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THE GEOGRAPHICAL

DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.

WITH A STUDY OF THE RELATIONS OF LIVING AND EXTINCT
FAUNAS AS ELUCIDATING THE PAST CHANGES
OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE.

By ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE,

AUTHOR OF THE “MALAY ARCHIPELAGO,” ETC.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

Vor, EL

WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

NEW YORE:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,

FRANKLIN SQUARE.

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CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

PART III. (continued).

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF
ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS,
WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MU-
TATIONS.

CHAPTER XIV.
THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Region (p. 5)—Distinctive Charac-
ters of Neotropical Mammalia (p. 6)—Of Neotropical Birds (p. 7)—Neotropical
Reptiles (p. 9)—Fresh-water Fishes (p. 12)—Insects (p. 13)—Coleoptera (p. 15)
—Land Shells (p. 19)—Marine Shells (p. 20)—Brazilian Sub-region (p. 21)—
Its Mammalia (p. 23)—Its Birds (p. 24)—Islands of Tropical South America,
Galapagos (p. 29)—Chilian Sub-region (p. 86)—Birds (p. 38)—Reptiles and
Amphibia (p. 40)—Fresh-water Fishes (p. 42)—Lepidoptera (p. 42)—Coleoptera
(p. 44)—Islands of South Temperate America (p. 49)—Mexican Sub-region
(p. 51)—Mammalia and Birds (p. 52)—Reptiles and Fishes (p. 54)—Insects
(p. 55)—Relations of the Mexican Sub-region to the North and South American
Continents (p. 57)—Islands of the Mexican Sub-region (p. 59)—The Antillean
Sub-region (p. 60)—Its Mammalia (p. 62)—Its Birds (p. 64)—Table of the
Resident Land Birds of the Antilles (p. 68)—Reptiles (p. 72)—Insects (p. 73)
—Land Shells (p. 75)—Past History of the Antilles (p. 78)—Summary of the
Past History of the Neotropical Region (p. 80)—Table I. Families of Animals
inhabiting the Neotropical Region (p. 85)—Table II. Genera of Terrestrial
Mammalia and Birds of the Neotropical Region (p. 91). Z . 1—113

v1 CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER XV.
THE NEARCTIC REGION.

Zoological Characteristics of the Nearctic Region (p. 115)—List of Typical Ne-
arctic Genera of Land Birds (p. 118)—Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata (p. 120)
—Insects (p. 122)—Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca (p. 124)—The Califor-
nian Sub-region (p. 127)—The Rocky Mountain Sub-region (p. 129)—The
Alleghany Sub-region (p. 131) —The Bermudas (p. 134)—The Canadian Sub-
region (p. 135)—Greenland (p. 138)—Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting
the Nearctic Region (p. 140)—Table II. Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and
Birds of the Nearctic Region (p. 145) . - . : : - 114—153

CHAPTER XVI.

SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL
REGIONS i : F ~ 5 P ; ; : ; . 154—164

PART IV.

GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY: A SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE CHIEF
FAMILIES OF LAND ANIMALS IN THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL RELA-
TIONS.

INTRODUCTION . - F r - . - : 5 ‘ . 167—169

CHAPTER XVII.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF MAMMALIA.

Primates (p. 170)—General Remarks on the Distribution of Primates (p. 179)—
Chiroptera (p. 181)—Remarks on the Distribution of Chiroptera (p. 185)—
Insectivora (p. 186)—General Remarks on the Distribution of Insectivora
(p. 191)—Carnivora (p. 192)—General Remarks on the Distribution of the
Carnivora (p. 204)—Cetacea (p. 207)—Sirenia (p. 210)—Ungulata (p. 211)—
General Remarks on the Distribution of the Ungulata (p. 226)—Proboscidea
(p. 227)—Hyracoidea (p. 228)—Rodentia (p. 229)—General Remarks on the
Distribution of the Rodentia (p. 243)—Edentata (p, 244)—General Remarks
on the Distribution of the Edentata (p. 247)—Marsupialia (p. 248) — General

Remarks on the Distribution of Marsupialia (p. 253)—Monotremata (p. 253)
’ 170—254

CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. vii

CHAPTER XVIII.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS.

Passeres (p. 255)—-General Remarks on the Distribution of the Passeres (p. 299)—
Picariz (p. 302)—General Remarks on the Distribution of the Picarie (p. 322)
—Psittaci (p. 324)—General Remarks on the Distribution of the Psittaci
(p. 329)—Columbe (p. 331)—General Remarks on the Distribution of the
Columbe (p. 335)—Galline (p. 337)—General Remarks on the Distribution of
Galline (p. 344)—Opisthocomi (p. 345)—Accipitres (p. 345)—General Re-
marks on the Distribution of the Accipitres (p. 351)—Gralle (p. 351)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of the Gralle (p. 362)—Anseres (p. 363)—-General
Remarks on the Distribution of the Anseres (p. 367)—Struthiones (p. 368)—
Struthious Birds recently Extinct (p. 869)—General Remarks on the Distri-
bution of the Struthiones (p. 370) : : 5 C 5 » 255—371

CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND
AMPHIBIA.

Ophidia(p. 372)-—General Remarks on the Distribution of Ophidia (p. 386)—
Lacertilia (p. 388)—General Remarks on the Distribution of Lacertilia (p. 403)
—Rhyncocephalina (p. 405)—Crocodilia (p. 405)—General Remarks on the
Distribution of Crocodilia (p. 406)—Chelonia (p. 407)—Remarks on the Dis-
tribution of Chelonia (p. 410)—Amphibia, Pseudophidia (p. 411)—Urodela
(p. 411)—Anura (p. ia as Remarks on the Distribution of Amphibia
(ey) ee Ee Nn, Wh pe,” S748

CHAPTER XX.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE RANGE OF SUCH
GENERA AS INHABIT FRESH WATER.

Acanthopterygii (p. 424)—Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi (p. 437)—Anacan-
thini (p. 489)—Physostomi (p. 441)—Lophobranchii (p. 456)—Plectognathi
(p. 457) Sirenoidei (p. 458)—Ganoidei (p. 458)—Chondropterygii (p. 460)—
Cyclostomata (p. 463)—Leptocardii (p. —o on the Distribution of
Fishes (p. 464) . 5 ; : ; A ‘ - 424—467

viii CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER XXI.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE

MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND
GENERA OF INSECTS.

Lepidoptera (p. 470)—General Remarks on the Distribution of the Diurnal Lepi-
doptera and Sphingidea (p. 483)—Coleoptera (p. 486)—Cicindelide (p. 486)—
Carabide (p. 488)—Lucanide (p. 492)—Cetoniide (p. 494)—Buprestide
(p. 495)—Longicornia (p. 498)—General Observations on the Distribution of
Coleoptera (p. 502). : .

468—503

CHAPTER XXII.
AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA.

Cephalopoda (p. 505)—Gasteropoda (p. 507)—Pulmonifera (p. 512)—General
Observations on the Distribution of Land Mollusca (p. 522)—Pteropoda

(p. 531)—Brachiopoda (p. 532)—Conchifera (p. 533)—General Remarks on the
Distribution of Marine Mollusca (p. 537)

504—539

CHAPTER XXIII.

SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND LINES OF MIGRATION OF THE SEVERAL
CLASSES OF ANIMALS.

Mammalia (p. 540)—Lines of Migration of the Mammalia (p. 544)—Birds (p. 545)
Reptiles (p. 547)—Amphibia (p. 548)—Fresh-water Fishes (p. 549)—Insects
(p. 550)—Terrestrial Mollusca (p. 551)—Conclusion (p. 552) - 540—553

GENERAL INDEX

557

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. II.

To face page
Map of the Neotropical Region ‘ .

Plate XIV. A Brazilian Forest with Characteristic Mammalia . yt!

Plate XV. A Scene on the Upper Amazon, with some Characteristic
Birds ; : og - ites) ae 3) 28

Plate XVI. The Chilian Andes, with Characteristic Animals. p40)

Plate XVII. A Scene in Cuba, with Characteristic Animals 2 5. Uy
Map of the Nearctic Region : . 7 : : : 2 21S
Plate XVIII. Scene in California with some Characteristic Birds . 2s

Plate XIX. The North American Prairies with Characteristic Mammalia 130

Plate XX. A Canadian Forest with Characteristic Mammalia . ; 136

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GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
OF ANIMALS.

PART IIT. (continued.)

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY:

A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE
SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICA-
TIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS.

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NE@G@rRmOPICAL REGION

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EXPLANATION
Terrestrial Contours
From Sea level to L000 feet White

1000 feet to 2500 f J
2500 . . 5,000
5,000 10,000
. 10000 . .20,000
Above 20,000 feet

The Marine Contour of 1,000 feet
is shewn by a dotted. line

Pasture lands shewn thus |
Forest . 2 - ia
Desert . ; - =z

The boundaries and reference raumbers
of the Sub-regions are shewn in Red.

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120 no 100 90 Long. 80 West

Stantords Geographical Estab’ London.

New York: Harper & Brothers.

CHAPTER XIV.
THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

THIS region, comprehending not only South America but Tropical
North America and the Antilles, may be compared as to extent
with the Ethiopian region ; but it is distinguished from all the
other great zoological divisions of the globe, by the small pro-
portion of its surface occupied by deserts, by the large proportion
of its lowlands, and by the altogether unequalled extent and
luxuriance of its tropical forests. It further possesses a grand
mountain range, rivalling the Himalayas in altitude and far
surpassing them in extent, and which, being wholly situated
within the region and running through eighty degrees of latitude,
offers a variety of conditions and an extent of mountain slopes,
of lofty plateaus and of deep valleys, which no other tropical re-
gion can approach. It has a further advantage in a southward
prolongation far into the temperate zone, equivalent to a still
greater extension of its lofty plateaus; and this has, no doubt,
aided the development of the peculiar alpine forms of life which
abound in the southern Andes. The climate of this region is
exceptionally favourable. Owing to the lofty mountain range
situated along its western margin, the moisture-laden trade winds
from the Atlantic have free access to the interior. A sufficient
proportion of this moisture reaches the higher slopes of the Andes,
where its condensation gives rise to innumerable streams, which
cut deep ravines and carry down such an amount of sediment,
that they have formed the vast plains of the Amazon, of Para-

4 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

guay, and of the Orinooko out of what were once, no doubt, arms
of the sea, separating the large islands of Guiana, Brazil, and the
Andes. From these concurrent favourable conditions, there has
resulted that inexhaustible variety of generic and specific forms
with a somewhat limited range of family and ordinal types,
which characterise neotropical zoology to a degree nowhere else
to be met with.

Together with this variety and richness, there is a remarkable
uniformity of animal life over all the tropical continental portions
of the region, so that its division into sub-regions is a matter
of some difficulty. There is, however, no doubt about separating
the West Indian islands as forming a well-marked subdivision ;
characterised, not only by that poverty of forms which is a
general feature of ancient insular groups, but also by a number
of peculiar generic types, some of which are quite foreign to the
remainder of the region. We must exclude, however, the islands
of Trinidad, Tobago, and a few other small islands near the coast,
which zoologically form a part of the main land. Again, the
South Temperate portion of the continent, together with the high
plateaus of the Andes to near the equator, form a well-marked
subdivision, characterised by a peculiar fauna, very distinct both
positively and negatively from that of the tropical lowland dis-
tricts. The rest of Tropical South America is so homogeneous in
its forms of life that it cannot be conveniently subdivided for the
purposes of a work like the present. There are, no doubt, con-
siderable differences in various parts of its vast area, due partly to
its having been once separated into three or more islands, in part
to existing diversities of physical conditions; and more exact
knowledge may enable us to form several provinces or perhaps
additional sub-regions. A large proportion of the genera, how-
ever, when sufficiently numerous in species, range over almost
the whole extent of this sub-region wherever the conditions are
favourable. Even the Andes do not seem to form such a barrier
as has been supposed. North of the equator, where its western
slopes are moist and forest-clad, most of the genera are found on
both sides. To the south of this line its western valleys are arid
and its lower plains almost deserts; and thus the absence of a

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 5

number of groups to which verdant forests are essential, can be
traced to the unsuitable conditions rather than to the existence
of the mountain barrier. All Tropical South America, therefore,
is here considered to form but one sub-region.

The portion of North America that lies within the tropics,
closely resembles the last sub-region in general zoological features.
It possesses hardly any positive distinctions; but there are several
of a negative character, many important groups being wholly
confined to South America. On the other hand many genera
range into Mexico and Guatemala from the north, which never
reach South America; so that it is convenient to separate this
district as a sub-region, which forms, to some extent, a transition
to the Nearctic region.

General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Region —Rich-
ness combined with isolation is the predominant feature of
Neotropical zoology, and no other region can approach it in
the number of its peculiar family and generic types. It has
eight families of Mammalia absolutely confined to it, besides
several others which are rare elsewhere. These consist of two
families of monkeys, Cebide and Hapalide, both abounding in
genera and species; the Phyllostomide, or blood-sucking bats ;
Chinchillide and Caviide among rodents; besides the greater
part of the Octodontidz, Echimyide and Cercolabide. Among
edentata, it has Bradypodide, or sloths, Dasypodide, or armadillos,
and Myrmecophagide, or anteaters, constituting nearly the entire
order; while Procyonidz, belonging to the carnivora, and Didel-
phyide, a family of marsupials, only extend into the Nearctic
region. It has also many peculiar groups of carnivora and of
Muridex, making a total of full a hundred genera confined to the
region. Hardly less remarkable is the absence of many wide-
spread groups. With the exception of one genus in the West
Indian islands and a Sorex which reaches Guatemala and Costa
Rica, the Insectivora are wholly wanting ; as is also the extensive
and wide-spread family of the Viverride. It has no oxen or
sheep, and indeed no form of ruminant except deer and llamas ;
neither do its vast forests and grassy plains support a single form
of non-ruminant ungulate, except the tapir and the peccary.

6 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III,

Birds,—In birds, the Neotropical region is even richer and more
isolated. It possesses no less than 23 families wholly confined
within its limits, with 7 others which only extend into the Nearc-
tic region. The names of the peculiar families are: Carebide, or
sugar-birds; Phytotomide, or plant-cutters; Pipride, or mana-
kins; Cotingide, or chatterers; Formicariide, or ant-thrushes ; |
Dendrocolaptide, or tree-creepers ; Pteroptochide ; Rhamphas-
tide, or toucans; Bucconide, or puff-birds ; Galbulide, or jaca-
mas; Todide, or todies; Momotide, or motmots; Steatornithide.
the guacharo, or oil-bird; Cracide, or curassows; Tinamide, or
tinamous ; Opisthocomide, the hoazin ; Thinocoride ; Cariamide ;
Aramid; Psophiide, or trumpeters ; Eurypygide, or sun-bitterns;
and Palamedeide, or horned-screamers. The seven which it
possesses in common with North America are: Vireonide, or
greenlets ; Mniotiltide, or wood-warblers; Tanagride, or tana-
gers; Icteride, or hang-nests; Tyrannide, or tyrant-shrikes ;
Trochilidz, or humming-birds; and Cenuride, or macaws. Most
of these families abound in genera and species, and many are of
immense extent ; such as Trochilide, with 115 genera, and nearly
400 species; Tyrannide, with more than 60 genera and nearly
300 species ; Tanagride, with 43 genera and 300 species; Den-
drocolaptide with 43 genera and more than 200 species; and
many other very large groups. There are nearly 600 genera
peculiar to the Neotropical region ; but in using this number as
a basis of comparison with other regions we must remember, that
owing to several ornithologists having made the birds of South
America a special study, they have perhaps been more minutely
subdivided than in the case of other entire tropical regions.

Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Mammalia.—It is im-
portant also to consider the kind and amount of differenge
between the various animal forms of this region and of the
Old World. To begin with the Quadrumana, all the larger
American monkeys (Cebide) differ from every Old World group
in the possession of an additional molar tooth in each jaw; and
it is in this group alone that the tail is developed into a prehen-
sile organ of wonderful power, adapting the animals to a purely
arboreal life. Four of the genera, comprising more than half the

CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. eg

species, have the prehensile tail, the remainder having this organ
either short, or lax as in the Old World monkeys. Other dif-
ferences from Old World apes, are the possession of a broad nasal
septum, and a less opposable thumb; and the absence of cheek-
pouches, ischial callosities, and a bony ear-tube. The Hapalide,
or marmozets, agree with the Cebide in all these characters, but
have others in addition which still more widely separate them from
the Simiidee; such as an additional premolar tooth, acute claws, and
thumb not at all opposable ; so that the whole group of American
monkeys are radically different from the remainder of the order.

The Procyonide are a distinct family of Carnivora, which make
up for the scarcity of Mustelidz in South America. The Suidze
are represented by the very distinct genus Dicotyles(Peccary) form-
ing a separate sub-family, and differing from all other genera in
their dentition, the absence of tail and of one of the toes of the
hind feet, the possession of a dorsal gland, and only two mamme.
The rodents are represented by the Chinchillide and Caviide,
the latter comprising the largest animals in the order. The
Edentata are almost wholly confined to this region ; and the three
families of the sloths (Bradypodide), armadillos (Dasypodide),
and ant-eaters (Myrmecophagide), are widely separated in struc-
ture from any Old World animals. Lastly, we have the opossums
(Didelphyide), a family of marsupials, but having no close affi-
nity to any of the numerous Australian forms of that order.
We have already arrived at the conclusion that the presence of
marsupials in South America‘is not due to any direct transfer-
ence from Australia, but that their-introduction is comparatively
recent, and that they came from the Old World by way of North
America (vol. i, p. 155). But the numerous and deep-seated
peculiarities of many other of its mammalia, would indicate a
very remote origin; and a long-continued isolation of South
America from the rest of the world is required, in order to account
for the preservation and development of so many distinct groups
of comparatively low-type quadrupeds.

Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Birds—The birds which
are especially characteristic of this region, present similar

distinctive features. In the enormous group of Passerine
Vou. IL.—2

8 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III,

birds which, though comprising nearly three-fourths of the
entire class, yet presents hardly any well-marked differences
of structure by which it can be subdivided—the families confined
to America are, for the most part, more closely related to each
other than to the Old World groups. The ten families forming
the group of “Formicaroid Passeres,” in our arrangement (vol.
i, p. 94), are characterised by the absence of singing muscles in
the larynx, and also by an unusual development of the first primary
quill; and seven of this series of: families (which are considered
to be less perfectly developed than the great mass of Old World
passeres) are exclusively American, the three belonging to the
Eastern hemisphere being of small extent. Another group of
ten families—our “ Tanagroid Passeres,” are characterised by the
abortion or very rudimentary condition of the first quill; and of
these, five are exclusively American, and have numerous genera
and species, while only two are non-American, and these are of
small extent. On the other hand the “Turdoid Passeres,” con-
sisting of 23 families and comprising all the true “ singing-birds,” -
is poorly represented in America; no family being exclusively
Neotropical, and only three being at all fully represented in South
America, though they comprise the great mass of the Old World
passeres. These peculiarities, which group together whole series
of families of American birds, point to early separation and long
isolation, no less surely than the more remarkable structural
divergences presented by the Neotropical mammalia.

In the Picariz, we have first, the toucans (Rhamphastide) ;
an extraordinary and beautiful family, whose enormous gaily-
coloured bills and long feathered tongues, separate them widely
from all other birds. The Galbulide or jacamars, the motmots
(Momotide), and the curious little todies (Todide) of the
Antilles, are also isolated groups. But most remarkable of all
is the wonderful family of the humming-birds, which ranges
over all America from Tierra del Fuego to Sitka, and from the
level plains of the Amazon to above the snow-line on the Andes ;
which abounds both in genera, species, and individuals, and is
yet strictly confined to this continent alone! How vast must
have been the time required to develop those beautiful and

CHAP. XIV. | THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. Bu

highly specialized forms out of some ancestral swift-like type.
how complete and long continued the isolation of their birth-
place to have allowed of their modification and adaptation to
such divergent climates and conditions, yet never to have per-
mitted them to establish themselves in the other continents.
No naturalist can study in detail this single family of birds,
without being profoundly impressed with the vast antiquity ot
the South American continent, its long isolation from the rest of
the land surface of the globe, and the persistence through countless
ages of all the conditions requisite for the development and
increase of varied forms of animal life.

Passing on to the parrot tribe, we find the peculiar family of the
Conuride, of which the macaws are the highest development, very
largely represented. Itis in the gallinaceous birds however that
we again meet with wholly isolated groups. The Cracide, in-
cluding the curassows and guans, have no immediate relations
with any of the Old World families. Professor Huxley considers
them to approach nearest to (though still very remote from) the ,
Australian megapodes; and here, as in the case of the marsu-
plals, we probably have divergent modifications of an ancient
type once widely distributed, not a direct communication between
the southern continents. The Tinamide or tinamous, point to a
still more remote antiquity, since their nearest allies are believed
to be the Struthiones or ostrich tribe, of which a few repre-
sentatives are scattered widely over the globe. The hoazin of
Guiana (Opisthocomus) is another isolated form, not only the
type of a family, but perhaps of an extinct order of birds. Pass-
ing on to the waders, we have a number of peculiar family types,
all indicative of antiquity and isolation. The Cariama of the
plains of Brazil, a bird somewhat intermediate between a bustard
and a hawk, is one of these; the elegant Psophia or trumpeter of
the, Amazonian forests; the beautiful little sun-bittern of the
river banks (Hurypyga) ; and the horned screamers (Palamedea),
all form distinct and isolated families of birds, to which the Old
World offers nothing directly comparable.

Reptiles—The Neotropical region is very rich in varied forms
of reptile life, and the species are very abundant. It has six

10 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Il,

altogether peculiar families, and several others which only range
into the Nearctic region, as well as a very large number of pecu-
liar or characteristic genera. As the orders of reptiles differ
considerably in their distributional features, they must be con-
sidered separately.

The snakes (Ophidia) differ from all other reptiles, and from
most other orders of vertebrates, in the wideaverage distribution
of the families; so that such an isolated region as the Neotrop-
ical possesses no peculiar family, nor even one confined to the
American continent. The families of most restricted range are—
the Scytalide, only found elsewhere in the Philippine islands;
the Amblycephalidz, common to the Oriental and Neotropical
regions ; and the Tortricide, most abundant in the Oriental region,
but found also in the Austro-Malay islands and Tropical South
America. Sixteen of the families of snakes occur in the region,
the Colubride, Amblycephalide, and Pythonide, being those
which are best represented by peculiar forms. There are 25 pecu-
liar or characteristic genera, the most important being Dromicus
(Colubride) ; Boa, Epicretes, and Ungalia (Pythonide) ; Hlaps
(Elapide) ; and Craspedocephalus (Crotalide).

The lizards (Lacertilia) are generally more restricted in their
range; hence we find that out of 15 families which inhabit the
region, 5 are altogether peculiar, and 4 more extend only to N.
America. The peculiar families are Helodermide, Anadiade,
Chirocolide, Iphisiadze, and Cercosauride ; but it must be noted
that these all possess but a single genus each, and only two of
them (Chirocolidz and Cercosauride) have more than a single
species. The families which range over both South and North
America are Chirotide, Chalcide, Teide, and Iguanide; the
first and second are of small extent, but the other two are very
large groups, the Teide possessing 12 genera and near 80 species;
the Iguanidé 40 genera and near 150 species; the greater part of
which are Neotropical. There are more than 50 peculiar or highly
characteristic genera of lizards, about 40 of which belong to the
Teide and Iguanide, which thus especially characterize the
region. The most important and characteristic genera are the
following : Ameiva (Teide) ; Gymnopthalmus (Gymnopthalmide) ;

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 11

Celestus and Diploglossus (Scincide) ; Spherodactylus (Gecko-
tide) ; Liocephalus, Livlemvus, Proctotretus, and many smaller
genera (Iguanide). The three extensive Old World families
Varanide, Lacertide, and Agamide, are absent from the entire
American continent.

In the order Crocodilia, America has the peculiar family of
the alligators (Alligatoridz), as well as several species of true
crocodiles (Crocodilide). The Chelonia (tortoises) are repre-
sented by the families Testudinide and Chelydide, both of wide
range; but there are six peculiar genera,—Dermatemys and Stauw-
rotypus belonging to the former family,—Peltocephalus, Podo-
cnemis, Hydromedusa, and Chelys, to the latter. Some of the
Amazon river-turtles of the genus Podocnemys rival in size the
largest species of true marine turtles (Cheloniidz), and are equally
good for food.

Amphibia.—The Neotropical region possesses representatives
of sixteen, families of Amphibia of which four are peculiar; all
belonging to Anoura or tail-less Batrachians. The Ceciliade
or snake-like amphibia, are represented by two peculiar genera,
Stiphonopsis and Lhinatrema. Tailed Batrachians are almost
unknown, only a few species of Spelerpes (Salamandride) enter-
ing Central America, and one extending as far south as the
Andes of Bogota in South America. Tail-less Batrachians on
the other hand, are abundant ; there being 14 families repre-
sented, of which 4,—Rhinophrynde, Hylapleside, Plectroman-
tide, and Pipide are peculiar. None of these families contain
more than a single genus, and only the second more than a
single species; so that it is not these which give a character to
the South American Amphibia-fauna. The most important and
best represented families are, Ranide (true frogs), with eleven
genera and more than 50 species; Polypedatide (tree-frogs)
with seven genera and about 40 species; Hylide (tree-frogs)
with eight genera and nearly 30 species; Engystomide (toads)
(5 genera), Bombinatoride (frogs), (4 genera), Phryniscide and
Bufonide (toads), (each with 2 genera), are also fairly represen-
ted. All these families are widely distributed, but the Neotropi-
cal genera are, in almost every case, peculiar.

12 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

Fresh-water fishes—The great rivers of Tropical America abound
in fish of many strange forms and peculiar types. Three fami-
lies, and three sub-family groups are peculiar, while the number
of peculiar genera is about 120. The peculiar families are Poly-
centride, with two genera; Gymnotide, a family which includes
the electric eels, (5 genera); and Trygonide, the rays, which are
everywhere marine except in the great rivers of South America,
where many species are found, belonging to two genera. Of the
extensive family Siluride, three sub-families Siluridz anomalo-
ptere, S. olisthoptere, and S. branchiole, are confined to this
region. The larger and more important of the peculiar genera
are the following: Percilia, inhabiting Chilian and Percichthys
South Temperate rivers, belong to the Perch family (Percide) ;
Acharnes, found only in Guiana, belongs to the Nandide, a
family of wide range in the tropics ; the Chromide, a family of
exclusively fresh-water fishes found in the tropics of the Ethio-
pian, Oriental and Neotropical regions, are here represented by
15 genera, the more important being Acara (17 sp.), Heros (26
sp.), Crenicichla (9 sp.), Satanoperca (7 sp.). Many of these fishes
are beautifully marked and coloured. The Siluride proterop-
tere are represented by 14 genera, of which Pimelodus (42 sp.),
and Platystoma (11 sp.), are the most important; the Siluride
stenobranchie by 11 genera, the chief being Doras (13 sp.),
Auchenipterus (9 sp.), and Oxydoras (7 sp.). The Siluride pro-
teropodes are represented by 16 genera, many of them being among
the most singular of fresh-water fishes, clothed in coats of mail,
and armed with hooks and serrated spines. The following are
the most important,—Chetostomus (25 sp.), Loricaria (17 sp.),
Plecostonus (15 sp.) and Callichthys (11 sp.). The Characinidee
are divided between Tropical America and Tropical Africa, the
former possessing about 40 genera and 200 species. The Hap-
lochitonide are confined to South America and Australia; the
American genus being Haplochiton. The Cyprinodontide are
represented by 18 genera, the most important being, Pwcilia (16
sp.), Girardinus (10 sp.), and Gambusia (8 sp.) The Osteoglos-
side, found in Australian and African rivers, are represented in
South America by the peculiar Arapaima, the “pirarucu” of the

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 13

Amazon. The ancient Sirenoidei, also found in Australia and
Africa, have the Lepidosiren as their American representative.
Lastly, Hilipisurus is a genus of rays peculiar to the fresh waters
of South America. We may expect these numbers to be largely
increased and many new genera to be added, when the extensive
collections made by Agassiz in Brazil are described.

Summary of Neotropical Vertebrates—Summarizing the pre-
ceding facts, we find that the Neotropical region possesses no
less than 45 families and more than 900 genera of Vertebrata
which are altogether peculiar to it; while it has representatives
of 168 families out of a total of 330, showing that 162 families
are altogether absent. It has also representatives of 131 genera
of Mammalia of which 103 are peculiar to it, a proportion of 4;
while of 683 genera of land-birds no less than 576 are peculiar,
being almost exactly 8 of the whole. These numbers and pro-
portions are far higher than in the case of any other region.

Insects.

The Neotropical region is so excessively rich in insect life, it
so abounds in peculiar groups, in forms of exquisite beauty,
and in an endless profusion of species, that no adequate idea of
this branch of its fauna can be conveyed by the mere enumera-
tion of peculiar and characteristic groups, to which we are here
compelled to limit ourselves. Our facts and figures will, how-
ever, furnish data for comparison; and will thus enable those
who have some knowledge of the entomology of any other
country, to form a better notion of the vast wealth of insect life
in this region, than a more general and picturesque description
could afford them.

Lepidoptera.—The Butterflies of South America surpass those
of all other regions in numbers, variety and beauty; and we
find here, not only more peculiar genera and families than else-
where, but, what is very remarkable, a fuller representation of
the whole series of families. Out of the 16 families of butter-
flies in all parts of the world, 13 are found here, and 3 of these
are wholly peculiar—Brassolidz, Heliconide, and Eurygonide,
with a fourth, Erycinidz, which only extends into the Nearctic

14 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PARY III.

region ; so that there are 4 families peculiar to America. These
four families comprise 68 genera and more than 800 species;
alone constituting a very important feature in the entomology of
the region. But in almost all the other families there are
numbers of peculiar genera, amounting in all to about 200, or
not far short of half the total number of genera in the world—
(431). We must briefly notice some of the peculiarities of the
several families, as represented in this region. The Danaide
consist of 15 genera, all peculiar, and differing widely from the
generally sombre-tinted forms of the rest of the world. The
delicate transparent-winged Ithomias of which 160 species are
described, are the most remarkable. Melinwa, Napeogenes,
Ceratina and Dircenna are more gaily coloured, and are among
the chief ornaments of the forests. The Satyride are repre-
sented by 25 peculiar genera, many of great beauty; the most
remarkable and elegant being the genus Hetera and its allies,
whose transparent wings are delicately marked with patches of
orange, pink, or violet. The genus Morpho is perhaps the
grandest development of the butterfly type, being of immense
size and adorned with the most brilliant azure tints, which in
some species attain a splendour of metallic lustre unsurpassed
in nature. The Brassolide are even larger, but are crepuscular
insects, with rich though sober colouring. The true Heliconii
are magnificent insects, most elegantly marked with brilliant
and strongly contrasted tints. 'The Nymphalide are represented
by such a variety of gorgeous insects that it is difficult to select
examples. Prominent are the genera Catagramma and Callithea,
whose exquisite colours and symmetrical markings are unique
and indescribable; and these are in some cases rivalled by
Agrias and Prepona, which reproduce their style of coloration
although not closely allied to them. The Erycinide, consisting
of 59 genera and 560 species, comprise the most varied and
beautiful of small butterflies ; and it would be useless to attempt
to indicate the unimaginable combinations of form and colour
they present. It must be sufficient to say that nothing elsewhere
on the globe at all resembles them. In Lycenide the world-
wide genus Thecla is wonderfully developed, and the South

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 15

American species not only surpass allothers in size and beauty, but
some of them are so gorgeous on the under surface of their
wings, as to exceed almost all the combinations of metallic tints
we meet with in nature. The last family, Hesperide, is also
‘wonderfully developed here, the species being excessively nu-
merous, while some of them redeem the character of this generally
sober family, by their rich and elegant coloration.

In the only other group of Lepidoptera we can here notice,
the Sphingina, the Neotropical region possesses some peculiar
forms. The magnificent- diurnal butterfly-like moths, Urania,
are the most remarkable; and they are rendered more interesting
by the occurrence of a species closely resembling them in
Madagascar. Another family of day-flying moths, the Castniide,
is almost equally divided between the Neotropical and Australian
regions, although the genera are more numerous in the latter.
The American Castnias are large, thick-bodied insects, with a
coarse scaly surface and rich dull colours; differing widely from
the glossy and gaily coloured Agaristas, which are typical of the
family in the East.

Coleoptera.—tThis is so vast a subject that, as in the case of the
. regions already treated, we must confine our attention to a few of
the more important and best known families as representatives
of the entire order.

Cicindelidze.— We find here examples of 15 out of the 35 genera
of these insects ; and 10 of these generaare peculiar. The most
important are Oxychila (11 sp.), Hiresia (14 sp.), and Ctenostoma
(26 sp.). Odontochila (57 sp.) is the most abundant and cha-
racteristic of all, but is not wholly peculiar, there being a species
in the Malay archipelago. Tetracha, another large genus, has
species in Australia and a few in North America and Europe.
The small genus Peridexia is divided between Brazil and Mada-
gascar,—a somewhat similar distribution to that of Urania noticed
above. One genus, Agrius, is confined to the southern extremity
of the continent.

Carabide.—Besides a considerable number of cosmopolitan
or wide-spread genera, this family is represented by more than
100 genera which are peculiar to the Neotropical region. The

16 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

most important of these are Agra (150 sp.), Ardistonus (44. sp.),
Schizogenius (25 sp.), Pelecium (24 sp.), Calophena (22 sp.), As-
pidoglossa (21 sp.), and Lia, Camptodonotus, Stenocrepis, and
Lachnophorus, with each more than 12 species. These are all .
tropical ; but there are also a number of genera (26) peculiar to *
Chili and South Temperate America. The most important of
these are Antarctia (29 sp.), all except two or three confined to
South Temperate America; Scelodontis (10 sp.), mostly Chilian ;
Feronomorpha (6 sp.) all Chilian; and Tropidopterus (4 sp.), all
Chilian. Helluomorpha (18 sp.), is confined to North and South
America; Galerita, Callida, and Tetragonoderus, are large genera
which are chiefly South American but with a few species scat-
tered over the other tropical regions. Casnonia and Lebia are
cosmopolite, but most abundant in South America. Pachyteles is
mostly South American but with a few species in West Africa;
while Lobodonotus has one species in South America and two in
Africa.

Lucanidze.—The Neotropical species of this family almost all
belong to peculiar genera. Those common to other regions are
Syndesus, confined to Tropical South America and Australia, and
Platycerus which is Palearctic and Nearctic, with one species in
Brazil. The most remarkable genus is undoubtedly Chiasogna-
thus, confined to Chili. These are large insects of metallic green
colours, and armed with enormous serrated mandibles. The
allied genera, Pholidotus and Sphenognathus, inhabit Tropical
South America. Streptocerus confined to Chili, is interesting, as
being allied to the Australian Lamprima. The other genera
present no remarkable features ; but Sclerognathus and Leptino-
ptera are the most extensive.

Cetoniidee.—These magnificent insects are but poorly repre-
sented in America; the species being mostly of sombre colours.
There are 14 genera, 12 of which are peculiar. The most exten-
sive genus is Gymnetis, which, with its allies Cotinis and Allor-
hina, form a group which comprehends two-thirds of the Neotro-
pical species of the family. The only other genera of importance.
are, Inca (7 sp.), remarkable for their large size, and being the
only American group in which horns are developed on the head ;

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 17

and Trigonopeltastes (6 sp.), allied to the European Trichius. The
non-peculiar genera are, Stethodesma, of which half the species
are African and half tropical American; and Huphoria, confined
to America both North and South.

Buprestide.—In this fine group the Neotropical region is
tolerably rich, having examples of 39 genera, 18 of which are
peculiar to it. Of these, the most extensive are Conognatha and
Halecia, which have a wide range over most parts of the region ;
and Dactylozodes, confined to the south temperate zone. Of im-
portant genera which range beyond the region, Dicerca is mainly
Nearctic and Palearctic ; Cinyra has a species in North America
and one in Australia; Curis is divided between Chili and
Australia ; the Australian genus Stigmodera has a species in Chili;
Polycesta has a species in Madagascar, two in the Mediterranean
region, and a few in North America; Acherusia is divided between
Australia and Brazil; Ptosima has one species in south tempe-
rate America, the rest widely scattered from North America to
the Philippines ; Actenodes has a single species in North Ame-
rica and another in West Africa; Colobogaster has two in West
Africa, one in Java and one in the Moluccas. The relations of
South America and Australia as indicated by these insects has
already been sufficiently noticed under the latter region.

Longicornia.—The Neotropical Longicorn Coleoptera are over-
whelming in their numbers and variety, their singularity and
their beauty. In the recent Catalogue of Gemminger and
Harold, it is credited with 516 genera, 489 of which are peculiar
to it; while it has only 5 genera in common (exclusively) with
the Nearctic, and 4 (in the same way) with the Australian region.
Only the more important genera can be here referred to, under
the three great families into which these insects are divided.

The Prionidz are excessively numerous, being grouped in 64
genera, more than double the number possessed by any other
region ; and 61 of these are peculiar. The three, common to
other regions, are, Parandra and Mallodon, which are widely
distributed ; and Hrgates, found also in California and Europe.
The most remarkable genera are, the magnificently-coloured
Psalidognathus and Pyrodes; the large and strangely marked

18 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART. III.

