native of Brazil,
resembling at first sight a Pleurothallis. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

Acinata Lindi. A genus of orchideous plants nearly related to Peristéria.
Two species are described, A. Humbdéldtz and A. Barker?, which are the
plants generally known as Peristéria Humboldti# and P. Barker. (Bot. Reg.,
Oct. 1843, Misc.)

Acriopsis picta Lindl. A pretty little plant, with the habit of Sarcanthus
pallidus. The flowers are white and green, slightly stained with purple. It
1s a native of Bantam. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

Angrz‘cum vesicatum Lindl. From the Ashantee country. The flowers
are white and inconspicuous. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

A. ashanténse Lindl. Another species from the same country, remarkable
for its leaves, which appear as if they had been partly eaten away. The
flowers are of a light cinnamon colour, and are produced in spikes about 4 in.
long. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843, Misc.)

Ania bicornis Lind|. A singular plant from Ceylon, the flowers of which
“are green, except the lip, which 1s of a bright yellow.” (Bot. Reg., June,
1842, Misc.)

7504. BARKE‘RIA [p- 169.
spectabilis Bate. showy € (ZX) or 1 jn Li Guatemala 1841. D Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x.

A very showy plant, which may be grown either on a block of wood or in
a wooden basket in moss. The temperature should never be above 65°, and
air should be admitted freely. This plant is called Flor de Isabel in its
native country. (Bot. Reg., June, 1842, Misc.; and Paxt. Mag. of Bot.,
Sept. 1843.)

B. Lindleyana Bate. A very beautiful plant with rich deep purple flowers,
which remain a great length of time without fading. The plant is a native of
Costa Rica. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1842, Misc.)

Beatonia atrata Herb. A handsome plant with very dark flowers. (Bot.
Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

Bifrenaria inodora Lindl. This plant, in habit and general appearance,
approaches so near to Maxillaria tetragona, as to have been mistaken for it ;
but on flowering it proved to be widely different from that species. It is a
native of Rio, whence it was introduced in 1839. (Bot. Reg., June, 1843,
Misc.)

Bolbophijllum adenopétalum Lind\. A native of Sincapore with yellowish
flowers, which are slightly fragrant. (Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842, Misc.)

B. calamarium Lindl. A very singular plant with flowers of a dusky yellow
mixed with purple, on a scape which is 2 ft. long, and quite erect. The lip
of the corolla is movable, and fringed with long purple hairs. (Bot. Reg.,
Oct. 1843, Misc.)

Brassia brachiata Lindl. This plant, Dr. Lindley mentions, is the same as
that called Brassia Wraye in the gardens; but in Curtis’s Botanical Magazine
there is a plant figured under the name of Brassia Wraye, t.4003., which Sir
W. Hooker says had been previously communicated to several collections
under the name of Oncidium Wraye@, though another plant had been pre-
viously described and figured under that name. ( Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc. ;
and Bot, Mag., March, 1843. See also our Vol. for 1841, p. 168.)

BROMHEA/’D/4 Lindl. (In honour of Sz Z. F. Bromhead, Bart., F.R.S.)
palistris Lindl. marsh € [AX) or 4 jn W. Pk Sumatra 1840. D p Bot. mag. 4001.

A very handsome plant with tall graceful stems and delicate flowers. It
is said to have been “dug out of a bog at Sumatra, a strange habitat for a

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 625

plant of this kind, but which has given rise to the specific name.” (Bot.
Mag., March, 1843.)

2530. CATASEXTUM [p.r.w Bot. mag. 4017.
viridi-flavum Hook. greenish-yellow ¢ ZX] cu 1 jn G.Y Central America 1842. D
A very curious species with large flowers, which are green on the outside

and yellow within. (Bot. Mag., May, 1843.)
planiceps Zimdl. flat-headed ¢ [XJ 1 jn G.Y Spanish Main 1840. D p.r.w TOE cee)
A still more singular species than the last, the flowers of which look as if
they were in a green livery turned up with yellow. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1843.)

[mag. 3942-
globifldrum Hook. globe-fowered € [] or 1 jn O1Br G Brazil 1840. D p.r.w Bot:
A most remarkable plant for its curious ball-like flowers, which are of

colours as remarkable as their form. (Bot. Mag., May, 1842; and Bot. Reg.,
June, 1843, Misc.)

C. na@so Lindl. This is a very singular plant, and the lip is prolonged into
the form of a large nose. The flowers are without fragrance, and their
colours are green, crimson, and very dark purple. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843,
Misc. )

2553. CATTLE‘ YA [p. 265.
supérba Lindl. superb € [A] or 1 s C.P Guiana 1840. D p.r.w Paxt. mag. bot. vol. ix,

This is an exceedingly splendid species. It is so very fragrant that the
odour in the morning is said to be “ too powerful in a confined place. The
splendid flowers remain uninjured three or four weeks.” (Pazt. Mag. of Bot.,
Jan. 1843.)

Calanthe Masta Lindi. A terrestrial orchideous plant with deep violet-
coloured flowers. A native of India. (Bot. Reg., July, 1842, Misc.) _

Centranthéra punctata Scheid. This is very like a Pleurothallis ; but it has
glaucous leaves, marked with brown spots. It is a native of Brazil. (Boé.
Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

Cleiséstoma dealbatum Lindl. A plant of little beauty, with small bright
yellow flowers. (Zéid.)

CLOWE‘S/4 Lindl. (In honour of the Rev. Mr. Clowes, of Broughton Hall, near Manchester.)
rosea Lindl, rosy € XJ cu + mr W.Pk Brazil 1842. D p.r.w _ Bot. reg. 1843, 39.
A very curious little plant, with the habit of growth of a Cattléya, but with

very different flowers. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1843.)

_ Ceelogyne testdcea Lindl. A native of Sincapore with flowers of a dingy
clay-colour. (Bot. Reg., June, 1842, Misc.)

Colax Lindl. This is a new genus formed of three species of the genus
Maxillaria, viz. C. viridis, C. placanthéra, and C. jugosus. (Bot. Reg., June,
1843, Misc.)

2538. COMPARE/TTIA [bot. vol. x. p.1.
rosea Lindl. rose-coloured ‘€ (ZX) or 4 su Ro Spanish Main 1840. D p.r.w Paxt. mag.

a

This plant has been already mentioned in our Vol. for 1840, p. 595. It is
remarkable for the deep colour of its flowers, which are extremely beautiful.
It is difficult to cultivate on account of the scantiness of its roots ; as, unless
it is very securely fastened to the log which supports it, it is liable to fall off
and be broken. This species is always grown on logs of wood, on account of
the defectiveness of its roots, which would soon become decayed in a pot.
(Paxt. Mag. of Bot., Feb. 1843.)

3524. CIRRHOPE’TALUM

chinénse Lindl. Chinese 6 XJ] or 3} jn Y.R China 1840. D p.r.w_ Bot. reg. 1843, 49.

Nothing can be imagined more singular than these flowers, or rather than
the umbel which is formed by them. Lach flower represents a kind of face
like that given to Mother Shipton, and each has a long beard hanging to it.
The lower part of the flower and the beard are in continual motion, and a

ss 8

626 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

most curious effect is produced by a circle of these flowers, which appear to
be constantly wagging their chins. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843.)
2523. CYMBI’/DIUM [Paxt. mag. bot. vol. x. p. 97.
devonianum Past. Duke of Devonshire (ZX) or 1 mr.ap Y.P India 1837. D_ p.r.w
This is a species of great beauty, but it does not possess the same advantage
that some of the others do, of preserving its flowers uninjured for several
weeks after they are cut; as in a little time they change their colour and
rapidly decay. (Part. Mag. of Bot., June, 1843.)

C. chloranthum Lindl. A Nepal species with greenish flowers, having the
lip spotted with yellow and crimson. After flowering the blessoms become
of a dusky wine colour. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

3537. CYCNO*‘CHES [1843, 22.
pentadactylon Lindl. five-fingered @ [A] cu 1 mr Br.G Brazil 1841. D p.r.w Bot. reg.

A very singular plant with large greenish-coloured flowers, covered with
broad chocolate-brown blotches. The lip has five finger-like lobes, and hence
the name. (Bot. Reg., April, 1843.)

2547. DENDRO‘BIUM

aqueum Lindl. watery € (ZX) pr 1 n W India 1841. D_ p.r.w Bot. reg. 1843, 54.

It is a plant of no great beauty, and it is cultivated in the same manner as
the other species of the genus. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843.)

D. adincum Wall. The flowers are almost transparent, of a bright pink,
and nearly as large as those of D. moschatum. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1842, Misc.)

D. compréssum Lindl. This is a species with curiously compressed stems
not more than 3 or 4 inches long. It is a native of Ceylon, and has yellow
flowers. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842, Misc.)

alle [Bot. reg. 1843, 37.
cucumérinum MacLeay. Cucumber ¢ (AJ cu 3 jn W.Pk New Holland 1842, D_ p.r.w

This is a very singular plant, as it looks, when not in flower, like a heap of
little cucumbers. It has no beauty, but only its singularity to recommend it.
(Bot. Reg., July, 1843.)

D. jiéinceum Lindl. This species has rather large green flowers streaked with
faint purple lines. It is a native of Sincapore. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1842, Misc.)

macréuthum Lindi. large-flowered €& (XJ) or 2 ap Li Manilla 1841. D p.r.w eel

This very splendid plant is remarkable for the large size of its flowers, which
frequently measure 5 in. across. (Bot. Mag., Oct. 1842.)

D. planibiibe Lindl. This plant is remarkable for the flatness of its pseudo-
bulb. The flowers are white and veined with purple. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843,
Misc.)

[1843, 17.
rhémbeum Lindl. rhomb-lipped € (A) or 1 au Pa.Y Manilla 1840. D p.r.w Bot. reg.

A very pretty species, a native of Manilla. (Bot. Reg., March, 1843.)

D. Rickeri Lindl. A native of Manilla, with nankeen-coloured, sweet-
scented flowers. (Bot. Reg., April, 1843, Misc.)

[Bot. reg. 1843, 6.

sanguinoléntum Lindl. blood-stained ¢ (A) or 3 fau Y.V.S Ceylon 1842. D p.xr.w —

This is a very singular plant from its mixing in its flowers the three primitive
colours of yellow, red, and blue (the latter being, however, in the form of a
violet), as it was supposed by DeCandolle and other botanists that these three
colours were never found tegether even in the same genus. The species is a
native of Ceylon, with pendulous stems of a delicate purple tinge. (Bot. Reg., ;
Jan. 1843.)

D. scopa Lindl. A singular species, of no beauty, from Manilla. (Bot. Reg.,
Aug. 1842, Misc.)

[reg. 1843, 28.
taurinum Lindl. bull-headed €& ZX) or 5 o Rsh.P W Manilla 1841. D _ p.r.w Bot.

This is a most remarkable species, the flowers of which certainly look like a

ee

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 627

number of bulls’ heads, with long twisted petals for horns, and the central
sepal rolled up and resembling the hair on the bull’s forehead. It is an ex-
ceedingly vigorous-growing plant and is well deserving of cultivation. (Bot.
Reg., June, 1843.)

Dendrochilum latifolum Lindl. See our Volume for 1840, p. 551. This
plant has long spikes of green flowers, and it was imported from Manilla by
Messrs. Loddiges. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843, Misc.)

2554. EPIDE/NDRUM [1842, 50.
lancifolium Zind/. lance-leaved € [AX] or 1 au P.Y Mexico 1840. D p.r.w Bot. reg.
This is a very handsome species of the genus, and belongs to the division

which contains the fragrant kinds. It should be kept in a cool stove, and
never allowed to become perfectly dry. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842.)

EE. polyanthum Lindl. The flowers are of a rich salmon colour and very
abundant. The plant is from Guatemala. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1842, Misc.)

L. latilabre Lindl. A plant of little beauty, found in several parts of South
America. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842, Misc.)

Ff. auritum Lindl, A little plant with pale-green flowers, more curious than
beautiful. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

EE. rubrocinctum Lindl. The flowers are sweet-scented, and of a dull yel-
lowish green, bordered with purple. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1843, Misc.)

EE. cubénse Lindl. “ A Cuba plant, rare, delicate, and beautiful.” (Boé.
Reg., March, 1843, Misc.)

Hf. arbuscula Lindl, This plant has a large branching stem and leathery
leaves 3 or 4 inches long; but its flowers are quite destitute of brilliant colours.
(Bot. Reg., May, 1843, Misc.)

EE. lamellatum West. The stem is about 1 ft. high, and the flowers are
of a delicate pink. It is a native of Honduras. (Bot. Reg., June, 1843, Misc.)

E. 6vulum Lindl. A curious little plant, the flowers of which are olive-
green, white, and crimson. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843, Misc.)

E. collare Lindl. “ The stems are 18 in. long, strong, and deeply furrowed.
The flowers are white, changing into yellow and brown” as they fade. (Bot.
Reg., Aug. 1843, Misc.)

E. diotum Lindl. From Guatemala. The raceme is about 2 ft. high, and
the leaves about 1 ft. long. The flowers are of a dull cinnamon colour. (Bot.
Reg., Sept. 1843, Misc.)

E. limbatum Lindl. A Guatemala plant with the habit of E. glatca, but
much larger. The flowers are of a dull purplish brown, with a pale yellow
border round the margin. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

Earina suaveolens Lind). This is a very rare plant, a native of New Zea-
land. “ The stems are terminated by dense, oblong spikes of white flowers,”
with yellow spots, and these flowers are delightfully fragrant. (Bot. Reg.,
Sept. 1843, Misc.)

Evia profusa Lindl. A species from Ceylon of little beauty. (Bot. Reg.,
Jan. 1842, Misc.)

E. mucronata Lindl. A native of Sincapore, with white flowers having a
faint tinge of pink and a delicious fragrance, like that of violets. (Bot. Reg.,
April, 1842, Misc.)

E. acutifolia Lind|. A small Indian species of no beauty. (Bot. Reg.,
June, 1842, Misc.)

E. floribinda Lindl. A handsome plant with a tall stem and numerous
large leaves. The flowers are small and pink. It is a native of Sincapore.
(Bot. Reg., May, 1843, Misc.)

E. multiflora Lind|, This is a native of Java, and it has small white flowers,
the column of which is of a deep violet. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843, Misc.)

Gongora truncata Lindl. A Mexican species with straw-coloured flowers
of a very peculiar scent. (Bot. Reg., May, 1843, Misc.) ‘

Govenia fasciata Lindl. One of the prettiest species of the genus, a native
of Mexico. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

ss 4

628 | Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

Hexadésmia fasciculata Brong. This is a plant with small green flowers,
belonging to a new genus of Mexican Orchidacee nearly allied to Dendrobium,
and which is supposed to be the same as Mr. Bateman’s genus Hexopia. (Bot.
Reg., June, 1842, and Feb. 1843, Misc.)

Hartwégia purpurea var. angustifolia Lindl. This is a very distinct variety.
(Bot. Reg., June, 1843, Misc.)

3582. LA LIA
flava Lindi. yellow € (A) or 1 su Y Brazil 1840. D p.r.w _ Bot. reg. 1842,62. -

This is a very pretty plant with bright yellow flowers. It should be grown in
a cool stove or a warm greenhouse, in which “ it should be tied to a block
of ae or placed in a basket and hung from the rafters.” (Bot. Reg., Nov.
1842.

LL. pedunculdris Lindl. A Mexican species of great beauty with rich violet-
coloured flowers. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1842, Misc.)

LYCA’S TE Lindl. (A beautiful woman of Sicily.)
plana Lindl. flat-flowered €& ZX) cu 1 o C.W Boliver 1842. D p.r.w Bot. reg. 1843, 35.

A large strong-growing plant, which requires a great heat to flower it to
perfection. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843.) ;

LL. tetragona Lindl. This is the plant which was formerly called Maxillaria
tetragona. (Bot. Reg., June, 1843.) :

Liparis alata Lindl. The handsomest species of this genus, a native of
Mexico. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

Lissochilus roseus Lindl. This is a terrestrial orchideous plant, known in
some collections as Dendrobium roseum. (Bot. Reg., April, 1843, Misc.)

Leochilus oncidiotdes Knowles et West. This is the plant that is known in
some collections as Rodriguézia maculata, and in others as Oncidium macran-
therum. (Bot. Reg., March, 1842, Misc.)

Lace‘na bicolor Lindl. This belongs to a new genus nearly allied to Pe-
ristéria. L. bicolor has yellow flowers spotted with purple. (Bot. Reg., Oct.
1843, Misc.)

2537. MAXILLA‘RIA [mag. 3966.
acutipétala Hook. sharp-petaled € [7] or 3 mr.ap Y.P Br Central America 1842. Bot.

This is a very handsome species, very near M. picta. (ot. Mag., Sept.
1842; and Bot, Reg., March, 1843, Misc.)

M. galeata Scheid. A Brazilian species without fragrance, and with dingy
purple flowers. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

M. bractéscens Lindl. This species has large flowers of “a dull yellow
with a reddish brown lip,” and long narrow bracts. The scape is 1 ft. high,
and bears five or six flowers. (Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842, Misc.)

MM. Skinneri Bate. This isa different species from the one described in the
Bot. Reg. Misc. for 1840. The present species has magnificent flowers,
which “actually measure upwards of 6 in. across. The colours of these
flowers are peculiarly delicate,’ being of pure white and brilliant crimson.
(Bot. Reg., Feb. 1842, Misc.)

3601. MORMO‘DES [43.
linedatum Bate. streaked € (A) cu 1 su Y-.P Guatemala 1840. D p.r.w Bot. reg: 1842.

This very curious species is a native of Guatemala. One of the most
striking features in its flowers is an appearance of distortion, which makes
them “look as if they had had their joints broken, and then unskilfully set
again.” All the species of this genus require a low temperature. (Bot. Reg.
Aug. 1842.)

luxatum Lindl. dislocated € ZT) cu 1 jn Y Mexico 1842. D p.r.w Bot. reg. 1843, 33.

This plant has the same peculiarity in its flowers as the last, but their dis-
location is even more striking ; all the parts of the flower appearing to have
been irregularly twisted and displaced. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843.) .

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 629

3593. MILTO'NJ4 , [mag. bot. vol. ix. p. 241.
Clowesta Paxt. Rev. J. Clowes’s € (AJ or 1 od Y.Li.R Brazil 1840. D p.r.w Paxt.
A very handsome plant, very nearly allied to M. candida, of which it may

probably prove to be only a variety. (Paxt. Mag. of Bot., Dec. 1842.)

M. candida var. grandiflora Lindl. The flowers are twice as large as those
of the species. The flowers are of a most brilliant white and deep rich brown;
spotted towards the extremities with yellow. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

Masdevallia floribinda Lindl. A little Mexican plant, with brownish
yellow flowers. “It is the only species of this genus not found in the
northern hemisphere.” (Bot. Reg., Oct: 1843, Misc.)

Notjlia pubéscens Lindl. “ A Brazilian species, with dull orange-coloured,
rather sweet-scented, flowers.” (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842, Misc.)

2540. ONCI’DIUM (1843, 12.
bicallosum Lindi. two-warted € [XJ] or 1 su Y Guatemala 1842. D p.r.w Bot. reg.

A very singular species with large flowers, which appear in a “ dwarf erect
raceme,’ and the labellum of which has two distinct tubercles on its crest.
(Bot. Reg., March, 1843.)

urophyllum Lodd. tail-leaved ¢ (XJ pr 4 mr Y Brazil 1841..D p.r.w Bot. reg. 1842, 54,

This plant is remarkable for its leaves, which “ are shaped like a penknife
curved backwards, so as to have the edge on the convex side. This is caused
by the two sides of the leaf being brought into contact, and then growing
together, the back of the knife-shaped leaf consisting of their edges.” (Bot.
Reg., Sept. 1842.)

[1843, 23.
microchilum Bafe. small-lipped € [A] cu 4 jn Va Guatemala 1838. D p.r.w Bot. reg.
This is one of the most remarkable species of the genus, as, from the small-

ness of the lip, the flowers are of quite a different shape from those of the
oncidiums generally. (Bot. Reg., May, 1843.)

O. pergameneum Lindl. This is a pretty species from Guatemala, which
was introduced in 1839. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1842, Misc.)

O. Suttoni Bate. A very distinct species with pretty flowers. (Tdid.)

O. ensatum Lindl. “ A Guatemala plant with singular sword-shaped leaves,
and a panicle of flowers like that of O. altissimum.” (Bot. Reg., March 1842,
Misc.

Oy ae Lindl. This singular plant has the habit of O. ptmilum, to
which it is nearly allied. (Bot. Reg., June, 1842, Misc.)

O. barbatum Lindl. This species, which had been long lost, has been sent
to the Glasgow Garden from Pernambuco. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842, Misc.)

O. Forkeli Scheid. A Mexican species, that is said to be one of the hand-
somest of the genus. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

O. cunedtum Scheid. A small Brazilian plant, with white flowers spotted
with crimson. (Jdid.)

O. candidum Lindl. The flowers are quite white, with the exception of
two small violet dots at the base of each petal, and the usual prominence at
the base of the column, which is bright yellow. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843, Misc.)

O. suave Lindl. A Mexican species with chocolate-coloured flowers, which
are tipped with yellow. It has a faint, but agreeable, odour. It was intro-
duced in the year 1835. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1843, Misc. )

O. sphegiferum Lind!, A Brazilian species, between O. divaricatum and O.
pulvinatum. (Bof. Reg., March, 1843, Misc.)

[reg. 1843, 43.
unifldrum Booth. one-flowered pr 3+ n Y Organ Mountains 1841. D p.r.w Bot.
A curious little plant allied to O. barbatum. It has yellow flowers, and a

very neat and compact habit of growth. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1843.)

3728. ODONTOGLO’SSUM ; ‘ [reg. 1843, 3.
citrésmum Lindl. Jemon-scented € [A) or 1 my W.Li Mexico 1841. D p.r.w Bot.

A very handsome plant, with large showy flowers, which smell like the
lemon-scented verbena. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843.)

