. 
5 ‘ 
‘ 
Vt 
' 
« . 
oe 
‘ 
. “ 
ny 
»¥ 
z 
. 
. 
es 
‘S.. 


L vevlS9EO LOLI € 


OLNOYOL! JO ALISYSAINN 
AXVaB] ADOIOOZ 


= " * 


a ee 


TR 13} 


4 
yi 
uth, 
o 
* y , ~ . 
e ° 
ut ®eeoaceo®® 
“ 
= + 
, ‘ 
vy 4 - 
i oe - 7 
7 > ‘ , * 
~ ~ ‘ ’ * ‘ ~ eS 
t ~ ~ ;%a 4 bl be » 
“ a + ’ : 
. « ae 
? t " 
' 7 J ws 
~ J . ‘ 
= 
e % . > 
i an 
oe 7 
J * . “4 ~ 
. +m 1 “ 
oN . at? 
a . 
A 
on . “ 
— 
. 
yee one payee oe tp ag 


ere ete 


’ 7 
‘ \ —* i 
MJ ~ * » 
. ‘ ¥ 
‘ 
‘ 4 4 
‘ * 
t- , 
‘ b 1 t ' 
1 " . 
' & ‘ het 
de’ ae a t 
N i a 4 “ be 
ty ‘ 
‘ t 
i * 
be ' 
’ i ‘ 
’ ’ . . 
’ ’ ” 
i 
¢ a an” 
hon ee 
2 
” ~ a 
’ > 
- a 
{ 
: a vpn 
i 
t - é ’ 
t ; y ) 
> 4 ‘ 
‘ - 
‘ ' , , 
i ‘ : ° 
y . 
‘ ! 
4 ~ j 
1 et gb 7 \ t 
i i " , 
* 
' em 
' “a, ‘ “ 
aa 
‘ 4 
“ 
“ . 
i Pry 
+ 
. ue ¥ 
s ‘ 
t 
r 
> ‘ 
a 
r 
: ‘ 
we 
9 u. 
1 
. wit 
‘ 
i 
< nt 
wn 4 Go hw 
" ‘ 
; 
‘ 
‘ 
; é 
: . oe tig “hn 8 nen 
» “ 
¥ a ° + - e ‘ 
era er <3 . Prec aie Reet a 


-e & 


Se AA ; be ( i ) 
; yy WMO ty Vy vet? Y— Svs y Y 
—S , : 5 
Vgesentic. Ly 


Meio” Aoitrrrhlaair ¥ (2 
( j 
lg curgy thy bomunellee formed in 


/ 


Py, SE bourntry 


lp pry 477 ieplaging bhp fees cased by 
a ; he a oH 7 . 
p 1, & VF, OOS - VA 1é. Oy P Bebiren Lyf v7 & ALO TYOO 


THE GEOGRAPHICAL 


DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 


WU 1, 


i) 
@ 
* 
3 
E 
: 
i 
4 
: 
F 

a! 
A 
a 
” 
; 

\ 


~~ * 4 
de tei ae sy 
hy 


ae Digitized by the Internet Archive 
_ in 2010 with funding from oo 
-.____ University of Toronto tees 


w.archive.org/details/geographicaldisO1wall 


a : Ms 7 ' 
, i : a9 & E ie = ! 
7 7 et te Ee > 5 Eee ania 
& - > “ p 7 ‘ ae ‘ 
> — y . & ’ be 
, 4 
6 ¥ . 


a ee 


2 
e 


PROJECTION suewine tor ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS, anv rae ete UNDULATIONS 


30 20 10 o 10 20 30 zi 


THE WORLD oxy MERCATOR’S 4 


or tHE OCEAN BED. 


° 80 90 100 no 120 140 Mo er ua 


= T 
| i | | Hor doin 


8, 


* ae 


and 


T 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 7 ipl 


f oben 


Vancouver 


Columb 


: 


| 
his H 
Bi ex Oe —+ 
| | Conony 08, 
| / 


Tropic of| Cancer 


Tres Marial Is 


| Revillagighdo I~” - 


Equator | 


~~ 
: - Ss. 
“ah « Magguesias I? 
> See oe eS eS al Ne 
<<, ‘Samoa “ | 
To. ol aey *. | Sow |. 
eo es ae ship oxo | | Ss 
- < seu ae S| eee ees Nees ee 
2 ie 
| | 
aa | | 
- Se __fogus jo i 
} PERRI ‘ | Valpa 
EXPLANATION eh te | 
/ - a | | Suna Fornnides | A ae ales | } | 
f cean contours | | ate | Tristan d Teanha Aaktevda 08 i 
et th | | | | | ' | | | ‘St Paull, 
/ | ps —- 
4. = = 01 oe | 13, | }- t j 
\ 70; | Gough 1. { H 
= Cate 10.00 | | 
j 00 | | | } 
an i i | 
- oundings are giver in. fist | | } =-(Menguelen I | | 
= T ; dz | ea RE INS 3 SI a. { ER EB Se | jf} —___} > 
| i if | | t | 
| { i { | | 
Falkdnd 12 | peepee | fe | | { 
P< Gaonaald. | | i | Hast of 
Long} West of |Greenwich | | J } | } | { : | { | Long.| Rast of |Greenwich| 
Legg: : spelen : ees oa a Ce aa | | 1 at i 1 - aa aan 
0 100 60 50 10 30 20 10 ° Lo 20 30 40 50 6 70 80 90 100 110 sae 


London; Macmillan & C° 


a 
W/ . 
THE GhOGRAPHICAL 


DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 


WITH A STUDY OF 
THE RELATIONS OF LIVING AND EXTINCT FAUNAS 
AS ELUCIDATING THE 
PAST CHANGES OF THE EARTHS SURFACE. 


BY 


ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACH, 


AUTHOR OF “THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO,” ETC. 


WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 


IN TWO VOLUMES.—VOLUME I. 


# ondon : 
MACMILLAN AND CO. 
1876, 


[The Right of Translation and Reproduction 1s Reserved. ] 


a 
a 
g 
g 
a 
; 
a 


PREFACE. 


THE present work is an attempt to collect and summarize the 
existing information on the Distribution of Land Animals, 
and to explain the more remarkable and interesting of the 
facts, by means of established laws of physical and organic 
change. 

The main idea, which is here worked out in some detail for 
the whole earth, was stated sixteen years ago in the concluding 
pages of a paper on the “Zoological Geography of the Malay 
Archipelago,” which appeared in the Journal of Proceedings of 
the Linnean Society for 1860; and again, in a paper read before 
the Royal Geographical Society in 1863, it was briefly sum- 
marized in the following passage :— 


“My object has been to show the important bearing of 
researches into the natural history of every part of the world, 
upon the study of its past history. An accurate knowledge of 
any groups of birds or of insects and of their geographical dis- 
tribution, may enable us to map out the islands and continents 
of a former epoch,—the amount of difference that exists be- 
tween the animals of adjacent districts being closely related 
to preceding geological changes. By the collection of such 
minute facts, alone, can we hope to fill up a great gap in the 


vi PREFACE. 


past history of the earth as revealed by geology, and obtain 
some indications of the existence of those ancient lands which 
now lie buried beneath the ocean, and have left us nothing but 
these living records of their former existence.” 


The detailed study of several groups of the birds and insects 
collected by myself in the East, brought prominently before me 
some of the curious problems of Geographical Distribution ; 
but I should hardly have ventured to treat the whole subject, 
had it not been for the kind encouragement of Mr. Darwin and 
Professor Newton, who, about six years ago, both suggested that 
I should undertake the task. I accordingly set to work; but 
soon became discouraged by the great dearth of materials in 
many groups, the absence of general systematic works, and the 
excessive confusion that pervaded the classification. Neither 
was it easy to decide on any satisfactory method of treating 
the subject. During the next two years, however, several im- 
portant catalogues and systematic treatises appeared, which 
induced me to resume my work; and during the last three years 
it has oceupied a large portion of my time. 

After much consideration, and some abortive trials, an outline 
plan of the book was matured; and as this is, so far as I am 
aware, quite novel, it will be well to give a few of the reasons 
for adopting it. 

Most of the previous writings on Geographical Distribution 
appeared to me to be unsatisfactory, because they drew their 
conclusions from a more or less extensive selection of facts; and 
did not clearly separate groups of facts of unequal value, or 
those relating to groups of animals of unequal rank. As an 
example of what is meant, I may refer to Mr, Andrew Murray’s 
large and valuable work on the Geographical Distribution of 


Mammalia, in which an immense number of coloured maps are 


PREFACE. vii 


used to illustrate the distribution of various groups of animals. 
These maps are not confined to groups of any fixed rank, but 
are devoted to a selection of groups of various grades. Some 
show the range of single species of a genus—as the lion, ‘the 
tiger, the puma, and a species of fox ; others are devoted to 
sections of genera,—as the true wolves ; others to genera,-—as the 
hyenas, and the bears; others to portions of families,—as the 
flying squirrels, and the oxen with the bisons; others to families, 
—as the Mustelide, and the Hystricidz; and others to groups 
of families or to orders,—as the Insectivora, and the opossums 
with the kangaroos. But in no one gerade are all the groups 
treated alike. Many genera are wholly unnoticed, while several 
families are only treated in combination with others, or are 
represented by some of the more important genera. 

In making these observations I by no means intend to 
criticise Mr. Murray’s book, but merely to illustrate by an 
example, the method which has been hitherto employed, and 
which seems to me not well adapted to enable us to establish 
the foundations of the science of distribution on a secure basis. 
To do this, uniformity of treatment appeared to me essential, 
both as a matter of principle, and to avoid all imputation of a 
partial selection of facts, which may be made to prove anything. 
I determined, therefore, to take in succession every well-estab- 
lished family of terrestrial vertebrates, and to give an account of 
the distribution of all its component genera, as far as materials 
were available. Species, as such, are systematically disregarded, 
—firstly, because they are so numerous as to be unmanageable ; 
and, secondly, because they represent the most recent modifica- 
tions of form, due to a variety of often unknown causes, and 
are therefore not so clearly connected with geographical changes 
as are the natural groups of species termed genera; which may 
be considered to represent the average and more permanent 


viil PREFACE. 


distribution of an organic type, and to be more clearly influenced 
by the various known or inferred changes in the organic and 
physical environment. 

This systematic review of the distribution of families and 
genera, now forms the last part of my book—Geographical 
Zoology; but it was nearly the first written, and the copious 
materials collected for it enabled me to determine the zoo- 
geographical divisions of the earth (regions and sub-regions) to 
be adopted. I next drew up tables of the families and genera 
found in each region and sub-region ; and this afforded a basis 
for the geographical treatment of the subject—Zoological Geo- 
graphy—the most novel, and perhaps the most useful and 
generally interesting part of my work. While this was in progress 
I found it necessary to make a careful summary of the distribu- 
tion of extinct Mammalia. This was a difficult task, owing 
to the great uncertainty that prevails as to the affinities of many 
of the fossils, and my want of practical acquaintance with 
Paizeontology ; but having carefully examined and combined 
the works of the best authors, I have given what I believe is 
the first connected sketch of the relation of extinct Mammalia 
to the distribution of living groups, and have arrived at some 
very interesting and suggestive results. 

It will be observed that man is altogether omitted from 
the series of the animal kingdom as here given, and some ex- 
planation of this omission may perhaps be required. If the 
genus Homo had been here treated like all other genera, nothing 
more than the bare statement—“ universally distributed ”— 
could have been given;—and this would inevitably have pro- 
voked the criticism that it conveyed no information. If, on the 
other hand, I had given an outline of the distribution of the 
varieties or races of man, I should have departed from the plan 
of my work for no sufficient reason, Anthropology is a science 


PREFACE. ix 


by itself; and it seems better to omit it altogether from a 
zoological work, than to treat it in a necessarily superficial 
manner. 

The best method of illustrating a work of this kind was a 
matter requiring much consideration. To have had a separate 
coloured or shaded map for each family would have made 
the work too costly, as the terrestrial vertebrates alone 
would have required more than three hundred maps. I had 
also doubts about the value of this mode of illustration, as it 
seemed rather to attract attention to details than to favour the 
development of general views. I determined therefore to adopt 
a plan, suggested in conversation by Professor Newton; and to 
have one general map, showing the regions and sub-regions, 
which could be referred to by means of a series of numbers. 
These references I give in the form of diagrammatic headings 
to each family; and, when the map has become familiar, 
these will, I believe, convey at a glance a body of important 
information. 

Taking advantage of the recent extension of our knowledge 
of the depths of the great oceans, I determined to give upon this 
map a summary of our knowledge of the contours of the ocean 
bed, by means of tints of colour increasing in intensity with 
the depth. Such a map, when it can be made generally accurate, 
will be of the greatest service in forming an estimate of the 
more probable changes of sea and land during the Tertiary 
period ; and it is on the effects of such changes that any satis- 
factory explanation of the facts of distribution must to a great 
extent depend. 

Other important factors in determining the actual distribution 
of animals are, the zones of altitude above the sea level, and the 
strongly contrasted character of the surface as regards vege- 
tation—a primary condition for the support of animal life. I 


x PREFACE. 


therefore designed a series of six maps of the regions, drawn on 
a uniform scale, on which the belts of altitude are shown by 
contour-shading, while the forests, pastures, deserts, and peren- 
nial snows, are exhibited by means of appropriate tints of colour. 

These maps will, I trust, facilitate the study of geographical 
distribution as a science, by showing, in some cases, an adequate 
cause in the nature of the terrestrial surface for the actual dis- 
tribution of certain groups of animals. As it is hoped they will 
be constantly referred to, double folding has been avoided, and 
they are consequently rather small; but Mr. Stanford, and his 
able assistant in the map department, Mr. Bolton, have taken 
great care in working out the details from the latest observations ; 
and this, combined with the clearness and the beauty of their 
execution, will I trust render them both interesting and in- 
structive. | 

In order to make the book more intelligible to those readers 
who have no special knowledge of systematic zoology, and to 
whom most of the names with which its pages are often crowded 
must necessarily be unmeaning, I give a series of twenty plates, 
each one illustrating at once the physical aspect and the special 
zoological character of some well-marked division of a region. 
Great care has been taken to associate in the pictures, such species 
only as do actually occur together in nature ; so that each plate 
represents a scene which is, at all events, not an impossible one. 
The species figured all belong to groups which are either pecu- 
liar to, or very characteristic of, the region whose zoology they 
illustrate ; and it is hoped that these pictures will of themselves 
serve to convey a notion of the varied types of the higher 
animals in their true geographical relations, The artist, Mr. J. 
b. Zwecker, to whose talent as a zoological draughtsman and 
great knowledge both of animal and vegetable forms we are 
indebted for this set of drawings, died a few weeks after he 


PREFACE, x1 


had put the final touches to the proofs. He is known to many 
readers by his vigorous illustrations of the works of Sir Samuel 
Baker, Livingstone, and many other travellers,—but these, his 
last series of plates, were, at my special request, executed with 
a care, delicacy, and artistic finish, which his other designs 
seldom exhibit. It must, however, be remembered, that the 
figures of animals here given are not intended to show specific 
or generic characters for the information of the scientific zoolo- 
gist, but merely to give as accurate an idea as possible, of some 
of the more remarkable and more restricted types of beast and 
bird, amid the characteristic scenery of their native country ;— 
and in carrying out this object there are probably few artists 
who would have succeeded better than Mr. Zwecker has 
done. 


The general arrangement of the separate parts of which the 
work is composed, has been, to some extent, determined by 
the illustrations and maps, which all more immediately belong 
to Part III. It was at first intended to place this part last, but 
as this arrangement would have brought all the illustrations 
into the second volume, its place was changed,—perhaps in 
other respects for the better, as it naturally follows Part II. 
Yet for persons not well acquainted with zoology, it will per- 
haps be advisable to read the more important articles of Part 
IV. (and especially the observations at the end of each order) 
after Part Il, thus making Part III. the conclusion of the 
work. 

Part IV. is, in fact, a book of reference, in which the distri- 
bution of all the families and most of the genera of the higher 
animals, is given in systematic order. Part III. is treated 
somewhat more popularly; and, although it is necessarily 


crowded with scientific rames (without which the inferences 


xii PREFACE. 


—————_ - —— --— + i — 


‘ 


and conclusions would have nothing solid to rest on), these may 
be omitted by the non-scientific reader, or merely noted as a 
certain number or proportion of peculiar generic types. Many 
English equivalents to family and generic names are, however, 
given; and, assisted by these, it is believed that any reader 
capable of understanding Lyell’s “ Principles,” or Darwin's 
“ Origin,” will have no difficulty in following the main argu- 
ments and appreciating the chief conclusions arrived at in the 
present work. 

To those who are more interested in facts than in theories, 
the book will serve as a kind of dictionary of the geography 
and affinities of animals. By means of the copious Index, the 
native country, the systematic position, and the. numerical 
extent of every important and well established genus of land- 
animal may be at once discovered ;—information now scattered 
through hundreds of volumes. 

In the difficult matters of synonymy, and the orthography of 
generic names, I have been guided rather by general utility 
than by any fixed rules. When I have taken a whole family 
group from a modern author of repute, I have generally followed 
his nomenclature throughout. In other cases, I use the names 
which are to be found in a majority of modern authors, rather 
than follow the strict rule of priority in adopting some newly 
discovered appellation of early date. In orthography I have 
adopted all such modern emendations as seem coming into 
general use, and which do not lead to inconvenience ; but where 
the alteration is such as to completely change the pronunciation 
and appearance of a well-known word, I have not adopted it. 
I have also thought it best to preserve the initial letter of well- 
known and old-established names, for convenience of reference 
to the Indices of established works. As an example I may refer 
to Enicwrus,—a name which has been in use nearly half a 


PREFACE. xiii 


century, and which is to be found under the letter /, in Jerdon’s 
Birds of India, Blyth’s Catalogue, Bonaparte’s Conspectus, and 
the Proceedings of the Zoological Suciety of London down to 
1865. Classicists now write Henicurus as the correct form ; 
but this seems to me one of those cases in which orthographical 
accuracy should give way to priority, and still more to con- 
venience. 

In combining and arranging so much detail from such varied 
sources, many errors and omissions must doubtless have occurred. 
Owing to my residence at a distance from the scientific libraries 
of the metropolis, I was placed at a great disadvantage; and I 
could hardly have completed the work at all, had I not been 
permitted to have a large number of volumes at once, from the 
library of the Zoological Society of London, and to keep them 
for months together ;—a privilege for which I return my best 
thanks to Mr. Sclater the Secretary, and to the Council. 

Should my book meet with the approval of working natu- 
ralists, I venture to appeal to them, to assist me in rendering 
any future editions more complete, by sending me (to the care of 
my publishers) notes of any important omissions, or corrections 
of any misstatements of fact; as well as copies of any of their 
papers or essays, and especially of any lists, catalogues, and 
monographs, containing information on the classification or 
distribution of living or extinct animals. 


To the many friends who have given me information or 
assistance I beg to tender my sincere thanks. Especially am I 
indebted to Professor Newton, who not only read through much 
of my rough MSS., but was so good as to make numerous cor- 
rections and critical notes. These were of great value to me, as 
they often contained or suggested important additional matter, 
or pointed out systematic and orthographical inaccuracies. 


XiV PREFACE. 


Professor Flower was so good as to read over my chapters on 
extinct animals, and to point out several errors into which I had 
fallen. | 

Dr. Giinther gave me much valuable information on the 
classification of reptiles, marking on my lists the best established 
and most natural genera, and referring me to reliable sources of 
information. 

I am also greatly indebted to the following gentlemen for 
detailed information on special subjects :— 

To Sir Victor Brooke, for a MS. arrangement of the genera 
of Bovidee, with the details of their distribution: 

To Mr. Dresser, for lists of the characteristic birds of Northern 
and Arctic Europe: 

To Dr. Hooker, for information on the colours and odours of 
New Zealand plants : 

To Mr. Kirby, for a list of the butterflies of Chili: 

To Professor Mivart, for a classification of the Batrachia, and 
an early proof of his article on “Apes” in the Encyclopedia 
Britannica : 

To Mr. Salvin, for correcting my list of the birds of the 
Galapagos, and for other assistance : 

To Mr. Sharpe, for MS. lists of the birds of Madagascar 
and the Cape Verd Islands: , 

To Canon Tristram, for a detailed arrangement of the difficult 
family of the warblers,—Sylviide : 

To Viscount Walden, for notes on the systematic arrangement 
of the Pyenonotide and Timaliidée, and for an early proof of 
his list of the birds of the Philippine Islands. 

I also have to thank many naturalists, both in this coun- 
try and abroad, who have sent me copies of their papers; 
and I trust they will continue to favour me in the same 


manner, 


PREFACE. xv 


An author may easily be mistaken in estimating his own 
work. I am well aware that this first outline of a great 
subject is, in parts, very meagre and sketchy; and, though 
perhaps overburthened with some kinds of detail, yet leaves 
many points most inadequately treated. It is therefore with 
some hesitation that I venture to express the hope that I have 
made some approach to the standard of excellence I have aimed 
at ;—which was, that my book should bear a similar relation to 
the eleventh and twelfth chapters of the “ Origin of Species,” as 
My. Darwin’s “ Animals and Plants under Domestication” does 
to the first chapter of that work. Should it be judged worthy 
of such a rank, my long, and often wearisome labours, will be 
well repaid. 


Marcu, 1876. 


CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. 


PAB I, 


THE PRINCIPLES AND GENERAI, PHENOMENA OF DISTRIBUTION. 


CHAPTER. I. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


CHAPTER II. 
THE MEANS OF DISPERSAL AND THE MIGRATIONS OF ANIMALS. 


Means of Dispersal of Mammalia (p. 10)—Climate as a Limit to the Range of 
Mammals (p. 11)-—Valleys and Rivers as Barriers to Mammals (p. 12)—Arms. 
of the Sea as Barriers to Mamuinals (p. 13)—Ice-floes and drift-wood as aiding 
the Dispersal of Mammals (p. 14)—Means of Dispersal of Birds (p. 15)—Dis- 
persal of Birds by Winds (p. 16)—Barriers to the Dispersal of Birds (p. 17)— 
The Phenomena of Migration (p. 18)—Migrations of Birds (p. 19)—General 
remarks on Migration (p. 25)—Means of Dispersal of Reptiles and Amphibia 
(p. 28)—Means of Dispersal of Fishes (p. 29)—Means of Dispersal of Mollusca 
(p. 30)— Means of Dispersal of Insects and the Barriers which limit their 
Range (p. 32) 10—34 


CHAPTER III. 


DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY THE CONDITIONS AND CHANGES OF THE EARTH’S 
SURFACE, 


Land and Water (p. 35)—Continental Areas (p. 36)—Recent Changes in the Con- 
tinental Areas (p. 38)—The Glacial Epoch as affecting the Distribution of 
Animals (p. 40)—Changes of Vegetation as affecting the Distribution of Ani- 
mals (p. 48)— Organic Changes as affecting Distribution (p. 44) . 85—49 

b 


Xviil CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. ' 


CHAPTER IY. 
ON ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 


Principles upon which Zoological Regions should be formed (p. 53)—Which class 
of Animals is of most importance in determining Zoological Regions (p. 56)— 
Various Zoological Regions proposed since 1857 (p. 58)— Discussion of proposed 
Regions (p 61)—Reasons for adopting the Six Regions first proposed by Mr. 
Sclater (p. 63)—Objections to the system of Circumpolar Zones (p. 67)—Does 
the Arctic Fauna characterise an independent Region (p.68)—Palzaretic Region 
(p. 71)—Ethiopian Region (p. 73)—Oriental Region (p. 75)—Australian Re- 
gion (p. 77)—Neotropical Region (p.78)—Nearctic ae 79)—Observations 
on the series of Sub-regions (p. 80) . » . ‘ ; . 50—82 


CHAPTER V. 
CLASSIFICATION AS AFFECTING THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, 


Classification of the Mammalia (p. 85)—Classification of Birds (p. 92)—Classifica- 
tion of Reptiles (p. 98)—Classification of Amphibia (p. 100)—Classification of 
Fishes (p. 101)—Classification of Insects (p. 102)—-Classification of Mollusca 
te NOR, cs) eet is Sh eal 1 ln Ge 


PART II. 


ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS, 


CHAPTER VI. 
THE EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 


Historic and Post-pliocene Period (p. 110)—Pliocene Period (p. 112)—General 
Conclusions as to the Pliocene and Post-pliocene Faunas of Europe (p. 118)— 
Miocene Period (p. 114)—Extinct Animals of Greece (p. 115)—Miocene Fauna 
of Central and Western Europe (p. 117)—Upper Miocene Deposits of India 
(p. 121)—General Observations on the Miocene Faunas of Europe and Asia 
(p. 128)—Kocene Period (p. 124)—-General Considerations on the Extinct 
Mammalian Fauna of Europe (p., 126). : ' ; . . 107—128 


CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. XIX 


CHAPTER VII. 
EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 


North America—Post-pliocene Period (p. 129)—Remarks on the Post-pliocene 
Fauna of North America (p. 130)—Tertiary Period (p. 132)—Primates (p. 32) 
Insectivora (p. 133)—Carnivora (p. 134)—Ungulata (p. 135)—Proboscidea 

 (p.188)—Tillodontia (p.139)—Rodentia (p.140)—General Relations of the Ex- 
tinct Tertiary Mammalia of North America and Europe (p.140)— South Ame- 
rica (p. 143)—Fauna of the Brazilian Caves (p. 143)— Pliocene Period of Tem- 
perate South America (p. 146)—Pliocene Mammalia of the Antilles (p. 148)-- 
Eocene Fauna of South America (p. 148)—General Remarks on the Extinct 
Mammalian Fauna of the Old and New Worlds (p. 148)—-The Birth-place and 
Migrations of some Mammalian Families and Genera (p. 153) . 129—156 


CHAPTER VIII. 


VARIOUS EXTINCT ANIMALS ;—AND ON THE ANTIQUITY OF THE GENERA OF 
INSECTS AND LAND-MOLLUSCA. 


Extinct Mammalia of Australia (p. 157)—Mammalian Remains of the Secondary 
Formations (p. 159)—Extinct Birds (p. 160)—-Palearctic Region and North 
India (p. 161)—North America (p. 163)—South America, Madagascar, New 
Zealand (p. 164)—Extinct Tertiary Reptiles (p. 165)—Antiquity of the Genera 
of Insects (p. - Ricaaaaie of the Genera of Land and Fresh-water Shells 
(p. 168) : j . 157—170 


PAD. TE. 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF LIFE 
IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICA- 
TIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS. 


CHAPTER IX. 


' THE ORDER OF SUCCESSION OF THE REGIONS.—COSMOPOLITAN GROUPS OF 
ANIMALS.—TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. 


Order of succession of the Regions (p. 173)—Cosmopolitan Groups (p. 175)— 
Tables of Distributions of Families and Genera (p. 177) . 1738—179 


z’ 


CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. ; 


CHAPTER X. 


THE PALZHZARCTIC REGION. 


Zoological Characteristics of the Palearctic Region (p. 181)—Summary of Pale- 


arctic Vertebrata (p. 186)—Insects (p. 187)—Land-shells (p. 190)—The Pale- 
arctic Sub-regions (p. 196)—Central and Northern Europe (p. 191)—North 
European Islands (p. 197)—Mediterranean Sub-region (p. 199)—The Mediter- 
ranean and Atlantic Islands (p. 206) —The Siberian Sub-region, or Northern 
Asia (p. 216)—Japan and North China, or the Manchurian Sub-region (p. 220) 
—Birds (p. 223)—Insects (p. 227)—-Remarks on the General Character of the 
Fauna of Japan (p. 230)—General Conclusions as to the Fauna of the Pale- 
arctic Region (p. 231)—Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Pale- 
arctic Region (p. 234)—Table II. List of the Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia 
and Birds of the Palearctic Region (p. 239) ; : ‘ . 181—250 


CHAPTER XI. 


THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 


Zoological Characteristics of the Ethiopian Region (p. 252)—Summary of Ethio- 


pian Vertebrates (p. 255)—The Ethiopisn Sub-regions (p. 258)—The East 
African Sub-region, or Central and East Africa (p. 258)—The West African 
Sub-region (p. 262)—Islands of the West African Sub-region (p. 265)—South 
African Sub-region (p. 266)—Atlantic Islands of the Ethiopian Region ;—St. 
Helena (p. 269)—Tristan d’Acunha (p. 271)—Madagascar and the Mascarene 
Islands, or the Malagasy Sub-region (p. 272)—The Mascarene Islands (p. 280) 
—Extinct Fauna of the Mascarene Islands and Madagascar (p. 282)—General 
Remarks on the Insect Fauna of Madagascar (p. 284)—On the probable Past 
History of the Ethiopian Region (p. 285)—Table I. Families of Animals 
inhabiting the Ethiopian Region (p. 294)—Table II. List of Genera of Ter- 
restrial Mammalia and Birds of the Ethiopian Region (p. 300) . 251—3138 


CHAPTER XIL. 


THE ORLENTAL REGION, 


Zoological Cuaracteristics of the Oriental Region (p. 815)—Summary of Oriental 


Vertebrata (p. 818)—The Oriental Sub-regions (p, 321)—Hindostan, or Indian 
Sub-region (p. 321)—Range of the Genera of Mammalia which inhabit the Sub- 
region of Hindostan (p. 322)—Oriental, Palearctic, and Ethiopian Genera of 
Birds in Central India (p. 224)—Sub-region of Ceylon and South India 
(p. 826)—The Past History of Ceylonand South India, as indicated by its Fauna 
(p. 828)—Himalayan or Indo-Chinese Sub-region (p. 329)—Islands of the 


CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. XXxl 


Indo-Chinese Sub-region (p. 833)—Indo-Malaya, or the Malayan Sub-region 
(p. 8834)—Malayan Insects (p. 341)—The Zoological Relations of the several 
Islands of the Indo-Malay Sub-region (p. 345)—Philippine Islands (p. 345)— 
Java (p. 349)—Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo (p. 353)— Probable recent Geo- 
graphical Changes in the Indo-Malay Islands (p. 357)—Probable Origin of the 
Malayan Fauna (p. 859)—Concluding Remarks on the Oriental Region (p. 362) 
—Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Oriental Region (p. 365)— 
Table II. Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds in the Oriental Re- 
gion (p. 371) : : : ; , : : : . 3814—3886 


CHAPTER XIII. 
THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 


General Zoological Characteristics of the Australian Region (p. 390)—Summary 
of the Australian Vertebrata (p. 397)—Supposed Land-connection between 
Australia and South America (p. 898)—Insects (p. 403)—Land-shells (p. 407) 
—Australian Sub-regions (p. 408)—Austro-Malayan Sub-region (p. 409)— 
Papua, or the New Guinea Group (p. 409)—The Moluccas (p. 417)—Insects— 
Peculiarities of the Moluccan Fauna (p. 420)—Timor Group (p. 422)— 
Celebes Group (p. #26)—Origin of the Fauna of Celebes (p. 436)— Australia 
and Tasmania, or the Australian Sub-region (p. 438)—The Pacific Islands, or 
Polynesian Sub-region (p. 442)—Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands (p. 443)— 
Society and Marquesas Islands (p. 443)—Ladrone and Caroline Islands (p. 444) 
—New Caledonia and the New Hebrides (p. 444)--Sandwich Islands (p. 445) 
—Reptiles of the Polynesian Sub-region (p. 448)—New Zealand Sub-region 
(p. 449)—Islets of the New Zealand Sub-region (p. 453)—Reptiles, Amphibia, 
and Fresh-water Fishes (p. 456)—Insects (p. 457)—The Ancient Fauna of New 
Zealand (p. 459)—The Origin of the New Zealand Fauna (p. 459)—Causes of 
the Poverty of Insect-life in New Zealand : its Influence on the Character of 
the Flora (p. 462)—Concluding Remarks on the Early History of the Austra- 
lian Region (p. 464)—Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Australian 
Region (p. 468)—Table II. Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of the 
Australian Region (p. 473) ‘ : ‘ ‘ : . 887—485 


Index to Vol. I. ; : ; : ; : ; ; E - 489—503 


So wD go 


MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. I. 


Map of the World, showing the Zoo-Geographical Regions and the 


contour of the Ocean-bed 4 : : : é . Frontispiece 

To face page 

Map of the Palearctic Region . ; : d : ‘ es 
Plate I. The Alps of Central Europe with Characteristic Animals 195 
Plate II. Characteristic Mammalia of Western Tartary . : sais 
Plate III. Characteristic Animals of North China . ‘ 5 . 226 
Map of the Ethiopian Region . : : : : ‘ : oe Bee 
Plate IV. Characteristic Animals of East Africa . : - , 26% 
Plate V. Scene in West Africa with Characteristic Animals . . 264 
Plate VI. Scene in Madagascar with Characteristic Animals . . 278 
Map of the Oriental Region : ‘ : : : : : ~ 315 
Plate VII. Scene in Nepaul with Characteristic Animals . 5 . 331 
Plate VIII. A Forest in Borneo with Characteristic Mammalia . . 337 
Plate IX. A Malacca Forest with some of its Peculiar Birds . . 340 
Map of the Australian Region . ‘ : : ‘ ; : . 387 
Plate X. Scene in New Guinea with Characteristic Animals . 455 
Plate XJ. The Characteristic Mammalia of Tasmania ; : > 439 


Plate XII. The Plains of New South Wales with Characteristic Ani- 
mals . : . : : , : : 2 . 442 


Plate XIII. Scene in New Zealand with some of its Remarkable Birds 455 


ERRATA IN VOL. I. 


I have detected several misprints and small errors in the final impression, and 
Dr. Meyer, who has translated the work into German, has kindly communicated all 
that he has noticed. It is not thought necessary to give here all the smaller ortho- 
graphical errors, most of which will be corrected in the Index. The following seem, 
however, to be of sufficient importance to justify me in asking my readers to 
correct them in their copies. 


Page 93, 12 lines from foot, for Hocco read Hoazin. 
», 97, line 2, for Hocco read Hoazin. 
5, 147, 13 lines from foot, for three-handed read three-banded. 
», 177, line 6, for Lycenide read Zygenide. 
», 183, line 20, for third read fourth. 
», 238, line 18, for Spirigidea read Sphingidea. 
», 242, insert | 92a | Tamias j 1 | All Northern Asia | N. America. 
», 245, last line, insert in 2nd column (6). 
», 309, line 20, for Motacilla read Budytes. 
», 827, 12 lines from foot, after Hindostan read and. 
»» ool 
», 940, line 15, for Edolius read Bhringa. 
», 2048, line 17, for Flores read New Guinea. 
us Ba 
801 
9, 391 
», 414, 6 lines from foot, for Epimachus read Seleucides. 
», 415, line 10 Jor ditto read _ ditto. 
», 427, line 20, after Celebes add and on some of the Philippine Islands, 
99 427 
», 462 
con CMe 


- 


last line, for Icthyopsis read Icthyuphis. 


- 


11 lines from foot, for and Borneo read Borneo and Philippines. 


_ 


10 lines from foot, after Celebes add and the Papuan Islands. 


- 


9 lines from foot, omit New Guinea or. 


- 


5 lines from foot, for tusks read jaw. 
15 lines from foot, for p. 156 read p. 166, 
9 lines from foot, after Celebes add Papua. 


_ 


THE 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 
OF ANIMALS. 


PARTE Tf. 


THE PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL PHENOMENA 
OF DISTRIBUTION. 


CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 


Ir is a fact within the experience of most persons, that the 
various species of animals are not uniformly dispersed over the 
surface of the country. If we have a tolerable acquaintance 
with any district, be it a parish, a county, or a larger extent of 
territory, we soon become aware that each well-marked portion 
of it has some peculiarities in its animal productions. If we 
want to find certain birds or certain insects, we have not only to 
choose the right season but to go to the right place. If we 
travel beyond our district in various directions we shall almost 
certainly meet with something new to us; some species which 
we were accustomed to see almost daily will disappear, others 
which we have never seen before will make their appearance. 
If we go very far, so as to be able to measure our journey by 
degrees of latitude and longitude and to perceive important 
changes of climate and vegetation, the differences in the forms of 
animal life will become greater ; till at length we shall come to a 
country where almost everything will be new, all the familiar 
creatures of our own district being replaced by others more or 
less differing from them. | 

If we have been observant during our several journeys, and 
have combined and compared the facts we have collected, it will 
become apparent that the change we have witnessed has been 
of two distinct kinds. In our own and immediately surround- 
ing districts, particular species appeared and disappeared because 

B 2 


40 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 
(ES Is PEL ERE CPO Sd eerie 98 SET AO Re 
the soil, the aspect, or the vegetation, was adapted to them or 
the reverse. The marshes, the heaths, the woods and forests, 
the chalky downs, the rocky mountains, had each their peculiar 
inhabitants, which reappeared again and again as we came to 
tracts of country suitable for them. But as we got further away 
we began to find that localities very similar to those we had 
left behind were inhabited by a somewhat different set of species; 
and this difference increased with distance, notwithstanding 
that almost identical external conditions might be often met 
with. The first class of changes is that of stations ; the second 
that of habitats. The one is a local, the other a geographical 
phenomenon. The whole area over which a particular animal 
is found may consist of any number of stations, but rarely of 
more than one habitat. Stations, however, are often so extensive 
as to include the entire range of many species. Such are the 
great seas and oceans, the Siberian or the Amazonian forests, 
the North African deserts, the Andean or the Himalayan 
highlands. 

There is yet another difference in the nature of the change 
we have been considering. The new animals which we meet 
with as we travel in any direction from our starting point, are 
some of them very much like those we have left behind us, 
and can be at once referred to familiar types; while others 
are altogether unlike anything we have seen at home. When 
we reach the Alps we find another kind of squirrel, in South- 
ern Italy a distinct mole, in Southern Europe fresh warblers 
and unfamiliar buntings. We meet also with totally new 
forms ; as the glutton and the snowy owl in Northern, the genet 
and the hoopoe in: Southern, and the saiga antelope and 
collared pratincole in Eastern Europe. The first series are 
examples of what are termed representative species, the second 
of distinct groups or ¢ypes of animals. The one represents a 
comparatively recent modification, and an origin in or near the 
locality where it occurs; the other is a result of very ancient 
changes both organic and inorganic, and is connected with some 
of the most curious and difficult of the problems we shall have 
to discuss. 


~ 


ie f= oe 


HAP, I.] INTRODUCTORY. 5 


Having thus defined our subject, let us glance at the opinions 
that have generally prevailed as to the nature and causes of 
the phenomena presented by the geographical distribution of 
animals. 

It was long thought, and is still a popular notion, that the 
manner in which the various kinds of animals are dispersed 
over the globe is almost wholly due to diversities of climate and 
of vegetation. There is indeed much to favour this belief. The 
arctic regions are strongly characterised by their white bears 
and foxes, their reindeer, ermine, and walruses, their white 
ptarmigan, owls, and falcons; the temperate zone has its foxes 
and wolves, its rabbits, sheep, beavers, and marmots, its sparrows 
and its song birds ; while tropical regions alone produce apes and 
elephants, parrots and peacocks, and a thousand strange quadru- 
peds and brilliant birds which are found nowhere in the cooler 
regions. So the camel, the gazelle and the ostrich live in the 
desert; the bison on the prairie; the tapir, the deer, and the 
jaguar in forests. Mountains and marshes, plains and rocky 
precipices, have each their animal inhabitants; and it might well 
be thought, in the absence of accurate inquiry, that these and 
other differences would sufficiently explain why most of the 
regions and countries into which the earth is popularly divided 
should have certain animals peculiar to them and should want 
others which are elsewhere abundant. 

A more detailed and accurate knowledge of the productions of 
different portions of the earth soon showed that this explanation 
was quite insufficient; for it was found that countries exceed- 
ingly similar in climate and all physical features may yet have 
very distinct animal populations. The equatorial parts of Africa 
and South America, for example, are very similar in climate 
and are both covered with luxuriant forests, yet their animal life 
is widely different; elephants, apes, leopards, guinea-fowls 
and touracos in the one, are replaced by tapirs, prehensile- 
tailed monkeys, jaguars, curassows and toucans in the other. 
Again, parts of South Africa and Australia are wonderfully 
similar in their soil and climate; yet one has lions, antelopes, 
zebras and giraffes ; the other only kangaroos, wombats, phalan- 


6 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART J. 


gers and mice. In lke manner parts of North America and 
Europe are very similar in all essentials of soil climate and 
vegetation, yet the former has racoons, opossums, and humming- 
birds; while the latter possesses moles, hedgehogs and true fly- 
catchers. Equally striking are the facts presented by the 
distribution of many large and important groups of animals. - 
Marsupials (opossums, phalangers &c.) are found from temperate 
Van Diemen’s land to the tropical islands of New Guinea and 
Celebes, and in America from Chili to Virginia. No crows 
exist in South America, while they inhabit every other part of 
the world, not excepting Australia. Antelopes are found only 
in Africa and Asia; the sloths only in South America; the true 
lemurs are confined to Madagascar, and the birds-of-paradise to 
New Guinea. 

If we examine more closely the distribution of animals in 
any extensive region, we find that different, though closely allied 
species, are often found on the opposite sides of any considerable 
barrier to their migration. Thus, on the two sides of the Andes 
and Rocky Mountains in America, almost all the mammalia, birds, 
and insects are of distinct species. To a less extent, the Alps 
and Pyrenees form a similar barrier, and even great rivers and 
river plains, as those of the Amazon and Ganges, separate more 
or less distinct groups of animals, Arms of the sea are still 
more effective, if they are permanent; a circumstance in some 
measure indicated by their depth. Thus islands far away from 
land almost always have very peculiar animals found nowhere 
else; as is strikingly the case in Madagascar and New Zealand, 
and to a less degree in the West India islands. But shallow 
straits, like the English Channel or the Straits of Malacca, are 
not found to have the same effect, the animals being nearly or 
quite identical on their opposite shores. A change of climate or 
a change of vegetation may form an equally effective barrier to 
migration, Many tropical and polar animals are pretty accu- 
rately limited by certain isothermal lines; and the limits of the 
great forests in most parts of the world strictly determine the 
ranges of many species. 

Naturalists have now arrived at the conclusion, that by some 


CHAP, 1. ] INTRODUCTORY. 7 
slow process of development or transmutation, all animals have 
been produced from those which preceded them; and the old 
notion that every species was specially created as they now 
exist, at a particular time and in a particular spot, is abandoned 
as opposed to many striking facts, and unsupported by any 
evidence. This modification of animal forms took place very 
slowly, so that the historical period of three or four thousand 
years has hardly produced any perceptible change in a single 
species. Even the time since the last glacial epoch, which on 
the very lowest estimate must be from 50,000 to 100,000 years, 
has only served to modify a few of the higher animals into very 
slightly different species. The changes of the forms of animals 
appear to have accompanied, and perhaps to have depended 
on, changes of physical geography, of climate, or of vegetation ; 
since it is evident that an animal which is well adapted to one 
condition of things will require to be slightly changed in con- 
stitution or habits, and therefore generally in form, structure, or 
colour, in order to be equally well adapted to a changed 
condition of surrounding circumstances. Animals multiply so 
rapidly, that we may consider them as continually trying to 
extend their range; and thus any new land raised above the 
sea by geological causes becomes immediately peopled by a 
crowd of competing inhabitants, the strongest and best adapted 
of which alone succeed in maintaining their position. 

If we keep in view these facts—that the minor features of the 
earth’s surface are everywhere slowly changing; that the forms, 
and structure, and habits of all living things are also slowly 
changing; while the great features of the earth, the continents, 
and oceans, and loftiest mountain ranges, only change after very 
long intervals and with extreme slowness; we must see that 
the present distribution of animals upon the several parts of 
the earth’s surface is the final product of all these wonderful 
revolutions in organic and inorganic nature. The greatest and 
most radical differences in the productions of any part of the 
globe must be dependent on isolation by the most effectual 
and most permanent barriers. That ocean which has remained 
broadest and deepest from the most remote geological epoch 


8 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I: 
will separate countries the productions of which most widely 
and radically differ; while the most recently-depressed seas, 
or the last-formed mountain ranges, will separate countries 
the productions of which are almost or quite identical. It 
will be evident, therefore, that the study of the distribution 
of animals and plants may add greatly to our knowledge 
of the past history of our globe. It may reveal to us, in a 
manner which no other evidence can, which are the oldest 
and most permanent features of the earth’s surface, and which 
the newest. It may indicate the existence of islands or conti- 
nents now sunk beneath the ocean, and which have left no 
record of their existence save the animal and vegetable pro- 
ductions which have migrated to adjacent lands. It thus 
becomes an important adjunct to geology, which can rarely do 
more than determine what lands have been raised above the 
waters, under what conditions and at what period; but can 
seldom ascertain anything of the position or extent of those 
which have sunk beneath it. Our present study may often 
enable us, not only to say where lands must have recently 
disappeared, but also to form some judgment as to their ex- 
tent, and the time that has elapsed since their submersion. 


Having thus briefly sketched the nature and objects of the 
subject we have to study, it will be necessary—before entering 
on a detailed examination of the zoological features of the 
different parts of the earth, and of the distribution of the orders, 
families, and genera of animals—to examine certain preliminary 
facts and principles essential for our guidance. We must first 
inquire what are the powers of multiplication and dispersal of 
the various groups of animals, and the nature of the barriers 
that most effectually limit their range. We have then to 
consider the effects of changes in physical geography and in 
climate; to examine the nature and extent of such changes as 
have been known to occur ; to determine what others are possible 
or probable; and to ascertain the various modes in which such 
changes affect the structure, the distribution, or the very exist- 
ence of animals. 


CHAP, I. INTRODUCTORY. 9 


Two subjects of a different nature must next engage our 
attention. We have to deal with two vast masses of facts, 
each involving countless details, and requiring subdivision and 
grouping to be capable of intelligible treatment. All the con- 
tinents and their chief subdivisions, and all the more important 
islands of the globe, have to be compared as regards their vari- 
ous animal forms. To do this effectively we require a natural 
division of the earth especially adapted to our purpose; and we 
shall have to discuss at some length the reasons for the particular 
system adopted,—a discussion which must to some extent 
anticipate and summarize the conclusions of the whole work. 
We have also to deal with many hundreds of families and many 
thousands of genera of animals, and here too a true and natural 
classification is of great importance. We must therefore give a 
connected view of the classification adopted in the various 
classes of animals dealt with. 

And lastly, as the existing distribution of animals is the 
result and outcome of all preceding changes of the earth and of 
its inhabitants, we require as much knowledge as we can get of 
the animals of each country during past geological epochs, in 
order to interpret the facts we shall accumulate. We shall, 
therefore, enter upon a somewhat detailed sketch of the various 
forms of extinct animals that have lived upon the earth during 
the Tertiary period; discuss their migrations at various epochs, 
the changes of physical geography that they imply, and the 
extent to which they enable us to determine the birthplace 
of certain families and genera. 

The preliminary studies above enumerated will, it is believed, 
enable us to see the bearing of many facts in the distribution of 
animals that would otherwise be insoluble problems; and, what 
is hardly less valuable, will teach us to estimate the compara- 
tive importance of the various groups of animals, and to avoid 
the common error of cutting the gordian knot of each difficulty 
by vast hypothetical changes in existing continents and oceans 
—probably the most permanent features of our globe. 


CHAPTER II. 
THE MEANS OF DISPERSAL AND THE MIGRATIONS OF ANIMALS. 


ALL animals are capable of multiplying so rapidly, that if a 
single pair were placed in a continent with abundance of food 
and no enemies, they might fully stock it in a very short time. 
Thus, a bird which produces ten pairs of young during its life- 
time (and this is far below the fertility of many birds) will, if 
we take its life at five years, increase to a hundred millions in 
about forty years, a number sufficient to stock a large country. 
Many fishes and insects are capable of multiplying several 
thousandfold each year, so that in a few years they would reach 
billions and trillions. Even large and slow breeding mammals, 
which have only one at a birth but continue to breed from eight 
to ten successive years, may increase from a single pair to ten 
millions in less than forty years. 

But as animals rarely have an unoccupied country to breed 
in, and as the food in any one district is strictly limited, their 
natural tendency is to roam in every direction in search of fresh 
pastures, or new hunting grounds. In doing so, however, they 
meet with many obstacles. Rocks and mountains have to be 
climbed, rivers or marshes to be crossed, deserts or forests to be 
traversed ; while narrow straits or wider arms of the sea separate 
islands from the main land or continents from each other. We 
have now to inquire what facilities the different classes of 
animals have for overcoming these obstacles, and what kind of 
barriers are most effectual in checking their progress. 

Means of Dispersal of Mammalia.—Many of the largest mam- 
malia are able to roam over whole continents and are hardly 


CHAP, II.] DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION, 11 


stopped by any physical obstacles. The elephant is almost 
equally at home on plains and mountains, and it even climbs to 
the highest summit of Adam’s Peak in Ceylon, which is so steep 
and rocky as to be very difficult of ascent for man. It traverses 
rivers with great ease and forces its way through the densest 
jungle. There seems therefore to be no limit to its powers of 
wandering, but the necessity of procuring food and its capacity 
of enduring changes of climate. The tiger is another animal with 
great powers of dispersal. It crosses rivers and sometimes even 
swims over narrow straits of the sea, and it can endure the 
severe cold of North China and Tartary as well as the heats of 
the plains of Bengal. The rhinoceros, the lion, and many of the 
ruminants have equal powers of dispersal ; so that wherever there 
is land and sufficient food, there are no limits to their possible 
range. Other groups of animals are more limited in their migra- 
tions. The apes, lemurs, and many monkeys are so strictly 
adapted to an arboreal life that they can never roam far beyond 
the limits of the forest vegetation, The same may be said of 
the squirrels, the opossums, the arboreal cats, and the sloths, with 
many other groups of less importance. Deserts or open country 
are equally essential to the existence of others, The camel, the 
hare, the zebra, the giraffe and many of the antelopes could not 
exist in a forest country any more than could the jerboas or the 
prairie marmots, 

There are other animals which are confined to mountains, and 
could not extend their range into lowlands or forests. The goats 
and the sheep are the most striking group of this kind, inhabit- 
ing many of the highest mountains of the globe; of which the 
European ibex and mouflon are striking examples. Rivers are 
equally necessary to the existence of others, as the beaver, otter, 
water-vole and capybara; and to such animals high mountain- 
ranges or deserts must form an absolutely impassable barrier. 

Climate as a Limit to the Range of Mammals.—Climate appears 
to limit the range of many animals, though there is some reason 
to believe that in many cases it is not the climate itself so much 
as the change of vegetation consequent on climate which produces 
the effect. The quadrumana appear to be limited by climate, 


12 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 
since they inhabit almost all the tropical regions but do not 
range more than about 10° beyond the southern and 12° beyond 
the northern tropic, while the great bulk of the species are 
found only within an equatorial belt about 30° wide. But as 
these animals are almost exclusively fruit-eaters, their distribu- 
tion depends as much on vegetation as on temperature ; and this 
is strikingly shown by the fact that the Semnopithecus schista- 
ceus inhabits the Himalayan mountains to a height of 11,000 
feet, where it has been seen leaping among fir-trees loaded with 
snow-wreaths! Some northern animals are bounded by the 
isothermal of 32°. Such are the polar bear and the walrus, 
which cannot live in a state of nature far beyond the limits of 
the frozen ocean ; but as they live in confinement in temperate 
countries, their range is probably limited by other conditions 
than temperature. 

We must not therefore be too hasty in concluding, that animals 
which we now see confined to a very hot or a very cold climate 
are incapable of living in any other. The tiger was once con- 
sidered a purely tropical animal, but it inhabits permanently the 
cold plains of Manchuria and the Amoor, a country of an almost 
arctic winter climate. Few animals seem to us more truly in- 
habitants of hot countries than the elephants and rhinoceroses ; 
yet in Post-tertiary times they roamed over the whole of the 
northern continents to within the arctic circle ; and we know that 
the climate was then as cold as it is now, from their entire bodies 
being preserved in ice. Some change must recently have 
occurred either in the climate, soil, or vegetation of Northern 
Asia which led to the extinction of these forerunners of existing 
tropical species; and we must always bear in mind that similar 
changes may have acted upon other species which we now find 
restricted within narrow limits, but which may once have roamed 
over a wide and varied territory. 

Valleys and Rivers as Barriers to Mammals.—To animals which 
thrive best in dry and hilly regions, a broad level and marshy 
valley must often prove an effectual barrier. The difference of 
vegetation and of insect life, together with an unhealthy atmos- 
phere, no doubt often checks migration if it is attempted. Thus 


CHAP. II. ] DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. 13 
many animals are restricted to the slopes of the Himalayas 
or to the mountains of Central India, the flat valley of the 
Ganges forming a limit to their range. In other cases, however, 
it is the river rather than the valley which is the barrier. In 
the great Amazonian plains many species of monkeys, birds, and 
even insects are found up to the river banks on one side but do 
not cross to the other. Thus in the lower part of the Rio Negro 
two monkeys, the Jacchus bicolor and the Brachiurus couxiou, are 
found on the north bank of the river but never on the south, 
where a red-whiskered P2thecia is alone found. Higher up Ateles 
paniscus extends to the north bank of the river while Lagothriz 
humboldiw comes down to the south bank; the former being a 
native of Guiana, the latter of Ecuador. The range of the birds 
of the genus Psophza or trumpeters, is also limited by the rivers 
Amazon, Madeira, Rio Negro and some others; so that in these 
cases we are able to define the limits of distribution with an 
unusual degree of accuracy, and there is little doubt the same 
barriers also limit a large number of other species. 

Arms of the Sea as Barriers to Mammals.—Very few mammals 
can swim over any considerable extent of sea, although many can 
swim well for short distances. The jaguar traverses the widest 
streams in South America, and the bear and bison cross the 
Mississippi ; and there can be no doubt that they could swim over 
equal widths of salt water, and if accidentally carried out to sea 
might sometimes succeed in reaching islands many miles distant. 
Contrary to the common notion pigs can swim remarkably well. 
Sir Charles Lyell tells us in his “Principles of Geology” that 
during the floods in Scotland in 1829, some pigs only six months 
old that were carried out to sea, swam five miles and got on 
shore again. He also states, on the authority of the late Edward 
Forbes, that a pig jumped overboard to escape from a terrier in 
the Grecian Archipelago, and swam safely to shore many miles 
distant. These facts render it probable that wild pigs, from 
their greater strength and activity, might under favourable cir- 
cumstances cross arms of the sea twenty or thirty miles Wide ; 
and there are facts in the distribution of this tribe of animals 
which seem to indicate that they have sometimes done sv, Deer 


14 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, [PART I. 


take boldly to the water and can swim considerable distances, 
but we have no evidence to show how long they could live at 
sea or how many miles they could traverse. Squirrels, rats, and 
lemmings often migrate from northern countries in bands of 
thousands and hundreds of thousands, and pass over rivers, lakes 
and even arms of the sea, but they generally perish in the salt- 
water. Admitting, however, the powers of most mammals to 
swim considerable distances, we have no reason to believe that 
any of them could traverse without help straits of upwards of 
twenty miles in width, while in most cases a channel of half 
that distance would prove an effectual barrier. 

Ice-floes and Driftwood as Aiding the Dispersal of Mammals.— 
In the arctic regions icebergs originate in glaciers which de- 
scend into the sea, and often bear masses of gravel, earth, and 
even some vegetation on their surfaces ; and extensive level ice- 
fields break away and float southwards. These might often 
carry with them such arctic quadrupeds as frequent the ice, or 
even on rare occasions true land-animals, which might some- 
times be stranded on distant continents or islands. But a more 
effectual because a more wide-spread agent, is to be found in 
the uprooted trees and rafts of driftwood often floated down 
great rivers and carried out to sea. Such rafts or islands are 
sometimes seen drifting a hundred miles from the mouth of the 
Ganges with living trees erect upon them; and the Amazon, the 
Orinoco, Mississippi, Congo, and most great rivers produce 
similar rafts. Spix and Martius declare that they saw at differ- 
ent times on the Amazon, monkeys, tiger-cats, and squirrels, 
being thus carried down the stream. On the Parana, pumas, 
squirrels, and many other quadrupeds have been seen on these 
rafts; and Admiral W. H. Smyth informed Sir C. Lyell that 
among the Philippine islands after a hurricane, he met with 
floating masses of wood with trees growing upon them, so that 
they were at first mistaken for islands till it was found that they 
were rapidly drifting along. Here therefore. we have ample 
means for carrying all the smaller and especially the arboreal 
mammals out to sea; and although in most cases they would 
perish there, yet in some favourable instances strong winds or 


CHAP, IL. ] DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. 15 
unusual tidal currents might carry them safely to shores per- 
haps several hundred miles from their native country. The fact 
of green trees so often having been seen erect on these rafts is 
most important; for they would act as a sail by which the raft 
might be propelled in one direction for several days in succession, 
and thus at last reach a shore to which a current alone would 
never have carried it. 

There are two groups of mammals which have quite excep- 
tional means of dispersal—the bats which fly, and the cetacea, 
seals, &c., which swim. The former are capable of traversing 
considerable spaces of sea, since two North American species 
either regularly or occasionally visit the Bermudas, a distance 
of 600 miles from the mainland. The oceanic mammals (whales 
and porpoises) seem to have no barrier but temperature; the 
polar species being unable to cross the equator, while the tropical 
forms are equally unfitted for the cold polar waters. The shore- 
feeding manatees, however, can only live where they find food ; 
and a long expanse of rocky coast would probably be as com- 
plete a barrier to them as a few hundred miles of open ocean. 
Vhe amphibious seals and walruses seem many of them to be 
capable of making long sea journeys, some of the species being 
found on islands a thousand miles apart, but none of the arctic 
are identical with the antartic species. 

The otters with one exception are freshwater animals, and we 
have no reason to believe they could or would traverse any great 
distances of salt water. In fact, they would be less lable to 
dispersal across arms of the sea than purely terrestrial species, 
since their powers of swimming would enable them to regain 
the shore if accidentally carried out to sea by a sudden flood. 

Means of Dispersal of Birds.—It would seem at first sight that 
no barriers could limit the range of birds, and that they ought 
to be the most ubiquitous of living things, and little fitted there- 
fore to throw any light on the laws or causes of the geographical 
distribution of animals. This, however, is far from being the 
case; many groups of birds are almost as strictly limited by 
barriers as the mammalia; and from their larger numbers and 
the avidity with which they have been collected, they furnish 


16 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


materials of the greatest value for our present study. The 
different groups of birds offer remarkable contrasts in the extent 
of their range, some being the most cosmopolite of the higher 
animals, while others are absolutely confined to single spots on 
the earth’s surface. The petrels (Procellariide) and the gulls 
(Laride) are among the greatest wanderers; but most of the - 
species are confined to one or other of the great oceans, or to the 
arctic or antarctic seas, a few only being found with scarcely 
any variation over almost the whole globe. The sandpipers and 
plovers wander along the shores as far as do the petrels over the 
ocean. Great numbers of them breed in the arctic regions and 
migrate as far as India and Australia, or down to Chili and 
Brazil; the species of the old and new worlds, however, being 
generally distinct. In striking contrast to these wide ranges 
we find many of the smaller perching birds, with some of the 
parrots and pigeons, confined to small islands of a few square 
miles in extent, or to single valleys or mountains on the main- 
land. 

Dispersal of Birds by Winds.—Those groups of birds which 
possess no powers of flight, such as the ostrich, cassowary, and 
apteryx, are in exactly the same position as mammalia as regards 
their means of dispersal, or are perhaps even inferior to them ; 
since, although they are able to cross rivers by swimming, it is 
doubtful if they could remain so long in the water as most land 
quadrupeds. A very large number of short-winged birds, such 
as toucans, pittas, and wrens, are perhaps worse off; for they can 
fly very few miles at a time, and on falling into the water would 
soon be drowned. It is only the strong-flying species that can 
venture to cross any great width of sea; and even these rarely do 
so unless compelled by necessity to migrate in search of food, or 
to a more genial climate. Small and weak birds are, however, 
often carried accidentally across great widths of ocean by violent 
gales. This is well exemplified by the large numbers of 
stragglers from North America, which annually reach the 
Bermudas. No less than sixty-nine species of American birds 
have occurred in Europe, most of them in Britain and Heligo- 
land. They consist chiefly of migratory birds which in autumn 


OHAP. IL] BIRDS. 17 


return along the eastern coasts of the United States, and often 
fly from point to point across bays and inlets. They are then 
liable to be blown out to sea by storms, which are prevalent at 
this season; and it is almost always at this time of year that 
their occurrence has been noted on the shores of Europe. It 
may, however, be doubted whether this is not an altogether 
modern phenomenon, dependent on the number of vessels con- 
stantly on the Atlantic which afford resting-places to the wan- 
derers; as it is hardly conceivable that such birds as titlarks, 
cuckoos, wrens, warblers, and rails, could remain on the wing 
without food or rest, the time requisite to pass over 2,000 miles 
of ocean. It is somewhat remarkable that no European birds 
reach the American coast but a few which pass by way of 
Iceland and Greenland; whereas a considerable number do 
reach the Azores, fully half way across; so that their absence 
can hardly be due to the prevailing winds being westerly. The 
case of the Azores is, however, an argument for the unassisted 
passage of birds for that distance ; since two of the finches are 
peculiar ‘species, but closely allied to European forms, so that 
their progenitors must, probably, have reached the islands before 
the Atlantic was a commercial highway. 

Barriers to the Dispersal of Birds—-We have seen that, as a 
rule, wide oceans are an almost absolute barrier to the passage of 
most birds from one continent to another; but much narrower 
seas and straits are also very effectual barriers where the habits 
of the birds are such as to preserve them from being carried 
away by storms. All birds which frequent thickets and forests, 
and which feed near or on the ground, are secure from such 
accidents; and they are also restricted in their range by the 
extent of the forests they inhabit. In South America a large 
number of the birds have their ranges determined by the ex- 
tent of the forest country, while others are equally limited to the 
open plains. Such species are also bounded by mountain ranges 
whenever these rise above the woody region. Great rivers, such 
as the Amazon, also limit the range of many birds, even when 
there would seem to be no difficulty in their crossing them. The 
supply of food, and the kind of vegetation, soil, and climate 

C 


18 DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION, ‘[part L 


best suited to a bird’s habits, are probably the causes which mark 
out the exact limits of the range of each species; to which must 
be added the prevalence of enemies of either the parent birds, 
the eggs, or the young. In the Malay Archipelago pigeons abound 
most where monkeys do not occur; and in South America the 
same birds are comparatively scarce in the forest plains where 
monkeys are very abundant, while they are plentiful on the open 
plains and campos, and on the mountain plateaux, where these 
nest-hunting quadrupeds are rarely found. Some birds are 
confined to swamps, others to mountains ; some can only live on 
rocky streams, others on deserts or grassy plains. 

The Phenomena of Migration —tThe term “ migration” is often 
applied to the periodical or irregular movements of all animals ; 
but it may be questioned whether there are any regular mi- 
grants but birds and fishes. The annual or periodical movements 
of mammalia are of a different class. Monkeys ascend the 
Himalayas in summer to a height of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, and 
descend again in winter. Wolves everywhere descend from the 
mountains to the lowlands in severe weather. In dry seasons 
great herds of antelopes move southwards towards the Cape of. 
Good Hope. . The well-known lemmings, in severe winters, at 
long intervals, move down from the mountains of Scandinavia in 
immense numbers, crossing lakes and rivers, eating their way 
through haystacks, and surmounting every obstacle till they 
reach the sea, whence very few return. The alpine hare, the 
arctic fox, and many other animals, exhibit similar phenomena 
on a smaller scale; and generally it may be said, that whenever 
a favourable succession of seasons has led to a great multipli- 
cation of any species, it must on the pressure of hunger seek 
food in fresh localities. For such movements as these we have 
no special term. The summer and winter movements best 
correspond to true migration, but they are always on a small 
scale, and of limited extent; the other movements are rather 
temporary incursions than true migrations. 

The annual movements of many fishes are more strictly 
analogous to the migration of birds, since they take place 
in large bodies and often to considerable distances, and are 


CHAP. I1.] BIRDS, 19 
immediately connected with the process of reproduction. Some, 
as the salmon, enter rivers; others, as the herring and mackerel, 
approach the coast in the breeding season; but the exact course 
of their migrations is unknown, and owing to our complete 
ignorance of the area each species occupies in the ocean, and the 
absence of such barriers and of such physical diversities as occur 
on the land, they are of far less interest and less connected with 
our present study than the movements of birds, to which we 
shall now confine ourselves. 

Migrations of Birds—In all the fener parts of the globe 
there are a considerable number of birds which reside only a 
part of the year, regularly arriving and leaving at tolerably fixed 
epochs. In our own country many northern birds visit us in 
winter, such as the fieldfare, redwing, snow-bunting, turnstone, 
and numerous ducks and waders; with a few, like the black red- 
start, and (according to Rey. C. A. Johns) some of the woodcocks 
from the south. In the summer a host of birds appear—the 
cuckoo, the swifts and swallows, and numerous warblers, being 
the most familiar,—which stay to build their nests and rear their 
young, and then leave us again. These are true migrants; but 
a number of other birds visit us occasionally, like the waxwing, 
the oriole, and the bee-eater, and can only be classed as 
stragglers, which, perhaps from too rapid multiplication one year 
and want of food the next, are driven to extend their ordinary 
range of migration to an unusual degree. We will now endeavour 
to sketch the chief phenomena of migration in different 
countries. 

Hurope.—lt is well ascertained that most of the birds that 
spend their spring and summer in the temperate parts of Europe 
pass the winter in North Africa and Western Asia. The winter 
visitants, on the other hand, pass the summer in the extreme 
north of Europe and Asia, many of them having been found to 
breed in Lapland. The arrival of migratory’ birds from the 
south is very constant as to date, seldom varying more than a 
week or two, without any regard to the weather at the time; 
but the departure is less constant, and more dependent on the 
weather. Thus the swallow always comes to us about the middle 

C 2 


20 DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. [PART I, 
ee 7 Se ee ee eee 
of April, however cold it may be, while its departure may take 
place from the end of September to late in October, and is said by » 
Forster to occur on the first N. or N.E. wind after the 20th of 
September. 

Almost all the migratory birds of Europe go southward to 
the Mediterranean, move along its coasts east or west, and cross 
over in three places only; either from the south of Spain, in the 
neighbourhood of Gibraltar, from Sicily over Malta, or to the 
east by Greece and Cyprus. They are thus always in sight of 
land. The passage of most small birds (and many of the larger 
ones too) takes place at night; and they only cross the Mediter- 
ranean when the wind is steady from near the east or west, 
and when there is moonlight. 

It is a curious fact, but one that seems to be well authenti- 
cated, that the males often leave before the females, and both 
before the young birds, which in considerable numbers migrate 
later and alone. These latter, however, seldom go so far as the 
old ones; and numbers of young birds do not cross the Mediter- 
ranean, but stay in the south of Europe. The same rule applies 
to the northward migration; the young birds stopping short 
of the extreme arctic regions, to which the old birds migrate.! 
When old and young go together, however, the old birds take 
the lead. In the south of Europe few of the migratory birds 
stay to breed, but pass on to more temperate zones; thus, in the 
south of France, out of 350 species only 60 breed there. The 
same species is often sedentary in one part of Europe and migra- 
tory in another; thus, the chaffinch is a constant resident in 
England, Germany, and the middle of France; but a migrant in 
the south of France and in Holland: the rook visits the south 
of France in winter only: the Falco tinnunculus is both a 
resident and a migrant in the south of France, according to 
M. Marcel de Serres, there being two regular passages every 
year, while a certain number always remain. 

1 Marcel de Serres states this as a general fact for wading and swimming 
birds. He says that the old birds arrive in the extreme north almost alone, 
the young remaining on the shores of the Baltic, or on the lakes of Austria, 


Hungary, and Russia, See his prize essay, Des Causes des Migrations, &e. 
2nd. ed., Paris, 1845, p. 121. 


CHAP. II. ] BIRDS. 21 


We see, then, that migration is governed by certain intelligible 
laws ; and that it varies in many of its details, even in the same 
species, according to changed conditions. It may be looked 
upon as an exaggeration of a habit common to all locomotive 
animals, of moving about in search of food. This habit is greatly 
restricted in quadrupeds by their inability to cross the sea or 
even to pass through the highly-cultivated valleys of such 
countries as Europe; but the power of flight in birds enables 
them to cross every kind of country, and even moderate widths 
of sea; and as they mostly travel at night and high in the air, 
their movements are difficult to observe, and are supposed to be 
more mysterious than they perhaps are. In the tropics birds 
move about to different districts according as certain fruits 
become ripe, certain insects abundant, or as flooded tracts dry 
up. On the borders of the tropics and the temperate zone 
extends a belt of country of a more or less arid character, and 
liable to be parched at the summer solstice. In winter and 
early spring its northern margin is verdant, but it soon becomes 
burnt up, and most of its birds necessarily migrate to the more 
fertile regions to the north of them. They thus follow the spring 
or summer as it advances from the south towards the pole, feeding 
on the young flower buds, the abundance of juicy larve, and on 
the ripening fruits; and as soon as these become scarce they 
retrace their steps homewards to pass the winter. Others whose 
home is nearer the pole are driven south by cold, hunger, and 
darkness, to more hospitable climes, returning northward in the 
early summer. As a typical example of a migratory bird, let us 
take the nightingale. During the winter this bird inhabits 
almost all North Africa, Asia Minor, and the Jordan Valley. 
Early in April it passes into Europe by the three routes already 
mentioned, and spreads over France, Britain, Denmark, and the 
south of Sweden, which it reaches by the beginning of May. It 
does not enter Brittany, the Channel Islands, or the western part 
of England, never visiting Wales, except the extreme south of 
Glamorganshire, and rarely extending farther north than York- 
shire. It spreads over Central Europe, through Austria and 
Hungary to Southern Russia and the warmer parts of Siberia, 


22 DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. [PART I. 


but it nevertheless breeds in the Jordan Valley, so that in 
some places it is only the surplus population that migrates. 
In August and September, all who can return to their winter 
quarters. 

Migrations of this type probably date back from at least the 
period when there was continuous land along the route passed 
over; and it is a suggestive fact that this land connection 1s 
known to have existed in recent geological times. Britain was 
connected with the Continent during, and probably before, the 
glacial epoch; and Gibraltar, as well as Sicily and Malta, were 
also recently united with Africa, as is proved by the fossil 
elephants and other large mammalia found in their caverns, by 
the comparatively shallow water still existing in this part of the 
Mediterranean while the remainder is of oceanic profundity, 
and by the large amount of identity in the species of land animals 
still inhabiting the opposite shores of the Mediterranean. The 
submersion of these two tracts of land (which were perhaps of 
considerable extent) would be a slow process, and from year to 
year the change might be hardly perceptible. It is easy to see 
how the migration that had once taken place over continuous 
land would be kept up, first over lagoons and marshes, then over 
a narrow channel, and subsequently over a considerable sea, 
no one generation of birds ever perceiving any difference in the 
route. 

There is, however, no doubt that the sea-passage is now very 
dangerous to many birds. Quails cross in immense flocks, and 
great numbers are drowned at sea whenever the weather is un- 
favourable. Some individuals always stay through the winter 
in the south of Europe, and a few even in England and Ireland ; 
and were the sea to become a little wider the migration would 
cease, and the quail, like some other birds, would remain 
divided between south Europe and north Africa. Aquatic 
birds are observed to follow the routes of great rivers and 
lakes, and the shores of the sea. One great body reaches 
central Europe by way of the Danube from the shores of the 
Black Sea; another ascends the Rhone Valley from the Gulf 
of Lyons, 


CHAP. U1. ] BIRDS. 23 


India and China.—In the peninsula of India and in China 
great numbers of northern birds arrive during September and 
October, and leave from March to May. Among the smaller 
birds are wagtails, pipits, larks, stonechats, warblers, thrushes, 
buntings, shrikes, starlings, hoopoes, and quails. Some species 
of cranes and storks, many ducks, and great numbers of Scolo- 
pacide also visit India in winter; and to prey upon these 
come a band of rapacious birds—the peregrine falcon, the hobby, 
kestrel, common sparrowhawk, harrier, and the short-eared owl. 
These birds are almost all natives of Kurope and Western Asia ; 
they spread over all northern and central India, mingling with 
the sedentary birds of the oriental fauna, and give to the orni- 
thology of Hindostan at this season quite a European aspect. 
The peculiar species of the higher Himalayas do not as a rule 
descend to the plains in winter, but merely come lower down the 
mountains; and in southern India and Ceylon comparatively 
few of these migratory birds appear. 

In China the migratory birds follow generally the coast line, 
coming southwards in winter from eastern Siberia and northern 
Japan; while a few purely tropical forms travel northwards in 
summer to Japan, and on the mainland as far as the valley of 
the Amoor. 

North America—The migrations of birds in North America 
have been carefully studied by resident naturalists, and present 
some interesting features. The birds of the eastern parts of 
North America are pre-eminently migratory, a much smaller pro- 
portion being permanent residents than in corresponding latitudes 
in Europe. Thus, in Massachusetts there are only about 30 species 
of birds which are resident all the year, while the regular 
summer visitors are 106. Comparing with this our own country, 
though considerably further north, the proportions are reversed ; 
there being 140 residents and 63 summer visitors. This differ- 
ence is clearly due to the much greater length and severity of 
the winter, and the greater heat of summer, in America than 
with us. The number of permanent residents increases pretty 
regularly as we go southward; but the number of birds at any 
locality during the breeding season seems to increase as we go 


24 DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. . peer a, 


northward as far as Canada, where, according to Mr. Allen, more 
species breed than in the warm Southern States. Even in the 
extreme north, beyond the limit of forests, there are no less than 
60 species which breed; in Canada about 160; while in 
Carolina there are only 135, and in Louisiana, 130. The extent 
of the migration varies greatly, some species only going a few 
degrees north and south, while others migrate annually from 
the tropics to the extreme north of the continent; and every 
gradation occurs between these extremes. Among those which 
migrate furthest are the species of Dendraca, and other Ameri- 
ean flycatching warblers (Mniotiltide), many of which breed 
on the shores of Hudson’s Bay, and spend the winter in Mexico 
or the West Indian islands. 

The great migratory movement of American birds is almost 
wholly confined to the east coast; the birds of the high central 
plains and of California being for the most part sedentary, or 
only migrating for short distances. All the species which reach 
South America, and most of those which winter in Mexico 
and Guatemala, are exclusively eastern species; though a few 
Rocky Mountain birds range southward along the plateaux of 
Mexico and Guatemala, but probably not as regular annual 
migrants. 

In America as in Europe birds appear in spring with great 
regularity, while the time of the autumnal return is less con- 
stant. More curious is the fact, also observed in both hemi- 
spheres, that they do not all return by the same route followed in 
going northwards, some species being constant visitors to certain 
localities in spring but not in autumn, others in autumn but not 
in spring. 

Some interesting cases have been observed in America of a 
gradual alteration in the extent of the migration of certain birds. 
A Mexican swallow (/Ziruwndo lunifrons) first appeared in Ohio 
in 1815, Year by year it increased the extent of its range till 
by 1845 it had reached Maine and Canada; and it is now quoted 
by American writers as extending its annual migrations to 
Hudson's Bay. An American wren (7'roglodytes ludovicianus) 
is another bird which has spread considerably northwards since 


CHAP, II] BIRDS. 25 


the time of the ornithologist Wilson ; and the rice-bird, or “ Bob- 
o’-link,” of the Americans, continually widens its range as rice 
and wheat are more extensively cultivated. This bird winters 
in Cuba and other West Indian Islands, and probably also in 
Mexico. In April it enters the Southern States and passes 
northward, till in June it reaches Canada and extends west to 
the Saskatchewan River in 54° north latitude. 

South Temperate America.—The migratory birds of this part 
of the world have been observed by Mr. Hudson at Buenos 
Ayres. As in Europe and North America, there are winter and 
summer visitors, from Patagonia and the tropics respectively. 
Species of Pyrocephalus, Milvulus, swallows, and a humming- 
bird, are among the most regular of the summer visitors. They 
are all insectivorous birds. From Patagonia species of Zani- 
optera, Cinclodes, and Centrites, come in winter, with two gulls, 
two geese, and six snipes and plovers, Five species of swallows 
appear at Buenos Ayres in spring, some staying to breed, others 
passing on to more temperate regions farther south. Asa rule 
the birds which come late and leave early are the most regular. 
Some are very irregular in their movements, the Molothrus bona- 
riensis, for example, sometimes leaves early in autumn, some- 
times remains all the winter. Some resident birds also move in 
winter to districts where they are never seen in summer. 

General Remarks on Migration.—The preceding summary of 
the main facts of migration (which might have been almost in- 
definitely extended, owing to the great mass of detailed infor- . 
mation that exists on the subject) appears to accord with the 
view already suggested, that the “instinct” of migration has 
arisen from the habit of wandering in search of food common to 
all animals, but greatly exaggerated in the case of birds by their 
powers of flight and by the necessity for procuring a large 
amount of soft insect food for their unfledged young. Migra- 
tion in its simple form may be best studied in North America, 
where it takes place over a continuous land surface with a con- 
siderable change of climate from south to north. We have here 
(as probably in Europe and elsewhere) every grade of migration, 
from species which merely shift the northern and southern 


26 DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. [PART 1. 


limits of their range a few hundred miles, so that in the central 
parts of the area the species is a permanent resident, to others 
which move completely over 1,000 miles of latitude, so that in 
all the intervening districts they are only known as birds of 
passage. Now, just as the rice-bird and the Mexican swallow 
have extended their migrations, owing to favourable conditions 
induced by human agency ; so we may presume that large num- 
bers of species would extend their range where favourable con- 
ditions arose through natural causes. If we go back only as 
far as the height of the glacial epoch, there is reason to believe 
that all North America, as far south as about 40° north latitude, 
was covered with an almost continuous and perennial ice-sheet. 
At this time the migratory birds would extend up to this barrier 
(which would probably terminate in the midst of luxuriant 
vegetation, just as the glaciers of Switzerland now often termi- 
nate amid forests and corn-fields), and as the cold decreased and 
the ice retired almost imperceptibly year by year, would follow 
it up farther and farther according as the peculiarities of vegeta- 
tion and insect-food were more or less suited to their several 
constitutions. It is an ascertained fact that many individual 
birds return year after year to build their nests in the same 
spot. This shows a strong local attachment, and is, in fact, 
the faculty or feeling on which their very existence probably 
depends. For were they to wander at random each year, they 
would almost certainly not meet with places so well suited to 
them, and might even get into districts where they or their 
young would inevitably perish. It is also a curious fact that in 
so many cases the old birds migrate first, leaving the young ones 
behind, who follow some short time later, but do not go.so far as 
their parents. This is very strongly opposed to the notion of 
an imperative instinct. The old birds have been before, the 
young have not; and it is only when the old ones have all or 
nearly all gone that the young go too, probably following some 
of the latest stragglers. They wander, however, almost at ran- 
dom, and the majority are destroyed before the next spring. 
This is proved by the fact that the birds which return in spring 
are as a rule not more numerous than those which came the 


CHAP, II. ] BIRDS. 27 


preceding spring, whereas those which went away in autumn 
were two or three times as numerous. Those young birds that 
do get back, however, have learnt by experience, and the next 
year they take care to go with the old ones. The most striking 
fact in favour of the “instinct” of migration is the “ agitation,” 
or excitement, of confined birds at the time when their wild 
companions are migrating. It seems probable, however, that 
this is what may be called a social excitement, due to the 
anxious cries of the migrating birds; a view supported by the 
fact stated by Marcel de Serres, that the black swan of Australia, 
when domesticated in Europe, sometimes joins wild swans in 
their northward migration. We must remember too that migra- 
tion at the proper time is in many cases absolutely essential to 
the existence of the species; and it is therefore not improbable 
that some strong social emotion should have been gradually 
developed in the race, by the circumstance that all who for 
want of such emotion did not join their fellows inevitably 
perished. 

The mode by which a passage originally overland has been 
converted into one over the sea offers no insuperable difficulties, 
as has already been pointed out. The long flights of some birds 
without apparently stopping on the way is thought to be inex- 
plicable, as well as their finding their nesting-place of the 
previous year from a distance of many hundreds or even a 
thousand miles. But the observant powers of animals are very 
great; and birds flying high in the air may be guided by the 
physical features of the country spread out beneath them in a 
way that would be impracticable to purely terrestrial animals. 

It is assumed by some writers that the breeding-place of a 
species is to be considered as its true home rather than that to 
which it retires in winter; but this can hardly be accepted as a 
rule of universal application. A bird can only breed success- 
fully where it can find sufficient food for its young; and the 
reason probably why so many of the smaller birds leave the 
warm southern regions to breed in temperate or even cold lati- 
tudes, is because caterpillars and other soft insect larve are 
there abundant at the proper time, while in their winter home the 


28 DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. [PART I. 


larvee have all changed into winged insects. But this favourable 
breeding district will change its position with change of climate ; 
and as the last great change has been one of increased warmth 
in allthe temperate zones, it is probable that many of the migratory 
birds are comparatively recent visitors. Other changes may 
however have taken place, affecting the vegetation and conse- 
quently the insects of a district ; and we have seldom the means 
of determining in any particular case in what direction the last 
extension of range occurreil. For the purposes of the study of 
geographical distribution therefore, we must, except in special 
cases, consider the true range of a species to comprise all the 
area which it occupies regularly for any part of the year, while 
all those districts which it only visits at more or less distant 
intervals, apparently driven by storms or by hunger, and where 
it never regularly or permanently settles, should not be included 
as forming part of its area of distribution. 

Means of Dispersal of Reptiles and Amphibia.—lIf we leave 
out of consideration the true marine groups—the turtles and sea- 
snakes—reptiles are scarcely more fitted for traversing seas and 
oceans than are mammalia. We accordingly find that in those 
oceanic islands which possess no indigenous mammals, land rep- 
tiles are also generally wanting. The several groups of these ani- 
mals, however, differ considerably both in their means of dispersal 
and in their power of resisting adverse conditions. Snakes are 
most dependent on climate, becoming very scarce in temperate 
and cold climates and entirely ceasing at 62° north latitude, and 
they do not ascend very lofty mountains, ceasing at 6,000 feet 
elevation in the Alps. Some inhabit deserts, others swamps and 
marshes, while many are adapted for a life in forests. They 
swim rivers easily, but apparently have no means of passing 
the sea, since they are very rarely found on oceanic islands, 
Lizards are also essentially tropical, but they go somewhat 
farther north than snakes, and ascend higher on the mountains, 
reaching 10,000 feet in the Alps. They possess too some 
unknown means (probably in the egg-state) of passing over the 
ocean, since they are found to inhabit many islands where there 
are neither mammalia nor snakes. 


CHAP, 11. ] REPTILES AND FISHES, 29 


NS ee _— 


The amphibia are much less sensitive to cold than are true 
reptiles, and they accordingly extend much farther north, frogs 
being found within the arctic circle. Their semi-aquatic life 
also gives them facilities for dispersal, and their eggs are no doubt 
sometimes carried by aquatic birds from one pond or stream to 
another. Salt water is fatal to them as well as to their eggs, and 
hence it arises that they are seldom found in those oceanic 
islands from which mammalia are absent. Deserts and oceans 
would probably form the most effectual barriers to their dis- 
persal ; whereas both snakes and lizards abound in deserts, and 
have some means of occasionally passing the ocean which frogs 
and salamanders do not seem to possess, 

Means of Dispersal of Fishes.—The fact that the same species 
of freshwater fish often inhabit distinct river systems, proves 
that they have some means of dispersal over land. ‘The many 
authentic accounts of fish falling from the atmosphere, indicate 
one of the means by which they may be transferred from one 
river basin to another, viz., by hurricanes and whirlwinds, which 
often carry up considerable quantities of water and with it fishes 
of small size. In volcanic countries, also, the fishes of subter- 
ranean streams may sometimes be thrown up by volcanic explo- 
sions, as Humboldt relates happened in South America. Another 
mode by which fishes may be distributed is by their eggs being 
occasionally carried away by aquatic birds; and it is stated by 
Gmelin that geese and ducks during their migrations feed on the 
eggs of fish, and that some of these pass through their bodies 
with their vitality unimpaired.*| Even water-beetles flying from 
one pond to another might occasionally carry with them some of 
the smaller eggs of fishes. But itis probable that fresh-water fish 
are also enabled to migrate by changes of level causing streams 
to alter their course and carry their waters into adjacent basins. 
On plateaux the sources of distinct river systems often approach 
each other, and the same thing occurs with lateral tributaries 
on the lowlands near their mouths. Such changes, although 
small in extent, and occurring only at long intervals, would 


* Quoted in Lyell’s Principles of Geology (11th ed. vol. ii. p. 374), from 
Amen, Acad. Essay 75. 


30 DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. [PART I. 


act very powerfully in modifying the distribution of fresh-water 
fish. 

Sea fish would seem at first sight to have almost unlimited 
means of dispersal, but this is far from being the case. Tempera- 
ture forms a complete barrier to a large number of species, cold 
water being essential to many, while others can only dwell in 
the warmth of the tropics. Deep water is another barrier to 
large numbers of species which are adapted to shores and 
shallows; and thus the Atlantic is quite as impassable a gulf 
to most fishes as it is to birds. Many sea fishes migrate to a 
limited extent for the purpose of depositing their spawn in 
favourable situations. The herring, an inhabitant of the deep 
sea, comes in shoals to our coast in the breeding season; while 
the salmon quits the northern seas and enters our rivers, mount- 
ing upwards to the clear cold water near their sources to deposit 
its eggs. Keeping in mind the essential fact that changes of 
temperature and of depth are the main barriers to the dispersal 
of fish, we shall find little difficulty in tracing the causes that 
have determined their distribution. 

Means of Dispersal of Mollusca.—The marine, fresh-water, and 
land mollusca are three groups whose powers of dispersal and 
consequent distribution are very different, and must be separately 
considered. The Pteropoda, the Zanthina, and other groups of 
floating molluscs, drift about in mid-ocean, and their dispersal 
is probably limited chiefly by temperature, but perhaps also by 
the presence of enemies or the scarcity of proper food. The 
univalve and bivalve mollusca, of which the whelk and the 
cockle may be taken as types, move so slowly in their adult 
state, that we should expect them to have an exceedingly limited 
distribution; but the young of all these are free swimming 
embryos, and they thus have a powerful means of dispersal, and 
are carried by tides and currents so as ultimately to spread over 
every shore and shoal that offers conditions favourable for their 
development. The fresh water molluscs, which one might at 
first suppose could not range beyond their own river-basin, are 
yet very widely distributed in common with almost all other 
fresh water productions ; and Mr, Darwin has shown that this is 


CHAP. It] LAND-SHELLS AND INSECTS. 31 
due to the fact, that ponds and marshes are constantly frequented 
by wading and swimming birds which are pre-eminently wan- 
derers, and which frequently carry away with them the seeds of 
plants, and the eggs of molluscs and aquatic insects. Fresh 
water molluscs just hatched were found to attach themselves to 
a duck’s foot suspended in an aquarium; and they would thus be 
easily carried from one lake or river to another, and by the help 
of different species of aquatic birds, might soon spread all over 
the globe. Even a water-beetle has been caught with a small 
living shell (Ancylus) attached to it; and these fly long distances 
and are lable to be blown out to sea, one having been caught on 
board the Beagle when forty-five miles from land. Although 
fresh water molluscs and their eggs must frequently be carried 
out to sea, yet this cannot lead to their dispersal, since salt 
water is almost immediately fatal to them ; and we are therefore 
forced to conclude that the apparently insignificant and uncer- 
tain means of dispersal above alluded to are really what have 
led to their wide distribution. The true land-shells offer a still 
more difficult case, for they are exceedingly sensitive to the 
influence of salt water; they are not likely to be carried by 
aquatic birds, and yet they are more or less abundant all over 
the globe, inhabiting the most remote oceanic islands. It has 
been found, however, that land-shells have the power of lying 
dormant a long time. Some have lived two years and a half 
shut up in pill boxes ; and one Egyptian desert snail came to life 
after having been glued down to a tablet in the British Museum 
for four years ! 

We are indebted to Mr. Darwin for experiments on the power 
of land shells to resist sea water, and he found that when they 
had formed a membranous diaphragm over the mouth of the 
shell they survived many days’ immersion (in one case fourteen 
days) ; and another experimenter, quoted by Mr. Darwin, found that 
out of one hundred land shells immersed for a fortnight in the sea, 
twenty-seven recovered. Itis therefore quite possible for them to 
be carried in the chinks of drift wood for many hundred miles 
across the sea, and this is probably one of the most effectual 
modes of their dispersal. Very young shells would also some- 


32 DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION. [PART I. 
ceed ee et tte ee a eA ee 

“times attach themselves to the feet of birds walking or resting 
on the ground, and as many of the waders often go far inland, 
this may have been one of the methods of distributing species 
of land shells; for it must always be remembered that nature can 
afford to wait, and that if but once in a thousand years a single 
bird should convey two or three minute snails to a distant island, 
this is all that is required for us tw find that island well stocked 
with a great and varied population of land shells. 

Means of Dispersal of Insects and the Barriers which Limit 
their Range-—Winged insects, as a whole, have perhaps more 
varied means of dispersal over the globe than any cther highly 
organised animals. Many of them can fly immense distances, 
and the more delicate ones are liable to be carried by storms 
and hurricanes over a wide expanse of ocean. They are often 
met with far out at sea. Hawk-moths frequently fly on board 
ships as they approach the shores of tropical countries, and they 
have sometimes been captured more than 250 miles from the 
nearest land. Dragon-flies came on board the Adventure frigate 
when fifty miles off the coast of South America. <A southerly 
wind brought flies in myriads to Admiral Smyth’s ship in the 
Mediterranean when he was 100 miles distant from the coast of 
Africa. A large Indian beetle (Chrysochroa ocellata) was quite 
recently caught alive in the Bay of Bengal by Captain Payne of 
the barque William Mansoon, 273 miles from the nearest land. 
Darwin caught a locust 370 miles from land; and in 1844 
swarms of locusts several miles in extent, and as thick as the 
flakes in a heavy snowstorm, visited Madeira, These must have 
come with perfect safety more than 300 miles ; and as they con- 
tinued flying over the island for a long time, they could evidently 
have travelled to a much greater distance, Numbers of living 
beetles belonging to seven genera, some aquatic and some terres- 
trial, were caught by Mr. Darwin in the open sea, seventeen 
miles from the coast of South America, and they did not seem 
injured by the salt water. Almost all the accidental causes that 
lead to the dispersal of the higher animals would be still more 
favourable for insects. Iloating trees could carry hundreds of. 
insects for one bird or mammal; and so many of the larve, eggs, 


CHAP, I1.] DISPERSAL AND MIGRATION, 33 


and pupe of insects have their abode in solid timber, that they 
might survive being floated immense distances. Great numbers 
of tropical insects have been captured in the London docks, 
where they have been brought in foreign timber ; and some have 
emerged from furniture after remaining torpid for many years. 
Most insects have the power of existing weeks or months with- 
out food, and some are very tenacious of life. Many beetles 
will survive immersion for hours in strong spirit ; and water a 
few degrees below the boiling point will not always kill them. 
We can therefore easily understand how, in the course of ages 
insects may become dispersed by means which would be quite 
inadequate in the case of the higher animals. The drift-wood and 
tropical fruits that reach Ireland and the Orkneys; the double 
cocoa-nuts that cross the Indian ocean from the Seychelle Islands 
to the coast of Sumatra; the winds that carry volcanic dust and 
ashes for thousands of miles; the hurricanes that travel in their 
revolving course over wide oceans; all indicate means by which 
a few insects may, at rare intervals be carried to remote regions, 
and become the progenitors of a group of allied forms. 

But the dispersal of insects requires to be looked at from 
another point of view. They are, of all animals, perhaps the 
most wonderfully adapted for special conditions ; and are so often 
fitted to fill one place in nature and one only, that the barriers 
against their permanent displacement are almost as numerous 
and as effective as their means of dispersal. Hundreds of species 
of lepidoptera, for example, can subsist in the larva state only on 
one species of plant; so that even if the perfect insects were 
earried to a new country, the continuance of the race would de- 
pend upon the same or a closely allied plant being abundant 
there. Other insects require succulent vegetable food all the 
year round, and are therefore confined to tropical regions ; 
some can live only in deserts, others in forests; some are de- 
pendent on water-plants, some on mountain-vegetation. Many 
are so intimately connected with other insects during some 
part of their existence that they could not live without them ; 
such are the parasitical hymenoptera and diptera, and those 


mimicking species whose welfare depends upon their being 
D 


34 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


‘mistaken for something else. Then again, insects have enemies 
in every stage of their existence—the egg, the larva, the pupa, 
and the perfect form; and the abundance of any one of these 
enemies may render their survival impossible in a country other- 
wise well suited’ to them. Ever bearing in mind these two 
opposing classes of facts, we shall not be surprised at the 
enormous range of some groups of insects, and at the extreme 
localization of others; and shall be able to give a rational account 
of many phenomena of distribution that would otherwise seem 
quite unintelligible. 


CHAPTER III. 


DISTRIBUTION AS AFFECTED BY THE CONDITIONS AND CIIANGES OF 
THE EARTH’S SURFACE, 


THE distribution of animals over the earth’s surface, 1s evidently 
dependent in great measure upon those grand and important 
characteristics of our globe, the study of which is termed physical 
geography. The proportion of land and water; the outlines and 
distribution of continents; the depth of seas and oceans; the 
position of islands; the height, direction, and continuity of moun- 
tain chains ; the position and extent of deserts, lakes, and forests ; 
the direction and velocity of ocean currents, as well as of prevalent 
winds and hurricanes; and lastly, the distribution of heat and 
cold, of rain, snow, and ice, both in their means and in their 
extremes, have all to be considered when we endeavour to 
account for the often unequal and unsymmetrical manner in 
which animals are dispersed over the globe. But even this 
knowledge is insufficient unless we inquire further as to the 
evidence of permanence possessed by each of these features, in 
order that we may give due weight to the various causes that 
have led to the existing facts of animal distribution. 

Land and Water—The well-known fact that nearly three- 
fourths of the surface of the earth is occupied by water, and but 
a little more than one-fourth by land, is important as indicating 
the vast extent of ocean by which many of the continents and 
islands are separated from each other. But there is another fact 

D 2 


36 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I, 


which greatly increases its importance, namely, that the mean 
height of the land is very small compared with the mean depth 
of the sea. It has been estimated by Humboldt that the mean 
height of all the land surface does not exceed a thousand feet, 
owing to the comparative narrowness of mountain ranges and the 
great extent of alluvial plains and valleys; the ocean bed, on the 
contrary, not only descends deeper than the tops of the highest 
mountains rise above its surface, but these profound depths are 
broad sunken plains, while the shallows correspond to the moun- 
tain ranges, so that its mean depth is, as nearly as can be esti- 
mated, twelve thousand feet.!. Hence, as the area of water is three 
times that of the land, the total cubical contents of the land, 
above the sea level, would be only 34 that of the waters which 
are below that level. The important result follows, that whereas 
it is scarcely possible that in past times the amount of land surface 
should ever greatly have exceeded that which now exists, it is 
just possible that all the land may have been at some time 
submerged ; and therefore in the highest degree probable that 
among the continual changes of land and sea that have been 
always going on, the amount of land surface has often been 
much less than it is now. For the same reason it is probable 
that there have been times when large masses of land have been 
more isolated from the rest than they are at present; just as 
South America would be if North America were submerged, or 
as Australia would become if the Malay Archipelago weie to 
sink beneath the ocean. It is also very important to bear in 
mind the fact insisted on by Sir Charles Lyell, that the shallow 
parts of the ocean are almost always in the vicinity of land; and 
that an amount of elevation that would make little difference to 
the bed of the ocean, would raise up extensive tracts of dry land 
in the vicinity of existing continents. It is almost certain, 
therefore, that changes in the distribution of land and sea 
must have taken place more frequently by additions to, or 


1 This estimate has been made for me by Mr. Stanford from the materials 
used in delineating the contours of the ocean-bed on our general map, It 
embodies the result of all the soundings of the Challenger, Tuscarora, and 
other vessels, obtainable up to August, 1875, 


cuap, 11] CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION. B37 
modifications of pre-existing land, than by the upheaval of 
entirely new continents in mid-ocean. These two principles 
‘will throw light upon two constantly recurring groups of facts 
in the distribution of animals,—the restriction of pecuhar forms 
to areas not at present isolated,—and on the other hand, the 
occurrence of allied forms in lands situated on opposite shores 
of the great oceans. 

Continental Areas—Although the dry land of the earth’s 
surface is distributed with so much irregularity, that there is 
more than twice as much north of the equator as there is south 
of it, and about twice ag much inthe Asiatic as in the American 
hemisphere; and, what is still more extraordinary, that on a 
hemisphere of which a point in St. George’s Channel between 
England and Ireland is the centre, the land is nearly equal in 
extent to the water, while in the opposite hemisphere it is in 
the proportion of only one-eighth,—yet the whole of the land is 
almost continuous. It consists essentially of only three masses: 
the American, the Asia-African, and the Australian. The two 
former are only separated by thirty-six miles of shallow sea 
at Behring’s Straits, so that it is possible to go from Cape Horn 
to Singapore or the Cape of Good Hope without ever being 
out of sight of land; and owing to the intervention of the 
numerous islands of the Malay Archipelago the journey might 
be continued under the same conditions as far as Melbourne and 
Hobart Town. This curious fact, of the almost perfect continuity 
of all the great masses of land notwithstanding their extremely 
irregular shape aud distribution, is no doubt dependent on the 
circumstances just alluded to; that the great depth of the oceans 
and the slowness of the process of upheaval, has almost always 
produced the new lands either close to, or actually connected 
with pre-existing lands; and this has necessarily led to a much 
greater uniformity in the distribution of organic forms, than 
would have prevailed had the continents been more completely 
isolated from each other. 

The isthmuses which connect ‘Africa with Asia, and North 
with South America, are, however, so small and insignificant 
compared with the vast extent of the countries they unite that 


38 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


we can hardly consider them to form more than a nominal 
connection. The Isthmus of Suez indeed, being itself a desert, 
and connecting districts which for a great distance are more or 
less desert also, does not effect any real union between the luxu- 
riant forest-clad regions of intertropical Asia and Africa. The 
Isthmus of Panama is a more effectual line of union, since it is 
hilly, well watered, and covered with luxuriant vegetation ; and 
we accordingly find that the main features of South American 
zoology are continued into Central America and Mexico. In 
Asia a great transverse barrier exists, dividing that continent 
into a northern and southern portion; and as the lowlands occur 
on the south and the highlands on the north of the great moun- 
tain range, which is situated not far beyond the tropic, an abrupt 
change of climate is produced; so that a belt of about a hundred 
miles wide, is all that intervenes between a luxuriant tropical 
region and an almost arctic waste. Between the northern part 
of Asia, and Europe, there is no barrier of importance; and it is 
impossible to separate these regions as regards the main features 
of animal life. Africa, like Asia, has a great transverse barrier, 
but it is a desert instead of a mountain chain; and it is found 
that this desert is a more effectual barrier to the ditfusion of 
animals than the Mediterranean Sea; partly because it coincides 
with the natural division of a tropical from a temperate climate, 
but also on account of recent geological changes which we shall 
presently allude to. It results then from this outline sketch of 
the earth’s surface, that the primary divisions of the geographer 
correspond approximately with those of the zoologist. Some 
large portion of each of the popular divisions forms the nucleus 
of a zoological region; but the boundaries are so changed that 
the geographer would hardly recognise them: it has, therefore, 
been found necessary to give them those distinct names which 
will be fully explained in our next chapter. 

Recent Changes in the Continental Areas.—The important fact 
has been now ascertained, that a considerable portion of the 
Sahara south of Algeria and Moroeco was under water at a very 
recent epoch. Over much of this area sea-shells, identical with 
those now living in the Mediterranean, are abundantly scattered, 


CHAP, U1.] CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION, 39 
not only in depressions below the level of the sea but up to a 
height of 900 feet above it. Borings for water made by the 
French government have shown, that these shells occur twenty 
feet deep in the sand; and the occurrence of abundance of salt, 
sometimes even forming considerable hills, is an additional proof 
of the disappearance of a large body of salt water. The common 
cockle is one of the most abundant of the shells found; and the 
Rev. H. B. Tristram discovered a new fish, in a salt lake nearly 
300 miles inland, but which has since been found to inhabit the 
Gulf of Guinea. Connected with this proof of recent elevation 
in the Sahara, we have most interesting indications of subsidence 
in the area of the Mediterranean, which were perhaps contem- 
poraneous. Sicily and Malta are connected with Africa by a 
submerged bank from 300 to 1,200 feet below the surfae2; while 
the depth of the Mediterranean, both to the east and west, is 
enormous, in some parts more than 13,000 feet; and another 
submerged bank with a depth of 1,000 feet occurs at the straits 
of Gibraltar. In caves in Sicily, remains of the living African 
elephant have been found by Baron Anca ; and in other caves Dr. 
Falconer discovered remains of the Hlephas antiquus and of two 
species of Hippopotamus. In Malta, three species of elephant 
have been discovered by Captain Spratt; a large one closely allied 
to #. antiquus and two smaller ones not exceeding five feet high 
when adult. These facts clearly indicate, that when North 
Africa was separated by a broad arm of the sea from the rest of 
the continent, it was probably connected with Europe; and this 
explains why zoologists find themselves obliged to place it along 
with Europe in the same zoological region. 

Besides this change in the level of the Sahara and the Medi- 
terranean basin, Europe has undergone many fluctuations in its 
physical geography in very recent times. In Wales, abundance 
of sea-shells of living species have been found at an elevation 
of 1,300 feet; and in Sardinia there is proof of an elevation 
of 300 feet since the human epoch; and these are only samples 
of many such changes of level. But these changes, though very 
important locally and as connected with geological problems, 
need not be further noticed here; as they were not of a 


4) DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, — - [PARY I. 


nature to affect the larger features of the earth's surface or to 
determine the boundaries of great zoological regions. 

The only other other recent change of great importance which 
can be adduced to illustrate our present subject, is that which 
has taken place between North and South America. The living 
marine shells of the opposite coasts of the isthmus of Panama, 
as well as the corals and fishes, are generally of distinct species, 
but some are identical and many are closely allied; the West 
Indian fossil shells and corals of the Miocene period, however, 
are found to be largely identical with those of the Pacifie coast. 
The fishes of the Atlantic and Pacific shores of America are 
as a rule very distinct; but Dr. Giinther has recently shown 
that a considerable number of species inhabiting the seas on 
opposite sides of the isthmus are absolutely identical. These 
facts certainly indicate, that during the Miocene epoch a broad 
channel separated North and South America; and it seems pro- 
bable that a series of elevations and subsidences have taken 
place uniting and separating them at different epochs ; the most 
recent submersion having lasted but a short time, and thus, 
while allowing the passage of abundance of locomotive fishes, 
not admitting of much change in the comparatively stationary 
mollusca. 

The Glacial Epoch as affecting the Distribution of Animals.— 
The remarkable refrigeration of climate in the northern hemi- 
sphere within the epoch, of existing species, to which the term 
Glacial epoch is applied, together with the changes of level that 
accompanied and perhaps assisted to produce it, has been one of 
the chief agents in determining many of the details of the exist- 
ing distribution of animals in temperate zones. A comparison 
of the effects produced by existing glaciers with certain super- 
ficial phenomena in the temperate parts of Murope and North 
America, renders it certain that between the Newer Pliocene and 
the Recent epochs, a large portion of the northern hemisphere 
must have been covered with a sheet of ice several thousand 
feet thick, like that which now envelopes the interior of Green- 
land. Much further south the mountains were covered with 
perpetual snow, and sent glaciers down every valley ; and all the 


i Oe, ee 


cHAP, U1,] CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION, 4| 


great valleys on the southern side of the Alps poured down 
streams of ice which stretched far out into the plains of North- 
ern Italy, and have left their débris in the form of huge 
mountainous moraines, in some cases more than a thousand feet 
high. In Canada and New Hampshire the marks of moving ice 
are found on the tops of mountains from 38,000 to 5,000 feet 
high; and the whole surface of the country around and to the 
north of the great lakes is scored by glaciers. Wherever the 
land was submerged during a part of this cold period, a deposit 
called boulder-clay, or glacial-drift has been formed. This is a 
mass of sand, clay, or gravel, full of angular or rounded stones 
of all sizes, up to huge blocks as large as a cottage; and especi- 
ally characterized by these stones being distributed confusedly 
through it, the largest being as often near the top as near the 
bottom, and never sorted into layers of different sizes as in 
materials carried by water. Such deposits are known to be 
formed by glaciers and icebergs; when deposited on the land by 
glaciers they form moraines, when carried into water and thus 
spread with more regularity over a wider area they form drift. 
This drift is rarely found except where there is other evidence of 
ice-action, and never south of the 40th parallel of latitude, to 
which in the northern hemisphere signs of ice-action extend. 
In the southern hemisphere, in Patagonia and in New Zealand, 
exactly similar phenomena occur. 

A very interesting confirmation of the reality of this cold 
epoch is derived from the study of fossil remains. Both the 
plants and animals of the Miocene period indicate that the 
climate of Central Europe was decidedly warmer or more equa- 
ble than it is now; since the flora closely resembled that of the 
Southern United States, with a likeness also to that of Eastern 
Asia and Australia. Many of the shells were of tropical genera ; 
and there were numbers of large mammalia allied to the 
elephant, rhinoceros, and tapir. At the same time, or perhaps 
somewhat earlier, a temperate climate extended into. the arctic 
regions, and allowed a magnificent vegetation of shrubs and 
forest trees, some of them evergreen, to flourish within twelve 
degrees of the Pole. In the Pliocene period we find ourselves 


42 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I 


among forms implying a climate very little different from the 
present; and our own Crag formation furnishes evidence of a 
gradual refrigeration of climate; since its three divisions, the 
Coralline, Red, and Norwich Crags, show a decreasing number 
of southern, and an increasing number of northern species, as we 
approach the Glacial epoch. Still later than these we have the 
shells of the drift, almost all of which are northern and many 
of them arctic species. Among the mammalia indicative of 
cold, are the mammoth and the reindeer. In gravels and cave- 
deposits of Post-Pliocene date we find the same two animals, 
which soon disappear as the climate approached its present con- 
dition; and Professor Forbes has given a lst of fifty shells 
which inhabited the British seas before the Glacial epoch and 
inhabit it still, but are all wanting in the glacial deposits. The 
whole of these are found in the Newer Pliocene strata of Sicily 
and the south of Europe, where they escaped destruction during 
the glacial winter. 

There are also certain facts in the distribution of plants, which 
are so well explained by the Glacial epoch that they may be said 
to give an additional confirmation to it. All over the northern 
hemisphere within the glaciated districts, the summits of lofty 
mountains produce plants identical with those of the polar 
regions. In the celebrated case of the White Mountains in New 
Hampshire, United States (latitude 45°), all the plants on the 
summit are arctic species, none of which exist in the lowlands 
for near a thousand miles further north. It has also been re- 
marked that the plants of each mountain are more especially 
related to those of the countries directly north of it. Thus, 
those of the Pyrenees and of Scotland are Scandinavian, and 
those of the White Mountains are all species found in Labrador. 
Now, remembering that we have evidence of an exceedingly 
mild and uniform climate in the arctic regions during the 
Miocene period and a gradual refrigeration from that time, it is 
evident that with each degree of change more and more hardy 
plants would be successively driven southwards ; till at last the 
plains of the temperate zone would be inhabited by plants, which 
were once confined to alpine heights or to the arctie regions. 


“= 


cuap, ut] CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION, 43 


As the icy mantle gradually melted off the face of the earth 
these plants would occupy the newly exposed soil, and would 
thus necessarily travel in two directious, back towards the arctic 
circle and up towards the alpine peaks. The facts are thus 
exactly explained by a cause which independent evidence has 
proved to be a real one, and every such explanation is an addi- 
tional proof of the reality of the cause. But this explanation im- 
plies, that in cases where the Glacial epoch cannot have so acted 
alpine plants should not be northern plants ; and a striking proof 
of this is to be found on the Peak of Teneriffe, a mountain 
12,000 feet high. In the uppermost 4,500 feet of this mountain 
above the limit of trees, Von Buch found only eleven species of 
plants, eight of which were peculiar; but the whole were allied 
to those found at lower elevations. On the Alps or Pyrenees at 
this elevation, there would be a rich flora comprising hundreds 
of arctic plants; and the absence of anything corresponding to 
them in this case, in which their ingress was cut off by the sea, 
is exactly what the theory leads us to expect. 

Changes of Vegetation as affecting the Distribution of Animals. 
—As so many animals are dependent on vegetation, its changes 
immediately affect their distribution. A remarkable example of 
this is afforded by the pre-historic condition of Denmark, as 
interpreted by means of the peat-bogs and kitchen-middens. 
This country is now celebrated for its beech-trees; oaks and pines 
being scarce ; and it is known to have had the same vegetation in 
the time of the Romans, In the peat-bogs, however, are found 
deposits of oak trees; and deeper still pines alone occur. Now 
the kitchen-middens tell us much of the natural history of 
Denmark in the early Stone period; and a curious confirmation 
of the fact that Denmark like Norway was then chiefly covered 
with pine forests is obtained by the discovery, that the Caper- 
cailzie was then abundant, a bird which feeds almost exclusively 
on the young shoots and seeds of pines and allied plants. The 
cause of this change in the vegetation is unknown; but from the 
known fact that when forests are destroyed trees, of a different 
kind usually occupy the ground, we may suppose that some such 
change as a temporary submergence might cause an entirely 


+i DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


different vegetation and a considerably modified fauna to occupy 
the country. 

Organic Changes as-affecting Distribution—We have now briefly 
touched on some of the direct effects of changes in physical 
geography, climate, and vegetation, on the distribution of ani- 
mals; but the indirect effects of such changes are probably of 
quite equal, if not of greater importance. Every change 
becomes the centre of an ever-widening circle of effects. The 
different members of the organic world are so bound together by 
complex relations, that any one change generally involves 
numerous other changes, often of the most unexpected kind. 
We know comparatively little of the way in which one animal ~ 
or plant is bound up with others, but we know enough to assure 
us that groups the most apparently disconnected are often 
dependent on each other. We know, for example, that the 
introduction of goats into St. Helena utterly destroyed a whole 
flora of forest trees; and with them all the insects, mollusca, and 
perhaps birds directly or indirectly dependent on them. Swine, 
which ran wild in Mauritius, exterminated the Dodo. The same 
animals are known to be the greatest enemies of venomous 
serpents. Cattle will, in many districts, wholly prevent the 
growth of trees; and with the trees the numerous insects depen- 
dent on those trees, and the birds which fed upon the insects, 
must disappear, as well as the small mammalia which feed on 
the fruits, seeds, leaves, or roots. Insects again have the most - 
wonderful influence on the range of mammalia, In Paraguay a 
certain species of fly abounds which destroys new-born cattle 
and horses ; and thus neither of these animals have run wild in 
that country, although they abound both north and south of it. 
This inevitably leads to a great difference in the vegetation of 
Paraguay, and. through that to a difference in its insects, birds, 
reptiles, and wild mammalia. On what causes the existence of 
the fly depends we do not know, but it is not improbable that some 
comparatively slight changes in the temperature or humidity of 
the air at a particular season, or the introduction of some enemy 
might lead to its extinction or banishment. The whole face of 
the country would tlien soon be changed: new species would 


cHAP. u1.] CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION, 4h 


come in, while many others would be unable to live there; and 
the immediate cause of this great alteration would probably be 
quite imperceptible to us, even if we could watch it in progress 
year by year. So, in South Africa, the celebrated Tsetse fly 
inhabits certain districts having well defined limits; and where 
it abounds no horses, dogs, or cattle can live. Yet asses, 
zebras, and antelopes are unaffected by it. So long as this fly 
continues to exist, there is a living barrier to the entrance of 
certain animals, quite as effectual as a lofty mountain range 
ora wide arm of the sea. The complex relations of one form 
of life with others is nowhere better illustrated than in Mr. 
Darwin’s celebrated case of the cats and clover, as given in his 
Crigin of Species, 6th ed. p. 57. He has observed that both 
wild heartsease and red-clover are fertilized in this country by 
humble-bees only, so that the production of seed depends on 
the visits of these insects. A gentleman who has specially 
studied humble-bees finds that they are largely kept down by 
field-mice, which destroy their combs and nests. Field-mice 
in their turn are kept down by cats; and probably also by owls; 
so that these carnivorous animals are really the agents in ren- 
dering possible the continued existence of red-clover and wild 
heartsease. For if they were absent, the field-mice having no 
enemies, would multiply to such an extent as to destroy all the 
humble-bees; and these two plants would then preduce no 
seed and soon become extinct. 

Mr. Darwin has also shown that one species often exterminates 
another closely allied to it, when the two are brought into 
contact. One species of swallow and thrush are known to 
have increased at the expense of allied species. Rats, carried 
all over the world by commerce, are continually extirpating 
other species of rats. The imported hive-bee is, in Australia, 
rapidly exterminating a native stingless bee. Any slight change, 
therefore, of physical geography or of climate, which allows 
allied species hitherto inhabiting distinct areas to come into 
contact, will often lead to the extermination of one of them; and 
this extermination will be effected by no external force, by no 
actual enemy, but merely because the one is slightly better 


46 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


adapted to live, to increase, and to maintain itself under adverse 
circumstances, than the other. 

Now if we consider carefully the few suggestive facts here 
referred to (and many others of like import are to be found in 
Mr. Darwin’s various works), we shall be led to conclude that 
the several species, genera, families, and orders, both of animals 
and vegetables which inhabit any extensive region, are bound 
together by a series of complex relations; so that the increase, 
diminution, or extermination of any one, may set in motion a 
series of actions and reactions more or less affecting a large 
portion of the whole, and requiring perhaps centuries of fluctua- 
tion before the balance is restored. The range of any species 
or group in such a region, will in many cases (perhaps in most) 
be determined, not by physical barriers, but by the competition 
of other organisms. Where barriers have existed from a remote 
epoch, they will at first have kept back certain animals from 
coming in contact with each other; but when the assemblage 
of organisms on the two sides of the barrier have, after many 
ages, come to form a balanced organic whole, the destruction of 
the barrier may lead to a very partial intermingling of the 
peculiar forms of the two regions. Each will have become 
modified in special ways adapted to the organic and physical 
conditions of the country, and will form a living barrier to the 
entrance of animals less perfectly adapted to those conditions. 
Thus while the abolition of ancient barriers will always lead 
to much intermixture of forms, much extermination and wide- 
spread alteration in some families of animals; other important 
groups will be unable materially to alter their range; or they 
may make temporary incursions into the new territory, and be 
ultimately driven back to very near their ancient limits. 

In order to make this somewhat difficult subject more intelli- 
gible, it may be well to consider the probable effects of certain 
hypothetical conditions of the earth’s surface :— 

1. If the dry land of the globe had been from the first 
continuous, and nowhere divided up by such boundaries as lofty 
mountain ranges, wide deserts, or arms of the sea, it seems 
probable that none of the larger groups (as orders, tribes, or 


cHAP, 1.) CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION. 47 


Jumilies,) would have a limited range; but, as is to some extent 
the case in tropical America east of the Andes, every such 
group would be represented over the whole area, by countless 
minute modifications of form adapted to local conditions. 

2. One great physical barrier would, however, even then 
exist ; the hot equatorial zone would divide the faunas and floras 
of the colder regions of the northern and southern hemispheres 
from any chance of intermixture. This one barrier would be 
more effectual than it is now, since there would be no lofty 
mountain ranges to serve as a bridge for the partial interchange 
of northern and southern forms. 

3. If such a condition of the earth as here supposed con- 
tinued for very long periods, we may conceive that the action 
and reaction of the various organisms on each other, combined 
with the influence of very slowly changing physical conditions, 
would result in an almost perfect organic balance, which would 
be manifested by a great stability in the average numbers, the 
local range, and the peculiar characteristics of every species. 

4, Under such a condition of things it is not improbable that 
the total number of clearly differentiated specific forms might be 
much greater than it is now, though the number of generic and 
family types might perhaps be less ; for dominant species would 
have had ample time to spread into every locality where they 
could exist, and would then become everywhere modified into 
forms best suited to the permanent local conditions. 

5. Now let us consider what would be the probable effect of 
the introduction of a barrier, cutting off a portion of this homo- 
geneous and well-balanced world. Suppose, for instance, that a 
subsidence took place, cutting off by a wide arm of the seaa 
large and tolerably varied island. The first and most obvious 
result would be that the individuals of a number of species 
would be divided into two portions, while others, the limits of 
whose range agreed approximately with the line of subsidence, 
would exist in unimpaired numbers on the new island or on the 
main land. But the species whose numbers were diminished 
and whose original area was also absolutely diminished by the 
portion now under the sea, would not be able to hold their 


48 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I, 


ground against the rival forms whose numbers were intact. 
Some would probably diminish and rapidly die out; others 
which produced favourable varieties, might be so modified by 
natural selection as to maintain their existence under a different 
form; and such changes would take place in varying modes on 
the two sides of the new strait. 

6. But the progress of these changes would necessarily affect 
the other species in contact with them. New places would be 
opened in the economy of nature which many would struggle to 
obtain; and modification would go on in ever-widening circle 
and very long periods of time might be required to bring the 
whole again into a state of equilibrium. 

7. A new set of factors would in the meantime have come 
into play. The sinking of land and the influx of a large body 
of water could hardly take place without producing important 
climatal changes. The temperature, the winds, the rains, might 
all be affected, and more or less changed in duration and amount. 
This would lead to a quite distinct movement in the organic 
world. Vegetation would certainly be considerably affected, and 
through this the insect tribes. We have seen how closely the 
life of the higher animals is often bound up with that of insects ; 
and thus a set of changes might arise that would modify the 
numerical proportions, and even the forms and habits of a great 
number of species, would completely exterminate some, and raise 
others from a subordinate to a dominant position. And all these 
changes would occur differently on opposite sides of the strait, 
since the insular climate could not fail to differ considerably 
from that of the continent. 

8. But the two sets of changes, as above indicated, produced 
by different modes of action of the same primary cause, would 
act and react on each other; and thus lead to such a far-spread- 
ing disturbance of the organic equilibrium as ultimately perhaps 
to affect in one way or another, every form of life upon the 
earth, 

This hypothetical case is useful as enabling us better to realize 
how wide-spreading might be the effects of one of the simplest 
changes of physical geography, upon a compact mass of mutually 


cHAP. ur.) CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION, 49 
adapted organisms. In the actual state of things, the physical 
changes that occur and have occurred through all geologicalepochs 
are larger and more varied. Almost every mile of land surface 
has been again and again depressed beneath the ocean ; most of 
the great mountain chains have either originated or greatly 
increased in height during the Tertiary period; marvellous 
alterations of climate and vegetation have taken place over half 
the land-surface of the earth; and all these vast changes have 
influenced a globe so cut up by seas and oceans, by deserts 
and snow-clad mountains, that in many of its more isolated 
land-masses ancient forms of life have been preserved, which, 
in the more extensive and more varied continents have long 
given way to higher types. How complex then must heve been 
the actions and reactions such a state of things would bring 
about ; and how impossible must it be for us to guess, in most 
cases, at the exact nature of the forces that limit the range of 
some species and cause others to be rare or to become extinct ! 
All that we can in general hope to do is, to trace out, more or 
less hypothetically, some of the larger changes in physical 
geography that have occurred during the ages immediately pre- 
ceeding our own, and to estimate the effect they will probably 
have produced on animal distribution. We may then, by the 
aid of such knowledge as to past organic mutations as the geo- 
logical record supplies us with, be able to determine the probable 
birthplace and subsequent migrations of the more important 
genera and families; and thus obtain some conception of that 
grand series of co-ordinated changes in the earth and its in- 
habitants, whose final result is seen in the forms and the geo- 
graphical distribution of existing animals. 


CHAPTER IV. 
ON ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 


To the older school of Naturalists the native country of an animal 
was of little importance, except in as far as climates differed. 
Animals were supposed to be specially adapted to live in certain 
zones or under certain physical conditions, and it was hardly 
recognised that apart from these conditions there was any 
influence in locality which could materially affect them. It 
was believed that, while the animals of tropical, temperate, and 
arctic climates, essentially differed; those of the tropics were 
essentially alike all over the world. A group of animals was 
said to inhabit the “Indies;” and important differences of 
structure were often overlooked from the idea, that creatures 
equally adapted to live in hot countries and with certain 
general resemblances, would naturally be related to each other. 
Thus the Toucans and Hornbills, the Humming- Birds and Sun- 
Birds, and even the Tapirs and the Elephants, came to be 
popularly associated as slightly modified varieties of tropical 
forms of life; while to naturalists, who were acquainted with 
the essential differences of structure, it was a never-failing 
source of surprise, that under climates and conditions so 
apparently identical, such strangely divergent forms should 
be produced. 

To the modern naturalist, on the other hand, the native 
country (or “habitat” as it is technically termed) of an animal 


CHAP. IV. ] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 51 


or a group of animals, is a matter of the first importance; and, 
as regards the general history of life upon the globe, may be 
considered to be one of its essential characters. The structure, 
affinities, and habits of a species, now form only a part of its 
natural history. We require also to know its exact range at 
the present day and in prehistoric times, and to have some 
knowledge of its geological age, the place of its earliest appear- 
ance on the globe, and of the various extinct forms most nearly 
allied to it. To those who accept the theory of development as 
worked out by Mr. Darwin, and the views as to the general 
permanence and immense antiquity of the great continents and 
oceans so ably developed by Sir Charles Lyell, it ceases to be a 
matter of surprise that the tropics of Africa, Asia, and America 
should differ in their productions, but rather that they should 
have anything in common. Their similarity, not their diversity, 
is the fact that most frequently puzzles us. 

The more accurate knowledge we have of late years obtained 
of the productions of many remote regions, combined with the 
greater approaches that have been made to a natural classifica- 
tion of the higher animals, has shown, that every continent or 
well-marked division of a continent, every archipelago and 
even every island, presents problems of more or less complexity 
to the student of the geographical distribution of animals. If 
we take up the subject from the zoological side, and study any 
family, order, or even extensive genus, we are almost sure to 
meet with some anomalies either in the present or past distri- 
bution of the various forms. Let us adduce a few examples of 
these problems. 

Deer have a wonderfully wide range, over the whole of Europe, 
Asia, and North and South America; yet in Africa south of 
the great desert there are none. Bears range over the whole of 
Europe, Asia, and North America, and true pigs of the genus 
Sus, over all Europe and Asia and as far as New Guinea; yet 
both bears and pigs, like deer, are absent from Tropical and 
South Africa. 

Again, the West Indian islands possess very few Mammalia, 
all of small size and allied to those of America, except one 

E 2 


52 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 
genus; and that belongs to an Order, “Insectivora,” entirely 
absent from South America, and to a family, “Centetide,” all 
the other species of which inhabit Madagascar only. And as 
if to add force to this singular correspondence we have one 
Madagascar species of a beautiful day-flying Moth, Urania, all 
the other species of which inhabit tropical America. These 
insects are gorgeously arrayed in green and gold, and are quite 
unlike any other Lepidoptera upon the globe. 

The island of Ceylon generally agrees in its productions with 
the Southern part of India; yet it has several birds which are 
allied to Malayan and not to Indian groups, and a fine butterfly 
of the genus Hestia, as well as several genera of beetles, which 
are purely Malayan. 

Various important groups of animals are distributed in a 
way not easy to explain. The anthropoid apes in West Africa 
and Borneo; the tapirs in Malaya and South America; the 
camel tribe in the deserts of Asia and the Andes; the trogons 
in South America and Tropical Asia, with one species in Africa; 
the marsupials in Australia and America, are examples. 

The cases here adduced (and they might be greatly multiplied) 
are merely to show the kind of problems with which the 
naturalist now has to deal; and in order to do so he requires 
some system of geographical arrangement, which shall serve 
the double purpose of affording a convenient subdivision of his 
subject, and at the same time of giving expression to the main 
results at which he has arrived. Hence the recent discussions 
on “Zoological Regions,” or, what are the most natural 
primary divisions of the earth as regards its forms of animal 
life. 

The divisions in use till quite recently were of two kinds ; 
either those ready made by geographers, more especially the 
quarters or continents of the globe; or those determined by 
climate and marked out by certain parallels of latitude or by 
isothermal lines, Either of these methods was better than 
none at all; but from the various considerations explained in 
the preceding chapters, it will be evident, that such divisions 
must have often been very unnatural, and have disguised many 


CHAP. LV. ] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 53 


of the most important and interesting phenomena which a 
study of the distribution of animals presents to us. 

The merit of initiating a more natural system, that of determin- 
ing zoological regions, not by any arbitrary or a@ priori considera- 
tion but by studying the actual ranges of the more important 
groups of animals, is due to Mr. Sclater, who, in 1857, established 
six primary zoological regions from a detailed examination of 
the distribution of the chief genera and families of Birds. 
Before stating what these regions are, what objections have 
been made to them, what other divisions have been since 
proposed, and what are those which we shall adopt in this 
work, it will be well to consider the general principles which 
should guide us in the choice between rival systems. 

Principles on which Zoological Legions should be formed.— 
It will be evident in the first place that nothing lke a per- 
fect zoological division of the earth is possible. The causes 
that have led to the present distribution of animal life are so 
varied, their action and reaction have been so complex, that 
anomalies and irregularities are sure to exist which will mar the 
symmetry of any rigid system. On two main points every sys- 
tem yet proposed, or that probably can be proposed, is open to 
objection; they are,—I1stly, that the several regions are not of 
equal rank ;—2ndly, that they are not equally applicable to all 
classes of animals. As to the first objection, it will be found 
impossible to form any three or more regions, each of which differs 
from the rest in an equal degree or in the same manner, One 
will surpass all others in the possession of peculiar families ; 
another will have many characteristic genera; while a third will 
be mainly distinguished by negative characters. There will also 
be found many intermediate districts, which possess some of the 
characteristics of two well-marked regions, with a few special 
features of their own, or perhaps with none; and it will be a 
difficult question to decide in all cases which region should 
possess this doubtful territory, or whether it should be formed 
into a primary region itself. Again, two regions which have 
now well-marked points of difference, may be shown to have been 
much more alike at a comparatively recent geological epoch ; 


54 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


and this, it may be said, proves their fundamental unity and 
that they ought to form but one primary region. To obviate 
some of these difficulties a binary or dichotomous division is 
sometimes proposed; that portion of the earth which differs 
most from the rest being cut off as a region equal in rank 
to all that remains, which is subjected again and again to 
the same process. 

To decide these various points it seems advisable that con- 
venience, intelligibility, and custom, should largely guide us. 
The first essential is, a broadly marked and easily remembered 
set of regions; which correspond, as nearly as truth to nature 
will allow, with the distribution of the most important groups 
of animals. What these groups are we shall presently explain. 
In determining the number, extent, and boundaries of these 
regions, we must be guided by a variety of indications, since 
the application of fixed rules is impossible. They should evi- 
dently be of a moderate number, corresponding as far as 
practicable with the great natural divisions of the globe marked 
out by nature, and which have always been recognized by 
geographers. There should be some approximation to equality 
of size, since there is reason to believe that a tolerably extensive 
area has been an essential condition for the development of 
most animal forms; and it is found that, other things being 
equal, the numbers, variety and importance of the forms of 
animal and vegetable life, do bear some approximate relation 
to extent of area. Although the possession of peculiar families 


or genera is the main character of a primary zoological region, v 


yet the negative character of the absence of certain families 
or genera is of equal importance, when this absence does not 
manifestly depend on unsuitability to the support of the group, 
and especially when there is now no physical barrier preventing 
their entrance. This will become evident when we consider that 
the importance of the possession of a group by one region de- 
pends on its absence from the adjoining regions; and if there is 
now no barrier to its entrance, we may be sure that there has 
once been one; and that the possession of the area by a distinet 
and well balanced set of organisms, which must have been slowly 


Vv 


- 


Sr 
| 


CHAP. IV. ] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 


developed and adjusted, is the living barrier that now keeps out 
intruders, 

When it is ascertained that the chief differences which 
now obtain between two areas did not exist in Miocene or 
Pliocene times, the fact is one of great interest, and enables us 
to speculate with some degree of probability as to the causes that 
have brought about the present state of things; but it is not a 
reason for uniting these two areas into one region. Our object 
is to represent as nearly as possible the main features of the 
distribution of existing animals, not those of any or all past 
geological epochs. Should we ever obtain sufficient information 
as to the geography and biology of the earth at past epochs, we 
might indeed determine approximately what were the Pliocene 
or Miocene or Eocene zoological regions; but any attempt to 
exhibit all these in combination with those of our own period, 
must lead to confusion. 

The binary or dichotomous system, although it brings out 
the fundamental differences of the respective regions, is an 
inconvenient one in its application, and rather increases than 
obviates the difficulty as to equality or inequality of regions ; 
for although a, 0, c, and d, may be areas of unequal zcological 
rank, a being the most important, and d the least, yet this 
inequality will probably be still greater if we first divide 
them into a, on one side, and 0b, c, and d, on the other, 
and then, by another division, make 0, an area of the second, 
and ¢, and d, of the third rank only. 

Coming to the second objection, the often incompatible 
distribution of different groups of animals, affords ground for 
opposition to any proposed scheme of zoological regions. There 
is first the radical difference between land and sea animals; 
the most complete barriers to the dispersal of the one, sometimes 
offering the greatest facilities for the emigration of the other, 
and vice versa. A large number of marine animals, however, 
frequent shallow water only ; and these, keeping near the coasts, 
will agree generally in their distribution with those inhabiting 
the land. But among land animals themselves there are very 
great differences of distribution, due to certain specialities 


56 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


in their organization or mode of life. These act mainly in 
two ways,—Ilstly, by affecting the facilities with which they 
can be dispersed, either voluntarily or involuntarily ;—2ndly, 
by the conditions which enable them to multiply and establish 
themseives in certain areas and not in others. When both 
these means of diffusion are at a maximum, the dispersal of 
a group becomes universal, and ceases to have much interest 
for us. This is the case with certain groups of fungi and 
lichens, as well as with some of the lower anima!s; and in 
a less degree, as has been shown by Mr. Darwin, with many 
fresh-water plants and animals. At the other extreme we may 
place certain arboreal vertebrata such as sloths and lemurs, 
which have no means of passing such barriers as narrow 
straits or moderately high mountains, and whose survival inv 
any new country they might reach, would be dependent on the 
presence of suitable forests and the absence of dangerous enemies, 
Almost equally, or perhaps even more restricted, are the means 
of permanent diffusion of terrestrial molluscs; since these are 
without any but very rare and accidental means of being safely 
transported across the sea; their individual powers of locomo- 
tion are highly restricted; they are especially subject to the 
attacks of enemies; and they often depend not only on a 
peculiar vegetation, but on the geological character of the coun- 
try, their abundance being almost in direct proportion to the 
presence of some form of calcareous rocks. Between these 
extremes we find animals possessed of an infinite gradation of 
powers to disperse and to maintain themselves ; and it will evi- 
dently be impossible that the limits which best define the 
distribution of one group, should be equally true for all others. 
Which class of Animals is of most importance in determining 
Zoological Regions —To decide this question we have to con- 
sider which groups of animals are best adapted to exhibit, 
by their existing distribution, the past changes and present 
physical condition of the earth’s surface; and at the same 
time, by the abundance of their remains in the various tertiary 
formations will best enable us to trace out the more recent 
of the series of changes, both of the earth’s surface and 


~l 


CHAP. IV. ] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 5 


of its inhabitants, by which the present state of things has 
been brought about. For this purpose we require a group 
which shall be dependent for its means of dispersal on the dis- 
tribution of land and water, and on the presence or absence 
of lofty mountains, desert plains or plateaux, and great forests ; 
since these are the chief physical features of the earth’s surface 
whose modifications at successive periods we wish to discover. 
It is also essential that they should not be subject to dispersal 
by many accidental causes; as this would inevitably in time 
tend to obliterate the effect of natural barriers, and produce a 
scattered distribution, the causes of which we could only guess at. 
Again, it is necessary that they should be so highly organized as 
not to be absolutely dependent on other groups of animals, and 
with so much power of adaptation as to be able to exist in one 
forin or another over the whole globe. And lastly, it is highly 
important that the whole group should be pretty well known, 
and that a fairly natural classification, especially of its minor 
divisions such as families and genera, should have been arrived 
at; the reason for which last proviso is explained in our next 
chapter, on classification. 

Now in every one of these points the mammalia are preemi- 
nent ; and they possess the additional advantage of being the 
most highly developed class of organized beings, and that to 
which we ourselves belong. We should therefore construct our 
typical or standard Zoological Regions in the first place, from a 
consideration of the distribution of mammalia, only bringing to 
our aid the distribution of other groups to determine doubtful 
points. Regions so established will be most closely in accord- 
ance with those long-enduring features of physical geography, 
on which the distribution of all forms of life fundamentally 
depend; and all discrepancies in the distribution of other 
classes of animals must be capable of being explained, either 
by their exceptional means of dispersion or by special condi- 
tions affecting their perpetuation and increase in each locality. 

If these considerations are well founded, the objections of 
those who study insects or molluscs, for example,—that our 
regions are not true for their departments of nature—cannot be 


58 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


maintained. For they will find, that a careful consideration of 
the exceptional means of dispersal and conditions of existence of 
each group, will explain most of the divergences from the normal 
distribution of higher animals. 