Macrodontia; and Titanus, the largest insect of the entire
family.

Of the Cerambycide there are 233 genera, exceeding by one-
half, the number in any other region; and 225 of these are
peculiar. Only 2 are common to the Neotropical and Nearctic
regions exclusively, and 3 to the Neotropical and Australian.
The most extensive genera are the elegant Jbidion (80 sp.);
the richly-coloured Chrysoprasis (47 sp.); the prettily-marked
Trachyderes (53 sp.) ; with Odontocera (25 sp.); Criodon (22 sp.) ;
and a host of others of less extent, but often of surpassing
interest and beauty. The noteworthy genera of wide range are,
Oeme and Cyrtomerus, which have each a species in West Africa,
and Hammatocerus, which has one in Australia.

The Lamiidz have 219 genera, and this is the only tropical
region in which they do not exceed the Cerambycide. This
number is almost exactly the same as that of the Oriental
genera, but here there are more peculiar groups, 203 against 160
in the other region. The most extensive genera are Hemilophus
(80 sp.), Colobothea (70 sp.), Acanthoderes (56 sp.), Oncoderes
(48 sp.), Lepturgus (40 sp.), Hypsioma (32 sp.), and Tontotes
(20 sp.). Macropus longimanus, commonly called the harlequin
beetle, is one of the largest and most singularly-marked insects
in the whole family. JLeptostylus has a single species in New
Zealand ; Acanthoderes has one species in Europe, W. Africa,
and Australia, respectively ; Spalacopsis has a species in W.
Africa; Pachypeza is common to S. America and the Philip-
pines; Mesosa is Oriental and Palearctic, but has one species on
the Amazon; Apomecyna ranges through the tropics of the
Eastern Hemisphere, but has two species in S. America; Acan-
thocinus has one species in Tasmania, and the rest in South
America, North America, and Europe; Phaa is wholly Neo-
tropical, except two species in the Philippine Islands.

General Conclusions as to the Neotropical Insect-fauna—
Looking at the insects of the Neotropical region as a whole, we
are struck with the vast amount of specialty they present ; and,
considering how many causes there are which must lead to the
dispersal of insects, the number of its groups which are scattered

cHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 19

over the globe is not nearly so great as we might expect. This
points to a long period of isolation, during which the various
forms of life have acted and reacted on each other, leading to such
a complex yet harmoniously-balanced result as to defy the com-
petition of the chance immigrants that from time to time must
have arrived. This is quite in accordance with the very high
antiquity we have shown most insect-forms to possess; and
it is no doubt owing to this antiquity, that such a complete
diversity of generic forms has been here brought about, without
any important deviation from the great family types which pre-
vail over the rest of the globe.

Land Shells.—The Neotropical region is probably the richest
on the globe in Terrestrial Mollusca, but this is owing, not to any
extreme productiveness of the equatorial parts of the continent,
where almost all other forms of life are so largely developed, but
to the altogether exceptional riches of the West India Islands.
The most recent estimates show that the Antilles contain more
species of land shells than all the rest of the region, and almost
exactly as many as all continental America, north and south.

Mr. Thomas Bland, who has long studied American land shells,
points out a remarkable difference in the distribution of the
Operculated and Inoperculated groups, the former being pre-
deminant on the islands, the latter on the continent. The
Antilles possess over 600 species of Operculata, to about 150
on the whole American continent, the genera being as 22 to 14.
Of Inoperculata the Antilles have 740, the Continent 1,250, the
genera being 18 and 22. The proportions of the two groups in
each country are, therefore:

West India Islands. American Continent.
Operculata ... er Gren. 22 Sp. 608 ... wae) 14; 151
Inoperculata... Tales! » 18 reUGH? bee owe ay PLS

The extensive family of the Helicide is represented by 22
genera, of which 6 are peculiar. Spiraxis is confined to
Central America and the Antilles; Stenopus and Sagda are
Antillean only; Orthalicus, Macroceramus, and Bulimulus have
a wider range, the last two extending into the southern United

20 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III

States. Important and characteristic genera are, Glandina, in
all the tropical parts of the region; Cylindrella, in Central
America and the Antilles; Bulimus, containing many large and
handsome species in South America; Stenogyra, widely spread in
the tropics; and Streptaxis, in Tropical South America.

Among the Operculata, the Aciculide are mostly Antillean,
two genera being peculiar there, and one, 7’rwncatella, of wide
distribution, but most abundant in the West Indian Islands.
The Cyclostomide are represented by 15 genera, 9 being
peculiar to the region, and 5 of these (belonging to the sub-
family Licinide) to the Antilles only. Of these peculiar genera
Cistula and Chondropoma are the most important, ranging over
all the tropical parts of the region. Other important genera are
Cyclotus and Megalomastoma ; while Cyclophorus also oceurs all
over the region. The Helicinide are mostly Neotropical, six
out of the seven genera being found here, and four are peculiar.
Stoastoma, is one of the largest genera; and, with Z’vrochatella
and Alcadia, is confined to the Antilles, while the wide-spread
Helicina is most abundant there.

The Limacide, or Old World slugs, are absent from the region,
their place being taken by the allied family, Oncidiade.

Marine Shells—We go out of our usual course to say a few
words about the marine shells of this region, because their
distribution on the two sides of the continent is important, as
an indication of the former separation of North and South
America, and the connection of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
It was once thought that no species of shells were common to
the two sides of the Central American Isthmus, and Dr. Mérch
still holds that opinion; but Dr. Philip Carpenter, who has
paid special attention to the subject, considers that there are at
least 35 species absolutely identical, while as many others are
so close that they may be only varieties. Nearly 70 others are
distinct but representative species. The genera of marine mol-
lusca are very largely common to the east and west coasts,
more than 40 being so named in the lists published by Mr.
Woodward. The West Indian Islands being a rich shell dis-
trict, produce a number of peculiar forms, and the west coast of

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 21

South America is, to some extent, peopled by Oriental and Pacific
genera of shells. On the west coast there is hardly any coral,
while on the east it is abundant, showing a difference of physical
conditions that must have greatly influenced the development
of mollusca. When these various counteracting influences are
taken into consideration, the identity or close affinity of about
140 species and 40 genera on the two sides of the Isthmus
of Panama becomes very important; and, combined with the
fact of 48 species of fish (or 30 per cent. of those known)
being identical on the adjacent coasts of the two oceans (as -
determined by Dr. Giinther), render it probable that Central
America has been partially submerged up to comparatively re-
cent geological times. Yet another proof of this former union
of two oceans is to be found in the fossil corals of the Antilles
. of the Miocene age, which Dr. Duncan finds to be more allied
to existing Pacific forms, than to those of the Atlantic or even
of the Caribbean Sea.

NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS.

In the concluding part of this work devoted to geographical
zoology,.the sub-regions are arranged in the order best adapted
to exhibit them in a tabular form, and to show the affinities of
the several regions ; but for our present purpose it will be best
to take first in order that which is the most important and most
extensive, and which exhibits all the peculiar characteristics of
the region in their fullest development. We begin therefore
with our second division.

II. Tropical South-America, or the Brazilian Sub-region.

This extensive district may be defined as consisting of all the
tropical forest-region of South America, including all the open
plains and pasture lands, surrounded by, or intimately associated
with, the forests. Its central mass consists of the great forest-
plain of the Amazons, extending from Paranaiba on the north
coast of Brazil (long. 42° W.) to Zamora, in the province of
Loja (lat. 4° S., long. 79° W.), high up in the Andes, on the west ;—
a distance in a straight line of more than 2,500 English miles,

bo
bo

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II,

along the whole of which there is (almost certainly) one con-
tinuous virgin forest. Its greatest extent from north to south, is
from the mouths of the Orinooko to the eastern slopes of the
Andes near La Paz in Bolivia and a little north of Sta, Cruz de
la Sierra (lat. 18°S.), a distance of about 1,900 miles. Within this
area of continuous forests, are included some open “ campos,” or
patches of pasture lands, the most important being,—the Campos
of the Upper Rio Branco on the northern boundary of Brazil; a
tract in the interior of British Guiana; and another on the
northern bank of the Amazon near its mouth, and extending
some little distance on its south bank at Santarem. On the
northern bank of the Orinooko are the Llanos, or flat open plains,
partly flooded in the rainy season; but much of the interior of
Venezuela appears to be forest country. The forest again pre-
vails from Panama to Maracaybo, and southwards in the Magda-
lena valley ; and on all the western side of the Andes to about
100 miles south of Guayaquil. On the N.E. coast of Brazil is a
tract of open country, in some parts of which (as near Ceara)
rain does not fall for years together; but south of Cape St.
Roque the coast-forests of Brazil commence, extending to lat.
30° S., clothing all the valleys and hill sides as far inland as the
higher mountain ranges, and even penetrating up the great valleys
far into the interior. To the south-west the forest country re-
appears in Paraguay, and extends in patches and partially
wooded country, till it almost reaches the southern extension of
the Amazonian forests. The interior of Brazil is thus in the
position of a great island-plateau, rising out of, and surrounded
by, a lowland region of ever-verdant forest. The Brazilian sub-
region comprises all this forest-country and its included open
tracts, and so far beyond it as there exists sufficient woody
vegetation to support its peculiar forms of life. It thus ex-
tends considerably beyond the tropic in Paraguay and south
Brazil; while the great desert of Chaco, extending from 25° to
30° S., lat. between the Parana and the Andes, as well as the high
plateaus of the Andean range, with the strip of sandy desert on
the Pacific coast as far as to about 5° of south latitude, belong to
south temperate America, or the sub-region of the Andes.

CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 23

Having already given a sketch of the zoological features of
the Neotropical region as a whole, the greater part of which will
apply to this sub-region, we must here confine ourselves to an
indication of the more important groups which, on the one hand,
are confined to it, and on the other are absent; together with a
notice ef its special relations to other regions.

Mammalia—Many of the most remarkable of the American
monkeys are limited to this sub-region; as Lagothrix, Pithecia,
and Brachyurus, limited to the great Amazonian forests ; Eviodes
to south-east Brazil; and Callithrix to tropical South America.
All the marmosets (Hapalide) are also confined to this sub-region,
one only being found at Panama, and perhaps extending a little
beyond it. Among other peculiar forms, are 8 genera of bats;
3 peculiar forms of wild dog; Pteronura, a genus of otters ;
Inia, a peculiar form of dolphin inhabiting the upper waters of
the Amazon ; tapirs of the genus Tapirus (a distinct genus being
found north of Panama) ; 4 genera of Muride ; Ctenomys, a genus
of Octodontide ; the whole family of Echimyide, or spiny rats,
(as far as the American continent is concerned) consisting of 8
genera and 28 species ; Chwtomys, a genus of Cercolabide ; the
capybara (Hydrochewrus) the largest known rodent, belonging to
the Caviide ; the larger ant-eaters (Wyrmecophaga) ; sloths of the
genus Bradypus ; 2 genera of armadillos (Dasypodide) ; and two
peculiar forms of the opossum family (Didelphyide). No group
that is typically Neotropical is absent from this sub-region,
except such as are peculiar to other single sub-regions and which
will be noticed accordingly. The occurrence of a solitary species
of hare (Lepus braziliensis) in central Brazil and the Andes, is
remarkable, as it is cut off from all its allies, the genus not being
known to occur elsewhere on the continent further south than
Costa Rica. The only important external relation indicated by
the Mammalia of this sub-region is towards the Ethiopian region,
2 genera of Echimyide, Awlacodes and Petromys, occurring in
South and South-east Africa.

Plate IV. Characteristic Neotropical Mammalia.—Our illustra-
tion represents a mountainous forest in Brazil, the part of South
America where the Neotropical Mammalia are perhaps best

Vou. II.—8

24 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III

developed. The central and most conspicuous figure is the collared
ant-eater, (Tamandua tetradactyla), one of the handsomest of the
family, in its conspicuous livery of black and white. To the left
are a pair of sloths (Arctopithecus jlaccidus) showing the curious
black spot on the back with which many of the species are marked,
and which looks like a hole in the trunk of a tree; but this mark
seems to be only found on the male animal. The fur of many of
the sloths has a greenish tinge, and Dr. Seemann remarked its
resemblance to the 7id/andsia usneoides, or “ vegetable horsehair,”
which clothes many of the trees in Central America; and this
probably conceals them from their enemies, the harpy-eagles. On
the right are a pair of opossums (Didelphys azare), one of them
swinging by its prehensile tail. Overhead in the foreground are
a group of howling monkeys (MJycetes ursinus) the largest of the
American Quadrumana, and the noisiest of monkeys. The large
hollow vessel into which the hyoid bone is transformed, and
which assists in producing their tremendous howling, is alto-
gether unique in the animal kingdom. Below them, in the dis-
tance, are a group of Sapajou monkeys (Cebus sp.); while gaudy
screaming macaws complete the picture of Brazilian forest life.
Birds.—A very large number of genera of birds, and some
entire families, are confined to this sub-region, as will be seen
by looking over the list of genera at the end of this chapter.
Wecan here only notice the more important, and summarize the
results. More than 120 genera of Passeres are thus limited,
belonging to the following 12 families: Sylviide (1), Troglo-
dytide (2), Ceerebidee (4), Tanagride (26), Fringillide (8), Ic-
teride (5), Pteroptochide (3), Dendrocolaptide (12), Formi-
carlidée (16), Tyrannidee (22), Cotingide (16), Pipride (10). Of
the Picariz there are 76 peculiar genera belonging to 9 families,
viz., Picide (2), Rhamphastide (1), Cuculide (1), Bucconidée
(2), Galbulidee (5), Momotidee (2), Podargidee (1), Caprimalgidee
(4) Trochilide (58). There are 3 peculiar genera of Psittaci, 8
of Galline, the only genus of Opisthocomide, 3 of Accipitres,
1 of Rallide, Psophia and Eurypyga types of distinct families,
and 1 genus of Ardeide, Palamedeide, and Anatide respectively.
The preceding enumeration shows how very rich this sub-region

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CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 25

is in peculiar types of all the most characteristic American
families, such as the Tanagride, Tyrannide, Cotingide, Formi-
carlide, Trochilide, and Galbulide. A considerable proportion
of the genera of the Chilian and Mexican sub-regions also
occur here, so that out of about 680 genera of Neotropical land-
birds more than 500 are represented in this sub-region.

Without entering minutely into the distribution of species it
is difficult to sub-divide this extensive territory with any satis-
factory result.' The upland tract between the Amazon and
Orinooko, which may be termed Guiana, was evidently once an
island, yet it possesses few marked distinctive features. Brazil,
which must have formed another great island, has more speciality,
but the intermediate Amazonian forests form a perfect transition
between them. The northern portion of the continent west of
the Orinooko has more character; and there are indications that
this has received many forms from Central and North America,
and thus blended two faunas once more distinct than they are
now. The family of wood-warblers (Mniotiltidz) seems to have

belonged to this more northern fauna; for out of 18 genera only

5 extend south of the equator, while 6 range from Mexico or
the Antilles into Columbia, some of these being only winter
immigrants and no genus being exclusively South American.
The eastern slopes of the Andes constitute, however, the richest
and best marked province of this sub-region. At least 12 genera
of tanagers (Tanagridz) are found here only, with an immense
number of Fringillidz,—the former confined to the forests, the
latter ranging to the upland plains. The ant-thrushes (Formi-
cariidz) on the other hand seem more abundant in the lowlands,
many genera being peculiar to the Amazonian forests. The su-
perb chatterers (Cotingidz) also seem to have their head-quarters
in the forests of Brazil and Guiana, and to have thence spread

* Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, and Professor Newton, divide the Neotropical
Region into six sub-regions, of which our “ Brazilian sub-region” comprises
three—the “ Brazilian,” the “‘ Amazonian,” and the ‘ Columbian ;” but,
after due consideration, it does not seem advisable to adopt this subdivision
in a general work which treats of all the classes of terrestrial animals. (See

p- 27.)

26 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill

into the Amazonian valley. Guiana still boasts such remarkable
forms as the cardinal chatterer (Phwnicocercus), the military
chatterer (Hawmatoderus), as well as Querula, Gymnoderus, and
Gymnocephalus ; but the first three pass to the south side of the
Lower Amazon. Here also belong the cock of the rock (Rupicola),
which ranges from Guiana to the Andes, and the marvellous
umbrella-birds of the Rio Nigro and Upper Amazon (Cepha-
lopterus), which extends across the Ecuadorean Andes and into
Costa Rica. Brazil has Ptilochloris, Casiornis, Tyuca, Phibalura,
and Calyptura ; while not a single genus of this family, except
' perhaps Heliochera, is confined to the exteusive range of the
Andes. Almost the same phenomena are presented by the
allied Pipride or manakins, the greater part of the genera and
species occurring in Eastern South America, that is in Brazil,
Guiana, and the surrounding lowlands rather than in the Andean
valleys. The same may be said of the jacamars (Galbulide)
and puff-birds (Bucconide); but the humming-birds (Trochi-
lide) have their greatest development in the Andean district.
Brazil and Guiana have each a peculiar genus of parrots ;
Guiana has three peculiar genera of Cracide, while the Andes
north of the equator have two. The Tinamidz on the other
hand have their metropolis in Brazil, which has two or three
peculiar genera, while two others seem confined to the Andes
south of the equator. The elegant trumpeters (Psophide) are
almost restricted to the Amazonian valley.

Somewhat similar facts occur among the Mammalia. At least
3 genera of monkeys are confined to the great lowland equa-
torial forests and 1 to Brazil; Icticyon (Canidee) and Pteronura
(Mustelide) belong to Guiana and Brazil; and most of the
Echimyidz are found in the same districts. The sloths, ant-
eaters, and armadillos all seem more characteristic of the
eastern districts than of the Andean; while the opossums are
perhaps equally plentiful in the Andes.

The preceding facts of distribution lead us to conclude that
the highlands of Brazil and of Guiana represent very ancient
lands, dating back to a period long anterior to the elevation of
the Andean range (which is by no means of great geological anti-

CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 27

quity) and perhaps even to the elevation of the continuous land
which forms the base of the mountains. It was, no doubt, during
their slow elevation and the consequent loosening of the surface,
that the vast masses of debris were carried down which filled up
the sea separating the Andean chain from the great islands of
Brazil and Guiana, and formed that enormous extent of fertile
lowland forest, which has created a great continent ; given space
for the free interaction of the distinct faunas which here met
together, and thus greatly assisted in the marvellous development
of animal and vegetable life, which no other continent can match.
But this development, and the fusion of the various faunas into
one homogeneous assemblage must have been a work of time ;
and it is probable that most of the existing continent was dry
land before the Andes had acquired their present altitude. The
blending of the originally distinct sub-faunas has been no doubt
assisted by elevations and depressions of the land or of the ocean,
which have alternately diminished and increased the land-area.
This would lead to a crowding together at one time, and a dis-
persion at others, which would evidently afford opportunity for
many previously restricted forms to enter fresh areas and become
adapted to new modes of life.

From the preceding sketch it will appear, that the great sub-
region of Tropical South America as here defined, is really formed
of three originally distinct lands, fused together by the vast
lowland Amazonian forests. In the class of birds sufficient mate-
rials exist for separating these districts ; and that of the Andes
contains a larger series of peculiar genera than either of the
other sub-regions here adopted. But there are many objections
to making such a sub-division here. It is absolutely impossible
to define even approximate limits to these divisions—to say for
example where the “Andes” ends and where “ Brazil” or
“ Amazonia” or “Guiana” begins; and the unknown border
lands separating these are so vast, that many groups, now appar-
ently limited in their distribution, may prove to have a very
much wider range. In mammalia, reptiles, and insects, it is
even more difficult to maintain such divisions, so that on the

whole it seems better to treat the entire area as one sub-region,

28 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

although recognizing the faci of its zoological and geographical
diversity, as well as its vast superiority over every other sub-
region in the number and variety of its animal forms.

The reptiles, fishes, mollusca, and insects of this sub-region
have been sufficiently discussed in treating of the entire region,
as by far the larger proportion of them, except in the case of
land-shells, are found here.

Plate XV. Characteristic Neotropical Birds.—To illustrate the
ornithology of South America we place our scene on one of the
tributaries of the Upper Amazon, a district where this class of
animals is the most prominent zoological feature, and where a
number of the most remarkable and interesting birds are to be
found. On the left we have the umbrella-bird (Cephalopterus
ornatus), so called from its wonderful crest, which, when ex-
panded, completely overshadows its head like an umbrella. It is
also adorned with a long tassel of plumes hanging from its breast,
which is formed by a slender fleshy tube clothed with broad
feathers. The bird is as large as a crow, of a glossy blue-black
colour, and belongs to the same family as the exquisitely tinted
blue-and-purple chatterers. Flying towards us are a pair of curl-
crested toucans (Pteroglossus beauharnaisii), distinguished among
all other toucans by a crest composed of small black and shining
barbless plumes, resembling curled whalebone. The general
plumage is green above, yellow and red beneath, like many of its
allies. To the right are two of the exquisite little whiskered
hummers, or “ frill-necked coquettes,” as they are called by Mr.
Gould, (Lophornis gould). These diminutive birds are adorned
with green-tipped plumes springing from each side of the throat,
as well as with beautiful crests, and are among the most elegant
of the great American family of humming-birds, now numbering
about 400 known species. Overhead are perched a pair of
curassows (Crax globulosa), which represent in America the
pheasants of the Old World. There are about a dozen species
of these fine birds, most of which are adorned with handsome
curled crests. That figured, is distinguished by the yellow car-
uncular swellings at the base of the bill. The tall crane-like bird
near the water is one of the trumpeters, (Psophia leucoptera), elegant

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CHAP. XIV. ] ‘THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 29

birds with silky plumage peculiar to the Amazon valley. They
are often kept in houses, where they get very tame and affec-
tionate ; and they are useful in catching flies and other house
insects, which they do with great perseverance and dexterity.

: Islands of Tropical South America.

These are few in number, and, with one exception, not of
much interest. Such islands as Trinidad and Sta. Catherina
form parts of South America, and have no peculiar groups of
animals. The small islands of Fernando Noronha, Trinidad,
and Martin Vaz, off the coast of Brazil, are the only Atlantic
islands somewhat remote from land ; while the Galapagos Archi-
pelago in the Pacific is the only group whose productions have been
carefully examined, or which present features of special interest.

Galapagos Islands.—These are situated on the equator, about
500 miles from the coast of Ecuador, They consist of the large
Albemarle island, 70 miles long; four much smaller (18 to 25
miles long), named Narborough, James, Indefatigable, and Chat-
ham Islands; four smaller still (9 to 12 miles long), named
Abingdon, Bindloes, Hood’s, and Charles Islands. All are vol-
canic, and consist of fields of black basaltic lava, with great
numbers of extinct craters, a few which are still active. The
islands vary in height from 1,700 to 5,000 feet, and they all rise
sufficiently high to enter the region of moist currents of air, so
that while the lower parts are parched and excessively sterile,
above 800 or 1,000 feet there is a belt of comparatively green
and fertile country.

These islands are known to support 58 species of Vertebrates,
——1 quadruped, 52 birds and 5 reptiles, the greater part of which
are found nowhere else, while a considerable number belong to
peculiar and very remarkable genera. We must therefore notice
them in some detail.

Mammalia.—This class is represented by a mouse belonging
to the American genus Hesperomys, but slightly different from
any found on the continent. A true rat (Mus), slightly dif-
fering from any European species, also occurs ; and as there can
be little doubt that this is an escape from a ship, somewhat

30 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill.

changed under its new conditions of life (the genus J/us not being
indigenous to the American continent), it is not improbable, as
Mr. Darwin remarks, that the American mouse may also have
been imported by man, and have become similarly changed.

Birds—Recent researches in the islands have increased the
number of land-birds to thirty-two, and of wading and aquatic
birds to twenty-three. All the land birds but two or three are
peculiar to the islands, and eighteen, or considerably more than
half, belong to peculiar genera. Of the waders 4 are peculiar,
and of the swimmers 2. These are a rail (Porzana spilonota);
two herons (Butorides plumbea and Nycticorax pauper); a
flamingo (Phenicopterus glyphorhynchus) ; while the new aquatics
are a gull (Larus fuliginosus), and a penguin (Spheniscus mendi-
~ culus).

The land-birds are much more interesting. All except the
birds of prey belong to American genera which abound on the
opposite coast or on that of Chili a little further south, or to
peculiar genera allied to South American forms. The only species
not peculiar are, Dolichonyx oryzivorus, a bird of very wide range
in America and of migratory habits, which often visits the Ber-
mudas 600 miles from North America,—and Asio accipitrinus, an
owl which is found almost all over the world. The only genera
not exclusively American are Buteo and Strix, of each of which
a peculiar species occurs in the Galapagos, although very closely
allied to South American species. There remain 10 genera, all
either American or peculiar to the Galapagos; and on these we
will remark in systematic order.

1. Mimus, the group of American mocking-thrushes, is re-
presented by three distinct and well-marked species. 2. Den-
draca, an extensive and wide-spread genus of the wood-warblers
(Mniotiltidz), is represented by one species, which ranges over
the greater part of the archipelago. The genus is especially
abundant in Mexico, the Antilles, and the northern parts of

* Mr. Salvin, who has critically examined the ornithological fauna of these
islands, has kindly corrected my MS. List of the Birds, his valuable paper
in the Transactions of the Zoological Society not having been published in
time for me to make use of it.

CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 31

tropical America, only one species extending south as far as
Chili. 3. Certhidea, a peculiar genus originally classed among
the finches, but which Mr. Sclater, who has made South
American birds his special study, considers to belong to the
Cerebide, or sugar-birds, a family which is wholly tropical.
Two species of this genus inhabit separate islands. 4. Progne,
the American martins (Hirundinidz), is represented by a
peculiar species. 5. Geospiza, a peculiar genus of finches, of
which no less than eight species occur in the archipelago, but
not more than four in any one island. 6. Camarhynchus (6 sp.)
and 7. Cactornis (4 sp.) are two other peculiar genera of finches ;
some of the species of which are confined to single islands,
while others inhabit several. 8. Pyrocephalus, a genus of the
American family of tyrant-flycatchers (Tyrannide), has one
peculiar species closely allied to TZ. rubineus, which has a wide
range in South America. 9. Myiarchus, another genus of the
same family which does not range further south than western
Ecuador, has also a representative species found in several of
the islands. 10. Zenaida, an American genus of pigeons, has
a species in James Island and probably in some of the others,
closely allied to a species from the west coast of America.

It has been already stated that some of the islands possess
peculiar species of birds distinct from the allied forms in other
islands, but unfortunately our knowledge of the different islands
is so unequal and of some so imperfect, that we can form no
useful generalizations as to the distribution of birds among the
islands themselves. The largest island is the least known; only
one bird being recorded from it, one of the mocking-thrushes
found nowhere else. Combining the observations of Mr. Darwin
with those of Dr. Habel and Prof. Sundevall, we have species
recorded as occurring in seven of the islands. Albemarle island
has but one definitely known species; Chatham and Bindloe
islands have 11 each ; Abingdon and Charles islands 12 each;
Indefatigable island and James island have each 18 species. This
shows that birds are very fairly distributed over all the islands,
one of the smallest and most remote (Abingdon) furnishing as
many as the much larger Chatham Island, which is also the nearest

32 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT.

to the mainland. Taking the six islands which seem tolerably
explored, we find that two of the species (Dendreca aureola and
Geospiza. fortis) occur in all of them; two others (Geospiza
strenua and Myiarchus magnirostris) in five; four: Wimus
melanotis, Geospiza fuliginosa, G. parvula, and Camarhynchus
prosthemelas) in four islands; five (Certhidea olivacea, Cactornis
scandens, Pyrocephalus nanus), and two of the birds of prey, in
three islands; nine (Certhidea fusca, Progne concolor, Geospiza
nebulosa, G. magnirostris, Camarhynchus psittaculus, C. variegatus,
C. habeli and Asio accipitrinus) in two islands; while the remaining
ten species are confined to one island each. These peculiar
species are distributed among the islands as follows. James,
Charles and Abingdon islands, have 2 each ; Bindloes, Chatham,
and Indefatigable, 1 each. The amount of speciality of James
Island is perhaps only apparent, owing to our ignorance of the
fauna of the adjacent large Albemarle island; the most remote
islands north and south, Abingdon and Charles, have no doubt
in reality most peculiar species, as they appear to have. The
scarcity of peculiar species in Chatham Island is remarkable, it
being large, very isolated, and the nearest to the mainland.
There is still room for exploration in these islands, especially in
Albemarle, Narborough, and Hood’s islands of which we know
nothing.

feptiles—The few reptiles found in these islands are very
interestmg. There are two snakes, a species of the American
genus Herpetodryas, and another which was at first thought to
be a Chilian species (Psammophis Temminckic), but which is
now considered to be distinct. Of lizards there are four at least,
belonging to as many genera. One is a species of Phyllodactylus,
a wide-spread genus of Geckotide; the rest belong to the
American family of the Iguanas, one being a species of the Neo-
tropical genus Leiocephalus, the other two very remarkable forms,
Trachycephalus and Oreocephalus (formerly united in the genus
Amblyrhynchus). The first is a land, the second a marine, lizard ;
both are of large size and very abundant on all the islands; and
they are quite distinct from any of the very numerous genera of
Iguanide, spread all over the American continent. The last

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 33

reptile is a land tortoise ( Testudo nigra) of immense size, and also
abundant in all the islands. Its nearest ally is the equally large
species of the Mascarene Islands; an unusual development due,
in both cases, to the absence of enemies permitting these slow
but continually growing animals to attain an immense age. It
is believed that each island has a distinct variety or species of
tortoise.

Insects— Almost the only insects known from these islands
are some Coleoptera, chiefly collected by Mr. Darwin. They
consist of a few peculiar species of American or wide ranging
genera, the most important being, a Calosoma, Pecilus, Solen-
ophorus, and Notaphus, among tlie Carabide ; an Oryctes among
the Lamellicornes ; two new genera of obscure Heteromera; two
Curculionidee of wide-spread genera; a Longicorn of the South
American genus Hburia ; and two small Phytophaga,—a set of
species highly suggestive of accidental immigrations at rare and
distant intervals.

Land-Shells—These consist of small and obscure species,
forming two peculiar sub-genera of Bulimulus, a genus greatly
developed on the whole West coast of America; and a single
species of Buliminus, a genus which ranges over all the world
except America. As in the case of the birds, most of the islands
have two or three peculiar species.

General Conclusions.—These islands are wholly volcanic and
surrounded by very deep sea; and Mr. Darwin is of opinion,
not only that the islands have never been more nearly con-
nected with the mainland than at present, but that they have
never been connected among themselves. They are situated
on the Equator, in a sea where gales and storms are almost
unknown. The main currents are from the south-west, an ex-
tension of the Peruvian drift along the west coast of South
America. From their great extent, and their volcanoes being
now almost extinct, we may assume that they are of consider-
able antiquity. These facts exactly harmonize with the theory,
that they have been peopled by rare accidental immigratious
at very remote intervals. The only peculiar genera consist of
birds and lizards, which must therefore have been the earliest

34 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

immigrants. We know that small Passerine birds annually reach
the Bermudas from America, and the Azores from Europe, the
former travelling over 600, the latter over 1000 miles of ocean.
These groups of islands are both situated in stormy seas, and the
immigrants are so numerous that hardly any specific change in the
resident birds has taken place. The Galapagos receive no such
annual visitants ; hence, when by some rare accident a few indi-
viduals of a species did arrive, they remained isolated, probably
for thousands of generations, and became gradually modified
through natural selection under completely new conditions of
existence. Less rare and violent storms would suffice to carry
some of these to other islands, and thus the archipelago would
in time become stocked. It would appear probable, that those
which have undergone most change were the earliest to arrive ;
so that we might look upon the three peculiar genera of finches,
and Certhidea, the peculiar form of Ccerebidze, as among the most
ancient inhabitants of the islands, since they have become so
modified as to have apparently no near allies on the mainland.
But other birds may have arrived nearly at the same time, and
yet not have been much changed. A species of very wide
range, already adapted to live under very varied conditions and
to compete with varied forms of life, might not need to become
modified so much as a bird of more restricted range, and more
specialized constitution. And if, before any considerable change
had been effected, a second immigration of the same species
occurred, crossing the breed would tend to bring back the original
type of form. While, therefore, we may be sure that birds like
the finches, which are profoundly modified and adapted to the
special conditions of the climate and vegetation, are among the
most ancient of the colonists; we cannot be sure that the less
modified form of tyrant-flycatcher or mocking-thrush, or even
the unchanged but cosmopolitan owl, were not of coeval date ;
since even if the parent form on the continent has been changed,
successive immigrations may have communicated the same
change to the colonists.

The reptiles are somewhat more difficult to account for. We
know, however, that lizards have some means of dispersal over

CHAP. XIV. | THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 35

the sea, because we find existing species with an enormous
range. The ancestors of the Amblyrhynchi must have come as
early, probably, as the earliest birds; and the same powers of
dispersal have spread them over every island. The two American
genera of lizards, and the tortoises, are perhaps later immigrants.
Latest of all were the snakes, which hardly differ from continental
forms ; but it isnot at all improbable that these latter, as well as
the peculiar American mouse, have been early human importa-
tions. Snakes are continually found on board native canoes
whose cabins are thatched with palm leaves; and a few cen-
turies would probably suffice to produce some modification of
a species completely isolated, under conditions widely different
from those of its native country. Land-shells, being so few and
small, and almost all modifications of one type, are a clear indi-
cation of how rare are the conditions which lead to their dispersal
over a wide extent of ocean: since two or three individuals, ar-
riving on two or three occasions only during the whole period
of the existence of the islands, would suffice to account for the
present fauna. Insects have arrived much more frequently ; and
this is in accordance with their habits, their lower specific gravity,
their power of flight, and theiv capacity for resisting for some
time the effects of salt water.

We learn, then, from the fauna of these islands, some very im-
portant facts. We are taught that tropical land-birds, unless
blown out of their usual course by storms, rarely or never venture
out to sea, or if they do so, can seldom pass safely over a distance
of 500 miles. The immigrants to the Galapagos can hardly have
averaged a bird in athousand years. We learn, that of all reptiles
lizards alone have some tolerably effective mode of transmission
across the sea; and this is probably by means of currents, and
in connection with floating vegetation. Yet their transmission
is a far rarer event than that of land-birds; for, whereas three
female immigrants will account for the lizard population, at least
eight or ten ancestors are required for the birds. Land serpents
can pass over still more rarely, as two such transmissions would
have sufficed to stock the islands with their snakes ; and it is not
certain that either of these occurred without the aid of man.

36 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

It is doubtful whether mammals or batrachians have any means
of passing, independently of man’s assistance ; the former having
but one doubtfully indigenous representative, the latter none at
all. The remarkable absence of all gay or conspicuous flowers
in these tropical islands, though possessing a zone of fairly
luxuriant shrubby vegetation, and the dependence of this phe-
nomenon on the extreme scarcity of insects, has been alrcady
noticed at Vol. I. p. 461, when treating of a somewhat similar
peculiarity of the New Zealand fauna and flora.

I. South Temperate America, or the Chilian Sub-region. —

This sub-region may be generally defined as the temperate
portion of South America. On the south, it commences with the
cold damp forests of Tierra del Fuego, and their continuation up
the west coast to Chiloe and northward to near Santiago. To the
east we have the barren plains of Patagonia, gradually changing
towards the north into the more fertile, but still treeless, pampas
of La Plata. Whether this sub-region should be continued across
the Rio de la Plata into Uruguay and Entre-rios, is somewhat
doubtful. To the west of the Parana it extends northward over
the Chaco desert, till we approach the border of the great forests
near St. Cruz de la Sierra. On the plateau of the Andes, how-
ever, it must be continued still further north, along the “ paramos”
or alpine pastures, till we reach 5° of South latitude. Beyond this
the Andes are very narrow, having no double range with an inter-
vening plateau; and although some of the peculiar forms of the tem-
perate zone pass on to the equator or even beyond it, these are not
sufficiently numerous to warrant our extending the sub-region to
include them. Along with the high Andes it seems necessary to in-
clude the western strip of arid country, which is mostly peopled
by forms derived from Chili and the south temperate regions.