630 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

O. Rossii (see our Vol. for 1839, p. 560.). A pretty variety of this plant
has flowered with Mr. Barker. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1843, Misc.)

O. constrictum Lindl. The flowers are yellow, spotted with brown, except
the lip, which is white stained with violet. (Bot. Reg., March, 1843, Misc.)

Oberonia minidta Lindl. The flowers are red, very small, very brittle, and
loosely arranged in a nodding spike, sometimes as much as 8 in. long. (Bot.
Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

Octomeria grandiflora V.indl. This is the largest Octomeria yet seen. The
leaf is about 8 in. long, and the stem about the same length. (Bot. Reg., Sept.
1842, Misc.)

3478. PERISTE‘RIA (reg. 1848, 18.
Humbéldtz Lindl. Baron Humboldt’s «(J or 2 mr R Venezuela 1841. D p.r.w Bot.

This plant is the same as the Anguloa supérba of Humboldt, and it has a
splendid appearance, as its flowers, which are large and showy, are produced
on a pendulous raceme 2 ft. long. It is found in temperate situations in Peru,
and in some cases at an elevation of 6000 cr 7000 feet above the level of the
sea. (Bot. Reg., April, 1843.) This is one of the species included by Dr.
Lindley in his new genus of Acinata, see p. 624.

Pleurothillis fetens Lindl. This plant has no beauty, and it has an un-
plegsant odour. It is a native of Brazil. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843, Misc.)

P. peduncularis Lindl. A native of Rio Janeiro; the flowers of a pale
straw colour. (Bot. Reg., June, 1843, Misc.)

P. Smithiana Lindl. Only interesting to the botanist. (Bot. Reg., Aug.
1843, Misc.) .

Polystachya clavata Lindl. An inconspicuous species, with small pale yellow
flowers. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1842, Misc.)

Ponéera striata Lindl. A curious species of this very singular genus. (Bot.
Reg., March, 1842, Misc.)

2566. RENANTHE'‘RA

matitina Lindl. morning €& (A pr 1 s Br.S Manilla 1842. D p.r.w Bot. reg. 1843, 41.

This is a pretty little plant, with a great profusion of cinnamon-coloured
and scarlet flowers collected in a stiff panicle. The flowers are very small,
but they make amends by their prettiness and their abundance for their want
of size. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1843.)

Rodriguézia carnea Lindl. A plant of no particular beauty, a native of
Columbia. (Bot. Reg., Oct. 1843, Misc.)

3412. STANHO‘PEA [orchidaceze t. 27.
Martidnza Bate. Von Martius’s [AJ or 1 su Str.P Mexico 1827. D p.r.w Bateman’s

var. bicolor Bot. Reg. 1843, 44.

“The present variety is a lovely plant with large pure white flowers richly
but sparingly spotted with crimson.” It is very sweet-scented, and altogether
a magnificent plant. It is said to be a natural variety received from Mexico.
(Bot. Reg., Sept. 1843.)

2572. STE‘LIS [3975.
atropurpurea Hook, dark-purple € (A) pr 31 f D.P Mexico 1838. D p.r.w Bot. mag.

A pretty little plant with dark purple flowers. (Bot. Mag., Oct. 1842; and
Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842, Misc.)

S. crassifolia Lindl. A singular little plant, with half-cylindrical leaves,
imported from the West Indies in 1841. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1842, Misc.)

S. argentata Lindl. The flowers are in Jong racemes, and are of a dull
greenish purple, having “ their truncated extremities covered with an appear-
ance of minute particles of silver.” (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842, Misc.)

Spiranthes cérina Lindl. One of the terrestrial Orchidacez, a native of
Guatemala: and which “ belongs to that section of the genus Spirdnthes of
which the old Neottia speciosa is the type, and which has been called by Presl
Sarcoglottis, among all which it is at once known by its flowering without
leaves, and its dull olive-brown aspect.”

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit., and Arb. Brit. 631

S. rosulata Lind]. This species is from the same country. “ It has a scape
about 9 in. high, and a close spike of green flowers. The leaves are most
beautifully coated on the under side with vesicular cells, which give them a
peculiar frosted appearance.” (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1843, Misc.)

Saccolabium ochrdceum Lind]. A native of Ceylon, with small dingy yellow
flowers. (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1842, Misc.)

Scelochilus Ottonis Klot. This is a small epiphyte, found by Mr. Edward
Otto in the Caraccas, 5600 ft. above the level of the sea. It has small yellow
flowers. (Bot. Reg., April, 1842, Misc.)

Sobralia macrantha Lindl. This is a terrestrial species, with very large dark
crimson flowers. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1842, Misc.)

Stenocoryne longicornis Lindl. This is a new genus, formed on the old
Bifrenaria longicérnis. (Bot. Reg., July, 1843, Misc.) r

Sarcanthus jiliformis Lindl. An Indian species of no beauty. (Bot. Reg.,
Sept. 1842, Misc.)

Trichocéntrum rectrvum Lindl. A Guayana plant, resembling T. fascum in
habit, but smaller. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1843, Misc.)

T. candidum Lindl. A little plant, with white flowers slightly tinged with
yellow, which are without a spur. (Jdid.)

2564. VA'NDA 48.
cristata Lindl. crested €& [AJ cu 1 ap G.P.Y Nepal 1840. D p.r.w_ Bot, eg. 1842,
This is a very curious species, the flowers of which, though not showy, are

very beautiful when closely examined. It was found growing on trees in
Nepal, in 1818, by Dr. Wallich ; but it seems only lately to have been intro-
duced into this country. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1842.)

Vanilla Palmarum Lind!. One of the few orchidaceous plants which grow
on palm trees. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842, Misc.)

Scitaminee.

3452. GASTROCHTLUS [4010.
longiflora Wall, long-flowered Y [Aj cu 2 jlau Pk.Y Rangoon 1840. D s.p Bot. mag.
This plant has no beauty to recommend it, though it is remarkable for the

curious formation of its flowers. (Bot. Mag., April 1843.)

Triddcea.

Beatonia purpurea Herb. This is the plant formerly known as Tieridia
violacea, which has been formed into a new genus by the Dean of Man-
chester, principally on account of some differences in the anthers and the
style. The new genus is named in honour of Mr. Beaton, so well known
from his writings in this Magazine and other publications, (Bot. Reg., Sept.
1842, Misc.)

Herbértia Drummondiana Herb. This is a new species of this very hand-
some genus, lately received from Texas. (Jéid.)

Gladiolus crispiflorus Herb., and G. caucdsicus Herb. These are two new
species of Gladiolus, of which only the Latin characters are given in the
Botanical Register. ( Ibid.)

G. equinoctidlis Herb. This is a native of Sierra Leone, and interesting
from its being the only species of the genus yet found within the tropics.
( Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842, Misc.)

G. oppositiflorus Herb. This is a native of Madagascar, and it is frequently
confounded with G. floribandus in the nurseries. (Jéid.

G. spléndens Herb. This is the Anisanthus spléndens of Sweet’s British
Flower-Garden, and it is the female parent of the hybrid Anisdnthus men-
tioned below. (Bot. Reg., June, 1843, Misc.)

132. ANISA/NTHUS 1200 splendens var. h¥bridus Bot. Reg. 1842, 53.

This plant presents a curious anomaly, if we allow Anisanthus to be a
distinct genus from Gladiolus, as “it is the produce of seed from Anisanthus
spléndens and Gladiolus Colvill#,” the latter being itself a hybrid. This
curious variety was raised by Mr. Plant, nurseryman, of Cheadle, who adds

632 Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural Notices,

that he has also raised hybrids between Gladiolus and Amarllis. It will be
seen above that the Dean of Manchester considers Anisanthus spléndens to
be a Gladiolus ; but even then it is very remarkable that one of the parents of
Mr. Plant’s hybrid should be itself a mule. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842.)
Trichonéma edule Herb. A native of Socotra, where it was found in the
small hollows of the primitive limestone rocks, about two miles from the
coast. “ The natives feed upon the corms.” (Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842, Misc.)

Hemodoracee.

Barbacénia squamata Herb. This is a neat little plant, introduced by Mr.
Veitch of Exeter, which he supposed to be a Vellozia. The Hon. and Rev.
W. Herbert, dean of Manchester, however, thinks it a very distinct section
of Barbacénia, or a new genus ; and, in case the latter should be established,
he proposes to call it Veitchza, in honour of Mr. Veitch. (Bot. Reg., Sept.
1843, Misc.)

Amaryllidaceee.

979. ALSTRCME‘RIA
nemordsa Gard. wood *% |] or 2 n R.Y Organ Mountains 1840. O l.p Bot. mag. 3958.

A very handsome species of the genus, which was found by Mr. Veitch’s
collector on the Organ Mountains of Brazil, at an elevation of about 3000 ft.
(Bot. Mag., Aug. 1842.)

A. magnifica Herb. This is very slightly different from A. Ligtu. (Bot.
Reg., Sept. 1843, Misc.)

A, chorillénsis Herb. This is another species described by the learned
Dean of Manchester; an inhabitant of the Chorillos Mountains, Lima.
(Zbid.)

3333. COBU’RGHIA (1842, 46.
himilis Hexb. humble % AJ or 3 myr.ap S Peruvian Andes 1841. O r.m Bot. reg.

This was the species formerly noticed as Clitanthes humilis. (Bot. Reg.,
Aug. 1842.)

[1842, 66.
versicolor Herb. changeable % .AJ or 2 d.ja S.G.Taw. Andes 1841. O r.m Bot. reg.
A very showy species of the genus. A tall thick-stemmed plant, with

large flowers, which vary in their colour from tawny to scarlet. It is very
difficult to throw this species into flower. (Bot. Reg., Dec. 1842.)

Bomarea. Six species and one variety of this genus are described by the
Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert. (Bot. Reg., Sept. 1842, Misc.)

3655. STENOME/SSON
vitellinum Lindl. yolkofegg % [AJ or 1 f Y ULima 1841. ©O co _ Bot. reg. 1843, 2.

A very handsome species of the genus; but one which “is, at present,
extremely rare.” (Bot. Reg., Jan. 1843.)

S. aurantiacum Herb., and S. eustephiotdes Herb. These two bulbs are
only known by short Latin descriptions from the Dean of Manchester. “( Bot.
Reg., Sept. 1843, Misc.)

969. AMARY’LLIS [s.l Bot. reg. 1842, 11.
Bankszadna Lindl. Sir Joseph Banks’s ¥% AJ or 2 au.s Pk CapeofGood Hope 1840. O
This very handsome plant was at first supposed to be a variety of A.

grandiflora, which was named after Sir Joseph Banks, about twenty years
ago. However, on submitting a specimen to Mr. Herbert, he seems to think
that the present species is distinct ; as, he says, it has the bulb and foliage of
A. grandiflora, with flowers more like A. minor and A. striata. (Bot. Reg.,
Feb. 1842, and March, 1842, Misc.)

Hippeastrum organénse var. compréssum Herb. This is nearly allied to H.
psittacinum ; and they will probably prove to be varieties of the same species.
(Bot. Reg., June, 1842, Misc.)

975. Habrénthus praténsis (see our Vol. for 1842, p. 420.) var. guadriflora
Herb. This variety only differs from the species m having four flowers instead
of three. (Bot. Mag., Aug. 1842.)

supplementary to the Enc. of Plants, Hort. Brit.,and Arb. Brit. 633

Hymenocdllis Skinneriana Herb. This plant is a native of Guatemala, where
it was discovered by Mr. Skinner. (Bot. Reg., June, 1843, Misc.)

Callipsyche eucrosiotdes Herb. These bulbs were brought from the west
coast of Mexico. They flowered without leaves in the month of March.
When in leaf they so closely resemble the preceding plant as scarcely to be
distinguished from it. (Bot. Reg., July, 1842, Misc.)

Crinum brachynéma Herb. This is a species from Bombay. The umbel
contains seventeen flowers, which are fragrant. (Bot. Reg., May, 1842, Misc.)

933. NARCI’SSUS Hybrids. Bot. Reg. 1843, 38.

The plate alluded to contains six hybrid narcissi, which have been raised
by Mr. Herbert, between the genera of the late Mr. Haworth. By these
experiments it appears evident that the supposed genera were only varieties,
or, at most, species of the genus Narcissus. (Bot. Reg., Aug. 1843, Misc.)

Hemerocallidee.
1005. AGAPA’NTHUS 8208 umbellatus var. maximus Bot. Reg. 1843, 7.

The flowers are larger, the leaves broader, and the flower-scape very much
longer than in the common kind. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1843.)

Blandfordia marginata Herb. “ This handsome Australian plant was intro-
duced by Mr. Osborn of the Fulham Nursery.” It is distinguished from B.
grandiflora “ by the less erect leaves, with a rufous serrate margin, and the
coppery hue of its very showy flowers.” (Bot. Reg., Nov. 1842.)

Asphodélee.
1054. SCI’LLA 8812 peruviana var. discolor Bot. Reg. 1843, 48.

This variety is so very distinct, that at first sight it seems to be a different
species. Dr. Lindley, however, shows us that, after a careful examination, he
cannot “ discover any other distinction between them than that of the colour

f the flowers, which in this plant are of a dingy pale fawn colour.” (Bot.
Reg., Sept. 1843.) ;
1016. ZL’ LIUM

testaceum Lindi. testaceous ¥ AJ or 3 jn Y Japan 1841. O p.l Bot. reg. 1843, 11.

This plant, though very inferior to the other species which are natives of
Japan, is yet a handsome half-hardy bulb. When potted, “the bulbs should
be placed rather deep, because they make fibres above the bulb, as well as
below it;” and they should never be repotted except in a dormant state.
(Bot. Reg., Feb. 1843.)

Bromeliacee.

956. TILLA’NDSI4 5
rubida Lind/. madder-coloured € —]) or 32 f Pk Brazil 1841. O s.1 Bot. reg. 1842, 63.

This is a very handsome species of the curious genus Tillandsia, which is
very ornamental. (Bot. Reg., Nov. 1842.)

28155. psittacina ’
Synonyme: Vriésia psittacina Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1843, 10.

This is a new genus, formed by Dr. Lindley, in honour of Dr. de Vriese,
Professor of Botany at Amsterdam. (Bot. Reg., Feb. 1843.)

3492. ZCHME*A [vol. x. p.173.
falgens Part. brilliant ZZ) or 1 mr.ap S Cayenne 1842. Sk. s.p.l Paxt. mag. bot.

This very showy plant is generally treated like one of the Orchidacez, and
grown in a basket ; but it is sometimes planted in a pot, and plunged in a
bark-pit like a pine-apple. (Part. Mag. of Bot., Sept. 1843.)

Pitcatrnia undulata Scheid. A native of Brazil, with scarlet flowers. (Bot.
Reg., May, 1843, Misc.)

P. micréntha Lindl. A very small species of the same genus imported from
Rio in 1841. (did.)

Piya recurvata Scheid. A Brazilian plant with a spike about a foot long,
covered with white flowers. (Jdid.)

634 On Laying out and Planting

Art. XII. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and
Flower-Garden. By the ConpDucrTor.

(Continued from p. 552.)

On reading over our preceding article on this subject, we feel that we have
gone rather too far in condemning young gardeners as self-conceited. We
are sorry for this, because we do not wish to hurt the feelings of any person
or class of persons whatever, much less the feelings of those to whom we
owe so much. The truth is, the passage was written at Southampton
while we were in a state of severe bodily suffering, and we had no oppor-
tunity of seeing a proof either of that article, or the article which follows it,
otherwise we should certainly have softened down the sentence. How-
ever, it is much better for young gardeners if they should be blamed more
than they deserve, rather than that they should be overpraised ; and they
may depend upon this, that there is a general impression among the employers
of gardeners, and also architects, land stewards, &c., that the young gardeners
who have not seen much of the world are apt to fancy themselves wiser than
they are.

Mr. Ayres has said in an article that will be found in a subsequent page
(p. 636. ), that, before censuring gardeners, we ought to have censured landscape-
gardeners, many of whom, he says, are equally as ignorant of the true prin-
ciples of design as the working gardener. We fully acknowledge this, and
we have frequently been astonished beyond measure at the plans which some
of even the first nurserymen about London have sent out, and had executed,
for their suburban customers. The truth is, the great majority of the em-
ployers of landscape-gardeners look out for the person whose terms are the
lowest ; and, as they do not know good from bad in this art, they are contented
with what is done for them by a man who perhaps cannot give a reason for
any one thing that he does. It is not very likely that a man who has been
brought up to the nursery business can ever have the leisure and repose
necessary to cultivate a knowledge of any of the arts of design and taste,
unless he have a natural turn for these pursuits; and thence it frequently
happens, that the plans of nursery landscape-gardeners will be found mere
repetitions or imitations of what they have seen elsewhere.

For some years past, a change has been gradually taking place, as country
gentlemen, in consequence of the general peace and their diminished incomes,
have been obliged to reside more on their estates, and to direct more at-
tention to improvements. Almost all the great families of the country, who
are not sunk in an abyss of debt, are doing something, either in the way
of building, landscape-gardening, or planting ; and though there are but a
small proportion of these who employ such architects as Barry, Blore, Salvin,
or Lamb, and such a landscape-gardener as Nesfield, yet there are a few ; and
the result, to the thinking and observant part of landed proprietors, will show
the inestimable value of good advice taken in time.

As a proof that knowledge in the employers of gardeners leads to a demand
for those productions of which that knowledge has given them cognizance,
we may refer to the fact of the horticultural societies throughout the country,
and more especially those of London and Edinburgh. It will not be denied,
that, in consequence of the superior fruits exhibited at these societies, their
culture has been greatly improved throughout the whole country.

A good deal may be effected in the details of landscape-gardening by in-
structing practical gardeners in such matters as grouping circles of flowers or
shrubs on lawns; cultivating flowers, where the gardenesque style is adopted,
always in separate circles, or other forms of beds, from those which contain
the shrubs ; keeping the edgings of beds, borders, and walks, always in one
uniform state; keeping the walks properly filled with gravel, and the beds
and borders with soil ; turfing up beds and borders of shrubs where digging
is no longer of any use; not to mention a number of other points of manage-
ment ; and to effect this improvement is the great object of this series of articles.

the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden. 635

A gardener may do all these things, and yet not be abie to lay out an entire
place containing a park and pleasure-ground, which no person without the
eye of a landscape painter can have the slightest pretensions to do.

fo

=

CE OeS
Emery

VEIN
SEOFISZ

Fig. 125. A Flower-Garden with angular Beds.

Design fig. 125. consists of a symmetrical assemblage of angular beds, the
sides of which are partly straight and partly curved. It will therefore be very
easily laid out, by first drawing it to a scale three or four times larger than
the figure, and then finding the centres to each curve. These centres are
found by a very simple geometrical problem, viz., three points being given
not in a straight line, to find the centre of a circle whose circumference Fhall
pass through ‘them.

Such a design as the present is better adapted for forming an episode, than
a shrubbery walk; or for placing before an Elizabethan greenhouse, than for
laying out in front of a modern yilla that has no pretension to style. Ina
place where there is a shrubbery walk of some length, flower-gardens of
different characters may be introduced one after another ; but, on the lawn in
front of the house, a flower-garden or the flower-beds ought to Me strictly in
accordance with the style of ‘the elevation.

(To be continued.)

636 Strictures on laying out Flower-Gardens.

Art. XIII. Remarks on one of the Designs in the Article “ On
Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-
Garden.” By W.P. Ayres.

I HAVE just been reading over your article “‘ On Laying out and Planting the
Lawn, Shrubbery, and Flower-Garden,” p. 547., and, though you have cen-
sured poor gardeners rather severely, I must confess that, as designers or even ~
carriers out of plans for lawns or flower-gardens, we are by no means unde-
serving of censure. You might, however, in passing, as well have stated that
many who profess and call themselves “ landscape-gardeners” are equally
ignorant of the true principles of design, as a walk through nine tenths of
the gardens in the country, both public and private, will most fully testify ;
and I think you yourself could not name half a dozen professional landscape-
gardeners in the United Kingdom whom you would undertake to pronounce
men who really understood their profession as an art of design and taste.
A gardener of reputed eminence, at present intrusted with the formation of an
extensive garden, when interrogated by a non-professional friend of mine as
to the principles of constructing plant and forcing-houses, replied, “ Oh, it is
merely a matter of taste :” and, while men in high places disseminate such
notions, it is not to be wondered at, that landscape-gardening and garden
architecture, as an art and a science, should make but very lethargic progress.

The greatest barrier to the progress of improvement in landscape-gardening
is the want of taste among the aristocracy and gentry; and, until they are
somewhat better informed as to the principles of the science, so as to be
capable of understanding plans that are laid before them for their approval, it
is nonsense to expect much in the way of improvement from gardeners.
But so soon as they shall require original designs adapted to the local pecu-
liarities of the situation they are intended to embellish, then will they have a
race of gardeners capable of doing things properly. At present the rage is
for imitation; and if a gentleman requires a new flower-garden, or to alter
an old one, he does not think of having an original design, but takes a
pattern from some celebrated garden, as, for instance, Dropmore, Chatsworth,
Woburn, or some such place ; or, what is worse, collects a number of fancy-
formed beds from various places, and huddles them together, with about as
much taste or system as an infant would display in forming a map of the
world. Thus it is no uncommon thing to see a Swiss cottage with a geo-
metrical flower-garden, and a terrace in the front ; or a splendid Italian villa
surrounded by an irregular garden of common trees, shrubs, and herbaceous
plants. If J wished for an example of really bad taste, I would point to the
flower-garden at Wimbledon, figured in the Suburban Gardener, p. 162. [see
p- 650., in which we say, “in point of general design, this flower-garden has
nothing to recommend it ””]; indeed it is almost inconceivable how such an abor-
tion could have been jumbled together. The flower-gardens in the Horticul-
tural Gardens at Chiswick, though of a different character, are nearly as bad,
and no man could group them so as to make them look well. In making
these remarks it is not my wish to give offence; but it may be fearlessly
stated that the gardens in question are at least half a century behind the
spirit of the age.