We shall thus be led to an intelligent comprehension of the 
phenomena of distribution in all groups, which would not be 
the case if every specialist formed regions for his own particular 
study. In many cases we should find that no satisfactory 
division of the earth could be made to correspond with the dis- 
tribution even of an entire class; but we should have the cole- 
opterist and the lepidopterist each with his own Geography. And 
even this would probably not suffice, for it is. very doubtful if 
the detailed distribution of the Longicornes, so closely dependent 
on woody vegetation, could be made to agree with that of the 
Staphylinidee or the Caralidze which abound in many of the 
most barren regions, or with that of the Scarabeide, largely de- 
pendent on the presence of herbivorous mammalia. And when 
each of these enquirers had settled a division of the earth into 
“regions” which exhibited with tolerable accuracy the pheno- 
mena of distribution of his own group, we should have gained 
nothing whatever but a very complex mode of exhibiting 
the bare facts of distribution. We should then have to begin 
to work out the causes of the divergence of one group from 
another in this respect ; but as each worker would refer to his 
own set of regions as the type, the whole subject would become 
involved in inextricable confusion. These considerations seem 
to make it imperative that one set of “regions” should be 
established as typical for Zoology; and it is hoped the reasons 
here advanced will satisfy most naturalists that these regions 
can be best determined, in the first place, by a study of the dis- 
tribution of the mammalia, supplemented in doubtful cases by 
that of the other vertebrates. We will now proceed to a discus- 
sion of what these regions are. 

Various Zoological Regions proposed since 1857,.—I1t has already 
been pointed out that a very large number of birds are limited 
by the same kind of barriers as mammalia; it will therefore 
not be surprising that a system of regions formed to suit the 


CHAP. 1V.] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. | 59 
one, should very nearly represent the distribution of the other. 
Mr. Sclater’s regions are as follows’ :— 

1. The Palearctic Region; including Europe, Temperate Asia, 
and N. Africa to the Atlas mountains. 

2. The Ethiopian Region; Africa south of the Atlas, Mada- 
gascar, and the Mascarene Islands, with Southern Arabia. 

3. The Indian Region; including India south of the Hima- 
layas, to South China, and to Borneo and Java. 

4. The Australian Region ; including Celebes and Lombock, 
eastward to Australia and the Pacific Islands. 

5. The Nearctic Region; including Greenland, and N. 
America, to Northern Mexico. 

6. The Neotropical Region; including South America, the 
Antilles, and Southern Mexico. 

This division of the earth received great support from Dr. 
Giinther, who, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 
1858, showed that the geographical distribution of Reptiles 
agreed with it very closely, the principal difference being that 
the reptiles of Japan have a more Indian character than the 
birds, this being especially the case with the snakes. In the 
volume for 1868 of the same work, Professor Huxley discusses 
at considerable length the primary and secondary zoological 
divisions of the earth. He gives reasons for thinking that the 
most radical primary division, both as regards birds and mam- 
mals, is into a Northern and Southern hemisphere (Arctogea 
und Notogeea), the former, however, embracing all Africa, while 
the latter includes only Australasia and the Neotropical or 
Austro-Columbian region. Mr. Sclater had grouped his regions 
primarily into Paleogza and Neogea, the Old and New 
Worlds of geographers; a division which strikingly accords 
with the distribution of the passerine birds, but not so well 
with that of mammalia or reptiles. Professor Huxley points 
out that the Nearctic, Palearctic, Indian, and Ethiopian 
regions of Mr, Sclater have a much greater resemblance to 
each other than any one of them has to Australia or to South 
America ; and he further suggests that New Zealand alone has 
peculiarities which might entitle it to rank as a primary region 


69 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


along with Australasia and South America; and that a Circum- 
polar Province might be conveniently recognised as of equal 
rank with the Palearctic and Nearctic provinces. 

In 1866, Mr. Andrew Murray published a large and copiously 
illustrated volume on the Geographical Distribution of Mam- 
mals, in which he maintains that the great and primary 
mammalian regions are only four: Ist. The Palzarctic region 
of Mr. Sclater, extended to include the Sahara and Nubia; 
2nd. the Indo-African region, including the Indian and Ethiopian 
regions of Mr. Sclater; 3rd. the Australian region (unaltered); 
4th. the American region, including both North and South 
America. These are the regions as described by Mr. Murray, 
but his coloured map of “Great Mammalian Regions” shows 
all Arctic America to a little south of the Isothermal of 32° 
Fahr. as forming with Europe and North Asia one great region. 

At the meeting of the British Association at Exeter in 1869, 
Mr. W. T. Blanford read a paper on the Fauna of British India, 
in which he maintained that a large portion of the peninsula 
of India had derived its Fauna mainly from Africa; and that the 
term “Indian region” of Mr. Sclater was misleading, because 
India proper, if it belongs to it at all, is the least typical portion 
of it. He therefore proposes to call it the “ Malayan region,” 
because in the Malay countries it is most highly developed. 
Ceylon and the mountain ranges of Southern India have marked 
Malay affinities. 

In 1871 Mr. E. Blyth published in Nature “ A suggested new 
Division of the Earth into Zoological Regions,’ in which he 
indicates seven primary divisions or regions, subdivided into 
twenty-six sub-regions. The seven regions are defined as 
follows: 1. The Boreal region; including the whole of the 
Palearctic and Nearctic regions of Mr. Sclater along with the 
West Indies, Central America, the whole chain of the Andes, 
with Chili and Patagonia. 2. The Columbian region ; consisting 
of the remaining part of South America, 38, The Ethiopian 
region; comprising besides that region of Mr. Sclater, the valley 
of the Jordan, Arabia, and the desert country towards India, 
with all the plains and table lands of India and the northern 


CHAP. IV. ] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 61 
half of Ceylon. 4. The Lemurian region; consisting of Mada- 
eascar and its adjacent islands. 5, The Austral-Asian region ; 
which is the Indian region of Mr. Sclater without the portion 
taken to be added to the Ethiopian region. 6, The Melanesian 
region; which is the Australian region of Mr. Sclater without 
New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, which form 7. the 
Polynesian region. Mr. Blyth thinks this is “a true classifi- 
cation of zoological regions as regards mammalia and birds.” 

In an elaborate paper on the birds of Eastern North America, 
their distribution and migrations (Bulletin of Museum of Com- 
parative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Vol. 2), Mr. J. A. 
Allen proposes a division of the earth in accordance with what 
he terms, “ the law of cireumpolar distribution of life in zones,’ 
as follows: 1. Arctic realm. 2. North temperate realm. 3. 
American tropical realm. 4. Indo-African tropical realm. 
5. South American tropical realm. 6. African temperate realm. 
7. Antarctic realm. 8. Australian realm. Some of these are 
subdivided into regions; (2) consisting of the American and 
the Europeo-Asiatic regions; (4) into the African and Indian 
regions ; (8) into the tropical Australian region, and one com- 
prising the southern part of Australia and New Zealand. The 
other realms each form a single region. 

Discussion of proposed Regions.—Before proceeding to define 
the regions adopted in this work, it may be as well to make 
a few remarks on some of the preceding classifications, and 
to give the reasons which seem to render it advisable to adopt 
very few of the suggested improvements on Mr. Sclater’s 
original proposal. Mr. Blyth’s scheme is one of the least 
natural, and also the most inconvenient. There ean be little 
use in the knowledge that a group of animals is found in the 
Boreal Region, if their habitat might still be either Patagonia, 
the West Indies, or Japan; and it is difficult to see on what 
principle the Madagascar group of islands is made of equal 
rank with this enormous region, seeing that its forms of life 
have marked African affinities. Neither does it seem advisable 
to adopt the Polynesian Region, or that comprising New Zealand 
alone (as hinted at by. Professor Huxley and since adopted by 


62 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


Mr. Sclater in his Lectures on Geographical Distribution at the 
Zoological Gardens in May 187+), because it is absolutely with- 
out indigenous mammalia and very poor in all forms of life, 
and therefore by no means prominent or important enough to 
form a primary region of the earth. 

It may be as well here to notice what appears to be a serious 
objection to making New Zealand, or any similar isolated 
district, one of the great zoological regions, comparable to South 
America, Australia, or Ethiopia ; which is, that its claim to that 
distinction rests on grounds which are liable to fail. It is 
because New Zealand, in addition to its negative merits, possesses 
three families of birds (Apterygide living, Dinornithide and 
Palapterygide extinct), and a peculiar lizard-like reptile, 
Hatteria, which has to be classed in a distinct order, Rhyncho- 
cephalina, that the rank of a Region is claimed for it. But 
supposing, what is not at all improbable, that other Rhyncho- 
cephalina should be discovered in the interior of Australia or 
in New Guinea, and that Apterygidee or Palapterygide should 
be found to have inhabited Australia in Post-Pliocene times, 
(as Dinornithidee have already been proved to have done) the 
claims of New Zealand would entirely fail, and it would be 
universally acknowledged to be a part of the great Australian 
region. No such reversal can take place in the case of the 
other regions ; because they rest, not upon one or two, but upon a 
large number of peculiarities, of such a nature that there is no 
room upon the globe for discoveries that can seriously modify 
them. Even if one or two peculiar types, like Apterygidee or 
Hatteria, should permanently remain characteristic of New Zea- 
land alone, we can account for these by the extreme isolation of 
the country, and the absence of enemies, which have enabled 
these defenceless birds and reptiles to continue their existence ; 
just as the isolation and protection of the caverns of Carniola 
have enabled the Proteus to survive in Europe. But supposing 
that the Proteus was the sole representative of an order of 
Batrachia, and that two or three other equally curious and 
isolated forms occurred with it, no one would propose that these 
caverns or the district containing them, should form one of the 


. 
{ 


CHAP. IV. | ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 63 


primary divisions of the earth. Neither can much stress be 
Jaid on the negative characteristics of New Zealand, since they 
are found to an almost equal extent in every oceanic island. 

Again, it is both inconvenient and misleading to pick out 
certain tracts from the midst of one region or sub-region and to 
place them in another, on account of certain isolated affinities 
which may often be accounted for by local peculiarities. Even 
if the resemblance of the fauna of Chili and Patagonia to that 
of the Palearctic and Nearctic regions was much greater than it 
is, this mode of dealing with it would be objectionable ; but it 
is still more so, when we find that these countries have a 
strongly marked South American character, and that the north- 
ern affinities are altogether exceptional. The Rodentia, which . 
comprise a large portion of the mammalia of these countries, 
are wholly South American in type, and the birds are almost all 
allied to forms characteristic of tropical America. 

For analogous reasons the Ethiopian must not be made to 
include any part of India or Ceylon ; for although the Fauna of 
Central India has some African affinities, these do not prepon- 
derate; and it will not be difficult to show that to follow Mr. 
Andrew Murray in uniting bodily the Ethiopian and Indian 
regions of Mr. Sclater, is both unnatural and inconvenient. The 
resemblances between them are of the same character as those 
which would unite them both with the Palearctic and Nearctic 
regions; and although it may be admitted, that, as Professor 
Huxley maintains, this group forms one of the great primary 
divisions of the globe, it is far too extensive and too hetero- ~ 
geneous to subserve the practical uses for which we require a 
division of the world into zoological regions. 

Lteasons for adopting the siz Regions first proposed by Mr. Sclater. 
—So that we do not violate any clear affinities or produce any 
glaring irregularities, it is a positive, and by no means an un- 
important, advantage to have our named regions approximately 
equal in size, and with easily defined, and therefore easily re- 
membered, boundaries. All elaborate definitions of interpene- 
trating frontiers, as well as regions extending over three-fourths 
of the land surface of the globe, and including places which are 


64 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


the antipodes of each other, would be most inconvenient, even 
if there were not such difference of opinion about them. There 
can be little doubt, for example, that the most radical zoological 
division of the earth is made by separating the Australian re- 
gion from the rest; but although it is something useful and 
definite to know that a group of animals is peculiar to Australia, 
it is exceedingly vague and unsatisfactory to say of any other 
group merely that it is extra-Australian. Neither can it be said 
that, from any point of view, these two divisions are of equal 
importance. The next great natural division that cau be made 
is the separation of the Neotropical Region of Mr. Sclater from 
the rest of the world. We thus have three primary divisions, 
which Professor Huxley seems inclined to consider as of 
tolerably equal zoological importance. But a consideration of 
all the facts, zoological and paleontological, indicates, that the 
great northern division (Arctogza) is fully as much more impor- 
tant than either Australia or South America, as its four compo- 
nent parts are less important ; and if so, convenience requires 
us to adopt the smaller rather than the larger divisions. 

This question, of comparative importance or equivalence of 
value, is very difficult to determine. It may be considered from 
the point of view of speciality or isolation, or from that of 
richness and variety of animal forms. In isolation and speciality, 
determined by what they want as well as what they possess, the 
Australian and Neotropical regions are undoubtedly each com- 
parable with the rest of the earth (Arctogzea). But in richness 
and variety of forms, they are both very much inferior, and are 
much more nearly comparable with the separate regions which 
compose it. Taking the families of mammalia as established by 
the best authors, and leaving out the Cetacea and the Bats, 
which are almost universally distributed, and about whose 
classification there is much uncertainty, the number of families 
represented in each of Mr. Sclater’s regions is as follows : 


I. Palearctic region has 31 families of terrestrial mammalia. 


uF Ethiopian ” ” 40 ” ” ” 
Ill. Indian » ” 3l ” ” ” 
IV. Australian ,, 2s 9» ” ” 
A'S Neotropical om 5, 26 ” 9 9 


VI. Nearctic _ 9) 23 99 ” ” 


- 


CHAP. IV. ] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 65 


We see, then, that even the exceedingly rich and isolated Neo- 
tropical region is less rich and diversified in its forms of raam- 
malian life than the very much smaller area of the Indian region, 
or the temperate Palearctic, and very much less so than the 
Ethiopian region ; while even the comparatively poor Nearctic 
region, is nearly equal to it in the number of its family types. If 
these were united they would possess fifty-five families, a number 
very disproportionate to those of the remaining two. Another 
consideration is, that although the absence of certain forms of 
life makes a region more isolated, it dees not make it zoologically 
more important ; for we have only to suppose some five or six 
families, now common to both, to become extinct either in the 
Ethiopian or the Indian regions, and they would become as 
strongly differentiated from all other regions as South America, 
while still remaining as rich in family types. In birds exactly the 
same phenomenon recurs, the family types being less numerous in 
South America than in either of the other tropical regions of the 
earth, but a larger proportion of them are restricted to it. It will 
be shown further on, that the Ethiopian and Indian, (or, as I pro- 
pose to call it in this work, Oriental) regions, are sufficiently differ- 
entiated by very important groups of animals peculiar to each ; 
and that, on strict zoological principles they are entitled to 
rank as regions of equal value with the Neotropical and Aus- 
tralian. It is perhaps less clear whether the Palearctic should 
be separated from the Oriental region, with which it has un- 
doubtedly much in common; but there are many and powerful 
reasons for keeping it distinct. There isan unmistakably different 
facies in the animal forms of the two regions; and although no 
families of mammalia or birds, and not many genera, are wholly 
confined to the Palzearctic region, a very considerable number 
of both have their metropolis in it, and are very richly represented. 
The distinction between the characteristic forms of life in tropical 
and cold countries is, on the whole, very strongly marked in the 
northern hemisphere ; and to refuse to recognise this in a sub- 
division of the earth which is established for the very purpose of 
expressing such contrasts more clearly and concisely than by 
ordinary geographical terminology, would be both illogical and 

- 


66 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


inconvenient. The one question then remains, whether the 
Nearctic region should be kept separate, or whether it should 
form part of the Palearctic or of the Neotropical regions. Pro- 
fessor Huxley and Mr. Blyth advocate the former course ; Mr. 
Andrew Murray (for mammalia) and Professor Newton (for birds) 
think the latter would be more natural. No doubt iuch is to 
be said for both views, but both cannot be right; and it wiil be 
shown in the latter part of this chapter that the Nearctic region 
is, on the whole, fully as well defined as the Palearctic, by posi- 
tive characters which differentiate it from both the adjacent 
regions. More evidence in the same direction will be found in 
the Second Part of this work, in which the extinct faunas of the 
several regions are discussed. 

A confirmation of the general views here set forth, as to the 
distinctness and approximate equivalence of the six regions, is 
to be found in the fact, that if any two or more of them are com- 
bined they themselves become divisions of the next lower rank, 
or “ sub-regions ;”—and these will be very much more important, 
both zoologieally and geographically, than the subdivisions of 
the remaining regions. It is admitted then that these six regions 
are by no means of precisely equal rank, and that some of them 
are far more isolated and better characterized than others; but 
it is maintained that, looked at from every point of view, they 
are more equal in rank than any others that can be formed ; 
while in geographical equality, compactness of area, and facility 
of definition, they are beyond all comparison better than any 
others that have yet been proposed for the purpose of facilitat- 
ing the study of geographical distribution. They may be ar- 
ranged and grouped as follows, so as to exhibit their various 
relations and affinities. 


Regions. 
Neorropican ... Austral zone......... Notogzea. 
N EARCTIC.....00:- 
PALAARCTIC 
ETHIOPIAN ...... 
ORIENTAL occccece 
AUSTRALIAN ... Austral zone......... Notogeea. 


The above table shows the regions placed in the order followed 
in the Fourth Part of this work, and the reasons for which are 


Neogiea 
Boreal zone ......... 


Arctogeea, 


Paleeogeea Paleotropical zone 


CHAP, IV. ] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 67 
explained in Chapter I IX. Asa matter of convenience, and for 
other reasons adduced in the same chapter, the detailed exposi- 
tion of the geographical distribution of the animals of the several 
regions in Part III. commences with the Palzearctic and termin- 
ates with the Nearctic region. 

Objections to the system of Circumpolar Tie —Mr, Allen’s 
system of “realms” founded on climatic zones (given at 
p. 61), having recently appeared in an ornithological work 
of considerable detail and research, calls for a few remarks. 
The author continually refers to the “law of the distribution of 
life in etreumpolar zones,’ as if it were one generally accepted 
and that admits of no dispute. But this supposed “law” only 
applies to the smallest details of distribution—to the range and 
increasing or decreasing numbers of species as we pass from 
north to south, or the reverse ; while it has little bearing on the 
great features of zoological geography—the limitation of groups 
of genera and families to certain areas. It is analogous to 
the “law of adaptation” in the organisation of animals, by 
which members of various groups are suited for an aerial, an 
aquatic, a desert, or an arboreal life ; are herbivorous, carnivorous, 
or insectivorous; are fitted to live underground, or in fresh 
waters, or on polar ice. It was once thought that these adaptive 
peculiarities were suitable foundations for a classification,—that 
whales were fishes, and bats birds; and even to this day there 
are naturalists who cannot recognise the essential diversity 
of structure in such groups as swifts and swallows, sun-birds and 
humming-birds, under the superficial disguise caused by adap- 
tation to a similar mode of life. The application of Mr. Allen’s 
principle leads to equally erroneous results, as may be well seen 
by considering his separation of “the southern third of Aus- 
tralia” to unite it with New Zealand as one of his secondary 
zoological divisions. If there is one country in the world whose 
fauna is strictly homogeneous, that country is Australia; while 
New Guinea on the one hand, and New Zealand on the other, 
are as sharply differentiated from Australia as any adjacent parts 
of the same primary zoological division can possibly be. Yet 
the “law of cirewmpolar distribution” leads to the division of 

F 2 


68 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS: [PART I. 


Australia by an arbitrary east and west line, and a union of the 
northern two-thirds with New Guinea, the southern third with 
New Zealand. Hardly less unnatural is the supposed equiva- 
lence of South Africa (the African temperate realm) to all 
tropical Africa and Asia, including Madagascar (the Indo- 
African tropical realm). South Africa has, it is true, some 
striking peculiarities; but they are absolutely unimportant as 
compared with the great and radical differences between tropical 
Africa and tropical Asia. On these examples we may fairly 
rest our rejection of Mr. Allen’s scheme. 

We must however say a few words on the zoo-geographical 
nomenclature proposed in the same paper, which seems also 
very objectionable. The following terms are proposed: realm, 
region, province, district, fauna and flora ; the first being the 
highest, the last the lowest and smallest sub-division. Con- 
sidering that most of these terms have been used in very different 
senses already, and that no means of settling their equivalence 
in different parts of the globe has been even suggested, such a 
complex system must lead to endless confusion. Until the 
whole subject is far better known and its first principles agreed 
upon, the simpler and the fewer the terms employed the better ; 
and as “region” was employed for the primary divisions by 
Mr. Sclater, eighteen years ago, and again by Mr, Andrew 
Murray, in his Geographical Distribution of Mammals; nothing 
but obscurity can result from each writer using some new, and 
doubtfully better, term. For the sub-divisions of the regions 
no advantage is gained by the use of a distinct term—* pro- 
vinee”—which has been used (by Swainson) for the primary 
divisions, and which does not itself tell you what rank it holds ; 
whereas the term “sub-region” speaks for itself as being un- 
mistakably next in subordination to region, and this clearness of 
meaning gives it the preference over any independent term. 
As to minor named sub-divisions, they seem at present uncalled 
for; and till the greater divisions are themselves generally 
agreed on, it seems better to adopt no technical names for what 
must, for a long time to come, be indeterminate, 

Does the Arctic Fauna characterize an independent Region.— 


CHAP. IV. ] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 69 


The proposal to consider the Arctic regions as constituting one of 
the primary zoological divisions of the globe, has been advocated 
by many naturalists. Professor Huxley seems to consider it 
advisable, and Mr. Allen unhesitatingly adopts it, as well as an 
“antarctic” region to balance it in the southern hemisphere. 
The reason why an “ Arctic Region ” finds no place in this work 
may therefore be here stated. 

No species or group of animals can properly be classed as 
“ arctic,’ which does not exclusively inhabit or greatly prepon- 
derate in arctic lands. For the purpose of establishing the 
need of an “ arctic ” zoological region, we should consider chiefly 
such groups as are circumpolar as well as arctic; because, if 
they are confined to, or greatly preponderate in, either the 
eastern or western hemispheres, they can be at once allocated to 
the Nearctic or Palearctic regions, and can therefore afford no 
justification for establishing a new primary division of the 
globe. 

Thus restricted, only three genera of land mammalia are truly 
arctic: Gulo, Myodes, and Rangifer. Two species of widely 
dispersed genera are also exclusively arctic, Ursus maritimus 
and Vulpes lagopus. 

Exclusively arctic birds are not much more numerous. Of 
land birds there are only three genera (each consisting of but a 
single species), Pinicola, Nyctea, and Surnia, Lagopus is cir- 
cumpolar, but the genus has too wide an extension in the 
temperate zone to be considered arctic. Among aquatic birds 
we have the genus of ducks, Somateria ; three genera of Uriide, 
Uria, Catarractes, and Mergulus ; and the small family Alcide, 
consisting of the genera Alea and Fratercula. Our total then 
is, three genera of mammalia, three of land, and six of aquatic 
birds, including one peculiar family. 

In the southern hemisphere there is only the single genus 
Aptenodytes that can be classed as antarctic ; and even that is 
more properly south temperate. 

In dealing with this arctic fauna we have two courses open 
to us; we must either group them with the other species and 
genera which are common tv the two northern regions, or we 


70 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


must form a separate primary region for them. As a matter of 
convenience the former plan seems the best; and it is that 
which is in accordance with our treatment of other intermediate 
tracts which contain special forms of life. The great desert 
zone, extending from the Atlantic shores of the Sahara across 
Arabia to Central Asia, is a connecting link between the Pale- 
arctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, and contains a number 
of “desert” forms wholly or almost wholly restricted to it; but 
the attempt to define it as a separate region would introduce 
difficulty and confusion. Neither to the “desert” nor to the 
“arctic” regions could any defined limits, either geographical 
or zoological, be placed; and the attempt to determine what 
species or genera should be allotted to them would prove an 
insoluble problem. The reason perhaps is, that both are essen- 
tially unstable, to a much greater extent than those great masses 
of land with more or less defined barriers, which constitute our 
six regions. The Arctic Zone has been, within a recent geologi- 
cal period, both vastly more extensive and vastly less extensive 
than it is at present. Ata not distant epoch it extended over 
half of Europe and of North America, At an earlier date it 
appears to have vanished altogether; since a luxuriant vegeta- 
tion of tall deciduous trees and broad-leaved evergreens 
flourished within ten degrees of the Pole! The great deserts 
have not improbably been equally fluctuating; hence neither 
the one nor the other can present that marked individuality 
in their forms of life, which seems to have arisen only when 
extensive tracts of land have retained some considerable sta- 
bility both of surface and climatal conditions, during periods 
sufficient for the development and co-adaptation of their several 
assemblages of plants and animals. 

We must also consider that there is no geographical difficulty 
in dividing the Arctic Zone between the two northern regions. 
The only debateable lands, Greenland and Iceland, are generally 
admitted to belong respectively to America and Europe, 
Neither is there any zoological difficulty ; for the land mam- 
malia and birds are on the whole wonderfully restricted to their 
respective regions even in high latitudes ; and the aquatic forms 


CHAP. 1V.} ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 71 


are, for our present purpose, of much less importance. As a 
primary division the “Arctic region” would be out of all pro- 
portion to the other six, whether as regards its few peculiar 
types or the limited number of forms and species actually in- 
habiting it; but it comes in well as a counecting link between 
two regions, where the peculiar forms of both are specially modi- 
fied; and is in this respect quite analogous to the great desert 
zone above referred to, 

I now proceed to characterize briefly the six regions adopted 
in the present work, together with the sub-regions into which 
they may be most conveniently and naturally divided, as shown 
in our general map. 

Palearctic Region—This very extensive region comprises all 
temperate Europe and Asia, from Iceland to Behring’s Straits and 
from the Azores to Japan. Its southern boundary is some- 
what indefinite, but it seems advisable to comprise in it all 
the extra-tropical part of the Sahara and Arabia, and all 
Persia, Cabul, and Beloochistan to the Indus. It comes down 
to a little below the upper limit of forests in the Himalayas, 
and includes the larger northern half of China, not quite so 
far down the coast as Amoy. It has been said that this 
region differs from the Oriental by negative characters only; a 
host of tropical families and genera being absent, while there is 
little or nothing but peculiar species to characterize it abso- 
lutely. This however is not true. The Palearctic region is well 
characterized by possessing 3 families of vertebrata peculiar 
to it, as well as 35 peculiar genera of mammalia, and 57 
of birds, constituting about one-third of the total number it 
possesses, These are amply sufficient to characterize a region 
positively ; but we must also consider the absence of many im- 
portant groups of the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Nearctic regions ; 
and we shall then find, that taking positive and negative 
characters together, and making some allowance for the neces- 
sary poverty of a temperate as compared with tropical regions, 
the Palearctic is almost as strongly marked and well defined as 
any other. 

Sub-divisions of the Palearctic Region.—These are by no means 


| 
NG) 


DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART 1: 


so clearly indicated as in some of the other regions, and they are 
adopted more for convenience than because they are very natural 
or strongly marked. 

The first, or European sub-region, comprises Central and 
Northern Europe as far South as the Pyrenees, the Maritime 
aud Dinaric Alps, the Balkan mountains, the Black Sea, and the 
Caucasus. On the east the Caspian sea and the Ural mountains 
seem the most obvious limit; but it is doubtful if they form the 
actual boundary, which is perhaps better marked by the valley 
of the Irtish, where a pre-glacial sea almost certainly connected 
the Aral.and Caspian seas with the Arctie ocean, and formed 
an effective barrier which must still, to some extent, influence 
the distribution of animals. 

The next, or Mediterranean sub-region, comprises South 
Europe, North Africa with the extra-tropieal portion of the 
Sahara, and Egypt to about the first or second cataracts ; and 
eastward through Asia Minor, Persia, and Cabul, to the deserts 
of the Indus. 

The third, or Siberian sub-region, consists ef all north and 
centrval Asia north of Herat, as far as the eastern limits of the 
great desert plateau of Mongolia, and southward to about the 
upper limit of trees on the Himalayas. 

The fourth, or Manchurian sub-region, consists of Japan and 
North China with the lower valley of the Amoor; and it should 
probably be extended westward in a narrow strip along the 
Himalayas, embracing about 1,000 or 2,000 feet of vertical 
distanee below the upper limit of trees, till it meets an eastern 
extension of the Mediterranean sub-region a little beyond Simla. 
These extensions are necessary to avoid passing from the Oriental 
region, which is essentially tropical, directly to the Siberian sub- 
region, Which bas an extreme northern eharacter; whereas the 
Mediterranean and Manchurian sub-regions aye more temperate 
in climate. It will be found that between the upper limit of 
most of the typical Oriental groups and the Thibetan or Siberian 
fauna, there is a zone in which many forms occur common to 
temperate China, This is especially the case among the phea- 
sants and finches. 


CHAP. IV.] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 73 


Ethiopian Region —The limits of this region have been indi- 
cated by the definition of the Paleearctic region. Besides Africa 
south of the tropic of Cancer, and its islands, it comprises the 
southern half of Arabia. 

This region has been said to be identical in the main charac- 
ters of its mammalian fauna with the Oriental region, and has 
therefore been united with it by Mr. A. Murray. Most impor- 
tant differences have however been overlooked, as the following 
summary of the peculiarities of the Ethiopian region will, I 
think, show. 

It possesses 22 peculiar families of vertebrates; 90 peculiar 
genera of mammalia, being two-thirds of its whole number ; 
and 179 peculiar genera of birds, being three-fifths of all it 
possesses. It is further characterized by the absence of several 
families and genera which range over the whole northern 
hemisphere, details of which will be found in the chapter 
treating of the region. There are, it is true, many points 
of resemblance, not to be wondered at between two tropical 
regions in the same hemisphere, and which have evidently been 
at one time more nearly connected, both by intervening lands 
and by a different condition of the lands that even now connect 
them. But these resemblances only render the differences more 
remarkable ; since they show that there has been an ancient and 
long-continued separation of the two regions, developing a dis- 
tinct fauna in each, and establishing marked specialities which 
the temporary intercommunication and immigration has not 
sufficed to remove. The entire absence of such wide-spread 
groups as bears and deer, from a country many parts of which 
are well adapted to them, and in close proximity to regions 
where they abound, would alone mark out the Ethiopian region 
as one of the primary divisions of the earth, even if it possessed 
a less number than it actually does of peculiar family and 
generic groups. 

Sub-divisions of the Ethiopian Region—The African conti- 
nent south of the tropic of Cancer is more homogeneous in its 
prominent and superficial zoological features than most of the 
other regions, but there are nevertheless important and deep- 


74 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 
seated local peculiarities. Two portions can be marked off as 
possessing many peculiar forms; the luxuriant forest district 
of equatorial West Africa, and the southern extremity or Cape 
district. The remaining portion has no well-marked divisions, 
and a large proportion of its animal forms range over it from 
Nubia and Abyssinia, to Senegal on the one side and to the 
Zambesi on the other; this forms our first or East-African 
sub-region. 

The second, or West African sub-region extends along the 
coast from Senegal to Angola, and inland to the sources of the 
Shary and the Congo. 

The third, or South African sub-region, comprises the Cape 
Colony and Natal, and is roughly limited by a line from Delagoa 
Bay to Walvish Bay. 

The fourth, or Malagasy sub-region, consists of Madagascar and 
the adjacent islands, from Rodriguez to the Seychelles ; and this 
differs so remarkably from the continent that it has been pro- 
posed to form a distinct primary region for its reception. Its 
productions are indeed highly interesting; since it possesses 
3 families, and 2 sub-families of mammals peculiar to itself, 
while almost all its genera are peculiar. Of these a few 
show Oriental or Ethiopian affinities, but the remainder are 
quite isolated. Turning to other classes of animals, we find 
that the birds are almost as remarkable; but, as might be 
expected, a larger number of genera are common to surround- 
ing countries. More than 30 genera are altogether peculiar, 
and some of these are so isolated as to require to be classed 
in separate families or sub-families. The African affinity is how- 
ever here more strongly shown by the considerable number (13) 
of peculiar Ethiopian genera which in Madagascar have repre- 
sentative species. There can be no doubt therefore about Mada- 
gascar being more nearly related to the Ethiopian than to any 
other region; but its peculiarities are so great, that, were it not 
for its small size and the limited extent of its fauna, its claim to 
rank as a separate region might not seem unreasonable. It is 
true that it is not poorer in mammals than Australia; but that 
country is far more isolated, and cannot be so decidedly and 


a a 


CHAP. 1V.] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 75 
naturally associated with any other region as Madagascar can 
be with the Ethiopian, It is therefore the better and more 
natural course to keep it as a sub-region; the peculiarities it 
exhibits being of exactly the same kind as those presented by 
the Antilles, by New Zealand, and even by Celebes and Ceylon, 
but in a much greater degree. 

Oriental Region.—On account of the numerous objections 
that have been made to naming a region from the least charac- 
teristic portion of it, and not thinking “ Malayan,” proposed by 
Mr. Blanford, a good term, (as it has a very circumscribed and 
definite meaning, and especially because the “ Malay” archi- 
pelago is half of it in the Australian region,) I propose to use 
the word “ Oriental” instead of “ Indian,” as being geographically 
applicable to the whole of the countries ee in the region 
and to very few beyond it; as being euphonious, and as being 
free from all confusion with terms already used in zoological 
geography. I trust therefore that it may meet with general 
acceptance. 

This small, compact, but rich and sae revion, consists of 
all India and China from the limits of the Palearctic region ; 
all the Malay peninsula and islands as far east as Java and 
Baly, Borneo and the Philippine Islands; and Formosa. It is 
positively characterized by possessing 12 peculiar families of 
vertebrata ; by 55 genera of land mammalia, and 165 genera 
of land birds, altogether confined to it; these peculiar genera 
forming in each case about one half of the total number it 
possesses. 

Sub-divisions of the Oriental region—First we have the 
Indian sub-region, consisting of Central India from the foot of 
the Himalayas in the west, and south of the Ganges to the 
east, as far as a line drawn from Goa curving south and up to 
the Kistna river; this is the portion which has most affinity 
with Africa. 

The second, or Ceylonese sub-region, consists of the southern 
extremity of India with Ceylon; this is a mountainous forest 
region, and possesses several peculiar forms as well as some 
Malayan types not found in the first sub-region. 


76 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


Next we have the Indo-Chinese sub-region, comprising South 
China and Burmah, extending westward along the Himalayan 
range to an altitude of about 9,000 or 10,000 feet, and south- 
ward to Tavoy or Tenasserim. 

The last is the Indo-Malayan sub-region, comprising the 
Peninsula of Malacca and the Malay Islands to Baly, Borneo, 
and the Philippines. 

On account of the absence from the first sub-region of many of 
the forms most characteristic of the other three, and the number 
of families and genera of mammalia and birds which occur in it 
and also in Africa, it has been thought by some naturalists that 
this part of India has at least an equal claim to be classed as a 
part of the Ethiopian region. This question will be found fully 
discussed in Chapter XII. devoted to the Oriental region, where 
it is shown that the African affinity is far less than has been 
represented, and that in all its essential features Central India is 
wholly Oriental in its fauna. 

Before leaving this region a few words may be said about 
Lemuria, 2 name proposed by Mr. Sclater for the site of a sup- 
posed submerged continent extending from Madagascar to Ceylon 
and Sumatra, in which the Lemuroid type of animals was devel- 
oped. This is undoubtedly a legitimate and highly probable sup- 
position, and it is an example of the way in which a study of the 
geographical distribution of animals may enable us to reconstruct 
the geography of a bygone age. But we must not, as Mr. Blyth 
proposed, make this hypothetical land one of our actual Zoo- 
logical regions. It represents what was probably a primary 
Zoological region in some past geological epoch; but what that 
epoch was and what were the limits of the region in question, we 
are quite unable to say. If we are to suppose that it comprised 
the whole area now inhabited by Lemuroid animals, we must 
make it extend from West Africa to Burmah, South China, and 
Celebes; an area which it possibly did once oceupy, but which 
cannot be formed into a modern Zoological region without vio- 
lating much more important affinities. If, on the other hand, 
we leave out all those areas which undoubtedly belong to other 
regions, we reduce Temuria to Madagascar and its adjacent 


CHAP. IV.] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. at 
islands, which, for reasons already stated, it is not advisable to 
treat as a primary Zoological region. The theory of this ancient 
continent and the light it may throw on existing anomalies of 
distribution, will be more fully considered in the geographical 
part of this work. 

Australian Region.—Mr. Sclater’s original name seems pre- 
ferable to Professor Huxley’s, “ Austral-Asian;” the incon- 
venience of which alteration is sufficiently shown by the fact 
that Mr. Blyth proposed to use the very same term as an 
appropriate substitute for the “Indian region” of Mr. Sclater. 
Australia is the great central mass of the region; it is by far the 
richest in varied and highly remarkable forms of life; and it 
therefore seems in every way fitted to give a name to the region 
of which it is the essential element. The limits of this region 
in the Pacific are somewhat obscure, but as so many of the 
Pacific Islands are extremely poor zoologically, this is not of 
great importance. 

Sub-divisions of the Australian Region.—The first sub-region 
is the Austro-Malayan, including the islands from Celebes and 
Lombock on the west to the Solomon Islands on the east. The 
Australian sub-region comes next, consisting of Australia and 
Tasmania. The third, or Polynesian sub-region, will consist 
of all the tropical Pacific Islands, and is characterized by 
several peculiar genera of birds which are all allied to Australian 
types. The fourth, consists of New Zealand with Auckland, 
Chatham, and Norfolk Islands, and must be called the New 
Zealand sub-region. 

The extreme peculiarities of New Zealand, due no doubt to 
its great isolation and to its being the remains of a more 
extensive land, have induced several naturalists to suggest that 
it ought justly to form a Zoological region by itself. But the 
inconveniences of such a procedure have been already pointed 
out; and when we look at its birds as a whole (they being the 
only class sufficiently well represented to found any conclusion 
upon) we find that the majority of them belong to Australian 
genera, and where the genera are peculiar they are most nearly 
related to Australian types. The preservation in these islands 


78 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


of a single representative of a unique order of reptiles, is, as 
before remarked, of the same character as the preservation of 
the Proteus in the caverns of Carniola ; and can give the locality 
where it happens to have survived no claim to form a primary 
Zoological region, unless supported by a tolerably varied and 
distinctly characterized fauna, such as never exists in a very 
restricted and insular area. 

Neotropical Region—Mr. Sclater’s sein name for this 
region is preserved, because change of nomenclature is always 
an evil; and neither Professor Huxley’s suggested alteration 
. Raise: Columbia,” nor Mr. Sclater’s new term “ Dendrogea,” 
appear to be improvements. The region is essentially a tropical — 
one, aud the extra-tropical portion of it is not important 
enough to make the name inappropriate. That proposed by 
Professor Huxley is not free from the same kind of criticism, 
since it would imply that the region was exclusively South 
American, whereas a considerable tract of North America 
belongs to it. This region includes South America, the 
Antilles and tropical North America; and it possesses more 
peculiar families of vertebrates and genera of birds and mam- 
malia than any other region. 

Subdivisions of the Neotropical Region.—The great central 
mass of South America, from the shores of Venezuela to Paraguay 
and Eastern Peru, constitutes the chief division, and may be 
termed the Brazilian sub-region. It is on the whole a forest 
country; its most remarkable forms are highly developed 
arboreal types; and it exhibits all the characteristics of this rich 
and varied continent in their highest development. 

The second, or Chilian sub-region, consists of the open plains, 
pampas, and mountains of the southern extremity of the con- 
tinent; and we must include in it the west side of the Andes as 
far as the limits of the forest near Payta, and the whole of the 
high Andean plateaus as far as 4° of south latitude; which 
makes it coincide with the range of the Camelide and Chin- 
chillidee, 

The third, or Mexican sub-region, consists of Central America 
and Southern Mexico, but it has no distinguishing character- 


ry. 


CHAP. IV.] ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. 79 


istics except the absence of some of the more highly specialized 
Neotropical groups. It is, however, a convenient division as 
comprising the portion of the North American continent which 
belongs zoologically to South America. 

The fourth, or Antillean sub-region, consists of the West 
India islands (except Trinidad and Tobago, which are detached 
portions of the continent and must be grouped in the first sub- 
region) ; and these reproduce, in a much less marked degree, 
the phenomena presented by Madagascar. Terrestrial mammals 
are almost entirely wanting, but the larger islands possess three 
genera which are altogether peculiar to them. The birds are 
of South American forms, but comprise many peculiar genera. 
Terrestrial molluscs are more abundant and varied than in any 
part of the globe of equal extent; and if these alone were 
considered, the Antilles would constitute an important Zoological 
region. 

Nearctic Region—This region comprises all temperate North 
America and Greenland. The arctic lands and islands beyond 
the limit of trees form a transitional territory to the Palearctic 
region, but even here there are some characteristic species. 
The southern limit between this region and the Neotropical is a 
little uncertain ; but it may be drawn at about the Rio Grande 
del Norte on the east coast, and a little north of Mazatlan on 
the west; while on the central plateau it descends much farther 
south, and should perhaps include all the open highlands of 
Mexico and Guatemala. This would coincide with the range of 
several characteristic Nearctic genera. 

Istinetion of the Nearctic from the Palearctic Region.—The 
Nearctic region possesses twelve peculiar families of vertebrates 
or one-tenth of its whole number. It has also twenty-four 
peculiar genera of mammalia and fifty-two of birds, in each 
ease nearly one-third of all it possesses. This proportion is very 
nearly the same es in the Palearctic region, while the number of 
peculiar families of vertebrata is very much greater. It has been 
already seen that both Mr. Blyth and Professor Huxley are 
disposed to unite this region with the Palearctic, while Pro- 
fessor Newton, in his article on birds in the new edition of the 


80 - DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


Encyclopedia Britannica, thinks that as regards that class it 
can hardly claim to be more than a sub-region of the Neotropical. 
These views are mutually destructive, but it will be shown in 
the proper place, that on independent grounds the Nearctic 
region can very properly be maintained. 

Subdivisions of the Nearctic Region The sub-regions here 
depend on the great physical features of the country, and have 
been in some cases accurately defined by American naturalists. 
First we have the Californian sub-region, consisting of Cali- 
fornia and Oregon—a narrow tract between the Sierra Nevada 
and the Pacific, but characterized by a number of peculiar 
species and by several genera found nowhere else in the region. 

The second, or Rocky Mountain sub-region, consists of this 
great mountain range with its plateaus, and the central plains 
and prairies to about 100° west longitude, but including New 
Mexico and Texas in the South. 

The third and most important sub-region, which may be 
termed the Alleghanian, extends eastward to the Atlantic, in- 
cluding the Mississippi Valley, the Alleghany Mountains, and 
the Eastern United States. This is an old forest district, and 
contains most of the characteristic animal types of the region. 

The fourth, or Canadian sub-region, comprises all the northern 
part of the continent from the great lakes to the Arctic ocean ; 
a land of pine-forests and barren wastes, characterized by Arctic 
types and the absence of many of the genera which distin- 
cuish the more southern portions of the region. 

Observations on the series of Sub-regions.—The twenty-four sub- 
regions here adopted were arrived at by a careful consideration 
of the distribution of the more important genera, and of the 
materials, both zoological and geographical, available for their 
determination; and it was not till they were almost finally 
decided on, that they were found to be equal in number through- 
out all the regions—four in each. As this uniformity is of great 
advantage in tabular and diagrammatic presentations of the 
distribution of the several families, I decided not to disturb 
it unless very strong reasons should appear for adopting a greater 
or less number in any particular case. Such however have not 


CHAP. IV. | ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS. $1 


arisen; and it is hoped that these divisions will prove as satis- 
factory and useful to naturalists in general as they have been to 
the author. Of course, in a detailed study of any region much 
more minute sub-division may be required; but even in that 
case it is believed that the sub-regions here adopted, will be 
found, with slight modifications, permanently available for ex- 
hibiting general results. 

I give here a table showing the proportionate richness and 
speciality of each region as determined by its families of verte- 
brates and genera of mammalia and birds ; and also a general 
table of the regions and sub-regions, arranged in the order that 
seems best to show their mutual relations. 


CoMPARATIVE RICHNESS OF THE Six REGIONS. 


VERTEBRATA. MAMMALIA. BIrps, 
R . ~ ERE * . . m ° 
ee ce | Genera eee | wetrage| (SDE gece Laatnes 
Palearctic...) 136 3 100 35 35 174 57 33 
Ethiopian ome fe We! 22 140 YO 64 294. 179 60 
Oriental......| 164 12 L18 55 46 340 165 48 


Australian...) 141 30 fe 44 61 298 189 64 
Neotropical..| 168 44 130 103 (he, 683 | 576 86 
Nearctic .....| 122 12 74 24 a2 169 52 ol 


TABLE OF REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS. 


I. Palearctic...) 1. North Europe. 
| 2. Mediterranean (or S. Eu.) Transition to Ethiopian. 
3. Siberia. Transition to Nearctic. 
4, Manchuria (or Japan) Transition to Oriental. 


Regions, Sub-regions. | Remarks. 
East Africa. Transition to Paleearctic. | 
| 


ie 

2. West Africa. 
| 3. South Africa. 
4, Madagascar. 


II. Ethiopian .. 


82 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART. 1. 


TABLE OF REGIONS AND SuB-REGIONS—continued. 


Regions. Sub-regions. Remarks. 
o o .Y 


1. Hindostan (or Central Ind.) Transition to Ethiopian. 
2, Ceylon. 
3. Indo-China (or Himalayas)| Transition to Palearctic. 
4, Indo-Malaya. : Transition to Australian. 


III. Oriental...... 


IV. Australian...) 1. Austro-Malaya. Transition to Oriental. 
2. Australia. 

3. Polynesia. 
4 


. New Zealand. Transition to Neotropical. 


1. Chili (or S. Temp. Am.) | Transition to Australian. 
2. Brazil. 

3. Mexico (or Trop. N. Am.)} Transition to Nearctie. 
4, Antilles. 


V. Neotropical.. 


1. California. 

2. Rocky Mountains. Transition to Neotropical. 
3. Alleghanies (or East U. 8.) 

4, Canada. Transition to Palearctic. 


VI. Nearctic..... 


CHAPTER V. 


CLASSIFICATION AS AFFECTING THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHICAL 
DISTRIBUTION. 


A LITTLE consideration will convince us, that no inquiry into 
the causes and laws which determine the geographical distribn- 
tion of animals or plants can lead to satisfactory results, unless 
we have a tolerably accurate knowledge of the affinities of the 
several species, genera, and families to each other; in other 
words, we require a natural classification to work upon. Let us, 
for example, take three animals—a, b, and c—which have a 
general external resemblance to each other, and are usually 
considered to be really allied; and let us suppose that a and 6 
inhabit the same or adjacent districts, while ¢ is found far away 
on the other side of the globe, with no animals at all resembling 
it in any of the intervening countries. We should here have a 
difficult problem to solve; for we should have to show that the 
general laws by which we account for the main features of 
distribution, will explain this exceptional case. But now, sup- 
pose some comparative anatomist takes these animals in hand, 
and finds that the resemblance of ¢ to a and 0 is only superficiai, 
while their internal structure exhibits marked and important 
differences; and that ¢ really belongs to another group of 
animals, d, which inhabits the very region in which c¢ was 
found—and we should no longer have anything to explain. 
This is no imaginary case. Up to a very few years ago a 
curious Mexican animal, Bassaris astuta, was almost always 
classed in the civet family (Viverride), a group entirely con- 
G2 


84 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


fined to Africa and Asia; but it has now been conclusively 
shown by Professor Flower that its real affinities are with the 
racoons (Procyonide), a group confined to North and South 
America. In another case, however, an equally careful exami- 
nation shows, that an animal peculiar to the Himalayas (#/urus 
fulgens) has its nearest ally in the Cercoleptes of South America. 
Here, therefore, the geographical difficulty really exists, and any 
satisfactory theory of the causes that have led to the existing 
distribution of living things, must be able to account, more or 
less definitely, for this and other anomalies. From these cases 
it will be evident, that if any class or order of animals is very 
imperfectly known and its classification altogether artificial, it is 
useless to attempt to account for the anomalies its distribution 
may present; since those anomalies may be, to a great extent, 
due to false notions as to the affinities of its component species. 

According to the laws and causes of distribution discussed in 
the preceding chapters, we should find limited and defined 
distribution to be the rule, universal or indefinite distribution to 
be the exception, in every natural group corresponding to what 
are usually regarded as families and genera; and so much is 
this the case in nature, that when we find a group of this 
nominal rank scattered as it were at random over the earth, we 
have a strong presumption that it is not natural; but is, to a 
considerable extent, a haphazard collection of species. Of course 
this reasoning will only apply, in cases where there are no 
unusual means of dispersal, nor any exceptional causes which 
might determine a scattered distribution. 

From the considerations now adduced it becomes evident, that 
it is of the first importance for the success of our inquiry to 
secure a natural classification of animals, especially as regards 
the families and genera. The higher groups, such as classes and 
orders, are of less importance for our purpose; because they are 
almost always widely and often universally distributed, except 
those which are so small as to be evidently the nearly extinet 
representatives of a once more extensive series of forms. We 
now proceed to explain the classification to be adopted, as low 
down as the series of families, To these, equivalent English 


CHAP. V.] CLASSIFICATION. 85 


names are given wherever they exist, in order that readers pos- 
sessing no technical knowledge, may form some conception of 
the meaning of the term “ family ” in zoology. 

The primary divisions of the animal kingdom according to 
two eminent modern authorities are as follows : 


CARUS AND GERSTAEKER. 
Handbuch der Zoologie (1868). 


HUXLEY. 
Classification of Animals (1869). 


1. Protozoa 1. Protozoa. 
2. Infusoria 
3. Coelenterata 


4, Annuloida 


2. Coelenterata. 

3. Echinodermata. 
4, Vermes. 

5, Arthropoda. 

6. Molluscoida. 

7. Mollusca. 

8. Vertebrata. 


5. Annulosa 


6. Molluscoida 
7. Mollusca 
8. Vertebrata 


For reasons already stated it is only with the fifth, seventh, 
and eighth of these groups that the present work proposes to 
deal; and even with the fifth and seventh only partially and in 
the most general way. 

The classes of the vertebrata, according to both the authors 
above quoted, are: 1. Mammalia, 2. Aves. 3. Reptilia. 4. 
Amphibia. 5. Pisces, in which order they will be taken here. 

The sub-classes and orders of mammalia are as follows : 


MAMMALIA. 
HUvUXLEY (1869), FLoweEr (1870). Carus (1868). 
, 1. Primates. 
I. Primates®. .2: ats 5 Dena 
2. Chiroptera 2. Chiroptera. 
3. Insectivora ... one 3. Insectivora. 
. 6. Carnivora. 
4, Carnivora ... <io 7.. Pinnipedia. 
} 5. Cetacea 
Monodelphia... Bi ics ; 12. Natantia. 
10. Artiodactyla. 
7. Ungulata 11. Perissodactyla. 
8. Proboscidea ... 9. Proboscidea. 
9. Hyracoidea ... 8. Lamnungia. 
10. Rodentia 4. Rodentia. 
1]. Edentata 13. Bruta. 
Didelphia ...... 12. Marsupialia... 14, Marsupialia. 
Ornithodelphia 13. Monotremata 15. Monotremata. 


86 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


The above series of orders is arranged according to Professor 
Flower’s Osteology of Mammalia, and they will follow in this 
succession throughout my work. Professor Huxley arranges 
the same orders in a different series. 

In determining the manner in which the several orders shall 
be subdivided into families, I have been guided in my choice of 
classifications mainly by the degree of attention the author ap- 
pears to have paid to the group, and his known ability as a 
systematic zoclogist ; and in a less degree by considerations of 
convenience as regards the special purposes of geographical dis- 
tribution. In many cases it is a matter of great doubt whether 
a certain group should form several distinct families or be united 
into one or two; but one method may bring out the peculiarities 
of distribution much better than the other, and this is, in our 
case, a sufficient reason for adopting it. 

For the Primates I follow, with some modifications, the 
classification of Mr. St. George Mivart given in his article 
“ Apes” in the new edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and 
in his paper in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 
1865, p. 547. It is as follows: 


Order—PRIMATES, divided into two Sub-orders : 
I, Anthropoidea. 
II. Lemuroidea. 


Sub-order—ANTHROPOIDEA. 


Fam. 
Hominide ... .... Man. 
1. Simiide ... ... .... Anthropoid Apes. 
Simdd cee. cesaeees | 2. Semnopithecidee ... Old-world Monkeys. 
3. Cynopithecide ... Baboons and Macaques. 
Cebii § 4. Cebide ... ... ... American Monkeys. 
ee ah Sr (5. Hapalide ... ... Marmosets, 
Sub-order-- LEmUROIDEA, 
Fam. 
@ Tmmuridiee occ ssn 'cce ive eee OO 
(Abe! eae rie ee se 
8 Chiromyide ods Gon. nae (04h, OOO 


Omitting man (for reasons stated in the preface) the three 
first families are considered by Professor Mivart to be sub- 
families of Simiide; but as the geographical distribution of 
the Old World apes is especially interesting, it is thought 


CHAP. V.] CLASSIFICATION. 87 


better to treat them as families, a rank which is claimed for the 
anthropoid apes by many naturalists. 

As no good systematic work on the genera and species of bats 
has been yet published, I adopt the five families as generally 
used in this country, with the genera as given in the papers of 
Dr. J. E. Gray and Mr. Tomes. A monograph by Dr. Peters 
has long been promised, and his outline arrangement was 
published in 1865, but this will perhaps be materially altered 
when the work appears. 


Order—CHIROPTERA. 


Fam. 
Frugivora ox, oe ... 9. Pteropide ... Fruit-eating Bats. 
Istiophora 10. Phyllostomidee ... Leaf-nosed Bats. 
Insectivora 11. Rhinolophide ...  Horse-shoe Bats. 
Gymnorhini 12. Vespertilionide ... True Bats. 
13. Noctilionide ...  Dog-headed Bats. 


‘The genera of Chiroptera are in a state of great confusion, the 
names used py different authors being often not at all compar- 
able, so that the few details given of the distribution of the 
bats are not trustworthy. We have therefore made little use 
of this order in the theoretical part of the work. 

The osteology of the Insectivora has been very carefully 
worked out by Professor Mivart in the Jounral of Anatomy 
and Physiology (Vol. 1i., p. 880), and I follow his classification 
as given there, and in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society 
(1871). 

Order—INSECTIVORA. 


Fam. 


14. Galeopithecidee se fee sit Flying Lemurs. 
15, Macroscelididz ae Fs oe Elephant Shrews. 
16. Tupaiide ... sete “ee bi Squirrel Shrews. 
17. Erinaceide ... aa oc oy Hedgehogs. 

18. Centetide ... - ne ise Tenrecs. 

19. Potamogalidee = eh ee Otter Shrew. 

20. Chrysochloridze eae =i oe Golden Moles. 
21. Talpidee ata es a = Moles. 

22. Soricidee — ave nd eK Shrews. 


The next order, Carnivora, has been studied in detail by 
Professor Flower ; and I adopt the classification given by him in 
the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1869, p. 4. 


88 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART L 
Order—CARNIVORA\. 
Fam. 
ao. elias - .... ... Cats, Lion, &e. 
| 24, Cryptoproctide ... Cryptoprocta. 
ZEluroidea < 25. Viverridie ... Civets. 
iF Protelidee Aard-wolf. 
Tisinddire 27. Hyzenidee Hyzenas. 
P Cynoidea 28. Canide ... Dogs, Foxes, &c. 
| 29. Mustelidze Weasels. 
. 30. Procyonidz Racoons. 
Arctoidea 3l. Whadas Pandas. 
32. Urside .. Bears. 
33. Otariide ... Eared Seals. 
Pinnipedia 34. Trichechide Walrus. 
35. Phocide.... Seals. 


The Cetacea is one of those orders the classification of which 
is very unsettled. The animals comprising it are so huge, and 
there is so much difficulty in preserving them, that only a very 
few species are known with anything like completeness. A con- 
siderable number of genera and species have been described or 
indicated ; but as many of these are founded on imperfect speci- 
mens of perhaps a single individual, it is not to be wondered at 
that those few naturalists who occupy themselves with the study 
of these large animals, cannot agree as to the proper mode of group- 
ing them into natural families. They are, however, of but little 
importance to us, as almost all the species inhabit the ocean, and 
of only a few of them can it be said that anything is accurately 
known of their distribution. I therefore consider it best to follow 
Professor Carus, who makes a smaller number of families ; but 
I give also the arrangement of Dr. Gray in his British Museum 
catalogue of whales and seals, as modified subsequently in 
the Proceedings of Zoological Society, 1870, p. 772. The Zeu- 
glodontide, a family of extinct tertiary whales, are classed by 
Professors Owen and Carus between Cetacea and Sirenia, while 
Professor Huxley considers them to have been carnivorous and 
allied to the seals. 


CHAP. V.] CLASSIFICATION. 89 


tc CCC CCL i 


Order—CETACEA. 


Fam, (CARUS). Fam. (GRAY). 
Sub-order L.— | Balenide ... ... ... 36. Balenide. 
Mystaceti. ( Balenopteride ... ... 37. Baleenopteride. 
Catodontide ... ...  ... 38. Catodontide. 
Hyperoodontide. 
Hyperoodontide ... 39. Eblodontide 
Sub-order I1.— . Xiphiade. . 
ication ate. Monodontidee .. a 40. (Part of Delphinidz.) 
; Platanistide. 
Iniadee. 
Delphinide. 
Delphinide ... ... «.. 41.) Globiocephalide. 
Orcadee. 
Belugidee. 
Pontoporiade. 


Extinct family Zeuglodontide. 


Order—SIRENIA. 


The order Sirenia, comprising the sea-cows, consists of a single 
family : 


Family 42. Manatide. 


The extensive order Ungulata comprises the three orders 
Pachydermata, Solidungula, and Ruminantia of the older natu- 
ralists. The following classification is that now generally 
adopted, the only difference of opinion being as to whether 
some of the groups should be classed as families or sub-families, 
a matter of little importance for our purpose: 


Order—UNGULATA. 


Fam. 
. 43. Equide ... ... Horses. 
Perissodactyla or ee ; 
Odd-toed Ungulates ! oss vee 44, Vapinid@e-..c) ser SE Spires. 


45. Rhinocerotide... Rhinoceros. 
. 46. Hippopotamidze Hippopotamus. 
Saat in Suide ... ... Swine. 
Artiodactyla or ylopoda 48, Camelide ... Camels. 
: Tragulina 49. Tragulide ... Chevrotains. 
Even-toed Ungulates 50. Cervides .., .-. Deer. 
Pecora {5 Camelopardide — Giraffes. 


: - Cattle, Sheep, 
52. Bovide ... ue Antelopes, &c. 


90 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


The two next orders consist of but a single family each, viz. : 


Order Fam. 
PROBOSCIDEA ... 53. Elephantide ... ... Elephants. 
HYRACOIDEA ... 54. Hyracidee ..» «+ Rock-rabbits. 


We now come to the Rodentia, a very extensive and difficult 
order, in which there is still much difference of opinion as to 
the details of classification, although the main outlines are pretty 
well settled. The foundations of a true classification of this 
order were laid by Mr. G. R. Waterhouse more than thirty years 
ago, and succeeding authors have done little more than follow 
his arrangement with unimportant modifications. Professor 
Lilljeborg, of Upsala, has however made a special study of this 
group of animals, and has given an original and detailed classifi- 
cation of all the genera. (Systematisk Ofversigt af de Gnagande 
Diggdjuren, Glires. Upsala, 1866.) I follow this arrangement 
with a few slight modifications suggested by other naturalists, 
and which make it better adapted for the purposes of this work. 


Order—RODENTIA. 


Fam. 
55. Muride Sai,” lee ee 
56. Spalacidee ... .... Mole-rats. 
57. Dipodide ... ... Jerboas. 
ain 58, Myoxidee ose ace ©=DOFMION 
(Wa tacbound) 59. Saccomyide ... ... Pouched Rats, 
: GO. Castoride ... ... Beavers. 
si mplicidentati 61. Sciuride —... ... Squirrels. 
—- 62. Haploodontide  ... Sewellels. 
63. Chinchillidee ... .... Chinchillas, 
64, Octodontide ... ... Octodons. 
Hystricina ) 65. Echimyide ... ... Spiny Rats. 
(Waterhouse) ) 66. Cercolabide ... ... Tree Porcupines. 
67. Hystricide ... ... Porcupines. 
68. Caviidee ok, - ace Onvien, 
Duplicidentati Leporina 69. Layomyide ... ... Pikas. 
upherentatt) (Waterhouse) (70. Leporide asf C nes 


The Edentata have been classified by Mr. Turner, in the 
Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1851, p. 205), by Dr. 
Gray in the British Museum Catalogue, and by Professor Carus 
in his Handbuch. The former takes a middle course between 


cnar. V.] CLASSIFICATION. | 91 


the numerous families of Dr. Gray, seven in number, and the 
two families to which Professor Carus restricts the existing 
species. I therefore follow Mr. Turner. 


Order—EDENTATA. 


Fam. 


Bradypoda ... 71. Bradypodide ... Sloths. 
72. Manidide .... .... Scaly Ant-eaters. 
3. Dasypodide ... Armadillos. 


Entomophaga é . 
P'S") 74, Orycteropodide... Ant-bears. 


75. Myrmecophagide Ant-eaters. 


The Marsupials have been well classified and described by 
Mr. Waterhouse in the first volume of his Natural [istory of 
Mammalia, and his arrangement is here followed. The sub- 
orders adopted by Professor Carus are also given. 


Order—MARSUPIALIA. 


Fam. 


76. Didelphide ... .... Opossums. 
. 77. Dasyuride ..._... Native Cats. 
Rapacia (Wagner)... 78. Myrmecobiide ... Native Ant-eater. 


79. Peramelide... ... Bandicoots. 
Poephaga (Owen) ... 80. Macropodide ... Kangaroos. 
Carpophaga (Owen) ... 81. Phalangistide ... Phalangers. 
Rhizophaga (Owen) ... 82. Phascolomyidie ... Wombats. 


Order—MONOTREMATA. 


The last order, the Monotremata, consist of two families, which 
Professor Carus combines into one, but which it seems more 
natural to keep separate. 


Fam. 
83. Ornithorhynchide ... ... .. «... Duckbill. 
84. Echidnidee Seats, 1taae Liha kode. auCRIOLia a 


92 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PARI lL. 


BIRDS. 


Birds are perhaps the most difficult to classify of all the 
divisions of the vertebrata. The species and genera are 
exceedingly numerous, and there is such a great uniformity 
in general structure and even in the details of external form, 
that it is exceedingly difficult to find characters by which orders 
and families can be characterised. For a long time the system 
of Vigors and Swainson was followed; but this wholly ignored 
anatomical characters and in many cases plainly violated well- 
marked affinities. Characters derived from the form of the 
sternum, the scutellation of the tarsi, and the arrangement of 
the feathers, have all assisted in determining natural groups. 
More recently Professor Huxley has applied the variations of the 
bony palate to the general arrangement of birds ; and still more 
recently Professor Garrod has studied certain leg-muscles for 
the same purpose. The condition of the young as regards 
plumage, and even the form, texture, and coloration of the egg, 
have also been applied to solve doubtful cases of affinity; yet 
the problem is not settled, and it will probably remain for 
another generation of ornithologists to determine with any 
approach to accuracy what are the most natural divisions of the 
class into orders and families. In a work like the present it is 
evidently not advisable to adopt all the recent classifications ; 
since experience has shown that no arrangement in which one 
set of characters is mainly relied on, long holds its ground. 
Such modifications of the old system as seem to be well 
established will be adopted; but the older groups will be ad- 
hered to in cases where the most recent classifications are open 
to doubt, or seem inconvenient as separating families, which, 
owing to their similarity in general structure, form and habits 
are best kept together for the purposes of geographical dis- 
tribution. 

The old plan of putting the birds of prey at the head of the 
class, is now almost wholly given up; both because they are not 


CHAP. V.] CLASSIFICATION. 93 
the most highly organised, but only one of the most specialised 
forms of birds, and because their affinities are not with the 
Passeres, but rather with the cormorants and some other of the 
aquatic groups. The Passeres therefore are placed first; and the 
series of families 1s begun by the thrushes, which are certainly 
the most typical and generally well-organised form of birds. 
Instead of the Scansores and Fissirostres of the older authors, the 
order Picariz, which includes them both, is adopted, but with 
some reluctance; as the former are, generally speaking, well marked 
and strongly contrasted groups, although certain families have 
been shown to be intermediate. In the Picariz are included the 
goat-suckers, swifts, and humming-birds, sometimes separated 
as a distinct order, Macrochires. The parrots and the pigeons 
form each a separate order. The old groups of Gralle and 
Anseres are preserved, as more convenient than breaking them 
up into widely separated parts; for though the latter plan may 
in some cases more strictly represent their affinities, its details 
are not yet established, nor is it much used by ornithologists. 
In accordance with these views the following is the series of 
orders and families of birds adopted in this work: 


Class—A VES. 
Orders, 


P Including the great mass of the smaller birds—Crows, 
oo Finches, Flycatchers, Creepers, Honeysuckers, &c., &c. 


— 


pees 4 Including Woodpeckers, Cuckoos, Toucans, Kingfishers, 
2. Picarive Er Swifts, &e., &e, 
3. Psittaci ... Parrots only. 
4. Columbe ... Pigeons and the Dodo. 
5. Galline —..,. Grouse, Pheasants, Curassows, Mound-builders, &c. 
6. Opisthocomi The Hocco only. 
7. Accipitres ... Eagles, Owls, and Vultures. 
8 Gralla ... Herons, Plovers, Rails, &c. 
9. Anseres ... Gulls, Ducks, Divers, &¢ 


10. Struthiones... Ostrich, Cassowary, Apteryx, &e, 


The Passeres consist of fifty families, which may be arranged 
and grouped in series as follows. It must however be remem- 
bered that the first family in each series is not always that 
which is most allied to the last family of the preceding series. 
All extensive natural groups consist of divergent or branching 
alliances, which renders it impossible to arrange the whole in 
one continuous series. 


94 


DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


COnNaowup Wd eH 


A.—TypicaLt or Turporp PASSERES. 


. Turdide 

. Sylviide 

. Timaliide 

. Panuridze 

. Cinclida 

. Troglodytide 
. Chamezide 

. Certhiidse 

. Sittidee 

. Paridz 

. Liotrichide dee 
. Phyllornithide ... 
. Pycnonotide ... 
. Oriolidze o 
. Campephagide. ... 
. Dicruridee 

. Muscicapide ... 
A “ren Se sac 
. Laniidze 

. Corvidee 

. Paradiseidze 
. Meliphagidee 
. Nectarineide .., 


Thrushes. 
Warblers. 
Babblers. 
Reedlings. 
Dippers. 
Wrens. 


Creepers. 
Nuthatches. 
Tits. 

Hill-tits. 
Green Bulbuls. 
Bulbuls. 
Orioles. 
Caterpillar-shrikes. 
Drougos. 
Flycatchers. 
Thick-heads, 
Shrikes. 

Crows. 
Paradise-birds. 
Honey-suckers. 
Sun-birds. 


B.—TANAGROID PASSERES. 


. Diceidee 
. Drepanididz 


Flower-peckers. 


26. Crerebidee Sugar-birds. 

27. Mniotiltidee Wood-warblers. 

28. Vireonidee Greenlets. 

29. Ampelidee Waxwings. 

30. Hirundinidse Swallows. 

31. Icteridee Hangnests. 

32, Tanagridee Tanagers. 

33. Fringillidse Finches. 

C.—Sturnorp PASSERES. 

34. Ploceidee Weaver-birds. 

35. Sturnide lies Starlings. 

36. Artamids jae Swallow-shrikes. 

37. Alaudidee Larks, 

38. Motacillidee Wagtails, 
D.—Formicarorp PAssEeres. 

39. Tyrannide Tyrants. 

40. Pipride Manakins, 

41, Cotingide Chatterers. 


. Phytotomida 
» Euryleemidee 

. Dendrocolaptide 
. Formicariide 


Plant-cutters, 
Broad-bills. 
American Creepers. 
Ant-thrushes, 


A 


CHAP. V.] CLASSIFICATION. 95 


D.—Formicaroip PAsseres—continued., 


46. Pteroptochidx ... . a 
47, Pittide dite “a at Pittas. 
48. Paictidee i fs 


E.—ANOMALOUS PASSERES. 


49. Menuridz 
50. Atrichidee 


Lyre-birds. 
Scrub-birds. 


The preceding arrangement is a modification of that proposed 
by myself in the Jbis (1874, p. 406). The principal altera- 
tions are adding the families Panuridee and Sittide in series 
A, commencing series B with Diceide; bringing Vireonide 
next to the allied American family Mniotiltide ; and placing 
Motacillidz in series C next to Alaudide. At the suggestion of 
Professor Newton I place Menuride and Atrichidee apart from 
the other Passeres, as they both possess striking peculiarities of 


anatomical structure. 


The heterogeneous families constituting the order Picariz may 


be conveniently arranged as follows: 


51. Picidee Woodpeckers. 

52. Yungide Wrynecks. 

53. Indicatoridze Honey-guides. 
Sub-order— 54. Megaleemidee Barbets. 

Scansores. 55. Rhamphastidee Toucans. 

56. Musophagidee Plantain-eaters. 

57. Coliidee Colies. 

58. Cuculidee Cuckoos. 
Intermediate ... 59. Leptosomidze The Leptosoma. 

60. Bucconide ... Puff-birds, 

61. Galbulide ... Jacamars. 

62. Coraciide ... Rollers. 

63. Meropide ... Bee-eaters, 

64. Todidee os Todies. 

65. Momotide ... Motmots. 

66. Trogonide ... Trogons. 
Sub-order— 67, Alcedinide ... Kingfishers, 
Fissirostres. 68. Bucerotide ... Hornbills. 

69. Upupidee Hoopoes. 

70. Irrisoridee Promerops. 

71. Podargide ... Frog-mouths. 

72, Steatornithidee The Guacharo. 

73. Caprimulgide Goatsuckers. 

74. Cypselidee Swifts. 

75, Trochilide ... Humming-birds. 


96 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART 1. 


The Psittaci or parrot tribe are still in a very unsettled state 
of classification; that recently proposed by Professor Garrod 
differing widely from the arrangement adopted in Dr. Finsch’s 
monograph of the order. Taking advantage of the researches 
of these and other authors, the following families are adopted as 
the most convenient in the present state of our knowledge: 


76. Cacatuide ... ... The Cockatoos. 

77. Platycercide ... The Broad-tailed Paroquets of Australia. 
78. Palzornithide .... The Oriental Parrots and Paroquets. 

79. Trichoglossidze ... The Brush-tongued Paroquets and Lories. 
80. Conuride ... ... The Macaws and their allies. 

81. Psittacide ... .... The African and South American Parrots. 
82. Nestoride ... ... The Nestors of New Zealand. 

83. Stringopide ... The Owl-parrots of New Zealand. 


The Columbe, or pigeons, are also in a very unsatisfactory 
state as regards a natural classification. The families, sub- 
families, and genera proposed by various authors are very 
numerous, and often quite irreconcilable. I therefore adopt 
only two families; and generally follow Mr. G. R. Gray’s hand- 
list for the genera, except where trustworthy authorities exist 
for a different arrangement. The families are: 


84. Columbidee ... Pigeons and Doves. 
85. Didide _ ... The extinct Dodo and allies. 


The Galline, or game-birds, may be divided into seven 
families : 


Fain. Sub-fam. 

86. Pteroclide  ... sa “Pe ... Sand-grouse. 

87, Tetraonide ... ads tas ... Partridges and Grouse. 
Pavonine ... .» Peafowl. 
Lophophorinz ... Tragopans, &e, 
Phasianinee ... ... Pheasants. 

88. Phasianidee .,.\ Euplocaminz ... Fire-backed Pheasants, Xe, 
Gallina ca .. Jungle-fowl. 
Meleagrinee .., ... Turkeys. 
Numidine ... ... QGuinea-fowl. 

89, Turnicidee =p ‘iis dé ..» Hemipodes. 

90. Meyapodiide ... vide ave ..» Mound-makers, 
Cracine  ... ... Curassows., 

91, Cracidee - Penelopine ... ..» Guans, 
Oreophasing ... Mountain-pheasant. 


92. Tinamide oie er ad .. Tinamous. 


CHAP. V. ] CLASSIFICATION. $7 
The Opisthocomi consist of one family containing a single 
species, the “ Hocco” of Guiana. 


Family 93. Opisthocomide. 


The Accipitres, or birds of prey, which were long considered 
to be the highest and most perfect order of birds, are now 
properly placed lower down in the series, their affinities being 
more with the aquatic than with the perching birds. The 
following is the arrangement adopted by Mr. Sharpe in his 
recently published British Museum catalogue of diurnal birds 


of prey :— 
Sub-orders. Fam. Sub-families. 


/ . Vulturine... ... Vultures. 
ee lester Turkey-buzzards. 


Falcones 95. Serpentariide .... (Polybornie ... Caracaras. 
| | Accipitrine ... Hawks. 

\96. Falconidee \ Buteoninze ... Buzzards. 
| Aquiline ... ... Eagles. 
\ Falconinze ... Falcons. 


Pandiones...97. Pandionide fe ae ... Fishing-eagles. 
Striges ...98. Strigidee aT ne 3 c Oxwls, 


The Grallz or Grallatores are in a very unsettled state. The 
following series of families is in accordance with the views of 
some of the best modern ornithologists : 


99. Rallide ... ig me --- Rails, &e. 

100. Scolopacidze ae Fis ... Sandpipers and Snipes 
101. Chionidide Sheath-bills. 

102. Thinocoridee (Juail-snipes. 


103. Parride ... Jacanas. 
104, Glareolidee Pratincoles. 
105, Charadriidz Plovers. 
106. Otidide ... Bustards. 
107. Gruidee Cranes. 

108. Cariamidze Cariamas. 
109. Aramide... Guaraunas. 
110. Psophiidee Trumpeters. 
111. Eurypygidee Sun-hitterns. 
112. Rhinocheetidee Kagus. 

113. Ardeide ... Herons. 
114, Plataleidee Spoonbills and Ibis. 
115. Ciconiidee Storks, 

116. Palamedeidee > Screamers. 
117. Phenicopteride ... Flamingoes. 


H 


98 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


The Anseres or Natatores are almost equally unsettled. The 
flamingoes are usually placed in this order, but their habits best 
assort with those of the waders. 


Fam. 
118. Anatide ... ae ae ... Duck and Geese. 
119. Laride ae a aa ... Gulls. 
120. Procellariidz oS dat --- Petrels. 
121. Pelecanide ... ae Zu ... Pelicans. 
122. Spheniscidee a ois .... Penguins. 
123. Colymbide sae ae ... Divers. 
124. Podicipide ... ee side ... Grebes. 
125. Alcids Ss ae oe saa. ae 


The last order of birds is the Struthiones or Ratitz, considered 
by many naturalists to form a distinct sub-class. It consists of 
comparatively few species, either living or recently extinct. 


Fam. 
126. Struthionide ned Ostriches. 
Living} 127. Casuariide ... i Cassowaries. 
128. Apterygide ... in Apteryx. 
129. Dinornithide =e Dinornis. 
Extinct 130. Palapterygide Le Palapteryx. 
131, Aipyornithide ie AXpyornis. 
REPTILES. 


In reptiles I follow the classification of Dr. Giinther as given 
in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. clvii., p. 625. He divides 
the class into five orders as follows :— 


Sub-classes. Orders. 
1, Ophidia wits via Serpents. 
I, Squamata ... 2. Lacertilia ... spa Lizards. 
3. Rhyncocephalina ... The Hatteria. 
II. Loricata 4, Crocodilia ... ove Crocodiles. 
III. Cataphracta 5. Chelonia.... eve Tortoises. 


In the arrangement of the families comprised in each of these 
orders I also follow the arrangement of Dr. Giinther and Dr. 
J. E. Gray, as given in the British Museum Catalogue, or as 
modified by the former gentleman who has kindly given me 
much personal information. 


CHAP, V.] CLASSIFICATION, 99 


The Ophidia, or Snakes, form the first order and are classified 
as follows :— 


Fam. 
1. Typhlopide 
2. Tortricide ... din ie a Mes 
3, Kenopeltide Burrowing Snakes. 
4, Uropeltide 
5. Calamaridee Dwarf ground-snakes. 


Ooi Sp 


9, 
Innocuous Snakes ¢ 10. 


. Oligodontide. 
. Colubride ... 
. Homalopside ... 
Psammophide ... 


Rachiodontide. 


Colubrine Snakes. 
Fresh-water Snakes. 
Desert-snakes. 


11. Dendrophidee Tree-snakes. 
12. Dryiophide Whip-snakes. 
13. Dipsaside ... Nocturnal tree-snakes. 
14, Scytalide. 
15. Lycodontide ... Fanged ground-snakes. 
16. Amblycephalide — Blunt-heads. 
17. Pythonide .... Pythons. 
18. Erycide . Sand-snakes. 
19. Acrochordide Wart-snakes. 
20, Mlapide +... _:.../ Cobras; &e. 
Venomous Colubrine ) 21. Dendraspidide. 
Snakes 22. Atractaspidide. 
23. Hydrophide Sea-snakes. 


Viperine Snakes ... j om 


. Crotalide ... 


Viperide 


Pit-vipers. 
True vipers 


The second order, Lacertilia, are arranged as follows :— 


Fam. 
Trogonophide ... 
Chirotide 3 
Amphisbenide 
29. Lepidosternide 
30. Varanide 
. Helodermide. 

2. Teidee 

3. Lacertide 

. Zonuride 

. Chalcide. 

3. Anadiade. 

. Chirocolide. 

. Iphisade. 

. Cercosauride. 

. Chamesauride. 
. Gymnopthalmide 
2. Pygopodidee 

. Aprasiade. 


26. 
27. 
28. 


4 


Amphisbenians. 


Water Lizards. 


Teguexins. 


Land tinea 


Gape-eyed Scinks. 
Two-legged Lizards. 
9 


ad 


H 


100 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART I. 


Fam. 


44, Lialide. 

45. Scincide Ais es = Scinks. 

46. Ophiomoride ...... aie Snake-lizards. 
47. Sepide ... a belt ae Sand-lizards. 
48. Acontiade. 

49. Geckotide as a i Geckoes., 

50. Iguanidee a vas are Iguanas. 

51. Agamide Ve py ne Fringed Lizards. 
52. Chameleonide ... ei oe Chameleons. 


The third order, Rhyncocephalina consists of a single family :— 


53. Rhyncocephalide ... .... The Hatteria of New Zealand. 


The fourth order, Crocodilia or Loricata, consists of three 
families :— 


54, Gavialide a ae ne Gavials. 
55. Crocodilide ... a bide Crocodiles. 
56. Alligatoride ... ci in Alligators, 


The fifth order, Chelonia, consists of four families :— 


57. Testudinide ... aa Land and fresh-water Tortoises. 
58. Chelydide ..... wie Fresh-water Turtles. 
59. Trionychide ... pa Soft Turtles. 
60. Cheloniide  ... ao Sea Turtles. 
AMPHIBIA. 


In the Amphibia I follow the classification of Professor 
Mivart, as given for a large part of the order inthe Proceedings 
of the Zoological Society for 1869. For the remainder I follow 
Dr. Strauch, Dr. Giinther, and a MSS. arrangement kindly 
furnished me by Professor Mivart. 

The class is first divided into three groups or orders, and then 
into families as follows :— 


CHAP, V.| CLASSIFICATION. 101 


cee LL - ——— 


Order .—PSEUDOPHIDIA. 


Fam. a 
1. Ceciliade Sate af ae Cecilia. 


Order II.--BATRACHIA URODELA. 


2. Sirenide ... oP Siren. 

3. Proteide ... wath Proteus. 

4, Amphiumide ay Amphiuma. 

5. Menopomide ic Giant Salamanders. 

6. Salamandride .... Salamanders and Newts. 

Order III. BATRACHIA ANOURA. 
Fam. Fam. 

7. Rhinophrynidee 16. Pelodryade ... 
8. Phryniscidee | 17. Hylide se fie Frogs. 
9. Hylapleside ... ‘moog, 18. Polypedatide ... 
10. Bufonide... ... : 19. Ranide UR 
11. Xenorhinide ... 2). Discoglosside ... { —7°8* 
12. Engystomide ... 21. Pipide ... ... j Tongueless 
13. Bombinatoride 22, Dactylethride ... Toads, 
14. Plectromantide fp rogs. 
15. Alytide ... 


FISHES. 


These are arranged according to the classification of Dr. 
Giinther, whose great work “The British Museum Catalogue of 
Fishes,’ has furnished almost all the material for our account 
of the distribution of the class. 

In that work all existing fishes are arranged in six sub-classes 
and thirteen orders. <A study of the extraordinary Ceratodus 
from Australia has induced Dr. Giinther to unite three of his 
sub-classes ; but as his catalogue will long remain a handbook 
for every student of fishes, it seems better to follow the arrange- 
ment there given, indicating his later views by bracketing 
together the groups he now thinks should be united. 


102 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, [PART I, 


Sub-class. Order. E z Remarks. 
1. Acanthopterygii 47 \Gasterosteidz to Notacanthi. 
| 2, Do. Pharyncognathi 5 |Pomacentride to Chromide. 
Teleostei 3. Acanthini ... ...| 6 |Gadopside to Pleuronectide. 
a “*) 4, Physostomi 29 |Siluride to Pegaside. 
= | 5. Lophobranchii 2 |Solenostomide and Syngnathide. 
"Oo 6. Plectognathi 2 |Sclerodermi and Gymnodontes. 
@ | Dipnoi ... 7. Sirenoidei 1 |Sirenoidei. 
nate a eye \ 8. Holostei 3. | Amiide to Lepidosteide. 
EEG / ¥. Chondrostei. 2 | Accipenseride and Polydontide. 
Chondropte- | 10. Holocephala ... 1 |Chimeeride. 
rygil (11. Plagiostomata | 15 |Carchariide to Myliobatide. 
Cyclostomata 12. Marsipobranchii ...| 2 |Petromyzontide and Myxinide. 


Leptocardii 13. Cirrhostomi ... 1 |Cirrhostomi. 


Total ... 116 families. 


INSECTS. 


The families and genera of insects are so immensely numerous, 
probably exceeding fifty-fold those of all other land animals, 
that for this cause alone it would be impossible to enter fully 
into their distribution. It is also quite unnecessary, because 
many of the groups are so lable to be transported by accidental 
causes, that they afford no useful information for our subject ; 
while others are so obscure and uninteresting that they have 
been very partially collected and studied, and are for this 
reason equally ineligible. I have therefore selected a few of 
the largest and most conspicuous families, which have been so 
assiduously collected in every part of the globe, and so carefully 
studied at home, as to afford valuable materials for com- 
parison with the vertebrate groups, when we have made due 
allowance for the dependence of many insects on peculiar forms 
of vegetation, and the facility with which many of them are 
transported either in the egg, larva, or perfect state, by winds, 
currents, and other less known means. 

I confine myself then, almost exclusively, to the sixteen 
families of Diurnal Lepidoptera or butterflies, and to six of the 
most extensive, conspicuous, and popular families of Coleoptera. 


CHAP. V. | CLASSIFICATION, 103 
The number of species of Butterflies is about the same as that 
of Birds, while the six families of Coleoptera selected, comprise 
more than twenty thousand species, far exceeding the number of 
all other vertebrates. These families have all been recently cata- 
logued, so that we have very complete information as to their 
arrangement and distribution. 


LEPIDOPTERA DIURNA, OR BUTTERFLIES. 


Fam. Fam. 


1. Danaide. 9. Libytheide. 

2. Satyride. 10. Nemeobiide. 

3. Elymniide. 11. Eurygonide. 

4, Morphide. 12. Erycinide. 

5. Brassolide. 13. Lycenide. 

6. Acreeide. 14, Pieride. 

7. Heliconidee. 15. Papilionide. 

8, Nymphalide. 16. Hesperide. 

COLEOPTERA, OR BEETLES. 
Fam. Fam. 

1. Cicindelide ... Tiger-beetles. 4, Cetoniide ... Rose-chafers. 
2. Carabide ... Ground-beetles. 5, Buprestide... Metallic Beetles. 
3. Lucanide ... Stag-beetles. 6. Longicornia ... Long-horned Beetles. 


The above families comprise the extensive series of ground 
beetles (Carabidee) containing about 9,000 species, and the Longi- 
corns, which are nearly as numerous and surpass them in variety 
of form and colour as well as in beauty. The Cetonide and 
Buprestide are among the largest and most brilliant of beetles ; 
the Lucanide are pre-eminent for remarkable form, and the 
Cicindelide for elegance; and all the families are especial 
favourites with entomologists, so that the whole earth has been 
ransacked to procure fresh species. 

Results deduced from a study of these will, therefore, fairly 
represent the phenomena of distribution of Coleoptera, and, 
as they are very varied in their habits, perhaps of insects in 
general. 


104 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [PART 1. 


MOLLUSCA. 


The Mollusca are usually divided into five classes as 
follows :— 


Classes. 


I. Cephalopoda ... ... Cuttle-fish. 

II. Gasteropoda ... ... Snails and aquatic Univalves. 
III. Pteropoda ... .«- Oceanic Snails. 
IV. Brachiopoda .... .... Symmetrical Bivalves. 

VY. Conchifera _... .... Unsymmetrical Bivalves. 


The Gasteropoda and Conchifera alone contain land and 
freshwater forms, and to these we shall chiefly confine our 
illustrations of the geographical distribution of the Mollusca. 
The classification followed is that of Dr. Pfeiffer for the 
Operculata and Dr. Von Martens for the Helicide. The 
families chiefly referred to are :— 


Class II.—GASTEROPODA. 


Order 2.—Pulmonifera. 
Fam. 

. Helicide. 

. Limacide. 

Oncidiade. 

Limneide. 

. Auriculide. 

Aciculide. 

. Diplommatinide. 

. Cyclostomide. 

9, Helicinide. 


In-operculata 


DWrIAD AP wor 


Operculata ... tha a4 


. PARE It. 


ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 


CHAPTER VI. | : 
THE EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 


ALTHOUGH it may seem somewhat out of place to begin the 
systematic treatment of our subject with extinct rather than 
with living animals, it is necessary to do so in order that we 
may see the meaning and trace the causes of the existing dis- 
tribution of animal forms. It is true, that the animals found 
fossil in a country are very generally allied to those which still 
inhabit it; but this is by no means universally the case. If it 
were, the attempt to elucidate our subject by Paleontology 
would be hopeless, since the past would show us the same 
puzzling diversities of faunas and floras that now exist. We 
find however very numerous exceptions to this rule, and it is 
these exceptions which tell us of the past migrations of whole 
groups of animals. We are thus enabled to determine what 
portion of the existing races of animals in a country are de- 
scendants of its ancient fauna, and which are comparatively 
modern immigrants; and combining these movements of the 
forms of life with known or probable changes in the distribution 
of land and sea, we shall sometimes be able to trace approxi- 
mately the long series of changes which have resulted in the 
actual state of things. ‘To gain this knowledge is our object in 
studying the “ Geographical Distribution of Animals,” and our 
plan of study must be determined, mainly, by the facilities it 
affords us for attaining this object. In discussing the countless 
details of distribution we shall meet with in our survey of the 
zoological regions, we shall often find it useful to refer to the 
evidence we possess of the range of the group in question in 


108 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART ll. 


past times ; and when we attempt to generalise the phenomena 
on a large scale, with the details fresh in our memory, we shall 
find a reference to the extinct faunas of various epochs to be 
absolutely necessary. 

The degree of our knowledge of the Paleontology of various 
parts of the world is so unequal, that it will not be advisable to 
treat the subject under each of our six regions. Yet some sub- 
division must be made, and it seems best to consider separately 
the extinct animals of the Old and of the New Worlds. Those of 
Europe and Asia are intimately connected, and throw light on 
the past changes which have led to the establishment of the 
three great continental Old World regions, with their various 
subdivisions. The wonderful extinct fauna recently discovered 
in North America, with what was previously known from South 
temperate America, not only elucidates the past history of the 
whole continent, but also gives indications of the mutual rela- 
tions of the eastern and western hemispheres. 

The materials to be dealt with are enormous; and it will be 
necessary to confine ourselves to a general summary, with fuller 
details on those points which directly bear upon our special 
subject. The objects of most interest to the pure zoologist and 
to the geologist—those strange forms which are farthest removed 
from any now living—are of least interest to us, since we aim 
at tracing the local origin or birthplace of existing genera and 
families; and for this purpose animals whose affinities with 
living forms are altogether doubtful, are of no value whatever. 

The great mass of the vertebrate fossils of the tertiary period 
consist of mammalia, and this is precisely the class which is of 
most value in the determination of zoological regions. The 
animals of the secondary period, though of the highest interest 
to the zoologist are of little importance to us; both because of 
their very uncertain affinities for any existing groups, and also 
because we can form no adequate notion of the distribution of 
land and sea in those remote epochs. Our great object is to 
trace back, step by step, the varying distribution of the chief 
forms of life; and to deduce, wherever possible, the physical 
changes which must have accompanied or caused such changes. 


CHAP, VI. ] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 109 


The natural division of our subject therefore is into geological 
periods. We first go back to the Post-Pliocene period, which 
includes that of the caves and gravels of Europe containing flint 
implements, and extends back to the deposit of the glacial drift 
in the concluding phase of the glacial epoch. Next we have 
the Pliocene period, divided into its later portion (the Newer 
Pliocene) which includes the Glacial epoch of the northern 
hemisphere ; and its earlier portion (the Older Pliocene), repre- 
sented by the red and coralline crag of England, and deposits of 
similar age in the continent. During this earlier epoch the 
climate was not very dissimilar from that which now prevails ; 
but we next get evidence of a still earlier period, the Miocene, 
when a warmer climate prevailed in Europe, and the whole 
fauna and flora were very different. This is perhaps the most 
interesting portion of the tertiary deposits, and furnishes us 
with the most valuable materials for our present study. 
Further back still we have the Eocene period, with apparently 
an almost tropical climate in Europe; and here we find a clue 
to some of the most puzzling facts in the distribution of living 
animals. Our knowledge of this epoch is however very im- 
perfect; and we wait for discoveries that will elucidate some 
of the mystery that still hangs over the origin and migrations 
of many important families. Beyond this there is a great chasm 
in the geological record as regards land animals; and we have to 
go so far back into the past, that when we again meet with mam- 
mala, birds, and land-reptiles, they appear under such archaic 
forms that they cease to have any local or geographical signi- 
ficance, and we can only refer them to wide-spread classes 
and orders. For the purpose of elucidating geographical distri- 
bution, therefore, it is, in the present state of our knowledge, 
unnecessary to go back beyond the tertiary period of geology. 

The remains of Mammalia being so much more numerous and 
important than those of other classes, we shall at first confine 
ourselves almost exclusively to these. What is known of the 
birds, reptiles, and fishes of the tertiary epoch will be best 
indicated by a brief connected sketch of their fossils in all parts 
of the globe, which we shall give in a subsequent chapter. 


110 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART Il. 


Historic Period—In tracing back the history of the organic 
world we find, even within the limits of the historical period, 
that some animals have become extinct, while the distribution of 
others has been materially changed. The Rytina of the North - 
Pacific, the dodo of Mauritius, and the great auk of the North 
Atlantic coasts, have been exterminated almost in our own 
times. The kitchen-middens of Denmark contain remains of 
the capercailzie, the Bos primigenius, and the beaver. The first 
still abounds farther north, the second is extinct, and the third 
is becoming soin Europe. The great Irish elk, a huge-antlered 
deer, probably existed almost down to historic times. 

Pleistocene or Post-Pliocene Period.—We first meet with proofs 
of important changes in the character of the European fauna, in 
studying the remains found in the caverns of England and France, 
which have recently been so well explored. These cave-remains 
are probably all subsequent to the Glacial epoch, and they all 
come within the period of man’s occupation of the country. Yet 
we find clear proofs of two distinct kinds of change in the 
forms of animal life. First we have a change clearly trace- 
able to a difference of climate. We find such arctic forms as 
the rein-deer, the musk-sheep, the glutton, and the lemming, 
with the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros of the Siberian 
ice-cliffs, inhabiting this country and even the south of France. 
This is held to be good proof that a sub-arctic climate pre- 
vailed over all Central Europe ; and this climate, together with 
the continental condition of Britain, will sufficiently explain 
such a southward range of what are now arctic forms. 

But together with this change we have another that seems at 
first sight to be in an exactly opposite direction. We meet 
with numerous animals which now only inhabit Africa, or South 
Europe, or the warmer parts of Asia. Such are, large felines— 
some closely related to the lion (Felis spelea), others of alto- 
gether extinct type (Machairodus) and forming the extreme de- 
velopment of the feline race ;—hyzenas ; horses of two or more 
species ; and a hippopotamus. If we go a little further back, to 
the remains furnished by the gravels and brick-earths, we still 
find the same association of forms. The reindeer, the glutton, 


CHAP. VI. ] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 111 
the musk-sheep, and the woolly rhinoceros, are associated with 
several other species of rhinoceros and elephant; with nume- 
rous civets, now abundant only in warm countries; and with 
antelopes of several species. We also meet here with a great 
extension of range of forms now limited to small areas. The 
Saiga antelope of Kastern Europe occurs in France, where wild 
sheep and goats and the chamois were then found, together with 
several species of deer, of bear, and of hyena. <A few extinct 
genera even come down to this late period, such as the great 
sabre-toothed tiger, Machairodus ; Galeotherium, a form of Viver- 
ride; Palewospalax, allied to the mole; and Zvrogontherium, a 
gigantic form of beaver. 

We find then, that even at so early a stage of ovr inquiries we 
meet with a problem in distribution by no means easy to solve. 
How are we to explain the banishment from Europe in so short 
a space of time (geologically speaking) of so many forms of life 
now characteristic of warmer countries, and this too during a 
period when the climate of Central Europe was itself becoming 
warmer? Such a change must almost certainly have been due 
to changes of physical geography, which we shall be better able 
to understand when we have examined the preceding Plocene 
period. We may here notice, however, that so far as we yet 
know, this great recent change in the character of the fauna is 
confined to the western part of the Palearctic region. In caves 
in the Altai Mountains examined by Prof. Brandt, a great col- 
lection of fossil bones was discovered. These comprised the 
Siberian rhinoceros and mammoth, and -the cave hyzna; but all 
the others, more than thirty distinct species, are now living in 
or near the same regions. We may perhaps impute this dif- 
ference to the fact that the migration of Southern types into 
this part of Siberia was prevented by the great mountain and 
desert barrier of the Central Asiatic plateau ; whereas in Europe 
there was at this time a land connection with Africa. Post- 
pliocene deposits and caverns in Algeria have yielded remains 
resembling the more southern European types of the Post- 
pliocene period, but without any admixture of Arctic forms; 
showing, as we might expect, that the glacial cold did not 


112 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART Il. 


extend so far south. We have here remains of KHgquus, Bos, 
Antilope, Hippopotamus, Llephas, Rhinoceros, Ursus, Canis, 
and Hyena, together with Phacocherus, an African type of 
swine which has not occurred in the European deposits. 

It is perhaps to the earlier portion of this period that the 
Merycotherium of the Siberian drift belongs. This was an 
animal related to the living camel, thus supporting the view that 
the Camelide are essentially denizens of the extra-tropical zone. 


PLIOCENE PERIOD. 


Primates.—We here first meet with evidence of the existence 
of monkeys in Central Europe. Species of Macacus have left 
remains not only in the Newer Pliocene of the Val d’Arno in 
Italy, but in beds of the same age at Grays in Essex ; while 
Semnopithecus and Cercopithecus, genera now confined to the 
Oriental and Ethiopian regions respectively, have been found in 
the Pliocene deposits of the South of France and Italy. 

Carnivora.—Most of the genera which occurred in the Post 
Pliocene are found here also, and many of the same species. Few 
new forms appear, except Hycnarctos, a large bear with characters 
approaching the hyzenas, and Pristiphoca, a new form of seal, 
both from the Older Pliocene of France; and (falecynus, a fox- 
like animal intermediate between Canis and Viverra, from the 
Pliocene of Gininghen in Switzerland. 

Cetacea.—Species of Balena, Physeter, and Delphinus occur in 
the Older Pliocene of England and France, and with these the 
remains of many extinct forms, Balwnodon and Hoplocetus 
(Balenide) ; Belemnoziphius and Choneziphius (Hyperoodontide), 
and Halitheriwm, an extinct form of the next order—Sirenia, 
now confined to the tropics, although the recently extinct Rytina 
of the N. W. Pacific shows that it is also adapted for tem- 
perate climates. 

Ungulata.—The Pliocene deposits are not very rich in this 
order. The horses (Hgwide) are represented by the genus Zquus ; 
and here we first meet with A/ipparion, in which small lateral 
toes appear. Both genera occur in British deposits of this age. 


CHAP. VI. | MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 115 


A more interesting fact for us is the occurrence of the genus 
Tapirus in the Newer Pliocene of France and in the older beds 
of both France and England, since this genus is now isolated 
in the remotest parts of the eastern and western tropics. The 
genera Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, and Sus, occur here as in the 
preceding epoch. 

We next come to the deer genus (Cervus), which appears to 
have been at its maximum in this period, no less than eight 
species occurring in the Norwich Crag, and Forest-beds. Among 
the Bovide, the antelopes, ox, and bison, are the only forms repre- 
sented here, as in the Post-Pliocene period. Passing on to the 
Proboscidea, we find three species of elephants and two of Mas- 
todon preserved in European beds of this period, all distinct from 
those of Post-Phocene times. 

Rodentia.—In this order we find representatives of many 
living European forms; as Cricetus (hamster), Arvicola (vole), 
Castor (beaver), Arctomys (marmot), Hystriz (porcupine), 
Lepus (hare), and Lagomys (pika); and a few that are extinct, 
the most important being Chalicomys, allied to the beaver ; 
and Jssiodromys, said to come nearest to the remarkable 
Pedetes of South Africa, both found in the Pliocene formations 
of France. 


General Conclusions as to Pliocene and Post-Pliocene Faunas of 
Europe.—This completes the series of fossil forms of the Plocene 
deposits of Europe. They show us that the presence of numer- 
ous large carnivora and ungulates (now almost wholly tropical) in 
the Post-Pliocene period, was due to no exceptional or temporary 
cause, but was the result of a natural succession from similar 
races which had inhabited the same countries for long preceding 
ages. In order to understand the vast periods of time covered 
by the Pliocene and Post-Pliocene formations, the works of Sir 
Charles Lyell must be studied. We shall then come to see, that 
the present condition of the fauna of Europe is wholly new and 
exceptional. For a long succession of ages, various forms of 
monkeys, hyznas, lions, horses, hipparions, tapirs, rhinoceroses, 
hippopotami, elephants, mastodons, deer, and antelopes, together 

I 


114 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART IT. 


with almost all the forms now living, produced a rich and varied 
fauna such as we now see only in the open country of tropical 
Africa. During all this period we have no reason to believe that 
the climate or other physical conditions of Europe were more 
favourable to the existence of these animals than now. We must 
look upon them, therefore, as true indigenes of the country, and 
their comparatively recent extinction or banishment as a remark- 
able phenomenon for which there must have been some adequate 
cause. What this cause was we can only conjecture; but it 
seems most probable that it was due to the combined action of 
the Glacial period, and the subsidence of large areas of land once 
connecting Europe with Africa. The existence, in the small 
island of Malta, of no less than three extinct species of elephant 
(two of very small stature), of a gigantic dormouse, an extinct 
hippopotamus, and other mammalia, together with the occurrence 
of remains of hippopotamus in the caves of Gibraltar, indicate 
very clearly that during the Pliocene epoch, and perhaps during 
a considerable part of the Post-Pliocene, a connection existed 
between South Europe and North Africa in at least these two 
localities. At the same time we have every reason to believe 
that Britain was united to the Continent, what is now the German 
Ocean constituting a great river-valley. During the height of 
the Glacial epoch, these large animals would probably retire into 
this Mediterranean land and into North Africa, making annual 
migrations northwards during the summer. But as the connect- 
ing land sank and became narrower and narrower, the migrating 
herds would diminish, and at last cease altogether; and when the 
glacial cold had passed away would be altogether prevented from 
returning to their former haunts. 


MIOCENE PERIOD. 


We now come to a period which was wonderfully rich in all 
forms of life, and of which the geological record is exceptionally 
complete. Various lacustrine, estuarine, and other deposits in 
Europe, North India, and North America, have furnished such a 


CHAP. VI.] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 115 


vast number of remains of extinct mammalia, as to solve many 
zoological problems, and to throw great light on the early distri- 
bution and centres of dispersal of various groups of animals. In 
order to show the bearing of these remains on our special sub- 
ject, we will first give an account of the extinct fauna of Greece, 
of the Upper Miocene period; since this, being nearest to Africa 
and Asia, best exhibits the relations of the old European fauna 
to those countries. We shall then pass to the Miocene fauna of 
France and Central Europe; and conclude with the remarkable 
Siwalik and other Indian extinct faunas, which throw an addi- 
tional light on the early history of the animal life of the great 
old-world continents. 


Extinct Animals of Greece. 

These are from the Upper Miocene deposits at Pikermi, near 
Athens, and were collected by M. Gaudry a few years ago. 
They comprise ten living and eighteen extinct genera of mam- 
malia, with a few birds and reptiles. 

Primates.—These are represented by Mesopithecus, a genus 
believed to be intermediate between the two Indian genera of 
monkeys, Semnopithecus and Macacus. 

Carnivora.—These were abundant. Of Felis there were four 
species, ranging from the size of a cat to that of a jaguar, a large 
hyena, and a large weasel (Mustela). Besides these there were 
the huge Machatrodus, larger than any existing lion or tiger, and 
with enormously developed canine teeth; Hyenictis and Lycena, 
extinct forms of Hyrnide ; Zhalassictis=Ictitherium, an extinct 
genus of Viverride but with resemblances to the hyenas, repre- 
sented by three species, some of which were larger than any 
existing Viverride ; Promephytis, an extinct form of Mustelide, 
having resemblances to the European marten, to the otters, and 
to the S. African Zorilla ; and lastly, Simocyon, an extraordinary 
carnivore of the size of a small panther, but having the canines 
of a cat, the molars of a dog, and the jaws shaped like those of 
a bear. 

Ungulata.—These are numerous and very interesting. The 
Equide are represented by the three-toed Hipparion, which con- 


116 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART IJ. 


tinued to exist till the Older Pliocene period. ‘There are three 
large species of Fhinuceros, as well as a species of the extinct 
genus Leptodon of smaller size. Remains of a very large wild 
boar (Sus) were found. Very interesting is the occurrence of a 
species of giraffe (Camelopardalis) as tall as the African species 
but more slender; and also an extinct genus Helladotheriwm, not 
quite so tall as the giraffe but much more robust, and showing 
some approach to the Antilopide in its dentition. Antelopes 
were abundant, ranging from the size of the gazelle to that of 
the largest living species. Three or four seem referable to living 
genera, but the majority are of extinct types, and are classed 
in the genera Paleotragus, Paleworyx, Tragocerus, and Paleoreas ; 
while Dremotherium is an ancient generalized form of Cervide 
or deer. 

Proboscidea.—These are represented by two species of Masto - 
don, and two of Dinothertum, an extraordinary extinct form 
supposed to be, to some extent, intermediate between the 
elephants and the aquatic manatees (Sirenia.) 

Rodentia.—This order is represented by a species of Hystria, 
larger than living porcupines. 

Edentata.—This order, now almost confined to South America, 
was represented in the Miocene period by several European 
species. Ancylotherium and Macrotherium, belonging to an extinct 
family but remotely allied to the African ant-bear (Orycteropus), 
occur in Greece. 

Birds.—Species of Phasianus and Gallus were found; the 
latter especially interesting as being now confined to India. 

Lteptiles—These are few and unimportant, consisting of a 
tortoise (7'estudo) and a large lizard allied to Varanus, 


Summary of the Miocene Fauna of Greece-—Although we can- 
not consider that the preceding enumeration gives us by any 
means a complete view of the actual inhabitants of this part 
of Kurope during the later portion of the Miocene period, we 
yet obtain some important information, The resemblance that 
appeared in the Phocene fauna of Europe, to that of the open 
country of tropical Africa, is now still more remarkable. We 


CHAP. VI. ] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 117 


not only find great felines, surpassing in size and destructive 
power the lions and leopards of Africa, with hyzenas of a size 
and in a variety not to be equalled now, but also huge rhino- 
ceroses and elephants, two forms of giraffes, and a host of 
antelopes, which, from the sample here obtained, were probably 
quite as numerous and varied as they now are in Africa, 
Joined with this abundance of antelopes we have the absence 
of deer, which probably indicates that the country was open 
and somewhat of a desert character, since there were deer in 
other parts of Europe at this epoch. The occurrence of but a 
single species of monkey is also favourable to this view, since 
a well-wooded country would most hkely have supplied many 
forms of these animals. 


Miocene Fauna of Central and Western Europe. 


We have now to consider the Miocene fauna of Europe 
generally, of which we have very full information from nu- 
merous deposits of this age in France, Switzerland,- Italy, 
Germany, and Hungary. 

Primates.—Three distinct forms of monkeys have been found 
in Europe—in the South of France, in Switzerland, and Wurtem- 
berg ; one was very like Colobus or Semnopithecus ; the others— 
Pliopithecus and Dryopithecus—were of higher type, and be- 
longed to the anthropomorphous apes, being nearest to the genus 
Hylobutes or gibbons. Both have occurred in the South of France. 
The Dryopithecus was a very large animal (equal to the gorilla), 
and M. Lartet considers that in the character of its dentition it 
approached nearer to man than any of the existing anthropoid 
apes. 

Insectivora.—These small animals are represented by numerous 
remains belonging to four families and a dozen genera. Of 
Erinaceus (hedgehog) several species are found in the Upper 
Miocene; and in the Lower Miocene of Auvergne two extinct 
genera of the same family—Amphechinus and Tetracus—have 
been discovered. Several species of Talpa (mole) occur in the 
Upper Miocene of France, while the extinct Dinylus is from Ger- 
many, and Paleospalax from the Lower Miocene of the Isle of 


118 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


Wight. The Malayan family Tupaiide or squirrel-shrews, is 
believed to be represented by Ozxygomphus, a fossil discovered in 
South Germany (Wiesenau) by H. von Meyer. The Soricide or 
shrews, are represented by several extinct genera—JLesiosorex, 
Mysarachne and Galeospalaz ; as wellas by Amphisorex and Myo- 
gale still living. Echinogale, a genus of Centetide now confined 
to Madagascar, is said to occur in the Lower Miocene of Auvergne, 
a most interesting determination, if correct, as it would form a 
transition to the Solenodon of the Antilles belonging to the same 
family ; but I am informed by Prof. Flower that the affinities of 
the animals described under this name are very doubtful. 

Carnivora.—Besides Felis and Machaircdus, which extend back 
to the Upper Miocene, there are two other genera of Felide, 
Pseudelurus in the Upper Miocene of France, and Hycnodon, 
which occurs in the Upper and Lower Miocene of France, named 
from some resemblance in its teeth to the hyenas, and considered 
by some Palzontologists to form a distinct family, Hyznodontide. 
The Viverridz, or civets, were very numerous, consisting of the 
living genus Viverra, and three extinct forms—Thalassictis= 
Ictitherium, as large as a panther, and Soricictis, a smaller form, 
occurring both in France and Hungary. Of Hyanide, there was 
the living genus Hyena, and the extinct Hyaenictis, which has 
occurred in Hungary as well as in Greece. The Canide, or 
wolf and fox family, were represented by Psewdocyon, near to 
Canis; Hemicyon, intermediate between dogs and gluttons; 
and Amphicyon, of which several species occur in the Upper 
and Lower Miocene of France, some of them larger than a 
tiger. The Mustelide, or weasels, were represented by five 
genera, the existing genera Lutra (otter) and Mustela (weasel) ; 
Potamotherium, an extinet form of otter; Tuxodon, allied to the 
badger and otter; Palwomephitis in Germany, and the Prome- 
phytis (already noticed) in Greece. The bears were represented 
only by Hyeanaretos, which has been noticed as occurring in 
the Pliocene, and first appears in the Upper Miocene of France, 
Seals are represented by a form resembling the Antarctic 
Otaria, remains of which occur in the Upper Miocene of 
France. 


CHAP, VI.] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 119 


Cetacea (whales).—These occur frequently in the Miocene de- 
posits, four living, and five extinct genera having been described ; 
but these marine forms are not of much importance for our 
purpose. 

Sirenia (sea-cows).—These are represented by two extinct 
genera, Halitherium and Trachytherium. Several species of the 
former have been discovered, but the latter has occurred in 
France only, and its affinities are doubtful. 

Ungulata.—Horses are represented by Hipparion and Anchi- 
therium, the latter occurring in both Upper and Lower Miocene 
and Eocene; while Hipparion, which is more nearly allied to 
living horses, first appears in the Upper Miocene and continues 
in the Pliocene. 

Hippotherium, in the Upper Miocene of the Vienna basin, 
forms a transition to Paloplotheriwm, an Eocene genus of Tapi- 
ride or Palzeotheridz. Tapirs, allied to living forms, occur in 
both Upper and Lower Miocene. Rhinoceroses are still found 
in the Upper Miocene, and here first appear the four-toed horn- 
less rhinoceros, Acerotheriwm. The Suidee (swine) are rather 
numerous. Sus (wild boar) continued as far back as the Upper 
Miocene; but now there first appear a number of extinct forms 
which have been named Hyotherium, Palwocherus, Cheromorus, 
all of a small or moderate size ; Hyopotamus, nearly as large as a 
tapir; and Anthracothertum, nearly the size of a hippopotamus 
and, according to Dr. Leidy, the type of a distinct family. 
Listriodon, from the Upper Miocene of the Vienna basin, is 
sometimes classed with the tapirs. 

We now come to a well-marked new family of Artiodactyle 
or even-toed Ungulata, the Anoplotheriide, which consisted of 
more slender long-tailed animals, allied to the swine but with 
indications of a transition towards the camels. The only genera 
that appear in the Miocene formation are, Chalicotherium, nearly 
as large as a rhinoceros, of which three species have been found 
in Germany and France; and Synophodus, known only from its 
teeth, which differ somewhat from those of the Anoplotherium 
which appears earlier in the Eocene formation. Another extinct 
family, Amphimericide or Xiphodontide, is represented by two | 


120 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


genera, Cainotherium and Microtherium, in the Miocene of 
France. ‘They were of very small size, and are supposed to be 
intermediate between the Suidz and Tragulide. 

The Camelopardalide, or giraffes, were represented in Europe 
in Miocene times by the gigantic Helladotheriwm, which has 
been found in the south of France, and in Hungary, as well as 
in Greece. The chevrotains (Tragulide) are represented by 
the extinct genus Hyomoschus. 

The Cervide do not seem to have appeared in Europe before 
the Upper Miocene epoch, when they were represented by 
Doreatherium and Amphimoschus, allied to Moschus, and also by 
true Cervus, as well as by small allied forms, Dremotheriwm, 
Amphitragalus (in the Lower Miocene), Micromeryx, Paleomeryz, 
and Dicrocerus. 

The Bovide, or hollow-horned ruminants, were not well 
represented in Central Europe in Miocene times. There were 
no sheep, goats, or oxen, and only a few antelopes of the genus 
Tragocerus, and one allied to Hippotragus; and these all lived 
in the Upper Miocene period, as did the more numerous 
forms of Greece. 

Proboscidea—The true elephants do not extend back to the 
Miocene period, but they are represented by the Mastodons, 
which had less complex teeth. These first appear in the Upper 
Miocene of Europe, five species being known from France, 
Germany, Switzerland, and Greece. Dinotherium, already 
noticed as occurring in Greece, extended also to Germany and 
France, where remains of three species have been found. 

todentia.—A. considerable number of generic forms of this 
order have been obtained from the Miocene strata. The prin- 
cipal genera are Cricetodon, allied to the hamsters, numerous in 
both the Upper and Lower Miocene period of France; MZyoxus 
(the dormice) in France, and an allied genus, Brachymys, in Ger- 
many. ‘The beavers were represented by the still living genus 
Castor, and the extinct Steneofiber in France, The squirrels by 
the existing Scwirus and Spermophilus ; and by extinct forms, 
Lithomys and Aulacodon, in Germany, the latter resembling the 
African genus Aulacodes, The hares, by Lagomys and an 


CHAP. VI. ] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 


121 


extinct form Z%tanomys. Besides these, remains referred to the 
South American genera, Cavia (cavy) and Dasyprocta (agouti), 
have been found, the former in the Upper Miocene of Switzer- 
land, the latter in the Lower Miocene of Auvergne. Palwomys, 
allied tothe West Indian Capromys, has been found in the same 
deposits ; as well as 7eridomys, said by Gervais to be allied to 
Anomalurus and Echimys, the former now living in W. Africa, 
the latter in S. America. 

Edentata.—These are only represented by the Macrotherium 
and Ancylotherium of the Grecian deposits, the former occurring 
also in France and Germany in Upper Miocene strata. 

Marsupials—These consist of numerous species related to 
the opossums (Didelphys), but separated by Gervais under the 
name Peratherium. They occur in both Upper and Lower 
Miocene beds. 


Upper Miocene Deposits of the Siwalik Hills and other Localities 
in N.W. India. 


These remarkable fresh-water deposits form a range of hills 
at the foot of the Himalayas, a little south of Simla. They 
were investigated for many years by Sir P. Cautley and Dr. 
Falconer, and add greatly to our knowledge of the early fauna 
of the Old World continent. 

Primates.— Remains of the genera Semnopithecus and Macacus 
were found, with other forms of intermediate character; and 
some teeth indicated animals allied to the orang-utan of Borneo, 
and of similar size. 

Carnivora.—These consisted of species of Felis and Machai- 
rodus of large size; Hyena, Canis, Mellivora, and an allied genus 
Ursitaxus ; Ursus, in the deposits of the Nerbudda valley (of 
Pliocene age) ; Hyenarctis as large as the cave bear ; Amphicyon 
of the size of a polar bear (in the deposits of the Indus 
valley, west of Cashmere) ; Zuwira, and an extinct allied genus 
Enhydrion. 

Ungulata.— These are very numerous, and constitute the most 
important feature of this ancient fauna. Horses are represented 
by a species of Hguus from the Siwalik Hills and the Irawaddy 


122 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


deposits in Burmah, and by two others from the Pliocene of the 
Nerbudda Valley ; while Hippotherium—a slender, antelope-like 
animal, found in the Siwalik Hills and in Europe—is supposed 
to form a transition from the Equide to the Tapiride. These 
latter are found in the Upper Indus deposits, where there is a 
species of Tapirus, and one of an extinct genus Antelotherium. 
Of Lhinoceros, five extinct species have been found—in the 
Siwalik Hills, in Perim Island, and one at an elevation of 16,000 
feet in the deserts of Thibet. Hippopotamus occurs in the Plio- 
cene of the Nerbudda, and is represented in the older Miocene 
deposits by Hexaprotodon, of which three species have been 
found in various parts of India. Another remarkable genus, 
Merycopotamus, connects Hippopotamus with Anthracotherium, 
one of the extinct European forms allied to the swine. These 
last are represented by several large species of Sus, and by the 
extinct European genus Cherotherium. 

The extinct Anoplotheride are represented by a species of 
the European genus Chalicotherium, larger than a horse. 

An extinct camel, larger than the living species, was found 
in the Siwalik Hills. 

Three species of deer (Cervus) have been found in the 
Siwaliks, and one in the Nerbudda deposits. 

A large and a small species of giraffe (Camelopardalis) were 
found in the Siwalik Hills and at Perim Island. 

The Bovide are represented by numerous species of Bos, and 
by the extinct genera Hemibos and Amphibos. There are also 
three species of antelopes, one of which is allied to the African 
Alcephalus. 

We now come to an extraordinary group of extinct animals, 
probably forming a new family intermediate between the 
antelope and the giraffe. The Sivatherium was an enormous 
four-horned ruminant, larger than a rhinoceros. It had a short 
trunk like a tapir, the lower horns on the forehead were simple, 
the upper pair palmated. The Bramatherium, an allied form 
from Perim Island, showed somewhat more aflinity for the 
giraffe. 

Proboscidea.—No less than seven species of elephants and four 


CHAP. VI. ] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 123 


of mastodons ranged over India, their remains being found in all 
the deposits from the Siwalik Hills to Burmah, A large Dino- 
therium has also been found at Perim Island. 

Reptiles—-Many remains of birds were found, but these have 
not been determined. Reptiles were numerous and interesting, 
the most remarkable being the huge tortoise, Colossochelys, whose 
shell was twelve feet long and head and neck eight feet more. 
Other small tortoises of the genera Testudo, Hmys, Trionyx 
and Lmydida were found, the Hmys being a living species. 
There were three extinct and one living species of crocodile, 
and one of them was larger than any now living. The only 
other reptile of importance was a large lizard of the genus 
Varanus. 


General Observations on the Miocene faunas of Europe and 
Asia.—Comparing the three faunas of approximately the same 
period, and allowing for the necessarily imperfect record of 
each, we find a wonderful similarity of general type over the 
enormous area between France on the west and the Irawaddy 
river in Burmah on the east. We may even extend our com- 
parison to Northern China, where remains of Hyena, Tapir, 
Rhinoceros, Chalicotherium, and Hiephas, have been recently 
found, closely resembling those from the Miocene or Pliocene 
deposits of Europe or India, and showing that the Palxarctic 
region had then the same great extent from west to east 
that it has now. Of about forty genera comprised in the 
Indian Miocene fauna, no less than twenty-seven inhabited 
Central and Western Europe during the same epoch. The Indian 
Miocene fossils are much what we should expect as the fore- 
runners of the existing fauna, the giraffes and hippopotami 
being the only additions from the present Ethiopian fauna. 
The numerous forms of the restricted bovine type, show that 
these probably originated in India; while the monkeys appear 
to be altogether of Oriental types. 

In Europe, however, we meet with a totally different assem- ms 
blage of animals from those that form the existing fauna. We 
find apes and monkeys, many large Felide, numerous civets 


124 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


and hyenas, tapirs, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants, giraffes, ) 
and antelopes, such as now characterise the tropics of Africa , ~ 
and Asia. Along with these we meet with less familiar types, 
showing relations with the Centetide of Madagascar, the » 
Tupaiide of the Malay Islands, the Capromys, of the West Indies, 
and the Echimys of South America. And besides all these 
living types we have a host of extinct forms,—ten or twelve 
genera allied to swine; nine genera of tapir-like animals; four 
of horses; nine of wolves; with many distinct forms of the 
long-extinct families of Anoplotheride, Xiphodontidée, and the 
edentate Macrotheride. It is almost certain that during the 
Miocene period Europe was not only far richer than it is now | 
in the higher forms of life, but not improbably richer than any | 
part of the globe now is, not excepting tropical Africa and | 
tropical Asia. 


EOCENE PERIOD, 


The deposits of Eocene age are less numerous, and spread 
over a far more limited area, than those of the Miocene period, 
and only restricted portions of them furnish any remains of 
land animals, Our knowledge of the Eocene mammalian fauna 
is therefore very imperfect and will not occupy us long, as 
most of the new types it furnishes are of more interest to the 
zoologist than to the student of distribution. Some of the 
Eocene mammalia of Europe are, however, of interest in com- 
parison with those of North America of the same age; while 
others show that ancestral types of groups now confined to ~ 
Australia or to South America, then inhabited Europe. 

Primates—The only undoubted Eocene examples of this 
order, are the Canopithecus lemuroides from the Jura, which has 
points of resemblance to the South American marmosets and 
howlers, and also to the Lemuridw ; and a cranium recently dis- 
covered in the Department of Lot (S.W. France), undoubtedly 
belonging to the Lemuride, and which most resembles that of 
the West African “ Potto” (Perodicticus), This discovery has 
led to another, for it is now believed that remains formerly 


CHAP. VI. ] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 125 
referred to the Anoplotheridee (Adapis and Aphelotheriwm 
from the Upper Eocene of Paris) were also Lemurs. Some 
remains from the Lower Eocene of Suffolk were at first supposed 
to be allied to Macacus, but were subsequently referred to the 
Ungulate, Hyracotherium. There is still, however, some doubt 
as to its true affinities. 

Chiroptera—tIn the Upper Eocene of Paris remains of bats 
have been found, so closely resembling living forms as to be 
referred to the genus Vespertilio. 

Carnivora.—The only feline remains, are those of Hyc«nodon 
in the Upper Eocene of Hampshire, and Pterodon, an allied form 
from beds of the same age in France; with Mlurogale, found 
in the South of France in deposits of phosphate of lime of 
uncertain age, but probably belonging to this period. Viverride 
(civets) are represented by two genera, T'ylodon, the size of a 
glutton from the Upper Eocene, and Palwonyctis, allied to 
Viverra, from the Middle Eocene of France. The Canide 
(wolves and foxes) appear to have been the most ancient of 
the existing types of Carnivora, five genera being represented 
by Eocene remains. Of these, Galethylax and Cyothertwm were 
small, and with the existing genus Canis are found in the Upper 
Eocene of France. Arctocyon, about the size of a wolf, is 
a very ancient and generalised form of carnivore which can 
not be placed in any existing family. It is found in the Lower 
Eocene of France, and is thus the oldest known member of 
the Carnivora. 

Ungulata.—These are more numerous. Equide (horses) are 
represented by the Miocene Anchitheriwm in the Lower, and by a 
more ancient form, Anchilophus, in the Middle Eocene of France. 
Tapiride and Paleotheridee were very numerous. Palaotherium 
and the allied genus Paloplotherium, were abundant in France and 
England in Upper Eocene times. They somewhat resembled 
the tapir, with affinities for the horse and rhinoceros. A new 
genus, Cadurcotherium, allied to the rhinoceros and equally 
large, has been found in the samme deposits of phosphate of lime 
as the lemur and dlurogale. In the Middle Eocene of both 
England and France are found Lophiodon allied to the tapir, 


126 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


but in some of the species reaching a larger size; Propaleothe- 
rium and Pachynolophus of smaller size and having affinities 
for the other genera named; and Plagiolophus, a small, slender 
animal which Professor Huxley thinks may have been a direct 
ancestor of the horse. In the Lower Eocene we meet with 
Coryphodon, much larger than the tapir, and armed with large 
canine teeth; Pliolophus, a generalised type, allied to the tapir 
and horse; and Hyracotherium, a small animal from the Lower 
Eocene of England, remotely allied to the tapir. 

Among the Artiodactyla, or even-toed ungulates, the swine 
are represented by several extinct genera, of moderate or small 
size—Acotherium, Cheropotamus, Cebocherus and Dichobune, all 
from the Upper and the last also from the Middle Eocene of 
France ; but Hutelodon, from the phosphate of lime deposits is 
large. The Dichobune was the most generalised type, pre- 
senting the characters of many of the other genera combined, 
and was believed by Dr. Falconer to approach the musk-deer. 
The Cainotherium of the Miocene also occurs here, and an allied 
genus Plesiomeryx from the same deposits as Huteledon. 

The Eocene Anoplotheridee were numerous. The Anoplothe- 
rium was a two-toed, long-tailed Pachyderm, ranging from the 
size of a hog to that of an ass; the allied Lurythertum was 
four-toed; and there are one or two others of doubtful affinity. 
All are from the Upper Eocene of France and England. 

Rodentia.—Remains referred to the genera Myoxus (dormouse) 
and Sciwrus (squirrel) have been found in the Upper Eocene 
of France; as well as Plesiarctomys, an extinct genus between 
the marmots and squirrels. The Miocene Theridomys is also 
found here. 

Marsupials.—The Didelphys (opossum) of Cuvier, now referred 
to an extinct genus Peratherium, is found in the Upper Eocene 
of France and England. 


General Considerations on the Extinct Mammalian Fauna of 
Europe.—It is a curious fact that no family, and hardly a genus, 
of European mammalia occurs in the Pliocene deposits, without 
extending back also into those of Miocene age. There are, how- 


v 


CHAP. VI. ] MAMMALIA OF THE OLD WORLD. 127 


ever, a few groups which seem to be late developments or recent 
importations into the Palearctic region, as they occur only in 
Post-Pliocene: deposits. The most important of these are the 
badger, glutton, elk, reindeer, chamois, goat, and sheep, which 
only occur in caves and other deposits of Post-Pliocene age. 
Camels only occur in the Post-Pliocene of Siberia (AMerycotherium), 
although a true Camelus of large size appears to have inhabited 
some part of Central Asia in the Upper Miocene period, being 
found in the Siwalik beds. The only exclusively Pliocene 
genera in Europe are Ursus, Equus, Hippopotamus, Bos, Elephas, 
Arvicola, Trogontherium, Arctomys, Hystrix and Lepus; but of 
these Equus, Hippopotamus, Bos, and Elephas are found in the 
Miocene deposits of India. Owing, no doubt, in part to the 
superior productiveness of the various Miocene beds, large 
numbers of groups appear to have their origin or earliest appear- 
ance here. Such are Insectivora, Felide, Hyznide, Mustelidie, 
Ursus, Equide, Tapirus, Rhinocerotide, Hippopotamide, An- 
thracotheride (extinct), Sus, Camelopardide, Tragulide, Cervide, 
Bovidee, Elephantide, and Edentata. 

Groups which go back to the Eocene period, are, Primates 
allied to South American monkeys, as well as some of the 
Lemuride ; bats of the living genus Vespertilio; Hyzenodon- 
tidee, an ancestral form of Carnivore; Viverride ; Canidz (to the 
Upper Eocene), and the ancestral Arctocyonide to the Lower 
Eocene; Hyenarctos, an ancestral type of bears and hyenas; 
Anchitheride, ancestral horses, to the Middle Eocene; Palo- 
theride, comprising numerous generalised forms, ancestors of the 
rhinoceros, horse, and tapir; Suidie, with numerous generalised 
forms, to the Middle Eocene ; Anoplotheride and Xiphodontide, 
ancestral families of even-toed Ungulates, connecting the rumi- 
nants with the swine ; and lastly, several groups of Rodents, 
and a Marsupial, in the Upper Eocene. We thus find all 
the great types of Mammalia well developed in the earliest 
portion of the tertiary period; and the occurrence of Quadru- 
mana, of the highly specialized bats (Vespertilio), of various 
forms of Carnivora, and of Ungulates, clearly differentiated into 
the odd and even-toed series, associated with such lower forms as 


128 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS, [PART Il. 


Lemurs and Marsupials—proves, that we have here hardly made 
an approach towards the epoch when the mammalian type itself 
began to diverge into its various modifications. Some of the 
Carnivora and Ungulates do, indeed, exhibit a less specialised 
structure than later forms; yet so far back as the Upper 
Miocene the most specialised of all carnivora, the great sabre- 
toothed Machairodus, makes its appearance. 

The Miocene is, for our special study, the most valuable and 
instructive of the Tertiary periods, both on account of its 
superior richness, and because we here meet with many types 
now confined to separate regions. Such facts as the occurrence 
in Europe during this period of hippopotami, tapirs, giraffes, 
Tragulide, Edentata, and Marsupials—will assist us in solving 
many of the problems we shall meet with in reviewing the 
actual distribution of living forms of those groups. Still more 
light will, however, be thrown on the subject by the fossil forms 
of the American continent, which we will now proceed to 
examine. 


CHAPTER VII. 
EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 


THE discoveries of very rich deposits of mammalian remains in 
various parts of the United States have thrown great light on 
the relations of the faunas of very distant regions. North 
America now makes a near approach to Europe in the number 
and variety of its extinct mammalia, and in no part of the world 
have such perfect specimens been discovered. In what are called 
the “ Mauvaises terres’’ of Nebraska (the dried-up mud of an 
ancient lake), thousands of entire crania and some almost entire 
skeletons of ancient animals have been found, their teeth abso- 
lutely perfect, and altogether more resembling the preparations 
of the anatomist, than time-worn fossils such as we are accus- 
tomed to see in the museums of Europe. Other deposits have 
been discovered in Oregon, California, Virginia, South Carolina, 
Texas, and Utah, ranging over all the Tertiary epuchs, from 
Post-Pliocene to Eocene, and furnishing a remarkable picture 
of the numerous strange mammala which inhabited the ancient 
North American continent. 


NortH AMERICA—POST-PLIOCENE PERIOD. 


Insectivora.—The only indications of this order yet discovered, 
consists of a single tooth of some insectivorous animal found 
in Llinois, but which cannot be referred to any known group. 

Carnivora.—These are fairly represented. Two species of 
felis as large as a lion; the equally large extinct Zrucifelis, 
found only in Texas ; four species of Canis, some of them larger 


r 


K 


150 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


than wolves ; two species of Galera, a genus now confined to the 
Neotropical region; two bears, and an extinct genus, Arctodus ; 
an extinct species of racoon (Procyon), and an allied extinct 
genus, Myxophagus—show, that at a very recent period North 
America was better supplied with Carnivora than it is now. 
Remains of the walrus (Z’vrichechus) have also been found as far 
south as Virginia. 

Cetacea.—Three species of dolphins belonging to existing 
genera, have been found in the Eastern States ; and two species 
of Manatus, or sea-cow, in Florida and South Carolina. 

Ungulata.—Six extinct horses (Zquus), and one Hipparion ; 
the living South American tapir, and a larger extinct species; a 
Dicotyles, or peccary, and an allied genus, Platygonus ; a species 
of the South American llamas (Awchenia), and one of a kind of 
camel, Procamelus ; two extinct bisons ; a sheep, and two musk- 
sheep (Ovibos) ; ik three living and one extinct deer = 
show an important increase in its Herbivora. 

Proboscidea.—Two elephants and two mastodons, added to this 
remarkable assemblage of large vegetable-feeding quadrupeds. 

Rodentia.—These consist mainly of genera and species still 
living in North America; the only important exceptions being a 
species of the South American capybara (Hydrocherus) in South 
Carolina; and Praotherium, an extinct form of hare, found in a 
bone cave in Pennsylvania. 

Hdentata,—Here we meet with a wonderful assemblage, of six 
species belonging to four extinct genera, mostly of gigantic size. 
A species of Megatherium, three of Megalonyx, and one of 
Mylodon—huge terrestrial sloths as large as the rhinoceros 
or even as the largest elephants—ranged over the Southern 
States to Pennsylvania, the latter (JZylodon) going as far as the 
great lakes and Oregon. Another form, Zreptodon, has been 
found in the Mississippi Valley. 

Marsupialia.—The living American genus of opossums, Didel- 
phys, has been found in deposits of this age in South Carolina, 


Remarks on the Post-Pliocene fauna of North America.—The 
assemblage of animals proved, by these remains, to have 


| 


CHAP, VIL. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD, 131 


inhabited North America at a comparatively recent epoch, is 
most remarkable. In Europe, we found a striking change 
in the fauna at the same period; but that consisted almost 
wholly in the presence of animals now inhabiting countries 
immediately to the north or south. Here we have the appear- 
ance of two new assemblages of animals, the one now con- 
fined to the Old World—horses, camels, and elephants; the 
other exclusively of South American type—llamas, tapirs, 
capybaras, Galera, and gigantic Edentata. The age of the 
various deposits in which these remains are found is somewhat 
uncertain, and probably extends over a considerable period of 
time, inclusive of the Glacial epoch, and perhaps both anterior 
and subsequent to it. We have here, as in Europe, the presence 
and apparent co-existence in the same area, of Arctic and 
Southern forms—the walrus and the manatee—the musk- 
sheep and the gigantic sloths. Unfortunately, as we shall see, 
the immediately preceding Pliocene deposits of North America 
are rather poor in organic remains; yet it can hardly be owing 
to the imperfection of the record of this period, that not one of 
the South American types above numerated occurs there, while 
a considerable number of Old World forms are represented. 
Neither in the preceding wonderfully rich Miocene or Eocene 
periods, does any one of these forms ovcur; or, with the exception 
of Morotherium, from Pliocene deposits west of the Rocky 
Mountains, any apparent ancestor of them! We have here 
unmistakable evidence of an extensive immigration from South 
into North America, not very long before the beginning of the 
Glacial epoch. It was an immigration of types altogether new 
to the country, which spread over all the southern and central 
portions of it, and established themselves sufficiently to leave 
abundance of remains in the few detached localities where they 
have been discovered. How such large yet defenceless animals 
as tapirs and great terrestrial sloths, could have made their way 
into a country abounding in large felines equal in size and 
destructiveness to the lion and the tiger, with numerous wolves 
and bears of the largest size, is a great mystery. But it is 


nevertheless certain that they did so ; and the fact that no such 
K 2 


132 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART 11 


migration had occurred for countless preceding ages, proves that 
some great barrier to the entrance of terrestrial mammalia 
which had previously existed, must for a time have been re- 
moved. We must defer further discussion of this subject till 
we have examined the relations of the existing faunas of North 
and South America. 


TERTIARY PERIOD. 


When we get to remains of the Tertiary age, especially those 
of the Miocene aud Eocene epochs, we meet with so many 
interesting and connected types, and such curious relations with 
living forms in Europe, that it will be clearer to trace the 
history of each order and family throughout the Tertiary period, 
instead of considering each of the subdivisions of that period 
separately. 

It will be well however first to note the few American Post- 
Pliocene or living genera that are found in the Plocene beds. 
These consist of Several species of Canis, from the size of a fox 
to that of a large wolf; a Felis as large as a tiger; an Otter 
(Lutra); several species of Hipparion; a peccary (Dicotyles) ; 
a deer (Cervus) ; several species of Procamelus ; a mastodon ; 
an elephant; and a beaver (Castor). It thus appears that out 
of nearly forty genera found in the Post-Pliocene deposits, only 
ten are found in the preceding Pliocene period. About twelve 
additional genera, however, appear there, as we shall see in 
going over the various orders. 

Primates—Among the vast number of extinct mammalia 
discovered in the Tertiary deposits of North America, no 
example of this drder had beén recognized up to 1872, when 
the discovery of more perfect remains showed, that a number 
of small animals of obscure atfinities from the Lower Eocene 
of Wyoming, were really allied to the lemurs and perhaps 
also to the marmosets, the lowest form of American monkeys, 
but having a larger number of teeth than either. A number of 
other remains of small animals from the same formation, pre- 
viously supposed to be allied to the Ungulata, are now shown to 


CHAP, VII. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 153 


belong to the Primates; so that no less than twelve genera of these 
animals are recognized by Mr. Marsh, who classes them in two 
families—Limnotheride, comprising the genera Limnothervum, 
(which had larger canine teeth), Zhinolestes, Telmatolestes, Mesa- 
codon, Bathrodon, and Antiacodon of Marsh, with Notharctos, 
Hipposyus, Microsyops, and Paleacodon previously described by 
Leidy ;—and TLemuravide, consisting of the genera Lemuravus 
(Marsh) and Hyopsodus (Leidy). The animals of the latter 
family were most allied to existing lemurs, but were a more 
generalized form, Lemuravus having forty-four teeth, the greatest 
number ‘known in the order, These numerous forms ranged from 
the size of a small squirrel to that of a racoon. It is especially 
interesting to find these peculiar Jemuroid forms in America, 
just when a lemur hag been discovered of about the same age 
in Europe; and as the American forms are said to show an 
affinity with the South American marmosets, while the European 
animal is most allied to a West African group, we have ' 
evidently not yet got back far enough to find the primeval 
or ancestral type from which all the Primates sprang. 