Mammalia—tvhis sub-region is well characterised by the pos-
session of an entire family of mammalia having Neotropical
affinities—the Chinchillide. It consists of 3 genera—Chinchilla
(2 sp.), inhabiting the Andes of Chili and Peru as far as 9° south
latitude, and at from 8,000 to 12,000 feet altitude; Lagidiwm
(3 sp.), ranging over the Andes of Chili, Peru, and South Ecuador,

CHAP, XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 37

from 11,000 to 16,000 feet altitude; and Lagostomus (1 sp.), the
“ viscacha,” contined to the pampas between the Uruguay and
Rio Negro. Many important genera are also confined to this sub-
region. Auchenia (4 sp.), including the domesticated llamas
and alpacas, the vicugna which inhabits the Andes of Peru and
Chili, and the guanaco which ranges over the plains of Patagonia
and Tierra del Fuego. Although this genus is allied to the Old
World camels, it is a very distinct form, and its introduction from
North America, where the family appear to have originated, may
date back to a remote epoch. Ursus ernatus, the “spectacled
bear” of the Chilian Andes, is a remarkable form, supposed to be
most allied to the Malay bear, and probably forming a distinct
genus, which has been named 7'remarctos. Four genera of Octo-
dontidse are also peculiar to this sub-region, or almost so; Habro-
comus (1 sp.) is Chilian ; Spalacopus (2 sp.) is found in Chili and
on the east side of the southern Andes; Octodon (3 sp.) ranges
from Chili into Peru and Bolivia; Ctenomys (6 sp.) trom the
Straits of Magellan to Bolivia, with one species in South Brazil.
Dolichotis, one of the Cavies, ranges from Patagonia to Mendoza,
and on the east coast to 373°S. latitude. yopotamus (1 sp.),
the coypu (Echimyide), ranges from 33° to 48° S. latitude on
the west side of the Andes, and from the frontiers of Peru to
42° S. on the east side. Reithrodon and Acodon, genera of
Muride, are also confined to Temperate South America; Toly-
peutes and Chlamydophorus, two genera of armadillos, the latter
very peculiar in its organization and sometimes placed in a dis-
tinct family, are found only in La Plata and the highlands of
Bolivia, and so belong to this sub-region. Otaria, one of the
“eared seals” (Otariidz), is confined to the coasts of this sub-
region and the antarctic islands. Deer of American groups ex-
tend as far as Chiloe on the west, and the Straits of Magellan on
the east coast. Mice of the South American genera Hesperomys and
Reithrodon, are abundant down to the Straits of Magellan and’
into Tierra del Fuego, Mr. Darwin having collected more than 20
distinct species. The following are the genera of Mammalia
which have been observed on the shores of the Straits of Magel-
lan, those marked * extending into Tierra del Fuego:

38 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

* Pseudalopex (two wolf-like foxes), Felis (the puma), Mephitis
(skunks), Cervus (deer), *Auchenia (guanaco), *Ctenomys (tucu-
tucu), *Rerthrodon and *Hesperomys (American mice).

Birds.—Three families of Birds are confined to this sub-region,
—Phytotomide (1 genus, 3 sp.), inhabiting Chili, La Plata, and
Bolivia; Chionidide (1 genus, 2 sp.) the “sheath-bills,” found
only at the southern extremity of the continent and in Kerguelen’s
Island, which with the other antarctic lands perhaps comes best
here; Thinocoride (2 genera, 6 species) an isolated family of
waders, ranging over the whole sub-region and extending north-
ward to the equatorial Andes. Many genera are also peculiar:
3 of Fringillide, and 1 of Icteridee; 9 of Dendrocolaptide, 6 of
Tyrannide, 3 of Trochilide, and 4 of Pteroptochidz,—the last four
South American families. There is also a peculiar genus of par-
rots (Henicognathus) in Chili; two of pigeons (Metriopelia and
Gymnopelia) confined to the Andes and west coast from Peru to
Chili; two of Tinamous, 7inamotes in the Andes, and Calo-
dromus in La Plata; three of Charadriidee, Phegornis, Pluvia-
nellus, and Oreophilus; and Rhea, the American ostriches,
inhabiting all Patagonia and the pampas. Perhaps the Caria-
mide have almost as much right here as in the last sub-region,
inhabiting as they do, the “pampas” of La Plata and the up-
land “campos” of Brazil; and even among the wide-ranging
aquatic birds, we have a peculiar genus, Merganetta,one of the duck
family, which is confined to the temperate plateau of the Andes.

Against this extensive series of characteristic groups, all either
of American type or very distinct forms of Old World families,
and therefore implying great antiquity, we find, in mammalia
and birds, very scanty evidence of that direct affinity with the
north temperate zone, on which some naturalists lay so much
stress. We cannot point to a single terrestrial genus, which is
characteristic of the north and reappears in this south temperate
region without also occurring over much of the intervening
land. Mustela seems only to have reached Peru ; Lepus is iso-
lated in Brazil; true Ursus does not pass south of Mexico. In
birds, the northern groups rarely go further south than Mexico
or the Columbian Andes; and the only case of discontinuous

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 39

distribution we can find recorded is that of the genus of ducks,
Camptoleemus, which has a species on the east side of North Ame-
rica and another in Chili and the Falkland Islands, but these,
Professor Newton assures me, do not properly belong to the same
genus. Out of 30 genera of land-birds collected on the Rio
Negro in Patagonia, by Mr. Hudson, only four extend beyond the
American continent, and the same exclusively American character
apples equally to its southern extremity. No list appears to
have been yet published of the land-birds of the Straits of
Magellan and Tierra del Fuego. The following is compiled from
the observations of Mr. Darwin, the recent voyage of Professor
Cunningham, and other sources; and will be useful for com-

parison.

TURDID&.
1. Turdus falklandicus.

TROGLODYTIDA.
2. Troglodytes magellanicus.

FRINGILLID.
3. Chrysomitris barbata.
*4, Phrygilus gayi.
*5.

3 aldunatii.
6. -F fruticeti.
“| 9 xanthogrammus.

8. Zonotrichia pileata.

IcTERID A.
9. Sturnella militaris.
10. Curzeus aterrimus.

HirvunDInIp&.
11. Hirundo meyeni.

TYRANNID&.
12. Teenioptera pyrope.
13. Myiotheretes rufiventris.
14, Muscisaxicola mentalis.
15. Centrites niger.
16. Anzeretes parulus,
17. Elainea griseogularis,

DENDROCOLAPTID&. ,
18. Upucerthia dumetoria.
*19. Cinclodes patagonicus.
*20. 5 fuscus.
*21. Oxyurus spinicauda.

PTEROPTOCHIDZ.
*22. Scytalopus magellanicus.

Vou. I1.—4

Picipz&. .
*23. Campephilus magellanicus.
24, Picus lignarius.

ALCEDINIDZ.
25. Ceryle stellata.

TROCHILID,
26. Eustephanus galeritus.

ConuRID&.
27. Conurus patagonus.

VULTURIDS,
28. Cathartes aura.
29. Sarcorhamphus gryphus.

FALconip&.
30. Circus macropterus.
31. Buteo erythronotus.
32. Geranoaétus melanolencus,
33. Accipiter chilensis.
34, Cerchneis sparverius.
35. Milvago albogularis.
36. Polyborus tharus.

STRIGIDE.
37. Asio accipitrinus.
38. Bubo magellanicus.
39. Pholeoptynx cunicularia.
40, Glaucidium nana.
41. Syrnium rufipes.

STRUTHIONIDZ.
42. Rhea darwinii.

40 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY, [PART III.

In the above list the species marked* extend to Tierra del
Fuego. It is a remarkable fact that so many of the species
belong to genera which are wholly Neotropical, and that the
specially South American families of Icteride, Tyrannide, Den-
drocolaptide, Pteroptochide, Trochilidz, and Conuride, should
supply more than one-third of the species; while the purely
South American genus Phrygilus, should be represented by four
species, three of which abound in Tierra del Fuego.

Plate XVI. A Scene in the Andes of Chili, with characteristic
Animals.—The fauna of South Temperate America being most
fully developed in Chili, we place the scene of our illustration
in that country. In the foreground we have a pair of the
beautiful little chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera), belonging to a
family of animals peculiar to the sub-region. There are only
two species of this group, both confined to the higher Andes, at
about 8000 feet elevation. Coming round a projecting ridge of
the mountain, are a herd of vicunas (Auchenia vicugna), one of
that peculiar form of the camel tribe found in South America and
confined to its temperate and alpine regions. The upper bird is
a plant-cutter (Phytotoma rara), of sober plumage but allied to
the beautiful chatterers, though forming a separate family. Below,
standing on a rock, is a plover-like bird, the Thinocorus orbi-
gnianus, which is considered to belong to a separate family,
though allied to the plovers and sheath-bills. Its habits are,
however, more those of the quails or partridges, living inland in
dry and desert places, and feeding on plants, roots, and insects.
Above is a condor, the most characteristic bird of the high
Andes.

Reptiles and Amphibia.—These groups show, for the most part,
similar modifications of American and Neotropical forms, as those
we have seen to prevail among the birds. Snakes do not seem
tu go very far south, but several South American genera of Colu-
bride and Dendrophide occur in Chili; while Znophrys is pecu-
liar to La Plata, and Callorhinus to Patagonia, both belonging
to the Colubride. The Elapide do not extend into the tem-
perate zone; but Craspedocephalus, one of the Crotalide, occurs
at Bahia Blanca in Patagonia (Lat. 40° 8.)

PLATE XVI.

aa

Vea 2

THE CHILIAN ANDES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

CHAP, X1V.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 41

Lizards are much more numerous, and there are several pecu-
liar and interesting forms. Three families are represented ;
Teide by two genera—Callopistes peculiar to Chili, and Ameiva
which ranges over almost the whole American continent and is
found in Patagonia; Geckotide by four genera, two of which,—
Caudiverbera and Homonota—are peculiar to Chili, while Sphe-
rodactylus and Cubina are Neotropical, the former ranging to
Patagonia, the latter to Chili; and lastly the American family
Iguanidz represented by eight genera, no less than six being
peculiar, (or almost so,) to the South temperate region. These are
Leiodera, Diplolemus and Proctrotretus, ranging from Chili to
Patagonia; Leiolemus, from Peru to Patagonia; Phrymaturus,
confined to Chili, and Ptygoderus peculiar, to Patagonia and
Tierra del Fuego. The other two genera, Oplurus and Levosaurus,
are common to Chili and tropical South America.

Tortoises appear to be scarce, a species of Hydromedusa only
being recorded. Of the Amphibia, batrachia (frogs and toads)
alone are represented, and appear to be tolerably abundant,
seventeen species having been collected by Mr. Darwin in this
sub-region. Species of the South American genera Phryniscus,
Hylaplesia, Telmatobius, Cacotus, Hylodes, Cyclorhamphus, Pleu-
rodema, Cystignathus, and Levwperus, are found in various locali-
ties, some extending even to the Straits of Magellan,—the
extreme southern limit of both Reptilia and Amphibia, except
one lizard (Ptygoderus} found by Professor Cunningham in Tierra
del Fuego. There are also four peculiar genera, Rhinoderma
belonging to the Engystomidx ; Alsodes and Nannophryne to the
Bombinatoridé ; Opisthodelphys to the Hylide ; and Calyptoce-
phalus to the Discoglosside.

It thus appears, that in the Reptiles all the groups are typically
American, and that most of the peculiar genera belong to families
which are exclusively American. The Amphibia, on the other
hand, present some interesting external relations, but these are
as much with Australia as with the North temperate regions. The
Bombinatoride are indeed Palearctic, but a larger proportion are
Neotropical, and one genus inhabits New Zealand. The Chilian
genus Calyptocephalus is allied to Australian tropical genera.

42 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL.

The Neotropical genera of Ranide, five of ‘which extend to
Chili and Patagonia, belong to a division which is Australian
and Neotropical, and which has species in the Oriental and
Ethiopian regions.

Fresh-water Fishes—These present some peculiar forms, and
some very interesting phenomena of distribution. The genus
Percilia has been found only in the Rio de Maypu in Chili; and
Percichthys, also belonging to the perch family, has five species
confined to the fresh waters of South Temperate America, and
one far away in Java. Nematogenys (1 sp.) is peculiar to Chili;
Trichomycterus reaches 15,000 feet elevation in the Andes,—both
belonging to the Siluride; Chirodon (2 sp.), belonging to the
Characinide, is peculiar to Chili; and several other genera of the
same family extend into this sub-region from Brazil. The family
Haplochitonide has a remarkable distribution ; one of its genera,
Haplochiton (2 sp.), inhabiting Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland
Islands, while the other, Prototroctes, is found only in South
Australia and New Zealand. Still more remarkable is Galaxias
(forming the family Galaxidze), the species of which are divided
between Temperate South America, and Australia, Tas-
mania, and New Zealand; and there is even one species
(Galaxias attenuatus) which is found in the Chatham Islands,
New Zealand, and Tasmania, as well as in the Falkland
Islands and Patagonia. itzroya (1 sp.) is found only at
Montevideo ; Orestias (6 sp.) is peculiar to Lake Titicaca in the
high Andes of Bolivia; Jenynsia (1 sp.) in the Rio de la Plata
—all belonging to the characteristic South American family of
the Cyprinodontide.

Insects.—It is in insects more than in any other class of animals,
that we find clear indications of a not very remote migration of
northern forms, along the great mountain range to South Tem-
perate America, where they have established themselves as a
prominent feature in the entomology of the country. The
several orders and families, however, differ greatly in this
respect ; and there are some groups which are only represented
by modifications of tropical forms, as we have seen to be almost
entirely the case in birds and reptiles.

CHAP, XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 43

Lepidoptera —tThe butterflies of the South Temperate Sub-
region are not numerous, only about 29 genera and 80 species
being recorded. Most of these are from Chili, which is suffi-
ciently accounted for by the general absence of wood on the
east side of the Andes from Buenos Ayres to South Patagonia.
The families represented are as follows: Satyride, with 11
genera and 27 species, are the most abundant ; Nymphalida,
2 genera and 8 species; Lemoniide, 1 genus, 1 species; Lyce-
nid, 3 genera, 8 species ; Pieride, 6 genera, 14 species; Papi-
lionide, 2 genera, 8 species; Hesperide, 4 genera, 13 species.
One genus of Satyridz (Hlina) and 2 of Pieridee (Hroessa and
Phulva) are peculiar to Chili. The following are the genera
whose derivation must be traced to the north temperate zone :—
Tetraphlybia, Neosatyrus, and 3 allied genera of 1 species each,
were formerly included under Hrebia, a northern and arctic form,
yet having a few species in South Africa ; Argyrophorus, allied
to dneis, a northern genus; Hipparchia, a northern genus yet
having a species in Brazil ;—all Satyride. The Nymphalide are
represented by the typical north temperate genus Argynnis, with
7 species in Chili; Colias, among the Pieride, is usually con-
sidered to be a northern genus, but it possesses representatives
in South Africa, the Sandwich Islands, Malabar, New Grenada,
and Peru, as well as Chili, and must rather be classed as
cosmopolitan. These form a sufficiently remarkable group of
northern forms, but they are accompanied by others of a wholly
Neotropical origin. Such are Stibomorpha with 6 species, rang-
ing through South America to Guatemala, and Z£teona, common
to Chili and Brazil (Satyride) ; Apodemia (Lemoniid) confined
to Tropical America and Chili. Hesperocharis and Callidryas
(Pieridz), both tropical ; and Thracides (Hesperidz) confined to
Tropical America and Chili. Other genera are widely scattered;
as, Epinephile found also in Mexico and Australia; Cupido,
widely spread in the tropics ; Ewryades, found only in La Plata
and Paraguay, allied to South American forms of Papilio, to the
Australian Hurycus, and the northern Parnassius ; and Heterop-
terus, scattered in Chili, North America, and Tropical Africa. We
find then, among butterflies, a large north-temperate element,

44 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III,

intermingled in nearly equal proportions with forms derived froni
Tropical America; and the varying degrees of resemblances of
the Chilian to the northern species, seems to indicate successive
immigrations at remote intervals.

Coleoptera.—It is among the beetles of South Temperate
America that we find some of the most curious examples of
remote affinities, and traces of ancient migrations. The Carabidee
are very well represented, and having been more extensively col-
lected than most other families, offer us perhaps the most com-
plete materials. Including the Cicindelidz, about 50 genera are
known from the South Temperate Sub-region, the greater part
from Chili, but a good number also from Patagonia and the
Straits of Magellan. Of these more than 30 are peculiar, and
most of them are so isolated that it is impossible to determine
with precision their nearest allies.

The only remarkable form of Cicindelide is Agrius, a genus
allied to the Amblycheila and Omus of N.W. America. Two
genera of Carabidee, Cascellius and Baripus, are closely allied to
Promecoderus, an Australian genus; and another, Lecanomerus,
has one species in Chili and the other in Australia, Five or six
of the peculiar genera are undoubtedly allied to characteristic
Palearctic forms ; and such northern genera as Carabus, Pristo-
nychus, Anchomenus, Pterostichus, Percus, Bradycellus, Trechus,
and Bembidium, all absent from Tropical America, give great
support to the view that there is a close relation be-
tween the insects of the northern regions and South Temperate
America. A decided tropical element is, however, present.
Tropopterus is near Colpodes, a Tropical and South American
genus; Mimodromius and Plagiotelium are near Calleida, a
South American genus; while Pachyteles, Pericompsus, Vario-
palpus, and Calleida are widely spread American groups.
The preponderance of northern forms seems, however, to be
undoubted.

Six Carabide are known from Juan Fernandez, 2 being
identical with Chilian species and 3 peculiar. As the island is
350 miles from the mainland, we have here a proof of how
readily insects may be transported great distances.

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION, 45

The Palearctic affinity of the South Temperate Carabide may
be readily understood, if we bear in mind the great antiquity of the
group, and the known long persistence of generic and specific
forms of Coleoptera ; the facility with which they may be trans-
ported to great distances by gales and hurricanes, either on land
or over the sea; and, therefore, the probability that suitable
stations would be rapidly occupied by species already adapted
to them, to the exclusion of those of the adjacent tracts which
had been specialised under different conditions. If, for example,
we carry ourselves back to the time when the Andes had only
risen to half their present altitude, and. Patagonia had not
emerged from the ocean (an epoch not very remote geologically),
we should find nearly all the Carabide of South America,
adapted to a warm, and probably forest-covered country. If,
then, a further considerable elevation of the land took place, a
large temperate and cold area would be formed, without any
suitable insect inhabitants. During the necessarily slow pro-
cess of elevation, many of the tropical Carabidze would spread
upwards, and some would become adapted to the new conditions ;
while the majority would probably only maintain themselves by
continued fresh immigrations. But, as the mountains rose,
another set of organisms would make their way along the
highest ridges. The abundance and variety of the North
Temperate Carabide, and their complete adaptation to a life on
barren plains and rock-strewn mountains, would enable them
rapidly to extend into any newly-raised land suitable to them;
and thus the whole range of the Rocky Mountains and Andes
would obtain a population of northern forms, which would over-
flow into Patagonia, and there, finding no competitors, would
develope into a variety of modified groups. This migration was
no doubt effected mainly, during successive glacial epochs, when
the mountain-range of the Isthmus of Panama, if moderately
increased in height, might become adapted for the passage of
northern forms, while storms would often carry insects from
peak to peak over intervening forest lowlands or narrow
straits of sea. If this is the true explanation, we ought to find
no such preponderant northern element in groups which

46 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIl,

are proportionally less developed in cold and _ temperate
climates. Our further examination will show how far this is
the case.

Lucanide.—Only four genera are known in the sub-region.
Two are peculiar, Chiasognathus and Streptocerus, the former
allied to Tropical American, the latter to Australian genera ; the
other two genera are exclusively South American.

Cetoniidee.—These seem very scarce, only a few species of the
Neotropical genus Gymnetis reaching Patagonia.

Buprestidz.—These are rather numerous, many very beautiful
species being found in Chili. Nineteen genera are represented
in South Temperate America, and 5 of these are peculiar to it;
3 others are South American genera; 2 are Australian, and the
remainder are wide-spread, but all are found also in Tropical
America. The only north-temperate genus is Dicerca, and
even this occurs also in the Antilles, Brazil, and Peru. Of the
peculiar genera, the largest, Dactylozodes (26 sp.), has one species
in South Brazil, and is closely allied to Hyperantha, a genus of
‘Tropical America; Hpistonentis is allied to Nascis, an Austra-
lian genus; Z'yndaris is close to Acmaodera, a genus of wide
range and preferring desert or dry countries. The other
two are single species of cosmopolitan affinities. On the
whole, therefore, the Buprestide are unmistakeably Neotropical
in character.

Longicorns.—Almost the whole of the South Temperate Longi-
corns inhabit Chili, which is very rich in this beautiful tribe.
About 75 genera and 160 species are known, and nearly half
of the genera are peculiar. Many of the species are large and
handsome, rivalling in beauty those of the most favoured tropical
lands. Of the 8 genera of Prionide 6 are peculiar, but all
are allied to Tropical American forms except Microplophorus,
which belongs to a group of genera spread over Australia, Europe,
and Mexico. The Cerambycide are much more abundant, and
their affinities more interesting. Two (Syllitus and Pseudoce-
phalus) are common to Australia and Chili. Twenty-three are
Neotropical; and among these Jbidion, Compsocerus, Callideriphus,
Trachyderes, and Xylocharis, are best represented. Twenty are

CHAP, XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 47

altogether peculiar, but most of them are more or less closely
allied to genera inhabiting Tropical America. Some, as the hand-
some Cheloderus and Oxypeltus, have no close allies in any part
of the world. Holopterus, though very peculiar, shows most re-
semblance to a New Zealand insect. Stbylla, Adalbus, and
Phantagoderus, have Australian affinities ; while Calydon alone
shows an affinity for north-temperate forms. One species of the
northern genus, Leptura, is said to have been found at Buenos
Ayres.

The Lamiide are less abundant. Nine of the genera are Neo-
tropical. Two (Apomecyna and Exocentrus) are spread over all
tropical regions. Ten genera are peculiar; and most of these
are related to Neotropical groups or are of doubtful affinities.
Only one, Aconopterus, is decidedly allied to a northern genus,
Pogonocherus. It thus appears, that none of the Lamiide ex-
hibit Australian affinities, although these are a prominent fea-
ture in the relations of the Cerambycide.

It is evident, from the foregoing outline, that the insects of
South Temperate America, more than any other class of animals,
exhibit a connection with the north temperate regions, yet this
connection is only seen in certain groups. In Diurnal Lepidop-
tera and in Carabide, the northern element is fully equal to the
tropical, or even preponderates over it. We have already sug-
gested an explanation of this fact in the case of the Carabide,
and with the butterflies it is not more difficult. The great mass
of Neotropical butterflies are forest species, and have been de-
veloped for countless ages in a forest-clad tropical country. The
north temperate butterflies, on the other hand, are very largely
open-country species, frequenting pastures, mountains, and open
plains, and often wandering over an extensive area. These
would find, on the higher slopes of mountains, a vegetation and
conditions suited to them, and would occupy such stations in
less time than would be required to adapt and modify the forest-
haunting groups of the American lowlands. In those groups
of insects, however, in which the conditions of life are nearly the
same as regards both temperate and tropical species, the superior

ae ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART I,

number and variety of the tropical forms has given them the ad-
vantage. Thus we find that among the Lucanide, Buprestidz, and
Longicorns, the northern element is hardly perceptible. Most of
these are either purely Neotropical, or allied to Neotropical genera,
with the admixture, however, of a decided Australian element.
As in the case of the Amphibia and fresh-water fishes, the Aus-
tralian affinity, as shown by insects, is of two kinds, near and
remote. We have a few genera common to the two countries ;
but more commonly the genera are very distinct, and the affinity
is shown by the genera of both countries belonging to a group
peculiar to them, but which may be of very great age. In the
former case, we must impute some of the resemblance of the two
faunas to an actual interchange of forms within the epoch of
existing genera—a period of vast and unknown duration in the
class of insects; while in the latter case, and perhaps also in
many of the former, it seems more in accordance with the whole
of the phenomena, to look upon most of the instances as
survivals, in the two southern temperate areas, of the relics of
groups which had once a much wider distribution. That this is
the true explanation, is suggested by the numerous cases of dis-
continuous and scattered distribution we have had to notice, in
which every part of the globe, without exception, is implicated ;
and there is a reason why these survivals should be rather more
frequent in Australia and temperate South America, inasmuch
as these two areas agree in the absence of a considerable number
of otherwise cosmopolitan vertebrate types, and are also in many
respects very similar in climatic and other physical conditions.
The preponderating influence of the organic over the physical
environment, as taught by Mr. Darwin, leads us to give most
weight to the first of the above-mentioned causes; to which we
may also impute such undoubted cases of survival of ancient
types as the Centetide of the Antilles and Madagascar—both
areas strikingly deficient in the higher vertebrate forms. The
probable mode and time of the cross migration between Australia
and South America, has been sufficiently discussed in our chapter
on the Australian region, when treating of the origin and affinities
of the New Zealand fauna,

CHAP. XIV. | THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 49

Islands of the South Temperate Sub-region.

These are few, and of not much zoological interest. Tierra
del Fuego, although really an island, is divided from the main-
land by so narrow a channel that it may be considered as
forming part of the continent. The guanaco (Auchenia huanaco)
ranges over it, and even to small islands further south.

The Falkland Islands.—These are more important, being
situated about 350 miles to the east of Southern Patagonia ;
but the intervening sea is shallow, the 100 fathom line of sound-
ings passing outside the islands. We have therefore reason io
believe that they have been connected with South America at a
not distant epoch; and in agreement with this view we find most
of their productions identical, while the few that are peculiar
are closely allied to the forms of the mainland.

The only indigenous Mammais are a wolf-like fox (Pseu-
dalopex antarcticus) said to be found nowhere else, but allied to
two other species inhabiting Southern Patagonia ; and a species
of mouse, probably one of the American genera Hesperomys or
feithrodon.

Sixty-seven species of Birds have been obtained in these
islands, but only 18 are land-birds; and even of these 7 are
birds of prey, leaving only 11 Passeres. The former are all
common South American forms, but one species, Milvago australis,
seems peculiar. The 11 Passeres belong to 9 genera, all found on
the adjacent mainland. Three, or perhaps four, of the species
are however peculiar. These are Phrygilus melanoderus, P.
zanthogrammus, Cinclodes antarcticus, and Muscisaxicola maclo-
viana. The wading and swimming birds are of little interest,
except the penguins, which are greatly developed; no less than
eight species being found, five as residents and three as acci-
dental visitors.

No reptiles are known to inhabit these islands.

Juan Fernandez—This island is situated in the Pacific Ocean,
about 400 miles west of Valparaiso in Chili. It is only a few
miles in extent, yet it possesses four land-birds, excluding the
powerful Accipitres. These are Turdus falklandicus ; Ancretes

0 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART LI.

Jernandensis, one of the Tyrannide ; and two humming-birds,
Eustephanus fernandensis and E. galeritus. The first is a wide-
spread South Temperate species, the two next are peculiar
to the island, while the last is a Chilian species which ranges
south to Tierra del Fuego, But ninety miles beyond this.
island lies another, called “ Mas-a-fuero,” very much smaller ;
yet this, too, contains four species of similar birds; one,
Oxyurus mas-a-fuere, allied to the wide-spread South Temperate
O. spinicauda, and Cinclodes fusus, a South Temperate species—
both Dendrocolaptide ; with a humming-bird, Fustephanus ley-
boldi, allied to the species in the larger island. The preceding
facts are taken from papers by Mr. Sclater in the Jdis for 1871,
and a later one in the same journal by Mr. Salvin (1875). The
former author has some interesting remarks on the three species
of humming-birds of the genus Hustephanus, above referred to.
The Chilian species, #. galeritus,is green in both sexes. £,
fernandensis has the male of a fine red colour and the female
green, though differently marked from the female of H. galeritus.
E. leyboldi (of Mas-a-fuera) has the male also red and the female
green, but the female is more like that of #. galeritus, than it is
like the female of its nearer ally in Juan Fernandez. Mr.
Sclater supposes, that the ancient parent form of these three
birds had the sexes alike, as in the present Chilian bird ; that a
pair (or a female having fertilised ova) reached Juan Fernandez
and colonised it. Under the action of sexual selection (unchecked
by some conditions which had impaired its efficacy on the con-
tinent) the male gradually assumed a brilliant plumage, and the
female aiso slightly changed its markings. Before this change
was completed the bird had established an isolated colony on
Mas-a-fuera ; and here the process of change was continued in
the male, but from some unknown cause checked in the
female, which thus remains nearer the parent form. Lastly
the slightly modified Chilian bird again reached Juan Fer-
nandez and exists there side by side with its strangely altered
cousin.

All the phenomena can thus be accounted for by known laws;
on the theory of very rare accidental immigrations from the

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 51

mainland. The species are here so very few, that the greatest
advocate for continental extensions would hardly call such vast
causes into action, to account for the presence of these three
birds on so small and so remote an island, especially as the
union must have continued down to the time of existing species.
But if accidental immigration has sufficed here, it will also
assuredly have sufficed where the islands are larger, and the
chances of reaching them proportionately greater; and it is
because an important principle is here illustrated on so small
a scale, and in so simple a manner as to be almost undeniable,
that we have devoted a paragraph to its elucidation.

A few Coleoptera from Juan Fernandez present analogous
phenomena. All belong to Chilian genera, while a portion of
them constitute peculiar species.

Land-shells are rather plentiful, there being about twenty
species belonging to seven genera, all found in the adjacent
parts of South America; but all the species are peculiar,
as well as four others found on the island of Mas-a-fuera.

ITI. Tropical North America, or the Mexican Sub-region.

This sub-region is of comparatively small extent, consisting of
the irregular neck of land, about 1,800 miles long, which
connects the North and South American continents. Almost
the whole of its area is mountainous, being in fact a cen-
tinuation of the great range of the Rocky Mountains. In
Mexico it forms an extensive table-land, from 6,000 to 9,000
feet above the sea, with numerous volcanic peaks from 12,000 to
18,000 feet high ; but in Yucatan and Honduras, the country is
less elevated, though still mountainous. On the shores of the
Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, there is a margin of low
land from 50 to 100 miles wide, beyond which the mountains
rise abruptly ; but on the Pacific side this is almost entirely
wanting, the mountains rising almost immediately from the sea
shore. With the exception of the elevated plateaus of Mexico
and Guatemala, and the extremity of the peninsula of Yucatan,
the whole of Central America is clothed with forests ; and as its
surface is much broken up into hill and valley, and the volcanic

o2 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

soil of a large portion of it is very fertile, it is altogether well
adapted to support a varied fauna, as it does a most luxuriant
‘vegetation. Although many peculiar Neotropical types are
absent, it yet possesses an ample supply of generic and specific
forms ; and, as far as concerns birds and insects, is not perhaps
inferior to the richest portions of South America in the number
of species to be found in equal areas.

Owing to the fact that the former Republic of Mexico
comprised much territory that belongs to the Nearctic region,
and that many Nearctic groups extend along the high-lands to
the capital city of Mexico itself, and even considerably further
south, there is much difficulty in determining what animals
really belong to this sub-region. On the low-lands, tropical
forms predominate as far as 28° N. latitude; while on the
cordilleras, temperate forms prevail down to 20°, and are found
even much farther within the tropics.

Mammalia.—vVery few peculiar forms of Mammalia are re-
stricted to tropical North America ; which is not to be wondered at
when we consider the small extent of the country, and the facility
of communication with adjacent sub-regions. A peculiar form
of tapir (Hlasmognathus baird’) inhabits Central America, from
Panama to Guatemala, and, with Myzomys, a genus of Muride,
are all at present discovered. Bassaris,a remarkable form of
Procyonide, has been included in the Nearctic region, but it
extends to the high-lands of Guatemala. Heteromys, a peculiar
genus of -Saccomyide or pouched rats, inhabits Mexico,
Honduras, Costa Rica, and Trinidad. Five genera of monkeys
extend here,—Ateles, Mycetes, Cebus, Nyctipithecus, and Saimiris ;
the two former alone reaching Mexico, the last only going as far
as Costa Rica. Other typical Neotropical forms are Galera, the
tayra, belonging to the weasel family; Nasua, the coatimundi;
Dicotyles, the peccary ; Cercolabes, the tree porcupine ; Dasyprocta,
the agouti; Celogenys, the paca; Chulepus, and Arctopithecus,
sloths; Cyclothurus, an ant-eater; Tatusia, an armadillo; and
Didelphys, oppossum. Of Northern forms. Sere, Vulpes, Lepus,
and Pteromys reach Guatemala.

Birds.—The productiveness of this district in bird life, may

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 53

be estimated from the fact, that Messrs. Salvin and Sclater have
catalogued more than 600 species from the comparatively small
territory of Guatemala, or the portion of Central America between
Mexico and Honduras. The great mass of the birds of this
sub-region are of Neotropical families and genera, but these are
intermingled with a number of migrants from temperate North
America, which pass the winter here; with some northern forms
on the high-lands; and with a considerable number of peculiar
genera, mostly of Neotropical affinities.

The genera of birds peculiar to this sub-region belong to the
following families :—Turdide (2 genera) ; Troglodytide (1 gen.) ;
Vireonidee (1 gen.); Corvide (2 gen.); Ampelidze (1 gen.);
Tanagride (1 gen.); Fringillide (2 gen.); Icteride (1 gen.);
Formicariide (2 gen.) ; Tyrannide (2 gen.) ; Cotingide (1 gen.) ;
Momotide (1 gen.) ; Trogonide (1 gen.) ; Trochilide (14 gen.);
Conuride (1 gen.); Cracide (2 gen.); Strigidé (1 gen.) ; in all
37 genera of land-birds. The Neotropical families that do not
extend into this sub-region are, Pteroptochide ; the sub-family
Furnariine of the Dendrocolaptide; the sub-family Conopha-
gine of the Tyrannide; the sub-family Rupicoline of the
Cotingide ; Phytotomide ; Todide; Opisthocomide ; Chioni-
didee; Thinocoride; Cariamide; Psophiide; Eurypygide ;
Palamedeide ; and Struthionide. On the other hand Paride,
Certhiidz, Ampelidz, and Phasianide, are northern families repre-
sented here, but which do not reach South America; and there
are also several northern genera and species, of Turdide, Troglo-
dytide, Mniotiltide, Vireonide, Fringillide, Corvide, Tetra-
onide, and Strigide, which are similarly restricted. Some of
the most remarkable of the Neotropical genera only extend as
far as Costa Rica and Veragua,—countries which possess a rich
and remarkable fauna. Here only are found an umbrella bird,
(Cephalopterus glabricollis); a bell bird (Chasmorhynchus tricar-
unculatus); and species of Dacnis (Cercebide), Buthraupis,
Eucometis, Tachyphonus (Tanagride), Xiphorhynchus (Dendro-
colaptide) ; Hypocnemis (Formicariide) ; Huscarthmus. (Tyran-
nid); Attdla (Cotingide); Piprites (Pipride); Capito, Tetra-
gonops (Megalemide) ; Sedenidera (Rhamphastide) ; Neomorphus

54 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Ill.

Cuculide) ; Monasa (Bucconide); many genera of Trochilide ;
and Nothocercus (Tinamide); none of which extend further
north. A considerable number of the peculiar genera noted
above, are also found in this restricted area, which is probably
one of the richest ornithological districts on the globe.

Reptiles—These are much less known than the preceding
classes, but they afford several peculiar and interesting forms.
Snakes are perhaps the least remarkable; yet there are recorded
4 peculiar genera of Calamariide, 1 of Colubride, 1 of Homalop-
sidw, 3 of Dipsadidee; while oa and Elaps are in common with
South America, Lizards are much more specially developed.
Chirotes, one of the Amphisbeenians, is confined to Mexico and the
southern part of the Nearctic region ; Heloderma forming a pecu-
liar family, Helodermide, is Mexican only ; Abronia and Barissia
(Zonuride) are also Mexican, as is Siderolampus belonging to
the Scincidee, while Blepharactitis (same family) inhabits Nicara-
gua; Brachydactylus, one of the geckoes, is from Costa Rica;
while Phymatolepis, Lamanctus, Corytheolus, Cachrix, Corytho-
phanes and Chamcleopsis, all belonging to the Iguanide, are con-
fined to various parts of the sub-region. In the same family we
have also the Antillean, Cyclura,and the Nearctic Pkrynosoma and
Tropidolepis, as well as the wide-spread American genus Anolius.

Among the tortoises, Stawrotypus, allied to Chelydra, is found
in Mexico and Guatemala; and another genus, Claudius, has been
lately described from Mexico.

Amphibia.—These are chiefly Batrachians; hinophryna
(forming a peculiar family) being confined to Mexico ; 7’riprion,
a genus of Hylide, inhabiting Yucatan, with Leyla and Stra-
bomantis (Polypedatidze) found only in Costa Rica and Veragua,
are peculiar genera. The Salamandride, so abundant in the
Nearctic region, are represented by a few species of Amblystoma
and Spelerpes.

Fresh-water fish—Since the British Museum catalogue was
published, a valuable paper by Dr. Giinther, in the Transactions
of the Zoological Society for 1868, furnishes much additional
information on the fishes of Central America. In that part of
the region south of Mexico, 106 species of fresh-water fishes are

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 55

enumerated; and 17 of these are found in streams flowing into
both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On the whole, 11 families
are represented among the fresh-water fish, and about 38 genera.
Of these, 14 are specially Nearctic— Amiurus'(Siluride) ; Fundu-
lus (Cyprinodontide) ; Sclerognathus (Cyprinide) ; and Lepidosteus
(Ganoidei). A much larger number are Neotropical ; and several
Neotropical genera, as Heros and Pawcilia, are more largely
developed here than in any other part of the region. There are
also a considerable number of peculiar genera ;—Petenia, Theraps,
and Neotrophus (Chromides) ; lurichthys (Siluride) ; Chalci-
nopsis (Characniide) ; Characodon, Belonesox, Pseudoxiphophorus,
Platypecilus, Mollienesia, and Xiphophorus (Cyprinodontide),
A few peculiar Antillean forms are also present; as Agonostoma
(Mugilide) ; Gambusia and Girardinuus (Cyprinodontide). The
other families represented are Percidze (1 genus); Pristopomatide
(2 gen.) ; Gobiide (1 gen.) ; Clupeide (2 gen.) ; and Gymnotide
(1 genus).