Again, in the gardens at Hewell, noticed with considerable commendation
and éclat in the Gardener’s Chronicle for 1843, p.663., a few weeks back,
there area splendid fountain and flower-garden at the bottom of an old stone
quarry, and a grass garden in the front of the conservatory; two examples of
perhaps as bad taste as could well be conceived. Had they placed the foun-
tain and dressed flower-garden in front of the conservatory, and consigned
the grasses to the company of the other British plants in the rock garden, I
think they would have been much more appropriately arranged. The water-
dipping willow at Chatsworth was always a monstrosity in my estimation, and

Arboricultural Notices. 637

would be a more fitting appendage to Vauxhall or a cockney tea-garden, than
to the princely domain in which it is placed.* Look again at the gin-glass in
tea-saucer fountain in the lake near Buckingham Palace, and at the cast-metal
fountain in the Serpentine in Kensington Gardens. The erection and execu-
tion of these two abortions is a national disgrace. But, if one were disposed
to find fault, it is not difficult to pick out subjects for censure; would it were
otherwise !

‘Your arguments at page 551., relative to having the beds in flower-gardens
of various sizes, are particularly clear ; but it strikes me that in the two plans,
figs. 118. and 119., you have rather exceeded your own principles, inasmuch
as I think the large corner beds in fig. 118. are too large to group properly
with the smaller beds ; and the same may be said of the horseshoe-shaped
beds in fig. 119. Were the largest beds in the plans a little smaller, and the
next sizes a trifle larger, I think the whole would be more proportionate, and
Tam certain could be more effectively planted. By the same rule that you
very properly insist upon the beds being of various sizes, I demand to have
them planted with plants proportionate to their size ; and, to effect, this the
large beds must either be reduced in size, or the small ones become blanks in
the garden.

In offering these remarks, I do not know whether I shall come under the lash
you have directed against “the overweening self-conceit of young gardeners,
especially Scotch ones ;” but, if I do, it is yourself and the West London Gar-
deners’ Association that are to blame for having taught me to become a caviller.

Brooklands, Blackheath Park, October 7. 1843.

Art. XIV. Arboricultural Notices.

Tue following are selected from the Hortus Collinsonianus, just printed, and
noticed in a subsequent page. ‘ By various memoranda it appears that Mr.
Collinson frequently employed Gordon the nurseryman to raise his seeds,
particularly those from the warmer climates, and among his papers there is,
in his own handwriting, the following tribute to his abilities. ‘ The skill and
ingenuity of some men is surprising. On August 30. I was at James Gordon’s,
gardener, at the last house on the left hand at Mile End; there he showed
me a pot of seedlings of the cactus, or great melon thistle, perhaps the first
ever raised from seed: but what shows his great knowledge and experience in
vegetation is his way of raising the finest dusty seeds; before him, I never
knew or heard of any man that could raise the dusty seeds of the kalmias,
rhododendrons, or azaleas. These charming hardy shrubs, that excel all
others in his care, he furnishes to every curious garden ; all the nurserymen
and gardeners come to him for them; and this year, after more than twenty
years’ trial, he showed me the loblolly bay of Carolina coming up from seed
in a way not to be expected ; this elegant evergreen shrub is next in beauty
to the magnolias: and his sagacity in raising all sorts of plants from cuttings,
roots, and layers surpasses all others ; by which our gardens are enriched with
an infinite variety, and for many years I have not been a little assistant to
him in procuring seeds and plants from all countries. This honourable
mention of Mr. Gordon, who is now in his fifty-sixth year, is an act of gra-
titude due to his memory from his old friend— Peter Collinson, in my sixty-
eighth year. Mill Hill, Sept. 2. 17632 The loblolly bay is the Gordonia
lasianthus, and from the circumstance here mentioned, this splendid shrub
may probably have been selected, at the suggestion of Mr. Collinson, to per-
petuate Mr. Gordon’s name.” (ZH. C. p. 5.)

* This water-dipping willow, as a relic of the gardens of a former age, we
should be sorry to see removed.—Cond.
3d Ser. — 1843. XI. TT

638 Arboricultural Notices.

Acer saccharmum is described as having leaves silvery beneath, and a
variety as platanifolio. (Hort. Coll., p. 2.) This last is probably 4. s.
nigrum, noticed in our Volume for 1841, p. 397., as being in the Paris
Garden, with the leaves not in the slightest degree velvety beneath, and
uniting with difficulty when inarched. We hope some spirited nurseryman
will procure plants.

Arindo Donax flowered in September, 1762, and does not die down every
year, as Miller states. (H. C. p. 5.)

Castanea vésca. “ Mem. ‘ Sept. 16. 1758. In Writtle Park, three miles on
the left of Ingatstone, in Essex, belonging to Lord Petre, is a stately
chestnut tree, which is now flourishing, that I measured, 5 ft. above the
ground, and found its girth 45 ft.—P. Collinson’ My friend, Edward
Forster, informs me that this noble tree has been gone many years; and
that the tradition in the neighbourhood is, that fifteen deer could shelter
under it. By another memorandum, it appears that the possessor of Mr.
Collinson’s copy of Martyn’s Hist. Plant. will find two drawings of this
splendid tree bound up with it ; and he has added a short description of it
to his history of the Tortsworth chestnut, in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
1766.” (H. €. p. 10.)

Ceanothus americanus. A very pretty tea is made from the dried leaves,
good for inveterate coughs, and shortness of breath. (H.C. p. 10.)

Cédrus Libani. ‘“ Mem. ‘1751. Our two large cedars of Lebanon, on each
side the grass walk, were given me by the Duke of Richmond, and brought
from Goodwood. ‘Six cedars of Lebanon, five years old, in the field,
Ap. 30. 1761, given me by Mr. Clark, all grew,’ and thus it is probable
that the ages of the two noble trees, which remain at Mill Hill, may be nearly
ascertained. See Loudon, Ard. et Frut. Brit. vol.i. p.56. In the sixth
edition of the Gardener’s Dictionary, it is said that the cedars at the Chelsea ~
Garden were planted in 1683, when about 3 ft. high ; and to this Mr. Col-
linson has added the following remark: ‘ Mr. Miller concludes that these
cedars, at 3 ft. high, were five years old, and they undoubtedly were the
first in England.” It appears from Evelyn, that, in 1664, the cedar was
unknown in England.” (H. C. p. 10.)

Cérasus lusitanica. “‘ Mem. ‘The Portugal laurel, now the greatest ornament
of our gardens, was, in the year 1719, first brought from Portugal to Mr.
Fairchild, a famous gardener for rarities, at Hoxton, and was for some
years kept in a greenhouse; it was exposed by degrees, and has since been
found to endure all weathers.” (H.C. p.11.) The date of introduction
in the catalogues is 1648, which would thus appear to be a mistake.

Comptonia asplenifolia. The leaves make a fine tea, and, used as hops, give
a good flavour to beer. (H. C. p. 14.)

Cérnus flérida. See Arb. Brit. vol. i. p. 55. “ Mem. ‘1761, May 17. Invited
by Mr. Sharp, of South Lodge, on Enfield Chase, to dine and see the
Virginia dogwood ; the calyx of the flowers (wonderful to see) are flowers
as large as figured by Catesby, and (what is strange) it is the only tree that
has these flowers amongst many hundreds that I have seen, and it began to
bear them in 1759.” (H.C. p. 15.)

The Fulham Nursery. “ Mem. ‘1760, Oct. 4. An American cluster nut, sent
me by Christopher Gray, the greatest nurseryman between Parson’s Green
and Fulham : his garden on both sides the King’s Road.’” (H. C. p. 15.)

Corylus Colarna. “ Mem. ‘ The Turkey nut, in the Mill Hill garden, is very
remarkable from all others, for the husk rises high, and branches out every
way, and covers the nut. This is a remarkable acquisition, for the captain
that brought them from Turkey, eating them in a drinking-room, one of
them dropped into the crack of a rotten window board, where it took root :
my gardening friend, Mr. Bennett, coming there and seeing it, transplanted
it to his garden, from whence our tree was a layer, and brought here anno
1756.” (H.C. p. 15.)

Gymnocladus canadénsis. “ Mem. ‘ Mr. Du Hamel sent me a Bonduc, from

Arboricultural Notices. 639

Paris, and planted in my garden, May 19. 1763. In this year of the peace
Mr. Buffon sent me another.’” (H. C. p. 23.)

Hypéricum Kalmidnum smells like Reseda. (H. C. p. 25.)

Juniperus caroliniana, and J. virginica. “ Miller, as well as Mr. Collinson,
has followed Hermann and Boerhaave in arranging J. caroliniana and J,
virginica as separate species, and Miller says that the difference is constant,
if the seeds are carefully gathered from the same tree, but that they fre-
quently arrive mixed together from America, which has occasioned them to
be mistaken for varieties.” (H.C. p. 27.)

Juniperus pheenicea. ‘Cedar of Pheenicia vulgo, brought by Sir Charles
Wager from the Island of Ivaca, in the Gulf of Malaga, when he carried
Don Carlos to Naples, not before in our gardens; it is also called Juniperus
Mispanica: so 4 ((77..C. p. 27.)

Juniperus thurifera. “ Extract of a letter to Mr. Collinson from Mr. Bowles,
intendant of the Spanish mines, and dated Madrid, March 4. 1766: ‘ There
are sweet-scented junipers in Spain, with red, purple, and brownish berries,
and some of them grow monstrous large in the south-east mountains, near
the source of the river Tagus; their leaves and smell are exactly like savin,
and full of berries; I measured one of these trees, 14 ft. in girth, and wide-
spreading, like a beech” (H. C. p. 27.)

Larix americana. “ Mem. ‘ Black larch, first brought from New York by P.
Collinson at Peckham,’ and from the original tree the specimen which
Mr. Lambert has figured was taken. Sir E. Smith, in Rees’s Encyclopedia,
says that this interesting tree ‘ was cut down about the year 1800 to make
a rail by its sapient possessor.’”” (H. C. p. 28.)

Ligistrum vulgare var. “ Collinson, as well as Miller, appears to have con-
sidered the evergreen privet to be a separate species ; and the latter, when
he adopted the Linnzan nomenclature, called it Z. italicum.” (H. C. p. 29.)

Liriodéndron Tulipifera. ‘“ Mem. ‘The tulip tree, at Waltham Abbey, in
flower June 26. 1745, 96 ft. high, and 9 ft. round, or 3 ft. in diameter, is
now, 1761, the largest tree. In 1756, the famous tulip tree in Lord Peter-
borough’s garden, at Parson’s Green, near Fulham, died; it was the tallest
tree in the grove, above 70 ft. high, and perhaps 100 years old, being the
first tree of the kind that was raised in England, and had for many years
the visitation of the curious to see its flowers and admire its beauty, for it
was as straight as an arrow, and died of age by gentle decay ; but it was
remarkable, the same year this died, a tulip tree I gave Sir Charles Wager
flowered for the first time, whose house and garden was opposite to Lord
Peterborough’s, and this tulip tree I raised from seed, and was thirty years
old before it flowered. So Parson’s Green is not likely to be without a
tulip tree. — P. Collinson, F.R.S’ In the catalogue it again appears
under another letter as the ‘ Arbor Tulipifera an Liriodendron Cafesby.’
In the Catalogus Plantarum, published by a Society of Gardeners in 1730,
it is said that ‘this tree was formerly preserved with great care in green-
houses, by which means many of them were destroyed.’” (H. C. p. 31.)

Lycium chinénse. ‘“ Mem. ‘In the spring, 1752, my honoured friend, the
Duke of Argyle, presented me with the curious trees and shrubs under-
mentioned, from his garden at Whitton, on Hounslow Heath,’ and among
them is, ‘ one China purple-flowered lycium, sent from China to the Duke
for the tea tree.’ This lycium is the supposed ‘ true tea tree’ mentioned
in a letter of Collinson’s, which my friend Dawson Turner has printed at
p- 391. of his ‘ Extracts from Dr. Richardson’s Correspondence.” (H.C.

232.)

eee ruthénicum. JL. sibiricum flowered for the first time in 1769 ; flowers
purplish ; new. (Z. C. p. 32.)

Archibald Duke of Argyle. See Arb. Brit. yol.i. p.57. “The following me-
morandum appears to have been written by Mr. Collinson soon after the
decease of His Grace, and is not among the notes which Mr. Lambert has
published in the Transactions of the Linnzean Society. ‘The Duke of

Gy ih

640 Arboricultural Notices.

Argyle, on the 15th of April, 1761, died as he sat in his chair, my honoured
friend and great patron of all planters, aged seventy-nine, a very hearty man
of that age. In the year 1723-4, he took im a part of Hounslow Heath, to
add to a little farm, and began planting by raising all sorts of trees and
shrubs from seeds from our northern colonies, and all other parts of the
world ; he had the largest coliection in England, and happily lived to see
to what a surprising maturity they had arrived in thirty-seven or thirty-
eight years. Great was his benevolence, for he gave to every one to en-
courage planting, and raised plants on purpose to oblige the curious at this
seat of his called Whitton. He had a fine collection of rare birds and
beasts; he was a great chemist, natural philosopher, mechanic, astronomer,
and mathematician. He was a wonderful amiable man, plain in his dress,
without pride or vain ostentation ; his library was scarcely to be equalled.
He was forty-one years old when he began to sow seeds for his planta-
money (CFE (G5) 825)

Piatanus orientalis, said to have been first planted at Lord Verulam’s seat,
now Lord Grimston’s, near St. Albans. (H. C. p. 41.)

Peter Collinson, F.R.S. See Arb. Brit. vol. i. p. 54. “ Mr. Collinson re-
sided at Peckham from his infancy, till he removed to Mill Hill, after which
it appears not unlikely that his brother lived in the old family house ; and
as Mill Hill, prior to the removal, belonged to his father-in-law (Mr. Russell),
he may probably have enjoyed the use of both gardens for a much longer
period than he occupied them, Dr. Fothergill, in his Memoir of Collinson,
says: ‘ It was a favourable circumstance to himself, that he was in partner-
ship with his brother James Collinson, in a business that did not always
require their attention together. They lived in great harmony, and reci-
procally afforded to each other opportunities for their respective pursuits.
Both, however, had a strong relish for horticulture and planting, and both
had acquired a just conception of rural elegance.” (H. C. p. 42.)

Pinica Granatum. “ Mem. ‘ Oct. 2. 1767. On south walls at a gentleman’s
garden at Parson’s Green, and at Gray’s Nursery Garden near the same
place, I saw three pomegranate trees, full of fruit, without any covering or
art, of a beautiful red colour ; I measured one fruit 9 in. round ; there
were many more near the same size, and some less. I eat one little in-
ferior to those brought from abroad; perfection can’t be expected in our
climate, but the novelty and beauty of the scarlet blossoms and fruit deserve
the best south (or south a point or two to the east) wall in every curious
garden. In the years 1759 and 1760 these trees had fruit on them ; 1758
no fruit.’ In other memoranda the pomegranate is mentioned to have
fruited at Mill Hill, and that 1757 was ‘remarkable for plenty of nuts,
peaches, and nectarines, and all sorts of plums, though few apricots, and
that in 1758 there was great plenty of nuts and apples.’ ‘ Oct. 10. 1765,
visited my friend Mrs. Gaskry, at Parson’s Green, near Fulham ; this long
hot dry year has had remarkable good effects on all wall fruits ; apricots,
peaches, and nectarines ripened much earlier, and have been excellent, but
the most remarkable was the plenty of pomegranates ; near two dozen on
one tree, of a remarkable size, and fine ruddy complexion, of the size of
middling oranges, and one that was split shewed the redness and ripeness
within.” (H. C. p. 43.)

Robinia hispida. “ Mem. ‘ Sir John Colliton, at Exmouth, one of the pro-
prietors of Carolina, had sent him from thence the first red acacia, anno
1741;’ and from his inability to find a plant in the neighbourhood of
London, in 1748, Catesby’s figure appears to have been taken from a dried
specimen.” (H. C. p. 46.)

Salisburia adiantifolia. “ Mem. ‘June 9. 1767. Mr. Gordon, senior and
junior, dined at Mill Hill, and brought me in a pot what Dr. Keempfer, in
his Ameenitates Exotice, p. 812., names Ginko vel Ginau, arbor nucifera
folio adiantino. I planted it against a south wall; stood very well all the
last winter, which was very severe, 1767-8, and thrives finely. When I
visited Ridgway House, at the beginning of the present century, if I am not

Arboricultural Notices. 641

greatly mistaken, this tree remained there against a south wall.” (ZH, C.
48.

Salix Sicen “* Mem. ‘ Mr. Vernon, Turkey merchant at Aleppo, trans-
planted the weeping willow from the river Euphrates, and brought it with
him to England, and planted it at his seat at Twickenham Park, where I
saw it growing, anno 1748. This is the original of all the willows in our
gardens. In July, 1765, I measured a weeping willow at Mr. Snelling’s, at
Godalmin, Surrey, of but fifteen years’ standing ; it measured 6 ft. in girth,
or 2 ft. in diameter, and the height in proportion.’ In the first edition of
the Hortus Kewensis, on the authority of L’Heritier’s Sertwm Anglicanum,
this species is said to have been first introduced in 1730, but the date in
the second edition has been altered to 1692, from a reliance on Plukenet’s,
t. 173. f. 5. which, on examination of the original specimen at the British
Museum, I found to be an entirely different plant. By the Catalogus Plan-
tarum, published by a Society of Gardeners, in 1730, it appears then to have
been cultivated in our nurseries.” (H. C. p. 48.)

Spartium janceum fl. pl. “ Mem. ‘I first introduced the Spanish broom with
double flowers; it was sent me from Nuremberg, anno 1746, in a pot nicely
wickered all over; it cost there a golden ducat; came from thence down
the Elbe to Hambro’, and was brought by first ship to London, in good
order. I soon inarched it on the single-flowered broom, and gave it to
Gray and Gordon, two famous nurserymen, and the public soon had it from
dooms’ (el, C5 jt S25)

Syringa vulgaris alba. ‘“‘ Mem. ‘Lord Petre was particularly fond of the
white lilac, and directed his gardener to gather none but white seed; he
raised more than 5000 plants that flowered in 1741, and out of that number
but about twenty came white, the rest all blue, so that white seems to be
only a seminal variety from the blue.” (H. C. p. 54.)

Viscum album, the mistletoe, has been found by Mr. Knowlton growing on
the following trees. “1. On the lime tree at Bone Gate, East Barnett
and Cannons, Duke of Chandos, Edgeware. 2. On nuts and filberts at
Market Street. 3. On the mountain ash or quick beam. 4. On apple
trees. 5. On the crabs. 6. On white thorn. 7. On the acacia or ro-
binia. 8. On the pear tree. 9. On the maple, nm Yorkshire and Hunting-
donshire. 10. On A‘ria Theophrasti, or white beam, on Sussex Downs.
11. On the abele or poplar, at Ashton, near Rotherham, and at Lord
Holdernesse’s. 12. On the ash at Lord Tilney’s, at Tilney Park, in
Hampshire. 13. On the elm; 14. On the willow; 15. On the buck-
thorn; 16. On the sallow: 17. On the service ; these all were observed
at Esquire Blackburn’s, and in Lancashire, and in Westmorland, in 1764.
18. On a holly branch, which was at a druggist’s in Bow Lane, Cheapside.
19, On a Virginia walnut tree, growing in our fields at Mill Hill. 20. On
the oak (which is very rare), Mr. Knowlton has twice seen it. In August,
1765, three plants were found growing on the oak on the estate of
White, Esq., at Watling Wells.” (4. C. p. 57.)

The following are dimensions of trees in the grounds of Flitwick House,
the seat of John Thomas Brook, Esq., near Ampthill, Bedfordshire. The
circumference is taken at 1 ft. from the ground.

Quércus pedunculata, 17 ft. girth, and 70ft. high ; 14ft., and 60 ft. high ;
144 ft., and 65 ft. high ; and 18 ft. and 70 ft. high.

Fraxinus excélsior, 10 ft. 3 in. girth, and 60 ft. high.

Tilia europe'a, 7 ft. 8 in. girth, and 65 ft. high.

UImus campéstris, 18 ft. girth, and 60 ft. high.

Fagus sylvatica, 11 ft. 6 in. girth, and 65 ft. high.

A’cer Psetido-Platanus, 7 ft. 6 in. girth, and 58 ft. high.

Carpinus Beétulus, 7 ft. girth, and 50 ft. high.

Larix europea, 7 ft. 6 in, girth, and 80 ft. high. :

Cédrus Libani, planted in 1818, 4 ft. 3 in. girth, and 30 ft. high.

Tred

642 Experiment on the Propagation of Gladiolus cardinalis.

A’bies excélsa, 8 ft. girth, and 70 ft. high.

Picea pectinata, 8 ft. girth, and 70 ft. high.

Pinus sylvéstris, 8 ft. 6 in. girth, and 65 ft. high.
Pinus Pinaster, 9 ft. 6 in. girth, and 75 ft. high.
Pinus Strobus, 6 ft. girth, and 60 ft. high.
Juniperus virginiana, 5 ft. girth, and 40 ft. high.
IMex Aquifolium, 3 ft. 10 in. eirth, and 30 ft. high.

The following are the dimensions of young trees in the arboretum at Fuit-
wick House, which was planted in the autumn of 1829.
Magnolea conspicua, 10 ft. 6 in. high. Length of last year’s shoots, 3 ft.
Ailantus glandulosa, 3 ft. 4 in. girth, and 25 ft. high.
Kolreutéria paniculata, 1 ft. 6 in. girth, and 10 ft. high.
Catalpa syrngefolia, 3 ft. 3 in. girth, and 14 ft. high.
A’rbutus Andrachne, 1 ft. 6 in. sirth, and 7 ft. high.
Quércus Cérris, 1 ft. 10 in. girth, and 19 ft. high.
Quércus Cérris Ragnal, 2 ft. 5 in. girth, and 20 ft. high.
Juniperus sinénsis mas, 1] ft. 6 in. “high ; and J. s. foe’ mina, 8 ft. 6 in. high.
Pinus hispanica, 8 ft. 6 in. high ; ehoats of last year, 2 ft. 23 in.
Pinus Pinaster foliis variegatis, ‘10 ft. high.
A’bies Douglasi, 2 ft. 5 in. “girth, and 23 ft. high ; circumf. of branches 17 yds.
Araucaria imbricata, 9 ft. high. —J. 7’. Brooks. “April 29, 1843.