About the same time, in the succeeding Miocene formation, 
true monkeys were discovered. Mr. Marsh describes Laopithe- 
cus as an animal nearly the size of the largest South American 
monkeys, and allied both to the Cebide and the Eocene Limno- 
theride. Mr. Cope has described Menotheritwm from the Mio- 
cene of Colorado, as a lemuroid animal, the size of a cat, and 
perhaps allied to Limnotherium. More Miocene remains will, 
no doubt, be discovered, by which we shall be enabled to trace 
the origin of some of the existing forms of South American 
monkeys ; and perhaps help to decide the question (now in dis- 
pute among anatomists) whether the lemurs are really Primates, 
or form an altogether distinct and isolated order of mammalia. 

Insectivora.—This order is represented by comparatively few 
forms in the tertiary beds, and these are all very different from 
existing types. In the Upper Miocene of Dakota are found 
remains indicating two extinct genera, Lepictis and Ictops. In 
the Miocene of Colorado, Professor Cope has recently discovered 
four new genera, Jsacis ; allied to the preceding, but as large as a 


134 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


Mephitis or skunk ; Herpetotheriwm, near the moles; Embasis, 
more allied to the shrews ; and Dommzna, of uncertain affinities. 
Two others have been found in the Eocene of Wyoming ; Amomys; 
having some resemblance to hedgehogs and to the Eastern Tupaia ; 
and Washakius, of doubtful affinities. 

Far back in the Triassic coal of North Carolina has been found 
the jaw of a small mammal (Dromotherium), the teeth of which 
somewhat resemble those of the Australian Myrmecobius, and 
may belong either to the Insectivora or Marsupials ; if indeed, at 
that early period these orders were differentiated. 

Carnivora.—The most ancient forms of this order are some 
remains found in the Middle Eocene of Wyoming, and others 
recently described by Professor Cope (1875) from the Eocene of 
New Mexico, of perhaps earlier date. The former consist of three 
genera, Patriofelis, Vintacyon, and Sinopa,—animals of large size 
but which cannot be classed in any existing family; and two 
others, Mesonyx and Synoplotherium, believed by Mr. Cope to be 
allied to Hycenodon. The latter consist of four genera,— Oxyena, 
consisting of several species, some as large as a jaguar, was 
allied to Hycenodon and Pterodon ; Pachyena, allied to the last ; 
Prototomus, allied to Amphicyon and the Viverride ; and Lim- 
nocyon, a civet-like carnivore with resemblances to the Canide. 

In the Miocene formations we find the Feline type well deve- 
loped. The wonderful Machairodus, which in Europe lived down 
to Post-Pliocene times, is found in the Upper Miocene of Dakota ; 
and perfect crania have been discovered, showing that the chin 
was lengthened downwards to receive and protect the enormous 
canines, Dinyctis was allied both to Machairodus and to the 
weasels, Three new genera have been lately described by Professor 
Cope from the Miocene of Colorado — Bunelurus, with characters 
of both cats and weasels ; Daptophilus, allied to Dinyctis ; and 
floplophoneus, more allied to Machairodus. The Canide are re- 
presented by Amphicyon, which occurs in deposits of the same 
age in Europe; and by Canis, four species of which genus are 
recorded by Professor Cope from the Miocene of Colorado, and it 
also occurs in the Pliocene. The //yaenodon is represented by 
three species in the Miocene of Dakota and Colorado. It occurs 


CHAP, VII. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 135 


also in the European Miocene and Upper Eocene formations, and 
constitutes a distinct family Hyzenodontidee, allied, according to 
Dr. Leidy, to wolves, cats, hyzenas and weasels. The Ursidee 
are represented by only one species of an extinct genus, Leptar- 
chus, from the Pliocene of Nebraska. From the Phocene of 
Colorado, Prof. Cope has recently described TYomarctos, as a 
“short-faced type of dog;” as well as species of Canis and 
Martes. 

Ungulata.—The animals belonging to this order being usually 
of large size and accustomed to feed and travel in herds, are 
liable to wholesale destruction by floods, bogs, precipices, drought 
or hunger. It is for these reasons, probably, that their remains 
are almost always more numerous than those of other orders of 
mammalia. In America they are especially abundant; and the 
number of new and intermediate types about whose position 
there is much difference of opinion among Palzontologists, ren- 
ders it very difficult to give a connected summary of them with 
any approach to systematic accuracy. 

Beginning with the Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates, we 
find the Equine animals remarkably numerous and interesting. 
The true horses of the genus Hquus, so abundant in the Post- 
Pliocene formations, are represented in the Pliocene by several 
ancestral forms. The most nearly allied to Lquus is Fliohippus, 
consisting of animals about the size of an ass, with the lateral 
toes not externally developed, but with some differences of denti- 
tion. Next come Protohippus and Hipparion, in which the 
lateral toes are developed but are small and functionless. Then 
we have the allied genera, Anchippus, Merychippus, and Hyohip- 
pus, related to the European Hippotherium, which were all still 
smaller animals, Protohippus being only 24 feet high. In the 
older deposits we come to a series of forms, still unmistakably 
equine, but with three or more toes used for locomotion and with 
numerous differentiations in form, proportions, and dentition. 
These constitute the family Anchitheride. In the Miocene we 
have the genera Anchitheriwm (found also in the European 
Miocene), Miohippus and Mesohippus, all with three toes on each 
foot, and about the size of a sheep orlarge goat. In the Eocene of 


136 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


Utah and Wyoming, we get a step further back, several species 
having been discovered about the size of a fox with four toes in 
front and three behind. These form the genus Orohippus, and 
are the oldest ancestral horse known. Prof. Marsh points out the 
remarkably perfect series of forms in America, which, beginning 
with this minute ancient type, is gradually modified by gaining 
increased size, increased speed by concentration of the limb-bones, 
elongation of the head and neck, the canine teeth decreased in 
size, the molars becoming longer and being coated with cement— 
till we at last come to animals hardly distinguishable, specifically, 
from the living horse. 

Allied to these, area series of forms showing a transition to the 
tapirs, and to the Palwotherium of the European Eocene. In the 
Pliocene we have Parahippus ; in the Miocene Lophiodon, found 
in the same formation and in the Eocene of Europe, and allied 
to the tapir; and in the Eocene, Paleosyops, as large as a rhino- 
ceros, which had large canines and was allied to the tapir and 
Paleotherium ; Limnohyus, forming the type of a family Limno- 
hyidee, which included the last genus and some others mentioned 
further on; and Hyrachyus, allied to Lophiodon, and to Hyracodon 
an extinct form of rhinoceros. Besides these we have Lophiothe- 
vium (also from the Eocene of Europe); Diplacodon allied to 
Limnohyus, but with affinities to modern Perissodactyla and nearly 
as large as a rhinoceros ; and Colonoceras, also belonging to the 
Limnohyide, an animal which was the size of a sheep, and had 
divergent protuberances or horns on its nose. A remarkable 
genus, Bathmodon, lately described by Professor Cope, and of 
which five species have been found in the Eocene of New Mexico 
and Wyoming, is believed to form the type of a new family, 
having some affinity to Palwosyops and to the extinct Bronto- 
theride, Jt had large canine tusks but no horns. 

The Rhinocerotida are represented in America by the genus 
Rhinoceros in the Pliocene and Miocene, and by Aceratheriwm 
and //yracodon in the Miocene. Both the latter were hornless, 
and IHyracodon was allied to the Eocene /yrachyus, one of the 
Lophiodontidee. In the Eocene and Miocene deposits of Utah, 
and Oregon, several remarkable extinct rhinoceroses have been 


CHAP, VII. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 137 
recently discovered, forming the genus Dieeratherium. These had 
a pair of nasal horns placed side by side on the snout, not behind 
each other as in existing two-horned rhinoceroses, the rest of 
their skeleton resembling the hornless Aceratherium. 'They were 
of rather small size. 

Next to these extinct rhinoceroses come the Brontotheride, 
an extraordinary family of large mammalia, some of which 
exceeded in bulk the largest living rhinoceros. They had four 
toes to the front and three to the hind feet, with a pair of large 
divergent horns on the front of the head, in both sexes. Professor 
Marsh and Dr. Leidy have described four genera, Brontotherium, 
Titanotherium, Megacerops, and Anisacodon, distinguished by 
peculiarities of dentition. Though most nearly allied to the 
rhinoceroses, they show some affinity for the gigantic Dino- 
cerata of the Eocene to be noticed further on. Professor Cope 
has since described another genus, Symborodon, from the Mio- 
cene of Colorado, with no less than seven species, one nearly 
the size of an elephant. He thinks they had a short tapir-like 
proboscis. The species differ greatly in the form of the cranium 
and development of the horn-bearing processes, 


We commence the Artiodactyla, or even-toed Ungulates, with 
the hog tribe. These are represented by species of peccaries, 
(Dicotyles) from the Pliocene of Nebraska and Oregon ; and by 
an allied form 7hinohyus, very like Dicotyles, but having an 
additional premolar tooth and a much smaller brain-cavity. 
From the Miocene are three allied genera, Nanohyus, Lepto- 
cherus, and Percherus. Professor Cope, however, thinks Lepto- 
cherus may be Lemuroid, and allied to Menotherium. The 
Anthracotheride, a family which connects the Hippopotamide 
and Ruminants, and which occurs in the Miocene of Europe 
and India, are represented in America by the genus Hyopotamus 
from the Miocene of Dakota, and Hlotheriwm from the Miocene of 
Oregon and the Eocene of Wyoming; the latter genus being some- 
times classed with the preceding family, and lately placed by 
Professor Marsh, in the new order, Tillodontia. Professor Cope 
has since described three other genera from the Eocene of New 


138 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


Mexico: Meniscotherium, having resemblances to Paleosyops, 
Hyopotamus, and the Limnotheride ; Phenacodus, the size of a 
hog, of doubtful position, but perhaps near Hlotheriuwm ; and 
Achenodon, as large as a cow, but more hog-like than the pre- 
ceding. Another new genus from the Miocene of Colorado— 
Pelonax—is said by Professor Cope to come between Llothervwm 
and Hippopotamus. 

The Camelidz are very abundant, and form one of the most 
striking features of the ancient fauna of America. Procamelus, 
Homocamelus, and Megalomeryx, are extinct genera found in the 
Pliocene formation ; the first very closely allied to the Old 
World camel, the last smaller and more sheep-like. In the 
Miocene two other genera occur, Pebrotherium and Protomeryz, 
the former allied to both the camel and the llama. 

Deer are represented by a single species of Cervus in the 
Pliocene, while two extinct genera, Leptomeryx and Merycodus, 
are found in the Miocene deposits, the latter indicating a tran- 
sition between camels and deer. Two other genera, Hypisodus 
and Hypertragulus, of very small size, are said by Professor 
Cope to be allied to the Tragulide and to Leptomeryz. 

The Bovidee, or hollow-horned runrinants, are only represented 
in the Newer Pliocene by a single species of an extinct genus, 
Casoryz, said to be intermediate between antelopes and deer. 

We now come to an exclusively American family, the Oreo- 
dontide, which consisted of small animals termed by Dr. Leidy, 
“ruminating hogs,’ and which had some general structural 
resemblances to deer and camels. They abounded in North 
America during the Pliocene, and especially during the Miocene 
epoch, no less than six genera and twenty species having been 
discovered. Merychus contains the Pliocene forms; while 
Oreodon, Eporeodon, Merychochwrus, Leptauchenia, and Agrio- 
cherus are Miocene. The last genus extends back into the 
Kocene period, and shows affinity to the European Anoplothe- 
ride of the same epoch. 

Proboscidea.—The Elephantide are only represented in 
America by one species of Mastodon and one of Flephas, in 
the Newer Pliocene deposits. In the Older Pliocene, Miocene, 


CHAP. VIL. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 139 


and Upper Eocene, no remains of this order have been found ; 
and in 1869, Dr. Leidy remarked on the small average size of 
the extinct North American mammalia, which were almost all 
smaller than their living analogues. Since then, however, won- 
derful discoveries have been made in deposits of Middle Eocene 
age in Wyoming and Colorado, of a group of huge animals not 
only rivalling the elephants in size, but of so remarkable and 
peculiar a structure as to require the formation of a new order of 
mammals—Dinocerata—for their reception. 

This order consists of animals with generalised Ungulate and 
Proboscidean affinities. The lower jaw resembles that of the 
hippopotamus ; they had five toes on the anterior feet and four on 
the posterior ; three pairs of horns, the first pair on the top of the 
head, large and perhaps palmated, the second pair above the eyes, 
while the third and smallest stood out sideways on the snout. 
They had enormous upper canines, of which the reots entered 
the middle horn cores, no upper incisors, and small molars. 
Professor Marsh believes that they had no trunk. The remains 
discovered indicate four genera, Dinoceras (3 sp.), Tinoceras 
(2 sp.), Uintatherium (1 sp.), and Zobasileus (2 sp.). Many other 
names have been given to fragments of these animals, and even 
those here given may not be all distinct. 

Another new order, Tillodontia, recently established by Pro- 
fessor Marsh, is perhaps yet more remarkable in a zoological 
poimt of view, since it combines the characters of Carnivora, 
Ungulata, and Rodents. These animals have been formed into 
two families, Tillotheride and Stylinodontide; and three genera, 
Tillotherium, Anchippodus, and Stylinodontia. All are from the 
Eocene of Wyoming and New Jersey. Perhaps to these must be 
added LHlothertum from the Miocene of Dakota, the other forms 
being all Eocene. They were mostly animals of small size, 
between that of the capybara and tapir. The skull resembled in 
form that of a bear ; the molar teeth were of Ungulate type, and 
the incisors like those of a Rodent; but the skeleton was more 
that of the Urside, the feet being plantigrade. Professor Cope 
has since described three new genera from the Eocene of 
New Mexico, Eetoganus, Calamodon, and Esthonyr, comprising 


140 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


seven species allied to Tillotherium and Anchippodus, and having 
also relations, as Professor Cope believes, with the South American 
Toxodontide. 

Rodentia —This order is represented in the Pliocene by a 
beaver, a porcupine, and an American mouse (fTesperomys), all 
extinct species of living genera, the Hystriz being an Old World 
type; and Professor Cope has recently described Panolax, a 
new genus of hares from the Pliocene of New Mexico. The 
Miocene deposits have furnished an extinct genus allied to the 
hares—Valeolagus; one of the squirrel family—Jschyromys ; 
a small extinct form of beaver—Paleocastor ; and an extinct 
mouse—LHumys. The Eocene strata of Wyoming have lately 
furnished two extinct forms of squirrel, Paramys and Sciwravus ; 
and another of the Muride (or mouse family), /ysops. 

Cetacea—Numerous remains of dolphins and whales, be- 
longing to no less than twelve genera, mostly extinct, have been 
found in the Miocene deposits of the Atlantic and Gulf States, 
from New Jersey to South Carolina and Louisiana; while seven 
genera of the extinct family, Zeuglodontide, have been found in 
Miocene and Eocene beds of the same districts. ‘Some remains 
associated with these are doubtfully referred to the Seal family 
(Phocidee) among the Carnivora. 

Edentata.—Till quite recently no remains of this order have 
occurred in any North American deposits below the Post-Plio- 
cene; but in 1874 Prof. Marsh described some remains allied to 
Megalonyx and Mylodon, from the Pliocene beds of California 
and Idaho, and forming a new genus, Morotherium. As these 
remains have only occurred to the west of the Rocky Mountains, 
and in Pliocene deposits whose exact age is not ascertained, they 
hardly affect the remarkable absence of this group from the 
whole of the exceedingly rich Tertiary deposits in all other parts 
of North America. 


General Relations of the extinct Tertiary Mammalia of North 
America and Kurope-—Having now given a sketch of the ex- 
tinct Mammalia which inhabited Hurope and North America 
during the Tertiary period, we are enabled by comparing them, 


a — 
¢. = 
a 


4 


» 
{ 
| 


CHAP. VII. } MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 141 


to ascertain their relations to each other, and to see how far 
they elucidate the problem of the birth-place and subsequent 
migrations of the several families and genera. We have already 
pointed out the remarkable features of the Quaternary (or Post- 
Pliocene) fauna of North America, and now proceed to discuss 
that of the various Tertiary periods, which is closely connected 
with the extinct fauna of Europe. 

The Tertiary Mammalia of North America at present de- 
scribed belong to from eighty to one hundred genera, while 
those of Europe are nearly double that number; yet only 
eighteen genera are common tv the two faunas, and of these 
eight are living and belong chiefly to the Pliocene period. 
Taking first, the genera which in America do not go back beyond 
the Phocene period (ten in number), we find that eight of them 
in Europe go back to the Upper Miocene. These are Felis, 
Pseudelurus, Hipparion, Cervus, Mastodon, Elephas (in India), 
Castor and Hystriaz; while another, Canis, goes back to the 
Upper Eocene and the tenth, Zquus, confined to the newer 
Pliocene or perhaps to the Post-Pliocene in America, extends 
back to the older Pliocene in Europe. Of the seven European 
genera which are confined to the Miocene period in America, 
three, Hyawnodon, Anchithervum, and Lophiodon go back to the 
Eocene in Europe; threé others, Machairodus, Rhinoceros, and 
Acevatherium, are also of Miocéne age in Europe; Amphicyon goes 
back to the Lower Miocene of Europe. Lophiotheriwm belongs 
to the Eocene of both countries. 

If we turn now to families instead of genera, we find that the 
same general rule prevails. Mustelidee (weasels), Urside (bears), 
true Equide (horses), and Bovide (oxen &c.), go no further back 
in America than the Pliocene, while they all go back to the 
Miocene in Europe. Suidz (swine) and Anoplotheride (extinct) 
are found in the American Miocene and in the European Eocene. 
Anchitheride (extinct) reach the Upper Eocene in America, 
while in Europe they range through Upper, Middle, and Lower 
Eocene. Cervide (deer) alone are Miocene in both countries, 
There remain two families in which America has the pre- 
eminence. Camelide (camels) were wonderfully developed in 


142 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART 1. 


the American Pliocene and Miocene periods, abounding in 
genera and species ; whereas in Europe the group only exists in 
the Post-Pliocene or Lower Pliocene, with one Upper Miocene 
species of Camelus in N. India. The Anthracotheride (extinct), 
found only in the Upper Miocene of France and India, reach 
even the Lower Eocene in America. 

These facts may be due, in part, toa want of strict co-ordina- 
tion between the Tertiary deposits of Europe and North America, 
—in part to the imperfection of the record in the latter country. 
Yet it does not seem probable that they are altogether due to 
these causes, because the Miocene beds, which are by far the 
best known in America as in Europe, exhibit deficiencies of the 
same kind as the less known Eocene deposits. The fossil fauna 
of both countries is so rich, that we can hardly impute great and 
well marked differences to imperfect knowledge; yet we find 
such important families as the Civets, Hyzenas, Giraffes, and 
Hippopotami absent from America, with the Weasels, and Ante- 
lopes almost so ; while America possesses almost all the Camelide, 
two peculiar orders, Dinocerata and Tillodontia, and four remark- 
ably peculiar families, Limnotheride, Lemuravide, Oreodontide 
and Brontotheride. If then the facts at present known represent 
approximately the real time-relations of the groups in question 
on the two continents, they render it probable that weasels, bears, 
true horses, swine, oxen, sheep and antelopes, originated on the 
Old World continent, and were transmitted to America during 
some part of the Miocene period ; while camels originated in the 
New World, and somewhere about the same time passed over to 
Europe. Of the extinct families common to the two hemi- 
spheres, the Anthracotheride alone seem to have had an 
American origin. Of the genera common to the two countries, 
almost all seem to have had a European origin, the only genera 
of equal date being the two rhinoceroses and three Anchi- 
theride ; but if the Brontotheride are allied to the Rhinocerotide, 
these latter may have originated in America, although now an 
exclusively Old World type. ‘These conclusions are not im- 
probable when we consider the much greater size of the Old 
World continents, extending far into the tropics and probably 


CHAP. VII. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 143 


always more or less united to the tropical areas; while the 
evidence of the extinct mammalia themselves shows, that South 
America has been for the most part isolated from the northern 
continent, and did not take part in the development of its 
characteristic Tertiary fauna. 

Before speculating further on this subject, it will be well to 
lay before our readers a summary of South American palzon- 
tology, after which we shall be in a better position to draw 
correct inferences from the whole body of the evidence. 


SoutH AMERICA. 


Unfortunately, our knowledge of the interesting fossil fauna 
of this continent, is almost wholly confined to the Post-Pliocene 
and Pliocene periods. A few remains have been discovered in 
deposits believed to be of Eocene age, but nothing whatever 
representing the vast intervening period, so rich in peculiar 
forms of animal life both in North America and Europe. 

Fauna of the Braxlian caves—What we know of the Post- 
Pliocene period is chiefly due to the long-continued researches 
of Dr. Lund in the caves of Central Brazil, mostly situated in 
a district near the head waters of the San Francisco river 
in the Province of Minas Geraes. The caves are formed in 
limestone rocks, and are so numerous that Dr. Lund visited 
thousands, but only sixty contained bones in any quantity. 
These caves have a floor of reddish earth, often crowded with 
bones. In one experiment, half a cubic foot of this earth 
contained jaws of 400 opossums, 2,000 mice, besides remains 
of bats, porcupines and small birds. In another trial, the 
whole ot the earth in a cavern was carried out for examin- 
ation, amounting to 6,552 firkins; and, from a calculation 
made by measured samples, it was estimated to contain 
nearly seven millions of jaw-bones of cavies, opossums, por- 
cupines, and mice, besides small birds, lizards, and frogs. This 
immense accumulation is believed to have been formed from 
the bodies of animals brought into the cavern by owls; and, 
as these are unsocial birds, the quantity found implies an 


144 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. _ [PART II, 


immense lapse of time, probably some thousands of years. 
More than 100 species of Mammalia, in all, were obtained 
in these caves. Some were living species or closely allied 
to such; but the majority were extinct, and a considerable 
number, about one-fourth, belonged to extinct genera, or 
genera not now inhabiting South America. Stone implements 
and human remains were found in several of the caves with 
extinct animals. The following enumeration of these remains 
is from the corrected list of M. Gervais. 

Primates.—Extinct species of Cebus, Callithrix, and Jacchus— 
South American genera of monkeys; with an extinct genus, 
Protopithecus—an animal of large size but belonging to the 
American family Cebide. 

Chiroptera.—Species belonging to the South American Phyllos- 
tomide, and to two South American genera of other families. 

Carnivora.—Five species of Felis, some allied to living ani- 
mals, others extinct ; a species of the widespread extinct genus 
Machairodus ; and a sriiall species referred to Cynelurus, the 
genus containing the hunting leopard now found only in Africa 
and India. Canidze are represented by Canis and Icticyon (a 
living Brazilian species of the latter genus), and the extinct 
genus Spedthos. Mustelide are represented by extinct species 
of the South American genera Mephitis and (falictis. Procy- 
onide, by a species of Nasua. Urside, by Arctotherium, a 
genus closely resembling, if not identical with, that containing 
the “spectacled bear” of Chili. 

Ongulata.—Equus, Tapirus, Dicotyles, Auchenia, Cervus, Lép- 
totheriwum, and Antilope, are the cave-genera of this order. 
Equus and Antelope are particularly interesting, as representing 
groups forming no part of existing South Amerivan zodlogy ; 
while the ptesence also of Leptotheriwm, an extinct genus of 
antelopes, shows that the group was fairly represeited in South 
America at this comparatively recent peridd. 

Proboscidea.—A species of Mastodon, found also in the Phocene 
of La Plata, represents this order. 

Rodentia.—These abound. Dasyprocta, Calogenys, Cavia, 
Kerodon, all living genera of Caviidee, are represented by 


CHAP. VII. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 145 
extinct species. Cercolabes, the ‘tree porcupine’ (Cercolabide) 
has two species, one as large as a peccary; A/yopotamus, Loncheres, 
Carterodon, are existing genera of spiny rats (Echimyide) ; 
and there are two extinct genera of the same family, Loncho- 
phorus and Phyllomys. Lagostomus (Chinchillidee), the visca- 
cha of the Pampas, is represented by an extinct species. 
There is also an extinct species of Lepus ; several species of 
ITesperomys and Oxymycterus ; and a large Avvicola, a genus not 
living in South America. 

Edentata.—These, which constitute the great feature of the 
existing South American fauna, were still more abundant and 
varied in the Cave period, and it is remarkable that most of 
them are extinct genera. The armadillos are alone represented 
by living forms, Dasypus, and Xenurus ; Hurydon and Hetero- 
don, are extinct genera of the same family, as well as Chlamydo- 
therium—huge armadillos the size of a tapir or rhinoceros, and 
Pachytherium, which was nearly as large. The ant-eaters are 
represented only by Glossotherium, an extinct form allied to 
Myrmecophaga and Manis. The sloths were more numerous, 
being represented by the extinct genera Celodon, Sphenodon 
and Ochotherium, the last of large size. The huge terrestrial 
sloths—Megatheride, also abounded; there being species of 
Megatherium and Megalonyx, as well as the allied Scelidotherium, 
supposed to have some affinity for the African Orycteropus. 

Marsupials—No new forms of these appear, but numerous 
species of Didelphys, all closely allied to opossums still living 
in South America. 


The preceding sketch of the wonderful cave fauna of Central 
Brazil, is sufficient to show that it represents, in the main, a 
period of great antiquity. Not only are almost the whole of 
the species extinct, but there are twenty extinct genera, and three 
others not now inhabitants of South America. The fact that so 
few remains of the living animals of the country are found in 
these caves, indicates that some change of physical conditions 
has occurred since they were the receptacles of so many of the 
larger animals; and the presence of many extinct genera of 


L 


146 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


large size, especially among the Edentata and American families 
of Rodents, are additional proofs of a very high antiquity. 
Yet many of these cave animals are closely allied to those 
which are found in North America in the Post-Pliocene deposits 
only, so that we have no reason to suppose the cave-fauna to 
be of much earlier date. But the great amount of organic 
change it implies, must give us an enlarged idea of the vast 
periods of time, as measured by years, which are included in 
this, the most recent of all geological epochs. 


Pliocene Period of Temperate South America.—We have now 
to consider the numerous remains of extinct animals found in 
various deposits in the Pampas, and in Patagonia, and a few in 
Bolivia. The age of these is uncertain; but as they are very 
similar to the cave-fauna, though containing a somewhat larger 
proportion of extinct genera and some very remarkable new 
forms, they cannot be very much older, and are perhaps best 
referred at present to the newer portion of the Pliocene 
formation. 

Carnivora.—The genus Machairodus or sabre-toothed tigers, 
represents the Felide. There are several species of wolves 
(Canis); a weasel (Mustela); two bears of the Brazilian cave- 
genus Arctotheriwm; and the extinct European genus Hyenaretos. 

Ungulata.—There are two species of Hgwus, found in the 
Pampas, Chili, and Bolivia; two of Muecrauchenia, an extra- 
ordinary extinct group allied to the tapir and Palewotheriwm, but 
with the long neck, and general size of a camel. A second 
species found on the highlands of Bolivia is much smaller. 

A more recent discovery, in Patagonia, is the almost perfect 
series of teeth of a large animal named Homalodontotherium; and 
which is believed by Professor Flower, who has described it, to 
have been allied to hinoceros, and still more to the Miocene 
Hyracolon from North America; and also to present some 
resemblances to Macrauchenia, and though much more remotely, 
to the curious genus Vesodon mentioned further on. 

The Artiodactyla, or even-toed Ungulates, are represented by a 
species of Dicotyles, or peceary, found in the deposits of the 


cuaAP, VII] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 147 
Pampas; by Auchenia, or lania, of which three extinct species 
inhabited Bolivia, in which country two allied but extinct 
genera, Palewolama and Camelotherium, have also been found. 
Three species of deer (Cervus), from the Pampas deposits, com- 
plete the list of Pliocene Ungulates. 

Proboscidea.—The cave species of Mastodon is found also in 
the Pampas deposits, and another in the Andes of Chili and 
Bolivia. 

Rodents.—These are not so numerous as in the caves. There 
are species of the existing genera, Kerodon and Cavia (Cavude) ; 
Lagostomus (Chinchillidee); Ctenomys (Octodontidee); Lepus 
(hare); ZZesperomys and Oxymycterus (Muride) ; Arvicola, a 
genus not living in South America; and an extinct genus, Car- 
diodus. There is also a remarkable extinct form, 7ypotherium, 
larger than the capybara, and having affinities to Edentates and 
Ungulates. Three species have been found in the Pampas deposits. 

Hdentata.—These are as abundant and remarkable as in the 
cave deposits. Scelidotherium, Meyatherium, Megalonyx, Glosso- 
therium and Dasypus, have already been noticed as from the 
Brazilian caves. We have here, in addition, the huge MJylodon 
allied to the Megatherium, and the allied genera— Gnathopsis 
and Lestodon. We then come to the huge extinct armadillos, 
Glyptodon and Schistopleurum, the former consisting of numerous 
species, some of which were as large as an elephant. Another 
genus, Hutatus, is allied to the ving three-handed armadillos ; 
and a species of the existing genus Huphractus has been found 
in Bolivia. 

Toxodontide.—There remain a number of huge animals 
rivalling the Megatherium in size, and forming the genera 
Toxodon and Nesodon, but whose position is doubtful. Several 
species have been found in the deposits of the Pampas and 
Patagonia. They are allied at once to Ungulates, Rodents, Eden- 
tates, and the aquatic Sirenia, in so puzzling a manner that it is 
impossible to determine to what order they belong, or whether 
they require a new order to be formed for their reception. Some 
are believed to date back to the Miocene period, and they 
indicate what strange forms may still be discovered, should any 


h2 


a 


143 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART JI. 


productive deposits be found in South America of middle Ter- 
tiary age. 

Pliocene Mammalia of the Antilles——These may be noticed 
here, as they are of special interest, proving the connection of 
the larger West Indian Islands with the Continent some time in 
the later Tertiary period. They consist of remains of two large 
animals belonging to the South American Chinchillide, found in 
cave deposits in the island of Anguilla, and forming two new 
genera, Amblyrhiza and Loxomylus ; and remain allied to Mega- 
lonyx from Cuba, which have been named Jegaloenus and 
Myomorphus. 


Eocene fauna of South America—The few remains yet dis- 
covered in the Tertiary deposits of the Pampas which are believed 
to be of Eocene age, are exceedingly interesting, because they 
show us another change in the scenery of the great drama of 
life; there being apparently a considerable resemblance, at this 
epoch, between South America and Europe. They consist of a 
large extinet feline animal, Lutemnodus ; of Palewotherium and 
Anoplotherium, the well-known extinct Ungulates of the Euro- 
pean Tertiaries, and which have never been found in North 
America; and of three genera of Rodents,—TZheridromys, allied 


to Lchimys, and found also in the Eocene and Miocene of France ; 


Megamys, allied to the living Capromys of the Antilles, and 
also to Paleomys, an extinct form of the French Miocene; and 
a very large animal referred to Arvicola, a genus found also in 
the Pliocene deposits of South America, and abundant in the 
northern hemisphere. No Edentates have been found. 

The resemblances of this fauna to that of Europe rather than 
to any part of America, are so strong, that they can hardly be 
accidental. We greatly want, however, more information on this 
point, as well as some corresponding evidences as to the condition 
of West and South Africa about the same epoch, before we can 
venture to speculate on their bearing as regards the early mi- 
grations of organic forms. 


General Remarks on the Extinct Mammalian Fauna of the Old 


CHAP, VII. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD, 149 


$$ 


and New Worlds—Leaving the more special applications of 
paleontological evidence to be made after discussing the relations 
of the existing fauna of the several regions, we propose here to 
indicate briefly, some of the more general deductions from the 
evidence which has now been laid before our readers. 

The first, and perhaps the most startling fact brought out by 
our systematic review, is the very recent and almost universal 
change that has taken place in the character of the fauna, over 
all the areas we have been considering; a change which seems 
to be altogether unprecedented in the past history of the same 
countries as revealed by the geological record. In Europe, in 
North America, and in South America, we have evidence that a 
very similar change occurred about the same time. In all three 
we find, in the most recent deposits—cave-earths, peat-bogs, and 
eravels—the remains of a whole series of large animals, which 
have since become wholly extinct or only survive in far-distant 
lands. In Europe, the great Irish elk, the A/achairodus and 
cave-lion, the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and elephant ;—in North 
America, equally large felines, horses and tapirs larger than any 
now living, a Ilama as large as a camel, great mastodons and 
elephants, and abundance of huge megatheroid animals of almost 
equal size ;—in South America these same megatheroids in greater 
variety, numerous huge armadillos, a mastodon, large horses and 
tapirs, large porcupines, two forms of antelope, numerous bears and 
felines, including a Machairodus, and a large monkey,—have all be- 
come extinct since the deposition of the most recent of the fossil- 
bearing strata. This is certainly not a great while ago, geologi- 
cally ; and it is almost certain that this great organic revolution, 
implying physical changes of such vast proportions that they 
must have been due to causes of adequate intensity and propor- 
tionate range, has taken place since man lived on the earth. 
This is proved to have been the case in Europe, and is supported 
by much evidence both as regards North and South America. 

It is clear that so complete and sudden a change in the higher 
forms of life, does not represent the normal state of things. 
Species and genera have not, at all times, become so rapidly 
extinct. The time occupied by the “Recent period,” that is the 


159 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


time since these changes took place is, geologically, minute. 
The time of the whole of the Post-Pliocene period, as measured 
by the amount of physical and general organic change known to 
have taken place, is exceedingly small when compared with the 
duration of the Pliocene period, and still smaller, probably, as 
compared with the Miocene. Yet during these two periods we 
meet with no such break in the continuity of the forms of life, no 
such radical change in the character of the fauna (though the 
number of specific and generic changes may be as great) as we 
find in passing from the Post-Pliocene to recent times. For 
example, in Central Europe numerous hyenas, rhinoceroses, and 
antelopes, with the great Machairodus, continued from Miocene 
all through Pliocene into Post-Pliocene times; while hippo- 
_ potami and elephants continued to live through a good part of 
the Pliocene and Post-Pliocene periods,—and then all suddenly 
became extinct or left the country. In North America there has 
been more movement of the fauna in all the periods; but we 
have similar great felines, horses, mastodons, and elephants, in 
the Pliocene and Post-Pliocene periods, while Rhinoceros is com- 
mon to the Miocene and Pliocene, and camels range continuously 
from Miocene, through Pliocene, to Post-Pliocene times ;—when 
all alike became extinct. Even in South America the evidence is, 
as far as it goes,allthe same way. We find Machairodus, Equus, 
Mastodon, Megatherium, Scelidotherium, Megalonyx, and numerous 
gigantic armadillos, alike in the. caves and in the stratified 
tertiary deposits of the Pampas ;—yet all have since passed away. 

It is clear, therefore, that we are now in an altogether 
exceptional period of the earth’s history. We live in a zoologi- 
cally impoverished world, from which all the hugest, and fiercest, 
and strangest forms have recently disappeared ; and it is, no 
doubt, a much better world for us now they have gone. Yet it 
is surely a marvellous fact, and one that has hardly been suffi- 
ciently dwelt upon, this sudden dying out of so many large 
mammalia, not in one place only but over half the land surface 
of the globe. We cannot but believe that there must have been 
some physical cause for this great change; and it must have 
been a cause capable of acting almost simultaneously over large 


CHAP, VII. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 151 
portions of the earth’s surface, and one which, as far as the 
Tertiary period at least is concerned, was of an exceptional cha- 
racter. Such a cause exists in the great and recent physical change 
known as “the Glacial epoch.” We have proof in both Europe 
and North America, that just about the time these large animals 
were disappearing, all the northern parts of these continents 
were wrapped in a mantle of ice; and we have every reason to 
believe that the presence of this large quantity of ice (known to 
have been thousands of feet if not some miles in thickness) must 
have acted in various ways to have produced alterations of 
level of the ocean as well as vast local floods, which would have 
eombined with the excessive cold to destroy animal life. There 
is great difference of opinion among geologists and physicists as 
to the extent, nature, and duration of the Glacial epoch. Some 
believe it to have prevailed alternately in the northern and 
southern hemispheres ; others that it was simultaneous in both. 
Some think there was a succession of cold periods, each lasting 
many thousands of years, but with intercalated warm periods of 
equal duration ; others deny that there is any evidence of such 
changes, and maintain that the Glacial epoch was one continuous 
period of arctic conditions in the temperate zones, with some 
fluctuations perhaps but with no regular alternations of warm 
periods. Some believe in a huge ice-cap covering the whole 
northern hemisphere from the pole to near 50° north latitude 
in the eastern, and 40° in the western hemisphere ; while others 
impute the observed effects either to glaciers from local centres, 
or to floating icebergs of vast size passing over the surface during 
a period of submersion. ; 

Without venturing to decide which of these various theories 
will be ultimately proved to be correct, we may state, that 
there is an increasing belief among geologists in the long dura- 
tion of this ice-period, and the vast extent and great  thick- 
ness attained by the ice-sheet. One of the most recent, and 
not the least able, of the writers on this question (Mr. Belt) shows 
strong reasons for adopting the view that the ice-period was 
simultaneous in both hemispheres; and he calculates that the 
vast amount of water abstracted from the ocean and locked up 


152 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCE ANIMALS. [PART If. 


in mountains of ice around the two poles, would lower the general 
level of the ocean about 2,000 feet. This would be equivalent 
to a general elevation of the land to the same amount, and would 
thus tend to intensify the cold; and this elevation may enable 
us to understand the recent discoveries of signs of glacial 
action at moderate elevations in Central America and Brazil, far 
within the tropics. At the same time, the weight of ice piled up 
in the north would cause the land surface to sink there, perhaps 
unequally, according to the varying nature of the interior crust 
of the earth ; and since the weight has been removed land would 
rise again, still somewhat irregularly ; and thus the phenomena 
of raised beds of aretic shells in temperate latitudes, are ex- 
plained. 

Now, it is evident, that the phenomena we have been con- 
sidering—of the recent changes of the mammalian fauna in 
Europe, North America, South Temperate America, and the 
highlands of Brazil—are such as might be explained by the most 
extreme views as to the extent and vastness of the ice-sheet, 
and especially as to its simultaneous occurrence in the northern 
and southern hemispheres ; and where two such completely in- 
dependent sets of facts are found to combine harmoniously, and 
supplement each other on a particular hypothesis, the evidence 
in favour of that hypothesis is greatly strengthened. An ob- 
jection that will oceur to zoologists, may here be noticed. If 
the Glacial epoch extended over so much of the temperate and 
even parts of the tropical zone, and led to the extinction of so 
many forms of life even within the tropies, how is it that so 
much of the purely tropical fauna of South America has main- 
tained itself, and that there are still such a yast number of 
forms, both of mammialia, birds, reptiles, and insects, that seem 
organized for an exclusive existence in tropical forests? Now 
Mr. Belt’s theory, of the subsidence of the ocean to the extent of 
about 2,000 feet, supplies an answer to thus objection; for we 
should thus have a tract of lowland of an average width of 
some hundreds of miles, added to the whole east coast of Central 
and South America, This tract would, no doubt, beeome covered 
with forests as it was slowly formed, would enjoy a perfectly 


CHAP. VI. ] MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 


153 


tropical climate, and would thus afford an ample area for the 
continued existence and development of the typical South 
American fauna; even had glaciers descended in places so low 
as what is now the level of the sea, which, however, there is no 
reason to believe they ever did. It is probable too, that this 
low tract, which all round the Gulf of Mexico would be of con- 
siderable width, offered that passage for intermigration between 
North and South America, which led to the sudden appearance 
in the former country in Post-Pliocene times, of the huge Mega- 
theroids from the latter; a migration which took place in op- 
posite directions as we shall presently show. 

The birth-place and migrations of some mammalian families 
and genera—We have now to consider a few of those cases 
in which the evidence already at our command, is sufficiently 
definite and complete, to enable us to pronounce with some con- 
fidence as to the last movements of several important groups of 
mammalia, 

Primates-—The occurrence in North America of numerous 
forms of Lemuroidea, forming two extinct families, which are 
believed by American paleontologists to present generalized 
features of both Lemuride and Hapalidee, while in Europe only 
Lemurine forms allied to those of Africa have occurred in 
deposits of the same aye (Eocene), renders it possible that the 
Primates may have originated in America, and sent one branch 
to South America to form the Hapalde and Cebide, and 
another to the Old World, giving rise to the lemurs and true 
apes. But the fact that apes of a high degree of organization 
occur in the European Miocene, while in the Eocene, a monkey 
believed to have rejations to the Lemuroids and Cebide has also 
been discovered, make it more probable that the ancestral forms 
of this order originated in the Old World at a still earlier period. 
The absence of any early tertiary remains from the tropical parts 
of the two hemispheres, renders it impossible to arrive at any 
definite conclusions as to the origin of groups which were, no 
doubt, always best developed in tropical regions. \ 

Carnivora.—This is avery ancient and wide-spread group, the 
families and genera of which had an extensive range in very » 


154 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II. 


early times. The true bears (Ursus) are almost. the only 
important genus that seems to have recently migrated. In 
Europe it dates back to the Older Pliocene, while in North 
America it is Post-Pliocene only. Bears, therefore, seem to 
have passed into America from the Palzarctic region in the latter 
part of the Pliocene period. They probably came in on the 
north-west, and passed down the Andes into South America, 
where one isolated species still exists. 

Ungulata.—Horses are very interesting. In Europe they date 
back under various forms to the Miocene period, and true Lquus 
to the Older Pliocene. In North America they are chiefly 
Pliocene, true Hguwus being Post-Pliocene, with perhaps one or 
two species Newer Pliocene ; but numerous ancestral forms date 
back to the Miocene and Eocene, giving a more perfect “ pedi- 
gree of the horse” than the European forms, and going back to a 
more primitive type—Orohippus. In South America, Hquus is 
the only genus, and is Post-Pliocene or at most Newer Pliocene. 
While, therefore, the ancient progenitors of the Equide were 
common to North America and Europe, in Miocene and even 
Eocene times, true horses appear to have arisen in the Palearctic 
region, to have passed into North America in the latter part of 
the Pliocene period, and thence to have spread over all suitable 
districts in South America. They were not, however, able to 
maintain themselves permanently in their new territory, and all 
became extinct; while in their birth-place, the Old World, they 
continue to exist under several varied forms. 

True tapirs are an Old World group. They go back to the 
Lower Miocene in Europe, while in both North and South 
America they are exclusively Post-Pliocene. They occur in 
France down to the Newer Pliocene, and must, about that 
time, have entered America. The land connection by which 
this and so many other animals passed between the Old and 
New Worlds in late Tertiary times, was almost certainly in the 
North Pacific, south of Behring’s Straits, where, as will be seen 
by our general map, there is a large expanse of shallow water, 
which a moderate elevation would convert into dry land, ina 
sufficiently temperate latitude. 


CHAP. VII. | MAMMALIA OF THE NEW WORLD. 155 


The peccary (Dicotyles), now a characteristic South American 
genus, is a recent immigrant from North America, where it 
appears to have been developed from ancestral forms of swine 
dating back to the Miocene period. 

Antelopes are an Old World type, but a few of them appear to 
have entered North, and reached South America in Jate Phocene 
times. Camels, strange to say, are a special North American type, 
since they abounded in that continent under various ancient 
forms in the Miocene period. Towards the end of that period 
they appear to have entered eastern Asia, and developed into the 
Siberian Merycotherium and the North Indian Camelus, while 
in the Pliocene age the ancestral llamas entered South 
America. 

Cervide are a wide-spread northern type in their generalized 
form, but true deer (Cervus) are Paleearctic. They abounded in 
Europe in Miocene times, but only appear in North and South 
America in the later Pliocene and Post-Pliocene periods. 

True oxen (Bovinw) seem to be an Oriental type (Miocene), 
while they appear in Europe only late in the Pliocene period, 
and in America are confined to the Post-Pliocene. 

Elephants (Elephantide) are an Old World type, abounding 
in the Miocene period in Europe and India, and first appearing 
in America in Post-Plocene or later Pliocene times. Ancestral 
forms, doubtfully Proboscidean (Dinocerata), existed in North 
America in the Eocene period, but these became extinct without 
leaving any direct descendants, unless the Brontotheride and 
rhinoceroses may be so considered. 

Marsupials are almost certainly a recent introduction into 
South and North America from Asia. They existed in Europe 
in Eocene and Miocene times, and presumably over a consider- 
able part of the Old World; but no trace of them appears in 
North or South America before the Post-Plocene period. 

Edentata—These offer a most curious and difficult problem. 
In South America they abound, and were so much more nu- 
merous and varied in the Post-Pliocene and Pliocene, that we 
may be sure they lived also in the preceding Miocene period. A 


2) 


few living Edentates are scattered over Africa and Asia, ard 


156 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART Il. 


they flourished in Europe during the Miocene age—animals as 
large (in some species) as a rhinoceros, and most allied to living 
African forms. In North America no trace of Edentata has been 
found earlier than the Post-Pliocene period, or perhaps the Newer 
Pliocene on the west coast. Neither is there any trace of them 
in South America in the Eocene formations; but this may well 
be owing to our very imperfect knowledge of the forms of 
that epoch. Their absence from North America is, however, — 
probably real; and we have to account for their presence in the 
Old World and in South America. Their antiquity is no doubt 
very great, and the point of divergence of the Old World and 
South American groups, may take us back to early Eocene, or 
even to Pre-Eocene times. The distribution of land and sea may 
then have been very different from what it is now; and to those 
who would create a continent to account for the migrations of 
a beetle, nothing would seem more probable than that a South 
Atlantic continent, then united parts of what are now Africa 
and South America. There is, however, so much evidence for 
the general permanence of what are now the great continents 
and deep oceans, that Professor Huxley’s supposition of a con- 
siderable extension of land round the borders of the North Pacific 
Ocean in Mesozoic times, best indicates the probable area in 
which the Edentate type originated, and thence spread over much 
of the Old World and South America, But while in the latter 
country it flourished and increased with little check, in the 
other great continents it was soon overcome by the competition 
of higher forms, only leaving a few small-sized representatives 
in Africa and Asia. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


VARIOUS EXTINCT ANIMALS ;—AND ON THE ANTIQUITY OF THE 
GENERA OF INSECTS AND LAND MOLLUSCA. 


EXTINCT MAMMALIA OF AUSTRALIA. 


THESE have all been obtained from caves and late Tertiary or 
Post-Tertiary deposits, and consist of a large number of extinct 
forms, some of gigantic size, but all marsupials and allied to the 
existing fauna. There are numerous forms of kangaroos, some 
larger than any living species ; and among these are two genera, 
Protemnodon and Sthenwrus, which Professor Garrod has lately 
shown to have been allied, not to any Australian forms, but to 
the Dendrolagi or tree-kangaroos of New Guinea. We have 
also remains of Zhylacinus and Dasywrus, which now only exist 
in Tasmania ; and extinct species of Hypsiprymnus and Phasco- 
lomys, the latter as large as a tapir. Among the more remarkable 
extinct genera are Diprotodon, a huge thick-limbed animal 
allied to the kangaroos, but nearly as large as an elephant: 
Nototherium, having characters of Macropus and Phascolarctos 
combined, and as large as a rhinoceros; and Zhylacoleo, a pha- 
langer-like marsupial nearly as large as a lion, and supposed by 
Professor Owen to have been of carnivorous habits, though this 
opinion is not held by other naturalists. 

Here then we find the same phenomena as in the other coun- 
tries we have already discussed,—the very recent disappearance 
of a large number of peculiar forms, many of them far surpassing 
in size any that continue to exist. It hardly seems probable 
that in this case their disappearance can have been due to the 
direct effects of the Glacial epoch, since no very extensive glacia- 


158 EXTINCT ANIMALS OF AUSTRALIA. [PART Il: 


tion could have occurred in a country like Australia; but if the 
ocean sank 2,000 feet, the great eastern mountain range might 
have given rise to local glaciers. It is, however, almost certain 
that during late Tertiary times Australia must have been much 
more extensive than it is now. This is necessary to allow of the 
development of its peculiar and extensive fauna, especially as we 
see that that fauna comprised animals rivalling in bulk those of 
the great continents. It is further indicated by the relations: 
with New Guinea, already alluded to, and by the general character 
of the various faunas which compose the AuStralian region, de- 
tails of which will be found in the succeeding part of this work. 
The lowering of the ocean during the Glacial period would be 
favourable to the still further development of the fauna of such 
a country ; and it is to the unfavourable conditions produced by 
its subsequent rising—equivalent to a depression of the land to 
the amount of two thousand feet—that we must impute the 
extinction of so many remarkable groups of animals. It is not 
improbable, that the disappearance of the ice and the consequent 
(apparent) subsidence of the land, might have been rapid as 
compared with the rate at which large animals can become 
modified to meet new conditions. Extensive tracts of fertile 
land might have been submerged, and the consequent crowding 
of large numbers of species and individuals on limited areas 
would have led to a struggle for existence in which the less 
adapted and less easily modifiable, not the physically weaker, 
would succumb. 

There is, however, another cause for the extinction of large 
rather than small animals whenever an important change of 
conditions occurs, which has been suggested to me by a corre- 
spondent,' but which has not, I believe, been adduced by Mr, 
Darwin or by any other writer on the subject. It is dependent 
on the fact, that large animals as compared with small ones are 
almost invariably slow breeders, and as they also necessarily 
exist in much smaller numbers in a given area, they offer far 
less materials for favourable variations than do smaller animals, 
In such an extreme case as that of the rabbit and elephant, the 


1 Mr. John Hickman of Desborough, 


CHAP, VIII.] MESOZOIC MAMMALIA. ; 159 
young born each year in the world are probably as some millions 
to one; and it is very easily conceivable that in a thousand 
years the former might, under pressure of rapidly changing con- 
ditions, become modified into a distinct species, while the latter, 
not offering enough favourable variations to effect a suitable 
adaptation, would become extinct. We must also remember 
the extreme specialization of many of the large animals that 
have become extinct—a specialization which would necessarily 
render modification in any new direction difficult, since the in- 
herited tendency of variation would probably be to increase the 
specialization in the same directions which had heretofore been 
beneficial. If to these two causes we add the difficulty of 
obtaining sufficient food for such large animals, and perhaps the 
injurious effects of changes of climate, we shall not find it diffi- 
cult to understand how such a vast physical revolution as the 
Glacial epoch, with its attendant phenomena of elevations and 
subsidences, icy winds, and sudden floods by the bursting of lake 
barriers, might have led to the total extinction of a vast number 
of the most bulky forms of mammalia, while the less bulky 
were able to survive, either by greater hardiness of constitution 
or by becoming more or less modified. The result is apparent in 
the comparatively small or moderate size of the species consti- 
tuting the temperate fauna, in all parts of the globe. 

It is much to be regretted that no mammalian remains of earlier 
date have been found in Australia, as we should then see if it is 
really the case that marsupials have always formed its highest 
type of mammalian life. At present its fossil fauna is chiefly 
interesting to the zoologist, but throws little light on the past 
relations of this isolated country with other parts of the globe. 


MAMMALIAN REMAINS IN THE SECONDARY FORMATIONS. 


In the oldest Tertiary beds of Europe and North America, we 
have (even with our present imperfect record) a rich and varied 
mammalian fauna. As compared with our living or recent highly 
specialized forms, it may be said to consist of generalised types ; 
but as compared with any primeval mammalian type, it must be 
pronounced highly specialised. Not only are such diversified 


160 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART IT. 


eroups as Carnivora, Perrissodactyle and Artiodactyle Ungulates, 
Primates, Chiroptera, Rodents, and Marsupials already well 
marked, but in many of these there is a differentiation into 
numerous families and genera of diverse character. It is impossi- 
ble therefore to doubt, that many peculiar forms of mammal 
must have lived long anterior to the Eocene period ; but there 
is unfortunately a great gap in the record between the Eocene 
and Cretaceous beds, and these latter being for the most part 
marine continue the gap as regards mammals over an enormous 
lapse of time. Yet far beyond both these chasms in the Upper 
Oolitic strata, remains of small mammalia have been found ; 
again, in the Stonesfield slate, a member of the Lower Oolite, 
other forms appear. Then comes the marine Lias formation 
with another huge gap; but beyond this again in the Upper 
Trias, the oldest of the secondary formations, mammalian teeth 
have been discovered in both England and Germany, and these 
are, as nearly as can be ascertained, of the same age as the 
Dromatherium already noticed, from North America. They 
have been named Microlestes, and show some resemblance to 
those of the West Australian Myrmecobius. In the Oolitic 
strata numerous small jawbones have been found, which have 
served to characterise eight genera, all of which are believed to 
have been Marsupials, and in some of them a resemblance can be 
traced to some of the smaller living Australian species. These, 
however, are mere indications of the number of mammalia that 
must have lived in the secondary period, so long thought to be 
exclusively “the age of reptiles;” and the fact that the few yet 
found are at all comparable with such specialised forms as still 
exist, must convince us, that we shall have to seek far beyond 
even the earliest of these remains, for the first appearance of the 
mammalian type of vertebrata. 


I xtTinct Brrps. 


Compared with those of mammalia, the remains of birds are 
exceedingly scarce in Europe and America ; and from the wander- 
ing habits of so many of this class, they are of much less value 


CHAP, VII. ] BIRDS. It 


as indications of past changes in physical geography. <A large 
proportion of the remains belong to aquatic or wading types, 
and as these have now often a world-wide range, the occurrence 
of extinct forms can have little bearing on our present inquiry. 
There are, however, a few interesting cases of extinct land-birds 
belonging to groups now quite strangers to the country in which 
they are found; and others scarcely less interesting, in which 
groups now peculiar to certain areas are shown to have been 
preceded by allied species or genera of gigantic size. 

Palearctic Region and N. India.—tIn the caves and other 
Post-Pliocene deposits of these countries, the remains of birds 
almost all belong to genera now inhabiting the same districts. 
Almost the only exceptions are, the great auk and the 
capercailzie, already mentioned as being found in the Danish 
mounds ; the latter bird, with Zetrao albus, in Italian caverns ; 
and aspecies of pheasant (Phasianus) said to have occurred in 
the Post- Pliocene of France, considerably west of the existing 
range of the genus in a wild state. 

‘In the preceding Pliocene deposits, but few remains have 
been found, and all of existing genera but one, a gallinaceous 
bird (Gallus bravardi) aliied to the domestic fowl and peacock. 

The Miocene beds of France and Central Europe have pro- 
duced many more remains of birds, but these, too, are mostly of 
existing European genera, though there are some notable excep- 
tions. Along with forms undistineguishable from crows (Corvus), 
shrikes (Lantus), wagtails (Jotacilla), and woodpeckers (Picus), 
are found remains allied to the Oriental edible-nest swift (Col- 
localia) and Trogon; a parrot resembling the African genus 
Psittacus; an extinct form Necrornis, perhaps allied to the 
plantain-eaters (Musophaga) ; Homalophus, doubtfully allied to 
woodpeckers, and Limnatornis to the hoopoes. The gallina- 
ceous birds are represented by three species of pheasants, some 
very close to the domesticated species ; Palwoperdiz allied to the 
partridges ; and Paleortyx, small birds allied to the American 
genus Ortyr, but with larger wings. There are also species of 
Pterocles allied to living birds, and a small pigeon. There are 
numerous living genera of Accipitres; such as eagle (Aquila), 

M 


162 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART II, 


kite (Milvus), eagle-owl (Bubo), and screech-owl (Strix) ; with 
the African secretary-bird (Serpentarius), and some extinct forms, 
as Paleocercus, Paleohierix and Paleetus. 

Aquatic and wading birds were abundant, including numerous 
rails, bustards, herons, sandpipers, gulls, divers, and pelicans. 
There were also many ducks, some allied to the genus Dendro- 
cygna ; the Oriental genus of storks, Leptoptilus ; Lbidipodia, a 
remarkable form allied to Jbis and Ciconia ; Elornis, near 
Limosa; Pelagornis, a large bird allied to gannets and pelicans ; 
Hydrornis, allied to the ducks and petrels ; Dolichopterus, allied 
to plovers. Perhaps the most interesting of these extinct birds 
are, however, the flamingoes, represented by forms hardly distin- 
vuishable from living species, and by one extinct genus Pale- 
lodus, which had very long toes, and probably walked on aquatic 
plants like the tropical jacanas. 

The Miocene beds of North India have furnished few birds; 
the only one of geographical interest being an extinct species 
of ostrich, not very different from that now inhabiting Arabia. 

On the whole, the birds of Europe at this period were very 
like those now living, with the addition of a few tropical forms, 
These latter were, however, perhaps more numerous and import- 
ant than they appear to be, as they belong to inland and forest- 
haunting types, which would not be so frequently preserved as 
the marsh and lake-dwelling species. Taking this into con- 
sideration, the assemblage of Miocene birds accords well with 
what we know of the mammalian fauna. We have the same 
indications of a luxuriant vegetation and subtropical climate, 
and the same appearance of Oriental and especially of African 
types. Z'rogon is perhaps the most interesting of all the forms 
yet discovered, since it furnishes us with a central point whence 
the living trogons of Asia, Africa, and South America might 
have diverged. 

In the Eocene we find ourselves almost wholly among extinct 
forms of birds. The earliest known Passerine bird is here 
met with, in Protornis, somewhat similar to a lark, found in 
the Lower Eocene of Switzerland ; while another Passerine form, 
Palagithalus, and one allied to the nuthatch (Sitta), have been 


CHAP, VII. ] BIRDS. 163 


discovered in the Upper Eocene of Paris. Picarize of equal anti- 
quity are found. Cryptornis, from the Paris Eocene, and Hal- 
cyornis from the Lower Eocene of the Isle of Sheppey, were 
both allied to kingfishers; while a form allied to Centropus a 
genus of cuckoos, or, as Milne-Edwards thinks, to the Madagas- 
ear Leptosomus, has been found in the Upper Eocene of France. 
Several Accipitves of somewhat doubtful affinities have been 
found in the same country; while Lithornis, from the Lower 
focene of the Isle of Sheppey, was a small vulturine bird sup- 
posed to be allied to the American group, Cathartes. Among 
the waders, some extinct forms of plovers have been found, and a 
genus (Agnopterus), allied to the flamingoes; while there are 
many swimming birds, such as pelicans, divers, and several 
extinct types of doubtful affinities. Most intersting of all is a 
portion of a cranium discovered in the Lower Eocene of Shep- 
pey, and lately pronounced by Professor Owen to belong to a 
Jarge Struthious bird, allied to the New Zealand Dinornis and 
also perhaps to the ostrich. Another gigantic bird is the Gas- 
tornis, from the Lower Eocene of Paris, which was as large as an 
ostrich, but which is believed to have been a generalised type, 
allied to wading and swimming birds as well as to the Struthiones. 

Beyond this epoch we have no remains of birds in European 
strata till we come to the wonderful Archwopteryx from the 
Upper Oolite of Bavaria; a bird of a totally new type, with a 
bony tail, longer than the body, each vertebra of which carried 
a pair of diverging feathers. 

North America —A number of bird-remains have lately been 
found in the rich Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits of the United 
States; but here, too, comparatively few are terrestrial forms. 
No Passerine bird has yet been found. The Picarie are repre- 
sented by Uintornis, an extinct form allied to woodpeckers, from 
the Eocene of Wyoming. Species of turkey (Meleagris) occur 
in the Post-Pliocene and as far back as the Miocene strata, 
showing that this interesting type is a true denizen of temperate 
North America. The other birds are, Accipitres; waders and 
aquatics of existing genera; and a number of extinct forms of 
the two latter orders—such as, Aletornis an Eocene wader; 

M 2 


164 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART If. 


Paleotringa, allied to the sandpipers, and Zelmatobius to the 
rails, both Cretaceous; with Graculavus, allied to Graculus ; 
Laornis allied to the swans; Hesperornis a gigantic diver; and 
Icthyornis a very low form, with biconcave vertebra, such as are 
only found in fishes and some reptiles—also from Cretaceous 
deposits. 

South America—The caverns of Brazil produced thirty-four 
species of birds, most of them referable to Brazilian genera, and 
many to still existing species. The most interesting were two 
species of American ostrich (hea), one larger than either of 
the living species; a large turkey-buzzard (Cathartes); a new 
species of the very isolated South American genus Opisthocomus ; 
and a Cariama, or allied new genus. 

Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands——We have here only 
evidence of birds that have become extinct in the historical 
period or very little earlier. First we have a group of birds in- 
capable of flight, allied to pigeons, but forming a separate family, 
Didide; and which, so far as we yet know, inhabited Mauritius, 
Redriguez, and probably Bourbon. <Aphanapteryx, an extinct 
genus of rails, inhabited Mauritius; and another genus, (Zrythro- 
machus), Rodriguez. A large parrot, said by Prof. Milne Edwards 
to be allied to Ava and Microglossus, also inhabited Mauritius ; 
and another allied to Hclectus, the island of Rodriguez. None 
of these have been found in Madagascar; but a gigantic Struthious 
bird, Mpyornis, forming a peculiar family distinct both from 
the ostriches of Africa and the Dinornis of New Zealand 
inhabited that island; and there is reason to believe that 
this may have lived less than 200 years ago. 

New Zealand —A number of extinct Struthious birds, form- 
ing two families, Dinornithide and Palapterygide, have been 
found in New Zealand. Some were of gigantic size. They seem 
allied both to the living Aptryx of New Zealand and the emu 
of Australia. They are-quite recent, and some of them have 
probably lived within the last few centuries. Remains of 
Dinornis have also been found in a Post-Plocene deposit in 
Queensland, N. E. Australia'—a very important discovery, as it 


1 Trans, Zool. Soc. of London, vol, viii, p. 381. 


’ 
ie | 


CHAP. VIII] TERTIARY REPTILES. 165 


gives support to the theory of a great eastward extension of 
Australia in Tertiary times. 


EXTINcr TERTIARY REPTILES. 


These will not occupy us long, as no very great number are 
known, and most of them belong to a few principal forms of 
comparatively little geographical interest. 

Tortoises are perhaps the most abundant of the Tertiary 
reptiles. They are numerous in the Eocene and Miocene 
formations both in Europe and North America. The genera 
Emys and Trionyz abound in both countries, as well as in the 
Miocene of India. Land tortoises occur in the Eocene of North 
America and in the Miocene of Europe and India, where the 
huge Colossochelys, twelve feet long, has been found. In the 
Pliocene deposits of Switzerland the living American genus 
Chelydra has been met with. These facts, together with the 
occurrence of a living species in the Miocene of India, show 
that this order of reptiles is of great antiquity, and that most 
of the genera once had a wider range than now. 

Crocodiles, allied to the three forms now characteristic of 
India, Africa, and America, have b2en found in the Eocene of 


our own country, and several species of Crocodilus have occurred 


in beds of the same age in North America. 

Lizards are very ancient, many small terrestrial forms 
occurring in all the Tertiary deposits. A species of the genus 
Chameleo is recorded from the Eocene of North America, to- 


gether with several extinct genera. 


Snakes were well developed in the Eocene period, where 
remains of several have been found which must have been from 
twelve to twenty feet long. An extinct species of true viper has 
occurred in the Miocene of France, and one of the Pythonids 
in the Miocene brown coal of Germany. 

Batrachia occur but sparingly in a fossil state in the Ter- 


‘tiary deposits. The most remarkable is the large Salamander 


Andreas) from the Upper Miocene of Switzerland, which 


166 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART Il. 


is allied to the Menopoma living in North America. Species 
of frog (Rana), and Paleophryus an extinct genus of toads, 
have been found in the Miocene deposits of Germany and 
Switzerland. 

Fresh water fish- are almost unknown in the Tertiary 
deposits of Europe, although most of the families and some 
genera of living marine fish are represented from the Eocene 
downwards. 


ANTIQUITY OF THE GENERA OF INSECTS. 


Fossil insects are far too rarely found, to aid us in our determi- 
nation of difficult questions of geographical distribution; but in 
discussing these questions it will be important to know, whether 
we are to look upon the existing generic forms of insects as of 
great or small antiquity, compared with the higher vertebrates ; 
and to decide this question the materials at our command are 
ample. 

The conditions requisite for the preservation of insects in a 
fossil state are no doubt very local and peculiar ; the result being, 
that it is only at long intervals in the geological record that we 
meet with remains of insects in a recognisable condition. None 
appear to have been found in the Pliocene formation ; but in the 
Upper Miocene of (Eninghen in Switzerland, associated with the 
wonderfully rich fossil flora, are found immense quantities of 
insects. Prof. Heer examined more than 5,000 specimens be- 
longing to over 800 species, and many have been found in other 
localities in Switzerland; so that more than 1,300 species of 
Miocene insects have now been determined. Most of the orders 
are represented, but the beetles (Coleoptera) are far the most 
abundant. Almost all belong to existing genera, and the majority 
of these genera now inhabit Europe, only three or four being 
exclusively Indian, African, or American. 

In the Lower Miocene of Croatia there is sade rich de- 
posit of insects, somewhat more tropical in character, comprising 
large white-ants and dragon-flies differently marked from any 


CHAP. VIII. ] ANTIQUITY OF INSECTS. 167 


now inhabiting Europe. A butterfly is also well preserved, with 
all the markings of the wings ; and it seems to be a Junonia, a 
tropical genus, though it may be a Vanessa, which is European, 
but the fossil most resembles Indian species of Junonia. 

The Eocene formations seem to have produced no in- 
sect remains; but they occur again in the Upper Cretaceous 
at Aix-la-Chapelle, where two butterflies have been found, 
Cyllo sepulta and Satyrites Reynesii, both belonging to the Saty- 
ride, and the former to a genus now spread over Africa, India, 
and Australia. 

A little earlier, in the Wealden formation of our own country, 
numerous insects have been found, principally dragon flies (Libel- 
lula, A’shna) ; aquatic Hemiptera (Velia Hydrometra); crickets 
cockroaches, and cicadas, of familiar types. 

Further back in the Upper Oolite of Bavaria—-which produced 
the wonderful long-tailed bird, Archwopteryx—insects of all orders 
have been found, including a moth referred to the existing genus 
Sphinx. 

In the Lower Oolite of Oxfordshire many fossil beetles have 
been found whose affinities are shown by their names :— Bupres- 
tidium, Curculionidium, Blapsidium, Melolonthidium, and Prio- 
nidium ; a wing of a butterfly has also been found, allied to the 
Brassolidz now confined to tropical America, and named Pale- 
ontina oolitica. 

Still more remote are the insects of the Lias of Gloucester- 
shire, yet they too can be referred to well-known family types— 
Carabidee, Melolonthide, Telephoride, Elateride, and Curculio- 
hide, ainong beetles; Gryllide and Blattidze among Orthoptera ; 
with Libellula, Agrion, A’shna, Ephemera, and some extinct 
genera. When we consider that almost the only vertebrata of 
this period were huge Saurian repliles like the Icthyosaurus, 
Plesiosaurus, and Dinosaurus, with the flying Pterodactyles ; 
and that the great mass of our existing genera, and even fami- 
lies, of fish and reptiles had almost certainly not come into exist- 
ence, we see at once that types of insect-form are, proportionately, 
far more ancient. At this remote epoch we find the chief family 
types (the genera of the time of Linneus) perfectly differentiated 


168 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART I. 
and recognisable. It is only when we go further back still, into 
the Palzeozoic formations, that the insect forms begin to show that 
generalization of type which renders it impossible to classify 
them in any existing groups. Yet even in the coal formation of 
Nova Scotia and Durham, the fossil insects are said by competent 
entomologists to be “ allied to Ephemera,” “near Blatta,” “near 
Phasmide ;” and in deposits of the same age at Saarbriick near 
Tréves, a well-preserved wing of a grasshopper or locust has been 
found, as well as a beetle referred to the Scarabeide. More 
remarkable, however, is the recent discovery in the carboniferous 
shales of Belgium, of the clearly-defined wing of a large moth 
(Breyeria borinensis), closely resembling some of the Saturniide ; 
so that we have now all the chief orders of Insects—including 
those supposed to be the most highly developed and the most 
recent—well represented at this very remote epoch. Even the 
oldest insects, from the Devonian rocks of North America, can 
mostly be classed as Neuroptera or Myriapoda, but appear to 
form new families. 

We may consider it, therefore, as proved, that many of the 
larger and more important genera of insects date back to the 
beginning of the Tertiary period, or perhaps beyond it; but the 
family types are far older, and must have been differentiated very 
early in the Secondary period, while some of them perhaps go 
back to Paleozoic times. The great comparative antiquity of 
the genera is however the important fact for us, and we shall 
have occasion often to refer to it, in endeavouring to ascertain 
the true bearing of the facts of inseet distribution, as elucidating 
or invalidating the conclusions arrived at from a study of the 
distribution of the higher’animals, 


ANTIQUITY OF THE GENERA OF LAND AND FRESH-WATER 
SUELLS, 


The remains of land and fresh-water shells are not much more 
frequent than those of insects. Like them, too, their forms are 
very stable, continuing unchanged through several geological 


CHAP, VUL. ] ANTIQUITY OF LAND SHELLS, 169 


periods. Inthe Plocene and Miocene formations, most of the 
shells are very similar to living species, and some are quite iden- 
tical. In the Eocene we meet with ordinary forms of the genera 
Helix, Clausilia, Pupa, Bulimus, Glandina, Cyclostoma, Megalos- 
toma, Planorbis, Paludina and Linnea, some resembling Euro- 
pean species, others more like tropical forms. A British Eocene 
species of Helix is still living in Texas ; and in the South of France 
are found species of the Brazilian sub-genera Megaspira and 
Anastoma. In the secondary formation no true land shells have 
been found, but fresh water shells are tolerably abundant, and 
almost all are still of lving forms. In the Wealden (Lower 
Cretaceous) and Purbeck (Upper Oolite) are found Unio, Melania, 
Paludina, Planorbis, and Limnea ; while the last named genus 
occurs even in the Lias. 

The notion that land shells were really not in existence during 
the secondary period is, however, proved to be erroneous by the 
startling discovery, in the Paleozoic coal measures of Nova Scotia, 
of two species of Helicidee, both of living genera—Pupa vetusta, 
and Zonites priscus. They have been found in the hollow trunk 
of a Sigillaria, and in great quantities in a bed full of Stigmarian 
rootlets. The most minute examination detects no important 
differences of form or of microscopic structure, between these 
shells and living species of the same genera! These mollusca were 
the contemporaries of Labyrinthodonts and strange Ganoid fishes, 
which formed almost the whole vertebrate fauna. This unex- 
pected discovery renders it almost certain, that numbers of other 
existing genera, of which we have found no traces, lived with 
these two through the whole secondary period; and we are thus 
obliged to assume as a probability, that any particular genus has 
lived through a long succession of geological ages. In esti- 
mating the importance of any peculiarities or anomalies in the 
geographical distribution of land shells as compared with the 
higher vertebrates, we shall, therefore, have to keep this possible, 
aud even probable high antiquity, constantly in mind. 


We have now concluded our sketch of Tertiary Paleontology 
as a preparation for the intelligent study of the Geographical 


170 DISTRIBUTION OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. [PART I]. 


Distribution of Land Animals; and however imperfectly the task 
has been performed, the reader will at all events have been con- 
vinced that some such preliminary investigation is an essential 
and most important part of our work. So much of paleontology 
is at present tentative and conjectural, that in combining the © 
information derived from numerous writers, many errors of detail 
must have been made. The main conclusions have, however, been 
drawn from as large a basis of facts as possible; and although 
fresh discoveries may show that our views as to the past history 
of some of the less important genera or families are erroneous, 
they can hardly invalidate our results to any important degree, 
either as regards the intercommunications between separate 
regions in the various geological epochs, or as to the centres 
from which some of the more important groups have been dis- 
persed. 


PAK. ith. 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: 


A od REVIEW OF THE CHIE¥ FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE 


= _ SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDIC4A- 
TIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS. 


CHAPTER IX. 


THE ORDER OF SUCCESSION OF THE REGIONS.— COSMOPOLITAN 
GROUPS OF ANIMALS.—TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. 


HAVING discussed, in our First Part, such general and preliminary 
matters as are necessary to a proper comprehension of our 
subject ; and having made ourselves acquainted, in our Second 
Part, with the most important results of Paleontology, we now 
come to our more immediate subject, which we propose to treat 
first under its geographical aspect. Taking each of our six 
regions in succession, we shall point out in some detail the chief 
zoological features they present, as influenced by climate, vege- 
tation, and other physical features. We shall then treat each 
of the sub-regions by itself, as well as such of the islands or 
other sub-divisions as present features of special interest ; en- 
deavouring to ascertain their true relations to each other, and the 
more important changes of physical geography that seem neces- 
sary to account for their present zoological .condition. 


Order of Succession of the Regions— We may here explain 
the reason for taking the several regions in a different succession 
from that in which they appear in the tabular or diagrammatic 
headings to each family, in the Fourth, and concluding part of 
this work. It will have been seen, by our examination of extinct 
animals (and it will be made still clearer during our study of 
the several regions) that all the chief types of animal life appear 
to have originated in the great north temperate or northern 
continents; while the southern continents—now represented by 


174 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART nL 


South America, Australia, and South Africa with Madagascar— 
have been more or less completely isolated, during long periods, 
both from the northern continent and from each other. These 
latter countries have, however, been subject to more or less im- 
migration from the north during rare epochs of approximation 
to, or partial union with it. In the northern, more extensive, and 
probably more ancient land, the process of development has 
been more rapid, and has resulted in more varied and higher 
types; while the southern lands, for the most part, seem to have 
produced numerous diverging modifications of the lower grades 
jof organization, the original types of which they derived either 
from the north, or from some of the ancient continents in Meso- 
zoic or Paleozoic times. Hence those curious resemblances in 
‘the fauna of South America, Australia, and, to a less extent, 
M adagascar, which have led to a somewhat general belief that 
‘these distant countries must at one time or other have been 
runited ; a belief which, after a careful examination of all the 
facts, does not seem to the author of this work to be well 
founded. On the other hand, there is the most satisfactory 
evidence that each southern region has been more or less 
closely united (during the tertiary or later secondary epoch) 
with the great northern continents, leading to numerous resem- 
blances and affinities in their productions. 

In endeavouring to present at a glance in the most convenient 
manner, the distribution of the families in the several regions 
and sub-regions, it was necessary to arrange them, so that those 
whose relations to each other were closest should stand side by 
side; the first and last being those between which the relations 
were least numerous and least important. Influenced by the 
usual opinions as to the relations between Australia and South 
America, the series was at first begun with the Nearctic, and 
terminated with the Australian and Neotropical regions ; and it 
was not till the whole of the vertebrate families had been gone 
through, and their distribution carefully studied, that these last 
two regions were seen to be really wider apart than any others 
of the series. It was therefore decided to alter the arrangement, 
beginning with the Neotropical, and ending with the Australian 


| 


cHar. 1X.] ORDER OF SUCCESSION OF THE REGIONS. 175 


regions; and a careful inspection of the diagrams themselves, 
taken in their entirety, will, it is believed, show that this is 
the most natural plan, and most truly exhibits the relations of 
the several regions. 

In the portion of our work now commencing, we are not, 
however, by any means bound to begin at either end of this 
series. Each region is studied by itself, but reference will often 
have to be made to all the other regions; and wherever we 
begin, we must occasionally refer to facts which will be given 
further on. As, however, the great northern continents form 
the central mass from which the southern regions, as it were, 
diverge, and as the Palearctic region is both more extensive and 
much better known than any other, it undoubtedly forms the 
most convenient starting-point for our proposed survey of 
the zoological history of the earth. We thus pass from the 
better known to the less known—from Europe to Africa and 
tropical Asia, and thence to Australia, completing the series of 
regions of the Eastern Hemisphere. Beginning again with the 
Neotropical region, we pass to the Nearctic, which has such 
striking relations with the preceding and with the Palzearctic 
region, that it can only be properly understood by constant 
reference to both. We thus keep separate the Eastern and West- 
ern hemispheres, which form, from our point of view, the 
most radical and most suggestive division of terrestrial faunas ; 
aud as we are able to make this also the dividing point of our 
two volumes, reference to the work will be thereby facilitated. 


Cosmopolitan Groups.— Before proceeding to sketch the zoo- 
logical features of the several Regions it will be well to notice 
those fainily groups which belong to the earth as a whole, and 
which are so widely and universally distributed over it that it 
will be unnecessary, in some cases, to do more than refer to 
them under the separate geographical divisions. 

The only absolutely cosmopolitan families of Mammalia are 
those which are aerial or marine; and this is one of the striking 
proofs that their distribution has been effected by natural causes, 
and that the permanence of barriers is one of the chief 


176 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. \. [PART TH: 


agencies in the limitation of their range. Even among the 
aerial bats, however, only one family—the Vespertilionide—is 
truly cosmopolitan, the others having a more or less restricted 
range. Neither are the Cetacea necessarily cosmopolitan, most of 
the families being restricted either to warm or to cold seas ; but 
one family, the dolphins (Delphinidie), is truly so. This order 
however will not require further notice, as, being exclusively 
marine the groups do not enter into any of our terrestrial 
regions. The only other family of mammals that may be con- 
sidered to be cosmopolitan, is the Muride (rats and mice); yet 
these are not entirely so, since none are known to be truly 
indigenous in any part of the Australian region except Australia 
itself. . 

In the class of Birds, a number of families are cosmopolites, 
if we reckon as such all which are found in each region and 
sub-region ; but several of these are so abundant in some parts, 
while they are so sparingly represented in others, that they 
cannot fairly be considered so. We shall confine that term 
therefore, to such as, there is reason to believe, inhabit every 
important sub-division of each region. Such are, among the 
Passerine birds the crows (Corvide), and swallows (Hirundi- 
nide) ; among the Picariz the kingfishers (Alcedinidée) ; among 
other Land birds the pigeons (Columbide), grouse and partridges 
(Tetraonidée), hawks (Falconide), and owls (Strigidé) ; among 
the Waders the rails (Rallidee), snipes (Scolopacide), plovers 
(Charadriadz), and herons (Ardeidee) ; and among the Swimmers 
the ducks (Anatide), gulls (Laridi), petrels (Procellariidee), 
pelicans (Pelecanidee), and grebes (Podicipide). 

In the class of Reptiles there are few absolutely cosmopolitan 
families, owing to the scarcity of members of this group in some 
insular sub-regions, such as New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. 
Those which are most nearly so are the Colubridee among snakes. 
anil the Scincide among lizards. 

There is no cosmopolitan family of Amphibia, the true frogs 
(Ranide) being the most widely distributed. 

Neither is any family of Freshwater Fishes cosmopolitan, 
the Siluride, which have the widest range, being confined 


CHAP, IX.] TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION, 177 
to warm regions, and becoming very scarce in the temperate 
zones, 

Among the Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera (butterflies 
and sphinges) the following families are cosmopolitan :—Satyride, 
Nymphalide, lLycenide, Pieride, Papilionide, Hesperide, 
Lycenide, and Sphingide. 

Of the Coleoptera almost all, except some of the small and 
obscure families, are cosmopolitan. 

Of the terrestrial Mollusea, the Helicidz alone are true cos- 
mopolites. 


Tables of Distribution of Famities and Genera.— Having been 
obliged to construct numerous tables of the distribution of the 
various groups for the purposes of the descriptive part of the 
work, I have thought it well to append the most important of 
them, in a convenient form, to the chapter on each region ; as 
much information will thereby be given, which can only be 
obtained from existing works at the cost of great labour. All 
these tables are drawn up ona uniform plan, the same generic 
and family names being used in each; and all are arranged in 
the same systematic order, so as to be readily comparable 
with each other. This, although it seems a simple and natural 
thing to do, has involved a very great amount of labour, because 
hardly two authors use the same names or follow the same 
arrangement. Hence comparison between them is impossible, till 
all their work has been picked to pieces, their synonymy un- 
ravelled, their differences accounted for, and the materials recast ; 
and this has to be done, not for two or three authors only, but 
for the majority of those whose works have been consulted on 
the zoology of any part of the globe. 

Except in the two higher orders—Mammalia and Birds— 
materials do not exist for complete tables of the genera brought 
down to the present time. We have given therefore, first, a 
complete table of all the families of Vertebrata and Diurnal 
Lepidoptera found in each region, showing the sub-regions in 
which they occur, and their range beyond the limits of the 
region. Families which are wholly peculiar to the region, or 

N: 


178 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


very characteristic and almost exclusively confined to it, are in 
italics. The number prefixed to each family corresponds to 
that of the series of families in the Fourth Part of this work, 
so that if further information is required it can be readily 
referred to without consulting the index. Names inclosed in 
parentheses—( . . . ) thus—indicate families which only just 
enter a region from an adjacent one, to which they properly 
belong. The eye is thus directed to the more, and the less im- 
portant families ; and a considerable amount of information as 
to the general features of the zoology of the region, is conveyed 
in the easiest manner. 

The tables of genera of Mammalia and Birds, are arranged on 
a somewhat different plan. Each genus is given under its 
Family and Order, and they follow in the same succession in all 
the tables. The number of species of each genus, inhabiting 
the region, is given as nearly as can be ascertained ; but in many 
cases this can only be a generalapproximation. The distribution 
of the genera within the region, is then given with some detail ; 
and, lastly, the range of the genus beyond the region is given 
in general terms, the words “ Oriental,’ “ Ethiopian,” &¢., being 
used for brevity, to indicate that the genus occurs over a con- 
siderable part of such regions. Genera which are restricted to 
the region (or which are very characteristic of it though just 
transgressing its limits) are given in italics ; while those which 
only just enter the region from another to which they really 
belong, are enclosed in parentheses—(... ) thus. The genera 
are here numbered consecutively, in order that the number of 
genera in each family or each order, in the region, may be readily 
ascertained (by one process of subtraction), and thus compari- 
sons made with other regions or with any other area. As the 
tables of birds would be swelled to an inconvenient length by 
the insertion in each region of all the genera of Waders and 
Aquatics, most of which have a very wide range and would 
have to be repeated in several or all the regions, these have 
been omitted; but a list has been given of such of the genera 
as are peculiar to, or highly characteristic of each region. 

As this is the first time that any such extensive tables of 


| 4 ee 


CHAP. IX. ] TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. 179 


—— 


distribution have been constructed for the whole of the Mam- 
malia and Birds, they must necessarily contain many errors of 
detail; but with all their imperfections it is believed they will 
prove very useful to naturalists, to teachers, and to all who take 
an intelligent interest in the wider problems of geography and 
natural history. 


CHAPTER X. 
THE PALZARCTIC REGION. 


THIS region is of immense extent, comprising all the temperate 
portions of the great eastern continents. It thus extends from 
the Azores and Canary Islands on the west to Japan on the 
east, a distance not far short of half the circumference of the 
globe. Yet so great is the zoological unity of this vast tract, 
that the majority of the genera of animals in countries so far 
removed as Great Britain and Northern Japan are identical. 
Throughout its northern half the animal productions of the 
Palearctic region are very uniform, except that the vast elevated 
desert-regions of Central Asia possess some characteristic forms ; 
but in its southern portion, we find a warm district at each ex- 
tremity with somewhat contrasted features. On the west we have 
the rich and luxuriant Mediterranean sub-region, possessing many 
peculiar forms of life, as well as a few which are more especially 
characteristic of the Ethiopian region. On the east we have the 
fertile plains of Northern China and the rich and varied islands 
of Japan, possessing a very distinct set of peculiar forms, with 
others belonging to the Oriental region, into which this part of 
the Palearctic region merges gradually as we approach the 
Tropic of Cancer. ‘Thus, the countries roughly indicated by the 
names—Northern Europe, the Mediterranean district, Central 
and Northern Asia, and China with Japan—have each well- 
marked minor characteristics which entitle them to the rank of 
sub-regions. Their boundaries are often indefinable ; and those 
here adopted have been fixed upon to some extent by considera- 


0 


w 


we 


10 


EXPLANATION 
Terrestrial Contours 
From Sea level to 1,000 feet White 


1000 feet to 2500, Cac) 
2500 , . 4000 ., GAIRAI 
5000 , ,10000 , (SPREE 

_ 10000 , 20000 , eases! 
Above 20,000 treet or 


The Maine Contour of LOOO feet 
in ahewn ly a dotted line 


Pasture lands ahewn Gua — | } 
Poreat 


. : [ee 
Desert ; . . = 


The boundaries and retérence numbers 
of the Subrequns are ahewn in Red 


a — ¥ be 
20 


‘Ic REGION 


»~1000 miles 


we! ~ 90 100 


Stanford's Geographical Estab! London. 


CHAP. X.] THE PALAZARCTIC REGION, 181 
tions of convenience, dependent on custom and on the more or 
less perfect knowledge we possess of some of the intervening 
countries. 

Zoological Characteristics of the Palearctic Region.—The Pale- 
arctic region has representatives of thirty-five families of 
mammalia, fifty-five of birds, twenty-five of reptiles, nine of 
amphibia, and thirteen of freshwater fishes. Comparing it with 
the only other wholly temperate region, the Nearctic, we find a 
much greater variety of types of mammala and birds. This 
may be due in part to its greater area, but more, probably, 
to its southern boundary being conterminous for an enormous 
distance with two tropical regions, the Ethiopean and Oriental ; 
whereas the Nearctic has a comparatively short southern bound- 
ary conterminous with the Neotropical region only. ‘This is so 
very important a difference, that it is rather a matter of surprise 
that the two north temperate regions should not be more unequal 
in the number of their higher vertebrate forms, than they 
actually are. 

It is also to the interblending of the Palearctic with the two 
adjacent tropical regions, that we must attribute its possession 
of so few peculhar family groups. These are only three; two 
of reptiles, Trogonophide and Ophiomoride, aud one of fishes, 
Comephoride. The number of peculiar genera is, however, con- 
siderable, as the following enumeration will show. 

Mammalia—tThe monkey of Gibraltar and North Africa, and 
an allied species found in Japan, are now considered to belong 
to the extensive eastern genus JMacacus. The former, however, 
is peculiar in the entire absence of the tail, and has by many 
naturalists, been held to form a distinct genus, Znwus, confined 
to the Palearctic region. 

Of bats there are one or two genera (Barbastellus, Plecotus) 
which seem to be mainly or wholly Palearctic, but the classifi- 
cation of these animals is in‘such an unsettled state that the 
distribution of the genera is of little importance. 

In the next order, Insectivora, we have almost the entire 
family of the Moles confined to the region. Zalpa just enters 
Northern India; and Uvotrichus is common to Japan and North- 


182 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. (PART III. 


Western America, but the remaining genera, six in number, are 
all exclusively Palearctic. 

Among Carnivora we have Nyctereutes, the curious racoon-dog 
of Japan and North-Eastern Asia ; Lutronectes, an otter peculiar 
to Japan; and the badger (Medes), which ranges over the whole 
region, and just enters the Oriental region as far as Hongkong ; 
ALluropus, a curious form of the Himalayan panda, inhabiting © 
the high mountains of Eastern Thibet; and Pelayius, a genus of 
seals, ranging from the shores of Madeira to the Black Sea. 

The Ungulata, or hoofed animals, are still more productive of 
forms peculiar to this region. First we have the Camels, whose 
native home is the desert region of Central and Western Asia and 
Northern Africa, and which, even in their domesticated condition, 
are confined almost wholly within the limits of the Palearctic 
region. Of Deer we have six peculiar genera, Dama and Capreolus 
found in Europe, with Llaphodus, Lophotragus, Hydropotes, and 
Moschus, confined to Northern China and Mongolia. The great 
family Bovidee—comprising the oxen, sheep, goats and antelopes 
—furnishes no less than seven peculiar Palearctic genera. 
These are Poephagus, the yak of Thibet; Addaz, a well-known 
antelope of Northern Africa and Syria; Procapra, Pantho- 
lops and Budorcas, antelopine genera peculiar to Thibet and 
Mongolia; with Rupicapra (the chamois), and the extraordinary 
large-nosed antelope Saga, confined to Europe and Western Asia, 
Besides these we have Capra (the wild sheep and goats), all the 
numerous species of which, except two, are exclusively Palearctic. 

Coming to the Rodents, we have again many peculiar forms. 
Of Muridze (the mouse and rat tribe), we have six peculiar 
genera, the more important being Cricetus, Rhombomys Smin- 
thus, and Myospalax, Of Spalacidee (mole-rats) both the Palw- 
arctic genera, Hllobius and Spalax, are peculiar. Clenodactylus, 
a genus of the South American family Octodontidee, is found 
only in North Africa. To these we may add Myowus (the 
dormice) and Lagomys (the pikas or tail-less hares) as essentially 
Palearctic, since but one species of each genus is found be- 
yond the limits of the region. 

Birds,—It appears to have been the opinion of many natural- 


CHAP. X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 183 


ists that the Palearctic region could not be well characterised by 
its peculiar genera of birds. In Mr. Sclater’s celebrated paper 
already referred to, he remarks, “It cannot be denied that the 
ornithology of the Palearctic region is more easily characterised 
by what it has not than by what it has,” and this has been quite 
recently quoted by Mr. Allen, in his essay on the distribution 
of North American birds, as if it represented our present know- 
ledge of the subject. But, thanks to the labours of Dr. 
Jerdon, Mr. Swinhoe, Pére David and others, we have now 
learnt that a large number of birds included in the Indian 
list, are either mere winter emigrants from Central Asia, or only 
inhabit the higher ranges of the Himalayas, and thus really 
belong to the Palearctic region. The result is, that a host of 
genera are now seen to be either exclusively or characteristically 
Palearctic, and we have no further difficulty in giving positive 
ornithological characters to the region. In the tables appended 
to this chapter, all these truly Palearctic genera will be found 
printed in dalics, with an indication of their distribution, which 
will sometimes be found more fully given under the respective 
families in the third part of this work. Referring to this table 
for details we shall here summarise the results. 

Of the Sylviide or warblers, no less than fourteen genera are 
either exclusively or characteristically Palearctic, of which 
Locustella, Sylvia, Curruca and Erithacus are good examples. 
Of the oriental family Timaliide, the genus Pterorhinus is Palee- 
arctic. Of Panuride, or reedlings, there are four peculiar genera 
(comprising almost the whole family) ; of Certhiide, or creepers, 
one—Tchodroma—which extends southward to the Abyssinian 
highlands. Of Paride, or tits, one—Acredula ; of Corvide, or 
crows, four—Pica (containing our magpie) being a good example; of 
Fringillide, or finches and buntings, twelve,among which Acanthis, 
Pyrrhula and Emberiza are good illustrations ; of Alaudidee, or 
larks, there are two peculiar genera. Leaving the Passeres we next 
come to peculiar forms among the gallinaceous birds : Syrrhaptes 
among the Pteroclide or sand grouse; four genera of Tetraonide or 
grouse and partridges, and five of Phasianide or pheasants, com- 
prising some of the most magnificent birds in the world. Lastly 


184 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 


among the far-wandering aquatic birds we have no less than five 
_ genera which are more especially Palzarctic,—Ortygometra, the 
corn-crake, and Otis, the great bustard, being typical examples. 
We may add to these, several genera almost confined to this 
region, such as Garrulus (jays), Fringilla (true finches), Yunx 
(wrynecks) and some others ; so that in proportion to its total 
generic forms a very large number are found to be peculiar or 
characteristic. 

This view, of the high degree of speciality of the Palearctic 
region, will no doubt be objected to by some naturalists, on the 
ground that many of the genera reckoned as exclusively 
Palearctic are not so, but extend more or less into other regions. 
It is well, therefore, to consider what principles should guide us 
in a matter of this kind, especially as we shall have to apply 
the same rules to each of the other regions. We may remark 
first, that the limits of the regions themselves are, when not 
formed by the ocean, somewhat arbitrary, depending on the 
average distribution of a number of characteristic forms; and 
that slight local peculiarities of soil, elevation, or climate, may 
cause the species of one region to penetrate more or less deeply 
into another. The land boundary between two regions will be, 
not a defined line but a neutral territory of greater or less 
width, within which the forms of both regions will intermingle ; 
and this neutral territory itself will merge imperceptibly into 
both regions. So long therefore as a species or genus does not 
permanently reside considerably beyond the possible limits of 
this neutral territory, we should not claim it as an inhabitant 
of the adjacent region. A consideration of perhaps more im- 
portance arises, from the varying extent of the range of a genus, 
over the area occupied by the region. Some genera are repre- 
sented by single species existing only in a very limited area ; 
others by numerous species which occupy, entirely or very 
nearly, the whole extent of the region ; and there is every inter- 
mediate grade between these extremes. Now, the small local- 
ised genera, are always reckoned as among the best examples 
of types peculiar to a region ; while the more wide-spread groups 
are often denied that character if they extend a little beyond 


CHAP. X. | THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 185 
the supposed regional limits, or send one or two, out of a large 
number of species, into adjacent regions; yet there is some 
reason to believe that the latter are really more important as 
characterising a zoological region than the former. In the case 
of a single isolated species or genus we have a dying-out group ; 
and we have so many cases of discontinuous species of such 
groups (of which Uvotrichus in Japan and British Columbia, 
Eupetes in Sumatra and New Guinea are examples), that it is 
quite as probable as not, that any such isolated species has only 
become peculiar to the region by the recent extinction of an 
allied form or forms in some other region. On the other hand, 
a genus consisting of numerous species ranging over an entire 
region or the greater part of one, is a dominant group, which 
has most likely been for some time extending its range, and 
whose origin dates back to a remote period. The slight exten- 
sion of such a group beyond the limits of the region to which 
it mainly belongs, is probably a recent phenomenon, and in that 
ease cannot be held in any degree to detract from its value as 
one of the peculiar forms of that region. 

The most numerous examples of this class, are those birds of 
the temperate regions which in winter migrate, either wholly or 
partially, into adjacent warmer countries. This migration most 
likely began subsequent to the Miocene period, during that 
gradual refrigeration of the temperate zones which culminated 
in the glacial epoch, and which still continues in a mitigated 
form. Most of the genera, and many even of the species of 
birds which migrate southwards in winter, have therefore, most 
likely, always been inhabitants of our present Paleearctic and 
Nearctic regions ; permanent residents during warm epochs, but 
only able now to maintain their existence by migration in 
winter. Such groups belong truly to the temperate zones, and 
the test of this is the fact of their not having any, or very few, 
representatives, which are permanent residents in the adjacent 
tropical regions. When there are such representative species, we 
do not claim them as peculiar to the Northern regions. Bearing 
in mind these various considerations, it will be found that we have 
been very moderate in our estimate of the number of genera 


186 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IT. 


that may fairly be considered as exclusively or characteristically 
Paleearctic. 

Reptiles and Amphibia.—The Palearctic region possesses, in 
proportion to its limited reptilian fauna, a full proportion of 
peculiar types. We have for instance two genera of snakes, 
Rhinechis and Halys; seven of lizards, Trigonophis, Psammo- 
dromus, Hyalosaurus, Scincus, Ophiomorus, Megalochilus, and 
Phrynocephalus ; eight of tailed batrachians, Proteus, Salaman- 
dra, Seiranota, Chioglossa, Hynobius, Onychodactylus, Geotriton, 
and Sieboldia ; and eight of tail-less batrachians, Bombinator, 
Pelobates, Didocus, Alytes, Pelodytes, Discoglossus, Laprissa, and 
Latonia. The distribution of these and other Palearctic genera 
will be found in our second vo]. chap. xix. 

Freshwater Fish—About twenty genera of freshwater fishes 
are wholly confined to this region, and constitute a feature which 
ought not to be overlooked in estimating its claim to the rank 
of a separate primary division of the earth. They belong to the 
following families :—Percide (three genera), Acerina, Percarina, 
Aspro ; Comephoridee (one genus), Comephorus, found only in 
Lake Baikal; Salmonide (three genera), Brachymystax, Lucio- 
trutta, and Plecoglossus ; Cyprinodontide (one genus), Tellia, 
found only in Alpine pools on the Atlas Mountains; Cyprinide 
(thirteen genera), Cyprinus, Carassus, Paraphoxinus, Tinca, 
Achilognathus, Rhodeus, Chondrostoma, Pseudoperilampus, Oche- 
tebius, Aspius, Alburnus, Misgurnus, and Nemachilus. 

Summary of Palearctic Vertebrata—Summarising these de- 
tails, we find that the Palearctic region possesses thirty-five 
peculiar genera of mammalia, fifty-seven of birds, nine of 
reptiles, sixteen of amphibia, and twenty-one of freshwater 
fishes; or a total of 138 peculiar generic types of vertebrata. 
Of these, 87 are mammalia and land-birds out of a _ total 
of 274 genera of these groups; or rather less than one-third 
peculiar, a number which will serve usefully to compare with 
the results obtained in other regions. 

In our chapter on Zoological Regions we have already pointed 
out the main features which distinguish the Palearctic from the 
Oriental and Ethiopian regions. The details now given will 


CHAP, X.] THE PALA ARCTIC REGION. 187 


strengthen our view of their radical distinctness, by showing to 
how considerable an extent the former is inhabited by peculiar, 
and often very remarkable generic types. 

Insects : Lepidoptera.—The Diurnal Lepidoptera, or butterflies, 
are not very abundant in species, their number being probably 
somewhat over 500,and these belong to not more than fifty genera. 
But no less than fifteen of these genera are wholly confined to 
the region. Nine of the families are represented, as follows :— 
1, Danaide ; having only a single species in South Europe. 
2. Satyride ; well represented, there being more than 100 species 
in Europe, and three peculiar genera. 3. Nymphalide; rather 
poorly represented, Europe having only about sixty species, but 
there is one peculiar genus. 4. Libytheide ; avery small family, 
represented by a single species occurring in South Europe. 
5. Nemeobiide ; a rather small family, also having only one 
species in Europe, but which constitutes a peculiar genera. 
6. Lycenide ; an extensive family, fairly represented, having 
about eighty European species ; there are two peculiar genera 
in the Palearctic region. 7. Pieride ; rather poorly represented 
with thirty-two European species; two of the genera are, how- 
ever, peculiar. 8. Papilionide ; very poorly represented in 
Europe with only twelve species, but there are many more in 
Siberia and Japan. No less than five of the small number of 
genera in this family are wholly confined to the region, a 
fact of much importance, and which to a great extent redeems 
the character of the Palearctic region as regard this order of 
insects. Their names are Jesapia, Hypermnestra, Doritis, 
Sericinus, and Thais ; and besides these we have Parnassius— 
the “ Apollo” butterflies—highly characteristic, and only found 
elsewhere in the mountains of the Nearctic region. 9. Hes- 
peride ; poorly represented with about thirty European species, 
and one peculiar genus. 

Four families of Sphingina occur in the Palearctic region, 
and there are several peculiar genera. 

In the Zygenide there are two exclusively European genera, 
and the extensive genus Zygwna is itself mainly Palearctic. 
The small family Stygiide has two out of its three genera 


183 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART HI. 


confined to the Palearctic region. In the 4gertide the genus 
Aigeria is mainly Palearctic. The Sphingide havea wider 
general range, and none of the larger genera are peculiar to any 
one region. 

Coleoptera—The Palearctic region is the richest portion of 
the globe in the great family of Carabide, or predacious ground- 
beetles, about 50 of the genera being confined to it, while many 
others, including the magnificent genus Carabus, have here their 
highest development. While several of the smaller genera are 
confined to the eastern or western sub-regions, most of the larger 
ones extend over the whole area, and give it an unmistakable 
aspect; while in passing from east to west or vice-versd, allied 
species and genera replace each other with considerable regu- 
larity, except in the extreme south-east, where, in China and 
Japan, some Oriental forms appear, as do a few Ethiopian types 
in the south-west. 

Cicindelidee, or tiger-beetles, are but poorly represented by 
about 70 species of the genus Cicindcla, and a single Tetracha 
in South Europe. 

Lucanide, or stag-beetles, are also poor, there being represen- 
tatives of 8 genera. One of these, dsalus (a single species), 
is peculiar to South Europe, and two others, Cladognathus and 
Cyclopthalmus, are only represented in Japan, China, and Thibet. 

Cetoniidée, or rose-chafers, are represented by 13 genera, 
two of which are peculiar to South Europe (Zvropinota and 
Heterocnemis), while Stalagmosoma, ranging from Persia to 
Nubia, and the fine Dicranocephalus inhabiting North China, 
Corea, and Nipal, may also be considered to belong to it. The 
genera 7Z'richius, Gnorimus, and Osmoderma are confined to the 
two north temperate regions. 

Buprestide, or metallic beetles, are rather abundant in the 
warmer parts of the region, 27 genera being represented, nine 
of which are peculiar. By far the larger portion of these are 
confined to the Mediterranean sub-region, A _ considerable 
number also inhabit Japan and China. 

The Longicorns, or long-horned beetles, are represented by 
no less than 196 genera, 51 of which are peculiar, They are 


CHAP, X.] THE PALA ARCTIC REGION, 189 
much more abundant in the southern than the northern half 
of the region. Several Oriental genera extend to Japan and 
North China, and a few Ethiopian genera to North Africa. 
Thirteen genera are confined to the two north temperate regions. 
Several large genera, such as Dorcadion (154 species), Phytecia 
(85 species), Pogonocherus (22 species), Agapanthia (22 species), 
and Vesperus (7 species), are altogether peculiar to the Pale- 
arctic region; and with a preponderance of Leptura, Grammop- 
tera, Stenocorus, and several others, strongly characterise it as 
distinct from the Nearctic and Oriental regions. 

The other families which are well developed in the Palearctic 
regions, are, the Staphylinide or rove-beetles, Silphide or 
burying-beetles, Histeride or mimic-beetles, Nitidulidee, Apho- 
diidee, Copridz (especially in South Europe), Geotrupide or 
dung - beetles, Melolonthidee or chafers, Elateridz or click- 
beetles, the various families of Malacoderms and Heteromera, 
especially Pimeliidz in the Mediterranean sub-region, Curculion- 
ide or weevils, the Phytophaga or leaf-eaters, and Cocinellide 
or lady-birds. 

The number of species of Coleoptera in the western part of 
the Palearctic region is about 15,000, and there are probably 
not more than 2,000 to add to this number from Siberia, 
Japan, and North China; but were these countries as well 
explored as Europe, we may expect that they would add at 
least 5,000 to the number above given, raising the Palearctic 
Coleopterous fauna to 20,000 species. As the total number of 
species at present known to exist in collections is estimated (and 
perhaps somewhat over-estimated) at 70,000 species, we may 
be sure that were the whole earth as thoroughly investigated 
as Europe, the number would be at least doubled, since we 
cannot suppose that Europe, with the Mediterranean basin, can 
contain more than one-fifth of the whole of the Coleoptera of 
the globe. 


Of the other orders of insects we here say nothing, because in 
their case much more than in that of the Coleoptera and Lepi- 


doptera, is the disproportion enormous between our knowledge of 
the European fauna and that of almost all the rest of the globe. 


190 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART ITI, 


They are, therefore, at present of comparatively little use for 
purposes of geographical distribution, even were it advisable 
to enter into the subject in a work which will, perhaps, be too 
much overburdened with details only of interest to specialists. 

Land Shells—These are very numerous in the warmer parts 
of the region, but comparatively scarce towards the North. 
South Europe alone possesses over 600 species, whereas there are 
only 200 in all Northern Europe and Asia. The total number 
of species in the whole region is probably about 1,250, of which 
the great majority are Helicide; the Operculated families being 
very poorly represented. Several small genera or sub-genera 
are peculiar to the region, as TZestacella (West Europe and 
Canaries); Leucochroa (Mediterranean district); Acicula (Europe); 
Craspedopoma (Atlantic Islands); Leonia (Algeria and Spain) ; 
Pomatias (Europe and Canaries) ; Cecina (Mongolia). The largest 
genera are Helix and Clausilia, which together comprise more 
than half the species; Pupa, very numerous; Bulimus and 
Achatina in moderate numbers, and all the rest small. 
Heliz is the only genus which contains large and handsome 
species ; Bulimus and Achatina, so magnificent in tropical coun- 
tries, being here represented by small and obscure forms only. 
Daudebardia is confined to Central and South Europe and New 
Zealand ; Glandina is chiefly South American ; Hyalina is only 
American and European; Buliminus ranges over all the world 
except America ; and the other European genera of Helicidze are 
widely distributed. Of the Operculata, Cyclotus, Cyclophorus, 
and Pupina extend from the Oriental region into Japan and 
North China ; 7’udoriais found in Algeria and the West Indies ; 
ITydrocena is widely scattered, and occurs in South Europe and 
Japan. The genera of freshwater shells are all widely dis- 
tributed. 


THE PALASARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. 


The four sub-regions which are here adopted, have been 
fixed upon as those which are, in the present state of our know- 
ledge, at once the most natural and the only practicable ones. 


CHAP. X. ] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 191 


No doubt all of them could be advantageously again sub- 
divided, in a detailed study of the geographical distribution of 
species, But in a general work, which aims at treating all parts 
of the world with equal fulness, and which therefore is confined 
almost wholly to the distribution of families and genera, such 
further subdivision would be out of place. It is even difficult, 
in some of the classes of animals, to find peculiar or even 
characteristic genera for the present sub-regions ; but they all 
have well marked climatic and physical differences, and this 
leads to an assemblage of species and of groups which are suffi- 
ciently distinctive. 


I. Central and Northern Europe. 


This sub-region, which may perhaps be termed the “ European,” 
is zoologically and botanically the best known on the globe. It 
ean be pretty accurately defined, as bounded on the south by 
the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Balkans, the Black Sea, and the 
Caucasus range; and by the Ural Mountains, or perhaps more 
correctly the valley of the Irtish and Caspian Sea, on the east ; 
while Ireland and Iceland are its furthest outliers in the west. 
To the north, it merges so gradually into the Arctic zone that 
no deinarcation is possible. The great extent to which this 
sub-region is interpenetrated by the sea, and the prevalence 
of westerly winds bringing warmth and moisture from an ocean 
influenced by the gulf-stream, give it a climate for the most 
part genial, and free from extremes of heat and cold. It 
is thus broadly distinguished from Siberia and Northern 
Asia generally, where a more extreme and rigorous climate 
prevails. 

The whole of this sub-region is well watered, being pene- 
trated by rivers in every direction; and it consists mainly of 
plains and undulating country of moderate elevation, the chief 
mountain ranges being those of Scandinavia in the north-west, 
and the extensive alpine system of Central Europe. But these 
are both of moderate height, and a very small portion of their 
surface is occupied either by permanent snow-fields, or by 
barren uplands inimical to vegetable and animal life. It is, in 


192 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


fact, to these, and the numerous lesser mountains and hills 
which everywhere diversify the surface of Europe, that the 
variety and abundance of its animal life is greatly due. They 
afford the perennial supplies to rivers, and furnish in their 
valleys and ever varying slopes, stations suited to every form 
of existence. A considerable area of Central Europe is oc- 
cupied by uplands of moderate elevation, a comparatively 
small portion being flat and marshy plains. 

Most of the northern and much of the central portions of 
Europe are covered with vast forests-of coniferous trees; and 
these, occupying as they do those tracts where the winter is 
most severe, supply food and shelter to many animals who could 
not otherwise maintain their existence. It is probable that 
the original condition of the greater part, if not the whole, of 
temperate Europe, except the flat marshes of the river valleys 
and the sandy downs of the coast, was that of woodland and 
forest, mostly of deciduous trees, but with a plentiful admixture 
of such hardy evergreens as holly, ivy, privet, and yew. A 
sufficient proportion of these primeval woods, and of artificial 
plantations which have replaced them, fortunately remain, to 
preserve for us most of the interesting forms of life, which 
were developed before man had so greatly modified the surface 
- of the earth, and so nearly exterminated many of its original 
tenants. Almost exactly in proportion to the amount of 
woodland that still remains in any part of Europe, do we 
find (other things being equal) the abundance and variety 
of wild animals; a pretty clear indication that the original 
condition of the country was essentially that of a forest, a 
condition which only now exists in the thinly inhabited regions 
of the north. 

Although the sub-region we are considering is, for its extent 
and latitude, richly peopled with animal life, the number of 
genera altogether peculiar to it is not great. There are, however, 
several which are very characteristic, and many species, both 
of the smaller mammalia and of birds, are wholly restricted 
to it. 

Mammalia,—The genera wholly confined to this sub-region are | 


OHAP. X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 193 


only two. Myogale, the desman, is a curious long-snouted 
Insectivorous animal somewhat resembling the water-rat in its 
habits. There are two species, one found only on the banks of 
streams in the French Pyrenees, the other on the great rivers of 
Southern Russia. The other peculiar genus, Rupicapra (the 
chamois of the Alps), is found on all the high mountains of 
Central Europe. Almost peculiar are Spalax (the mole-rat) 
found only in Eastern Europe and Western Siberia; and Saiga, 
an extraordinary large-nosed antelope which has a nearly 
similar distribution. Highly characteristic forms, which inhabit 
nearly every part of the sub-region, are, Zalpa (the mole), 
Erinaceus, (the hedgehog), Sorex (the shrew), Meles (the badger), 
Ursus (the bear), Canis (the wolf and fox), Mustela (the weasel), 
Lutra (the otter), Arvicola (the vole), Myoxus (the dormouse), 
and Lepus (the hare and rabbit) ; while Bos (the wild bull) was, 
until exterminated by man, no doubt equally characteristic. 
Other genera inhabiting the sub-region will be found in the list 
given at the end of this chapter. 

Birds.—It is difficult to name the birds that are most charac- 
teristic of this sub-region, because so many of the most familiar 
and abundant are emigrants from the south, and belong to 
groups that have a different range. There is perhaps not a 
single genus wholly confined to it, and very few that have not 
equal claims to be placed elsewhere. Among the more charac- 
teristic we may name Z'urdus (the thrushes), Sylvia (the war- 
blers), Panurus (the reedling) Parus (the tits), Anthus (the 
pipits), Motacilla (the wagtails), which are perhaps more abun- 
dant here than in any other part of the world, Hmberiza (the 
buntings), Plectrophanes (the snow buntings), Passer (the house 
sparrows), Lovia (the crossbills), Zinota (the linnets), Pica (the 
magpies), Tetrao (grouse), Lagopus (ptarmigan) and many others. 

I am indebted to Mr. H. E. Dresser, who is personally ac- 
quainted with the ornithology of much of the North of Europe, 
for some valuable notes on the northern range of many Euro- 
pean birds. Those which are characteristic of the extreme 
Arctic zone, extending beyond 70° north latitude, and toler- 
ably abundant, are two falcons (Falco gyrfaleo and F. peregrinus) ; 

0 


194 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II. 
the rough-legged buzzard (Archibuteo lagopus); the snowy owl 
(Nyctea scandiaca); the raven (Corvus corax); three buntings 
(Emberiza scheeniculus, Plectrophenes nivalis and P. calearata) ; a 
lark (Otocorys alpestris) ; several pipits, the most northern being 
Anthus cervinus; a wagtail (Budytes cinereocapilla); a dipper 
(Cinclus melanogaster); a warbler (Cyanecula suecica); the 
wheatear (Saxicola enanthe); and two ptarmigans (Lagopus 
albus and L. salicetus). Most of these birds are, of course, only 
summer visitors to the Arctic regions, the only species noted as 
a permanent resident in East Finmark (north of latitude 70°) 
being the snow-bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis). 

The birds that are characteristic of the zone of pine forests, 
or from about 61° to 70° north latitude, are very numerous, and 
it will be sufficient to note the genera and the number of 
species (where more than one) to give an idea of the ornitho- 
logy of this part of Europe. The birds of prey are, Falco (three 
species), Astur (two species), Buteo, Pandion, Surnia, Bubo, 
Syrnium, Asio, Nyctala. The chief Passerine birds are, Corvus 
(two species), Pica, Garrulus (two species), Nucifraga, Bomby- 
cilla, Hirundo (two species), Muscicapa (two species), Lantus, 
Sturnus, Passer (two species), Pyrrhula, Carpodacus, Loxia (two 
species), Pinicola, Fringilla (eight species), Hmberiza (five 
species), Alauda, Anthus, Turdus (five species), Ruticilla, Pratin- 
cola, Accentor, Sylvia (four species), Hypolais, Regulus, Phylloscopus 
(two species), Acrocephalus, Troglodytes, and Parus (six species). 
Woodpeckers are abundant, Picus (four species), Gecinus, and 
Yuna. The kingfisher (Alcedo), goatsucker (Caprimulgus), and 
swift (Cypselus) are also common. The wood-pigeon (Colwmba) 
is plentiful. The gallinaceous birds are three grouse, Tetrao (two 
species) and Bonasa, and the common quail (Cotwrniz), 

The remaining genera and species of temperate or north- 
European birds, do not usually range beyond the region of 
deciduous trees, roughly indicated by the parallel of 60° north 
latitude. 

Plate I,—Tllustrating the Zoology of Central Hurope— 
Before considering the distribution of the other classes of 
vertebrata, it will be convenient to introduce our first illustra- 


i or 
ery 


Lo By 


= 


WN 
ii MA 


, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. 


> 
4 


,UROPE 


THE ALPS OF CENTRAL I 


(eS | 


WAI 


lt 


CHAP, X. ] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 195 
tion, which represents a scene in the Alps of Central Europe, 
with figures of some of the most characteristic Mammalia 
and Birds of this sub-region. On the left is the badger 
(Meles Taxus) one of the weasel family, and belonging to a 
genus which is strictly Palearctic. It abounds in Central and 
Northern Europe and also extends into North Asia, but is repre- 
sented by another species in Thibet and by a third in Japan. 
The elegantly-formed creatures on the right are chamois (/upi- 
capra tragus), almost the only European antelopes, and wholly 
confined to the higher mountains, from the Pyrenees to the 
Carpathians and the Caucasus: The chamois is the only 
species of the genus, and is thus perhaps the most characteristic 
European mammal. ‘The bird on the left, above the badgers, is 
the Alpine chough, (Pregilus pyrrhocoraz). It is found in the 
high mountains from the Alps to the Himalayas, and is allied 
to the Cornish chough, which is still found on our south- 
western coasts, and which ranges to Abyssinia and North 
China. The Alpine chough differs in having a shorter bill of 
an orange colour, and vermilion red feet as in the other 
species. In the foreground are a pair of ruffs (/achetes pugnax) 
belonging to the Scolopacide or snipe family, and most nearly 
allied to the genus 7ringa or sandpiper. This bird is remark- 
able for the fine collar of plumes which adorns the males in the 
breeding season, when they are excessively pugnacious. It is 
the only species of its genus, and ranges over all Europe and 
muca of Northern Asia, migrating in the winter to the plains of 
India, and even down the east coast of Africa as far as the 
Cape of Good Hope; but it only breeds in the Palearctic 
region, over the greater part of which it ranges. 


Reptiles and Amphibia.—There are no genera of reptiles 
peculiar to this sub-region. Both snakes and lizards are compara- 
tively scarce, there being about fourteen species of the former 
and twelve of the latter. Our common snake (Tropidonotus 
natriz) extends into Sweden and North Russia, but the viper 
(Viperus berus) goes further north, as far as Archangel (64° N.), 
and in Scandinavia (67° N.), and is the most Arctic of all known 

0 2 


196 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill. 


snakes. Of the lizards, Lacerta stirpiwm (the sand lizard) has 
the most northerly range, extending into Poland and Northern 
Russia; and Anguis fragilis (the blind or slow-worm) has almost 
an equal range. 

Amphibia, being more adapted to a northern climate, have 
acquired a more special development, and thus several forms 
are peculiar to the North European sub-region. . Most remarkable 
is Proteus, a singular eel-like aquatic creature with small legs, 
found only in the subterranean lakes in Carniola and Carinthia ; 
Alytes, a curious toad, the male of which carries about the eggs 
till they are hatched, found only in Central Europe from 
France to the east of Hungary; and Pelodytes, a frog found only 
in France. Frogs and toads are very abundant all over Europe, the 
common frog (Rana temporaria) extending to the extreme north. 
The newts (7riton) are also very abundant and widely spread, 
though not ranging so far north as the frogs. The genera Bom- 
binator (a toad-like frog), and Hyla (the tree frog) are also com- 
mon in Central Europe. 

Freshwater Fish.—Two genera of the perch family (Percide) are 
peculiar to this sub-region,—FPercarina, a fish found only in the 
river Dniester, and Aspro, confined to the rivers of Central 
Europe. Of the very characteristic forms are, Gasterosteus 
(stickle-back), which alone forms a peculiar family—Gasteros- 
teide ; Perca, Acerina and Lucioperca, genera of the perch family ; 
Silwrus, a large fish found in the rivers of Cenrtal Europe, of 
the family Siluridee » Hsox (the pike), of the family Esocidee ; 
Cyprinus (carp), Gobio (gudgeon), Leuciscus (roach, chub, dace, 
&e.), Tinea (tench), Abramus (bream), Alburnus (bleak), Cobitis 
(loach), all genera of the family Cyprinide, 

Insects—Lepidoptera.— No genera of butterflies are actually 
confined to this sub-region, but many are characteristic of it. 
Parnassius, Aporia, Leucophasia, Colias, Melitea, Argynnis, 
Vanessa, Limenitis, and Chionobas, are all very abundant and 
widespread, and give a feature to the entomology of most of the 
countries included in it. 

Coleoptera.—This sub-region is very rich in Carabide; the 
genera Llaphrus, Nebria, Carabus, Cychrus, Plerostichus, Amara, 


| 
‘ 


ee 


CHAP. X. ] THE PALAZARCTIC REGION. 197 


Trechus and Peryphus being especially characteristic. Staphy- 
linide abound. Among Lamellicorns the genus Aphodius is 
most characteristic. Buprestide are scarce ; Elateridz more 
abundant. Among Malacoderms Zelephorus and Malachius are 
characteristic. Curculionide abound: Ottorhyuchus, Omias, 
Erirhinus, Bagous, Rhynchites and Ceutorhynchus being very 
characteristic genera. Of Longicorns Callidiwm, Dorcadion, 
Pogonocherus, Pachyta and Leptwra are perhaps the best re- 
presentatives. Donacia, Crioceris, Chrysomela, and Altica, are 
typical Phytophaga; while Coccinella is the best representa- 
tive of the Securipalpes. 

North European Islands.—The British Islands are known to 
have been recently connected with the Continent, and their 
animal productions are so uniformly identical with continental 
species as to require no special note. The only general fact of 
importance is, that the number of species in all groups is much 
less than in continental districts of equal extent, and that this 
number is still farther diminished in Ireland. This may be 
accounted for by the smaller area and less varied surface of the 
latter island; and it may also be partly due to the great extent 
of low land, so that a very small depression would reduce it 
to the condition of a cluster of small islands capable of sup- 
porting a very limited amount of animal life. Yet further, if 
after such a submergence had destroyed much of the higher 
forms of life in Great Britain and Ireland, both were elevated so 
as to again form part of the Continent, a migration would com- 
mence by which they would be stocked afresh; but this migra- 
tion would be a work of time, and it is to be expected that 
many species would never reach Ireland or would find its exces- 
sively moist climate unsuited to them. 

Some few British species differ slightly from their continental 
allies, and are considered by many naturalists to be distinct. 
This is the case with the red grouse (Lagopus scoticus) among 
birds ; and a few of the smaller Passeres have also been found 
to vary somewhat from the allied forms on the Continent, show- 
ing that the comparatively short interval since the glacial period, 
and the slightly different physical conditions dependent on 


198 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


insularity, have sufficed to commence the work of specific 
modification. There are also a few small land-shells and several 
insects not yet found elsewhere than in Britain; and even one 
of the smaller Mammalia—a shrew (Sorex rusticus). These facts 
are all readily explained by the former union of these islands 
with the Continent, and the alternate depressions and elevations 
which are proved by geological evidence to have occurred, by 
which they have been more than once separated and united 
again in recent times. For the evidence of this elevation and 
depression, the reader may consult Sir Charles Lyell’s Antiquity “ 
of Man. 

Iceland is the only other island of importance belonging to 
this sub-region, and it contrasts strongly with Great Britain, 
both in its Arctic climate and oceanic position. It is situated 
just south of the Arctic circle and considerably nearer Green- 
land than Europe, yet its productions are almust wholly European. 
The only indigenous land mammalia are the Arctic fox (Canis 
lagopus), and the polar bear as an occasional visitant, with a 
mouse (Mus islandicus), said to be of a peculiar species. Four 
species of seals visit its shores. The birds are more interesting. 
According to Professor Newton, ninety-five species have been 
observed ; but many of these are mere stragglers. There are 
twenty-three land, and seventy-two aquatic birds and waders. 
Four or five are peculiar species, though very closely related to 
others inhabiting Scandinavia or Greenland. Only two or 
three species are more nearly related to Greenland birds than to 
those of Northern Europe, so that the Palearctic character of 
the fauna is unmistakable. The foliowing lists, compiled from 
a paper by Professor Newton, may be interesting as showing 
more exactly the character of Icelandic ornithology. 

1. Peculiar species. —Troglodytes borealis (closely allied 
to the common wren, found also in the Faroe Islands); Falco 
islandicus (closely allied to F. gyrfaleo); Lagopus islandorum 
(closely allied to L. rupestris of Greenland). 

2. European species resident in Iceland.—mberiza nivalis, 
Corvus corax, Haliwetus albicilla, Rallus aquaticus, Hamatopus 
ostralegus, Cygnus ferus, Mergus (two species), Phalacocorax (two 


CHAP. X.] THE PALAZARCTIC REGION. 199 


species), Sula bassana, Larus (two species), Stercorarius catar- 
ractes, Puffinus anglorum, Mergulus alle, Uria (three species), 
Alca torda. | 

3. American species resident in Iceland—Clangula islandica, 
Histrionicus torquatus. 

4, Annual visitants from Europe—Turdus iliacus, Ruticilla 
tithys, Saxicola enanthe, Motacilla alba, Anthus pratensis, Linota 
linaria, Chelidon urbica, Hirundo rustica, Falco cesalon, Suriia 
nyctea, Otus brachyotus, Charadrius pluvialis, Aigialites hiaticula, 
Strepsilas interpres, Phalaropus fulicarius, Totanus  calidris, 
Limosa (species), Tringa (three species), Calidris arenaria, 
Gallinago media, Numenius pheeopus, Ardea cinerea, Anser (two 
species), Bernicla (two species), Anas (four species), Fuligula 
marila, Harelda glacialis, Somateria mollissima, Hdemia nigra, 
Sterna macrura, Rissa tridactyla, Larus luecopterus, Stercorarius 
(two species), Fratercula artica, Colymbus (two species), Podi- 
ceps cornutus. 

5. Annual visitant from Greenland.—Falco candicans. 

6.—Former resident, now extinct.—Alca «inypennis (the 
great auk). 


IT.—Mediterranean Sub-reqion. 


This is by far the richest portion of the Palearctic region, 
for although of moderate extent much of it enjoys a climate in 
which the rigours of winter are almost unknown. It includes 
all the countries south of the Pyrenees, Alps, Balkans, and 
Caucasus mountains; all the southern shores of the Mediter- 
ranean to the Atlas range, and even beyond it to include the 
extra-tropical portion of the Sahara; and in the Nile valley 
as far as the second cataract. Further east it includes the 
northern half of Arabia and the whole of Persia, as well as 
Beluchistan, and perhaps Affghanistan up to the banks of the 
Indus. This extensive district is almost wholly a region of 
mountains and elevated plateaus. On the west, Spain is 
mainly a table-land of more than 2000 feet elevation, deeply 
penetrated by extensive valleys and rising into lofty moun- 
tain chains. Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, are all very 


200 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


mountainous, and much of their surface considerably elevated. 
Further east we have all European Turkey and Greece, a 
mountain region with a comparatively small extent of level 
plain. In Asia the whole country, from Smyrna through 
Armenia and Persia to the further borders of Affghanistan, is a 
vast mountainous plateau, almost all above 2000, and extensive 
districts above 5000 feet in elevation. The only large tract of 
low-land is the valley of the Euphrates. There is also some 
low-land south of the Caucasus, and in Syria the valley of the 
Jordan. In North Africa the valley of the Nile and the coast 
plains of Tripoli and Algiers are almost the only exceptions to 
the more or less mountainous and plateau-like character of the 
country. Much of this extensive area is now bare and arid, 
and often even of a desert character; a fact no doubt due, in 
great part, to the destruction of aboriginal forests. This loss 
is rendered permanent by the absence of irrigation, and, it is 
also thought, by the abundance of camels and goats, animals 
which are exceedingly injurious to woody vegetation, and are v 
able to keep down the natural growth of forests. Mr. Marsh 
(whose valuable work Man and Natwre gives much information 
on this subject) believes that even large portions of the African 
and Asiatic deserts would become covered with woods, and the 
climate thereby greatly improved, were they protected from 
these destructive domestic animals, which are probably not 
indigenous to the country. Spain, in proportion to its extent, 
is very barren; Italy and European Turkey are more woody and 
luxuriant ; but it is perhaps in Asia Minor, on the range of the 
Taurus, along the shores of the Black Sea, and to the south of 
the Caucasus range, that this sub-region attains its maximum of 
luxuriance in vegetation and in animal life. From the Caspian 
eastward extends a region of arid plains and barren deserts, 
diversified by a few more fertile valleys, in which the charac- 
teristic flora and fauna of this portion of the Palsarctic region 
abounds. Further east we come to the forests of the Hindoo 
Koosh, which probably form the limit of the sub-region. 
Beyond these we enter on the Siberian sub-region to the north, 
and on the outlying portion of the Oriental region on the south. 


CHAP. X.] THE PALAZARCTIC REGION. 201 


In addition to the territories now indicated as forming part 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, we must add the group of 
Canary Islands off the west coast of Africa which seem to be 
an extension of the Atlas mountains, and the oceanic groups of 
Madeira and the Azores; the latter about 1,000 miles from the 
continent of Europe, yet still unmistakably allied to it both in 
their vegetable and animal productions. The peculiarities of the 
faunas of these islands will be subsequently referred to. 

It seems at first sight very extraordinary, that so large and 
wide a sea as the Mediterranean should not separate distinct 
faunas, and this is the more remarkable when we find how very 
deep the Mediterranean is, and therefore how ancient we may 
well suppose it to be. Its eastern portion reaches a depth of 
2.100 fathoms or 12,600 feet, while its western basin is about 
1,600 fathoms or 9,600 feet in greatest depth, and a considerable 
area of both basins is more than 1,000 fathoms deep. But a 
further examination shows, that a comparatively shallow sea or 
submerged bank incloses Malta and Sicily, and that on- the . 
opposite coast a similar bank stretches out from the coast .of * 
Tripoli leaving a narrow channel the greatest depth of which is 
240 fathoms. Here therefore is a broad plateau, which an 
elevation of about 1,500 feet would convert into a wide extent 
of land connecting Italy with Africa; while the same elevation 
would also connect Morocco with Spain, leaving two extensive 
lakes to represent what is now the Mediterranean Sea, and afford- 
ing free communication for land animals between Europe and 
North Africa. That such a state of things existed at a com- 
paratively recent period, is almost certain; not only because a 
considerable number of identical species of mammalia inhabit the 
opposite shores of the Mediterranean, but also because numerous 
remains of three species of elephants have been found in caves , 
in Malta,—now a small rocky island in which it would be im- 
possible for such animals to live even if they could reach it. 
Remains of hippopotami are also found at Gibraltar, and many 
other animals of African types in Greece ; all indicating means 
of communication between South Europe and North Africa which 
no longer exist. (See Chapter VI. pp. 113—115.) 


202 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


Mammalia.—There are a few groups of Palearctic Mammalia 
that are peculiar to this sub-region. Such are, Dama, the 
fallow deer, which is now found only in South Europe and North 
Africa; Psammomys, a peculiar genus of Muridz, found only in 
Egypt and Palestine; while Ctenodactylus, a rat-like animal 
classed in the South American family Octodontide, inhabits 
Tripoli. Among characteristic genera not found in other sub- 
regions, are, Dysopes,a bat of the family Noctilionidee; J/aeros- 
celides, the elephant shrew, in North Africa; Genetta, the 
civet, in South Europe; Herpestes, the ichneumon, im North 
Africa and (?) Spain; Hyena, in South Europe; Gazella, Oryz, 
Alcephalus, and Addazx, genera of antelopes in North Africa 
and Palestine ; Hyrax, in Syria: and Hystrix, the porcupine, 
in South Europe. Besides these, the camel and the horse 
were perhaps once indigenous in the eastern parts of the sub- 
region; and a wild sheep (Ovis musmon) still inhabits Sardinia, 
Corsica, and the mountains of the south-east of Spain. The 
presence of the large feline animals—such as the lion, the 
leopard, the serval, and the hunting leopard—in North Africa, 
together with several other quadrupeds not found in Europe, 
have been thought by some naturalists to prove, that this dis- 
trict should not form part of the Palearctic region. No doubt 
several Ethiopian groups and species have entered it from the 
south, but the bulk of its Mammalia still remains Palearctic, 
although several of the species have Asiatic rather than Euro- 
pean affinities. The Macacus innuus is allied to an Asiatic 
rather than an African group of monkeys, and thus denotes an 
Oriental affinity. Ethiopian affinity is apparently shown by the 
three genera of antelopes, by Herpestes, and by Macroscelides ; but 
our examination of the Miocene fauna has shown that these were 
probably derived from Europe originally, and do not form any 
part of the truly indigenous or ancient Ethiopian fauna, Against 
these, however, we have the occurrence in North Africa of 
such purely Palearctic and non-Ethiopian genera as Ursus, Meles, 
Putorius, Sus, Cervus, Dama, Capra, Alactaga; together with 
actual European or West Asiatic species of Canis, Genetta, Felis, 
Putorius, Lutra, many bats, Sorex, Crocidura, Crossopus, Hystria, 


CHAP. X.] THE PALZZARCTIC REGION. 203 
Dipus, Lepus, and Mus. It is admitted that, as regards every 
other group of animals, North Africa is Palearctic, and the 
above enumeration shows that even in Mammalia, the inter- 
mixture of what are now true Ethiopian types is altogether 
insignificant. It must be remembered, also, that the lion 
inhabited Greece even in historic times, while large carnivora 
were contemporary with man all over Central Europe. 

Birds.—So many of the European birds migrate over large 
portions of the region, and so many others have a wide perma- 
nent range, that we cannot expect to find more than a few 
genera, consisting of one or two species, each, confined to a sub- 
region; and such appear to be, Lusciniola and Pyrophthalma, 
genera of Sylviide. But many are characteristic of this, as 
compared with other Palearctic sub-regions; such as, Bradyp- 
tetus, Aedon, Dromolea, and Cercomela, among Sylviide; Crate- 
ropus and Malacocercus, among Timaliudee; TZelophonus among 
Laniide ; Certhilauda and Mirafra among larks; Pastor among 
starlings; Upupa, the hoopoe; Halycon and Ceryle among 
kingfishers; Zurniz and Caccabis among Galline, and the 
pheasant as an indigenous bird; together with Gyps, Vultur and 
Neophron, genera of vultures. In addition to these, almost all 
our summer migrants spend their winter in some part of this 
favoured land, mostly in North Africa, together with many 
species of Central Europe that rarely or never visit us. It 
follows, that a large proportion of all the birds of Europe and 
Western Asia are to be found in this sub-region, as will be seen 
by referring to the list of the genera of the region. Palestine 
is one of the remote portions of this region which has been 
well explored by Canon Tristram, and it may be interesting to 
give his summary of the range of the birds. We must bear 
in mind that the great depression of the Dead Sea has a tropical 
climate, which accounts for the presence here only, of such a 
tropical form as the sun-bird (Nectarinea osea). 

The total number of the birds of Palestine is 322, and of 
these no less than 260 are European, at once settling the question 
of the general affinities of the fauna. Of the remainder eleven 
belong to North and East Asia, four to the Red Sea, and thirty- 


204 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


one to East Africa, while twenty-seven are peculiar to Palestine. 
It is evident therefore that an unusual number of East African 
birds have extended their range to this congenial district, but 
most of these are desert species and hardly true Ethiopians, 
and do not much interfere with the general Paleearctic character 
of the whole assemblage. As an illustration of how wide-spread 
are many of the Palearctic forms, we may add, that seventy- 
nine species of Jand birds and fifty-five of water birds, are com- 
mon to Palestine and Britain. The Oriental and Ethiopian 
genera Pycnonotus and Nectarinea are found here, while Bessornis 
and Dromolea are characteristically Ethiopian. Almost all the 
other genera are Palvearctic. 

Persia is another remote region generally associated with the 
idea of Oriental and almost tropical forms, but which yet undoubt- 
edly belongs to the Palearctic region. Mr. Blanford’s recent 
collections in this country, with other interesting information, is 
summarised in Mr. Elwes’s paper on the “ Geographical Distri- 
bution of Asiatic Birds” (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1873, p. 647). No less 
than 127 species are found also in Europe, and thirty-seven 
others belong to European genera; seven are allied to birds of 
Central Asia or Siberia, and fifteen to those of North-East Africa, 
while only three are purely of Indian affinities. This shows a 
preponderance of nearly nine-tenths of Palearctic forms, which 
is fully as much as can be expected in any country near the 
limits of a great region. 

Reptiles and Amphibia.—The climatal conditions being here 
more favourable to these groups, and the genera being often of 
limited range, we find some peculiar, and several very interesting 
forms. Rhinechis,a genus of Colubrine snakes, is found only in 
South Europe; TZvrogonophis, one of the Amphishenians— 
curious snake-like lizards—is known only from North Africa; 
Psammosaurus, belonging to the water lizards (Varanide) is 
found in North Africa and North-West India; Psammodromus, 
a genus of Lacertidé, is peculiar to South Europe ; Hyalosawrus, 
belonging to the family Zonuride, is a lizard of especial in- 
terest, as it inhabits North Africa while its nearest ally is the 
Ophisaurus or “ glass snake” of North America; the family of 


OHAP, X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 205 


the scinks is represented by Scincus found in North Africa and 
Arabia. Besides these Seps, a genus of sand lizards (Sepidee) and 
Agama, a genus of Agamid, are abundant and characteristic. 