On the whole the fish-fauna is typically Neotropical, but with
a small infusion of Nearctic forms. There are a considerable
proportion of peculiar genera, and almost all the species are
distinct from those of other countries. The predominant family
is that of the Cyprinodontide, represented by 12 genera; and
the genus Heros (Chromidz) has here its maximum development,
containing between thirty and forty species. Dr. Giinther con-
siders that a number of sub-faunas can be distinguished, corre-
spouding to some extent, with the islands into which the country
would be divided by a subsidence of about 2,000 feet. The
most important of these divisions is that separating Honduras from
Costa Rica, and as it also divides a very marked ornithological
fauna we have every reason to believe that such a division must
have existed during the latter portion of the tertiary epoch.
We shall find some farther evidence of this division in the
next class.

Insects.—The butterflies of various parts of Central America
and Mexico, having been largely. collected, offer us some
valuable evidence as to the relations of this sub-region. Their
general character is wholly Neotropical, about one half of the

Vou. I1.—5

56 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II.

South American genera being found here. There are also a few
peculiar genera, as, Drucina (Satyridee); Microtia (Nymphalide) ;
Eumeus (Lycenide); and Eucheira (Pieride), Clothilda
(Nymphalidee) is confined to this sub-region and the Antilles.
The majority of the genera range over the whole sub-region
from Panama to Mexico, but there are a considerable number,
comprising many of the ost characteristic South American
forms, which do not pass north of Costa Rica or Nicaragua, Such
are Lycorea, Ituna, Thyridia, Callithomia, Oleria and Ceratina,
—all characteristic South American groups of Danaide ; Prono-
phila and Dynastor (Satyride); Protogonius, Pycina, Prepona,
Nica, Ectima and Colenis (Nymphalide); Hwrybia and Metho-
nella (Nemeobiidee) ; Hades, and Panthemos (Erycinide).

. Coleoptera—These present some interesting features, but
owing to their vast number only a few of the more important
families can be noticed.

Cicindelidze.—The only specially Neotropical genera recorded
as occurring in this sub-region, are Ctenostoma and Hiresia, both
reaching Mexico.

Carabidee.—Several genera are peculiar. Molobrus is found
in all parts of the sub-region, while Onychopterygia, Phymato-
cephalus, and Anisotarsus are Mexican only. There are about 20
South American genera, most of which extend to Mexico, and
include such characteristic Neotropical forms as Agra, Callida,
Coptodera, Pachyteles, Ardistomus, Aspidoglossa, Stenocrepis, and
Peleciwm.

Lucanidee.—Of this important family there is, strange to say,
not a single species recorded in Gemminger and Harold’s cata-
logue up to 1868! It is almost impossible that they can be
really absent; yet their place seems to be, to some extent,
supplied by an unusual development of the allied Passalide, of
which there are five South American and six peculiar genera,

Cetoniidee.—All the larger South American genera extend to
Mexico, which country possesses 3 peculiar forms, Jschnoscelis,
Psilocnemis, and Dialithus; while Trigonopeltastes is character-
istic, having 4 Mexican, 1 Brazilian, and 1 North American
species.

CHAP, XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 57

Buprestide.—In this family tnere are no peculiar genera.
All the large South American groups are absent, the only im-
portant and characteristic genus being Stenogaster.

Longicorns.—This important group is largely developed, the
country being well adapted to them; and their distribution
presents some features of interest.

In the Prionide there are 6 peculiar genera, the largest being
Holonotus with 3 species; two others, Derotrachus and Mallaspis,
are characteristic; 3 more are common to South America, and 1
to Cuba. The Cerambycide are much more numerous, and there
are 24 peculiar genera, the most important being Sphenothecus,
Entomosterna, and Cyphosterna ; while Crioprosopus and Metalep-
tus are characteristic of the sub-region, although extending into
South America; about 12 Neotropical genera extend to Mexico
or Guatemala, while 12 more stop short, as far as yet known, at
Nicaragua. Lamiide have a very similar distribution ; 13 genera
are peculiar, the most important being Monilema, Hamatoderus,
and Carneades, while Phea and Lagochirus are characteristic.
About sixteen typical Neotropical genera extend to Mexico, and
15 more only reach Nicaragua, among which are such important
genera as Anisopus, Lepturgus, and Callia.

The land-shells are not sufficiently known to furnish any
corresponding results. They are however mostly of South
American genera, and have comparatively little affinity for those
of the Antilles.

Relations of the Mexican sub-region to the North and South
American Continents—The sudden appearance of numerous
South American forms of Edentata in temperate North America,
in Post-Tertiary times, as narrated in Chapter VIL, together
with such facts as the occurrence of a considerable number
of identical species of sea fish on the two sides of the Central
American isthmus, render it almost certain that the union of
North and South America is comparatively a recent occur-
rance, and that during the Miocene and Pliocene periods, they
were separated by a wide arm of the sea. The low country
of Nicaragua was probably the part submerged, leaving the
highlands of Mexico and Guatemala still united with the North

58 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II.

American continent, and forming part of the Tertiary “ Nearctic
region.” This is clearly indicated both by the many Nearctic
forms which do not pass south of Nicaragua, of which the turkeys
(Meleagris) are a striking example, and by the comparative
poverty of this area in typical Neotropical groups. During the
Miocene period there was not that marked diversity of climate
between North and South America that now prevails ; for when
a luxuriant vegetation covered what are now the shores of the
Arctic Ocean, the country south of the ereat lakes must have been
almost or quite tropical. At an early Tertiary period, the zoological
differences of the Nearetic and Neotropical regions were probably
more radical than they are now, South America being a huge
island, or group of islands—a kind of Australia of the New
World, chiefly inhabited by the imperfectly organized Edentata ;
while North America abounded in Ungulata and Carnivora, and
perhaps formed a part of the great Old World continent. There
were also one or more very ancient unions (in Eocene or Miocene
times) of the two continents, admitting of the entrance of the
ancestral types of Quadrumana into South America, and, somewhat
later, of the Camelidz ; while the isthmus south of Nicaragua
was at one time united to the southern continent, at another made
insular by subsidence near Panama, and thus obtained that rich
variety of Neotropical types that still characterises it. When
the final union of the two continents took place, the tropical
climate of the lower portions of Guatemala and Mexico would
invite rapid immigration from the south; while some northern
forms would extend their range into and beyond the newly
elevated territory. The Mexican sub-region has therefore a
composite character, and we must not endeavour too rigidly to
determine its northern limits, nor claim as exclusively Neotro-
pical, forms which are perhaps comparatively recent immigrants ;
and it would perhaps be a more accurate representation of the
facts, if we were to consider all the highlands of Mexico and
Guatemala above the limits of the tropical forests, as still
belonging to the Nearetic region, of which the whole country so
recently formed a part.

The long-continued separation of North and South America

CHAP. XIV. | THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 59

by one or more arms of the sea, as above indicated, is further
rendered necessary by the character of the molluscan fauna of
the Pacific shores of tropical America, which is much more’
closely allied to that of the Caribbean sea, and even of West
Africa, than to that of the Pacific islands. The families and
many of the genera are the same, and a certain proportion of
very closely allied or identical species, shows that the union of
the two oceans continued into late Tertiary times. When the
evidence of both land and sea animals support each other as
they do here, the conclusions arrived at are almost as certain as
if we had (as we no doubt some day shall have) geological proof
of these successive subsidences.

Islands of the Mexican Sub-region—The only islands of
interest belonging to this sub-region, are Tres Marias and
Socorro, recently investigated by Col. Grayson for some of the
American Natural History societies.

Tres Marias consist of four small islands lying off the coast
of north-western Mexico, about 70 miles from San Blas.- The
largest is about 15 miles long by 10 wide. They are of horizon-
tally stratified deposits, of moderate height and flat-topped, and
everywhere covered with luxuriant virgin forests. They appear
to he within the 100 fathom line of soundings. Fifty-two species
of birds, of which 45 were land-birds, were collected on these
islands. They consisted of 19 Passeres; 11 Picarize (7 being
humming-birds) ; 10 Accipitres ; 2 parrots, and 3 pigeons. All
were Mexican species except 4, which were new, and presumably
peculiar to the islands, and one tolerably marked variety. The
new species belong to the following genera;—Parula and
Granatellus (Mniotiltide); Icterus (Icteride); and <Amazilia
(Trochilide). A small Psittacula differs somewhat from the
same species on the mainland.

There are a few mammalia on the islands; a rabbit (Lepus)
_supposed to be new; a very small opossum (Dzdelphys), and a
racoon (Procyon). There are also several tree-snakes, a Boa, and
many lizards. The occurrence of so many mammalia and snakes
is a proof that these islands have been once joined to the main-
land; but the fact that some of the species of both birds and

60 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

mammals are peculiar, indicates that the separation is not a very
recent one. Atthe same time, as all the species are very closely
“allied to those of the opposite coasts when not identical, we may
be sure that the subsidence which isolated them is not geologi-
cally remote.

Socorro, the largest of the Revillagigedo Islands, is altogether
different from the Tres Marias. It is situated a little further
south (19 §. Latitude), and about 300 miles from the coast, in
deep water. It is about 2,000 feet high, very rugged and bare,
and wholly volcanic. No mammalia were observed, and no
reptiles but a small lizard, a new species of a genus (Uta)
characteristic of the deserts of N.-Western Mexico. The only
obseryed land-shell (Orthalicus undatus) also inhabits N.-W.
Mexico. Only 14 species of birds were obtained, of which 9
were land-birds ; but of these 4 were new species, one a peculiar
variety, and another (Parula insularis) a species first found in
the Tres Marias. With the exception of this bird and a Buteo,
all the land-birds belonged to different genera from any found on
the Tres Marias, though all were Mexicanforms. The peculiar
species belonged to the genera Harporhynchus (Turdide) ; Trog-
lodytes (Troglodytide) ; Pipilo (Fringillide) ; Zenaidura (Colum-
bide) ; and a variety of Conurus holochrous (Psittacide).

The absence of mammals and snakes, the large proportion of
peculiar species, the wholly volcanic nature of these islands, and
their situation in deep water 300 miles from land,—all indicate
that they have not formed part of the continent, but have been
raised in the ocean; and the close relation of their peculiar
species to those living in N.-Western Mexico, renders it pro-
bable that their antiquity is not geologically great.

The Cocos Islands, about 300 miles S.-W. of the Isthmus of
Panama, are known to possess one peculiar bird, a cuckgo of the
Coccyzus type, which is considered by some ornithologists to con-
stitute a peculiar genus, Nesococcysx.

IV. The West Indian Islands, or Antillean Sub-region.

The West Indian islands are, in many respects, one of the
most interesting of zoological sub-regions. In position they

CHAP, XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 61

form an unbroken chain uniting North and South America,
in a line parallel to the great Central American isthmus; yet
instead of exhibiting an intermixture of the productions of
Florida and Venezuela, they differ widely from both these
countries, possessing in some groups a degree of speciality
only to be found elsewhere in islands far removed from any
continent. They consist of two very large islands, Cuba and
Hayti;! two of moderate size, Jamaica and Portorico; and a
chain of much smaller islands, St. Croix, Anguilla, Barbuda,
Antigua, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent, Barbadoes, and Grenada, with a host of intervening
islets. Tobago, Trinidad, Margarita, and Curacao, are situated
in shallow water near the coast of South America, of which they
form part zoologically. To the north of Cuba and Hayti are the
Bahamas, an extensive group of coral reefs and islands, 700
miles long, and although very poor in animal life, belonging
zoologically to the Antilles. All the larger islands, and most of
the smaller ones (except those of coral formation) are very
mountainous and rocky, the chains rising to about 8,000 feet in
Hayti and Jamaica, and to nearly the same height in Cuba.
All, except where they have been cleared by man, are covered
with a luxuriant forest vegetation ; the temperature is high and
uniform; the rains ample; the soil, derived from granitic and
limestone rocks, exceedingly fertile ; and as the four larger islands
together are larger than Great Britain, we might expect an
‘ample and luxuriant fauna. The reverse is however the case ;
and there are probably no land areas on the globe, so highly
favoured by nature in all the essentials for supporting animal
life, and at the same time so poor in all the more highly
organised groups of animals, Before entering upon our sketch
of the main features of this peculiar but limited fauna, it will
be well to note a few peculiarities in the physical structure of
the islands, which have an important bearing on their past

1 This name will be used for the whole island of St. Domingo, as being
both shorter and more euphonious, and avoiding all confusion with Dominica,
one of the Lesser Antilles. It is also better known than “ Hispaniola,” which
is perhaps the most correct name. .

62 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. - [PART II,

history, and will enable us to account for much that is peculiar
in the general character of their natural productions.

If we draw a line immediately south of St. Croix and St.
Bartholomew, we shall divide the Archipelago into two very
different groups. The southern range of islands, or the Lesser
Antilles, are, almost without exception, volcanic ; beginning with
the small detached volcanoes of Saba and St. Eustatius, and
ending with the old volcano of Grenada. Barbuda and Antigua
are low islands of Tertiary or recent formation, connected with
the volcanic islands by a submerged bank at no great depth.
The islands to the north and west are none of them volcanic;
many are very large, and these have all a central nucleus of
ancient or granitic rocks. We must also note, that the channels
between these islands are not of excessive depth, and that their
outlines, as well as the direction of their mountain ranges,
point to a former union. Thus, the northern range of Hayti is
continued westward in Cuba, and eastward in Portorico; while
the south-western peninsula extends in a direct line towards
Jamaica, the depth between them being 600 fathoms. Between
Portorico and Hayti there is only 250 fathoms; while close to
the south of all these islands the sea is enormously deep, from
more than 1,000 fathoms south of Cuba and Jamaica, to 2,000
south of Hayti, and 2,600 fathoms near the south-east extremity
of Portorico. The importance of the division here pointed out
will be seen, when we state, that indigenous mammalia of pecu-
liar genera are found on the western group of islands only ;
and it is on these that all the chief peculiarities of Antillian
zoology are developed.

Mammalia.—The mammals of the West Indian Islands. are
exceedingly few, but very interesting. Almost all the orders
most characteristic of South America are absent. There are no
monkeys, no carnivora, no edentata. Besides bats, which are
abundant, only two orders are represented ; rodents, by peculiar
forms of a South American family ; and insectivora (an order
entirely wanting in South America) by a genus belonging to a
family largely developed in Madagascar and found nowhere else.
The early voyagers mention “Coatis” and “ Agoutis ” as being

CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 63

found in Hayti and the other large islands, and it is not im-
probable that species allied to Nasua and Dasypructa did
exist, and have been destroyed by the dogs of the invaders ;
though, on the other hand, these names may have been applied
to the existing species, which do bear some general resemblance
to these two forms.

The Chiroptera, or bats, are represented by a large number of
species and by several peculiar genera. The American family
of Phyllostomide or vampires, has six genera in the Antilles, of
which three, Zonchorina, Brachyphylla, and Phyllonycteris, are
peculiar, the latter being found only in Cuba. The Vesperti-
honide have four genera, of which one, Vycticellus, is confined to
Cuba. There are six genéra of Noctilionide, of which one,
Phyllodia, is confined to Jamaica.

The Insectivora are represented by the genus Solenodon, of
which two species are known, one inhabiting Cuba the other
Hayti. These are small animals about the size of a cat, with
long shrew-like snout, bare rat-like tail, and long claws. Their
peculiar dentition and other points of their anatomy shows that
they belong to the family Centetidee, of which five different genera
inhabit Madagascar; while there is nothing closely allied to
them in any other part of the world but in these two islands.

Seals are said to be found on the shores of some of the islands,
but they are very imperfectly known.

The rodents belong to the family Octodontide, or, according
to some authors, to the Echimyide, both characteristic South
American groups. They consist of two genera, Capromys, con-
taining three or four species inhabiting Cuba and Jamaica;
while Plagiodontia (very closely allied) is confined to Hayti.
A peculiar mouse, a species of the American genus Hesperomys,
is said to inhabit Hayti and Martinique, and probably other
islands. A Dasyprocta or agouti, closely allied to, if not identical
with, a South American species, inhabits St. Vincent, St. Lucia,
and Grenada, and perhaps St. Thomas, and is the only mammal
of any size indigenous to the Lesser Antilles. All the islands
in which sugar is cultivated are, however, overrun with European
rats and mice, and it is not improbable that these may have

64 ) ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II.

starved out and exterminated some of the smaller native
rodents.

Birds.—The birds of the Antilles, although very inferior in
number and variety to those of the mainland, are yet suffi-
ciently abundant and remarkable, to offer us good materials for
elucidating the past history of the country, when aided by such
indications as geology and physical geography can afford.

The total number of land-birds which are permanent residents
in the West India islands is,.as nearly as can be ascertained from
existing materials, 203. There are, in addition to this number,
according to Prof. Baird, 88 migrants from North America,
which either spend the winter in some of the islands or pass on
to Central or South America. These migrants belong to 55
genera, and it is an interesting fact that so nrany as 40 of these
genera have no resident representatives in the islands. This is
important, as showing that this northern migration is probably a
recent and superficial phenomenon, and has not produced any
(or a very slight) permanent effect on the fauna. The migratory
genera which have permanent residents, and almost always
representative species, in the islands, are in most cases character-
istic rather of the Neotropical than of the. Nearctic fauna, as the
following list will show; T'wrdus, Dendraca, Vireo, Polioptila,
Agelwus, Icterus, Contopus, Myiarchus, Tyrannus, Antrostomus,
Chordeiles, Coccyzus, Columba, By far the larger part of these
birds visit Cuba only ; 81 species being recorded as occurring
in that island, while only 31 have been found in Jamacia, 12 in
Porto Rico and St. Croix, and 2 in Tobago and Trinidad.
Setting aside these migratory birds, as having no bearing on the
origin of the true Antillean fauna, we will discuss the residents
somewhat in detail.

The resident land-birds (203 in number) belong to 95 genera
and 26 families. Of these families 15 are cosmopolitan or
nearly so—Turdide, Sylviide, Corvide, Hirundinide, Frin-
gillidee, Picide, Cuculide, Caprimulgidee, Cypselide, Trogonide,
Psittacidze, Columbide, Tetraonide, Falconide, and Strigide ;
5 are American only—Vireonide, Mniotiltide, Icteride, Tyran-
nide, Trochilide ; 4 are Netropical only or almost exclusively—

HAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 65

Ceerebide, Tanagride, Cotingide, Conuride; 1 is Antillean
only—Todide ; while 1—Ampelidze—is confined (in the western
hemisphere) to North America, and almost to the Nearctic region.
Of the 95 genera, no less than 31, or almost exactly one-third,
are peculiar ; while of the 203 resident species, 177 are peculiar,
the other 26 being all inhabitants of South or Central America.
Considering how closely the islands approach the continent in
several places—Florida, Yucatan, and Venezuela—this amount
of speciality in such locomotive creatures as birds, is probably
unexampled in any other part of the globe. The most interesting
of these peculiar genera are the following: 4 of Turdide, or
thrushes—1 confined to the large islands, 1 to the whole
archipelago, while 2 are limited to the Lesser Antilles; 2
genera of Tanagride, confined to the larger islands; 2 of
Trogonidz, also confined to the larger islands; 5 of humming-
birds, 3 confined to the Greater, 1 to the Lesser Antilles ; 2 of
cuckoos, one represented in all the large islands, the other in
Jamaica only; 2 of owls, one peculiar to Jamaica, the other
represented in St. Croix, St. Thomas, Portorico, and Cuba; and
lastly, Zodus, constituting a peculiar family, and having repre-
sentative species in each of the larger islands 1s especially
interesting because it belongs to a group of families which are
wholly Neotropical—the Momotide, Galbulide, and Todide.
The presence of this peculiar form, with 2 trogons 10 species
of parrots, all but one peculiar; 16 peculiar humming-birds
belonging to 8 genera; a genus of Cotingide ; 10 peculiar
tanagers belonging to 3 genera; 9 Ccerebide of 3 genera:
together with species of such exclusively Netropical genera as
Cereba, Certhiola, Sycalis, Phonipara, Hlainea, Pitangus, Campe-
philus, Chloronerpes, Nyctibius, Stenopsis, Lampornis, Calypte,
Ara, Chrysotis, Zenaida, Leptoptila, and Geotrygon, sufficiently
demonstrate the predominant affinities of this fauna; although
there are many cases in which it is difficult to say, whether the
ancestors of the peculiar genera or species may not have been
derived from the Nearctic rather than from the Neotropical
region.

The several islands differ considerably in their apparent pro-

66 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PAR IIL.

ductiveness, but this is, no doubt, partly due to our knowledge
of Cuba and Jamaica being much more complete than of
Hayti. The species of resident land-birds at present known are
as follows :—

Cuba 68 species of which 40 are peculiar to it.
Hayti AOS ee xu fe
Jamaica cy ne aii 40 is oy
Portorico 40 ,, erry ts) ca “
Lesser Antilles 45 ,, » 24 35 a

If we count the peculiar genera of each island, and reckon
as (4) when a genus is common to two islands only, the
numbers are as follows:—Cuba 73, Hayti 33, Jamaica 83,
Portorico 1, Lesser Antilles 33. These figures show us, that
although Jamaica is one of the smaller and the most isolated of
the four chief islands, it yet stands in the first rank, both for the
number of its species and of its peculiar forms of birds,—and
although this superiority may be in part due to its having been
more investigated, it is probably not wholly so, since Cuba has also
been well explored. This fact indicates, that the West Indian
islands have undergone great changes, and that they were not
peopled by immigration from surrounding countries while in
the condition we now see them; for in that case the smaller
and more remote islands would be very much poorer, while
Cuba, which is not only the largest, but nearest to the mainland
in two directions, would be immensely richer, just as it really
is in migratory birds.

The number of birds common to the four larger islands is
very small—probably not more than half a dozen; between 20
and 30 are common to some two of the islands (counting the
Lesser Antilles as one island) and a few to three; but the great
mass of the species (at least 140) are confined each to some one
of the five islands or groups we have indicated. This is an amount
of isolation and speciality, probably not to be equalled else-
where, and which must have required a remarkable series of
physical changes to bring about. What those changes probably
were, we shall be in a better position to consider when we have
completed our survey of the various classes of land animals.

PLATE XVII.

A SCENE IN CUBA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

CHAP. XIV. | THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 57

In the preceding enumeration the Bahamas have been included
with Cuba, as regards the birds they have in common; but they
possess some half dozen species not found elsewhere, and even
one central American genus of humming-birds (Doricha) not
found in any other part of the Antilles. We have thus given
Cuba rather more peculiar species than it really possesses, so
that the proportionate richness of Jamaica is rather greater than
shown by our figures.

The destruction of the forests and the increase of population,
with, perhaps, the use of firearms, seem to have led to the
extermination of some species of birds in the ‘smaller islands.
Professor Newton has called attention to the work of M. Ledru,
who, in 1796, described the birds of St. Thomas. He mentions
a parrot and a parroquet in the island, the latter only being
now known, and very scarce; also a green pigeon and a tody,
both now unknown. No less than six species of parrots are
said to have been formerly tound in Guadelcupe and Martinique,
which are now extinct.

Plate XVII. Illustrating the peculiar Mammalia and Birds of
the Antilles—The scene of this illustration is Cuba, the largest
of the West Indian islands, and one in which all its peculiar
zoological features are well developed. In the foreground is the
agouta \Solenodon cubanus), a remarkable insectivorous animal
which, with another species inhabiting Hayti, has no allies on
the American continent; nor anywhere in the world but in
Madagascar, where a group of animals are found constituting
the family Centetidse, to which Solenodon is said undoubtedly to
belong. Above it are a pair of hutias (Capromys fourniert),
rat-like animals belonging to the South American family Octo-
dontide. They live in the forests, and climb trees readily, eating
all kinds of vegetable food. Three species of the genus are
known, which are found only in Cuba and Jamaica. Just above
these animals is a white-breasted trogon (Prionoteles temnurus),
confined to Cuba, and the only species of the genus. Near the
top of the picture are a pair of todies (Todus multicolor), singular
little insectivorous birds allied to the motmots, but forming a
very distinct family which is confined to the islands of the

68 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL.

_ Greater Antilles. They are beautifully-coloured birds,—green
above, red and white beneath, and are exceedingly active in their
movements. To the right are a pair of small humming-birds
(Sporadinus ricordi), not very remarkable in this beautiful
family, but introduced here because they belong to a genus which
is confined to the Greater Antilles.

Table of distribution of West-Indian Birds.—As the birds of
the West-Indian islands are particularly interesting and their
peculiarities comparatively little known, we give here a table
of the genera of land-birds, compiled from all available sources of
information. Owing to the numerous independent observations
on which it is founded, the discrepancies of nomenclature, and
uncertainty in some cases as to the locality of species, it can
only be looked upon as an approximative summary of the
existing materials on Antillean ornithology.

TABLE OF THE RESIDENT LAND-BIRDS OF THE ANTILLES.

Note.—Genera confined to the West Indies are in Italics. An (a) after (1) indicates a
species common to two islands ; but where there are two or more species in an island, or
the localities are doubtful, this indication cannot be given. All species not otherwise
noted are peculiar to the Antilles,

Number of Species in each Islard. 7
: Su
of | s ae
Family and Genus. K f |SS\/a0/88 Remarks.
a/Ble|2|so\selee
2/2|6| 2 |£4/2*|2
She eee PS he
— --|-—_ DE es a eae ae 8
TURDIDZ.
prensa —}|—j;—|1 |—|—)}1 | Five species migrate to Cuba
Mimocichla ... 78 de Neh ae pele 11 Oo
Margarops .. | —|—|1la@|—|1la|3 | 4 | Martinique, St. Lucia, Guada.
Rhamphocinclus ...| —|—{|—|—}—}1 | 1 | Martinique and St. Lucia
Cinclocerthia... —}—|—|]—]—]|3 | 3 | Nevisto St. Lucia
Mimus ... 1 |}1 |—J/1 | (?)|—/ 8 | Another species migrates to
the Antilles
SYLVIIDA,
Myiadestes . 1 —|1 |— 3 | St. Lucia
Polioptila 1 };/—|};—|—|)—|—

CHAP, XIV.]

Family and Genus,

VIREONIDA.

Vireosylvia ...
Vireo

Laletes ...
Pheniconanes

CorvID2.

Corvus... :
Cyanocorax ...

MNIOTILTIDA.

Perissoglossa...° ...

Dendreca
Teretristis

C@REBIDZ.

Certhiola
Glossiptila
Ceereba ...

AMPELID&.
Dulus

HIRUNDINID2.
Frogne! <2: ...
Pterochelidon

-Hirundo

TANAGRIDA.

Euphonia
Spindalis..
Phenicophilus
Saltator

FRINGILLIDA,
Loxigilla
Melopyrrha ...
Sycalis ...
Phonipara
Chrysomitris

IcTERIDA.

Icterus ...
Ageleus
Sturnella
Nesopsar..
Scolecophagus
Quiscalus

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION, 69

meer of Species in each Island.

bpwpr

la

4 et

—

Pe Lalla

ttt Jamaica.

ee

[eal

| _

te

Portorico
& St, Croix.
Lesser An-

la

a

he

|e SS

|

tilles.

_

| —_

levies peat

erg a oC)

Total resident
species

He iB bo

bone

et et TT

Dore

aaa

He RE et 0D OD

Remarks.

One 8, American species
Five species migrate to Cuba

S. American species

N. American species
Twelve <p, migrate to W.1.

Dominica and Martinique

S. American species

One species locality unknown

One 8S, American species

St. Bartholom. & Martinique

Guadeloupe and St. Lucia

Martinique and Dominica

S. American species
One S. American species

Mexican species

St. Lucia, Martinique ‘and >
Barbadoes

Number of Species in each Island

Family and Genus.

Bahamas.
tilles,
Total resident

Cuba.
| & St. Croix.

Jamaica.
| Porto rico
| Lesser An-

=
3S
>

2
q

TYRANNIDS.

Elainea
Pitangus
Contopus
Myiarchus
Blacicus
Tyrannus

bo
|
~_
ee OC a
R
= ited aa
i) i]

CoTINGID2.
Hadrostomus

Picip2&.
Campephilus
Xiphidiopicus.
Melanerpes ...
Chloronerpes
Centurus
Colaptes
Nesoceleus
Picunnus

CucuULIDE.
Saurothera ...
Hyetornis
Coceygus

_
—

Crotophaga ...

TopIpz.
Todus

TROGONIDZ.

Prionoteles
Temnotrogon...

CAPRIMULGIDE.
Nyctibius
Chordeiles
Antrostomus
Siphonorhis ...
Stenopsis

CYPSELIDZ.

Cypselus
Panyptila
Hemiprocne ...
Cypseloides ...

fake ee

species.

|

Co bos bo bo 09

nm whe He pw He eH

He pee a

——— as

70 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY, [PART If

Remarks.

St. Lucia
One S. American species (5)

One sp. in Cen. America (0)

Dominica, St. Lucia, all Neoe
tropical species
N. & Cen. American species

Neotropical species
One Neotropical species

Martinique (S. America sp.)

S. American species
Mexican species

CHAP, XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION, 71

|Number of Species in each Island. l2
| ——— | 9D
; | aM (ae
Family and Genus. a |So|4.)26 Remarks
eee (eos tee
2)3 || 8 |€8/35/e
Sle heh eral a yl
TROCHILIDA. .
Lampornis —}|—|1la|1 | 2a| 1la| 3
Doricha... —/}2 )}—|—|}—|—]2 i
Eulampis —|—|—|—/1 |2 | 2 |St. Croix, Dominica, St.
Lucia, Martinique
Aithurus —}—;—/1 |—j--}1
Mellisuga = ea tl ot) Ss al
Calypte ... 1 }—}|—|—j— 1 :
Orthorhynchus —}|—|--,;—|1 |2 | 8 | Domin., Martini., St. Lucia
Sporadinus ... 1A | ea ha Ua gia 3
CowURIDA,
Ara... se | 1 | — | — | — | — | —] 1 |S. American species
Conurus 1 }—j|—]1-/1 |]1 | 1 | St. Thomas
PSITTACIDZ.
Chrysotis ele Qe ded eS
COLUMBID&.
Columba ss 1 |}—j|1 |2 |2 |1 | 8 | One in Honduras
Chamepelia ... —}|—]—}];1 )1 {1 J]
Zenaida... ie— el 1 Le 2 eo
Leptoptila —}=—);—)];1 }—];—)] 1
Geotrygon 2 |—j|1 |2 |1 |/2 |5 | St. Lucia, Martinique, one
species Mexican
Starnenas ... ... | 1 | — | — | —|—j} —]} 1
TETRAONIDS.
Ortyx 1 | —}—/;—]—].—) 1
FALCONIDA,
Accipiter Fy) Xs ees | || ee
Hypotriorchis —|- 1 |— 1 | Mexican species
Cerchneis De OS Sea [eS Le
Cymindis Th ee ep nS a al
Polyburus 1 |—;—j|]—}|— }—)1 | Mexican species
STRIGIDZ.
Nyctalops 1 | —|—}|—j|—J|-——J|1 |S. American species
JECT IO ee Seca | == || == |) Sa ea
Gymnoglaux... ...|1 | —|—}|—]1 | —| 2 | St. Croix and St. Thomas
Glaucidium ... 1 Sl) = = li
|
Number of families of resident land-birds in the Antilles ... .. 26
TOTALs ” ” genera ” ” 9 on see 95

” »» Species yy ” 5c ite. ten BOD

Vou. IL.—6

72 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PAR III,

Reptiles and Amphibia.—These classes not having been
systematically collected, and the numerous described genera not
having undergone careful revision, little trustworthy information
can be derived from them. The following enumeration of the
chief groups hitherto noticed or described, will, however, show
very similar features to those presented by the birds—a general
relation to Neotropical forms, a more special relation to those
of Central America and Mexico, and a considerable number of
peculiar types.

Snakes.—Arrhyton (Calamariide) from Cuba, Hypsirhynchus
from Barbadoes, Cryptodacus from Cuba, Jaltris from Hayti, and
Coloragia from Cuba (all Colubridé), have been described as
genera peculiar to the Antilles. Phylodryas and Dromicus
(Colubridz) are Antillean and Neotropical; Ahetulla (Den-
drophid) has the same distribution but extends to tropical
Africa; Epicrates and Corallus (Pythonid) are Neotropical
and Antillean; while Chilabothrus from Jamaica and Ungalia
from Cuba and Jamaica (both Pythonide) are found elsewhere
only in Central America and Mexico. There appear to be no
Crotalide except an introduced species of Craspedocephalus in
St. Lucia.

Lizards are more numerous. Ameiva (Teidz) is found all
over America. Gerrhonotus (Zonuride) is Neotropical and occurs
in Cuba; Gymnopthalmus is South American and Antillean.
Of Scincide seven genera are noted. Celestus (with 9 species) is
peculiar to the Antilles; Camilia (1 species) to Jamaica, Panoplus
(1 species) and Lmbryopus (1 species) to Hayti; Diplogossus is
Antillean and South American ; while Plestiodon and Mabouya
are cosmopolite. Of Geckotide there are four genera; Phyllo-
dactylus and Hemidactylus which are cosmopolite ; Sphewrodactylus
which is wholly American ; and Cubina found only in Martinique
and Brazil. Of Jguanide there are six genera; Anolis, which
ranges all over America; Polychrus, which is Neotropical ;
Iguana and Liocephalus which are South American; Tropedurus
found in Cuba and Brazil; and Cyclura only known from
Jamaica, Cuba, and Central America.

Amphibia.—The genus Trachycephalus, belonging to the

CHAP. XIV. } THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 73

Hylide or tropical tree-frogs, is almost peculiar to the Antilles ;
Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica possessing seven species, while only
one is recorded from South America. Other genera are, Pelta-
phryne (Bufonide) from Portorico ; Phyllobates (Polypedatide)
from Cuba ; Leiwperus (Ranide) from Hayti,—all Neotropical. Of
the Urodela, or tailed batrachians, no representative occurs,
although they are so characteristic a feature of the Nearctic
region.

Fresh-water fish.—The same general remarks apply to these as
to the reptiles. Only one peculiar genus is noted—Lebistes, a
form of Cyprinodontide from Barbadoes; other genera of the
same family being, Haplochilus, Rivulus, and Girardinus, widely
spread in the Neotropical region; while Gambusia is confined to
Central America, Mexico, and the Antilles. Four other families
are represented; Siluride by Chetostomus, found in Portorico
and South America; Chromide by the South American Acara;
Mugillide by the Central American Agonostoma ; and Percide
by the North American Centrarchus, of which a species is recorded
from Cuba.

Insects.—The various West Indian islands have not been well
explored entomologically ; one reason no doubt being, that their
comparative poverty renders them little attractive to the pro-
fessional collector, while the abounding riches of Central and
South America lie so near at hand. We can, therefore, hardly
tell whether the comparative poverty, or even total absence of
some families while others seem fairly represented, is a real
phenomenon of distribution, or only dependent on imperfect
knowledge. Bearing this in mind, we proceed to give a sketch
of what is known of the chief groups of Lepidoptera and
Coleoptera, |

Lepidoptera.—The Neotropical butterfly-fauna is but poorly
represented, the majority of the most remarkable types being
entirely wanting; yet there are a few peculiar and very charac-
teristic forms which show great isolation, while the majority of
the species are peculiar. Four genera are exclusively or charac-
teristically Antillean,—Calisto belonging to. the Satyridz, with
four species, of which one ranges to: South Carolina; Clothilda

74 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IL

(Nymphalidee) a fine genus which has 4 Antillean species and
2 in Central America; Zucinia (Nymphalide) 2 species, confined
to Jamaica and Hayti ; and K7ricogonia belonging to the Pieride,
which has 2 West Indian species, while 1 inhabits Mexico and
Florida. Genera which show a special relation to Central
America are Euptoieta, Ewmeus, and Nathalis. Almost all the
other genera are South American, the total number recorded in
each family as occurring in the West Indian islands, being, 3 of
Danaide ; 1 of Heliconiide ; 2 of Satyride ; 18 of Nymphalide ;
1 of Erycinide ; 4 of Lycenide ; 6 of Pieride; 1 of Papilio-
nidee, and 10 of -Hesperidee. The’ genus Papilio is represented
by about 20 species, 2 of which are North American, 4 South
American, while the rest form little characteristic groups allied to
those of Central America. The most marked feature seems to be
the scarcity of Satyride and the almost total absence of Erycinide,
with a great deficiency in characteristic Neotropical forms of
Danaide and Nymphalide.