Art. XV. Result of an Experiment made in endeavouring to propagate
the Gladiolus cardinalis. By ANDREW MACKENZIE.

In your tour through Scotland in the summer of 1841, when calling at Blair-
Adam, among other things you observed the Gladiolus cardinalis growing in
great perfection, and wished me to send you my mode of culture for the
Gardener's Magazine, which I did (see our Vel. for 1841, p.461.); and in that
article I promised to give you an account of an experiment which I had
previously made, by dividing a large ball of the Gladiolus cardinalis into single
bulbs, and planting them in a bed in the usual way. This was done early in
the spring of 1841, and that season only two small flowers made their appear-
ance ; yet most of them stood the following winter without any protection ;
but the leaves were much smaller.

In 1842 only one half of the bed came up, and all the plants were very
sickly, and none of them came into flower ; and in 1843 only one solitary leaf
came up: so that all the bed of single bulbs have perished. Had the large
ball of which this bed was composed been planted by itself, it would have
produced by this time from fifteen to twenty large trusses of flowers; or,
propagated in the manner recommended in your Vol. for 1841, p. 461., would
have filled a bed.

From the above experiment, the readers of the Gardener's Magazine will
see the necessity of adopting the plan which I recommend, viz. of planting
the Gladiolus cardinalis in balls or clusters cf corms.

Blaw-Adam Garden, Oct. 10. 1843.

REVIEWS.

Art. I. Catalogue of Works on Gardening, Agriculture, Botany,
Rural Architecture, 3c., lately published, with some Account of
those considered the more interesting.

TREATISE on the Management and Cultivation of Forest Trees. By John
Smith, Gardener and Forester to the Most Noble the Marquis of Bute, &c.

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. 643

&e. 8vo, pp. 164, with seven lithographic plates and several woodcuts.

Glasgow, Edinburgh, and London, 1843.

We regret we cannot say a single word in favour of this book. If the
author had been well advised, it would never have seen the light.

Arboriculture: A Paper read before the Geological and Polytechnic Society of the
West Riding of Yorkshire. By James Hamerton, Esq. 8vo. Leeds, Bains.
“ Like us, he does not object to a little pruning when trees are very young ;
but then only, and in cases of absolute necessity, would he permit it.” (Dr.
LInndley, in Gard. Chron. 1843, p. 698.)

Guide to the Conservatory ; being a concise Treatise on the Management of the
Hothouse and Greenhouse; the Forcing of Bulbs, Shrubs, §c., and the best
Mode of keeping a Succession of Bloom through every Month of the Year, ex-
emplified in a select List of the most admirable Plants of the present Day under
the Arrangements both of Jussieu and Linneus, including their native Country,
Propagation, and the Soil udapted to each. By Richard Bainbridge, Flower-
Gardener to the Right Honourable Lord Wenlock. From Notes of the
Author’s Daily Practice, and Communications furnished by liberal eminent
Floriculturists. 12mo. London, 1842.

Noticed as being in the press, in our Vol. for 1841, p. 628.

Flora Odorata; a characteristic Arrangement of the sweet-scented Flowers and
Shrubs cultivated in the Gardens of Great Britain, with Directions for their
Propagation, Management, Sc. §c. By Frederick J. Mott. fcp. 8vo. London
and Leicester, 1843.

A, Paul and Sons’ Catalogue of Roses for the Autumn of 1843, and Spring of
1844, Pamph. 8vo, pp. 20.

Catalogus Plantarum Cesarei Regi Horti prope Modiciam ad Annum 1842.
Catalogue of the Plants in the Royal Botanic Garden of Monza near Milan
in the Year 1842. 8vo, pp. 207. Milan, 1843.

M. Manetti, the director of the Monza Garden, and the author of the Cata-
logue, informs us in his preface that it has been compiled in obedience to the
commands of His Serene Highness Prince Rainer, a nobleman of great
botanical acquirements, in consequence of the vast influx of plants since 1826,
when the previous list was made out. The nomenclature is, for the most
part, that of DeCandolle and Sprengel. Want of leisure prevented him from
making the Catalogue as comprehensive as he could wish, but he hopes at
some future time to arrange the whole on the plan of our Encyclopedia of
Plants, and thus render it “a source of pleasure and instruction both to the
botanist and the gardener.”

The Catalogue is in alphabetical order; and after each specific name, the
authority, the habit of the plant, whether a tree, whether ligneous or herba-
ceous, perennial, biennial, with male or female flowers, &c., and its native
country. The garden seems very rich in species. On turning to the genus
Cratee‘gus we find 29 species and 17 varieties. Three of the species, C. coronata
Wendl. fil., C. pruinosa Wendl, fil., and C. sphee’rica Wendl. fil., we are unac-
quainted with under these names.

The Catalogue has been got up with very great care, and is highly creditable
to its author. It will be found useful to collectors in this country, as it
contains a number of species little known in England.

A Treatise on the Culture of the Vine in Pots. By J. Mearns, F.H.S.
12mo. London, 1843.

A Comprehensive Practical Treatise, or a New Era in the Culture of the Vine
under Glass, §c. By James Roberts, Gardener to M. Wilson, Esq., Eshton
Hall, near Skepton, Yorkshire. 12mo. London, 1843.

TT 4

644 Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c.

Culture of the Grape Vine in Australha and New Zealand, wilh Remarks on the
Vineyards of Europe, Asia, §c. By George Sutton, F.L.S. 8vo. Lond.
1843. eS

Elements of Practical Agriculture, comprehending the Cultivation of Plants, the .

Husbandry of the Domestic Animals, and the Economy of the Farm. By
David Low, Esq., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture in the University of
Edinburgh, &c. &c. London and Edinburgh, 1843. 8vo, pp. 817, and
numerous wood-cuts. :

In the present edition the author informs us he has “ entered somewhat
more than in the previous ones into an explanation of what may be termed
principles.” The soil, the external agents which influence it, and the nature
of those substances which, when added to it, increase its productive powers,
have been enlarged on. In various parts of the work it has been endeavoured
to show “the mistaken applications which may be made of principles to the
practice of the farm, and the errors into which persons little conversant with
practice are apt to fall, with respect to the kinds and degrees of knowledge
required to be possessed by the practical farmer.”

The author has evidently been roused by the attention recently paid to the
chemistry and geology of agriculture by the English Agricultural Society ;
and by the very remarkable fact, that the agriculturists of Scotland have
joined together, and agreed to give an eminent chemist 500/. a year for
analysing soils, besides an extra payment for each analysis. It would thus
appear that the practical men are taking the initiative of the professor.

In the chapter on the Chemical Analysis of Soils, after enumerating the
various matters which enter into their composition, “ soil being in fact one of
the most compound substances in nature,” the following conclusion is arrived
at. “ The farmer is able to determine the nature of his soil by its texture, its
depth, its productiveness of plants, and other sensible properties, and, happily,
the knowledge so attained is sufficient for all the ends of useful practice.”

“ A knowledge of the intimate chemical constitution of the soil is highly
worthy of being obtained, and the subject would deserve to be pursued by
men of science, were there no other aim or result than the resolving of che-
mical and physiological questions. But too much must not be looked for
from such enquiries, as teaching the farmer new methods of practice. The
farmer knows, for the most part, better than the chemist, when a soil is good
or bad, when it is improvable by ordinary means, and when it is too barren to
repay the expenses of culture ; and he knows better than the chemist how to
keep it clean, dry, and as productive as the means at his command will allow,
with a due reference to return as compared with the expenditure. But this
latter knowledge is not derived from the laboratory, but the fields, and is a
branch of a practical business, in which chemistry can render little aid. What-
ever results chemical analyses of the soil may hereafter conduct us to, it must
be admitted, that as yet they have been interesting to the scientific enquirer
rather than useful to the farmer. Every garden and well-cultivated field
shows that the soil may be brought to its maximum of fertility without de-
pendence on any conclusions yet arrived at by the physiologist and the
chemist. Perhaps not more than a dozen of chemical analyses of soils have
yet been made in Europe, sufficiently exact to aid the purposes of science,
while the great mass of those which are made, and communicated to farmers
as something necessary or useful to them, are equally worthless for science
and practice.” (p. 23.)

The chapter on the Geological Relations of Soils is entirely new, or at least
it is not in the second edition (the third we have not seen). After going
over the different formations, and showing that the soil of any tract may be
totally different from what the rocks on which it rests, or which abound in
its vicinity, might lead us to suppose, from the intermixture of soils or debris
of rocks brought from a distance by the action of water, the professor con-
cludes with the following paragraph :—

a

Catalogue of Works on Gardening, &c. 645

* We see, therefore, that the mere knowledge of the geological formations
of a country does not afford the data for determining the nature and pro-
perties of the soils in the manner required for practice. Speculative writers,
indeed, have maintained that a knowledge of geology is not only eminently
useful to the practical farmer, but even necessary to enable him to distinguish
soils, and adopt the suitable means of improving them. It is surprising that
such statements should be hazarded. The farmer, as all experience shows,
can distinguish soils by their agricultural characters much more certainly and
readily than the geologist can by their geological ; and it does not appear in
what manner geology can give that knowledge to a farmer which can enable
him to cultivate and improve his land. The farmer, it is manifest, must
regard the soil which he has to till, not in its relations with a whole district,
but with reference to its own characters and fertility. He may find the soil,
not only of a single farm but of a single field, varying in every degree; and it
will be necessary that he adapt his management to these variations, whatever
be the geological formation in which he may be placed. It were greatly to
be desired, indeed, that the practical farmer would acquire a knowledge of
geology, and learn to read a portion of that marvellous history which is
written on every rock and mineral bed around him. Such a knowledge
would give a charm to rural pursuits, and connect a liberal and interesting
study with the observations of daily life; yet such a knowledge, however
excellent, will not enable the farmer to discriminate soils better for the ends
of practice, much less enable him to cultivate them with greater skill, which
is knowledge he must derive from agriculture, and not from geology.” (p. 45.)

With a view to the immediate application of knowledge to practice, we
entirely agree with Professor Low. No chemical analysis or geological section
of a soil would induce us to take a farm on the strength of the data they
afforded ; but, if we saw or had a list of the plants either indigenous or
cultivated which grew on the soil, we should offer rent for the land without
the slightest hesitation. But we have already stated this in the Encyclopedias
both of Agriculture and Gardening. Nevertheless we readily acknowledge
that it would add to our confidence in the productiveness and improvableness
of a soil, and perhaps lead to improvements that we do not even contemplate,
to know that it contained a considerable proportion of lime and other alkaline
earths and mineral salts; and we think the importance of this kind of know-
ledge, in connexion with that of the analysis of plants, has not been over-
stated by such agricultural chemists as Professor Johnston and others, though
this knowledge may not yet be in such a state as to be available by the rent-
paying farmer. There is a very short method of improving the agriculture of
England, if landlords would agree to it: that is, granting 2l-years’ leases, and
requiring at least half the rent in kind, or kind’s value; but for this the land-
lords must first be visited by such a degree of poverty as will render a greater
income from landed property necessary, or such a degree of liberality as will
induce them to treat their tenantry as independent men, and not, as at present,
as a set of political slaves.

Illustrations of Indian Architecture. By Markham Kittoe, Esq. Parts 1X. to
XVII. inclusive. Oblong 4to. Calcutta and London.

Our notice of this work in our Volume for 1840 will show the favourable
opinion which we have of it. The numbers before us increase in interest as
they proceed; they abound in a great many curious specimens of Indian
design, which are calculated to assist the inventive powers of the artist not
only in Indian architecture, but in architectural composition generally. They
are particularly rich in specimens of parapets, and what are called jali, or
stone trelliswork. Many of the latter designs afford excellent hints for
flower-gardens.

We are sorry to find that the talented and industrious author of this work
was in bad health in Calcutta, in December, 1841; he was then about to
depart for Europe, with the intention of finishing the work in London. We

646 ; ~ General Notices.

sincerely hope he will be able to effect his object, and, what is still more
desirable for himself, recover his health, and enjoy the result of his labours for
many years,

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

Art. I. General Notices.

PARCHMENT Labels. — Some nurserymen use these without any preparation,
writing on them with ink; others slightly moisten the surface of the label
and write with a black lead pencil, or with ink; some, as Sir Thomas Frank-
land (see Hort. T’rans.), write with Indian ink instead of common ink; others
again rub a little white paint on them, as is done in writing names on wooden
tallies ; but the mode at present considered most efficient is to rub the
surface of the parchment with white lead mixed with a little red ochre, and
write with a black lead pencil. The writing thus made, Mr. Rivers informs
us, is so durable, that he has seen the labels quite readable at the end of the
second season, though exposed to the weather the whole of the time.—Cond.
Garden Pots. — “I have just made a good improvement on the common
flower-pot, which deserves to be universally adopted. The shape, size, and
expense are not altered. I have done away with the hole at the bottom
altogether; and, instead of the flat bottom, the maker pushes in the centre of
it, like the bottom of a common black glass bottle, only not with so sharp a
turn inside, and the drainage-holes are round the sides at the bottom. From
2 to 6 holes, according to the size of the pot, will do all the business of drain-
age. The roots cannot get through the bottom, neither can the worms get
in, and water cannot hang under the pot in winter, which, for heaths, is the
best part of the change.” (D. Beaton, in Gard. Chron. 1843, p. 372.)
Application of the Principle of the Balloon to Landscape-Gardening. — It is
often desirable to know the effect, and more especially the height, which tall-
growing trees will have when full grown. On a level surface this is compa-
ratively easily ascertained by means of trigonometry or perspective; but in the
case of an irregular surface on hills, or in irregular narrow valleys, it has only
been satisfactorily done hitherto by fixing in poles of spruce fir, such as those
used by builders in their scaffolding. A more economical mode would-be to
have small balloons, say balls of balloon silk of a foot or 18 in. in diameter,
which might be filled at the nearest gas-house ; to have a cord attached to each
ball of considerable length, say 150 ft., with the opposite end of the cord attached
to an iron reel like that of a garden line. This reel would serve as an anchor to
the balloon, and the line might be let out to such an extent as the tree intended
to be planted was expected to attain in height. In all this there would be
very little expense; but balloons as large as trees might be formed, and thus
groups and plantations of various kinds held in suspension in the atmosphere
in such a manner as to show with greater accuracy than has hitherto been
done, the ultimate effect that would be produced at particular parts of parks
or pleasure-grounds by planting. Even buildings might be exhibited in this
way. Calm weather, of course, must be chosen for such experiments.— Cond.
A Trap for the Wire-worm. — Edge the beds in which you have florist’s
flowers growing in fresh soil with daisies. Wire-worms will concentrate their
attacks on the roots of the daisies and leave the plants in the beds untouched.
From one row of daisies 300 ft. long, 2000 worms were taken in one day
during summer. The daisy, being a free-growing plant, is able to exist not-
Les the attacks of the worm. (S. Oram, in Gard. Chron., 1843,
p- 693.
How a young Gardener should travel by Railroad. — As there is scarcely any
thing of more importance to a young man than acquiring habits of economy,

General Notices. 647

we recommend all apprentices and journeymen gardeners, who are in good
health, and can wrap themselves well up, to travel in third class trains. A
young nurseryman who has been through great part of France, Germany, and
Belgium, and who belongs to Russia, has lately passed 6 or 8 months in
England. He has been all over the country, and also in Ireland and Scotland’;
he speaks and writes four different languages, is an excellent draftsman, and a
scientific botanist. He was supported by his family, who are wealthy; but he
never, either on the Continent or in this country, travelled otherwise than by
a third class train. He observed to us, that when he jumped out of one of
these trains, well wrapped up in his cloak, he was the same man as if he had
come out of a carriage of the first class, with this difference, that he had a
good deal more money in his pocket. On mentioning this to a gentleman at
Southampton worth at least 30,000/., he told us he did exactly tiie same thing
when none of his family were travelling with him.—Cond.

To dry moist Air.-—Chloride of calcium has so great an affinity for water
that it absorbs it completely from any confined atmosphere, rendering it
quickly and perfectly dry. For closets or rooms thoroughly air-tight, contain-
ing books, papers, or dried specimens of plants, this substance must be ex-
tremely useful in the winter time, when the windows cannot be opened, and
where, perhaps, there are no fireplaces. It may also be useful in vineries,
where late crops of grapes are kept hanging on the trees. — Cond.

Wooden Houses, of every kind, from the summer-house to houses for curates
and rectors, of from four to ten rooms each, we observe by the advertise-
ments, are manufactured by our friend Peter Thompson. They are con-
structed of Payne’s anti-combustic wood, and sold either for home use or
exportation, and at incredibly low prices. Mr. Thompson has published a
small book of such buildings, with their prices, from which a choice may be
made ; and it will be borne in mind that houses are exported duty free. —
Cond.

The “ Rule” and the “ Reason.”— Horne Tooke, when at Eton, was one
day asked by the master the reason why a certain verb governed a particular
case? He answered, “I don’t know.” ‘That is impossible,” said the
master, “ I know you are not ignorant, but obstinate.” Horne, however, per-
sisted, and the master flogged. After the punishment, the master quoted the
rule of grammar which bore on the subject, and Horne instantly replied, “ 7
know that very well ; but you did not ask me for the ru/e, you demanded the
reason.” Gardeners will do well constantly to bear in mind the difference
here pointed out. A principle ought always to be the foundation of a rule,
which is nothing more than a precept taken from the principle ; and appli-
cable, not universally, but only to a certain number of cases. A principle is
of universal application. — Cond,

Approaching Similarity of Manners all over the World.—A writer in the
Edinburgh Review for Feb. 1843., p. 144., laments the influence of railroads in
assimilating the social and domestic character of our provincial towns to that
of the capital. There is no originality in the country, he says ; no escape from
the eternal repetition of men and things. “ Fifty years ago the manners in
London differed essentially from those in country towns, and those again from
each other,’ and so on. In our opinion, it is the coming glory of rail-
roads, that they will equalise social and domestic character, as far as climate,
government, and other physical and geographical circumstances will permit, all
over the world, till at last we have only one prevailing living language, one
system of weights and measures, and many other inestimable blessings. —
Cond.

A covered Garden in Paris, heated by a new and ingenious method, is pro-
posed to be established. Cafés, shops, libraries, ball-rooms, restaurants, baths,
and a theatre, are to surround it. ‘Twenty-five millions of francs, to be raised
by a company, is the sum to be called for. (Scotsman, Aug. 26. 1843.)

Grafting and Budding the Rhododendron. — The rhododendron, in the
autumn, will bud as freely as the rose, and graft in the open air as easily as

648 General Notices.

the apple or pear. The only precaution that is necessary in this operation is,
to take prominent buds from the first growth of this season, as many of the
family have made a second growth this month. Variegated hollies may now be
grafted and budded with the greatest freedom. The rhododendron being thin-
rinded, it does best by side grafting, and buds of it also had better be inserted
after the manner of side-grafting, with a portion of the soft wood retained be-
hind the bud; all autumn buds may thus be inserted. I scarcely ever used
clay in the first instance for excluding the air from these experimental buds
and grafts, so that, with this useful precaution, there will be no fear of success.
The following observations may be useful to those little versed in these
matters. Insert autumn grafts as you would buds, leave about an inch of the
graft out, at the top of the incision, and use the firm part of this summer’s
growth for the stock. If the bark of the stock be very thin, or if it does not
part freely from the wood, you had better put in the grafts and buds as in
side-grafting, cutting out a thin slice, and preparing the grafts so as to fit the
place; and tie rather gently, as the stock is soft, for fear of bruising the bark.
if the graft be put in on the north side of the stock, it will be an additional
security from the heat of the sun. The best grafting clay is made by putting
a lump of soft clay in the bottom of a small pot, with a little water over it ;
then stir it with a stick until it is rather thicker than paint, and with a small
brush, made with strips of matting tied to a little stick, paint over the tying ;
and, while the paint is wet, dust a little dry sand or mould over it. When
it becomes dry, no rain will wash it off, and the sand will keep it from crack-
ing. (D. Beaton, in Gard. Chron. for Sept. 2. 1843, p. 616.)

Disbudding Shoots with the Leaves on.— This is practised by Mr. James
Roberts, the author of the Culture of the Vine under Glass, a book that ranks
with the Treatise of Mr. Hoare. While the leaves are yet green, the shoots
or spurs are divested of such buds as are not intended to produce fruit the
following season. The result of this is, that the organisable matter prepared
by 50 or 100 leaves is concentrated in 20 or 30 buds, instead of being divided
among three or four times that number, as it is by the general system of
management. Though this is merely an extended application of the principle
of the concentration of the sap practised in disbudding and various allied
operations, yet it is one of immense importance when applied to the vine, and
to the shoots of ligneous plants with the leaves on. The buds, in conse-
quence of having so much sap concentrated in them, become highly excitable,
and, with the slightest application of heat in early spring, they push with the
greatest vigour. There may, under certain circumstances, be a fear of the
premature bursting of the buds; but this, in general, may be prevented by
leaving two or three small laterals on the most vertical part of the vine. Though
Mr. Roberts, who is decidedly the inventor of this system, has chiefly applied
it to vines under glass, yet it is said to be equally applicable to out-of-door
vines. Of course, if it is applicable to one bud-bearing plant, it must be
applicable to all, whether ligneous or herbaceous. “ You may,” Mr. Roberts
observes, “ proceed to disbud, beginning at the bottom of the vine, leaving a
bud you think well placed on the side of the shoot (preferring that to either
the top or under side); then cut clean out the two following, leaving the
fourth, taking out the next two, and so on till you reach 8 or 9 feet in height,
as to that length the cane must be cut back. Proceed again at the bottom,
disbudding the other side in the same manner, so that, in that length, you will
be able to leave eight or ten permanent eyes to form fruit-bearing spurs for
the following year, or five on each side. I particularly caution against in-
juring the leaves when the bud is cut out, as they may not naturally drop for
weeks after, and may yet be useful in more perfectly maturing the stem and
remaining buds. In a few days the wounds or cuts will have dried up; touch
them with a little paint, keep them cool and dry until the leaves have com-
menced dropping generally.” (W. P. Ayres, in Gard. Chron. for 1843, p. 677.)