Of Amphibia we have Sezranota, a genus of salamanders 
found only in Italy and Dalmatia; Chioglossa, in Portugal, and 
Geotriton, in Italy, belonging to the same family, are equally 
peculiar to the sub-region. 

Freshwater Fish—One of the most interesting is Tellia, a 
genus of Cyprinodontidz found only in alpine pools in the 
Atlas mountains. Paraphoxinius, found in South-East Europe, 
and Chondrostoma, in Europe and Western Asia, genera of Cypri- 
midge, seem almost peculiar to this sub-region. 

Insects—Lepidoptera—Two genera of butterflies, Zhais and 
Doritis, are wholly confined to this sub-region, the former 
ranging over all Southern Europe, the latter confined to Eastern 
Europe and Asia Minor. <Anthocharis and Zegris are very cha- 
racteristic of it, the latter only extending into South Russia, 
while Danais, Charaxes, and Libythea are tropical genera un- 
known in other parts of Europe. 

Coleoptera.—This sub-region is very rich in many groups of 
Coleoptera, of which a few only can be noticed here. Among 
Carabide it possesses Procerus and Procrustes, almost exclusively, 
while Lrachinus, Cymindis, Lebia, Graphipterus, Scarites, Chle- 
nius, Calathus, and many others, are abundant and characteristic. 
Among Lamellicorns—Copride, Glaphyridz, Melolonthide, and 
Cetoniide abound. Buprestidee are plentiful, the genera Julodis, 
Acmeodera, Buprestis, and Sphenoptera being characteristic. 
Among Malacoderms—Cebrionide, Lampyride, and Malachiidee 
abound. The Tenebrioid Heteromera are very varied and abun- 
dant, and give a character to the sub-region. The Mylabride, 
Cantharide, and CEdemeride are also characteristic. Of the 
immense number of Curculionide—TZhylacites, Brachycerus, 
Lixus, and Acalles may be mentioned as among the most pro- 
minent. Of Longicorns there are few genera especially cha- 
racteristic, but perhaps Prinobius, Purpuricenus, Hesperophanes, 
and Parmena are most so. Of the remaining families, we may 
mention Clythride, Hispide, and Cassidide as being abundant. 


206 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


The Mediterranean and Atlantic Islands.—The various islands 
of the Mediterranean are interesting to the student of geo- 
graphical distribution as affording a few examples of local species 
of very restricted range, but as a rule they present us with 
exactly the same forms as those of the adjacent mainland.t 
Their peculiarities do not, therefore, properly come within the 
scope of this work. The islands of the Atlantic Ocean belong- 
ing to this sub-region are, from their isolated position and the 
various problems they suggest, of much more interest, and their 
natural history has been carefully studied. We shall therefore 
give a short account of their peculiar features. 

Of the three groups of Atlantic islands belonging to this sub- 
region, the Canaries are nearest to the Continent, some of the 
islands being only about fifty miles from the coast of Africa, 
They are, however, separated from the mainland by a very deep 
channel (more than 5,000 feet), as shown on our general map. 
The islands extend over a length of 300 miles ; they are very 
mountainous and wholly volcanic, and the celebrated peak of 
Teneriffe rises to a height of more than 12,000 feet. The small 
Madeira group is about 400 miles from the coast of Morocco 
and 600 from the southern extremity of Portugal; and there is 
a depth of more than 12,000 feet between it and the continent. 
The Azores are nearly 1,000 miles west of Lisbon. They are 
quite alone in mid-Atlantic, the most westerly islands being 
nearer Newfoundland than Europe, and are surrounded by ocean 
depths of from 12,000 to 18,000 feet. 1t will be convenient to 
take these islands first in order. 

Azores.—Considering the remoteness of this group from every 
other land, it is surprising to find as many as fifty-three species 
of birds inhabiting or visiting the Azores; and still more to 


1 Malta is interesting as forming a resting-place for migratory birds, while 
crossing the Mediterranean, It has only eight land and three aquatic birds 
which are permanent residents ; yet no less than 278 species have been 
recorded by Mr. E, A. Wright as visiting or passing over it, comprising a 
large proportion of the European migratory birds. The following are the 
permanent residents : Cerchneis tinnunculus, Strix flammea, Passer salicicola, 
Emberiza miliaria, Corvus monedula, Monticola cyanea, Sylvia conspicillata, 
Columba livia, Puffinus cinereus, P. anglorum, Thalassidroma pelagica. 


CHAP. X. | THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 207 


find that they are of Palearctic genera and, with one exception, 
all of species found either in Europe, North Africa, Madeira, 
or the Canaries. The exception is a bullfinch peculiar to the 
islands, but closely allied to a European species. Of land birds 
there are twenty-two, belonging to twenty-one genera, all Euro- 
pean. These genera are Cerchneis, Buteo, Asio, Strix, Turdus, 
Oriolus, Erithacus, Sylvia, Regulus, Saxicola, Motacilla, Plec- 
trophanes, Fringilla, Pyrrhula, Serinus, Sturnus, Picus, 
Upupa, Columba, Caccabis, and Coturniz. Besides the bull- 
finch (Pyrrhula) other species show slight differences from their 
European allies, but not such as to render them more than 
varieties. The only truly indigenous mammal is a bat of a 
European species. Nine butterflies inhabit the Azores; eight 
of them are European species, one North American. Of beetles 
212 have been collected, of which no less than 175 are Euro- 
pean species; of the remainder, nineteen are found in the 
Canaries or Madeira, three in South America, while fourteen 
are peculiar to the islands. 

Now these facts (for which we are indebted to Mr. Godman’s 
Natural History of the Azores) are both unexpected and exceed- 
ingly instructive. In most other cases of remote Oceanic 
islands, a much larger proportion of the tauna is endemic, or 
consists of peculiar species and often of peculiar genera; as is 
well shown by the case of the Galapagos and Juan Fernandez, 
both much nearer to a continent and both containing peculiar 
genera and species of birds. Now we know that the cause and 
meaning of this difference is, that in the one case the original 
immigration is very remote and has never or very rarely been | 
repeated, so that under the unchecked influence of new condi- 
tions of life the species have become modified ;,in the other | 
case, either the original immigration has been recent, or if remote 
has been so frequently repeated that the new comers have kept | 
up the purity of the stock, and have not allowed time for the 
new conditions to produce the effect we are sure they would in 
time produce if not counteracted. For Mr. Godiman tells us 
that many of the birds are modified—instancing the gold-crested 
wren, blackcap, and rock dove—and he adds, that the modifica- 


208 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 
tion all tends in one direction—to produce a more sombre 
plumage, a greater strength of feet and legs, and a more robust 
bill. We further find, that four of the land-birds, including the 
oriole, snow-bunting, and hoopoe, are not resident birds, but 
straggle accidentally to the islands by stress of weather; and 
we are told that every year some fresh birds are seen after 
violent storms. Add to this the fact, that the number of 
species diminishes in the group as we go from east to west, and 
that the islands are subject to fierce and frequent storms 
blowing trom every point of the compass,—and we have all the 
facts requisite to enable us to understand how this remote 
archipelago has become stocked with animal lfe without ever 
probably being much nearer to Europe than it is now. For 
the islands are all volcanic, the only stratified rock that occurs 
being believed to be of Miocene date. 

Madeira and the Canaries—Coming next to Madeira, we find 
the number of genera of land birds has increased to twenty-eight, 
of which seventeen are identical with those of the Azores. Some 
of the commonest European birds—swallows, larks, sparrows, 
linnets, goldfinches, ravens, and partridges, are among the addi- 
tions. A gold-crested warbler, Regulus Maderensis, and a pigeon, 
Columba Trocaz, are peculiar to Madeira. 

In the Canaries we find that the birds have again very much 
increased, there being more than fifty genera of land birds; but 
the additions are wholly European in character, and almost all 
common European species. We find a few more peculiar spe- 
cies (five), while some others, including the wild canary, are 
common to all the Atlantic Islands or to the Canaries and 
Madeira. Here, too, the only indigenous mammalia are two 
European species of bats. 

Land Shells.—The land shells of Madeira offer us an instrue- 
tive contrast to the birds of the Atlantic Islands. About fifty- 
six species have been found in Madeira, and forty-two in the small 
adjacent island of Porto Santo, but only twelve are common to 
both, and all or almost all are distinct from their nearest allies 
in Europe and North Africa. Great numbers of fossil shells 
are also found in deposits of the Newer Pliocene period; and 


CHAP. X.] THE PALAZKARCTIC REGION, . 2 


although these comprise many fresh species, the two faunas and 
that of the continent still remain almost as distinct from each 
other as-before. It has been already stated (p. 31) that the 
means by which land mollusea have been carried across arms 
of the sea are unknown, although several modes may be 
suggested; but it is evidently a rare event, requiring some 
concurrence of favourable conditions not always present. The 
diversity and specialization of the forms of these animals is, 
therefore, easily explained by the fact, that, once introduced 
they have been left to multiply under the influence of a variety 
of local conditions, which inevitabiy lead, in the course of ages, 
to the formation of new varieties and new species. 

Coleoptera.—The beetles of Madeira and the Canaries have 
been so carefully collected and examined by Mr. T. V. Wollaston, 
and those of the Azores described and compared by Mr. Crotch, 
and they illustrate so many curious points in geographical dis- 
tribution, that it is necessary to give some account of them. No 
less than 1,480 species of beetles have been obtained from the 
Canaries and: Madeira, only 360 of which are European, the 
remainder being peculiar to the islands. The Canaries are 
inhabited by a little over 1,000 species, Madeira by about 700, 
while 240 are common to both ; but it is believed that many of 
these have been introduced by man. In the Azores, 212 species 
have been obtained, of which 175 are European ; showing, as in 
the birds, a closer resemblance to the European fauna than in 
the other islands which, although nearer to the continent, otter 
more shelter and are situated in a less tempestuous zone. Of 
the non-European species in the Azores, 19 are found also in 
the other groups of islands, 14 are peculiar, while 3 are American. 
Of the European species, 132 are found also in the other Atlantic 
islands, while 43 have reached the Azores only. This is inter- 
esting as showing to how great an extent the same insects 
reach all the islands, notwithstanding the difference of latitude 
and position ; and it becomes of great theoretical importance, 
when we find how many extensive families and genera are alto- 
gether absent. 

The Madeira group has been more thoroughly explored than 

p 


219 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART HT. 


any other, and its comparatively remote situation, combined with 
its luxuriant vegetation, have been favourable to the develop- 
ment and increase of the peculiar forms which characterize all 
the Atlantic islands in a more or less marked degree. A con- 
sideration of some of its peculiarities will, therefore, best serve 
to show the bearing of the facts presented by the insect fauna of 
the Atlantic islands, on the general laws of distribution. The 
711 species of beetles now known from the Madeira group, 
belong to 236 genera; and no less than 44 of these genera are 
not European but are peculiar to the Atlantic islands. Most of 
them are, however, closely allied to European genera, of which "; 
they are evidently modifications. A most curious general feature 
presented by the Madeiran beetles, is the total absence of many 
whole families and large genera abundant in South Europe. 
Such are the Cicindelidie, or tiger beetles; the Melolonthidee, or 
chafers; the Cetoniidee, or rose-chafers; the Eumolpide and 
Galerucide, large families of Phytophagous, or leaf-eating beetles; 
and also the extensive groups of Elateridz and Buprestide, 
which are each represented by but one minute species. Of 
extensive genera abundant in South Europe, but wholly absent 
in Madeira, are Carabus, Rhizotrogus, Lampyris, and other 
genera of Malacoderms; Otiorhynchus, Brachycerus, and 2() 
other genera of Curculionide, comprising more than 300 South 
European and North African species; Pimelia, Tentyra, Blaps, 
and 18 other genera of Heteromera, comprising about 550 species 
in South Europe and North Africa; and 7%marcha, containing 
44 South European and North African species. 

Another most remarkable feature of the Madeiran Coleoptera 
is the unusual prevalence of apterous or wingless insects. This 
is especially the case with groups which are confined to the 
Atlantic islands, many of which consist wholly of wingless 
species; but it also affects the others, no less than twenty-two 
genera which are usually or sometimes winged in Europe, having 
only wingless species in Madeira; and even the same species 
which is winged in Europe becomes, in at least three cases, 
wingless in Madeira,'without any other perceptible change having 
taken place, But there is another most curious fact noticed by 


CHAP. X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 211 
Mr. Wollaston; that those species which possess wings in 
Madeira, often have them rather larger than their allies in 
Europe. These two facts were connected by Mr. Darwin, who 
suggested that flying insects are much more exposed to be 
blown out to sea and lost, than those which do not fly (and Mr. 
Wollaston had himself supposed that the “stormy atmosphere ‘ 
of Madeira had something to do with the matter); so that the 
most frequent fliers would be continually weeded out, while the 
more sluggish individuals, who either could not or would not 
tly, remained to continue the race ; and this process going on from 
generation to generation, would, on the well-ascertained princi- 
ples of selection and abortion by disuse, in time lead to the 
entire loss of wings by those insects to whom wings were not a 
necessity. But those whose wings were essential to their exist- 
ence would be acted upon in another way. All these must fly 
to obtain their food or provide for their offspring, and those that 
flew best would be best able to battle with the storms, and keep 
themselves safe, and thus those with the longest and most 
powerful wings would be preserved. If however all the indi- 
viduals of the species were too weak on the wing to resist the 
storms, they would soon become extinct.’ 

Now this explanation of the facts is not only simple and 
probable in itself, but it also serves to explain in a remarkable 
manner some of the peculiarities and deficiencies of the Madeiran 
insect fauna, in harmony with the view (supported by the distri- 
bution of the birds and land shells, and in particular by the 
immigrant birds and insects of the Azores) that all the insects 
have been derived from the continent or from other islands, by 


1 A remarkable confirmation of this theory, is furnished in the Report to 
the Royal Society of the naturalist to the Kerguelen Island, “ Transit Expe- 
dition”—the Rev. A. E. Eaton. Insects were assiduously collected, and it 
was found that almost all were either completely apterous, or had greatly 
abbreviated wings. The only moth found, several flies, and numerous beetles, 
were alike incapable of flight. As this island is subject to violent, and 
almost perpetual gales, even in the finest season, the meaning of the extra- 
ordinary loss of wings in almost all the insects, can, in this case, hardly be 
misunderstood, 

PZ 


= 


212 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


—— eee en a sss — 


immigration across the ocean, in various ways and during a long 
period. These deficiencies are, on the other hand, quite incon- 
sistent with the theory (still held by some entomologists) that 
a land communication is absolutely necessary to account for 
the origin of the Madeiran fauna. 

First, then, we can understand how the tiger-beetles (Cicinde- 
lide) are absent ; since they are insects which have a short weak 
flight, but yet to whom flight is necessary. If a few had been 
blown over to Madeira, they would soon have become exter- 
minated. The same thing applies to the Melolonthide, Ceto- 
nid, Eumolpide, and Galerucide,—all flower and foliage- 
haunting insects, yet bulky and of comparatively feeble powers 
of flight. Again, all the large genera abundant in South Europe, 
which have been mentioned above as absent from Madeira, are 
wholly apterous (or without wings), and thus their absence is a 
most significant fact ; for it proves that in the case of all insects 
of moderate size, flight was essential to their reaching the island, 
which could not have been the case had there been a land con- 
nection. ‘There are, however, one or two eurious exceptions to 
the absence of these wholly apterous European genera in Madeira, 
and as in each case the reason of their being exceptions can 
be pointed out, they are eminently exceptions that prove the 
rue. Two of the apterous species common to Europe and 
Madeira are found always in ants’ nests; and as ants, when 
winged, fly in great swarms and are carried by the wind to 
great distances, they may have conveyed the minute eggs of 
these very small beetles. Two European species of Slaps 
occur in Madeira, but these are house beetles, and are admitted 
to have been introduced by man. There are also three species 
of Meloe, of which two are European and one peculiar. 
These are large, sluggish, wingless insects, but they have a 
most extraordinary and exceptional metamorphosis, the larvee 
in the first state being minute active insects parasitic on bees, 
and thus easily conveyed across the ocean. This case is most 
sugvestive, as it accounts for what would be otherwise a difficult 
anomaly, Another case, not quite so easily explained, is that 
of the genus Acalles, which is very abundant in all the Atlantie 


———— 


CHAP. X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 213 


islands and also occurs in South Europe, but is always apterous. 
It is however closely allied to another genus, Cryptorhynchus, 
which is apterous in some species, winged in others. We may 
therefore well suppose that the ancestors of Acalles were once in 
the same condition, and that some of the winged forms reached 
Madeira, the genus having since become wholly apterous. 

We may look at this curious subject in another way. The 
Coleoptera of Madeira may be divided into those which are 
found also in Europe or the other islands, and those which are 
peculiar to it. On the theory of introduction by accidental 
immigration across the sea, the latter must be the more ancient, 
since they have had time to become modified ; while the former 
are comparatively recent, and their introduction may be supposed 
to be now going on. The peculiar influence of Madeira in 
aborting the wings should, therefore, have acted on the ancient 
and changed forms much more powerfully than on the recent 
and unchanged forms. On carefully comparing the two sets of 
insects (omitting those which have almost certainly been 
introduced by man) we find, that out of 263 species which 
have a wide range, only 14 are apterous; while the other class, 
consisting of 393 species, has no less than 178 apterous; or 
about 5 per cent in the one case, and 45 per cent in the other.! 
On the theory of a land connectien as the main agent in intro- 
ducing the fauna, both groups must have been introduced at or 
about the same time, and why one set should have lost their 
wings and the other not, is quite inexplicable. 

Taking all these singular facts, in connection with the total 
absence of all truly indigenous terrestrial mammalia and reptiles 
from these islands—even from the extensive group of the Cana- 
ries so comparatively near to the continent, we are forced to 
reject the theory of a land connection as quite untenable; and 
this view becomes almost demonstrated by the case of the 
Azores, which being so much further off, and surrounded by 
such a vast expanse of deep ocean, could only have been con- 


" The facts on which these statements rest, will be found more fully 


detailed in the Author’s Presidential Address to the Eutomological Society 
of London for the year 1871. i? 


214 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 
nected with Europe at a far remoter epoch, and ought therefore 
to exhibit to us a fauna composed almost entirely of peculiar 
forms both of birds and insects. Yet, so far from this being the 
case, the facts are exactly the reverse. Far more of the birds 
and insects are identical with those of Europe than in the 
other islands, and this difference is clearly traced to the more 
tempestuous atmosphere, which is shown to be even now 
annually bringing fresh immigrants (both birds and insects) to 
its shores. We here see nature actually at work; and if the 
case of Madeira rendered her mode of action probable, that of 
the Azores may be said to demonstrate it. 

Mr. Wollaston has objected to this view that “storms and 
hurricanes” are somewhat rare in the latitude of Madeira and 
the Canaries; but this little affects the question, since the time 
allowed for such operations is so ample. If but one very 
violent storm happened in a century, and ten such storms 
recurred before a single species of insect was introduced into 
Madeira, that would be more than sufficient to people it, as we 
now find it, with a varied fauna. But he also adds the import- 
ant information that the ordinary winds blow almost uninter- 
ruptedly from the north-east, so that there would be always a 
chance of a little stronger wind than usual bringing insect, or 
larva, or egg, attached to leaves or twigs. Neither Mr. Wollaston, 
Mr. Crotch, Mr. A. Murray, nor any other naturalist who 
upholds the land-connection theory, has attempted to account 
for the fact of the absence of so many extensive groups of 
insects that ought to be present, as well as of all small 
mammalia and reptiles, 

Cape Verd Islands.—There is yet another group of Atlantic 
islands which is very little known, and which is usually con- 
sidered to be altogether African—the Cape Verd Islands, situated 
between 300 and 400 miles west of Senegal, and a little to the 
sonth of the termination of the Sahara. The evidence that we 
possess as to the productions of these islands, shows that, like 
the preceding groups, they are truly oceanic, and have probably 
derived their fauna from the desert and the Canaries to the 
north-east of them rather than from the fertile and more truly 


CHAP. X.] THE PAL-ZARCTIC REGION. 215 
Ethiopian districts of Senegal and Gambia to the east. There is 
a mingling of the two faunas, but the preponderance seems to 
be undoubtedly with the Palearctic rather than with the 
Ethiopian. JI owe to Mr. R. B. Sharpe of the British Museum, 
a MS. list of the birds of these islands, twenty-three species in 
all. Of these eight are of wide distribution and may be ne- 
elected. Seven are undoubted Palearctic species, viz.:—Milvus 
ictinus, Sylvia atricapilla, S. conspicillata, Corvus corone, Passer 
salicarius, Certhilauda desertorum, Columba livia. Three are 
peculiar species, but of Palearctic genera and affinities, viz. :— 
Calanoherpe brevipennis, Ammomanes cinctura, and Passer jago- 
ensis. Against this we have to set two West African species, 
Estrilda cinerea and Numida meleagris, both of which were 
probably introduced by man; and three which are of Ethiopian 
genera and affinities, viz.:—Halcyon erythrorhyncha, closely 
allied to H. semicerulea of Arabia and North-east Africa, and 
therefore almost Palearctic; Accipiter melanoleucus; and Pyr7hu- 
lauda nigriceps, an Ethiopian form; but the same species occurs 
in the Canaries. 

The Coleoptera of these islands have been also collected by 
Mr. Wollaston, and he finds that they have generally the same 
European character as those of the Canaries and Madeira, several 
of the peculiar Atlantic genera, such as Acalles and Hegeter, 
occurring, while others are represented by new but closely allied 
venera. Out of 275 species 91 were found also in the Canaries 
and 81 in the Madeiran group; a wonderful amount of similarity 
when we consider the distance and isolation of these islands 
and their great diversity of climate and vegetation. 

This connection of the four groups of Atlantic islands now 
referred to, receives further support from the occurrence of land- 
shells of the subgenus Leptaxis in all the groups, as well as in 
Majorca ; and by another subgenus, Hemicycla, being common to 
the Canaries and Cape Verd islands. Combining these several 
classes of facts, we seem justified in extending the Mediterranean 
sub-region to include the Cape Verd Islands. 


216 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART LIT. 


ITI —The Siberian Sub-region, or Northern Asia. 


This large and comparatively little-known subdivision of the 
Palearctic region, extends from the Caspian Sea to Kamschatka 
and Behring’s Straits, a distance of akout 4,000 miles; and 
from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the high Himalayas of 
Sikhim in North Latitude 29°, on the same parallel as Delhi. 
To the east of the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains is a great 
extent of lowland which is continued round the northern coast, 
becoming narrower as it approaches the East Cape. Beyond 
this, in a general E.N.E. direction, rise hills and uplands, soon 
becoming lofty mountains, which extend in an unbroken line 
from the Hindu Koosh, through the Thian Shan, Altai and 
Yablonoi Mountains, to the Stanovoi range in the north-eastern 
extremity of Asia. South of this region is a great central basin, 
which is almost wholly desert; beyond which again is the vast 
plateau of Thibet, with the Kuenlun, Karakorum, and Hima- 
layan snow-capped ranges, forming the most extensive elevated 
district on the globe. 

The superficial aspects of this vast territory, as determined by 
its vegetable covering, are very striking and well contrasted. A 
broad tract on the northern coast, varying from 150 to 300 and 
even 500 miles wide, is oceupied by the Tundras or barrens, 
where nothing grows but mosses and the dwarfest Arctic plants, 
und where the ground is permanently frozen to a great depth. 
This tract has its greatest southern extension between the rivers 
Obi and Yenesi, where it reaches the parallel of 60° north lati- 
tude. Next to this comes a vast extent of northern forests, 
mostly of conifers in the more northern and lofty situations, 
while deciduous trees preponderate in the southern portions and 
in the more sheltered valleys. The greatest extension of this 
forest region is north of Lake Baikal, where it is more than 
1,200 miles wide. ‘These forests extend along the mountain 
ranges to join those of the Hindu Koosh, South of the forests 
the remainder of the sub-region consists of open pasture-lands 
and vast intervening deserts, of which the Gobi, and those of 
Turkestan between the Aral and Balkash lakes, are the most 


CHAP. X. ] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 7 | 


extensive. The former is nearly 1,000 miles long, with a width 
of from 200 to 550 miles, and is almost as complete a desert as 
the Sahara. 

With very few exceptions, this vast territory is exposed to 
an extreme climate, inimical to animal life. All the lower parts 
being situated to the north, have an excessively cold winter, so 
that the limit of constantly frozen ground descends below the 
parallel of 60° north latitude. To the south, the land is greatly 
elevated, and the climate extremely dry. In summer the heat 
is excessive, while the winter 1s almost as severe as further 
north. The whole country, too, is subject to violent storms, both 
in summer and winter; and the rich vegetation that clothes the 
steppes in spring, is soon parched up and replaced by dusty 
plains. Under these adverse influences we cannot expect 
animal life to be so abundant as in those sub-regions subject to 
more favourable physical conditions ; yet the country is so ex- 
tensive and so varied, that it does actually, as we shall see, possess 
a very considerable and interesting fauna. 

Mammalia.—Four genera seem to be absolutely confined to 
this sub-region, Nectogale, a peculiar form of the mole family 
(Talpidee) ; Poephagus, the yak, or hairy bison of Thibet ; with 
Procapra and Pantholops, Thibetan antelopes. Some others 
more especially belong here, although they just enter Europe, as 
Saiga, the Tartarian antelope; Sminthus, a desert rat; and 
Ellobius, a burrowing mole-rat; while Myospalar, a curious 
rodent allied to the voles, is found only in the Altai mountains 
and North China ; and MJoschus, the musk-deer, is almost confined 
to this sub-region. Among the characteristic animals of the 
extreme north, are Mustela, and Martes, including the ermine 
aud sable; Gulo, the glutton; Tarandus, the reindeer; Myodes, 
the lemming; with the lynx, arctic fox, and polar bear; and 
here, in the Post-pliocene epoch, ranged the hairy rhinoceros 
and Siberian mammoth, whose entire bodies still remain preserved 
in the ice-cliffs near the mouths of the great rivers. Farther 
south, species of wild cat, bear, wolf, deer, and pika (Lagomys) 
abound; while in the mountains we find wild goats and sheep 
of several species, and in the plains and deserts wild horses 


218 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 
and asses, gazelles, two species of antelopes, flying squirrels 
(Pteromys), ground squirrels (Zamias), marmots, of the genus 
Spermophilus, with camels and dromedaries, probably natives 
of the south-western part of this sub-region. The most 
abundant and conspicuous of the mammalia are the great 
herds of reindeer in the north, the wolves of the steppes, with 
the wild horses, goats, sheep, and antelopes of the plateaus and 
mountains. 

Among the curiosities of this sub-region we must notice the 
seal, found in the inland and freshwater lake Baikal, at an eleva- 
tion of about 2,000 feet above the sea. It is a species of Callo- 
cephalus, closely allied to, if not identical with, one inhabiting 
northern seas as well as the Caspian and Lake Aral. This 
would indicate that almost all northern Asia was depressed 
beneath the sea very recently; and Mr. Belt’s view, of the ice 
during the glacial epoch having dammed up the rivers and con- 
verted much of Siberia into a vast freshwater or brackish lake, 
perhaps offers the best solution of the difficulty. 

Plate IT.—Characteristic Mammalia of Western Tartary.— 
Several of the most remarkable animals of the Palearctic region 
inhabit Western Tartary, and are common to the European and 
Siberian sub-regions. We therefore choose this district for one 
of our illustrative plates. The large animals in the centre are the 
remarkable saiga antelopes (Saiga Tartarica), distinguished from 
all others by a large and fleshy proboscis-like nose, which gives 
them a singular appearance. They differ so much from all other 
antelopes that they have been formed into a distinct family by 
some naturalists, but are here referred to the great family Bovidee. 
They inhabit the open plains from Poland to the Irtish River 
On the left is the mole-rat, or sand-rat (Spalax murinus)., This 
animal burrows under ground like a mole, feeding on bulbous 
roots, It inhabits the same country as the saiga, but extends 
farther south in Europe. On the right is a still more curious 
animal, the desman (Myogale Muscovitica), a long-snouted 
water-mole. This creature is fifteen inches long, including the 
tail; it burrows in the banks of streams, feeding on insects, 


1 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, 1874, p. 494. 


[I. 


, 
4 


PLATE 


NTO 


eT i yt PTT 
NNW 


HNN) 


1 
> 
\ 


( 
" 


| 


I 


™ 


ie 


i 


Life 


aN 
to Mie 


AD 


tte \\ 
yt SN 


ARN OS. 


/ 


TARTARY. 


UN 


. 


RISTIC MAMMALIA OF WESTIE 


. 
u 


HARACTI 


C 


CHAP. X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 219 
worms, and leeches; it swims well, and remains long under 
water, raising the tip of the snout, where the nostrils are 
situated, to the surface when it wants to breathe. It is thus 
well concealed; and this may be one use of the development 
of the long snout, as well as serving to follow worms into 
their holes in the soft earth. This species is confined to the 
rivers Volga and Don in Southern Russia, and the only other 
species known inhabits some of the valleys on the north side 
of the Pyrenees. In the distance are wolves, a characteristic 
feature of these wastes. 

Birds.—But few genera of birds are absolutely restricted to 
this sub-region. Podoces, a curious form of starling, 1s the most 
decidedly so; Mycerobas and Pyrrhospiza are genera of finches 
confined to Thibet and the snowy Himalayas ; Lewcosticte, another 
genus of finches, is confined to the eastern half of the sub- 
recion and North America; Tetraogallus, a large kind of 
partridge, ranges west to the Caucasus; Syrrhaptes, a form of 
sand-grouse, and Lerwa (snow-partridge), are almost confined 
here, only extending into the next sub-region ; as do Grandalo, 
and Calliope, genera of warblers, Uragus, a finch allied to the 
North American cardinals, and Crossoptilon, a remarkable group 
of pheasants. 

Almost all the genera of central and northern Europe are 
found here, and give quite a European character to the ornitho- 
logy, though a considerable number of the species are different. 
There are a few Oriental forms, such as Abrornis and Larvivora 
(warblers) ; with Ceriornis and Ithaginis, genera of pheasants, 
which reach the snow-line in the Himalayas and thus just enter 
this sub-region, but as they do not penetrate farther north, they 
hardly serve to modify the exclusively Palearctic character of 
its ornithology. 

According to Middendorf, the extreme northern Asiatic birds 
are the Alpine ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus); the snow-bunting 
(Plectrophanes nivalis); the raven, the gyrfalcon and the snowy- 
owl. Those which are characteristic of the barren “ tundras,” 
but which do not range so far north as the preceding are,—the 
willow-grouse (Lagopus albus); the Lapland-bunting (Plectrophanes 


220 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill. 


lapponica) ; the shore-lark (Gtocorys alpestris) ; the sand-martin 
(Cotyle riparia), and the sea-eagle (Haliwetus albicilla). 

Those which are more characteristic of the northern forests, 
aud which do not pass beyond them, are—the linnet ; two cross- 
bills (Lovia Leucoptera and L. Curvirostra); the pine grosbeak 
(Pinicola enucleator) ; the waxwing; the common magpie; the 
common swallow ; the peregrine falcon ; the rough-legged buzzard ; 
and three species of owls. 

Fully one-half of the land-birds of Siberia are identical with 
those of Europe, the remainder being mostly representative 
species pecuhar to Northern Asia, with a few stragglers and 
immigrants from China and Japan or the Himalayas. A much 
larger proportion of the wading and aquatic families are Euro- 
pean or Arctic, these groups having always a wider range than 
land birds. 

Reptiles and Amphibia —From the nature of the country and 
climate these are comparatively few, but in the more temperate 
districts snakes and lizards seem to be not uncommon. /alys, 
a genus of Crotaline snakes, and P’rynocephalus, lizards of the 
family Agamide, are characteristic of these parts. Simotes, a 
snake of the family Oligodontide, reaches an elevation of 16,000 
feet in the Himalayas, and therefore enters this sub-region. 

Insects—Mesapia and ITypermnestra, genera of Papilionide, 
are butterflies peculiar to this sub-region; and Parnassius is as 
characteristic as it is of our European mountains. Carabidae 
are also abundant, as will be seen by referring to the Chapter 
on the Distribution of Insects in the succeeding part of this 
work. The insects, on the whole, have a strictly Kuropean 
character, although a large proportion of the species are pecu- 
liar, and several new genera appear. 


1V.—Japan and North China, or the Manchurian Sub-region. 


This is an interesting and very productive district, correspond- 
ing in the east to the Mediterranean sub-region in the west, or 
rather perhaps to all western temperate Europe. Its limits are 
not very well defined, but it probably includes all Japan ; 
the Corea and Manchuria to the Amour river and to the lower 


CHAP X.] THE PALAZARCTIC REGION, 221 
slopes of the Khingan and Peling mountains ; and China to 
the Nanlin mountains south of the Yang-tse-kiang. On the 
coast of China the dividing line between it and the Oriental 
region seems to be somewhere about Foo-chow, but as there is 
here no natural barrier, a great intermingling of northern and 
southern forms takes place. | 

Japan is volcanic and mountainous, with a fine climate and a 
most luxuriant and varied vegetation. Manchuria is hilly, with 
a high range of mountains on the coast, and some desert tracts 
in the interior, but fairly wooded in many parts. Much of 
northern China is a vast alluvial plain, backed by hills and 
mountains with belts of forest, above which are the dry and 
barren uplands of Mongolia. We have a tolerable knowledge 
of China, of Japan, and of the Amoor valley, but very little of 
Corea and Manchuria. The recent researches of Pére David in 
Moupin, in east Thibet, said to be between 31° and 32° north 
latitude, show, that the fauna of the Oriental region here advances 
northward along the flanks of the Yun-ling mountains (a 
continuation of the Himalayas); since he found at different 
altitudes representatives of the Indo-Chinese, Manchurian, and 
Siberian faunas. On the higher slopes of the Himalayas, there 
must be a narrow strip from about 8,000 to 11,000 feet elevation 
intervening between the tropical fauna of the Indo-Chinese sub- 
region and the almost arctic fauna of Thibet; and the animals 
of this zone will for the most part belong to the fauna of 
temperate China and Manchuria, except in the extreme west 
towards Cashmere, where the Mediterranean fauna will in like 
manner intervene. On a map of sufficiently large scale, there- 
fore, it would be necessary to extend our present sub-region 
westward along the Himalayas, in a narrow strip just below 
the upper limits of forests. It is evident that the large number 
of Fringillidee, Corvide, Troglodytide, and Paride, often of south 
Palearctic forms, that abound in the higher Himalayas, are some- 
what out of place as members of the Oriental fauna, and are 
equally so in that of Thibet and Siberia; but they form a 


natural portion of that of North China on the one side, or of 
South Europe on the other. 


222 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. - [PART 111. 

Mammalia.—tThis sub-region contains a number of peculiar 
and very interesting forms, most of which have been recently 
discovered by Pére David in North and West China and East 
Thibet. The following are the peculiar genera :—Rhinopithecus, 
a sub-genus of monkeys, here classed under Semnopithecus ; 
Anurosorex, Scaptochirus, Uropsilus and Scaptonyx, new forms of 
‘Talpidee or moles; luropus (lurid) ; Nyctereutes (Canide) ; 
Lutronectes (Mustelidee) ; Cricetulus (Muridee) ; Hydropotes, Mos- 
chus, and Elaphodus (Cervide). The &hinopithecus appears to 
be a permanent inhabitant of the highest forests of Moupin, 
in a cold climate. It has a very thick fur, as has also a new 
species of Macacus found in the same district. North China and 
East Thibet seem to be very rich in Insectivora. Seaptochirus is 
like a mole; Uropsilus between the Japanese Urotrichus and 
Sorex; Scaptonyx between Urotrichus and Talpa. dluropus 
seems to be the most remarkable mammal discovered by Pére 
David. It is allied to the singular panda (4lurus fulgens) of 
Nepal, but is as large as a bear, the body wholly white, with 
the feet, ears, and tip of the tail black. It inhabits the highest 
forests, and is therefore a true Paleearctic animal, as most likely 
is the Alurus. Nyctereutes, a curious racoon-like dog, ranges 
from Canton to North China, the Amoor and Japan, and there- 
fore seems to come best in this sub-region; MHydropotes and 
Lophotragus are small hornless deer confined to North China ; 
Elaphodus, from East Thibet, is another peculiar form of deer; 
while the musk deer (Moschus) is confined to this sub-region and 
the last. Besides the above, the following Palearctic genera 
were found by Pére David in this sub-region : Macacus ; five 
genera or sub-genera of bats (Vespertilio, Vesperus, Vesperugo, 
Rhinolophus, and Murina) ; Erinaceus, Nectogale, Talpa, Croci- 
dura and Sorex, among Insectivora; Mustela, Putorius, Martes, 
Lutra, Viverra, Meles, Alurus, Ursus, Felis, and Canis, among 
Carnivora; LTystrix, Arctomys, Myospalax, Spermophilus, Ger- 
billus, Dipus, Lagomys, Lepus, Seiwrus, Ptcromys, Arvicola, and 
Mus, among Rodentia; Budorcas, Nemorhedus, Antilope, Ovis, 
Moschus, Cervulus and Cervus among Ruminants; and the wide- 
spread Sus or wild boar, The following Oriental genera are also 


CuAD. X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 223 


included in Pére David's list, but no doubt oceur only in the 
lowlands and warm valleys, and can hardly be considered to 
belong to the Palearctic region: Paguma, Helictis, Arctonyz, 
Rhizomys, Manis. The Rhizomys from Moupin is a peculiar 
species of this tropical genus, but all the others inhabit Southern 
China. 

A few additional forms occur in Japan: Uvotrichus, a peculiar 
Mole, which is found also in north-west America; Enhydra, the 
sea otter of California; and the dormouse (Myoxus). Japan also 
possesses peculiar species of Macacus, Talpa, Meles, Canis, and 
Sevuropterus. 

It will be seen that this sub-region is remarkably rich 
in Insectivora, of which it possesses ten genera; and that 
it has also several peculiar forms of Carnivora, Rodentia, and 
tuminants. 

Birds—To give an accurate idea of the ornithology of this 
sub-region is very difficult, both on account of its extreme rich- 
ness and the impossibility of defining the limits between it and 
the Oriental region. A considerable number of genera which 
are well developed in the high Himalayas, and some which are 
peculiar to that district, have hitherto always been classed as 
Indian, and therefore Oriental groups; but they more properly 
belong to this sub-region. Many of them frequent the highest 
forests, or descend into the Himalayan temperate zone only in 
winter ; and others are so intimately connected with Palearctic 
species, that they can only be considered as stragglers into the 
border land of the Oriental region. On these principles we 
consider the following genera to be confined to this sub-region :— 

Grandala, Nemura (Sylviide) ; Pterorhinus (Timaliide) ; 
Cholornis, Conostoma, Heteromorpha (Panuride); Cyanoptila 
(Muscicapidee) ; Hophona (Fringillidee) ; Dendrotreron (Colum- 
bide) ; Lophophorus, Tetraophasis, Crossoptilon, Pucrasia, Thau- 
malea, and Jihaginis (Phasianide). This may be called the 
sub-region of Pheasants ; for the above six genera, comprising 
sixteen species of the most magnificent birds in the world, are 
all confined to the temperate or cold mountainous regions of 
the Himalayas, Thibet, and China; and in addition we have 


224 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


most of the species of tragopan (Ceriornis), and some of the 


true phcasants (Phasianus). 


The most abundant and characteristic of the smaller birds are 
warblers, tits, and finches, of Palearctic types ; but there are 
also a considerable number of Oriental forms which penetrate 
far into the country, and mingling with the northern birds 
give a character to the Ornithology of this sub-region very 
different from that of the Mediterranean district at the western 
Leaving out alarge number of wide-ranging 
groups, this mixture of types may be best exhibited by giving 
lists of the more striking Palearctic and Oriental genera which 


end of the region. 


are here found intermingled. 


SYLVIIDA. 
Erithacus. 
Ruticilla. 
Locustella. 
Cyanecula. 
Sylvia. 
Potamodus. 
Reguloides, 
Regulus. 
Accentor., 

CINCLID&, 
Cinclus. 


TROGLODYTID®. 
Troglodytidie. 


CERTHIID A, 
Certhia. 
Sitta. 
Tichodroma. 

PARIDA, 
Parus. 


Lophophanes, 


Acredula. 


SyYLVIIDA. 
Suya. 
Calliope. 
Larvivora. 
Tribura, 
Horites. 


PALEARCTIC GENERA. 


CorviD&. 
Fregilus. 
Nucifraga. 
Pica. 
Cyanopica. 
Garrulus. 

AMPELID&. 
Ampelis. 

FRINGILLID 2. 
Fringilla. 
Chrysomitris. 
Chlorospiza. 
Passer. 
Coccothraustes. 
Pyrrhula. 
Carpodacus, 
Uragus. 
Loxia. 
Linota. 
Emberiza. 

STURNID&. 
Sturnus. 


ORIENTAL GENERA, 


SYLvipa—(continued). 
A brornis, 
Copsychus, 

TURDIDAS 
Oreocinela, 


[PART 11. 


ALAUDID&. 
Otocorys. 
Picipa. 
Picoides. 
Picus 
Hyopicus. 
Dryocopus. 
YUNGIDA. 
Yunx. 
PTrEROCLID®. 
Syrrhaptes. 
TETRAONIDA. 
Tetrao., 
Tetraogallus. 
Lerwa. 
Lagopus. 
VULTURIDA. 
Gypaétus. 
Vultur. 
FALCONIDA. 
Archibuteo., 


TIMALUDA. 
Alecippe. 
Timalia, 
Pterocyclus. 
Garrulax. 
Trochalopteron, 


CHAP. X. ] 


THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 


ORIENTAL GENERA—continued., 


TIMALIIDA—(continued), MuscicaPID&. Picip&. 
Pomatorhinus. Xanthopygia. Vivia. — 
Suthora. Niltava, Yungipicus. 

PANURID&. Tchitrea, Gecinus. 
Paradoxornis. 
: CorRvID&. CoracriD&. 
CINcLID&. Urocissa. Eurystomus. 
Enicurus. Nic ‘ 
Myiophonus. ve Sahay pee iam ALCEDINIDE. 
Ze thopyga. Halcyon. 
TROGLODYTID®. gideeia 
Pneepyga MoraciLuID&. ryte. 
oo . 
Nemoricola. 
LioTRICHID&. ' Upupip™. 
Liothrix. Dica1p®. Upupa. 
r . , - 
Y whina. Zosterops. PSITTACIDA, 
Pteruthius. FRINGILLID®. Palzxornis. 
PYCNONOTIDA Melophus 
== ie } : CoLUMBID. 
Microscelis. Pyrgilauda. T 
Pycnonotus Pp I ue 
: : LOCEIDZ, antheenas. 
Hypsipetes. F pitas! 
Munia. Macropygia. 
CAMPEPHAGID. g 
Pericrocotus. EU AD. PHASIANID&. 
D Acridotheres. Phasianus. 
4 = . . 
= wes Sturnia. Ceriornis. 
Dicrurus. 
Chibia. PirTips. STRIGIDA. 
Buchanga. Pitta, Scops. 


In the above lists there are rather more Oriental than Pale- 


arctic genera; but it must be remembered that most of the 
former are summer migrants only, or stragglers just entering the 
sub-region ; whereas the great majority of the latter are per- 
manent residents, and a large proportion of them range over the 
greater part of the Manchurian district. Many of those in the 
Oriental column should perhaps be omitted, as we have no exact 
determination of their range, and the limits of the regions are 
very uncertain. It must be remembered, too, that the Palearctic 
genera of Sylviide, Paride, and Fringillide, are often represented 
by numerous species, whereas the corresponding Oriental genera 
have for the most part only single species; and we shall then 
find that, except towards the borders of the Oriental region the 
Palearctic element is strongly predominant. Four of the more 
especially Oriental groups are confined to Japan, the southern 


Q 


226 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 


extremity of which should perhaps come in the Oriental region. 
The great richness of this sub-region compared with that of 
Siberia is well shown by the fact, that a list of all the known 
land-birds of East Siberia, including Dahuria and the compara- 
tively fertile Amoor Valley, contains only 190 species ; whereas 
Pére David’s catalogue of the birds of Northern China with 
adjacent parts of Kast Thibet and Mongolia (a very much 
smaller area) contains for the same families 366 species. Of the 
Siberian birds more than 50 per cent, are European species, while 
those of the Manchurian sub-region comprise about half that 
proportion of land-birds which are identical with those of 
Europe. 

Japan is no doubt very imperfectly known, as only 134 land- 
birds are recorded from it. Of these twenty-two are peculiar 
species, a number that would probably be diminished were the 
Corea to be explored. Of the genera, only nine are Indo- 
Malayan, while forty-three are Palzearctic. 

Plate I1I.—Scene on the Borders of North-West China and 
Mongolia with Characteristic Mammalia and Birds. —The 
mountainous districts of Northern China, with the adjacent 
portions of Thibet and Mongolia, are the head-quarters of the 
pheasant tribe, many of the most beautiful and remarkable 
species being found there only. In the north-western provinces 
of China and the southern parts of Mongolia may be found the 
species figured. That in the foreground is the superb golden 
pheasant (Thaumalea picta), a bird that can hardly be surpassed 
for splendour of plumage by any denizen of the tropics. The 
large bird perched above is the eared pheasant (Crossoptilon 
auritum), a species of comparatively sober plumage but of 
remarkable and elegant form. In the middle distance is Pallas’s 
sand grouse (Syrrhaptes paradovus), a curious bird, whose native 
country seems to be the high plains of Northern Asia, but which 
often abounds near Pekin, and in 1863 astonished European 
ornithologists by appearing in considerable numbers in Central 
and Western Europe, in every part of Great Britain, and even 
in [reland., 


The quadruped figured is the curious racoon dog (Vyctereutes 


PLATE III. 


CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF NORTH CHINA. 


CHAP, X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 227 


procyonotdes), an animal confined to North China, Japan, and 
the Amoor Valley, and having no close allies in any other part 
of the globe. In the distance are some deer, a group of animals 
very abundant and varied in this part of the Palearctic region. 

Reptiles and Amphibia.—Reptiles are scarce in North China, 
only four or five species of snakes, a lizard and one of the Geck- 
otids occurring in the country round Pekin. The genus Halys 
is the most characteristic form of snake, while Callophis, an 
oriental genus, extends to Japan. Among lizards, Plestiodon, 
Maybouya, Tachydromus, and Gecko reach Japan, the two latter 
being very characteristic of the Oriental region. 

Amphibia are more abundant and interesting; Hynobius, 
Onychodactylus, and Sieboldtia (Salamandride) being peculiar 
to it, while most of the European genera are also represented. 

Fresh-water Fish—Of these there are a few peculiar genera ; 
as Plecoglossus (Salmonide) from Japan; Achilognathus, Pseu- 
doperilampus, Ochetobius, and Opsartichthys (Cyprinidae); and 
there are many other Chinese Cyprinide belonging to the border 
jand of the Palearctic and Oriental regions. 

Insects—The butterflies of this sub-region exhibit the same 
mixture of tropical and temperate forms as the birds. Most of 
the common European genera are represented, and there are 
species of Parnassius in Japan and the Amoor. Jsodema, a 
peculiar genus of Nymphalide is found riear Ningpo, just within 
our limits; and Sericinus, one of the most beautiful genera of 
Papilionide is peculiar to North China, where four species occur, 
thus balancing the Thais and Doritis of Europe. The genus 
Zephyrus (Lycenide) is well represented by six species in Japan 
and the Amoor, against two in Europe. Papilio paris and 
P. bianor, magnificent insects of wholly tropical appearance, 
abound near Pekin, and allied forms inhabit Japan and the 
Amoor, as well as P. demetrius and P. alcinous belonging to 
the “ Protenor” group of the Himalayas. Other tropical genera 
occurring in Japan, the Amoor, or North China are, Debs, 
Neope, Mycalesis, Ypthimia (Satyride); Thawmantis (Mor- 
phide), at Shanghae; Huripus, Neptis, Athyma (Nymphalide) ; 
Terias (Pieride) ; and the above-mentioned Papilionide. 

Q 2 


228 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT 


Coleoptera.—The beetles of Japan decidedly exhibit a mixture 
of tropical forms with others truly Palearctic, and it has been 
with some naturalists a matter of doubt whether the southern and 
best known portion of the islands should not be joined to the 
Oriental region. An important addition to our knowledge of 
the insects of this country has recently been made by Mr. George 
Lewis, and a portion of his collections have been described by 
various entomologists in the Zransactions of the Entomological 
Society of London. As the question is one of considerable in- 
terest we shall give a summary of the results fairly deducible 
from what is now known of the entomology of Japan; and it 
must be remembered that almost all our collections come from 
the southern districts, in what is almost a sub-tropical climate ; 
so that if we find a considerable proportion of Palzearctic forms, 
we may be pretty sure that the preponderance will be much 
ereater a little further north. 

Of Carabidee Mr. Bates enumerates 244 species belonging to 
84 genera, and by comparing these with the Coleoptera of a 
tract of about equal extent in western Europe, he concludes that 
there is little similarity, and that the cases of affinity to the forms 
of eastern tropical Asia preponderate. By comparing his genera 
with the distributions as given in Gemiminger and Harold's 
Catalogue, a somewhat different result is arrived at. Leaving 
out the generic types altogether peculiar to Japan, and also those 
genera of such world-wide distribution that they afford no clear 
indications for our purpose, it appears that no less than twenty- 
two genera, containing seventy-four of the Japanese species, are 
either exclusively Palearctic, Paleearctic and Nearctic, or highly 
characteristic of the Palsearctic region ; then come thirteen genera 
containing eighty-seven of the species which have a very wide 
distribution, but are also Palearctic: we next have seventeen 
genera containing twenty-four of the Japanese species which are 
decidedly Oriental and tropical. Here then the fair comparison 
is between the twenty-two genera and seventy-four species whose 
affinities are clearly Palearctic or at least north temperate, and 
seventeen genera with twenty-four species which are Asiatic 
and tropical; and this seems to prove that, although South 


CUAP. X.] THE PALAZZXARCTIC REGION. 229 
Japan (like North China) has a considerable infusion of tropical 
forms, there is a preponderating substratum of Palearctic forms, 
which clearly indicate the true position of the islands in zoolo- 
gical geography. There are also a few cases of what may be 
called eccentric distribution ; which show that Japan, like many 
other island-groups, has served as a kind of refuge in which 
dying-out forms continue to maintain themselves. These, which 
are worthy of notice, are as follows: Orthotrichus (1 sp.) has 
the only other species in Egypt; Zvrechichus (1 sp.) has two 
other species, of which one inhabits Madeira, the other the 
Southern United States ; Lerleptus (1 sp.) has two other species, 
of which one inhabits Bourbon, the other West Europe; and 
lastly, Crepidogaster (1 sp.) has the other known species in 
South Africa. These cases diminish the value of the indications 
afforded by some of the Japanese forms, whose only allies are 
single species in various remote parts of the Oriental region. 

The Staphylinide have been described by Dr. Sharp, and his 
list exhibits a great preponderance of north temperate, or cosmo- 
politan forms, with a few which are decidedly tropical. The 
Pselaphidee and Scydmenide, also described by Dr. Sharp, 
exhibit, according to that gentleman, “ even a greater resemblance 
to those of North America than to those of Europe,” but he says 
nothing of any tropical affinities. The water-beetles are all 
either Paleearctic or of wide distribution. 

The Lucanidee (Gemm. and Har. Cat., 1868) exhibit an inter- 
mingling of Palearctic and Oriental genera. 

The Cetoniide (Gemm. and Har. Cat. 1869) show, for North 
China and Japan, three Oriental to two Palearctic genera. 

The Buprestidze collected by Mr. Lewis have been described 
by Mr. Edward Saunders in the Journal of the Linnean Society, 
vol. xi. p. 509. The collection consisted of thirty-six species 
belonging to fourteen genera. No less than thirteen of these 
are known also from India and the Malay Islands; nine from 
Europe; seven from Africa; six from America, and four from 
China. In six of the genera the Japanese species are said to be 
allied to those of the Oriental region ; while in three they are 
allied to European forms, and in two to American. Considering 


2B 


230 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II. 


the southern latitude and warm climate in which these insects 
were mostly collected, and the proximity to Formosa and the 
Malay Islands compared with the enormous distance from 
Europe, this shows as much Palearctic affinity as can be 
expected. In the Palearctic region the group is only plentiful 
in the southern parts of Europe, which is cut off by the cold 
plateau of Thibet from all direct communication with Japan; 
while in the Oriental region it everywhere abounds and is, in ~ 
fact, one of the most conspicuous and dominant families of 
Coleoptera. 

The Longicorns collected by Mr. Lewis have been described 
by Mr. Bates in the Annals of Natural History for 1873. The 
number of species now known from Japan is 107, belonging to 
sixty-four genera. The most important genera are Leptura, 
Clytanthus, Monohammus, Praonetha, Exocentrus, Glenea, and 
Oberea. There are twenty-one tropical genera, and seven 
peculiar to Japan, leaving thirty-six either Palearctic or of very 
wide range. A number of the genera are Oriental and Malayan, 
and many characteristic European genera seem to be absent ; 
but it is certaiu that not half the Japanese Longicorns are yet 
known, and many of these gaps will doubtless be filled up when 
the more northern islands are explored. 

The Phytophaga, described by Mr. Baly, appear to have a 
considerable preponderance of tropical Oriental forms. 

A considerable collection of Hymenoptera formed by Mr. 
Lewis have been described by Mr. Frederick Smith ; and exhibit 
the interesting result, that while the bees and wasps are decidedly 
of tropical and Oriental forms, the Tenthredinide and Ichneu- 
monidé are as decidedly Palearctic, “the general aspect of the 
collection being that of a European one, only a single exotic 
form being found among them,” 

Remarks on the General Character of the Fauna of Japan— 
From a general view of the phenomena of distribution we feel 
justified in placing Japan in the Palearctic region; although 
some tropical groups, especially of reptiles and insects, have 
largely occupied its southern portions ; and these same groups 
have in many cases spread into Northern China, beyond the 


CHAP. X.] THE PALAXARCTIC REGION. 231 


usual dividing line of the Palearctic and Oriental regions. The 
causes of such a phenomenon are not difficult to conceive. Even 
now, that portion of the Palearctic region between Western 
Asia and Japan is, for the most part, a bleak and inhospitable 
region, abounding in desert plateaus, and with a rigorous climate 
even in its most favoured districts, and can, therefore, support 
but a scanty population of snakes, and of such groups of 
insects as require flowers, forests, or a considerable period of 
warm summer weather; and it is precisely these which are 
represented in Japan and North China by tropical forms. We 
must also consider, that during the Glacial epoch this whole 
region would have become still less productive, and that, as the 
southern limit of the ice retired northward, it would be followed 
up by many tropical forms along with such as had been driven 
south by its advance, and had survived to return to their 
northern homes. 

It is also evident that Japan has a more equable and probably 
moister climate than the opposite shores of China, and has also 
a very different geological character, being rocky and broken, 
often volcanic, and supporting a rich, varied, and peculiar vege- 
tation. It would thus be well adapted to support all the more 
hardy denizens of the tropics which might at various times 
reach it, while it might not be so well adapted for the more 
boreal forms from Mongolia or Siberia. The fact that a mixture 
of such forms occurs there, is then, little to be wondered at, but 
we may rather marvel that they are not more predominant, and 
that even in the extreme south, the most abundant forms of 
mammal, bird, and insect, are modifications of familiar Palearctic 
types. The fact clearly indicates that the former land con- 
nections of Japan with the continent have been in a northerly 
rather than in a southerly direction, and that the tropical immi- 
grants have had difficulties to contend with, and have found the 
land already fairly stocked with northern aborigines in almost 
every class and order of animals. 


General Conclusions as to the Fauna of the Palearctic Re- 
gion.—From the account that has now been given of the fauna. 


232 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III, 


of the Palearctic region, it is evident that 1t owes many of its 
deficiencies and some of its peculiarities to the influence of the 
Glacial epoch, combined with those important changes of physi- 
cal geography which accompanied or preceded it. The elevation of 
the old Sarahan sea and the complete formation of the Mediterra- 
nean, are the most important of these changes in the western 
portion of the region. In the centre, a wide arm of the Arctic 
Ocean extended southward from the Gulf of Obi to the Aral and 
the Caspian, dividing northern Europe and Asia. At this time 
our European and Siberian sub-regions were probably more 
distinct than they are now, their complete fusion having been 
effected since the Glacial epoch. As we know that the Himalayas 
have greatly increased in altitude during the Tertiary period, it is 
not impossible that during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs the ~ 
vast plateau of Central Asia was much less elevated and less 
completely cut off from the influence of rain-bearing winds. It 
might then have been far more fertile, and have supported a rich 
and varied animal population, a few relics of which we see in 
the Thibetan antelopes, yaks, and wild horses. The influence 
of yet earlier changes of physical geography, and the relations of 
the Palearctic to the tropical regions immediately south of it, 
will be better understood when we have examined and discussed 
the faunas of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions. 


el 


CHAP. X.] THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 233 


TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. 


IN constructing these tables showing the distribution of vari- 
ous classes of animals in the Palearctic region, the following 
sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition 
to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in 
compiling the fourth part of this work. 

Mammalia.—Lord Clement’s Mammalia and Reptiles of 
Europe ; Siebold’s Fauna Japonica; Pere David’s List of 
Mammalia of North China and Thibet ; Swinhoe’s Chinese 
Mammalia ; Radde’s List of Mammalia of South-Eastern Siberia ; 
Canon Tristram’s, Lists for Sahara and Palestine; Papers by 
Professor Milne-Edwards, Mr. Blanford, Mr. Sclater, and the 
local lists given by Mr. A. Murray in the Appendix to his 
Geographical Distribution of Mammalia. 

Birds —Blasius’ List of Birds of Europe; Godman, On 
Birds of Azores, Medeira, and Canaries; Middendorf, for 
Siberia; Pere David and Mr. Swinhoe, for China and Mongolia ; 
Homeyer, for East Siberia; Mr. Blanford, for Persia and the 
high Himalayas; Mr. Elwes’s paper on the Distribution of 
Asiatic Birds; Canon Tristram, for the Sahara and Palestine; 
Professor Newton, for Iceland and Greenland; Mr. Dresser, 
for Scandinavia; and numerous papers and notes in the Ibis; 
Journal fiir Crnithologie; Annals and Mag. of Nat. History ; and 
Proceedings of the Zoological Society. 

Reptiles and Amphibia.—Schreiber’s European Herpetology. 


234 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART 1. 


TABLE I. 
FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE PALZARCTIC REGION. 


EXPLANATION. 
Names in italics show families peculiar to the region. 
Names inclosed thus (...... ) barely enter the region, and are not considered properly 


to belong to it. x 
Numbers are not consecutive, but correspond to those in Part IV. A 


Sub-regions. Cs 


4 ; 3 A 3 
Order and Family. 213 5 | Ss e Range beyond the Region, 
E lee! s = 
5 }og| 2 3 
& o — ~~ 
a= | w 5 


MAMMALIA. 
PRIMATES. 


8. Cynopithecide Ethiopian, Oriental 


CHIROPTERA. 


9. (Pteropide) ... 
11. Rhinolophidee 

12. Vespertilionide 
13. Noctilionide... 


_— Tropics of E. Hemisphere 
— — |) —}— | Warmer parts of E.. Hemis. 
—— | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 

| 

| 

| 


| Tropical regions 


INSECTIVORA. 
15. Macroscelidide 
17. Erinaceide ... | — | — 
Te Ans. eet 
TA ere. ox. | | 


Ethiopian 

oe |Oriental, S. Africa 

— | Nearetic, Oriental 

— Cosmopolite, excl. Australia and 8. America 


CARNIVORA, 


93. Felide ... .. | —|— 
25. Viverride : — 
27. Hywxnidee ‘s “= 
OOM vee aes | | 
29. Mustelide ... | — | — 
31. Aluride 
82. Urside ... ... | —/|— 
33. Otariide... ... 
34. Trichechide ... | — 
35. Phocide we | 


— —. | All regions but Australian 
| Ethiopian, Oriental 
| Ethiopian, Oriental 
— — |All regions but Australian 
—. — | All regions but Australian 
— |Oriental 
— | — | Nearctic, Oriental, Andes 
N. and 8S. temperate zones 
— Arctic regions 
— —|N. and 8. temperate zoues 


CETACEA, 


86 to 41. Oceanic 


SIRENIA, 


42. Manatide ... | — Tropics, from Brazil to N, Australia 
| 
| 
| 


UNGULATA. 

43. Equide ... ... —|- Ethiopian 

47, Suide ... ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite, excl. Nearctic reg. and Aus 
48. Camelide —... oot hal Andes 

50, Cervide... ... | — | — | — | — | Allregions but Ethiopian and Australian 
52. Bovide ... ... , — | — | — | —. All regions but Neotropical and Australian 


% 


CHAP. X,] 


Order and Family. 


HYRACOIDAL. 
54. (Hyracida) 


RopENTIA., 

. Muride ... 
. Spalacidie 
. Dipodidee 
. Myoxide 

. Castoride 
. Sciuride... 


. Hystricide 
. Lagomyide 
. Leporidee 


BIRDS. 


PASSERES. 

1. Turdide... 
. Sylviide... 
. Timaliide 
. Panuride 
. Cinclide 


. Certhiide 
. Sittide ... 
. Paride ... 


. Oriolidee... 


. Laniide ... 
. Corvide ... 


. (Diceide) 
. Ampelide 


. Fringillide 
. Sturnide 
. Alaudide 


. (Pittide) 


PICARLE, 


51. Picide 

52. Yungide 

58. Cuculide 

62. Coraciide 
63. Meropide 
67. Alcedinide 
69. Upupide 
73. Caprimulgide: 
74. Cypselide 


. Octodontide ... 


; Troglodytide. A 


5 Pycnonotide ... 
: Muscicapide ... | 


: (Nectariniide) 


. Hirundinide ... 


; Motacillide _. 


THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 


Sub-regions. 


Mediter- 
ranean. 


SS. 4geeR a 


| Siberia. 


Ethiopian family 


Almost Cosmopolite 

Ethiopian, Oriental 
Ethiopian, Nearctic 

Ethiopian 

| Nearctic 

All regions but Australian 
Abyssinia, Neotropical 
Ethiopian, Oriental 
Nearctic 
All regions but Australian 


Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 
Nearctic, Oriental 
Oriental 
American, Oriental 
Oriental, Nearctic 
Nearctic, Oriental, Australian, Madagascar 
Nearetic, Oriental, Australian [?] 
Oriental, Ethiopian 
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 
Kastern Hemisphere 
Eastern Hemisphere and N. America 
Cosmopolite 
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 
| Nearctic 
Cosmopolite 
_All regions but Australian 
Eastern Hemisphere 
All regions but Neotropical 
_Cosmopolite 


-| Oriental, Australian, Ethiopian 


| All regions but Australian 
N. W. India, N. E. Africa, S. Africa 
Almost Cosmopolite 
_ Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 
Cosmopolite 
Ethiopian, Oriental 
Cosmopolite 
Almost Cosmopolite 


is aa. 
ie 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


236 
Sub-regions. 
‘ Fabaceae 
Order and Family. 9 i(sa|/ a4] 2 
Aes 8 = 
SR a) a — 
a Flais 
CoLUMB&. 


84. Columbide ... 


GALLINE. 


86. Pteroclide ... 
87.- Tetraonide ... 
88. Phasianide ... 


89. Turnicidee 


ACCIPITRES. 


94. Vulturide ... 
96. Falconide ... 
97. Pandionide... 


98. Strigidee 


GRALLA. 
99. Rallide 


100. Scolopacidee... 
104. Glareolide ... 
105. Charadriide... 


106. Otidide 
107. Gruide 
113. Ardeidse 


114. Plataleide x ; 


115. Ciconiide 


117. Phenicopterida 


ANSERES. 


118. Anatidee 
119. Laride... 


120. 
121. 
123. 
124, 
125, 


Procellariidie 
Pelecanide ... 
Colymbide ... 
Podicipidie 
Alcide ... 


REPTILIA. 
OPHIDIA, 


hlopide.. 


rp 

. Calamariide... 
. Oligodontide 
. Colubride ... 
. Homalopsida 
. Psammophidw 
. Erycide... ... 
. Elapide... ... 
. Crotalidee 

. Viperide 


| | 


[eis ke 
tis 


Kiyo See 
beam aes 


| 


ict] 
oS 


Pek awe ee 
es as eg 


| 


fret 


Sacer 


Range beyond the Region. 


Cosmopolite 


Ethiopian, Indian 

Nearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental 
Oriental, Ethiopian, Nearctic 
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 


All regions but Australian 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 


Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite 

Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 
Cosmopolite 

Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian 
Eastern Hemisphere, and N. America 
Cosmopolite 

Almost Cosmopolite 

Nearly Cosmopolite 

Neotropical, Ethiopian, Indian 


Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite 

Arctic and N, Temperate 
Cosmopolite 

N. Temperate zone 


All regions but Nearetic 

All other regions 

Oriental and Neotropical 
Almost Cosmopolite 

Oriental, and all other regions 
Ethiopian and Oriental 
Oriental and Ethiopian 
Australian and all other regions 
Nearctic, Neotropical, Oriental 
Ethiopian, Oriental 


CHAP. X.] 


Order and Family. 


oo 


LACERTILIA, 

26. Trogonophide 

28. Amphisbeenide 

80. Varanide 

33. Lacertide 

84. Zonuride ; 

41, Gymnopthal- 
MMM ds ne 

45. Scincide 

46. Ophiomoride .. 

47. Sepide ... 

49. Geckotide 

51. Agamide 


62. Chameleonide | 


CHELONIA. 

57. Testudinide ... 
59. Trionychide ... 
60. Cheloniide 


AMPHIBIA. 
UropeE.a. 

8. Proteide 

5. Menopomide... 
6. Salamandride 


ANOTRA. 

10. Bufonide .... 
13. Bombinatoridz 
15. Alytide ... 

ee SEUGD 6... ss 
18. Polypedatide 
19. Ranide ... ... 
20. Discoglosside 


FISHES (FRESH- 
WATER). 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 
1. Gasterosteide 
3. Percide ... 
12. Scienide dt 
26. Comephoride... 
87. Atherinide 


Paysosromi. 
59. Siluride... 
65, Salmonide 
70. Esocide ... 
71. Umbride 
73. Cyprinodontide 
75. Cyprinids 


| Europe. | 


THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 


Sub-regions. 


Mediter 
ranean. 


| Siberia. 


Range beyond the Region. 


Japan 


Ethiopian, Neotropical 

Oriental, Ethiopian, Australian 
— | All continents but American 

America, Africa, N. India 


Ethiopian, Australian, Neotropical 
— | Almost Cosmopolite 


Ethiopian 
_—— Almost Cosmopolite 
— All continents but America 
Ethiopian, Oriental 


— | Ethiopian, Oriental, Nearctic 
Marine 


| — | All continents but Australia 


Nearctic 
— | Nearctic 
— | Nearctic to Andes of Bogota 


— | All continents but Australia 
Neotropical, New Zealand 
All regions but Oriental 
All regions but Ethiopian 

— | All the regions 

— Almost Cosmopolite 

— | All regions but Nearctic 


—- | Nearctic 
~~ All regions but Australian 
— | All regions but Australian 


-N. America and Australia 


} 
| 


— | All warm regions 
— Nearctic, New Zealand 


| Nearetic 
_ Nearctic 
All regions but Australia 


_— | Ailregions but Australian and Neotropical 


238 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY, [PART IIT, 
Sub-regions. 
Order and Family. 6 |8 i) ee a Range beyond the Region, 
Se lss| 3/2 | 
= oA} 2 a 
Seats a a Bc Oe ne Fe 
GANOIDEI. | | : 

96. Accipenseride | — | — | — _ Nearctie 

97. Polydontide ... | — Nearetic 

INSECTS.  LEPI- | 


DOPTERA (PART). 
Dunrini (BUTTER- 


All continents but Australia 


9, Libytheide 
Absent from Nearctic region and Australia 


10. Nemeobeide ae 


FLIES). 
1. Danaidee == All tropical regions 
2. Satyride  ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 
8. Nymphalide... | — — Cosmopolite 


13. Lycenide -|— | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 

14. Pieride ... ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 

15. Papilionide . — | — | — Cosmopolite 

16. Hesperide — | —.| — | — | Cosmopolite 

SPHIRIGIDEA. | | ; 
17. Zygenide —|— | —_ — | Cosmopolite 

21. Stygiide —|—|— | — | Neotropical 

22. Ageriide —|— — — | Absent only from Australia 

23. Sphingidie — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 


CoLeorTERA.—Of about 80 families into which the Coleoptera are divided, all the 
more important are cosmopolite, or nearly so. It would therefore unnecessarily occupy _ 
space to give tables of the whole for each region. 5 

LAND SuetLs.—The more important families being cosmopolite, and the smaller — 
ones being somewhat uncertain in their limits, the reader is referred to the account of — 
the families and genera under each region, and to the chapter on Mollusca in the con- 
cluding part of this work, for such information as can be given of their distribution, 


CHAP, X.] THE PALAXSARCTIC REGION, 239 


TABLE II. 


LIST OF THE GENERA OF TERRESTIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS 
INHABITING THE PALAARCTIC REGION. 


EXPLANATION. 
Names in éalics show genera peculiar to the region. 
Names inclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but are not considered 
properly to belong to it. 
Genera which undoubtedly belong to the region are numbered consecutively. 


MAMMALIA. 
ee nny and 32 Range within the Region. | Range beyond the Region. 
; 14m | } 
Fae cccheg fase: aoe a 
PRIMATES. | 
SEMNOPITHECID. 
(Semnopithecus 1 | Eastern Thibet) Oriental genus 
CYNOPITHECID&. 
1. Macacus... ...| 4 | Gibraltar, N. Africa, E. Thibet} Oriental 
to Japan 
CHIROPTERA. 
PTEROPID2. 
(Pteropus _... | 2 | Egypt, Japan) Tropics of the E. Hemis. 
(Xantharpyia ...| 1 |N. Africa, Palestine) Oriental, Austro-Malayan 
RHINOLOPHID2. 
2. Rhinolphus ...| 9 | Temperate & Southern parts of) Warmer parts E. Hemi- 
; Region sphere 
(Asellia ... ...| 1 | Egypt) Ethiopian, Java 
(Rhinopoma ...| 1 | Egypt, Palestine) [?] India 
(Nyeteris.... ... | 1 | Egypt) Nubia, Himalaya 
VESPERTILIONIDA, 
3. Vesperugo 1 | Siberia, Amoorland [?] 
4. Otonycteris | 1 | Egypt [2] 
5. Vespertilio ... 35 | The whole region Cosmopolite 
(Kerivoula 1 | N. China) Oriental, S. Africa 
6. Miniopteris 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa, Japan S. Afric. Malaya, Austral. 
7. Plecotus ... 1 |S. Europe Himalayas 
8. Barbastellus 2 | Mid. and S. Europe, Palestine | Darjeeling, Timor 
NOcTILIONID. 
9 Molossus ... ...| 2 |S, Europe, N. Africa _Ethiop., Neotrop., Aus- 
trali 
INSECTIVORA. joi 
ERINACEIDA. 


10, Erinaceus ... | 4 | The whole region ; excl. Japan | Oriental, Africa, 


240 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


Order, Family, and Fee ; fe 
cacti Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region 


No. of 
Species, 


| 


TALPIDA. 
11. Talpa Es 5 | The whole region N. India 
12. Scaptochirvs ...| 1 | N. China 
13. Anuwrosorex 1 | N. China 
14. Scaptonyzx 1 | N. China 
15. Myogale ... 2 |S. E. Russia, Pyrenees 
16. Nectogale ... 1 | Thibet 
17. Urotrichus 1 | Japan N. W. America 
18, Uropsilus... 1 | E. Thibet 
SoRICIDA. 
19. Sorex... ... | 10 |The whole region Absent from Australia & 
S. America 
20. Crocidura... ...| 4 | W. Europe to N. China [7] 
CARNIVORA. 
FELIDA. 
is WR aes.” scl ae sc Mi ae region ; excl. extreme) All regions but Austral. 
orth 
22, Lyncus ... ...| 9 |S. Europe to Arctic sea America N, of 66° N. Lat. 
VIVERRIDE. 
(Viverra ...... | 1 | N. China) Oriental and Ethiopian 
23. Genetta ... ... 1 |S. Europe & N. Africa, Palestine} Ethiopian 
P . (Herpestes ...| 1 | N. Africa, Spain [?], Palestine) | Oriental and Ethiopian 
HYANID&. ; 
24. Hyena ... ...| 1 |N. Africa and S. W. Asia Ethiopian, India 
CANIDE. 
25. Canis ......| 4 | The whole region All reg. but Austral. [?] 
26. Nyctereutes... 1 | Japan, Amoorland, N. China 
MUSTELID2&. 
27. Martes .. | 7 |N. Europe and Asia, E. Thibet | Oriental, Nearctie 
28. Putorius... ...| 8 | W. Europe to N. E. Asia 
29. Mustela ... ... | 10 | The whole region Nearctic, Ethiop., Hima- 
erie layas, Peru 
30. Vison 2 | Europe and Siberia N. America, N. India, 
China 
31. Gulo... 1 | The Arctic regions Arctic America 
32. Lutra . «| 2 |The whole region Oriental 
83. Lutronectes ... | ° 1 | Japan 
34, Enhydris ; 1 |N. Asiaand Japan California 
35, Meles 2 | Cen. Europe, Palestine, N.China,) China to Hongkong 
Japan 
ALURIDM. 
36. Mlurus ... ...| 1 |S. E. Thibet Nepal 
37. Ailuropus .... |_ 1 -| EB. Thibet 
URSID&. ; 
8%. Thalassarctos ... | 1 | Arctic regions Aretiec America 
39. Ursus... ..| 4 | The whole region Oriental, Nearetie, Chil 


— > 


CHAP. X.] 


Order, Family, and 
Genus, 


OTARIID&. 
40. Callorhinus 


41. Zalophus— 
42. Eumetopias 


TRICHECHID”. 
43. Trichechus 


PHOCID®. 


. Pagomys ... 
. Pagophilus 

. Phoca 

. Halicherus 
. Pelagius ... 
. Cystophora 


SIRENIA. ... 
CETACEA. ... 


UNGULATA. 


Equip. 
51. Equus 


SuIpx. 
oe. Bae ... 


CAMELID2. 
53. Camelus ... 


CERVIDA. 


Alces 

. Tarandus 

. Cervus 

. Dama ... 
. Elaphodus 

. Lophotragus 
. Capreolus 


61. Moschus ... 


62. Hydropotes 


Bovips. 

63. ( Bos 

64. < Bison 

65. ( Poephagus 
66. Addax .. 
67. Oryx 7s 
68. ( Gazella ... 
69. { Procapra 


. Callocephalus ... 


THE PALASARCTIC REGION, 


wnweWwWwb w&w ee 


~ 


oe 


Range within the Region. 


 — 


Kamschatka and Behring’s Straits y 
Japan California 
Japan, Behring’s Straits California 


Polar Seas 


241 


Range beyond the Region. 


Arctic America 


North Sea, Caspian, Lake Baikal Greenland 

North Sea, Japan N. Pacific 

Northern Seas N. Pacifie 

Northern Seas N. Pacific 

North Sea and Baltie Greenland 

Madeira to Black Sea 

N. Atlantic N. Atlantic 

. : ; ° | Tropics & Behring’sStrts, 
' | Oceanic 


Cent. & and W. Asia & N. Africa) Ethiopian 


The whole region 


Deserts of Cent. and W. Asia and 
N. Africa 


North Europe and Asia 

Arctic Europe and Asia 

The whole region 

Mediterranean district 

N. W. China 

N. China 

Temp. Europe and W. Asia and 
N. China 

Amoor R., N. China, to Hima- 
layas 


N. China 
Europe, (not wild) Oriental 
Poland and Caucasus Nearctic 


Thibet 
N. Africa to Syria 
N. Africa to Syria 


chistan 
W. Thibet and Mongolia 


N. America 
Arctic America 
All regions but Austral, 


Oriental, Austro- Malayan 


| Ethiopian deserts 
N. Africa to Persia, and Beloo-| S, Africa, India 


242 


Order, Family, and 
Genus, 


70. | Saiga ... 
71. | Pantholops 
(Alcephalus 


72. Budorcas 
73. Rupicapra 


74. Nemorhedus ms 


75. Capra 


HYRACOIDEA 
HyYRACID&. 
(Hyrax 


RODENTIA. 
MuriIpD&. 


70. Mas’... 

77. Cricetus ... 
78. Cricetulus 
79. Meriones 


80. Rhombomys 
81. Psammomys 
82. Sminthus 
83. Arvicola ... 
84. Cuniculus 
85. Myodes 

86. Myospalax 


SPALACIDA. 
87. Ellobius ... 
88. Spalax 


DrIPopID&. 
89. Dipus 


Myoxip&, 
90, Myoxus ... 


CASTORIDA, 
91, Castor 


ScruRID&. 
92. Sciurus 


93. Sciuropterus . 


94, Pteromy 8... 


95. Spermophilus § 


96. Arctomys... 


OCTODONTIDA. 


97, Clenodactylus ... 


Hystricipa, 
98. Hystrix 


No. of | 
Species. 


SION HHH 


bo 
i—) 


be =A 
wor) mow © or 


CO ee CO 


—_ 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


"S. Europe, Palestine, N. China. | Ethiopian, Oriental 


[PART II. 


Range within the Region. | Range beyond the Region. 


E. Europe and W. Asia 

W. Thibet 

Syria) Ethiopian genus. 

E. Himalayas to E. Thibet 

Pyrenees to Caucasus 

E. Himalayas to E. China and) Oriental to Sumatra, 
Japan Formosa’ 

Spain to Thibet and N.E. Africa) Nilgherries, RockyMtuns. 


Syria) Ethiopian genus 


The whole region E. Hemisphere 

The whole region 

N. China 

W. and Central Asia to N. China,| Ethiopian, Indian. 
N. Africa 

E. Europe, Cent. Asia, N. Africa 

Egypt and Palestine 

East Europe, Siberia 

The whole region 

N.E. Europe, Siberia 

North of region 

Altai Mountains and N, China 


Himalayas, Nearctic 
Arctic America 
Nearetic 


S. Russia and S. W. Siberia 
Hungary and Greece to W. Asia, 
Palestine 


S. E. Europe and N, Africa to | Africa, India 
N, China 


Temperate parts of whole region| Ethiopian 


Temperate zone, from France to |N. America 
Amoorland 


The whole region All regions but Austral. — 
Finland to Siberia and Japan Oriental, Nearetie 
Japan and W. China Oriental 
i. Europe to N. China and | Nearctic 
Kamschatka 
Alps to E, Thibet and Kam- | Nearetie 
schatka 


N, Africa 


—————— 


CHAP. X.] 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


LAGOMYID&. 
99, Lagomys 


LEPORIDA. 
100. Lepus 


PASSERES. 
TURDIDA. 
1. Turdus 


2. Oreocincla 
3. Monticola 
(Bessornis 


SYLVIIDA. 


. Cisticola — ; 
Acrocephalus... 
Dumeticola 


4 

5 

6 

7. | Potamodus 
8. | Lusciniola 

9. | Locustella 

10. | Bradyptetus ... 
ll. \ Calamodus ... 
12. | Phylloscopus... 


13. | Hypolais 

14. | Abrornis 

15. | Reguloides 

16. \ Regulus 

mae Becem ... «.. 
18. | Pyrophthalma 
19. } Melizophilus ... 


Sylvia 


Cyanecula 


Calliope 
Erithacus 
Grandala 


22. = 


— 
oo ~~ OF 


——— eee eee 


co bo wo re ~I & bo bt bo Hm bo bo vo} a wr “IH 


Volga to E. Thibet and Kam- 
schatka 


The whole region 


BIRDS. 


The whole region (excluding 


Spitzbergen) 


N.E. Asia and Japan, straggler 


to Europe 

S. Europe, N. Africa, Palestine, 
N. China 

Palestine) 


S. W. Europe, N. Africa, Japan 

W. Europe to Japan 

Nepaul, Lake Baikal, E. Thibet, 
high 

W. and §. Europe, N. Africa, 
E. Thibet 

S. Europe 

W. Europe and N. Africa to 
Japan 

S. Europe and Palestine 

Europe, N. Africa, Palestine 

The whole region (excluding 
western islands) 

Europe, N. Africa, Palestine, 
China 

Cashmere, E. Thibet 

Europe and China 

The whole region (excluding 
Iceland, &c.) 

S. Europe, W. Asia, N. Africa 

E. Europe and Palestine 

W. and 8, Europe, Sardinia 

Madeira to W. India, N. Africa 


Madeira to India, N. Africa 
W. Europe, N. Africa, Persia 


Europe and N. Africa to Kam- 
schatka 


_N. Asia, Himalayas, China 


Atlantic Islands to Japan 


High Himalayas and LE, Thibet 


THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 243 
=% ir ea 
=§ Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
a 


Nearctic 


All regions but Austral. 


Almost cosmopolite 
Oriental and Australian 
Oriental and 8S. African 
Tropical and S, Africa 


Ethiop., Orient., Austral. 
Orient., Ethiop., Austral. 


India, winter migrants (?) 
E. and 8. Africa 
Oriental 


China, Moluccas, India, 
Africa 

Oriental region 

N. India, Formosa 

N. and Central America 


KE. and S. Africa 


N.E. Africa, Ceylon mi- 
grants (?) 

E. Africa, India, mi- 
grants 


Abyssinia and India 


migrants 
Centl. India (? migrant) 


Rk 2 


244 _ ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Il, 
Order, Pears » and 38 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
AD 
27. | Ruticilla 10 | Eu. toJapan, N. Afr., Himalayas | Abyssinia, India 
28. | Larvivora 2 | E. Thibet, Amoor, Japan Oriental 
29. Dromolea 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, Palestine | Ethiopian 
30. Saxicola— 10 | The whole region E. and S. Africa, India 
31. Cercomela 2 | Palestine (a desert genus) N.E. Africa, N. W. India 
32. Pratincola 3 | W. Europe, N. Africa to India | Ethiopian to Oriental 
33. Accentor ... 12 | W. Europe to Japan; high | Himalayas (?) in winter 
Himalayas 
TIMALIIDZ. 
34. Plerorhinus 3 | Thibet and N. W. China 
(Malacocercus... | 1 | Palestine) Oriental genus 
(Crateropus —J| 2 | N. Africa, Persia) Ethiopian genus 
(Trochalopteron | 8 | E. Thibet) Oriental genus 
(lanthocincla — | 8 | E. Thibet) Oriental genus 
PANURID. 
(Paradoxornis 3 | Himalayas and E. Thibet) (?) Oriental genus 
35. Conostoma 1 | High Himalayas and E. Thibet ' > 
36. Suthora ... 3 | E. Thibet Himalayas, China, For- 
: mosa 
37. Panurus ... ..,| 1 | W. Europe to W. Siberia 
88, Heleromorpha.. 1 | Nepaul and E. Thibet, from 


10,000 feet altitude 
39. Choloriis... ... 1 | E. Thibet 


CINCLID. 
40. Cinelus 


Or 


The whole region (Atlantic Is- | American highlands 
lands excluded) 

(Myiophonus ...| 1 | Turkestan, Thian-Shan Moun- | Oriental genus 

tains, 6,000 feet 


TROGLODYTID&. 
41. Troglodytes ...| 3 | Iceland and Britain to Japan Neotropical and Neare- 
tic, Himalayas 
(Pnoepyga ...| 2 | E. Thibet) Oriental genus 
CERTHIIDE. 
42, Certhia 2 | W. Europe to N. China Himalayas, Nearetic 
43. Tichodroma 1 | S. Europe to N, China Abyssinia, Nepaul, high | 
Srrripm. 
44. Sitta vs ee | 7 |W. Europe to Himalayas and | India, Nearctic 
Japan 
PARID&™. 
45. Parus ... ... | 20 | W. Europe to Kamschatka, N. | Nearctic, Oriental, Ethi- 
Africa opian . 
46. Lophophanes ... | 6 oe and high Himalayas Nearctic 
47. Acredula... «| 6 |W. Kurope to N. China and 
Kamschatka 
48, Agithalus ..| 118. E. Europe Ethiopian 


Liorricuipa. ; 
(Proparus... .., | 4 | Moupin, in E. Thibet) Oriental genus and fam. 


CHAP. X.] 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


PYCNONOTID®. 
49. Microscelis 
50. Pyenonotus 
ORIOLIDE, 
51. Oriolus 
MUSCICAPID2. 
52. Muscicapa 
53. Butalis 


54. 


(Xanthopygia ... 


(Eumyias— 
(Cyanoptila 
(Siphia 

55. Tchitrea ... 


LANIID2. 
56. Lanius 


(Telephonus 


CorvVID&. 


57. Garrulus ... 

58. Perisoreus 
(Urocissa ... 

59. Nucifraga 


60. Pica... 
61. 
62. 
63. 


Cyanopica 
Corvus 
Fregilus ... 
NECTARINIID2. 
(Arachnecthra 


DIcazIDz, 
(Zosterops 


AMPELID®. 
64, Ampelis ... 


HIRUNDINID2. 


65. Hirundo . 
66. Cotyle... 
67. Chelidon ... 


FRINGILLID2. 
68. Fringilla ... 


Erythrosterna... 


bore 


LO el lll cell el oo b bp bo 


— 
ft pk 


_ 
WW bo bw Or wnNnresT 


_ 


rm 


oe WS) 


THE PALASARCTIC REGION. 


Range within the Region, 


Japan 
Palestine, N. China, Japan 


S. Europe, China 


W. and Central Europe 
W. Europe to Japan and China 


Central Europe to N. China and 
Japan 

Japan) 

K. Thibet) 

Japan and Amoor) 

Moupin, E. Thibet) 

N. China and Japan 


The whole region (excl. Atlantic 
Islands) 
N. Africa) 


W. Europe, N. Africa, to Japan 

N. Europe and Siberia 

Cashmere, Japan) 

W. Europe to Japan, and Hima- 
layas 

W. Europe to China and Japan 


Spain, N. E. Asia and Japan 
The whole region 


W. Europe to N. China, Hima-| 


layas 


Palestine) 


Amoor and Japan) 


Northern half of region 


The whole region 
The whole region (excl. Atlan. Is.) 
The whole region 


The whole region 


Range beyond the Region. 


Oriental genus 
Oriental and Ethiopian 


Ethiopian and Oriental 


Ethiopian. 

E. and 8. Africa, Mo- 
luecas 

Oriental & Madagascar 


Oriental genus 
Oriental genus 
Oriental genus 
Oriental genus 
Ethiopian and Oriental 


| Nearctic, Ethiopian, 
Oriental 
Ethiopian genus 


Himalayas, Formosa 
N. America 

Oriental genus 
Himalayan pine forests 


S. China and Formosa 
nigrauts [2] 


Cosmopolite(excl.S. Am.) 


Abyssinian mountains 


Oriental genus 


Ethiop., Orien., Austral. 


North America 


Cosmopolite 
Nearctic, Ethiop., Orien. 
Oriental 


| Africa 


246 


Cotes, aa ana 32 Range within the Region. | Rang? beyond the Region. 
22. 
69. Acanthis 3 | Europe and N. Africa to Central 
Asia 
70. Procarduelis ...| 1 | High Himalayas and E. Thibet 
71. Chrysomitris...| 2 | W. Europe to Japan N. and 8. America 
72. Dryospiza 4 | Atlantic Islands to Palestine, N. 
Africa 
73. Metoponia 1 | N. E. Europe to W. Himalayas 
74. Chlorospiza .. 5 | W. Europe, N. Africa to Japan | China, E. Africa 
75. Passer... ...| 8 | The whole region Ethiopian, Oriental 
76. Montifringilla 4 | Europe to Cashmere and Siberia 
77. Fringillauda.. | 1 — Himalayas to E, Thibet, 
1g 
78. Coccothraustes | 3 a Europe, High Himalayas to. N. America 
apan 
79. Mycerobas ...| 2 | Central Asia & High Himalayas 
80 Eophona... ... | 2 | K. Thibet, China, and Japan China 
81. Pyrrhula .. | 9 | Azores to Japan, High Himalayas; Alaska 
(Crithagra 1 | Palestine) Ethiopian genus 
82. Carpodacus ... | 12 ee Eu. to Japan, High Hima-| India & China, N. Amer, 
ayas 
83. Erythrospiza...| 4 |N. Africa to Afghanistan and 
Turkestan 
84, Uragus ... 2 | Turkestan & E. Thibet to Japan 
85, Loxia 3 | Europe, High Himalayas toJapan| N. America 
86. Pinicola... ... | 1 | N. Europe, Siberia N. America 
87. Propyrrhula...| 1 | High Himalayas Darjeeling in winter 
88. Pyrrhospiza ...| 1 | Snowy Himalayas 
89. Linota 6 | The whole region N. America 
90. Leucosticte . 4 | Turkestan to Kamschatka N. W. America 
Emberizine 
91. ( Euspiza 4 | K. Europe to Japan N. America 
92.) Emberiza 25 | Europe to Japan N. India, China 
93. ) Fringillaria... | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa African genus 
94. { Plectrophanes | 2 | Northern half of region N. America 
STURNIDA, 
95. Pastor 1 | Kast Europe, Central Asia India 
96. Sturnia ... | 2 | Amoor, Japan, N. China Oriental 
97. Sturnus... | 3 | he whole region (excl. Atlantic} India, China 
Islands) 
(Amydrus 1 | Palestine) N. E. African genus 
98. Podoces ... 3 | Cen. Asia, Turkestan, Yarkand i“ 
ALAUDIDA. } 
99. Otocorys 3 ae to Japan, N, Africa,|[ndia,N.America, Andes __ 
rabia 
100, Alauda 7 | Che whole region (excl. Teeland)| India, Africa 4 
101. Galerita... 2 Mary 2: Europe to N, China, N.| India, Central Africa 
Africa 
102. Calandrella 4 we Europe to N. China, N | ndia 
Africa 
1038, Melanocorypha 5 |S. Eu. N, Africa, N. & Cen, Asio| N. W. India 
104, Pallasia... 1 | Mongolia 
(Certhilauda... | 1 | N. Africa) S. African genus 
(Alaemon 1 |N. Africa, Arabia) Ethiopian genus 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART 111 


CHAP. X.] 


} 


a 


Order, Family, and S32 
Genus. eS 
es ac 
105. Ammomanes... | 3 
| 
MoraciILuip#. 
106. Motacilla 6 
107. Budytes 4 
108. Calobates 2 


PITTID.s. 
Crit e.s mah | 


PICARLE. 
PICIDs. 
109. Picoides... 3 
| 
110. Picus 1 36 
111. Hypopicus ...| 1 
(Yungipicus ... |] 
112. Dryocopus sat col 
ae SCID 4 52--'va>-1.~ 6 
YUNGIDE. | 
114. Yunx eit 
CUCULIDS. | 
neo, Cnculus..,.... | 2 
| 
116. Coceystes oe: 
CoRACIID®. | 
117. Coracias... ia 
(Eurystomus... |] 
MEROPID2. 
118. Merops ... ... | 9 
| 
ALCEDINID2&. | 
(Haleyon 8 
119. Alcedo 9 
120. Ceryle 2 
Urvrip&. | 
OS ee i | 
CAPRIMULGID&. 
122. Caprimulgus... | 5 
CYPSELID®. 
128. Cypselus wate’ 
124. Chetura... ...| 2 


THE PALAZARCTIC REGION. 


| Range within the Region 


| 
-N. and Cen. Europe to Thibet & 


3. Europe, N. China 
“urope to Japan 


|The whole region (excel. Icelane | 
_N. China, Dauria 


247 


———L ——EE 


| Range beyond the Region. 


S. Europe, N. Africa, to Cash- 
mere 


Africa, India 


The whole region Oriental, Ethiopian 
Kurope to China Oriental, Moluccas 
Atlantic Is., W, Europe, to China Malaisia, Madagascar 


Japan) | Oriental & Austral. genus 


North America 


HK. Asia. 

The whole region (excl. Atlantic) India, China, N. and. §. 
Islands) America 

| N. China Himalayas 

N. China) | Oriental genus 

/N. & Cen. Europe to N. China | Neotropical 

W. Europe to Thibet, Amoor & Oriental 


Japan 


W. Europe to N. W. India, 
Thibet and Japan 


N. E. Africa, S. Africa 


The whole region (excl. Atlantic 

Islands) 
_S. Europe and N. Africa 
| | 
| 

Ethiopian, Oriental 


| )riental & Austral. genus 


Ethiop. Oriental Austral. 


Ethiopian and Oriental 


Cent. Europe to Cent. Asia 
Aimoo1 in summer) 


'§. Enrope to Cashmere, N. Afric | Sthiopian and Oriental 


|W. Asia, N. China, Japan) 
Europe, N. China 
Ss. E. Europe, Japan 


‘thiop., Orien., Austral. 


| \frica, India, America 


‘thiop. & Oriental genus 


ithiopian and Oriental 


‘thiopian, America 
triea, India 


248 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


[part i. 


Order, Family, and 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 


No. of 
Species. 


Genus. 

COLUMBZ. 

COLUMBID. 
125. Columba ~~... | 6 | The whole region Africa, Asia, America 
126. Turtur ... ... | 4 | W. Europe to Japan Ethiopian and Oriental 

(Alseecomus ... | lL | E. Thibet) Oriental genus 

GALLIN &. 

PTEROCLID&. 
127. Pterocles  ... | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa, to W. India Ethiopian genus 
128. Syrrhaptes ... | 2 | Central Asia, N. China 

TETRAONIDA, 
129. Francolinus ... | 1 | Borders of Mediterranean Ethiopian, Oriental 
130. Perdix ... ..| 2 | Europe to Mongolia 
131. Coturnix ... |_ 1 | Central and S. Europe to Japan | Ethiop., Orien., Austral. 
132. Lerwa Nia | 1 | Snowy Himalayas to E. Thibet 
133, Caccabis... ...| 5 | Cen, Europe and N. Africa to N.| Abyssinia, Arabia 

W. Himalayas 
134. Tetraogallus .. 4 | Caucasus to E. Thibet and Altai 
Mountains 

135. Tetrao 4 | Furope and N. Asia N. America 
136. Bonasa ... 1 | Europe and N. Asia N. America 
137. Lagopus... 4 | Iceland, W. Europe to Japan N. America, Greenland 


PHASIANIDS. 


138. Crossoptilon ... 


Thibet, Mongolia, N. China 
139. Lophophorus ... 


Cashmere to EK, Thibet (highest 


a 


140, Tetraophasis ... 


141. Ceriornis 
142. Pucrasia— 
143. Phasianus 


144, Thawmalea oa 


145. Ithaginis 


TURNICIDE 
146, Turnix ... 


ACCIPITRES, 
VuLtTuRID”, 
147. Vultur ... 
148. Gyps __.. 
149. Otogyps 
150. Neophron 


FALCONID™. 


151. Circus ... o. 


152. Astur 
153. Accipiter 
154. Buteo 


—_ 
moe on — ee bo NwowrrH CO > 


woois) 
E. Thibet 
N. W. Himalayas (high) 


Western Asia to Japan 


‘ 
A 


S. Europe, N. Africa 


Europe to Japan 
Kurope to N, China 
Kurope to Japan 
Kurope to Japan 


Atlantie Isds. to Palestine 


N. W. Himalayas to N. W. China 


E. Thibet to Amoor, N. China 
Nepaul to E, Thibet (high) 


Spain and N, Africa, N. China 


Spain and N. Africa to N, China 
S. Europe, Palestine, Cen. Asia 


FE. Thibet (?) 
Himalayas to W. China 
Himalayas 

W. Himalayas, Formosa 
West China 


Ethiop., Orien., Austral. 


kK. Africa, India 
S. Africa, India 
Africa, India 


Almost Cosmopolite 

Almost Cosmopolite 

Almost Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite (excl. Aus- 
tralia) 


CHAP. X.] 


Order, Family, and 


155. 


156. 


157. 


158. 


159. 
160. 


161. 
162. 


163. 
164. 


165. 
166. 


Genus. 


Archibuteo 
Gypaetus 
Aquila ... 
Nisaetus... 
Circaetus 


Haliaetus 


Milvus ... 
Elanus 


Pernis 
Falco 


Hierofalco 
Cerchneis 


PANDIONIDA. 


167. 


Pandion— 


STRIGID#. 


168. 
169. 
170. 


171. 
172. 
173. 
174. 
175. 
176. 
177. 


Surnia 

Nyctea ... 
Athene ... 
(Ninex’ ... 


Glancidium ... 


Bubo 
Scops 
Syrnium... 
tas... on 
Nyctala . 
Strix 


THE PALASARCTIC REGION, 


No. of 
Species. 


fash 


eee OR Oe eo 


He OF or wne co em bS Or et | 


Range within the Region. 


N. Europe to Japan 

S. Europe, N. Africa 

Europe to Japan 

K. Europe, N. Africa, W. Asia 

K. and 8. Europe, N. Africa, W. 
Asia 

Ieeland and S. Europe to Japan 


Europe to Japan, N. Africa 
N. Africa, N. China to Amoor 


Europe to J. pan 
The whole region 


The whole region 
Atlantic Islands to Japan 


Europe to Japan 


N. Europe and Siberia 
Arctic regions 

Central and S. Europe to Japan 
N. China and Japan) 
Europe to N. China 
Europe to N. China 

S. Europe to Japan 
Europe to Japan 
Europe to Japan 

N. Europe to E. Siberia 
Europe and N. Africa 


249 


Range beyond the Region. 


N. America 

Abyssinia, Himalayas 
Nearctic, Ethiop., Orien. 
India, Australia 

Africa, India 


Cosmopolite (excl. Neo- 
tropical region) 

The Old World &Austral. 

Cosmopolite (excl. Kast 
U..8:) 

‘Ethiopian and Oriental 

Cosmopolite (excl. Pacific 
Islands) 

N. America 

Cosmop. (excl. Oceania) 


Cosmopolite 


North America 

Arctic America 
Kthiop.,Orien., Austral. 
Oriental genus 

America 

Africa, India, America 
African, Orien., Austral. 
African, Oriental, Amer. 
Almost Cosmopolite 

N. America 

All warm & temp. regions 


Peculiar or very characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds. 


GRALL. 
RALLIDA. 


Ortygonetra 


ScOLOPACID. 


Ibidorhyncha .. 


Terekia ... 
Helodromas 
Machetes... 


Eurinorhynchus 


GLAREOLIDA. 


Pluvianus 


CHARADRIID&A. 


Vanellus 


8 


Europe, N. E. Africa 


Cashmere & Cen. Asia, N. China) Himalayan Valleys 


N. E. Europe and Siberia 

E, and N. Europe, N. India 
N. and Cen. Europe, Cen. Asia 
N.E. Asia 


N. Africa, Spain 


Europe to the Punjaub 


India, Australia(migrant) 


India in winter 
Bengal 


S. America 


0 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Parr 


Order, Fami:y, and Range within the Region. | Range beyond the Region. 


Genus. 


No, of 
Species 


OTIDID2. 
Otis.. ... «| 2 | W. Europe to Mongolia, N. Africa 
ANSERES. 
ANATIDA, 
vag 1 | N. China to Amoor N. America 
Bucephala 3 | Iceland, N. Eurupe, and Asia N. America 
Histrionicus ... 1 | Iceland, N. Siberia N. America 
Harelda ... 1 | North of whole region - | Aretic America 
Somateria 3 | North of whole region N. America 
(Edemia... 3 | North of whole region _ N. America 
LARID&. 
Rissa ... ... | 1 | North coasts of whole region N. America 
COoLYMBIDE. 
Colymbus 3 | North of whole region | N. America 
ALCID2. 
Alea... «.. | 2 North coasts of whole region N. America 
Fratercula ... | 3 | North coasts of whole region N. America 
Uria ..._ «.. | 8 | North coasts of whole region N. America 
Mergulus ... | 1 | Iceland and Arctic coasts Arctic America 


—_——— —_—" 


ION 


‘ 
- 


( 


~ 
4 


RE 


| inch =1L000 miles 


THIO PLAN 


~ 
4 


Seale 


o 


10 


20 


oO 


Oo 


AY 
WY 


f. 


\\ 
NY 
AN 


10 }— 


RAYS 


XPLANATION 
Terrestrial Contours 


E 


wor 
x 


We 
ANE YS 
AY 

\ 


i AS ‘ 
\} 


\\ 
AY ‘ 
a 
A 


ANY AYN 


MAM 
A000 


™ ¥ 
£ 
~ 
2 
~ 
= 
~a S 
@® &-¢ 
2 = > 
~=™ 
we S$ 
°= § 
S 
= 
e) 
wt) 


The Marme Contour of 1000 fea 
is shewn by a dotted line 


4 


x 


Se 


Se aT TX 


Pasture lands shewn this 


Forest 


— 


30? The boundaries and referenre munbers 


Desert 


of the Sub-regions are shewn in Red. 


10) Meridian of O Greenwich 


ee ee ee 


70 
Stanfords Geographical Estab‘ London 
rte 


50 60 


40 


o 


London; Macmillan & C 


CHAPTNN AL 
THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 


Tuts is one of the best defined of the great zoological recions, 
consisting of tropical and South Africa, to which must be added 
tropical Arabia, Madagascar, and a few other islands, all popu- 
larly known as African. Some naturalists would extend the 
region northwards to the Atlas Mountains and include the whole 
of the Sahara; but the animal life of the northern part of that 
great desert seems more akin to the Paleearctic fauna of North 
Africa. The Sahara is really a debatable land which has been 
peopled from both regions; and until we know more of the natural’ 
history of the great plateaus which rise like islands in the waste 
of sand, it will be safer to make the provisional boundary line at 
or near the tropic, thus giving the northern half to the Palearctic, 
the southern to the Ethiopian region. The same line may be 
continued across Arabia. 

With our present imperfect knowledge of the interior of 
Africa, only three great continental sub-regions can be well de- 
fined. The open pasture lands of interior tropical Africa are 
wonderfwly uniform in their productions; a great number of 
species ranging from Senegal to Abyssinia and thence to the 
Zambesi, while almost all the commoner African genera extend 
over the whole of this area. Almost all this extensive tract of 
country is a moderately elevated plateau, with a hot and dry 
climate, and characterised by a grassy vegetation interspersed 
with patches of forest. This forms our first or East African 
sub-region. The whole of the west coast from the south side of 
the Gambia River to about 10° or 12° south latitude, is a very 


252 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


different kind of country ; being almost wholly dense forests 
where not cleared by man, and having the hot moist uniform 
climate, and perennial luxuriance of vegetation, which charac- 
terise the great equatorial belt of forest all round the globe. This 
forest country extends to an unknown distance inland, but it was 
found, with its features well marked, by Dr. Schweinfurth directly 
he crossed the south-western watershed of the Nile; and far to 
the south we find it again unmistakably indicated, in the exces- 
sively moist forest country about the head waters of the Congo, 
where the heroic Livingstone met his death. In this forest 
district many of the more remarkable African types are alone 
found, and its productions occasionally present us with curious 
similarities to those of the far removed South American or 
Malayan forests. This is our second or West African sub- 
region. 

Extra-tropical South Africa possesses features of its own, quite 
distinct from those of both the preceding regions (although it has 
also much in common with the first). Its vegetation is known 
to be one of the richest, most peculiar, and most remarkable on 
the globe ; and in its zoology it has a speciality, similar in kind 
but less in degree, which renders it both natural and convenient 
to separate it as our third, or South African sub-region. — Its 
limits are not very clearly ascertained, but it is probably bounded 
by the Kalahari desert on the north-west, and by the Limpopo 
Valley, or the mountain range beyond, on the north-east, although 
some of its peculiar forms extend to Mozambique. There 
remains the great Island of Madagascar, one of the most isolated 
and most interesting on the globe, as regards its animal produe- 
tions; and to this must be added, the smaller islands of Bourbon, 
Mauritius and Rodriguez, the Seychelles and the Comoro Islands, 
forming together the Mascarene Islands,—the whole constituting 
our fourth sub-region. 

Zoological Characteristics of the Ethiopian Legion.—We have 
now to consider briefly, what are the peculiarities and charac- 
teristics of the Ethiopian Region as a whole,—those which give 
it its distinctive features and broadly separate it from the other 
primary zoological regions. 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 253 


Mammalia—tThis region has 9 peculiar families of mammalia. 
Chiromyide (containing the uye-aye) ; Potamogalidie and Chry- 
sochloridee (Insectivora); Cryptoproctidee and Protelidee (Carni- 
vora); Hippopotamidee and Camelopardalidee (Ungulata); and 
Orycteropodidee (Edentata). Besides these it possesses 7 pecu- 
liar genera of apes, Zvroglodytes, Colobus, Myiopithecus Cerco- 
pithecus, Cercocebus, Theropithecus, and Cynocephalus; 2 sub- 
families of lemurs containing 6 genera, confined to Madagascar, 
with 3 genera of two other sub-families confined to the con- 
tinent; of Insectivora a family, Centetide, with 5 genera, 
peculiar to Madagascar, and the genera Petrodromus and Rhyn- 
chocyon belonging to the Macroscelidide, or elephant-shrews, 
restricted to the continent ; numerous peculiar genera or sub- 
genera of civets; Lycaon and Megalotis, remarkable genera of 
Canide ; Jctonyx, the zorilla, a genus allied to the weasels ; 
15 peculiar genera of Muride ; Pectinator, a genus of the South 
American family Octodontide; and 2 genera of the South 
American Echimyidze or spiny rats. Of abundant and eharaec- 
teristic groups it possesses Aacroscelides, Felis, Hyena, Hyraz, 
Rhinoceros, and Hlephas, as well as several species of zebra and 
a great variety of antelopes. 

The great speciality indicated by these numerous peculiar 
families and genera, is still farther increased by the absence 
of certain groups dominant in the Old-World continent, 
an absence which we can only account for by the persistence, 
through long epochs, of barriers isolating the greater part cf Africa 
from the rest of the world. These groups are, Urside, the bears ; 
Talpide the moles; Camelidz, the camels; Cervide, the deer ; 
Caprine, the goats and sheep; and the genera Bos (wild ox); and 
Sus (wild boar). Combining these striking deficiencies, with 
the no less striking peculiarities above enumerated, it seems 
hardly possible to have a region more sharply divided from 
the rest of the globe than this is, by ils whole assemblage of 
mammalia, 

Lirds.—In birds the Ethiopian region is by no means so 
strikingly peculiar, many of these having been able to pass the 
ancient barriers which so long limited the range of mainmalia. 


254 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


It is, however, sufficiently rich, possessing 54 families of land 
birds, besides a few genera whoze position is not well ascertained, 
and which may constitute distinct families. Of these 6 are 
peculiar, Musophagide (the plantain eaters); Coliidee (the colies) ; 
Leptosomidee, allied to the cuckoos; ITtrisoride, allied to the 
hoopoes ; and Serpentaride, allied to the hawks. Only one 
Passerine family is peculiar—Paictide, while most of the other 
tropical regions possess several; but Huryceros and Buphaga, 
here classed with the Sturnidz, ought, perhaps, to form two 
more. It has, however, many peculiar genera, especially among the 
fruit-thrushes, Pycnonotide ; flycatchers, Muscicapide ; shrikes, 
Lanidee ; crows, Corvide ; starlings, Sturnide ; and weaver-birds, 
Ploceide; the latter family being very characteristic of the region. 
It is also rich in barbets, Megaleemidee (7 peculiar genera) ; 
cuckoos, Cuculidee; rollers, Coraciide ; bee-eaters, Meropidee ; 
hornbills, Bucerotidee; ani goat-suckers, Caprimulgide. It is 
poor in parrots and rather so in pigeons; but it abounds in 
Pterocles and Francolinus, genera of Gallinze, and possesses 4 
cenera of the peculiar group of the guinea-fowls, forming part of 
the pheasant family. It abounds in vultures, eagles, and other 
birds of prey, among which is the anomalous genus Serpentarius, 
the secretary-bird, constituting a distinct family. Many of the 
most remarkable forms are confined to Madagascar and the 
adjacent islands, and will be noticed in our account of that sub- 
region. 

Reptiles—Of the reptiles there are 4 peculiar Ethiopian 
families ;—3 of snakes, Rachiodontidee, Dendraspide, and Atrac- 
taspidee and 1 of lizards, Chameesauride. 

Psammophidee (desert snakes) are abundant, as are Lycodontidee 
(fanged ground-snakes), and Viperidae (vipers). The following 
genera of snakes are peculiar or ‘highly characteristic :—Lepto- 
rhynchus, Rhamnophis, Herpetethiops and Grayia (Colubridee) ; 
Hopsidrophis and Bucephalus (Dendrophide) ; Langalia (Dryo- 
phidee) ; Pythonodipsas (Dipsadide) ; Boedon, Lycophidion, Holu- 
yvopholis, Simocephalus and Lamprophis (Lycodontidie) ; Hortulia 
and Sanzinia (Pythonide); Cyrptophis, Elapsoidea and Peeilo- 
phis (Elapide) ; and Atheris (Viperide), The following genera 


CHAP. X1.J THE ETHIOPIAN REGION, 255 
of lizards are the most characteristic :—JJonotrophis (Lepidos- 
ternide) ; Cordylus, Pseudocordylus, Platysaurus, Cordylosaurus, 
Pleurostichus, Saurophis and Zonurus (Zonuride) ; Sphenops, 
Scelotes, Spheenocephalus and Sepsina (Sepide) ; Pachydactylus 
(Geckotidee); Agama (Agamidee) ; and Chameleon (Chameleonidee), 
Of tortoises, Cynyxis, Pyxis and Chersina (Testudinide), and 
Cycloderma (Trionychid) are the most characteristic, 

Amplibia—Of the 9 families of amphibia there is only 
1 peculiar, the Dactylethride, a group of toads; but the 
Alytidee, a family of frogs, are abundant. 

Fresh-water Lish—Of the 14 families of fresh-water fishes 
3 are peculiar: Mormyride and Gymnarchide, small groups 
not far removed from the pikes; and Polypteride, a small group 
of ganoid fishes allied to the gar-pikes (Lepidosteide) of North 
America. 

Summary of Ethiopian Vertebrates—Combining the results 
here indicated and set forth in greater detail in the tables of 
distribution, we find that the Ethiopian region possesses ex- 
amples of 44 families of mammalia, 72 of birds, 35 of reptiles, 
9 of amphibia, and 15 of fresh-water fishes. It has 23 (or 
perhaps 25) families of Vertebrata altogether peculiar to it out 
of a total of 175 families, or almost exactly one-eighth of the 
whole. Out of 142 genera of mammalia found within the 
region, 90 are peculiar to it; a proportion not much short of 
two-thirds, Of land birds there are 294 genera, of which 
179 are peculiar; giving a proportion of a little less than 
three-fifths, 

Compared with the Oriental region this shows a con- 
siderably larger amount of speciality under all the heads; 
but the superiority is mainly due to the wonderful and iso- 
lated fauna of Madagascar, to which the Oriental region has 
nothing comparable. Without this the regions would be nearly 
equal, 


Insects: Lepidoptera —a11 out of the 16 families of butter- 
flies have representatives in Africa, but none are peculiar, 
Acrexide is one of the most characteristic families, and there 


256 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


are many interesting forms of Nymphalide, Lycenide, and 
Papilionide. The peculiar or characteristic forms are Amauris 
(Danaide); Gnophodes, Leptoneura, Bicyclus, Heteropsis and 
Cenyra (Satyridee); Acrea (Acreide); Lachnoptera, Precis, 
Salamis, Crenis, Godartia, Amphidema, Pseudacrea, Catuna, 
Euryphene, Romaleosoma, Hamanumida, Aterica, Harma, 
Meneris, Charaxes, and Philognoma (Nymphalide); Pentila, 
Liptena, Durbania, Zeritis, Capys, Phytala, Epitola, Hewitsonia 
and Deloneura (Lycenide) ; Pseudopontia, Idmais, Teracolus, 
Callosune (Pieride); Abantis, Ceratrichia and Caprona (Hes- 
peride). The total number of species known is about 750 ; 
which is very poor for an extensive tropical region, but this 
is not to be wondered at when the nature of much of the 
country is considered. It is also, no doubt, partly due to our 
comparative ignorance of the great equatorial forest district, 
which is the only part likely to be very productive in this 
order of insects. 

Coleoptera.—In our first representative family, Cicindelidee 
or tiger-beetles, the Ethiopian region is rather rich, having 13 
genera, 11 of which are peculiar to it; and among these are 
such remarkable forms as Jlanticora, Myrmecoptera and Dromica ; 
with Megacephala, a genus only found elsewhere in Australia 
and South America. 

In Carabidie or carnivorous ground beetles, there are 
about 75 peculiar genera. Among the most characteristic 
are Anthia, Polyrhina, Graphipterus and Piezia, which are 
almost all peculiar; while Orthogonius, Hexagonia, Macrochilus, 
Thyreopterus, Eudema, and Abacetus are common to this and 
the Oriental region; and Hypolithus to the Neotropical. 

Out of 27 genera of Buprestidve, or metallic beetles, only 6 are 
peculiar to the region, one of the most remarkable being /oly- 
bothrus, confined to Madagascar. Sternocera and Chrysochroa are 
characteristic of this region and the Oriental; it has Ju/odis in 
common with the Mediterranean sub-region, ana Lelionola 
with the Malayan. 

The region is not rich in Lucanide, or stag-beetles, possessing 
only 10 genera, 7 of which are peculiar, but most of them con- 


a ho ee 2 | ae 


ee al 


CHAP, XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 257 


sist of single species. The other three genera, Cladognathus, 
Nigidius, and Figulus, are the most characteristic, though all 
have a tolerably wide range in the Old World. 

In the elegant Cetoniide, or rose-chafers, this region stands 
preeminent, possessing 76 genera, 64 of which are pecuhar to 
it. The others are chiefly Oriental, except Oxythrwa which is 
European, and Stethodesma which is Neotropical. Preeminent 
in size and beauty is Goliathus, comprising perhaps the most 
bulky of all highly-coloured beetles. Other large and char- 
acteristic genera are Ceratorhina, Ischnostoma, Anochila, 
Diplognatha, Agenius, and many others of less extent. 

In the enormous tribe of Longicorns, or long-horned beetles, 
the Ethiopian is not so rich as the other three tropical regions ; 
but this may be, in great part, owing to its more productive 
districts having never been explored by any competent entomo- 
logists. It nevertheless possesses 262 genera, 216 of which are 
peculiar, the others being mostly groups of very wide range. 
Out of such a large number it is difficult to select a few as most 
characteristic, but some of the peculiarities of distribution as 
regards other regions may be named. Among Prionide, Tithoes 
is a characteristic Ethiopian genus. A few species of the 
American genera Parandra and Mallodon occur here, while the 
North Temperate genus Prionus is only found in Madagascar. 
Among Cerambycide, Promeces is the most characteristic. The 
American genera Oeme and Cyrtomerus occur; while Homalach- 
nus and Philagathes are Malayan, and Leptocera occurs only in 
Madagascar, Ceylon, Austro-Malaya, and Australia. The Lamiidee 
are very fine; Sternotomis, Tragocephala, Ceroplesis, Phryneta, 
_ Volumnia, and Nitocris, being very abundant and characteristic. 
Most of the non-peculiar genera of this family are Oriental, 
but Spalacopsis and Acanthoderes are American, while Tetraglenes 
and Schenionta have been found only in East and South Africa 
and in Malaya. 

Terrestrial Mollusca—In the extensive family of the Helicide 
or snails, 13 genera are represented, only one of which, 
Columna, is peculiar. This region is however the metropolis of 
Achatina, some of the species being the largest land-shells 

S 


258 . ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


known. Buliminus, Stenogyra, and Puwpa are characteristic 
genera. PBulimus is absent, though one species inhabits St. 
Helena. The operculated shells are not very well represented, 
the great family of Cyclostomide having here only nine genera, 
with but one peculiar, Zithidion, found in Madagascar, Socotra, 
and Arabia. None of the genera appear to be well represented 
throughout the region, and they are almost or quite absent from > 
West Africa. 

According to Woodward’s Manual (1868) West Africa has 
about 200 species of land-shells, South Africa about 100, 
Madagascar nearly 100, Mauritius about 50. All the islands 
have their peculiar species; and are, in proportion to their 
extent, much richer than the continent ; as is usually the case. 


THE ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. 


It has been already explained that these are to some extent 
provisional; yet it is believed that they represent generally the 
primary natural divisions of the region, however they may be 
subdivided when our knowledge of their productions becomes 
more accurate, 


I. The Eust African Sub-region, or Central and East Africa. 


This division includes all the open country of tropical Africa 
south of the Sahara, as well as an undefined southern margin of 
that great desert. With the exception of a narrow strip along 
the east coast and the valleys of the Niger and Nile, it is a vast 
elevated plateau from 1,000 to 4,000 feet high, hilly rather than 
mountainous, except the lofty table land of Abyssinia, with 
mountains rising to 16,000 feet and extending south to the 
equator, where it terminates in the peaks of Kenia and Kili- 
mandjaro, 18,000 and 20,000 feet high. The northern portion 
of this sub-region is a belt about 300 miles wide between the 
Sahara on the north and the great equatorial forest on the south, 
extending from Cape Verd, the extreme western point of Africa, 
across the northern bend of the Niger and Lake Tchad to the 
mountains of Abyssinia. The greater part of this tract has a 


CHAP, XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 259 


moderate elevation. The eastern portion reaches from about the 
second cataract of the Nile, or perhaps from about the parallel 
of 20° N. Latitude, down to about 20°8. Latitude, and from the 
east coast to where the ereat forest region commences, or to Lake 
Tanganyika and about the meridian of 28° to 30° E. Longitude. 
The greater part of this tract is a lofty plateau. 

The surface of all this sub-region is generally open, covered 
with a vegetation of high grasses or thorny shrubs, with seat- 
tered trees and isolated patches of forest in favourable situations. 
The only parts where extensive continuous forests occur, are on 
the eastern and western slopes of the great Abyssinian plateau, 
and on the Mozambique coast from Zanzibar to Sofala. The 
whole of this great district has one general zoological character. 
Many species range from Senegal to Abyssinia, others from 
Abyssinia to the Zambesi, and a few, as Mungos fasciatus and 
Phacocherus ethiopicus, range over the entire sub-region. Fenne- 
cus, Ictonyx, and several genera of antelopes, characterise every 
part of it, as do many genera of birds. Coracias nevia, Cory- 
thornis cyanostigma, Tockus nasutus, T. erythrorhynchus, Parus 
leucopterus, Buphaga africana, Vidua paradisea, are examples 
of species, which are found in the Gambia, Abyssinia and South 
East Africa, but not in the West African sub-region; and con- 
sidering how very little is known of the natural history 
of the country immediately south of the Sahara, it may 
well be supposed that these are only a small portion of the 
species really common to the whole area in question, and which 
prove its fundamental unity. 

Although this sub-region is so extensive and so generally 
uniform in physical features, it is by far the least peculiar part 
of Africa. It possesses, of course, all those wide-spread Ethiopian 
types which inhabit every part of the region, but it has hardly 
any special features of its own. The few genera which are 
peculiar to it have generally a limited range, and for the most 
part belong, either to the isolated mountain-plateau of Abyssinia 
which is almost as much Palearctic as Ethiopian, or to the woody 
districts of Mozambique where the fauna has more of a West 
or South African character. 

s 2 


260 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II. 


Mammalia.—The only forms of Mammalia peculiar to this 
sub-region are Theropithecus, one of the Cynopithecide confined 
to Abyssinia; Petrodromus and Rhynchocyon, belonging to the 
insectivorous Macroscelididz, have only been found in Mozam- 
bique; the Antelopine genus WVeotragus, from Abyssinia south- 
ward; Saccostomus and Pelomys genera of Muride inhabiting 
Mozambique; Heterocephalus from Abyssinia, and Heliophobius 
from Mozambique, belonging to the Spalacide; and Pectinator 
from Abyssinia, belonging to the Octodontide. Cynocephalus, 
Rhinoceros, Camelopardalis, and antelopes of the genera Oryza, 
Cervicapra, Kobus, Nanotragus, Cephalophus, Hippotragus, Alce- 
phalus, and Catoblepas, are characteristic; as well as Felis, 
Hyena, and numerous civets and ichneumons. 

Birds.—Peculiar forms of birds are hardly to be found here; 
we only meet with two—Hypocolius, a genus of shrikes in Abys- 
sinia; and Baleniceps, the great boat-billed heron of the Upper 
Nile. Yet throughout the country birds are abundant, and most 
of the typical Ethiopian forms are well represented. 

Reptiles—Of reptiles, the only peculiar forms recorded are 
Xenocalamus, a genus of snakes, belonging to the Calamariide ; 
and Pythonodipsas, one of the Dipsadide, both from the Zambesi ; 
and among lizards, Pistwrus, one of the Geckotide, from Abys- 
sinia. 

Amphibia und Fishes.—There are no peculiar forms of amphibia 
or of fresh-water fishes. 

Insects.—Insects are almost equally unproductive of peculiar 
forms. Among butterflies we have Abantis, one of the Hesperide, 
from Mozambique; and in Coleoptera, 2 genera of Cicindelide, 
8 of Carabide, 1 or 2 of Cetoniide, and about half-a-dozen of 
Longicorns: a mere nothing, as we shall see, compared with the 
hosts of peculiar genera that characterise each of the other sub- 
regions. Neither do land-shells appear to present any peculiar 
forms. . 

The fact that so very few special types characterise the exten- 
sive area now under consideration is very noteworthy. It justifies 
us in uniting this large and widespread tract of country as 
forming essentially but one sub-division of the great Ethiopian 


PLATE IV. 


(j 
" 


CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF EAST AFRICA, 


gs 


ex 


St OO Yd «Rips Pree A 


out 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 261 
region, and it suggests some curious speculations as to the former 
history of that region, a subject which must be deferred to the 
latter part of this chapter. In none of the other great tropical 
regions does it occur, that the largest portion of their area, 
although swarming with life, yet possesses hardly any distinctive 
features except the absence of numerous types characteristic of 
the other sub-regions. 

Plate IV.—Illustrating the Zoology of East Africa — Although 
this sub-region has so little speciality, it is that which abounds 
most in large animals, and is, perhaps, the best representative of 
Africa as regards zoology. Some of the most distinctive of African 
animals range over the whole of it, and as, from recent explora- 
tions, many parts of this wide area have been made known to the 
reading public, we devote one of our plates to illustrate the 
especially African forms of life that here abound. The antelopes 
represented are the koodoo (T’ragelaphus strepsiceros) one of the 
handsomest of the family, which ranges over all the highlands. 
of Africa from Abyssinia to the southern districts. To the left 
is the aardvark, or earth pig, of North Eastern Africa (Orycteropus 
ethiopicus) which, to the north of the equator in East Africa, 
represents the allied species of the Cape of Good Hope. These 
Edentata are probably remnants of the ancient fauna of Africa, 
when it was completely isolated from the northern continents 
and few of the higher types had been introduced. The large 
bird in the foreground is the secretary-bird, or serpent-killer 
(Serpentarius reptilivorus), which has affinities both for the birds- 
of-prey and the waders. It is common over almost all the open 
country of Africa, destroying and feeding on the most venomous 
serpents. The bird on the wing is the red-billed promerops 
rrisor erythrorhynchus), a handsome bird with glossy plumage 
and coral-red bill. It is allied to the hoopoes, and feeds on 
insects which it hunts for among the branches of trees. This 
species also ranges over a large part of east and central Africa to 
near the Cape of Good Hope. Other species are found in the 
west; and the genus, which forms a distinct family, [vrisoride, is 
one of the best marked Ethiopian types of birds. In the distance 
is a rhinoceros, now one of the characteristic features of African 


262 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


zoology, though there is reason to believe that it is a compara- 
tively recent intruder into the country. 


IT. The West-African Sub-region. 


This may be defined as the equatorial-forest sub-region, since it 
comprises all that portion of Africa, frem the west coast inland, 
over which the great equatorial forests prevail more or less unin- 
terruptedly. These commence to the south of the Gambia River, 
and extend eastwards in a line roughly parallel to the southern 
margin of the great desert, as far as the sources of the upper 
Nile and the mountains forming the western boundary of the 
basin of the great lakes ; and southward to that high but marshy 
forest-country in which Livingstone was travelling at the time 
of his death. Its southern limits are undetermined, but are pro- 
bably somewhere about the parallel of 11° 8. Latitude.t 

This extensive and luxuriant district has only been explored 
zoologically in the neighbourhood of the West coast. Much, no 
doubt, remains to be done in the interior, yet its main features 
are sufficiently well known, and most of its characteristic types 
of animal life have, no doubt, been discovered, 

Mammalia.—Several very important groups of mammals are 
peculiar to this sub-region. Most prominent are the great 
anthropoid apes—the gorilla and the chimpanzee—forming the 
genus Zroglodytes ; and monkeys of the genera Myiopithecus 
and Cercocebus. Two remarkable forms of lemurs, Perodictieus 
and Arctocebus, are also peculiar to West Africa. Among the 
Insectivora is Potamogale, a semi-aquatic animal, forming a 
distinct family; and three peculiar genera of civets (Viverride) 
have been described. J/yomoschus, a small, deer-like animal, 
belongs to the Tragulid, or chevrotains, a family otherwise 


1 Dr. Schweinfurth has accurately determined the limits of the sub-region 
at the point where he crossed the watershed between the Nile tributaries and 
those of the Shari, in 45° N. Lat. and 284° E. Long. He describes a sudden 
change in the character of the vegetation, which to the southward of this 
point assumes a West-African character. Here also the chimpanzee and 
grey parrot first appear, and certain species of plants only known elsewhere 
in Western Africa, 


CHAP, XI.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 263 


confined to the Oriental region; and in the squirrel family is a 
curious genus, Anomalurus, which resembles the flying squirrels 
of other parts of the world, without being directly allied to them. 

Birds.—In this class we find a larger proportionate number 
of peculiar forms. Hypergerus and Alethe, belonging to the 
Timaliide, or babblers, are perhaps allied to Malayan groups ; 
Parinia, a peculiar form of tit, is found only in Pringe’s Island ; 
Txonotus is an abundant and characteristic form of Pycnonotide; 
Fraseria, Hypodes, Cuphopterus, and Chaunonvtus, are peculiar 
genera of shrikes ; Picathartes is one of the many strange forms 
of the crow family ; Cisnyricinclus is a peculiar genus of sun- 
birds ; Pholidornis is supposed to belong to the Oriental Diceide, 
or flower-peckers; Waldenia is a recently-described new form 
of swallow; Ligurnus, a finch, Spermospiga, a weaver bird, and 
Onychognathus a starling, are also peculiar West African genera. 
Coming to the Picarie we have Verreauxia, a peculiar wood- 
pecker; three peculiar genera of barbets (Megaleemide) ; 
the typical plantain-eaters (Musophaga); Myzoceyx, a peculiar 
genus of kingfishers; while Berenicornis is a genus of crested 
hornbills, only found elsewhere in Malaya. The grey parrots, 
of the genus Psittacus, are confined to this sub-region, as are 
two peculiar genera of partridges, and three of guinea- 
fowl. We have also here a species of Prtta, one of the Ori- 
ental family of ground-thrushes; and the Oriental paroquets, 
Paltvornis, are found here as well as in Abyssinia and the 
Mascarene Islands. 

We thus find, both in the Mammalia and birds of West Africa, 
a special Oriental or even Malayan element not present in the 
other parts of tropical Africa, although appearing again in 
Madagascar. In the Mammalia it is represented by the anthro- 
poid apes; by Colobus allied to Semnopithecus, and by Cercocebus 
allied to Macacus ; and especially by a form of the Malayan 
family of chevrotains (Tragulide). The Malayan genus of otters, 
Aonyz, is also said to occur in West and South Africa. In 
birds we have special Oriental and Malayan affinities in Alethe, 
Pholidornis, Berenicornis, Pitta, and Palwornis; while the 
Oriental genus Z7veron has a wide range in Africa. We shall 


264 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


endeavour to ascertain the meaning of this special relation at 
a subsequent stage of our inquiries. 

Plate Vi—River Scene in West Africa, with Characteristic 
Animals.—Our artist has here well represented the luxuriance 
and beauty of a tropical forest; and the whole scene is 
such as might be witnessed on the banks of one of the 
rivers of equatorial West Africa. On the right we see a 
red river-hog (Potamocherus penicillatus), one of the hand- 
somest of the swine family, and highly characteristic of the 
West African sub-region. In a tree overhead is the potto 
(Perodicticus potto), one of the curious forms of lemur con- 
fined to West Africa. On the left is the remarkable Pota- 
mogale velox, first discovered by Du Chaillu—an Insectivorous 
animal, with the form and habits of an otter. On the other 
side of the river are seen a pair of gorillas (Troglodytes gorilla), 
the largest of the anthropoid apes. 

The bird on the wing is the Whydah finch (Vidua paradisea), 
remarkable for the enormous plumes with which the tail of the 
male bird is decorated during the breeding season. The crested 
bird overhead is one of the beautiful green touracos (7'wracus 
macrorhynchus), belonging to the Musophagide, or plantain-eaters, 
a family wholly African, and most abundant in the western 
sub-region. 


Reptiles.—In this class we find a large number of peculiar 
forms ; 13 genera of snakes, 3 of lizards, and 2 of tortoises being 
confined to the sub-region. The snakes are Pariaspis, Hlapops, 
and Prosymna (Calamariide), Rhamnophis, Herpetethiops, and 
Grayia (Colubridee), Neusterophis and Limnophis (Homalopside), 
Simocephalus and Holurophis (Lycodontidee) ; Pelophilus (Pytho- 
nid); Llapsoidea (Elapidie); and Atheris (Viperide). The 
lizards are Dalophia (Lepidosternidee) ; Ofosawrus (Scincidee) ; 
Psilodactylus (Geckotide). The tortoises, Cinyxis (Testudinide) 
and Zetrathyra (Trionichide). 

Amphibia.—Of Amphibia, there are 2 peculiar genera of tree- 
frogs, Hylambatis and Hemimantis, belonging to the Polype- 
datidee. 


wr, Ye 


V5, vu YL) 

Um eS 

LS YE dis. USE ys 

a (a aay.) Sa 
YW 


hk 


ANIMALS, 


RISTLC 


. 
4 


a 
i 
iit 


AFRICA, WITH CHARACTE 


f 


IN WEST 


‘id 
4 


NE 


. 
4 


SCI 


onan, X1.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION, 265 


Here, too, we find some interesting relations with the Oriental 
region on the one side, and the Neotropical on the other. The 
snakes of the family Homalopside have a wide range, in America, 
Europe, and all over the Oriental region, but are confined to 
West Africa in the Ethiopian region. Dryiophis (Dryiophide) 
and Dipsadoboa (Dipsadide) on the other hand, are genera of 
tropical America which occur also in West Africa. The family 
of lizards, Acontiade, are found in West and South Africa, 
Ceylon, and the Moluccas. The family of toads, Engystomide, 
in West and South Africa and the whole Oriental region; while 
the Phryniscidz inhabit tropical Africa and Java. 

Insects—We have here a large number of peculiar genera. 
There are 10 of butterflies, Lachnoptera, Amphidema, and Catuna 
belonging to the Nymphalide, while four others are Lycenide. 
The genus Luzanthe is common to West Africa and Madagascar. 

Of Coleoptera there are 53 peculiar genera; 20 are Carabide, 
2 Lucanidee, 12 Cetoniide, 3 Prionide, 16 Cerambycide, and 
34 Lamiidee. Besides these there are 4 or 5 genera confined to 
West Africa and Madagascar. 

Land Shells—West Africa is very rich in land shells, but it 
does not appear to possess any well-marked genera, although 
several of the smaller groups or sub-genera are confined to it. 
Helicide of the genera Nanina, Buliminus and Achatina are 
abundant and characteristic. 

Islands of the West African Sub-region.—The islands in the 
Gulf of Guinea are, Fernando Po, very near the main land, with 
Prince’s Island and St. Thomas, considerably further away to the 
south-west. Fernando Po was once thought to be a remarkable 
instance of an island possessing a very peculiar fauna, although 
close to the main land and not divided from it by a deep sea. 
This, however, was due to our having obtained considerable 
collections from Fernando Po, while the opposite coast was 
almost unknown. One after another the species supposed to be 
peculiar have been found on the continent, till it becomes prob- 
able, that, as in the case of other islands similarly situated, it 
contains no peculiar species whatever. The presence of nume- 
rous mammalia, among which are baboons, lemurs, Hyraz, and 


266 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


Anomalurus, shows that this island has probably once been united 
to the continent. 

Prince’s Island, situated about 100 miles from the coast, has 
no mammals, but between 30 and 40 species of birds. Of these 
7 are peculiar species,viz., Zosterops ficedulina, Cuphopterus dohrni 
(a peculiar genus of Sylviide), Symplectes princeps, Crithagra 
rufilata, Columba chlorophea, Peristera principalis, and Striv 
thomensis. 

In the Island of St. Thomas, situated on the equator about 150 
roiles from the coast, there are 6 peculiar species out of 30 known 
birds, viz., Scops leucopsis, Zosterops lugubris, Turdus olivaceo- 
Suscus, Oriolus crassirostris, Symplectes sancti-thome and Aplopelia 
simplex ; also Strix thomensis in common with Prince’s Island. 
The remainder are ell found on the adjacent coasts. It is re- 
markable that in Prince’s Island there are no birds of prey, any 
that appear being driven off by the parrots (Pszttacus erithacus) 
that abound there; whereas in St. Thomas and Fernando Po 
they are plentiful. 


ITI, South-African Sub-region. 