Coleoptera.—Cicindelide and Carabide are very poorly repre-
sented, by a few species of wide-spread groups, and hardly any
peculiar genera. No Lucanide are recorded. Of Cetoniide,
Gymnetis only appears to be represented. Buprestidae seem to
be more numerous; 15 genera being recorded, but almost all
of wide distribution. One only is peculiar—Tetragonoschoma,
found in Hayti; Halecia is the only exclusively South American
genus ; Chaleophora is widely scattered over the tropical regions
but is absent from South America, yet it occurs in the Nearctic
region and extends to Jamaica and Guadeloupe. We now come
to the Longicorns, the only group of Coleoptera which seems to
be well represented, or which has been carefuJly collected. No
less than 40 genera are known from the West Indian islands,
and 15 of these are peculiar. Prionidz are proportionately very
numerous, there being 10 genera, 2 of which are widely dis-
tributed in both South and North America, 1 is North American,
and 1 South American, while the following are peculiar,—
Stenodontes (Hayti and Cuba); Dendroblaptus (Cuba); Mono-
desmus (Cuba and Jamaica); Prosternodes (Cuba) ; Solenoptera
and Elateropsis, the two largest genera found in most of the

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 75

islands. Of Cerambycide there are 16 genera, 2 of which range
all over America, 4 are Neotropical, 1 South American only,
while the following are confined to the islands,—Merostenus,
Pentomacrus, and Eburiola (Jamaica); Bromiades (Cuba) ;
Trichrous, Heterops, and Peciloderma (Antilles). One genus,
Smodicum, is widely spread, having a species in Carolina, 1 in
South America, 1 in Hayti, and 1 in West Africa. Of Lamide
there are 14 genera, 8 of which are Neotropical, 1 common to
Central America and Mexico, 1 to the United States and Cuba,
while 2, Proecha and Phidola, are contined to Cuba. Several of
the genera are curiously distributed ;—Spalacopsis is South
American, with 4 species in Cuba and Tropical Africa ; Lago-
cheirus is Neotropical, with a species in Australia ; while Lepto-
stilus is characteristic of the Antilles and North America, with
a few species in South America, and one in New Zealand.
These cases of erratic distribution, so opposed to the general
series of phenomena among which they occur, must be held to
be sufficiently explained by the great antiquity of these groups
and their former wide distribution. They may be supposed to
be the remnants of types, now dying out, which were once, like
Callichroma, Clytus, and many others, almost universally dis-
tributed.

All the peculiar Antillean genera of Cerambycide and La-
miide are allied to Neotropical forms. The peculiar Prionide,
however, are mostly allied to Mexican and North American
groups, and one, Monodesmus, belongs to a group all the other
genera of which inhabit the East Indies and South Africa.

Land-shells—This subject has already been generally treated
under the Region, of which, in this class of animals, the Antilles
form so important a part. We must therefcre now confine our-
selves mainly to the internal distribution of the genera, and to
a few remarks on the general bearing of the facts.

The excessive and altogether unexampled productiveness of
the West Indian islands in land-shells, may be traced to two
main sets of causes. The first and least known, consist of the
peculiar influences and conditions which render islands always
more productive than continents. Whatever these conditions

76 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Il.

are, they will be more effective where the islands have been long
separated from the mainland, as is here undoubtedly the case.
It seems most probable that the great development of land-
shells in islands, is due to the absence or deficiency of the verte-
brata, which on continents supply a variety of species adapted
to prey upon these molluscs. This view is supported by the fact,
that in such islands as have been united to a continent at no
very distant epoch, and still maintain a continental variety of
vertebrata, no such special development of land-shells has taken
place. If we compare the Philippine islands with the Sunda
group, we find the development of vertebrata and land-molluses
in inverse ratio to each other. The same thing occurs if we
compare New Zealand and Tasmania ; and we have a still more
striking example in the Antillean group itself, continental
Trinidad having only 20 genera and 38 species, while the
highly insular Jamaica has about 30 genera and more than 500
species.

The other causes favourable to the increase and development
of land-shells are of a physical nature. A great extent of lime-
stone-rock is one ; and in the larger West Indian islands we have
a considerable proportion of the surface consisting of this rock.
But perhaps equally or more important, is the character of the
land surface, and the texture of the exposed rock itself. <A
much broken surface, with numerous deep ravines, cutting up
the whole country into isolated valleys and ridges, seems very
favourable to the specialization of forms in this very sedentary
class of animals. Equally favourable is a honeycombed and
highly-fissured rock-surface, affording everywhere cracks and
crannies for concealment. Now, taking Jamaica as an example
of the archipelago, we find all these conditions in a wonderful
degree. Over a large part of this island, a yard of level ground
can hardly be found; but ridges, precipices, ravines, and rock-
bound valleys, succeed each other over the whole country. At
least five-sixths of the entire surface is limestone, and under the
influence of tropical rains this rock is worn, fissured, and honey-

combed, so as to afford ample shelter and concealment for land-
shells,

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. “ire

It is probable that the three chief islands, Cuba, Jamaica and
Hayti, are nearly equally rich in land-shells; but the last is
very much less known, and therefore, perhaps, appears to be
much poorer. Cuba has rather more species than Jamaica ;
but while the former has only 1 peculiar genus (Diplopoma),
the latter has 3 (Geomelania, Chittya, and Jamazcea), as well as
two others only represented in the other islands by single
species. From Hayti, only about one-third as many species are
known as froin the two former islands. It has no peculiar
genera, but it has some forms in common with Cuba and others
with Jamaica, which show that those islands have more connec-
tion with it, than with each other; just as we found to be the
case in birds. Portorico and the Virgin islands have still fewer
species than Hayti; and, as many of the genera common to the
other three islands are wanting, there is, no doubt, here a real
deficiency. In the islands farther south (Barbuda to Martinique)
more Antillean genera disappear or become very rare, while
some continental forms take their place. The islands from St.
Lucia to Trinidad have a still more continental character; the
genus Bulimus, so largely developed on the continent, only
reaching St. Lucia. The Bahamas contain about 80 species of
land-shells, of which 25 are Antillean, the rest peculiar; all the
genera being Antillean. The affinity is chiefly with Hayti and
Cuba, but closest with the latter island.

In the West Indian islands as a whole, there are 11 peculiar
genera ; 9 operculate (Geomelania, Chittya, Jamaicea, Licina,
Choanopoma, Ctenopoma, Diplopoma, Stoastoma, Lucidella) ; and
2 inoperculate (Sagda and Stenopus), besides Cyclostomus,
which belongs to the Old World and is not found on the
American continent. Mr. Bland considers, that many of the
Antillean land-shells exhibit decided African and Asiatic, rather
than South American affinities. A species of the Asiatic genus
Diplommatina has been found in Trinidad, and an Indian
species of Hnnea occurs in Grenada and St. Thomas; a clear
indication that land-shells are liable to be accidentally imported,
and to become established in the less productive islands.

Although these islands are so wonderfully rich even now,

78 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART 11],

there is good reason to believe that many species have become
extinct since the European occupation of them. When small
islands are much cultivated, many of these molluscs which can
only live under the shade of forests, are soon extirpated. In
St. Croix many species have become extinct at a comparatively
recent period, from the burning of forests; and as we know that
in all the islands many of the species are excessively local, being
often confined to single valleys or ridges, we may be sure that
wherever the native forests have disappeared before the hand of
man, numbers of land-shells have disappeared with them. As
some of the smaller islands have been almost denuded of their
wood, and in the larger ones extensive tracts have been cleared
for sugar cultivation, a very considerable number of species have
almost certainly been exterminated.

General Conclusions as to the Past History of the West Indian
Islands,—The preceding sketch of the peculiarities of the animal
life of these islands, enables us to state, that it represents the
remains of an ancient fauna of decided Neotropical type, having
on the whole most resemblance to that which now inhabits the
Mexican sub-region. The number of peculiar genera in all
classes of animals is so great in proportion to those in common
with the adjacent mainland, as to lead us to conclude that,
subsequent to the original separation from the Mexican area, a
very large tract of land existed, calculated to support a rich and
varied fauna, and, by the interaction of competing types, give
rise to peculiar and specially modified organisms. We have
already shown that the outline of the present islands and the
depths of the surrounding seas, give indications of the position
and extent of this ancient land; which not improbably occupied
the space enclosed by uniting Western Cuba with Yucatan, and
Jamaica with the Mosquito Coast. This land must have
stretched eastward to include Anguilla, and probably northward
to include the whole of the Bahamas. At one time it perhaps
extended southward so as to unite Hayti with northern
Venezuela, while Panama and Costa Rica were sunk beneath the
Pacific. At this time the Lesser Antilles had no existence.

The only large island of whose geology we have any detailed

CHAP, XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 79

account, is Jamaica; and taking this as a type of what will
probably be found in Cuba and Hayti, we must place the
continental period as having occurred after the close of the
Miocene, or during some part of the Pliocene epoch, since a large
portion of the surface of the former island consists of beds of
marine limestone from 2,000 to 3,000 thick, believed to be of
Pliocene age. After some time, the land between Hayti and
South America subsided, and still later that between Central
America and Cuba with Jamaica; but a large tract of land -
remained insulated, and no doubt supported a very much richer
and more varied fauna than now. We have evidence of this in
extinct Mammalia of large size, belonging to the peculiar South
American family of the chinchillas, which have been found in
caves in the small islands of Anguilla, and which, from the
character of the land-shells associated with them, are believed to
be of Pliocene or Post-pliocene age. This discovery is most
interesting, and gives promise of very valuable results from
the exploration of the numerous caverns that undoubtedly
exist in the abundant limestone strata of the larger islands.
This extensive Antillean land, after long continuing undivided,
was at length broken up by subsidence into several islands;
but as this alone would not account for the almost complete
annihilation of the mammalian fauna, it seems probable that
the subsidence was continued much farther, so as greatly to
reduce the size and increase the number of the islands. This
is indicated, by the extensive alluvial plains in Cuba and
Hayti, and to a less extent in Jamaica; and by elevated beds
of Post-pliocene marls in the latter island.

The series of changes now suggested, will account for all the
main features of the Antillean fauna in its relations to that of
the American continent. There remains the affinity with
Madagascar, indicated by Solenodon, and a few cases of African
and Asiatic affinity in insects and land-shells ; but these are far
too scanty to call for any attempt at special explanation. Such
cases of remote affinity and discontinuous distribution, occur in
all the regions, and in almost every group of animals; and we
look upon them almost all, as cases of survival, under favourable

80 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART Tr.

conditions, of once wide-spread groups. If no wild species
of the genus Equus were now to be found, except in South
Africa (where they are still most abundant), and in South
Temperate America, where their fossil remains show us they did
exist not very long ago, what a strong fact it would have
appeared for the advocates of continental extensions! Yet it
would have been due to no former union of the great southern
continents, but to the former extensive range of the family or
the genus to which the two isolated remnants belonged. And if
such an explanation will apply to the higher vertebrata, it is
still more likely to be applicable to similar cases occurring among
insects or mollusca, the genera of which we have every reason to
believe to be usually much older than those of vertebrates. It
is in these classes that examples of widely scattered allied
species most frequently occur; and the facility with which they
are diffused under favourable conditions, renders any other
explanation than that here given altogether superfluous.

The Solenodon is a member of an order of Mammalia of low
type (Insectivora) once very extensive and wide-spread, but
which has begun to die out, and which has left a number of
curious and isolated forms thinly scattered over three-fourths of
the globe. The occurrence, therefore, of an isolated remnant of
this order in the Antilles is not in itself remarkable; and the
fact that the remainder of the family to which the Antillean
species belong has found a refuge in Madagascar, where it has
developed into several distinct types, does not afford the least
shred of argument on which to found a supposed independent
land connection between these two sets of islands.

Summary of the Past History of the Neotropical Region.

We have already discussed this subject, both in our account
of extinct animals, and in various parts of the present chapter.
It is therefore only necessary here, briefly to review and sum-
matise the conclusions we have arrived at.

The whole character of Neotropical zoology, whether as regards
its deficiencies or its specialities, points to a long continuance
of isolation from the rest of the world, with a few very distant

CHAP. XIV. | THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 8l

* periods of union with the northern continent. The latest
important separation took place by the submergence of parts
of Nicaragua‘and Honduras, and this separation probably con-
tinued throughout much of the Miocene and Pliocene periods ;
but some time previous to the coming on of the glacial epoch, the
union between the two continents took place which has con-
tinued to our day. Larlier submergences of the isthmus of
Panama probably occurred, isolating Costa Rica and Veragua,
which then may have had a greater extension, and have thus
been able to develope their rich and peculiar fauna.

The isthmus of Tehuantepec, at the south of Mexico, may,
probably, also have been submerged; thus isolating Guatemala
and Yucatan, and leading to the specialization of some of the
peculiar forms that now characterise those countries and Mexico.

The West Indian Islands have been long isolated and have
varied much in extent. Originally, they probably formed part
of Central America, and may have been united with Yucatan
and Honduras in one extensive tropical land. But their sepa-
ration from the continent took place at a remote period, and
they have since been broken up into numerous islands, which
have probably undergone much submergence in recent times.
This has led to that poverty of the higher forms of life, com-
bined with the remarkable speciality, which now characterises
them; while their fauna still preserves a sufficient resemblance
to that of Central America to indicate its origin.

The great continent of South America, as far as we can judge
from the remarkable characteristics of its fauna and the vast
depths of the oceans east and west of it, has not during Tertiary,
and probably not even during Secondary times, been united with
any other continent, except through the intervention of North
America. During some part of the Secondary epoch it probably
received the ancestral forms of its Edentates and Rodents, at a
time when these were among the highest types of Mammalia
on the globe. It appears to have remained long isolated, and to
have already greatly developed these groups of animals, before it
received, in early Tertiary times, the ancestors of its marmosets
and monkeys, and, perhaps also, some of its peculiar forms of

82 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART 111.

Carnivora, Later, it received its Camelide, peccaries, mastodons, ~
and large Carnivora; and later still, just before the Glacial
epoch, its deer, tapir, opossums, antelopes, and horses, the two
latter having since become extinct. All this time its surface
was undergoing important physical changes. What its earlier
condition was we cannot conjecture, but there are clear indica-
tions that it has been broken up into at least three large masses,
and probably a number of smaller ones; and these have no
doubt undergone successive elevations and subsidences, so as
at one time to reduce their area and separate them still more
widely from each other, and at another period to unite them
into continental masses. The richness and varied development
of the old fauna of South America, as still existing, proves, how-
ever, that the country has always maintained an extensive area ;
and there is reason to believe that the last great change has
been a long continued and steady increase of its surface,
resulting in the formation of the vast alluvial plains of the
Amazon, Orinoko, and La Plata, and thus greatly favouring
the production of that wealth of specific forms, which dis-
tinguishes South America above all other parts of our globe.
The southern temperate portion of the continent, has probably
had a considerable southward extension in late Tertiary times ;
and this, as well as the comparatively recent elevation of the
Andes, has given rise to some degree of intermixture of two
distinct faunas, with that proper to South Temperate America
itself. The most important of these, is the considerable Austra-
lian element that appears in the insects, and even in the reptiles
and fresh-water fishes, of South Temperate America. These may
be traced to several causes. Icebergs and icefloes, and even
solid fields of ice, may, during the Glacial epoch, have afforded
many opportunities for the passage of the more cold-enduring
groups; while the greater extension of southern lands and
islands during the warm periods—which there is reason to
believe prevailed in the southern as well as in the northern
regions in Miocene times—would afford facilities for the passage
of the reptiles and insects of more temperate zones. That no
actual land-connection occurred, is proved by the total absence

CHAP, XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 83

of interchange of the mammals or land-birds of the two
countries, no less than by the very fragmentary nature of the
resemblances that do exist. The northern element consists
almost wholly of insects ; and is evidently due to the migration
of arctic and north temperate forms along the ridges and
plateaus of the Andes; and most likely occurred when these
organisms were driven southward at successive cold or Glacial
periods.

A curious parallel exists between the past history and actual
zoological condition of South America and Africa. In both
we see a very ancient land-area extending into the South
Temperate zone, isolated at a very early period, and developing
only a low grade of Mammalian life; chiefly Edentates and
Rodents on the one, Lemurs and Insectivora in the other. Later
we find an irruption into both of higher forms, including
Quadrumana, which soon acquired a large and special develop-
ment in the tropical portions of each country. Still later we
have an irruption into both of northern forms, which spread
widely over the two regions, and having become extinct in the
land from whence they came, have been long held to be the
original denizens of their adopted country. Such are the
various forms of antelopes, the giraffe, the elephant, rhinoceros,
and lion in Africa ; while in America we have deer and peccaries,
the tapir, opossums, and the puma.

On the whole, we cannot but consider that the broad outlines
of the zoological history of the Neotropical region can be traced
with some degree of certainty; but, owing to the absence of
information as to the. most important of the geological periods
—the Miocene and Eocene—we have no clue to the character of
its early fauna, or to the land connections with other countries,
which may possibly have occurred in early Tertiary times.

84 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART 111,

TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the
various classes of animals in the Neotropical region, the following
sources of information have been relied on, in addition to the
general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in the com-
pilation of the Fourth Part of this work.

Mammalia.—D’Orbigny, and Burmeister, for Brazil and La
Plata; Darwin, and Cunningham, for Temperate S. America;
Tschudi, for Peru; Frazer, for Ecuador; Salvin, for Guatemala ;
Frantzius, for Costa Rica; Sclater, for Quadrumana N. of
Panama; Gundlach, for Cuba; and papers by Dr. J. E. Gray,
and Mr. Tomes.

Lirds.—Sclater and Salvin’s Nomenclator; Notes. by Darwin,
and Cunningham; Gundlach, March, Bryant, Baird, Elliot,
Newton, Semper, and Sundevall, for various islands of the
Antilles; and papers by Hudson, Lawrence, Grayson, Abbott,
Sclater, and Salvin.

CHAP, XIV, ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION, 85

TABLE I.
FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

EXPLANATION.
Names in italics show the families which are peculiar to the region.
Names enclosed thus (...... ) indicate families which barely enter the region, and are

not considered properly to belong to it.
Numbers correspond with those of the series of families in Part IV.

Sub-regions.

Order and Family. Range beyond the Region.

Antilles.

MAMMALIA..
PRIMATES.

APOC: 65 sc — | —
5. Hapalide ... —} (2)

CHIROPTERA.
10. ‘Phyllostomide | —

12. Vespertilionide | —
13. Noctilionide... | —

— | — | California
Cosmopolite
All tropical regions

fe ial

INSECTIVORA.

Centetide ... ... — | Madagascar

CARNIVORA.
23. Felide ... a All regions but Australian
28. Canide ... = All regions but Australian

29. Mustelide
30. Procyonide .
32. Urside ...
33. Otariide...
35. Phocide...

reel

All regions but Australian
Lr N. America
All regions but Ethiopian and Australian
S. temperate zone
(2) |N. and 8. temperate zones

CETACEA.
36 to 41 tig nee —_ Oceanic

SIRENIA.

42. Manatide ... — | — | — | Tropical shores

UNGULATA.

44 Tapiide ..) ~ | —|— Indo-Malaya

Ave Oude! 2... ss3 —|—-— Cosmopolite, excl. Australia
48. Camelide ... | — Palearctic

50, Cervide... ... | -—— | —|— All regions but Ethiopian and Australian

Order and Family.

RODENTIA,

55. Muride ...

59. Saccomyide
61. Sciuride... ...
63. Chinchillide ...
64. Octodontide ...
65. Echimyide

66. Cercolabide
68. Caviide ...

70. Leporide

EDENTATA.
71. Bradypodide ..

73. Dasypodide ...
75. Myrmecophagide

MARSUPIALIA.
76. Didelphyide. ...

BIRDS.
PASSERES.

1. Turdide ...

2. Sylviide ...

5. Cinclide... ...
6. Troglodytide...
8. Certhiide

9. Sittide

10. Paride

20. Corvide ...

26. Cerebide

27. Mniotiltide
28. Vireonide

29. Ampelide a
30. Hirundinide ...
31. Icteride ...

32. Tanagride

33. Fringillide

38. Motacillide
38a. Oxyrhamphide
39. Tyrannide

40. Pipride...

41. Cotingide ...
42. Phytotomide ...
44. Dendrocolaptide
45. Formicariide...
46. Pteroptochide...

PICARIA.

51. Picide ae
54. Megalemide ...
55. Rhamphastide

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IL,

Sub-regions.

| Antilles.

Range beyond the Region.

Cosmopolite
| Nearctic
| All regions but Australian

Africa
Ethiopian
Nearctic

All regions but Australian

Temperate N. America

Almost cosmopolite

Almost cosmopolite

Nearctic, Palearctic, Oriental
Nearctic, Palearctic, Oriental
Nearctic, Palearctic, Oriental
All regions, excl. Africa
Nearctic, Palearctic, Oriental
Cosmopolite

Nearctic

Nearctic

Nearctic, Palearctic
Cosmopolite

Nearctic

Nearctic

All regions bat Australian
Cosmopolite

Nearctic

All regions but Australian
Ethiopian, Oriental

CHAP. XIV. ]

Order and Family.

58. Cuculide

60. Bucconidee
61. Galbulide
64. Todide..

65. Momotide ...
66. Trogonide ...
67. Alcedinide ...
72. Steatornithide

73. Caprimulgide | -

74. Cypselide
75. Trochilide

PSITTACI.

80. Conuride
81. Psittacide

COLUMB.
84. Columbide .

GALLIN#.

87. Tetraonide ...
88. Phasianide
91. Cracidce

92. Tinamide

OPISTHOCOMI.
93. Opisthocomide.
|

ACCIPITRES.

94. Vulturide
96. Falconide
97. Pandionide ... |
98. Strigide... ...

GRALLZ.

99. Rallide rs
100. Scolopacide ...
101. Chionidide ...
102. Thinocoride...
OSs Wearridese. see
105. Charadriide...
108. Cariamide .
109. Aramidec
110. Psophiide ...
lll. Lurypygide...
113. Ardeide
114. Plataleide
115. Ciconiid

116. Palamedeide
117. Pheenicopterid

Vou. Il.—7

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

Sub-regions.

| Chili
| Brazil.
| Antilles,

|
|
|

Range beyond the Region.

Cosmopolite

Ethiopian, Oriental
Cosmopolite

Cosmopolite
Almost cosmopolite
Nearctic

S. United States
Ethiopian

Cosmopolite

Almost cosmopolite

All regions but Australian

All regions but Australian

Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite

Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite

Tropical regions
Cosmopolite

Cosmopolite
Almost cosmopolite
Nearly cosmopolite

Ethiopian, Indian

87

88 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART 11.
Sub-regions.
Order and Family. S a | Range beyond the Region.
4 ° |
Sla|sz |<
ANSERES.
118. Anatide — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite
119. Laride ... — | — | — | — |Cosmopolite
120. Procellariide | — | — | — | — Cosmopolite
121. Pelecanide ...| — | — | — Cosmopolite
122. Spheniscide... | — S. temperate zone
124. Podicipide ...) — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite
STRUTHIONES.
126. Struthionide | — Ethiopian
REPTILIA.
OPHIDIA.
1. Typhlopide ... — | — | Tropical regions and 8. Palearctic
2. Tortricide...... Orientai, N.-W. America
5. Calamariide...| — | — | — | — | All warm countries
6. Oligodontidee Oriental, Japan
7. Colubride — | — | — | — | Almost cosmopolite
8. Homalopside | — — | All the regions
11. Dendrophide | — All tropical regions
12. Dryiophide ... — Oriental, Ethiopian
13. Dipsadide —}|}— All tropical regions
14. Scytalide ~- Philippine Islands
16.Amblycephalide — Oriental
17. Pythonide ...| — | — | — | — | All tropical regions, California
20. Elapide |—|—|— Tropical regions, Japan, S. Carolina
23. Hydrophide... — Oriental, Australian, Madagascar
24. Crotalide — ; —|— | — |Nearctic, Palearctic, Oriental
LACERTILIA.
27. Chirotide — Missouri
28. Amphisbenide| — — | Ethiopian, S. Palearctic
29. Lepidosternide| — Ethiopian
31. Helodermide
32. Teide — |— | — | — | Nearctiec
34. Zonuride — | — | — | Nearetic, Ethiopian, S. Europe, and N. India
35. Chalcide —|— Nearctic
36. Anadiade —
37. Chirocolide ... =
38. Iphisade —_
39. Cercosauride —
as mp oa — — | Australian, Ethiopian, Palearctic
45. Scincide — | — | — | — | Almost cosmopolite
49. Geckotide — | — | — | — | Almost cosmopolite
50. Iguanide — | — | — | — | Nearctic
CROcODILIA.
55. Crocodilide ... — | — |Ethiopian, Oriental, N. Australian

56.

Alligatoride...

Nearctic

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

CHAP. XIV. ] 89
ee eee
Su -regions.
Order and Family. F é a Range beyond the Region.
Ge
CHELONIA.
57. Testudinide ...| — | — | — | — | All continents but Australian
58. Chelydide _— Ethiopian, Australian
60. Cheloniide Marine
AMPHIBIA.
PsEUDOPAIDIA.
1. Ceciliade a Oriental, Ethiopian
URODELA.
6. (Salamandride) Baeey ie Nearctic, Palearctic
* ANouRA.
7. Rhinophrynide =
8. Bheerecids Oe th eee Ethiopian, Australian, Java
9. Hylapleside ...| — | — — : :
10. Bufonide __ | __| _ | — | All continents but Australia
12. Engystomide...| — | — | — All regions but Palearctic
13. Bombinatoride | — | — Palearctic, New Zealand
14. Plectromantide | — : ;
15. Alytide ... as All regions but Oriental
16. Pelodryade = Australia eos
17. Hylide ... ...| — — | All regions but Ethiopian
18. Polypedatide...} — | — | — | — All the regions
Feeds. . | — |—'| 2 |'— Almost cosmopolite
20. Discoglosside | — | — All regions but Nearctic
21. Pipide —
FISHES.
(FRESHWATER).
ACANTHOPTERYGII.
MepnOrCides <2. 2... — | — — | All regions but Australian
11. (Trachinide) ... | — Australia
12. Scienidee .. | (2) | — | — | @) | All regions but Austral’an
33. Nandide : — Oriental
34, Polycentride ae — | ;
38. Mugillide (?) | — | — | Australian, Ethiopian
52. Chromide — | — | — | — | Ethiopian, Oriental
PHYSOSTOMI.
59. Siluride ... — | — | — | — | All warm regions
60. Characinide ...| — | — | — | — | Ethiopian
61. Haplochitonide | — S. Australia
67. Galaxide | Tasmania and New Zealand
73. Cyprinodontide | — | — | — | -— | Absent from Australia
78. Osteoglosside... _ All tropical regions
84. Gymnotide .. --
85. Symbranchide —|— Oriental, Australian, (? marine)

90 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART tit

| Sub-regions.

Order and Family.

Drenot.
92. Sirenoidei ... | =

PLAGIOSTOMATA.
112. Trygonide ...

INSECTS.

LEPIDOPTERA
(PART).

DrivurNI
(BUTTERFLIES).

{
|
|
. Danaide... ...) — =
2. Satyride... ...) —
. Morphide
. Brassolidee
. Acreide ...

a
2
4
5
6
7. Heliconiidee
8
9
10

. Nymphalide ...} — | —
. Libytheide
. Nemeobiide ...
11. Ewrygonide ...
12. Erycinide
13. Lycenide ...| —
14. Pieride ... ...] —
15. Papilionide ...} —
16. Hesperide ...! —

SPHINGIDEA.

17. Zygenide ...| —
18. Castniide

20. Uraniide

21. Stygiide... .

22. Aigeriide ...| —
23. Sphingide ...| —

Antilles.

Range beyond the Region.

| Ethiopian, Australian

All warm regions, and to Canada
Cosmopolite
Australian, Oriental

All tropical regions

Cosmopolite
Absent from Australia
Not in Australia or Nearctic regions

Nearctic

Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite

Cosmopolite
Australian

All tropical regions
Palearctic

Not in Australia
Cosmopolite

=

CHAP, XIV.]

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

TABLE Il.

BL

GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show the genera peculiar to the region. :
dyes ) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and are not
considered properly to belong to it.

Names enclosed thus (

Genera undoubtedly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

Order, Family, and

Genus.

MAMMALIA.

PRIMATES.
CEBIDA.
1. Cebus

=

SOMONIAMP WH

. Lagothrizx...

Eriodes
Ateles

. Mycetes
MERURECIG ...
. Brachiurus ...
. Nyctipithecus ...
. Saimiris ...
. Callithrix

HAPALID2.

wale
12.

Hapale
Midas

CHIROPTERA.

PHYLLOSTOMIDA.

13.
14,
15.
16.
Mis
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

Lonchorina

Macrophyllum...

Vampyrus
Lophostoma
Phyllostoma
Macrotus ...
Schizostoma

Brachyphylla . vi

Glossophaga

Phyllonycteris . “s

Artibeus ...
Stenoderma
Sturnira ...
Desmodus

Saccopteryx

Range within the Region.

He

25

bt CO CONT ER DD OOF Orr

Costa Rica to Paraguay

Upper Amazon and E. Andes
Kast Brazil, 8. of Equator
Almost all tropical America

E. Guatemala to Paraguay
Equatorial Forests

Equatorial Forests

Nicaragua to Amazonia

Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia
Panama to Paraguay

Brazil and Upper Amazon
Equatorial America to Panama

West Indian Islands
Brazil

Tropical America and Chili

Antilles and Mexico

South America

Antilles

Tropical America

Cuba

S. America & Antilles, Costa Rica
The whole region

Chili to Guatemala

Chili to Mexico

Ecuador

Range beyond the Region.

California

92

Order, Family, and
Genus.

——

28. Diphylla ...
29. Centurio ...

oe

VESPERTILIONID2.

30. Lasiurus ... 2
31. Scotophilus 7
32. Vespertilio .. | 12
33. Nycticejus 3

34. Natalus ... 1
35. Furipterus... _
36. Thyroptera ...| 2
37. Nycticellus 1
38. Taphozous 5

39. Diclidurus ... 1

NocTILIONID2.

40. Noctilio 2
41. Mormops ... 1
42. Phyllodia... 1
43. Chilonycteris ... | 5
44. Pteronotus 1
45. Nyctinomus 2
46. Molossus... ... | 16

INSECTIVORA.
CENTETIDZ.
47. Solenodon... ... 2

SoRICIDz.
(SOTEX 5 220) ee 1

CARNIVORA.
FELID2.
48. Felis oA Aes

CANIDZ.

49. Icticyon ..
50. Chrysocyon
(Lupus
51. Lycalopex...
52. Pseudulopex

bo oOnNnNHEe

BB Thos «3... |

MUSTELID&.
54. Mustela ...

55. Galictis
56. Lontra

where

ee ee ee Ee ee ee ee eee

Si, Nutria ...

i

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.
se Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.
Zo

R —
Brazil

Brazil to Mexico

Tropical America Nearctic

Antilles, Mexivo toS. America | Nearc., Austral., Orien.

The whole region Cosmopolite

S. Temperate America Nearctic, India, Tropical
Africa

S. America and Antilles

S. America

S. America

Cuba

S. America Ethiopian, Oriental, Aus-

tro-Malayan
Brazil

Paraguay to W. Indies

Antilles and Mexico

Jamaica

Brazil and West Indies

Trinidad

La Plata to Antilles & Costa Rica| S. Nearc., Orien., Madag.

Paraguay and Chili to Antilles | Ethiopian, S. Palearc.,
Australian

Cuba and Hayti

Guatemala and Costa Rica) All other reg. but Austrl.

The whole region, excl. Antilles | All regions but Austral.

Brazil
S. America
Mexico to Costa Rica) Northern genus
S. America
S. America, Falkland Islands, &
Tierra del Fuego
S. America to Chili

Andes of Peru All other reg. but Austrl.
S. America to Chili & Patagonia
Central aud 8. America to Chonos
Archipelago
W. coast of America to Chiloe W. coast of N. America

i

CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 93

Pete eee and se Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.
pene
58. Pteronura 1 | Surinam and Brazil
59. Mephitis ... 3 | Mexico to Sts. of Magellan Nearctic to Canada
PROCYONIDZ.
60. Procyon ... 1 | Tropical America Nearctic to Canada
61. Nasua.. 5 | Mexico to Paraguay & La Plata
62. Cercoleptes 1 | Mexico to Peru and N. Brazil
63. Bassaris 2 | Mexico and Guatemala California and Texas
UrsID&,
64. Tremarctos ... | 1 | Andes of Peru and Chili
OTARUID.
65. Otaria ... ... | 1 | Chili, La Plata, and Patagonia
66. Arctocephalus... | 1 | Falkland Islands & Cape Horn | New Zealand
PHocID2.
67. Stenorhynchus 1 | Falkland Islands New Zealand
68. Lobodon ... 1 | Antarctic shores
69. Leptonyx... ... | 1 | Antarctic shores, E. Patagonia |S. Australia
70. Ommatophoca... | 1 | Antarctic shores
71. Morunga ... 1 | Falkland Islands California, S. temp. zone
72. Cystophora 1 | Antilles N. Atlantic
CETACEA.
DELPHINID2.
73. Inia... ... ... | 1 | Upper Amazon
SIRENIA.
MANATIDE.
74. Manatus ... ... | 1 | Gulf of Mexico to N. Brazil,| W. Africa
Amazon R.
UNGULATA.
TAPIRIDZ.
75. Tapirus ... ... | 2 | Equatorial S. America Indo-Malaya
76. Elasmognathus 1 | Panama to Guatemala
SuIpa.
77. Dicotyles ... ... | 2 | Mexico to Paraguay Texas
CAMELIDE. ;
78. Auchenia ......) 4|Temp. S. America, from Cape
Horn to Andes of Peru
CERVID.
79. Cervus... ... | 12 | Mexico to Patagonia and Tierra| All regions but Ethiopian
del Fuego and Australian
RODENTIA.
Muripz#.
80. Reithrodon ... | 4 |South Temp. America to Tierra} United States

del Fuego

94

Order, Family, and

Genus.

. Acodon

. Myxomys ...

. Hesperomys

. Holochilus

. Oxymycterus

. Drymomys

. Neotomys ...
(Fiber

SACCOMYIDZ.
88. Heteromys

ScIuRID2.
89. Sciurus

CHINCHILLID.

90. Chinchilla
91. Lagidium

92. Lagostomus

OcTODONTID2.

93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.

Habrocomus
Capromys...

Spalacopus
Octodon
Ctenomys ...

EcHIMYID2.

99. Dactyloinys
100. Cerconys
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.

Carterodon
Mesonvys...
Echimys...
Loncheres

CERCOLABIDA.

107. Cercolabes
108. Chetomys

CAVIIDA.

109. Dasyprocta
110.
ii tae
112.
113.
114.

Celogenys

Cavia
Kerodon...
Dolichotis

Plagiodontia be:

Lasiuromys ...
Myopotamus ...

Hydrocherus

No. of
Species.

|

Knorr Or OH Ee

30

mwrr cr

a
ee

—
eb

HOOF bd =)

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Range within the Region.

Peru, 14,000 ft. elevation
Guatemala

The whole region

S. America

Brazil and La Plata

Peru

S. America

Mexico)

| Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica &
Trinidad

Mexico to Paraguay

Andes of Chili and Peru

Chili to Eeuador (11,000 to
16,000 ft.)

Uruguay to Rio Negro of Patagonia

Chili’

Cuba and Jamaica

Hayti

Chili and E, of Andes

Chili, Peru, and Bolivia

S. Brazil to Tierra del Fuego

Guiana and Brazil

Central Brazil

St. Paulo, Brazil

S. half of tropical 8S. America
Central Brazil

Upper Amazon

Equatorial America to Paraguay
New Granada to Brazil

Mexico to Paraguay
N. Brazil

Paraguay to Mexico and Lesser
Antilles

Guatemala to Paraguay

Guiana to La Plata

Brazil and Peru to Magellan Sts.

Brazil and Peru to Magellan Sts.