An imperishable Bread, made of flour and rice meal, and in every respect
well tasted and wholesome, is said to have been invented by Mr. Alzard.

Domestic Notices: — England, Scotland. 649

The bread, it is said, will keep two centuries without the slightest alteration, if
required. If this should really be the case, it will, of course, supersede in a
great measure the troublesome modes of preserving wheat in sieves, and other
underground excavations, now practised on the Continent, and indeed, together
with rice, in most parts ‘of the world. (Standard.) The Arab in Egypt
generally buries his rice to conceal it from his enemies; often, as St. John
informs us, in the floor of his miserable mud hut. — Cond.

Ferbenas and Petunias.— After seeing all about London, and collecting
nearly fifty varieties of the verbena, I reduced them to twelve sorts, and three
or four of these are for neutral beds ; that is, beds with no decided colour.
Petunias must be dealt with in the same manner. (D. Beaton, in Gard. Chron.
1843, p. 592.)

Best time for eating Pears.— No pear, if gathered and eaten when fully ripe
on the tree, is so good as when gathered as soon as it has attained its full
size, and laid by in a dry place until it is ripe. (J. Hayward, in Gard. Gaz.
1843, p. 153.)

Manuring Vines.— We find several gardeners throughout the country, who
have read Liebig’s work, manuring their vines with the summer’s prunings
chopped small, and slightly dug in immediately. Of course the plan will
succeed where yery slight crops are to be taken, but not otherwise. — Cond.

Art. II. Domestic Notices.

ENGLAND.

THE Naming of the Trees and Shrubs in Kensington Gardens has had, as was
anticipated, a beneficial effect upon the public mind, in awakening a spirit of
enquiry, and exciting a taste for botanical and horticultural pursuits ; so much
so, that gentlemen go direct from these gardens to the nurseries, with their
lists made out from their own inspection. (Gard. Chron., 1843, p. 695.)

Paulownia imperialis has flowered in the greenhouse of Mrs. Wray of Oak-
field near Cheltenham. The flowers are deliciously sweet, and are produced
freely on very young plants, if forced for that purpose. The conditions to be
attended to are, to keep the plants under-potted, to force them slowly in a
cool stove, early vinery, or forcing-house, beginning early in the spring. By
midsummer they will have finished their growth, have begun to show their
flower-buds, and to cast their leaves; they will then require less water, and
in six weeks or two months the flowers will begin to expand, and the plants,
of course, will be brought into the conservatory, where they will take up little
room, as they may be set anywhere, only leaving their heads of flowers free
above other plants which surround them. Might not the Catdalpa syringefolia
be treated like Paulownia for the sake of its large trumpet-like flowers, which
are produced in abundance in the neighbourhood of London and farther
south, but are seldom to be met with in colder parts of the country? (Gard.
Chron., 1843, p. 698.)

American Aloe.— There is a fine specimen of this rarely flowering exotic on
the lawn at Charlton House, near this town [Wantage]. The flower stem
has already attained the height of 16 ft., with 25 lateral branches, and nearly
4000 blossom buds. It is hoped that when this beautiful plant is fully in
flower the public may be admitted to see it. (Jackson's Oxford Journal, Sept.
16. 1843.)

SCOTLAND.

Sir Walter Scott’s Monument.— It is well known that a number of situations
have been from time to time pointed out as proper sites for this monument.

650 Retrospective Criticism.

In some of these it would have been founded on a yisible rock, and conse-
quently the expense of the foundation would have been trifling, or rather
there would have been no expense on that account at all. The committee,
however, finally fixed on a situation on the edge of the North Loch, on the
south margin of Princes Street, on a piece of made ground, where, in order
to procure a sufficient foundation, they have been obliged to dig down 40 or
50 ft., and bury such an immense mass of masonry, that the committee are
now coming forward to solicit “auxiliary subscriptions’ on account of the
“heavy expenses of the substructure.” (Scotsman, Aug. 30, 1843.) Inde-
pendently altogether of the “ heavy expense of this substructure,” we put it
to all men of common sense, whether it can be in good taste, in a locality like
Edinburgh, where there are innumerable situations that supply foundations of
rock rising to the surface, to build a monument, no matter for whom or for
what, in a situation where any substructure is required at all. Why not have
chosen a spot on the Castle Hill, or perhaps still better the Calton Hill ?
The idea of burying so much money, where there never can be anything to
show for it except the accounts, is in our opinion most repugnant to the
feelings of a well-regulated mind, and anything but creditable to the com-
mittee. Economy of execution is one of the first things that ought to be
attended to in every public or private work whatever. — Cond.

Art. III. Retrospective Criticism.

THE Improvements in Kensington Gardens. (p. 288.) — While I agree with
you in admitting that great praise is due to the Earl of Lincoln, for the wish
he has manifested to make the parks about the metropolis minister as much
as possible to the instruction, as well as gratification, of the people, I cannot
think that he has done well in introducing conspicuously the names of the
trees and shrubs into our public gardens. I know that this is a favourite
project of yours, and that it has originated in a most benevolent wish to blend
instruction with amusement, and so to lead to a civilisation of our population.
But, in the first place, I do not think that the beauty of all our parks ought
to be destroyed, and all chance of a high love for the beauties of nature cut
off, for the sake of instructing those who will not be at the pains to learn for
themselves. Let there be, if you will, botanic gardens, where those who
wish may find every kind of plant named, but let our parks be parks, and not
schools; and be assured that you will attain your wish more certainly in this
way than by the method you propose; for your idler will hardly recollect the
name of a plant when he has had no trouble in learning it. And again, see to
what your plan naturally leads. The plants are arranged, How ?— So as to
produce the most beautiful scenery? No.— Well, but so as to show their
peculiar properties the best way ? No.— At any rate they are grouped in
classes, so as to convey broad characters to the observers? No; they are
arranged (see p. 288. 1.2.) in alphabetical order! This reminds me of what
once happened to me in walking through the conservatories at the Colosseum
before they were finished. Finding the gardener disposed to converse, I
entered into conversation with him as to the principles on which the planting
had been conducted. He spoke in the highest terms, as well he might, of the
talents of the extracrdinary man who had projected the building and its accom-
paniments ; but added, with a feeling in which he expected me to sympathise
(for from our conversation he found that I had some knowledge of plants),
that it was a great pity Mr. Horner knew nothing of plants or their value.
“ Why, Sir, he has arranged them solely with a view to their picturesque
effect ; and, in spite of my remonstrances, has removed to a distance plants
that have cost five guineas, while he has placed in the front row others that
are not worth one shilling!” Be it remembered that this was twenty years
ago, and that there was more excuse for the gardener then than there would

Retrospective Criticism. 651

be now. One word more as to the principle you advocate, before I express
a doubt as to its practicability. Do ask Mr. Lamb to take up his facile
pencil, and give you a design for a public building, the Houses of Parliament,
the National Gallery, &c. &c., which shall be an alphabet of architecture ;
and when he has finished, let each member have its sign-board hung up to
tell the babe in architecture that this is an Ionic volute, that a triglyph, &c.
&c. Of course he will not consider proportion, or architectural or artistical
effect (perish zsthetics, thought, fecling, taste !), but will take care that every
member is so large, that, however distant, the eye may see it fully, so as to
comprehend its exact form and position: nay, would it not be the best way
to have the scaffolding up, that any one who wishes may have an opportunity
of a nearer view? Now, if you are consistent, you ought to contend for this
in our public buildings, as much as for making our parks a collection of
labels. If I have thus broadly caricatured your views, it is because I know
they are deeply rooted, and must therefore require a strong effort to change
them. I can scarcely hope to succeed ; but, seeing that they are beginning to
be acted upon in high quarters, I am anxious that, before it is too late, they
should be re-examined.

And now as to its practicability. You are already complaining that the
names are not sufficiently large ; and you must still complain until you get
them as big as a sign-board, and entirely destroy all appearance of a garden.
The remedy I should propose would be, either the establishment of a botanic
garden in connexion with the park, or placing plans of the grounds in some
of the structures in the park, with lists of the trees, &c., and proper references,
and instructing the attendants to give assistance in finding particular plants to
all enquirers.

I had intended also to have made a remark or two on your suggestion that
a ruined aqueduct should be introduced, but I have not at the present moment
the Magazine before me. Kent, I think, planted dead trees in his parks ; but
he was soon laughed out of the practice. The time will soon come when
artificial ruins will share the same fate. — 7’. W. Leeds. June, 1843.

It is seldom that we differ in opinion from this correspondent, to whose
taste and judgment we pay great deference. On the present occasion, how-
ever, we do not exactly accord with him on any one of the points on which he
has touched.

In the first place, we positively deny that the naming of one plant of each
and all of the species and varieties in our parks and public gardens would inter-
fere with picturesque effect. There are not above 500 trees and shrubs that
are suitable for being planted in public parks where the ground is not dug ;
and these, by whatever arrangement might be adopted (unless they were all
put together in one small enclosure), would be distributed over a great many
acres of surface ; and, among many thousand trees and shrubs which are not
named, we do not see that the labels would intrude themselves, or that any
description of general effect would be injured by them, while, to those who
took an interest in trees, these labels would be extremely interesting ; for the
first desire that rises in the mind, when we see a new object with which we are
pleased, is to know its name. For one citizen of London that has a taste for
picturesque beauty or landscape composition, there are ten thousand that know
nothing of either : but that ten thousand may have a curiosity to be gratified,
and to them the naming may be a source of interest. We do not think it
possible “ that a high love for the beauties of nature” can be cultivated in
any of the London parks, peopled as they are, from morning to night, with
horsemen, carriages, pedestrians, bath-chairs, troops exercising, and even po-
licemen. Add also, that the surface of the ground is generally comparatively
flat.

With respect to the shrubs, which we have stated (p.288.) to be planted in
alphabetical order, we ought to have mentioned that we totally disapprove of
this arrangement anywhere, except in a nursery or in a nurseryman’s cata-
logue. The trees in Kensington Gardens that are named were planted some

652 Queries and Answers.

years before any idea was entertained of naming them; and hence one is
named here and there without any reference to arrangement, and without the
slightest injury to picturesque effect. It is impossible to walk along this belt
of trees without being convinced that the names form a great source of interest
to the spectators.

With respect to the shrubs that are arranged in alphabetical order, nothing
can be worse; but they do not occupy a thousandth part of the surface of the
gardens, and, as they will doubtless be removed, they ought not to be con-
sidered as a specimen of general arrangement. Had our correspondent seen
Kensington Gardens before he produced his remarks, we are persuaded they
would have been very different.

With respect to ruins, we think they ought to be very rarely introduced ; but
we are not so exclusive as to say that they are in no case admissible. On
the contrary, there are situations, such as where a stream is led along the side
of a slope for the sake of obtaining a waterfall, where a waterfall issuing from
a ruined aqueduct or the remains of a mill-course is more natural, if the ex-
pression may be used, than any piece of rockwork that can be made. Such,
at least, is our opinion. We shall, however, be glad to hear all that our cor-
respondent has to say against ruins. — Cond.

‘

Art. IV. Queries and Answers.

A curious Caterpillar.—I forward you a very large curious caterpillar, which
was found feeding on a geranium. Its excrement is as large as that ofa
rabbit. When lying quiet its head looks broad and large, and, if touched, it
puts out a very long trunk or snout, like a pig’s, —James Barnes. Bicton
Gardens, Sept. 21. 1843.

[We sent the caterpillar to Mr. Westwood, who returned us the following
observations on it.]

Mr. Barnes’s caterpillar is that of the common elephant hawk moth (Sphinz,
or Cheerocampa, Elpénor), figured by Mr. Humphreys, in his beautiful plates
of the English moths (vol. 1. plate 5. fig.'7.), from a specimen “taken at
Bayswater, in the possession of Miss A. Loudon ;” together with the cater-
pillar (fig. 8.), which, by the by, has the tail represented much too small,
and the spottings of the body too faint. The curious property mentioned by
Mr. Barnes, of stretching out the fore segments of the body into a long neck,
is well known, and has led to the application of elephant moths to these
insects. The French call them cochonnées ; and, from this circumstance, M.
Duponchel has made them into a separate genus with the name Cheerocampa,
from two Greek words, signifying a hog and caterpillar; that is to say, a
caterpillar with a snout like that of a hog.

I have not before heard of this insect feeding on geraniums. Its ordinary
food is the ladies’ bedstraw, willow herb, and vine; but other instances of a
similar change of food have been noticed, as in the case of the swallow-tailed
moth which you sent me a little time since (see p. 460.) ; whilst a friend of
mine has lately reared a specimen of the carpet moth (Euthalia impluviata)
from a caterpillar which also fed upon the geranium, its ordinary food being
the bireh and hazel.

Mr. Barnes’s specimen had formed for itself with the bits of grass, &c., with
which he had packed it in the box, an oval bed, within which it was coiled
up, to undergo its chrysalis state; but I fear it has got injured during its
passage through the post-office and letter-carrier’s hands. —Jno. O. Westwood.
Grove Cottage, Grove Road, Hammersmith, Sept. 23. 1843.

THE

GARDENER’S MAGAZINE,
DECEMBER, 1843.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Art. I. Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management, in a Series
of Letters to the Conductor. By JAmMEs Barnes, Gardener to the
Right Honourable Lady Rolle.

(Continued from p. 606.)
Lerrer XXIV. System of Cucumber-Growing.

I BEG to take the present opportunity, having half an hour to
spare, of making a few remarks on my system of cucumber-
growing, which is a very easy and simple method.

I believe there is no one thing in the whole practice of
gardening that has caused more contention amongst gardeners
of all classes than cucumber-growing; neither do I believe
there is any one thing that has had more treatises written on it.
Many of these, I make no doubt, have proved useful; but I am
in no way acquainted with the contents of any of them, never
having seen but one work on the growth or cultivation of the
cucumber, and that was an old book I had lent me many years
since, at a time when I was in full practice in a market-garden,
and which did not interest me much. It is a plant I have
always been particularly fond of growing, and in the culture of
which I had for several years a very extensive practice in the
London market-gardens.

The cucumber called the Man of Kent was raised by me,
and has been very highly esteemed, as may be seen by referring
to the different exhibition reports.

I have seen gardeners attempt to grow cucumbers in October,
and lose their plants several times in the course of the winter,
not managing to cut a cucumber before May day; but being
supplied with plants, first from one neighbour and then the
other, from six to ten times. It is easy to guess a gardener’s
errand about the month of March, if he is seen running about
with a small basket or hat-box. I have seen many men who
would not commence growing cucumbers until they had either
seen or heard of a neighbour beginning, or a thought had struck
them from seeing the sun shine; and then they would make a

3d Ser. — 1843. XII. UU

654 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

bed in a great hurry, and look round amongst their neighbours
for plants.

I have known gardeners put their employers to great and
unnecessary expense, and themselves to unnecessary trouble,
and after all succeed but indifferently.

I have seen gardeners make a bed of strong hot stable dung,
and other fermenting materials, from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 6 in. in
height ; and I believe there are hundreds who follow up the same
plan at this very time. Now, if they were only to consider this
properly, would they find that the nature of the plant required
it? I say, certainly not. Then why continue to follow up
such an absurd practice? It appears to me, and always strikes
me, when observing the hotbed carried up to such an unreason-
able height, that it is either to make it appear conspicuous to
every observer, that a cucumber-bed exists in the garden, or
that it may be awkward and troublesome for their employers to
look into. Why should that be? What need has a gardener
to object to his employer looking into a cucumber-frame, when
the plants are in a healthy state and doing well, any more than
into a hothouse. I have seen those unreasonably high hotbeds
lined afterwards strongly with hot fermenting materials, and
large holes bored all through the beds, to cause the heat to
circulate strongly and rankly through the bottom. A little
consideration will quickly show such practice to be entirely
against nature. Can it be reasonably thought that they get
such a strong fermenting heat at their roots in their natural
climate? JI should fancy not, and have therefore for many
years left off the practice; and I am perfectly convinced, were
that old absurd practice entirely dispensed with, cucumbers
would be produced with more certainty, in greater abundance,
in better perfection, and with much less expense aud trouble.
I often wonder how much longer those absurd and unnatural
practices are to exist. It would give me great pleasure to see
the practical part of cucumber-growing better understood. A
man may be in full practice the whole of his life, and yet he
may never have once considered whether he was following the
system most natural for the production of any one thing under
his charge; but go on in some way or other, because he has
observed others do the same. A man may read all the books
that have been written on any subject; but what is the utility
of it if he has had no practice, or has not a mind of his own,
properly to reflect on what he is about to do, and what is the
most natural method of producing any one thing he is about to
aim at? Until that is fully weighed, things will continue in the
present unnatural state.

The proper system to cultivate and produce cucumbers all
the year round is very simple and easy, and can be summed up

ae

System of Cucumber- Growing. 655

in a few words. Get seeds of some good variety, and sow them
in charcoal dust if it can be conveniently had, or some rather
light, purified, sweet earth, plunging the pot in which they are
sown in a kind, wholesome, sweet, heat. As soon as the plants
are up, pot them singly into small 60-sized pots, taking care
to use wholesome sweet earth, and place them as near the glass
as possible. As soon as they have made one rough leaf, and are
forming the next, pinch it out, or, more properly speaking, stop
it; then shift them into 48-sized pots, leaving one third of
the pot not filled with earth, to fill up as the plants advance.
When the plants have made another joint, stop them again;
then shift them into 24-sized pots; if in the autumn or short
days of winter, much time and labour will be saved by so
doing; allowing them at this time to grow three joints before
stopping them again, and taking care, if they are for the hothouse
and to be grown in large pots or tubs, to have some thoroughly
sweet earth prepared, brought into the house, and put into what
you intend to grow them in, a day or two previous to their
being permanently placed where they are to produce fruit, so
that the earth may get a little warm. Then train them up a neat
wire trellising, or painted string trellis, which I prefer myself,
as it is so easily shifted when the plants are to be removed, and
a succession to be replaced. It is my rule to stop the plants at
every joint after turning them out, as long as they are kept
growing, taking care, at all seasons, to have a succession of young
plants of different sizes.

The requisites are, nice low pits heated with hot water, well
drained, which is most essential on any system; and a good
body of well-prepared pulverised soil, consisting of the top spit
from an old pasture that is loamy and full of fibre laid toge-
ther for one year, and, at the time of using, mixed with some
sweet, mellow, well-prepared rotten dung, and a little charcoal
dust, if it can be procured. For my own practice, I prefer a
good frame to any pit for early forcing, except it be a pit on
a good construction, worked with hot water, with a nice light
trellis to train the plants on, and to keep the fruit from the
earth. The depth of the frame, at the back, should be from
2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft.; the front 6 in. shallower, which is quite suf-
ficient, as the frame can always be elevated to any degree one
could wish for, according to the season of the year.

In preparing for the bed, I always take care to have it well
drained with faggots, prunings, or some kind of refuse ; to have
my dung or other fermenting material well prepared and sweet-
ened, and never, at any season of the year, to make my beds
more than 2 ft. 6 in. in height (2 ft. is about my measure); and
to line the outside immediately with the same material to the

very top of the frame, covering the lining all round with a little
UU 2

656 Bicton Gardens, their Culture and Management.

dry hay or dried short grass, or rubbish of some kind that is
stored in summer for that purpose. As soon as the heat rises
inside of the frame, get some boiling water, and water the bed
regularly all over, which will not only purify it, but destroy
every living insect therein; and in a very few days the bed
will be ready to receive the soil, which should be well pre-
pared, as stated above. I make it a rule to put a good ridge
through the centre of the frame at once, to the depth of 18 or
20 inches, taking care to make use of it in as rough a state as
possible. It must be understood that the dung, &c., with which
I make my beds is thoroughly worked and sweetened, and such
as some people would think of putting on the ground ; not de-
pending on any bottom heat from the bed, which, to me, has, for
some years, appeared quite unnatural, but relying wholly on the
linings for heat. These I find always work very regularly if
the dung, &c., is only well mixed before putting to the beds,
and then protected well with dry rubbish and feather-edged
boards, to keep the wet and winds off. Thatched hurdles, or
bundles of evergreen trimmings, placed round the linings,
protect them thoroughly. These beds work regularly and
kindly for a long time, by occasionally topping up with any dry
rubbish ; the heat penetrating through the frame similarly to
the sun shining on them, and the frames never getting troubled
with foul steam, damps, or burning, which the old strong-bed
system is always subject to. If the weather proves ever so bad,
it is always sweet and kind inside and out of the frame; the
plants always dry, healthy, and free from canker and vermin.
It is nothing but unnatural usage that produces either: let the
weather be rough or smooth, you can always give some air
every day, which is most essential to the health and strength of
the plants.

My own system is, never to grow but one plant to each light ;
never to water the plants over-head, but pour plenty of water, a
little warmed, out of the spout of the watering-pot, which passes
freely through the soil if used in a rough state, occasionally
giving them a good soaking of manure-water, and keeping them
thin of vine. ‘They will thus continue to produce good fruit in
abundance for many months. I take care, when shutting down
the lights of an afternoon, to pour some warm water all round
the frames, which raises a nice genial steam, and is the means of
keeping down wood-lice and other vermin, which delight in
drought, foul smells, burned, fusty, bad-worked, fermenting
materials,

When I hear a gardener complaining about being overrun
with wood-lice, I am perfectly satisfied it is through one of the
above causes and want of cleanliness.) No man can produce
good cucumbers at an early season without some attention.