This is the most peculiar and interesting part of Africa, but 
owing to the absence of existing barriers its limits cannot be 
well defined. The typical portion of it hardly contains more 
than the narrow strip of territory limited by the mountain range 
which forms the boundary of the Cape Colony and Natal, while 
in a wider sense it may be extended to include Mozambique. It 
may perhaps be best characterised as bounded by the Kalahari 
desert and the Limpopo river. It is in the more limited district 
of the extreme south, that the wonderful Cape flora alone exists, 
Here are more genera and species, and more peculiar types of 
plants congregated together, than in any other part of the globe 
of equal extent. There are indications of a somewhat similar 
richness and specialization in the zoology of this country; but 
animals are so much less closely dependent on soil and climate, 
that much of the original peculiarity has been obliterated, by 
long continued interchange of species with so vast an area as 


CHAP. X1.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 267 
that of Africa south of the equator. The extreme peculiarity 
aud isolation of the flora must not, however, be lost sight of, if 
we would correctly interpret the phenomena afforded by the dis- 
tribution of animal life on the African continent. 

Mammalia.—A much larger number of peculiar forms of mam- 
mals are found here than in any of the other sub-regions, 
although it is far less in extent than either of the three divi- 
sions of the continent. Among Insectivora we have the 
Chrysochloridé, or golden moles, consisting of two genera confined 
to South Africa; while the Macroscelididé, cr elephant shrews, 
are also characteristically South African, although ranging as far as 
Mozambique and the Zambezi, with one outlying species in North 
Africa. The Viverride are represented by three peculiar genera, 
Ariela, Cynictis, and Suricata. The Carnivora present some 
remarkable forms: Proteles, forming a distinct family allied to 
the hyenas and weasels; and two curious forms of Canide 
Megalotis (the long-eared fox) and Lycaon (the hyeena-dog), the 
latter found also in parts of East Africa. MHydrogale is a 
peculiar form of Mustelide ; Pelea one of the antelopes; Den- 
dromys, Malacothriz, and Mystromys are peculiar genera of the 
mouse family (Murid) ; Bathyerges one of the mole-rats (Spa- 
lacidee) ; Pedetes, the Cape-hare, a remarkable form of jerboa ; and 
Petromys, one of the spiny-rats (Echimyide). The remarkable 
Orycteropus, or earth-pig, has one species in South and one in 
North East Africa. We have thus eighteen genera of mammalia 
almost or quite peculiar to South Africa. 

Birds.—These do not present so many peculiar forms, yet 
some are very remarkable. Chetops is an isolated genus of 
thrushes (Turdidew). Loptilus, one of the fruit-thrushes (Pycno- 
notide). LPogonocichla, one of the fly-catchers; Uvrolestes, a 
shrike; Promerops, a sun-bird; Philetwrus and Chera, weaver- 
birds ; and three peculiar genera of larks—Spizocorys, Heterocorys, 
and Lephrocorys, complete the list of peculiar types of Passeres. 
A wood-pecker, Geocolaptes, is nearly allied to a South American 
genus. The Cape-dove, na, is confined to South and East Africa 
and Madagascar; and Zhalassornis is a peculiar form of duck. 
Several genera are also confined to West and South Africa ;— 


268 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART ITT. 


as Phiyllastrephus (Pycnonotide), Smithornis (Muscicapide), 
Corvinella (Laniide) ; Barbatula and Xylobucco (Megalemide) ; 
Ceuthmochares, also in Madagascar, (Cuculide); TZypanistria 
(Columbide). Other remarkable forms, though widely spread 
over Africa, appear to have their metropolis here, as Colius and 
Indicator. Others seem to be confined to South Africa and 
Abyssinia, as the curious Buphaga (Sturnidee); and Apalo- 
derma (Trogonide). Macherhamphus (Falconide) is found only 
in South-West Africa, Madagascar, and the Malay Peninsula. 
Reptiles—There are 4 peculiar genera of snakes,—Typhline, 
belonging to the blind burrowing snakes, Typhlopide ; Lampro- 
phis (Lycodontide); Cyrtophis and Peecilophis (Elapide), a 
family which is chiefly Oriental and Australian. Of Lizards. 
there are 10 peculiar genera ; Monotrophis (Lepidosternide), but. 
with an allied form in Angola; Cordylus, Pseudocordylus, Platy- 
saurus, Cordylosawrus, Plewrostichus, and Saurophis, all peculiar 
genera of Zonuride ; Chamesaura, forming the peculiar family 
Chameesauride ; Colopus and Rhopitropus (Geckotidee). 
Amphibia.—Of Amphibia there are 4 peculiar genera: 
Schismaderma (Bufonidee) ; Brachymerus (Engystomide) ; Phry- 
nobatrachus and Stenorhynchus (Ranide). These last are allied 
to Oriental genera, and the only other Engystomide are Oriental 
and Neotropical. 
Fresh-water Fish.—Of fresh-water fishes there is 1 genus—Ab- 
rostomus—belonging to the carp family, peculiar to South Afriva. 
Insects—South Africa is excessively rich in insects, and the 
number of peculiar types surpasses that of any other part of the 
region, We can only here summarize the results. 
Lepidoptera.—Of butterflies there are 7 peculiar genera; 2 
belonging to the Satyride, 1 to Acraeide, 3 to Lycenide, 
and 1 to Hesperides. Zeritis (Lyceenidie) is also characteristic 
of this sub-region, although 1 species occurs in West Africa. 
Colcoptera.—These are very remarkable. In the family of 
Cicindelide, or tiger-beetles, we have the extraordinary Manticora 
and Platychile, forming a sub-family, whose nearest allies are in 
North America ; as well as Ophryodera and Dromica, the latter 
an extensive genus, which ranges as far north as Mozambique 


OHAP. X1.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 269 


and Lake Ngami, Another genus of this family, Jansenia, is 
common to South Africa and South India. 

In the large family of Carabide, or ground-beetles, there are 
17 peculiar South African genera, the most important being 
Crepidogaster, Hytrichopus, Arsinoé, and Prezia. Three others— 
Lunostus, Glyphodactyla, and Megalonychus—are common to 
South Africa and Madagascar only. There is also a genus in 
common with Java, and one with Australia. 

Of Lucanide, or stag-beetles, there are 3 peculiar genera; of 
Cetoniidee, or rose-chafers, 14; and of Buprestide, 2. 

In the great family of Longicorns there are no less than 67 
peculiar genera—an immense number when we consider that the 
generally open character of the country, is such as is not usually 
well suited to this group of insects. They consist of 5 peculiar 
genera of Prionidee, 25 of Cerambycide, and 37 of Lamiude. 

Summary of South-African Zoology—Summarizing these re- 
sults, we find that South Africa possesses 18 peculiar genera of 
Mammaha, 12 of Birds, 18 of Reptiles, 1 of Fishes, 7 of Butter- 
flies, and 107 of the six typical families of Coleoptera. Besides 
this large amount of speciality it contains many other groups, 
which extend either to West Africa, to Abyssinia, or to Mada- 
gascar only, a number of which are no doubt to be referred as 
originating here. We also find many cases of direct affinity with 
the Oriental region, and especially with the Malay districts, and 
others with Australia; and there are also less marked indica- 
tions of a relation to America. 


Atlantic Islands of the Ethiopian Region. St. Helena.—The 
position of St. Helena, about 1,000 miles west of Africa and 16° 
south of the equator, renders it difficult to place it in either of 
the sub-regions ; and its scanty fauna has a general rather than 
any special resemblance to that of Africa. The entire destruc- 
tion of its luxuriant native forests by the introduction of goats 
which killed all the young trees (a destruction which was nearly 
completed two centuries ago) must have led to the extermination 
of most of the indigenous birds and insects. At present there is 
no land bird that is believed to be really indigenous, and but one 


270 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. | 


wader, a small plover (Agialitis sanctee-helene) which is peculiar 
to the island, but closely allied to African species. Numerous 
imported birds, such as canaries, Java sparrows, some African 
finches, guinea-fowls, and partridges, are now wild. There are 
no native butterflies, but a few introduced species of almost 
world-wide range. The only important remnant of the original 
fauna consists of beetles and land shells. The beetles are the 
more numerous and have been critically examined and described 
by Mr. T. V. Wollaston, whose researches in the other Atlantic 
islands are so well known. 

Coleoptera of St. Helena.—Omitting those beetles which get 
introduced everywhere through man’s agency, there are 59 species 
of Coleoptera known from St. Helena; and even of these there 
are a few widely distributed species that may have been intro- 
duced by man. It will be well, therefore, to confine ourselves 
almost wholly to the species peculiar to the island, and, therefore, 
almost certainly forming part of the endemic or original fauna. 
Of these we find that 10 belong to genera which have a very 
wide range, and thus afford no indication of geographical affinity ; 
2 belong to genera which are characteristic of the Palearctic 
fauna (Bembidiwm, Longitarsus) ; 3 to African genera (Adoretus, 
Sciobius, Aspidomorpha) ; and two species of Calosoma are most 
allied to African species. There are also 4 African species, 
which may be indigenous in St. Helena. The peculiar genera, 
7 in number, are, however, the most interesting. We have first 
Haplothorax, a large beetle allied to Carabus and Calosoma, though 
of a peculiar type. This may be held to indicate a remote 
Palearctic affinity. Melissius, one of the Dynastide, is allied to 
South African forms. JJicroxylobius, one of the Cossonides (a 
sub-family of Curculionidae) is the most important genus, com- 
prising as it does 13 species, It is, according to Mr. Wollaston, 
an altogether peculiar type, most allied to Pentarthrum, a genus 
found in St. Helena, Ascension, and the south of England, and 
itself very isolated, Nesiotes, another genus of Curculionidae, 
belongs toa small group, the allied genera forming which inhabit 
Europe, Madeira, and Australia, A third peeuliar and isolated 
genus is T'rachyphlaosoma, The Anthribidie are represented by 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 271 


2 genera, Notioxenus and Homeodera, which are altogether 
peculiar and isolated, and contain 9 species. Thus no less than 
27 species, or more than half of the undoubtedly indigenous 
beetles, belong to 5 peculiar and very remarkable genera of 
Rhyncophora. 

It appears from this enumeration, that the peculiar species as 
a whole, exhibit most affinity to the Ethiopian fauna; next to 
the South European fauna; and lastly to that of the islands of 
the North Atlantic ; while there is such a large amount of pecu- 
liarity in the most characteristic forms, that no special geoera- 
phical affinity can be pointed out. 

Land Shells—These consist of about a dozen living species, and 
about as many extinct found in the surface soil, and probably 
exterminated by the destruction of the forests. The genera are 
Succinea, Zonites, Helix, Bulimus, Pupa, and Achatina. The 
Bulimi (all now extinct but one) comprise one large, and 
several small species, of a peculiar type, most resembling forms 
now inhabiting South America and the islands of the Pacific. 
Zonites is chiefly South European, but the other genera are of 
wide range, and none are peculiar to the island. 

The marine shells are mostly Mediterranean, or West Indian 
species, with some found in the Indian Ocean; only 4 or 5 species 
being peculiar to the island. 

Tristan d Acunha.—This small island is situated nearly mid- 
way between the Cape of Good Hope and the mouth of the La 
Plata, but it is rather nearer Africa than America, and a little 
nearer still to St. Helena. An island so truly oceanic and of whose 
productions so little is known, cannot be placed in any region, 
and is only noticed here because it comes naturally after St. Helena. 
It is known to possess three peculiar land birds. One is a thrush 
(Nesocichla eremita) whose exact affinities are not determined ; 
the other a small water-hen (Gallinula nesiotis) allied to our 
native species, but with shorter and softer wings, which the bird 
does not use for flight. A finch of the genus Crithagra shows 
African affinities ; while another recently described as Nesospiza 
acunhe (Journ. fiir Orn, 1873, p. 154) forms a new genus said to 
resemble more nearly some American forms, 


272 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 


The only known land-shells are 2 peculiar species of Balea, a 
genus only found elsewhere in Europe and Brazil. 


IV. Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, or the Malagusy 
Sub-region. 

This insular sub-region is one of the most remarkable zoo- 
logical districts on the globe, bearing a similar relation to Africa 
as the Antilles to tropical America, or New Zealand to Australia, 
but possessing a much richer fauna than either of these, and in 
some respects a more remarkable one even than New Zealand. 
It comprises, besides Madagascar, the islands of Mauritius, 
Bourbon, and Rodriguez, the Seychelles and Comoro islands. 
Madagascar itself is an island of the first class, being a thousand 
miles long and about 250 miles in average width. It les 
parallel to the coast of Africa, near the southern tropic, and is 
separated by 230 miles of sea from the nearest part of the con- 
tinent, although a bank of soundings projecting from its western 
coast reduces this distance to about 160 miles. Madagascar is 
a mountainous island, and the greater part of the interior consists 
of open elevated plateaus ; but between these and the coast there 
intervene broad belts of luxuriant tropical forests. It is this 
forest-district which has yielded most of those remarkable types 
of animal life which we shall have to enumerate; and it is 
probable that many more remain to be discovered. As all the 
main features of this sub-region are developed in Madagascar, 
we shall first endeavour to give a complete outline of the fauna 
of that country, and afterwards show how far the surrounding 
islands partake of its peculiarities. 

Mammalia.—The fauna of Madagascar is tolerably rich in 
genera and species of mammalia, although these belong to a very 
limited number of families and orders. It is especially charac- 
terized by its abundance of Lemuride and Insectivora ; it also 
possesses a few peculiar Carnivora of small size; but most of 
the other groups in which Africa is especially rich—apes and 
monkeys, lions, leopards and hyenas, zebras, giraffes, antelopes, 
elephants and rhinoceroses, and even porcupines and squirrels, 
are wholly wanting. No less than 40 distinct families of land 


CHAP. XI.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 273 


mammals are represented on the continent of Africa, only 11 of 
which occur in Madagascar, which also possesses 3 families 
peculiar to itself. The following is a list of all the genera of 
Mammalia as yet known to inhabit the island :— 


PRIMATES. INSECTIVORA. 
LEMURIDA. CENTETID. Pe 
Indrisine. Species. yop rae 
T dris m. os 6 entetes - coe oiato 
“ L Se ctaies "+ Hemicentetes Z 
ee. 15 Ericulus 9 
Ha palemur ee iy 2 oe orveles z 
Microcebus ... ae ae 4 chinops 
Chirogaleus 4) SorIciD&. 
Lepilemur 2 Sorex ... aia nS AE 1 
CHIROMYID#. CARNIVORA. 
Chiromys ye ns l CRYPTOPROCTIDA, 
ve) Cryptoprocta ... 1 
BATS—(Chiroptera). VIVERRIDA. 
PrEROPID. Fossa “ 2 
‘aici Galidictis D 
as pea Eupleres Lee 1 
Rhinolophus ... nae oe 1 UNGULATA, 
SuIpDz&. 
VESPERTILIONID. Potamochcerus aes ifs 1 
Vespertilio ... ee wie 1 RODENTIA. 
Taphozous... ia, as 1 Moers o. 
Nesomys oss ard a 1 
NocriLtonipx Hypogeomys ... ee i 1 
Nyctinomus ... ay eas 1 Brachytarsomys see ss 1 


We have here a total of 12 families, 27 genera, and 65 species 
of Mammals ; 3 of the families and 20 of the genera (indicated 
by italics) being peculiar. All the species are peculiar, except 
perhaps one or two of the wandering bats. Remains of a Hip- 
popotamus have been found in a sub-fossil condition, showing 
that this animal probably inhabited the island at a not very 
remote epoch. 

The assemblage of animals above noted is remarkable, and 
seems to indicate a very ancient connection with the southern por- ¥ 
tion of Africa, before the apes, ungulates, and felines had entered 
it. The lemurs, which are here so largely developed, are repre- 

z 


274 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART lII. 


sented by a single group in Africa, with two peculiar forms on 
the West coast. They also re-appear under peculiar and isolated 
forms in Southern India and Malaya, and are evidently but the 
remains of a once wide-spread group, since in Eocene times they 
inhabited North America and Europe, and very probably the 
whole northern hemisphere. The Insectivora are another group 
of high antiquity, widely scattered over the globe under a 
number of peculiar forms; but in no equally limited area repre- 
sented by so many peculiar types as in Madagascar. South and 
West Africa are also rich in this order. 

The Carnivora of Madagascar are mostly peculiar forms of 
Viverridze, or civets, a family now almost confined to the 
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but which was abundant in 
Europe during the Miocene period. 

The Potamocherus is a peculiar species only, which may be 
perhaps explained by the unusual swimming powers of swine, 
and the semi-aquatic habits of this genus, leading to an immi- 
eration at a later period than in the vase of the other Mammalia, 
The same remark will apply to the small Hippopotamus, which 
was coeval with the great Struthious bird A¢piornis. 

Rodents are only represented by three peculiar forms of 
Muride, but it is probable that others remain to be discovered. 

Pirds—Madagascar is exceedingly rich in birds, and espe- 
cially in remarkable forms of Passeres, No less than 88 genera 
and 111 species of land-birds have been discovered, and every 
year some additions are being made to the list. The African 
families of Passeres are almost all represented, only two being 
absent—Paride and Fringillide, both very poorly represented in 
Africa itself. Among the Picariv, however, the case is very 
different, no less than 7 families being absent, viz.—Picida, 
or woodpeckers; Indicatoridse, or honey-guides ; Megalamide, 
or barbets ; Musophagidee, or plantain-eaters ; Coliide, or colies; 
Bucerotide, or hornbills; and Irrisoridew, or mockers, Three of 
these are peculiar to Africa, and all are well represented there, 
so that their absence from Madagascar is a very remarkable fact. 
The number of peculiar genera in Madagascar constitutes one of 
the main features of its ornithology, and many of these are so 


ouar. x1.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 275 


isolated that it is very difficult to classify them, and they 
remain to this day a puzzle to ornithologists. In order to 
exhibit clearly the striking characteristics of the bird-fauna of 
this island, we shall first give a list of all the peculiar genera ; 
another, of the genera of which the species only are peculiar ; 
and, lastly, a list of the species which Madagascar possesses 
in common with the African continent. 


GENERA OF BirnDS PECULIAR TO MADAGASCAR, OR FOUND ELSEWHERE 
ONLY IN THE MASCARENE ISLANDS. 


SYLVUD”. Species. STURNIDA. Species, 
1. Bernieria eon 2 19, Euryceros (?) as 1 
2. Ellisia 1 20. Hartlaubia ... ee 1 
3. Mystacornis 1 21. Falculia oa Ta 1 
4. Eroessa 1 
5. Gervasia 1 Parcrips. 
Ie ilepi wom aa 
SO Ee 2. Philepitta 1 
6. Oxylabes 4 aos Ln ee 
Crxciip& (2). 23. Coua... dee a 9 
7. sane <e Si | 24, Cochlothraustes Lat 1 
SITTIDA. LEPTOSOMID. 
8. Hypherpes ... fet 1 25. Leptosomus ... wie 1 
PycnonoTip& (?) CoRACIID&. 
9. Tylas ... vs on 1 26. Atelornis... vee 2 
27. Brachypteracias — ... 1 
ORIOLIDZ. ; 28. Geobiastes ... aod 1 
10. Artamia ae 3 
11, Cyanolanius ... 1 Psirracip#. 
29. Coracopsis. ... = 2 
MuscicaPIpD&. 
12. Newtonia ... ea 1 CoLuMBIDZ. 
13. Pseudobias ... “Sr t 30. Alectrenas ... i. 1 
LANUD. : e 
Paes). ..... 0 oD 
15. Vanga s ie 4 31. Margaroperdiz on 1 
NECTARINUD#, FALCoNIDz, © 
16. Neodrepanis jes 1 32. Nisoides _... ve 1 
33. Eutriorchis .., bes 1 
HIRUNDINID2, ae 
17. Phedina med uy 1 Total species of peculiar genera 50 
PLOCEID&. EPYORNITHID”! (extinct), 
18, Nelicurvius ... a 1 34, Aipyornis ... eae 1 


2 


276 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART IIL. 


ErHl1oPiAN OR ORIENTAL GENERA WHICH ARE REPRESENTED IN 
MADAGASCAR BY PECULIAR SPECIES, 


TURDID. 
1. Bessonornis 


SYLVIID-¥. 


2. Acrocephalus ... 
3. Copsychus (Or.) 
4. Pratincola 


PYCNONOTIDA. 
5. Hypsipetes (Or.) 
6. Audropadus 


CAMPEPHAGID. 
7. Campephaga ... 


DIcRURID&. 
8, Dicrurus 


MUSCICAPIDA. 
9, Tchitrea 


LANIIDA. 
10. Laniarius 


NECTARINIID. 
11. Nectarinia 


PLOCEIIDA. 
12. Foudia nee 
13. Hypargos 
14. Spermestes ... 


ALAUDID. 
15. Mirafra 


MoraciLLIpDA. 
16. Motacilla 


CucuLiIp™. 


17. Ceuthmochares 
18, Centropus 
19. Cuculus 


Coraciuip&. 
20. Earystomus ... 


Species. 


1 


ALCEDINID. 


21. Corythornis ... 
22. Ispidina ss... 


UpupiIp&. 
23. Upupa (?) 


CAPRIMULGIDA. 
24. Caprimulgus 


CYPSELID. 


25. Cypselus 
26. Chetura 


PsITTACIDA, 
27. Poliopsitta 


CoLUMBID.®. 


28. Treron 
29. Columba 
30. Turtur 


PTEROCLIDA. 
31. Pterocles 


TETRAONIDA, 


32. Francolinus ... 


PHASIANIDA, 
33. Numida 


TURNICID. 
34. Turnix 


FALCONIDA. 


35. Polyboroides 
36, Circus 

37. Astur... 

38. Accipiter 
39. Buteo... 

40. Haliseetus 
41, Pernis 

42. Baza... 

43. Cerchneis 


Species. 


gel) «2. 


_— ee I 


CHAP. XI.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION, 277 


STRIGID&. Species. PLATALEIDA. Species. 
Ne l ° 
44. Athene nae fee dou Tia. iss os 1 
45. Scops oe f 1 
RALLipD&. PopiciPIpé. 
46. Rallus oe ei 3 : ; 
ms e QO, p =) } eee 
47. Porzana ] odiceps —... 1 
ScoLoPAacip&X. Total peculiar species of Eth. ) 5g 
48. Gallinago... nee 1 or Or. genera ait aed ie 


SpecIES OF BinpS COMMON TO MADAGASCAR AND AFRICA oR ASIA. 


1. Cisticola cursitans. 7. Aplopelia tympanistria. 
2. Corvus scapulatus. 8. Falco minor. 

3. Crithagra canicollis. 9. Faleo concolor. 

4, Merops superciliosus. 10. Milvus egyptius. 

5. Collocalia fuciphaga. 11. Milvus migrans. 

6. Cxna capensis. 12. Strix flammea. 


These three tables show us an amount of speciality hardly to 
be found in the birds of any other part of the globe. Out of 
111 land-birds in Madagascar, only 12 are identical with species 
inhabiting the adjacent continents, and most of these belong to 
powerful-winged, or wide-ranging forms, which probably now 
often pass from one country to the other. The peculiar species 
—49 land-birds and 7 waders, or aquatics—are mostly well- 
marked forms of African genera. There are, however, several 
genera (marked by italics) which have Oriental or Palearctic 
affinities, but not African, viz— Copsychus, Hypsipetes, Hypherpes, 
Alectrenas, and Margaroperdix. These indicate a closer ap- 
proximation to the Malay countries than now exists. 

The table of 33 peculiar genera is of great interest. Most of 
these are well-marked forms, belonging to families which are 
fully developed in Africa; though it is singular that not 
one of the exclusively African families is represented in 
any way in Madagascar. Others, however, are of remote or 
altogether doubtful affinities. .Sittide@ is Oriental and Palearctic, 
but not Ethiopian. Oxylabes and Mystacornis are of .doubtful 
affinities. Arfamia and Cyanolanius still more so, and it is 
quite undecided what family they belong to.  Calicalicus is 
almost equally obscure. Neodrepanis, one of the most recent 
discoveries, seems to conneci the Nectariniidw with the Pacific 


278 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


Depanidide. Huryceros is a complete puzzle, having been 
placed with the hornbills, the starlings, or as a distinct family. 
Falculia is an exceedingly aberrant form of starling, long thought ; 
to be allied to Jrrisor. Philepitta, forming a distinct family, 
(Paictide), is most remarkable and isolated, perhaps with remote 
South American affinities. Leptosoma is another extraordinary 
form, connecting the cuckoos with the rollers. <Atelornis, 
Brachypteracias, and Geobiastes, are terrestrial rollers, with the 
form and colouring of Pitta. So many perfectly isolated and 
remarkable groups are certainly nowhere else to be found; and 
they fitly associate with the wonderful aye-aye (Chiromys), 
the insectivorous Centetide, and carnivorous Cryptoprocta 
among the Mammalia. They speak to us plainly of enormous 
antiquity, of long-continued isolation ; and not less plainly of 
a lost continent or continental island, in which so many, and 
various, and peculiarly organized creatures, could have been 
gradually developed in a connected fauna, of which we have 
here but the fragmentary remains. 

Plate VI.—lIilustrating the charaeteristie features of the 
Zoology of Madagascar—The lemurs, which form the most 
prominent feature in the zoology of Madagascar, being com- 
paratively well-known from the numerous specimens in our 
zoological gardens ; and good figures of the Insectivorous genera 
not being available, we have represented the nocturnal and 
extraordinary aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis) to illustrate 
its peculiar and probably very ancient mammalian fauna; while 
the river-hogs in the distance (Potamocherus edwardsii) allied to 
African species, indicate a later immigration from the main- 
land than in the case of most of the other Mammalia. The 
peculiar birds being far less generally known, we have figured 
three of them. The largest is the Hwryceros prevosti, here classed 
with the starlings, although its remarkable bill and other pecu- 
liarities render it probable that it should form a distinct family. 
Its colours are velvety black and rich brown with the bill of a 
pearly grey. The bird beneath (Vanga cwrvirostris) is one of the 
peculiar Madagascar shrikes whose plumage, variegated with 
green-black aud pure white is very conspicuous; while that in 


VI. 


‘ 
4 


PLATE 


ct) k 
fils 


Nove 


Sa Be 


by ‘Ef. 


Ue 


1 4 
“Na A 


= 


Re 


‘ 


{ 


t 


sh 


ANIMALS. 


WITH CHARACTERISTIC 


IN MADAGASCAR, 


SCE 


CHAP, XI.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 27) 


the right hand corner is the Leptosoma discoler, a bird which 
appears to be intermediate between such very distinct families 
as the cuckoos and the rollers, and is therefore considered to 
form a family by itself. It is a coppery-green above and nearly 
white beneath, with a black bill and red feet. The fan-shaped 
plant on the left is the traveller’s tree (Urania speciosa), one of 
the peculiar forms of vegetation in this marvellous island. 


Reptiles—These present some very curious features, compara- 
tively few of the African groups being represented, while there 
are a considerable number of Eastern and even of American 
forms. Beginning with the snakes, we find, in the enormous 
family of Colubrid, none of the African types; but instead of 
them three genera—Herpetodryas, Philodryus, and Heterodon— 
only found elsewhere in South and North America. The 
Psammophide, which are both African and Indian, are repre- 
sented by a peculiar genus, Mimophis. The Dendrophide are 
represented by Ahetulla, a genus which is both African and 
American, The Dryiophide, which inhabit all the tropics but 
are most developed in the Oriental region, are represented by 
a peculiar genus, Zangaha. The tropical Pythonide are repre- 
sented by another peculiar genus, Sanzimia. The Lycodontidee 
and Viperide, so well developed in Africa, are entirely absent. 

The lizards are no less remarkable. The Zonuridée, abun- 
dantly developed in Africa, are represented by one peculiar 
genus, Cicigna. The wide-spread Scincidee by another peculiar 
genus, Pygomeles. The African Sepside, are represented by three 
genera, two of which are African, and one, Amphiglossus, peculiar. 
The Acontiade are represented by a species of the African genus 
Acontias. Of Scincide there is the wide-spread Huprepes. The 
Sepide are represented by the African genera Seps and Scelotes. 
The Geckotide are not represented by any purely African 
genera, but by Phyllodactylus, which is American and Aus- 
tralian; Hemidactylus, which is spread over all the tropics; by 
two peculiar genera; and by Uvoplatis, Geckolepis, and Phelsuma, 
confined to Madagascar, Bourbon, and the Andaman Islands. 
The Agamide, which are mostly Oriental and are represented in 


280 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART 111. 


Africa by the single genus Agama, have here three peculiar 
genera, T'racheloptychus, Chalarodon, and Hoplurus. Lastly, the 
American Iguanidee are said to be represented by a species of the 
South American genus Oplurus. The classification of Reptiles 
is in such an unsettled state that some of these determinations 
of affinities are probably erroneous; but it is not likely that 
any corrections which may be required will materially affect the 
general bearing of the evidence, as indicating a remarkable 
amount of Oriental and American relationship. 

The other groups are of less interest. Tortoises are repre- 
sented by two African or wide-spread genera of Testudinide, 
Testudo and Chersina, and by one peculiar genus, Pyzis ; and 
there are also two African genera of Chelydidie. 

The Amphibia are not very well known. They appear to be 
confined to species of the wide-spread Ethiopian and Oriental 
genera—Hylarana, Polypedates, and Rappia (Polypedatide) ; 
and Pyxicephalus (Ranide). 

Fresh-water Fishes—These appear to be at present almost 
unknown. When carefully collected they will no doubt furnish 
some important facts. 


The Mascarene Islands. 


The various islands which surround Madagascar—Bourbon, 
Mauritius, Rodriguez, the Seychelles, and the Comoro Islands 
—all partake in a considerable degree of its peculiar fauna, 
while having some special features of their own. 

Indigenous Mammalia (except bats) are probably absent from 
all these islands (except the Comoros), although Lemur and Cen- 
fetes are given as natives of Bourbon and Mauritius. They have, 
however, perhaps been introduced from Madagascar, Lemur 
mayottensis, a peculiar species, is found in the Comoro Islands, 
where a Madagascar species of Viverra also occurs. 

Bourbon and Mauritius may be taken together, as they much 
resemble each other. They each possess species of a peculiar 
genus of Campephagidee, or caterpillar shrikes, Oxynotus ; while 
the remarkable Fregi/upus, belonging to the starling family, 
inhabits Bourbon, if it is not now extinct. They also have 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION, 281 


peculiar species of Pratincola, Hypsipetes, Phedina, Tchitrea, 
Zosterops, Foudia, Collocalia, and Coracopsis ; while Mauritius has 
a very peculiar form of dove of the sub-genus Trocaza ; an Alec- 
trenas, extinct within the last thirty years ; and a-species of the 
Oriental genus of parroquets, Palwornis. The small and remote 
island of Rodriguez has another Palwornis, as well as a peculiar 
Foudia, and a Drymeca of apparently Indian affinity. 

Coming to the Seychelle Islands, far to the north, we find the 
only mammal an Indian species of bat (Pteropus edwardsi). Of 
the twelve land-birds all but one are peculiar species, but all belong 
to genera found also in Madagascar, except one—a peculiar species 
of Paleornis. This is an Oriental genus, but found also in several 
Mascarene Islands and on the African continent. A species of 
black parrot (Coracopsis barklay7) and a weaver bird of peculiar 
type (Foudia seychellarum) show, however, a decided connection 
with Madagascar. There are also two peculiar pigeons—a short- 
winged Turtur and an Alectrenas. 

Most of the birds of the Comoro Islands are Madagascar spe- 
cies, only two being African. Five are peculiar, belonging to the 
genera Nectarinia, Zosterops, Dicrurus, Foudia, and Alectrenas. 

teptiles are scarce. There appear to be no snakes in Mauri- 
tius and Bourbon, though some African species are said to be 
found in the Seychelle Islands. Lizards are fairly represented. 
Mauritius has Cryptoblepharus, an Australian genus of Gymno- 
pthalmide ; Hemidactylus (a wide-spread genus); Percpus 
(Oriental and Australian)—both belonging to the Geckotide. 
Bourbon has Heteropus, a Moluccan and Australian genus of 
Scincidee ; Phelsuma (Geckotide), and Chameleo, both found also 
in Madagascar; as well as Pywxis, one of the tortoises. The 
Seychelles have 7heconyx, a peculiar genus of Geckotide, and 
Chameleo. Gigantic land-tortoises, which formerly inhabited 
most of the Mascarene Islands, now only survive in Aldabra, a 
small island north of the Seychelles. These will be noticed 
again further on. Amphibia seem only to be recorded from the 
Seychelles, where two genera of tree-frogs of the family Poly- 
pedatide are found; one (Megalizalus) peculiar, the other 
(Lappia) found also in Madagascar and Africa. 


282 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


The few insect groups peculiar to these islands will be noted 
when we deal with the entomology of Madagascar. 

Extinct fauna of the Mascarene Islands and Madagascar.—Before 
quitting the vertebrate groups, we must notice the remarkable 
birds which have become extinct in these islands little more 
than a century ago. The most celebrated is the dodo of the 
Mauritius (Didus ineptus), but an allied genus, Pezophaps, in- 
habited Rodriguez, and of both of these almost perfect skeletons 
have been recovered. Other species probably existed in Bourbon. 
Remains of two genera of flightless rails have also been found, 
Aphanapteryx and Erythromachus ; and even a heron (Ardea 
megacephala) which was short-winged and seldom flew; while 
in Madagascar there lived a gigantic Struthious bird, the 
Aipyornis. Some further details as to these extinct forms will 
be found under the respective families, Didide, Rallidee, and 
ZEpyornithide, in the fourth part of this work; and their bear- 
ing on the past history of the region will be adverted to in the 
latter part of this chapter. Dr. Giinther has recently dis- 
tinguished five species of fossil tortoises from Mauritius and 
Rodriguez,—all of them quite different from the living species 
of Aldabra. 

Insects—The butterflies of Madagascar are not so remarkable 
as some other orders of insects. There seems to be only one 
peculiar genus, J/Zeteropsis (Satyride). The other genera are 
African, Leptoneura being confined to Madagascar and South 
Africa. There are some fine Papilios of uncommon forms. The 
most interesting lepidopterous insect, however, is the fine diurnal 
moth (Urania), as all the other species of the genus inhabit 
tropical America and the West Indian Islands. 

The Coleoptera have been better collected, and exhibit some 
very remarkable affinities. There is but one peculiar genus of 
Cicindelidae, Pogonostoma, which is allied to the South American 
genus, Clenostoma. Another genus, Peridexia, is common to 
Madagascar and South America, None of the important African 
genera are represented, except Hurymorpha ; while Meglaomma 
is common to Madagascar and the Oriental region, 

In the Carabidee we have somewhat similar phenomena on a 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 283 


wider scale. Such large and important African genera as 
Polyhirma and Anthia, are absent; but there are four genera 
in common with South Africa, and two with West Africa ; while 
three others are as much Oriental as African. One genus, 
Distrigus, is wholly Oriental; and another, Homalosoma, Aus- 
tralian. Colpodes, well developed in Bourbon and Mauritius, 1s 
Oriental and South American. Of the peculiar genera, Sphwro- 
stylis has South American affinities; Microchila, Oriental; the 
others being related to widely distributed genera. 

The Lucanide are few in number, and all have African affini- 
ties. Madagascar is very rich in Cetoniidée, and possesses 20 
peculiar genera. Bothrorhina, and three other genera belonging 
to the Jchnostoma group, have wholly African relations. Dory- 
scelis and Chromoptila are no less clearly allied to Oriental 
genera. A series of eight peculiar genera belong to the Schizo- 
rhinide, a family the bulk of which are Australian, while there are 
only a few African forms. The remaining genera appear to have 
African affinities, but few of the peculiarly African genera are 
represented. Glyciphana is characteristic of the Oriental region. 

The Buprestide of Madagascar consist mainly of one large 
and peculiar genus, Polybothris, allied to the almost cosmopolite 
Psiloptera. Most of the other genera are both Ethiopian and 
Oriental; but Polycesta is mainly South American, and the 
remarkable and isolated genus Sponsor is confined to the 
Mauritius with a species in Celebes and New Guinea. 

The Longicorns are numerous and interesting, there being no 
less than 24 peculiar genera. Two of the genera of Prionide 
are very isolated, while a third, Closterus, belongs to a group 
which is Malayan and American. 

Of the Cerambycide, Philematium ranges to Africa and the 
West Indies; Leptocera is only found eastward in Ceylon and 
the New Hebrides; while Huporus is African. Of the peculiar 
genera, 2 are of African type; 3 belong to the Leptura group, 
which are mostly Palearctic and Oriental, with a few in 
South Africa ; while Philocalocera is allied to a South American 
genus. 

Among the Lamiide there are several wide-ranging and 7 


284 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART lll, 


African genera; but Coptops is Oriental, and the Oriental 
Praonetha occurs in the Comoro Islands. Among the peculiar 
genera several have African affinities, but Tropidema belongs to 
a group which is Oriental and Australian ; Oopsis is found also 
in the Pacific Islands; MWythergates, Sulemus, and Coedomea, are 
allied to Malayan and American genera. 

General Remarks on the Insect-fauna of Madagascar.—Taking 
the insects as a whole, we find the remarkable result that their 
affinities are largely Oriental, Australian, and South American: © 
while the African element is represented chiefly by special 
South African or West African forms, rather than by such as 
are widely spread over the Ethiopian region.1 In some 
families—as Cetoniide and Lamiide—the African element 
appears to preponderate ; in others—as Cicindelide—the South 
American affinity seems strongest; in Carabidee, perhaps the 
Oriental; while in Buprestidee and Cerambycide the African 
and foreign elements seem nearly balanced. We must not im- 
pute too much importance to these foreign alliances among 
insects, because we find examples of them in every country on 
the globe. The reason they are so much more pronounced in 
Madagascar may be, that during long periods of time this island 
has served as a refuge for groups that have been dying out on 
the great continents; and that, owing to the numerous de- 
ficiencies of a somewhat similar kind in the series of vertebrata 
in Australia and South America, the same groups have often 
been able to maintain themselves in all these countries as well 
as in Madagascar. It must be remembered too, that these pecu- 
liarities in the Malagasy and Mascarene insect-fauna are but ex- 
aggerations of a like phenomenon on the mainland. Africa also 
has numerous affinities with South America, with the Malay 
countries, and with Australia; but they do not bear anything like 
so large a proportion to the whole fauna, and do not, therefore, 
attract so much attention. The special conditions of existence 
and the long-continued isolation of Madagascar, will account for 
much of this difference ; and it will evidently not be necessary 


! There are also some special resemblances between the plants of Mada- 
gascar and South Africa, according to Dr, Kirk. 


CHAP. XL] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 285 


to introduce, as some writers are disposed to do, a special land 
connection or near approach between Madagascar and all these 
countries, independently of Africa; except perhaps in the case 
of the Malay Islands, as will be discussed further on. 
Land-shells—Madagascar and the adjacent islands are all 
rich in land-shells. The genera of Helicidee are Vitrina, Helix, 
Achatina, Columna (peculiar to Madagascar and West Africa), 
Buliminus, Cionella (chiefly Oriental and South American, but 
not African), Pupa, Streptaaxis, and Succinea. Among the Oper- 
culata we have T7runcatella (widely scattered, but not African) ; 
Cyclotus (South American, Oriental, and South African) ; Cyclo- 
phorus (mostly Oriental, with a few South African) ; Leptopoma 
(Oriental); Megalomastoma (Malayan and South American) ; 
Lithidion (peculiar to Madagascar, Socotra, and South-West 
Arabia) ; Otopoma (with the same range, but extending to West 
India and New Ireland); Cyclostomus (widely spread but not 
African) ; and Omphalotropis (wholly Oriental and Australian). 
We thus find the same general features reproduced in the land- 
shells as in the insects, and the same remarks will to a great 
extent apply to both. The classification of the former is, how- 
ever, by no means so satisfactory, and we have no extensive 
and accurate general catalogues of shells, like those of Lepi- 
doptera and Coleoptera, which have furnished us with such 
valuable materials for the comparison of the several faunas, 


On the probable Past History of the Ethiopian Region. 


Perhaps none of the great zoological regions of the earth 
present us with problems of greater difficulty or higher 
interest than the Ethiopian. We find in it the evidence of 
several distinct and successive faunas, now intermingled; and it 
is very difficult, with our present imperfect knowledge, to form 
an adequate conception of how and when the several changes 
occurred. There are, however, a few points which seem suffi- 
ciently clear, and these afford us a secure foundation in our 
endeavour to comprehend the rest. 

Let us then consider what are the main facts we have to 
account for—1. In Continental Africa, more especially in the south 


236 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART. IIL. 


and west, we find, along with much that is peculiar, a number of 
genera showing a decided Oriental, and others with an equally 
strong South American affinity; this latter more particularly show- 
ing itself among reptiles and insects. 2. All over Africa, but more 
especially in the east, we have abundance of large ungulates and 
felines—antelopes, giraffes, buffaloes, elephants, and rhinoceroses, 
with lions, leopards, and hyzenas, all of types now or recently 
found in India and Western Asia. 3. But we also have to note 
the absence of a number of groups which abound in the above- 
named countries, such as deer, bears, moles, and true pigs; while 
camels and goats—characteristic of the desert regions just to 
the north of the Ethiopian—are equally wanting. 4. There is 
a wonderful unity of type and want of speciality in the vast 
area of our first sub-region extending from Senegal across to the 
east coast, and southward to the Zambezi; while West Africa and 
South Africa each abound in peculiar types. 5. We have the 
extraordinary fauna of Madagascar to account for, with its 
evident main derivation from Africa, yet wanting all the larger 
and higher African forms; its resemblances to Malaya and to 
South America; and its wonderful assemblage of altogether 
peculiar types. 

Here we find a secure starting-point, for we are sure that 
Madagascar must have been separated from Africa before the 
assemblage of large animals enumerated above, had entered 
it. Now, it is a suggestive fact, that all these belong to types 
which abounded in Europe and India about the Miocene period. 
It is also known, from the prevalence of Tertiary deposits over 
the Sahara and much of Arabia, Persia, and Northern India, 
that during early Tertiary times a continuous sea from the Bay 
of Bengal to the British Isles completely cut off all land com- 
munication between Central and Southern Africa on the one 
side, and the great continent of the Eastern hemisphere on the 
other. When Africa was thus isolated, its fauna probably had a 
character somewhat analogous to that of South America at the 
same period. Most of the higher types of mammalian life were 
absent, while lemurs, Edentates, and Insectivora took their place. 
At this period Madagascar was no doubt united with Africa, 


CHAP. XI] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 287 
and helped to forma great southern continent which must at one 
time have extended eastward as far as Southern India and 
Ceylon; and over the whole of this the lemurine type no doubt 
prevailed. 

During some portion of this period, South Temperate Africa 
must have had a much greater extension, perhaps indicated by 
the numerous shoals and rocks to the south and east of the 
Cape of Good Hope, and by the Crozets and Kerguelen Islands 
further to the south-east. This would have afforded means for 
that intercommunion with Western Australia which is so clearly 
marked in the flora, and to some extent also in the insects of the 
two countries ; and some such extension is absolutely required 
for the development of that wonderfully rich and peculiar 
temperate flora and fauna, which, now crowded into a narrow 
territory, is one of the greatest marvels of the organic world. 

During this early period, when the great southern continents 
—South America, Africa, and Australia—were equally free from 
the incursions of the destructive felines of the north, the 
Struthious or ostrich type of birds was probably developed into 
its existing forms. It is not at all necessary to suppose that 
these three continents were at any time united, in order to 
account for the distribution of these great terrestrial birds; as 
this may have arisen by at least two other easily conceiv- 
able modes. The ancestral Struthious type may, like the 
Marsupial, have once spread over the larger portion of the globe ; 
but as higher forms, especially of Carnivora, became developed, 
it would be exterminated everywhere but in those regions 
where it was free from their attacks. In each of these it would 
develope into special forms adapted to surrounding conditions; and 
the large size, great strength, and excessive speed of the ostrich, 
may have been a comparatively late development caused by its 
exposure to the attacks of enemies which rendered such modi- 
fication necessary. This seems the most probable explanation 
of the distribution of Struthious birds, and it is rendered almost 
certain by the discovery of remains of this order in Europe in 
Eocene deposits, and by the occurrence of an ostrich among the 
fossils of the Siwalik hills; but it is just possible, also, that the 


288 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II. 


ancestral type may have been a bird capable of flight, and that 
it spread from one of the three southern continents to the others 
at the period of their near approach, and more or less completely 
lost the power of flight owing to the long continued absence 
of enemies. 

During the period we have been considering, the ancestors of 
existing apes and monkeys flourished (as we have seen in 
Chapter VI.) along the whole southern shores of the old Pale- 
arctic continent; and it seems likely that they first entered 
Africa by means of a land connection indicated by the extensive 
and lofty plateaus of the Sahara, situated to the south-east of Tunis 
and reaching to a little north-west of Lake Tchad; and at the same 
time the elephant and rhinoceros type may have entered. . This 
will account for the curious similarity between the higher faunas 
of West Africa and the Indo-Malay sub-region, for owing to the 
present distribution of land and sea and the narrowing of the 
tropical zone since Miocene times, these are now the only 
lowland, equatorial, forest-clad countries, which were in connec- 
tion with the southern shores of the old Palearctic continent at 
the time of its greatest luxuriance and development. This 
western connection did not probably last long, the junction that 
led to the greatest incursion of new forms, and the complete 
change in the character of the African fauna, having apparently 
been effected by way of Syria and the shores of the Red Sea at 
a somewhat later date. By this route the old South-Palearctic 
fauna, indicated by the fossils of Pikermi and the Siwalik Hills, 
poured into Africa; and finding there a new and favourable 
country, almost wholly unoccupied by large Mammalia, increased 
to an enormous extent, developed into new forms, and finally 
overran the whole continent. 

Before this occurred, however, a great change had taken place 
in the geography of Africa, It had gradually diminished on the 
south and east; Madagascar had been left isolated; while a 
number of small islands, banks, and coral reefs in the Indian 
Ocean alone remained to indicate the position of a once extensive 
equatorial land. The Mascarene Islands appear to represent 
the portion which separated earliest, before any carnivora had 


CHAP, XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. IRI 


reached the country; and it was in consequence of this total 
exemption from danger, that several groups of birds altogether 
incapable of flight became developed here, culminating in the 
huge and unwieldy Dodo, and the more active Aphanapteryx. 
To the same cause may be attributed the development, in these 
islands, of gigantic land-tortoises, far surpassing any others now 
living on the globe. They appear to have formerly inhabited 
Mauritius, Bourbon, and Rodriguez, and perhaps all the 
other Mascarene islands, but having been recklessly destroyed, 
now only survive in the small uninhabited Aldabra islands 
north of the Seychelle group. The largest living specimen 
(54 feet long) is now in our Zoological Gardens. The only 
other place where equally large tortoises (of an allied species) 
are found, is the Galapagos islands, where they were equally free 
from enemies till civilized man came upon the scene ; who, partly 
by using them for food, partly by the introduction of pigs, which 
destroy the eggs, has greatly diminished their numbers and 
size, and will probably soon wholly exterminate them. It is a 
curious fact, ascertained by Dr. Giinther, that the tortoises of 
the Galapagos are more nearly related to the extinct tortoises of 
Mauritius than is the living tortoise of Aldabra. This would 
imply that several distinct groups or sub-genera of Z'estudo have 
had a wide range over the globe, and that some of each have 
survived in very distant localities. This is rendered quite con- 
ceivable by the known antiquity of the genus Testwdo, which 
dates back to at least the Eocene formation (in North America) 
with very little change of form. These sluggish reptiles, so 
long-lived and so tenacious of life, may have remained un- 
changed, while every higher animal type around them has 
become extinct and been replaced by very different forms; as 
in the case of the living Emys tectum, which is the sole survivor 
of the strange Siwalik fauna of the Miocene epoch. ‘The ascer- 
tained history of the genus and the group, thus affords a satis- 
factory explanation of the close affinity of the gigantic tortoises 
of Mauritius and the Galapagos. 

The great island of Madagascar seems to have remained longer 
united with Africa, till some of the smaller and more active 

U 


. 290 . ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


carnivora had reached it; and we consequently find there, no 
wholly terrestrial form of bird but the gigantic and powerful 
Aipyornis, well able to defend itself against such enemies. As 
already intimated, we refer the South American element in 
Madagascar, not to any special connection of the two countries 
independently of Africa, but to the preservation there of a 
number of forms, some derived from America through Africa, 
others of once almost cosmopolitan range, but which, owing to the 
severer competition, have become extinct on the African con- 
tinent, while they have continued to exist under modified forms 
in the two other countries. 

The depths of all the great oceans are now known to be so 
profound, that we cannot conceive the elevation of their beds 
above the surface without some corresponding depression else- 
where. And if, as is probable, these opposite motions of the 
earth’s crust usually take place in parallel bands, and are to 
some extent dependent on each other, an elevation of the sea 
bed could hardly fail to lead to the submergence of large tracts 
of existing continents; and this is the more likely to occur ou 
account of the great disproportion that we have seen exists 
between the mean height of the land and the mean depth of the 
ocean. Keeping this principle in view, we may, with some 
probability, suggest the successive stages by which the Ethiopian 
region assumed its present form, and acquired the striking 
peculiarities that characterise its several sub-regions. During 
the early period, when the rich and varied temperate flora of the 
Cape, and its hardly less peculiar forms of insects and of low type 
mammalia, were in process of development in an extensive 
south temperate land, we may be pretty sure that the whole of 
the east and much of the north of Africa was deep sea. At a 
later period, when this continent sank towards the south and 
east, the elevation may have occurred which connected Mada- 
vascar with Ceylon; and only at a still later epoch, when the 
Indian Ocean had again been formed, did central, eastern, and 
northern Africa gradually rise above the ocean, and effect a 
connection with the great northern continent by way of Abys- 
sinia and Arabia, And if this last change took place with 


CHAP, X1.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 29] 


tolerable rapidity, or if the elevatory force acted from the north 
towards the south, there would be a new and unoccupied 
territory to be taken possession of by immigrants from the 
north, together with a few from the south and west. ‘The more 
highly-organised types from the great northern continent, how- 
ever, would inevitably prevail; and we should thus have . 
explained the curious uniformity in the fauna of so large an 
area, together with the absence from it of those peculiar 
Ethiopian types which so abundantly characterise the other 
three sub-regions. 

We may now perhaps see the reason of the singular absence from 
tropical Africa of deer and bears; for these are both groups 
which live in fertile or well-wooded countries, whereas the line 
of immigration from Europe to Africa was probably always, as 
now, to a great extent a dry and desert tract, suited to antelopes 
and large felines, but almost impassable to deer and bears. We 
find, too, that whereas remains of antelopes and giraffes abound 
in the Miocene deposits of Greece, there were no deer (which 
are perhaps a somewhat later development) ; neither were there 
any bears, but numerous forms of Felide, Viverridee, Mustelide, 
and ancestral forms of Hywna, exactly suited to be the 
progenitors of the most prevalent types of modern African 
Zoology. 

There appears to have been one other change in the geo- 
graphy of Africa and the Atlantic Ocean that requires notice. 
The rather numerous cases of close similarity in the insect 
forms of tropical Africa and America, seem to indicate some 
better means of transmission, at a not very remote epoch, than 
now exists. The vast depth of the Atlantic, and the absence of 
any corresponding likeness in the vertebrate fauna, entirely 
negative the idea of any union between the two countries ; 
but a moderate extension of their shores towards each other is 
not improbable, and this, with large islands in the place of the 
Cape Verd group, St. Paul’s Rocks, and Fernando Noronha, to 
afford resting places in the Atlantic, would probably suffice to 
explain the amount of similarity that actually exists. 

Our knowledge of the geology and paleontology of Africa 

U 2 


292 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART I. 


being so scanty, it would be imprudent to attempt any more 
detailed explanation of the peculiarities of its existing fauna. 
The sketch now given is, it is believed, founded on a sufficient 
basis of facts to render it not only a possible but a probable 
account of what took place; and it is something gained to be 
able to show, that a large portion of the peculiarities and 
anomalies of so remarkable a fauna as that of the Ethiopian 
region, can be accounted for by a series of changes of physical V 
geography during the tertiary epoch, which can hardly be con- 
sidered extreme, or in any way unlikely to have occurred. 


CIIAP. Xt. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 293 


TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. 


In drawing up these tables showing the distribution of various 
classes of animals in the Ethiopian Region, the following sources 
of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition to the 
general treatises, monographs, and catalogues, used for the Fourth 
Part of this work :— 

Mammalia.—Blanford’s Abyssinia; Peters’s Mozambique ; 
Heuglin and Schweinfurth for North East Africa ; Grandidier 
Schlegel, &c., for Madagascar; the local lists given by Mr. 
Andrew Murray; numerous papers by Fraser, Gray, Kirk, 
Mivart, Peters, Sclater, and Speke; and a MS. list of Bovide 
from Sir Victor Brooke. 

Birds.—Finsch and Hartlaub for East Africa; Heuglin for 
North-East Africa; Blanford for Abyssinia; Layard for South 
Africa; Hartlaub for West Africa; Dohrn for Princes Island ; 
Andersson for Damaraland; and papers by Gurney, Hartlaub, 
Kirk, Newton, Peters, Sharpe, Sclater, Schlegel, and Pollen 
and a MS. list of Madagascar Birds from Mr. Sharpe. 


294 — ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Part II 


TABLE I. 
FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 


EXPLANATION. 
Names in italics show families peculiar to the region. 
Names inclosed thus (...... ) barely enter the region, and are not considered properly 


to belong to it. 
Numbers are not consecutive, but correspond to those in Part IV. 
Bee ee 


Sub-regions. 


Order and Family. bad oH ne Sdias Range beyond the Region. 

la2i/sclzaly s 
lAGiP&| SElS & 
a ta = & 

MAMMALIA. 

PRIMATES. 

1. Simiidz a — Oriental 

2. Semnopithecide| — | — Oriental 


bey | (Eee, Wee Oriental, Palearctic 


3. Cynopithecide | - 
— | — | — | — | Oriental 


6. Lemuride ... 
8. Chiromyide ... 


CHEIROPTERA. 


9. Pteropide , 
11. Rhinolophide 

12. Vespertilionide 
13. Noctilionide... 


— | — | — | Oriental, Australian 
— | — | — | The Eastern Hemisphere 
-— | — | — | Cosmopolite 
_ | — | — | — | All Tropical regions 
| 


| | 
INSECTIVORA. | 
15. Macroscelididee _ South Palearctic 
17. Erinaceide ... | — Palearctic, Oriental 
18. Centetide’ ... | —- Greater Antilles 


19. Potumogalide 
20. Chrysochloride 


22. Soricide... ... | — | — | — | — | All regions but Australian and Neotropical 
CARNIVORA. : rm , 3 
93. Felide ... .. | — | —|—|— | All regions but Australian 


24. Cryptoproctidee — 

25. Viverride .... | — | — — | Oriental, S. Palearctic 
-26, Protclide 
27. Hywnide 
"28, Canide ... 
29, Mustelidee 


S. Palearctic, India 
Almost cosmopolite 
All regions but Australian 


"33. Otariide... ... — All temperate regions 
CETACKA. 
36 to 41. ser ove Oceanic 


SIRENTA, 
42. Manatide ...|—|— Neotropical, Oriental, Australian 


UNGULATA, 
De x 43, Equide ... «el —|—- | Palearctic 


= . 
-» y > : ~— pee © 


CHAP. XI] 


Order and Family. 


————— 


45. Rhinocerotide 


46. Hippopotamidee 


47. Suide 

49, Tragulide ‘ 
51. Camelopardide 
52. Bovide ... ... 


PROBOSCIDEA. 


53. Elephantide ... | 


HyYRACOIDEA. 
54, Hyracidee 


RoOpENTIA, 


55. Muride ... 
56. Spalacide 
57. Dipodide 
58. Myoxide 

61. Sciuride... ... 
64. Octodontide ... 
65. Echimyide 
67. Hystricide 
70. Leporide 


EDENTATA. 


72. Manidide 
74. Orycteropodidar 


BIRDS. 
PASSERES. 


1, Turdide... 
2. Sylviide... 
3. Timaliide 
5. Cinclide?... 
6. Troglodytide 

9, Sittide ...... 
a0, Paride ... ... 
13. Pycnonotide ... 
14. es ‘ 
15. Campe ide 
16. ~via aA 
17. Muscicapide... 
19. Laniide ... ... 
20. Corvide .;. ; 
23. Nectariniide... 
24. Diceide y 
30. Hirundinide... 
33. Fringillide 
34. Ploceide 

35. Sturnide 

37. Alaudide 


| 
| 


Sub-regions, 


| 


— 


THE ETHIOPIAN REGION, 295 


: phy 
Range beyond the Region. 


Oriental 


Cosmopolite ; excl. Australia 
Oriental 


All regions but Neotrop. and Australian 
Oriental 
Syria 


Cosmopolite ; excl. Oceania 
Palearctic, Oriental 
Palearctic, Nearctic 
Palearctic 

All regions but Australian 
|N. Africa, Neotropical 
Neotropical 

| S. Palearctic, Oriental 

| All regions but Australian 


| 
Oriental 


| 
| Almost Cosmopolite 
, Cosmopolite 

Oriental, Australian 

| Widely scattered 

| Almost Cosmopolite 
Palearctic, Oriental, Australian 
| All regions but Australian 
| Oriental 

Oriental, Australian 

Oriental, Australian 

Oriental, Australian 

The Eastern Hemisphere 

The Eastern Hemisphere and North America 
Cosmopolite 

Oriental, Australian 

Oriental, Australian 
‘Cosmopolite 
_Cosmopolite, except Australian region 
Oriental, Australian 
Eastern Hemisphere 

Eastern Hemisphere and North America 


296 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY [PART III. 


| Sub-regions. 


Range beyond the Region. 


Order and Family. gdledlee | p' a 
S&|22|\55|33 
<|Fa\|a< |= 
88. Motacillide ... | — — | — ; — |The Eastern Hemisphere 
47. Pittide ... | rae Australian 
48. Paictide nog | 
PICARIA. | | 
51. Esse — | Sug Pent excl. Australian region 
52. Yungide ss... alzarctic 
53. Indicatoride ... | Oriental 


54. Megalemidz... | 


56. Musophagide 
57. Coliide ... 
58. Cuculide 


Oriental, Neotropical 
59. Leptosomide ‘ | 


DOs 2 eg es ce 


Cosmopolite 


62. Coraciide ... | — | 
63. Meropide 

66. Trogonid 

67. Alcedinide ... 
68. Bucerotide ... 
69. Upupide 

70. Irrisoridee 


Oriental, Australian 
Oriental, Australian 
Oriental, Neotropical 
— | Cosmopolite 

Oriental and to N. Guinea 
— | Palearctic, Oriental 


bere 


bara 
Rete eo ae 


it ets 


73. Caprimulgide = — | Cosmopolite 

74. Cypselide ... — — | Almost Cosmopolite 
PSITTACI. 

78. Paleornithide | — | -- — | Oriental 

81. Psittacide ...| — | — | — Neotropical 
CoLUMB. 

84. Columbide ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 

85. Didide ... — | (Extinct) 
GALLINE. 


86. Pteroclide ... | — — 
87. Tetraonide ... | — — 
88. Phasianide ... | —|— | — 
89. Turnicide _— — 


Palearctic, Oriental 

Kastern Hemisphere and N. America 
Old World and N. America 

Eastern Hemisphere. 


ACCIPITRES, 


94. Vulturide All the continents but Australia 


95, Falconide ee i WEES Cusmopolite 
96. Serpentariide |—|—|— 

97. Pandionide ,.. | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 
98. Strigide —|— | — | — | Cosmopolite 
GRALLM. 

99. Rallide —|— | — | — | Cosmopolite 
100, Scolopacide... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 
103. Parride —j|—}— | — | Tropical 


104. Glareolide i 


Eastern Hemisphere 
105, Charadriide -- 


| Cosmopolite 


OHAP, XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 297 


——— OO ——E———— 


Sub-regions. | 
Order and Family. |.» d | eg|ad|a¢ Range beyond the Region. 
ME|SE| Seles 
qq |" 414% 
106. Otidide ... | -—|—|— Kastern Hemisphere 


107. Gruidee we | 
113. Ardeide we | 
114. Plataleide ... | — 
115. Ciconiide ... | — 
117. Pheenicopteride, — 


ee All regions but Neotropical 
— | — | — | Cosmopolite 

— | Almost Cosmopolite 
— | — | — | Almost Cosmopolite 

— | Oriental and Neotropical 


ANSERES. 
118. Anatide ... | — 


119. Laride .. ... | — 
120. Procellariidie os 


— | — | — | Cosmopolite 
— | — | — | Cosmopolite 
— | — | — | Cosmopolite 


121. Pelecanide ... | — | — — | Cosmopolite 

122. Spheniscide — South temperate regions 
124, Podicipide .. | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 

126. Struthionide | — = Temperate S. America 
131. &pyornithide —- | (Extinct) 

OPHIDIA. 


. Typhlopide ... | — — | — | All regions but Nearctic 
os Warms parts of all regions 
— | — | Almost Cosmopolite 
Oriental, and all other regions 


— | — | Oriental and S. Palearctic 


1 

5. Calamariide ... | — 
7. Colubride ... | — 
8. Homalopside 

9. Psammophide | — 
10. Rachiodontide 

11. Dendrophide — 
12. Dryiophide ... 

13. Dipsadide ... | — 
15. Lycodontide... | — 
17. Pythonide ... | — 
18. Erycide ... ... 

20. Elapide ... ... -— 
21. Dendraspidide | — 
22. Atractaspidide 
23. Hydrophide ... 
25. Viperide 


— | — | Oriental, Australian, Neotropical 

— | Oriental, Neotropical 

i Oriental, Australian, Neotropical 

coos Oriental 

— | — | All tropical regions 

Oriental, S. Palearctic. 

ee Tropical regions, S. U. States and Japan 


REPTILIA. 


— | Oriental, Australian, Panama 
— | — | Oriental, Palearctic 


LACERTILIA. 


28. Amphisbenide 
29. Lepidosternide 
30. Varanide 

33. Lacertide 

84. Zonuride .... — 
40. Chamesauride 
41. Gymnopthal- 


S. Europe, Neotropical 
N. America 
| Warm parts of E. Hemisphere 


| All continents but America 
— | All America, N. India, S. Europe 


| 
| — | Palearctic, Australian, Netropical 


| 
mide ... | | oe 
45. Scincide  ...;— | — | — | — Almost Cosmopolite 
47. Sepide ... ... — | — |— | — South Palearctic 


48. Acontiade ... — Ceylon and Moluccas. 
49. Geckotide ... -- —'-— | — Almost cosmopolite 


298 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY, [PART U1. 
Sub-regions. 


Order and Family. ; : , | ; Range beyond the Region, 


Oriental, Australian, S. Palearctic 
Oriental, S. Palearctic 


51. Agamide PY ay) ey ee 
52. Chameleonide eo ae 


| 


CROCODILIA. 
55. Crocodilide ... | — | — 


Oriental, Neotropical 


CHELONIA. 


57. Testudinide . 
58. Chelydide 
59. Trionychidee. 
60. Cheloniid 


All continents but Australia 
Australia, S. America 

Oriental, Japan, E. United States 
Marine 


Eb uae 


PSEUDOPHIDIA. 


1. Ceciliadee Oriental, Neotropical 


ANOURA. 


7. Phryniscide .. 

9. Bufonidee 

a1. Engystomide.. 
14, Alytide ... 

17. Polypedatide | 
18. Ranide... . 
19. Discoglossida 
21. Dactylethridee 


Neotropical, Australia, Java 
All regions but Australian 
All regions but Palearctic 
All regions but Oriental 

All the regions 

Almost Cosmopolite 

All regions but Nearctic 


—_——————————____—wxXee——qq—wq uw“ 


eo. 


FISHES (FRESH- 
WATER). 


ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


: | 
AMPHIBIA. 
= 
/ 
| | 7 
| 
& Pireldw... a | 2 | All regions but Australian 
12. Scienide ...{—|—|— All regions but Australian 
35. Labyrinthici ... — | Oriental, Moluccas 
38. Mugillide _. | Australian, Neotropical 
} 
/ 


52. Chromide ... | — — | Oriental, Neotropical 


PHYSOSTOMI. 


59. Siluride... — 
60, Characinide ... | — 


) 

! 

| 

| 

| — | All warm regions 
68. Mormyride ... | — 


Neotropical 


69. Gymnarchide -- 
73, Cyprinodontidie | — 
75. Cyprinide ... | — 
78. Osteoglosside | — 
82. Notopteride ... 


— | Palearctic, Oriental, American 

— | Absent from Australia and 8. America 
All —S regions 
Orienta 


as at 


GANOIDEL, 


92. Sirenoidei ... | — 
94. Polypteride ... | — 


Neotropical, Australian 


rw 
ae. , 
ae ye, ag? - gM ae 


CHAP. XI] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 299 


Sub-regions. 


Order and Family. were es are oe a Range beyond the Region. 

45/82 (sis & 

RElPESE|Se 

< q | aq A Bp 
INSECTS. LEPI- 
DOPTERA (PART). 

Divxni (BUTTER- 
FLIES). 
. Danaide | — | — | — | —- | All warm countries and Canada 
. Satyride ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 


. Elymniide ... a2 Oriental, Moluccas 
. Acreide... ... | — | — | — 
. Nymphalide... | — | — | — 
. Libytheide ... 


1 
2 
3 
6 All tropical regions 
8 
9 = 
10. Nemeobiide .. — 
13 
14 
15 
16 


< Cosmopolite 

— | Absent from Australia only’ 

— | Absent from Australia and Nearctic region 
. Lycenide ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 
. Pieride ... ... | —|— | — | — 
. Papilionide ... | — | — | — |] — 
. Hesperide ... |; — | —/|— | — 
| 
| 


Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 


SPHINGIDEA. 


17. Zygenide ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 

19. Agaristide ... | — | — | — | — | Australian, Oriental 

20. Uraniide _... — | All tropical regions 

22. Hgeriide ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite, excl. Australia 
Beemuinpide :.. | — | — | — , — | Cosmopolite 


> 


300 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. : [PART III, 


TABLE IL 


LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS 
INHABITING THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. — 


EXPLANATION. 


Names in italics show genera peculiar to the region. 

Names iuclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but are not considered 
properly to belong to it. 

Genera which undoubtedly belong to the region are numbered consecutively. 


MAMMALIA. 
Order, Fok and 38 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. | 
2 
PRIMATES. 
SIMIID&. 
1. Troglodytes ...| 2|W. Africa to Western Nile 
Sources 
SEMNOPITHECID2. 
2. Colobus ... ... | 11 | Abyssinia to West Africa 
-CYNOPITHECIDS. 
3. Myiopithecus ... | 1 | West Africa 


4, Cercopithecus ... | 24 | Tropical Africa 


5. Cercocebus By 5 | West Africa 

6. Theropithecus ... 2 | North-east Africa, Arabia, Palestine 

7. Cynocephalus ... | 10 | Nubia to Cape, W. Africa, 

Arabia 
(Sub-Order) 

LEMUROIDEA. 

LEMURID2. 

8. Indris .. | 6 | Madagascar 

9. Lemur... ... | 15 | Madagascar 

10. Hapalemur .. 2 | Madagascar | 

11. Microcebus 4 | Madagascar 

12. Chirogaleus ... | 5 | Madagascar 

13. Lepilemur ... | 2 | Madagascar 

14. Perodicticus ... | 1 | Sierra Leone 

15. Arctocebus ... 1 Old Calabar 

16. Galago ... ... | 14 | Tropical and S. Afrien 

CHIROMYIDA, / a 
17. Chiromys... ... | 1 | Madagascar ) 
CHIROPTERA. | 

PreRovip™. ) ) 

18. Pteropus... ... | 7 Africa and Madagascar Tropicsof Eastern He 

ere is 

19. Xantharpya ... 1 “Au Africa | Onental, Austro-Mels u 


. 


CHAP, X1.] 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


20. Cynopterus 
21. Epomophorus . 


22. Hypsignathus ... 


RAINOLOPHID.®. 
23. 


24. 
25. Phyllorhina 


26. Asellia 


27. Megaderma 
28. Nycteris ... 


VESPERTILIONID, 


29. Vespertilio 
30. Kerivoula 
31. Miniopteris 
32. Nycticejus 
33. Taphozous 
NOcriLionIpD&, 


34. Nyctinomus 
35. Molossus ... 


INSECTIVORA. 
MACROSCELIDID. 


36. Macroscelides ... 


37. Petrodromus 
88. Lhynchocyon 
EuINACEIDA. 
39. Erinaceus... 


CENTETID. 

. Centetes 

. Hemicentetes 
42. Kriculus ... 
43. Oryzorictes 
44. Echinops ... 
POTAMOGALID&. 
45. Potamogale 


CHRYSOCHLORIDA, 
46. Chrysochloris . 


Soricip2£. 
47. Sorex 


Rhinolophus ... 


Macronycterys ... 


THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 
3% Range within the Region. 
an 
"2 

1 | Tropical Africa 
6 | Tropical Africa and Abyssinia 
1 | W. Africa 
6 Africa and Madagascar 
1 | W. Africa 
4 | Tropieal Africa 
1 | Nubia 
1 | Senegal, Upper Nile 
3 | All Africa 
14 | Africa and Madagascar 
1 |S. Africa 
1 |S. Africa 
7 | Tropical Africa 
2 


Africa and Madagascar 


1 | Madagascar 


J) 


Africa, Bourbon 


South and East Africa 


» 

1 | Mozambique 

1 | Mozambique 

2 Cen, and South Africa 

2 Madagascar and Mauritius 
2 Madagasear 

2 | Madagascar 

1 Madagascar 


% Madagascar 


1 Old Calabar 


3 Cape to Mozambique 


15 All Africa and Madagascar 


| tange beyond the Region, 


Oriental 


Warmer parts of Eastern 
Hemisphere 


Indo-Malaya, Austro- 
| Malaya 
_Indo-Malaya, <Austro- 
| Malaya 

Oriental, Moluccas 
Java 


' Cosmopolite 
_ Oriental 
Indo- Malaya 
India 
Oriental, Austro-Malay- 
an, Neotropical 
| 
Oriental, American, S. 
Palearctic 
Neotropical, 8. Paleare- 
tic 


| 
| N. Africa. 


_Palearetic, N. India 


Palware., Neare., Ori 


02 


Order, Family, and 
enw 


Ss. 


CARNIVORA. 


Feip. 

48. Selig... °...3 
49. Lynx [?] ... 
50. Cynelurus 


CRYPTOPROCTIDA. 
51. Cryptoprocta .... 


VIVERRIDZ. 


. Viverra ... 
. Genetta ... 
. Fossa 

. Poiana ‘ 
. Galidia ... 
. Nandinia 

. Galidictis 
. Herpestes 
. Athylux ... 
. Caloyale ... 
. Galerella ... 
. Ariela 

. Ichneumia 
. Bdeogale ... 
. Helogale .., 
. Cynictis ... 
. Lhinogale 
. Mungos 

. Crossarchus 
. Hupleres ... 
. Suricata ... 


PROTELID. 
73. Proteles 


HYANIDs. 
74, Hyena 


CANIDA. 


75. Lycaon 
76. Canis “ 
77. Megalotis ... 


Muste.ipa, 
78. Mustela .. 


79. Gymnopus [?] a 


80. Aonyx .. 
81. Hydrogale 
82, Mellivora 
83, Lelonyx 


OTARIIDA, 
84, Arctocephalus 


No. of 


| 


_ 


me HCO WNW RHE OW WN ROH Dee 


pmnmeeee 


pecies. 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Range within the Region. 


All Africa 
N. and S. Africa 
Cape of Good Hope 


Madagascar 


Tropical Africa 
Tropical and S, Africa 
Madagascar 

W. Africa 
Madagascar 

W. Africa 
Madagascar 

All Atrica 

S. and E. Africa (?) Madagascar 
Tropical and 8. Africa 
E. Africa 


S. Africa 


K. Africa, Senegal, 8. Africa 
Tropical Africa 

EK. and S. Africa 

S. Africa 

K. Africa 

Tropical and S. Africa 
Tropical Africa 

Nihaceicas 

S. Africa 


S. Africa 


All Africa 


S., Central, and E. Africa 
All Africa 
S. Africa 


Angola 

S. Africa 

S. and W. Africa 

S. Africa 

South and Tropical Africa, 
Tropical and 8, Africa 


Cape of Good Hope 


——— eee ee See oe EE SEES -_SaEaEeCas. 
—_—_—_—_ ' 


[PART lit. 


Range beyond the Region. 


All reg. but Australian 
Palearctic and Nearctie 
Persia, India 


Oriental 
S. Palearctic 


S. Europe, Oriental 


Oriental 


S. Palwartie, India 
Almost Cosmopolitan 


Palearctic, Nearetie 
Oriental 
Oriental 


India 


South Temperate Zone | 


CHAP, XI.] 
Order, Family, and Sg 
Genus. os 
AD 
SIRENIA. 
MANATID&. 
85. Manatus 1 
86. Halicore ee 
UNGULATA. 
Equipa. 
87. Equus = 
RHINOCEROTID. | 
88. Rhinoceros 4 


HipporoTaMIDs£. 
89. Hippopotamus 2 


Sumpz&. 


90. Potamochwrus 
91. Phacocherus ... 


bow 


TRAGULID2. 
92. Hyomoschus .. 1 


CAMELOPARDALID2. 
93. Camelopardalis | 1 


Bovip2z. 


94. Bubalus... ' 
a 
96. Tragelaphus ... 
97. Oryx. 

98. Gazella ... 


bow Oh CO 


ee 


99. 
100. 
101, 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105, 
106. 
107. 
108. 


LE piyceros 
Cervicapra 
Kobus 
Pelea sy 
Nanotragus .. 
Neotragus ... | 
Cephalophus ... | 
Hippotraqus ... | 
Alcephalus 
Catoblepas 
(Capra ... 


bo 
Wise OH ee 


tan] 
— 


me bo 


| 
PROBOSCIDEA. | 
ELEPHANTID&. | 
109. Elephas .., 


— 


THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 


Range within the Region. Range beyoud the Reyion. 


W. Africa 


| Tropical America 
Ki. Africa 


Oriental and Australian 


| 
| 
| 


Tropical and S. Africa 


Palearctic 


All Tropical and 8. Africa Oriental 


Great Rivers of Africa 


Tropical Africa and Madg. 
Abyssinia to Caffraria 


W. Africa 
All open country 


' Trop. and 8. Africa | India 
Africa 8. of Sahara 
Africa 8. of Sahara 
Arabian and African deserts 
Africa N. of Equator and S, 
Africa 
S. E. Africa 
All Tropical Africa 
Pastures of all Africa 
South Africa 
Africa S. of Sahara 
Abyssinia and N. KE. Africa 
All tropical Africa 
Gambia, Central Africa to Cape 
| All Africa 
Africa 8. of Equator 
Abyssinia, high) 


S. Palearctic 
| Palwaretic Deserts 


| 
| Palearctic genus 


| 


| Tropical and 8. Africa Oriental 


CS ~ ae 
z i 
sds 
=> 
- 4 
" 
4 
r 
e 
* 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART ur 
f 


Order, Family, and 


Genus. Range within the Region. 


Range beyond the Region. 


No. ot 
Species. 


——— ee OF ere ie 3 


HYRACOIDEA. | 
HYRACID&, 
110, Hyrax 10 Tropical and S. Africa Syria 
| 
RODENTIA. 
Muvripa. 
111. Mus | 26 | All Africa E. Hemis, excl. Oceania 
112. Lusiomys <1 |W. Afrtea 
113. Acanthomys... | 4 | Tropical Africa India 
114. Cricetomys ... | 1 | Tropical Africa 
115. Saccostomus ... | 2 , Mozambique 
116. Dendromys | 21S. Africa 
117. Nesomys... _ 1 | Madagascar 
118. Steatomys | 2 | Kast and S. Africa 
119. Pelomys ... | 1 | Mozambique 
120. Otomys ... 6 |S. and E. Africa 
121. Meriones .. | 14 | Africa | Palearctic, India 
122. Malacothriz ... | 2 |S. Africa 1 
123. Mystromys 1 |S. Africa | 
124. Brachytarsomys | 1 | Madagascar 
125. Hypogeomys .. 1 | Madagascar | 
126. Lophiomys ...| 1 |S. Arabia and N, E, Africa | 
SPALACIDA. | 
127. Rhizomys 4 | Abyssinia | Oriental to Malacca 
128. Bathyerges 1 |S. Africa 
129. Georychus ... | 6 | E. Central, and S, Africa 
130. Heliophobius... | 1 | Mozambique 
Dipopip&, 
131. Dipus ... | 7 |N. and Central Africa Central Palearctic 
132. Pedetes ... ... | 1 |S. Af. to Mozambique and Angola, 
Myoxipa#. | | . 
133. Myoxus . | 1 | Africa to Cape Palearctic 
ScurRiIpDm. 
134, Secimrus ...... | 18 | All woody districts of Africa Allregions but Australia 
135. Anomalurus... | 5 | W. Africa and Fernando Po. . 
OCTODONTIDA. / 
136, Pectinator 1 | Abyssinia 
EomimMy1pm™. 
137. Petromys 1 |S. Africa | 
138. Aulacodes .| 1|W., BE, and S. Africa | 
Hysrricipa. | | 
139. Hystrix ... 1 | Africa to Cape |S. Palearctic Oriental 
140, Atherura | 1/1 W. Africa | Palearctic 


; CHAP. XI.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 305 
Order, Family, and Se Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
Genus. oe. 
| - 2) 
LEPoRID&. 
141. Lepus 5 | East and South Africa Allregions but Australian 
EDENTATA. 
MANIDID&. 
142. Manis ... ... | 4 |Sennaar to W. Africa and Cape | Oriental 
ORYCTEROPODID®. 
143. Orycteropus ... | 2 |N. E. Africa to Nile Sources, and 
S. Africa 
BIRDS. 
PASSERES. 
TURDID. 
1. Turdus ..._ ... | 13 | The whole reg. (excl. Madagas.) | Almost Cosmopolite 
2. Monticola ve) 2 |S. Aftica Palearctic and Oriental 
3. Chetops ... ... | 3 |S. Africa 
4. Bessonornis ... | 15 | The whole region Palestine 
SYLVIIDA. 
al Drymeca... ... | 70 | The whole region Palestine 
6.) Cisticola ... ... | 13 | The whole region Paleare. Orien., Austral. 
ie | Sphenwacus ... | 1 |S. Africa Australian 
8.\Camaroptera ... | 5 | Africa : 
9.(Acrocephalus ... | 8 | The whole region Palearc.,Orien., Austral. 
10. | Bradyptetus ... | 8 | Abyssinia and 8. Africa S. Europe, Palestine 
11.) Catriscus... ... | 3 | All Africa 
12.) Bernieria... ...; 1 | Madagascar . 
13 | ziti ae | 1 | Madagascar 
14. \Mystacornis ... | 1 | Madagascar 
15.{Phylloscopus ... | 1 |S. Africa | Palearctic, Oriental 
16.) Eremomela ... | 16 } All Africa 
a Cece i ae Madagascar 
18. \Hypolais ... | 2|S. Africa Palearctic, Oriental 
19. eee 8 | EK. and 8S. Africa Palearctic 
20.) Sylvia 3 |N. E. Africa, Gambia, Cape} Palearctic, Oriental 
| Verd Ids. 
21,\Curruca ... ... 2 |S. Africa Palearctic 
22. J Ruticilla ... 2 | Abyssinia and Senegal Palearctic, Oriental 
23. \Cyanecula 2) N E. Africa Palearctic 
24, |Copsychus 2 Madagascar and Seychelle Ids. | Oriental 
25. | Thamnobia 7 | All Atrica Oriental 
26. | Cercotrichas 2;W.andN E, Africa 
27. | Peoptera... | 1 | W. Africa 
28.¢ Gervasia ... 2 Madagascar and Seychelle Ids. 
29. | Dromolwa 13.) All Afriea S. Palearctic, I dia 
30. |Saxicola . 14 | Central, E. and S. Africa Palearctic, India 
$1. | Cercomela . | 81N. E. Africa Palestine, N. W. India 
$2. | Pratincola | 7 Africa and Madagascar Palearctic, Oriental 


« 


306 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


TIMALIID2. 


33. Chatarrhea 
34. Crateropus 
35. Hypergerus 
36. Cichladusa 
37. Alethe 

38. Oxylabes ... 


CINCLIDA. [7] 
39. JIlesites 


TROGLODYTID2.[?] 
40. Sylvietta... 


SITTID. 
41. Hypherpes 


PARIDA. 


42. Parus 

43. Parisoma... 
44. AMgithalus 
45. Parinia ... 


PYCNONOTIDA. 


46. Pycnonotus 
47. Phyllastrephus 
48. Hypsipetes 
49. T'ylas 

50. Criniger ... 
51. Ixonotus ... 
52. Andropadus 
53, Lioptilus... 


ORIOLIDA. 


54. Oriolus 
55. Artamia |") 


56, Cyanolanius [7] | 


CAMPEPHAGIDA. 


57. Lanicterus 
58. Oxynotus... 
59, Campephaga 


Dicrurnipm 
60. Dicrurus ... 


MUSCICAPIDA, 
61. Butalis 
62, Muscicapa 


63, Alseonax ... 
64. Newlonia... 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


No. of 
Species. 


— 
bo & OR SIT 


_ 


ef St Or 


_ 
Foor ew 


_ 
Ke Ooo 


orn oS 


Range within the Region. 


Abyssinia 

All Africa 

W. Africa 

W. and E. Africa 
W. Africa 
Madagascar 


Madagascar 
Central, E. and 8. Africa 
Madagascar 


All Africa 
All Africa 
W., Central, and S. Africa 
W. Africa, Prince’s Island 


All Africa 

W. and S. Africa 

Madagascar and Mascarene Ids 
Madagascar ; 

W. and 3. Africa 

W. Africa 

Africa and Madagascar 

S. Africa 


All Africa 
Madagascar 
Madagascar 


All Africa 
Mauritius and Bourbon 
The whole region 


The whole region 


All Africa 

All tropical Africa 
S. Africa 
Madagasear 


Range beyond the Region. 


Oriental, Palestine 
N. Africa, Persia 


Paleare., Orien., Neare. 


Palearctic 


S. Palearctic, Oriental 
. | Oriental 


Oriental 


Palearctic, Oriental 


Celebes to New Caledonia — 


Oriental, Australian 


Palearctic, N. Oriental 
Palwarctic 
Oriental 


rae 


CHAP. XI. ] 


THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 


eee perally, and 38 
enus. oo 

Aa 
65, Hyliota 2 
66. Erythrocercus ... 2 
67. Artomyias 2 
68. Pseudobias ] 
69. Smithorius 2 
70. Megabias ... 1 
71. Cassinia ... 2 
72. Bias... 1 
73. Elininia ge 2 
74. Platystira ... | 12 
75. Tchitrea ... ... | 18 


76. Pogonocichla . 
77. Bradyornis 


s~TI - 


LANIID2. 


78. Parmoptila [2]... | 1 

79. Calicalicus Z 

80. Lanius ....... | 15 
| 81. Hypocolius ms 1 

82. Corvinella 1 

83. Urolestes ... 1 
84. Fraseria ... 2 
85. Hypodes ... 1 
86. Cuphoterus ... 1 
oT ] 
ma FYEONOPS ... .«.. 9 
89. Eurocephalus ... 2 
90. Chawnonotus .. 1 
91. Vanga at ae: 
92. Laniarius ... | 38 
Oa. Meristes ... ... 2 
meuvecator ... ...)° 1 
95. Telephonus ... | 10 


CORVID2. 

96. Ptilostomus ... 2 

ae GOFVUS ... .- 7 

98. Corvultur... ... 2 

99. Picathartes ... 
(Fregilus... .../| 1 

NECTARINIID2. 


100. Nectarinia ... | 55 
101. Promerops _... 1 
102. Cinnyricinclus 4 
‘103. Neodrepanis .. 1 


Diczip2. 


104. Zosterops ... | 23 
105. Pholidornis ... | 1 


HIRUNDINID 2. 
106. Hirundo... ... | 17 


Range within the Region. 


W. Africa 
Tropical Africa 
W. Africa 
Madagascar 

W. and §, Africa 
W. Africa 

W. Africa 
Tropical Africa 
Tropical Africa 
All Africa 

The whole region 
S. Africa 

All Africa 


W. Africa 
Madagascar 

All Africa 
Abyssinia 

S. and W, Africa 

S. Africa 

W. Africa 

W. Africa 

Prince’s Island 

All Africa 

All Africa 

N. E. and S. Africa 
W. Africa 
Madagascar 

All Africa, Madagascar [?] 
W. and S. E. Africa 
E. Africa 

All Africa 


|W. and E. Africa 

All Africa and Madagascar 
N. E. to S. Africa 

W. Africa 

Abyssinia) 


The whole region 
“S. Africa 

W. Africa 

| Madagascar 


The whole region 
/W. Africa 


| The whole region 


307 


Range beyond the Region. 


Oriental 


Paleare., Orien., Neare. 


N. Africa 


Cosmop., excl. S, Amer. 


Palearctic genus 


Oriental and Australian 


Cosmopolite 
Ez 


308 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


107. Psalidoprogne 
108. Phedina... .. 
109. Petrochelidon 
110. Chelidon: 

111. Cotyle ... 
112. Waldenia 


FRINGILLIDZ. 
113. Dryospiza 


114. Chlorospiza 


115. Passer 

116. Crithagra 

117. Ligurnus 
(Erythrospiza 

118. Pinicola [?] 


119. Fringillaria ... 


PLOCEIDA. 
129. Textor 


121. Hyphantornis 
122. Symplectes ,.. 


123. Malimbus 
124. Ploceus ... 


125. Nelicurvius ... 


126. Foudia 
127. Sporopipes 


128. Pyromelana ... 


129. Phileterus 
130. Nigrita ... 
131. Plocepasser 
132. Vidua ... 


133. Colliuspasser. Se 


134. Chera 


135, Spermospiza ... 


136. Pyrenestes 

137. Estrilda... 

138. Pytelia ... 

139. Lfypargos 

140. Amadina 

141. Spermestes .. 
142. Amauresthes ... 
143, Hypochera 


STURNIDA. 


144. Dilophus 

145, Buphaga 

146. EHuryceros 
147. Juida 

148. Lamprocalius 
149. Cinnyricinelus 
150. Onychognathus 
151. Spreo... vee 
152. Amydrus 


153, Hartlaubius rf 


No. of 


tk 
HOME DO jae er 


joot bent 
CO Ht EH bD DCO OO 


yw) 


— 
AANKOQRN EH DOH HK DOOD Cr 


a 


nNoe 
— 


nwo TS bd 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Range within the Region. 


The whole region 
Madagascar and Mauritius 
S. Africa 

Bogos-land 

All Africa 

W. Africa 


All Africa 

Abyssinia to Cape 

All Africa 

All Africa 

W. Africa 

Nubia, Arabia) 
Cameroons, W. Africa 
All Africa 


All Africa 

Tropical and 8. Africa 
Tropical and S. Africa 
W. and E. Africa 

W. and E. Africa 
Madagascar 


Tropical Africa, Madagascar, &e. 


Tropical and 8. Africa 

Tropical and S Africa 

S. Africa 

W. and N. E. Africa 
E. and 8S. Africa 

Tropical and S. Africa 

Tropical and 8. Africa 

S. Africa 

W. Africa 

Tropical and S. Africa 

Tropical and 8. Africa 

Tropical and 8S, Africa 

K. Africa, Madagascar 

Tropical and 8. Africa 

The whole region 

EK. and W. Africa 
Tropical and 8. Africa 


8. Africa, Loanda, Sennaar 


Madagascar ([?] a family) 
Tropical and S, Africa 
Tropical and S, Africa 
Tropical and 8, Africa 
W. Africa 

Tropical and S, Africa 
N. K. Africa 
Madagascar 


Loh and S. Africa ({?] a family) 


[PART III, 


Range beyond the Region. 


Neotropical 
Palearctic, Oriental 
Palearctic, Oriental 


S. Palearctic 
Palearctic 
Palearctic, Oriental 
N. Africa, Syria 


S. Palearctic genus 
N. Temperate genus 
South Palearctic 


Oriental 


Oriental 


Palestine 


CHAP, X1.] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 309 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 


a 


154. Faleulia . | 1 | Madagascar 
1 


Order, Family, and og 
Genus. Se 
v4 

155. Fregilupus Bourbon 

ALAUDID&. 
156. Alauda ... 3 | Abyssinia and S. W. Africa Palearctic, Indian 
157. Spizocorys 1 | South Africa 
158. Galerida... 4 | North of tropical Africa Palearctic, Indian 
159. Calendula 2 | Abyssinia, S. Africa 

(Melanocorypha} 1 | Abyssinia) Palearctic genus 

160. Certhilauda ... | 8 | South Africa S. Europe | 
161. Alaemon 3 | South Africa 3. Palearctic 
162. Heterocorys ... | 1 | South Africa ; , 
163. Mirafra .. 10 ; South Africa, Madagascar Oriental, Australian 
164. Ammomanes .. | 4 | African deserts S. Palearctic, Indian 
165. Megalophonus 5 | Tropical and S. Africa 
166. Tephrocorys ...| 2 |S. Africa 
167. Pyrrhulauda .. | 6 | Tropical and S. Africa Oriental, Canary Islands 

MOoTAcILup”. ; 
168. Motacilla 8 | The whole region Palearctic, Oriental, 

Australian 

169. Anthus ... 10 | Tropical and S. Africa All regions, exc. Australian 
170. Macronyz 4 | Tropical and S. Africa 

PITTIDA. 
171. Pitta 1 |W. Africa Oriental, Australian 

PAICTIDA. 
172. Philepitta 2 | Madagascar 
PICARI &, 

Picip2. 
173. Verreauxia ...| 1 |W. Africa 
174. Dendropicus ... | 14 | Tropical and S. Africa 
175. Campethera ... | 14 | Tropical and S. Africa 
176. Geocolaptes 1 | South Africa 

YUNGID2. 
177. Yunx 1 |N. E. Africa, S. Africa Palearctic 

INDICATORIDE. | 
178. Indicator _ 8 | Tropical and S. Africa Oriental 


MEGALEMID2. 


179. Pogonorhynchus | 14 


180. Buccanodon ... 1 | West Africa 

181. Stactolama ...| 1 | West Africa ° 

182. Barbatula 9 | West and South Africa 

183. Xylobucco 3 | West and South Africa 

184. Gymnobucco ... 3 | West Africa 

185. Trachyphonus 6 | Tropical and South Africa 
MUSOPHAGID£. 

186. Musophaga 2 | West Africa 


Tropical and S. Africa 


310 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PARTY IIL. 


Order, Fem » and 3: Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
4 va 

187. Turacus.. 10 | Tropical and S. Africa 
188. Schizorhis 6 | Tropical and S, Africa 

CoLiiID2. 
189. Colius 7 | Tropical and S, Africa 

CUCULID2. 
190. Ceuthmochares 2 | Africa and Madagascar 
191. Coua  ... ... | 9 | Madagascar 
192. Cochlothraustes 1 | Madagascar 
193. Centropus 8 | Africa and Madagascar Oriental, Australian 
194. Cuculus... . | 10 | Africa and Madagascar Palearc., Orien., Austral, 
195. Chrysococcyx 7 | Tropical and S. Africa Oriental, Australian 
196. Coccystes 6 | Tropical and S. Africa S. Palearctic, Oriental 

LEPTOSOMIDZ. 
197. Leptosomus ... | 1 | Madagascar 

CoRACIID&. 
198. Coracias... 5 | Africa and Madagascar S. Palearctic, Oriental 
199. Eurystomus ... | 3 | Africa and Madagascar Oriental, Australian 
200. Alelornis 2 | Madagascar 
201. Brachypteracias| 1 | Madagascar 
202. Geobiastes 1 | Madagascar 

MEROPID2. 
203. Merops ..._... | 11 | Africa and Madagasear S. Palear., Orien., Austral. 
204. Melittophagus 5 | Tropical and 8. Africa 

TROGONIDA. 
205. Apaloderma ... | 2 | Tropical and S, Africa 

ALCEDINID2. 


206. Aleedo ... .. W. Africa, Abyssinia, Natal 
207. Corythornis ... Africa and Madagascar 


- Palear., Orien., Austral. 
208. Ceryle ... ... | 1 |W. Africa, Abyssinia, Natal 
. 2 
4 
0 


American, Palearetic 
209, Myioceyx West Africa 
210. Ispidina... Africa and Madagascar 


211. Halcyon... eee ie Africa, Prince’s Is., St. Thomé |S. Palear., Orien. Austral. 
BuUCEROTIDA, 

212. Berenicornis... | 1 | West Africa Malaya 

218. Tockus .. ... | 12 | Tropical and S, Africa 

214. Bycanistes ... | 6 | Tropical and 8S. Africa 

215. Bucorvus ... | 2 | Tropical and 8, Africa 
Ururip&. 


i) 


216. Upupa ... Africa and Madagascar S. Palearctic, Oriental 


IRRISORID.®. 


> —§ 
-~ 


917. Irrisor ... 


Africa and Madagascar 


CHAP. XI. ] 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


CAPRIMULGIDS. 


218. Caprimulgus . 
219. Scortornis 
220. Macrodipteryx 
221. Cosmetornis 


CyYPsELID. 


222. Cypselus ... 
223. Collocalia 
224. Chetura ... 


PSITTACI. 
PALHORNITHID. 
225. Paleornis 


PSITTACID. 

226. Coracopsis 
227. Psittacus 

228. Peocephalus ... 
229. Agapornis 
230. Poliopsitta 


COLUMB. 
CoLUMBIDZ. 


231. Treron 
232. Alectraenas 


233. Columba 
234. Ena ver 
235. Turtur ... 


236. Aplopelia 


237. Chalcopelia ... 


Dip1D (extinct) 
238. Didus 


GALLIN &. 
PTEROCLID. 


239. Pterocles 


TETRAONIDS. 

240. Ptilopachus ... 

241. Francolinus ... 

242. Peliperdix 

243. Margaroperdix 

244. Coturnix 
(Caccabis 


PHASIANID2. 
245. Phasidus 


ae 


— bo O39 CO 


Doe OD Or mR SD 


or 


© 


mb e et SO et 


% 
S | Range within the Region. 
a 
DR 


| West Africa 


THE ETHIOPIAN REGION, Stl 


Range beyond the Region, 


Africa and Madagascar 
Tropical Africa 

W. Africa to Abyssinia 
Tropical Africa to the Zambesi 


Palearc., Orien., Austral. 


The whole region 
Mascarene Ids., Eee 
Tropical Africa and } 


Palearctic, Oriental 

Oriental, Australian 

adagasear | Cosmop., exc. W. Pale- 
arctic 


W. Africa to Abys. & Mauritius Oriental 


Madagascar and Seychelle Ids. 
W. Africa 

Tropical and S. Africa 
Tropical and 8. Africa 

Trop. Africa and Madagascar 


Africa and Madagascar 
Madagascar and Mase. Ids. (extct 
in Mauritius and Rodriguez) 

Africa and Madagascar 

Tropical and 8. Africa 

Atrica, Madagascar, Comoro an«| Palearctic, Oriental 
Seychelle Islands 

Abyssinia, S. Africa and West 
African Islands 

Tropical and S, Africa 


Oriental 


Palearctic, Oriental 


Mascarene Islands 


Africa and Madagascar S. Palearctic, Indian 


West Africa 
Africa and Madagascar P Palearctic, Indian 


West Africa 


Madagascar 
Tropical and S. Africa 


val ' Paleear., Orient., Austral. 
Abyssinia) 


Palearctic genus 


312 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART III, 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


246. <Agelastes 
247. Acryllium ... 
248. Nuwmida 


TURNICID2. 


249. Turnix . 
250. Ortyxelos 


ACCIPITRES. 
VULTURIDE. 


Ji) eS 2 nr ee 
252, Pseudogyps ... 
253. Otogyps... 
254. Lophogyps 
255, Neophron 


FALCONID2. 


256. Polyboroides ... 
257. Circus per 
258. Urotriorchis ... 
259. Melierax 

260. Astur 

261. Nisoides ... 
262. ELutriorchis 
263. Accipiter 

264. Buteo 

265. Gypaétus 

266. Aquila ... 
267. Nisaétus... 
268, Spizaétus 
269. 
270. 
271. 
272. 
273. 
274. 
275. 


276. 
277. 
278. 
279. 
280. 
281. 
282. 


Lophoctus 
Asturinula 
Dryotriorchis 
Circaétus 
Butastur 
Helotarsus 
Halizetus 


Gypohierax ... 
Elanoides 
Milvus ... 
Elanus ... ... 
Macherhamphus 
Pernis 
ee 
283, Poliohierax ... 
284. Falco 

285, Cerchneis 


SERPENTARIIDA. 
286. Serpentartus .. 


No. of 


Species. 


CO HOH MOH Hoo PD bo Ht et Et bo CO et et 


DowoKH oH 


COBH OH ee eee 


Range within the Region. 


West Africa 
West Africa 


Africa to Natal and Madagascar 


S. Africa and Madagascar 
Africa 


Africa, except W. sub-region 
N. E. Africa to Senegal 
N. E. and 8. Africa 


N. EK. and S. Africa and Senegal 


Africa, exel. west coast 


Africa and Madagascar 
Africa and Madagascar 
W. Africa 

Africa, excl. west coast 
Africa and Madagascar 
Madagascar 
Madagascar 

Africa and Madagascar 
Africa and Madagascar 
N. E. and 8S. Africa 
All Africa 

W. Africa 


All Africa 


All Africa 

Tropical Africa 

W. Africa 

All Africa 

N. EK. Africa 

Tropical and S. Africa 
The whole region 


West and Kast Africa . 

West and N.E. Africa 

The whole region 

Africa 

S. W. Africa and Madagascar 
S. Africa and Madagascar 
Africa and Madagascar 

Kast Africa 

All Africa 

The whole region 


The greater part of Africa 


——————— 
SS 


Range beyond the Region. 


Palearce.,Orient., Austr. 


Palearctic, Oriental 
Oriental 
Palearctic, Oriental 


S. Palearctic, Oriental 


Almost Cosmopolite 
Almost Cosmopolite 


Almost Cosmopolite 
Cosmop., excl. Austral. 
S. Palearctic 


Neare., Paleare., Indian 


S. Palearctic, Oriental, 


Australia 


Neotropical, Oriental to 


N. Guinea 


Palearctic, Oriental 


Oriental to New Guinea 


Cosmopolite, excl. Neo- 


tropical region 


The Eastern Hemisph 
India to Australia 
Malacea 

Palwaretic, Oriental 
India to N. Australia 
Burmah 

Almost Cosmopolite 
Almost Cosmopolite 


i> 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. 313 


gag rhcwapan and 33 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 

PANDIONID&. 

287. Pandion... ... | 1 | All Africa Cosmopolite 

STRIGIDA. 

988. Athene... ... 5 | Africa and Madagascar, Rodri | Palearctic, Oriental, 
quez (extinct) Australian 

289. Bubo ... 8 | Africa and Madagascar Cosmopolite 

290. Scotopelia 2 | West and 8. Africa to Zambesi 

291. Scops .... ... 3 | W. and 8S. Africa, Madagascar,) Almost Cosmopolite 
Comoro Islands 

292. Syrnium 2 | Africa Palearctic, Oriental, 

American 
293. Asio eat cat akw, Gb. Ss ATTICR Cosmopolite 
294. Strix ... ... | 4 | Africa and Madagascar Cosmopolite 


Pecultar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading or Swimming Birds, 
GRALL#. 


RALLIpD2. 
TTimantornis ...| 1 | West Africa 
Podica... 3 | Africa Burmah 
GLAREOLID2. 
Cursorius ..-| 8 | All Africa S. Europe, India 
OTIDID2. 
Eupodotis ... | 16 | All Africa India, Australia 
GRUID. 
Balearica. 2 | All Africa 
ARDEID2Z. 
Baleniceps ... 1 | Upper Nile 
PLATALEID, | 
Scopus ... | 1 | Tropical and 8. Africa | 
ANSERES. 
ANATID2. 
Thalassornis ... 1 | South Africa 
STRUTHIONES. 
STRUTHIONIDA. 
295. Struthio rf 2 | All Africa Syria 
JEPYORNITHID. (Extinct) 


296. Apyornis ... |3[?]) Madagascar 


CHAPTER XII. 
THE ORIENTAL REGION. 


THIS region is of comparatively small extent, but it has a very 
diversified surface, and is proportionately very rich. The de- ~ 
serts on the north-west of India are the debatable land that 
separates it from the Palearctic and Ethiopian regions. The 
great triangular plateau which forms the peninsula of India is 
the poorest portion of the region, owing in part to its arid climate 
and in part to its isolated position ; for there can be little doubt 
that in the later Tertiary period it was an island, separated by an 
arm of the sea (now forming the valleys of the Ganges and 
Indus) from the luxuriant Himalayan and Burmese countries. 
Its southern extremity, with Ceylon, has a moister climate and 
more luxuriant vegetation, and exhibits indications of a former 
extension southwards, with a richer and more peculiar fauna, 
partly Malayan and partly Mascarene in its character. The 
whole southern slopes of the Himalayas, with Burmah, Siam and 
Western China, as well as the Malay peninsula and the Indo- 
Malay islands, are almost everywhere covered with tropical 
forests of the most luxuriant character, which abound in varied 
and peculiar forms of vegetable and animal life. The flora and 
fauna of this extensive district are essentially of one type 
throughout; yet it may be usefully divided into the Indo- 
Chinese and the Malayan sub-regions, as each possesses a 
number of peculiar or characteristic animals. The former sub- 
region, besides having many tropical and sub-tropical types 
of its own, also possesses a large number of peculiarly modi- 
fied temperate forms on the mountain ranges of its northern 


L al 


" Say: Lortoadh ap 


, wu in 


ORIENTAL REGION 


Seale lL inch—L000 miles 


\ 


" 
t 
| 


Wy 
wy 


AHR 
1 


‘see 


ancer 


Marianne 
or ~ 
Ladrone + 
SS. 


c 


\ 


a 
\ 
opic 


— 


tt 
ny 
Re 


i) 


Geographical Estab‘ London. 


Stanfords 


90 Longitude East 100 of Greenwich 110 


White 


| 
coe 
epee 
neo 


0, 


- 5000 
» Above 20,000 feet _ 


- 10,000 


EXPLANATION 


Terrestrial Contours 
| From Sea level to L000 feet 
is shewn by a dotted line 
Pasture lands shewn thus 


L000 feet to 2, 
000 
_,0,000_, 
of the Sub-regions are shewn in Red. 


| she boundries and reference numbers 


| The Marine Contour of 1000 feet 


| 


CHAP, XII.] THE ORLENTAL REGION. 315 


boundary, which are wholly wanting in the Malayan sub- 
region. ‘The Philippine islands are best classed with the Indo- 
Malay group, although they are strikingly deficient in many 
Malayan types, and exhibit an approach to the Celebesian divi- 
sion of the Austro-Malay sub-region. 

Zoological Characteristics of the Oriental Region—The Oriental 
Region possesses examples of 35 families of Mammalia, 71 of 
Birds, 35 of Reptiles, 9 of Amphibia, and 13 of Fresh-water 
Fishes. Of these 163 families, 12 are peculiar to the region ; 
namely, Tarsiide, Galeopithecide, and Tupaiidee among Mam- 
malia, while Adluride, though confined to the higher Himalayas, 
may perhaps with more justice be claimed by the Palearctic re- 
gion ; Liotrichide, Phyllornithidee, and Eurylemide among birds; 
Xenopeltide (extending, however, to Celebes), Uropeltide, and 
Acrochordide among reptiles ; Luciocephalidee, Ophiocephalide 
and Mastacembelide among fresh-water fishes. A number of 
other families are abundant, and characteristic of the region ; and 
it possesses many peculiar and characteristic genera, which must 
be referred to somewhat more in detail. 

Mammalia.—tThe Oriental region is rich in quadrumana, and 
is especially remarkable for its orang-utans and long-armed apes 
(Simia, Hylobutes, and Siamanga); its abundance of monkeys 
of the genera Presbytes and Macacus , its extraordinary long-nosed 
monkey (Presbytes nasalis) ; its Lemuride (Nycticebus and Loris) ; 
and its curious genus Zarsius, forming a distinct family of 
lemurs. All these quadiumanous genera are confined to it, 
except Tarsius which extends as far as Celebes. It pos- 
sesses more than 30 genera of bats, which are enumerated in 
the lists given at the end of this chapter. In Insectivora it is 
very rich, and possesses several remarkable forms, such as the 
flying lemur (Galeopithecus) ; the squirrel-like Tupaiide consisting 
of three genera; and the curious Gymnura allied to the hedge- 
hogs. In Carnivora, it is especially rich in many forms of civets 
(Viverride), possessing 10 peculiar genera, among which Prio- 
nodon and Cynogale are remarkable; numerous Mustelide, of 
which Gymnopus, Mydaus, Aonyx and Helictis are the most con- 
spicuous ; 4#/wrus, a curious animal, cat-like in appearance but 


316 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IL 


more allied to the bears, forming a distinct family of Carnivora, 
and confined to the high forest-districts of the Eastern Hima- 
layas and East Thibet ; Welursus and Helarctos, peculiar forms of 
bears ; Platanista, a dolphin peculiar to the Ganges and Indus. 
Among Ruminants it has the beautiful chevrotain, forming 
the genus Tragulus in the family Tragulide; with one peculiar 
genus and three peculiar sub-genera of true deer. The Antilo- 
pine and Caprine are few, confined to limited districts and not 
characteristic of the region ; but there are everywhere wild cattle 
of the genera Bibos and Bubalus, which, with species of Lhinoceros 
and Elephas, form a prominent feature in the fauna. The Rodents 
are less developed than in the Ethiopian region, but several forms 
of squirrels everywhere abound, together with some species of 
porcupine ; and the Edentata are represented by the scaly manis. 

Birds.—The families and genera of birds which give a cha- 
racter to Oriental lands, are so numerous and varied, that we 
can here only notice the more prominent and more remarkable. 
The Timaliide, represented by the babblers (Garrulax, Pomator- 
hinus, Timalia, &c.), are almost everywhere to be met with, and 
no less than 21 genera are peculiar to the region; the elegant 
fork-tailed Hnicurus and rich blue Myiophonus, though com- 
paratively scarce, are characteristic of the Malayan and Indo- 
Chinese faunas; the elegant little “hill-tits” (Liotrichide) 
abound in the same part of the region; the green bulbuls (Phyl- 
lornis) are found everywhere ; as are various forms of Pyenono- 
tide, the black and crimson “ minivets” (Pericrocotus), and the 
glossy “king-crows ” (Dicrwrus) ; Urocissa, Platylophus and Den- 
drocitta are some of the interesting and characteristic forms 
of the crow family; sun-birds (Netariniidee) of at least three 
genera are found throughout the region, as are the beautiful little 
flower-peckers (Dicside), and some peculiar forms of weaver- 
birds (Ploceus and Munia), Of the starling family, the most 
conspicuous are the glossy mynahs (Lulabes). The swallow- 
shrikes (Artamus) are very peculiar, as are the exquisitely 
coloured pittas (Pittide), and the gaudy broad-bills (Eury- 
lemidw). Leaving the true Passeres, we find woodpeckers, 
barbets, and cuckoos everywhere, often of peculiar and _ re- 


CHAP. X11. THE ORIENTAL REGION, 317 


markable forms; among the bee-eaters we have the exquisite 
Nyctiornis with its pendent neck-plumes of blue or scarlet ; 
brilliant kingfishers and strangely formed hornbills abound 
everywhere ; while brown-backed trogons with red and orange 
breasts, though far less frequent, are equally a feature of the 
Ornithology. Next we have the frog-mouthed goatsuckers (Bat- 
trachostomus), and the whiskered swifts (Dendrochelidon), both 
wide-spread, remarkable, and characteristic groups of the Oriental 
region. Coming to the parrot tribe, we have only the long-tailed 
Paleornis and the exquisite little ZLoriculus, as characteristic 
genera. We now come to the pigeons, among which the fruit- 
eating genera Treron and Carpophaga are the most conspicuous. 
The gallinaceous birds offer us some grand forms, such as 
the peacocks (Pavo) ; the argus pheasants (Argusianus) ; the fire- 
backed pheasants (Zuplocamus) ; and the jungle-fowl (Gallus), all 
strikingly characteristic ; and with these we may close our sketch, 
since the birds of prey and the two Orders comprising the 
waders and swimmers offer nothing sufficiently remarkable to 
be worthy of enumeration here. 

Reptiles—Only the more abundant and characteristic groups 
will here be noticed. In the serpent tribe, the Oligodontide, 
a small family of ground-snakes; the Homalopside, or fresh- 
water snakes; the Dendrophide, or tree-snakes; the Dryiophide, 
or whip-snakes; the Dipsadide, or nocturnal tree-snakes; the 
Lycodontidé or fanged ground-snakes ; the Pythonide, or rock- 
snakes; the Elapidz, or venomous colubrine snakes (including 
the “ cobras”) ; and the Crotalide, or pit-vipers, are all abundant 
and characteristic, ranging over nearly the whole region, and pre- 
senting a great variety of genera and species. Among lizards, the 
Varanide or water-lizards ; the Scincide or “ scinks ;” the Gecko- 
tide, or geckoes; and the Agamide, or eastern iguanas; are the 
most universal and characteristic groups. Among crocodiles the 
genus Crocodilus is widely spread, Gavialis being characteristic 
of the Ganges. Among Chelonia, or shielded reptiles, forms of 
fresh-water Testudinide and Trionychide (soft tortoises) are 
tolerably abundant. 


Amphibia.—The only abundant and characteristic groups of 


318 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


this class are toads of the family Engystomide ; tree-frogs of 
the family Polypedatide; and several genera of true frogs, 
Ranide. 

Fresh-water Fishes—The more remarkable and characteristic 
fishes inhabiting the fresh waters of the Oriental region belong 
to the following families: Nandidz, Labyrinthici, Ophiocephalide, 
Siluride, and Cyprinide ; the last being specially abundant. 

The sketch here very briefly given, must be supplemented by 
an examination of the tables of distribution of the genera of all 
the Mammalia and Birds inhabiting the region. We will now 
briefly summarize the results. 

Summary of the Oriental Vertebrata—The Oriental region 
possesses examples of 163 families of Vertebrata of which 12 
are peculiar, a proportion of a little more than one-fourteenth 
of the whole. 

Out of 118 genera of Mammalia 54 seem to be peculiar to 
the region, equal to a proportion of 3% or a little less than half. 
Of Land-Birds there are 342 genera of which 165 are peculiar, 
bringing the proportion very close to a half. 

In the Ethiopian region the proportion of peculiar forms 
both of Mammalia and Birds is greater; a fact which is not 
surprising when we consider the long continued isolation of the 
latter region—an isolation which is even now very complete, 
owing to the vast extent of deserts intervening between it and 
the Palearctic region; while the Oriental and Palearctic were, 
during much of the Tertiary epoch, hardly separable. 


Insects. 


Lepidoptera.—We can only glance hastily at the more pro- 
minent features of the wonderfully rich and varied butterfly- 
fauna of the Oriental region. In the first family Danaide, the 
genera Danais and Huplea are everywhere abundant, and the 
latter especially forms a conspicuous feature in the entomo- 
logical aspect of the country; the large “spectre-butterflies” 
(Hestia) are equally characteristic of the Malayan sub-region. 
Satyride, though abundant are not very remarkable, Debis, 
Melanitis, Mycalesis, and Ypthima being the most characteristic 


CHAP. XII. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 319 


genera. Morphide are well represented by the genera Ama- 
thusia, Zeuxidia, Discophora, and Thaumantis, some of the 
species of which almost equal the grand South American 
Morphos. The Nymphalide furnish us with a host of charac- 
teristic genera, among the most remarkable of which are, 
Terinos, Adolias, Cethosia, Cyrestis, Limenitis, and Nymphalis, 
all abounding in beautiful species. Among the Lycenide are 
a number of fine groups, among which we may mention J/erda, 
Myrina, Deudoryx, Aphneus, Lolaus, and Amblypodia, as charac- 
teristic examples. The Pieride furnish many fine forms, such 
as Thyca, Iphias, Thestias, Eronia, Prioneris, and Dercas, the last 
two being peculiar. The Papilionide are unsurpassed in the 
world, presenting such grand genera as Teinopalpus and Bhu- 
tanitis ; the yellow-marked Ornithoptere ; the superb “Brookiana;” 
the elegant Leptocercus; and Papilios of the “Coon,” “ Philo- 
xenus,” “Memnon,” “Protenor,” and especially the ‘ green-and- 
gold-dusted’ “ Paris” groups. . 

The Moths call for no special observations, except to notice 
the existence in Northern India of a number of forms which 
resemble in a striking manner some of the most remarkable 
of the above mentioned groups of the genus Papilio, espe- 
cially the “ Protenor” group, which there is reason to believe is 
protected by a peculiar smell or taste like the Heliconias and 
Danaide. 

Coleoptera.—The most characteristic Oriental form of the 
Cicindelidee or tiger beetles, is undoubtedly the elegant genus 
Collyris, which is found over the whole region and is almost 
confined to it. Less abundant, but equally characteristic, is the 
wingless ant-like Tricondyla. Two small genera Apteroessa and 
Dromicidia are confined to the Indian Peninsula, while Therates 
only occurs in the Malayan sub-region. 

The Carabide, or ground carnivorous beetles, are so numerous 
that we can only notice a few of the more remarkable and 
characteristic forms. The wonderful Mormolyce of the Indo- 


_ Malay sub-region, stands pre-eminent for singularity in the 


entire family. Thyreopterus, Orthogonius, Catascopus, and Peri- 
callus are very characteristic forms, as well as Planetes and 


320 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


Distrigus, the latter having a single species in Madagascar. 
There are 80 genera of this family peculiar to the region, 10 
of which have only been found in Ceylon. 

Among the Lucanide, or stag-beetles, Lucanus, Odontolabris, 
and Cladognathus are the most characteristic forms. Sixteen 
genera inhabit the region, of which 7 are altogether peculiar, 
while three others only extend eastward to the Austro-Malayan 
sub-region. 

The beautiful Cetoniide, or rose-chafers, are well represented 
by Rhomborhina, Heterorhina, Clinteria, Macronota, Agestrata, 
Chalcothea and many fine species of Cetonia. There are 17 
peculiar genera, of which Mycteristes, Phedimus, Plectrone, and 
Rhagopteryx, are Malayan; while Narycius, Clerota, Bombodes, 
and Chiloloba are Indian. 

In Buprestidee—those elongate metallic-coloured beetles whose 
elytra are used as ornaments in many parts of the world—this 
region stands pre-eminent, in its gigantic Catoxantha, its fine 
Chrysochroa, its Indian Sternocera, its Malayan Chalcophora 
and Belionota, as well as many other beautiful forms. It 
possesses 41 genera, of which 14 are peculiar to it, the rest 
being generally of wide range or common to the Ethiopian and 
Australian regions. 

In the extensive and elegant group of Longicorns, the Oriental 
region is only inferior to the Neotropical. It possesses 360 
genera, 25 of which are Prionide, 117 Cerambicide, and 218 
Lamiide ;—about 70 per cent. of the whole being peculiar. 
The most characteristic genera are Rhaphidopodus and Afgosoma 
among Prionide ; Neocerambyx, Euryarthrum, Pachyteria, Acro- 
eyrta, Tetraommatus, Chloridolum, and Polyzonus among Ceram- 
bycide ; and Calosterna, Rhytidophora, Batocera, Agelasta, and 
A stathes among Lamiide. 

Of remarkable forms in other families, we may mention the 
gigantic horned Chalcosoma among Scarabeide; the metallic 
Campsosternus among Elateride ; the handsome but anomalous 
Trictenotoma forming a distinct family; the gorgeous Pachy- 
rhynchi of the Philippine Islands among Curculionide ; Diurus 


CHAP, XI. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION, O21 
among Brenthidee ; with an immense number and variety of 
Anthotribidie, Heteromera, Malacoderma, and Phytophaga. 


THE ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. 


The four sub-regions into which we have divided the Oriental 
region, are very unequal in extent, and perhaps more so in 
productiveness, but they each have well-marked special features, 
and serve well to exhibit the main zoological characteristics of 
the region. As they are all tolerably well defined and their 
faunas comparatively well-known, their characteristics will be 
given with rather more than usual detail. 


I. Hindostan, or Indian Sub-region. 


This includes the whole peninsula of India from the foot of the 
Himalayas on the north to somewhere near Seringapatam on the 
south, the boundary of the Ceylonese sub-region being unsettled. 
The deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra mark its eastern 
limits, and it probably reaches to about Cashmere in the north- 
west, and perhaps to the valley of the Indus further south ; but 
the great desert tract to the east of the Indus forms a transition 
to the south Palearctic sub-region. Perhaps on the whole the 
Indus may be taken as a convenient boundary. Many Indian 
naturalists, especially Mr. Blyth and Mr. Blanford, are impressec| 
with the relations of the greater part of this sub-region to the 
Ethiopian region, and have proposed to divide it into several 
zoological districts dependent on differences of climate and vege- 

ation, and characterized by possessing faunas more or less allied 
either to the Himalayan or the Ethiopian type. But these sub- 
divisions appear far too complex to be useful to the general stu- 
dent, and even were they proved to be natural, would be beyond 
the scope of this work. I agree, however, with Mr. Elwes in 
thinking that they really belong to local rather than to geo- 
graphical distribution, and confound “ station” with “habitat.” 
Wherever there is a marked diversity of surface and vegetation 
the productions of a country will correspondingly differ; the 
groups peculiar to forests, for example, will be absent from open 

Y 


322 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


plains or arid deserts. It happens that the three great Old 
World regions are separated from each other by a debatable land 
which is chiefly of a desert character ; hence we must expect to 
find a resemblance between the inhabitants of such districts in 
each region. We also find a great resemblance between the aquatic 
birds of the three regions; and as we generally give little weight 
to these in our estimate of the degree of affinity of the faunas of 
different countries, so we should not count the desert fauna as of 
equal weight with the more restricted and peculiar types which 
are found in the fertile tracts,—in the mountains and valleys, and 
especially in the primeval forests. The supposed preponderance 
of exclusively Ethiopian groups of Mammalia and Birds in this 
sub-region, deserves however a close examination, in order to 
ascertain how far the facts really warrant such an opinion. 

Mammalia—tThe following list of the more important genera 
of Mammalia which range over the larger part of this sub-region 
will enable naturalists to form an independent judgment as to 
the preponderance of Ethiopian, or of Oriental and Palearctic 
types, in this, the most important of all the classes of animals 
for geographical distribution. 


RANGE oF THE GENERA oF MAMMALIA WHicH INHABIT THE SUB-REGION 


or HINDOSTAN, 


1. Presbytes Oriental only. 

2, Macacus Oriental only. 

3. Erinaceus Palearctic genus. 

4, Sorex ... Widely distributed. 

5, Felis Almost Cosmopolitan. 

6. Cynzelurns Ethiopian and §. Palearctic. 

7. Viverra Ethiopian and Oriental to China and Malaya. 
& Viverricula ... Oriental only. 

9, Paradoxurus ... Oriental only. 

10. Herpestes Ethiopian, 8. Palearctic, and Oriental to Malaya. 
11. Calogale Ethiopian, Oriental to Cambodja. 

12. Treniogale Oriental. 

13. Hyena Palearctic and Ethiopian (a Palearctiv species.) 
14, Canis Palearctic and Oriental to Malaya, 

15, Cuon Oriental to Malaya, 


be Vulpes 
. Lutra ... 


Very wide range. 
Oriental and Palearctic. 


18, Mellivora Ethiopian, 

19. Melursus Oriental only; family not Ethiopian. 
20, Sus Palearctic and Oriental, not Ethiopian. 
21, Tragulus Oriental, 


CHAP. XII. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 323 


22. Cervus ... Oriental and Palearctic ; family not Ethiopian. 
23, Cervulus ... Oriental ; family not Ethiopian. 

24, Bibos ... ... Palearctic and Oriental. 

25. Portax .. Oriental. 

26. Gazella ... Palearctic and Ethiopian, 

27. Antilope ... Oriental. 

28. Tetraceros ... Oriental. 

29. Elephas ... Oriental species. 

30. Mus... ... Cosmopolite nearly. 

31. Platacanthomys Oriental. 

32. Meriones ... Very wide range. 

33. Spalacomys ... Oriental. 

34. Sciurus ... Almost Cosmopolite. 

35. Pteromys ... Palearctic and Oriental to China and Malaya. 
36. Hystrix ... Wide range. 

37. Lepus ... ... Wide range. 


38. Manis ... ... Ethiopian and Oriental to Malaya. 


Out of the above 38 genera, 8 have so wide a distribution as 
to give no special geographical indications. Of the remaining 30, 
whose geographical position we have noted, 14 are Oriental only ; 
5 have as much right to be considered Oriental as Ethiopian, 
extending as they do over the greater part of the Oriental 
region; 2 (the hyena and gazelle) show Palearctic rather than 
Ethiopian affinity; 7 are Palearctic and Oriental but not Ethio- 
pian; and only 2 (Cynelurus and Mellivora) can be considered 
as especially Ethiopian. We must also give due weight to the 
fact that we have here Ursidé and Cervide, two families entirely 
absent from the Ethiopian region, and we shall then be forced 
to conclude that the affinities of the Indian peninsula are not 
only clearly Oriental, but that the Ethiopian element is really 
present in a far less degree than the Palearctic. 

Birds—The naturalists who have adopted the “Ethiopian 
theory” of the fauna of Hindostan, have always supported their 
views by an appeal to the class of birds; maintaining, that not 
only are almost all the characteristic Himalayan and Malayan 
genera absent, but that their place is to a great extent supplied 
by others which are characteristic of the Ethiopian region. After 
a careful examination of the subject, Mr. Elwes, in a paper read 
before the Zoological Society (June 1873) came to the conclu- 
sion, that this view was an erroneous one, founded on the fact 
that the birds of the plains are the more abundant and more 

¥ 2 


“2s 7 


324 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IL. 


open to observation; and that these are often of wide-spread 
types, and some few almost exclusively African. The facts he 
adduced do not, however, seem to have satisfied the objectors ; 
and as the subject is an important one, I will here give lists 
of all the genera of Passeres, Picariz, Psittaci, Columbe, and 
Gallinze, which inhabit the sub-region, leaving out those which 
only just enter within its boundaries from adjacent sub-regions. 
These are arranged under four heads:—1. Oriental genera; which 
are either wholly confined to, or strikingly prevalent in, the 
Oriental region beyond the limits of the Indian peninsula. 2. 
Genera of Wide Range; which are fully as much entitled to be 
considered Oriental or Palearctic as Ethiopian, and cannot be | 
held to prove any Ethiopian affinity. 3. Palearctic genera ; 
which are altogether or almost absent from the Ethiopian region. 
4. Ethiopian genera; which are confined to, or very prevalent 
in, the Ethiopian region, whenee they extend into the Indian 
peninsula but not over the whole Oriental region. The last are 
the only ones which can be fairly balanced against those of the 
first list, in order to determine the character of the fauna. 


1. ORIENTAL GENERA IN CENTRAL INDIA. 


Geocichla, Orthotomus, Prinia, Megalurus, Abrornis, Larvi- 
vora, Copsychus, Kittacinela, Pomatorhinus, Malacocercus, Chatar - 
rhea, Layardia, Garrulax, Trochalopteron, Pellorneum, Dumetia, 
Pyctoris, Aleippe, Myiophonus, Sitta, Dendrophila, Phyllornis, 
Lora, Hypsipetes, Pericrocotus, Graucalus, Volvocivora, Chibia, 
Chaptia, Irena, Erythrosterna, Hemipus, Hemichelidon, Niltava, 
Cyornis, Humyias, Hypothymis, Myialestes, Tephrodornis, Dendro- 
citta, Arachnechthra, Neetarophila, Arachnothera, Diceum, Pipri- 
soma, Munia, Eulabes, Pastor, Acridotheres, Sturnia, Sturnopastor, 
Artamus, Nemoricola, Pitta, Yungipicus, Chrysocolaptes, Hemi- 
circus, Gecinus, Mulleripicus, Brachypternus, Tiga, Micropternus, 
Megalama, Xantholeama, Rhopodytes, Taccocoua, Surniculus, 
LTierocoecyx, Ludynamnis, Nyctiornis, Harpactes, Pelargopsis, 
Ceyx, Hydrocissa, Meniceros, Batrachostomus, Dendrochelidon, 
Collocalia, Palwornis, Treron, Carpophaga, Chalcophaps, Orty- 
gornis, Perdix, Pavo, Gallus, Galloperdix ;—87 genera; and 


CHAP, XU. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 325 
one peculiar genus, Sa/pornis, whose affinities are Palearctic or 
Oriental. 


9 GENERA OF WIDE RANGE OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA. 


Tardus, Monticola, Drymeca, Cisticola, Acrocephalus, Phyllo- 
scopus, Pratincola, Parus, Pycnonotus, Criniger, Oriolus, Dicrurus, 
Techitrea, Lanius, Corvus, Zosterops, Hirundo, Cotyle, Passer, 
Ploceus, Estrilda, Alauda, Calandrella, Mirafra, Ammomanes, 
Motacilla, Anthus, Picus, Yunx, Centropus, Cuculus, Chrysoccocys, 
Coceystes, Coracias, Hurystomus, Merops, Alcedo, Ceryle, Halcyon, 
Upupa, Caprimulgus, Cypselus, Chatura, Columba, Turtur,Pterocles, 
Coturniz, Turnix ;—48 genera. 


8 PALZARCTIC GENERA OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA. 


Hypolais, Sylvia, Curruca, Cyanecula, Calliope, Chelidon, Eu- 
spiza, Emberiza, Galerita, Calobates, Corydalla ;—11 genera. 


4, EruIopIAN GENERA OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA. 


Thamnobia, Pyrrhulauda, Pterocles, Francolinus ;—-4 genera. 


A consideration of the above lists shows us, that the Hindostan 
sub-region is by no means so poor in forms of bird-life as is 
generally supposed (and as I had myself anticipated, it would 
prove to be), possessing, as it does, 151 genera of land-birds, 
without counting the Accipitres. It must also set at rest the 
question of the zoological affinities of the district, since a pre- 
ponderance of 88 genera, against 4, cannot be held to be insuffi- 
cient, and cannot be materially altered by any corrections in 
details that may be proposed or substantiated. Even of these 
four, only the first two are exclusively Ethiopian, Pterocles and 
Francolinus both being Palearctic also. It is a question, indeed, 
whether anywhere in the world an outlying sub-region can 
be found, exhibiting less zoological affinity for the adjacent 
regions ; and we have here a striking illustration of the necessity 
of deciding all such cases, not by examples, which may be so 
chosen as to support any view, but by carefully weighing and 
contrasting the whole of the facts on which the solution of the 


326 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II. 


problem admittedly depends. It will, perhaps, be said that a 
vreat many of the 88 genera above given are very scarce and very 
local; but this is certainly not the case with the majority of them; 
and even where it is so, that does not in any degree affect their 
value as indicating zoo-geographical affinities. It is the pre- 
sence of a type ina region, not its abundance or scarcity, that is 
the important fact ; and when we have to do, as we have here, 
with many groups whose habits and mode of life necessarily 
seclude them from observation, their supposed scarcity may not 
even be a fact. 

Reptiles and Amphibia.—Reptiles entirely agree with Mam- 
malia and Birds in the main features of their distribution. 
Out of 17 families of snakes inhabiting Hindostan, 16 range 
over the greater part of the entire region, and only two can 
be supposed to show any Ethiopian affinity. These are the 
Psammophide and Erycide, both desert-haunting groups, and 
almost as much South Palearctic as African. The genus 77o- 
pidococcyx is peculiar to the sub-region, and Aspidura, Passerita 
and Cynophis to the peninsula and Ceylon; while a large number 
of the most characteristic genera, as Dipsas, Simotes, Bungarus, 
Naja, Trimeresurus, Lycodon and Python, are characteristically 
Oriental. 

Of the six families of lizards all have a wide range The — 
genera Lumeces, Pentadactylus, Gecko, Hublepharis, and Draco, are 
characteristically or wholly Oriental; Ophiops and Uromastix 
are Palearctic; while Chameleon is the solitary case of decided 
Ethiopian affinity. 

Of the Amphibia not a single family exhibits special Ethiopian 
affinities, 


LI, Sub-region of Ceylon and South-India. 


The Island of Ceylon is characterised by such striking peeu- 
liarities in its animal productions, as to render necessary its 
separation from the peninsula of India as a sub-region ; but it 
is found that most of these special features extend to the Neil- 
gherries and the whole southern mountainous portion of India, 
and that the two must be united in any zoo0-geographical pro- 


CHAP. XIL] | THE ORIENTAL REGION, 327 


vinee. The main features of this division are,—the appearance 
of numerous animals allied to forms only found again in the 
Himalayas or in the Malayan sub-region, the possession of 
several peculiar generic types, and an unusual number of 
peculiar species. 

Mammalia.—Among Mammalia the most remarkable form 
is Loris, a genus of Lemurs altogether peculiar to the sub- 
region; several peculiar monkeys of the genus Presbytes ; the 
Malayan genus 7upaia ; and Platacanthomys, a peculiar genus 
of Muride. 

Birds—Among birds it has Ochromela, a peculiar genus of 
flycatchers ; Phanicophaés (Cuculide) and Drymocataphus (Tima- 
liide), both Malayan forms; a species of Myiophonus whose 
nearest ally is in Java; Zvrochalopteron, Brachypteryx, Buceros 
and Loriculus, which are only found elsewhere in the Himalayas 
and Malayana. It also possesses about 80 peculiar species of 
birds, including a large jungle fowl, one owl and two hornbills. 

Reptiles—It is however by its Reptiles, even more than by its 
higher vertebrates, that this sub-region is clearly characterised. 
Among snakes it possesses an entire family, Uropeltidee, consisting 
of 5 genera and 18 species altogether confined to it,—Ahinophis 
and Uropeltis in Ceylon, Silybura, Plecturus and Melanophidiwm 
in Southern India. Four other genera of snakes, Haplocercus, 
Cercaspis, Peltopelor, and Hypnale are also peculiar; Chersydrus 
is only found elsewhere in Malaya; while Aspidura, Passerita, 
and Cynoplhis, only extend to Hindostan; species of Lryx, Echis, 
and Psammophis show an affinity with Ethiopian and Palearctic 
forms. Among lizards several genera of Agamide are peculiar, 
such as Olocryptis, Lyricoephalus, Ceratophora, Cophotis, Salea, 
Sitana and Chaurasia. In the family Acontiade, Nessia is 
peculiar to Ceylon, while a species of the African genus Acontias 
shows an affinity for the Ethiopian region. 

Amphibia—The genera of Amphibians that occur here are 
generally of wide range, but Nannophrys, Haplobatrachus, 
and Cacopus are confined to the sub-region; while Jfegalo- 


phrys is Malayan, and the species found in Ceylon also inhabit 
Java. 


328 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 

Insects —The insects of Ceylon also furnish some curious 
examples of its distinctness from Hindostan, and its affinity with 
Malaya. Among its butterflies we find Papilio jophon, closely 
allied to P. antiphus of Malaya. The remarkable genus Hestza, so 
characteristic of the Malay archipelago, only occurs elsewhere on 
the mountains of Ceylon; while its Cynthia and Parthenos are 
closely allied to, if not identical with, Malayan species. Among 
Coleoptera we have yet more striking examples. The highly cha- 
racteristic Malayan genus 7'ricondyla is represented in Ceylon by 
no less than 10 species ; and among Longicorns we find the genera 
Tetraommatus, Thranius, Cacia, Praonetha, Ropica, and Serixia, 
all exclusively Malayan or only just entering the Indo-Chinese 
peninsula, yet all represented in Céylon, while not a single 
species occurs in any part of India or the Himalayas. 

The Past History of Ceylon and South-India as indicated by tts 
Fauna.—In our account of the Ethiopian region we have already 
had occasion to refer to an ancient connection between this sub- 
region and Madagascar, in order to explain the distribution of 
the Lemurine type, and some other curious affinities between the 
two countries. This view is supported by the geology of India, 
which shows us Ceylon and South India consisting mainly of 
granitic and old metamorphic rocks, while the greater part of the 
peninsula, forming our first sub-region, is of tertiary formation, 
with a few isolated patches of secondary rocks. It is evident 
therefore, that during much of the tertiary period, Ceylon and 
South India were bounded on the north by a considerable extent 
of sea, and probably formed part of an extensive southern con- 
tinent or great island. The very numerous and remarkable cases 
of affinity with Malaya, require however some closer approxima- 
tion to these islands, which probably occurred at a later period. 
When, still later, the great plains and table-lands of Hindostan 
were formed, and a permanent land communication effected with 
the rich and highly developed Himalo-Chinese fauna, a rapid im- 
migration of new types took place, and many of the less specia- 
lised forms of mammalia and birds (particularly those of ancient 

“thiopian type) became extinct. Among reptiles and insects the 
competition was less severe, or the older forms were too well 


OHAP. XI. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 329 


adapted to local conditions to be expelled; so that it is among 
these groups alone that we find any considerable number, of what 
are probably the remains of the ancient fauna of a now sub- 
merged southern continent. 


ITI, Himalayan or Indo-Chinese Sub-region. 


This, which is probably the richest of all the sub-regions, and 
perhaps one of the richest of all tracts of equal extent on the 
face of the globe, is essentially a forest-covered, mountainous 
country, mostly within the tropics, but on its northern margin 
extending: some degrees beyond it, and rising in a continuous 
mountain range till it meets and intercalates with the Man- 
churian sub-division of the Palearctic region. The peculiar 
mammalia, birds and insects of this sub-region begin to appear 
at the very foot of the Himalayas, but Dr. Gunther has shown 
that many of the reptiles characteristic of the plains of India 
are found to a height of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. 