The Pampas and Patagonia

[PART II,

Range beyond the Region

Nearctic

Nearctic genus

All reg. but Australian

CHAP. XIV. ] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 95

Order, analy, and 38 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.
; a
LEPORIDZ.
TITUS. UEFA: “gg ieee 1 | Central Brazil and Andes, Costa | All regions but Austral.
Rica to Mexico
EDENTATA.
BRADYPODID.
116. Cholepus 2 | Costa Rica to Brazil
117. Bradypus 2 | Amazon to Rio de Janeiro
118. Arctopithecus... 8 | Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia
DASYPODID.
119. Tatusia... ... | 5 | Rio Grande, Texas, to Patagonia
120. Prionodontes ... | 1 |Surinam to Paragua
121. Dasypus... 4! Brazil to Chili and La Plata,
Costa Rica ?
122. Xenurus 3 | Guiana to Paraguay, Costa Rica ?
123. Tolypeutes 2 | Bolivia and La Plata
124. Chlamydophorus| 2 | La Plata and Bolivia
MYRMECOPHAGIDA.
125. Myrmecophaga 1 | Costa Rica ?, & N. Braz.,to Parag.
126. Tamandua ... 2 | Guatemala to Paraguay
127. Cyclothurus ... 2 |Honduras and Costa Rica to
Paraguay
MARSUPIALIA.
DIDELPHYIDA.
128. Didelphys ... | 20 | Mexico to Uruguay and S. Chili | Temperate N. America
129. Chironectes ... | 1 | Guianaand Brazil, Costa Rica
130. Hyracodon ...' 1 | Keuador
BIRDS.
PASSERES.
TURDID&.
1. Turdus ... ... | 32 | Thewhole reg. to Tierra del Fuego] Almost cosmopolite
2. Rhodinocichia ... 1 | Mexico to Venezuela
3. Melanoptila 1 | Honduras
4. Catharus ... 10 | Mexico to Ecuador and Columbia
5. Margarops 4 | Hayti and Lesser Antilles ;
6. Mimus_ ... 16 | Nearly the whole region Nearctic
7. Melanotis... 2 | Mexico and Guatemala
8. Galeoscoptes ... | 1 | Mexico to Panama Nearctic
9. Mimocichla ... 4 | Cuba to Porto Rico
(Harporhynchus | 3 | Mexico) Nearctic genus
10. Cinclocerthia ... | 3 | Lesser Antilles
11. Ramphocinclus 1 | Martinique and St. Lucia
SYLVIIDz
12. Myiadestes ... | 8 | Mexico and Antilles to Peru and| N. & W. of N. America
Bolivia

96 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIT.
ONS onl ian es Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.
; sé
13. Cichlopsis 1 | Brazil '
(Sialia 2 | Mexico and Guatemala) United States & Canada
14. Regulus ... 2 | Mexico and Guatemala Nearctic, Palearctic
15. Polioptila 6 | Mexico and Cuba to Bolivia and | Cen. and S. U. States
La Plata
CINCLID2.
16. Cinclus 4 | Mexico to Venezuela and Peru | Nearctic, Palearctic
TROGLODYTIDA..
17. Troglodytes 5 | Mexico to Straits of Magellan | Nearctic, Palearctic
18. Thryophilus ... | 13 | Mexico to Central Brazil N.-W. America
19. Thryothorus 12 | Mexico to S. Brazil N. America
20. Cistothorus 2 Mexico to Chili and Patagonia | N. America
21. Donacobius Columbia to Brazil and Bolivia
22. Campylorhynchus F Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia New Mexico
23. Cyphorhinus 5 | Costa Rica to Peru
24. Microcerculus ... 5 | Mexico to Peru
25. Henicorhina 2 | Mexico to Peru
(Salpinctes 1 | Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus
(Catherpes 1 | Mexico) Gila and Coloradé
26. Cinnicerthia 2 | Columbia and Ecuador
27. Uropsila ... 1 | Mexico
CERTHIIDE
(Certhia ... 1 | Mexico and Guatemala) North temperate genus
SITTIDZ.
(Sitta 2 | Mexico) North temperate genus
PARIDZ.
(Parus 1 | Mexico) Nearc., Paleare., Orient.
(Lophophanes... 2 | Mexico) North temperate genus
(Psaltriparus . 1 | Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic
CoRVID.
28. Cyanocitta 16 | Mexico to Peru and Bolivia Nearctic
29. Cyanocorax 12 | Mexico to Paraguay, Jamaica
30. Calocitta... 2 | Mexico to Guatemala
31. Psilorhinus 3 | Mexico to Costa Rica
32. Corvus 4 | Mexico to Guatemala, Cuba to | Cosmop., excl. S. Amer.
Porto Rico
C@REBIDA.
2, Diglossa ... 14 |Mexico to Guiana, Peru, and
Bolivia
34. Diglossopis 1 | Venezuela to Ecuador
35. Oreomanes... 1 | Ecuador
36. Conirostrum ... | 6 | Columbia to Bolivia
37. Hemidacnis 1 | Columbia and Upper Amazon
38. Dacnis ... 13 | Costa Rica to Guiana & S. Brazil
39. Certhidea. . 2 | Galapagos Islands

CHAP. XIV. |

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 97

Order, Family, and
Genus.

40. Chlorophanes ...
41. Cereba

42. Certhiola ...
43. Glossiptila

MNIOTILTID&.

44, Siurus....
45. Mniotilta ..
46. Parula

47. Protonotaria

48. Helminthophaga
49. Helmintherus ...
50. Perissoglossa ...
51. Dendreeca

52. Oporornis

53. Geothlypis

54. Setophaga

55. Cardellina

56. Ergaticus... ...
57. Myioodioctes ...
58. Basileuterus

59. Icteria

60. Granatellus
61. Teretristis

VIREONID.

62. Vireosylvia
63. Vireo oa
64. Neochloe ...
65. Hylophilus
66. Laletes ,
67. Phenicomanes...
68. Vireolanius
69. Cychloris ...

AMPELID.

70. Dulus
(Ampelis...

71. Ptilogonys :
(Phainopepla ...

HIRUNDINIDA.
72. Hirundo ...

73. Petrochelidon ...
(as Alticora sie. 0:
WomcCotyle ¢. ..
76. Stelgidopteryx

77. Progne ar

No. of

Lad .
Les) Sh) Species.

_

m
OPH eH DH Ow

mH bo eb

Hm HR bo OD CoO Ve)

Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.

Brazil to Central America, Cuba
Mexico and Cuba to Guiana and
Brazil
Antilles to Ecuador and Brazil | Florida
Jamaica

Mexico to Columbia, Antilles S. & E. States & Canada
Columbia to Mexico and Antilles | Eastern United States
Brazil and Ecuador to Mexico Eastern U. S. & Canada
Venezuela to Central America | Florida to Ohio

and W. India
Mexico to Columbia North America
Mexico to Veragua U. States to Canada

Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico E. United States
Mexico & W. Indies to Ecuador | All N. America

and Chili
Guatemala to Panama
Brazil to Mexico All N. America
Mexico to Brazil E. U. States & Canada

Gautemala and Mexico

Guatemala and Mexico

Columbia to Mexico U. States and Canada
Mexico to Brazil

.| Costa Rica to Mexico E. and Central United

States to Canada
Amazon to Mexico
Cuba

Venezuela to Mexico & Antilles | All N. America
Mexico to Costa Rica & Antilles | All United States
Mexico

Brazil to Mexico

Jamaica

Jamaica

Mexico to Amazon

Mexico to Paraguay

Hayti

Mexico and Guatemala) N. temperate genus
Mexico to Costa Rica

Mexico) Gila and Lower Colorade

Mexico and Antilles to Chili and} Almost cosmopolite
La Plata
Mexico and Antilles to Paraguay! Nearctic
Guatemala te Peru and Brazil
Central America to La Plata All regions but Austral
Mexico to Brazil S. United States
The whole region Nearctic

SS
Oo

Order, Family, and

Genus.

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

IcTERID2.

. Clypeicterus ...
. Ostinops...

. Cassiculus
. Cassicus...
eeweterus. .:. ;
. Dolichonyx ...
. Molothrus
. Ageleus...

(Xanthocephalus

. Xanthosomus...
. Amblyrhamphus
. Gymnomystax

. Pseudoleistes ...
. Leistes

. Sturnella

. Cureus .
. Nesopsar

(Scolecophagus

. Lampropsar ...
. Quiscalus... ...

. Hypopyrrhus...
97.
98.

Aphobus...
Cassidiz...

TANAGRIDZ.

99.
100.
101.

102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
ui
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117,
118.
119.
120.
121.

Procnias... <..
Chlorophonia...
Euphonia

Tanagrella
Chlorochrysa ...
Pipridea ane
Diva

Calliste ...
Tridornis
Pecilothraupis
Stephanophorus
Buthraupis ...
Compsocoma ...
Dubusia...
Tanagra...
Spindalis
Rhamphocelus
Phlogothraupis
Euchetes 44
Pyranga...
Orthogonys
Lamprotes
Phenicothraupis|

Oo

CO mH et et

ao

2
7
32

4
2
2
1
56
4
4
1
5
5
2

er

if

2
5
1
1
1
11
2
2
7

Hm OO DD ee et

{

Range within the Region.

Upper Amazon

Mexico to Guiana, Brazil, and
Bolivia

Mexico

Mexico to S. Brazil and Bolivia

[PART 11].

|Range beyond the Region.

Mexico to Antilles and La Plata | All U. States & Canada

Mexico to Paraguay, Galapagos

E. U. States and Canada

Mexico to La Plata and Bolivia | All U. States & Canada
Mexico to Paraguay, Cuba, Porto | All U. States & Canada

Rico
Mexico)
Veneznela to La Plata
Bolivia and La Plata
Guiana and Amazonia
Brazil and La Plata
Venezuela to Paraguay & Bolivia

Nearctic genus

Cuba and Mexico to Chili, Falk-| All U. States & Canada

land Islands & Tierra del Fuego
Chili to Magellan Straits

| Jamaica

Mexico, Cuba ?)
Guatemala to Peru and Guiana

Nearctic genus

Mexico to Antilles & Venezuela | S. and E. United States

Columbia
Brazil Paraguay and Bolivia
Mexico to Brazil and Guiana

Brazil and Peru to Columbia

Brazil to Mexico

Mexico and W. Indies to Brazil
and Bolivia

Columbia to Guiana and Brazil

Columbia to Peru

Venezuela to Brazil and Bolivia

Columbia and Ecuador

Guatemala to Bolivia & Paraguay

Columbia to Peru

Columbia to Bolivia

Brazil and La Plata

Veragua to Bolivia

Columbia to Bolivia

Columbia and Ecuador

Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata

Porto Rico to Bahamas

Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia

Mexico to Costa Rica

Eastern Ecuador

Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay

Brazil and Guiana

Brazil and Columbia

Mexico to Paraguay and Bolivia

to Labrador

U. States and Canada

CHAP. XIV. ]

Order, Family, and

Genus.

122.
123.
124,
125.
126.
127.

128.

129.

130.

131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.

Lanio
Eucometis ..
Trichothraupis
Creurgops
Tachyphonus
Cypsnagra
Nemosia...

Pyrrhocomna ...

Chlorospingus
Buarremon
Pheenicophilus
Arremon

Oreothraupis . 2

Cissopis ...

Lamprospiza e

Psittospiza
Saltator ...
Diucopis...
Orchesticus
Pitylus ...

FRINGILLID2.

142.
143.

144.
145.
146.
147.
148.

149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.

161.
162.
163.
164,

165.

Chrysomitris...

Sycalis

Coccothraustes
Geospiza...

Camarhynchus

Cactornis
Phrygilus

Xenospingus ...

Diuca

Emberizoides...
Donacospiza ...

Chameospiza

Embernagra ...

Hemophila .
Atlapetes
Pyrgisoma
Pipilo
Junco
Zonotrichia .
(Melospiza
(Spizella

(Passerculus ...

(Pocecetes
Ammodramus

Coturniculus ...

Peucea ...
Tiaris ...
Volatinia

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

No. of
Species.

—
re

—

12

oe, OTD Je)

i

Eb OTD BOTH Oa OH 0

Range within the Region.

Mexico to Bolivia

Costa Rica to Bolivia

S. Brazil and Paraguay

West Ecuador

Nicaragua to Paraguay

S. Brazil and Bolivia

Venezuela, W. Ecuador, to Bra-
zil and Bolivia

8. Brazil and Paraguay

Mexico to Peru and Bolivia

Mexico to S. Brazil and Bolivia

Hayti

Mexico to S. Brazil

East Ecuador

Columbia to Peru and Bolivia

Guiana

Columbia to Peru

Mexico to La Plata and Bolivia

Upper Amazon and S. Brazil

Tropical S. America

Mexico to Brazil and Ecuador

Mexico to Brazil, Chili and
Patagonia

Mexico to Chili and La Plata.
Jamaica

Mexico and Guatemala

Galapagos Islands

Galapagos Islands

Galapagos Islands

Columbia to Fuegia and Falk-
land Islands

Peru

Peru, Chili, and Patagonia

Venezuela to Paraguay

S. Brazil and La Plata

Mexico

Mexico to La Plata

Mexico to Costa Rica

Mexico

Mexico to Costa Rica

Mexico to Guatemala

Mexico and Guatemala

Mexico to Straits of Magellan

Mexico and Guatemala)

Mexico and Guatemala)

Mexico and Guatemala)

Mexico)

Guatemala

Mexico to Bolivia, Jamaica

Mexico

Brazil

Mexico to Brazil

99

Range beyond the Region.

Nearctic, Palearctic

Nearctic, Palzarctic

Rocky Mountains
| Nearctic ?

All Nearctic region

United States
Nearctic
Nearctic genus
Nearctic genus
Nearctic genus
Nearctic genus
Nearctic

K. & N. of N. America

8. E. States & California

100

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Order, Family, and
Genus.

(Cyanospiza ...
Paroaria
Coryphospingus
Porphyrospiza
Haplospiza
Phonipara

166.
167.
168.
169.
170.

171.
172.

Poospiza
Spodiornis
(Carpodacus ...
Cardinalis
Guiraca ...
Amaurospiza
Hedymeles
Pheucticus
Oryzoborus
Melopyrrha ...
Loxigilla
Spermophila ...
Catamenia
Neorhynchus ...
Catambly- )
rhynchus \ **’
(Loxia ...
(Calamospiza
(Chondestes ...
(Euspiza
Gubernatriz. ...
(Plectrophanes

173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184,

185.

ALAUDIDZ.
186. Otocorys

MoTsCcILLID2.
187. Anthus

OXYRHAMPHID2.
187a. Oxyrhamphus

TYRANNIDA.

188. Conophaga
189. Corythopis
190. Agriornis re
191. Myiotheretes ...
192. Tenioptepa ...
193. Ochthodicta ...
194, Ochtheca

195.
196.

197.
. 198.

Sayornis
Fluvicola

Arundinicola
Alectorurus ...

_
maw wr rp ON Re Oe

~
te HO Or DD

_

~ “NR Ow Ob

Nore

No. of
Species

Range within the Region.

[PART Ill.

Range beyond the Region.

Mexico and Central America)

| Trop. S. America, E. of Andes

Tropical S. America

Brazil

Mexico and Brazil

Mexico to Columbia, Greater
Antilles

Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata

Ecuador

Mexico)

Mexico to Venezuela

Mexico to Brazil and La Plata

Costa Rica and Brazil

Mexico to Columbia

Mexico to Peru and Bolivia

Mexico to Ecuador and S. Brazil

| Cuba

Antilles

Mexico to Bolivia and Uruguay
Columbia to Bolivia

W. Peru

| Columbia

Mexico)

Mexico)

Mexico)

Mexico to Columbia)
Paraguay and La Plata
Mexico)

Mexico, Andes of Columbia

Nearctic

W. & Central U. States
Nearctic, Palearctic

S. & S. Cent. U. States
Southern U. States

Nearctic

Texas

North temperate genus

Arizona and Texas

W. and Cent. U. States
S.-E. U. States, Palare.

N. temp. & Arctic genus

Nearce. & Palearc. genus

Mexico to Patagonia and Falk- | Cosmopolite

land Islands

Brazil to Costa Rica

Columbia to Bolivia and Brazil

Brazil and Guiana

Ecuador, Peru, and Chili

Columbia to Ecuador, Patagonia

S. Brazil and Bolivia to Patago.

Columbian Andes

Andes, Bolivia to Columbia and
Venezuela

Mexico to Ecuador

Guiana & W. Ecuador to Brazil,
and Bolivia

Tropical S. América

S. Brazil and La Plata

E. United Sts. to Canada

CHAP. XIV. ]

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

Order, Family, and

———

199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.

207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.

213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.

224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
230.
231.
232.

233.
234.
235.
236.
237.
238.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244,
245.
246.

247.

Genus.

Cybernetes
Sysopygts
Cnipolequs
Lichenops

Muscipipra ...

Copurus...

Machetornis ...

Muscisaxicola

Centrites

Muscigralla ...

Platyrhynchus

Todirostrum ...

Oncosotma

Euscarthmus...

Orchilus...
Colopterus

Hemitriccus ...
Phylloscartes ...
Hapalocercus...

Habrura

Pogonotriccus...
Leptotriccus ...
Stigmatura ...
Serphophaga ...

Aneretes

Cyanotis
Mionectes
Leptopogon
Capsiempis

Phyllomyias ma

Ornithion

Tyrannulus in
Tyranniscus ...

Elainea ...

Empidagra .
Legatus ...
Sublegatus
Myiozetetes
Rhynchocyclus
Conopias
Pitanyus
Sirystes ...

Mi yiodynastes

Megarhynchus
Muscivora

Hirundinea ...

Cnipodectes
Myitobius

Pyrocephalus...

No. of
Species

Rt et Co RA rH SO rt et

ren

—

—
maT D DDR wee bb bprnr bh

i
mOW eR OH Dee

i
onmnnwr

=
oo WrHwomrtAaNwnATW oO

Range within the Region.

Brazil

‘S. Brazil and La Plata

Amazonia to Patagonia

Brazil and La Plata

S. Brazil
Costa Rica to 8S. Brazil
Venezuela to Brazil

Andes of Ecuador to Chili and |
Patagonia |

Bolivia to Patagonia

W. Ecuador

Mexico to Brazil

Tropical N. and S. America

Tropical N. America

Costa Rica to W. Ecuador, Brazil,
and Bolivia

Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia

Veragua to Columbia and Guiana

101

Brazil

Columbia to Brazil

Brazil to Chili and La Plata

Uruguay

Brazil and Columbia

Brazil and Veragua

Upper Amazon to La Plata

Columbia to Chili and La Plata

Columbia to Chili and La Plata,
Magell. Sts. & Juan Fernand.

W. Peru to La Plata

Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia

Mexico to Peru and Brazil

Chiriqui to Brazil

Columbia to Brazil

Mexico to Brazil

Guatemala to Amazonia

Guatemala to E. Peru

Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, An-
tilles

Bolivia and La Plata

Mexico to Brazil

Venezuela and Lower Amazon

Mexico to W. Peru and Brazil

Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil

Venezuela to Peru and Brazil

Mexico to La Plata, Antilles

Panama to Brazil

Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay

Mexico to Brazil

Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil

Columbia & Guiana to Paraguay

Panama to W. Ecuador & Amazon!

Mexico to W. Peru, Bolivia, |
and La Plata |

Range beyond the Region,

Tropical N. and S. America and | Gila and Rio Grande

Galapagos Islands

102 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. (PART III.

Order, Family, and
Genus.

No. of
Species.

|

248. Himpidochanes
249. Mitrephorus ...
250. Empidonax ...
251. Contopus
252. Myiochanes ...
253. Myiarchus

i
NEY ON bw»

—!

254, Blacicus...
(Empidias
255. Empidonomus
256. Tyrannus
257. Milvulus

_
DH ee bo

PIPRIDZ.

258. Piprites ...
259. Masius ...
260. Chloropipo
261. Xenopipo

262. Pipra

263. Neopipo... ...
264. Macheropterus
265. Llicwra ES
266. Chirowiphia ...
267. Metopia... ..
268. Metopothrizx ...
269. Chiromacheris
270. Hetoropelma ...
271. Heterocercus ...
272. Schiffornis

eb»

_

WOW Ode H Oe RK OF

—

CoTINGID&.

2738. Tyra ... ...
274. Hadrostomus...

oor)

—"

me 09 0 SOO ST et bb 8 OD WW Ot

275. Pachyhamphus
276. Lathria ... é
277. Aulia

278. Lipaugus ...
279. Ptilochloris ...
280. Attila

281. Casiornis

282. Rupicola

233. Phonicocercus
284. Tijuca ...
285. Phibalura
236. Pipreola...
287. Ampelio...
288. Carpodectes ...
289. Heliochera ...
290. Cotinga ...
291. Xipholena
292. Lodopleura
293. Calyptura
294. Querula...

Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.

Venezuela to S. Brazil.

Mexico to Costa Rica .

Mexico to Columbia & Ecuador | All N. America

Mexico to Amazonia, Antilles | N. & E. of Rocky Mtns.
Amazonia and Brazil

Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil, | East and West Coasts to

Galapagos and Antilles Canada
Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica
Mexico) Eastern United States
Guiana and Brazil
All tropical sub-regions All U. States to Canada
Tropical N. and 8S, America Texas

Costa Rica to Brazil
Columbia and Ecuador
Columbia

Guiana and Columbia

Trop. N. and 8. America
Upper Amazon

Columbia to Brazil

Brazil

Guatemala to Brazil

Brazil

Upper Amazon

Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil
Mexico to Guiana and Brazil
Guiana and Upper Amazon
Upper Amazon and Brazil

Tropical N. and S. America

Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil,
Jamaica

Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil

Mexico to Brazil

Veragua to Brazil

Guatemala to Brazil and Guiana

Brazil

Costa Rica to Brazil and Guiana

S. Brazil to Paraguay

Guiana to W. Ecuador & Bolivia

Guiana and Amazonia

Brazil

Brazil

Venezuela to Ecuador and Peru

Columbia to Peru and Brazil

Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Columbia to Peru and Bolivia

Guatemala to Peru and Brazil

Guiana to Brazil

Guiana to Brazil

Brazil

Panama to Amazonia

CHAP. XIV.]

Order, Family, and

Genus.

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

2998.
296.
297.
298.
299.
300.

Hematoderus

Chasmorhynchus

Gymnocephalus
Gymnoderus ...
Pyroderus
Cephalopterus

PHYTOTOMIDA.

301.

DENDROCOLAPTID&.

302.
303.
BO4.
305.

306.

307.

308.
309.
310.
311.

312.

313.
314.

315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324.
325.
326.
327.
328.
329.
330.
331.
332.
333.
334.
335.
336.
337.
338.
339,

Phytotoma

Geobates ...
Geositta ...
Furnarius
Clibanornis ...
Upucerthia

Cinclodes

Henicornis
Lochmias
Sclerurus
Oxyurus...

Sylviorthor-
hynchus

Phleocryptes ...

Leptasthenura

Synallaxts
Coryphistera ...
Anumbius
Limnornis
Placellodomus
Thripophaga...
Pseudocolaptes
Homorus ...
Thripadectes ...
Ancistrops
Automolus
Philydor
Heliobletus
Anabatoides ...
Anabazenops ...
Xenops ...
Sittasomus
Margarornis ...
Glyphorhynchus
Pygarrhicus ...
Dendrocinela...
Dendrocolaptes
Nasica ... :
Drymornis
Xiphocolaptes

Mon. tis

1

—
Me HNO He RWW OTHE ROM HOH OREO OEP

Range within the Region.

103

Range beyond the Region.

Guiana and Lower Amazon

Costa Rica to Guiana and Brazil

Guiana and Rio Negro

Guiana and Upper Amazon

Venezuela to Brazil

Costa Rica to W. Ecuador & Upr.
Amazon

Bolivia, Chili, and La Plata

South Brazil

Peru to Chili and Patagonia

Guiana & W. Ecuador to La Plata

S. Brazil

Andes of Ecuador to Chili and
Patagonia

Ecuador to Chili, Patagonia and
Tierra del Fuego

Patagonia

Venezuela and Brazil

Mexico to Brazil

Chili to Tierra del Fuego, and
Masafuera Islands

Chili

W. Peru to La Plata

Andes of Ecuador to Brazil and
Patagonia |

The whole region (excl. Antilles)

La Plata

Paraguay and La Plata

Uruguay and La Plata

Venezuela to Pern and La Plata

Brazil and Columbia

Columbia to Peru

Brazil, Bolivia, and La Plata

Columbia

Upper Amazon

Mexico to Amazonia

Tropical South Americ.

Brazil

Brazil

Mexico to Brazil

Trop. North and South America

Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil

Costa Rica to Peru and Bolivia

Trop. North and South America

Chili

Mexico to Venezuela and Brazil

Guatemala to Peru and Brazil

Guiana

La Plata

| Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay

104

Order, Family, and
enus,

340.
341.
342.
343.
344.

Dendrexetastes
Dendrornis
Dendroplex
Picolaptes
Xiphorhynchus

FoRMICARIID.

345.

346.
347.
348.
349.
350.
351,
352.
353.
354.
355.
356.
357.
358.
359.
360.
361.
362.

363.
364.
365.
366.
367.

368.
369.
370.
371.
372.
373.
374.
375.
376.

Cymbilanius ...
BOLar 7.
Thamnophilus
Biatas
Thamnistes
Pygoptila
Neoctantes
Clytoctantes ...
Dysithamnus...
Thamnomanes
Herpsilochnvus
Myrmotherula
Formicivora ...
Terenura
Psilorhamphus
Microbates
Rhamphoccenus
Cercomacra

Pyriglena
Gymnocichla ...

_Percnostola

Heterocnemis...
Myrmeciza

Hypocnemis .
Pithys
Rhopoterpe
Phlogopsis ;
Formicarius ...
Pittasoma
Chamexa
Grallaria :
Grallaricula ...

PTEROPTOCHIDZ.

377.

378.
379.
380.
381.
382.
383.
384.

Scytalopus

Merulaxis ;
Rhinocrypta ...
IFOBLELER So 5e
Pteroptochus ...
Hylactes...
Acropternis
Triptorhinus...

i

pa
RDN HE DDH Wee

_
RFPwwnd >»

—"
em or Or

bo

Oo RRO

oo

MH ope be

No. of
Species.

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Range within the Region. .| Range beyond the Region.

Guiana
Mexico, W. Ecuador and Brazil |
Columbia & Venezuela to Brazil
Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata |
Veragua to Brazil

Amazonia and Gniana

S. Brazil

Trop. North and South America

Brazil

Central America and Ecuador

Amazonia

Amazonia

Eastern Ecuador

Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil

Eeuador, Guiana, and Brazil .

Venezuela to Brazil and Bolivia

Tropical 8S. America

Trop. North and South America

Veragua to W. Ecuador & Brazil

Central Brazil

Cayenne

Guatemala to Brazil

Cen. America to W. Equador &
S. Brazil

Eeuador to Peru and Brazil

Honduras to Panama

Guiana and Upper Amazon

Guiana and Upper Amazon

Veragua to W. Ecuador, Bolivia, |
and Brazil

Costa Rica toW. Ecuador & Brazil

Nicaragua to Amazonia

Guiana

Nicaragua to Guiana and Bolivia

Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia

Panama and Veragua

Columbia to Brazil

Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil

Costa Rica to Ecuador

Columbia & Brazil to Chili and
Tierra del Fuego

Central Brazil

La Plata and Patagonia

Madeira Valley

Chili and Chiloe

Chili

Columbia and Ecuador

Chili

[PART III.

CHAP. XIV. ]

Order, Family, and
Genus.

PICARLA.
PICcIDz.

385. Picuwmnus
386. Picus

(Sphyrapicus...
87. Campephilus ...
388. Dryocopus
389. Celeus
390. Nesoceleus
391. Chrysoptilus ...
392. Centurus
393. Chloronerpes ...
394, Xiphidiopicus
395. Melanerpes
396, Leuwconerpes ...
397. Colaptes...

398. Hypoxanthus...

MEGALZMID2&.

399. Capito
400. Tetragonops

RHAMPHASTID®.

401. Rhamphastos...
402. Pteroglossus ...
403. Selenidera
404, Andigena

405. Aulacorhamphus

CucULID#.

406. Crotophaga
407. Guira aD
408. Neomorphus ...

409. Geococcyx BE
410. Dromococcyzx ...
411. Diplopterus ...
412. Sawrothera
413. Hyetornis

414. Piaya

415. Morococcyx
416, Coccygus

BUCCONIDA.
417. Bucco

418. Malacoptila ...
419, Nonnula

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

No. of
Species.

—
ont

we
HK THOHDNOOHMANDH

He et CO

orFWNrReYhrH

_

10

Rang within the Region.

Honduras to Brazil and Bolivia

Mexico, Chili, La Plata, and
S. Patagonia

Mexico and Guatemala)

Mexico to Patagonia, Cuba

Mexico to S. Brazil

Mexico and 8. Brazil

Cuba

Tropical 8S. America

Mexico to Venezucla, Antilles

Tropical America, Hayti

Cuba

Mexico to Brazil, Porto Rico

Brazil, Bolivia

Open country of trop. America,
Greater Antilles

Venezuela and Ecuador

Costa Rica to Peru and Guiana
Costa Rica and Ecuador

All tropical America

Mexico to Guiana and Brazil

Veragua to Brazil

Columbia to W. Ecuador, Bolivia
and Brazil

Mexico to Venezuela and Bolivia

Tropical America and Antilles

Brazil and Paraguay

Nicaragua to Brazil ‘and Upper

» Amazon

Guatemala

Mexico to Brazil

Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil

Greater Antilles

Jamaica and Hayti

Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil

Mexico to Costa Rica

Tropical America and Antilles,
Cocos Islands

Guatemala to Guiana, Paraguay
and Bolivia

Guatemala to Guiana, W. Ecua-
dor and Bolivia

Columbia and Amazonia

105

Range beyond the Region.

All reg. but Austral. &
Ethiopian

Nearctic genus

Nearctic

Palearctic

Nearctic

Nearctic

Nearctie

Nearcticto Pennsylvania

Texas to Calfornia

Nearctic

106

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

[PART IIL

Order, Family, and
Genus.

420. Monasa ... :
421. Chelidoptera ...

GALBRILID2.

422. Galbula...

423. Urogalba

424. Brachygalba ...

425. Jacamaraleyon

426. Jacamerops ...

427. Galbaleyrhyn
chus

ToDIDA.
428. Todus

MomorTip2.

429. Momotus
430.
431.
432.
433.
434.

Urospatha
Baryphthengus
Hylomanes
Prionirhynchus
Eumomota

TROGONID.

435. Prionoteles
436. Temnotrogon ...
437. Trogon ...
438. Huptilotis

439. Pharomacrus

ALCEDINIDA.
440. Ceryle

STEATORNITHID.
441. Steatornis

CAPRIMULGIDA.
442.
443.
444,

Nyctibius

Hydropsalis ...
Antrostomus...
445. Stenopsis
446.
447.
448,
449,
450.
451.

Siphonorhis ...
Heleotivreptus
Nyctidromus ...
Podager ...
Lwrocalis
Chordeiles

452, Nyctiprogne ...

No of
Species.

Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.

to-1

wm eh

Costa Rica to Brazil
Columbia to Guiana and Brazil

Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia
Guiana to Lower Amazon

Columbia to Brazil and Bolivia

Brazil
Columbia to Amazonia

Upper Amazon

Greater Antilles

Mexico to W. Ecuador, Brazil
and Bolivia

Costa Rica to Columbia

Brazil and Paraguay

Mexico and Guatemala

Guatemala to Upper Amazon

Honduras to Chiriqni

Cuba

Hayti

Mexico to W. Ecuador & Parag.

Mexico

Guatemala to Upper Amazon and
Bolivia

Mexico to Brazil, Patagonia and | Neare., 8. Palearc.,Orien.

Chili

Columb., Venezuela, & Trinidad

Brazil to Guatemala & Jamaica

Columbia & Guiana to La Plata

Mexico and Cuba to Bolivia and | All U. States to Canada
La Plata

Martinique to Columb., W. Peru
and Chili

Jamaica

Central Brazil

Central America to S. Brazil

Tropical S. America

Guiana to Brazil

Mexico to W. Peru and Brazil | All U. States to Canada
Jamaica and Porto Rico

Amazonia

CHAP. XIV.]

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

107

Order, Family, and

Genus.

CYPSELIDA.

453.
454.
455.
456.

457.
458.

Cypselus
Panyptila
Cheetura...

Hemiprocne ...

Cypseloides
Nepheecetes

TROCHILIDA.

459.
460.

461.
462.
463.
464.
465.

466.
467.
468.
469.
470.
471.
472.
473.
474.
475.
476.
477.
478.
479.
480.
481.
482.
483.
484,
485.
486.
487.
488.
489.
490.
491.
492.
493.

494,
495.
496.
497.

498.

499,

500.

Grypus ...
Androdon
Eutoxeres

Glaucis ...

Phaethornis Ss

Pygmornis
Threnetes

Dolerisca

Eupetomena ...

Sphenoproctus
Campylopterus
Pheeochroa
Aphantochroa
Urochroa
Sternoclyta
Eugenes ...
Celigena

Lamprolema..

Delattria
Oreopyra

Heliopedica ae

Topaza ...

Oreotrochilus..

Lampornis
Eulampis
Avocettula

Lafresnaya ..

Doryphora
Chalybura
Heliodoxa

Tolema ...
Pheolema
Eugenia...
Aithurus

Thalurania e

Panoplites
Florisuga
Microchera
Lophorius

Polemistria ...

Discura...
Gouldia ...

No. of
Species.

wow cn

me bo

Com NO Nee

—
H= bo bo ST bo bo 09 SCH HWP NUM UNHNNONNFEPNHPHNRPHYWNWONHH

| Brazil and Peru

Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.

Antilles to Guiana and Bolivia

Guatemala and Guiana

Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil

Mexico to La Plata, Jamaica
and Hayti

The Eastern Hemisphere

Almost cosmopolite

Jamaiea

Brazil
Ecuador

.Costa Rica to Ecuador

Panama to Brazil

Tropical N. and S. America

Mexico to Guiana and Brazil

Costa Rica to Amazonia and W.
Ecuador

Venezuela

Guiana to Brazil

Mexico to Guatemala

Mexico to Amazonia

Guatemala to Columbia

Ecuador and Brazil

Keuador

Venezuela

Mexico to Costa Rica

Mexico

Mexico and Guatemala

Guatemala

Costa Rica to Chiriqui

Mexico and Guatemala

Guiana

Keuador to Peru and Chili

Mexico & W. India to Amazonia

Lesser Antilles

Guiana

Venezuela and Columbia ‘

Costa Rica to Ecuador

Costa Rica to Columbia

Costa Rica to Venezue. & Boliv.

Ecuador to Peru

Columbia and Ecuador

Ecuador

Jamaica

Costa Rica to Guiana, Ecuador
and Brazil

Columbia and Ecuador

Guatemala to Brazil

Nicaragua to Veragua

Mexico to Brazil, Peru, & Bolivia

Columbia to S. Brazil

Brazil

Costa Rica to Brazil & Bolivia

108

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Order, Family, and

501.
2. Mellisuga
. Calypte ...
504.
505.
506.
. Calothorax

. Acestrura

. Cheetocercus ...
610.
iy
512.
3. Doricha ...
514.
B15:
516.
517.
. Lesbia......

. Cynanthus ...
. Sparganura ...
. Pterophanes ...
. Agleactis

. Oxypogon

. Oreonyinpha ...
. Rhamphoinieron
. Urosticte ..

. Metallura

. Adelomia

. Avocettinus

. Anthocephala...
. Chrysolaimpis...
. Orthorhynchus

. Cephalolepis ...
PICLQIS Sake) ses
= Bacis’ ~..

. Heliactin

. Heliothrix

PAIS CHISTES reel uae
. Phlogophilus ...
. Augastes...

. Petasophora ...
. Chrysobronchus
. Patagona

. Docimastes

. Helianthea ...
. Heliotrypha ...
. Heliangelus ...
. Diphlogena ...
. Clytolema

. Bourcieria

. Lampropygia...
. Heliomastes ...
. Lepidolaryne...
. Calliperidia ...
. Lustephanus ..

Genus.
Trochiius

Selasphorus ...
Atthis
Stellula ...

Myrtis :
Thaumastura
Rhodopis...

Tilmatura
Calliphlox
Loddigesia
Steganura

No. of |
Species,

OD EL OT OURS 09 > BOT EEE G2 ORD EBD OD A et et 09 BD EE > DD OS HE DO EER DD OD OD DD Ht OT DO FDO 09 CO DO A ENT CO FED

Range within the Region.

Mexico to Veragua

Jamaica to Hayti

Mexico and Cuba

Mexico to Veragua

Mexico and Guatemala

Mexico

Mexico

Venezuela to Ecuador & Bolivia
Venezuela and Ecuador
Ecuador to Bolivia, W. of Andes
W. Peru

W. Peru and Chili

| Mexico to Veragua, Bahamas

Guatemala

Eeuador and Brazil

Peruvian Andes

Venezuela to Ecuador & Bolivia
Columbia to Peru

Venezuela to Ecuador
Columbia to Bolivia & La Plata
Columbia to Peru

Columbia 10 Bolivia

| Venezuela and Columbia

Peru

Columbia to Bolivia

Ecuador

Columbia to Bolivia

Venezuela to Peru & Bolivia

Columbia

Columbia

Venezuela to Brazil

Lesser Antilles

Brazil

Venezuela and Columbia

Mexico to Veragua

Brazil

Guatemala to Eenador & Brazil

Columbia and Ecuador

Ecuador

Brazil

Mexico to Peru and Brazil

Venezuela to Brazil

Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili

Columbia and Ecuador

Columbia to Bolivia

Columbia and Eenador

Venezuela to Peru

Bolivia

E. Ecuador and Brazil

Venezuela to Peru

Venezuela to Bolivia

Mexico to Ecuador & Venezuela

Brazil

Central Braziland Paraguay

Chili, S. Patagonia, and Juan
Fernandez Islands

[PART III.
D .

Range beyond the Region.

To Canada and Sitka

W. &Cen. United States
California and Colorado

CHAP. XIV. ]

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

Order, Family, and
G

enus.

Range within the Region.

109

Range beyond the Region.

556. Eriocnemis 14 | Venezuela to Ecuador

557. Cyanomyia 6 | Mexico to Peru

558. Hemistilbon .. 1 | Mexico

559. Leucippus . | 2 | Peru and Bolivia

560. Thawmatias ... | 15 | Mexico to Guiana, Upr.Amazon,
and Brazil

561. Amazilia 14 | Mexico to W. Ecuador & Peru

562. Saucerottia 7 | Costa Rica to Columb. & Venezue.

563. Hupherusa ... | 3 | Mexico to Veragua

564. Chrysuronia ... | 5 | Guatemala to Ecuador & La Plata

565. Hucephala 7 | Venezuela to Guiana and Brazil

566. Panterpe... 1 | Costa Rica and Chiriqui

567 Juliamyia 2 | Panama to Ecuador

bess Circe... 3 | Mexico

569. Pheeoptila 1 | Mexico

570. Damophila 1 | Costa Rica to Ecuador

571. Hylocharis ... 3 | Amazonia and Brazil

572. Sapphironia ... | 2 | Columbia and Veragua

573. Sporadinus ... 3 | Cuba, Bahamas, Hayti, Porto Rico

574. Chlorostilbon ... 8 | Mexico to Brazil and La Plata

575. Panychlora 3 | Venezuela and Columbia

576. Smaragdochrysis| 1 | Brazil

PSITTACI.