Plan and Elevation of Landscape Scenery. 657

Merely keeping his hands in his pockets, or boasting over a pot
of ale, will not produce them. I have never yet seen an in-
dolent man that could grow them. With a slight well-worked
bed ; the linings kind and well attended to; the soil sweet and
well prepared, used in as rough a state as possible, and a good
body of it for the roots to run in; watered with good soft
water, a little warmed ; occasionally giving a soaking of manure-
water; giving the plants air freely every day; keeping the
lights and frames clean; and keeping the degree of heat inside
the frame or pit from 65° to 72° in the first part of their
growth, and for swelling the fruit kindly from 72° to 80°; you
may succeed in getting a good crop of healthy fruit, and very
rarely be troubled with any kind of disease or vermin, and
never know what it is to have a burned, fusty, unkind bed, which
is the parent of disease and vermin.
Bicton Gardens, January 16. 1843.

Art. II. Ground Plan and Perspective Elevation of a Portion of
improved Landscape Scenery, intended to point out the Errors which
are frequently committed by Persons who have little Knowledge of
Landscape Composition. By Samurt Gray, Esq., Landscape-
Gardener and Garden Architect.

Fig. 126. is a ground plan of a scene which has been im-
proved, and the following are its details : —

a, A large tree, which, being a prominent feature in the
grounds, the principal walk is made to approach it.

b, A boundary fence, with trees planted at regular parallel
~ distances.

ec, An iron fence to divide the paddock from the garden.

d, A piece of water.

e eee, Pedestals with vases.

Ff, A fountain.

g, A summer-house upon the high ground.

h, A sundial in the centre of the lawn.

t, A pigeon-house opposite the end of a walk.

k, A garden-seat, placed near an open space between the
shrubs, for the convenience of viewing the prospect; where the
children of the family frequently feed their favourite cow or
ass, which consequently keeps upon the spot when any one is
near the seat.

1, A rustic basket in the centre of a flower-bed.

mm, A seat at each end of the lawn.

n, A macaw and stand.

0, Cow-house, &c.

Ppppp; Various flower-borders.

uU 3

658 Ground Plan and Perspective Elevation

7

i _
£2

pa
£4

wR AS

oo

n

Oa em
Oh

at teers
ENS as

Sesh 5 ee eas
a

FEES ‘es =~
Al

See I
Bo

=)
Ly
aa

: | 4]

BS ees |

(\ ES | i ps ij

pro
= | tee

Fig.126. Ground Plan of a Garden, for the Purpose of illustrating

Fig. 127. is a view taken from the point a, in which the
objects composing it are placed in very ludicrous positions one
over another. For example, the lady in the central walk ap-
pears to support on her head a circular bed of flowers, with
a rustic basket containing flowers and a forest tree. The lady
seated in the garden-chair a little to the left, and in the fore-

of a Portion of improved Landscape Scenery. 659

AS

MMM

FF

MMMM AI

UNAM

ROMMNM

g

Z

ZB

1B

ig

iZ

Z
ip ne) ie
| Z

Z

| j

nits Elevation certain Lrrors in Landscape Composition,

ground supports, first a pedestal and vase, next a lady, chair,
cow, and tree; and so on with the rest.

To the eye of taste, this arrangement of scenery is quite as
offensive as discord is to the ear of a musician. The best way
of detecting similar errors is by reflecting the landscape from
the principal points of view in a small convex mirror; by which

uu 4

Ground Plan and Perspective Elevation

660

661

of a Portion of improved Landscape Scenery.

“qysig fo quod .vamo] v mods uayn2 (921 “SYf) UNIT 342 fo UOrDaay aausadsiag ‘8G St

- <= =e ey Se

662 Phrenology for Gardeners and their Patrons.

means it will be brought within the compass of the eye, seen as
a painted landscape in a frame, and any errors in its composition
detected.

Fig. 128. shows the same landscape viewed from a lower
point of sight, in which every object takes its proper place.

In laying out a piece of ground with a view to produce the
best effect, care should be taken to bring forward all the most
prominent objects with a background by no means complex,
but produced either by objects in shadow or by broad and flat
masses of foliage. Small parts, such as stems of trees, or any
objects producing sharp or straight lines, always confuse and cut
into the form of the design.

5. Brecknock Crescent, Camden New Town, 1840.

Art. III. Phrenology for Gardeners and their Patrons. By
Tuomas JONES.

T pNTIRELY agree with you(p. 552.) “that young gardeners ought
to be phrenologists to a certain extent,” to assist them in esti-
mating the character of one another, as ‘wellas of those they have
to deal with. I have, therefore, drawn up for you a short article
on the subject, which I have illustrated with engravings; and, as
I have had these made at my own expense, I hope you will find
room for the article in your December Number, though I admit
that it is not altogether suited to a Gardener’s Magazine. You
have very wisely stated (Vol. III. p. 432.) that it is by bringing
other arts and sciences to bear upon the art or science which we
wish to cultivate, that the greatest progress is to be made;
allow me therefore to recommend phrenology to gardeners,
as a science that will aid them in their choice of apprentices,
journeymen, and labourers; and to masters, as an assistance in the
choice of gardeners. The science of phrenology is neither more
nor less than doing that from the knowledge of certain princi-
ples which we all do involuntarily ; that is, form an opinion of
every individual at first sight, from his personal appearance.
For the principles of this science, I must refer you to the works
of Mr. Combe, and to the Phrenological Journal; and, to give
you confidence in my opinion, that it is destined, at no distant
period, to effect most important changes in the system of educa-
tion, and in the choice of all servants, whether public or private,
and let me add, also in the choice of husbands or wives, and
friends, I will refer you to the progress this science is making
throughout Europe, and especially in Germany. I shall com-
mence by recommending gardeners to endeavour to ascertain
the defects of their own temper aments and organic conformation.

Having arrived at this knowledge, they sail be enabled, to a

Phrenology for Gardeners and their Patrons. 663

certain extent, to guard against the errors to which, by their
particular variety of constitution, they are destined to be the
most prone. When blamed for anything by their masters, they
will be the more likely to acknowledge their error and amend,
when they find that the fault was one which, from their con-
stitutional tendency, they were very likely to commit; there-
fore, not only teach them how to choose workmen of different
kinds, but how to manage them. Men and women of no educa-
tion, or without that substitute for it, the cultivation which is
given by constant intercourse with educated people, must ne-
cessarily be the slaves of their temperament; and, therefore, a
head gardener may tell pretty nearly what he has to expect
from a garden labourer as soon as he sees him. He will foresee
his faults and virtues, and shape his treatment to him ac-
cordingly.

Gardeners out of place are not likely often to have a choice
of situations and of masters; but sometimes they have; and it
must be useful to them to know that, all other circumstances,
such as duty, wages, prospects, &c., alike, the lord, or the lady,
with a broad full chest, broad erect forehead, and not much ex-
ceeding the middle size (fig. 129.), will naturally be the most

Sp ae kind and generous re

a = =e to them, provided

, the servant does

his duty. Insuch
a case as I am
contemplating, an
intelligent garden-
er would not wil-
‘ lingly choose to
e'\\\\"", live with a mas-
< ter having narrow

AGUEDY,

Sy LT an fi
fon ii Sade shoulders and a
as ontract h Fig. 130. Narrow and
Fig. 129. Broad Chest, and broad cont acted chest 1D airaeted "Chest, oa
Forehead. 2 Wet , Or a narrow Forehead,

defective facial angle (fig. 131.) instead of the angle of intelli-
gence (jig. 132.), though the inestimable blessing of education,
and the intercourse of high and polished society, neutralise or
counteract the former to such a degree as to put its possessor
almost on a footing with the man of native strength of mind.
But if this kind of knowledge is of importance to a gardener
in the choice of an employer or of labourers, it is of still greater
importance to him in the choice of a wife. Nothing good is to
be expected from an uneducated woman, unless she has an ample
chest and attenuated extremities. It is true, personal attraction
is but a small item of what makes up the sum of happiness,
either in the married or the single state; but there can hardly

664 Phrenology for Gardeners and their Patrons.

be such a thing as happiness
without health, or good health
without an amplechest. Hand-
some extremities are indica-
tions of native gentility, and
are not found often connected
with mal-formation in other re-
spects. All other things being
equal, a man should make
choice of a wife whose form and
extremities come as near as pos-
Fig. 131. Defective sible to those of the Venus de Fig. 152. Angie of
Facial Angle. pats Intelligence.
Medicis (fig. 133.); and a wo-
man should choose a husband of a form, and with extremities,
coming as near as possible to those of the Apollo Belvedere

SS
NOnRS SS

\

. :

ii; TTT
Fig. 133. Venus, or Ideal Female Beauty. Fig. 134. Apollo, or Ideal Male Beauty.

( fig. 134.). Full-sized statues of these models of beauty and per-
fection ought to be in every garden, and in the hall of every
gentleman’s house; and casts of them (which may be had very
perfect of their kind at 7s. each) on the chimney-piece of
every cottage, as a beau idéal to operate on the imagination on
the principle of the peeled rods of Jacob. *

* Long-continued wars tend to degenerate the human race, by laying hold
of the tallest men, and those possessed of the most robust health, and sweeping
them off without their leaving offspring. It would be much better for the
human race to select for soldiers none but little men ; or to admit all capable
men, and, when the capacity was equal, to take little men in preference. (An-
nales de la Hygiene Publique, as quoted in For, Quart. Rev.) ae

Cemeteries of the United States. 665

I hope it will not be thought from anything that I have ad-
vanced in this speculation, that I make light of everything that
is not perfect beauty or vigorous mind; far otherwise. The
great object of human life is happiness; and, provided an indi-
vidual has tolerable health and sustenance, happiness is always
within his power, whatever may be his temperament or configu-
ration. Happiness lies in health and in the power of the mind
to accommodate itself to the circumstances in which it may be
placed; in two words, health and contentment. Every body
has these words in his mouth; but, to turn them to account, it
is necessary to cultivate the conditions of being which they in-
dicate; to preserve and strengthen health, and to reason with
ambitious, envious, and covetous feelings. The nice point is,
to know how far to bend our wishes to our circumstances, and
how far to endeavour to raise our circumstances to our desires.

London, Nov. 1843.

Art. IV. Some Account of the principal Cemeteries in the United
States, particularly those in the Neighbourhood of Philadelphia. By
James Meass, Esq., M.D.

THERE are several graveyards or cemeteries in the vicinity of
Philadelphia, and all but one are formed upon the principle of
joint stock companies. ‘The first was laid out by the late
James Ronaldson, a Scotchman, sixteen years since, and is now
the property of his brother Richard. It is a short distance
beyond the south bounds of the city proper, and is divided into
900 lots, each 8 ft. by 10 ft. A number of evergreen and
other trees are planted in the enclosure, which is surrounded by
a brick wall about 5 ft. high, and surmounted by an iron railing.
7000 bodies have already been interred in it. The price of a single
grave is only 6 dollars. The superintendant resides on the spot.
It is a beautiful place. ,

2. Laurel Hill is 34 miles north of the city, on the river
Schuylkill. The part devoted to interments embraces about
twenty acres, and is laid out in the most tasteful manner. The
entrance is a specimen of Doric architecture, through which is a
pleasing vista, and on each side are lodges for the accommo-
dation of the gravedigger and gardener; and within is a neat
cottage for the superintendant, a Gothic chapel for funeral
service, a large dwellinghouse for visitors, a handsome receiving
tomb, stabling for forty carriages, and a greenhouse. Besides
the native forest trees on the place, several hundreds more, and
many ornamental shrubs, have been planted. The lots are en-
closed by iron railings. There have been 767 interments in six

666 Cemeteries of the United States.

years. The beauty of the establishment renders it deservedly
popular. Price of a lot 8 ft. by 10ft. 66 dollars. Recently
attempts have been successfully made to plant every tree which
will bear the climate, both foreign and domestic; in short, to
convert the place into an arboretum. The cost of it was
100,000 dollars; and the success of the establishment may be
ascribed to its beauty, perfection, excellent management, and
admirable regulations.

3. Monument Cemetery consists of 12 acres, and is situated
in Broad Street, continued a short distance beyond the north
line of the city proper. Number of lot-holders 4361. A Gothic
chapel has been erected, with a handsome spire 100 ft. high,
and a house for the superintendant.

4. Philanthropic.— 3 acres 36 perches are divided into
792 lots; a part is set off for strangers, for whom 44 dollars
form the burial charge; the lots of the stockholders are 8 ft. by
10 ft.

5. Union.— About 350 ft. long, by 200 ft. deep.

6. Lafayette. — About 340 ft. each way; 1400 lots, each 8 ft.
by 10 ft., making four graves in each lot.

7. Machpelah. —368 ft. by 147 ft., lots 8 ft. by 10 ft., and sell
from 40 to 50 dollars each. These last four cemeteries are
south of the city bounds, and are enclosed by an iron railing set
either in granite or in brick. The superintendants reside on
the ground, in neat brick houses.

8. The Woodlands on the west side of the Schuylkill, in sight
of the city, late the elegant seat of William Hamilton, deceased,
an ardent cultivater of botany. The road to the mansion is
through a grove of native forest trees, and the view extensive.
Seventy-five of 91 acres are to be devoted to a cemetery. No
interments have yet been made.

9. Green Mount Cemetery, near Baltimore, Maryland, formerly
the seat of the late Robert Oliver. Sixty acres, including the
mansion, have been laid out for the purpose, and divided into
6000 lots, each 16 ft. by 20 ft. It is surrounded by a wall, with
a magnificent gateway.

10. A very handsome one has been laid out at Brooklyn, Long
Island, opposite to New York, on the east river. 11. Another
at Salem, Massachusetts, 14 miles north-east of Boston; and
one (12.) at Worcester, in the same state, 40 miles west of
Boston, have recently been laid out.

13. Mount Auburn, 4 miles from Boston, was purchased in
1830, and the association incorporated the following year.
The tract consists of 118 acres, and the total cost of grounds
and improvements to 1838 was 34,197 dollars. ‘The woodland
is covered by forest trees of large size and various kinds; and

Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, &c. 667

the tract is beautifully undulating, and contains a number
of eminences and shady valleys. The principal eminence, called
Mount Auburn, is 126 ft. above the level of Charles River, near
a fine sweep of which the tract is. This romantic and pictu-
resque cemetery is the fashionable place of interment with the
people of Boston. Spurzheim, who died there Noy. 10. 1832,
aged 56 years, greatly lamented, was buried in it. The tomb
is an elegant, but plain, oblong sarcophagus, erected by subscrip-
tion, and bearing no other inscription than his name. I saw it
in March, 1834.
Philadelphia, May 11. 1843.

Art. V. On Laying out and Planting the Lawn, Shrubbery, and
Flower-Garden. By the ConpucTor.

(Continued from p. 635.)

Tue design, fig. 135. is taken, with some variations, from an
old book by Andrew Mollett, or Mallet, a relation and contem-

Fig. 135. Flower-Garden about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.

porary of Claud Mollett, who was gardener to Henry IV. and
Louis XIII. of France, as Andrew is said to have been to
James I. of England. His title, in that capacity, was Super-
intendant-General of the Gardens of the King of England.

668 : Arboricultural Notices.

His book contains a number of designs, some of which are
not badly composed, and we have selected that before us, and
two or three others to be given in our next volume, as spe-
cimens of the style of flower-gardens prevalent both in France
and England about the middle of the seventeenth century. There
were, at the same time, flower-gardens of embroidery, as appears
by the work of Boyceau, Superintendant of the Gardens of
Louis XIII., published in 1638.

The figure before us may either be cut out of turf, or the
beds edged with box, and the paths, which are supposed to be
3 ft. wide, graveled. The central circle ought to be a basin of
water, with a white water-lily in its centre, spreading out its
broad leaves to give shade to an abundant supply of gold-fish.
The herbaceous plants must be a miscellaneous assemblage; and
there may be, in addition, low plants of variegated box or varie-
gated yew, clipped into the form of cones, in the roundish pro-
jections at the angles. In the centre of the two rosettes there
may be a pyramid of juniper, 1 ft. on the side at the base, and
not above 4 ft. high; and very small plants of variegated
Cupréssus ¢hyéides may be planted in the centre of the two side
roundish projections, and clipped into the form of small globes.

This was the ancient style of planting such gardens. For the
modern manner we refer to Mr. Ayres.

(To be continued.)

Art. VI. Arboricultural Notices.

THE Hatfield Oak (Arb. Brit., vol. iii. p. 1759. fig. 1593.) is universally
called the Dool Oak [and hence it is supposed that in former times it was used
as the baronial gallows], and from its great age it has no doubt a right to the
name. — George Chapman. 3. Arundel Street, Strand, Feb. 21. 1843.

Uses of the Larch. — “ We chose a healthy young larch tree, peeled off the
outer bark, and then cut the soft inner bark into small pieces, which we
boiled, until the surface of the water in the kettle became covered with a
resinous scum, which was carefully removed. The broth was then seasoned
with salt and pepper, and, in spite of the remaining particles of turpentine, it
tasted well and filled the stomach. We took it in moderation, and felt no
ill effects from it, &c.

“It is a great comfort to know, that, though the corn laws may remain,
we can defy the monopoly of the landlords, by having larch soup, and
our peck loaves made, as Humboldt advises us, of good fresh sawdust.
When the earth is a little more densely inhabited, as in the space of another
century or two, men will use trees, not only for shade in summer, and fuel
in winter, but for food all the year round. It is some comfort to know that as
long as trees exist man cannot perish by famine ; and, when he has eaten
what is on his platter, he may finish safely and pleasantly by eating the
platter itself, ‘ patulis nec parcere quadris.’” (Von Wrangell’s Expedition to
the Polar Sea, as reviewed in Gent. Mag. vol. xviii. p. 500.)

Growth of Trees. — A plantation made in 1765, partly on swampy meadow

Arboricultural Notices. 669

on a gravelly soil, was examined twenty-one years afterwards, viz. in 1786, and
the circumference of some of the best trees taken at 5 ft. above the ground.
The small firs had been occasionally drawn for posts and rails ; and also as
rafters for cottages; for which purpose, when peeled of the bark, they will
last for seven years.

Height. Circumf. at 5 ft.
ft. ft. i

ft. in.
Lombardy poplar (cuttings) - - 60 to 80 4 8
Abele - - - - - 50 to 70 4 6
Plane - - - - - 50 to 60 EG
Acacia - - - - 50 to 60 Q 4
Elm - - - - - 40 to 60 ye
Chestnut - - = = 30 to 50 DG
Weymouth pines - - - 30 to 50 2 5
Cluster ditto - - - - 380 to 50 2 10
Scotch fir - - - - 30 to 40 Sys
Spruce ditto - - - - 30 to 50 2 2
Larch - - - 50 to 60 3 10

— (Young’s Annals of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 89.)

American Trees introduced in 1769. — In the years 1769, 1770, and 1771, I
subscribed to a society then established at Edinburgh, for importing seeds of
forest trees from Canada. I received a large quantity of seeds, which came
up very well; and are now growing in my plantations, in a very flourishing
condition. The sorts are, the great white spruce, which, I believe, is what
the nurserymen call the Newfoundland spruce; 2d, the American black
spruce; 3d, the balsam fir, which is the most hardy kind, and flourishes in
the most exposed situations; 4th, the great black larix; 5th, the grey ash;
6th, the red mespilus, which bore fruit three years ago ; 7th, the great white
mespilus ; 8th, the great black birch; 9th, hickory walnuts; 10th, black wal-
nuts. (W. M. Beverley, of Cleveland, Yorkshire, May 25. 1786, in Annals
of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 355.)

Growth of Trees at Barton, near Bury St. Edmunds.— Amongst the young
trees at this place are some which seem worthy of notice. In none of the
books of reference do we find the rapid growth of A’bies Douglas noted as
having been at all equal to what has been witnessed here. Sir Henry Bun-
bury received from the Horticultural Society a little plant, in a pot, in March,
1830 ; in the spring of 1831 it was planted out. It is now, as nearly as can
be ascertained, 35 ft. high ; the spread of its branches 13 ft., and the girt of
its stem, at 14 ft. from the ground, 30in. This summer, for the first time, this
beautiful tree is bearing cones. Next to the Douglas#z,; Pinus Coilteri has
been the most rapid in its growth. But a young P. insignis is now growing at
a prodigious rate. One of the finest trees here is a Magnolia acuminata, which
was planted in August, 1825. It is about 354 ft. high, feathering to the ground
on every side. The girt of its stem, at 1 ft., is 28 in.; at 4 ft., 24in.; at 53 ft.,
23in. A Magnolia auriculata, planted in Nov. 1823, is about 242 ft. high.
Some persons in the neighbourhood complain that their Levant oaks (grown
in a sandy soil) canker after twenty years. There are no such symptoms in
those growing on clay, which are in the greatest vigour and beauty. Possibly
in the former cases the roots have got down to hard chalk. (Gard. Chron.
for 1843, p. 647.)

Clématis Vitalba, the common hedge clematis, in the garden of the rectory-
house at Shenley, Herts, has two stems, each of which is as thick as the calf
of a man’s leg. It runs up a fir tree to the height of about 50 or 60 feet,
although I suppose it is not more than twenty-five years old.—T7. N. Shenley,
Sept. 4. 1843.

Duvaia longifolia Lindl. ; Anacardidcee.— This species, which, like the
others, is an evergreen, differs from D. depéndens in its leaves not being at all
serrated, and decidedly narrowed, not widened, to the base ; and also in

3d Ser. — 1843. XII. x xX

670 Rotation of Crops in Kitchen-Gardens.

having very short corymbs of flowers. It is much hardier than any of the
others, having stood against an exposed wall in the hard winter of 1837-8, when
all the others were either killed down to the ground or entirely destroyed. It
grows freely in any good garden soil; flowers in June or July ; and is increased
by seeds, or by cuttings of the half-ripe wood, taken off about August, and
treated in the ordinary way. (Bot. Reg., Nov. 1843.)