In Sikhim, which may be taken as a typical example of the 
Himalayan portion of the sub-region, it seems to extend to an 
altitude of little less than 10,000 feet, that being the limit of the 
characteristic Timaliide or babbling thrushes ; while the equally 
characteristic Pycnonotide, or bulbuls, and Treronide, or thick- 
billed fruit-pigeons, do not, according to Mr. Blanford, reach 
quite so high. We may perhaps take 9,000 feet as a good 
approximation over a large part of the Himalayan range; but 
it is evidently not possible to define the line with any great 
precision. Westward, the sub-region extends in diminishing 
breadth, till it terminates in or near Cashmere, where the fauna 
of the plains of India almost meets that of the Palearctic 
region, at a moderate elevation. Eastward, it reaches into East 
Thibet and North-west China, where Pére David has found a 
large number of the peculiar types of the Eastern Himalayas. A 
fauna, in general features identical, extends over Burmah and 
Siam to South China; mingling with the Palearctic fauna in 
the mountains south of the Yang-tse-kiang river, and with 


that of Indo-Malaya in Tenasserim, and to a lesser extent in 
Southern Siam and Cochin China. 


330 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IT. 


Zoological Characteristics of the Himalayan Sub-region— 
Taking this sub-region as a whole, we find it to be charac- 
terised by 3 genera of mammalia (without counting bats), and 
44 genera of land-birds, which are altogether peculiar to it; 
and by 13 genera of mammalia and 36 of birds, which it 
possesses in common with the Malayan sub-region; and 
besides these it has almost all the genera before enumerated 
as “Oriental,” and several others of wide range, more especially 
a number of Palearctic genera which appear in the higher 
Himalayas. The names of the more characteristic genera are 
as follows :— | 


PECULIAR HIMALO-CHINESE GENERA. 


Mammalia—Urva, Arctonyx, Alurus. 

Birds. — Suya, Horites, Chemarrhornis, Tarsiger, Oreicola, 
Acanthoptila, Grammatoptila, Trochalopteron, Actinodura, Sibia, 
Suthora, Paradoxornis, Chlenasicus, Tesia, Rimator, A’githaliscus, 
Cephalopyrus, Liothrix, Siva, Minla, Proparus, Cutia, Yuhina, 
Teulus, Myzornis, Erpornis, Hemixus, Chibia, Niltava, Anthipes, 
Chelidorhynx, Urocissa, Pachyglossa, Heterura, Hoamatospiza, 
Ampeliceps, Saroglossa, Psarisomus, Serilophus, Vivia, Hyopicus, 
Gecinulus, Aceros, Ceriornis. 


GENERA COMMON TO THE HIMALO-CHINESE AND MALAYAN 
SUB-REGIONS. 


Mammalia. — Hylobates, Nycticebus, Viverricula, Prionodon, 
Arctitis, Paguma, Arctogale, Cuon, Gymnopus, Aonyx, Helictis, 
Rhinoceros, Nemorhedus, Rhizomys. 

Birds.—Oreocincla, Notodela, Janthocincla, Timalia, Stachyris, 
Mixornis, Trichastoma, Enicurus, Pnepyga, Melanochlora, Allo- 
trius, Microscelis, Iole, Analcipus, Cochoa, Bhringa, Xanthopygia, 
Hylocharis, Cissa, Tennurus, Crypsirhina, Chalcostetha, An- 
threptes, Chaleoparia, Cymbirhynchus, Hydrorns, Sasia, Venila, 
Indicator, Carcineutes, Lyncornis, Macropygia, Argusianus Poly- 
plectron, Luplocamus, Phodilus. 

Plate VII. Scene in Nepal, with Characteristic Himalayan 
Animals —Our illustration contains figures of two mammals 


mA HIT Mh 
WH) 
li 


M4 \ } a3 \ 
} ih 4 


innit 


dul 

NWN 
' - a ‘Vga AW Tan 

f ne é e ; 4a |\\ ING 
Ml! OA A CM hahes AM he EF Alt Lui ti ees 


| 
al 


SCENE IN NEPAUL, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS, 


; 
: 
{ 
% 
. 


5 Sei whe 


we 


CHAP, XII] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 331 


and two birds, characteristic of the higher woody region of the 
Himalayas. The lower figure on the left is the Helictis nepalensis, 
confined to the Eastern Himalayas, and belonging to a genus of 
the weasel family which is exclusively Oriental. It is marked 
with white on a grey-brown ground. Above it is the remark- 
able Panda (4lurus fulgens), a beautiful animal with a glossy fur 
of a reddish colour, darker feet, and a white somewhat cat-like 
face. It is distantly allied to the bears, and more nearly to the 
American racoons, yet with sufficient differences to constitute it 
a distinct family. The large bird on the tree, is the horned 
Tragopan (Ceriornis satyra), one of the fine Himalayan pheasants, 
magnificently spotted with red and white, and ornamented with 
fleshy erectile wattles and horns, of vivid blue and red colours. 
The bird in the foreground is the Lbidorhynchus struthersii, a 
rare and curious wader, allied to the curlews and sandpipers but 
having the bill and feet red. It frequents the river-beds in the 
higher Himalayas, but has also been found in Thibet. 


Lteptiles—Very few genera of reptiles are peculiar to this 
sub-region, all the more important ranging into the Malay 
islands. Of snakes the following are the more characteristic 
genera :—T'yphline, Cylindrophis, Xenopeltis, Calamaria, Xenela- 
phis, Hypsirhina, Fordonia, several small genera of Homalop- 
side (Herpeton and Hipistes being characteristic of Burmah and 
Siam) Psammodynastes, Gonyosoma, Chrysopelea, Tragops, Dipsas, 
Tareas, Python, Bungarus, Naja, Callophis, and Trimeresurus. 
Naja reaches 8,000 feet elevation in the Himalayas, Tropidonotus 
1,000 feet, Ablabes 10,000 feet, and Simotes 15,000 feet. 

Of lizards, Psewdopus has one species in the Khasya hills 
while the other inhabits South-east Europe; and there are two 
small genera of Agamide peculiar to the Himalayas, while 
Draco and Calotes have a wide range and Acanthosaura, Dilo- 
phyrus, Physignathus, and Liolepis are found chiefly in the 
Indo-Chinese peninsula. There are several genera of Scincide ; 
and the extensive genus of wall-lizards, Gecko, ranges over the 
whole region. 

Of Amphibia, the peculiar forms are not numerous. Jethyopsis 


332 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II. 


a genus of Ceciliade, is peculiar to the Khasya Hills; Tylo- 
tritron (Salamandridé) to Yunan in Western China, and perhaps 
belongs to the Palearctic region. | 

Of the tail-less Batrachians, Glyphoglossus is found in Pegu; 
Xenophys in the Eastern Himalayas; while Callula, [xalus, 
Rhacophorus, Hylurana, Oxyglossus, and Phrynoglossus, are com- 
mon to the Himalo-Chinese and Malayan sub-regions. 

Of the lizards, Colotes, Barycephalus, and Hinulia,—and of 
the Batrachia, Bufo—are found at above 11,000 feet elevation in 
the Himalayas. 

Insects.--So little has been done in working out the insect 
faunas of the separate sub-regions, that they cannot be treated 
in detail, and the reader is referred to the chapter on the dis- 
tribution of insects in the part of this work devoted to Geogra- 
phical Zoology. A few particulars may, however, be given as to 
the butterflies, which have been more systematically collected in 
tropical countries than any other order of insects. The Hima- 
layan butterflies, especially in the eastern portions of the range— 
in Assam and the Khasya Hills—are remarkably fine and very 
abundant; yet all the larger groups extend into the Malayan 
sub-region, many to Ceylon, and a considerable proportion even 
to Africa and Austro-Malaya. There are a large number of 
peculiar types, but most of them consist of few or single species. 
Such are Neope, Orenoma, and Rhaphicera, genera of Satyridee ; 
Enispe (Morphide) ; Hestina, Penthema, and Abrota (Nympha- 
lidee) ; Dodona (Erycinidee) ; Llerda (Lyceenide) ; Calinaga, Teino- 
palpus, and Bhutanitis (Papilionide). Its more prominent fea- 
tures are, however, derived from what may be termed Malayan, 
or even Old World types, such as Huplea, among Danaide ; 
Amathusia, Clerome, and Thauwmantis, among Morphidee ; Zuripus, 
Diadema, Athyma, Limenitis, and Adolias, among Nymphalide, 
Zemeros and Taxila among Erycinide; Amblypodia, Miletus, 
Jlerda, and Myrina, among Lycwnide ; 7'hyca, Prioneris, Dercas, 
Iphias, and Thestias among Pieride; and Papilios of the 
“ Amphrisius,” “ Coon,” “ Philowenus,” “ Protenor,” “ Paris,” and 
“ Sarpedon” groups. In the Himalayas there is an unusual 
abundance of large and gorgeous species of the genus Papilio, 


CHAP, XII. | THE ORLENTAL REGION, 333 


and of large and showy Nymphalidee, Morphidee, and Danaidie, 
which render it, in favoured localities, only second to South 
America for a display of this form of beauty and variety in 
insect life. 

Among the other orders of insects in which the Himalayas 
are remarkably rich, we may mention large and brilliant Ce- 
toniide, chiefly of the genus Rhomborhima ; a magnificent Lamel- 
licorn, Euchirus macleayii, allied to the gigantic long-armed 
beetle (Z. longimanus) of Amboyna; superb moths of the 
families Agaristide and Sesiide; elegant and remarkable Ful- 
goride, and strange forms of the gigantic Phasmide ; most of 
which appear to be of larger size or of more brilliant colours 
than their Malayan allies. 


Islands of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region—A few important 
islands belong to this sub-region, the Andamans, Formosa, and 
Hainan being the most interesting. 

Andamans.—The only mammalia are a few rats and mice, a 
Paradoxurus, and a pig supposed to be a hybrid race,—all of 
which may have been introduced by man’s agency. The 
birds of the Andaman Islands have been largely collected, no 
less than 155 species having been obtained; and of these 17, 
(all land-birds) are peculiar. The genera are all found on the 
continent, and are mostly characteristic of the Indo-Chinese 
fauna, to which most of the species belong. Reptiles are also 
tolerably abundant ; about 20 species are known, the majority 
being found also on the continent, while a few are peculiar. 
There are also a few Batrachia, and some fresh-water fishes, closely 
resembling those of Burmah. The absence of such mammalia 
as monkeys and squirrels, which abound on the mainland, and 
which are easily carried over straits or narrow seas by floating 
trees, is sufficient proof that these islands have not recently 
formed part of the continent. The birds are mostly such as 
may have reached the islands while in their present geographical 
position ; and the occurrence of reptiles and fresh-water fishes, 
said to be identical in species with those of Burmah, must be 
(ue to the facilities, which some of these animals undoubtedly 


334 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IT. 


possess, for passing over a considerable width of sea. We must 
conclude, therefore, that these islands do not owe their exist- 
ing fauna to an actual union with the mainland; but it is pro- 
bable that they may have been formerly more extensive, and 
have ther been less distant from the continent than at the 
present time. 

The Nicobar Islands, usually associated with the Andamans, 
are less known, but present somewhat similar phenomena. They 
are, however, more Malayan in their fauna, and seem properly 
to belong to the Indo-Malay sub-region. 

Formosa.—This island has been carefully examined by Mr. 
Swinhoe, who found 144 species of birds, of which 34 are peculiar. 
There is one peculiar genus, but the rest are all Indo-Chinese, 
though some of the species are more allied to Malayan than to 
Chinese or Himalayan forms. About 30 species of mammalia 
were found in Formosa, of which 11 are peculiar species, the rest 
being either Chinese or Himalayan. The peculiar species belong 
to the genera Zalpa, Helictis, Sciuropterus, Pteromys, Mus, Sus, 
Cervus, and Capricornis. A few lizards and snakes of conti- 
nental species have also been found. These facts clearly indicate 
the former connection of Formosa with China and Malaya, a 
connection which is rendered the more probable by the shallow 
sea which still connects all these countries. 

Hainan.—The island of Hainan, on the south coast of China, 
is not so well known in proportion, though My. Swinhoe col- 
lected 172 species of birds, of which 130 were land-birds. Of 
these about 20 were peculiar species ; the remainder being either 
Chinese, Himalayan, or Indo-Malayan. Mr. Swinhoe also ob- 
tained 24 species of mammalia, all being Chinese, Himalayan, 
or Indo-Malayan species except a hare, which is peculiar, This 
assemblage of animals would imply that Hainan, as might be 
anticipated from its position, has been more recently separated 
from the continent than the more distant island of Formosa, 


IV. Indo-Malaya, «rv the Malayan Sub-region. 


This sub-region, which is almost wholly insular (including 
only the Malayan peninsula on the continent of Asia), is equal, if 


| 


CHAP, XI.] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 339 


not superior, in the variety and beauty of its productions, to that 
which we have just been considering. Like Indo-China, it is a re- 
gion of forests, but it is more exclusively tropical ; and it is there- 
fore deficient in many of those curious forms of the temperate 
zone of the Himalayas, which seem to have been developed from 
Palearctic rather than from Oriental types. Here alone, in the 
Oriental region, are found the most typical equatorial forms of 
life—organisms adapted to a climate characterised by uniform but 
not excessive heat, abundant moisture, and no marked departure 
from the average meteorological state, throughout the year. These 
favourable conditions of life only occur in three widely separated 
districts of the globe—the Malay archipelago, Western Africa, 
and equatorial South America. Hence perhaps it is, that the 
tapir and the trogons of Malacca should so closely resemble those 
of South America ; and that the great anthropoid apes and crested 
hornbills of Western Africa, should find their nearest allies in 
Borneo and Sumatra. 

Although the islands which go to form this sub-region 
are often separated from each other by a considerable ex- 
panse of sea, yet their productions in general offer no greater 
differences than those of portions of the Indo-Chinese sub- 
region separated by an equal extent of dry land. The ex- 
planation is easy, however, when we find that the sea which 
separates them is a very shallow one, so shallow that an eleva- 
tion of only 500 feet would unite Sumatra, Java, and Borneo into 
one great South-eastern prolongation of the Asiatic continent. 
As we know that our own country has been elevated and de- 
pressed to a greater amount than this, at least twice in recent 
geological times, we can have no difficulty in admitting similar 
changes of level in the Malay archipelago, where the sub- 
terranean forces which bring about such changes are still at 
work, as manifested by the great chain of active voleanoes in 
Sumatra and Java, Proofs of somewhat earlier changes of level 
are to be seen in the Tertiary coal formations of Borneo, which 
demonstrate a succession of elevations and subsidences, with as 
much certainty as if we had historical record of them. 

It is not necessary to: suppose, nor is it probable, that all these 


336 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


oreat islands were recently united to the continent, and that 
their separation took -place by one general subsidence of the 
whole. It is more consonant with what we know of such mat- 
ters, that the elevations and depressions were partial, varying 
in their points of action and often recurring; sometimes ex- 
tending one part of an island, sometimes another; now joining 
an island to the main land, now bringing two islands into closer 
proximity. There is reason to believe that sometimes an inter- 
vening island has sunk or receded and allowed others which it 
before separated to effect a partial union independently of it. If 
we recognise the probability that such varied and often-renewed 
changes of level have occurred, we shall be better able to under- 
stand how certain anomalies of distribution in these islands may 
have been brought about. We will now endeavour to sketch the 
general features of the zoology of this interesting district, and 
then proceed to discuss some of the relations of the islands to 
each other. 

Mammalia.—We have seen that the Indo-Chinese sub-region 
possesses 13 species of mammalia in common with the Indo- 
Malay sub-region, and 4 others peculiar to itself, besides one 
Ethiopian and several Oriental and Palearctic forms of wide 
range. Of this latter class the Malay islands have compara- 
tively few, but they possess no less than 14 peculiar genera, viz- 
Simia, Siamanga, Tarsius, Galeopithecus, Hylomys, Ptilocerus, 
Gymnura, Cynogale, Hemigalea, Arctogale, Barangia, Mydaus, 
Hilarctos, and Tapirus. The islands also possess tigers, deer, 
wild pigs, wild cattle, elephants, the scaly ant-eater, and most 
of the usual Oriental genera; so that they are on the whole 
fully as rich as, if not richer than, any part of Asia; a fact very 
unusual in island faunas, and very suggestive of their really 
continental nature. 

Plate VIII. Scene in Borneo with Characteristic Malayan 
Quadrupeds—The Malayan fauna is so rich and peculiar that 
we devote two plates to illustrate it. We have here a group of 
mammalia, such as might be seen together in the vast forests of 
Borneo. In the foreground we have the beautiful deer-like 
Chevrotain (7ragulus javanicus). These are delicate little 


PLATE VII. ; 


ita aan 
ne = 
ass WSS 


4s 


, 
+: ~ 
ih Oya “SS 
Dol (re 
fj Wi » \\ ew ‘\S | 
ee . i Sk ‘ y's \ yy 
Aer hye ‘\ , : uss ” he Ra AN ’ 
CoV DLN CAE R es rye i \ SUSAR | 
; Ss) =. Sat . ‘SY N a i \ : aN ’ 
Sie OE A EN AST NOE 


A FOREST IN BORNEO, WITH CILARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA 


CHAP, X11] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 337 
animals whose body is not larger than a rabbit’s, thence often 
called “mouse-deer.” ‘They were formerly classed with the 
“musk-deer,” owing to their similar tusk-like upper canines ; 
but their anatomy shows them to form quite’a distinct family, 
having more resemblance to the camels. On the branch above 
is the curious feather-tailed Tree-Shrew (Ptilocerus lowit), a small 
insectivorous animal altogether peculiar tu Borneo. Above this 
is the strange little Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum), one of the lemurs 
confined to the Malay islands, but so distinct from all others as 
to constitute a separate family. The other small animals are 
the Flying Lemurs (Galwopithecus volans) formerly classed with 
the lemurs, but now considered to belong to the Insectivora, 
They have a very large expansion of the skin connecting the 
fore and hind limbs and tail, and are able to take long flights 
from one tree to another, and even to rise over obstacles in their 
course by the elevatory power of the tail-membrane. They 
feed chiefly on leaves, and have a very soft and beautifully 
marbled far. 

In the distance is the Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), a 
representative of a group of animals now confined to the larger 
Malay islands and tropical America, but which once ranged 
over the greater part of temperate Europe. 


Birds—Owing to several of the families consisting of very 
obscure and closely allied species, which have never been criti- 
cally examined and compared by a competent ornithologist, 
the number of birds inhabiting this sub-region is uncertain. 
From the best available materials there appear to be somewhat 
less than 650 species of land-birds actually known, or exclud- 
ing the Philippine Islands somewhat less than 600. The 
larger part of these are peculiar species, but mostly allied to 
those of Indo-China; 36 of the genera, as already stated, being 
common to these two sub-regions. There are, however, no less 
than 46 genera which are peculiarly or wholly Indo Malayan 
and, in many cases, have no close affinity with other Oriental 
groups. These peculiar genera are as follows:—Timalia, Mala- 
copteron, Macronus, Napothera, Turdinus, and Trichivos—genera 

k 


333 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART. III. 


of Timaliide ; Huwpetes,a most remarkable form, perhaps allied 
to Enicurus, and Cinclus; Rhabdornis (Certhiidee) found only in 
the Philippines; Psaltria, a diminutive bird of doubtful affinities, 
provisionally classed among the tits (Paride); Setornis (Pycnono- 
tide) ; Lalage (Campephagide) extending eastward to the Pacific 
Islands ; Pycnosphrys, Philentoma (Muscicapide) ; Laniellus, 
a beautiful bird doubtfully classed with the shrikes (Laniide); 
Platylophus and Pityriasis, the latter a most anomalous form— 
perhaps a distinct family, at present classed with the jays, in 
Corvide ; Prionochilus, a curious form classed with Diczide ; 
Erythrura (Ploceidee), extending eastwards to the Fiji Islands ; 
Gymnops, Calornis, (Sturnidee); Hurylemus, Corydon, and Calyp- 
tumena (Eurylemide) ; Hucichla, the longest tailed and most 
elegantly marked of the Pittide ; Reinwardtipicus and Miglyptes 
(Picidee) ; Psilopogon and Calorhamphus, (Megalemide) ; Rhino- 
coccyx, Dasylophus, Lepidogrammus, Carpococcyx, Zanclostomus, 
Poliococeyx, Rhinortha, (Cuculide) ; Berenicornis, Caldo, Cranor- 
hinus, Penelopides, Rhinoplux, (Bucerotide) ; Psittinus, (Psitta- 
cidee); Ptilopus, Phapitreron, (Columbide); Rollulus, (Trero- 
nid); Mucherhamphus, (Falconidee). Many of these genera are 
abundant and wide-spread, while some of the most characteristic 
Himalayan genera, such as Larvivora, Garrulax, Hypsipetes, 
Pomatorhinus, and Dendrocitta, are here represented by only 
a few species. 

Among the groups that are characteristic of the Malayan 
sub-region, the Timaliide and Pycnonotide stand pre-eminent; the 
former represented chiefly by the genera Z7imalia, Malacopteron, 
Macronus, and Trichastoma, the latter by Criniger, Microscelis, 
and many forms of Pycnonotus. The Muscicapide, Dicruride, 
Campephagide, Ploceidee, and Nectariniide are also well 
developed ; as well as the Pittida, and the Eurylemide, the 
limited number of species of the latter being compensated by 
a tolerable abundance of individuals, Among the Picariz are 
many conspicuous groups; as, woodpeckers (Picide); barbets 
(Megalemide); trogons (Trogonidee); kingfishers (Alcedinidee) ; 
and hornbills (Bucerotidie) ; five families which are perhaps the 
most conspicuous in the whole fauna, Lastly come the pigeons 


CHAP. XII. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 339 


(Columbidie), and the pheasants (Phasianide), which are fairly 
represented by such fine genera as 7'reron, Ptilopus, Euplocamus, 
and Argusianus. A few forms whose affinities are Australian 
rather than Oriental, help to give a character to the ornithology, 
though none of them are numerous. The swallow-shrikes 
(Artamus); the wag-tail fly-catchers (Riipidura); the green fruit- 
doves (Ptilopus); and the mound-makers (Megapodius), are the 
chief of these. 

There are a few curious examples of remote geographical 
alliances that may be noted. First, we have a direct African 
connection in Macherhamphus, a genus of hawks, and Berenicornis, 
a genus of hernbills; the only close allies being, in the former 
ease in South, and in the latter in West Africa. Then we have 
a curious Neotropical affinity, indicated by Carpococcyxz, a large 
Bornean ground-cuckoo, whos? nearest ally is the genus Neo- 
morphus of South America; and by the lovely green-coloured 
Calyptomena which seems unmistakably allied to the orange- 
coloured Lupicola, or “Cock of the rock,” in general structure 
and in the remarkable form of crest, a resemblance which has 
been noticed by many writers. 

In the preceding enumeration of Malayan genera several 
are incluced which extend into the Austro-Malay Islands, our 
object, at present, being to show the differences and relations of 
the two chief Oriental sub-regions. 

Plate IX. A Malayan Forest with some of its peculiar Birds,— 
Our second illustration of the Malayan fauna is devoted to its 
bird-life ; and for this purpose we place our scene in the Malay 
peninsula, where birds are perhaps more abundant and more 
interesting, than in any other part of the sub-region. Con- 
spicuous in the foreground is the huge Rhinoceros Hornbill 
(Luceros rhinoceros), one of the most characteristic birds of the 
Malayan forests, the flapping of whose wings, as it violently 
beats the air to support its heavy body, may be heard a mile 
off. On the ground behind, is the Argus pheasant (Argus- 
tanus giganteus) whose beautifully ocellated wings have been 
the subject of a most interesting description in Mr. Darwin’s 
Descent of Man. The wing-feathers are here so enormously 

Z2 


340 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II. 


developed for display (as shown in our figure) that they 
become almost, if not quite, useless for their original purpose of 
flight ; yet the colours are so sober, harmonizing completely 
with the surrounding vegetation, and the bird is so wary, that 
in the forests where it abounds an old hunter assured me he had 
never been able to see a specimen till it was caught in his 
snares. It is interesting to note, that during the display of the 
plumage the bird’s head is concealed by the wings from a 
spectator in front, and, contrary to what usually obtains among 
pheasants, the head is entirely unadorned, having neither crest 
nor a particle of vivid colour,—a remarkable confirmation of 
Mr. Darwin’s views, that gayly coloured plumes are developed 
in the male bird for the purpose of attractive display in 
the breeding season. The long-tailed bird on the right is 
one of the Drongo-shrikes (£dolius remifer), whose long bare 
tail-feathers, with an oar-like web at the end, and blue- 
black glossy plumage, render it a very attractive object as it 
flies after its insect prey. On the left is another singular bird 
the great Broad-bill (Corydon swmatranus), with dull and sombre 
plumage, but with a beak more like that of a boat-bill than of a 
fruit-eating passerine bird. Over all, the white-handed Gibbon 
(Hylobatcs lar) swings and gambols among the topmost branches 
of the forest. 

Reptiles and Amphibia.—These are not sufficiently known to 
be of much use for our present purpose. Most of the genera 
belong to the continental parts of the Oriental region, or have a 
wide range. Of snakes Rhabdosoma, Typhlocalamus, Tetragono- 
soma, Acrochordus, and Atropos, are the most peculiar, and there 
are several peculiar genera of Homalopsidee. Of Oriental genera, 
Cylindrophis, Xenopeltes, Calamaria, Hypsirhina, Psammody- 
nastes, Gonyosoma, Tragops, Dipsas, Pareas, Python, Bungarus, 
Naja, and Callophis are abundant; as well as Simotes, A dblabes, 
Tropidonotus, and Dendrophis, which are widely distributed. 
Among lizards Hydrosaurus and Gecko are common; there are 
many isolated groups of Scincidee; while Draco, Calotes, and 
many forms of Agamid, some of which are peculiar, abound, 

Among the Amphibia, toads and frogs of the genera Alierhyla, 


s 
‘ 
fe, 
a ee a 


tT IX. 


4 


PLATI 


ing 


tuna 


TERISTIC BIRDS. 


WITH ITS CHARAC 


, 


EST 


A MALAYAN FOR 


CHAP. X11. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 341 


Kalophrynus, Ansonia, and Pseudobufo, ave peculiar: while the 
Oriental Megalophrys, Inalus, Rhacophorus, and Hylorana are 
abundant and characteristic. 

Fishes—The fresh-water fishes of the Malay archipelago 
have been so well collected and examined by the Dutch 
naturalists, that they offer valuable indications of zoo-geo- 
graphical affinity ; and they particularly well exhibit the 
sharply defined limits of the region, a large number of Oriental 
and even Ethiopian genera extending eastward as far as Java 
and Borneo, but very rarely indeed sending a single species 
further east, to Celebes or the Moluccas. Thirteen families of 
fresh-water fishes are found in the Indo-Malay sub-region. Of 
these the Scienide and Symbranchide have mostly a wide 
range in the tropics. Ophiocephalide are exclusively Oriental, 
reaching Borneo and the Philippine islands. The Mastacem- 
belidz are also Oriental, but one species is found as far as Ceram. 
Of the Nandide, 3 genera range over the whole region. The 
Labyrinthici extend from Africa through the Oriental region to 
Amboyna. The single species constituting the family Lucio- 
cephalidee is confined to Borneo and the small islands of Biliton 
and Banca. Of the extensive family Siluride 17 genera are 
Oriental and Malayan, and 11 are Malayan exclusively; and 
not one of these appears to pass beyond the limits of the sub- 
region. The Cyprinidz offer an equally striking example, 23 
genera ranging eastward to Java and Borneo and not one 
beyond; 14 of these being exclusively Malayan. It must be 
remembered that this is not from any want of knowledge of the 
countries farther east, as extensive collections have also been 
made in Celebes, the Moluccas, and Timor; so that the facts of 
distribution of fresh-water fishes come, most unexpectedly, to 
fortify that division of the archipelago into two primary 
regions, which was founded on a consideration of mammalia 
and birds only. 

Insects.—Few countries in the world can present a richer and 
more varied series of insects than the Indo-Malay islands, and 
we can only here notice a few of their more striking peculiarities 
and more salient features, 


342 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART I, 


The butterflies of this sub-region, according to the best esti- 
mate that can be formed, amount to about 650 described species, 
a number that will yet, no doubt, be very considerably increased. 
The genera which appear to be peculiar to it are H’rites (Saty- 
ride) ; Zeuxidia (Morphidee); Amnosia, Xanthotenia, and 
Tanecia (Nymphalide). The groups which are most charac- 
terisuic of the region, either from their abundance in individuals 
or species, or from their size and beauty, are—the rich dark- 
coloured Luplea ; the large semi-transparent Hestia; the plain- 
coloured Myealesis, which replace our meadow-brown butterflies 
(Hipparchia) ; the curious Llymivias, which often closely resemble 
Eupleas; the Jarge and handsome Thamantis and Zeuxidia, 
which take the place of the giant Morphos of South America ; 
the Cethosia, of the brightest red, and marked with a curious 
zigzag pattern ; the velvety and blue-glossed Terinos; the pale 
and delicately-streaked Cyrestis; the thick-bodied and boldly 
coloured Adolias ; the small wine-coloured Tazxila ; the fine blue 
Amblypodia; the beautiful Zhyca, elegantly marked under- 
neath with red and yellow, which represent our common white 
butterflies and are almost equally abundant; the pale blue 
Hronia, and the large red-tipped Jphias. The genus Papilio 
is represented by a variety of fine groups; the large Ornithop- 
tera, with satiny yellow under wings ; the superb green-marked 
“brovkeana;” the “paradoxa” group, often closely resembling 
the Eupleas that abound in the same district; the “ paris” 
group richly dusted with golden-green specks; the “ helenus” 
croup with wide-spreading black and white wings; the black 
and crimson “ polydorus” group; the “memnon” group, of the 
largest size and richly-varied colours ; and the “ ewrypilus” 
group, elegantly banded or spotted with blue or grecn: all these 
are so abundant that some of them are met with in every walk, 
and are a constant delight to the naturalist who has the privilege 
of observing them in their native haunts. 

The Coleoptera are far less prominent and require to be care- 
fully sought after; but they then well repay the collector, As 
affording some measure of the productiveness of the tropics in 
insect life it will not be out of place to give a few notes of the 


CHAP. XII. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 543 


a ~ 


number of species collected by myself in some of the best 
localities. At Singapore 300 species of Coleoptera were col- 
lected in 15 days, and in a month the number had increased to 
520; of which 100 were Longicorns and 140 Rhyncophora, At 
Sarawak in Borneo I obtained 400 species in 15 days, and 
600 ina month. In two months this number had increased to 
about 850, and in three months to 1,000 species. This was the 
most prolific spot I ever collected in, especially for Longicorns 
which formed about one-fifth of all the species of beetles. In 
the Aru Islands in one month, I obtained only 235 species of 
Coleoptera, and about 600 species of insects of all orders; and 
this may be taken as a fair average, in localities where no 
specially favourable conditions existed. On the average 40 to 
60 species of Coleoptera would be a good day’s collecting; 70 
exceptionally good; while the largest number ever obtained in 
one day was 95, and the majority of these would be very 
minute insects. It must be remembered, however, that many 
very common species were passed over, yet had every species met 
with been collected, not much more than i00 species would ever 
have been obtained in one day’s collecting of four or five hours. 
These details may afford an interesting standard of comparison 
for collectors in other parts of the world. 

Of Cicindelidz the most peculiarly Malayan form is Therates, 
found always on leaves in the forests in the same localities as 
the more widely spread Collyris. Five genera of this family are 
Indo-Malayan. 

The Carabidee, though sufficiently plentiful, are mostly of smali 
size, and not conspicuous in any way. Dut there is one striking 
exception in the purely Malayan genus Mormolyce, the largest 
and most remarkable of the whole family. It is nocturnal, 
resting during the days on the under side of large dole¢i in the 
virgin forest. Pericallus and Catascopus are among the few 
genera which are at all brillantly coloured. 

suprestidee are abundant, and very gay; the genus Belioncla 
being perhaps one of the most conspicuous and characteristic. 
The giant Catoxantha is, however, the most peculiar, though 
comparatively scarce. Chrysochroa and Chalcophora are also 


B44 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 


abundant and characteristic. Out of the 41 Oriental genera 21 
are Malayan, and 10 of these are not found in the other sub- 
regions. . 

In Lucanide the Malay islands are rich, 14 out of the 16 
Oriental genera ocewrring there, and 3 being pecuhar. There 
are many fine species of Odontolabris, which may be considered 
the characteristic genus of the sub-region. 

The Cetoniide are well represented by 16 genera and about 120 
species. The genera Mycteristes, Phedimus, Plectrone, Huremina, 
Rhagopteryz and Centrognathus are peculiar, while Agestrata, 
Chalcothea, and Macronota are abundant and characteristic. 

The Longicorns, as in all continental forest regions near the 
equator, are very abundant and in endlessly varied forms. No 
less than 55 genera containing about 200 species are peculiar to 
this sub-region, the Cerambycidie being much the most numerous. 
Luryarthrum, Celosterna, Agelasta, and Astathes may be consi- 
dered as most characteristic ; but to name the curious and in- 
teresting forms would be to give a list of half the genera. For 
the relations of the Longicorns of the Indo-Malay, and those of 
the Austro-Malay region, the reader is referred to the chapter on 
the distribution of insects in the succeeding part of this work. 

Terrestrial Mollusca—The Philippine islands are celebrated 
as being one of the richest parts of the world for land shells, 
about 400 species being known. The other islands of the sub- 
region are far less rich, not more than about 100 species having 
yet been described from the whole of them. Helix and Buli- 
mus both abound in species in the Philippines, whereas the 
latter genus is very scarce in Borneo and Java. Ten genera of 
Helicidee inhabit the sub-region; P/feiferia is found in the 
Philippines and Moluccas, while the large genus Cochlostyla is 
almost peculiar to the Philippines. Of the Operculata there are 
representatives of 20 genera, of which Dermatoma and Pupi- 
nella are peculiar, while Registoma and Callia extend to the 
Australian region. Cyclophorus, Leptopoma, and Pupina are 
perhaps the most characteristic genera, 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 345 


The Zoological Relations of the Several Islands of the Indo-Malay 
Sub-region. 

Although we have grouped the Philippine islands with the 
Indo-Malay sub-region, to which, as we shall see, they un- 
doubtedly belong, yet most of the zoological characteristics we 
have just sketched out, apply more especially to the other groups 
of islands and the Malay peninsula. The Philippine islands 
stand, to Malaya proper, in the same relation that Madagascar 
does to Africa or the Antilles to South America; that is, they 
are remarkable for the absence of whole families and genera 
which everywhere characterise the remainder of the district. 
They are, in fact, truly insular, while the other islands are really 
continental in all the essential features of their natural history. 
Before, therefore, we can conveniently compare the separate 
islands of Malaya! with each other, we must first deai with the 
Philippine group, showing in what its speciality consists, and 
why it must be considered apart from the sub-region to which 
it belongs. 

Mammals of the Philippine Islands—The only mammalia re- 
corded as inhabiting the Philippine Islands are the following :— 


QUADRUMANA, 1, Macacus cynomolgus. 
. Cynopithecus niger. Dr. Semper doubts this being 
a Philippine species. 
LEMUROIDEA. . Tarsius spectrum. 


1 

2 

3 

Insectivora, 4. Galeopithecus philippinensis. 

5. Tupaia (species). On Dr. Semper’s authority. 

CARNIVORA, 6. Viverra tangalunga. 

7. Paradoxurus philippensis. 

8. Sus (species). On Dr. Semper’s authority, 

9, Cervus mariannus, 

10. Cervus philippensis, 

11. Cervus alfredi. 

12. Bos (species). Wild cattle ; perhaps intro- 
duced. 


UNGULATA. 


RODENTIA, 13. Phleomys cummingii. 
14. Seuirus philippinensis. 
Also 24 species, belonging to 17 genera, of bats. 

* As so many typical Malay groups are absent only from the Philippines, I 
have adopted the term “ Malaya,” to show the distribution of these, using 
the term “ Indo-Malaya” when the range of the group includes the 
Philippines. This must be remembered when consulting the tables of dis- 
tribution at the end of this chapter. 


346 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


The foregoing list, although small, contains an assemblage of 
species which are wholly Oriental in character, and several of 
which (Tarsius, Galeopithecus, Tupaia) are characteristic and 
highly peculiar Malayan forms. At the same time these islands 
are completely separated from the rest of Malaya by the total 
absence of Semnopithecus, Hylobates, Felis, Helarctos, Rhinoceros, 
Manis, and other groups constantly found in the great Indo- 
Malay islands and peninsula of Malacca. We find apparently 
two sets of animals: a more ancient series, represented by the 
deer, Galeopithecus, and squirrel, in which the species are distinct 
from any others; and a more recent series, represented by 
Macacus cynomolgus, and Viverra tangalunga, identical with 
common Malayan animals. The former indicate the earliest 
period when these volcanic islands were connected with some 
part of the Malayan sub-region, and they show that this was 
not geologically remote, since no peculiar generic types have 
been preserved or differentiated. The latter may indicate either 
the termination of the period of union, or merely the effects of 
introduction by man. The reason why a larger number of 
mammalian forms were not introduced and established, was 
probably because the union was effected only with some small 
islands, and from these communicated to other parts of the 
archipelago; or it may well be that later subsidences extin- 
guished some of the forms that had established themselves. 

Birds of the Philippine Islands.—These have been carefully 
investigated by Viscount Walden, in a paper read before the 
Zoological Society of London in 1873, and we are thus furnished 
with ample information on the relations of this important 
portion of the fauna. 

The total number of birds known to inhabit the Philippines 
is 219, of which 106 are peculiar, If, however, following our 
usual plan, we take only the land-birds, we find the numbers 
to be 159 species, of which 100 are peculiar ; an unusually large 
proportion for a group of islands so comparatively near to 
various parts of the Oriental and Australian regions. The 
families of birds which are more especially characteristic of the 
Indo-Malay sub-region are about 28 in number, and examples 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 547 
of all these are found in the Philippines except four, viz., Cin- 
clide, Phyllornithide, Eurylemide, and Podargidee. The only 
Philippine families which are, otherwise, exclusively Austro- 
Malayan are, Cacatuide and Megapodiide. Yet although the 
birds are unmistakably Malayan, as a whole, there are, as in 
the mammalia (though in a less degree), marked deficiencies of 
most characteristic Malayan forms. Lord Walden gives a list 
of no less than 69 genera thus absent; but it will be sufficient 
here to mention such wide-spread and specially Indo-Malay 
groups as,—LHurylemus, Nyctiornis, Arachnothera, Geocichla, 
Malacopteron, Timalia, Pomatorhinus, Phyllornis, Lora, Criniger, 
Enicurus, Chaptia, Tehitrea, Dendrocitta, Eulabes, Palewornis, 
Miglyptes, Tiga, and Euplocamus. These deficiencies plainly 
show the isolated character of the Philippine group, and imply 
that it has never formed a part of that Indo-Malayan extension 
of the continent which almost certainly existed when the pecu- 
liar Malayan fauna was developed; or that, if it has been so 
united, it has been subsequently submerged and broken up to 
such an extent, as to cause the extinction of many of the absent 
types. 

It appears from Lord Walden’s careful analysis, that 31 of the 
Philippine species occur in the Papuan sub-region, and 47 in 
Celebes ; 69 occur also in India, and 75 in Java. This last fact 
is curious, since Java is the most remote of the Malayan islands, 
but it is found to arise almost wholly from the birds of that 
island being better known, since only one species, Xantholema 
rosea, 1s confined to the Philippine Islands and Java. 

The wading and swimming birds are mostly of wide-spread 
forms, only 6 out of the 60 species being peculiar to the Philippine 
archipelago. Confining ourselves to the land-birds, and com- 
bining several of the minutely subdivided genera of Lord Wal- 
den’s paper so as to agree with the arrangement adopted in this 
work, we find that there are 112 genera of land-birds repre- 
sented in the islands. Of these, 50 are either cosmopolitan, of 
wide range, or common to the Oriental and Australian regions, 
and may be put aside as affording few indications of geographical 
affinity. Of the remaining 62 no less than 40 are exclusively 


348 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART lL. 


or mainly Oriental, and most of them are genera which range 
widely over the region, only two (Philentoma and Rollulus) being 
exclusively Malayan, and two others (Jegalurus and Malacocireus) 
more especially Indian or continental. Five other genera, though 
having a wide range, are typically Palearctic, and have reached 
the islands through North China. They are, Monticola, Acro- 
cephalus, Phylloscopus, Calliope, and Passer ; the two first having 
extended their range southward into the Moluccas. The pecu- 
liarly Australian genera are only 12, the majority being charac- 
teristic Papuan and Moluccan forms; such as—Campephaga, 
Aleyone, Cacatua, Tanygnathus, Ptilopus, Janthenas, Phlogenas, 
and Megapodius. One is peculiar to Celebes (Prioniturus) ; one 
to the Papuan group (Cyclopsitta) ; and one is chiefly Australian 
(Gerygone). The beautiful little parroquets forming the genus 
Loriculus, are characteristic of the Philippines, which possess 5 
species, a larger number than occurs in any other group of 
islands, though they range from India to Flores. There remain 
six peculiar genera-—Rhabdornis, an isolated form of creepers 
(Certhiide) : Gymnops, a remarkable bareheaded bird belonging 
to the starlings (Sturnide); Dasylophus, and Lepidogrammus, 
remarkable genera of cuckoos (Cuculidee) ; Penelopides, a peculiar 
hornbill, and Phapitreron, a genus of pigeons. Besides these there 
are four other types (here classed as sub-genera, but considered 
to be distinct by Lord Walden) which are peculiar to the Philip- 
pines. These are Pseudoptyna, an owl of the genus Athene ; 
Pseudolalage, a sub-genus of Lalage ; Zeocephus, a sub-genus of 
Tchitrea ; and Ptilocolpa, included under Carpophaga. 

When we look at the position of the Philippine group, con- 
nected by the Bashee islands with Formosa, by Palawan and the 
Sooloo archipelago with Borneo, and by the Tulour and other 
islets with the Moluccas and Celebes, we have little difficulty in 
accounting for the peculiarities of its bird fauna. The absence 
of a large number of Malayan groups would indicate that the 
actual connection with Borneo, which seems necessary for the 
introduction of the Malay types of mammalia, was not of long 
duration ; while the large proportion of wide-spread continental 
genera of birds would seem to imply that greater facilities had | 


CHAP, XU] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 349 


once existed for immigration from Southern China, perhaps by 
a land connection through Formosa, at which time the ancestors 
of the peculiar forms of deer entered the country. It may in- 
deed be objected that our knowledge of these islands is far 
too imperfect to arrive at any satisfactory conclusions as to their 
former history; but although many more species no doubt 
remain to be discovered, experience shows that the broad cha- 
racters of a fauna are always determined by a series of collections 
made by different persons, at various localities, and at different 
times, even when more imperfect than those of the Philippine 
birds really are. The isolated position, and the volcanic struc- 
ture of the group, would lead us to expect them to be somewhat 
less productive than the Moluccas, close to the rich and varied 
Papuan district,—or than Celebes, with its numerous indications 
of an extensive area and great antiquity; and taking into account 
the excessive poverty of its mammalian fauna, which is certain 
to be pretty well known, I am inclined to believe that no future 
discoveries will materially alter the character of Philippine 
ornithology, as determined from the materials already at our 
command. 


Java.—Following the same plan as we have adopted in first 
discussing the Philippine islands, and separating them from the 
body of the sub-region on account of special peculiarities, we 
must next take Java, as possessing marked individuality, and as 
being to some extent more isolated in its productions than the 
remaining great islands. 

Java is well supplied with indigenous mammalia, possessing 
as nearly as can be ascertained 55 genera and 90 species. None 
of these genera are peculiar, and only about 5 of the species, 
—3 quadrumana, a deer and a wild pig. So far then there is 
nothing remarkable in its fauna, but on comparing it with that of 
the other great islands, viz., Borneo and Sumatra, and the Malay 
peninsula, we find an unmistakable deficiency of characteristic 
forms, the same in kind as that we have just commented on in 
the case of the Philippines, though much less in degree. First, 
taking genera which are found in all three of the above-named 


x 


359 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART I. 


localities and which must therefore be held to be typical Ma- 
layan groups, the following are absent from Java: Vuverra, 
Gymnopus, Lutra, Helarctos, Tapirus, Elephas, and Gymnura ; 
while of those known to occur in two, and which, owing to our 
imperfect knowledge, may very probably one day be discovered in 
the third, the following are equally wanting: Simia, Siamanga, 
Hemigalea, Paguma, Rhinosciurus, and Rhizomys. It may be 
said this is only negative evidence, but in the case of Java it is 
much more, because this island is not only the best known of 
any in the archipelago, but there is perhaps no portion of 
British India of equal extent so well known. It is one of the 
oldest of the Dutch possessions and the seat of their colonial 
government ; good roads traverse it in every direction, and ex- 
perienced naturalists have been resident in various parts of 
it for years together, and have visited every mountain and every 
forest, aided by bands of diligent native collectors. We 
should be almost as likely to find new species of mammalia 
in Central Europe as in Java; and therefore the absence of 
such animals as the Malay bear, the elephant, tapir, gymnura, 
and even less conspicuous forms, must be accepted as a 
positive fact. 

In the other islands there are still vast tracts of forest in the 
hands of natives and utterly unexplored, and any sinular absence — 
in their case will prove little; yet on making the same com- 
parison in the case of Borneo, the most peculiar and the least 
known of the other portions of the sub-region, we find only 
2 genera absent which are found in the three other divisions, 
and only 3 which are found in two others. A fact to be noted 
also is, that the only genus found in Java but not in other parts 
of the sub-region (Z/elictis) occurs again in North India; and 
that some Javan species, as Rhinoceros javanicus, and Lepus kur- 
gosa occur again in the Indo-Chinese sub-region, but not in the 
Malayan, 

Among the birds we meet with facts of a similar import ; 
and though the absence of certain types from Java is not quite 
so certain as among the mammalia, this is more than balanced 
by the increased number of such deficiencies, so that if a few 


CHAP. X11. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 3D 


should be proved to be erroneous, the main result will remain 
unaltered. 

Java possesses about 270 species of land birds, of which about 
40 are peculiar to it. There are, however, very few peculiar 
genera, Laniellus, a beautiful spotted shrike, being the most 
distinet, while Cochoa and Psaltria are perhaps not different from 
their Indian allies. The island has however a marked indivi- 
duality in two ways—in the absence of characteristic Malayan 
types, and in the presence of a number of forms not yet found 
in any of the other Malay islands, but having their nearest allies 
in various parts of the Indo-Chinese sub-region. The following 
16 genera are all found in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, 
but are absent from Java: WSetornis, Temnurus, Dendroeitta, 
Corydon, Calyptomena, Venilia, Reinwardtipicus, Caloramphus, 
Rhinortha, Nyctiornis, Cranorhinus, Psittinus, Polyplectron, Ar- 
gusianus, Huplocamus, and Rollulus. The following 9 are known 
from two of the above localities, and will very probably be 
found in the third, .but are absent from, and not lkely to 
occur in, Java: Z'richixos, Hwpetes, Melanochlora, Chaptia, Pity- 
viasis, Lyncornis, Carpococcyx, Poliococcyx, and Rhinoplax. We 
have thus 25 typically Malayan genera which are not known 
to occur in Java. 

The following genera, on the other hand, do not occur in any 
of the Malayan sub-divisions except Java, and they all occur 
again, or under closely allied forms, in the Indo-Chinese sub- 
region: Brachypteryz (allied species in Himalayas); Zoothera 
allied species in Aracan); Notodela {allied species in Pegu); 
Pnoépyge (allied species in Himalayas) ; Allotrius (allied species 
in the Himalayas); Cochoa (allied species in the Himalayas) ; 
Crypsirhina (allied species in Burmah); £strilda (allied species 
in India) ; Psaltria (allied genus—Aigithaliscus—in Himalayas) ; 
Pavo muticus and Harpactes oreskios (same species in Siam 
and Burmah); Cecropis striolata (same species in Java and 
Formosa, and allied species in India). | 

Here we have 12 instances of very remarkable distribution, 
and considering that there are nearly as many birds known from 
Sumatra and Borneo as from Java, and considerably more from 


352 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


the Malay peninsula, it is not likely that many of these well 
marked forms will be discovered in these countries. 

There are also a considerable number of species of birds 
common to Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, but represented in 
Java by ‘distinct though closely allied species. Such are,— 


Venilia malaccensis (represented in Java by) V. miniata. 
Drymocataphus nigrocapitatus ,, a D. capistratus, 
Malacopteron coronatum te rs M. rufifrons. 
Irena cyanea - 7 I. tureosa, 
Ploceus baya Za S P. hypoxantha. 
Loriculus galgulus + . L. pusillus, 
Ptilopus jambu . 3 P. porphyreus. 


Now if we Jook at our map of the region, and consider the 
position of Java with regard to Borneo, Sumatra, and the Indo- 
Chinese peninsula, the facts just pointed out appear most 
anomalous and perplexing. First, we have Java and Sumatra 
forming one continuous line of volcanoes, separated by a very 
narrow strait, and with all the appearance of having formed one 
continuous land; yet their productions differ considerably, and 
those of Sumatra show the closest resemblance to those of 
3orneo, an island ten times further off than Java and differing 
widely in the absence of yolcanoes or any continuous range of 
lofty mountains. Then again, not only does Java differ from 
these two, but it agrees with a country beyond them both— 
a country from which they seem to have a much better chance 
to have been supplied by immigration than Java has, and to 
have (almost necessarily) participated, even more largely, in the 
benefits of any means of transmission capable of reaching the 
latter island. Yet more; whatever changes have occurred to 
bring about the anomalous state of things that exists must have 
been, zoologically and geologically, recent ; for the strange cross- 
affinities between Java and the Indo-Chinese continent (in 
which Sumatra and Borneo have not participated), as well as 
that between Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo (in which Java has 
not participated) are exhibited, in many cases by community of 
species, in others by the presence of very closely allied forms 
of the same genera, of mammalia and birds. Now we know that 


CHAP, XII] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 355 


ee a essen 


these higher animals become replaced by allied species much 
more rapidly than the mollusca; and it is also pretty certain 
that the modification by which this replacement is effected 
takes place more rapidly when the two sets of individuals are 
isolated from each other, and especially when they are restricted 
to islands, where they are necessarily subject to distinct and 
pretty constant conditions, both physical and organic. It 
becomes therefore almost a certainty, that Siam and Java on 
the one hand, and Sumatra, Borneo, and Malacca on the other 
must have been brought ito some close connexion, not earlier 
than the newer Pliocene period; but while the one set of 
countries were having their meeting, the other must have been 
by some means got out of the way. Before attempting to 
indicate the mode by which this might have been effected in 
accordance with what we know of the physical geography, 
geology, and vegetation of the several islands, it will be as well 
to complete our sketch of their zoological relations to each 
other, so as ascertain with some precision, what are the facts 
of distribution which we have to explain. 


Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo.—After having set apart the 
Philippine Islands and Java, we have remaining two great 
islands and a peninsula, which, though separated by con- 
siderable arms of the sea, possess a fauna of wonderful uni- 
formity having all the typical Malayan features in their full 
development. Their unity is indeed so complete, that we can 
find hardly any groups of sufficient importance by which to 
differentiate them from each other; and we feel no confidence 
that future discoveries may not take away what speciality they 
possess. One after another, species or genera once peculiar to 
Borneo or Sumatra have been found elsewhere; and this has 
gone to such an extent in birds, that hardly a peculiar genus 
and very few peculiar species are left in either island. Borneo 
however is undoubtedly the most peculiar. It possesses three 
genera of Mammalia not found elsewhere: Cynogale, a curious 
carnivore allied to the otters; with Dendrogale and Ptilocerus, 
small insectivora allied to Tupaia. It has Simia, the Orang- 

A A 


354 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PARY III. 


utan, and Paguma, one of the Viverride, in common with 
Sumatra ; as well as Rhinoscivrus, a peculiar form of squirrel, and 
Hemigalea, one of the Viverride, in common with Malacca. 
Sumatra has only one genus not found in any other Malayan 
district—Nemorhedus, a form of antelope which occurs again 
in North India. It also has Stamanga in common with Malacca, 
Mydaus with Java, and khizomys with India. The Malay Penin- 
sula seems to have no peculiar forms of Mammalia, though 
it is rich in all the characteristic Malay types. 

The bats of the various islands have been very unequally 
collected, 36 species being recorded from Java, 23 from Sumatra, 
put only 16 each from Borneo and Malacca, Leaving these out 
of consideration, and taking into account the terrestrial mam- 
mals only, we find that Java is the poorest in species, while 
Borneo, Sumatra, and Malacca are tolerably equal; the numbers 
being 55, 62, 66, and 65 respectively. Of these we find that 
the species contined to each island or district are (in the same 
order) 6, 16, 5, and 6. It thus appears that Borneo is, in its 
mammalia, the most isolated and peculiar ; next comes Sumatra, 
and then Malacca and Java, as shown by the following table. 


Peculiar Peculiar 

Genera. Species, 
Borneo ... ria a 4 es - ome 16 
Sumatra Kaa ar l oe bos oxi 5 
Malacea bee ie ) Sth ate Sad 6 
Java... te i) 0 ee fl ae 6 


This result differs from that which we have arrived at by the 
more detailed consideration of the fauna of Java; and it serves 
to show that the estimate of a country by the number of its 
peculiar genera and species alone, may not always represent its 
true zoological importance or its most marked features. Java, 
as we have seen, is differentiated from the other three districts 
by the absence of numerous types common to them all, and by 
its independent continental relations, Borneo is also well dis- 
tinguished by its peculiar genera and specific types, yet it is at 
the same time more closely related to Sumatra and Malacca 
than is Java. The two islands have evidently had a very 
different history, which a detailed knowledge of their geology 


otal 


CHAP. XIL.] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 
would alone enable us to trace. Should we ever arrive at a 
fair knowledge of the physical changes that have resulted in 
the present condition, we shall almost certainly find that many 
of the differences and anomalies of their existing fauna and 
flora will be accounted for. 

In Birds we hardly find anything to differentiate Borneo and 
Sumatra in any clear manner. Pityriasis and Carpococcyz, once 
thought peculiar to the former, are now found also in the latter ; 
and we have not a single genus left to characterize Borneo except 
Schwaneria a peculiar fly-catcher, and Indicator, an African and 
Indian group not known to occur elsewhere in the Malay 
sub-region. Sumatra as yet alone possesses Psilopogon, a remark- 
able form of barbet, but we may well expect that it will be soon 
found in the interior of Borneo or Malacca; it also has Bereni- 
cornis, an African form of hornbill. The Malay Peninsula 
appears to have no genus peculiar to it, but it possesses 
some Chinese and Indian forms which do not pass into the 
islands. As to the species, our knowledge of them is at present 
very imperfect. The Malay Peninsula is perhaps the best 
known, but it is probable that both Sumatra and Borneo are 
quite as rich in species. With the exception of the genera 
noted above, and two or three others as yet found in two islands 
only, the three districts we are now considering may be said to 
have an almost identical bird-fauna, consisting largely of the 
same species and almost wholly of these together with closely 
allied species of the same genera. There are no well-marked 
groups which especially characterise one of these islands rather 
than the other, so that even the amount of speciality which 
Borneo undoubtedly exhibits as regards mammalia, is only 
faintly shown by its birds. The Pittidee may perhaps be named 
as the most characteristic Bornean group, that island possessing 
six species, three of which are peculiar to it and are among the 
most beautiful birds of an unusually beautiful family. Yet Suma- 
tra possesses two peculiar, and hardly less remarkable species. 

In other classes of vertebrates, in insects, and in land-shells, 
our knowledge is far too imperfect to allow of our making any 
useful comparison between the faunas. 

AA 2 


356 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Mil. 


Banca.—We must, however note the fact of peculiar species 
occurring in Banca, a small island close to Sumatra, and thus 
offering another problem in distribution. A squirrel (Sezurus 
bangkanus) is allied to three species found in Malacca, Sumatra, 
and Borneo respectively, but quite as distinct from them all as 
they are from each other. More curious are the two species of 
Pitta peculiar to Banca; one, Pitta megarhynchus, is allied to 
the P. brachyurus, which inhabits the whole sub-region and ex- 
tends to Siam and China, but differs from it in its very large bill 
and differently coloured head ; the other, P. bangkanus, is allied 
to P. cucullatus, which extends from Nepal to Malacca, and to 
P. sordidus, which inhabits both Borneo and Sumatra as well as 
the Philippines. 

We have here, on a small scale, a somewhat similar problem 
to that of Java, and as this is comparatively easy of solution we 
will consider it first. Although, on the map, Banca is so very 
close to Sumatra, the observer on the spot at once sees that the 
proximity has been recently brought about. The whole south- 
east coast of Sumatra is a great alluvial plain, hardly yet raised 
above the sea level, and half flooded in the wet season. It is 
plainly a recent formation, caused by the washing down into a 
shallow sea of the débris from the grand range of volcanic 
mountains 150 miles distant. Banca, on the other hand is, 
though low, a rugged and hilly island, formed almost wholly of 
ancient rocks of apparently volcanic origin, and closely resem- 
bling parts of the Malay Peninsula and the intervening chain of 
small islands. There is every appearance that Banca once 
formed the extremity of the Peninsula, at which time it would 
probably have been separated from Sumatra by 50 or 100 miles 
of sea. Its productions should, therefore, most resemble those of 
Singapore and Malacca, and the few peculiar species it possesses 


will be due to their isolation in a small tract of country, sur- 


rounded by a limited number of animal and vegetable forms, and 
eubject to the influence of a peculiar soil and climate. The 
parent species existing in such large tracts as Borneo or Suma- 
tra, subjected to more varied conditions of soil, climate, 
vegetation, food, and enemies, would preserve, almost or quite 


CHAP, XII. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 357 
unchanged, the characteristics which had been developed under 
nearly identical conditions when the great island formed part 
of the continent. Geology teaches us that similar changes in 
the forms of the higher vertebrates have taken place during the 
Post-Tertiary epoch ; and there are other reasons for believing 
that, under such conditions of isolation as in Banca, the 
change may have required but a very moderate period, even 
reckoned in years. We will now return to the more difficult 
problem presented by the peculiar continental relations of Java, 
as already detailed. 


Probable Recent Geographical Changes in the Indo-Malay 
Islands—Although Borneo is by far the largest of the Indo- 
Malay islands, yet its physical conformation is such that, were 
a depression to occur of one or two thousand feet, it would be 
reduced to a smaller continuous area than either Sumatra or 
Java. Except in its northern portion it possesses no lofty 
mountains, while alluvial valleys of great extent penetrate far 
into its interior. A very moderate depression, of perhaps 500 
feet, would convert it into an island shaped something like Cele- 
bes ; and its mountains are of so small an average elevation, and 
consist so much of isolated hills and detached ranges, that a 
depression of 2,000 feet would almost certainly break it up into 
a group of small islands, with a somewhat larger one to the 
north. Sumatra (and to a less extent Java) consists of an almost 
continuous range of lofty mountains, connected by plateaus from 
3,000 to 4,000 feet high ; so that although a depression of 2,000 
feet would greatly diminish their size, it would probably leave 
the former a single island, while the latter would be separated 
into two principal islands of still considerable extent. The en- 
ormous amount of volcanic action in these two islands, and the 
great number of conical mountains which must have been slowly 
raised, chiefly by ejected matter, to the height of 10,000 and 
12,000 feet, and whose shape indicates that they have been for- 
med above water, renders it almost certain that for long periods 
they have not undergone submersion to any considerable extent. 
In Borneo, however, we have no such evidences. No volcano, 


358 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 


active or extinct, is known in its entire area; while extensive 
beds of coal of tertiary age, in every part of it, prove that it has 
been subject to repeated submersions, at no distant date geolo- 
gically. An indication, if not a proof, of still more recent sub- 
mersion is to be found in the great alluvial valleys which on 
the south and south-west extend fully 200 miles inland, while 
they are to a less degree a characteristic feature all round the 
island. These swampy plains have been formed by the combined 
action of rivers and tides; and they point clearly to an immedi- 
ately preceding state of things, when that which is even now 
barely raised above the ocean, was more or less sunk below it. 

These various indications enable us to claim, as an admissible 
aud even probable supposition, that at some epoch during the - 
Pliocene period of geology, Borneo, as we now know it, did not 
exist ; but was represented by a mountainous island at its present 
northern extremity, with perhaps a few smaller islets to the 
south. We thus have a clear opening from Java to the Siamese 
Peninsula; and as the whole of that sea is less than 100 fathoms 
deep, there is no difficulty in supposing an elevation of land 
connecting the two together, quite independent of Borneo on the 
one hand and Sumatra on the other. This union did not prob- 
ably last long; but it was sufficient to allow of the introduction 
into Java of the Rhinoceros javanicus, and that group of Indo- 
Chinese and Himalayan species of mammalia and birds which 
it alone possesses. When this ridge had disappeared by sub- 
sidence, the next elevation occurred a little more to the east, 
and produced the union of many islets which, aided by sub- 
aerial denudation, formed the present island of Borneo. It is 
probable that this elevation was sufficiently extensive to unite 
Borneo for a time with the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, thus 
helping “to produce that close resemblance of genera and even of 
species, which these countries exhibit, and obliterating much 
of their former speciality, of which, however, we have still 
some traces in the long-nosed monkey and JPtilocerus of 
Borneo, and the considerable number of genera both of mam- 
malia and birds confined to two only out of the three divisions 
of typical Malaya. The subsidence which again divided these 


CHAP. XII. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 359 


countries by arms of the sea rather wider than at present, 
might have left Banca isolated, as already referred to, with its 
proportion of the common fauna to be, in a few instances 
subsequently modified. 

Thus we are enabled to understand how the special relations 
of the species of these islands to each other may have been 
brought about. To account for their more deep-seated and 
general zoological features, we must go farther back, 


Probable Origin of the Malayan Fauna.—The typical Malayan 
fauna is essentially an equatorial one, and must have been 
elaborated in an extensive equatorial area. ‘This ancient land 
almost certainly extended northward over the shallow sea as far 
as the island of Palawan, the Paracels shoals and even Hainan. 
To the east, it may at one time have included the Philippines 
and Celebes, but not the Moluccas. To the south it was limited 
by the deep sea beyond Java. It included all Sumatra and the 
Nicobar islands, and there is every reason to believe that it 
stretched out also to the west so as to include the central peak 
of Ceylon, the Maldive isles, and the Cocos islands west of 
Sumatra. We should then have an area as extensive as South 
America to 15° south latitude, and well calculated to develop 
that luxuriant fauna and flora which has since spread to the 
Himalayas. The submergence of the western half of this area 
(leaving only a fragment in Ceylon) would greatly diminish the 
number of animals and perhaps extinguish some peculiar types ; 
but the remaining portion would still form a compact and exten- 
sive district, twice as large as the peninsula of India, over the 
whole of which a uniform Malayan fauna would prevail. The 
first important change would be the separation of Celebes ; and 
this was probably effected by a great subsidence, forming the deep 
strait that now divides that island from Borneo. During the 
process Celebes itself was no doubt greatly submerged, leaving 
only a few islands in which were preserved that remnant of the 
ancient Malayan fauna that now constitutes one of its most 
striking and anomalous features. The Philippine area woul 
next be separated, and perhaps be almost wholly submerged ; or 


360 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL, 


broken up into many small volcanic islets in which a limited 
number of Malayan types alone survived. Such a condition of 
things will account for the very small variety of mammalia com- 
pared with the tolerably numerous genera of birds, that now 
characterise its fauna; while both here and in Celebes we find 
some of the old Malayan types preserved, which, in the extended 
area of the Sunda Isles have been replaced by more dominant 
forms. 

The next important change would be the separation of Java; 
and here also no doubt a considerable submergence occurred, 
rendering the island an unsuitable habitation for the various 
Malay types whose absence forms one of its conspicuous features. 
It has since remained permanently separated from the other 
islands, and has no doubt developed some peculiar species, while 
it may have preserved some ancient forms which in the larger 
area have become changed. From the fact that a number of its 
species are confined either to the western or the eastern half of 
the island, it is probable that it long continued as two islands, 
which have become united at a comparatively recent period. 
It has also been subjected to the immigration of Indo-Chinese 
forms, as already referred to in the earlier part of this sketch. 

We have thus shown how the main zoological features of the 
several sub-divisions of the Malayan sub-region may be 
accounted for, by means of a series of suppositions as to past 
changes which, though for the most part purely hypothetical, 
are always in accordance with what we know both of the 
physical geography and the zoology of the districts in question 
and those which surround them. It may also be remarked, that 
we know, with a degree of certainty which may be called absolute, 
that alternate elevation and subsidence is the normal state of 
things all over the globe; that it was the rule in the earliest 
geological epochs, and that it has continued down to the 
historical era. We know too, that the amount of elevation and 
subsidence that can be proved to have occurred again and again 
in the same area, is often much greater than is required for the 
changes here speculated on,—while the ¢ime required for such 
changes is certainly less than that necessitated by the changes 


ie 


OHAP. XII. | THE ORIENTAL REGION, 361 


of specific and generic forms which have coincided with, and been 
to a large extent dependent on them. We have, therefore, true 
causes at work, and our only suppositions have been as to how 
those causes could have brought about the results which we 
see; and however complex and unlikely some of the supposed 
changes may seem to the reader, the geologist who has made a 
study of such changes, as recorded in the crust of the earth, 
will not only admit them to be probable, but will be inclined 
to believe that they have really been far more complex and 
more unexpected than any supposition we can make about 
them. 

There is one other external relation of the Malayan fauna 
about which it may be necessary to say a few words. I have 
supposed the greatest westward extension of the Malayan area 
to be indicated by the Maldive islands, but some naturalists 
would extend it to include Madagascar in order to account for. 
the range of the Lemuride. Such an extension would, however, 
render it difficult to explain the very small amount of corre- 
spondence with a pervading diversity, between the Malayan and 
Malagasy faunas. It seems more reasonable to suppose an 
approximation of the two areas, without actual union having 
ever occurred. This approximation would have allowed the 
interchange of certain genera of birds, which are common to 
the Oriental Region and the Mascarene islands, but it would 
have been too recent to account for the diffusion of the lemurs, 
which belong to distinct genera and even distinct families. This 
probably dates back to a much earlier period, when the lemurine 
type had a wide range over the northern hemisphere. Sub- 
jected to the competition of higher forms, these imperfectly 
developed groups have mostly died out, except a few isolated 
examples, chiefly found in islands, and a few groups in Africa. 

In our discussion of the origin of the Ethiopian fauna, we 
have supposed that a close connection once existed between 
Madagascar and Ceylon. This was during a very early tertiary 
epoch ; and if, long after it had ceased and the fauna of Ceylon 
and South India had assumed somewhat more of their present 
character, we suppose the approximation or union of Ceylon 


ee ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


and Malaya to have taken place, we shall perhaps be able to 
account for most of the special affinities they present, with the 
least amount of simultaneous elevation of the ocean bed; which 
it must always be remembered, requires a corresponding de- 
pression elsewhere to balance it. 


Concluding Remarks on the Oriental Region.—We have already 
so fully discussed the internal and external relations of the 
several sub-regions, that little more need be said. The rich and 
varied fauna which inhabited Europe at the dawn of the ter- 
tiary period,—as shown by the abundant remains of mammalia } 
wherever suitable deposits of Eocene age have been discovered,— 
proves, that an extensive Palearctic continent then existed ; 
and the character of the flora and fauna of the Eocene deposits 
is so completely tropical, that we may he sure there was then no 
barrier of climate between it and the Oriental region. At that 
early period the northern plains of Asia-were probably under 
water, while the great Thibetan plateau and the Himalayan range, 
had not risen to more than a moderate height, and would haye 
supported a luxuriant sub-tropical flora and fauna. The Upper 
Miocene deposits of northern and central India, and Burmah, 
agree in their mammalian remains with those of central and 
southern Europe, while closely allied forms of elephant, hyena, 
tapir, rhinoceros, and Chalicotherium have occurred in North 
China; leading us to conclude that one great fauna then 
extended over much of the Oriental and Palearctic regions. 
Perim island at the mouth of the Red Sea, where similar 
remains are found, probably shows the southern boundary of 
this part of the old Palearctic region in the Miocene period. 
Towards the equator there would, of course, be some peculiar 
groups; but we can hardly doubt, that, in that wonderful time 
when even the lands that stretched out furthest towards the 
pole, supported a luxuriant forest vegetation, substantially one 
fauna ranged over the whole of the great eastern continent of the 
northern hemisphere. During the Pliocene period, however, a 
progressive change went on which resulted in the complete 
differentiation of the Oriental and Palearctic faunas. The 


-~ 


CHAP. XIL. THE ORIENTAL REGION. 36: 


causes of this change were of two kinds. There was a great 
geographical and physical revolution effected by the elevation 
of the Himalayas and the Thibetan plateau, and, probably at 
the same time, the northward extension of the great Siberian 
plains. This alone would produce an enormous change of 
climate in all the extra-tropical part of Asia, and inevitably 
lead to a segregation of the old fauna into tropical and tem- 
perate, and a modification of the latter so as to enable it to 
support a climate far more severe than it had previously known. 
But it is almost certain that, concurrently with this, there was 
a change going on of a cosmical nature, leading to an alteration 
of the climate of the northern hemisphere from equable to 
extreme, and-culminating in that period of excessive cold which 
drove the last remnants of the old sub-tropical fauna beyond 
the limits of the Palzearctic region. From that time, the Oriental 
and the Ethiopian regions alone contained the descendants of many 
of the most remarkable types which had previously flourished 
over all Europe and Asia; but the early history of these two 
regions, and the peculiar equatorial types developed in each, 
sufficiently separate them, as we have already shown. The 
Malayan sub-region is that in which characteristic Oriental 
types are now best developed, and where the fundamental con- 
trast of the Oriental, as compared with the Ethiopian and 
Palearctic regions, is most distinctly visible. 


364 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. 


In constructing these tables, showing the distribution of 
various classes of animals in the Oriental region, the following 
sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition 
to the general treatises, monographs, catalogues, &c., used for 
the compilation of the Fourth Part of this work. 

Mammalia.—Jerdon’s Indian Mammalia; Kelaart’s Fauna of 
Ceylon; Horsfield and Moore’s Catalogue of the East India 
Museum; Swinhoe’s Catalogue of Chinese Mammalia; S. 
Miiller’s Zoology of the Indian Archipelago; Dr. J. E. Gray’s 
list of Mammalia of the Malay Archipelago (Voyage of Sama- 
rang); and papers by Anderson, Blyth, Cantor, Gray, Peters, 
Swinhoe, &c. 

Birds.—Jerdon’s Birds of India; Horsfield and Moore’s Cata- 
logue; Holdsworth’s list of Ceylon Birds ; Schlegel’s Catalogue 
of the Leyden Museum; Swinhoe on the Birds of China, For- 
mosa, and Hainan; Salvadori on the Birds of Borneo; Lord 
Walden on the Birds of the Philippine Islands; and papers 
by Blyth, Blanford, Elwes, Elliot, Stoliczka, Sclater, Sharpe, 
Swinhoe, Verreaux, and Lord Walden. 

Reptiles—Giinther’s Reptiles of British India; papers by 
same author, and by Dr. Stoliczka, 


a+ wee 


CHAP. XU. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION, B05 


TABLE I 
FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE ORIENTAL REGION. 


EXPLANATION, 
Names in italics show families peculiar to the region. 
Numbers correspond with those in Part 1V. 
Names enclosed thus (...... ) barely enter the region, and are not considered really to 
belong to it. 


Sub-regions. 


Order and Family. cS) ej Blad/2g ed Range beyond the Region. 
= = et ress: | 
ES ap EE Lt Ose] 
Hao] 2 Oo =o) | ris 
| 


| 
| 


PRIMATES. 

1. Simiide ... . 

2. Semnopithecidee 
3. Cynopithecide 


— | — | W. Africa 
— | Tropical Africa 
— | — |} — | — | All Africa, S, Palearctic 


6. Lemuride — | — | — | Ethiopian 
7. Tarsiide.. — | Celebes 
CHIROPTERA. 


| 
| 
| 
| 


9. Pteropide _... 
11. Rhinolophide 
12. Vespertilionide 
13. Noctilionide .. 


Ethiopian, Australian 
= | -—— |} = |} — | The Eastern Hemisphere 
eh es OSIOnOnLG 

— |. |) el opie restoad 


INSECTIVORA. 
14. Galeopithecide 
16. Tupaiide 
17. Erinaceide 
21. Talpide ... 
22. Soricide .. 


—|— — | Palearctic, S. Africa 
aa Palearctic, Nearctic 
— | — | — | — | Palearctic, Ethiopian, N. America 


CARNIVORA. 

23. Felide 

25. Viverride 

27. Hyenide 

28. Canide ... 
| 29. Mustelide 
| 31. Hluride ... 
| 32. Urside 


— | — | — | — | All regions but Australian 
=| — | — | — , Ethiopian, 8. Palearctic 
= Ethiopian, S. Palearctic 
— | — | — |Allregions but Australian [?] 
— | — | — | — | All regions but Australian 
734 Palearctic 
— | — | Palearctic, Nearctic, Chili 


CETACEA. Oceanic 
SIRENIA. 
42. Manatide ~- | Ethiopian, N. Pacific 


| Palearctic, Ethiopian 


UNGULATA. 


MAMMALIA. 
| 
3. (Equide)... oe 


366 


Order and Family. 


44. Tapiride... .. 
45. Rinocerotide ... 
47. Suid 

4%, Tragulide 

50. Cervide ... 
§2.--Bovide... «: 
53. Elephantide ... 


RODENTIA. 


55. Muride ... 
56. Spalacide 
61. Sciuride ... 
67. Hystricide 
70. Leporide 


EpENTATA. 
72. Manidide 


BIRDS. 


PASSERES. 


1. Turdide ... 

2. Sylviide ... 

3. Timaliide 

4. Panuride 

5. Cinclide... ... 
6. Troglodytide... 
8. Certhiide 

9. Sittide .., 

10. Paride ... 

11. Liotrichide ... 
12. Phyllornithide 
13. Pyenonotide ... 
14. Oriolide... ... 
15, Campephagidee 
16. Dicruride : 
17. Muscicapide ... 
18. Pachycephalide 
19. Laniide ... ... 
20. Corvide ... ... 
23. Nectariniide .. 
24. Dicwide... ... 
30, Hirundinide ... 
33. Fringillide 
34. Ploceide 

35, Sturnidse 

36, Artamidie 

37. Alaudide i 
38. Motacillide ... 
43, Eurylamida ri 
hee 2 ee 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART UI. 


Sub-regions. 
o = , a ia 
Se\ 2 isslee 
f2| 2 | Ss\45 
x o) = ee 
' 


Is oa A 
Oe ae alla 


| | 


. a rar ae 
| Renee 

Pe hI hf ied bie ELLE 
Peet iit FLAVELL ti 


| 


| Ethiopian, Australian 


Range beyond the Region. 


Neotropical 

Ethiopian 

Palearctic, Ethiopian, Neotropical 

W. Africa 

All regions but Ethiopian and Australian 
All regions but Australian and Neotropical 
Ethiopian 


Cosmopolite, excl. Oceania 
Palearctic, Ethiopian 

All regions but Australian 
S. Palearctic, Ethiopian 
All regions but Australian 


Ethiopian 


Almost Cosmopolite 

Almost Cosmopolite 

Ethiopian, Australian 
Palearctic 

Not Ethiopian or Australian 
American and Palearctic 
Palearctic, Nearctic, Australian 
Palearctic, Nearetic, Australian, Madagascar 
The Eastern Hemisphere and North America 


Ethiopian, Moluecas 

The Eastern Hemisphere 
Ethiopian, Australian 
Ethiopian, Australian 
The Kastern Hemisphere 
Australian p 
The Eastern Hemisphere and North America _ 
Cosmopolite Lr 
Ethiopian, Australian 
Ethiopian, Australian’ 
Cosmopolite 

All regions but Australian 
Ethiopian, Australian 

The Kastern Hemisphere 
Australian 

All regions but Neotropical 
Cosmopolite 


CHAP, XIL.] 


Order and Family. 


PICARLA. 

51. Picide ... 

. Yungidee 

. Indicatoridee 
. Megaleemidee 
. Cuculidee 
. Coraciidee 
. Meropidee 
. Trogonide 
. Alcedinide .. 


9. Upupidee 

. Podargidee 
. Caprimulgide 
. Cypselidee 


Psrrract, 


76. (Cacatuide) ... 


78. Paleornithide 


COLUMBA. 
84. Columbide .. 


GALLINZ. 


86. Pteroclide .. 
87. Tetraonide ... 
88. Phasianidee 
89. Turnicide 
90. Megapodiide 


ACCIPITRES. 
94. Vulturide 

95. Faleonide ... 
97. Pandionide ., 
98. Strigide 


GRALLA. 


99. Rallide 
100. 
103. 
194. 
105. 
16. 
107. 
213. 
114. 
115. 
ait. 


Parride... 
Glareolidz 


Otidide... 
Gruide .. 
Ardeidz 
Plataleidie 
Ciconiidse 


> 


Scolopacide . : | 


Charadriide... | 


| 
| 
| 


8. Bucerotide ... | 


Phenicopteride, — | 


THE ORIENTAL REGION. 


Sub-regions, 


| 


Malaya. | 


| 


Indo- 


| 


All regions but Australian 
Palearctic 

Ethiopian 

Ethiopian, Neotropical 
Cosmopolite 

Ethiopian, Australian 
Ethiopian, Australian 
Neotropical, Ethiopian 

| Cosmopolite 

Ethiopian, Austro-Malayan 
Ethiopian, 8S. Palearctic 

| Australian 

| Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite 


Australian 
Ethiopian, Austro-Malayan 


| Cosmopolite 


Ethiopian, Paizarctic 


Range beyond the Region. 


367 


Kastern Hemisphere and North America 


Ethiopian, Palearctic, North America 
Ethiopian, Australian, S. Palearctic 


Australian 


All regions but Australian 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 


Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite 

Tropical regions 

Eastern Hemisphere 
Cosmopolite 

Kastern Hemisphere 

All regions but Neotropica 
Cosmopolite 

Almost Cosmopolite 
Almost Cosmopolite 


Ethiopian, Neotropical, 8, Palearctic 


568 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART lll. 
Sub-regions. 
Order ard Family. é. d adl|é d Range beyond the Region. 
ES/ } | ea/es 

ANSERES. 
118. Anatide — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 
119. Laride ... ...| — | — | — | -— | Cosmopolite 
120. Procellariide | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 
121. Pelecanide ...| — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 
124. Podicipide ...| —- | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 

REPTILIA. 
OPHIDIA. 


. Oligodontide ... 


. Typhlopide ...| — | — | — | — | All regions but Nearctic 
. Tortricide... ... — | — | — | — | Austro-Malaya, S. America 
. Xenopeltide ... — | — | Celebes 
Uropeltide ... 
. Calamariide .. — | All the warmer regions 


S. America, Japan 


Almost Cosmopolite 
All the regions 


. Homalopside... —j|— 
—|— Ethiopian, S. Palearctic 


. Psammophide 
11. Dendrophide... 
12. Dryiophide ...| — 
13. Dipsadide ...| — 
14. Scytalide , 

15. Lycodontide ... | — 
16. Amblycephalide 
17. Pythonide — 
18. Erycide ... .../ — 
19. a gl 

20. Elapide ... _— 
23. H ydrophide .. wel 
24. Crotalidee wel 
25. Viperide or 


£2 OO NTO Sn OO DD 


Tr gaia BOS 


Kthiopian, Australian, Neotropical 
Ethiopian, Neotropical 
Ethiopian, Australian, Neotropical 
Tropical America 
— | Ethiopian 
— | Neotropical 
The tropical regions, and California 
Ethiopian, 8. Palearctic 


— | Tropical regions, Japan, S. Carolina 
— | Australian, ~ Panama, Madagascar 
— | America, KE. Palearctic 

— | Ethiopian, Palearctic 


LACERTILIA. 


30. Varanide wi 
33. Lacertide — 
34. Zonuride ah 

45. Scincide... ...}| — 
48. Acontiadse 

49. Geckotide | — 
51. Agamide ...| — 
52. Chameleonide | — 


— | Africa, Australia 

— | The Eastern Hemisphere 
America, 8. Europe, Ethiopian 

— | Almost Cosmopolite 
Ethiopian, Moluceas 

— | Almost Cosmopolite 

— | The Kastern Hemisphere 
Kthiopian 


— |N. Australia 


54. Gavialide ...) — 
~~ | Ethiopian, Neotropical, N, Australia 


55. Crocodilide ...| —|—j|— 


CHELONIA, 


67. Testudinide ...| —|— | — 
59. Trionychide ... 
60, Cheloniide 


— |All continents but Australia 
— |Japan, EK. of N, America, Africa 
Marine 


: sd —— —_—- 


CROCODILIA, 


CHAP, XII. ] 


Order and Family. 


AMPHIBIA, 
PsrvupopPpaIDIA. 


1. 


URODELA. 
5. 


ANOURA. 
7. 
9. 
Li. 
16, 
ay; 
18. 
19. 


FISHES. 
(FRESHWATER). 
ACANTHOPTERYGII 


PHYSOSTOMI. 


59. 
73. 
75. 
78. 
82. 


85. 


. Percide ... 
. Scienide 

. Nandidze 

. Labyrinthici 
. Luciocephalide 
. Ophiocephalide 
. Mastacembelidae 
. Chromide 


Ceciliade 
Salamandridxe 


Phryniscide ... 
Bufonide 
Engystomide .. 
Mylidm. =... ... 
Polypedatide... 
Ranide ,.. . 
Discoglossidie 


Siluride... ... 
Cyprinodontidee 
Cyprinide 
Osteoglosside... 
Notopteride .. 
Symbranchide 


INSECTS. 
LEPIDOPTERA 


(PART). 


Divrni 
(BUTTERFLIES. ) 


Re 
2. 


Danaide ... 
Satyride ... 


3. Elymniide 
4, Morphide 


6. 
8, 


Acreide... ... 
Nymphalide ... 


| 


THE ORIENTAL REGION, 


Sub-regions. 


Range beyond the Region. 


Ethiopian, Neotropical 


North temperate zone 


Ethiopian, Australian, Neotropical 
All continents but Australia 

All regions but Palearctic 

All regions but Ethiopian 
Neotropical and all other regions 
Almost Cosmopolite 

All regions but Nearctic 


All regions but Australian 
All regions but Australian 
Neotropical 

S. Africa, Moluccas 


Ethiopian, Neotropical 


All warm regions 

S. Palearctic, Ethiepian, American 
Not in 8. America and Australia 
All tropical regions 

W. Africa 

Australian (? Marine) Neotropical 


All warm regions and to Canada 
Cosmopolite 
Ethiopian, Moluceas 
Neotropical, Moluccas, and Polynesia 
All tropical regions 
Cosmopolite 

B B 


369 


370 


Order and Family. 


9. Libytheide 
10. Nemeobeide . 
13. Lycenide 
14. Pieride . 

15. Papilionide 
16. Hesperide 


17. Zygenide 
19. Agaristide 
20. Uraniide 
22. Aigeriidze 


| 
SPHINGIDEA., 
23. Sphingidee 


Sub-regions. 
+ 1 

s|s 

> ia 

Sle 

oO 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Pe LA 
Sa 
Roh ts 14 


pete Sea 


Indo- 


| | | | | | | aera 


Range beyond the Region. 


Absent from Australia 

Not in Australia or Nearctic regions 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite 

Cosmopolite 


Cosmopolite 
Australian, Ethiopian 
All tropical regions 
Absent from Australia 
Cosmopolite 


> 


a5 
—_ 
~] 
_ 


CHAP, X11. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 


TABLE II. 


GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING 
THE ORIENTAL REGION. 


EXPLANATION. 


Names in talics show genera peculiar to the region. 
Names inclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but are not considerel 


properly to belong to it. 
Genera truly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively. 


MAMMALIA. 


Order, Ban and se Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
_ "ae Aa | pao ef he oA a st 
PRIMATES. | 
SIMIID2. 
1. Simia 2 | Borneo and Sumatra 
2. Hylobates... 7 | Sylhet to Java and S. Ghina 
3. Siamanga 1 | Malacca and Sumatra 
SEMNOPITHECID&. 
4. Presbytes...... | 28 | Simla to Aracan and KE. Thibet,| Moupin, Palearctic [?] 
Ceylon, and Java 
CYNOPITHECIDE. 
5. Macacus ... ... | 22 | The whole region S. Palearctic 
6. Cynopithecus .. | 1 | Philippines Celebes 
(Sub-Order) 
LEMUROIDEA. 
LEMURID2. 
7. Nycticebus ... 3 | EF. Bengal to Java, and S. China 
8. Loris + «|. 1 | Ceylon and S. India 
TARSIIDA. 
9. Tarsus ... ... 1 | Sumatra and Borneo |N. Celebes 
CHIROPTERA. 
PTEROPID2. 
10. Pteropus ... 6 | The whole-region Tropics of E. Hemisp. 
11. Xantharpyia 1 | The whole region _Austro-Malaya, Ethiop., 
| SS. Palearctic 
12. Cynopterus 3 | The whole region Tropical Africa 
13. Megerops... ... | 1 | Sumatra | 
14, Macroglossus ... | 1 | Java, Borneo, Philippines Austro-Malaya 
15. Harpyia ... _ 1 | Philippines Austro-Malaya 
RHINOLOPHID. | 
16. Aquias ... ... | 21 Nepal to Java 


BB 2 


372 


Order, Family, and 


Genus. 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


No, of 
Species. 


Range within the Region. 


[PART III. 


Range beyond the Region. 


17. Phyllotis .......| 1 | Philippines . 
18. Rhinolophus ... | 10 | The whole region Warmer parts of E. Hem. 
19. Hipposideros ... | 8 | The whole region Austro-Malaya 
20, Phyllorhina 4 | Indo-Malay subregion Austro-Malaya, Tropical 
Africa 
21. Asellia 1 | Java, Sumatra Amboyna, Egypt 
22. Petalia 1 | Java 
23. Celops 1 | India (Bengal) 
24, Rhinopoma 1 | All India Egypt, Palestine 
25. Megaderma 2 | The whole region Ternate, N. Ethiopian 
26. Nycteris ... 1 | Java Ethiopian 
VESPERTILIONIDE. 
27. Scotophilus 10 | The whole region Austral., Neare., Neotrop. 
28. Vespertilio 12 | The whole region Cosmopolite 
29. Keriovula... 8 | The whole region S Africa, N. China 
30. Trilatitus 2 | Indo-Malaya 
31. Noctulina 3 | Nepal to Philippines 2 
32. Miniopteris 3 | Java, Philippines, and China S. Africa, S. Palearctic, 
Australian 
33. Murina 2 | Himalayas to Java 2 
34. Nycticejus 8 | All India Trop. Africa, Temp. Amer, 
35. Harpiocephalus 2 | Java and Philippines 
36. Taphozous 4 | The whole region Ethiop., Austro-Malayan, 
Neotropical 
37. Myotis 3 | Himalayas , 
38. Plecotus ... 1 | | arjecling Timor, S. Palearctic 
39. Barbastellus 1 | Himalayas Europe 
40. Nyctophilus 1 | Mussoorie Australian 
NOcrTILIONID&. 
41. Chiromeles 1 | Indo-Malaya, Siam 
42. Nyctinomus The whole region Madagascar, America 
INSECTIVORA. 
GALEOPITHECIDA. | 
43. (faleopithecus ... 2 | Indo-Malay and Philippines, 
) excl, Java 
TUPAIIDE. 
44. T'upaia 7 |S. and E. of India to Borneo 
45. Hylomys ... _ 2 | Tenasserim to Java and Borneo 
46, Plilocerus... / 1 | Borneo 
ERINACEID. 
47, Erinaceus... 2 | Hindostan and Formosa Palearctic, S. Africa 
48. Gymnura... 1 | Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo 
TALPIDA, 
49. Talpa 2 | Himalayas to Assam, & Formosa Palearctic 
SORIOID. = 
50, Sorex 2) | The whole region All regions but Austral, — 


' and 8S, America 


CHAP. XII. ] 


——_ —___— 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


CARNIVORA, 

FreLIp”. 

51. Felis... 
(Lynx 

52. Cynelurus 


VIVERRID&. 
53. Viverra 
64, Viverricula 
55. Prionodon 
56. Hemigalea 
57. Arctitis 


58. Paradoxurus ... 


59. Paguma ... 
60. Arctogale ... 
61. Cynogale... 
62. Herpestes... 
63. Calogale .., 
64. Calictis 

65. Urva ve 
66. Toaniogale 
67. Onychogale 


Hy ANID. 
68. Hyena 


CANIDS. 


69. Canis... 
70. Cuon 
71. Vulpes 


(Nyctereutes ... 


MUSTELID4&. 


72. Martes 

73. Mustela 

74. Gymnopus 

75. Barangia 

76. Lutra 

77. Aonyx ... 

78. Arctonyz ... 
(Meles 

79. Mydaus ... 

80. Mellivora... 

81. Helictis 


JELURID. 
82. #lurus 


URSID&. 


83. Ursus “ae 
84. Helarctos.. 
85. Melursus ... 


No. of 
Species 


nw 


te Tet EE 0 


i 


He re bo 


—_ 


ee et et et et Ot BS OO DO 


a 


THE ORIENTAL REGION, 


Range within the Region. 


The whole region 
Central India) 
S. and W. India 


The whole region 

India to China and Java 
Nepal to Borneo and Java 
Malacca and Borneo 

Nepal to Sumatra and Java 
The whole region 


Tenasserim and Malaya 
Borneo 


India to Cambodjia 
Ceylon ? 

N. India 

Central India 
Ceylon 


Hindostan, open country 


All India 
India to Java 
All India 


China) 


Nepal to Borneo 
Sumatra 

The whole region 
N. India, Malaya 
| Nepal to Aracan 
_S. China) 
Sumatra, Java 
Hindostan 


KE. Himalayas to E, Thibet 


Himalayas to China 
Indo-Malaya 
Ganges to Ceylon 


Nepal to Malaya and China 


Nepal, Formosa, China & Java 


373 


Range beyond the Region, 


| 


| All regions but Austral. 
Palearctic, Ethiopian 
S. Palearctic, Ethiopian 


Ethiopian, Moluccas 


Ke Islands (? introduced) 


The whole reg., excl. Philippines) S. Palearctic, Ethiopian 


Hithiopian 


S Palearctic, Ethiopian 


Almost Cosmopolite 


All Continents but S. 
America and Australia 
Japan and Amoorland 


India, Ceylon, Java, and China Palearctic, Nearctic 
Himalayas to Bhotan and China | Paleare., Ethiop., Neare. 


Palearctic - 
W. andS. Africa 


| Palearctic genus 
Ethiopian 


| Palearctic ? 


Palearctic, Nearctic 


374 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


No. of 


Species 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Range within the Region. 


| 


CETACEA. 
DELPHINID. 
86. Platanista 


SIRENIA. 
MANATID. 
87. Halicore 


UNGULATA. 
° TAPIRIDA. 


— 


88. Tapirus ... 


RHINOCEROTID®. 
89. Rhinoceros 


Or 


SuIDz. 
90. Sus... 


for) 


TRAGULID. 
91. Tragulus 


CERVIDA. 


92. Cervus ... 
93. Cervulus... 
(Moschus... 


a 
ee OF 


Bovine. 
94. Bibos 


ew) 


. Bubalus... 

. Portax ,.. 

. Gazella ... 

. Antilope... 

. Tetraceros 

. Nemorhedus 
. Capra 


PROBOSCIDEA. 
ELEPHANTID™. 
102. Elephas ... 


RODENTIA. 
Muripa, 


103. Mus OMe TT 
104. Acanthomys ... 
105. Phlwomys 
106. Platacanthomys 
107. Meriones 

108. Spalacomys ... 
109, Arvicola 


ee oe 


oO 


worepe Ke oO 


wh. 2 
Pw & ’ 


Ganges to India 


Coasts of W. India, Ceylon, and. 
Indo- Malaya 


Malay Pen., Sumatra, Borneo 
Nepal to Bengal, Siam, & Java 


The whole region 


India and Ceylon to Cambodja 
and Java 


The whole region 
The whole region 
Himalayas above 8,000 feet) 


India to Burmah, Formosa, and 
Java 

N. and N. Central India 

Peninsula of India 

Deserts and plains of India 

Open country of India 

Hill districts all over India 

EK. Himalayas and Sumatra 

Neilgherries 


India to Siam, Sumatra & Borneo 


The whole region 
India 

Philippines 

8. W. India 
India and Ceylon 
India 

Himalayas 


[PARY II. 


Range beyond the Region. 


E. Africa, N. Australia 


Neotropical 
Ethiopian 


Paleeare., Austro-Malaya 


Paleearc., Amer., Molue. 


Central Asia, Palearctic 


Ethiopian, S. Palearctic 


Palearctic deserts 


N. China and Japan’ 
Palearctic, Nearctic 


Ethiopian 


The EK. Hemisphere 
Ethiopian, Australian 


Palearctic, Ethiopian 


Palearctic, Nearetic 


oe - 
: 


| 


| 


CHAP. XII. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 375 
> gil chm and 5 3 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
eM i ee rates, 8 
SPALACID. | 
110. Rhizomys 3 | Nepal to Canton, Malacca and) Abyssinia 
Sumatra 
Scrurip&. ; 
111. Sciurus .... ... | 50 | The whole region Cosmop., excl. Austral. 
region 
112. Sciuropterus... | 9 | India, and Ceylon to Java,| N. and E. Palearctic 
Formosa 
113. Pteromys ... | 9 | India & Ceylon to Borneo, Java,| Japan 
Formosa 
(Arctomys _ 2 | W. Himalayas above 8,000 ft.) | Palearctic and Nearctic 
HystRiciD&, 
114. Hystrix...... 3 | India and Ceylon, to Malacca &| 8. Palsarctic, Ethiopian 
S. China 
115. Atherura 2 | India to Malaya West Africa 
116. Acanthion ... | 2 | Nepal to Borneo and Java 
LEPORIDS. 
117. Lepus ...... | 5 | India and Ceylon to S. China and] All regions but Austral. 
Formosa 
ENDENTATA. 
MANIDIDA, 
118. Manis... ... | 2 | Nepal to Ceylon, S. China and} Ethiopian 
Java 
BIRDS. 
PASSERES. 
TURDID2. 
1. Brachypteryx ... 8 | Himalayas, Ceylon and Java 
2. Oreocincla 8 | N. W. Himalayas to KE. Thibet Palearctic, Australian 
Ceylon, Burmah, Malaya, For- ; 
mosa 
3. Turdus ..._... | 26 | The whole region Almost Cosmopolite 
4. Geocichla... .. 9 | India & Ceylon to Java, Formosa, Celebes, Lombock, to N. 
Australia 
5. Monticola 3 | The whole region Palearctic, Ethiopian, 
Moluceas 
6. Orocetes ... 2 |N. W. Himalayas, and India 
7. Zoothera . 3 | W. Himalayas to Aracan, Jaya | Lombock, Timor ? 
i SYLvpDz. 
8. Orthotomus  ... | 13 | The whole region 
9. Prinia ..._... | 11 | The whole reg., excl. Philippines 
10.) Drymeca ... | 13 | The whole reg., excl. Philippines) Ethiopian 
11.) Cisticola ... ... | 6 | The whole region Ethiopian Australian 
12 feo ... | 4 | Nepal to 8. China and Formosa 
13. | Megalurus ... 3 | Central India, Java, Philippines | 
14. {Acrocephalus ... | 9 ope Ceylon, S. China, and Palearc.,Ethiop., Austral. 
ilippines 
(Dumeticola .. 2 ' Nepal and E. Thibet) A Palearctic genus 


376 ; 


_Order, Family, and 3 
Genus. S = 
Biss) 
15. { Loeustella 4 
16.\ Horites ... ... 2 
17.;Phylloscopus ... | 10 
(Gerygone.... 1 
(Hypolais 1 
18.| Abrornis ... 26 
19. | Reguloides 2 
(Regulus ... 1 
(Sylvia 2 
(Curruca ... 2 
(Cyanecula 1 
20.| Calliope ... 2 
21.| Ruticilla ... 8 
22.} Chemarrhornis 1 
23.) Larvivora 10 
24.| Notodela ... 3 
25.| Tarsiger ... 2 
(Grandala 1 
26. | Copsychus 6 
27.| Kittacincla 5 
28. | Thamnobia 2 
(Dromolea 1 
(Saxicola 2 
29.| Oreicola ? 1 
(Cercomela 1 
30. | Pratincola 5 
(Accentor 2 
TIMALIIDA, 
31. Pomatorhinus... | 20 
32. Malacocercus . 14 
33. Chatarrhea 5 
34. Layardia , 3 
35. Acanthoptila ... 1 
36. Garrulax 22 
37. Janthocincla .. 8 
38. Gampsorhynchus | 1 
39. Grammatoptila 1 
40. T'rochalopteron 22 
41, Actinodura ... 3 
42. Pellorneum  ... ‘ 
43. Dumetia ... 2 
44. Timalia ... 10 
45. Stachyris ... 6 
46. Pyctoris ... | 38 
47. Mizvornis... ... | 8 
48. Mualacopteron . 3 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


es 


Range within the Region. 


Nepal, Hindostan, S. China 

Himalayas, Formosa 

All India and Ceylon, to China 
Philippines 

Philippine Islands) 

All India, ? migrant) 

The whole reg., excl. Philippines 

Himalayas and Central India 

N. W. Himalayas and E.Thibet) 

India and Ceylon) 

India) 

India) 

Himalayas and Central India, 
Philippine Islands 

Himalayas to China and Formosa 

Himalayas to Burmah 

W.Himalayas to Ceylon, Malacca 
and China 

Himalayas Pegu, 
Formosa 

Nepal and W. Himalayas 

Nepal and E. Thibet, high) 

The whole region 

The whole region 

N. W. India, Hindostan, and 
Ceylon 

N. W. India) 

N. W. India) 

Burmah 

N. W. India, a desert genus) 

The whole region 


to Java, 


Himalayas, in winter) 


The whole region 

All India to Burmah, Philippines 

India, Burmah, Philippines 

India and Ceylon 

Nepal 

The whole region 

Himalayas to K, Thibet, Sumatra, 
Formosa 

Nepal 

N. India 

N. W. Himalayas, India, China, 
Formosa 

K. Himalayas, 3,000 to 10,000 

India, Ceylon, Tenasserim 

India and Ceylon 

Malaeca to Java 

N. W. Himalayas to China, For- 
mosa, Sumatra 

India, Ceylon, and Up. Burmah 


Himalayas to Borneo and Java | 


Malacea to Java 


[PART III. 


Range beyond the Region. a 


Palearctic 
High Himal., E. Thibet 
Palearctic, Ethiopian 


Australian genus 
Palearctic genus 
Cashmere, E. Thibet 
Palearctic 

Palearctic and Nearctic 
Palearctic genus 
Palearctic genus 
Palearctic genus 
Palearctic 


Palearctic, Ethiopian 


Palearctic genus 
Madagascar 


Ethiopian 


Ethiopian genus 

Palearctic and Ethiopian 

Timor 

N.E. Africa, S. W. Asia 

Palearctic, Ethiopian, 
Celebes, and Timor 

Palearctic genus 


Australian 
Arabia, Nubia 
Palestine, Abyssinia 


CHAP. XII.J THE ORIENTAL REGION. 377 


——____—_— ee ES esses steers 


Uager, Nibaia = se Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
& 
49. Alcippe 16 | The whole region New Guinea 
50. Macronus 1 | Malacca to Java 
51. Cacopitta ... 5 | Java, Borneo, Sumatra 
52. Trichastoma 9 | Nepal, Malacca to Java Celebes 
53. Napothera 5 | Malacca to Java 
54. Drymocataphus 6 | Malacca to Java, Ceylon Timor 
55. Turdinus 4 | Tenasserim, Malacca 
56. Trichixos ... 1 | Malacca, Borneo 
57. Sibia 6 | N. W. Himalayas to Tenasserim, 
Formosa 
PANURID#. 
| 58. Paradoxornis ... 3 | Nepal to Aracan and E. Thibet, 
) 3,000-6,000 ft. 
59. Suthora ... ... § | Himalayas to E. Thibet, Chine,| N, W. China, E. Thibet 
Formosa 
60. Chlenasicus ... | 1 | Sikhim 
CINCLID&. 
61. Cinclus 2 | Himalayas, China, and Formosa | Palearctic and American 
62. Eupetes 2 | Malacca and Sumatra New Guinea 
63. Enicurus ... 9 |N. W. Himalayas (to 11,000 ft.) 
to Java and West China 
64. Mytophonus ... " 6 All India (to 9,000 ft. in N. W. Turkestan 
Himalayas) S. China, Formosz, 
| Java, Sumatra 
TROGLODYTID&. 
| 
65. Tesia : 2 | Eastern Himalayas 
66. Pnoepyga... 6 |N. W. Himilayas to FE. Tibet, 
Java 
67. Troglodytes... | | Himalayas to E. Thibet Palearctic and American 
68. Rimator ... ... | 2 | Darjeeling 
CERTHIIDA, | 
69. Certhia 2 Himalayas Palearctic and Nearctic 
70. Salpornis... 1 Central India 
71. Rhabdornis 1 | Philippine Islands‘ ; 
(Tichodroma . 1 | Himalayas in winter) Palearctic genus 
SITTID. | 
ai Se 5 Himalayas to 8. India, S. China} Palearctic and Nearctic 
73. Dendrophila 2 | All India and Ceylon to Pegu 
and Java 
PARID. 
74. Parus ...__... | 16 | The whole region Palearctic and Nearctic 
75. Melanochlora . 2 | Nepal to Malacea and Sumatra 
76. Psaltria ... ... | 1 | West Java ; 
77. Aigithaliscus .. 6 |W. Himalayas to China Afghanistan 
78. Sylviparus 1 |W. Himalayas to Centra India 
and E. Thibet 
79. Cephalopyrus ... | 1 | N. W. Himalayas 
LIOTRICHID. 


80. Liothrix . Nepal to S, W. China 


Lv 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


a) 
82. Minla 


83. Proparus 
84. Allotrius 
85. Cutia 

86. VYuhina... 


87. Izulus ... 
88. Myzornis 


PHYLLORNITHIDA. 


89. Phyllornis 


90. Lora 
91. Erpornis 


PYCNONOTIDZ. 
92. Microscelis 


93. Pycnonotus .. 


94. Hemixus 


95. Hypsipe tes 4 


96. Criniger ... 
97. Setornis ,.. 
98. Tole... 


ORIOLIDA. 
99. Oriolus ... 


100. Analcipus 


CAMPEPHAGIDA. 


101. Pericrocotus ... 


102. Graucalus 


103, Campephaga ... 
Volvocivora ... 


104, 
105. Lalage 
106. Cochoa 
a 

DiIcruRID-. 
107, Dierurus 
108. Bhringa 
109. Chibia 

110. Chaptia ... 
111. Jrena 


MUSCICAPID. 


112. Muscicapula ... 


113, Erythrosterna 


es 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


No. of 
Species. 


Heed STO POO 


pt 
Noo © 


wrmonre ws 


_ 
owrenns 


bo eo) 


[PART Il. 


<= 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. © 


Himalayas :—3,000—7,000 ft. 
Nepal to E. Thibet; moderate 
heights 
goat Himalayas to E. Thibet ;| Perhaps also Palearctic | 
1g 
N. W. Himalayas to Tenasserim 
E. Thibet and Java 
Nepal and Sikhim 
Himalayas to E. Thibet, high | Perhaps Palearctic 
Darjeeling to Tenasserim 
Nepal and Sikhim 


The whole region; excluding 
China and Philippines 
The whole reg., excl. Philippines 


Nepal and Hainan 

Burmah, China, Malaya Japan 

The whole region Ethiopian 
Himalayas and Hainan 

The whole regiun Madagascar 


India, Ceylon, Malaya, Hainan 
Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo 
Aracan and Malaya 


Africa, Moluccas 


The whole region Paleare. Ethiepian, Ce- 
lebes, Flores 
Himalayas, Malaya, Formosa, 


Hainan 


Lombock ; the Amoor, 
migrant 
Australian 


The whole region 


India, Ceylon, Malaya, Philip- 
pines, Hainan and Formosa 

Philippine Islands 

The whole reg., excl. Philippines 

Malaya and Philippines 

Himalayas and Java 


Celebes to N. Guinea 
Celebes to Pacific Is. 


The whole region Ethiop. and Australian 
Himalayas to Burmah and Java 
India to China 

India to Borneo and Formosa 

S. India and Ceylon, Assam to 


Malaya and Philippines 


Pekin in summer 


Cashmere to W, China, S. India 
The whole region, excluding 
Philippines 


Palearctic and Mada 
gascar 


$. Order, Family, and 


114. 
115. 
116. 
aad. 


118. 

. 119. 

: 120. 

é 121. 
? 122. 
123. 

124, 

125. 

126. 


127. 
128. 


129. 
130. 


CHAP. XII. ] 


Genus, 


No. of 
Species. 


Xanthpygia . 
Hemipus 
Pycnophrys 
Hemichelidon 


Ultava ... 
SIOTMIS: 6 ax | k 
Cyanoptila 
Eumyias 

Siphia 


co CO eH He CO GC et et bo 


Anthipes 
Schwaneria ... 
Hypothymis ... 
Rhipidura 


STR Ht et 


Chelidorhiyix 
Cryptolopha ... 


et et 


Tchitrea... 


—_~ oO 


Philentoma 


PACHYCEPHALID. 


131 


132 


147 
148 


149 


Shans)... 
133. Laniellus 
134. Tephrodorinis... 


140. 
141. 


142. 
143. 


144, 
145, 


 itvlecharis: ... | 2 


LANIID2. 


— 
Ore oD 


CorvVID&. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 


Pityriasis 
Platylophus .. 
Garrulus 

Cissa 
Urocissa... 


“TCO ert 


Temnurus 
Dendrocitta ... 


Crypsirhina ... 
Nucifraga 


Pica 
Corvus ... 
(Fregilus 


bo co bo bo bp Co © 


NECTARINIID. 
146. 


Aithopaga ... | 13 


. Chalcostetha..-: 1 
. Arachnothera 12 


. Arachnecthera 7 


THE ORIENTAL REGION. "te 
Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
Malacea to China N. China and Japan 
India and Ceylon 
Java 


N. India to Ceylon, and China ;} Eastern Asia 
? Philippines 
Himalayas to W. China 
The whole region Celebes and Timor 
Hainan to Japan Japan and N. China 
The whole reg., excl. Philippines 
N. W. India, Ceylon, Formosa, 
E. Thibet 
Nepal 
Borneo 
The whole region Celebes 
All India and Ceylon, Malaya, 
Philippines Australian 
N. India 
The whole region Celebes 


The whole region N. China, and Japan, 


Flores, Ethiopian 
Malaya and Philippines 


Aracan to Malaya & Philippines | Celebes, Timor 


The whole region Nearc., Paleearc., Ethiop. 
Java 
India, Cevlon, and Malaya ; 

Hanian 


Borneo, Sumatra 

Malaya 

Himalayas, S. China, Formosa | Palearctic 

Himalayas and Aracan to Java 

N. W. Himalayas, Ceylon, Bur- | N, China and Japan 
mah, China, Formosa 

Malaya and Cochin China 

All India to S. China, Formosa, 
and Sumatra 

Java and Burmah 

Himalayas and E, Thibet ;-~) Palearctic genus 
8,000—10,000 feet 

China and Himalayas of Beetan | Palearctic and Nearctic 


The whole region Cosmop., excl. S. Am, 
Himalayas, high) Palearctic genus 


Himalayas to W. China & Java,| Celebes 
Central India 


| 
Malaya and Siam 'Celebes to New Guinea 
The whole reg., excl. Philippines Celebes, Lombock, New 
Guinea 


The whole region, excl. China | Celebes to New Iceland 


380 


Order, Family, and = 
Genus. S 
AR 


150. Nectarophila... 4 
151. Anthreptes 1 


DIcHIDA. 


152. Diceum : 
153. Pachyglossa ... 
154. Piprisoma 
155. Prionochilus ... 
156. Zosterops 
157. Chalcoparia ... 


HIRUNDINIDA. 


158. Hirundo 
159. Cotyle 
160. Chelidon 


FRINGILLIDA. 
(Fringilla ... 
(Acanthis ... 
(Procarduelis... 
(Chlorospiza ... 
Passer ve 
(Fringillauda 
(Coccothraustes 
(Mycerobas ... 
Eophona 
(Pyrrhula 
(Carpodacus ... 


— 


HOR HHO 


4 
woo 


161. 


162. 


me DD Oo ot 


UF. <! rrr 
(Propyrrhula ... 
163. Hamatospiza 


(S. Fam. EMBERIZIN &) 


164. Euspiza .. 
165. Emberiza 


pt fet 


~e 


PLOCEIDA. 


166. Ploceus... .«.. 4 
167. Munia... .«.. | 20 
168. Estrilda oe 2 
169, Erythrura ab he 


STURNIDA, 


170. Eulabes... ... 
171. Ampeliceps .. 
172. Gymnops 

173. Pastor sae 
174. Acridotheres ... 
175. Sturnia... «| 1 
176. Sturnus... ... 

pin & Sturnopastor ae 
178, Calornis... 


NHeoenworrrns 


— 


179. Saroglossa 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Range within the Region. 


India, Ceylon, Malaya, Philipp. 
Malaya and Indo-China 


The whole region 
Nepal 

India and Ceylon 
Malaya 

The whole region 
Aracapn to Malaya 


The whole region 
India to China 
India, Borneo 


Himalayas, in winter) 

N. W. Himalayas, in winter) 

High Himalayas) 

China) 

The whole region 

High Himalayas) 

High Himalayas) 

High Himalayas) 

China 

Himalayas, winter) 

Himalayas and Central India, in 
winter) 

Snowy Himalayas) 

Darjeeling, in winter) 

S. E. Himal., 5,000 to 10,000 ft. 


N. W. India to Burmah, & China 
All India and China, in winter 


India & Ceylon, Burmah, Malaya 
The whole region 

India and Ceylon, Burmah, Java 
Java, Sumatra 


The whole reg., excl. Philippines 
Tenasserim to Cochin-China 
Philippine Islands 

All India to Burmah 

The whole region 

The whole region 

India and China 


Cen. Indiato Burmah & Malaya | . 
[t] Celebes, Moluccas to 


Malaya and Philippines 


W. and Central Himalayas 


[PART IIL. 


Range beyond the Region. 


Celebes 
Celebes 


Australian 
Celebes 


Ethiopian, Australian 


Cosmopolite 
Palearc., Ethiop., Amer. 
Paleearctic 


Palearctic genus 
Palearctic genus 
Palearctic genus 
Palearctic and Ethiopian 
Palearctic and Ethiopian 
Palearctic genus 
Palearctic and Nearctic. 
Palearctic genus 
Palearctic 

Palearctic 

Palearctic and Nearctic 


Palearctic and Nearctic 
[?] Palearctic 


Palearctic and Nearetic 
Palearctic genus 


Ethiopian > 
Austro-Malayan 
Ethiopian, Australian 
Moluccas to Fiji Islands 


Flores, Papua 


S. Palearctic 

Celebes 

N. China&Japan, Celebes 
Palearctic 


Samoan Islands 


, 


CHAP. XI. ] THE ORIENTAL REGION. 381 
perast, ieee = a Range within the Region, | Range beyond the Region. 
Genus. Am 
a oo : a Pee a ee eee 
ARTAMID™. 
180. Artamus... 3 | The whole region Australian 
ALAUDID&. 
(Otocorys 1 | N. India, in winter) Palearctic and Nearctic 
181. Alauda .. 7 | India and China Palearctic and Ethiopian 
182. Galerita ... 2 | Central India Palearctic a 
183, Calandrella 2 | India and Burmah Palearctic and Ethiopian 
(Melanocorypha | 1 | N. W. India) Palearctic 
fos Mirafra... ... 5 | India, Ceylon, and Java Ethiopian ; 
185. Ammomanes... 1 | Central India Palearctic and Ethiop an 
186, Pyrrhulauda... 1 | India and Ceylon Ethiopian 
MOoraciILLips, 
187. Motacilla ... | 6 | India and Ceylon to China anc| Palearctic and Ethiopian 
Philippines} Ens 
188. Budytes ... 2 | China and Philippines Palearctic & Ethiopian, 
Moluccas 
189. Calobates 1 | The whole region Paleearctic 
190. Nemoricola 1 | India, Ceylon, and Malaya 
191. Authus ... 8 India and China Cosmopolite 
192. Corydalla 8 | The whole region Palearctic, Australian 
193. Heterura 1 | Himalayas 
EURYLEMID&, 
194. Eurylemus 2 | Malaya 
195. Serilophus 1 | Himalayas 
| 196. Psarisomus 1 | Himalayas 
| 197. Corydon... ... 1 | Malacea, Sumatra, Borneo 
| 198. Cymbirhynchus 2 | Aracan, Siam, and Malaya 
| 199. Calyptomen«... 1 | Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo 
PITTIDA 
200. Pitta... ... | 11 | The whole region A ‘an. Ethiopis 
| 201. Eucichla || 3 | Malaya $s ustralian, Ethiopian 
202. Hydrornis .. 3 | Himalayas and Malaya 
PICARLA, 
PICcIDA. 
2038. Vivia ... ...| 1 |N. W. Himalayas to E. Thibet, 
| : 3,000-6,000 ft. 
\ 204. Sasia +++ «+ | 2 | Nepal to Malaya and Borneo 
205. Picus -- | 14 | The whole region, excl. Philip-| Palearctic, American 
; pines 
| 206. Hyopicus 1 | Himalayas N. China ' 
| 207. Yungipicus ... | 12 | The whole region N. China, Japan, Celebes 
208. Reinwardtipicus| 1 | Penang to Sumatra and Borneo 
209. Vi enilia ... .... 2 | Nepal to Sumatra and Borneo 
210. Chrysocolaptes 8 | India, Ceylon, Malaya, Philip- 
pines 
211. Hemicercus ... 5 | Malabar, Pegu to Malay: 
212. Gecinus ... | 12 : i 


All India and Ceylon to Pegu| Palaarctic 
| and Malaya 


382 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


213. Mulleripicus... | 


214. Brach oil 
4 A if ir 
216. Gecinulus 
217. Miglyptes 
218. Micropternus... 


YUNGIDA. 
219. Yunx 


INDICATORIDZ. 
£20. Indicator 


MEGALEMIDA. 
221. Megalena 


222. Xantholema... 


223. Psilopogon 
224. Caloramphus... 


CucuULID&. 


225. Phenicophaés 
226. Rhinococcyx ... 
227. Dasylophus ... 
228. Lepidogrammus 
229. Carpococcyx ... 
230. Zanclostomus .. 
231. Rhopodytes 


232. Taccocoua 
233. Poliococcyx 
234. Rhinortha 
235. Centropus 
236. Cuculus 

237. Cacomantis ... 
238, Chrysococcyx 
239. Surniculus 
240. Hierococcyx ... 


241, Coccystes 
242. Eudynamis ... 


CORACIIDAL, 
243. Coracias... 
244, Kurystomus ... 


MeERrorpipa. 
245. Nyctiornis 


No. of 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART lI. 


COW HD Orr Or 


et sae sg 


bo bo onwma oon Ee > NS 


to 


Species. 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. © 


Malabar, Aracan to Malaya and) Celebes 
Philippines 

India, Ceylon, and China 

India to Malaya 

S. Himalayas to Burmah 


Malaya 
India and Ceylon, to Borneo and 
S. China 
Central and S, China Palearctic, S Africa 
Himalayas and Borneo Ethiopian 


The whole region, excl. Philip- 
pines 

All India and Ceylon to ge 
and Malaya 

Sumatra 

Malacca, Sumatra and Borneo 


Ceylon 

Java 

Philippine Islands 

Philippine Islands 

Borneo, Sumatra 

Malaya 

Nepal to Ceylon, Hainan and 
Malaya 

All India, Ceylon, Malacca 

Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo 

Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo 


The whole region Ethiopian, Australian 

The whole region Paleare., Ethiop., Aust. 
The whole region Australian 

The whole region Ethiopian, Australian 
India, Ceylon and Malaya 

The whole region Celebes, N. China and — 


Amoorland 
The whole region, excl. Philip-| Ethiopian 
ines 
The whole region Australian 
India, Ceylon and Burmah Ethiopian, 8. Palware 
] Celebes 


The whole region Ethiopian, Australian 


S. India to Himalayas, Burmah, 
Sumatra, and Borneo 


lhe 
v 


~~ 


4 


CHAP. XII. ] 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


246. Merops ... 


TROGONID®. 
247. Harpactes 


ALCEDINID®. 


248. Halcyon... 
. Pelargopsis 
. Carcineutes 


. Ceyx 
. Alcedo ... 


. Alcyone... 
. Ceryle 


BUCEROTID2. 


255. Buceros ... 
256. 
257. 
258 
259. 
260. 


Hydrocissa 
Berenicornis ... 
Calao 

Aceros 
Cranorrhinus 


261. 
262. 
263. 
UPvupip&{. 

264. Upupa ... 


PODARGIDZ. 
265. Batrachostomus 


Penelopides ... 
Rhinoplax 
Meniceros 


CAPRIMULGID&. 
266. Caprimulgus ... 


267. Lyncornis 
CYPSELID2. 


268. Cypselus 
269. Dendrochelidon 
270. Collocalia 


271. Chetura... 


PSITTACI. 


CACATUIDA. 
(Cacatua 


PALAORNITHIDS. 
272. Paleornis 


THE ORIENTAL REGION. 


No. of 


Species. 


sil 


Dre Or Onn 


ea Oe 


i) co 9 CO 


Range within the Region. 


The whole region 


The whole region, excl. China 


|The whole region 


The whole region, excl. China 
Burmah, Siam, and Malaya 


India and Ceylon, Malaya and 


Philippines 
The whole region 


| Philippines 


India to 8. China 


Nepal to Malaya, S. 
Philippines 

India, Ceylon and Malaya 

Sumatra 

Tenasserim, Malaya 

S. E. Himalayas 


Malacca to Borneo and Philip- 


pines 
Philippines 
Sumatra, Borneo 
India and Ceylon to Tenasserim 


India, Ceylon and Burmah 
India, Ceylon and Malaya 


The whole region 
Burmah, Malaya, & Philippines 


The region, excl. Philippines 
Ceylon, India, Malaya, Philipp. 
The whole region 


Ceylon, India, Malaya, Hainan 


Philippines) 


India, 


383 


Range beyond the Region. 


S. Palearctic, Ethiopian, 
Australian 


S. Palearctic, Ethopian, 
| Australian 
_Celebes and Timor 


Moluccas & New Guin. 


Palearctic, Ethiopian, 
Austro-Malayan 

Australian genus 

Ethiopian, 8. Palearctic, 
American 


W. Africa 
Austro-Malaya 


Celebes 


Ethiopian, S. Palearctic 
Moluccas 


The Eastern Hemisphere 
Celebes 


The OldWorld & S.Amer. 
Austro-Malaya 
_Madagascar, Moluccas, 
Pacific Islands 
America, Africa 


Australian genus 


N. W. India to Ceylon, Siam & Ethiopian 


Malaya 


384 


Order, Family, and 
enus. 


273. 
274. 
275. 
276. 
277. 


COLUMB#, 


COLU MBIDZ. 


278. 
279. 
280. 


Psittinus 


Loriculus 


Treron 
Ptilopus... 


Columba 
Janthenas 


281. 
282. 


283. 
284. 
285. 


286. 
287. 
288. 
289, 


GALLIN &, 
PTEROCLIDA. 
290, Pterocles 


Turtur ... 


Calosnas... 
Phlegcenas 
Geopelia 


TETRAONIDA. 


291. Francolinus ... 


292. Ortygornis 


293, Perdix 

294, Coturnix 

295, Rollulus... 
(Caccabis 


PHASIANIDA. 
296. Pavo 


297. Argusianus ... 
298. Polyplectron ... 


(Lophophorus 

(‘Tetraophasis 
299. Ceriornis 

(Pucrasia 


300, Phasianus 


801. Luplocamus Zz 


302. Gallus ... oes 
303. Gulloperdix ... 


Prioniturus ... 
Cyclopsitta ... 


Tanygnathus.. 


Carpophaga ... 


Macropygia ... 
Chaleophaps Ce. 


Phapitreron ... 


— 
oO 


~ 
om wow wore © 


CO pet ed et et 


= bD = bO Lie oor) cos] 


= bo 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


|W. Himalayas) 


[PART Ill. 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 


Celebes 


Philippine Islands 
Papuan Islands 


Philippine Islands 

Malaya, excl. Java 

Philippine Islands Austro-Malaya 

Ceylon, India, Malaya, Philip-) Celebes and Moluccas, 
pines Flores 


The whole region Ethiopian, Moluccas 
Malaya and Philippines Australian 
India and Ceylon to Hainan and) Australian 
Philippines 
Ceylon and India to Tenasserim | Palare., Ethiop., Amer. 
Philippine, Andaman & Nicobar | Japan, Moluccas to Sa- 
Islands moan Islands 
Nepal, Java, Hainan, Philippines) Austro-Malaya, Australia 
The whole region Old World, Austro- Malay. 
India, Ceylon, Malaya, Hainan,| Austro-Malaya, Australia 
Philippines, Formosa 
Philippine Islands 
Nicobar and Philippine Islands 
Philippine and Sooloo Islands 
Philippine Islands, Java 


Austro-Malaya 
Austro-Mal. & Polynesia 
Austro-Malaya &Austral. 


Central and S. India S. Palearctic, Ethiopian 


Ceylon and India to S. China 

Ceylon to Himalayas, Sumatra & 
Borneo 

India, Malaya, Philippines, China) Palearctic 

The whole region The Eastern Hemisphere 

Malacca, Siam, Borneo, Philipp. 


S. Palearetic, Ethiopian 


Palearctic genus 


Ceylon to Himalayas,S. W, China 
and Java 

Siam, Malacca, Borneo 

Upper Assam to S, W. China & 
Sumatra 

Cashmere and E, Thibet) 

). Thibet) Palearctic genus 

N. W. Himalayas to W. China | 3. E. Palearctic 

N. W. Himalayas to N. China} Palearctic genus 
and Mongolia) 

W. Himalayas,S. China, Formosa] 3, Palearctic 

N. W. Himalayas to China 
Sumatra and Borneo 

The region, excl, China 

Central India to Ceylon 


Palearctic genus 


Celebes and Timor 


tropical region 


CHAP, XI] THE ORIENTAL REGION, 385 
Order, Pat and | se Range within the Region. | Range beyond the Region, 
Sia Bi pel ae TEENS ve 
| 
TURNICID.®. 
304. Turnix ... ... | 9 | The whole region S. Paleare., Ethiopian, 
Australian 
MEGAPODIIDA. | 
305. Megapodius .. 2 _ Nicobar Is., Philippines, N. W. Celebes to Samoan Is., 
| Borneo | N. Australia 
ACCIPITRES. / 
VULTURIDA. | 
306. Vultur . 1 | Himalayas |S. Palearctic, Ethiopian 
307. Gyps _ 3 | India and Siam (3. Palearctic, Ethiopian 
308. Pseudogyps 1 | India and Burmah | N. Ethiopian 
309. Neophron “| 1 | All India |S. Paleaictic, Ethiopian 
FALCONID&, | | ; 
310. Cireus _ 4 | India and China Almost Cosmopolite 
311. Astur_.. 4 | The whole region Almost Cosmopolite 
312. Accipiter 2 | The whole region Almost Cosmopolite 
313. Buteo 2 | India to China Cosmopolite ; excl. Austl. 
314. Aquila 4 | India toiChina Nearc, Paleare., Ethiop. 
315. Nisaétus 2 | India and Ceylon S. Palear., Ethiop., Aus. 
316. Lophotriorchis 1 | Indo-Malaya Neotropical 
317. Neopus . 1 | India to Burmah and Malaya Celebes and Moluccas 
318. Spizaétus ... 5 | India to Malaya and Formosa Neotropical, Ethiopian, 
| Austro-Malayan 
319. Cireaétus  ... | 1 | Indian peninsula Paleare., Ethiop., Timor 
320. Spilornis ... | 5 | The whole region Celebes 
321. Butastur  ... | 3 | The whole region N. E. Africa, Celebes, 
| New Guinea 
322. Halizetus 2 | The whole region Cosmopolite ; excl. Neo- 
| 
| 
= 


323. Haliastur 1 | India to Malaya Austro-Malaya, Austral. 

324. Milvus ... 3 | The whole region The Eastern Hemisphere. 

325. Klanus ... ... | 2 | India, Malaya Africa, Australia 

326. Macherhamphus| 1 | Malacca S. W. Africa & Madag. 

327. Pernis . | 1 | India Palearctic and Ethiopian, 

| Celebes 

328. Baza .. | 3 | India to Malaya Moluccas and N. Austrl. 
eae. Hieraz....  :.. | 4 | N. India, Burmah, Malaya 

330. Poliohierax ... 1 | Burmah E. Africa 

331. Falco _ 8 | The whole region Almost Cosmopolite 

332. Cerchneis 3 | The whole region Almost Cosmopolite 
PANDIONID&. | 

333. Pandion... _ 1 | The whole region / Cosmopolite 

334. Polioaétus | 2 | India to Malaya Indo-Malaya & Polynesia 
STRIGID. 

835. Athene ... 9 | The whole region The Eastern Hemisphere 

336. Ninox 7 | The whole region N. China and Japan 

337. Bubo _... 4 | India, Ceylon, Malayaand Philip. Cosmop. exc. Austr. reg. 

338 Ketupa ... 3 | The whole region 

339. Scops | 7 | The whole region Almost Cosmopolite 


CC 


ia 
a4 
t? Fa ee 


386 ZOOLOGIUAL GEOGRAPHY. [Parr mr. 


Onder, Besse! - and 33 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. — 
A = - 
340. Syrnium 6 | The whole region Cosmop. exe. Austr. reg, 
(Asio 2 | India) Paleare., Ethiop. Amer, 
341. Strix 4 | The whole region Cosmopolite 
342. Phodilus *2 | Nepal, Malaya 


Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading or Swimming Birds, 


GRALLA. 
RALLIDA. : 
Rallina .... ... | 10 | The whole region Austro-Malaya 


PARRID. 
Hydrophasianus| 1 | The whole region 


CHARADRIIDA, . 
Msacus ...... | 1 | The whole region Austro-Malayan, Austra 


: 


7 


2 


= 
=" 


En, ac 


aa 


a 2 


5 


ee 


80|}—-~—--—---- ————- -_—— —— 


- 


~ 

wy ; 
—: Dak 

fae ~~ te wes ~ 

2 a 

50 Long 60 FE of 7TO00reen.40 0 100 


AN REGION: 
h=LOOO miles 


150 M40 130 
SASS L———— SS —————— 


X \ 


Palmyra I. = se 
SamarangIsi. — « 
—_ = Nadler I. 


“ 
Marquesas or 
Nukahiva. 
Is. 


oe on ce oe SS ao oe a ee ee ee fe a ee ww wr gee dw 5 we ww ww we wn ef ee en ee ee Se 
iE Tropic of i — 1 = 
Pitcairn I../ # = 


30 


EXPLANATION 140 
Terrestrial Contours | 
From Sea level to L000 feet White y. 
_ LOO feetto 2.500, ceca 
2,500, §, 000. SSSR 
= - 5000, ,10,000 , (Sse 
/ ~ 10000 . .20,000 . PRE 
= wire os a 
_ The Marine Contour of’ LOO0 feet saline: 
ts shewn by a dotted line 
Pasture lands shewn thus —~ 4 
Forest = B E =F | 
Desert > . ‘ Pera Fi 
The boundaries and reference raunbers 
of the Subregions are shewn in Red. 
oe ——— = ee eee ee 


120 no 100 90 80 70 
Stanford’ Geographical Estab* London. 


CHAPTER XIII. 
THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 


Tue Australian is the great insular region of the earth. Asa 
whole it is one of the best marked, and has even been considered 
to be equal in zoological value to all the rest of the globe; but 
its separate portions are very heterogeneous, and their limits 
sometimes ill-defined. Its central and most important masses 
consist of Australia and New Guinea, in which the main features 
of the region are fully developed. To the north-west it extends to 
Celebes, in which a large proportion of the Australian characters 
have disappeared, while Oriental types are mingled with them 
to such an extent that it is rather difficult to determine where to 
locate it. To the south-east it includes New Zealand, which is 
in some respects so peculiar, that it has even been proposed to 
constitute it a distinct region. On the east it embraces the 
whole of Oceania to the Marquesas and Sandwich Islands, whose 
very scanty and often peculiar fauna, must be afliliated to the 
general Australian type. 

Australia is the largest tract of land in the region, being 
several times more extensive than all the other islends combined, 
and it is here that the greatest variety of peculiar types have 
been developed. This island-continent, being situated in the 
track of the southern desert zone, and having no central moun- 
tains to condense the vapours from the surrounding ocean, has a 
large portion of its interior so parched up and barren as to be 
almost destitute of animal life. The most extensive tract of 
fertile and well-watered country is on the east and south-east, 

Cc 2 


588 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART U1. 


where a fine range of mountains reaches, in the Colony of Vic- 
toria, the limits of perpetual snow. The west coast also possesses » 
mountains of moderate height, but the climate is very dry and 
hot. The northern portion is entirely tropical, yet it nowhere 
presents the luxuriance of vegetation characteristic of the great 
island of New Guinea immediately to the north of it. Taken as 
a whole, Australia is characterized by an arid climate and a de- 
ficiency of water ; conditions which have probably long prevailed, 
ani under which its very peculiar fauna and flora have been de- 
veloped. This fact will account for some of the marked differ- 
ences between it and the adjacent sub-regions of New Guinea 
and the Moluccas, where the climate is moist, and the vegetation 
luxuriant ; and these divergent features must never be lost sight 
of, in comparing the different portions of the Australian region. 
In Tasmania alone, which is however, essentially a detached 
portion of Australia, a more uniform and moister climate pre- 
vails; but it is too small a tract of land, and has been too 
recently severed from its parent mass to have developed a 
special fauna, 

The Austro-Malay sub-region (of which New Guinea is the 
central and typical mass) is strikingly contrasted with Australia, 
being subjected to purely equatorial conditions,—a high, but 
uniform temperature, excessive moisture, and a luxuriant forest 
vegetation, exactly similar in general features to that which 
clothes the Indo-Malay Islands, and the other portions of the 
great equatorial forest zone. Such a climate and vegetation, being 
the necessary result of its geographical position, must have 
existed from remote geological epochs with but little change, and 
must therefore have profoundly affected all the forms of lite 
which have been developed under their influence. Around New 
Guinea as a centre are grouped a number of important islands, 
more or less closely agreeing with it in physical features, climate, 
vegetation, and forms of life. In most immediate connection we 
place the Aru Islands, Mysol and Waigiou, with Jobie and the 
other Islands in Geelvinck Bay, all of which are connected with 
it by shallow seas ; they possess one of its most characteristic 
groups, the Birds of Paradise, and haye no doubt only recently (in 


CMAP. XII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 389 


a geological sense) been separated from it. In the next rank come 
the large islands of the Moluccas on the west, and the range 
terminating in the Solomon Islands on the east, both of which 
groups possess a clearly Papuan fauna, although deficient in 
many of the most remarkable Papuan types. 

All these islands agree closely with New Guinea itself in 
being very mountainous, and covered with a luxuriant forest 
vegetation ; but to the south-west we find a set of islands ex- 
tending from Timor to Lombock, which agree more nearly with 
Australia, both in climate and vegetation; being arid and 
abounding in eucalypti, acacias, and thickets of thorny shrubs. 
These, like the Moluccas, are surrounded by deep sea, and it is 
doubtful whether they have either of them been actually con- 
nected with New Guinea or Australia in recent geological times; 
but the general features of their zoology oblige us to unite all 
these islands with New Guinea as forming the Austro-Malay 
sub-division of the Australian region. Still further west how- 
ever, we have the large island of Celebes, whose position is very 
difficult to determine. It is mountainous, but has also extensive 
plains and low lands. Its climate is somewhat arid in the south, 
where the woods are often scattered and thorny, while in the 
north it is moister, and the forests are luxuriant. It is surrounded 
by deep seas, but also by coralline and volcanic islets, indicating 
former elevations and subsidences. Its fauna presents the most 
puzzling relations, showing affinities to Java, to the Philippines, 
to the Moluccas, to New Guinea, to continental India, and even to 
Africa; so that it is almost impossible to decide whether to place 
it in the Oriental or the Australian region. On the whole the 
preponderance of its relations appears to be with the latter, 
though it is undoubtedly very anomalous, and may, with almost 
as much propriety, be classed with the former. This will be 
better understood when we come to discuss its zoological pecu- 
liarities. 

The next sub-region consists of the extensive series of islands 
scattered over the Pacific, the principal groups being the Sand- 
wich Islands, the Marquesas and Society Islands, the Naviga- 
tors’, Friendly, and Fiji Islands. New Caledonia and the New 


390 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill. 


Hebrides have rather an uncertain position, and it is difficult 
to decide whether to class them with the Austro-Malay Islands, 
the Pacific Islands, or Australia. The islands of the west Pacific, 
north of the equator, also probably come into this region, 
although the Ladrone Islands may belong to the Philippines ; 
but as the fauna of all these small islets is very scanty, and 
very little known, they are not at present of much importance. 

There remains the islands of New Zealand, with the surround- 
ing small islands, as far as the Auckland, Chatham, and Ner- 
folk Islands. These are situated in the south temperate 
forest-zone. They are mountainous, and have a moist, equable, 
aud temperate climate. They are true oceanic islands, and the 
total absence of mammalia intimates that they have not been 
connected with Australia or any other continent in recent geolo- 
gical times. The general character of their zoology, no less 
than their botany, affiliates them however, to Australia as por- 
tions of the same zoological region. 