ConuRIDaz.

biin, Ara... 15 | Trop. North and South America,
Cuba, Jamaica (extinct)

578. Rhyncopsitta ... | 1 | Mexico

579. Henicognathus 1 | Chili

580. Conurus... 30 | The whole region S. & S.E. United States

581. Pyrrhura _... | 16 | Costa Rica to Paraguay & Bolivia

582. Bolborhynchus 7 | Mexico to Peru, Central Brazil,
and La Plata

583. Brotogerys 9 | Trop. North and South America

PSITTACIDE.

584. Caica 9 | Mexico to Amazonia

585. Chrysotis 32 | All the tropical sub-regions

586. Triclaria 1 | Brazil

587. Deroptyus 1 | Guiana and Rio Negro

588. Pionus ... 9 | Costa Rica to Bolivia and Brazil

589. Urochroma 7 | Venezuela to Brazil

590. Psittacula 6 | Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil

COLUMB&.

591. Columba 18 Pegiaeut tee ious with Chili and) All regions but Austral

a Plata

592. Zenaidura ... | 2 | Mexico to Veragua Nearctic

593. Chamepelia ... | 6 | Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia S. Nearctic

594. Columbula 2 Brazil and La Plata to Chili

595. Scardafella . 2 | Guatemala and Brazil

596. Zenaida... 10 | Antilles and S. America to Chili
and La Plata

110

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

(PART IIL,

Order con: oud | se Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.
: es
n
597. Melopelia 2 | Mexico to Chili South & West Nearctic
598. Peristera... 4 | Mexico to Brazil
599. Metriopelia 2 | W.America from Ecuador to Chili
600. Gymnopelia ... 1 | West Peru and Bolivia
601. Leptoptila 11 | Tropical sub-regions
602. Geotrygon 14 | Tropical sub-regions
603. Starnenas 1 | Cuba
GALLINA.
TETRAONIDS.
604. Odontophorus 17 | Trop. North and South America
605. Dendrortyx ... | 8 | Mexico to Costa Rica
606. Cyrtonyx 3 | Mexico to Guatemala S. Central United States
607. Ortyx ... ... | 5 | Mexico to Costa Rica, Cuba Nearctic to Canada
608. Eupsychortyx 5 | Mexico to Columbia and Guiana
(Callipepla 2 | Mexico) California
PHASIANIDA.
609. Meleagris 2 | Mexico and Honduras Nearctic
CRACID2.
610. Crax 8 | Mexico to Venezuela & S. Brazil
611. Nothocrax 1 | Guiana aud Upper Amazon
612. Pauxi 1 | Guiana and Venezuela
613. Mitua 2 | Guiana to Peru
614. Stegnolema ... | 1 | Columbia and Ecuador
615. Penelope... 13 | Trop. North and South America
616. Penelopina 1 | Guatemala
617. Pipile 3 | Venezuela to Brazil and Peru
618. Aburria... ... | 1 | Columbia
619. Chaimncpetes ... | 2 | Costa Rica to Peru
620. Ortalida... 18 | Trop. North and South America | New Mexico
621. Oreophasis 1 | Guatemala
TINAMID.
622. Tinamus ... | 7 | Trop. North and South America
623. Nothocercus ... | 3 | Costa Ricato Venezue. & Ecuador
624. Crypturus 16 | Trop. North and South America
625. Rhynchotus ... | 2 | Brazil to Bolivia and La Plata
626. Nothoprocta ... | 4 | Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili
627. Nothura... ... | 4 | Brazil to Bolivia and La Plata
628. Taoniscus ... | 1 | Brazil and Paraguay
629. Calodromas ... | 1 | La Plata
630. Tinamotis 1 | Andes of Peru and Bolivia
OPISTHOCOMI.
OPISTHOCOMID2.
631. Opisthocomus... | 1 | Guiana and Lower Amazon

CHAP. XIV. ]j

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

Order, Family, and
enus

ACCIPITRES.
VULTURIDA.
(CATHARTINZ.)

632.
633.
634.
635.

Sarcorhamphus
Cathartes
Catharista ‘
Pseudogryphis

FALCONIDA.

636.
637.
638.
639.
640.
641.
642.
643.
644.
645.
646.
647.
648.
649.
650.
651.
652.
653.
654.
655.
656.
657.
658.
659.
660.
661.

662.
663.
664,

665.

666.

667. Fal

668.

Polyborus
Ibycter ...
Circus
Micrastur
Geranospiza ...
Antenor...
Astur
Accipiter
Heterospizias ...
Tachytriorchis
Buteo

Buteola ...
Asturina
Busarellus
Buteogallus ...
Urubutinga ...
Harpyhalicetus
Morphnus
Thrasaétus
Lophotriorchis
Spiziastur
Spizaétus ,
Herpetotheres...
Nauclerus....
Rostrhamus ...
Leptodon

Elanus bs
Gampsonyx ...
Harpagus .
Tevinia we.
Spiziapterye ...
nlcom ee

Cerchneis

PANDIONID,

669.

Pandion ...

STRIGID&.

670.
671.
672.
673.

Glaucidium ...
Micrathene ...
Pholeoptynx ...
Bubo =... .;

pecies.

oO
iS)
)

A

8

OW ee bo

He OD eT Cc DH OP IK DD AIT COND

wowrebp wrr

_

a ete OD

Range within the Region.

The Andes and 8. of 41° S. Lat.

Mexico to 20°S. Lat.

Mexico to 40°S. Lat.

Mexico to Falkland Ids., Cuba,
Jamaica

The whole region

Guatemala to Terra del Fuego

Nearly the whole region

Trop. North and South America

Trop. North and South America

Mexico to Chili and La Plata

Trop. N. and S. America

The whole region

Trop. S. America, E. of Andes

Mexico to Paraguay

Mexico to Patagonia

Veragua to Amazonia

Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata

Brazil and Guiana

Columbia and Guiana

Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia

Veragua to Chili & N. Patagonia

Panama to Amazonia ‘

Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay

Bogota

Guatemala to Brazil

Mexico to Paraguay

S. Mexico to Bolivia & Paraguay

Mexico to Brazil

Antilles to Brazil and Peru

Central America to S. Brazil and
Bolivia

Mexico to Chili

Trinidad to Brazil

Central America to Brazil & Peru

Mexico to Brazil

La Plata

The whole region

The whole region

The whole region

The whole region
Mexico
The whole région

|The whole region

111

Range beyond the Region.

S. United States
United States

California and Florida
Almost cosmopolite
California and Texas
Almost cosmopolite

Almost cosmopolite

California
Almost cosmopolite

S.E. United States

Indo-Malaya

Africa, India, Malaya
S. United States
Florida

Califor., Old World trop.

South United States

Almost cosmopolite
Almost cosmopolite

Cosmopolite

W. United Sts., Paleearc.
Arizona, New Mexico
N.W. America & Texas
All regions but Austral.

112 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PARTY III.

4 33
Order, amily, and s3 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.
: Ze
674. Seops..... | 6 | Mexico to Brazil and La Plata | Almost cosmopolite
675. Gymnoglauz ... 2 | West India Islands
676. Lophostrix 2 | Guatemala to ower Amazon
677. Syrnium... 3 | Mexico to Patagonia All regions but Austral.
678. Ciccaba ..._ ... | 10 | Mexico to Peru and Paraguay
679. Nyctalatinus ... 1 | Columbia
680. Pulsatrix 2 | Guatemala to Brazil and Peru
681. Asio... 2 | The whole region All regions but Austral.
682. Nyctalops 1 | Cuba and Mexico to Brazil
683. Pseudoscops ... 1 | Jamaica
(Nyctale... 1 | Mexico) N. Temperate genus
684. Strix 2 | The whole region Almost cosmopolite

Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds.

GRALLA.
RALLIDA.

Aramides SMA Ia?
Heliornis

The whole region Nearctic
Tropical America

moo

ScOLOPACIDA.
Eureunetes ... | 3 | The whole region Nearctic

CHIONIDID2.
Chionis... ... | 2 | Sts. of Magellan, Falkland Ids. | Kerguelen’s Island

THINOCORIDA.

Attagis ... ... | 4 | Andes to Fuegia and Falkland

Islands

Thinocoris ... 2 | Peru, Chili, and La Plata
CHARADRIIDS.

Phuegornis 1 | Temperate S. America

Oreophilus ... | 1 | Temperate S. America

Pluvianellus ... | 1 | Temperate S. America A ‘

Aphriza ... 1 | W. coast of S, America W. coast of N. America
CARIAMID.

Cariama er 2 |S. Brazil and La Plata

ARAMIDA.
ATamus... ... 5 | Mexico and Cuba to Brazil
PSOPHIIDA.
Psophia ... ... | 6 | Equatorial S. America
EURYPYGID. ‘

Eurypygt ...| 2 | Tropical America

CHAP, XIV. |

Order, Family, and

Genus.

ARDEIDZ.
Tigrisoma
Cancroma

PALAMEDEID.

Palamedea
Chauna...

ANSERES.

ANATIDA.

Catrina...
Merganetta

Micropterus =

SPHENISCIDA.
Eudyptes

Aptenodytes a

STRUTHIONES.

STRUTHIONIDZ.
685. Rhea

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 113

Hoo Ht bo Ht

bo

Range within the Region.

The whole region

Tropical S. America

Equatorial America

Columbia, Brazil, and La Plata

Tropical S. America
Andes -
Temperate S. America

Temperate S. America
Falkland Islands

S. Temperate America

Range beyond the Region.

Antarctic shores
Antarctic shores

CHAPTER XV.
THE NEARCTIC REGION,

TuIs region consists almost wholly of Temperate North America
as defined by physical geographers. In area it is about equal
to the Neotropical region. It possesses a vast mountain range
traversing its entire length from north to south, comparable
with, and in fact a continuation of, the Andes—and a smaller
range near the east coast, equally comparable with the mountains
of Brazil and Guiana. These mountains supply its great river-
system of the Mississippi, second only to that of the Amazon;
and in its vast group of fresh-water lakes or inland seas, it
possesses a feature unmatched by any other region, except
perhaps by the Ethiopian. It possesses every variety of climate
_ between arctic and tropical; extensive forests and vast prairies ;
a greatly varied surface and a rich and beautiful flora. But these
great advantages are somewhat neutralized by other physical
features. It extends far towards the north, and there it reaches
its greatest width ; while in its southern and warmest portion it
suddenly narrows. The northern mass of land causes its
isothermal lines to bend southwards; and its winter tempera-
ture especially, is far lower than at corresponding latitudes
in Europe. This diminishes the available area for supporting
animal life; the amount and character of which must be, to a
great extent, determined by the nature of the least favourable
part of the year. Again, owing to the position of its mountain
ranges und the direction of prevalent winds, a large extent of its
interior, east of the Rocky Mountains, is bare and arid, and often
almost desert ; while the most favoured districts,—those east of

~ i
7 7 -
- &
Perit
rk

N Ey A BoC-T-C4 REG LON

Seale | inch—L000 miles

So

OTD

a
Fr,

oie

"isotope
EXPLANATION

Terrestrial Contours

10 From. Sea level to LOU0 feet White
LOOO feet to Z,500
2500, 5000
5000 10,000
10,000 20000

The Marine Contour of L000 feet
is shewn by a dotted line

Oo} Pasture lands shewn this

Forest

j
. ese
Desert =r

The boundaries and retereace munbers

of the Sub-reqgions are shewn tm Red

—— = ————————— —

120 lO Longitude West 100 of Greenwich 90

Stanford Geographical Estab! London .

New York: Harper & Brothers.

CHAP. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 115

the Mississippi and west of the Sierra Nevada, bear but a small
proportion to its whole area. Again, we know that at a very
recent period geologically, it was subjected to a very severe Glacial
epoch, which wrapped a full half of it im a mantle of ice, and
exterminated a large number of animals which previously in-
habited it. Taking all this into account, we need not be sur-
prised to find the Nearctic region somewhat less rich and varied
in its forms of life than the Palearctic or the Australian regions,
with which alone it can fairly be compared. The wonder rather
is that it should be so little inferior to them in this respect, and
that it should possess such a variety of groups, and such a
multitude of forms, in every class of animals.

Zoological characteristics of the Nearctic Region.—Temperate
North America possesses representatives of 26 families of Mam-
malia, 48 of Birds, 18 of Reptiles, 11 of Amphibia, and 18 of
Fresh-water Fish. The first three numbers are considerably less
than the corresponding numbers for the Palearctic region, while
the last two are greater—in the case of fishes materially so, a
circumstance readily explained by the wonderful group of fresh-
water lakes and the noble southward-flowing river system of the
Mississippi, to which the Palearctic region has nothing com-
parable. But although somewhat deficient in the total number
of its families, this region possesses its full proportion of peculiar
and characteristic family and generic forms. No less than 13
families or sub-families of Vertebrata are confined to it, or just
enter the adjacent Neotropical region. These are,—three of mam-
malia, Antilocaprine, Saccomyide and Haploodontide ; one of
birds, Chameeide ; one of reptiles, Chirotide ; two of amphibia,
Sirenide and Amphiumide ; and the remaining six of fresh-water
fishes. The number of-peculiar or characteristic genera is per-
haps more important for our purpose; and these are very con-
siderable, as the following enumeration will show.

Mammalia.—Of the family of moles (Talpide) we have 3
peculiar genera: Condylura, Scapanius, and Scalops, as well as
the remarkable Urotrichus, found only in California and Japan.
In the weasel family (Mustelide) we have Zataxz, a peculiar
kind of otter; Taaxidea, allied to the badgers; and one of the

116 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

remarkable and characteristic skunks is separated by Dr. J. E.
Gray as a genus—=Spilogale. In the American family Procyo-
nide, a peculiar genus (Bassaris) is found in California and
Texas, extending south along the mountains of Mexico and
Guatemala. Huwmetopias, and Halicyon, are seals confined to the
west coast of North America. The Bovidee, or hollow-horned
ruminants, contain three peculiar forms; Antilocapra, the re-
markable prong-buck of the Rocky Mountains ; Aplocerus, a goat-
like antelope; and Ovibos, the musk-sheep, confined to Arctic
America and Greenland. Among the Rodents are many pecu-
liar genera: Neotoma, Sigmodon, and Fiber, belong to the
Muride, or rats; Jaculus to the Dipodide, or jerboas. The
very distinct family Saccomyide, or pouched rats, which have
peculiar cheek pouches, or a kind of outer hairy mouth, con-
sists of five genera all confined to this region, with one of
doubtful affinities in Trinidad and Central America. In the
squirrel family (Sciuridee), Cynomys, the prairie-dogs, are pecu-
liar; and ZYamias, the ground squirrel, is very characteristic,
though found also in North Asia. Haploodon, or sewellels,
consisting of two species, forms a distinct family ; and Erethizon
is a peculiar form of tree porcupine (Cercolabide). True mice
and rats of the genus Jus are not indigenous to North America,
their place being supplied by a distinct genus (Hesperomys),
confined to the American continent.

Birds—The genera of birds absolutely peculiar to the Nearctic
region are not very numerous, because, there being no boundary
but one of climate between it and the Neotropical region, most
of its characteristic forms enter a short distance within the
limits we are obliged to concede to the latter. Owing also to
the severe winter-climate of a large part of the region (which
we know is a comparatively recent phenomenon), a large pro-
portion of its birds migrate southwards, to pass the winter in
the West-Indian islands or Mexico, some going as far as Guate-
mala, and a few even to Venezuela.

In our chapter on extinct animals, we have shown, that there
is good reason for believing that the existing union of North
and South America is a quite recent occurrence; and that the

CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 117

separation was effected by an arm of the sea across what is
now Nicaragua, with perhaps another at Panama. This would
leave Mexico and Guatemala joined to North America, and
forming part of the Nearctic region, although no doubt contain-
ing many Neotropical forms, which they had received during
earlier continental periods; and these countries might at other
times have been made insular by a strait at the isthmus of
Tehuantepec, and have then developed some peculiar species.
The latest climatal changes have tended to restrict these
Neotropical forms to those parts where the climate is really
tropical; and thus Mexico has attained its present strongly
marked Neotropical character, although deficient in many of
the most important groups of that region.

In view of these recent changes, it seems proper not to draw
any decided line between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions,
but rather to apply, in the case of each genus, a test which will
show whether it was probably derived at a comparatively recent
date ftom one region or the other, The test referred to, is the
existence of peculiar species of the genus, in what are un-
doubtedly portions of ancient North or South America. If,
‘for example, all the species of a genus occur in North America,
some, or even all, of them, migrating into the Neotropical region
in winter, while there are no peculiar Neotropical species, then
we must class that genus as strictly Nearctic; for if it were
Neotropical it would certainly have developed some peculiar
resident forms. Again, even if there should be one or two
resident species peculiar to that part of Central America north
of the ancient dividing strait, with an equal or greater number
of species ranging over a large part of Temperate North America,
the genus must still be considered Nearctic. Examples of the
former case, are Helminthophaga and Myiodioctes, belonging to
the Mniotiltide, or wood-warblers, which range over all Tem-
perate North America to Canada, where a/J/ the species are found,
but in each case one of the species is found in South America, *
probably as a winter migrant. Of the latter, are Ammodramus
and Junco (genera of finches), which range over the whole United
States, but each have one peculiar species in Guatemala, These

—
ys
io)

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

may be claimed as exclusively Nearctic genera, on the ground
that Guatemala was recently Nearctic; and is now really a
transition territory, of which the lowlands have been invaded and
taken exclusive possession of by a Neotropical fauna, while the
highlands are still (in part at least) occupied by Nearctic forms.

In his article on “ Birds,” in the new edition of the “Ency-
clopeedia Britannica” (now publishing), Professor Newton points
out, that the number of peculiar genera of Nearctic birds is
much less than in each of the various sub-divisions of the
Neotropical region; and that the total number of genera is also
less, while the bulk of them are common either to the Neo-
tropical or Palearctic regions. This is undoubtedly the case
if any fixed geographical boundary is taken; and it would thus
seem that the “Nearctic” should, in birds, form a sub-region
only. But, if we define “Nearctic genera” as above indicated,
we find a considerable amount of speciality, as the following list
will show. The names not italicised are those which are repre-
sented in Mexico or Guatemala by peculiar species :—

List or TypicaL NrEArcTIc GENERA OF LAND Birps.

1. Oreoscoptes 17. Phenopepla 33. Empidias
2. Harporhynchus 18. Xanthocephalus 34. Sphyrapicus
3. Stalia 19. Scolecophagus 35. Hylatomus
4. Chamea 20. Pipilo 36. Trochilus
5. Catherpes 21. Junco 37. Atthis

6. Salpinctus 22. Melospiza 38. Ectopistes
7. Psaltriparus 23. Spizella 39. Centrocercus
8. Auriparus 24. Passerculus 40. Pediocates
9. Gymnokitta 25. Poecetes 41. Cupidonia
10, Prcicorvus 26. Ammodromus ? Ortyx

11. Mniotilta. 27. Cyanospiza 42. Oreortyx
12. Oporornis 28. Pyrrhuloxia 43. Lophortyx
13. LIeteria 29. Calamospiza 44. Callipepla
14. Helmintherus 30. Chondestes 45, Cyrtonyx
15. Helminthophaga 31. Centronyx 46. Meleagris
16. Myiodioctes 32, Neocorys t7. Micrathene

The above are all groups which are either wholly Nearctic or

‘ typically so, but entering more or less into the debatable ground
of the Neotropical region; though none possess any peculiar
species in the ancient Neotropical land south of Nicaragua. But
we have, besides these, a number of genera which we are accus-

CHAP. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 119

tomed to consider as typically European, or Palearctic, having
representatives in North America; although in many cases it
would be more correct to say that they are Nearctic genera,
represented in Europe, since America possesses more species
than Europe or North Asia. The following is a list of genera
which have as much right to be considered typically Nearctic
as Palearctic :-—

1. Regulus 9. Corvus 16. Huspiza

2. Certhia 10. Ampelis 17. Plectrophanes
3. Sitta 11. Loxia 18. Tetrao

4, Parus 12. Pinicola 19. Lagopus

5. Lophophanes 13. Linota 20. Nyctala

6. Lanius 14. Passerelia 21. Archrhutec

7. Perisoreus 15. Leucosticte. 22. Halizetus

8. Pica

The seven genera italicized have a decided preponderance of
Nearctic species, and have every right to be considered typically
Nearctic ; while the remainder are so well represented by peculiar
species, that it is quite possible many of them may have origi-
nated here, rather than in the Palearctic region, all alike being
quite foreign to the Neotropical.

On the whole, then, we have 47 in the first and 7 in the second
table, making 54 genera which we may fairly class as typically
Nearctic, out of a total of 168 genera of land birds, or nearly
one-third of the whole. This is an amount of peculiarity which
is comparable with that of either of the less isolated regions ;
and, combined with the more marked and more exclusively
peculiar forms in the other orders of vertebrates, fully establishes
Temperate North America as a region, distinct alike from the
Neotropical and the Palearctic.

Feptiles.— Although temperate climates are always compara-
tively poor in reptiles, a considerable number of genera are
peculiar to the Nearctic region. Of snakes, there are, Clonophis,
Chilomeniscus, Pituophis, and Ischnognathus, belonging to the
Colubride ; Farancia, and Dimodes, Homalopside ; Lichanotus,
one of the Pythonide; Cenchris, Crotalophorus, Uropsophorus,
and Crotalus, belonging to the Crotalide or rattlesnakes.

Of Lizards, Chirotes, forming a peculiar family ; Ophisaurus,

Vou. I1.—9

120 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [Part Ul.

the curious glass-snake, belonging to the Zonuride ; with Phry-
nosoma (commonly called horned toads), Callisawrus, Uta,
Euphryne, Uma, and Holbrookia, genera of Iguanide.

Testudinid, or Tortoises, show a great development of the
genus Emys ; with Aromochelys and Chelydra as peculiar genera.

Amphibia.—tIn this class the Nearctic region is very rich,
possessing representatives of nine of the families, of which two
are peculiar to the region, and there are no less than fifteen
peculiar genera. Sten forms the family Sirenide ; Menobranchus
belongs to the Proteidz ; Amphiwma is the only representative
of the Amphiumide; there are nine peculiar genera of Sala-
mandride. Among the tail-less batrachians (frogs and toads) we
have Scaphwpus, belonging to the Alytide; Pseudacris to the
Hylide ; and Acris to the Polypedatide.

Fresh-water Fishes——The Nearctic region possesses no less than
five peculiar family types, and twenty-four peculiar genera of
this class. The families are Aphredoderide, consisting of a
single species found in the Eastern States ; Percopside, founded
on a species peculiar to Lake Superior; Heteropygii, containing
two genera peculiar to the Eastern States; Hyodontide and
Amiide, each consisting of a single species. The genera are as
follows: FParalabrax, found in California; Huro, peculiar to
Lake Huron; Pileoma, Boleosoma, Bryttus and Pomotis in the
Eastern States—all belonging to the perch family. Hypodelus
and Noturus, belonging to the Siluride. Thaleichthys, one of
the Salmonide peculiar to the Columbia river. Mozostoma,
Pimephales, Hyborhynchus, Rhinichthys, in the Eastern States ;
Ericymba, Exoglossum, Leucosomus, and Carpiodes, more widely
distributed ; Cochlognathus, in Texas ; Mylaphorodon and Ortho-
don, in California; Meda, in the river Gila; and Acrochilus, in
the Columbia river—all belonging to the Cyprinids. Scaphi-
rhynchus, found only in the Mississippi and its tributaries,
belongs to the sturgeon family (Accipenseride).

Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata. —The Nearctic region
possesses 24 peculiar genera of mammalia, 49 of birds, 21 of
reptiles, and 29 of fresh-water fishes, making 123 in all. Of
these 70 are mammals and-land-birds, out of a total of 242

CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 121

genera of these groups, a proportion of about two-sevenths.
This is the smallest proportion of peculiar genera we have found
in any of the regions; but many of the genera are of such
isolated and exceptional forms that they constitute separate
families, so that we have no less than 12 families of vertebrata
confined to the region. The Palearctic region has only 3
peculiar families, and even the Oriental region only 12; so that,
judged by this test, the Nearctic region is remarkably well
characterized. We must also remember that, owing to the
migration of many of its peculiar forms during the Glacial
period, it has recently lost some of its speciality ; and we should
therefore give some weight to the many characteristic groups it
possesses, which, though not quite peculiar to it, form important
features in its fauna, and help to separate it from the other
regions with which it has been thought to be closely allied. It
is thus well distinguished from the Palearctic region by its Pro-
eyonide, or racoons, Hesperomys, or vesper mice, and Didelphys,
or opossums, among Mammalia; by its Vireonide, or greenlets,
Mniotiltide, or wood-warblers, Icteridz, or hang-nests, Tyran-
nide, or tyrant shrikes, and Trochilide, or humming-birds,
among birds, families which, extending to its extreme northern
limits must be held to be as truly characteristic of it as of the
Neotropical region; by its Teide, Iguanide, and Cinosternum,
among reptiles; and by its Siluride, and Lepidosteide, among
fishes. From the Neotropical region it is still more clearly
separated, by its numerous insectivora; by its bears; its Old
World forms of ruminants ; its beaver ;.its numerous Arvicole, or
voles; its Sciwropterus, or flying squirrels; Zamias, or ground-
squirrels; and ZLagomys, or marmots, among mammals; its
numerous Paride, or tits, and Tetraonide, or grouse, among
birds; its Trionychide among reptiles ; its Proteidz, and Sala-
mandride, among Amphibia; and its Gasterosteide, Atherinide,
Esocide, Umbride, <Accipenseride, and Polydontide, among
fishes.

These characteristic features, taken in conjunction with the
absolutely peculiar groups before enumerated, demonstrate that
the Nearctic region cannot with propriety be combined with

1s ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. (PART III.

any other. Though not very rich, and having many disadvan-
tages of climate and of physical conditian, it is yet sufficiently
well characterized in its zoological features to rank as one of
the well-marked primary divisions of the earth’s surface.

There is one other consideration bearing on this question
which should not be lost sight of. In establishing our regions
we have depended wholly upon their now possessing a sufficient
number and variety of animal forms, and a fair proportion of
peculiar types ; but when the validity of our conclusion on these
grounds is disputed, we may supplement the evidence by an
appeal to the past history of the region in question. ‘In this
case we find a remarkable support to our views. During the
whole Tertiary period, North America was, zoologically, far
more strongly contrasted with South America than it is now;
while, during the same long series of ages, it was always clearly
separated from the Eastern hemisphere or the Palearctic region
by the exclusive possession of important families and numerous
genera of Mammalia, as shown by our summary of its extinct
fauna in Chapter VII. Not only may we claim North America
as now forming one of the great zoological regions, but as having
continued to be one ever since the Eocene period.

Insects.

In describing the Palearctic and Neotropical regions, many of
the peculiarities of the insect-fauna of this region have been
incidentally referred to; and as a tolerably full account of the
distribution of the several families is given in the Fourth Part
of our work (Chapter XXI.), we shall treat the subject very
briefly here.

Lepidoptera.—The butterflies of the Nearctic region have
lately been studied with much assiduity, and we are now able
to form some idea of their nature and extent. Nearly 500
species belonging to about 100 genera have been described ;
showing that the region, which a few years ago was thought to
be very poor in species of butterflies, is really much richer than
Europe, and probably about as rich as the more extensive Pale-
arctic region. There is, however, very little speciality in the

CHAP. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 123

forms. A considerable number of Neotropical types enter the
southern States; but there are hardly any peculiar genera, except
one of the Lycenidz and perhaps a few among the Hesperide.
The most conspicuous feature of the region is its fine group of
Papilios, belonging to types (P. turnus and P. trotlus) which are
characteristically Nearctic. It is also as rich as the Palearctic
region in some genera which we are accustomed to consider
as pre-eminently European; such as Argynnis, Melitea, Grapta,
Chionabas, and a few others. Still, we must acknowledge, that
if we formed our conclusions from the butterflies alone, we could
hardly separate the Nearctic from the Palearctic region. This
identity probably dates from the Miocene period ; for when our
existing arctic regions supported a luxuriant vegetation, butterflies
would have been plentiful ; and asthe cold came on, these would
move southwards both in America and Europe, and, owing to the
long continuance of the generic types of insects, would remain
little modified till now.

Coleoptera—Onuly a few indications can be given of the
peculiarities of the Nearctic coleoptera. In Cicindelide the
region possesses, besides the cosmopolite Cicindela, four other
genera, two of which—Amblychile and Onvus—are peculiar to
the West Coast and the Rocky Mountains. Of Carabide it
possesses Dicelus, Pasimachus, Eurytrichus, Spheroderus, Pina-
codera, and a number of smaller genera, altogether peculiar to it;
Helluomorpha, Galerita, Callida, and Tetragonoderus, in common
with South America; and a large number of characteristic
European forms.

The Lucanide are all of European types. The region is poor
in Cetoniide, but has representatives of the South American
Euphoria, as well as of four European genera. Of Buprestide
it has the South American Actenodes ; a single species of the
Ethiopian and Eastern Belionota, in California; and about a
dozen other genera of European and wide distribution.

Among Longicorns it possesses fifty-nine peculiar genera,
representatives of five Neotropical,and thirteen Palearctic genera;
as well as many of wider distribution. Prionus is the chief
representative of the Prionide; Zeptura and Crossidius of the

124 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

Cerambycide ; Leptostylus, Liopus, Graphidurus, and Tetraopes,
of the Lamiide, the latter genus being confined to the region.

Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca.

The land-shells of temperate North America almost all belong
to the Inoperculate or Pulmoniferous division ; the Operculata
being represented only by a few species of Helicina and
Truncatella, chiefly in the Southern States. According to Mr,
Binney’s recent “Catalogue of the Terrestrial Air-breathing
Mollusks of North America,” the fauna consists of the following
genera :—Glandina (6 sp.); Macrocyclis (5 sp.) ; Zonites (37 sp.) ;
Vitrina (4 sp.) ; Limazx (5 sp.); Arion (3 sp.); Ariolimas (3 sp.);
Prophysaon (1 sp.) ; Binneia (1 sp.) ; Hemiphillia (1 sp.); Patula
(16 sp.); Helix (80); Holospira (2 sp.); Cylindrella (2 sp.);
Macroceramus (2 sp.) ; Bulimulus (8 sp.) ; Cionella (2 sp.) ; Steno-
gyra (+ sp.); Pupa (19 sp.); Strophia (1 sp.); Vertigo (6 sp.);
Liguus (1 sp.); Orthalicus (2 sp.); Punctum (1 sp.) ; Succinea
(26 sp.); Zebennophorus (1 sp.); Pallifera (1 sp.); Veronicella
(2 sp.).

All the larger genera range over the whole region, but the
following have a more restricted distribution ; Macrocyclis has
only one species in the East, the rest being Californian or
Central; Avriolimax, Prophysaon, Binneia, and Hemiphillia, are
confined to the Western sub-region. Lower California has
affinities with Mexico, 18 species being peculiar to it, of which
two are true Bulimi, a genus unknown in other parts of the
region. The Central or Rocky Mountain sub-region is chiefly
characterised by six peculiar species of Patula. The Eastern
sub-region is by far the richest, nine-tenths of the whole
number of species being found init. The Alleghany Mountains
form the richest portion of this sub-region, possessing nearly
half the total number of spevies, and at least 24 species found
nowhere else. The southern States have also several peculiar
species, but they are not so productive as the Alleghanies. The
Canadian sub-region possesses 32 species, of which nearly half
are northern forms more or less common to the whole Arctic
regions, and several of this character have spread southwards all

CHAP. XY. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 125

over the United States. Species of Vitrina, Zonites, Pupa, and
Succinea, are found in Greenland ; and Eastern Palearctic species
of Vitrina, Patula, and Pupa occur in Alaska. More than 30
species of shells living in the Eastern States, are found fossil
in the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Ohio and Mississippi.

Fresh-water Shells.—North America surpasses every other part
of the globe in the number and variety of its fresh-water mollusca,
both univalve and bivalve. The numbers up to 1866 were as
follows :—Melaniade, 380 species; Paludinide, 58 species ;
Cycladide, 44 species; and Unionidze, 552 species. The last
family had, however, increased to 832 species in 1874, according
to Dr. Isaac Lea, who has made them his special study ; but it
is probable that many of these are such as would be considered
varieties by most conchologists. Many of the species of Unio are
very large, of varied forms, and rich internal colouring, and the
group forms a prominent feature of the Nearctic fauna. By far the
larger proportion of the fresh-water shells inhabit the Eastern or
Alleghany sub-region ; and their great development is a powerful
argument against any recent extensive submergence beneath the
ocean of the lowlands of North America.

The Nearctic Sub-regions.

The sub-divisions of the Nearctic region, although pretty
clearly indicated by physical features and peculiarities of
climate and vegetation, are by no means so strongly marked
out in their zoology as we might expect. The same genera, as
a rule, extend over the whole region; while the species of the
several sub-regions are in most cases different. Even the vast
range of the Rocky Mountains has not been an effectual barrier
against this wide dispersal of the same forms of life; and
although some important groups are limited by it, these are
exceptions to the rule. Even now, we find fertile valleys and
plateaus of moderate elevation, penetrating the range on either
side ; and both to the north and south there are passes which
can be freely traversed by most animals during the summer.
Previous to the glacial epoch there was probably a warm period,
when every part of the range supported an abundant and varied

126 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

fauna, which, when the cold period arrived, would descend to
the lowlands, and people the country to the east, west, and
south, with similar forms of life.

The first, and most important sub-division we can make,
consists of the Eastern United States, extending across the
Mississippi and the more fertile prairies, to about the 100°th.
meridian of west longitude, where the arid and almost desert
country commences. Southwards, the boundary bends towards
the coast, near the line of the Brazos or Colorado rivers. To
the north the limits are undefined ; but as a considerable number
of species and genera occur in the United States but not in
Canada, it will be convenient to draw the line somewhere near
the boundary of the two countries, except that the district
between lakes Huron and Ontario, and probably Nova Scotia,
may be included in the present sub-region. As far west as
the Mississippi, this was originally a vast forest country; and it
is still well wooded, and clothed with a varied and luxuriant
vegetation.

The next, or Central sub-region, consists of the dry, elevated,
aud often arid district of the Rocky Mountains, with its great
plateaus, and the barren plains of its eastern slope; extending
northwards to near the commencement of the great forests north
of the Saskatchewan, and southward to the Rio Grande del Norte,
the Gulf of California, and to Cape St. Lucas, as shown on our
maps. This sub-region is of an essentially desert character,
although the higher valleys of the Rocky Mountains are often
well wooded, and in these are found some northern and some
western types.

The third, or Californian sub-region,is small, but very luxuriant,
occupying the comparatively narrow strip of country between the
Sierra Nevada and the Pacific. To the north it may include Van-
couver's Island and the southern part of British Columbia, while
to the south it extends to the head of the Gulf of California.

The fourth division, comprises the remainder of North America ;
and is a country of pine forests, and of barren wastes towards
the Arctic Ocean. It has fewer peculiar species to characterise
it than any other, but it possesses several characteristic arctic

CHAP. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 127

forms, while many of those peculiar to the south are absent ; so
that it is a very convenient, if it should not be considered an
altogether natural, sub-region.

We will now give an outline of the most. important zoological
features of each of these divisions, taking them in the order
in which they are arranged in the Fourth Part of this work.
California comes first, as it has some tropical forms not found
elsewhere, and thus forms a transition from the Neotropical
region.

I. The Western or Californian Sub-region.

This small district possesses a fruitful soil and a highly
favourable climate, and is, in proportion to its extent, perhaps
the richest portion of the continent, both zoologically and botan-
ically. Its winters are far milder than those of the Eastern
States in corresponding latitudes ; and this, perhaps, has enabled
it to support several tropical forms which give a special character
to its fauna. It is here only, in the whole region, that bats of
the families Phyllostomide and Noctilionide, and a serpent of
the tropical family, Pythonide, are found, as well as several
Neotropical forms of birds and reptiles.

Mammalia.—The following genera are not found in any other
part of the Nearctic region. JMJacrotus (Phyllostomide), one
species in California; Antrozous (Vespertilionide), one species
on the West Coast; Urotrichus (Talpid) one species in British
Columbia; sub-genus Wesorex (Soricide), one species in Oregon ;
Bassaris (Procyonide), California; Hnhydra (Mustelide), Pacific
Coast; Morunga (Phocide), California ; Haploodon (Haploodon-
tide) a rat-like animal, allied to the beavers and marmots, and
constituting a peculiar family found only in California and
British Columbia. The following characteristic Nearctic forms
also extend into this sub-region :—Taxidea, Procyon, Didelphys,
Sciuropterus, Tamias, Spermophilus, Dipodomys, Perognathus,
Jaculus.

Birds—¥ew genera of birds are quite peculiar to this sub-
region, since most of the Western forms extend into the central
district, yetit has afew. Glaucidiwm a genus of Owls, is confined

128 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

(in the Nearctic region) to California; Chamea, a singular form
allied to the wrens, and forming a distinct family, is quite pecu-
liar; Geococcyx, a Neotropical form of cuckoo, extends to California
and Southern Texas. The following genera are very character-
istic of the sub-region, and some of them almost confined to
it: Myiadestes (Sylviide); Psaltriparus (Paride); Cyanocitta,
Picicorvus (Corvide) ; Hesperiphona, Peucea, Chondestes (Fringil-
lide) ; Selasphorus, Atthis (Trochilide); Columba, Melopelia
(Columbide) ; Oreortyx (Tetraonide).