Lonicera diversifolia Wall. Cat. No. 477.; Caprifoliacee. — A hardy shrub,
raised in the garden of the Horticultural Society from East India seeds. It
is in the way of Lonicera Xylosteum, the common fly honeysuckle, and has
bright yellow sessile flowers, appearmg in June. (Dot. Reg., Nov. 1843,
Misc.)

Art. VII. On the Rotation of Crops in Kitchen-Gardens. By
Rosert ERRINGTON.

Mr. Barnes has said, of late, some excellent things about kitchen-
garden cropping; he has practised, it seems, in that best of all
schools, a London market-garden. As he has, however, not
dwelt much on the general rotation of crops, I beg to offer a
few remarks on that head, and to detail my general practice ;
premising, in the first place, that the gardens of which I have
the charge are a sandy loam of 261in. on a substratum of dry
red sand.

These are the days for economising manures. It is well it
should be so; but, like all other public fits, it has a tendency to
rush to extremes. I must, however, declare my conviction, that
all the lawn-sweepings and gas water from London to John
o Groat’s will never produce the cauliflowers, asparagus, celery,
lettuce, &c., for which rotten muck has been so long famous.
There is an old saying, “no argument like a breeches-pocket
argument ;” and, through this circumstance, writings on this
head frequently carry more weight than they are entitled to.

One of the great secrets in working old kitchen-gardens is, to
prevent, as much as possible, the Brassica tribes from following
each other. I feel well assured that the digging in of the
residue continually of the rotten remains of cabbages, cauli-
flowers, &c., has a tendency to lead to the disease called club.
Raspberries and strawberries which have stood, it may be, years
on the same ground offer, when broken up, an excellent oppor-
tunity for any of the brassicas; in fact, one not to be lost.
Another difficulty arises in-getting proper plots for onions and
carrots, as, in the great majority of old gardens, they are so liable
to the grub. For my part, I have invariably found, by many
years’ experience, that the more ground is manured for the two
latter crops, the more liable they are to the grub. Old asparagus
beds are another excellent resource to fall back on; but there
are generally so many candidates for ground of this kind, that
the difficulty is to choose. In gardens lable to club, however,

lS EE Se EN ng ys a ee ee ee el Se

i
{

Rotation of Crops in Kitchen- Gardens. 671

brassicas should, in my opinion, have the preference by all
means. My practice, for years, has been to follow, on the
principal of my broccoli or other brassica ground, with peas;
no manure. The peas I follow with celery chiefly, which I grow
in what is termed the Scotch way, viz., 5- or 6-feet beds. Now,
by sowing two rows of peas at a time, I gain thereby, when the
peas are drawn, a celery bed; and the celery being pricked out
at a good distance, say nearly 6 in. apart, is prepared to await
the removal of the peas successively. As to celery, I sow it
late, and grow it quick: this is the true recipe for having tender
and crisp celery. The celery ground is, of course, in a state of
high preparation for any crop that requires rich soil, such as
cauliflowers, broccoli, asparagus, &c.

With regard to asparagus, I make it a rule to break up a bed
or beds every year, and to plant an equal quantity: this I plant
on the celery ground, and the beds I intend for asparagus I dig
and manure very deep; putting old half-rotten leaves in the
bottom, and planting the celery in the old manure at top. When
the celery is removed this ground is in excellent order for aspa-
ragus, which I plant in the beginning of May, when the aspa-
ragus is 6in. high. Now the beds being about 6 ft. wide,
I plant two rows in a bed, 30in. between the rows, and the
plants a foot apart; leaving a shoulder of 18 in. on each side the
bed: this plan answers admirably. ‘The old beds of asparagus
which are broken up are forced in the autumn, and generally
obtained by Christmas; and I have strong plants planted in
rows a yard apart, of three years’ standing, which I take up and
force in succession. These last are grown in a peculiar way,
expressly for forcing. I have a deal to say about asparagus,
but I must reserve it for a future opportunity. To return to
the remainder of the celery ground: I crop it chiefly with beans
and broccoli, putting the broad beans in rows 4 ft. apart, in suc-
cessive plantings; and drawing drills and planting my broccoli,
in the course of July, between the beans. This, be it under-
stood, is all late spring broccoli, including some middle season,
as Granger’s, Knight’s protecting, &c. My Cape and other
autumn broccoli and cauliflowers are in another plot, con-
stituting a different rotation. The beans form an excellent
shade for a while to the broccoli, and, when they are pulled up,
the bean soil is earthed up the broccoli stems; and, if the broc-
coli is not too large, a row of coleworts is planted in September
between each two rows of broccoli.

The broccoli ground, in April, is followed in part by carrots,
without manure, and perhaps parsneps, or beet.

Potatoes I have not named, as they deserve a separate notice.

I will, however, observe that potatoes, with a slight coat of
xx 2

672 Introduction of the Swedish Turnip.

manure, form the best preparation of any thing I know for the
brassicas, or, in fact, for any crop whatever.

I ought to have said that I run rope-yarn and stakes round
all my prime asparagus, as much fine asparagus is injured by
the winds in the growing season, rocked about, and broken; the
consequence of which is, that the fine large buds are pushed
prematurely in the summer season, and twenty small heads
take their place.

I have a mode of cultivating all my fruit-tree borders, with-
out ever digging above 6 in. deep; but this I mean to say some-
thing about at a future period.

Oulton Park, near Tarporley, Cheshire, Oct. 2. 1843.

Art. VIII. The History of the Introduction of the Swedish Turnip
into Britain. By the Rev. Tuomas Newcome, Rector of Shenley,
Hertfordshire.

Our common friend, the Rey. J. Mitford, has recommended me
to communicate to you what I consider to be the true history of
the introduction of that valuable plant the Swedish turnip into
this island.

It is now about fifty years since the late Sir David Kinloch
of Gilmerton, near Edinburgh, gave some of the seed to my
father, the Rev. Henry Newcome, Vicar of Gresford, Denbigh-
shire, and a near neighbour to Sir Forster Canliffe of Acton
Park, near Wrexham; who married a daughter of Sir David
Kinloch. This latter baronet told my father that “a Swedish
nobleman had given the seed to him.” I well remember my
father growing about half or three quarters of an acre of the
seed, and selling it to the late Mr. Mason of Fleet Street, an
eminent seedsman, for, I believe, the sum of 702; and this was
the first seed sold in London.

Now, if you know a more authentic account of the introduc-
tion of the Swede turnip, you will, of course, not take any
notice of, nor publish, this my account of the matter; but,
though writing from mere impression and memory, I believe
this is substantially the true one.

I have often heard my father declare that “he was the first
to teach the people in North Wales to hoe their turnips;” and
that he astonished the natives by ploughing up old furze, or
gorse, roots with a Hertfordshire wheeled plough, imported from
this parish to that of Gresford, near Chester. He was the first
who ploughed in that county with two horses abreast; while, at
that day, all the farmers ploughed their light gravelly soil with
four horses at length!

Shenley, Herts, Sept. 4. 1843.

Loudon’s Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum. 673

REVIEWS.

Arr. I. Literary Notice.

‘Tue following address has been printed, and sent to a number of persons,
who, it is hoped, will kindly endeavour to promote the object in view.

“The Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, in 8 vols. 8vo, 4 of letterpress and
four of plates. Price 10¢. With upwards of 2000 woodcuts interspersed
with the letterpress.

N.B. The plates, if required, will be sold by themselves, but the letter-
press will not be sold without the plates. The reason is, that any number of
impressions may be taken from the plates whenever they are wanted ; whereas
the letterpress, not being stereotyped, there are of it but a limited number of
copies, which cannot be increased.

The plates by themselves will be of great use to landscape artists, to the
pupils in schools of design, and to all persons learning to draw trees.

A new impression of the four volumes of the plates of this work being
about to be issued, with certain corrections which in the original edition could
only be put in the list of errata, the author, with the approbation of his pub-
lishers and friends, thinks it may contribute to the sale of the work to make
the following statement.

The Arboretum Britannicum was got up between the years 1833 and 1838,
and published on Mr. Loudon’s own account at an expense of upwards of
10,0007. The greater part of this sum was owing at the completion of the
work; but it sold so well, till the late depression of the book trade in 1841,
that only about 2,600/. of the debt remained to be paid off at the end of that
year. It is, however, necessary to observe, that this large proportion of the
debt was not paid off solely by the produce of the Arboretum, but in part by
the profits of Mr. Loudon’s other literary property, consisting of thirteen dif-
ferent publications, all of which stand pledged in the hands of his publishers,
Messrs. Longman, for the debt on the Arboretum. This debt, at the present
time, amounts to about 2,400. ; and hence, if 350 additional subscribers could
be got, the debt would be at once liquidated, the works pledged for it set free,
and Mr. Loudon or his family would enjoy the whole preduce of his literary
property.*

This appeal would never have been made, had not Mr. Loudon, who has
been an invalid for several years, been lately seized with an inflammation of
the lungs, terminating in chronic bronchitis, which, even if the disease should
be considerably alleviated, will effectually prevent him from any longer pur-

* It may be thought, from the well-known extensive sale, for the last
twenty years, of Mr. Loudon’s publications, that he ought now to be inde-
pendent ; but, in consequence of too intense application while compiling the
Encyclopedia of Gardening, Mr. Loudon fell into ill health in 1821, which
obliged him ultimately to have his right arm amputated, his left hand
being at the same time so much injured as to leave him with only the
partial use of two fingers, and his left knee being anchylosed. In conse-
quence of these bodily infirmities, Mr. Loudon has been obliged to keep an
amanuensis and a draughtsman for the last twenty years, and also a servant
to act as valet; and, had it not been for the expenses thus incurred, and others
arising from the same source, he might have been now independent, even with-
out his literary property. This explanation is due to those who are ignorant
of Mr. Loudon’s personal character.

xx 3

674 Loudon’s Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum.

suing his profession of landscape-gardener, on the produce of which profes-
sion, and on the literary labours of Mrs. Loudon, he has entirely depended
for his income, since his literary property was pledged for the Arboretum.
Under these circumstances Mr. Loudon feels himself justified in taking this
mode of soliciting additional subscribers to the Arboretum, and in begging his
friends and patrons throughout the country to assist him in obtaining them.

The Arboretum has been spoken of in the highest terms in all the principal-

Reviews of Europe, and in the Botanical Periodicals of North America. The
Quarterly Review says : —

‘This book is one of solid value, worthy of a place in the library of every
landed gentleman, as well as of every student of botanical, arboricultural,
and horticultural science. . . . Let us warmly congratulate Mr. Loudon on
having finished his Herculean task ; a task which few men, except himself,
would have had the courage to begin, and still fewer the perseverance to
complete. The Arboretum Britannicum is complete in its kind, and it must
become a standard book of reference on all subjects connected with trees.’—
Oct. 1838.

If, then, the Arboretum is ‘ worthy of a place in the library of every landed
gentleman,’ it may be permitted to its author, under his particular circum-
stances, to direct the attention of landed gentlemen to the book. Surely
there must be more than 350 hereditary libraries that do not yet contain the
work ; not to mention the libraries which some gentlemen devote to their
gardeners, foresters, and bailiffs, in which the Arboretum will be found a most
useful acquisition.

The following ladies, noblemen, and gentlemen, who already possess the
work, on being applied to, have kindly permitted their names to be published
as approving of the Arboretum, and of this address to the public : —

The Right Honourable Lady Rolle. Sir H. E. Bunbury.

Mrs. Lawrence of Studley Royal. Sir Charles Lemon.

The Duke of Northumberland. Sir Oswald Mosley.

The Duke of Devonshire. Sir William Jardine.

The Duke of Buccleuch. Sir W. J. Hooker.

The Duke of Sutherland. The Rev. J. Mitford.

The Marquess of Northampton. The Rey. M. J. Berkeley.

The Earl of Shrewsbury. The Rev. W. T. Bree.

The Ear! of Aberdeen. Captain Widdrington, R.N.

The Earl of Harrington. J. T. Brooks, Esq., Flitwick House.
The Earl Fitzwilliam. Joseph Strutt, Esq., Derby.

The Earl of Radnor. L. W. Dillwyn, Esq., Sketty Hall.
The Earl of Ripon. Gregory Gregory, Esq., Harlaxton
The Earl of Lovelace. Manor, ;
Viscount Combermere. P. J. Selby, Esq., Twizell House.
The Bishop of Winchester. Professor Henslow.

Lord Monteagle. Professor Lindley.

Lord Corehouse. Professor Royle.

Sir John Trevelyan. Dr. Neill.”

Some of the above noblemen and gentlemen have, unasked, kindly sent us
testimonials evincing their very favourable opinion of the Arboretum, and
these we shall probably publish in our next Number.

We have also received some additional subscribers, among whom are Joseph
Strutt, Esq., of Derby, for ten copies, and Mrs. Lawrence of Studley Royal,
one copy. Mr. Strutt took a still greater number of copies when the work
was first published.

General Notices. 67

Gr

MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE.

ArT. I. General Notices.

DisTRiBuTion of Sea Water all over the Country.— This will be practicable by
means of the railroads, which, in a short time, will cover the whole country
with a sort of network of communication, radiating from the large towns in
the interior to the different seaports. As the direction of these roads is
straighter, and their surface nearer a level, than those of the common roads,
pipes might be laid down, at a proper depth under the rails, and sea water, by
the occasional aid of sea engines, conveyed everywhere, and supplied by ser-
vice-pipes all along the roads. We believe the Brighton railroad has one
uniform slope, from a short distance from Brighton, all the way to London ;
so that, by raising the water from the sea to the highest point, it would flow to
the metropolis without further trouble ; and might be raised by steam to Bir-
mingham, whence it would descend to Derby and Manchester. This would
enable salt-water baths to be established in London, an object for which there
was a company formed between twenty and thirty years ago. The principal
question is, whether sea water could be turned to such an account, either for
baths or agricultural purposes, as would pay the expense. Our agricultural
chemists would soon determine this. In the mean time, we may notice the
practice of preserving grass and clover in a green state in pits, by the aid of
pressure and a little salt, lately come into use in Germany, as brewers’ grains
are about London. This will be one use, and a most important use it is; and
salting spoiled hay or straw would be another. Irrigation with diluted sea-
water would also be found beneficial. (See Quart. Jowrn. Ag., Oct. 1843.)

The Distribution of filtered Sewer Water trom our large towns might be
effected all over the country, by similar means, along the railroads, and pro-
bably will be so in the course of another generation. At present it would not
pay.—Cond.

Draining- Pipes are now made, which are adapted for carrying drains through
loose sand, and which, indeed, may be used as an economical substitute for
draining-tiles, and even for conveying water from one basin or pond to
another. These pipes are “ made by a machine, which every brick-maker can
have constructed for a very few pounds. It is merely an imitation of that by
which macaroni is made in Italy. A quantity of well-tempered clay is put into
a wooden or iron cylinder, in the bottom of which is an iron plate or disk, in
which the exact section of the pipe is cut out ; a strong piston, forced down
by any simple machinery, drives out the pipe, which is received on a wooden
mould, set perpendicularly, of the size of the bore of the pipe, having a
shoulder and handle at the bottom. When the pipe is 13 in. long, it is cut off
with a wire; a boy seizes the handle of the mould with the pipe on it, and
places the pipe on a barrow with a flat stage on it, which, when full, is
wheeled away. At the moment the first boy removes the mould, another boy
places another vertically, to receive the next pipe. One cylinder, when filled,
will squeeze out twelve pipes, or more; it is then removed to be filled again,
while it is replaced by a full one. With a little practice, the operations go on
most rapidly, and the greatest portion of the labour of moulding pipes and
bending them is saved. We have no doubt that, with fair competition, pipes
2 or 3 inches in interior diameter may be thus made and burned, where fuel is
moderately cheap, for less than 20s. a thousand, and larger in proportion.
(Gard. Chron. for 1843, p. 659.)

Forcing Hyacinths so as to bloom at Christmas.— To do proper justice to
forced hyacinths expected to bloom at Christmas, they ought to be potted not
later than the middle of August. It is true we manage to flower them as early
as Christmas, after potting them as late as the end of September and begin-
ning of October ; but this is too much for the bulbs ; the flowers are not as

676 General Notices.

fine as from early potting, and it takes two seasons’ good nursing to bring
them round again, so that they will make their appearance among the early
spring bulbs in the beds and borders of the flower-garden. They manage dif-
ferently in Holland, where they know the nature of the plant so much better
than we do, especially as exemplified in our practice. There, from time out of
mind, the first crop of forcing hyacinths is potted about the first week in
August. They provide against exciting the foliage till the pots are full of
roots, by a thick covering of tan, leaf-mould, or something of the kind. In
about six weeks the pots are full of roots; they are then taken to cold-frames,
and kept close to the glass, with plenty of air; and the natural warmth of the
latter part of September and the whole of October is sufficient to bring up the
foliage and flower-buds very gradually, with the least possible injury to the
bulbs ; indeed, as compared with our practice, their bulbs can hardly be said
to be forced at all ; and, after one season’s nursing, the same bulbs are fit to
be again forced, or exported in the usual course of business. _ If one party can
procure these bulbs thus early, there is no reason why the whole trade should
not be as early in the market, and save themselves and their customers much
trouble. (D. Beaton, in Gard. Chron. for Aug. 19. 1843, p. 576.)

Conservatory Climbers. — At this period, when people are busily engaged in
planning out new modes of heating, and re-arranging houses, pits, &c., or in
contemplating new ones, let me suggest a simple, cheap, and efficient mode of
rendering the ccnservatory superior to, and more interesting than, anything that
has hitherto been done, with the exception of a few instances, which proved
highly successful. It is, to clothe the rafters with the best stove and half-
stove climbers for seven or eight months in the year, and thus to impart to it
all the character and importance of an exotic stove, with the cool refreshing
atmosphere suitable fer conservatory plants, where those who cannot endure
the broiling heat of the former may enjoy this luxury in a more congenial
climate. Something of this kind seems now to be wanted, seeing that the
better and more delicate greenhouse climbers are being encouraged as dwarf
plants on trelliswork, a plan very suitable to tender and small flowering
plants, but which does away altogether with our ideas of the bold unrestrained
freedom of a fine climber ; and also that the stronger greenhouse climbers are
now turned out against conservatory walls, so that we are left in the dilemma
of having the same kinds of climbers in the conservatory as against the hot
walls in the open air, or we must contrive to grow others in-doors more
suitable to our tastes and ideas, or, at all events, more in accordance with
the higher branches of gardening. The plan which I propose for effecting
this change is exceedingly simple, and not at all expensive, having had a less
economical mode for the same purpose in operation for some years, and I can
speak confidently as to the result. This plan is simply to build a narrow pit
along the back of the conservatory, or along one end of it, if that. is not
in sight of the main walks ; to keep up a constant stove-heat in this pit, to
plant out stove-climbers in it, and, when they are of sufficient length, to intro-
duce them through holes pierced in the back wall of the conservatory ; or,
more in detail, to build a pit 6 ft. wide and 4 ft. high, the whole length
or breadth of the conservatory, as the case may be, with glass sashes in the
usual way, at an angle sufficient to leave you head-room along a path next the
back wall of the conservatory. This path may be 2 ft. wide, leaving room for
a bed 4 ft. wide, except the 4-inch wall along the path to keep up the soil.
This bed is to be made after the manner of a vine border, well drained,
with a layer of rough stones over the drainage, and a good portion of them
mixed with fresh turfy loam and a little peat and leaf-mould, to the depth of
3,ft. If you wish to try the effect of bottom-heat, nothing is easier than to
run a trough under the drainage, with a two-inch pipe, to heat the water after
the manner of Mr. Green’s pits. Mr. Rendle’s plan will not answer this
purpose. A common flue may be the mode of heating if you want to go the
cheapest way to work, and the heat may be from 75° to 85° in summer, and
from 50° to 55° in winter. (D, Beaton, in Gard. Chron. for 1843, p. 588.)

Domestic Notices. — Obituary. 677

Art. II. Domestic Notices.

ENGLAND.

Bowoop, in Wiltshire, the seat of the Marquess of Lansdowne. To all who
are fond of garden scenes, in the great style of Brown’s finest works, Bowood
will afford considerable amusement. The water scenes form the finest features
of the place. For one idea, the imitation of a vast river, Blenheim is superior ;
but as a lake, this has, I think, the advantage ; the expanse of water is more
varied ; the accompaniment of hanging woods, varied groves, and cultivated
slopes, far richer and more animated. Some scenes are truly Elysian, and
present such an assemblage of the richest features of picturesque ground, that
I know no place where they may be studied to more advantage. (Young’s
Annals of Agriculture, vol. viil. p. 79.)

SCOTLAND.

Glasgow Cathedral saved by a Gardener.— When the fanatics, in the year
1567, came to pull down the cathedral of Glasgow, a gardener, who stood by,
said: “ My friends, cannot you make it a house for serving your God in your
own way? For it would cost your country a great deal to build such another,”
The fanatics desisted ; and it is the only cathedral in Scotland that remains
entire, and fit for service. (Earl of Buchan’s Life of Andrew Fletcher, p. 41.)

Art. III. Obituary.

DeaTu of Mr. Robert Lymburn.— It is with deep regret that we have heard
of the sudden death of this excellent man. Mr. Lymburn had been poorly for
some months past, but appeared to have got well again. He had recently
buried his mother, with whom he had lived all his life ; and he had just formed
a partnership with Mr. Dreghorn, in the nursery business, at Kilmarnock. He
retired to rest, in his usual health, on Monday the 30th of October last, and
on the morning of Tuesday the 31st was found dead in his bed; the result, it
is supposed, of an affection of the heart.