General Zoological Characteristics of the Australian Region.— 
For the purpose of giving an idea of the very peculiar and 
striking features which characterise the Australian region, it 
will be as well at first to confine ourselves to the great central 
land masses of Australia and New Guinea, where those features 
are manifested in their greatest force and purity, leaving the 
various peculiarities and anomalies of the outlying islands to be 
dealt with subsequently. 

Mammalia.—The Australian region is broadly distinguished 
from all the rest of the globe by the entire absence of all the 
orders of non-aquatic mammalia that abound in the Old 
World, except two—the winged bats (Chiroptera), and the equally 
cosmopolite rodents (Rodentia). Of these latter however, only 
one family is represented—the Muridze—(comprising the rats 
and mice), and the Australian representatives of these are all of 
small or moderate size—a suggestive fact in appreciating the true 
character of the Australian fauna. In place of the Quadrumana, 
Carnivora, and Ungulates, which abound in endless variety 
in all the other regions under equally favourable conditions, 
Australia possesses two new orders (or perhaps sub-classes)— 


OnAP, XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 391 
Marsupialia and Monotremata, found nowhere else on the globe 
except a single family of the former in America. The Marsu- 
pials are wonderfully developed in Australia, where they exist 
in the most diversified forms, adapted to different modes of life. 
Some are carnivorous, some herbivorous; some arboreal, others 
terrestrial. There are insect-eaters, root-gnawers, fruit-eaters, 


‘honey-eaters, leaf or grass-feeders. Some resemble wolves, 


others marmots, weasels, squirrels, flying squirrels, dormice or 
jerboas. They are classed in six distinct families, comprising 
about thirty genera, and subserve most of the purposes in the 
economy of nature, fulfilled in other parts of the world by very 
different groups; yet they all passess common peculiarities of 
structure and habits which show that they are members of 
one stock, and have no real affinity with the Old-World forms 
which they often outwardly resemble. 

The other order, Monotremata, is only represented by two rare 
and very remarkable forms, Ornithorhynchus and Echidna, pro- 
bably the descendants of some of those earlier developments of 
mammalian life which in every other part of the globe have long 
been extinct. 

The bats of Australia all belong to Old-World genera and 
possess no features of special interest, a result of the wandering 
habits of these aerial mammals. The Rodents are more interest- 
ing. They are all more or less modified forms of mice or rats. 
Some belong to the widely distributed genus Mus, others to four 
allied genera, which may be all modifications of some common 
Old-World form. They spread all over Australia, and allied 
species occur in Celebes, so that although not yet known from 
New Guinea or the Moluccas, there can be little doubt that some 
of them exist there. 

Birds.—The typical Australian region, as above defined, is 
almost as well characterized by its birds, as by its mammalia; 
but in this case the deficiencies are less conspicuous, while the 
peculiar and characteristic families are numerous and important. 
The most marked deficiency as regards wide-spread families, is 
the total absence of Fringillide (true finches), Picidz (wood- 
peckers), Vulturide (vultures), and Phasianide (pheasants). 


392 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


and among prevalent Oriental groups, Pycnonotide (bulbuls), 
Phyllornithide (green bulbuls), and Megalemide (barbets) are 
families whose absence is significant. Nine families are peculiar 
to the region, or only just pass its limits in the case of single 
species. These are Paridiseide (paradise-birds), Meliphagide 
(honey-suckers), Menuride (lyre-birds), Atrichidze (scrub-birds), 
Cacatuide (cockatoos), Platycercids (broad-tailed and grass- 
paroquets), Trichoglosside (brush-tongued paroquets, Megapo- 
diidee (mound-makers), and Casuariide (cassowaries). There are 
also eight very characteristic families, of which four,—Pachy- 
cephalide (thick-headed shrikes), Campephagide (caterpillar 
shrikes), Diceeide (flower-peckers), and Artamide (swallow- 
shrikes)—are feebly represented elsewhere, while the other four 
—Ploveidie (weaver-finches), Alezedinidee (kingfishers), Podargidee 
(frog-mouths), and Columbide (pigeons)—although widely dis- 
tributed, are here unusually abundant and varied, and (except 
in the case of the Ploceide) better represented in the Australian 
than in any other region. Of all these the Meliphagide (honey- 
suckers) are the most peculiarly and characteristically Australian. 
This family abounds in genera and species ; it extends into every 
part of the region from Celebes and Lombock on the west, to 
the Sandwich Islands, Marquesas, and New Zealand on the east, 
while not a single species overpasses its limits, with the excep- 
tion of one (Ptilotis limbata) which abounds in all the islands of 
the Timorese group, and has crossed the narrow strait from 
Lombock to Baly ; but this can hardly be considered to impugn 
the otherwise striking fact of wide diffusion combined with 
strict limitation, which characterizes it. This family is the more 
important, because, like the Trichoglossids or brush-tongued 
paroquets, it seems to have been developed in co-ordination with 
that wealth of nectariferous flowering shrubs and trees which is 
one of the marked features of Australian vegetation. It probably 
originated in the extensive land-area of Australia itself, and 
thence spread into all the tributary islands, where it has become 
variously modified, yet always in such close adaptation to the 
other great features of the Australian fauna, that it seems unable 
to maintain itself when subject to the competition of the more 


CHAP, XIII. | THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 393 


varied forms of life in the Oriental region ; to which, possessing 
great powers of flight, some species must occasionally have emi- 
grated. Its presence or absence serves therefore to define and 
limit the Australian region with a precision hardly to be 
equalled in the case of any other region or any other family of 
birds. 

The Trichoglosside, as already intimated, are another of these 
peculiarly organized Australian families,—parrots with an ex- 
tensile brush-tipped tongue, adapted to extract the nectar and 
pollen from flowers. These are also rigidly confined to this 
region, but they do not range so completely over the whole of it, 
being absent from New Zealand (where however they are repre- 
sented by a closely allied form Nestor), and from the Sandwich 
Islands. The Paradiseide (birds of paradise and allies) are 
another remarkable family, confined to the Papuan group of 
Islands, and the trepical parts of Australia. The Megapodiidee 
(or mound-builders) are another most remarkable and anomalous 
eroup of birds, no doubt specially adapted to Australian con- 
ditions of existence. Their peculiarity consists in their laying 
enormous eggs (at considerable intervals of time) and burying 
them either in the loose hot sand of the beach above high-water 
mark, or in enormous mounds of leaves, sticks, earth, and refuse 
of all kinds, gathered together by the birds, whose feet and 
claws are enlarged and strengthened for the work. The warmth 
of this slightly fermenting mass hatches the eges; when the 
young birds work their way out, and thenceforth take care of 
themselves, as they are able to run quickly, and even to fly short 
distances, as soon as they are hatched. This may perhaps be an 
adaptation to the peculiar condition of so large a portion of 
Australia, in respect to prolonged droughts and scanty water- 
supply, entailing a periodical scarcity of all kinds of food. In such 
a country the confinement of the parents to one spot during the 
long period of incubation would often lead to starvation, and the 
consequent death of the offspring. But the same birds with free 
power to roam about, might readily maintain themselves. This 
peculiar constitution and habit, which enabled the Megapodii to 
maintain an existence under the unfavourable conditions of their 


394 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


original habitat gives them a great advantage in the luxuriant 
islands of the Moluccas, to which they have spread. There 
they abound to a remarkable extent, and their eggs furnish a 
luxurious repast to the natives. They have also reached many 
of the smallest islets, and have spread beyond the limits of the 
region to the Philippines, and North-Western Borneo, as well 
as to the remote Nicobar Islands. 

The Platycercide, or broad-tailed paroquets, are another 
wide-spread Australian group, of weak structure but gorgeously 
coloured, ranging from the Moluccas to New Zealand and the 
Society Islands, and very characteristic of the region, to which 
they are strictly confined. The Cockatoos have not quite so 
wide a range, being confined to the Austro-Malayan and Austra- 
lian sub-regions, while one species extends into the Philippine 
Islands. . The other two peculiar families are more restricted in 
their range, and will be noticed under the sub-regions to which 
they respectively belong. 

Of the characteristic families, the Pachycephalide, or thick- 
headed shrikes, are especially Australian, ranging over all the 
region, except New Zealand; while only a single species has 
spread into the Oriental, and one of doubtful affinily to the 
Ethiopian region. The Artamide, or swallow-shrikes, are also 
almost wholly confined to the region, one species only extending 
to India. They range to the Fiji Islands on the east, but only 
to Tasmania on the south. These two families must be con- 
sidered as really peculiar to Australia. The Podargide, or frog- 
mouths—large, thick-billed goat-suckers—are strange birds very 
characteristic of the Australian region, although they have 
representatives in the Oriental and Neotropical regions. Cam- 
pephagide (caterpillar-shrikes) also abound, but they are fairly 
represented both in India and Africa, The Ploceida, or weaver- 
birds, are the finches of Australia, and present a variety of 
interesting and beautiful forms. 

We now come to the kingfishers, a cosmopolitan family of 
birds, yet so largely developed in the Australian region as to 
deserve special notice. Two-thirds of all the genera are found 
here, and no less than 10 out of the 19 genera in the family are 


CHAP, XUI. | THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 395 


peculiar to the Australian region. Another of the universally dis- 
tributed families which have their metropolis here, is that of the 
Columbide or pigeons. Three-fourths of the genera have represen- 
tatives in the Australian region, while two-fifths of the whole are 
confined to it; and it possesses as many species of pigeons as any 
other two regions combined. It also possesses the most remark- 
able forms, as exemplified in the great crowned pigeons (Goura) 
and the hook-billed Didunculus, while the green fruit-pigeons 
(Ptilopus) are sometimes adorned with colours vying with those 
of the gayest parrots or chatterers. This enormous development 
of a family of birds so defenceless as the pigeons, whose rude 
nests expose their eggs and helpless young to continual danger, 
may perhaps be correlated, as I have suggested elsewhere (Ibis, 
1865, p. 866), with the entire absence of monkeys, cats, lemurs, 
weasels, civets and other arboreal mammals, which prey on eggs 
and young birds. The very prevalent green colour of the upper 
part of their plumage, may be due to the need of concealment 
from their only enemies,—birds of prey; and this is rendered 
more probable by the fact that it is among the pigeons of the 
small islands of the Pacific (where hawks and their allies are ex- 
ceedingly scarce) that we alone meet with species whose entire 
plumage is a rich and conspicuous yellow. Where the need of 
concealment is least, the brilliancy of colour has attained its 
maximum. We may therefore look upon the genus Ptilopus, 
with its fifty species whose typical coloration is green, with 
patches of bright blue, red, or yellow on the head and breast, 
as a special development suited to the tropical portion of the 
Australian region, to which it is almost wholly confined. 

It will be seen from the sketch just given, that the ornitho- 
logical features of the Australian region are almost as remark- 
able as those presented by its Mammalian fauna; and from the 
fuller development attained by the aérial class of birds, much 
more varied and interesting. None of the other regions of the 
earth can offer us so many families with special points of 
interest in structure, or habits, or general relations. The 
paradise-birds, the honeysuckers, the brush-tongued paroquets, 
the mound-builders, and the cassowaries—all strictly peculiar 


396 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 
to the region—with such remarkable developments as we have 
indicated in the kingfishers and pigeons, place the Australian 
region in the first rank for the variety, singularity, and interest 
of its birds, and only second to South America as regards 
numbers and beauty. 

Reptiles—In Reptiles the peculiarity of the main Australian 
region is less marked, although the fauna is sufficiently distinct. 
There is no family of snakes confined to the region, but many 
peculiar genera of the families Pythonide and Elapide. About 
two-thirds of the Australian snakes belong to the latter family, 
and are poisonous ; so that although the Crotalide and Viperide 
are absent, there are perhaps a larger proportion of poisonous 
to harmless snakes than in any other part of the world. Accord- 
ing to Mr. Gerard Krefft the proportion varies considerably in the 
different colonies. In Victoria, New South Wales, and Queens- 
Jand the proportion is about two to one; in West Australia 
three to one; and in South Australia six to one. In Tasmania 
there are only 3 species and all are poisonous. The number 
of species, as in other parts of the world, seems to increase 
with temperature. The 3 in Tasmania have increased to 12 
in Victoria, 15 in South Australia and the same in West 
Australia; 31 in New South Wales, and 42 in sub-tropical 
(Jueensland. 

The lizards of Australia have lately been catalogued by Dr. 
Giinther in the concluding part of the “ Voyage of the Erebus 
and Terror,” issued in 1875. They belong to 8 families, 3 of 
which are peculiar; 57 genera of which 36 are peculiar; and 
about 140 species, all but 2 or 3 of which are peculiar. The 
scinks and geckoes form the great bulk of the Australian 
lizards, with a few Agamide, Gymnopthalmide, and Varanide. 
The three peculiar families are the Pygopodide, Aprasiide and 
Lialidee ; comprising only + genera and 7 species. The above 
all belong to Australia proper. Those of the other sub-regions 
are few in number and will be noticed under their respective 
localities. They will perhaps bring up the number of genera to 
70. West and South Australia seem to offer much peculiarity 
in their lizards; these districts possessing 12 peculiar genera, 


CHAP. XUL. | THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 397 


while a much smaller number are confined to the East and 
South-East, or to the North. 

Among the fresh-water turtles of the family Chelydide 
there are three peculiar genera—Chelodina, Chelemys, and Elseya, 
all from Australia. 

Amphibia.—No tailed amphibians are known from the whole 
region, but no less than eleven of the families of tail-less Batra- 
chians (toads and frogs) are known to inhabit some part or 
other of it. A peculiar family (Xenorhinidee), consisting of 
a single species, is found in New Guinea; the true toads 
(Bufonidee) are only represented by a single species of a pecu- 
har genus in Australia, and by a Bufo in Celebes. Nine of the 
families are represented in Australia itself, and the following 
genera are peculiar to it:—Pseudophryne (Phryniscidee), Pachy- 
batrachus, and Chelydobatrachus (Engystomyde) ; Helioporus 
(Alytidee) ; Pelodyras and Chirodyras (Pelodryade); Notaden 
(Bufonidee). 

Fresh-water Fish—There is only one peculiar family of fresh- 
water fishes in this region—the Gadopside—represented by a 
single genus and species. The other species of Australia belong 
to the families Trachinide, Atherinide, Mugillide, Silurid, 
Homalopteree, Haplochitonid, Galaxide, Osteoglosside, Sym- 
branchide, and Sirenoidei; most of the genera being peculiar, 
The large and widely-distributed families, Cyprinodontide and 
Cyprinide, are absent. The most remarkable fish is the recently 
discovered Ceratodus, allied to the Lepidosiren of Tropical 
America, and Protopterus of Tropical Africa, the three species 
constituting the Sub-class Dipnoi, remains of which have been 
found fossil in the Triassic formation. 

Summary of Australian Vertebrata.—In order to complete 
our general sketch of Australian zoology, and to afford materials 
for comparison with other regions, we will here summarize the 
distribution of Vertebrata in the entire Australian region, as 
given in detail in the tables at the end of this chapter. When 
an undoubted Oriental family or genus extends to Celebes only 
we do not count it as belonging to the Australian region, that 
island being so very anomalous and intermediate in character. 


398 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill. 


The Australian region, then, possesses examples of 18 families 
of Mammalia, 8 of which are peculiar ; 71 of Birds, 16 being 
peculiar; 31 of Reptiles, 4 being peculiar; 11 of Amphibia, with 
1 peculiar ; and 11 of Fresh-water fish, with 1 peculiar. In all, 
142 families of Vertebrates, 30 of which are almost or quite 
confined to it, or between one-fourth and one-fifth of the whole 
number. 

The genera of Mammalia occurring within the limits of this 
region are 70, of which 45 are almost, or quite, confined to it. 

Of Land-Birds there are 296 genera, 196 of which are equally 
limited. The proportion is in both cases very nearly five- 
eighths. 

This shows a considerable deficiency both in families of Ver- 
tebrates and genera of Mammalia, as compared with the Oriental 
and Ethiopian regions; while in genera of Birds it is a little 
superior to the latter in total numbers, and considerably so in 
the proportion of peculiar types. 


Supposed Land Connection between Australia and South America. 


We may now consider how far the different classes and orders 
of vertebrates afford indications that during past ages there 
has been some closer connection between Australia and South 
America than that which now exists. 

Among Mammalia we have the remarkable fact of a group 
of marsupials inhabiting South America, and extending even 
into the temperate regions of North America, while they are 
found in no other part of the globe beyond the limits of the 
Australian region ; and this has often been held to be evidence 
of aformer connection between the two countries, A prelimi- 
nary objection to this view is, that the opossums seem to be 
rather a tropical group, only one species reaching as far as 42° 
south latitude on the west coast of South America; but what- 


ever evidence we have which seems to require a former union _ 


of these countries shows that it took place, if at all, towards their _ 
cold southern limits, the tropical faunas on the whole showing ~ 


no similarity. This is not a very strong objection, since climates 


may have changed in the south to as great an extent as we — 


we | 


CHAP, XII. } THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 399 


know they have in the north. Perhaps a more important con- 
sideration is, that Didelphys is a family type unknown in Aus- 
tralia; and this implies that the point of common origin is very 
remote in geological time. But the most conclusive fact is that 
in the Eocene and Miocene periods this very family, Didel- 
phyide, existed in Europe, while it only appeared in America 
in the Post-pliocene or perhaps the Pliocene period; so that it 
is really an Old-World group, which, though long since extinct 
in its birthplace, has survived in America, to which country it 
is a comparatively recent emigrant. Primeval forms of marsu- 
pials we know abounded in Europe during much of the Secondary 
epoch, and no doubt supphed Australia with the ancestors of 
the present fauna. It is clear, therefore, that in this case there 
is not a particle of evidence for any former union between 
Australia and South America; while it is almost demonstrated 
that both derived their marsupials from a common source in the 
northern hemisphere. 

Birds offer us more numerous but less clearly defined cases of 
this kind. Among Passeres, the wonderful lyre bird (Wenuwra) 
is belheved by some ornithologists to be decidedly allied to the 
South American Pteroptochide, while others maintain that 
it is altogether peculiar, and has no such affinity. The Aus- 
tralian Pachycephalide have also been supposed to find their 
nearest allies in the American Vireonide, but this is, perhaps, 
equally problematical. That the mound-makers (Megapodiide) 
of the Australian region are more nearly allied to the South 
American curassows (Cracidz) than to any other family, is per- 
haps better established ; but if proved, it is probably due, as in 
the case of the marsupials, to the survival of an ancient and 
once wide-spread type, and thus lends no support to the theory 
of a land connection between the two regions. A recent author, 
Professor Garrod, classes Phaps and other Australian genera of 
pigeons along with Zenaida and allied South American forms ; 
but here again the affinity, if it exists, is so remote that the ex- 
planation already given will suffice to account for it. There 
remain only the penguins of the genus Hudyptes; and these 
have almost certainly passed from one region to the other, but 


400 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


no actual land connection is required for birds which can cross 
considerable arms of the sea. 

Reptiles again seem to offer no more support to the view than 
do mammalia or birds. Among snakes there are no families in 
common that have not a very wide distribution. Among lizards 
the Gymnopthalmidze are the only family that favour the 
notion, since they are found in Australia and South America, 
but. not in the Oriental region. Yet they occur in both the 
Palearctic and Ethiopian regions, and their distribution is alto- 
gether too erratic to be of any value in a case of this kind; 
and the same remarks apply to the tortoises of the family 
Chelydidee. 

The Amphibia, however, furnish us with some more decided 
facts. We have first the family of tree-frogs, Pelodryade, con- 
fined to the two regions ; Zitoria, a genus of the family Hylide 
peculiar to Australia, but with one species in Paraguay ; and in 
the family Discoglosside, the Australian genus Chzroleptes has 
its nearest ally in the Chilian genus Calyptocephalus. 

Fresh-water fishes give yet clearer evidence. Three groups are 
exclusively found in these two regions ; Aphritis, a fresh-water 
genus of Trachinidee, has one species in Tasmania and two 
others in Patagonia; the Haplochitonidee inhabit only Terra del 
Fuego, the Falkland Islands and South Australia; while the 
genus Galazias (forming the family Galaxide) is confined to 
South Temperate America, Australia, and New Zealand. We 
have also the genus Osteoglossum confined to the tropical 
rivers of Eastern South America, the Indo-Malay Islands and 
Australia. 

It is important here to notice that the heat-loving Reptilia 
afford hardly any indications of close affinity between the two 
regions, while the cold-enduring amphibia and fresh-water 
fish, offer them in abundance. Taking this fact in con- 
nection with the absence of all indications of close aflinity 
among the mammalia and terrestrial birds, the conclusion seems 
inevitable that there has been no land-connection between the 
two regions within the period of existing species, genera, or 
families. Yet some interchange of amphibia and fresh-water 


CHAP. XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 401 


fishes, as of plants and insects, has undoubtedly occurred, but 
this has been effected by other means. If we look at a globe 
we see at once how this interchange may have taken place. 
Immediately south of Cape Horn we have the South Shetland 
Islands and Graham’s land, which is not improbably continuous, 
or nearly so, with South Victoria land immediately to the south 
of New Zealand. The intervening space is partly occupied 
by the Auckland, Campbell, and Macquaries’ Islands, which, 
there is reason to believe are the relics of a great southern ex- 
tension of New Zealand. At all events they form points which 
would aid the transmission of many organisms; and the farthest 
of the Macquaries’ group, Emerald Island, is only 600 miles from 
the outlying islets of Victoria land. The ova of fish will survive 
a considerable time in the air, and the successful transmission of 
salmon ova to New Zealand packed in ice, shows how far they 
might travel on icebergs. Now there is evidently some means 
by which ova or young fishes are carried moderate distances, from 
the fact that remote alpine lakes and distinct river systems often 
have the same species. Glaciers and icebergs generally have pools 
of fresh water on their surfaces ; and whatever cause transmits fish 
to an isolated pond might occasionally stock these pools, and by 
this means introduce the fishes of one southern island into 
another. Batrachians, which are equally patient of cold, might 
be transported by similar means; while, as Mr. Darwin has so 
well shown, (Origin of Species, 6th Ed. p. 345) there are various 
known modes by which plants might be transmitted, and we 
need not therefore be surprised that botanists find a much 
greater similarity between the production of the several Southern 
lands and islands, than do zoologists. It is important to notice 
that, however this intercommunication was effected, it has con- 
tinued down to the epoch of existing species; for Dr. Giinther 
finds the same species of fresh-water fish (Galazias attenuatus) 
inhabiting Tasmania, New Zealand, the Falkland Islands, and 
Temperate South America ; while another species is common to 
New Zealand and the Auckland Islands. We cannot believe 
that a land connection has existed between all these remote 
lands within the period of existence of this one species of fish, 
DD 


402 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


not only on account of what we know of the permanence of 
continents and deep oceans, but because such a connection must 
have led to much more numerous and important cases of simi- 
larity of natural productions than we actually find. And if 
within the life of species such interchange may have taken 
place across seas of greater or less extent, still more easy is it 
to understand, how, within the life of genera and families, a num- 
ber of such interchanges may have occurred ; yet always limited 
to those groups whose conditions of life render transmission 
possible. Had an actual land connection existed within the 
temperate zone, or during a period of warmth in the Antarctic 
regions, there would have been no such strict limitations to the 
inter-migration of animals. It may be held to support the view 
that floating ice has had some share in the transmission of fish 
and amphibia, when we find that in the case of the narrow 
tropical sea dividing Borneo from Celebes and the Moluccas, no 
proportionate amount of transmission has taken place, but 
numerous species, genera, and whole families, terminate abruptly 
at what we have other reasons for believing to be the furthest 
limits of an ancient continent. We can hardly suppose, how- 
ever, that this mode of transmission would have sufficed for 
such groups as tree-frogs, which are inhabitants of the more 
temperate or even warm portions of the two southern lands. 
Some of these cases may perhaps be explained by the supposi- 
tion of a considerable extent of land in the South-Temperate and 
Antarctic regions now submerged, and by a warm or temperate 
climate analogous to that which prevailed in the Arctic regions 
during some part of the Miocene epoch; while others may be 
due to cases of survival in the two areas of once wide-spread 
groups, a view supported in the case of the Amphibia by the 


erratic manner in which many of the groups are spread over 


the globe. 

From an examination of the facts presented by the vari- 
ous classes of vertebrates, we are, then, led to the conclusion, 
that there is no evidence of a former land-connection be- 
tween the Australian and Neotropical regions ; but that the 


various scattered resemblances in their natural productions 


CHAP. XIII. ] ~ THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 403 


that undoubtedly occur, are probably due to three distinct 
causes. 

First, we have the American Didelphyidz, among Mammals, 
and the Cracidee, among birds, allied respectively to the Marsu- 
pials and the Megapodiide of Australia. This is probably more 
a coincidence than an affinity, due to the preservation of ancient 
wide-spread types in two remote areas, each cut off from the 
ereat northern continental masses, in which higher forms were 
evolved leading to the extinction of the lower types. In each 
of these southern isolated lands the original type would undergo 
a special development; in the one case suited to an arboreal 
existence, in the other to a life among arid plains. 

The second case is that of the tree-frogs, and the genus Ostco- 
glossum among fishes; and is most likely due to the extension 
and approximation of the two southern continents, and the exist- 
ence of some intermediate lands, during a warm period when 
facilities would be afforded for the transmission of a few or- 
ganisms by the causes which have led to the exceptional diffusion 
of fresh-water productions in all parts of the world. As however 
Osteoglossum occurs also in the Sunda Islands, this may be a case 
of survival of a once wide-spread group. 

The third case is that of the same genera and even species of 
fish, and perhaps of frogs, in the two countries ; which may 
be due to transmission from island to island by the aid of float- 
ing ice, with or without the assistance of more intervening 
lands than now exist. 

Having arrived at tliese conclusions from a consideration of 
the vertebrata, we shall be in a position to examine how far 
the same causes will explain, or agree with, the distribution of the 
invertebrate groups, or elucidate any special difficulties we may 
meet with in the relations of the sub-regions. 


Insects. 


The insects of the Australian region are as varied, and in 
some respects as peculiar as its higher forms of life. As we 
have already indicated in our sketch of the Oriental region, a 
vast number of forms inhabit the Austro-Malay sub-region 

DD 2 


404 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


which are absent from Australia proper. Such of these as are 
common to the Malay archipelago as a whole, have been already 
noted; we shall here confine ourselves more especially to the 
groups peculiar to the region, which are almost all either 
Australian or Austro-Malayan, the Pacific Islands and New 
Zealand being very poor in insect hfe. 

Lepidoptera.—Australia itself is poor in butterflies, except in 
its northern and more tropical parts, where green Ornithopterce 
and several other Malayan forms occur. In South Australia 
there are less than thirty-five species, whereas in Queensland there 
are probably over a hundred. The peculiar Australian forms 
are few. In the family Satyride, Xenica and Heteronympha, 


with Hypocista extending to New Guinea; among the Lyce-_ 


nide, Ogyris and Utica are confined to Australia proper, and 
Hypochrysops to the region; and in Papilionide, the remark- 
able Hurycus is confined to Australia, but is allied to Huryades, 
a genus found in Temperate South America (La Plata), and to 
the Parnassius of the North-Temperate zone. 

The Austro-Malay sub-region has more peculiar forms. Hama- 
dryas, a genus of Danaide, approximates to some South American 
forms; Hyades and Hyantis are remarkable groups of Morphide; 
Mynes and Prothoé are fine Nymphalide, the former extending to 
Queensland ; Dicallancura, a genus of Erycinide, and Llodina, 
of Pieridee, are also peculiar forms. The fine yews group of 
Papilio, and Priavmus group of Ornithoptera, also belong exclu- 
sively to this region. 

Xois is confined to the Fiji Islands, Bletogona to Celebes, and 
Acropthalmia to New Zealand, all genera of Satyride. Seven- 
teen genera in all are confined to the Australian region. 

Among the Sphingina, Pollanisus, a genus of Zygzenide, 1s 
Australian ; also four genera of Castniide—Synemon, Huschemon, 
Damias, and Coeytia, the latter being confined to the Papuan 


islands. The occurrence of this otherwise purely South American | 


family in the Australian region, as well as the aftinity of Lurycus 
and Huryades noticed above, is interesting ; but as we have seen 
that the genera and families of insects are more permanent than 
those of the higher animals, and as the groups in question are 


CHAP, XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 405 


confined to the warmer parts of both countries, they may be best 
explained as cases of survival of a once wide-spread type, and 
may probably date back to the period when the ancestors of the 
Marsupials and Megapodii were cut off from the rest of the world. 

Coleoptera.—The same remark applies here as in the Lepidop- 
tera, respecting the affinity of the Austro-Malay fauna to that of 
Indo-Malay Islands; but Australia proper is much richer in 
beetles than in butterflies, and exhibits much more speciality. 
Although the other two parts of the Australian region (Polynesia 
and New Zealand) are very poor in beetles, it will, nevertheless, 
on the whole compare favourably with any of the regions except 
the very richest. 

Cicindelide are not very abundant. TZherates and Tricondyla 
are the characteristic genera in Austro-Malaya, but are absent 
from Australia, where we have Tetracha as the most character- 
istic genus, with one species of Megacephala and two of Distyp- 
sidera, a genus which is found also in New Zealand and some 
of the Pacific Islands. The occurrence of the South American 
genus, Tetracha, may perhaps be due to a direct transfer by 
means of intervening lands during the warm southern period ; 
but considering the permanence of coleopterous forms (as shown 
by the Miocene species belonging almost wholly to existing 
genera), it seems more probable that it is a case of the survival 
of a once wide-spread group. 

Carabide are well represented, there being no less than 94 
peculiar genera, of which 19 are confined to New Zealand. The 
Australian genera of most importance are Carenwm (68 species), 
Promecoderus (27 species), Silphomorpha (32 species), Adelotopus 
(27 species), Scaraphites (25 species), Notonomus (18 species), 
Gnathorys (12 species), Hutoma (9 species), AZnigma (15 species), 
Lacordairea (8 species), Pamborus (8 species), Catadromus (4 spe- 
cies),—the latter found in Australia and Celebes. Common to 
Australia and New Zealand are Mecodema (14 species), Homalo- 
soma (32 species), Dicrochile (12 species), and Scopodes (5 species). 
The larger genera, confined to New Zealand only, are Metaglymma 
(8 species), and Demetrida (3 species), The curious genus 
Pseudomorpha (10 species), is divided between California, Brazil, 


406 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART If. 


and Australia; and the Australian genera, Adelotopus, Silpho- 
morpha, and Sphallomorpha, form with it a distinct tribe of Cole- 
optera. These being all confined to the warmer regions, and having 
so scattered a distribution, are no doubt the relics of a wide- 
spread group. The Australian genus, Promecoderus, has, how- 
ever, closely allied genera (Cascelius and its allies), in Chili and 
Patagonia; while two small genera confined to the Auckland 
Islands (Heterodactylus and Pristancyclus) are allied to a group 
found only in Terra-del-Fuego and the Falkland Islands, 
(Migadops) ; and in these cases we may well believe that a direct 
transmission has taken place by some of the various means 
already indicated. 

In Lucanide, Australia is only moderately rich, having 7 
peculiar genera. The most important are Ceratognathus and Rhys- 
sonotus, confined to Australia; Zissotes to Australia and New 
Zealand; Lamprima to Australia and Papua. MMitophyllus and 
Dendroblax inhabit New Zealand only ; while Syndesus is found 
in Australia, New Caledonia, and tropical South America. 

The beautiful Cetoniide are poorly represented, there being 
only 3 peculiar genera ;—Schizorhina, mainly Australian, but 
extending to Papua and the Moluccas; Anacamptorhina, con- 
fined to New Guinea, and Sternoplus to Celebes. Lomaptera is 
very characteristic of the Austro-Malay Islands. This almost 
tropical family shows no approximations between the Australian 
and Neotropical faunas. 

In Buprestide, the Australian region is the richest, possessing 
no less than 47 genera, of which 20 are peculiar to it. Of these, 15 
are peculiar to Australia itself, the most important being Stzg- 
modera (212 species), Ethon (13 species), and Nascio (3 species) ; 
Cisseis (17 species), and the magnificent Calodema (3 species), 
are common to Australia and Austro-Malaya; while Sambus 
(10 species) and Anthawomorpha (4 species), with some smaller 
groups, are peculiarly Austro-Malayan. In this family occur 
several points of contact with the Neotropical region. Stigmo- 
dera is said to have a species in Chili, while there are undoubt- 
edly several allied genera in Chili and South Temperate America. 
The genus Curis has 5 Australian and 3 Chilian species, and 


ee 


CHAP. XUI.] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 407 
Acherusia has 2 species in Brazil, 1 in Australia. These re- 
semblances may probably have arisen from intercommunication 
during the warm southern period, when floating timber would 
occasionally transmit a few larvae of this family from island to 
island across the antarctic seas. When the cold period returned, 
they would spread northward, and become more or less modified 
under the new physical conditions and organic competition, to 
which they were subjected. 

We now come to the very important group of Longicorns, in 
which the Australian region as a whole, is very rich, possessing 
360 genera, of which 263 are peculiar to it. Of these about 50 
are confined to the Austro-Malay Islands, 12 to New Zealand, 
and the remainder to Australia proper with Tasmania. Of the 
genera confined to, or highly characteristic of Australia, the 
following are the most important :—Cnemoplites, belonging to 
the Prionide ; Phoracantha, to the Cerambycide; Zygocera, 
Hebecerus, Symphyletes, and Rhytidophora, to the Lamiide. 
Confined to the Austro-Malay Islands are Zethionea (Ceramby- 
cide): TZmesisternus, Arrhenotus, Micracantha, and Sybra 
(Lamiidze) ; but there are also such Malayan genera as Latocera 
Gnoma, Praonetha, and Sphenura, which are very abundant in 
the Austro-Malay sub-region. A species of each of the Austra- 
lian genera, Zygocera, Syllitus, and Pseudocephalus, is said to 
occur in Chili, and one of the tropical American genus, Hamma- 
tocherus, in tropical Australia; an amount of resemblance 
which, as in the case of the Buprestide, may be imputed 
to trans-oceanic migration during the Southern warm period. 
This concludes our illustrations of the distribution of some of 
the more important groups of Australian insects ; and it will be 
admitted that we have not met with any such an amount of 
identity with the fauna of Temperate South America, as to 
require us to modify the conclusions we arrived at from a con- 
sideration of the vertebrate groups. 

Land-Shells—The distribution of many of the larger genera 
of land-shells is very erratic, while others are exceedingly re- 
stricted, so that it requires an experienced conchologist to 
investigate the affinities of the several groups, and thus work 


403 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


out the important facts of distribution. All that can be done 
here is to note the characteristic and peculiar genera, and any 
others presenting features of special interest. 

In the great family of the snails (Helicide), the only genera 
strictly confined to the region are, Partula, now containing above 
100 species, and ranging over the Pacific from the Solomon Isles 
on the west, to the Sandwich Islands and Tahiti on the east; 
and Achatinella, now containing nearly 300 species, and wholly 
confined to the Sandwich Islands. P/feifferia is confined to the 
Philippine Islands and Moluccas; Cochlostyla to the Indo-Malay 
Islands and Australia ; Bulimus occurs in most of the insular 
groups, including New Zealand, but is absent from Australia. 

Among the Aciculide, the widely-scattered Trwncatella is the 
only genus represented. Among Diplommatinide, Diplommatina 
is the characteristic genus, ranging over the whole region, 
and found elsewhere as far as India, with one species in 


_ Trinidad. The extensive family Cyclostomide, is not well 


represented. Seven genera reach the Austro-Malay Islands, 
one of which, Reyistoma, is confined to the Philippines, Molue- 
cas, New Caledonia, and the Marshall Islands. Omphalotropis 
is the most characteristic genus, ranging over the whole region ; 
Callia is confined to the Philippmes, Ceram, and Australia ; 
Realia to New Zealand and the Marquesas. The genus Helicina 
alone represents the Helicinide, and is found in the whole region 
except New Zealand. The number of species known from 
Australia is perhaps about 300; while the Polynesian sub-region, 
according to Mr, Harper Pease, contains over 600; the Austro- 
Malay Islands will furnish probably 200; and New Zealand 
about 100; making a total of about 1,200 species for the whole 


region. 
AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 


Few of the great zoological regions comprise four divisions so 
strongly contrasted as these, or which present so many interesting 
problems, We have first the Austro-Malay Islands, an equatorial 
forest-region teeming with varied and beautiful forms of life ; 
next we have Australia itself, an island-continent with its satellite 


CHAP, XUI.] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 409 


Tasmania, both tropical and temperate, but for the most part 
arid, yet abounding in peculiar forms in all the classes of animals; 
then come the Polynesian Islands, another luxuriant region of 
tropical vegetation, yet excessively poor in most of the higher 
eroups of animals as well as in some of the lower; and lastly, 
we have New Zealand, a pair of temperate forest-clad islands 
far in the southern ocean, with a very limited yet strange and 
almost wholly peculiar fauna. We have now to consider the 
general features and internal relations of the faunas of each of 
these sub-regions, together with any external relations which 
have not been discussed while treating the region as a whole. 


I. Austro-Malayan Sub-region. 


The central mass on which almost every part of this sub- 
region is clearly dependent, is the great island of New Guinea, 
inhabited by the Papuan race of mankind; and this, with the 
surrounding islands, which are separated from it by shallow seas 
and possess its most marked zoological features, are termed Papua. 
A little further away lie the important groups of the Moluccas 
on one side and the Eastern Papuan Islands on the other, which 
possess afauna mainly derivative from New Guinea, yet wanting 
many of its distinctive types; and, in the case of the Moluccas 
possessing many groups which are not Australian, but derived 
from the adjacent Oriental region. To the south of these we 
have the Timor group, whose fauna is clearly derivative, from 
Australia, from Java, and from the Moluccas. Lastly comes 
Celebes, whose fauna is most complex and puzzling, and, so far 
as we can judge, not fundamentally derivative from any of the 
surrounding islands. 

Papua, or the New Guinea Group—New Guinea is very 
deficient in Mammalia as compared with Australia, though this 
apparent poverty may, in part, depend on our very scanty know- 
ledge. As yet only four of the Australian families of Marsupials 
are known to inhabit it, with nine genera, several of which 
are peculiar. It also possesses a peculiar form of wild pig; 
but as yet no other non-marsupial terrestrial mammal has been 
discovered, except a rat, described by Dr. Gray as Uromys 


410 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. parr mt. 


aruensis, but about the locality of which there seems some 
doubt.! Omitting bats, of which our knowledge is very imperfect, 
the Papuan Maminals are as follows :— 


Family. Genus. Species. 
Suide ... ... Sus 1 Eastern limit of the genus. 
Muride ... .... Uromys 1 Aru Islands (?) 
Dasyuride ... Phascogale 1 Australian genus. 

‘ ... Antechinus 1 tr a 

- ..» Dactylopsila 1 To North Australia only. 

sa ... Myoretis 1 Aru islands only. 
Peramelide ... Perameles 1 New Guinea only. 
Macropodide... Dendrolagus 2 New Guinea only. 

4 ... Dorcopsis 2 Papua only. 
Phalangistide... Cuscus 7  Celebes to New Guinea. 

ae ... Belrideus 1 Australia and Moluccas. 


We have here no sign of any approach to the Mammalian 
fauna of the Oriental region, for though Sus has appeared, the 
Muride (rats and mice) seem to be wanting. 

In Birds the case is very different, since we at once meet 
with important groups, either wholly, or almost peculiar to 
the Papuan fauna. According to a careful estimate, embodying 
the recent discoveries of Meyer and D’Albertis, there are 
350 species of Papuan land-birds comprised in 136 genera. 
About 300 of the species are absolutely peculiar to the dis- 
trict, while 39 of the genera are exclusively Papuan or just 
extend into the Moluccas, or into North Australia where it 
closely approaches New Guinea. In analysing the genera we 
may set aside 31 as having a wide range, and being of no signifi- 
cance in distribution; such are most of the birds of prey, with 
the genera Hirundo, Caprimulgus, Zosterops ; and others widely 
spread in both the Oriental and Australian regions, as Diccewm, 
Munia, Eudynamis, &e. Of the remainder, as above stated, 
about 39 are peculiar to the Papuan fauna, 50 are characteristic 
Australian genera ; 9 are more especially Malayan, and as much 
Australian as Oriental; while 7 only, appear to be typically 


Oriental with a discontinuous distribution, none of them occurring 
in the Moluccas, 


1 See Ann. Nat. IHist., 1873, p. 418, where the species is said to inhabit 


the Aru Islands and Celeles, which renders it not improbable that it may : 
have been curried to the former islands froin the latter, . 


CMAP. XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 411 
This Papuan fauna is so interesting and remarkable, that it 
seems advisable to give lists of these several classes of generic 
types. 
I. Genera occurring in the Papuan Islands which are charac- 
teristic of the Australian region (89). Those marked with an 
asterisk are exclusively Papuan. 


Sylviide... ... Malurus, Gerygone, Petroica, Orthonyz. 
Certhiide ... Climacteris, 

Sittide ... ... Sittella. 

Oriolide... ... Mimeta. 

Campephagide ... Graucalus, Lalage. 

Dicruridee .» *Chetorhynchus. 

Muscicapide ... *Peltops, Monarcha, *Leucophantes, Micreea, 


Sisura, Myiagra, *Macherirhynchus, Rhi- 
pidura, *Todopsis. 


Pachycephalide... Pachycephala. 
Laniide ... one ~*~ Rectes. 
Corvide ... .. Cracticus, *Gymnocorvus. 


Paradiseide .... *Paradisea, *Manucodia, *Astrapia, *Parotia, 
*Lophorina, *Diphyllodes, *Xanthomelus, 
*OCicinnurus, *Paradigalla, *Epimachus, 
* Drepanornis, *Seleucides, Ptilorhis, di lure- 
dus, * Amblyornis. 

Meliphagide ... Myzomela, Entomophila, Glicyphila, Ptilotis, 
*Melidectes, *Melipotes, *Melirrhophetes, 
Anthochera, Philemon, *Huthyrhynchus, 


Melithreptes. 
Nectariniide ... Chalcostetha, *Cosmetira, 
Artamidee ... Artamnus. 
Pittide ... ... *Melampitta. 
Cuculide --» *Oaliechthrus. 
Alcedinidee ... Aleyone, *Syma, Dacelo, *Tanysiptera, 
* Melidora. 
Podargidee ... Podargus, A’gotheles. 
Caprimulgide ... Hurostopodus. 
Cacatuidee ... Cacatua, *Microglossus, Licmetis, *Nasiterna. 
Platycercide ... Aprosmictus. 
Paleornithide ... Tanygnathus, Eclectus, Geoffroyus, *Cyclopsitta. 
Trichoglosside ... Trtchoglossus, *Charmosyna, Eos, Lorius. 
Nestoride .. *Dasyptilus. 


Columbidee ... Ptilopus, Carpophaga, Ianthenas, Reinward- 
tenas, *Trugon, *Henicophaps, Phlogenas, 
*Otidiphaps, *Goura. 

Megapodiide ... Talegallus, Megapodius. 

Falconidee ... *Henicopernis. 

Casuariide .. Casuarius, 


The chief points of interest here are the richness and speciali- 
zation of the parrots, pigeons, and kingfishers; the wonderful para- 
dise-birds ; the honeysuckers ; and some remarkable flycatchers. 


412 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Pant HIT, 
The most prominent deficiencies, as compared with Australia, 
are in Sylviide, Timaliide, Ploceide, Platycercide, and Falconide. 

II. The genera which are characteristic of the whole Malay 
Archipelago are the following (10) :— 


1. Erythrura ... (Ploccide) 6. Loriculus ... (Psittacide) 
2. Pitta... ... (Pittide) 7. Macropygia ... (Columbide) 
3. Ceyz ... ... (Alcedinide) 8. Chalcophaps ... " 
4. Calao ... (Bucerotide) 9. Calenas ous x 
5. Dendrochelidon (Cypselidee) 10. Baza ... --- (Falconidie) 


III. The curious set of genera apparently of Indo-Malayan 
origin, but unknown in the Moluccas, are as follows :— 


1. Eupetes ... (Cinclide) 4, Arachnothera (Nectariniide) 
2. Alcippe ... (Timaliide) 5. Prionochilus... (Diczeidee) 
3. Pomatorhinus "3 6. Eulaédes ... (Sturnide) 


The above six birds are very important as indicating past 
changes in the Austro-Malay Islands, and we must say a few 
words about each. (1) Hupetes is very remarkable, since the 
New Guinea birds resemble in all important characters that 
which is confined to Malacca and Sumatra. They are pro- 
bably the survivors of a once wide-spread Malayan group. 
(2) Alcippe or Drymocataphus (for in which genus the birds 
should be placed is doubtful) seems another clear case of 
a typical Indo-Malayan form occurring in New Guinea and 
Java, but in no intervening island. (3) Pomatorhinus is a most 
characteristic Himalayan and Indo-Malayan genus, occurring 
again in New Guinea and also in Australia, but in no interme- 
diate island. The New Guinea bird seems as nearly related to 
Oriental as Australian species. (4) Arachnothera is exactly 
parallel to Alcippe, occurring nowhere east of Borneo except in 
New Guinea, (5) Prionochilus, a small black bird, sometimes 
classed as a distinct genus, but evidently allied to the Prionochili of 
the Indo-Malay Islands. (6) Hulabes, the genus which contains 
the well known Mynahs of India, extends east of Java as far as 
Flores, but is not found in Celebes or the Moluccas. The two New 
Guinea species are sometimes classed in different genera, but they 
are undoubtedly allied to the Mynahs of India and Malaya, 

We find then, that while the ornithology of New Guinea is 


boul 


CHAP. XIU. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 413 


preeminently Australian in character and possesses many peculiar 
developments of Australian types, it has also—as might be ex- 
pected from its geographical position, its climate, and its vege- 
tation—received an infusion of Malayan forms. But while one 
group of these is spread over the whole Archipelago, and occa- 
sionally beyond it, there is another group which presents the 
unusual and interesting feature of discontinuous distribution, 
jumping over a thousand miles of island-studded sea from Java 
and Borneo to New Guinea itself. It is a parallel case to that 
of Java in the Oriental region, which we have already discussed, 
but the suggested explanation in that case is more difficult to 
apply here. The recent soundings by the Challenger show us, 
that although the several islands of the Moluccas are surrounded 
by water from 1,200 to 2,800 fathoms deep, yet these seas form 
inclosed basins with rims not more than from 400 to 900 
fathoms deep, suggesting the idea of great lakes or inland seas 
which have sunk down bodily with the surrounding land, or that 
enormous local and restricted elevations and subsidences have 
here occurred. We have also the numerous small islands and coral 
banks south of Celebes and eastward towards Timor-Laut and the 
Aru Islands, indicating great subsidence; and it is possible that 
there was an extension of Papua to the west, approaching suffi- 
ciently near to Java to receive occasional straggling birds of Indo- 
Malay type, altogether independent of the Moluccas to the north. 

Lright Colours and Ornamental:Plumage of New Guinea Birds. 
—One of the most striking features of Papuan ornithology is the 
large proportion which the handsome and bright-coloured birds 
bear to the more obscure species. That this is really the case 
has been ascertained by going over my own collections, made at 
Aru and New Guinea, and comparing them with my collection 
made at Malacca—a district remarkable for the number of hand- 
some birds it produces. Using, as nearly as possible, the same 
standard of beauty, about one-third of the Malacca birds may be 
classed as handsome,! while in Papua the proportion comes out 
exactly one-half. This is due, in part to the great abundance of 


1 I also find about this proportion in my Amazonian collections, even 
counting all the humming-birds, parrots, and toucans as handsome birds, 


414 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


parrots, cockatoos, and lories, almost all of which are beautiful ; 
and of pigeons, more than half of which are very beautiful; as 
well as to the numerous kingfishers, most of which are excessively 
brilliant. Then we have the absence of thrushes, and the very 
small numbers of the warblers, shrikes, and Timaliide, which are 
dull-coloured groups ; and, lastly, the presence of numerous gay 
pittas, flycatchers, and the unequalled family of paradise-birds. 
A large number of birds adorned with metallic plumage is also a 
marked feature of this fauna, more than a dozen genera being so 
distinguished. Among the remarkable forms are Peltops, a fly- 
catcher, long classed as one of the Indo-Malayan Eurylemide, 
which it resembles both in bill and coloration ; Macherirhynchus, 
curious little boat-billed flycatchers ; and Todopsis, a group of ter- 
restrial flycatchers with the brilliant colours of Pita or Malurus. 
The paradise-birds present the most wonderful developments of 
plumage and the most gorgeous varieties of colour, to be found 
among passerine birds. The great whiskered-swift, the handsomest 
bird in the entire family, has its head-quarters here. Among king- 
fishers the elegant long-tailed Zanysiptere are preeminent, whether 
for singularity or beauty. Among parrots, New Guinea possesses 
the great black cockatoo, one of the largest and most singular birds 
in the order; Nasiterna, the smallest of known parrots; and 
Charmosyna, perhaps the most elegant. Lastly, among the 
pigeons we have the fine crowned-pigeons, the largest and most 
remarkable group of the order, 

Plate X. Illustrating the Ornithology of New Guinea—The 
wonderful ornithological fauna we have just sketched, could 
only be properly represented in a series of elaborate coloured 
plates. We are obliged here to confine ourselves to representing 
a few of the more remarkable types of form, as samples of the 
great number that adorn this teeming bird-land. The large 
central figure is the fine twelve-wired paradise-bird (Zpimachus 
atbus), one of the most beautiful and remarkable of the family. 
Its general plumage appears, at first sight, to be velvety black ; 
but on closer examination, and by holding the bird in various 
lights, it is found that every part of it glows with the most ex- 
quisite metallic tints—rich bronze, intense violet, and, on the 


ANIMALS 


ACTERISTIC 


CHAR 


INEA, WITH 


IN NEW 


4 
4 


ENE 


a» 


CHAP. XII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 415 


edges of the breast-feathers, brilliant green. An immense tuft of 
dense plumes of a fine orange-buff colour, springs from each side 
of the body, and six of these on each side terminate in a black 
curled rachis or shaft, which form a perfectly unique adornment 
to this lovely bird. To appreciate this wonderful family (of 
which no good mounted collection exists) the reader should 
examine the series of plates in Mr. Elliot’s great work on the 
Paradiseidee, where every species is figured of the size of life, and 
with a perfection of colouring that leaves little to be desired. 

Below the Lpimachus is one of the elegant racquet-tailed 
king-hunters (Tanysiptera galatea) whose plumage of vivid blue 
and white, and coral-red bill, combined with the long spatulate 
tail, renders this bird one of the most attractive of the interest- 
ing family of kingfishers. On a high branch is seated the little 
Papuan parroquet (Charmosyna papuensis), one of the Tricho- 
clossidee, or brush-tongued parrots,—richly adorned in red and 
yellow plumage, and with an unusually long and slender tail. On 
the ground is the well-known crowned pigeon (Gowra coronata,) 
a genus which is wholly confined to New Guinea and a few of 
the adjacent islands. One of the very few Papuan mammals, a 
tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus inustus), is seated on a high branch. 
It is interesting, as an arboreal modification of a family which in 
Australia is purely terrestrial; and as showing how very little 
alteration of form or structure is needed to adapt an aninal to 
such a different mode of life. 


Reptiles and Amphibia.—Of these classes comparatively little 
is at present known, but there is evidence that the same inter- 
mixture of Oriental and Australian forms that occurs in birds and 
insects, is also found here. Dr. A. B. Meyer, the translator of this 
work into German, and well known for his valuable discoveries in 
New Guinea, has kindly furnished me with a manuscript list of 
Papuan reptiles, from which most of the information I am able 
to give is derived. 

Of Snakes, 24 genera are known, belonging to 11 families. Six 
of the genera are Oriental—Calamaria, Cerberus, Chrysopelea, 
Lycodon, Chersydrus, and Ophiophagus. Four are Australian, 


416 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


—Morelia, Iiasis, Diemenia, and Acanthophis ; while four others 
are more especially Papuan,—Dzibamus (Typhlopide), Brashy- 
orros—a sub-genus of the wide-spread Rhabdosoma (Calamariide), 
found also in Timor ; Nardoa and Enygrus (Pythonide), ranging 
from the Moluccas to the Fiji Islands. The rest are either com- 
mon to the Oriental and Australian regions or of wide range. 

Of Lizards also, 24 genera are recorded, belonging to 5 families. 
Three only are peculiarly Oriental— Humeces, Tiaris, and Nyete- 
ridium ; but another, Gonyocephalus, is Malayan, ranging from 
Java and Borneo to the Pelew Islands. Three are Australian,— 
Cyclodus, Heteropus,and Gehyra ; while six are especially Papuan, 
—Keneuxia (extending to the Philippines), Llania, Carlia (to 
North Australia), Zipinia (to the Philippine Islands), and Zri- 
bolonotus,—all belonging to the Scincide ; and Arua belonging 
to the Agamidee. We must add Cryptoblepharus, which is con- 
fined to the Australan region, except a species in Mauritius. 
The other genera have a wider distribution. 

The preponderant Oriental element in the snakes as compared 
with the lizards, is suggestive of the dispersal of the former being 
dependent on floating trees, or even on native canoes, which for 
an unknown period have traversed these seas, and in which 
various species of snakes often secrete themselves. This seems 
the more probable, as snakes are usually more restricted in their 
range than lizards, and exhibit less numerous examples of wide- 
spread genera and species. The other orders of reptiles present 
no features of interest. 

Of Amphibia only 8 genera are known, belonging to 6 families. 
Rana, Hylarana, and Hyla ave wide-spread genera, the former 
being, however, absent from Australia. LHyperolius, Pelodryas, 
Litoria, and Asterophrys ave Australian; while Platymuntis is 
Polynesian, with a species in the Philippine Islands. Hence 
it appears that the amphibia, so far as yet known, exhibit 
no Oriental affinity; and this is a very suggestive fact. We 
have seen (p. 29) that salt water is almost a complete barrier 
to the dispersal of these creatures; so that the wholly Aus- 
tralian character of the Papuan batrachia is what we might 
expect, if, as here advocated, no actual land connection between 


— 


CHAP, XII1.] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 417 
the Oriental and Australian regions, has probably occurred during 
the entire Tertiary and Post-tertiary periods. 

Insects—The general character of the Papuan insects has 
been sufficiently indicated in our sketch of the Entomology of 
the region, We will here only add, that the metallic lustre so 
prevalent among the birds, is also apparent in such insects as 
Sphingnotus mirabilis,a most brilliant metallic Longicorn; Lomap- 
tera wallacei and Anacamptorhina fulgida, Cetonii of intense 
lustre; Calodema wallacei among the Buprestidie ; and the ele- 
gant blue Hupholi among the weevils. Even among moths 
we have Oocytia durvillii, remarkable for its brilliant metallic 
colours. 


The Moluccas.—The islands of Gilolo, Bouru, and Ceram, with 
several smaller islands adjacent, together with Sanguir, and 
perhaps Tulour or Salibaboo to the north-west, and the islands 
from Ke to Timor-Laut to the south-east, form the group of the 
Moluccas or Spice-Islands, remarkable for the luxuriance of 
their vegetation and the extreme beauty of their birds and 
insects. Their Mammalia are of Papuan character, with some 
foreign intermixture. Two genera of the New Guinea marsu- 
pials, Belideus and Cuscus, abound ; and we have also the wide- 
spread Sus. But besides these, we find no less than five genera 
of placental Mammals quite foreign to the Papuan or Australian 
faunas. These are 1. Cynopithecus nigrescens, found only in the 
small island of Batchian, and probably introduced from Celebes, 
where the same ape occurs. 2. Viverra tangalunga, a common 
Indo-Malayan species of civet, probably introduced. 3. Cervus 
hippelaphus, var. Molueccensis, a deer abundant in all the islands, 
very close to a Javan species and almost certainly introduced 
by man, perhaps very long ago, 4. Babirusa alfurus, the 
babirusa, found only in the island of Bouru, and perhaps origi- 
nally introduced from Celebes. 5. Sorex sp., small shrews. 
With the exception of the last, all these species are animals 
habitually domesticated and kept in confinement by the Malays ; 
and when we consider that none of the smaller Mammalia of Java 
and Borneo, numbering at least fifty different species, are found 

E E 


418 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART. III. 


in any of the Moluccas, we can hardly suppose that such large 
animals as the deer and ape, could have reached them by 
natural means. There is every reason to believe, therefore, that 
the indigenous Mammalia of the Moluccas are wholly of Papuan 
stock, and very limited in number. 

The birds are much more varied and interesting. About 200 
species of land-birds are now known, belonging to 85 genera. Of 
the species about 15 are Indo-Malayan, 32 Papuan, and about 
140 peculiar. Of the genera only two are peculiar,—Semioptera, 
a paradise bird, and Lycocorax, a singular form of Corvide ; but 
there is also a peculiar rail-like wader, Habroptila. One genus, 
Basilornis, is found only in Ceram and Celebes ; another, Seythrops, 
is Australian, and perhaps a migrant. About 30 genera are 
characteristic Papuan types, and 37 others, of more or less wide 
range, are found in New Guinea and were therefore probably 
derived thence. There remains a group of birds which are not 
found in New Guinea, and are either Palearctic or Oriental. 
These are 13 in number as follows :-— 


1. Monticola. 8. Corydalla. 

2. Acrocephalus. 9. Hydrornis. 

3. Cisticola, 10. Batrachostomus, 
4. Hypolais. 11. Loriculus. 

5. Criniger. 12. Treron. 

6. Butalis. 13. Neopus. 

7. Budytes. 


Of these the MWonticola, found only in Gilolo, appears to be a 
strageler or migrant from the Philippine islands. Acrocephalus, 
of which four species occur, is a wide-spread group; one of 
the Molucean birds is an Australian and another a North-Asian 
species, which perhaps indicates that there has long been some 
migration southward from island to island, across the Moluceas. 
Cisticola is a genus of very wide range, extending to Australia. 
Hypolais is probably a modified form of a Chinese or Java- 
nese species. Criniger is a pure Indo-Malay form, represented 
here by three fine species. Butalis is a Chinese species, no 
doubt straggling southward. Budytes and Corydalla are wide- 
spread Oriental and Palearctic species or slight modifications of 
them. Hydrornis is a Malayan form of Pittide. Batrachostomus — 
is a distinct representative of a purely Indo-Malay genus. Lori- — 


CHAP. XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 419 


culus is Malayan, and especially Philippine, but it reaches as far 
as Mysol. Zevon is here at its eastern limit, and is represented 
in Bourn‘and Ceram by one of the most beautiful species. 
Neopus, a Malayan eagle, is said to occur in the Moluccas. We 
find then only three characteristic Indo-Malay types in the 
Moluceas,—Criniger, Batrachostomus, and Treron. Allare repre- 
sented by distinct and well marked species, indicating a some- 
what remote period since their ancestors entered the district 
but all are birds of considerable powers of flight, so that a very 
little extension of the islands in a south-westerly direction 
would afford the means of transmission, but this could not well 
have been by way of Celebes, because the two former genera are 
unknown in that island. 

It is evident, therefore, that the Moluccas are wholly Papuan 
in their zoology ; yet they are no less clearly derivative, and must 
have obtained their original immigrants under conditions that 
rendered a full representation of the fauna impossible. Such 
remarkable and dominant types as the eleven genera of Para- 
diseidee, with Cracticus, Rectes, Todopsis, Macherirhynchus, Gery- 
gone, Dacelo, Podargus, Cyclopsitta, Microglossum, Nasiterna, Chal- 
copsitta, and Gouwra,—all characteristic Papuan groups, found in 
almost all the islands and most of them very abundant, are yet 
totally absent from the Moluccas. Taking this, in conjunction 
with the absence of the two genera of Papuan kangaroos and 
the other smaller groups of marsupials, and we must be 
convinced that the Moluccas cannot be mere fragments of the 
old Papuan land, or they would certainly, in some one or other 
of their large and fertile islands, have preserved a more com- 
plete representation of the parent fauna. Most of the Moluccan 
birds are very distinct from the allied species of New Guinea ; 
and this would imply that the entrance of the original forms 
took place at a remote period. The two peculiar genera with 
clearly Papuan affinities, show the same thing. The cassowary, 
found only in the large island of Ceram and distinct from any 
Papuan species, would however seem to have required a land 
connection for its introduction, almost as much as any of the 
larger mammalia. 

EE Q 


420 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART LI. 


Taking all the facts into consideration, I would suggest as the 
most probable explanation, that if the Moluccas ever formed part 
of the main Papuan land, they were separated at an early date, 
and subsequently so greatly submerged as to destroy a large 
proportion of their fauna. They have since risen, and have 
probably been larger than at present, and rather more closely 
approximated to the parent land, whence they received a con- 
siderable immigration of such animals as were adapted to cross 
narrow seas. This gave them several Papuan forms, but still 
left them without a number of the types more especially con- 
fined to the forest depths, or powerful enough to combat the 
gales which often blow weaker flyers out to sea. Most of the 
birds whose absence from the Moluccas is so conspicuous belong 
to one or other of these classes. 

Among the most characteristic birds of the Moluccas are the 
handsome crimson lories of the genera Loriws and Kos. These 
are found in every island (but not in Celebes or the Timor 
group); and a fine species of Hos, peculiar to the small islands of 
Siau and Sanguir, just north of Celebes, obliges us to place 
these with the Moluccas instead of with the former island, to 
which they seem most naturally to belong. The crimson parrots 
of the genus Zclectus are almost equally characteristic of the 
Moluccas, and add greatly to the brilliancy of the ornithology of 
these favoured islands. 

Reptiles—The Reptiles, so far as known, appear to agree in 
their distribution with the other vertebrates. In some small 
collections from Ceram there were no less than six of the genera 
peculiar to the Australian region, and which were before only 
known from Australia itself, These are, of snakes, Lasis and 
Enygrus, genera of Pythonide ; with Diemenia and Acanthophis 
(Elapidee) ; of lizards, Cyclodus, a genus of Scincide; and of 
Amphibia, a tree-frog of the genus Pelodryas, 

Insects—Peculiarities of the Moluccan Fauna.—In insects the 
Moluccas are hardly, if at all, inferior to New Guinea itself. The 
islands abound in grand Papilios of the largest size and extreme 
beauty ; and it is a very remarkable fact, that when the closely- 
allied species of the Moluccas and New Guinea are compared, 


CHAP. XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 421 


the former are almost always the largest. As examples may be 
mentioned, Ornithoptera priamus and O. helena of the Moluccas, 
both larger than the varieties (or species) of Papua; Papilio 
ulysses and deiphobus of Amboyna, usually larger than their 
allies in New Guinea; Hestia idea, the largest species of the 
genus; Diadema pandarus and Charaxes ewryalus, both larger 
than any other species of the same genera in the whole archi- 
pelago. It is to be noted also, that in the Moluccas, the very 
largest specimens or races seem always to come from the small 
island of Amboyna; even those of Ceram, the much larger island 
to which it is a satellite, being almost always of less dimensions. 
Among Coleoptera, the Moluccas produce Luchirus longimanus, 
one of the largest and most remarkable of the Lamellicornes ; 
Sphingnotus dunningi, the largest of the Austro-Malayan Tme- 
sisternine ; a Sphenura, the largest and handsomest of an exten- 
sive genus; an unusually large Schizorhina (Cetoniide) ; and 
some of the most remarkable and longest-horned Anthotribide. 
Even in birds the same law may be seen at work,—in the Tany- 
siptera nais of Ceram, which has a larger tail than any other in 
the genus ; in Centropus goliath of Gilolo, being the largest and 
longest-tailed species; in Hydrornis maximus of Gilolo, the 
largest and perhaps the most elegantly and conspicuously 
coloured of all the Pittide; in Platycercus amboinensis, being 
pre-eminent in its ample blue tail ; inthe two Moluccan lories 
and Los rubra, being more conspicuously red than the allied New 
Guinea species ; and in Megapodius wallacei of Bouru, being the 
only species of the genus conspicuously marked and banded. 
All these examples, of larger size, of longer tails or other 
appendages, and of more conspicuous colouring, are probably 
indications of a less severe struggle for existence in these islands 
than in the larger tract of New Guinea, with a more abundant 
and more varied fauna; and this may apply even to the smaller 
islands, as compared with the larger in the immediate vicinity. 
Lhe limited number of forms in the small islands compared 
with a similar area in the parent land, implies, perhaps, less 
competition and less danger; and thus allows, where all other 
conditions are favourable, an unchecked and continuous de- 


422 - ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


velopment in size, form, and colour, until they become positively 
injurious. This law may not improbably apply to the New 
Guinea fauna itself, as compared with that of Borneo or any 
other similar country ; and some of its peculiarities (such as its 
wonderful paradise-birds) may be due to long isolation, and con- 
sequent freedom from the influence of any competing forms. 
The difference between the very sober colours of the Coleoptera, 
and in a less degree of the birds, of Borneo, as compared with 
their brilliancy in New Guinea, always struck me most forcibly, 
and was long without any, even conjectural, explanation. It is 
not the place here to go further-into this most curious and 
interesting subject. The reader who wishes for additional facts 
to aid him in forming an opinion, should consult Mr. Darwin’s 
Descent of Man, chapters x. to xv.; and my own Contributions 
to the Theory of Natural Selection, chapters iii. and iv. 


Timor Group —Mammalia—In the group of islands between 
Jaya’ and Australia, from Lombok to Timor inclusive, we find a 
set of mammals similar to those of the Moluccas, but some of 
them different species. A wide-spread species of Cuscus repre- 
sents the Papuan element. A Sorex and a peculiar species of 
wild pig, we may also accept as indigenous. Three others have- _ 
almost certainly been introduced. These are, (1.) Macacus eyno- 
molgus, the very commonest Malay monkey, which may have 
crossed the narrow straits from island to island between Java 
and Timor, though it seems much more probable that it was in- 
troduced by Malays, who constantly capture and rear the young 
of this species. (2.) Cervus timoriensis, a deer, said to be a dis- 
tinct species, inhabits Timor, but,it is probably only a variety of 
the Cervus hippelaphus of Java, This animal is, however, much 
more likely to have crossed the sea than the monkey. (3.) Para- 
doxurus fasciatus, takes the place of Viverra tangalunga in the 
Moluccas, both common and wide-spread civets which are often 
kept in confinement by the Malays, The Felis megalotis, long 
supposed to be a native of Timor, has been ascertained by Mr, 
Elliot to belong to a different country altogether. 

Birds.—The birds are much more interesting, since they are 


Ee 


CHAP, XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 423 
sufficiently numerous to allow us to determine their relations, 
and trace their origin, with unusual precision. There are 96 
genera and 160 species of land-birds known to inhabit this group 
of islands ; and on a careful analysis, they are found to be almost 
equally related to the Australian and Oriental regions, 30 genera 
being distinctly traceable to the former, and the same number to 
the latter. Their connection with the Moluccas is shown by the 
presence of the genera Mimeta, Geoffroyus, Cacatua, Ptilopus, and 
Ianthenas, together with Megapodius and Cerchneis represented 
by Moluccan species. Zwracena shows a connection with 
Celebes, and Scops is represented by a Celebesian species. The 
connection with Australia is shown by the genera Sphecothera, 
Gerygone, Myiagra, Pardalotus, Gliciphila, Amadina, and Apros- 
mictus ; while Milvus, Hypotriorchis, Hudynamis, and Eurysto- 
mus, are represented by Australian species. Other genera con- 
fined to or characteristic of the Australian region, are Lhipidura, 
Monarcha, Artamus, Campephaga, Pachycephala, Philemon, Ptilo- 
tis, and Myzomela. 

We now come to the Indo-Malay or Javan element represented 
by the following genera: 


1. Turdus (T.) 11. Oriolus. 21. Yungipicus. 

2. Geocichla (T.) 12. Pericrocotus. 22. Merops. 

3. Zoothera. 13. Cyornis (T.) 23. Pelargopsis. 

4. Megalurus (T.) 14. Hypothymis. 24. Ceyx. 

5. Orthotomus. 15. Tchitrea. 25. Loriculus. 

6. Pratincola (T.) 16. Lanius (T.) 26. Treron (T.) 

7. Oreicola (T.) 17. Anthreptes. 27. Iotreron (s.g. of Ptilopus). 
8. Drymocataphus (T.) 18. Eulabes. 28. Chalcophaps (T.) 

9. Parus. 19. Estrilda (T.) 29, Gallus (T.) 

10, Pyecnonotus, 20. Erythrura (T.) 30. Strix. 


Such genera as Merops and Strix, which are as much Austra- 
lian as Oriental, are inserted here because they are represented by 
Javan species. The list is considerably swelled by genera which 
have reached Lombok across the narrow strait from Baly, but 
have passed no further. Such are Zoothera, Orthotomus, Pyeno- 
notus, Pericrocotus and Strix, A much larger number (12) stop 
short at Flores, leaving only 13, indicated in the list by (T) after 
their names, which reach Timor. It is evident, therefore, that 
these islands have been stocked from three chief sources,—the 


424 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. | [PART ItI 


Moluccas (with New Guinea and Celebes,) Australia, and Java. 
The Moluccan forms may well have arrived as stragglers from 
island to island, aided by whatever facilities have been afforded 
by lands now submerged. Most of the remainder have been de- 
rived either from Australia or from Java; and as their relations 
to these islands are very interesting, they must be discussed 
with some detail. 

Origin of the Timorese Fauna.—We must first note, that 80 
species, or exactly one-half of the land-birds of the islands, are 
peculiar and mostly very distinct, intimating that the immigra- 
tion commenced long enough back to allow of much specific 
modification. There is also one peculiar genus of kinefishers, 
Caridonax, found only in Lombok and Flores, and more allied 
to Australian than to Oriental types. The fine white-banded 
pigeons (s. g. Leucotreron) are also almost peculiar; one other 
less typical species only being known, a native of N. Celebes. 
In order to compare the species with regard to their origin, we 
must first take away those of wide distribution from which no 
special indications can be obtained. In this case 49 of the land- 
birds must be deducted, leaving 111 species which afford good 
materials for comparison, These, when traced to their origin, 
show that 62 came from some part of the Australian region, 49 
from Java or the Oriental region. But if we divide them into 
two groups, the one containing the species identical with those 
of the Australian or Oriental regions, the other containing allied 
or representative species peculiar to the islands, we have the fol- 
lowing result : | 


Species common to the Timorese Islands and the Oriental Region 30 
Peculiar Timorese species allied to those of the Oriental Region 19 


Total * or te eel ee Jue ods 


Species common to the Timorese Islands and the Australian 
Region aS. an aks ae Mia ute us bite 
Peculiar Timorese species allied to those of the Australian Region 44 


Total vik ae ais ra at vile — 


This table is very important, as indicating that the connection 


- 


Ss 


a SSS SSS Se 


LS 


CHAP, XII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 425 
with Australia was probably earlier than that with Java; since 
the majority of the Australian species have become modified, 
while the majority of the Oriental species have remained un- 
changed. This is due, no doubt, in part to the continued im- 
migration of fresh individuals from Java, after that from Australia, 
the Moluccas and New Guinea had almost wholly ceased. We 
must also notice the very small proportion of the genera, either 
of Australia or Java, that have found their way into these islands, 
many of the largest and most wide-spread groups in both coun- 
tries being altogether absent. Taking these facts into considera- 
tion, it is pretty clear that there has been no close and long- 
continued approximation of these islands to any part of the 
Australian region ; and it is also probable that they were fairly 
stocked with such Australian groups as they possess before the 
immigration from Java commenced, or a larger number of cha- 
racteristic Oriental forms would have been able to have estab- 
lished themselves. 

On looking at our map, we find that a shallow submerged bank 
extends from Australia to within about twenty miles of the coast 
of Timor; and this is probably an indication that the two 
countries were once only so far apart. This would have allowed 
the purely Australian types to enter, as they are not numerous; 
there being about 6 Australian species, and 10 or 12 representa- 
tives of Australian species, in Timor. All the rest may have been 
derived from the Moluccas or New Guinea, being mostly wide- 
spread genera of the Australian region; and the extension of 
Papua in a south-west direction towards Java (which was sug- 
gested as a means of providing New Guinea with peculiar Indo- 
Malay types not found in any other part of the region) may 
have probably served to supply Timor and Flores with the mass 
of their Austro-Malayan genera across a narrow strait or arm of 
the sea. Lombok, Baly, and Sumbawa were probably not then 
in existence, or nothing more than small volcanic cones rising 
out of the sea, thus leaving a distance of 300 miles between 
Flores and Java. Subsequently they grew into islands, which 
offered an easy passage for a number of Indo-Malay genera 
into such scantily stocked territories as Flores and Timor. The 


426 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


north coast of Australia then sank, cutting off the supply from 
that country ; and this left the Timorese group in the position it 
now occupies. 

The reptiles and fishes of this group are too little known to 
enable us to make any useful comparison. 

Insects—The insects, though not numerous, present many fine 
species, some quite unlike any others in the Archipelago. Such 
are—Papilio liris, Pieris leta, Cirrochroa lamarckit and C. lesche- 
naultv among butterflies. The Coleoptera are comparatively little 
known, but in the insects generally the Indo-Malay element pre- 
dominates. This may have arisen from the peculiar vegetation 
and arid climate not being suitable to the Papuan insects. Why — 
Australian forms did not establish themselves we cannot conjec- 
ture ; but the field appears to have been open to immigrants from 
Java, the climate and vegetation of which island at its eastern ex- 
tremity approximates to that of the Timorese group. The insects 
are, however, so peculiarly modified as to imply a very great anti- 
quity, and this is also indicated by a group of Sylviine birds here 
classed under Oreicola, but some of which probably form distinct 
genera. There may, perhaps, have been an earlier and a later 
approximation to Java, which, with the other changes indicated, 
would account for most of the facts presented by the fauna of 
these islands. One deduction is, at all events, clear: the ex- 
treme paucity of indigenous mammals along with the absence of 
so many groups of birds, renders it certain that the Timorese 
islands did not derive their animal life by means of an actual 
union with any of the large islands either of the Australian or 
the Oriental regions. 


Celebes Group—We now come to the Island of Celebes, in 
many respects the most remarkable and interesting in the whole ; 
region, or perhaps on the globe, since no other island seems to 
present so many curious problems for solution. We shall there- 
fore give a somewhat full account of its peculiar fauna, and — 
endeavour to elucidate some of the causes to which its zoological — 
isolation may be attributed. 

Mammalia,—The following is the list of the mammalia of 


CHAP, XUI.] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 427 


EEE 


Celebes as far as at present known, though many small species 
may yet be discovered. 


1, Cynopithecus nigrescens. 7. Barbirusa alfurus. 

2. Tarsius spectrum. 8. Sciurus (5 peculiar sp.) 
3. Viverra tangalunga. 9. Mus (2 peculiar sp.) 

4, Cervus hippelaphus. 10, Cuscus (2 peculiar sp.) 
5. Anoa depressicornis Also 7 species of bats, of 
6. Sus celebensis. which 5 are peculiar. 


The first—a large black ape—is itself an anomaly, since it is not 
closely allied to any other form of quadrumana. Its flat projecting 
muzzle, large superciliary crests and maxillary ridges, with the form 
and appearance of its teeth, separate it altogether from the genus 
Macacus, as represented in the Indo-Malay islands, and ally it 
closely to the baboons of Africa! We have already seen reason 
to suppose that it has been carried to Batchian, and there is some 
doubt about the allied species or variety (C. niger) of the Philip- 
pines being really indigenous there ; in which case this interesting 
form will remain absolutely confined to Celebes. (2.) The tarsier 
is a truly Malayan species, but it is said to occur in a small island 
at the northern extremity of Celebes. It might possibly have been 
introduced there. (3) and (4)—a civet and a deer—are, almost cer- 
tainly,as in the Moluccas, introduced species. (5.) Anoa depressicor- 
nis. This is one of the peculiar Celebesian types; a small straight- 
horned wild-bull, anatomically allied to the buffaloes, and some- 
what resembling the bovine antelopes of Africa, but having no 
near allies in the Oriental region. (6.) Sus Celebensis; a peculiar 
species of wild-pig. (7.) Babirusa alfurus ; another remarkable 
type, having no near allies. It differs in its dentition from the 
typical Suide, and seems to approach the African Phacocheeride, 
The manner in which the canines of the upper tusks are reversed, 
and grow directly upwards in a spiral curve over the eyes, is 
unique among mammalia. (8.) Five squirrels inhabit Celebes, and 
all are peculiar species. (9.) These are forest rats of the sub-genus 
Gymnomys, allied to Australian species. 10. Cuscus, This typical 


* The general form of the skull agrees best with that of Cynocephalus 
mormon, the largest and most typical of the African baboons ; while the 
position of the nostrils brings it nearer the macaques, 


428 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. | 


Australian form is represented in Celebes by two peculiar 
species, 

Leaving out the Indo-Malay species, which may probably have 
been introduced by man, and are at all events comparatively 
recent immigrants, and the wild pig, a genus which ranges over 
the whole archipelago and which has therefore little significance, 
we find two genera which have come from the Australian side, 
—Cuscus and Mus ; and four from the Oriental side,—Cynopi- 
thecus, Anoa, Babirusa, and Sciurus. But Sciurus alone corre- 
sponds to Cuscus,as a genus still inhabiting the adjacent islands; 
the other three being not only peculiar to Celebes, but incapable 
of being affiliated to any specially Oriental group. We seem, then, 
to have indications of two distinct periods ; one very ancient, 
when the ancestors of the three peculiar genera roamed over some 
unknown continent of which Celebes formed, perhaps, an outlying 
portion ;—another more recent, when from one side there entered 
Scivrus, and from the other Cuscus. But we must remember 
that the Moluccas to the east, possess scarcely any indigenous 
mammals except Cuscus; whereas Borneo and Java on the west, 
have nearly 50 distinct genera. It is evident then, that the 
facilities for immigration must have been much less with the 
Oriental than with the Australian region, and we may be pretty 
certain that at this later period there was no land connection | 
with the Indo-Malay islands, or some other animals than squirrels 
would certainly have entered. Let us now see what light is 
thrown upon the subject by the birds. 

Birds.—The total number of birds known to inhabit Celebes 
is 205, belonging to about 150 genera. We may leave out of 
consideration the wading and aquatic birds, most of which are 
wide-ranging species. ‘There remain 123 genera and 152 species 
of land-birds, of which 9 genera and 66 species are absolutely 
confined to the island, while 20 more are found also in the Sula 
or Sanguir Islands, so that we may take 86 to be the number of 
peculiar Celebes species. Lord Walden, from whose excellent 
paper on the birds of Celebes (7'rans. Zool. Soc. vol. viii. p, 23) 
most of these figures are obtained, estimates, that of the species 
which are not peculiar to Celebes, 55 are of Oriental and 22 of 


CHAP, XII} THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 429 
Australian origin, the remainder being common to both regions. 
This shows a preponderant recent immigration from the West 
and North, which is not to be wondered at when we look at the 
long coast line of Java, Borneo, and the Philippine islands, with 
an abundant and varied bird population, on the one side, and 
the small scattered islands of the Moluccas, with a compara- 
tively scanty bird-fauna, on the other. 

But, adopting the method here usually followed, let us look 
at the relations of the genera found in Celebes, omitting for 
the preseut those which are peculiar to it. I divide these genera 
into two series :—those which are found in Borneo or Java but 
not in the Moluccas, and those which inhabit the Moluccas and 
not Borneo or Java; these being the respective sources from 
which, prima facce, the species of these genera must have been 
derived. Genera which range widely into both these districts 
are rejected, as teaching us nothing of the origin of the Cele- 
besian fauna. In a few cases, sub-genera which show a decided 
eastern or western origin, are given. 


GENERA DERIVED FROM BORNEO AND JAVA. 


1. Geocichla. 9. Nectarophila. 17. Hydrocissa. 
2. Pratincola (sp.) 10. Anthreptes (sp.) 18. Cranorrhinus. 
3. Trichastoma. 11. Munia (sp.) 19. Lyncornis. 
4, Oriolus (sp.) 12. Acridotheres. 20. Treron (sp.) 
5. Cyornis 13. Yungipicus. 21. Gallus (sp.) 
6. Hypothymis. 14, Mulleripicus. 22. Spilornis. 
7. Hylocharis. 15. Rhamphococcyx. 23. Butastur. 
8. Aithopyga. 16. Hierocoeeyx. 24, Pernis. 
GENERA DERIVED FROM THE Motuccas or TrMor. 
1. Graucalus (sp.) 6. Tanygnathus. 11. Myristicivora (s. g.) 
2. Chalcostetha. 7. Trichoglossus. 12. Ducula (s. g.) 
3. Myzomela. 8. Scythrops (sp.) 13. Zoncenas (s. g.) 
4. Munia (sp.) 9. Turaccena. 14, Lamproteron (s. g.) 
5, Cacatua (sp.) 10. Reinwardtcenas (sp.) 15. Megapodius. 


These tables show a decided preponderance of Oriental 
over Australian forms. But we must remember that the imme- 
diately adjacent lands from whence the supply was derived, is 


430 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill. 


very much richer in the one case than in the other. The 24 
genera derived from Borneo and Java are only about one fourth 
of the characteristic genera of those islands; while the 15 
Moluccan and Timorese genera are fully one third of their 
characteristic types. The proportion derived from the Australian, 
_ is greater than that derived from the Oriental side. 

We shall exhibit this perhaps more clearly, by giving a list of 
the important groups of each set of islands which are absent 


from Celebes. - 
Important Families of Java and Borneo Important Families of the Moluccas 
absent from Celebes. absent from Celebes. 


1. Eurylemide. 5. Laniide. 

2. Timaliide. 6. Megalzemide. - 1, Meliphagide. 
3. Phyllornithide. 7, Trogonidee. 

4, Pycnonotidie 8. Phasianidee. 


Additional important genera of Java or Important genera of the Moluceas 

Borneo absent from Celebes. absent from Celebes. 
1. Orthotomus. 1, Mimeta. 
2. Copsychus. 2. Monarcha. 
3. Enicurus. 3. Rhipidura. 
4. Tchitrea. 4, Pachycephala. 
5. Pericrocotus. 5. Lycocorax. 
6. Irena. 6. Alcyone. 
7. Platylophus. 7. Tanysiptera. 
8. Dendrocitta. 8. Geoffroyus. 
9. Eulabes. 9. Eclectus. 
10. Hemicercus. 10. Platycercus, 
11. Chrysocolaptes. 11. Eos. 
12. Tiga. 12, Lorius. 


13. Micropternus. 
14, Batrachostomus, 
15. Paleeornis. 

16. Rollulus. 


If we reckon the absent families to be each represented by 
only two important genera, we shall find the deficiency on the 
Oriental side much the greatest; yet those on the side of the — 
Moluccas are sufficiently remarkable. The Meliphagide are not 
indeed absolutely wanting, since a Jyzomela has now been 
found in Celebes; but all its larger and more powerful forms 
which range over almost the entire region, are absent, This 
may be balanced by the absence of the excessively abundant 
Timaliide of the Indo-Malay islands, which are represented by 


Lr fl 


CHAP. XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 431 


only a single species; and by the powerful Phasianide, repre- 
sented only by the common Malay jungle fowl, perhaps intro- 
duced. The entire absence of Pycnonotide is a very anomalous 
fact, since one of the largest genera, Criniger, is well represented 
in several islands of the Moluccas, and one has even been found 
in the Togian islands in the great northern inlet of Celebes ; 
but yet it passes over Celebes itself. Ceyx, a genus of small 
kinefishers, is a parallel case, since it is found everywhere from 
India to New Guinea, leaving out only Celebes; but this comes 
among those curiosities of the Celebesian fauna which we shall 
notice further on. In the list of genera derived from Borneo or 
Java, no less than 6 are represented by identical species (indi- 
cated by sp. after the name); while in the Moluccan list 5 
are thus identical. These must be taken to indicate, either that 
the genus is a recent introduction, or that stragglers still occa- 
sionally enter, crossing the breed, and thus preventing specific 
modification. In either case they depend on the existing state 
of things, and throw no lght on the different distribution of 
land and sea which aided or checked migration in former times ; 
and they therefore to some extent diminish the weight of the 
Indo-Malay affinity, as measured by the relations of the peculiar 
species of Celebes. 

From our examination of the evidence thus far—that is, taking 
account firstly, of the species, and, secondly, of the genera, which 
are common to Celebes and the groups of islands between which 
it is situated, we must admit that the connexion seems rather 
with the Oriental than with the Australian region; but when we 
take into account the proportion of the genera and species pre- 
sent, to those which are absent, and giving some weight to the 
greater extent of coast line on the Indo-Malay side, we seem 
justified in stating that the Austro-Malay element is rather the 
most fully represented. This result applies both to birds and 
mammals ; and it leads us to the belief, that during the epoch of 
existing species and genera, Celebes has never been united with 
any extensive tract of land either on the Indo-Malay or Austro- 
Malay side, but has received immigrants from both during a very 
long period, the facilities for immigration having been rather the 


432 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


greatest on the Austro-Malay or Australian side. We have now 
to consider what further light can be thrown on the subject by 
the consideration of the peculiar genera of Celebes, and of those 
curiosities or anomalies of distribution to which we have 
referred. 

Nine genera of birds are altogether peculiar to Celebes ; three 
more are found only in one other island, and seem to be typi- 
cally Celebesian ; while one is found in the Sula islands (which 
belongs to the Celebes group) aad probably exists in Celebes 
also. The following is a list of these 13 genera: 


1. Artamides... (Campephagidze) 8. Monachalcyon (Alced inide) 
2. Streptocitta.. (Corvide) 9. Cittura... > 

3. Charitornis.. - 10. Ceycopsis ... a 

4, Gazzola, (s. g.) ‘a 11. Meropogon .. (Meropide) 

5. Basilornis .. (Sturnidze) 12. Prioniturus. (Psittacide) 

6. Enodes ... = 13. Megacephalon (Megapodiidee) 
7. Scisstrostrum “ , 


Of the above, Artamides, Monachalcyon, Cittwra, and Megace- 
phalon, are modifications of types characteristic of the Australian 
region. All are peculiar to Celebes except Cittura, found also in 
the Sanguir islands to the northward, but which seems to belong 
to the Moluccan group. Streptocitta, Charitornis, and Gazzola, 
are peculiar types of Corvide; the two former allied to the 
magpies, the latter to the jackdaws. Charitornis is known only 
from the Sula islands east of Celebes, and is closely related to 
Streptocitta. There is nothing comparable to these three groups 
in any of the Malay islands, and they seem to have relations 
rather with the Corvide of the old-world northern continent. 
Basilornis, Enodes, and Scissirostrum, are remarkable forms of 
Sturnidee. Basilornis has a beautiful compressed crest, which in 


the allied species found in Ceram is elongated behind. nodes _ 


has remarkable red superciliary streaks, but seems allied to 


Calornis. Scissirostrwm seems also allied to Calornis in general - 


structure, but has a very peculiarly formed bill and nostrils. We 
can hardly say whether these three forms show more affinity to 
Oriental or to Australian types, but they add to the weight of 
evidence as to the great antiquity and isolation of the Celebesian 
fauna. Scissirostvwm has been classed with Luryceros, a Mada- 


J 


CHAP, XIII, | THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 433 


gascar bird, and with Buphaga, an African genus; but the pecu- 
liar beak and nostrils approximate more to Cracticus and its 
allies, of the Australian region, which should probably form a 
distinct family. Ceycopsis is undoubtedly intermediate between 
the Malayan Ceyx and the African Jspidina, and is therefore es- 
pecially interesting. Meropogon is a remarkable form of bee- 
eater, allied to the Indo-Malayan Nyctiornis. Prionitwrus (the 
raquet-tailed parrots) of which two species inhabit Celebes, and 
one the Philippines, appears to be allied to the Austro-Malayan 
Geoffroyus. 

We must finally notice a few genera found in Celebes, whose 
nearest allies are not in the surrounding islands, and which thus 
afford illustrations of discontinuous distribution. The most re- 
markable, perhaps, is Coracias, of which a fine species inhabits 
Celebes ; while the genus is quite unknown in the Indo-Malay 
sub-region, and does not appear again till we reach Burmah and 
India ; and the species has no closer affinity for Indian than for 
African forms. J/yialestes, a small yellow flycatcher, is another 
exmple; its nearest ally (MZ. cinereocapilla) being a common Indian 
bird, but unknown in the Malay islands. The Celebesian bird 
described by me as Prionochilus aureolimbatus, is probably a 
third case of discontinuous distribution, if (as a more careful 
examination seems to show) it is not a Prionochilus, but con- 
generic with Pachyglossa, a bird only found in the Himalayas. 
The fine pigeon, Carpophaga forsteni, belongs to a group found in 
the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand; but the Celebes 
species is very distinct from all the others, and seems, if any- 
thing, more allied to that of New Zealand, 

The Sula islands (Sula-mangola, Sula-taliabo, and Sula-besi) 
lie midway between Celebes and the Moluccas, being 80 miles 
from the nearest part of Celebes, with several intervening 
islands, and 40 miles from Bouru, all open sea, Their birds 
show, as might be expected, a blending of the two faunas, but 
with a decided preponderance of that of Celebes. Out of 43 
land birds which have been collected in these islands, we may 
deduct 6 as of wide range and no significance. Of the 37 re- 
maining, 21 are Celebesian species, and 4 are new species but 

F F 


: 


434 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill. 


allied to those of Celebes; while there are 10 Moluccan species 
and 2 new species allied to those of the Moluccas. It is curious 
that no less than 3 Moluccan genera, quite unknown in Celebes 
itself, occur here,—Monarcha, Pachycephala, and Criniger ; but all 
these, as well as several other of the Moluccan birds, are rather 
weak flyers, and such as are likely to have been carried across 
by strong winds. Of the genera, 23 are fronr Celebes, 10 from 
the Moluccas. These facts show, that the Sula islands form part 
of the Celebes group, although they have received an infusion of 
Molucean forms, which will perhaps in time spread to the main 
island, and diminish the remarkable individuality that now cha- 
racterises its fauna. 

Insects.—Of the reptiles and fishes of Celebes we have not 
sufficient information to draw any satisfactory conclusions. I 
therefore pass to the insects of which something more is 
known. | 

The Butterflies of Celebes are not very numerous, less than — 
200 species in all having been collected ; but a very large pro- 
portion of them, probably three-fourths of the whole, are peculiar. 
There is only one peculiar genus, A mechania, allied to Zethera (a 
group confined to the Philippine Islands), with which it should 
perhaps be united. Most of the genera are of wide distribution 
in the archipelago, or are especially Malayan, only two truly 
Australian genera, Hlodina and Acropthalmia, reaching Celebes. 
On the other hand, 7 peculiar Oriental genera are found in Celebes, 
but not further east, viz., Clerome, Adolias, Euripus, Apatura, 
Limenitis, Iolaus, and Leptocircus. There are also several indi- 
cations of a direct affinity with the continent rather than with 
Malaya, as in the cases already enumerated among birds, A 
fine butterfly, yet unnamed, almost exactly resembles Dichorra- 
gia nesimachus, a Himalayan species. Huripus robustus is closely 
allied to H. halitherses of N. India; there are no less than 5 species 
of Limenitis, all quite unlike those found in other parts of the 
archipelago, The butterflies of Celebes are remarkably distin- 
guished from all others in the East, by peculiarities of form, size, 
and colour, which run through groups of species belonging to 
different genera. Many Papilionide and Pieride, and some 


CHAP, XIU] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 435 


Nymphalidee, have the anterior wings elongated, with the apex 
often acute, and, what is especially remarkable, an abrupt bend 
or shoulder near the base of the wing. (See Malay Archipelago, 
srd Ed, p. 281, woodcut.) No less than 13 species of Papilio, 10 
Pieride, and 4 or 5 Nymphalide, are thus distinguished from 
their nearest allies in the surrounding islands or in India. In 
size again, a large number of Celebesian butterflies stand pre- 
eminent over their allies. The fine Papilios—adamantius, blumet, 
and gigon—are perfect giants by the side of the clusely-allied 
forms of Java; while P. androcles is the largest and longest-tailed, 
of all the true swallow-tailed group of the Old World. Among 
Nymphalide, the species of Rhinopalpa and Kuripus, peculiar to 
Celebes, are immensely larger than their nearest allies; and 
several of the Pieride are also decidedly larger, though in a less 
marked degree. In colour, many of the Celebesian butterflies differ 
from the nearest allied species; so that they acquire a singu- 
larity of aspect which marks them off from the rest of the group. 
The most curious case is that of three butterflies, belonging 
to three distinct genera (Cethosia myrina, Messaras meonides, 
and Atella celebensis) all having a delicate violet or lilac gloss in 
lines or patches, which is wholly wanting in every allied species 
of the surrounding islands. These numerous peculiarities of 
Celebesian butterflies are very extraordinary ; and imply isolation 
from surrounding lands, almost as much as do the strange forms 
of mammals and birds, which more prominently characterise this 
interesting island. 

Of the Coleoptera we know much less, but a few interesting 
facts may be noted. There are a number of fine species of 
Cicindela, some of peculiar forms; and one Odontochila, a South 
American genus; while Collyris reaches Celebes from the 
Oriental region. In Carabide it has one peculiar genus, Dicra- 
speda ; and a species of the fine Australian genus Catadromus. 
In Lucanidse it has the Oriental genus, Odontolabris. In Ceton- 
iidz it has a peculiar genus, Sternoplus, and several fine Cetonia ; 
but the characteristic Malayan genus, Lomapter, found in every 
other island of the archipelago from Sumatra to New Guinea, 
is absent—an analogous fact to the case of Ce’ among birds. 

FFZ 


436 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 


In Buprestidee, the principal Austro-Malay genus, Sambus, is 
found here; while Sponsor, a genus 8 species of which inhabit 
Mauritius, has one species here and one in New Guinea. In 
Longicorns there are four peculiar genera, Comusia, Pytholia, 
Bityle, and Ombrosaga ; but the most important features are the 
occurrence of the otherwise purely Indo-Malayan genera Age- 
lasta, Nyctimene, and Asiathes; and of the purely Austro- 
Malayan Arrienotus, Trysimia, Xenolea, Amblymora, Diallus, 
and gocidnus, The remaining genera range over both portions © 
of the archipelago. In the extensive family of Curculionids 
we can only notice the elegant genus, Celebia, allied to Hupho- 
lus, which, owing to its abundance and beauty, is a conspicuous 
feature in the entomology of the island. 

Origin of the fauna of Celebes——We have now to consider, 
briefly, what past changes of physical geography are indicated 
by the curious assemblage of facts here adduced. We have 
evidently, in Celebes, a remnant of an exceedingly ancient land, 
which has undergone many and varied revolutions; and the 
stock of ancient forms which it contains must be taken account 
of, when we speculate on the causes that have so curiously 
limited more recent immigrations. Going back to the arrival 
of those genera which are represented in Celebes by peculiar 
species, and taking first the Austro-Malay genera, we find — 
among them such groups as Zonwnas (s.2.), Phlogenas, Leuco- 
treron (s.g.), and Twracena, which are not ae in the Moluccas 
at all; and Myzomela, found in Timor and Banda, but not in 
Ceram or Bouru, which are nearest to Celebes. This, combined 
with the curious absence of so many of the commonest Molucecan 
genera, leads to the conclusion that the Austro-Malay immigra- 
tion took place by way of Timor and the southern part of New 
Guinea. It will be remembered, that to account for the Indo- — 
Malayan forms in New Guinea, we suggested an extension of — 
that country in a westerly direction just north of Timor. Now — 
this is exactly what we require, to account for the stocking 
of Celebes with the Australian forms it possesses. At this time — 
Borneo did not approach so near, and it was at a somewhat later ; 
period that the last great Indo-Malay migration set in; but 


CHAP. XU. | THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 437 


finding the country already fairly stocked, comparatively few 
groups were able to establish themselves. 

Going back a little farther, we come to the entrance of those 
few birds and insects which belong to India or Indo-China ; and 
this probably occurred at the same time as that continental 
extension southward, which we found was required to account for 
a similar phenomenon in Java. Celebes, being more remote, 
received only a few stragglers. We have now to go much 
farther back, to the time when the ancestors of the peculiar 
Celebesian genera entered the country, and here our conjectures 
must necessarily be less defined. 

On the Australian side we have to account for Megacephalon, 
aud the other genera of purely Papuan type. It may perhaps 
be sufficient to say, that we do not yet know that these genera, 
or some very close allies, do not still exist in New Guinea; in 
which case they may well have entered at the same time with 
the species, already referred to. If, on the other hand, they are 
really as isolated as they appear to be, they represent an earlier 
communication, either by an approximation of the two islands 
over the space now occupied by the Moluccas; or, what is per- 
haps more probable, through a former extension of the Moluceas, 
which have since undergone so much subsidence, as to lead to 
the extinction of a large proportion of their ancient fauna. 
The wide-spread volcanic action, and especially the prevalence of 
raised coral-reefs in almost all the islands, render this last 
supposition very probable. 

On the Oriental side the difficulty is greater; for here we find, 
what seem to be clear indications of a connection with Africa, as 
well as with Continental Asia, at some immensely remote epoch. 
Cynopithecus, Babirusa, and Anoa ; Ceycopsis, Streptocitta, and Gaz- 
zola (s.g.), and perhaps Scissivostrum, may be well explained as - 
descendants of ancestral types in their respective groups, which 
also gave rise to the special forms of Africa on the one hand, and of 
Asia on the other. For this immigration we must suppose, that at 
a period before the formation of the present Indo-Malay Islands, 
a great tract of land extended in a north-westerly direction, till 
it met the old Asiatic continent. This may have been before 


438 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II. 


the Himalayas had risen to any great height, and when a large 
part of what are now the cold plateaus of Central Asia may 
have teemed with life, some forms of which are preserved in 
Africa, some in Malaya, and a few in Celebes. Here may 
have lived the common ancestor of Sus, Babirusa, and Phaco- 
cherus ; as well as of Cynopithecus, Cynocephalus, and Macacus ; 
of Anoa and Bubalus; of Scisstrostrum and Euryceros; of Ceyx, 
Ceycopsis, and Ispidina. Such an origin accounts, too, for the 
presence of the North-Indian forms in Celebes ; and it offers less 
difficulties than a direct connection with continental Africa, which 
once appeared to be the only solution of the problem. If this 
south-eastward extension of Asia occurred at the same time as 
the north-eastward extension of South Africa and Madagascar, 
the two early continents may have approached each other suffi- 
ciently to have allowed of some interchange of forms: Zarsius 
may be the descendant of some Lemurine animal that then 
entered the Malayan area, while the progenitors of Cryptoprocta 
may then have passed from Asia to Madagascar. 

It is true that we here reach the extremest limits of specula- 
tion ; but when we have before us such singular phenomena as 
are presented by the fauna of the island of Celebes, we can hardly 
help endeavouring to picture to our imaginations by what past 
changes of land and sea (in themselves not improbable) the actual 
condition of things may have been brought about. 


Il, Australia and Tasmania, or the Australian Sub-region. 


A general sketch of Australian zoology having been given in the 
earlier part of this chapter, it will not be necessary to occupy much 
time on this sub-region, which is as remarkably homogeneous as 
the one we have just left is heterogeneous. Although much of 
the northern part of Australia is within the tropics, while Vie- 
toria and Tasmania are situated from 36° to 43° south latitude, 
there is no striking change in the character of the fauna 
throughout the continent ; a number of important genera extend- 
ing over the whole country, and giving a very uniform character 
to its zoology. The eastern parts, including the colonies of New 
South Wales and Queensland, are undoubtedly the richest, seyeral 


WWW 


Wy 


yy 
A Ag ee alls 


\ ag 
mo : 
ACH 


SC v ; 
A ENE IN TASMANIA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA. 


CHAP. XUL.] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 439 
peculiar types being found only here. The southern portion is 
somewhat poorer, and has very few peculiar forms; and Tasmania 
being isolated is poorer still, yet its zoology has much resem- 
blance to that of Victoria, from which country it has evidently 
not been very long separated. The north, as far as yet known, is 
characterised by hardly any peculiar forms, but by the occurrence 
of a number of Papuan types, which have evidently been derived 
from New Guinea. 

Mammalia.—The Australian sub-region contains about 160 
species of Mammalia, of which 3 are Monotremata, 102 Marsu- 
pials, 23 Chiroptera, 1 Carnivora (the native dog, probably not 
indigenous), and 31 Muride. The north is characterised by a 
species of the Austro-Malayan genus Cuscus. Phascolarctos (the 
koala, or native bear) is found only in the eastern districts ; 
Phascolomys (the wombat) in the south-east and Tasmania; 
Petaurista (a peculiar form of flying opossum) in theeast. TZhy- 
lacinus (the zebra-wolf), and Sarcophilus (the “native devil”), 
two carnivorous marsupials, are confined to Tasmania. West 
Australia, the most isolated and peculiar region botanically, 
alone possesses the curious little honey-eating Tarsipes, and the 
Peragalea, or native rabbit. The remarkable Myrmecobius, a 
small ant-eating marsupial, is found in the west and south; 
and Onychogalea, a genus of kangaroos, in West and Central 
Australia. All the other genera have a wider distribution, as 
will be seen by a reference to the list at the end of this 
chapter. 

Plate XI. A Scene in Tasmania, with Characteristic Mammalia. 
—As some of the most remarkable Mammalia of the Australian 
region are now found only in Tasmania, we have cliosen this 
island for the scene of our first illustration of the fauna of the 
Australian sub-region. The pair of large striped animals are 
zebra-wolves (Thylacinus eynocephalus), the largest and most de- 
structive of the carnivorous marsupials. These creatures used to 
be tolerably plentiful in Tasmania, where they are alone found. 
They are also called “native tigers,” or “native hyzenas;” and being 
destructive to sheep, they have been destroyed by the farmers 
and will doubtless soon he exterminated. In the foreground on 


440 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 


the left is a bandicoot (Perameles gunnit). These are delicate little 
animals allied to the kangaroos ; and they are found in all parts of 
Australia, and Tasmania, to which latter country this species 
is confined. On the right is the wombat (Phascolomys wombat), 
a root-eating marsupial, with large incisor teeth like those of our 
rodents. They inhabit south-east Australia and Tasmania. In 
the foreground is the porcupine ant-eater (Hchidna setosa), belong- 
ing to a distinct order of mammalia, Monotremata, of which the 
only other member is the dack-billed Ornithorhynchus. These 
animals are, however, more nearly allied to the marsupials, than 
to the insectivora or edentata of the rest of the world, which in 
some respects they resemble. An allied species (Lehidna hystrix) 
inhabits south-east Australia. 


Birds—Australia (with Tasmania) possesses about 630 species 
of birds, of which 485 are land-birds. Not more than about one- 
twentieth of these are found elsewhere, so that it has a larger 
proportion of endemic species than any other sub-region on the 
globe. These birds are divided among the several orders as 
follows : 


Pusseres ... ... 306 Accipitres ... ... 36 
Picarice 5 he oe 41 Grallee ens! vee 
Psittaci si > eay) PaO Ansetes:: =3.. ccc 
Columbe ... ... 24 Struthiones iia 3 
Galt oaewis " O 


The Psittaci, we see, are very richly represented, while the 
Picarie are comparatively few ; and the Columbe are scarce | 
as compared with their abundance in the Austro-Malay sub- 
region, 

Birds seem to be very evenly distributed over all Australia ; 


comparatively few genera of importance being locally re- 


stricted. In the eastern districts alone, we find Origma, 
and Orthonyx (Sylviidee); Sericulus and Ptilorhynchus (Para- 
diseidae); Lewcosarcia (Columbidee) ; and Z'alegalla (Megapodiidee). 


Nectarinia, Pitta, Ptilorhis, Chlamydodera, and Sphecotheres, — 


range from the north down the east coasts. Manodes (Psittacide), 
and Lipoa (Megapodiidie), are southern forms, the first extending 


CHAP. XII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 441 


to Tasmania; which island appears to possess no peculiar 
genus of birds except Hudyptes, one of the penguins. West 
Australia has no wholly peculiar genus except Geopsittacus, a 
curious form of ground parroquet; the singular Atrichia, first 
found here, having been discovered in the east. In North 
Australia, #mblema (Ploceidie) is the only peculiar Australian 
genus, but several Austro-Malayan and Papuan genera enter,— 
as, Syma and Tanysiptera (Alcedinidee) ; Macherihynchus 
(Muscicapidee) ; Calornis (Sturnidee) ; Manucodia, Ptilorhis, and 
Mluredus (Paradiseidee) ; Megapodius; and Casuarius. The pre- 
sence of a species of bustard (Hupodotis) in Australia. is very 
curious, its nearest allies being in the plains of India and Africa. 
Among waders the genus 7ribonyx, a thick-legged bird some- 
what resembling the Votornis of New Zealand, though not closely 
allied to it, is the most remarkable. The district where the 
typical Australian forms most abound is undoubtedly the eastern 
side of the island, The north and south are both somewhat 
poorer, the west much poorer, although it possesses a few very 
peculiar forms, especially among Mammalia. Tasmania is the 
poorest of all, a considerable number of genera being here want- 
ing; but, except the two peculiar carnivorous marsupials, it 
possesses nothing to mark it off zoologically from the adjacent 
parts of the main land. It is probable that its insular climate, 
more moist and less variable than that of Australia, may not be 
suitable to some of the absent forms; while others may require 
more space and more varied conditions, than are offered by a 
comparatively small island. 

The remaining classes of animals have been already discussed 
in our sketch of the region as a whole (p. 396). 

Plate XII. Iilustrating the Fauna of Australia—In this 
plate we take New South Wales as our locality, and represent 
chiefly, the more remarkable Austrahan types of birds. The 
most conspicuous figure is the wonderful lyre-bird (Menura su- 
perba), the elegant plumage of whose tail is altogether unique in 
the whole class of birds. The unadorned bird is the female. In 
the centre is the emu (Dromeus nove-hollandie), the represen- 
tative in Australia, of the ostrich in Africa and America, but be- 


442 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. {PART III. 


longing to a different family, the Casurariide. To the right are 
a pair of crested pigeons (Ocyphaps lophotes), one of the many sin- 
cular forms of the pigeon family to which the Australian re- 
gion gives birth. In every other part of the globe pigeons are 
smooth-headed birds, but here they have developed three dis- 
tinct forms of crest, as seen in this bird, the crowned pigeon 
figured in Plate X., and the double-erested pigeon (Lopholemus 
antarcticus). The large bird on the tree is one of the Australian 
frog-mouthed goat-suckers (Podargus strigoides), which are 
called in the colony “ More-pork,” from their peculiar ery. They 
do not capture their prey on the wing like true goat-suckers, but 
hunt about the branches of trees at dusk, for large insects, and 
also for unfledged birds. A large kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) 
is seen in the distance ; and passing through the air, a flying 
opossum (Ptaurus sciwreus), a beautiful modification of a marsu- 
pial, so as to resemble in form and habits the flying squirrels 
of the northern hemisphere. 


ITI, The Pacific Islands, or Polynesian Sub-region. 


Although the area of this sub-region is so vast, and the 
number of islands it contains almost innumerable, there is a 
considerable amount of uniformity in its forms of animal life, 
From the Ladrone islands on the west, to the Marquesas on the 
east, a distance of more than 5,000 miles, the same characteristic 
genera of birds prevail; and this is the only class of animals on 
which we can depend, mammalia being quite absent, and reptiles 
very scarce. The Sandwich Islands, however, form an exception 
to this uniformity; and, as far as we yet know, they are so 


peculiar that they ought, perhaps, to form a separate sub-region, 


They are, however, geographically a part of Polynesia; and a — 


more careful investigation of their natural history may show 


more points of agreement with the other islands. It is therefore 
a matter of convenience, at present, to keep them in the Poly- _ 
nesian sub-region, which may be divided into Polynesia proper — 


and the Sandwich Islands, 


Polynesia proper consists of a number of groups of islands of — 
some importance, and a host of smaller intermediate islets. — 


é 


> * 


XII. 


. 
4 


PLATE 


OD a 
Seay 


W SOUTH WALES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. 


PLAINS OF NE 


= 
J) 


THE 


CHAP. X11] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 443 


For the purpose of zoological comparison, we may class them in 
four main divisions. 1. The Ladrone and Caroline Islands ; 
2. New Caledonia and the New Hebrides; 3. The Fiji, Tonga, 
and Samoa Islands; 4. The Society, and Mayquesas Islands. 
The typical Polynesian fauna is most developed in the third 
division ; and it will be well to describe this first, and then show 
how the other islands diverge from it, and approximate other 
sub-regions. | 

Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands—The land-birds inhabiting 
these islands belong to 41 genera, of which 17 are characteristic 
of the Australian region, and 9 more peculiarly Polynesian. 
The characteristic Australian genera are the following: Petroica 
(Sylviide) ; Lalage (Campephagidee) ; Monarcha, Myiagra, Rhipi- 
dura (Muscicapidee); Pachycephala (Pachycephalide) ; Rectes 
(Laniidee) ; Myzomela,; Ptilotis, Anthochera (Meliphagide) ; A ma- 
dina, Eythrura, (Ploceide) ; Artamus (Artamide) ; Lorius (Tri- 
choglossidee); Ptilopus, Phlogenas (Columbidee); Megapodius 
(Megapodiidee). 

The peculiar Polynesian genera are :—TZatare, Lamprolia 
(Sylvude) ; <Aplonis, Sturnodes (Sturnide); Todiramphus 
(Alcedinide) ; Pyrhulopsis, Cyanoramphus, (Platycercide) ; Cori- 
philus (Trichoglossidee) ; Didunculus (Didunculide). 

The wide-spread genera are T'wrdus, Zosterops, Hirundo, Hal- 
cyon, Collocalia, Eudynamis Cuculus, Ianthenas, Carpophaga, 
Turtur, Halicwetus, Astur, Circus, Strix, Asio. The aquatic birds 
are fifteen in number, all wide-spread species except one—a form 
of moor-hen (Gallinulide), which has been constituted a new 
genus Pareudvastes. 

Society, and Marquesas Islands.—Here, the number of genera of 
Jand-birds has considerably diminished, amounting only to 16 
in all. The characteristic Australian genera are 5 ;—Monarcha, 
Anthochera, Trichoglossus, Ptilopus, and Phlogenas. The Poly- 
nesian genera are 4 ;—Tatare, Todiramphus, Cyanoramphus, 
Coriphilus, and one recently described genus, Servesius, an ex- 
traordinary form of large fruit pigeon, here classed under Car- 
pophaga. These remote groups have thus all the character of 
Oceanic islands, eyen as regards the rest of Polynesia, since they 


444 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART lL, 


possess hardly anything, but what they might have received 
by immigration over a wide extent of ocean. 

Ladrone, and Caroline Islands——These extensive groups of 
small islands are very imperfectly known, yet a considerable 
number of birds have been obtained. They possess two 
peculiar Polynesian genera, Tatare and Sturnodes ; one peculiar 
sub-genus, Psammathia (here included under Acrocephalus) ; 
and ten of the typical Australian genera found in Polynesia,— 
Lalage, Monarcha, Myiagra, Rhipidura, Myzomela, Erythrura, 
Artamus, Phlogenas, Ptilopus, and Megapodius, as well as the 
Papuan genus feectes, and the Malayan Calornis ;—so that they 
can be certainly placed in the sub-region. Genera which do 
not occur in the other Polynesian islands are, Acrocephalus, (s.g. 
Psammathia) originally derived perhaps from the Philippines ; 
and Caprimulgus, a peculiar species, allied to one from Japan. 

New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides.—Although these islands 
seem best placed with Polynesia, yet they form a transition to 
Australia proper, and to the Papuan group. They possess 30 
genera of land-birds, 18 of which are typical of the Australian 
region ; but while 13 are also Polynesian, there are 5 which do 
not pass further east. These are Acanthiza, EHopsaltria, Glici- 
phila, Philemon, and Lanthenas. The peculiar Polynesian genus, 
Aplonis, of which three species inhabit New Caledonia, link it to 
the other portions of the sub-region. The following are the — 
geneva at present known from New Caledonia :—Zurdus, Acan- 
thiza, Campephaga, Lalage, Myiagra, Rhipidura, Pachycephala, 
Hopsaltria, Corvus, Physocoraa (s.g. of Corvus, allied to the jack- 
daws), Glicphila, Anthochera, Philemon, Zosterops, Erythrura, 
Aplonis, Artamus, Cuculus, Haleyon, Collocalia, Cyanoramphus, 
Trichoglossus, Ptilopus, Carpophaga, Macropygia, Ianthenas, 
Chalcophaps, Haliastur, Accipiter. The curious Rhinochetus 
jubatus, forming the type of a distinct farnily of birds (Rhino- 
chetide), allied to the herons, is only known from New Cale- | 
dlonia. 4 

It thus appears, that not more than about 50 genera and 150 — 
species of land-birds, are known from the vast number of islands — 
that are scattered over the Central Pacific, and it is not probable 


CHAP, XII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 445 


that the number will be very largely increased. Some of the 
species, as the Eudynamis taitensis and Tatare longirostris, range 
over 40° of longitude, from the Fiji Islands to the Marquesas. In 
other genera, as Cyanoramphus and Ptilopus, each important 
island or group of islands, has its peculiar species. The connec- 
tion of all these islands with each other, on the one hand, and 
their close relation to the Australian region, on the other, are 
equally apparent; but we have no sufficient materials for specu- 
lating with any success, on the long series of changes that have 
brought about their existing condition, as regards their peculiar 
forms of animal life. 

Sandwich Islands—This somewhat extensive group of large 
islands, is only known to contain 11 genera and 18 species of 
indigenous land-birds ; and even of this small number, twe birds 
of prey are wide ranging species, which may well have reached the 
islands during their present isolated condition. These latter are, 
Strix delicatula, an ow] spread over Australia and the Pacific ; 
and Asio aceipitrinus,a species which has reached the Galapagos 
from S. America, and thence perhaps the Sandwich Islands. Of 
the remaining 8 genera, one is a crow (Corvus hawaiensis), and 
another a fishing eagle (Pandion solitarius), of peculiar species ; 
leaving 7 genera, which are all (according to Mr. Sclater) peculiar. 
First we have Chasiempis, a genus of Muscicapide, containing 
two species (which may however belong to distinct genera) ; and 
as the entire family is unknown on the American continent 
these birds must almost certainly be allied to some of the 
numerous Muscicapine forms of the Australian region. Next 
we have the purely Australian family Meliphagide, represented 
by two genera,—Moho, an isolated form, and Chetoptila, a genus 
established by Mr. Sclater for a bird before classed in Lntomyza, 
an Australian group. The four remaining genera are believed 
by Mr. Sclater to belong to one group, the Drepanidide, altogether 
confined to the Sandwich Islands. Two of them, Drepanis and 
Hemignathus, with three species each, are undoubtedly allied ; 
the other two, Loxops aud Psitiirestra, have usually been classed 


at finches, The former seem to approach the Dicveide ; and all 


‘resemble this group in their coloration, 


<_ 
é 
SS 


446 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


The aquatic birds and waders all belong to wide-spread 
genera, and only one or two are peculiar species. 
The Sandwich Islands thus possess a larger proportion of 
peculiar genera and species of land-birds than any other group 
of islands, and they are even more strikingly characterised by 
what seems to be a peculiar family. The only other class of 
terrestrial animals at all adequately represented on these islands, 
are the land shells; and here too we find a peculiar family, sub- 
family, or genus (Achatinella or Achatinellide) consisting of a 7 
number of genera, or sub-genera,— according to the divergent views 
of modern conchologists,—and nearly 300 species. The Rev. J. 
T. Gulick, who has made a special study of these shells on the 
spot, considers that there are 10 genera, some of which are con- 
fined to single islands. The species are so restricted that their 
average range is not more than five or six square miles, while 
some are confined to a tract of only two square miles in extent, 
and very few range over an entire island. Some species are 
confined to the mountain ridges, others to the valleys ; and each 
ridge or valley possesses its peculiar species. Considerably 
more than half the species oceur in the island of Oahu, where 
there is a good deal of forest. Very few shells belonging to 
other groups occur, and they are all small and obscure; the 
Achatinellze almost monopolising the entire archipelago. 
Remarks on the probable past history of the Sandwich Islands. 
—The existence of these peculiar groups of birds and land- 
shells in so remote a group of volcani¢ islands, clearly indicates 
that they are but the relics of a more extensive land; and the 
reefs and islets that stretch for more than 1,000 miles in a west- 
north-west direction, may be the remains of a country once 
sufficiently extensive to develope these aud many other, now 
extinct, forms of life. ‘ 
Some light may perhaps be thrown on the past history of the — 


1 A new genus of Beetles (Apterocyeclus) of the family Lucanide, has 
recently been described from the Sandwich Islands, and it is said to be most 
nearly related to a group inhabiting Chili,—an indication either of the great — 
antiquity of the fauna, or of the varied accidental migrations from which it 
has had its origin. 


CHAP. XII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 447 


Sandwich Islands, by the peculiar plants which are found on 
their mountains. The peak of Teneriffe produces no Alpine 
plants of European type, and this has been considered to prove 
that it has been always isolated ; whereas the occurrence of North 
Temperate forms on the mountains of Java, accords with other evi- 
dence of this island having once formed part of the Asiatic con- 
tinent. Now on the higher summits of the Sandwich Islands, 
nearly 30 genera of Arctic and North Temperate flowering plants 
have been found. Many of these occur also in the South Temperate 
zone, in Australia or New Zealand; but there are others which 
seem plainly to point to a former connection with some North 
Temperate land, probably California, as a number of islets are 
scattered in the ocean between the two countries. The most 
interesting genera are the following :—Svlene, which is wholly 
North Températe, except that it occurs in S. Africa; Vicia, 
also North Temperate, and in South Temperate America; 
Fragaria, with a similar distribution; Aster, widely spread 
in America, otherwise North Temperate only ; Vaceiniwm, 
wholly confined to the northern hemisphere, in cold and 
temperate climates. None of these are found in Australia or 
New Zealand; and their presence in the Sandwich Islands 
seems clearly to indicate a former approximation to North 
Temperate America, although the absence of any American 
forms of vertebrata renders it certain that no actual land con- 
nection ever took place. 

tecent soundings have shown, that the Sandwich Islands 
rise from asea which is 3,000 fathoms or 18,000 feet deep ; 
while there is a depth of at least 2,000 fathoms all across to 
California on one side, and to Japan on the other. Between 
the Fiji Islands, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, and 
Australia, the depth is about 1,300 fathoms, and between Sydney 
and New Zealand 2,600 fathoms; showing, in every ease, a 
general accordance between the depth of sea and the approxi- 
mation of the several faunas. In a few more years, when it is 
to be hoped we shall know the contour of the sea-bottom better 
than that of the continents, we shall be able to arrive at more 
definite and trustworthy conclusions as to, the probable changes 


448 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. — 


of land and sea by which the phenomena of animal distribution 
in the Pacific have been brought about. 

Reptiles of the Polynesian Sub-region—-The researches of 
Mr. Darwin on Coral Islands, proved, that large areas in the 
Pacific Ocean have been recently subsiding; but the peculiar 
forms of life which they present, no less clearly indicate the 
former existence of some extensive lands. The total absence of 
Mammalia, however, shows either that these lands never formed 
part of the Australian or Papuan continents, or if they did, that 
they have been since subjected to such an amount of subsidenze 
as to exterminate most of their higher terrestrial forms of life. 
It is a remarkable circumstance, that although Mammalia (except 
bats) are wanting, there are a considerable number of reptiles 
ranging over the whole sub-region. Lizards are the ‘most 
numerous, five families and fourteen genera being represcnted, 
as follows :— 


. Cryptoblepharas (Gymnopthalmide) Fiji Islands. 


1 

2. Ablepharus.... a All the islands. 

3. Lygosoma _... (Scincidie) ... Pelew Islands, New Caledonia, 
4, Mabouya os ™ ... Samoa Islands, 

5, Euprepes sae bs .., Pacific Islands. 

6. Dactyloperus ... (Geckotide) ... Sandwich Islands, 
7. Doryura ... (Geckotide) ... Pacific Islands, 

8. Gehyra ahs ie ... Fiji Islands. 

9. Amydosaurus ... a ... Tahiti. 

10. Heteronota ... 3 ... Fiji Islands. 

Ll. Correlophus ... ‘. ... New Caledonia, 
12. Brachylophus ... (Iguanide) ... Fiji Islands. 

13, Lophura +» (Agamidee) ... Pelew Islands. 
14. Chioroscartes ... a ... Fiji Islands. 


The first five are wide-spread genera, represented mostly by 
peculiar species; but sometimes the species themselves have a 
wide range, as in the ease of Ablepharus pecilopleurus, which 
(according to Dr, Giinther) is found in Timor, Australia, New 
Caledonia, Savage Island (one of the Samoa group), and the 
Sandwich Islands! Gehyra and Helteronota are Australian — 
genera; while Lophwra has reached the Pelew Islands from the — 
Moluccas. The remainder (printed in italics), are peculiar genera ; — 
Brachylophus being especially interesting as an example of an — 


CHAP, X11. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 449 
otherwise peculiar American family, occurring so far across the 
Pacific. 

Snakes are much less abundant, only four genera being repre- 
sented, one of them marine. They are, Anoplodipsas, a peculiar 
genus of Amblycephalide from New Caledonia; Huygrus, a 
genus of Pythonide from the Fiji Islands; Ogmodon, a peculiar 
genus of Elapide, also from the Fiji Islands, but ranging to 
Papua and the Moluccas ; and Platurus, a wide-spread genus of 
sea-snakes (Hydrophide). In the more remote Sandwich and 
Society Islands there appear to be no snakes. This accords 
with our conclusion that lizards have some special means of 
dispersal over the ocean which detracts from their value as 
indicating zoo-geographical affinities; which is further proved 
by the marvellous range of a single species (referred to above) 
from Australia to the Sandwich Islands. 

A species of Hyla is said to inhabit the New Hebrides, and 
several species of Platymantis (tree-frogs) are found in the Fiji 
Islands; but otherwise the Amphibians appear to be unrepre- 
sented in the sub-region, though they will most likely be found 
in so large an island as New Caledonia. 

From the foregoing sketch, it appears, that although the 
reptiles present some special features, they agree on the whole 
with the birds, in showing, that the islands of Polynesia 
all belong to the Australian region, and that in the Fiji Is- 
lands is to be found the fullest development of their peculiar 
fauna. 


IV. New Zealand Sub-region. 


The islands of New Zealand are more completely oceanic 
than any other extensive tract of land, being about’ 1,200 
miles from Australia and nearly the same distance from New 
Caledonia and the Friendly Isles. There are, however, several 
islets scattered around, whose productions show that they 
belong to the same sub-region ;—the principal being, Norfolk 
Island, Lord Howe’s Island, and the Kermadece Isles, on the 
north ; Chatham Island on the east ; the Auckland and Mac- 
quarie Isles on the south ;—and if these were once joined to 


G G 


450 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL. 


New Zealand, there would have been formed an island-con- 
tinent not much inferior in extent to Australia itself. 

New Zealand is wholly situated in the warmer portion of 
the Temperate zone, and enjoys an exceptionally mild and 
equable climate. It has abundant moisture, and thus comes 
within the limits of the South-Temperate forest zone; and this 
leads to its productions often resembling those of the tropical, 
but moist and wooded, islands of the Pacific, rather than those 
of the temperate, but arid and scantily wooded plains of Aus- 
tralia. The two islands of New Zealand are about the same 
extent (approximately) as the British Isles, but the difference in 
the general features of their natural history is very great. There 
are, in the former, no mammalia, less than half as many birds, 
very few reptiles and fresh-water fishes, and an excessive and 
most unintelligible poverty of insects; yet, considering the 
situation of the islands and their evidently long-continued 
isolation, the wonder rather is that their fauna is so varied 
and interesting as it is found to be. Our knowledge of this 
fauna, though no doubt far from complete, is sufficiently 
ample; and it will be well to give a pretty full account of 
it, in order to see what conclusions may be drawn as te its 
origin. 

Mammalia.—The only mammals positively known as indi- 
genous to New Zealand are two bats, both peculiar to it,—Scoto- 
philus tuberculatus and Mystacina tubereulata. The former is 
allied to Australian forms; the latter is more interesting, as 
being a peculiar genus of the family Noctilionide, which does 
not exist in Australia; and in having decided resemblances to 
the Phyllostomide of South America, so that it may almost be 
considered to be a connecting link between the two families. A 
forest rat is said to have once abounded on the islands, and to 
have been used for food by the natives ; but there is much doubt 
as to what it really was, and whether it was not an introduced 
species. The seals are wide-spread antarctic forms which have 
no geographical significance, 

Birds.—About 145 species of birds are natives of New Zealand, 
of which 88 are waders or aquatics, leaving 57 land-birds belong- 


CHAP, XII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 451 
ing to 34 genera. Of this latter number, 16, or nearly half, are 
peculiar; and there are also 5 peculiar genera of waders and 
aquatic birds, making 21 in all. Of the remaining genera of 
land-birds, four are cosmopolite or of very wide range, while the 
remainder are characteristic of the Australian region, The 
following is a list of the Australian genera found in New 
Zealand: Spheneacus, Gerygone, Orthonyx (Sylviide) ; Graucalus 
(Campephagide) ; Rhipidura (Muscicapide) ; Anthochera (Meli- 
phagidee) ; Zosterops (Diceide); Cyanoramphus (Platycercide) ; 
Carpophaga (Columbide); Hieracidea (Falconidg) ; - T'ribonyx 
(Rallidze). Besides these there are several genera of wide 
range, as follows:—Anthus (Motacillide); Hirundo (Hirun- 
dinidee) ; Chrysococcyx, Hudynamis (Cuculide) ; Halcyon (Alce- 
dinidee); Coturnix (Tetraonidee); Circus (Falconide) ; Athene 
(Strigide). 

Most of the above genera are represented by peculiar New 
Zealand species, but in several cases the species are identical 
with those of Australia, as in the following: Anthochera carun- 
culata, Zosterops lateralis, Hirundo nigricans, and Chrysococcyx 
lucidus ; also one—Kudynamis taitensis—which is Polynesian. 

We now come to the genera peculiar to New Zealand, which 
are of especial interest : 


List or GENERA OF Birps Pecutiar To New ZEALAND, 


No. of 
Family and Genus. Species. Remarks. 

SYLVIID&. 

1, Myiomoira_... is 3 Alliedto Petroica,an Australian genus 

2. Miro ... - 2 5 ‘5 a 
TIMALIIDZ (?) 

3. Turnagra 2 Of doubtful affinities. 
SirTipz, 

4, Xenicus | ome ay 83 Of doubtful affinities, 

5. Acanthisitta ... am. 1 Of doubtful affinities. 
PARID. 


6. Certhiparus ... _— 2 Of doubtful affinities. 


MELIPHAGID&, 
7. Prosthemadera 
8 Pogonornis . as 
9. Anthornis _,.. ope 


Peculiar genera of honeysuckers, a 
family which is confined to the 
Australian Region. 


Gq € 2 


Co 


452 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT. 


No. of 
Family and Genus. Species. Remarks. 
STURNID. 
10. Creadion tc e 2 These three genera are probably 
11. Heterolocha ... i 1 allied, and perhaps form a dis- 
12. Callas oa me 2 tinct family. 
NESTORID. 
13. Nestor... ah Ree 3. A peculiar family of Parrots. 
STRINGOPID. 
14. Stringops ... ee 1 A peculiar family of Parrots, 
STRIGID&. : 
15. (Sceloglaux) ... si 1 s.g. of Athene. 
RaLuip2&. 
16. Ocydromus ... an 6 Allied to Eulabeornis, an Australian 
. genus. 
17. Notornis ste es 1 Allied to Perphyrio, a genus of wide 
range, 
CHARADRIIDE, 
18. Thinornis at ae 1 
19, Anarbynchus ... ees 1 
ANATIDE. 
20. Hymenolzemus okey 1 Allied to Malacorhynchus, an Aus- 
tralian genus. 
APTERYGIDA. 
21, Apteryx ea ar 4 Forming a peculiar family. 


We have thus a wonderful amount of speciality ; yet the affi- 
nities of the fauna, whenever they can be traced, are with Aus- 
tralia or Polynesia. Nine genera of New Zealand birds are 
characteristically Australian, and the eight genera of wide range 
are Australian also. Of the peculiar genera, 7 or 8 are undoubtedly 
allied to Australian groups. There are also four Australian and 
one Polynesian species. Even the peculiar family, Nestoride, is 
allied to the Australian Trichoglosside. We have therefore every 
gradation of similarity to the Australian fauna, from identical 
species, through identical genera, and allied genera, to distinct 
but allied families; clearly indicating very long continued yet 
rare immigations from Australia or Polynesia; immigrations which 
are continued down to our day. For resident ornithologists be- 
lieve, that the Zosterops lateralis has found its way to New Zea- 
land within the last few years, and that the two cuckoos now 
‘migrate annually, the one from Australia, the other from some 


i gaa 


CHAP. XIIL.J THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 453 
part of Polynesia, distances of more than 1,000 miles! These 
facts seem, however, to have been accepted on insufficient evidence 
and to be in themselves extremely improbable. It is observed 
that the cuckoos appear annually in certain districts and again 
disappear ; but their course does not seem to have been traced, 
still less have they ever been actually seen arriving or departing 
across the ocean. Ina country which has still such wide tracts 
of unsettled land, it is very possible that the birds in question 
may only move from one part of the islands to another. 


Islets of the New Zealand Sub-region. 


We will here notice the smaller islands belonging to the sub- 
region, as it is chiefly their birds that possess any interest. 

Norfolk Island.—The land-birds recorded from this island 
amount to 15 species, of which 8 are Australian, viz.: Climac- 
teris scandens, Symmorphus leucopygius, Zosterops tenuirostris and 
Z. albogularis, Halcyon sanctus, Platycercus pennant, Carpophaga 
spadicea, Phapspicata and LP. chalcoptera. Of the peculiar 
species three belong to Australian genera ; Petroica, Gerygone, and 
Rhipidura ; one to a cosmopolitan genus, Zurdus. So far the 
affinity seems to be all Australian, and there remain only three 
birds which ally this island’ to New Zealaud,—WNestor productus, 
Cyanoramphus rayneri, and Notornis alba. The former inhabited 
the small Phillip Island (close to Norfolk Island) but is now extinct. 
Being a typical New Zealand genus, quite incapable of flying 
across the sea, its presence necessitates some former connexion 
between the two islands, and it is therefore perhaps of more 
weight than all the Australian genera and species, which are birds 
capable of long flights. The Cyanoramphus is allied to a New 
Zealand broad-tailed parroquet. The Notornis alba is extinct, 
but two specimens exist in museums, and it is even a stronger 
case than the JVestor, as showing a former approximation or union 
of this island with New Zealand. A beautiful figure of this 
bird is given in the /bis for 1873. 

Lord Howe's Island.—This small island, situated half-way 
between Australia and Norfolk Island, is interesting, as contain- 
ing a peculiar species of the New Zealand genus Ocydremus, or 


454 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III, 


wood-hen (0. sylvestris). There is also a peculiar thrush, Zwrdus 
vimitinetus. Its other birds are wholly of Australian types, and 
most of them probably Australian species. The following have 
been observed, and no doubt constitute nearly its whole indigen- — 
ous bird fauna. Acarthiza sp., Rhipidura sp., Pachycephala gut- 
twralis, Zosterops strennuus aud Z. tephropleurus, Strepera sp., 
Halcyon sp., and Chaleophaga chrysochlora, The two species of 
Zosterops are peculiar. The Ocydromus is important enough to 
ally this island to New Zealand rather than to Australia; and if 
the white bird seen there is, as supposed, the Votornis alba which 
is extinct in Norfolk Island, the connection will be rendered 
still more clear: 

Chatham Islands.—Theseé small islands, 450 miles east of New 
Zealand, possess about 40 species of birds, of which 13 are land- 
birds. All but one belong to New Zealand genera, and all but 
five are New Zealand species. The following are the genera of 
the land-birds: Sphenceacus, Gerygone, Myiomoira, Rhipidura, 
Zosterops, Anthis, Prosthemadera, Anthornis, Chrysococcyx, Cyano- 
ramphus, Carpophaga, Circus. The peculiar species are An- 
thornis melanocephala, Miyiomoira, diffenbachi and JM. traversi, 
Lhipidura flabellifera, and a peculiar rail incapable of flight, 
named by Captain Hutton Cabalus modestus. It is stated that 
the Zosterops differs from that of New Zealand, and is also a 
migrant; and it is therefore believed to come every year from 
Australia, passing over New Zealand, a distance of nearly 1,700 
miles! Further investigation will perhaps discover some other 
explanation of the facts. It is also stated, that the pigeon and — 
one of the small birds (? Gerygone or Zosterops) have arrived at 
the islands within the last eight years. The natives further de- 
clare, that both the Stringops and Apteryx once inhabited the 
islands, but were exterminated about the year 1835, 

The Auckland Islands.—These are situated nearly 300 miles 
south of New Zealand, and possess six land-birds, of which three 
are peculiar,—Anthus aucklandicus, Cyanoramphus aucklandicus, 
and OC. malherbit, the others being New Zealand species of 
Myiomoira, Prosthemadera, and Anthornis, It is remarkable. 
that two peculiar parrots of the same genus should inhabit these 


y XITI. 


PLAT] 


il Mi 


HII 

| Lat 

| Hy 
i {|| | II { I 
SWATH Wi | 
| I i Hill it | 
WAT il | Wilt 
SAMA eM 
| I | | | i | } ih \\\ | I iI | | 
WAH Hy Hit I | 


HANA | 
| 


AN 


ti 4) 
WUE i | 


ee ee 


ll 


SCENE IN NEW ZEALAND, WITH SOME OF ITS REMARKABLE BIRDs. 


CHAP, XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 455 
small islands; but such localities seem favourable to the Platy- 
cercide, for another peculiar species is found in the remote Mac- 
quarie Islands, more than 400 miles farther south. A peculiar 
species and genus of ducks, Nesonetta aucklandica,is also found 
here, and as far as yet known, nowhere else. A species of 
the northern genus Mergus is also found on these islands, and has 
been recently obtained by Baron von Hiigel. 