Mr. Lymburn was, perhaps, one of the best vegetable physiologists that
Scotland ever produced. To an extensive practical knowledge of all the hor-
ticultural and agricultural practices of the country, he joined a thorough know-
ledge of chemistry, and of the functions of plants ; and he was so thoroughly
devoted to the subject, that he had no other recreation. As a proof, we have
only to refer to his excellent articles in this Magazine; and to many papers of
his in the Gardener’s Chronicle. Fortunately for our readers, the MS. of the
whole of the article on Comparative Physiology was received from Mr. Lym-
burn more than a month ago, and it will appear in the early Numbers of our
succeeding Volume. Mr. Lymburn appeared to be about fifty years of age.
Some of his townsmen and contemporaries will, we trust, furnish us with a
biographical notice in greater detail. — Cond.

ERRATA.

Delete Beatonia atrata Herb., and the description, in p. 624.

In p. 581., line 24. from bottom, jor “ Cumberland,” read “ Westmore-
land.”

See also p. 89, p. 90., and p. 459.

GENERAL INDEX.

AGRICULTURAL improvement on the estates of
the Marquess of Waterford, 89.

Agriculture, the stimulus of competition in, 137.

Air, to dry moist, 647.

America, state of, commented upon, 324.

American aloe, notice of one going to flower,
649.

American plants, Waterer’s exhibition of, in the
King’s Road, 378,

Ammonia, use of sulphate of, in agriculture, 82.

Araucaria Cunningham/, notice of one bearing
cones, 85.

Arboricultural notices, 269. 442. 474. 637. 668.

Asparagus, culture of, 429.

Beans, culture of, 544.

Bees, reason of their sometimes dying while they
have plenty of food, 187.

Besoms, method of making, for gardens, 178.

Bicton Gardens, their culture and management ;
—Letter 1V. House for New Holland plants,
and list of plants it contains, 2i ;— Letter V.
Orange and camellia house, 23; list of camel-
lias grown at Bicton, 26; the back sheds,
vineries, and pineries, 27 ;—Letter VI. Culture
of chrysanthemums, manure-water, properties
of charcoal, 28;—Letter VII. The conserva-
tories, 29; list of plants in conservatories, 30;
orchideous houses and stoves, 30; list of stove
and orchidaceous plants at Bicton, 31;—Letter
VIII. Brooms used in the flower-garden, 46;
hardy trees and shrubs growing there, 47 ;—
Letter IX. Importance of cleanliness, 49 ; ma-
nure-water, charcoal, 51;—Letter X._ The
Rockery and American garden, 111;—Letter
XI. Dimensions of a few trees in the Park,
113 ;—Letter XII. Reasons for following the
business of a market-gardener, 164 ;—Letter
XIII. Growing mushrooms, 234 ;—Letter XIV.
Growing, training, and general management of
ericas, 301 ;—Letter XV. On the rust in
grapes, 267;—Letter XVI. Culture of the
potato, 419; mismanagement it is subject to,
and cause of curl and dry rot, 424;—Letter
XVII. System of kitchen-gardening, 427 ; cul
ture of the strawberry, 429; culture of aspara-
gus, 429; culture of sea-kale, 430; culture of
celery, 431; culture of cauliflowers, 433 ;—
Letter XVIII. Mode of destroying the goose-
berry caterpillar, 434;—Letter XIX. Crane-
necked short-handled hoes described and
figured, 495;— Letter XX. Objections to the
crane-necked hoes answered, 539; notice of
Misa Cavendishz, Dacca, and sapiéntum,
540 ;—Letter XX1. Culture of the cabbage,
540; culture of broccoli, 543; culture of peas,
543; culture of beans and onions, 544; culture
of carrots, 545; culture of parsneps, spinach,
and lettuce, 546 ;—Letter XXII. ‘The principal
causes of canker in peaches, nectarines, and
apricots, 601;—Letter XXIII. Notes on the
one-shift system of potting, and on charcoal,
605;—Letter XXIV. System of cucumber-
growing, 653.

Bicton Gardens, notice of a visit to, 546.

Bicton, pine-apples noticed there by Thomas
Bray, when on a visit, 606.

Birds, advantages of attending to habits of, 613.

Books reviewed or noticed. See p. v.

Botanical, Floricultural, and Arboricultural no-
tices, 445. 499. 614.

Bowood, notice of the scenery at, 680.

Bread, an imperishable sort, 648.
Broccoli, culture of, 543.
Burying grounds, thoughts on modern, 90.

Cabbage, culture of, 540.

Camellias, their hardiness supposed to be in-
creased by raising them from seed in the open
air, 322.

Carrot, culture of, 545.

Caen: mode of destroying the gooseberry,

He -

Caterpillar, description of a curious one, 652.

Cauliflowers, culture of, 433.

Celery, culture of, 431.

Cemeteries and churchyards, criticism on_the
articles in the Magazine, relative to, 329. 379.

Cemeteries, criticism on, 185.

Cemeteries, uses of, 93; laying out, building,
and planting of, 142; working and management
of, 215; innovations suggested relative to the
selection of ground for, and mode of perform-
ing funerals, 292; design tor one of moderate
extent on level ground, 353; design for one on
hilly ground, 400; present state of those in
London, considered chiefly as cemetery gar-
dens, 400; the present state and means of
improving country churchyards, 475; list of
trees, shrubs, and perennial herbaceous plants
adapted for cemeteries and churchyards, 512;
appendix, 534; principal ones in the neigh-
bourhood of Philadelphia, 665.

Charcoal and charcoal dust, first discovery of its

i action on vegetation, 140.

Charcoal, its use in the culture of plants, 185.

Chiswick Villa, notice of the grounds, 453-

Chrysanthemums, a list of the best sorts adapted
for cultivation in the colder parts of the coun-
try, 373.

Chrysanthemums, culture of, 28.

Cicer arietinum, an excellent vegetable, 316.

Clématis aztrea grandifldra, one of the best
hardy climbers, 42.

Clématis Vitalba, notice of one, 669.

Clover, notice of the Bokhara, 187.

Conservatory climbers, 679.

Contributors. Seep. Xv.

Cottage, how to make the most of one having:
only two rooms, 52. :
Criticism on the study of bees, chemistry, and

vegetable physiology, 508.

Cucumbers, culture of, 653.

Cucumbers, culture of, in cottage gardens, 86.

C¥tisus Adamz, notice of, 315.

Dae the seat of Norman M’Leod, Esq., notice

of, 416.

Démmara orientalis found to succeed when
grafted on the Araucaria imbricata, 184.

Dinbur Castle, its gardens and its gardeners,
106. 413. 579.

Disbudding shoots with the leaves on, 648.

Dorydnthes excélsa, notice of one in flower, 85.

Draining and fencing on the lands of the Duke

of Hamilton, 327.

Draining, price of, with tiles, in Northampton-
shire, 327.

Draining-pipes made by a machine, 675.

Drains, mode of making turf, 134.

Duvata long:folia, notice of, 669.

Edging of Seyssel asphalte noticed, 507.
Elm leaves, their nutritive properties, 352.

GENERAL INDEX.

Engravings. Seep. vii.

Ericas, culture of, 301.

Errata, 89. 90. 459. 677.

Exhibitions, on horticultural, 45.

Exhibitions, remarks on the London Horticultu-
ral Society’s, 222.

Flower- garden, list of plants for, 172. £60. 373.

Flower-garden on gravel, remarks on a design
for a, 70.

Flower-garden, shrubbery, and lawn, on laying
out and planting the, 166. 258. 306. 371. 442.
497. 547. 634. 636. 667.

Flower-pots, remarks on double, 187.

Flower-pots with hollow sides, 135.

Flower-pots, Saul’s fountain, 136.

Flower-pots, Stephens’s plant-protecting, 136.

Flues, Welch’s bricks for forming circular, 134,

Fruits. See p. xiii.

Fruits, on the preservation of, 330.

Fruit trees, on protecting those against walls, 369.

Fruit trees, principal causes of canker in, 601.

Furnace, Juckes’s smoke-consuming, 314.

Gardener, how a young one should travel by rail-
road, 646.

Gardening tour in the North of England and
part of Scotland, 250.

Garden engine, Johnston’s improved portable,
316

Garden-pots, notice of improvements in, 316.

Garden-pots, Hunt’s improved, 317.

Garden walks, materials recommended by the
ancients for making them, 331,

Garden, a classical one, 586.

Garden, a covered one, proposed to be established
in Paris, 647.

Gardens. See Table of Contents, p. xiv.

Gardens, the new Royal, at Frogmore, 138.

Gardens, Bicton, notice of, 138.

Gardens and scenery around Stirling, descriptive
notice of some of the, 584.

Geraniums, description of an insect which attacks
them, 460.

Gilpin, William Sawrey, Esq., Landscape-Gar-
dener, notice of the death of, 332.

Gladiolus cardinalis, result of an experiment
made in endeavouring to propagate it, 649.

Glasgow Cathedral saved by a gardener, 680.

Grafting and budding the rhododendron, 647,

Grapes, Cato’s method of preserving, 331.

Grapes, on the preservation of, 186.

Grapes, on the probable cause of the rust in, 449.

Green fly destroyed by the tree-creeper (Cérthia
familiaris), 315.

Greenhouses, superiority of span-roofed, 268.

Ground, the most economical mode of dividing a
square plot of, 321.

Guide-posts, on the best material for, 88.

Heat, on bottom, 113.

Heating, apparatus for, in the gardens of His
Grace the Duke of Wellington, 177.

Heating, Rendle’s tank system described, 505,

Holly, its use for shelter, 119.

Hornet, its character and habits, 409.

Horticultural Society’s Garden, notice of the ex-
hibitions in, 453.

Horticultural Society, Chislehurst, 139.

Horticultural Society, Lane End, 139.

Horticultural Society of London, the first show
at Chiswick Gardens noticed, 378.

Horticultural Society of New Zealand, notice of,

325.
Horticultural Society of Wellington, noticed, 325,
Hothouse furnaces, mode of consuming the smoke
of, 451.
Houses, wooden ones ready made for sale, 647.
Hyacinths, on forcing, so as to bloom at Christ-
mas, 678.

Implements, agricultural, 82,

Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park, hints for
the improvement.of, 285.

Kensington Gardens, criticism on the improve-
ments in, 650.

679

Kensington Gardens, the naming of trees and
shrubs in, 649.

Kent, the Landscape- Gardener, answer to query
respecting. 91.

Re Gees notice of the improvements there,

Kitchen-Gardens, rotation of crops in, 670.

Labels, best mode of writing, on parchment, 646.

Landscape composition, scenery intended to point
out the errors frequently committed by persons
who have little knowledge of it, 6.

Landscape-gardening, application of the principle
of the balloon to, 646.

Larch, an evergreen one discovered, 92.

Larch may be propagated by cutting, 92.

Tereh) plantations at Linley, enquiry respecting,
or .

Larch, uses of the, 668.

Lawn, shrubbery, and flower-garden, on laying
out and planting the, 166, 258. 306. 371. 442.
497. 547. 634. €36. 667.

Lettuce, culture of, 546.

Literary Notices, 133. 184. 284. 673.

Lock, Baillie’s rounded enamelled case, recom-
mended, 453.

Lonicera diversifdlia, notice of, 670.

Lymburn, Mr. Robert, notice of his death, 680.

Manners all over the world, approaching simi-
larity of, 647.

Manures, on the theory of, 1.

Manures, Professor Henslow’s Lectures on, 139.

Melon, Gregson’s green flesh, recommended, 84.

Melons grown in leaves, 86; on a mode of grow-
ing late, 269.

Metropolitan Model Institution for improving
the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes, 85.

Mice, to destroy, 184

Milne, Mr. John, Nurseryman, his death no.
ticed, 380,

Mistletoe, notice of, growing on the oak, S6.

Monument, Sir Walter Scott’s, 649.

Monza, notice of the royal gardens there, 322.

Mountain ash, a remarkable one, 329.

Mushrooms, abundant in 1842, 86 ; culture of, 234.

Mutual Instruction Society, notice of the meet-
A of the Botanical section of the Tower Street,
VL0e

Neill, Dr., notice of a subscription for a bust
of, 87; testimonial presented to him, 455.

Neliimbium tibetianum, an account of one in
flower, 84.

ee Zealand Horticultural Society, notice of,
325.

Notices of Gardens and Country Seats in Somer-
setshire, Devonshire, and part of Cornwall, 238.

Nurseries. See Table of Contents, p. xiv.

Nuts with a bony shell will germinate the first
year, if the shell be broken, 181.

Oak, notice of a large one, 86; the Hatfield, 668 ;
use of the American white, and its introduc.
tion into England, 123.

Onions, culture of, 544.

Oropholithe, a composition used as a substitute
for zinc, lead, &c., 83.

Oven, Palmer’s improved economical American,
recommended, 507.

Parks and pleasure-grounds, on grouping trees
in, 118.

Parsneps, culture of, 546.

Pauléwn7a imperialis, notice of one in flower,
181. 649.

Pea, on the culture of, 75. 545.3 in pots, 77.

Pears, best time for eating, 649.

Penn, John, Esq., civil engineer, his death no-
ticed, 380.

Phrenology for gardeners and their patrons, 662.

Physiology, comparative: preliminary remarks,
191; on organised structures in general, 191
on the elementary structure of vegetables, 195 ;
a gencral view ot the vegetable kingdom, 199 ;
on the symmetry of organised structures, 207 ;
on the nature and causes of vital action, 209 ;
on vital stimuli, 333; on heat as a vital stimu-

680

lus, 336; on the evolution of heat, 337; on
light as a vital stimulus, 344; on the develope-
ment of light in plants, 345 on electricity as a
vital stimulus, 347; on the laws of organic
developement, 38] ; on the general view of the
functions of animated beings, and their mutual
relations, 391; on ingestion and absorption of
aliment in general, 461. 509; on absorption in
vegetables, 557; on the circulation of the nu-
tritive fluid, 565; on circulation in vegetables,
567 ; on interstitial absorption, 577.

Pine cones, a valuable fuel, 328.

Pipes, Scott’s patent improvements in cast iron,
wrought iron, and soft metal, 321.

Plant-case, ladies’ pocket, 134.

Plants, food of, and its transformation, 397. 471;
report (on new or rare ones in British nur-
series, and private gardens, 34. 55; new and
rare, Vili. ; on the new method of potting, or
the one-shift system, 318.

Plant-houses, yellow glass suggested for them,
332,

Pleasure-grounds, shrubberies, and ornamental
plantations, hints to proprietors who intend
planting, 553.

Plough, new one for raising potatoes, 137.

Poor, comfortable habitations for them, with
gardens attached, recommended, 44.

Poplar, notice of several kinds of balsam, 181.

Potatoes, culture of, 419; mode of planting early
ones, with anew planting machine, 40 ; planter,
Saul’s, 91.

Primrose, on the culture of the Chinese, 126.

Propagating-house, description of, heated by hot-
water circulated in brick troughs, 266.

Raspberries, notice of some plants growing toa
gigantic size at Walton Hall, 328.

Raspberry, some account of the insects which
attack it, 411.

Remarks on one of the designs in the article,
“On Laying-out and Planting the Lawn,
Shrubbery, and Flower-garden,” 636.

Reviews. Seep. v.

Rhododendron, list of species and varieties of,
cultivated at Dysart House, 436; on grafting
and budding it, 647.

Rhubarb, the Victoria, best for culinary pur-
poses, 328.

Robison, Sir John, K.H., his death, 188.

Rockwork in the Walton Nursery, Liverpool, 452.

Roller, an account of a bird so called, 18.

Roses, notice of two new American ones, 125.

Royal Agricultural Society of England, notice of
the annual meeting of, 455.

Royal Botanic Society of London, its first exhibi-
tion in the gardens, Kegent’s Park, noticed,378.
second exhibition in the Regent’s Park, 454.

Rule, and the reason, the principle of the, 647.

Scotch pine, a substitute for candle, 137; oil of
turpentine distilled from ‘ts roots, 137.

Sea-kale, culture of, 430.

Sea-water, distribution of, all over the country,675.

Seeds, result of an experiment to show the proper
depth of covering for grass and clover, 3038.

Shephérdéa argéntea recommended as a fruit-
tree, 42.

GENERAL INDEX.

Shetland, foreign trees which thrive in, 88.

Shrubbery, lawn, and flower-garden, on Jaying-
out and planting, 166. 258. 306. 371. 442. 497.
547. 634. 636. 667.

Smoke, the nuisance of, from the chimneys of
manufacturing establishments, 327.

Snow-plough for walks and footpaths, 116.

Soil, on pulverising, 115.

Southampton, hints for the improvement of the
town of, 589.

Spinach, culture of, 546.

Spireas, North American oaks, Abiétine, and
Cupréssinz, notice of a collection made by the
Conductor in the spring of 1843, 439.

Squirrel, on the habits of, 117. 179.

Steamer, Palmer’s universal, recommended, 507.

Strawberry, culture of, 429. ~

Street paving, an association for the promotion
of improved, 327.

Suburban dwellings, design for five, with their
gardens, 607.

Tiles for paving walks, new material for, 507.
Tour in Brittany and Normandy. By J. Rivers,

jun. Dinan, 224; Rennes, 226; Nantes, 297;
Angers, 228’; Le Mans, 2313 Lisieux, 232 ;
Honfleur, 233.

Tour, Notes made during a horticultural, from
Lowther Castle in Westmoreland to Exeter in
Devonshire, 581.

Trees, dimensions of, in the grounds of Flitwick
House, 641.

Trees, on disbarking, to increase the durability of
the timber, 181.

Trees, on raising American, from seeds, 181.

Trees, grouping of, in parks ‘and pleasure-grounds,
118.

Trees, large ones at Strath fieldsaye, 125.

Trees introduced from America in 1769, 669.;
many indigenous to North America not yet
introduced, 324.

Trees, growth of, 668.3;
669.

Trees, roots and tops of, 90.

Trees, on transplanting large ones, 43.

Turnip,history of the introduction of the Suepels
into Britain, 672.

growth of, at Barton

U’\mus fiilva, medical properties of, 84.

Vegetables. See p. xiii.

Verbtna Melindres and Tweediedna,
some situations, 86.

Verbenas and petunias, number of sorts of, 649,

Vine, grafting it, becoming general in France, 322.

Vine, on manuring, 649.

Vineyard at Shirley, notice of, 599.

hardy in

Walks made of asphalte recommended, 452.

Warping lands on theThames, 526.

Wasps, on destroying, 42.

Wirework, its use in gardening cine SEL TOD
83.

Wire-worm, a trap for, 646.

Wire-worm destroyed by the mole, 315.

Worms, lime-water for killing them, 90.

“ticca gloriosa, notice of one in flower, 556.

END OF THE NINETEENTH VOLUME.

London

: Printed by A. SportiswoopE, New-Street-Square,

‘ 5

Veo)

AAnAR An AAA AGM! ea A GA A FA Bs " VY MBARAAAY \'f y \f_ Nii Y | \ lala!
AAA ARAARIAAAAAAAARAAAAAL || -\alaaalAAAtaaaaale
A AAA aA i \t NAV y \ \F 1 | \/ y \ | \ A: \ VAN) | VA AARNAR
ANAAAAY, WAAAY : , | AA AAAAAA aaa
l VV VAN) : f Arr

\V/ Hie | ) p> \\/

a x ahr! \ \/ j } VAAN a ani NEN | \j

‘ | \f Nfs i, VAAN = WN ; r ~
lala AAR

} AA aa if Valali Vala, | \ IAIAIAIA
PY VValAl VV N AVAVAVAAY,

AA y \/ A AA Als Alp VAAAARANANAY
LW NAVAY, Vay LN CAF la‘a| |

AANAAA An ARAAAAA Alslala|
| ian Aan Annanaaae AY az AR

BARRA vA ANA AAA)

panaen AAAAN
aes AA AA Aa ARK LE | : | AAaa /
val V AANA Vy 28aa : AIA\ ’ VAAAAA AL
| A) ! A 14] nA le y is | " \ aes | Y Ag | ip 7 \A \ Val Ary AAA \- encase ARES i
VAY AAA vAATY Val | IRA \ Vane y
\ \ lalalal A Va ABnnnnny aaa ‘V/A AAAAAA) Y an |
AI AIA

naane anAARARA aad alias ARAAAS a
AneAeee Aaaaasamsabbbornas oe anes raw
"AAA van ‘A . YY. A ARRAsrAy RARANAAAAn a Rana

3 a RPT AN }j ~ 4 AAPA é IANA y
AN \!/ \\/—=\\) al i lf \ } A \} A VAVA\ *\ \\ 1 Garnet | Van\) |) ry \ / \/ ~\/ vA VE AN AARAAR AAR AAR A Z
AY

V

cA \} NY \ 5
T ] _\lg f \}
1 a | WAN \/ Nex _\ \ a

\ ) \ VAN ‘| | \
Woo) VAP AEN AN {
AAA aA AYA \AAY
,

IAAARR
aaagayy
Ya)

BRAARARAR

—

VA~VAV2)2\ A AIAAAAAAAYY ¥_)
AVA \ VV AVAI-ANA\_Van\ aa); } f y y \ a AR ai a4aatia ~'\.
\ANIAIANIANT VEN | V/ Vv y 1 ¥ alan! | alanlan’ V.
NAY V | VON | y Vy \ARREPERR AP

|

| | ' 2 ! i
Ly 'h 1 ee | | Nedi\_/]|\ \ \
| Ww | : y \ i 7 = A
| | | ene | \\ } \ f; }
| } hs
\ | } 1 } ei; j i
| \ \
Yess \ ' { ; ; | Need |
\ i \ j i\ ‘\ | \ 4 ‘ |
\ NN i i Wii N N - \ N I\\ \ AAW }, |
Ned: j i k \ : \ }
\ \ f\\ \ New) \ {
I \ \ | |
|
| | 4 i

Vevey

U
we

GS
\
we

OY

UWYIYGIISY
Vveleeyuvllly
Vt
WY

Ne yu
Whe
LAA
YAY
NF) SI)

wy wie)
Vly

* wi )\ =
AAAS AG AS

ww)

MHS SG

ee

avid wisi EMS lode

AAA AAS I wy |
WW, \ \ Ww Ww \ J LAA, LA AAA AA KA ) AA bh LN

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

DNATA

3 9088 01527 8658

==