Plate XII. Illustrating the peculiar Ornithology of New Zea- 
land.—Our artist has here depicted a group of the most remark- 
able and characteristic of the New Zealand birds. In the middle 
foreground is the Owl-parrot or Kakapoe (Stringops habroptilus), 
a nocturnal burrowing parrot, that feeds on fern-shoots, roots, 
berries, and occasionally lizards; that climbs but does not fly ; 
and that has an owl-like mottled plumage and facial disc. 
The wings however are not rudimentary, but fully developed; 
and it seems to be only the muscles that have become useless 
for want of exercise. This would imply, that these birds have 
not long been inhabitants of New Zealand only, but were deve- 


loped in other countries (perhaps Australia) where their wings 


were of use to them. 

Beyond the Kakapoe are a pair of the large rails, Motornis 
mantelli; heavy birds with short wings quite useless for 
flight, and with massive feet and bill of a red colour. On 
the right is a pair of Kiwis (Apteryx australis), one of the 
queerest and most unbird-lke of living birds. It has very small 
and rudimentary wings, entirely concealed by the hair-like 
plumage, and no tail: It is noeturnal, feeding chiefly on worms, 
which it extracts from soft earth by means of its long bill. The 
genus Apteryx forms a distinct family of birds, of which four 
species are now known, besides some which are extinct. They 
are allied to the Cassowary and to the gigantic extinct Dinornis. 
On the wing are a pair of Crook-billed Plovers (Anarhynchus 
frontalis), remarkable for being the only birds known which 
have the bill bent sideways. This was at first thought to be a 
malformation ; but it is now proved to be a constant character of 
the species, as it exists even in the young chicks; yet the pur- 
pose served by such an anomalous structure is not yet discovered. 


456 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT, 


No country on the globe can offer such an extraordinary set of 
birds as are here depicted. 


Reptiles.—These consist almost wholly of lizards, there being 
no land-snakes and only one frog. Twelve species of lizards are 
known, belonging to three genera, one of which is peculiar, as 
are all the species. Hinulia, with two species, and Mocoa, with 
four species (one of which extends to the Chatham Islands), 
belong to the Scincide; both are very wide-spread genera and 
occur in Australia. The peculiar genus Vawltinus, with six species, 
belongs to the Geckotide, a family spread over the whole world. 

The most extraordinary and interesting reptile of New Zea- 
land is, however, the Hatteria punetata, a lizard-like animal 
living in holes, and found in small islands on the north-east 
coast, and more rarely on the main land. It is somewhat inter- 
mediate in structure between lizards and crocodiles, and also has 
bird-like characters in the form of its ribs. It constitutes, not 
only a distinct family, Rhyncocephalide, but a separate order of 
reptiles, RHYNCOCEPHALINA. It is quite isolated from all other 
members of the class; and is probably a slightly modified repre- 
sentative of an ancient and generalised form, which has been 
superseded in larger areas by the more specialized lizards and 
saurians. 

The only representatives of the Ophidia are two sea-snakes 
of Australian and Polynesian species, and of no geographical 
interest. 

Amphibia.—The solitary frog indigenous to New Zealand, 
belongs to a peculiar genus, Ziopelma, and to the family Bom- 
buratoride, otherwise confined to Europe and temperate South 
America. 

Iresh-water Fishes.—There are, according to Captain Hutton, 
15 species of fresh-water fish in New Zealand, belonging to 7 
genera; six species, and one genus (Retropinna), being peculiar. 
Letropinna vichardsoni belongs to the Salmonide, and is the 
only example of that family occurring in the Southern hemi- 
sphere, where it is confined to New Zealand and the Chatham 
Islands, The wide distribution of Galaxias attenvatus—from the 


CHAP. XU] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 457 


Chatham Islands to South America—has already been noticed ; 
while another species, G. fasciatus, is found in the Chatham and 
Auckland Isles as well as New Zealand. A second genus 
peculiar to New Zealand, Neochanna, allied to Galazias, has 
recently been described. Prototroctes oxyrhynchus is allied to an 
Australian species, but belongs to a family (Haplochitonide) 
which is otherwise South American. An eel, Anguilla latirostris, 
is found in Europe, China, and the West Indies, as well as in 
New Zealand! while the genus Agonostoma ranges to Australia, 
Celebes, Mauritius, and Central America. 

Insects—The great poverty of this class is well shown by the 
fact, that only eleven species of butterflies are known to inhabit 
New Zealand. Of these, six are peculiar, and one, Argyrophenga 
(Satyride), is a peculiar genus allied to the Northern genus 
Erebia. The rest are either of wide range, as Pyrameis cardur 
and Diadema bolina ; or Australian, as Hamdyaas zoilus ; while 
one, Danais erippus,is American, but has also occurred in Australia, 
and is no doubt a recent introduction into both countries. 
Only one Sphinx is recorded, and no other species of the Sphin- 
gina except the British currant-moth, geria tipuliformis, 
doubtless imported. Coleoptera are better represented, nearly 
300 species having been described, all or nearly all being pecu- 
liar. These belong to about 150 genera, of which more than 50 
are peculiar. No less than 14 peculiar genera belong to the 
Carabide, mostly consisting of one or two species, but Demetrida 
has 3, and Metaglymma 8 species. Other important genera are 
Dicrochile, Homalosoma, Mecodema, and Scopodes, all in common 
with Australia. Mecodema and Metaglymma are the largest 
genera. Even the Auckland Islands have two small genera 
of Carabidee found nowhere else. 

Cicindelide are represented in New Zealand by 6 species of 
Cicindela, and 1 of Dystipsidera, a genus peculiar to the Austra- 
lian region. 

The Lucanide are represented by two peculiar genera, Den- 
droblax and Oxyomus; two Australian genera, Lissotes and 
Ceratognathus ; and by the almost cosmopolite Dorcus. 

_ The Scarabeide consist of ten species only, belonging to four 


458 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III. 


genera, two of which are peculiar (Odontria and Stethaspis) ; and 
two Australian (Pericoptus and Calonota). There are no 
Cetoniide. 

There is only one Buprestid, belonging to the Australian genus 
Cisseis. The Elateridz, (about a dozen species,) belong mostly 
to Australian genera, but two, Metablax and Ochosternus, are 
peculiar. 

There are 30 species of Curculionide, belonging to 22 genera. 
Of the genera, 12 are peculiar; 1 is common to New Zealand 
and New Caledonia; 5 belong to the Australian region, and the 
rest are widely distributed. 

Longicorns are, next to Carabidz, the most numerous family, 
there being, according to Mr. Bates (Ann. Nat. Hist., 1874), about 
35 genera,‘ of which 26 are peculiar or highly characteristic, 
and 7 of the others Australian. The largest and most character- 
istic genera are Wmona and Xyloteles, both being peculiar to 
New Zealand; few of the remainder having more than one or 
two species. Demonax extends to the Moluccas and 8. E. 
Asia. A dozen of the genera have no near relations with those 
of any other country. 

Phytophaga are remarkably scarce, only two species of 
Colaspis being recorded; and there is only a single species of 
Coccinella. 

The other orders of Insects appear to be equally deficient. 
Hymenoptera are very poorly represented, only a score of species 
being yet known; but two of the genera are peculiar, as are all 
the species. The Neuroptera and Heteroptera are also very 
scarce, and several of the species are wide-spread forms of the 
Australian region. ‘The few species of Homoptera are all 
peculiar. The Myriapoda afford some interesting facts. There 
are nine or ten species, all peculiar. One genus, Lithobius, 
ranges over the northern hemisphere as far south as Singapore, 
and probably through the Malay Archipelago, but is not found 
in Australia. JZenicops occurs elsewhere only in ‘Tasmania 
and Chili. Cryptops, only in the north temperate zone; while 
two others, Cermatia and Cormocephalus, both occur in 
Australia, 


hd 


CHAP, XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 459 


peculiar. Three species of Helix are also found in Australia, 
and five more in various tropical islands of the Pacific. Nanina, 
Lymnea, and Assiminea, are found in Polynesia or Malaya, 
but not in Australia. Amphibola is an Australian genus, as is 
Janella. Testacella and Limax belong to the Palearctic region. 

From the Chatham Islands, 82 species of shells are known, 
all being New Zealand species, except nine, which are peculiar. 


The Ancient Fauna of New Zealand.—One of the most re- 
markable features of the New Zealand fauna, is the existence, 
till quite recent times, of an extensive group of wingless birds, 
—called Moas by the natives—many of them of gigantic size,“ 
and which evidently occupied the place which, in other countries, 
is filled by the mammalia. The most recent account of these 
singular remains, is that by Dr. Haast, who, from a study of 
the extensive series of specimens in the Canterbury museum, 
believes, that they belong to two families, distinguished by 
important differences of structure, and constitute four genera,— 

| Dinornis and Miornis, forming the family Dinornithide ; 
) Palapteryx and Huryapteryx, forming the family Palapterygide. 
These were mostly larger birds than the living Apteryx, and 
some of them much larger even than the African ostrich, and 
were more allied to the Casuariidze and Struthionide than to 
the Apterygide. No less than eleven species of these birds 
have been discovered; all are of recent geological date, and 
there are indications that some of them may have been in 
existence less than a century ago, and were really exter- 
minated by man. Remains have been found (of apparently 
the same recent date) of species of Apteryx, Stringops, Ocydro- 
mus, and many other living forms, as well as ‘of Harpagornis, 
a large bird of prey, and Cnemiornis, a gigantic goose. Bodies 
| of the Hatteria punctata have also been found along with those 
| of the Moa, showing that this remarkable reptile was once more 
abundant on the main islands than it is now. 


| The Origin of the New Zealand Fauna.—Uaving now given 


460 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART I]. — 


an outline sketch of the main features of the New Zealand 
fauna and of its relations with other regions, we may consider 
what conclusions are fairly deducible from the facts. As the 
outlying Norfolk, Chatham, and Lord Howe's Islands, are all 
inhabited (or have recently been so) by birds of New Zealand 
type or even identical species, almost incapable of flight, we may 
infer that these islands show us the former minimum extent of the 
land-area in which the peculiar forms which characterise the 
sub-region were developed. If we include the Auckland and 
Macquarie Islands to the south, we shall have a territory of not 
much less extent than Australia, and separated from it by per- 
haps several hundred miles of ocean. Some such ancient land 
must have existed to allow of the development and specialization 
of so many peculiar forms of birds, and it probably remained 
with but slight modifications for a considerable geological period. 
During all this time it would interchange many of its forms of 
life with Australia, and there would arise that amount of identity 
of genera between the two countries which we find to exist. Its 
extension southwards, perhaps considerably beyond the Mac- 
quaries, would bring it within the range of floating ice during 
colder epochs, and within easy reach of the antarctic continent 
during the warm periods ; and thus would arise that interchange 
of genera and species with South America, which forms one of 
the characteristic features of the natural history of New Zealand, 


Captain F. W. Hutton (to whose interesting paper on the 


Geographical relations of the New Zealand Fauna we are 
indebted for some of our facts) insists upon the necessity of 
former land-connections in various directions, and especially 
of an early southern continental period, when New Zealand, 
Australia, Southern Africa, and South America, were united, 
Thus he would account for the existence of Struthious birds 
in all these countries, and for the various other groups of 
birds, reptiles, fishes, or insects which have no obvious means 
of traversing the ocean,—and this union must have occurred 
before mammalia existed in any of these countries. But 
such a supposition is quite unnecessary, if we consider that 
all wingless land-birds and some water-birds (as the Gare-fowl 


Z 


.o Oe 


CHAP. XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 461 
and Steamer Duck) are probably cases of abortion of use- 
less organs, and that the common ancestors of the various 
forms of Struthiones may have been capable of a moderate 
degree of flight ; or they may have originated in the northern 
hemisphere, as already explained in Chap. XI. p. 287. The exis- 
tence of two, if not three, distinct families of these birds in New 
Zealand, proves that the original type was here isolated at a 
very early date, and being wholly free from the competition of 
mammalia, became more differentiated than elsewhere. The 
Hatteria is probably coeval with these early forms, and is the 
only relic of a whole order of reptiles, which once perhaps 
ranged tar over the globe. 

Still less does any other form of animal inhabiting New Zea- 
land, require a land connection with distant countries to account 
for its presence. With the example before us of the Bermudas 
and Azores, to which a great variety of birds fly annually over vast 
distances, and even of the recent arrival of new birds in New 
Zealand and Chatham Island, we may be sure that the ancestors 
of every New Zealand bird could easily have reached its shores 
during the countless ages which elapsed while the Dinornis and 
Apteryx were developing. The wonderful range of some of the 
existing species of lizards and fresh-water fish, as already given, 
proves that they too possess means of dispersal which have 
sufficed to spread them, within a comparatively recent period, 
over countries separated by thousands of miles of ocean; and the 
fact that a group like the snakes, so widely distributed and for 
which the climate of New Zealand is so well adapted, does not 
exist there, is an additional proof that land connection had nothing 
to do with the introduction of the existing fauna. We have 
already (p. 398), discussed in some detail the various modes in 
which the dispersal of animals in the southern hemisphere has 
been effected; and in accordance with the principles there estab- 
lished, we conclude, that the New Zealand fauna, living and 
extinct, demonstrates the existence of an extensive tract of land 
in the vicinity of Australia, Polynesia, and the Antarctic con- 
tinent, without having been once actually connected with either 
of these countries, since the period when mammalia had peopled 


462 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. _ [PART It. 


all the great continents. That event certainly dates back to 
Secondary, if not to Paleozoic, times, because so dominant a 
group must soon have spread over the whole continuous land- 
area of the globe. We have no reason for believing that birds 
were an earlier development; and certainly cannot, with any 
probability, place the origin of the Struthiones before that of 
Mammals. 

Causes of the Poverty of Insect-life in New Zealand: its Influ- 
ence on the Character of the Flora.—The extreme paucity of in- 
sects in New Zealand, to which we have already alluded, seems 
to call for some attempt at explanation. No other country in the 
world, in which the conditions are equally favourable for insect- 
life, and which has either been connected with, or is in proximity 
to, any of the large masses of land, presents a similar pheno- 
menon. The only approach to it is in the Galapagos, and in 
some of the islands of the Pacific ; and in each of these cases the 
absence of mammals leads us to infer, that no connection with a 
continent has ever taken place. Yet the fauna of New Zealand 
evidently dates back to a remote geological epoch, and it seems 
strange that an abundance of indigenous insects have not been 
developed, especially when we consider the vast antiquity that 
most of the orders and families, and many of the genera, of insects 
possess (see p. 156), and that they must always have reached the 
country in greater numbers and variety than any of the higher 
animals. The undoubted fact that such an indigenous insect- 
fauna has not arisen, would therefore lead us to conelude, that 
insects find the conditions requisite for their development only in 
the great continental masses of land, in strict adaptation to, and 
dependance on, a varied fauna and flora of ever-increasing richness 
and complexity. A small number of widely-separated forms, intro- 
duced into a country where the fauna and flora are alike scanty 
and unrelated to them, seem to have little tendency to vary 
and branch out into that vast network of insect-life which 


enriches all the great continents and their once connected 


islands. 
It is a striking confirmation on a large scale, of Mr. Darwin’s 
beautiful theory—that the gay colours of flowers have mostly, or 


’ 
4 
J 


CHAP, XIII, ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 463 


perhaps, wholly been produced, in order to attract insects which aid 
in their fertilization—that in New Zealand, where insects are so 
strikingly deficient in variety, the flora should be almost as strik- 
ingly deficient in gaily-coloured blossoms. Of course there are some 
exceptions, but as a whole, green, inconspicuous, and imperfect 
flowers prevail, to an extent not to be equalled in any other part 
of the globe; and affording a marvellous contrast to the general 
brilliancy of Australian flowers, combined with the abundance 
and variety of its insect-life. We must remember, too, that the 
few gay or conspicuous flowering-plants possessed by New Zea- 
land, are almost all of Australian, South American, or European 
genera ; the peculiar New Zealand or Antarctic genera being 
almost wholly without conspicuous flowers. In the tropical 
Galapagos the same thing occurs. Mr. Darwin notices the 
wretched weedy appearance of the vegetation; and states that 
it was some time before he discovered that most of the plants 
were in flower at the time of his visit! And the insect-life was 
correspondingly deficient, consisting mainly of a few terrestrial 
beetles. . 

The poverty of insect-life in New Zealand must, therefore, be 
a very ancient feature of the country ; and it furnishes an addi- 
tional argument against the theory of land-connection with, or 
even any near approach to, either Australia, South Africa, or 
South America. For in that case numbers of winged insects 
would certainly have entered, and the flowers would then, as in 
every other part of the world, have been rendered attractive to 
them by the development of coloured petals ; and this character 
once acquired would long maintain itself, even if the insects had, 
from some unknown cause, subsequently disappeared. 

After the preceding paragraphs were written, it occurred to me, 
that if this reasoning were correct, New Zealand plants ought to 
be also deficient in scented flowers ; because it is a part of the 
same theory, that the odours of flowers have, like their colours, 
been developed to attract the insects required to aid in their fer- 
tilization. I therefore at once applied to my friend Dr. Hooker, 
as the highest authority on New Zealand botany ; simply asking 
whether there was any such observed deficiency. His reply was:-— 


464 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IT. 
“ New Zealand plants are remarkably scentless, both in regard to 
the rarity of scented flowers, of leaves with immersed glands 
containing essential oils, and of glandular hairs.” There are a 
few exceptional cases, but these seem even more rare than might 
be expected, so that the confirmation of theory is very complete. 
The circumstance that aromatic leaves are also very scarce, sug- 
gests the idea that these, too, serve as an attraction to insects. 
Aromatic plants abound most in arid countries, and on Alpine 
heights ; both localities where winged insects are comparatively 
scarce, and where it may be necessary to attract them in every 
possible way. Dr. Hooker also informs, me that since his [ntro- 
duction to the New Zealand Flora was written, many plants with 
handsome flowers have been discovered, especially among the 
Ranuneuli, shrubby Veronicas, and herbaceous Composite. The 
two former, however, are genera of wide range, which may have — 
originated in New Zealand by the introduction of plants with 
handsome flowers, which the few indigenous insects would be 
attracted by, and thus prevent the loss of their gay corollas; so 
that these discoveries will not much affect the general character 
of the flora, and its very curious bearing on the past history of 
the islands through the relations of flowers and insects. 

In judging of the relation here supposed to exist, it must be 
remembered, that if the New Zealand insects have been intro- 
duced from the surrounding countries by chance immigrations at 
distant intervals, then, as we go back into the past the insect 
fauna will become poorer and poorer, and still more inadequate 
than at present to lead to the development of attractive flowers 
and odours. This quite harmonizes with the fact of the ancient 
indigenous flora being so remarkably scentless and inconspi- 
cuous, while a few of the more recently introduced genera of 
plants have retained their floral attractions. 


Concluding Remarks on the Early History of the Australian 
Region. 


We have already discussed in some detail, the various relations 
of the Australian sub-regions to the surrounding Regions, and the 
geographical changes that appear to have taken place. A very — 


CHAP. XIII] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 465 


few observations will therefore suffice, on the supposed early 
history of the Australian region as a whole. 

It was probably far back in the Secondary period, that some 
portion of the Australian region was in actual connection with 
the northern continent, and became stocked with ancestral forms 
of Marsupials; but from that time till now there seems to have 
been no further land connection, and the Australian lands have 
thenceforward gone on developing the Marsupial and Monotre- 
mate types, into the various living and extinct races we now find 
there. During some portion of the Tertiary epoch Australia pro- 
bably comprised much of its existing area, together with Papua 
and the Solomon Islands, and perhaps extended as far east as the 
Fiji Islands ; while it might also have had a considerable exten- 
sion to the south and west. Some light has recently been thrown 
on this subject by Professor McCoy’s researches on the Pale- 
ontology of Victoria. He finds abundant marine fossils of 
Eocene and Miocene age, many of which are strikingly similar 
to those of Europe at the same period. Among these are Ceta- 
ceans of the genus Sgualodon; European species of Plagiostom- 
ous fishes; mollusca and corals closely resembling those of 
Europe and North America of the same age,—such as numerous 
Volutes closely allied to those of the Eocene beds of the Isle of 
Wight, and the genus Dentaliwm in great abundance, almost or 
quite identical with European tertiary species. Along with 
these, are found some living species, but always such as now 
live farther north in tropical seas. The Cretaceous and Meso- 
zoic marine fossils are equally close to those of Europe. 

The whole of these remains demonstrate that, as in the 
northern so in the southern hemisphere, a much warmer climate 
prevailed in the Eocene and Miocene periods than at the present 
time. This is amost important result, and one which strongly 
supports Mr. Belt’s view, before referred to, that the warmer 
climates in past geological epochs, and especially that of the 
Miocene as compared with our own, was caused by a diminution of 
the obliquity of the ecliptic, leading to a much greater uniformity 
of the seasons for a considerable distance from the equator, and 
greatly reducing the polar area within which the sun would ever 

HH 


466 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART LIT. 


disappear during an entire rotation of the earth. During such 
a period, tropical forms of marine animals would have been able 
to spread north and south, into what are now cool latitudes; and 
identical genera, and even species, might then have ranged along 
the southern shores of the old Palearctic continent, from Britain 
to the Bay of Bengal, and southward along the Malayan coasts 
to Australia. 

Numerous Miocene plant-beds have also been found in Vic- 
toria, containing abundance of Dicotyledonous leaves, which are 
said generally to resemble those of the Asiatic flora, and of the 
Miocene plant-beds of the Rhine. Itis to be hoped these beds 
will be more closely examined for remains of insects, land-shells, 
and vertebrates, and that the plants will be carefully preserved and 
critically studied; for here probably lies hidden the key, that 
will solve much of the mystery that attaches to the past history 
of the Australian fauna. 


CHAP. XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 467 


eee ee 


TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. 


In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the 
various classes of animals in the Australian region, the following 
sources of information have been relied on, in addition to the 
general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in compiling 
the 4th Part of this work. 

Mammalia.—Gouid, Mammals of Australia; Waterhouse on 
Marsupials ; Dr. J. E. Gray’s List of Mammalia of New Guinea ; 
Miiller, Temminck and Schlegel on Mammals of the Moluccas; 
papers by Dr. Gray ; and personal observations by the Author. 

Birds.—Gould’s Birds of Australia; Buller’s Birds of New 
Zealand; G. R. Gray’s Lists of Birds of Moluccas, &c.; Hart- 
laub and Finsch on Birds of Pacific Islands; Sclater on Birds 
of Sandwich Islands ; papers by Haast, Hutton, Meyer, Salvin. 
Schlegel, Sclater, Trav ers, Lord Walden and the Author. 

Reptiles—Krefft, Catalogue of Snakes; Gunther, List of 
Lizards in Voyage of Erebus and Terror (1875); and numerous 
papers. 


468 | ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART ik 


TABLE I. 
FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 


EXPLANATION. 


Names in italics show families which are peculiar to the region. 

Names inclosed thus (...... ) show families which only just enter the region, and are 
not considered properly to belong to it. 

Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV. 


Sub-regions. 


Order and Family. z E. £ : eg r - Range beyond the Region. 
Za|Ssa\|oaly3 
<a |< Ay N 
MAMMALIA. 
PRIMATES. 
8. Cynopithecide | — Oriental and Ethiopian 
CHIROPTERA. | 
9. Pteropide ... | — | — | — | — | Oriental and Ethiopian 
11. Rhinolophide | — | — The Eastern Hemisphere 
12. Vespertilionide | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite 
18. Noctilionide... — | All tropical regions 
CARNIVORA, 
25. (Viverride) ... | — Oriental 
$3. Otariide... ... _ — | N. and 8. temperate zones 
35. Phocide... ... — — |N. and 8S. temperate zonos 
CETACEA. 
SOtO4E1. | cts ase Oceanic 
SIRENIA. | z 
42. Manatide ..| —| Ethiopian, Oriental 
UNGULATA. | 
47. Suide or All other regions but Nearctic 
50, (Cervidie) ... | — | All other regions but Ethiopian 
52. (Bovide) —_ | All other regions but Neotropical 
RODENTIA, 
65. Muride ... ... | —| — All other regions 
61. (Scuiride) ...| — All other regions 
MARSUPIALIA. 
77. Dasywride ...| —|— 
78. Myrmecobiid« — 
79. Peramelide ... | -- | — 


80. Macropodide... | — 


Ye 


“sry. ? ry 


CHAP, XIII] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 


Sub-regions, 


. ‘ bf 1 1 3 . . 
Orderand Family. |ef/8 |3 /e% Range beyond the Region, 
$43 \/a4| >| o8 
Ssaeilpq\|caliAan 
<A = S 


Lt 


81. Phalangistide 
82. Phascolomyide 


MonoTrREMATA 


83. Ornithorhyn- ) 
chide... 
84. Echidnide ... — 


BIRDS. 

PASSERES. 
MS. aes ||) Cosmopolite 
Re vIVee... we | | — Cosmopolite 


. Timaliide Oriental family 


D 


1 

2 

3 

5. Cinclide sd 

8. Certhiide ... | — | — 
9. Sittide ... ... | —|— 
10. Paride ... ... | — 
13. Pycnonotide... | — | 
14. Oriolide... ... | — | — 
15 

16 

17 

18 

19 


Witte 
I | 


— | Oriental and Ethiopian 
Oriental and Ethiopian 
— | The Old World 
Almost peculiar to region 
The Old World 
Cosmopolite 


. Campephagide | — | — | — 

“ Seeeiia . | —-|— 

= muscicapids... | —|— | — 

. Pachycephalide | — | — | — 

Pea ... ... | — | — | 
Eeeoriar... ... )—)|— |= 
an Paradise... | — | — 
22. Meliphagide....| — | — | — 
23. Nectariniide Se 
Decode’ = a ff | | 
25. Drepanidide... — 
30. Hirundinide... | — | — | — 
erases *.... | — | —.| — 
35. Sturnide . | = 
o6, Artamide ... | —|—/|— 
$7. Alaudide ... | — — 


Oriental and Ethiopian 
— | Oriental and Ethiopisn 


— | Cosmcpslite 
Oricnta]l, Ethiopian 
— | The Old World 
Oriental 
The Old World and N. Aimerica 
— | The Old World 
Oriental, Ethiopian 
Peculiar to Australia 
Peculiar to Australia 


88. Motacillide ... 
47. Pittide ... 


49. Menuride ... 
50. Airichiide ... _— 


Oriental family 
Oriental and Ethiopian 
: 


PICARIZ. 


51. Picide 

58. Cuculide 
62. Coraciide 
63. Meropide 


All other regions 
— | — | — | Cosmopolite P 
= | Oriental and Ethiopian 
— | Oriental and Ethiopian 


67. Alcedinide ... —  — | Cosmopolite 
68. Bucerotide ... | Oriental and Ethiopian 
71. Podargide | Oriental 


78. Caprimulgide 


74. Cypselide 


—| — Cosmopolite 
— ] Cosmopolite 


470 


Order and Family. 


PSITTACI. 


. Cacatuide ... 
. Platycercide 

. Paleornithide 
. Trichoglosside 
. Nestoride 

. Stringopide... 


CoLUMB2. 


84. Columbide ... 
84a. Didunculide 


GALLINE. 


87. Tetraonide ... 
88. (Phasianide) 
89. Turnicide . 
90. Megapodiide 


ACCIPITRES, 


96. Falconide ... 
97. Pandionide .. 
98. Strigide 


GRALLA. 


99. Rallidce 

100. Scolopacide... 
103. Parride 

104. Glareolide ... 
105. Charadriide 
106. Otidide 

107. Gruide ; 
112. Rhinochetide 
113. Ardeidse 

114. Plataleide ... 
115. Ciconiide 


ANSERES. 


118, Anatide 

EEG, LOH 1a. s0 
120. Procellariidee 
121. Pelecanide ... 
122. Spheniscidie 

124, Podicipide .. 


STRUTHIONES, 


127. Casuariide ... 
128. Aplerygide ... 
129. Dinornithide 
130, Palapterygide 


wy wae? + — 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Sub-regions. 


ee | ee | 


oe a. 
Lil 
Pvt + 


a2 eae 


Phd dt 


Range beyond the Region. 


Philippine Islands 


Oriental 


Cosmopolite 


Old World and N. America 


Oriental 
The Old World 


Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 


Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 

Tropical 

The Eastern Hemisphere 
Cosmopolite 

The Eastern Hemisphere 
The Eastern Hemisphere 


Cosmopolite 
Almost cosmopolite 
Widely distributed 


Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 
Cosmopolite 
S. temperate regions 
Cosmopolite 


Extinct 
Extinct 


CHAP. XIII. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 471 


54. Gavialide ... | — 


| Oriental 
55. Crocodilide .. | — | — 


Tropical regions 


CITELONIA. 

57. Testudinide ... | — 

58. Chelydide ... | — | — 
60. Cheloniide ... | — | — 


All other regions 
Ethiopian, Neotropical 
— | Marine 


AMPHIBIA. 


ANOURA. 

7. Phryniscide ... — 
9. Bufonide ... | — | All other regions 
10. Xenorhinide... ) — | | 


11. Engystomide.. — All regions but Palzearctic 
12. Bombinatoride. i tS Neotropical, Palearctic 


Ethiopian, Malayan, Neotropical 


Order and Family. | ¢¢/ ¢ . 3 ale 3 Range beyond the Region. 
a ee 
4a/< |< |"8 Ge" 

REPTILIA. 

OPpHIDIA. 

1. Typhlopide ... | — | — All regions but Nearctic 

2. Tortricide .. | — pee S. America, California 
3. Xenopeltide ... | — rienta 

5. Ptanacide re ee ee All warm countries 

7. Colubride ... | — | — Almost cosmopolite 

8. Homalopside —|—- Oriental, and all other regions 
11. Dendrophide —|— Oriental, Ethiopian, Neotropical 
12. Dryiophide ... | — Oriental, Ethiopian, Neotropical 
13. Dipsadide ... | — | — Oriental, Ethiopian, Neotropical 
15. Lycodontide... | — Ethiopian and Oriental 
i ay ! = | Oriental, Neotropical 

fe Pythons ,...| — | — |= Tropical regions, California 

19. Acrochordide | — ' Orienta 

20. Elapide ... ... --{—|— Tropical regions, Japan, 8. Carolina 
23. Hydrophide... | -- | — | — | — | Oriental, Madagascar, Panama 
LACERTILIA. 

30. Varanide ... | — | — Oriental, Africa 

33. Lacertide ... = The Eastern Hemisphere 

a a —|— iN eotropical, Ethiopian, Palearctic 
42. Pygopodide ... <= 
43. Aprasiade ... == 
44. Lialide... ... a 

45. Scincide —... | — | — | — | — | Almost cosmopolite 

48. Acontiade ... | — | Ethiopian, Oriental 

49. Geckotide ... | — | — | — | — | Almost cosmopolite 

50. Iguanide ... _— /N. and 8. America 
51. Agamide ... | — | — | — The Eastern Hemisphere 
RHYNCOCEPHALINA 

53. Rhyncocephalide | — 

CROCcODILIA. 


472 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Sub-regions. 


Order and Family. ) s rs / 2 >= Range beyond the Region. 

2a|88\42|24 
4z/4 |a°|78 

14. Alytide... ... |) —|— | All regions but Oriental 

15. Pelodryade ... | — | a | Neotropical 

16: Hylide.. ...f—|—| All regions but Ethiopian 

17. Polypedatidee ey pica kage al All the regions 

18. Ranide ... ... | — | — | Almost cosmopolite 

19. Discoglosside | — | -- | | All regions but Nearctic 

FISHES (FRESH- 

WATER). 
ACANTHOPTERYGII. 


11. Trachinide ... —_ 
35. Labyrinthici... | — 

37. Atherinide ... = 
38. Mugillide ... | — | — 


Patagonia (? marine) 
Oriental, S. Africa 
Europe, America 

— | Ethiopian, Neotropical 


53. Gadopside ... = 


PHYSOSsTOMI. 

59. Siluride... ... | — | — 
61. Haplochitonide — 
65. Salmonide -— | Palearctic, Nearctic 
67. Galaxide ‘ — | — | Temperate S. America 
78. Ostegolosside _— | All tropical regions 


— | All warm regions 


ANACANTHINI. 
Temperate S. America 


85. (Symbranchide) Oriental, Neotropical 


DIPNot!. 
92. Sirenoidei... — 


INSECTS. _LEPI- 
DOPTERA (PART). 


Dvuninti (BuTTEer- 
FLIES). 
1. Danaidse 
2. Satyridee 
3. Elymniide 
4. Morphide 
6 
8 
9 


Ethiopian, Neotropical 


— | — | Allewarm regions, and to Canada 
— | — | Cosmopolite 

Oriental, Ethiopian 

— Oriental, Neotropical 

All tropical regions 

— | — | Cosmopolite 

All the other regions 

All other regions but Nearctic 


. Acrwide.!. ... 
; Nym halide... 
. Libytheide ... 
10. Nemeobeide .. 


re 
i | 


SME RAR eS RRS 


13. Lycenide Cosmopolite 
14, Pieride ..._... Cosmopolite 
15. Papilionide .., Cosmopolite 


. 16, Hesperides Cosmopolite 
gig ne 
17. Zygenide 
18. Castniide 
19. Agaristide 
20. Uraniide 
23. Sphingide 


Cosmopolite 
Neotropical 
Oriental, Ethiopian 
All tropical regions 
Cosmopolite 


CHAP, XITL. ] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 473 


TABLE II. 


GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE 
AUSTRALIAN REGION. 


EXPLANATION. 


Names in zfalics show genera peculiar to the region . 

Names enclosed thus (...... ) show genera which just enter the region, but are not con- 
sidered properly to belong to it. 

Genera truly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively. 


MAMMALIA. 
Sig ei » and | 33 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
|Z 
PRIMATES. 
CYNOPITHECID. 
(Macacus ... ... | 1 | Lombok to Timor) Oriental genus 
1. Cynopithecus ... | 1 | Celebes and Batvhian Philippines ? 
LEMURID. 
(Tarsius ..._... | 1 | Celebes) Indo-Malayan genus 

CHIROPTERA. | 

PTEROPID#. | 

2. Pteropus... ... | 15 | The whole reg. except New Zeal.| Tropics of E. Hemisp. 
3. Xantharpyia ... | 1 | Moluccas and Timor Oriental, S. Palearctic 
4. Cynopterus _ 1 | Morty Island Oriental 

5. Macroglossus ... | 1 | Celebes, Moluccas, Timor Indo-Malaya 

6. Harpyia ... | 1 | Celebes and Moluccas Philippines 

7. Hypoderma _ 1 | Celebes, Moluccas, and Timor 

8. Notopteris .. | 1 | Fiji Islands 

RHINOLOPHIDE. | 

9. Rhinolopbus .. 7 | Moluccas, Timor, Australia Warmer pts. of E. Hemis. 
10. Hipposideros ... | 5 | Moluccas and Aru Islands Oriental 

11. Phyllorhina 2 | Moluccas and Timor Indo-Malaya 

12. Asellia 1 | Amboyna Indo-Malaya 
13. Megaderma 1 | Ternate Oriental, Ethiopian 
VESPERTILIONIDE, 
14. Scotophilus ... | 8 | Moluccas, Timor, Australia | Oriental 

15. Vespertilio 2 | Australia Cosmopolite 

16. Miniopteris 3 | Moluccas, Timor, and Australia | Indo-Malaya, 8. Africa 
17. Taphozous 2 | Celebes, Moluccas, N. Australia | Orien.,Ethiop., Neotrop. 
18. Plecotus ... ah a | Lato N. India, S. Palearctic 
19. Nyctophilus ... | 5 | Australia and Tasmania India 


ATA ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


ART III. 
ee and | : = Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
5 & 

NOcTILIONID&. | 2 
20. Molossus .. 1 | Australia Neotrop., Ethiop.,S.Pal. 
21. Mystacina 1 | New Zealand 
INSECTIVORA. 

SoriciDz. 

22. Sorex 2 | Moluccas and Timor The E. Hemis.& N. Amer. 
CARNIVORA. 

VIVERRIDZ. . 

(Viverra ... ... | 1 | Celebes and Moluccas) Oriental genus 
(Paradoxurus ... | 1 | Timor, Ke Islands, ? introduced) Oriental genus 


OTARIID2. 


23. Arctocephalus... 


24. Zalophus ... 1 | Australia North Pacific 

PHocipz. 
25. Stenorhynchus 1 | New Zealand Antarctic shores 
SIRENIA. 

MANATID&. 
26. Halicore ... 1 | N. Australia Oriental Ethiopian 
UNGULATA. | 

SUID. 
<9 i: ee 4 | Celebes to New Guinea Palearctic, Oriental 
28. Babirusa ... 1 | Celebes, Bouru 

CERVID&. 

(Cervus 2 |Celebes, Moluccas, Timor) Oriental genus 

Bovip2&. 

29. Anoa 1 | Celebes 

RODENTIA. 

Scrurip&. i 

(Sciurus . 5 | Celebes) All the other regions 

Munip2&. a: 
ae" ee 13 | Australia, Celehes The Western Hemisphere 
81. Pseudomys 1 | Australia ’ 


82. Hapalotis... 
33. Hydromys 


84. Acanthomys 1 | N. Australia 

85. Lchiothrix 1 | Australia 

MARSUPIALIA. 
DASYURID&. a 
36. Phascogale 8 


S. Australia, New Zealand 


Australia 
Australia and Tasmania 


New Guinea and Australia 


S. Temperate shores 


CHAP, XIII.] 


MYRMECOBIID&. 


46. 


Order, Family, and 


Geuus. 


. Antechinomys ... 
. Antechinus 
. Cheelocercus 
. Dactylopsila 
. Podabrus ... 
. Myoictis 

. Sarcophilus 
. Dasyurus... 
. Lhylacinus 


Myrmecobius ... 


PERAMELID&. 


47. 


48. 
49, 


Perameles 


Peragalea 
Cheeropus... 


MACROPODID2. 


59. 


. Macropus... 
. Osphranter 
. Halmaturus 
. Petrogale ... 
. Dendrolagus 
. Dorcopsis ... 
. Onychogalea 
. Lagorchestes 
. Bettongia... 


Hypsipryminus 


PHALANIGISTIDA. 
Phascolarctos ... 


60. 
61. 


PHASCOLOMYID. 


68. 


Phalangista 


. Cuscus 


. Petaurista 
. Belideus ... 


. Acrobata ... 
. Dromicia... 
. Larsipes ... 


Phascolomys 


3 


MONOTREMATA. 
ORNITHORHYNCHID. 
69. Ornithorhynchus 


THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 


—" 
DanIw do wono ore 


Co Oe He 


oe 


Hoe 


1 


1 


Range within the Region. 


S. Australia (interior) 

Arulds. Australia and Tasmania 
S. Australia 

Aru Islands and N. Australia 
Australia and Tasmania 

Aru Islands 

Tasmania 

Australia 

Tasmania 


S. and W. Australia 


N. Guinea, Aru Ids., Australia, 
and Tasmania 

W. Australia 

S. E. and W. Australia 


Australia and Tasmania 

All Australia 

Australia and Tasmania 

All Australia 

New Guinea 

Aru, Mysol, and N. Guinea 

Central Australia 

N., W., and S. Australia 

W., S., and E. Australia and 
Tasmania 

W. and E. Australia & Tasmania 


E. Australia 


|E., S., and W. Australia and 


Tasmania 

Celebes to N. Guinea, Timor & 
N. Australia 

E. Australia. 

S., E., & N. Austral., N. Guinea, 
and Moluccas 

S. and E. Australia 

W. & E. Australia & Tasmania 

W. Australia 


S. E. Australia and Tasmania 


S. and E. Australia & Tasmania 


475 


Range beyond the Region. 


476 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART ID. | 
eines =a $2 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
iv) 
ECHIDNIDZ. 
70. Echidna ... ... | 2 (|S. & E. Australia, & Tasmania 
BIRDS. 
PASSERES. 
TURDIDS. 
Oe ys ee 6 | Timor, Austral., New Caledonia,| Cosmopolite 
Norfolk Island, Lord Howe’s 
and Samoan Islands / 


2. Oreocincla 1 |S. E. Australia and Tasmania Palearctic, Oriental 

3. Geocichla... 4 | Celebes, Lombok, Timor, Austral.| Oriental 
(Monticola 1 | Gilolo, Celebes) Palearctic and Oriental 
(Zoothera... 1 | Lombok) Oriental genus 


SYLVIID. 


. Cisticola .. 
. Sphenzeacus 


Celebes, Bouru, Timor, Australia) Palearctic, Oriental 
Australia, N. Zealand, Chatham) Ethiopian 
Tslands 


4 
5 
6. Megalurus 
7 
8 


Timor Oriental 
. Poodytes ... Australia 
. Amytis Australia 
9. Sphenura... Australia 
10. Stipiturus Australia, Tasmania 
11. Malurus ... 16 | Australia, Tasmania, & N.Guinea 


12. Hylacola ... 
13. Calamanthus ... 
14, Acrocephalus ., 


Australia 

Australia and Tasmania 

Celebes, Moluccas, Australia,| Paleare., Orien., Ethiop. 
Caroline Islands 

Samoan to Marquesas Islands 

Moluccas Paleare., Orien., Ethiop. 

Australia and Tasmania 


15. Tatare 
16. Hypolais ... 
17. Sericornis 


18. Acanthiza 14 | Austral., Tasmania, N.Caledonia 

19. Gerygone ... 24 |The whole region, excl. Moluccas Philippines 

20. Drymodes... Australia 

21. Oreicola . Lombok to Timor Burmah ? 
(Pratincola Celebes to Timor) Oriental, Palearctic 

22. Epthianwra Australia 

23. Petroica ... 18 | Papua to Samoan Ids., Australia 

24. Myiomoira N. Zealand 

25. Lamprolia Fiji Islands 

26. Miro.. New Zealand 

27. Cinclorhamphus Australia 

23. Origma a Australia 


Coe pwr tO OW SD Se eT DP “TDD 09 OQ FOO De Ci | 


29. Orthonyx ‘3 N. Guinea, Austral., New Zeald. 


TIMALIID™. 

30. Pomatorhinus... | 5 | N. Guinea and Australia Oriental 

31. Cinclosoma | | Australia and Tasmania + 

52. Turnagra .... | 3 | New Zealand 

33. Psophodes... ... | 2 |S. KB. and W. Australia 

34. Alcippe ... | 8 |New Guinea Oriental 7 
(Trichastoma ... | 1 | Celebes) Oriental genus 4 


CHAP, X11] 


Order, Family, and 


Genus. 


35. Drymocataphus 


86. Struthidea 


CINCLID®. 
37. Eupetes 


CERTHUD. 
88. Climacteris 


SITTID. 


39. Sittella ... 
40. Acanthisitta 
41. Xenicus 


PARID. 
42. Certhiparus 


43. Sphenostoma fe 


PYCNONOTID. 
44. Criniger ... 


ORIOLID. 


45. Sphecotheres 
46. Oriolus 


47. Mimeta 


CAMPEPHAGID. 
(Pericrocotus ... 


48. Graucalus 


49. Artamides 
50. Pteropodocys 


51. Campephaga fis 


52. Lalage 


53. Symmorphus oa 


DICRURID2. 
64. Dicrurus ... 


55. Chetorhynchus 


MUSCICAPID. 
56. Peltops 
57. Monarcha 


a 


to bo Co Re OT 


Cr 


nore 


5 


THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region, 


Timor | Oriental 
N. and E. Australia 


New Guinea Malayan 


Australia and N. Guinea 


Australiaand N. Guinea 
New Zealand 
New Zealand 


New Zealand 
KE. and S. Australia 


Moluccas, and small islands F,! Oriental 
of Celebes 


Timor and Australia 

Celebes, Sulla Ids., Lombok and) Oricntal, Ethiopian 
Flores 

Moluccas, N. Guinea, Timor, & 
Australia 


Lombok) Oriental genus 
Celebes to New Hebrides and N.} Oriental 
Zealand 
Celebes 
Australia 
Celebes to Timor & New Guinea | Oriental, Ethiopian 
Celebes to Australia &SamoanIds.| Malayan 
E. Australia and Norfolk Id. 


Celebes to N. Ireland & Austral.| Oriental, Ethiopian 
New Guinea 


Papuan Islands 
The whole region (excl. Celebes 
| and N. Zealand) 


|N. Guinea 
‘Moluccas and Celebes) Paleare., Orien., Ethiop. 
| Timor, N. Guinea, Australia | 

Celebes and Timor Oriental 

Timor Oriental 


| Moluccas to N. Ireland, Austral. 


| 


477 


473 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


63. 


Myiagra... 
(Hypothymis 


an 
3 
S 
As 


64. Macherirhynchus, 4 


65. 


66. 
67. 


PACHYCEPHALIDS. 
68. 
69. 
70. 


He 
72. 


Rhipidura 


(Myialestes 
(Tchitrea 
Todopsis.. 
Chasiempis 


Oreeca ... 


Faleunculus a 


Pachycephala 


Hylocharis 
Eopsaltria 


LANIID&. 


73. 
74. 


Colluricinela... 


Rectes 
(Lanius ... 


CorvVID&. 


. Strepera... 
. Barita ... 
. Cracticus 

. Grallina 

. Streptocitta ... 
. Charitornis ... 
. Corvus ... 
. Gymnocorvus... 
. Corcorax 
. Lycocorax 


PARADISEIDE 


. Paradisea 
. Manucodia 
. Astrapia 

. Parotia ... 
. Lophorina ... 
. Diphyllodes ... 
. Xanthomelus... 
. Cicinnurus ... 
. Paradigalla ... 
. Semioptera 
. Epimachus ... 
. Drepanornis .. 
. Seleucides 

. Ptilorhis 

. Sericulus 
. Ptilorhynchus 
. Chlamydodera 
. Aluredus - 
. Amblyornis ... 


32 


1 
] 
5 
2 


WCreDPOFK DK OW P,P 


CO eo eR rt OR tt 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Moluccas to Tonga Ids. and 
Tasmania 
-Celebes and Timor Oriental 


[PART Ill. 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 


Moluccas to Samoan Ids. Austral. 
Celebes) 

Papuan Ids. and N. Australia 
The region to Samoan Ids. and) Oriental 


Oriental 


N. Zealand 
Celebes) Oriental genus 
Flores) Orien. & Ethiop. genus 


Papuan Islands 
Sandwich Islands 


Temperate Australia 
Temperate Australia 


Australia to New Hebrides 


Australia and Tasmania 
Papuan to Fiji Ids., N. Austral. 


Lombok) Northern Hemisphere 


Australia and Tasmania 

Australia and Tasmania 

Papuan Ids. to Tasmania 

Australia 

Celebes 

Sulla Islands (Celebes group) 

The whole region, excl. N. Zeal.) Almost Cosmopolite 
Papuan Islands 

Australia 

Moluccas 


Papuan Islands 

Papuan Ids, and N. Australia 
New Guinea 

New Guinea 

New Guinea 

Papuan Islands 

New Guinea 

Papuan Islands 

New Guinea 

Gilolo and Batchian 

New Guinea 

New Guinea 

New Guinea 

New Guinea and N. Australia 
BE. Australia 

Kk. Australia 

N. and KE. Australia ‘- 
Papuan Islands and EK, Australia ‘ 
New Guinea 


CHAP, XIII.] 


THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 


Order, Family, and 
Genus, 


No. of 
Species 


MELIPHAGID”. 


104. Myzomela_... | 20 
105. Entomophila... 4 
106. Gliciphila ... | 10 


107. Acanthorhynchus 
108. Meliphaga 
109. Plilotis ... ... | 4 


2 
1 
3 
110. Meliornis ... 5 
111. Prosthemadcra ] 
112. Anthornis 4 
113. Anthochara ... | 10 
114. Pogonornis 

115. Philemon eet | 


116. Entomiza 2 | 
117. Manorhina ... 
118. Melithrepius ... 
119. Euthyrhynchus 
120. Melirrhophetes 
121. Melidcctes 

122. Melipotes 

123. Moho... 
124. Chetoptila 


mt Oo Re DS WD CO Ob Co 4 


NECTARINIIDZ. 


125. Cosmetira 
(Athopyga 
126. Chalcostetha ... 
127. Arachnecthra 
(Nectarophila 
Anthreptes 
128. Arachnothera 


tt et Or OT et 


DICHIDZ. 


129. Zosterops... | 28 
130. Diceum... ... | 12 
131. Pachyglossa ? 1 
132. Piprisoma ...| 1 
133. Pardalotus ... 1 
134. Prionochilus ... 


DREPANIDIDZ. 


135. Drepanis 

136. Hemignathus... 
137. Loxops ... 
138. Psittirostra 


met Co OO 


HIRUNDINIDZ. 


139. Hirundo 
140. Atticora 


eA 


Range within the Region, Range beyond t 


The region ; excl. N. Zealand 

Papuan Islands and Australia 

Papuan Ids. Timor, Australia, 
N. Caledonia 

Australia and Tasmania 

Kast and 8. Australia 

Lombok and Gilolo to Tasmania] (Baly) 
and Samoan Ids. 

Australia and Tasmania 

New Zealand 

New Zealand and Chatham Ids. 

New Guinea to Tasmania and 
Samoan Ids., N. Zealand 

New Zealand 

Lombok to N. Guinea, N. Cale- 
donia, Australia 

Australia 

Australia and Tasmania 

| N. Guinea, Australia, Tasmania 

N. Guinea 

N. Guinea 

N. Guinea 

N. Guinea 

Sandwich Islands 

Sandwich Islands 


Papuan Islands 

N. Celebes) Oriental genus 
Celebes, Moluccas, Papuan Ids. | Malaya 
Austro-Malaya and N, Australia | Oriental 


Celebes) Oriental genus 
Celebes and Sulla Islands Maiayan genus 
Papaun Islands, Lombok Oriental 


The region to Fiji Ids. & N. Zeal.) Oriental, Ethiopian 


Celebes toSolomonIds.&Austral.! Oriental 


N. Celebes Himalayas 
Timor India, Ceylon 
Australia and Tasmania, Timor 

Papuan Islands Malaya 


| Sandwich Islands 
Sandwich Islands 
| Sandwich Islands 
Sandwich Islands 


The whole region : Cosmopolite 
Australia Neotropical 


480 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


[PART III. 


Order, Family, and 


Genus. 


PLOCEIDZ. 


141. Estrilda... 
142. Emblema 
143. Munia 


Donacola 
Poephila 
Amadina 


144. 
145. 
146. 


147. Erythrura 


STURNIDZ. 
148. Eulabes ... 


149. Basilornis 


150. Creadion 
151. 
152. 
153. 
154. 


Calleas ... 
Aplonis ... 
Calornis... 


155. Enodes ... 


156. 


ARTAMID. 
157. Artamus .. 


ALAUDIDZ. 
158. Mirafra ... 


MOTACILLID. 


159. Ludytes ... 
160. Corydalla 


PITTIDA. 
161. Pitta 


162. Hydrornis 


163. Melampitla ry 


MENURID™. 
164. Menura ... 


ATRICHIID.®. 
165. Altrichia... 


PICARLA. 
PICIDs. 
166. tu 


iia cs — 


(Acridotheres , 
Heterolocha a 


Scissirostrum... 


ipicus des 
eripicus. oe 


“I © o> Oo (one 


— 
—t pt Cwonwmr ore pb He 


15 


12 


— 


bo 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 


Flores, Timor, Australia Oriental, Ethiopian 
N. W. Australia 
Celebes to N. Guinea and N.}! Oriental 
Australia 
Australia 
Australia 
Flores to Tasmania and Samoan} Ethiopian 
Islands 
Moluccas to Caroline and Fijij Java, Sumatra 
Islands, Timor, N. Caledonia 


Sumbawa, Flores, Papuan and| Oriental 
Solomon Islands 

Celebes and Ceram 

Celebes) 

N. Zealand 

N. Zealand 

N. Zealand 

N. Caledonia to Tonga Islands 

Celebes to Solomon Islands and Malaya 
N. Australia 

Celebes 

Celebes 


Oriental genus 


Celebes to Fiji Ids. and Tasmania} Oriental 


Flores and Australia Oriental, Ethiopian 


Moluccas, Timor, Australia Pale., Ethiopian, Orien, 
Lombok and Moluccas to N.| Palearctic, Oriental 
Zealand 


Celebes and Lombok to N.| Oriental 
Guinea and Australia 
Gilolo, Batchian 


Himalayas to Java 
N. Guinea 


E, Australia 


W. Australia and Queensland 


Celebes, Lombok, and Flores 


Oriental = 
Celebes) 


Oriental genus 


CHAP, XIII] 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


CucULID. 
167. 
168. 
169, 
170. 
a7. 
172. 


Rhamphococeyx 
Centropus 
Cuculus....- ..: 
Caliechthrus .. 
Cacomantis 
Chrysococeyx 


(Hierococcyx... 
173. Kudynamis 


174. Scythrops 


CORACIID. 


(Coracias 
175. Eurystomus ... 


MEROPID2. 


176. Meropogon 
177. Merops. 


ALCEDINID®. 


178. Alcedo 
179. Alcyone ... 
130. Pelargopsis 
181. Ceyx 

182. Ceycopsis 
183. Syma 

184. Halcyon... 


185. 
186. 
187. 
188. 
189. 


Todirhamphus 
Perera... ... 
Monachaleyor 
Caridonax 

Tanysiptera ... 


190. 
191. 


Cittura ... 
Melidora 


BUCEROTIDA. 
192. Hydrocissa ? ... 
193. Calao - 
194. Cranorrhinus ? 
PODARGID. 


195. Podargus 
196. Batrachostomus 
197. dgotheles 


CAPRIMULGIDZ. 
198, Caprimulgus ... 


THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 


| No. of 
| Species 


a 


bS = 


i a 
m bo ee mM CO OO OD mM ATIO D> 


et et 


'Austro-Malaya to Fiji Islands 


'Celebes to New Ireland 


481 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 


Celebes 

Austro-Malaya and Australia 
Austro-Malaya and Australia 
Papuan Islands 
Austro-Malaya and Australia 


Oriental, Ethiopian 
Pale., Orien., Ethiopian 


Oriental 

Oriental, Ethiopian 
and N. Zealand 

Celebes) 

The whole region; excl. Sand- 
wich Islands 

Celebes, Moluccas, and Australia 


Oriental genus 
Oriental 


Celebes) 
Austro-Malaya aud Australia 


Oriental and Ethiopian 
Oriental aud Ethiopian 


Celebes 


Austro-Malaya and Australia Pale., Orien., Ethiopian 


Pale., Orien., Ethiopian 


Batchian to Tasmania Philippines 
Celebes, Flores Oriental 
Celebes to New Guinea Oriental 


Celebes 

Papuan Islands and N. Australia 

The whole region; excl. Sand-| Oriental, Ethiopian 
wich Islands 

Central Pacific and Sandwich Ids. | 

Papuan Islands and Australia | 

Celebes 

Lombok and Flores 

Batchian to N. Guinea and N.} 
Australia | 

Celebes and Sanguir Islands | 

New Guinea 


Celebes Oriental 
Moluceas to Solomon Islands Malayan 
Celebes Malayan 
Papuan Islaids to Tasmania 

Moluccas Oriental 


Papuan Islands to Tasmania 


Lombok to Australia, N. Guinea Pale., Ethiopian, Orien. 
to Pelew Islands 


I. I 


482 


Order, Family, and 


199. Euwrostopodus... 


Genus. 


(Lyncornis 


CYPSELID. 


200. Dendrochelidon 
201. 
202. 
203. 


Collocalia 
Cypselus 
Chetura... 


PSITTACI. 
CACATUID. 


204. 


205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 


Cacatua... 


Calopsitta 


Calyptorhynchus 
Microglossus ... 


LTiemetis ... 
Nasiterna 


PLATYCERCIDA. 


210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214, 


215. 
216, 


217. 
218. 
219. 
220. 


Platycercus 
Psephotus 
Polytelis... 
Nymphicus 


Aprosmictus ... 


Pyrrhulopsis ... 
Cyanoramphus 


Melopsittacua .. 


Euphema 
Pezoporus 


Geopsittacus oe 


PALAORNITHIDA. 


_ 221. 
222. 
223. 
224. 
225. 
226. 
227. 


228. 
229. 
230, # 


231. 
232. 


Prioniturus ... 


Geoffroyus 


Tanygnathus .. 


Eclectus .., 
Cyclopsitta 
Loriculus 


Trichoglossus 


Nanodes... 
(ao 


Lorius., 
Coriphilus 


NEsTORIDA 


233, 
234, 


Nestor 
Dasyptilus 


Charmosyna - 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


No. of 


bet bO asad 


mre bdo 


17 


qe Gb oor 


4 
6 
3 
1 
6 
3 
4 


1 


at et ST et 


bo 
= oO ore OonTsI oO eS Crp 


bo 


ea | 


[PART 112. 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Regiom. 
Aru Islands and Australia Oriental genus 
Celebes) 
Celebes to N. Cuinea Oriental 
Celebes to Pacific Islands Oriental 


Australia 


Pale., Orien., Ethiopian 
Celebes, Australia 


Ethio., Orien., American | 


4 


Celebes and Lombok, to Solo-/ Philippines 
mon Islands and Tasmania 

Australia 

Australia and Tasmania 

Papuan Islands and N. Austral. 

Austr., Solmn. Ids., & N.Guin.? 

Papuan and Solomon Islands 


Austral., Tasmania, Norfolk Id. 

Australia 

Australia 

Australia and N. Caledonia 

Moluccas, Timor, Papuan Is- 

_ lands, Australia 

Tonga to Fiji Islands 

N. Zealand, Norfolk Island, N. 
Caledonia, Society Islands 

Australia 

Australia 

Australia and Tasmania 

W. Australia 


Celebes Philippines 
Borneo to Timor & Solomon Ids. 

Celebes to New Guinea Philippines 
Moluccas and Papuan Islands 

Papuan Ids. and N.K. Austral. | Philippines 
alibal to Mysol, Flores Oriental 


The whole region, excl. Sandwich 
Islands, and N. Zealand 

Australia and Tasmania 

New Guinea 

Sanguir Ids. and Moluccas to “ 
Solomon Ids, 

Bouru and Gilolo to Solomon Ids. 

Samoan to Marquesas Islands 


New Zealand and Norfolk Ids, 
New Guinea 


AP. XI. ] 


Order, Family, and 
Genus. 


No. of 
Species 


| 


STRINGOPID”., 
235. Stringops am 1 


COLUMB. 
CoLUMBIDA, 
fa0. Treron.., ... | 5 


Or 
oOo 


237. Ptilopus... 


238. Carpophaga ... 
239. Ianthenas 


i 
am 


240. Leucomelena... 
241. Lopholemus ... 
242. Geopelia... 
243. Macropygia ... 
244. Tuwracena 
245. Reinwardtenas 
246. Turtur ... 
247. Ocyphaps 

248. Petrophassa .. 
249. Chalcophaps .,. 
250. DTrugon’..:* .. 
251. Henicophaps .., 
252. Phaps ‘ 
253. Leucosarcia ... 
254, Geophaps 

255. Lophophaps ... 
256. Calenas... 
257. Otidiphaps 
258. Phlogcenas 
259. Goura 


CONTE ROOD HM ORE REED et Go oe Ee 


DIDUNCULID2. 
260. Didunculus ... | 1 


THE AUSTRALIAN REGION. 


Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 


N. Zealand, Chatham Islands ? 


Celebes, Bouru, and Ceram, Flores; Oriental, Ethiopian 
and Timor 
The whole region; excl. N.| Indo-Malaya 
Zealand 
The whole region Oriental 
Gilolo, Timor, Papuan Ids. to) Japan, Philippines, An- 
Samoan Islands daman Islands 
Australia 
Australia 
Lombok te Tasmania 
Austro-Malaya, Australia 
Celebes, Timor, Solomon Ids. 
Celebes to New Guinea 
Austro-Malaya 
Australia 
N. W. Australia 
Austro-Malaya, Australia 
N. Guinea 
Papuan Islands 
Australia and Tasmania 
Australia 
Australia 
Australia 
Austro-Malaya 
N. Guinea 
Celebes, N.Guinea to Madagascar) Philippine Islands 
Papuan Islands 


Malaya, China 
Indo-Malaya 


Paleare., Orien., Ethiop. 


Oriental 


Indo-Malaya 


Samoan Islands 


GALLIN 2. 
TETRAONIDA, 
261. Coturniza ... | 9 |Celebes, Timor, Australia, N.) Palearc., Orien., Kthiop. 
Zealand 
PHASIANIDA, 
(Gallus ... ... | 2 | Celebes to Timor) Oriental genus 
TURNICIDS. 
Gea. Tarmix .... ... 9 | Celebes & Moluccas to Tasmania Paleare., Orien., Ethiop. 
MEGAPODIID. 
263. Talegallus ... | 3 | Papuan Islands and Australia 
264. Megacephalon 1] Celebes 
265. Lipoa 1 S. Australia 


266. Megapodius ef 


Celebes to Austral. & Samoan Ids. Philippines, Nicobar Ids. 
es ae 


483 


484 


ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Order, Family, and 


Genus. 


ACCIPITRES. 
FALCONID. 
267. Circus 
268. Astur 
269. Accipiter 
270. Urospiza 
271. Uroaétus 
272. Nisaétus... 


273. Neopus ... 
274. Spizaetus 
275. Cirecaétus 
(Spilornis 
276. Butastur 
277. Halieetus 


Haliastur 
Milvus ... 


278. 
279. 


280, Lophoictinia ... 


281. Gypoictinia 
282. Elanus ... 
283. 

(Pernis ... 


284. Baza 
285. Harpa 
286. Falco 


987. Hieracidea 


288. Cerchneis 


PANDIONID. 


289. Pandion... 
290. Polioaétus 


STRIGIDA. 


291. Athene ... 
292. Scops 
(Asio 


293. Strix 


Peculiar or very Cheracteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds, — 


GRALLA. 
RALLIDA, 


Ocydromus 
Cabalus .. 


Notornis... — 


Tribonyx 
Habroptila 


No. of 
species, 


Henicopernis ... 


HHH oO Ob 


DNOK eR HH WHEY ep HED NeH 


ee 


eo 


ror or 


Range within the Region. 


Celebes, S. and EK. Austral 

The region, to Fiji Islands 

The whole region, to Fiji Islands 
Australia 

Australia and Tasmania 
Australia 


Celebes and Ternate 
Celebes and N. Guinea 
Timor and Flores 

Celebes and Sulla Islands) 
Celebes to New Guinea 
The whole region 


Australia and N. Caledonia 
Celebes to Australia 
Australia 

Australia 

Celebes and Australia 
Papuan Islands 

Celebes) 


Moluccas and Australia 

N. Zealand and Auckland Ids, 
Austro-Malaya and Australia 
Australia and Tasmania 
Austro-Malaya and Australia 


The whole region 
Celebes and Sandwich Islands 


The whole reg., excl. Pacific Ids. 
Celebes, Moluccas, N. Zealand 
Sandwich Islands) 


The whole region 


New Zealand 

Chatham Islands 

New Zealand, Norfolk and Lord 
Howe's Islands 

Australia and N, Zealand 

Moluccas 


[PART III. 


Range beyond the Region. 


Almost Cosmopolite 
Almost Cosmopolite 
Almost Cosmopolite 


S. Paleare., Ethiopian, 
Oriental 
Oriental 
Neotrop., Ethiop., Orien 
Paleare., Ethiop., Orien. 
Oriental genus 
Oriental, N. E. Africa 
Cosmop., excl. Neotrop. 
region 
Oriental 
Paleare., Orien., Ethiop, 


Oriental, Ethiopian 


Palearctic, Oriental, and 
Ethiopian 
Oriental 


Almost Cosmopolite 


Almost Cosmopolite 


Cosmopolite 
Oriental 


Paleare. , Orien., Ethiop. — 
Almost Cosmopolite = 
Almost Cosmopolite,excl, 
Australian region q 
Cosmopolite 


a ae 


CHAP, XL] THE AUSTRALIAN REGION, 485 
: ba he Gece) 2 es an a 
Scere hart and S38 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 
AT Cea ae E - 
Rallina ... 6 | Austro-Malaya ‘Oriental 
Pareudiastes ... 1 | Samoan Islands 
ScoLoPACID. 


Cladorhynchus 1 | Australia 


CHARADRIDS. 
Fsacus .... ... | 1 | Austro-Malaya, Australia Oriental 
Erythrogonys... | 1 | Australia 
Thinornis 2 | New Zealand 
Anarhynchus 1 | New Zealand 
Pedionomus ... | 1 | Australia 
RHINOCHETID. 
Rhinochetus ... | 1 |New Caledonia 
ANATID. 
Nesonetta ' 1 | Auckland Islands 
Malacorhynchus| 1 | Australia 
Hymenolemus 1 | New Zealand 
Biziura ... 1 | Australia 
Anscranas 1 | Australia 
Cercopsis 1 | Australia and Tasmania 
PROCELLARIIDE. 
| ae 6 | New Zealand Antarctic Seas 
SPHENISCID®. 
Eudyptes _ 4 | Australia and N. Zealand Antarctic shores 
| 
STRUTHIONES. | 
CASUARIIDS. 
294. Dromeus 2 | Australia 
295. Casuaruis § | Ceram to New Britain, N.Austrl. 
APTERYGIDZ. 
296. Apteryx... ... | 4 | New Zealand 
DINORNITHID. (Extinct) 
297. Dinornis... 5 | N. Zealand 
298. AMionornis 2 |N. Zealand | 
PALAPTERYGID. (Extinct) 
299. Palapteryr ...| 2 |N. Zealand 
300. Luryapterys ... | 2 |N. Zealand 


Ny * 
is ” 
. ql 

4 

7 

y, \’ F r 
“4, | ‘ . = ‘ 

a > 

ef ‘ 

uf ; 7 

. 

A! 

=> 

a _ 

‘ 


PEER E A ee es mt Oe ee ER gt ge Pd eee ee ees 


= > r 


das . . . eas | “Vote 
ws “ aed t-s “al f ~ d t i seen 
< 7 « ‘ 
a rs 1 
’ - 
- 
is - 
. 
. 
. 
/ 
3 Pa 
4 
* 
. 
. 
_ . - 
¢ . - = 
‘ 


are Ve tT — ‘ yy 


2k 


INDEX TO VOL. IL 


Nore.—In this Index the names in Italics all refer to fossil genera or families 


mentioned in Part II. 


The systematic names of genera and families*occurring in 


almost every page of Part II]. are not given, as they would unnecessarily swell 
the Index ; but they can be readily referred to by the Class or Order, or by the 


Geographical Division (Region or Sub-region) under which they occur. 


They 


will, however, all be found in the General Index, with a reference to the page (in 
Vol. II., Part IV.) where a systematic account of their distribution is given. 


A. 


Aardvark of East Africa, figure of, 261 
Accipitres, European Eocene, 163 
Accipitres, classification of, 97 
range of Palearctic genera of, 248 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 312 
range of Oriental genera of, 385 
range of Australian genera of, 486 
Acerotherium, European Miocene, 119 
N. American Tertiary, 136 
Achenodon, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Acotheriwm, European Eocene, 126 
Adapis, European Eocene, 125 
A lurogale, European Eocene, 125 
Apyornis, of Madagasear, 164 
Aishiua, from the Lias, 167 
Agnopterus, European Eocene, 163 
Agriocherus, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Agrion, from the Lias, 167 
Alcephalus, Indian Miocene, 122 
Aldabra Islands, land-tortoises of, 289 
Aletornis, N. American Eocene, 163 
Aigeria, Post-Pliocene deposits and caves of, 
111 


Allen, Mr. J. A., on Zoological regions, 61 
objections to his system of circumpolar 
zones, 67 
objections to his zoo-geographical nomen- 
clature, 68 
Altai mountains, fossils in caves, 111 
Amblyrhiza, Pliocene of Antilles, 148 
America, recent separation of North and 
South, 40 
extinct mammalia of, 129 
North, Post-Pliocene fauna of, 129 
Amomys, N: American Tertiary, 134 
Amphechinus, European Mivcene, 117 
Amphibia, means of dispersal of, 28 
classification of, 100 
peculiar to Palearctic region, 186 
of Central Europe, 196 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 
of Siberian sub-region, 220 


Amphibia, of the Manchurian sub-region, 226 

table of Palearctic families of, 237 

of the Ethiopian region, 255 

of West Africa, 264 

South African, 268 

of Madagascar, 280 

table of Ethiopian families of, 298 

of the Oriental region, 317 

of the Indian sub-region, 326 

of Ceylon, 327 

of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 331 

of Indo-Malay sub-region, 340 

table of Oriental families of, 369 

of the Australian region, 397 

resemblances of Australian and South- 

American, 400 

of New Guinea, 416 

of New Zealand, 457 = 
Aimphibos, Indian Miocene, 122 
Amphicyon, European Miocene, 118 

Indian Miocene, 121 

N. American Tertiary, 134 
Amphimericide, European Miocene, 119 
Amphimoschus, European Miocene, 120 
Amphisorex, European Miocene, 118 
Amphitragulus, European Miocene, 120 
Anastoma, European Tertiary, 169 
Anchilophus, European Eocene, 125 
Anchippodus, N. American Eocene, 139 
Anchippus, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Anchitheride, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Anchitheriuwm, European Miocene, 119 

European Eocene, 125 

N. American Tertiary, 135 
Ancient fauna of New Zealand, 459 
Ancylotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 

European Miocene, 121 
Andaman Islands, zoology of, 333 

probable past history of, 334 
Andreas, European Miocene, 165 
Animal kingdom, primary divisions of, 85 
Animals, development of, affecting distribu- 

tion, 7 
dispersal and migration of, 10 


. 


490 INDEX. 


Animals, rapid multiplication of, 10 
Anisacodon, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Anoa of Celebes, peculiarities of, 428 
Anoplotheriide, European Miocene, 119 
Anoplotheriwm, European Miocene, 119 
European Eocene, 126 
S. American Eocene, 148 
Anseres, arrangement of, 98 
peculiar Palearctic genera, 250 
peculiar Ethiopian genera of, 313 
peculiar Australian genera of, 487 
Antelopes in the Indian Miocene deposits, 122 
birthplace and migrations of, 155 
Palearctic, 182 
Antelotherium, Indian Miocene, 122 
Anthracotheride, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Anthracotherium, European Miocene, 119 
Antiacodon, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Antilles, Pliocene Mainmalia of, 148 
Antilope, Post-Pliocene, 112 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
Antiquity of the genera of insects, 166 
of the genera of land and freshwater 
shells, 168 
Aphanupteryx of Mauritius, 164 
Aphelotheriwm, European Eocene, 125 
Aquila, European Mivcene, 161 
Archeopteryz, Bavarian Oolite, 163 
Arctic zone not a separate region, 68 
Arctocyon, European Eocene, 125 
Arctodus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
Arctomys, European Pliocene, 113 
Arctotherium in Brazilian caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 146 
Argus pheasant, figure of, 339 
peculiarity in display of plumage, and 
confirmation of Mr. Darwin’s views, 
340 
Artiodactyla, European Eocene, 126 
N. American Tertiary, 137 
S. American Pliocene, 146 
Arvicola, European Pliocene, 113 
in Brazilian caves, 145 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
§. Ainerican Eocene, 148 
Auchena, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
Auckland Islands, birds of, 455 
Australia, physical features of, 387 
Australia and 8. America, supposed land con- 
nection between, 398 
Australian repens description of, 387 
zoological characteristics of, 390 
mammalia of, 390 
birds of, 391 
reptiles of, 396 
amphibia of, 397 
fresh-water fish of, 397 
summary of vertebrata of, 897 
supposed land-connection of with 8. Ame- 
rica, 398 
insects of, 403 
lepidoptera of, 404 
ccleovhere of, 405 
land shells of, 407 
sub-regions of, 408 
early history of, 465 
Australian eg pan mammalia of, 488 
illustration of mammatlia of, 439 
birds of, 440 
illustration of fauna of, 441 
Austro-Malayan sub-region, physical features 
of, 388 
pag of, 409 
Aye-aye, figure of, 278 
Azores, visited by European birds, 17 
birds of, 207 


Azores, butterflies of, 207 
beetles of, 207, 209 
peculiarly modified birds of, 207 
stragglers to, 208 
how stocked with animal life, 208 


B. 


Babirusa of Celebes, peculiarities of, 428 
Badger, figure of, 195 
Balena, European Pliocene, 112 
Balwnodon, European Pliocene, 112 
Baly, Mr., on Phytophaga of Japan, 230 
Banca, its peculiar species and solution of a 
problem in distribution, 356 
Barriers, as affecting distribution, 6 
permanence of, as affeeting distribution, 7 
to the dispersal of birds, 17 
Bates, Mr., on Carabide of Japan, 228 
on Longicorns of Japan, 230 
Bathmodon, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Bathrodon, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Batrachia, Tertiary, 165 
Bats, powers of flight of, 15 
classification of, 87 
of New Zealand, 450 
Bears, probable cause of absence of, from 
tropical Africa, 291 
Beaver, N. American Tertiary, 140 
Beetles, families selected for study, 103 
from the Lias, 167 
of Azores, 207 
of Japan, 228 
Belemnoziphius, European Pliocene, 112 
Belt, Mr., his theory of a great Siberian lake 
during the glacial epoch, 218 
on change of climate caused by diminu- 
tion of obliquity of ecliptic, 466 
Birds, means of dispersal of, 15 
dispersal of by winds, 16 
American, found in Europe, 16 
reaching the Azores, 17 
barriers to dispersal of, 17 
limited by forests, 17 
classification of, 93 . 
Miocene of Greece, 116 
extinct, 160 
fossil of Palearctic region, 161 
European of Miocene period, 161 
Eocene of Europe, 162 
relations of, 162 
extinct of North America, 163 
recently extinct in New Zealand, 164 
Cretaceous of N. America, 164 
remains of in Brazilian caves, 164 “ad 
recently extinct in Madagascar and the 
Masearene Islands, 164 
cosmopolitan groups of, 176 
numerous genera, Palearctic, 183 
of the European sub-region, 193 
northern range of in Europe, 193 
of the zone of pine forests, 194 
of Iceland, 198 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, 208 
of Malta, 206 (note) 
of Azores, 207 
of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 
of Siberian sub-region, 219 
Oriental found in Siberia, 219 
extreme northern Asiatic, 219 
of northern Asiatic forests, 220 
of the Manchurian sub-region, 223 
Palwaretic genera of, in the Manchurian 
sub-region, 224 


is eee 
A % 

& 

’ . 

a 


. 


3 


INDEX. 491 


Birds, Oriental genera of, in the Manchurian 
sub-region, 224 
characteristic of N.W. China and Mon- 
golia, 226 
table of Palearctic families of, 235 
of West Aftica, 243 
list of Palearctic genera of, 243 
of the Ethiopian region, 253 
of the East African sub-region, 260 
8. African, 267 
genera of, peculiar to Madagascar, 275 
common to Madagascar and Oriental or 
Ethiopian regions, 276 
species common to Madagascar and Africa 
or Asia, 277 
table of Ethiopian families of, 295 
table of Ethiopian genera of, 306 
of the Oriental region, 316 
of the Indian sub-region, 323 
Oriental genera of in Central India, 324 
Palearctic and Ethiopian genera in 
Central India, 325 
of Ceylon, 327 
of Indo-Chinese subr egion, 330 
of Indo-Malayan sub-region, 337 
illustration of peculiar Malayan, 339 
of the Philippine Islands, 346 
table of Oriental families of, 366 
table of Oriental genera of, 375 
of Australian region, 391 
specially organized Australian families of, 
392 
of the Papuan Islands, 410 
peculiarities of, 413 
brilliant colours of, 413 
remarkable forms of, 414 
of the Moluccas, 418 
peculiarities of, 421 
of Timor group, 423 
of Celebes, 428 
of Australia, 440 
of New Zealand, 451 
peculiar to New Zealand, 452 
of Norfolk Island, 453 
of Lord Howe’s Island, 453 
of the Chatham Islands, 454 
of the Auckland Islands, 455 
table of families of Australian, 471 
table of genera of Australian, 478 
Black ape of Celebes, 427 
Blanford, Mr. W. T., on the ‘* Indian” 
region, 60 ; 
on relations of Indian sub-region with 
Africa, 321 
Blapsidium, Oolitic insect, 167 
Blyth, Mr., on zoological regions, 60 
on the relations of Indian sub-region with 
Africa, 321 
Borneo, probable recent changes in, 357 
Bos, Post-Pliocene, 112 
Indian Miocene, 122 
Bourbon, zoology of, 280 
reptiles of, 281 
Bovide,, European Miocene, 120 
Brachymys, European Miocene, 120 
Brumatherium, Miocene of Perim Island, 122 
Brazilian cave-fauna, 143 
remarks on, 145 
Breyeria borinensis, carboniferous insect, 168 
Britain, peculiar species in, 197 
British Isles, zoology of, 197 
Broad-bill, Malayan, figure of, 340 
Brontotheride, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Brontotherium, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Bubo, European Miocene, 162 
Bulimus, Eocene, 169 


Bunelurus, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Buprestidium, Oolitic insect, 167 
Butterflies, arrangement of, 103 
Palearctic, 187 
of Central Europe, 196 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 
of Azores, 207 
peculiar to Siberian sub-region, 220 
of Japan and North China, 227 
of the Ethiopian region, 255 
number of Ethiopian species, 256 
of Indo-Malay sub-region, 342 
of the Australian region, 404 
of the Austro-Malay sub-region, 404 
of the Moluccas, 419 
of Celebes, peculiarities of, 434 
of New Zealand, 457 


C. 


Cadurcotherium, European Eocene, 125 
Celodon, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Celogenys, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Cenopithecus, European Eocene, 124 
Cainotherium, European Miocene, 120 
European Eocene, 126 
Calamodon, N. American Eocene, 139 
Callithriz in Brazilian caves, 184 
Canaries, birds of, 208 
beetles of, 209 
Canidwe, European Miocene, 118 
European Eocene, 125 
N. American Tertiary, 134 
remarkable 8. African, 267 
Canis, European Pliocene, 112 
Post-Pliocene, 112 
European Miocene, 118 
Indian Miocene, 121 
European Eocene, 125 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 
N. American Tertiary, 134, 135 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 146 
Camel, fossil in Indian Miocene, 122 
birth-place and migrations of, 155 
Palearctic, 182 
Camelide, essentially extra-tropical, 112 
N. American Tertiary, 138 
Caumelopardalis, Miocene of Greece, 116 
Indian Miocene, 122 
Camelotherium, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Cape a? Good Hope, peculiar flora and fauna 
of, 266 . 
Cape Verd Islands, zoology of, 214 
Cape-hare, 8. African, 267 
Cardiodus, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Cariama, Brazilian caves, 164 
Carnivora of European Pliocene, 112 
Miocene of Greece, 115 
European Miocene, 118 
Indian Miocene, 121 
European Eocene, 125 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 
N. American Tertiary. 134 
of Brazilian caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 146 
Carnivora, classification of, 88 
antiquity of, 153 
of the Palearctic region, 182 
list of Palearctic genera of, 240 
list of Ethiopian genera of, 302 
range of Oriental genera of, 873 
list of Australian genera of, 476 
Caroline Islands, birds of, 444 
Carterodon in Brazilian caves, 145 


492 INDEX. 


Carus, and Gerstaeker on classification of 
animals, 85 
Professor, on classification of the Cetacea, 
88 


Castor, European Pliocene, 113 
European Miocene, 120 
Casoryz, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Cathartes, Brazilian caves, 164 
Cave-fauna of Brazil, 143 
Cavia, European Miocene, 121 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
Cebocherus, European Eocene, 126 
Cebus in Brazilian caves, 144 
Celebes, physical features of, 389 
manunalia of, 426 
birds of, 428 
insects of, 434 
origin of fauna of, 436 
Centetide, European Miocene, 118 
Ceratodus, remarkable Australian fish, 397 
Cercolabes in Brazilian caves, 145 
Cercopithecus in European Pliocene, 112 
Cervide, European Miocene, 120 
birth-place and migrations of, 155 
Cervus, European Pliocene, 113 
Indian Pliocene and Miocene, 122 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Tertiary, 138 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
Cetacea, European Pliocene, 112 
European Miocene, 119 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Tertiary, 140 
Cetacea, classifivation of, 89 
range of Oriental genus, 374 
Ceylon and Malaya, resemblance of insects of, 
827 


Ceylonese sub-region, 326 
mammialia of, 327 
hirds of, 327 
reptiles of, 327 
amphibia of, 327 
insects of, 327 
past history of, as indicated by its fauna, 
328 


Chalicomys, European Pliocene, 113 
Chalicotherium, European Miocene, 119 
Indian Miocene, 122 
fossil in N. China, 123 
Chameleo, N. American Eocene, 165 
Chamois, figure of, 195 
Chatham Islands, birds of, 454 
Chelonia, classification of, 100 
Chelydra, European Pliocene, 165 
Chevrotain of Malaya, figure of, 356 
Chili should not be placed in the Palearctic 
or Nearctie regions, 63 
China, fossil mammals in, resembling those of 
Indian and Enropean Miocene, 362 
North, mammalia of, 222 
Chinchillide: in Brazilian caves, 145 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
Pliocene of Antilles, 148 
Chiroptera, classification of, 87 
list of Palearctic genera of, 239 
list of Ethiopian genera of, 800 
range of Oriental genera of, 871 
list of Australian genera of, 475 
Chiroptera, European Kocene, 125 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
Chlamydotherium in Brazilian caves, 145 
Cheromorus, European Miocene, 119 
Cherropotamus, European Eocene, 126 
Cherotherium, Indian Miocene, 122 


Choneziphius, European Pliocene, 112 

Chough, Alpine, figure of, 195 

Circumpolar zones, objections to system of, 67 

Classification as affecting the study of distri- 
bution, 83 

Clausilia, Eocene, 169 

Climate, as a limit to the range of mammnalia, 
il 


gradual change of, before the glacial epoch, 
41 


Coleoptera, families selected for study, 103 

Palearctic, 188 

number of Palearctic species, 189 

of Central Europe, 196 

of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 

of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 

of the Ethiopian region, 256 

S. African, 268 

of Madagascar, 282, 283° 

of the Oriental region, 319 : 

of Indo-Malay sub-region, 342 

of the Australian region, 405 pi 

affinity of Australian and South American, 

406, 407 

of Celebes, 435 

of New Zealand, 457 
Collocalia, European Miocene, 161 
Colobus, European Miocene, 117 
Colonoceras, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Colossochelys ot Indian Miocene, 123, 165 
Columbe, classification of, 96 

range of Palearctic genera of, 248 

range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 

range of Oriental genera of, 384 

range of Australian genera of, 485 
Comoro islands, zoology of, 281 
Continents, distribution of, 37 

recent changes of, 38 
Continental extension in Mesozoic times, 156 
Corvus, Huropean Miocene, 161 ; 
Coryphodon, European Eocene, 126 
Cosmopolitan groups enumerated, 175 
Cricetodon, European Miocene, 120 
Cricetus, European Pliocene, 113 
Crocodiles, Eocene, 165* 
Crocodilia, classification of, 100 
Crook-billed plovers of New Zealand, 456 
Crotch, Mr., on beetles of the Azores, 209 
Crowned-pigeon, figure of, 415 
Cryptornis, European Eocene, 163 
Ctenomys, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Cuba, extinct mammalia of, 148 
Curculionidium, Oolitie insect, 167 
Cyclostoma, Eocene, 169 
Cyllo sepulta, European Cretaceous, 167 
Cynelurus, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Cynopithecus of Celebes, affinities of, 427 
Cyotherium, European Eocene, 125 


dD. 


Daptophilus, N. American Tertiary, 184 
Darwin, Mr., his explanation of the cause of 


the abundance of apterous insects in 


Madeira, 211 
on the relation of flowers and insects, 468 
Dasyprocta, Kuropean Miocene, 121 
in Brazilian caves, 144 


Danenss in Brazilian caves, 145 . 


. American Pliocene, 147 
Dasyurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 
David, Pére, his researches in China and Thi- 
bet, 221, 322 
on birds of N, China, 226, 


INDEX. 


Deer, fossil in N, American Tertiary forma- 
tions, 138 
Palearctic, 182 
probable cause of absence of from tropical 
Africa, 291 
Delphinus, European Pliocene, 112 
Dendrocygna, Kuropean Miocene, 162 
Desman of 8. Russia, figure of, 219 
Diceratherium, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Dichobune, European Eocene, 126 
Dicotyles, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Tertiary, 137 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 146 
birthplace and migrations of, 155 
Dicrocerus, Enropean Miocene, 120 
Didelphys, European Eocene, 126 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
in Brazilian caves, 145 
Didida, 164 
Dinocerata, N. American Tertiary, 139 
Dinoceras, N. American Eocene, 139 
Dinornis, allied form in European Eocene, 163 
of New Zealand and Australia, 164 
Dinornithide of New Zealand, 164 
Dinotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 
European Miocene, 120 
Miocene of Perim Island, 123 
Dinyctis, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Dinylus, European Miocene, 117 
Diplacodon, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Diprotodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 
Dispersal of animals, 10 
of mammazlia, 10 
of reptiles and amphibia, 28 
Distribution, affected by climate, 5 
affected by physical features, 5 
contrasts of, in similar climates, 5 
similarities of, in diverse climates, 6 
barriers as affecting, 6 
study of, dependent on a good elassifica- 
tion, 83 
of animals an adjunct to geology, 8 
of animals requires certain preliminary 
studies, S 
of animals dependent on physical geo- 
graphy, 35 
ofanimals, as affected by the glacial epoch, 
40 
of animals, as affected by changes of 
vegetation, 43 
of animals, as affected by organic changes, 


of animals, hypothetical illustration of, 
46 


of animals, complexity of the causes af- 
fecting the, 49 
of anima!s, problems in, 51 
of plants, as affected by the glacial epoch, 
42 
Dodo of Mauritius, 282 . 
Dolichopterus, European Miocene, 162 
Dommina, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Dorcatherium, European Miocene, 120 
Dremotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 
European Miocene, 120 
Dresser, Mr. H. E., on northern range of 
European birds, 193 
Dromatherium, N, American Triassic, 134 
oldest American mammal, 160 
ngo-shrike, Malayan figure of, 340 
opithecus European Miocene, 117 


493 


BE 
4 
de 


East Africa, geographical features of, 258 
wide range of genera and species over, 259 
few special types in, 260 
East African sub-region, description of, 258 
genera and species ranging over the whole 
of, 259 
mamuimialia of, 260 
birds of, 260 
reptiles of, 260 
amphibia and fishes of, 260 
insects of, 260 
few peculiar types in, 260 
illustration of zoology of, 261 
Fast Australia, peculiar birds of, 440 
Kast Thibet, mammalia of, 222 
Katon, Rev. A. E., on insects of Kerguelen 
Island, 211 
Echimyide, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Echinogale, European Miocene, 118 
Ectoguathus, N. American Eocene, 139 
Edentata, Miocene of Greece, 116 
European Miocene, 121 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Pliocene, 140 
of Brazilian caves, 145 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
Edentata, classification of, 90 
probable birthplace of, 155 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 305 
range of Oriental genus of, 375 
Elephants, fossil of Indian Miocene, 123 
fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene for- 
mations, 130 
birthplace and migrations of, 155 
Elephant shrews, 8. African, 267 
Elephas, Post-Pliocene, 112 
fossil in N. China, 123 
N. American Tertiary, 138 
Elliot, Mr., his great work on the birds 0 
paradise, 415 
Elornis, European Miocene, 162 
Elotherium, N. American Tertiary, 187, 139 
Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, 204 
on true relations of the birds of Central 
India, 323 
Embasis, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Emu, figure of, 441 
Emys, Indian Miocene, 123 
Miocene and Eocene, 165 
Emydida, Indian Miocene, 123 
Enhydrion, Indian Miocene, 121 
Hobasileus, N. American Eocene, 139 
Eocene period, 124 
fauna of 8. America, 148 
Ephemera, from the Lias, 167 
Eporeodon, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Equide, European Pliocene, 112 
Miocene of Greece, 115 
European Eocene, 125 
Equus, European Pliocene, 112 
Post-Pliocene, 112 
Indian Miocene, 121 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Tertiary, 135 
Brazilian caves, 144 
8S. American Pliocene, 146 
Ereptodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
Erinaceus, European Miocene, 117 
Erythromachus of Rodriguez, 164 
Esthonyx, N. American Eocene, 139 
Ethiopian region should not include any part 
of India, 63 
defined, 73 
subdivisions of, 73 


~ 
= 


494 


Ethiopian region, general features of, 251 
zoological characteristics of, 252 
mammalia of, 253 
great speciality of, 253 
birds of, 253 
reptiles of, 254 
amphibia of, 255 
fresh-water fish of, 255 
suminary of vertebrates of, 255 
insects of, 255 
coleoptera of, 256 
terrestrial mollusca of, 257 
sub-regions of, 258 
Atlantic islands of, 269 
the probable past history of, 285 
tables of distribution of animals of, 293 

Eumys, N. American Tertiary, 140 

Euphractus, 8. American Pliocene, 147 

ee recent changes in physical geography 

of, 39 

Miocene fauna of Central, 117 

Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna 
of tropical Asia and Africa, 124 

European sub-region, description of, 191 
forests of, 192 
mammialia of, 192 
birds of, 193 
reptiles and amphibia of, 195 
fresh-water fish of, 196 
insects of, 196 
islands of, 197 

Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, 278 

FEurydon, in Brazilian caves, 145 

Eurytherium, European Eocene, 126 

Eutatus, 8. American Pliocene, 147 

Eutelodon, European Eocene, 126 

Eutemnodus, 8. American Eocene, 148 

Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general 

considerations on, 126 

mammalia of N, America and Europe, 
comparison of, 140 

mammalia of the Antilles, 148 

mammalia of Old and New Worlds, 
general remarks on, 148 

fauna of New Zealand, 459 

Extinction of large animals, causes of, 158 


F. 


Fauna of Japan, general character and affini- 
ties of, 230 
of Palearctic region, general conclusions 
as to, 231 
extinct, of Madagascar and Mascarene 
Islands, 282 
Malayan, probable origin of, 359 
Molueecan, peculiarities of, 419 
Timorese, origin of, 422 
of Celebes, origin of, 436 
of New Zealand, origin of, 460 
Felis speleea, 110 
Felis, Miocene of Greece, 115 
Kuropean Miocene, 118 
Indian Miocene, 121 " 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
Fernando Po, zoological features of, 265 
Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, 448 
Fishes, means of dispersal of, ‘29 
classification of, LOL 
ees olitan groups of, 176 
of the Palearctic region, 186 
of the European sub-region, 196 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 
of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 


INDEX. 


shes a -water,table of Palearctic families 
of, 227 
of the Ethiopian region, 255 
of South Africa, 268 
fresh-water, table of Ethiopian families of, 
298 
fresh-water, of the Oriental region, 318 
of the Indo-Malay sub-region, 341 
fresh-water, table of Oriental families of, 
369 
fresh-water, of the Australian region, 397 
fresh-water,resemblance of Australian and 
8. American, 400 
how the transmission may have taken 
place, 401 
fresh-water, of New Zealand, 457 
Flamingoes, European Miocene, 162 
Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by sear- 
city of insects, 462 » 
fossil of Australia, 467 
Flower, Professor, on classification of mam- 
malia, 85 
classification of carnivora, 87 
Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, 337 
Flying Opossum, figure of, 442 
Formosa, zoology of, 332 
Forests, essential to existence of many Euro- 
pean animals, 192 
Siberian, greatest extent of, 216 


G. 


Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, 463 
Galecynus, in European Pliocene, 112 
Galera, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
Galeospalax, European Miocene, 118 
Galeotheriwm, Post-Pliocene, 111 
Galethylax, European Eocene, 125 
Galictis, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Gallinze, classification of, 96 
range of Palearctic genera of, 248 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 
range of Oriental genera of, 384 7 
range of Australian genera of, 485. 
Gallus, Miocene of Greece, 116 
Gallus bravardi, European Pliocene, 161 
Gastornis, Huropean Eocene, 163 
Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene 
faunas of N. America, 132 
Geological history of Oriental region, 362 
Gibraltar, cave fauna of, 114 
Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of 
animals, 40 
as a cause of the great change in the AG 
fauna of the temperate zones, since 
Pliocene times, 151 
probably simultaneous in both hemi- 
spheres, 151 
causing a general subsidence of the — 
ocean, 152 ’ 
Clandina, Eocene, 169 
Glossotheriwm, in Brazilian eaves, 145 
8S. American Pliocene, 147 
Glyptodon, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
CGnathopsis, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Goats, aliearetic, 182 
Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the 
Azores, 207 
Golden Moles, 8. African, 267 : 
(raculavus, N. American Cretaceous, 164 4 
Gralle, arrangement of, 97 
peculiar or characteristic Palwaretie 
nera, 249 
peculiar Ethiopian genera of, 318 é 


INDEX. 495 


Gralla, peculiar Oriental genera of, 386 
peculiar Australian genera of, 486 
Gray, Dr. J. E., on classification of Cetacea,88 
Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, 115 
summary of Miocene fauna of, 116 
Groups peculiar to a region, how defined, 184 
Gulick, Rev. J. T., on Achatinellidee of the 
Sandwich Islands, 446 
Giinther, Dr., his classification of reptiles, 98 
his classification of fishes, 101 
on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the 
Mascarene Islands, 289 : 
on range of Indian reptiles in the Hima- 
layas, 329 


H. 


Haast, Dr., on extinct birds of New Zealand, 
460 
Habitat, definition of, 4 
Hainan, zoology of, 334 
Haleyornis, European Eocene, 103 
Halitherium, European Pliocene, 112 
European Miocene, 119 
Helladotheriwm, Miocene of Greece, 116 
European Miocene, 120 
Hatteria of New Zealand, 456 
Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, 331 
Helix, Eocene, 169 
Hemibos, Indian Miocene, 122 
Hemicyon, European Miocene, 118 
Herpetotherium, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Hesperomys, N. American Tertiary, 140 
in Brazilian caves, 145 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
Hesperornis, N. American Cretaceous, 164 
Heterodon, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Hexaprotodon, Indian Miocene, 122 
Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinc- 
tion of large animals, 158 
Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups 
im the, 329, 333 
Hipparion, European Pliocene, 112 
Miocene of Greece, 115 
European Miocene, 119 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Tertiary, 135 
Hippopotamus, Post-Pliocene, 112 
Europe im Pliocene, 113 
Indian Pliocene, 122 
Hipposyus, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Hippotherium, European Miocene, 119 
Indian Miocene, 122 
Hippotragus, European Miocene, 120 
Homalodontotherium, 8. American Pliocene, 
146 
Homalophus, European Miocene, 161 
Homocamelus, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Honeysuckers, birds specially adapted to 
Australia, 392 
Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New 
Zealand plants, 464 
Hoplocetus, European Pliocene, 112 
Hoplophoneus, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, 121 
perfect series of ancestral, in N. America, 
136 
probable birthplace of, 154 
Hutton, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand 
fauna, 461 
Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, 59 
division of aniinal kingdom by, 85 
Hyena, Post-Pliocene, 112 
Miocene of Greece, 115 
European Miocene, 118 


Hyena, Indian Miocene, 121 

fossil in N. China, 123 
Hyenarctos in Buropean Pliocene, 112 

European Miocene, 118 

Indian Miocene, 121 

8S. American Pliocene, 146 
Hyenictis, Miocene of Greece, 115 

European Miocene, 118 
Hyenide, European Miocene, 118 
Hycenodon, European Miocene, 118 

European Hocene, 125 

N. American Tertiary, 134 
Hyenodontide, European Miocene, 118 
Aydrocherus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
Hydrornis, European Miocene, 162 
Hyohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Hyomoschus, European Miocene, 120 
Hyopotamus, European Miocene, 119 

N. American Tertiary, 137 
Hyopsodus, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Hyotherium, European Miocene, 119 
Hypertragulus, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Hypisodus, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Huypsiprymnus, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 
Hyrachyus, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Hyracodon, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Hyracoidea, classification of, 90 

Palearctic, 242 

Ethiopian, 304 
Hyracotherium, supposed, in European Eo- 

cene, 125 

European Kocene, 126 
Hystrix, European Pliocene, 113 

Miocene of Greece, 116 

N. American Tertiary, 140 


I. 


Ibidipodia, European Miocene, 162 , 
Ibidorhynchus, figure of, 331 
Iceland, zoology of, 198 
Icthyornis, N. American Cretaceous, 164 
Icticyon in Brazilian caves, 144 
Ictitherium, Miocene of Greece, 115 
European Miocene, 118 
Ictops, N. American Tertiary, 133 
India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of 
Europe, 123 
geological features of, 328 
Indian, sub-region, description of, 321 
supposed relation to Ethiopian region, 321 
mammalia of, 322 
birds of, 323 
reptiles and amphibia of, 326 
Indo-Chinese, sub-region, description of, 329 
zoological characteristics of, 330 
illustration of, 331 
reptiles of, 331 
amphibia of, 331 
insects of, 332 
islands belonging to, 333 
Indo-Malayan sub-region, description of, 334 
mammalia of, 336 
illustrations of, 336, 339 
birds of, 337 
remote geographical relations of, 339 
reptiles and amphibia of, 340 
fishes of, 341 
insects of, 341 
coleoptera of, 342 
terrestrial mollusea of, 343 
zoological relations of islands of, 345 
recent geographical changes in, 357 
probable origin of fauna of, 359 
Insects, means of dispersal of, 32 


496 


INDEX. 


Insects, tenacity of life of, 33 
adapted to special conditions, 33 
groups selected for the study of their 
geographical distribution, 102 
antiquity of the genera of, 166 
fossil of European Miocene, 166 
European Cretaceous, 167 
European Wealden, 167 
Paleozoic, 168 
Palearctic, 187 
of Central Europe, 196 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, 205 
of the Siberian sub-region, 220 
of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 
of the Ethiopian region, 255 
of the East African sub-region, 260 
of West Africa, 265 
S. African, 268 
of Madagascar, 282 
general remarks on, 284 
of tropical Africa and America, probable 
eause of similarities in, 291 
of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 332 
of the Oriental region, 318 
of Ceylon, 327 
of Indo-Malay sub-region, 341 
statistics of collecting in the various 
islands of the Malay Archipelago, 343 
of the Australian region, 403 
of New Guinea, 417 
of the Moluccas, 420 
of Timor group, 426 
of Celebes, 454 
of New Zealand, 458 
scarcity of, in New Zealand, 462 
influence of on the flora, 463 
Insectivora, European Miocene, 117 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 
N. American Tertiary, 133 
Insectivora, classification of, 87 
of the Palearctic region, 181 
of N. China and E. Thibet, 222 
range of Palearctic genera of, 239 
of Madagascar, 273 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 301 
of the Oriental region, 315 
range of Oriental genera of, 372 
range of Australian genera of, 476 
Tsacis, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Ischyromys, N. American Tertiary, 140 
Islands, N. European, zoclogy of, 197 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, 206 
of the West African sub-region, 265 
of Ethiopian region, 269 
Mascarene, 280 
of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, 333 
of Indo-Malay sub-region, 345 
Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, 443 
Society and Marquesas, 444 
New Caledonia and New Hebrides, 445 
Sandwich, 446 
of New Zealand sub-region, 453 
Norfolk, 453 
Lord Howe's, 454 
Chatham, 454 
Auckland, 455 
Tesiodromys, European Pliocene, 118 


J. 


Jacchus, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Japan and North China, physical features of, 
221 


southern extremity of perhaps belongs to 
the Oriental region, 226 ' 


Japan, general character of the fauna of, 230 
former land-connexions of, 231 
Java, mammalia of, 349 : 
productions -of, well known, 350 
birds of, 351 
representative species of birds in, 352 
origin of the anomalous features of its 
fauna, 352 
Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical 
contrasts and zoological peculiarities 
explained, 357 
Junonia, European Miocene, 167 


K. 


Kakapoe, of New Zealand, 455 

Kangaroos, extinct in Australia, 157 

Kerguelen Island, apterous insects of, 211 
(note) 

Kevodon, in Brazilian caves, 144 

S. Aierican Pliocene, 147 

King-fisher, racquet tailed, of New Guinea, 
figure of, 415 

Kiwi of New Zealand, 455 

Koodoo antelope, figure of, 261 


L. 


Lacertilia, classification of, 99 
Ladrone Islands, birds of, 444 
Lagomys, European Pliocene, 113 
European Miocene, 120 
Lagostomus, in Brazilian eaves, 145 
8S. American Pliocene, 147 
Lake Baikal, seals of, 21S 
Land and water, proportions of, 35 
Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the 
genera of, 168 
Land-shells, Paleeozoie, 169 
Palearctic, 190 
of Madeira, 209 
of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 
of the Ethiopian region, 257 
of W. Africa, 265 ; 
of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, 
285 
of Indo-Malay sub-region, 344 
of the Australian region, 407 
of Sandwich Islands, 446 
of New Zealand, 459 
Lanius, European Miocene, 161 
Laopithecus, N .American Tertiary, 133 
Laornis, N. American Cretaceous, 164 
Lemuria, a hypothetical land, 76 
Lamuravide, N. Ameriean Tertiary, 133 
Lemuravus, N. American Tertiary, 183 
Lemuride, European Eocene, 124 
Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, 300 
range of Oriental genera of, 371 : 
Tepictis, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, 177, 
table of Palearctic families of, 238 
8. African, 268 
table of Ethiopian families of, 299 
of the Oriental region, 818 
table of Oriental families of, 369 
of the Australian region, 404 
table of Australian families of, 472 
Leptarchus, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Leptauchenia, N, American Tertiary, 138 
Leptocherus, N, American Tertiary, 187 
Leptodon, Miocene of Greece, 116 
Leptomeryx, N. American Tertiary, 188 
| Leptoptilus, European Miocene, 16% 


INDEX. 


Leptosomus, allied form in European Eocene,168 


Leptosonius of Madagascar, 278 

figure of, 279 
Leptotherium, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Lepus, in Brazilian caves, 145 

S. American Pliocene, 147 
Lestodon, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan 

insects, 228 
Lebellula, from the Lias, 167 
Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the 
Rodentia, 90 

Limneea, Eocene, 169 

European Secondary, 169 
Limnatornis, European Miocene, 161 
Limnocyon, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Limnohuus, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Limnotheridw, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Limnotherium, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Listriodon, European Miocene, 119 
Lithomys, European Miocene, 120 
Lithornis, European Eocene, 163 . 
Lizards, classification of, 99 

Tertiary, 165 

wide range of a species in Polynesia, 448 
Loncheres, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Lonchophorus, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Lophiodon, European Eocene, 125 

N. American Tertiary, 136 
Lophiotherium, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Lord Howe’s Island, birds of, 453 
Loxomylus, Pliocene of Antilles, 148 
Lund, Dr., his researches in caves of Brazil, 143 
Lutra, European Miocene, 118 

Indian Miocene, 121 
LIyceena, Miocene of Greece, 115 
Lyre-bird, figure of, 441 


M. 


Macacus, European Pliocene, 112 

Miocene of Greece, 115 

Indian Miocene, 121 

supposed in European Eocene, 125 
Machairodus, 110, 111 

Miocene of Greece, 115 

European Miocene, 118 

Indian Miocene, 121 

N. American Tertiary, 134 

in Brazilian caves, 144 

8S. American Pliocene, 146 
Macrauchenia, 8. American Pliocene, 146 
Macrotherium, Miocene of Greece, 116 

European Miocene, 121 
Madagascar, extinct birds of, 164 

description of, 272 

mammalia of, 272 

birds of, 274 

reptiles of, 279 

ainphibia of, 280 

extinct fauna of, 282 

general remarks on insect fauna of, 284 
Madeira, birds of, 208 

land shells of, 208 

beetles of, 210 

wingless insects numerous in, 211 

how stocked with animals, 213 
Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, zoological 

unity of, 353 

comparison of mammalia, 354 

of birds, 355 
Malagasy sub-region, description of, 272 

mammialia of, 272 

birds of, 274 

illustration of zoology of, 278 


497 


Malagasy sub-region, reptiles of, 279 
amphibia of, 280 
extinct fauna of, 282, 289 
insects of, 282 
early history of, 286 
Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms defined, 345 
(note) 
Malayan forms of life reappearing in West 
Africa, 263 
fauna, probuble origin of, 359 
resemblances to that of Madagascar aud 
Ceylon explained, 361 : 
Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, 114 
formerly joined to Africa, 201 
fossil elephants of, 201 
birds of, 206 (note) 
Mammalia, means of dispersal of, 10 
as limited by climate, 11 
as limited by rivers, 12 
how far limited by the sea, 13 
dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, 14 
means of dispersal of aquatic, 15 
of most importance in determining zoo- 
logical regions, 57 
classification of, 85 
birthplace and migrations of some families 
of, 142, 153 
cosmopolitan groups of, 176 
of the Palearctic region, 181 
of the European sub-region, 192 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, 202 
of the Siberian sub-region, 217 
characteristic of Western Tartary, 218 
of the Manchurian sub-region, 222 ! 
Palearctic genera of, in the Manchurian 
sub-region, 222 
Oriental genera of, on borders of same 
sub-region, 223 
peculiar to Japan, 223 
characteristic of N.W. China and Mongolia, 
226 
table of Palearctic families of, 234 
range of Palearctic genera of, 239 
of the Ethiopian region, 253 
absence of certain important groups, 253 
of the East African sub-region, 260 
of West Africa, 262 
of 8. Africa, 267 
of Madagascar, 272 
table of Ethiopian families of, 294 
table of Ethiopian genera of, 300 
of the Oriental region, 315 
range of the genera inhabiting the Indian 
sub-region, 322 
of Ceylon, 327 
of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, 330 
of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, 336 
illustration of characteristic Malayan, 
336 
of the Philippine Islands, 345 
table of Oriental families of, 365 
table of Oriental genera of, 371 
of Australian region, 390 
of the Papuan Islands, 410 
of the Moluccas, 417 
of Timor group, 422 
of Celebes, 427 
of Australia, 439 
illustration of, 439 
of New Zealand, 450 
table of families of Australian, 470 
table of genera of Australian, 475 
Mammal, the most ancient American, 134 
Mammalia, extinct, of Old World, 107 
extinct, of historic period, 110 
extinct, comparative age of in Europe, 127 


- 


498 | INDEX. 


Mammalia, extinct, of the New World, 129 
extinct, of N. America and Europe, com- 
pared, 141 
original birth-place of some families and 
genera, 142, 153 
of the secondary period, 160 
Manatus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
Manchurian sub-region, description of, 220 
mammalia of, 222 
birds of, 223 
reptiles and amphibia of, 227 
fresh-water fish of, 227 
insects of, 227 
coleoptera of, 228 
Marquesas Islands, birds of, 443 
Marsh, Mr., on improvability of Asiatic and 
African deserts, 200 
on camels and goats as destructive to 
vegetation, 200 
Marsupials, classification of, 91 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
European Miocene, 121 
first migration to America, 155 
diversified forms of, 391 
of America prove no connexion with 
Australia, 399 
list of Australian genera of, 476 
Martes, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Mascarene Islands, zoology of, 280 
extinct fauna of, 282 
igantic land-tortoises of, 289 
Mastodon, European Pliocene, 113 
Miocene of Greece, 116 
European Miocene, 120 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
Indian Miocene, 123 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Tertiary, 138 
Mauritius, zoology of, 280 
reptiles of, 281 
McCoy, Professor, on Paleontology of 
Victoria, 466 
Mediterranean, recent changes in, 39 
sub-region, description of, 199 
mammalia of, 202 
birds of, 203 
reptiles and amphibia of, 204 
fresh-water fish of, 205 
insects of, 205 
islands of, 206 
sea not separating distinct faunas, 201 
Megacerops, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Megalomeryt, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Megalocnus, fossil in Cuba, 148 
Megalonyx, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
in Brazilian caves, 145 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
Meg«alostoma, Eocene, 169 
Megamys, 8. Ainerican Eocene, 148 
poison, abe European Tertiary, 169 
Megatheride, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Megatherium, N. Am>rican Post-Pliocene, 130 
in Brazilian caves, 145 
S. Amsrican Pliocene, 147 
Melania, Buropean secondary, 169 
Meleagris, N. American Miocene, 163 
Mellivora, Indian Miocene, 121 
Melolonthidium, Oolitic insect, 167 
Meniscotherium, N, American Tertiary, 138 
Menotherium, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Mephitis, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Merychus, N. American Tertiary, 188 
seryeer ee N. American Tertiary, 135 
Merychochwrus, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Merycodus, N. American Tertiary, 139 


Merycopotamus, Indian Miocene, 122 
Merycotherium of Siberian drift, 112 
Mesacodon, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Mesohippus. N. American Tertiary, 135 
Mesonyx, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Mesopithecus, Miocene of Greece, 115 
Meyer, Dr. A. B., on reptiles and amphibia of 
New Guinea, 415 
Microlestes, oldest European mammal, 160 
Micromeryr, European Miocene, 120 
Microsyops, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Microtherium, European Miocene, 120 
Middendorf, on extreme northern birds, 219 
Migrating birds, in which region to be placed, 
iA 


Jv 

Migration of animals, 10 

general phenomena of, 18 

of birds, 19 ~ 

of birds in Europe, 19 “ 

probable origin of, 22 

of birds in India and China, 23 

of birds in N. America, 23 

changes in extent of, 24 

of birds in 8. Temperate America, 25 

general remarks on, 25 
Milvus, European Miocene, 162 
Miocene fauna of the Old World, 114 

fauna of Greece, 115 

fauna of Greece, summary of, 116 

fauna of Central Europe, 117 

deposits of Siwalik Hills, 121 

faunas of Europe and Asia, general obser- 

vations on, 123 
Miohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Mivart, Professor, on classification of primates, 
86 


on classification of insectivora, 87 

on classification of amphibia, 101 
Moles almost wholly Palarctic, 181 
Mole-rat, of W. Tartary, 218 
Mollusea, means of dispersal of, 30 

classification of, 104 

groups selected for study, 104 
Moluecas, zoology of, 417 

birds of, 419 

reptiles of, 420 

insects of, 420 

eculiarities of fauna of, 421 

Monkeys on the high Himalayas, 12 

fossil in N. American Miocene 

in E. Thibet, 222 

abundance of in the Oriental region, 315 
Monotremata, classification of, 91 

list of Australian genera of, 477 
* More-pork” of Australia, figure of, 442 
Morotherium, N. American Pliocene, 140 
Motacilla, European Miocene, 161 r 
Mound-builders, peculiar Australian birds, 

803 
Moupin, osition and zoology of, 221 
Muride, 8. American Pliocene, 147 : 
Murray, Mr. Andrew, on zoolozical region, 60 
Mustela, Miocene of Greece, 115 

European Miocene, 118 

S. American Pliocene, 146 
Mustelid, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Mylodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 

S. American Pliocene, 47 
Myogale, European Miocene, 118 
Myomorphus, fossil in Cuba 
Myopotamus, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Myoxus, European Miocene, 120 

Buropean Bocene, 126 
Myserachne, Buropean Miocene, 118 
Mysops, N. American Eocene, 140 
Myaophagus, N, American Post-Pliocone, 180 


INDEX. 


N, 


Nanohyus, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Nasua, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Nearctic region, defined, 79 
subdivisions of, 80 
distinct from Palearctic, 79 
Necrornis, European Miocene, 161 
Neotropical region, defined, 78 
subdivisions of, 78 
relations of W. African sub-region with, 265 
Nesodon, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Newton, Professor, on position of Menuride 
and Atrich iide, 95 
on birds of Iceland, 198 
New Caledonia, birds of, 444 
New Guinea, zoology of, 409 
mammalia of, 410 
birds of, 411 
peculiarities of its ornithology, 413 
illustration of ornithology of, 414 
reptiles and amphibia of, 415 
insects of, 416 
New Zealand, objections to making a primary 
zoological region, 62 
extinct birds of, 164 
sub-region, description of, 449 
compared with British Isles, 449 
mammialia of, 451 
islets of, 453 
illustration of ornithology of, 425 
reptiles of, 456 
amphibia of, 457 
fresh-water fish of, 457 
insects of, 458 
Longicorns of, 458 
Myriapoda of, 458 
land-shells of, 459 
ancient fauna of, 460 
origin of fauna of, 460 
poverty of insects in, 462 
relations of insect-fauna and flora, 472 
Nicobar Islands, their zoological relations, 332 
Nightingale, migration of the, 21 
Norfolk Island, birds of, 453 
North America, remarks on Post-Pliocene 
fauna of, 130 
Post-Pliocene fauna of, partly derived from 
8. America, 131 
extinct birds of, 163 
North Africa, zoological relations of, 202 
Notharctos, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Notornis of New Zealand, 455 
Nototherium, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 


O. 


Ochctherium, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Octodontide, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Ophidia, classification of, 99 
Opisthocomus, Brazilian cay es, 164 
Opossum, extinct, in European Miocene, 121 
Oreodon, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Oreodcntida, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Oriental region, defined, 75 

subdivisions of, 75 

description of, 314 

zoological features of, 315 

mammalia of, 315 

birds of, 316 

reptiles of, 317 

amphibia ‘of, 317 

fresh-water fishes of, 318 

summary of vertebrata, 318 

insects of, 318 

sub-regions of, 321 


499 


Oriental region, concluding remarks on, 362 
tables of distribution of animals of, 864 
Oriental relations of W. African sub-region, 265 
Oriental and Palearctic faunas once identical, 
362 
Oriental and Ethiopian faunas, cause of their 
resemblances, 363 
Orohippus, N. American Tertiary, 196 
Ostrich, Miocene of N. India, 162 
Otaria, European Miocene, 118 
Ovibos, N. American Post-Pliocene, 180 
Oxen, birthplace and migrations of, 155 
Palearctic, 182 
Oxyena, N. Ainerican Tertiary, 184 
Oxygomphus, European Miocene, 118 
Oxymycterus, in Brazilian caves, 145 
S. American Pliocene, 147 


P. 


- Pachyena, N. American Tertiary, 134 


Pachynolophus, European Eocene, 126 
Pachytherium, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Palearctic region, defined, 71 
subdivisions of, 71 
general features of, 180 
zoological characteristics of, 181 
has few peculiar families, 181 
mammialia of, 181 
birds of, 182 
high degree of speciality of, 184 
reptiles and amphibia of, 186 ¢ 
fresh-water fish of, 186 
summary of vertebrata of, 186 
insects of, 186 
coleoptera of, 187 
number of coleoptera of, 189 
land-shells of, 190 
sub-regions of, 190 
general conclusions on the fauna of, 231 
tables of distribution of animals of, 233 
Paleacodcn, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Paleetus, European Miocene, 162 
Palegithalus, European Eocene, 162 
Palelodus, European Miovene, 162 
Paleocastor, N. American Tertiary, 140 
Paleocercus, European Miocene, 162 
Paleocherus, European Miocene, 119 
Paleohierax, European Miocene, 162 
Palwolagus, N. American Tertiary, 140 
Paleolama, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Palwomephitis, European Miocene, 118 
Paleomeryx, Europear Miocene, 120 
Pclewomys, European Miocene, 121 
Paleontina oolitica, Oolitic insect, 167 
Paleontology, 107 
how best studied in its bearing on geo- 
graphical distribution, 168 
as an introduction to the study of geo- 
graphical distribution, concluding re- 
marks on, 169 
Paleonyctis, European Eocene, 125 
Paleoperdix, European Miocene, 161 
Paleophrynus, European Miocene, 166 
Palworeas, Miocene of Greece, 116 
Palewortyx, European Miocene, 161 
Faleworyx, Miocene of Greece, 116 
Paleospalax, 111 
European Miocene, 117 
Paleosyops, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Palewotheride, European Eocene, 125 
Palewotherium, European Eocene, 125 
8. American Eocene, 148 
Paleotragus, Miocene of Greece, 116 
Paileotringa, N. American Cretaceous, 164 


500 


Palapterygide of New Zealand, 164 
Palestine, birds of, 203 
Paloplotheriwm, European Miocene, 119 
European Eocene, 125 
Paludina, Eocene, 169 
European Secondary, 169 
Pampas, Pliocene deposits of, 146 
Panda, of Nepaul and E. Thibet, 222 
Himalayan, figure of, 331 
Panolax, N. American Tertiary, 140 
Papuan Islands, zoology of, 409 
Paradise-bird, twelve-wired, figure of, 414 
Parahippus, N. American Tertiary, 136 
Paramys, N. American Eocene, 140 
Parroquet, Papuan, figure of, 415 
Parrots, classification of, 96 
Passeres, arrangement of, 94 
range of Palearctic genera of, 243 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 306 
range of Oriental genera of, 375 
range of Australian genera of, 478 
Patriofelis, N. American Tertiary, 134 
stu eee, groups, geographically, how defined, 


Pelagornis, European Miocene, 162 
Pelonaz, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Peratherium, European Miocene, 121 
European Eocene, 126 
Percherus, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Perim Island, extinct mammalia of, 122 
probable southern limit of old Palearctic 
land, 362 
Perissodactyla, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Persia, birds of, 204 
Phascolomys, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 
Phasianus, Miocene of Greece, 116 
European Post-Pliocene, 161 
Pheasants, in European Miocene, 161 
golden, of N. China, 226 
eared, of Mongolia, 226 
Phenacodus, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Philippine Islands, mammals of, 345 
birds of, 346 
origin of peculiar fauna of, 348 
Phocidle, N. American Tertiary, 140 
Phyllomys, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Phyllostomide, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Physical changes affecting distribution, 7 
Physeter, European Pliocene, 112 
Picarie, arrangement of, 95 
range of Palearctic genera of, 247 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 309 
range of Oriental genera of, 381 
range of Australian genera of, 482 
Picus, Kuropean Miocene, 161 
Pigeons, classification of, 96 
remarkable development of, in the Aus- 
tralian region, 395 
crested, of Australia, figure of, 441 
Pigs, power of swimming, 13 
Pikermi, Miocene fauna of, 115 
Pittid#, abundant in Borneo, 855 
Plagivlophus, Buropean Eocene, 126 
Planorbis, Europea Secondary, 169 
Kocene, 169 
Platycercide, gorgeously-coloured Australian 
parrots, 804 
Platygonus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
Plesiarctomys, European Eocene, 126 
Plesiomeryx, European Kocene, 126 
Plesiosorex, Kuropean Miocene, 118 
Pliocene period, Old World, mammalia of, 112 
Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas, of Europe, 
general conclusions from, 118 
of N. America, 182 
of $8. America, 146 


INDEX. 


Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas of Aus- 
tralia, 157 

Pliohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Pliolophus, European Eocene, 126 
Pliopithecus, European Miocene, 117 
Pebrotherium, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Polynesian sub-region, description of, 442 

birds of, 443 

reptiles of, 447 
Post-Pliocene, mammalia of Europe, 110 

remains imply changes of physical geo- 

graphy in Europe; 111 

fauna of N. America, 129 

fauna of N. America, remarks on, 130 
Potamogale of West Africa, figure of, 264 
Potamotherium, European Miocene, 118 
Potto of West Africa, figure of, 264 
Praotherium, N. American Post-Pliovene, 130 
Primates, classification of, 86 

probable birthplace of, 153 

range of Palearctic genera of, 239 

range of Ethiopian genera of, 300 

range of Oriental genera of, 371 

range of Australian genera of, 475 
Primates, European Pliocene, 112 

Miocene of Greece, 115 

European Miocene, 117 

Indian Miocene, 121 

European Eocene, 124 

N. American Tertiary, 132 

of Brazilian caves, 144 
Prince’s Island, birds of, 266 
Prionidium, Oolitic insects, 167 
Pristiphoca, in European Pliocene, 112 
Proboscidea, classification of, 90 

range of Ethiopian genus, 893 

range of Oriental genus, 374 
Proboscidea, European Pliocene, 113 

Miocene of Greece, 116 

European Miocene, 120 

Indian Miocene, 122 

N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 

N. American Tertiary, 138 

of Brazilian caves, 144 

S. American Pliocene, 147 
Procamelus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 

N. American Tertiary, 138 
Procyon, N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
Procyonidee, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Promephitis, Miocene of Greece, 115 

European Miocene, 118 
Promerops of East Africa, figure of, 261 
Propalewotherium, European Eocene, 126 
Protemnodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 
Protohippus, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Protomeryx, N. American Tertiary, 138 
Protopithecus, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Prototomus, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Protornis, European Eocene, 162 
Pseudelurus, European Miocene, 118 
Psendocyon, Kuropean Miocene, 118 
Psittaci, classification of, 96 

range of Ethiopian genera of, 311 

range of Oriental genera of, 383 

range of Australian genera of, 484 
Psittacus, Furopean Miocene, 161 
Pterocles, European Miocene, 161 
Pterodon, European Kocene, 125 
Pupa, Bocene, 169 
Pupa vetusta, Paleozoic, 169 
Pythonide, European Miocene, 165 


R. 


Racoon-dog of N. China, 226 
Rana, European Miocene, 166 


INDEX. 


Region, the best term for the primary z00- 
logical divisions, 68 
Arctic, why not adopted, 69 
Palearctic, defined, 71 
Palearctic, subdivisions of, 71 
Ethiopian, defined, 73 
Ethiopian, subdivisions of, 73 
Oriental, defined, 75 
Oriental, subdivisions of, 75 
Australian, defined, 77 
Australian, subdivisions of, 77 
Neotropical, defined, 78 
Neotropical, subdivisions of, 78 
Nearctic, defined, 79 
Nearctic, distinct from Palearctic, 79 
Nearctic, subdivisions of, 80 
Regions, zoological, 50 
zoological, how they should be formed, 53 
zoological, may be defined by negative or 
positive characters, 54 
zoological, by what class of animals best 
determined, 56 
for each class of animals, not advisable, 
58 
zoological, proposed since 1857, 58 
zoological, Mr. Sclater’s, 59 
zoological, discussion of those proposed 
by various authors, 61 
zoological, proportionate richness of, 64 
temperate and tropical, well marked in 
northern hemisphere, 65 
and zones, table of, 66 
comparative richness of, 81 
and sub-regions, table of, 81 
order of succession of the, 173 
Representative species, 4 
Reptiles, means of dispersal of, 28 
classification of, 98 
Miocene of Greece, 116 
of Indian Miocene deposits, 123 
extinct Tertiary, 165 
cosmopolitan groups of, 176 
peculiar to Palearctic region, 186 
of Central Europe, 195 
of the Mediterranean sub-region, 204 
of Siberian sub-region, 220 
of the Manchurian sub-region, 227 
table of Palearctic families of, 236 
of the Ethiopian region, 254 
of the East African sub-region, 260 
of West Africa, 264 
8. African, 268 
of Madagascar, 279 
table of Ethiopian families of, 297 
of the Oriental region, 317 
of the Indian sub-region, 326 
of Ceylon, 327 
of Indo-Chinese sub-region, 331 
of Indo-Malay sub-region, 340 
table of Oriental families of, 368 
of the Australian region, 396 
of New Guinea, 415 
of the Moluccas, 420 
of the Polynesian sub-region, 447 
of New Zealand, 456 
table of Australian families of, 472 
Rhea, in Brazilian caves, 164 
Rhinoceros, Post-Pliocene, 112 
European Pliocene, 113‘ 
Miocene of Greece, 116 
Indian Miocene, 122 
fossil remains of, at 16,000 feet elevation 
in Thibet, 122 
t fossil in N. China, 123 
N. American Tertiary, 136 ° 
Rhinoceros-hornbill, figure of, 339 


5O1 


Rhinocerotide, N. American Tertiary, 136 
River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, 264 
of Madagascar, figure of, 278 
Rivers, limiting the range of mammalia, 12 
limiting the range of birds, 17 
River-scene. in West Africa, 264 
Rodentia, classification of, 90 
range of Palearctic genera of, 242 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 304 
range of Oriental genera of, 874 
range of Australian genera of, 476 
Rodentia, European Pliocene, 113 
Miocene of Greece, 116 
European Miocene, 120 
European Eocene, 126 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Tertiary, 139 
of Brazilian caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 147 
of 8S. American Eocene, 148 
Ruff, figure of, 195 


8. 


Sahara, a debatable land, 251 
Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, 218 
Samoa Islands, birds of, 443 
Sandwich Islands, birds of, 445 
probable past history of, 446 
mountain plants of, 446 
depth of ocean around, 447 
Sand-grouse, Pallas, of Mongolia, 226 
Sutyrites Reynesii, European Cretaceous in- 
sect, 167 
Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestide of 
Japan, 229 
Scelidotherium, in Brazilian caves, 145 
8S. American Pliocene, 147 
Schistopleurum, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Schweinfurth, Dr., on natural history of Cen- 
tra] Africa, 252 
on limits of W. African sub-region, 262 
(note) 
Sciurus, European Miocene, 120 
European Eocene, 126 
Sciwravus, N. American Eocene, 140 
Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, 59 
why his six regions are adopted, 63 
on birds of Sandwich Islands, 445 
Sea, as a barrier to mammalia, 13 
Seals, fossil in European Miocene, 118 
of Lake Baikal, 218 
Secondary formations, mammalian remains 
in, 159 
Secretary-bird of Africa, figure of, 261 
Semnopithecus, European Pliocene, 112 
Miocene of Greece, 115 
European Miocene, 117 
Indian Miocene, 121 
Semper, Dr., on Philippine mammalia, 345 
Serpentarius, European Miocene, 162 
Seychelle Islands, zoology of, 281 
amphibia of, 281 
Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, 229 
Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Accipi- 
tres, 97 
on birds of Cape Verd Islands, 215 
Sheep, Palearctic, 182 
Siberia, climate of, 217 
Siberian sub-region, description of, 216 
mammalia of, 217 
birds of, 219 
reptiles and amphibia of, 220 
insects of, 220 
Simocyon, Miocene of Greece, 115 


502 


Sinopa, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Sirenia, classification of, 89 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 303 
range of Oriental genus, 374 
range of Australian genus of, 476 
Sirenia, European Pliocene, 112 
European Miocene, 119 
Sivatherium, Indian Miocene, 122 
Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, 121 
Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera of 
Japan, 230 = 
Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, 220 
Snakes, classification of, 99 
Eocene, 165 
large proportion of venomous species in 
Australia, 396 
of New Zealand, 457 
Society Islands, birds of, 443 
Soricictis, European Miocene, 118 
Soricidw, European Mioceue, 118 
South African sub-region, description of, 266 
mammalia of, 267 
birds of, 267 
reptiles of, 268 
amphibia of, 268 
fresh-water fish of, 268 
butterflies of, 268 
coleoptera of, 268 
summary of its zoology, 269 
South America, fossil fauna of, 143 
Pliocene deposits of, 146 
supposed land connection with Australia, 
8 


39 

South Australia, peculiar birds of, 441 
Species, representative, 4 
Speothos, in Brazilian caves, 144 
Spermophilus, European Miocene, 120 
Sphenodon, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Sphinz, in European Oolite, 167 
St. Helena, zoological features of, 269 

coleoptera of, 270 

landshells of, 271 
St. Thomas’ Island, birds of, 266 
Stations, definition of, 4 
Steneofiber, European Miocene, 120 
Sthenurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 
Strix, European Miocene, 162 
Struthiones, arrangement of, 98 

range of Ethiopian genera of, 313 

range of Australian genera of, 487 
Struthious birds, probable origin of, 287 
Stylinodontide, N. American Eocene, 139 
Stylinodontia,N. American Eocene, 139, 
Sub-regions, on what principle formed, 80 

Palearctic, 191 

Ethiopian, 258 

Oriental, 321 

Australian, 408 
Suide, European Miocene, 119 
Sula Islands, fauna of, 483 
Sus, European Pliocene, 118 

Miocene of Greece, 116 

Enropean Miocene, 119 

Indian Miocene, 122 
Swinhoe, Mr, on zoology of Formosa and 

Hainan, 882 ~ 

Symborodon, N. American Tertiary, 187 
Synaphodus, European Miocene, 119 
Synoplotherium, N. American Tertiary, 134 


so 


Tables of distribution of families and genera 
explained, 177 
Talya, European Miocene, 117 


INDEX. 


Tapir, fossilin N. China, 123 
Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, 154 
Tapir, Malayan, figure of, 337 
Tapiride, European Eocene, 125 
Tapirus, European Pliocene, 113 
Indian Miocene, 122 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
Tarsier, Malayan, tigure of, 337 
Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of, 
441 


Taxodon, European Miocene, 118 
Telmatobius, N. American Cretaceous, 164 
Telmatolestes, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Testudo, Miocene of Greece, 116 

Indian Miocene, 123 
Testudo, great antiquity of the genus, 289 
Tetrachus, European Miocene, 117 
Tetrao albus, in Italian caverns, 161 
Thalassictis, Miocene of Greece, 115 

European Miocene, 118 
Theridomys, European Miocene, 126 

European Eocene, 126 

S. American Eocene, 148 
Thinohyus, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Thinolestes, N. American Tertiary, 133 
Thylacinus, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 ’ 
Thylacoleo, Australian Post-Tertiary, 157 
Tillodontia, N. American Eocene, 139 
Tillotheride, N. American Eocene, 139 
Tillotherium, N. American Eocene, 139 
Timor, physical features of, 389 

group, mammalia of, 422 

birds of, 422 

origin of fauna of, 424 

insects of, 426 
Tinoceras, N. American Eocene, 139 
Titanomys, European Miocene, 121 
Titanotherium, N. American Tertiary, 137 
Tomarctos, N. American Tertiary, 135 
Tonga Islands, birds of, 443 
Tortoises, classification of, 100 

of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, 289 
Touraco of W. Africa, tigure of, 264 
Toxodon, 8. American Pliocene, 137 
Toxodontide, 8. American Pliocene, 147 
Trachytherium, European Miocene, 119 
Tragocerus, Miocene of Greece, 116 

European Miocene, 120 
Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of, 331 
Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, 837 
Tree-kangaroo, figure of, 415 
Trichechus, N. American Post-Pliocene, 180 
Trichoglosside, birds specially adapted to 

Australia, 393 

Trionyx, Indian Miocene, 123 

Miocene and Eocene, 165 
Tristan d’Acunha, zoology of, 271 
Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of 

Palestine, 203 

Trogon, European Miocene, 161 
Trogontherium, Post-Pliocene of Europe, 11) 
Trucijelis, N. American Post-Pliocene, 129 _. 
Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent of, 216 
Tupaiide, European Miocene, 118 
Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, 90 
Tylodon, European Eocene, 125 
Typotherium, 8. American Pliocene, 147 


U. 


Uintacyon, N. American Tertiary, 184 
Uintatherium, N. American Eocene, 189 
UVintornis, N. American Eocene, 168 
Unio, European Secondary, 169 
Ungulata, classification of, 89 


INDEX. 


a —— Ee — 


Ungulata, antiquity of, 15t 
of the Palwarctic region, 182 
range of Palearctic genera of, 241 
range of Ethiopian genera of, 303 
range of Oriental genera of, 374 
range of Australian genera of, 476 
Ungulata, European Pliocene, 112 
Miocene of Greece, 115 
European Miocene, 119 
Indian Miocene, 121 
European Eocene, 125 
N. American Post-Pliocene, 130 
N. American Tertiary, 135 
of Braziliau caves, 144 
S. American Pliocene, 146 
Urania of Madagascar, 282 
Urside, N. American Tertiary, 135 
in Brazilian caves, 144 
Ursitaxus, Indian Miocene, 121 
Ursus, Post-Pliocene, 112 
Indian Miocene, 121 


Ve 


Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, 278 
Varanus, Miocene of Greece, 116 
Indian Miocene, 123 
Vertebrata, summary of Palearctic, 186 
summary of Ethiopian, 255 
summary of Oriental, 318 
summary of Australian, 397 
Vespertilio, European Eocene, 125 
Viperus, European Miocene, 165 
Viverra, European Pliocene, 112. 
European Miocene, 118 
Viverride, European Miocene, 118 
European Eocene, 125 


W. 


Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine 
Islands, 346 
on birds of Celebes, 428 


503 


Washakius, N. American Tertiary, 134 
Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of 
rodentia, 90 
on classification of marsupials, 91 
West African sub-region, description of, 262 
mammialia of, 262 
birds of, 262 
Oriental or Malayan element in, 263 
river scene with characteristic animals, 264 
reptiles of, 264 
amphibia of, 264 . 
Oriental and Neotropical relations of, 265 
insects of, 265 
land-shells of, 265 
islands of, 265 
West Australia, peculiar birds of, 441 
Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, 264 
Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the coleoptera of the 
Atlantic Islands, 209 
on the wings of the Madeiran beetles, 211 
on the origin of the insect fauna of the 
Atlantic Islands, 214 
on coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands, 215 
on beetles of St. Helena, 270 


X. 


Xenwrus, in Brazilian caves, 145 
Xiphodontide, European Miocene, 119 


Z. 


Zeuglodontide, N. American Tertiary, 140 

Zonites priscus, Paleozoic, 169 

Zoological characteristics of Palearctic region, 
181 


Ethiopian region, 252 

Oriental region, 315 

Australian region, 390 
Zoological regions, discussion on, 50 


END OF VOL. I. 


LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL, 


} ‘ wt 

: vf. in *) fe phe. agh 
hn ee ME 
Wes Sah ii " 

ff U 1 ' is 


' 


[a 


% ¥ 
ie bp 


' 
: 
; 
at 
—— 
“= 
ia « 
aso 


i 
. 
- 

i 


I, 


‘ 
- 
. 


ws 


Ve 
é 


x 


=a 


jovani OF TORONTO 
ee 


= = 


~* _ Bee - 6 ee Se et 
he | Lou bay 


Ta0e8 at 


remove | 


| 
] the card 


from, this 


Pocket. 


Acme Library Card Pocket 
k Under Pat. ‘“‘Ref. Index File.”’ 
4 Made by LIBRARY BUREAU, Boston . . 


¢ plo SO & 80 LL 6€ 
4 Wall SOd 47HS AV JONVY qd 


a 


M3IASNMOG LV 1.LN 


‘ 
' 
aA 
‘ 
Pa 
§ he 
a4 
cee 
© 
i 
hy 0 
“i 
“ 
N, 
} ‘ 
2) 
4 
‘ 
° 
‘3 
wT 
a 
vat 
in “4 ’ 
& 
. » oy 
‘ 
" 
’ 
‘ 
‘aay