Reptiles—The following genera are not found in any other
part of the Nearctic region: Charina (Tortricide) ; Lichanotus
(Pythonidee) ; Gerrhonotus (Zonuride) ; Phyllodactylus (Gecko-
tide) ; Anolius and Tropidolepis (Iguanide). Sceloporus (Igu-
anidé) is only found elsewhere in Florida. All the larger North
American groups of lizards and snakes are also represented here ;
but in tortoises it is deficient, owing to the absence of lakes and
large rivers.

Amphibia.—California possesses two genera of Salamandride,
Aneides and Heredia, which do not extend to the other sub-
regions.

Fresh-water Fish.—There are two or three peculiar genera of
Cyprinide, but the sub-region is comparatively poor in this
group.

Plate XVIII. Illustrative of the Zoology of California and the
Rocky Mountains.—We have chosen for the subject of this illus-
tration, the peculiar Birds of the Western mountains. The two
birds in the foreground are a species of grouse (Pediocetes Colwm-
bianus), entirely confined to this sub-region ; while the only other
species of the genus is found in the prairies north and west of
Wisconsin, so that the group is peculiar to northern and western
America. The crested birds in the middle of the picture
(Oreortyx picta), are partridges, belonging to the American sub-
family Odontophorine. This is the only species of the genus
which is confined to California and Oregon. The bird at the
top is the blue crow (Gymnokitta cyanocephala), confined to the
Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada from New Mexico and
Arizona northwards, and more properly belonging to the Central

PLATE XVIII.

SCENE IN CALIFORNIA, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.

CHAP. XV. | THE NEARCTIC REGION. 129

sub-region. It is allied to the European nutcracker ; but ao-
cording to the American ornithologist, Dr. Coues, has also resem-
blances to the jays, and certainly forms a distinct genus. The
grizzly bear (Ursus ferox) in the background, is one of the
characteristic animals of the Californian highlands.

IT. The Central, or Rocky Mountain Sub-region.

This extensive district is, for the greater part of its extent, from
2,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, and is excessively arid; and,
except in the immediate vicinity of streams and on some of the
higher slopes of the mountains, is almost wholly treeless. Its
zoology is therefore peculiar. Many of the most characteristic
genera and families of the Eastern States are absent ; while a
number of curious desert and alpine‘forms give it a character
of its own, and render it very interesting to the naturalist.

Mammalia —The remarkable prong-horned antelope (Antilo-
capra), the mountain goat (Aplocerus), the mountain sheep or
bighorn (Ovis montana), and the prairie-dog (Cynomys), one of
the Rodentia, are peculiar to this sub-region; while the family
of the Saccomyide, or pouched rats, is represented by many forms
and is very characteristic. Here is also the chief home of the
bison. The glutton (Gulo) and marmot (Lagomys) enter it from
the north; while it has the racoon (Procyon), flying squirrel (Sciw-
ropterus), ground squirrel (Zamzas), pouched marmot (Spermo-
philus) and jumping mouse (J/aculus) in common with the
countries east or west of it.

Plate XIX. Illustrative of the Zoology of the Central Plains or
Prairies.—We here introduce four of the most characteristic
mammalia of the great American plains or prairies, three of them
being types confined to North America. The graceful animals on
the left are the prong-horned antelopes (A ntilocapra americana),
whose small horns, though hollow like those of the ante-
lopes, are shed annually like those of the deer. To the right
we have the prairie-dogs of the trappers (Cynomys ludovi-
cianus) which, as will be easily seen, are rodents, and allied
to the marmots of the European Alps. Their burrows are
numerous on the prairies, and the manner in which they perch

130 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

themselves on little mounds and gaze on intruders, is noticed by
all travellers. On the left, in the foreground, is one of the
extraordinary pouched rats of America (Geomys bursarius).
These are burrowing animals, feeding on roots; and the mouth is,
as it were, double, the outer portion very wide and hairy, behind
which is the small inner mouth. Its use may be to keep out the
earth from the mouth while the animal is gnawing roots.
A mouth so constructed is found in no other animals but in
these North American rats. In the distance is a herd of
bisons (Bison americanus), the typical beast of the prairies.

Birds.—This sub-region has many peculiar forms of birds,
both residents, and migrants from the south or north. Among
the peculiar resident species we may probably reckon a dipper,
(Cinclus) ; Salpinctes, one of the wrens; Poospiza, Calamospiza,
genera of finches; Picicorvus, Gymnokitta, genera of the crow
family; Centrocercus and Pediocetes, genera of grouse. As
winter migrants from the north it has Leucosticte and Plectro-
phanes, genera of finches; Perisoreus, a genus of the crow
family ; Picoides, the Arctic woodpecker; and Lagopus, ptar-
migan. Its summer migrants, many of which may be resident
in the warmer districts, are more numerous. Such are, Oveos-
coptes, a genus of thrushes; Campylorhynchus and Catherpes,
wrens; Paroides, one of the tits; Phanopepla, allied to the
waxwing; LHmbernagra and Spermophila, genera of finches;
Pyrocephalus, one of the tyrant shrikes ; Callipepla and Cyrtonyz,
American partridges. Besides these, the more widely spread
genera, Harporhynchus, Lophophanes, Carpodacus, Spizella, and
Cyanocitta, are characteristic of the central district, and two genera
of humming-birds—A ¢this and Selasphorus—only occur here and
in California. Prof. Baird notes 40 genera of birds which are re-
presented by distinct allied species in the western, central, and
eastern divisions of the United States, corresponding to our
sub-regions.

It is a curious fact that the birds of this sub-region should
extend across the Gulf of California, and that Cape St. Lucas,
at the southern extremity of the peninsula, should be decidedly
more “Central” than “ Californian” in its ornithology. Prof.

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CHAP. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 131

Baird says, that its fauna is almost identical with that of the
Gila River, and has hardly any relation to that of Upper
California. It possesses a considerable number (about twenty)
of peculiar species of birds, but all belong to genera character-
istic of the present sub-region; and there is no resemblance to
the birds of Mazatlan, just across the gulf in the Neotropical
region.

Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes—A large number of snakes
and lizards inhabit this sub-region, but they have not yet
been classified with sufficient precision to enable us to make
much use of them. Among lizards, Iguanide, Geckotide,
Scincidee, and Zonuride, appear to be numerous; and many
new genera of doubtful value have been described. Among
snakes, Calamariide, Colubridz, and Crotalide are represented.
Among Amphibia, Sivedon, one of the Proteide, is peculiar.
The rivers and lakes of the Great Central Basin, and the
Colorado River, contain many peculiar forms of Cyprinide.

ITT, The Eastern or Alleghany Sub-region.

This sub-region contains examples of all that is most charac-
teristic of Nearctic zoology. It is for the most part an undu-
lating or mountainous forest-clad country, with a warm or
temperate climate, but somewhat extreme in character, and
everywhere abounding in animal and vegetable life. To the west,
across the Mississippi, the country becomes more open, gradually
rises, becomes much drier, and at length merges into the arid
plains of the central sub-region. To the south, in Georgia,
Florida, and Louisiana, a sub-tropical climate prevails, and
winter is almost unknown. To the north, in Michigan and New
England, the winters are very severe, and streams and lakes are
frozen for months together. These different climates, however,
produce little effect on the forms of animal life; the species to
some extent change as we go from north to south, but the same
types everywhere prevail. This portion of the United States,
having been longest inhabited by Europeans, has been more
thoroughly explored than other parts of North America; and to
this more complete knowledge its superior zoological richness

132 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

may be to some extent due; but there can be little doubt that it
is also positively, and not merely relatively, more productive in
varied forms of animal life than either of the other sub-regions.

Mammalia.—There seems to be only one genus absolutely
peculiar to this sub-region—the very remarkable Condylura, or
star-nosed mole, only found from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia,
and as far as about 94° west longitude. It also has opossums
(Didelphys) in common with California, and three out of four
species of Scalops, a genus of moles; as well as the skunk
(Mephitis), American badger (T'axidea), racoon (Procyon), pouched
rat (Geomys), beaver rat (Fiber), jumping ‘mouse (Jaculus), tree
porcupine (Hvethizon), and other characteristic Nearctic forms.

Birds—The birds of this sub-region have been carefully
studied by American naturalists, and many interesting facts
ascertained as to their distribution and migrations. About 120
species of birds are peculiar to the east coast of the United
States, but only about 30 of these are residents all the year
round in any part of it; the bird population being essentially
a migratory one, coming from the north in winter and the south
in summer. The largest number of species seems to be congre-
gated in the district of the Alleghany mountains. A consider-
able proportion of the passerine birds winter in Central America
and the West Indian Islands, and go to the Middle States or
Canada to breed ; so that even the luxuriant Southern States do
not possess many birds which may be called permanent resi-
dents. Thus, in East Pennsylvania there are only 52, and in
the district of Columbia 54 species, found all the year round,
out of about 130 which breed in these localities; very
much below the number which permanently reside in Great
Britain.

This sub-region is well characterised by its almost exclusive
possession of Eetopistes, the celebrated passenger pigeon, whose
enormous flocks and breeding places have been so often de-
scribed; and Cupidonia, a remarkable genus of grouse. The
only Nearctic parrot, Conwrus carolinensis, is found in the
Southern States; as well as Crotophaga, a South American
genus usually associated with the cuckoos. Helmintherus and

CHAP. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 133

Oporornis, genera of wood-warblers, may be considered to be
peculiar to this sub-region, since in each case only one of the
two species migrates as far as Central America; while two other
genera of the same family, Siwrus and Setophaga, as well as the
finch genus, Huspiza, do not extend to either of the western
sub-regions. Parus, a genus of tits, comes into the district from
the north; Otocorys, an alpine lark, and Cotwrniculus, an American
finch, from the west ; and such characteristic Nearctic genera as
Antrostonvus (the whip-poor-will goatsuckers) ; Helminthophaga,
Dendreca, and Myiodioctes (wood-warblers) ; Vireo (greenlets) ;
Dolichonyx (vice-bird) ; Quiscalus (troupial) ; Meleagris (turkey) ;
and Ortyx (American partridge), are wide-spread and abundant.
In Mr. J. A. Allen’s elaborate and interesting paper on the birds
of eastern North America, he enumerates 32 species which breed
only in the more temperate portions of this province, and may
therefore be considered to be especially characteristic of it.
These belong to the following genera :—TZurdus, Galeoscoptes,
Harporhynchus, Sialia, Dendreca, Wilsonia, Pyranga, Vireo,
Lanwiieo, Lophophanes, Coturniculus, Ammodromus, Spizella,
Huspiza, Hedymeles, Cyanospiza, Pipilo, Cardinalis, Icterus,
Corvus, Centurus, Melanerpes, Antrostomus, Coccyzus, Ortyx, and
Cupidonia.

feptiles.— In this class the Eastern States are rich, possessing
many peculiar forms not found in other parts of the region.
Among snakes it has the genera Farancia and Dimodes belong-
ing to the fresh-water snakes (Homalopside) ; the South Ameri-
can genus laps; and 3 genera of rattlesnakes, Cenchris,
Crotalophorus, and Crotalus. The following genera of snakes
are said to occur in the State of New York :—Coluber, Tropido-
notus, Leptophis, Calamaria, Heterodon, Trigonocephalus, Crotalus,
Psammophis, Helicops, Rhinostoma, Pituwophis, and Elaps.

Among lizards, Chirotes, forming a peculiar family of Amphis-
benians, inhabits Missouri and Mexico; while the remarkable
glass-snake, Ophisaurus, belonging to the family Zonuride, is
peculiar to the Southern States; and the South American
Spherodactylus, one of the gecko family, reaches Florida.
Other genera which extend as far north as the State of New

134 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

York are, Scineus, T’ropidolepis, Plestiodon, Lygosoma, Ameiva, and
Phrynosoma.

Tortoises, especially the fresh-water kind, are very abun-
dant; and the genera Avomochelys, Chelydra, Terrapene, and
Trionyz, are nearly, if not quite, confined to this division of the
region,

Amphibia.—Almost all the remarkable forms of Urodela, or
tailed batrachians, peculiar to the region are found here only; such
as Siren and Pseudobranchus, constituting the family Sirenide ;
Menobranchus, allied to the Proteus of Europe ; Amphiwma, an
eel-like creature with four rudimentary feet, constituting the
family Amphiumide ; Notopthalmus, Desmognathus, and Meno-
poma, belonging to the Salamandride ; together with several
other genera of widerrange. Of Anura, or tail-less batrachians,
there are no peculiar genera, but the Neotropical genus of toads,
Engystoma, extends as far as South Carolina.

Fishes.—Owing to its possession of the Mississippi and the
great lakes, almost all the peculiar forms of North American
fishes are confined to this sub-region. Such are Perca, Pileoma,
Huro, Bryttus, and Pomotis (Percidee); the families Aphredode-
ride and Percopside ; several genera of Cyprinodontide and
Cyprinide ; and the family Polydontide.

Islands of the Alleghany Sub-region.

The Bermudas.—These islands, situated in the Atlantic, about
700 miles from the coast of Carolina, are chiefly interesting for
the proof they afford of the power of. a great variety of birds to
cross so wide an extent of ocean. There are only 6 or 8 species
of birds which are permanent residents on the islands, all com-
mon North American species; while no less than 140 species
have been recorded as visiting them. Most of these are
stragglers, many only noticed once; others appear frequently
and in great numbers, but very few, perhaps not a dozen, come
every year, and can be considered regular migrants. The per-
manent residents are, a greenlet (Vireo noveboracensis), the cat-
bird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis), the blue bird (Sialia sialis), the
cardinal (Cardinalis virginianus), the American crow (Corvus

CHAF. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 135

americanus), and the ground dove (Chamepelia passerina). The
most regular visitants are a kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon), the wood-
wagtail (Siwrus noveboracensis), the rice-bird (Dolichonyx oryzivo-
rus), and a moorhen (Gallinula galeata). Besides the American
species, four European birds have been taken at the Bermudas:
Saxicola enanthe, Alauda arvensis (perhaps introduced), Crex
pratensis, and Scolopax gallinago.

A common American lizard, Plestiodon longirostris, is the only
land reptile found on the islands.

IV. The Sub-Arctie or Canadian Sub-region.

This sub-region serves to connect together the other three,
since they all merge gradually into it; while to the north it
passes into the circumpolar zone which is common to the Pale-
arctic and Nearctic regions. The greater portion of it isan exten-
sive forest-district, mostly of coniferee; and where these cease
towards the north, barren wastes extend to the polar ocean. It
possesses several northern or arctic forms of Mammalia, such as
the glutton, lemming, reindeer, and elk, which barely enter the
more southern sub-regions ; as well as the polar bear and arctic
fox; but it also has some peculiar forms, and many of the most
characteristic Nearctic types. The remarkable musk-sheep
(Ovibos) is confined to this sub-region, ranging over a con-
‘siderable extent of country north of the forests, as well as
Greenland. It has been extinct in Europe and Asia since the
Post-pliocene epoch. Such purely Nearctic genera as Procyon,
Latax, Erethizon, Jaculus, Fiber, Thomomys, and Hesperomys,
abound, many of them ranging to the shores of Hudson’s Bay
and the barren wastes of northern Labrador. Others, such as
Blarina, Condylura, and Mephitis, are found only in Nova Scotia
and various parts of Canada. About 20 species of Mammalia
seem to be peculiar to this sub-region.

Plate XX. Illustrating the Zoology of Canada—We have
here a group of Mammalia characteristic of Canada and the
colder parts of the United States. Conspicuous in the fore-
ground is the skunk (MJephatis mephitica), belonging to a genus
of the weasel family found only in America. This animal is

Vot. IT.—10

136 ZOOLOGICAL GEUGRAPHY. [PART III.

celebrated for its power of ejecting a terribly offensive liquid, the
odour of which is almost intolerable. The skunks are nocturnal
animals, and are generally marked, as in the species represented,
with conspicuous bands and patches of white. This enables
them to be easily seen at night, and thus serves to warn larger
animals not to attack them. To the left is the curious little
jumping mouse (Jaculus hudsonius), the American representative
of the Palearctic jerboa. Climbing up a tree on the left is the
tree porcupine (Lrethizon dorsatus), belonging to the family Cer-
colabidee, which represents, on the American continent, the por-
cupines of the Old World. In the background is the elk or
moose (Alces americanus), perhaps identical with the European
elk, and the most striking inhabitant of the northern forests of
America, as the bison is of the prairies.

Birds.—Although the Canadian sub-region possesses very few
resident birds, the numbers which breed in it are perhaps greater
than in the other sub-regions, because a large number of circum-
polar species are found here exclusively. From a comparison of
Mr. Allen’s tables it appears, that more than 200 species are
regular migrants to Canada in the breeding season, and nearly
half of these are land-birds. Among them are to be found a
considerable number of genera of the American families Tyran-
nidee and Mniotiltide, as well as the American genera Stalia,
Progne, Vireo, Cistothorus, Junco, Pipilo, Zonotrichia, Spizella, |
Melospiza, Molothrus, Ageleus, Cyanura, Sphyrapicus, and many
others ; so that the ornithology of these northern regions is still
mainly Nearctic in character. Besides these, it has such specially
northern forms as Swrnia (Strigide) ; Picoides (Picidee) ; Pinicola
(Fringillidee) ; as well as Lewcosticte, Plectrophanes, Perisoreus,
and Lagopus, which extend further south, especially in the middle
sub-region. No less than 212 species of birds have been col-
lected in the new United States territory of Alaska (formerly
Russian America), where a humming-bird (Selasphorus rufus)
breeds. The great majority of these are typically American,
including such forms as Colaptes, Helminthophaga, Siwrus, Den-
dreca, Myiodioctes, Passerculus, Zonotrichia, Junco, Spizella,
Melospizpa, Passerella, Scoleophagas, Pediocetes, and Bonasa ;

PLATE XX.

A CANADIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

CHAP. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 137

together with many northern birds common to both conti-
nents. Yet a few Palearctic forms, not known in other parts
of the sub-region, appear here. These are Budytes flava, Phyl-
loscopus kennicottii, and Pyrrhula coccinea, all belonging to
genera not occurring elsewhere in North America. Considering
the proximity of the district to North-east Asia, and the high °
probability that there was an actual land connection at, and
south of, Behring’s Straits, in late Tertiary times, it is somewhat
remarkable that the admixture of Paleearctic and Nearctic groups
is not greater than it is. The Palearctic element, however, forms
so small a portion of the whole fauna, that it may be satisfactorily
accounted for by the establishment of immigrants since the
Glacial period. The great interest felt by ornithologists in the
discovery of the three genera above-named, with a wren allied to
a European species, is an indication that the faunas even of the
northern parts of the Nearctic and Palearctic regions are, as
regards birds, radically distinct. It may be mentioned that the
birds of the Aleutian Isles are also, so far as known, almost
wholly Nearctic. The number of land-birds known from Alaska
is 77; and from the Aleutian Isles 16 species, all of which,
except one, are North American.

Feptiles.—These are comparatively few and unimportant.
There are however five snakes and three tortoises which are
limited to Canada proper; while further north there are only
Amphibia, represented by frogs and toads, and a salamander of
the genus Plethodon.

Fishes—Most of the groups of fresh-water fish of the Nearctic
region are represented here, especially those of the perch,
salmon, and pike families ; but there seem to be few or no peculiar
genera.

Insects—These are far less numerous than in the more
temperate districts, but are still tolerably abundant. In Canada
there are 53 species of butterflies, viz., Papilionide, 4; Pieride,
2; Nymphalide, 21; Satyride, 3; Lyczenide 16, and Hesperide
7. Most of these are, no doubt, found chiefly in the southern
parts of Canada. That Coleoptera are pretty numerous is
shown, by more than 800 species having been collected on the

138 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART IIL.

shores of Lake Superior; 177 being Geodephaga and 39
Longicorns.

Greenland.—This great arctic island must be considered as
belonging to the Nearctic region, since of its six land mammals,
three are exclusively American (J/yodes torquatus, Lepus glacialis,
* and Ovibos moschatus), while the other three (Vulpes lagopus,
Ursus maritimus, and Rangifer tarandus) are circumpolar. Only
fourteen land-birds are either resident in, or regular migrants to
the country; and of these two are European (Haliwetus albicilla,
and Falco peregrinus), while three are American (Anthus ludovi-
cianus, Zonotrichia leucophrys, and Lagopus rupestris), the rest
being arctic species common to both continents. The waders
and aquatics (49 in number) are nearly equally divided between
both continents; but the land-birds which visit Greenland as
stragglers are mostly American. Yet although the Nearctic
element somewhat preponderates, Greenland really belongs to
that cireumpolar debateable land, which is common to the two
North Temperate regions.

Concluding remarks——We have already discussed pretty fully,
though somewhat incidentally, the status and relations of the
Nearctic region ; first in our chapter on Zoological regions, then
in our review of extinct faunas, and lastly in the earlier part of
this chapter. It will not therefore be necessary to go further
into the question here; but we shall, in our next chapter, give
a brief summary of the general conclusions we have reached as
to the past history and mutual zoological relations of all the
creat divisions of the earth.

CHAP. XV. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 139

TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of
various classes of animals in the Nearctic region, the following
‘sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition to
the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in the com-
pulation of the 4th Part of this work.

Mammalia.—Professor Baird’s Catalogue ; Allen’s List of the
Bats; Mr. Lord’s List for British Columbia; Brown, for Green-
land; Packard for Labrador.

Birds —Baird, Cassin, and Allen’s Lists for United States ;
Richardson’s Fauna Boreali Americana; Jones, for Bermudas; |
and papers by Brown, Coues, Lord, Packard, Dall, and Professor
Newton.

140

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

[PART Ill.

TABLE I.

FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in italics show the families which are peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (

considered properly to belong to it.
Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV.

) show families which barely enter the region, and are not

Sub-regions.

Order and Family. oe a Ba | fi E:
efl/sSelasg
MAMMALIA.
CHIROPTERA.

10. Phyllostoinide
12. Vespertilionide
13. Noctilionide...

INSECTIVORA.

21. Talpide...
22. Soricide

CARNIVORA.
. Felide ...
. Canide ...
. Mustelide
. Procyonide ...
. Urside ..
. Otariide... :
. Trichechide ...
. Phocide...

CETACEA.
36 to 41.

UNGULATA.

47. Suide :
50. Cervide ...
52. Bovide ...

RODENTIA,

. Muride ...

. Dipodide

. Saccomyide ...
. Castoride

. Sciuride...

Wel el e| | | lal

Pele es
rele isl

Canada.

Range beyond the Region.

Neotropical
Cosmopolite
Tropical regions

Palearctic
The Eastern Hemisphere, excl. Australia

All regions but the Australian
All regions but the Australian
All regions but the Australian
Neotropical

Palearctic, Oriental

N. and S. temperate zones
Arctic regions

N. and 8. temperate zones

Oceanic

All other continents but Australia
All regions but Ethiopian and Australian
Palearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental

Almost cosmopolite
Palearctic, Ethiopian
Mexican sub-region
Palearctic

All regions but Australian

THE NEARCTIC REGION. 141

CHAP. XV. ]
| .
| Sub-regions.
Order and Family. altho | pS] @
mem BAR Os —
elas ay S

62. Haploodontide

66. Cercolabide ...
69. Lagomyide ...

70. Leporide

MARSUPIALIA.

76. Didelphyide...

BIRDS.
PASSERES.

. Turdide...
. Sylviide...
. Cinclidee

: Troglodytide :

1
2
5
6
7. Chamcidce
8. Certhiide
9. Sittide ...
10. Paride ...
19. Laniide ...
20. Corvide ...
26. (Coerebide)

97. Mniotiltide ...

28. Vireonide
29. Ampelidz

30. Hirundinide.. ;

31. Icteride...
32. Tanagride
33. Fringillide
37. Alaudide

. 88. Motacillide ... |

39. Tyrannide

PICARIZ.

51. Picidse

58. Cuculide

67. Alcedinide
73. Caprimulgide
74. Cypselide
75. Trochilide

PSITTACI.
80. Conuridze

CoLUMBz.
84. Columbide

GALLINZ.
87. Tetraonide

88, Phasianide ...

91. (Cracide)

Range beyond the Region.

Isla

Neotropical
Palearctic
All regions but Australian

Neotropical

Almost cosmopolite

Almost cosmopolite
Palearctic, Oriental, Andes
All regions but Australian

Palearctic, Oriental, Australian
Palearctic, Oriental, Australian
The Eastern Hemisphere

The Eastern Hemisphere
Cosmopolite

Neotropical family

Neotropical

Neotropical

Palearctic, Antilles, Guatemala
Cosmopolite

Neotropical

Neotropical

All regions but Australian

All regions but Neotropical
Cosmopolite

Neotropical

All regions but Australian
Almost cosmopolite
Cosmopolite

Cosmopolite

Almost cosmopolite
Neotropical

Neotropical

Cosmopolite

Almost cosmopolite
Palearctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, Hondu
Neotropical

Order and Family.

i | bot a
wy #A)/ 52
ee SEI568
Ce las (ss

to

ACCIPITRES.

94, Vulturide ...
96. Falconide ...
97. Pandionide...
98. Strigidee

GRALLZ.

99. Rallide

100. Scolopacide...
105. Charadriide
107. Gruide

113. Ardeide

114. Plataleide ...
115. Ciconiide

ANSERES.

- 118. Anatide
119. Laride...
120.
121.
123.
124.
125.

REPTILIA.
OPHIDIA.
5. Calamariide ...

Alcide ...

6. Oligodontide...

7. Colubridee
8. Homalopside
17. Pythonide
20. Elapide
24, Crotalidee

LACERTILIA.

27. Chirotide
32. Teide

34. Zonuride
35. Chalcide

45. Scincidee

49. Geckotide
50. Iguanide

CROCODILIA.
56. Alligatoride ...

CHELONIA.
57. Testudinide ...

59. Trionychide ...
60. Cheloniidz

Procellariide
Pelecanide ...
Colymbide ...
Podicipide ..

Sub-regions.

Canada.

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

| Range beyond the Region.

All regions but Australiar
Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite

Cosmopolite

Cosmopolite.

Cosmopolite

All regions but Neotropical
Cosmopolite

Almost cosmopolite

All the regions

Cosmopolite
Cosmopolite
Cosmopslite
Cosmopolite
North temperate and arctic zones
Cosmopolite
North temperate and arctic zones

All the regions

Neotropical, Oriental, Japan
Almost cosmopolite

All the regions

All tropical regions

All tropical regions, Japan
Neotropical, Palearctic, Oriental

Mexico

Neotropical

All regions but Australian
Neotropical

Almost cosmopolite
Almost cosmopolite
Neotropical

Neotropical

All continents but Australian
Ethiopian, Oriental, Japar
Marine

PAu

CHAP. XV. |

THE NEARCTIC REGION, 143

Order and Family.

AMPHIBIA.,
URODELA.

2. Sirenide
3. Proteidz
4. Amphiumide
5. Menopomide
6. Salamandride

10. Bufonide

12. Engystomide..
15. Alytide ...

7. Hylide .. ...
18. Polypedatide
19. Ranide ...

FISHES (FRESH-
WATER).

ACANTHOPTERYGII.

1. Gasterosteide

3. Percide... ...
4. Aphredoderide
12. Scienidze ae
37. Atherinide ...

PHYSOSTOMI.

59. Siluride...
65. Salmonide
66. Percopside
70, Esocide ...
71. Umbride
73. Cyprinodontide
74. Heteropygii ...
75. Cyprinide
77. Hyodontide ...

GANOIDEI.

93. Amiide... ...
95. Lepidosteide ...
96. Accipenseride
97. Polydontide ...

INSECTS. LEPI-
DOPTERA (PART):

Divrni (BuTTErR-
FLIES).

1. Danaide 2

2. Satyride seis

7. (Heliconide)...

Sub-regions.

|
Pa Sls

|
ee

|
| |

ra

Range beyond the Region.

Palearctic

Palearctic
Andes, Palearctic

All continents but Australia
All regions but Nearctic
All regions but Oriental

All regions but Ethiopian
All the regions

Almost cosmopolite

Palearctic
Cosmopolite

All regions but Australian

| Palearctic

All warm regions
Palearctic, New Zealand

Palearctic
Palearctic
All regions but Australian

Not in S. America or Australia

Palearctic
Palearctic

All warm regions
Cosmopolite
Neotropical

L44 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. (PART. LII-

Sub-regions.
Order and Family. a/b] 3 3 Range beyond the Region.
@el|selaa| 2
CSlmai~s| 8
8. Nymphalide... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite
9. Libytheide ... —|— Not in Australia
12. Erycinide a Neotropical
13. Lycenide — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite
See eserig....° 2. | — | — — | Cosmopolite
15. Papilionide ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite
16. Hesperide ... | — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite
SPHINGIDEA.
17. Zygenide — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite
18. Castniide — Neotropical, Australian F
22. Ageriide _ — | — | Not in Australia
23. Sphingide — | — | — | — | Cosmopolite

CHAP, Xv. ] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 145

TABLE II.

LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS
INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION.

EXPLANATION.

Names in étalics show genera peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (...) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and a:e not
considered properly to belong to it.

Genera properly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

MAMMALIA.
ORs aul, ae 38 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.
5 Am
CHIROPTERA.
PHYLLOSTOMID&.
ee Macrotus).:s vs. 1 | California Mexico, Antilles
VESPERTILIONIDA.
. Scotophilus ... | 5 | Universal, to Hudson’s Bay Neotr., Orient., Austral.
. Vespertilio ... | 6 | Universal, to Hudson’s Bay Cosmopolite
. Nycticejus 1 | South and East India, Tropical Africa,

temperate S. America

STS Or H OO bo

. Lasiurus .... ... | 3 | Temp. N. Amer. to Nova Scotia | Tropical America
SMS UMOLUS) oatnees 2 |S. E. and Central States
. Autrozous 1 | W. Coast
NocrTILionIp2.
8. Nyctinomus ... 1 | Cal. and S. Central Sub-region |Neotropical, Oriental. S.
Palearctic
INSECTIVORA.
TALPID2.
9. Condylura 1 | Eastern N. America
10. Scapanus... 2 | New York to San Francisco
11. Scalops 3 |S. of Great Lakes & Brit. Columb.
12. Urotrichus 1 | British Columbia Japan
SoRICID. :
13. Sorex 16 | The whole region Paleare., Ethiop., Orien
14. Neosorex ... 1 | Vancouver’s Island (a sub-genus)
15. Blarina 7 | Canada to Mexico (a sub-genus)
CARNIVORA.
FELID2.
16. Felis... 5 |S. of 55° N. Latitude Allregs. but Australian
17. Lynx 3 (|S. of 56° N. Latitude Palearctic

VOL, IT.

146

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Order, Family, and

Genus.

CANIDZ.

18. Lupus
19. Vulpes

MUSTELID&.

. Martes
. Mustela ...

. Gulo...

LOLA. ss
. Enhydris ...
. Taxidea ...

. Mephitis ...

PROCYONIDE.

27. Procyon ...
28. Bassaris .

URSIDA.
29. Ursus

OTARIIDA.

30. Callorhinus
31. Zalophus...
Eumetopias

TRICHECHIDS.
42. Trichechus

PHOCIDA.

33.
. Pagomys ...
. Pagophilus
. Halicyon ...
. Phoca

. Halichcerus
. Morunga...
. Cystophora

UNGULATA.
SUID.
41. Dicotyles...

CERVIDZ.

42. Alces
43. Rangifer ...
44, Cervus

Bovipz.

45, Bison
46. Antilocapra

Callocephalus ...

e Range within the Region.
Ae |

6 | All N. America

6 | N. America to Arctic Ocean and

Greenland

2 | Pennsylvania to Paget’s Sound
11 | All N. America

1 ; Rocky Mountains and Canada

2 ; United States and Canada

1 | Pacifie coast

2 | Arkansas to 58° N. Lat.

6 | United States and Canada

2 | Texas to Canada, California

1 | California and Texas

3 | N. America and Greenland

1 | Behring’s Straits

1 |S. California to N. Pacific

1 | California to Behring’s Straits

1 | Arctic Ocean to 66° N. Lat. in

N. America

1 | Greenland

1 | N. Atlantic and N. Pacific

1 | N. Atlantic and N. Pacific

1 | N. W. coast of America

1 | Northern Coast

1 | Greenland

1 | California

Greenland

1 | Texas to Red River, Arkansas

1 | N. E. United States & Canada

2 | Maine to Arctic Ocean & Greenl.

6 | N. America to 57° N. Lat.

1 | Between Missouri & Rocky Mtns.

1 | Central plains from Rio Grande

to British Columbia

[PART III.

Range beyond the Region.

Palearctic, Oriental
Palearc., Ethiop., Orient.

Palearctic, Oriental

Peru, Palearctic, Ethio-
pian, Oriental

N. Palearctic

W. coast of S. America

Neotropical

Neotropical
Guatemala and Mexico

Palearctic, Oriental

Kamschatka
Japan

Palearctic

Palearctic
Japan
Palearctic

Palearctic
Palxarctic

S. temperate shores
N. Atlantic

Neotropical

N. Palearctic
Arctic zone
Neotr., Paleare., Orien.

E. Europe

CHAP. XV.]

Order, Family, and
enus

47, Aplocerus...
48. Capra

49. Ovibos

RODENTIA.
Murip&.

50. Reithrodon
51. Hesperomys
52. Neotoma ...
53. Sigmodon...
54, Arvicola ...

55. Myodes

56. Fiber

DIpPoDIDA.
57. Jaculus

SACCOMYID.
58. Dipodomys
59.

60.
61.

Perognathus
Thomomys
Geonmys

62. Saccomys ...

CASTORIDA.
63. Castor

ScriurIpa

64. Sciurus ve
65. Sciuropterus ...
Gomelamias: —....° ...
67. Spermophilus ...
68. Cynomys ...

69. Arctomys

HAPLOODONTID2.
70. Haploodon

CERCOLABID
71. Erethizon...

LAGOMYIDA.
72. Lagomys ...

LEPORIDA,
73. Lepus

Onw oa On

p=

15

THE NEARCTIC REGION.

Range within the Region.

Northern Rocky Mountains

Upper Missouri and Rocky
Mountains northwards

Arctic America and Greenland

N. America to Lat. 39° N.

Temperate N. America

Temperate N. America

S. and S. E. States

Texas and California to Hudson’s
Bay

N. United States to Arctic Reg.
apd Greenland

All N. America

Pennsylvania to Canada and Cali-
fornia ‘

New Mexico to Columbia River
and Carolina

New Mexico to British Columbia

Upper Missouri to Hudson’s Bay

New Mexico to Alabama and Ne-
braska

N. America

N. Mexico to Labrador

N. America to Labrador
California & E. States northwds.
Mexico and Virginia to Canada
N., W., & Central N. America
Rio Grande to Missouri (Central)
Virginia and Nebraska, northws.

California and British Columbia

Pennsylvania to Canada, & Paci-
fie coast

Rocky Mountains, 42° to 60° N.
Lat.

All N. America to Greenland

147

Range beyond the Region.

Palearctic

Neotropical
Neotropical
Palearctic

N. Palearctic

Mexico

Palearctic

All regs. but Australian
Palearctic, Oriental
Mexico, N. Asia
Palearctic

N. Palearctic:

Palearctic

All regs. but Australian

148

Order, Family, and

Genus.

MARSUPIALIA,

DIDELPHYID&.
74. Didelphys

PASSERES.
TURDID2.

. Turdus

Mimus

. Oreoscoptes

ee oo

SyLvIIpa.
6. Myiadestes
7. Sialia

8. Regulus ...
9. Polioptila...

CINCLID&.
10. Cinclus

TROGLODYTIDA.

11. Troglodytes
12. Thryophilus

13. Thryothorus &

14, Cistothorus
(Campy lor-
hynchus

15. Salpinctes
16. Catherpes...

CHAMAIDE.
17. Chamea ...

CERTHIIDA.
18. Certhia

SITTIDZ.
19. Sitta...

PARIDZ.
20. Parus

21. Lophophanes ce
22. Psaltriparus ...

23. Auriparus

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

[PART IIT.

. Galeoscoptes ...

. Harporhynchus

No. of

2

oo oo 0 b=

_

Me et POCO OO

CO He CO

Species.

Range within the Region.
a

From Hudson’s River & Lower
| California, southward

BIRDS.

The whole region

All U. States and to Canada

E. of N. America

California and Rocky Mountains
N. America, chiefly the west

W. of Rocky Mouutains and to
Canada

All United States and to Canada

All United States & to Labrador

Central and Southern U. States

Rocky Mountains and British
America

N. America
N. W. America
All N. America
N. America

Gila and Rio Grande)

Rocky Mountains to Oregon
Gila and Colorade

California
All United States and Canada
All United States and Canada

All United States and Canada
All United States

Central & Western N. America
Rio Grande Valley

Range beyond the Region.

Neotropical

Almost cosmopolite
Neotropical

To Panama

Mexico

Mexico

Neotropical

Mexico and Guatemala
Paleare., Cent. America
Neotropical

Andes, Palearctic

Neotropical, Palearctic
Neotropical
Neotropical
Neotropical

Neotropical genus

Palearctic, Guatemala

Palearctic, Mexico

Palearce., Orien., Mexico
Palearctic, Mexico
Mexico and Guatemala

CHAP. XV. ]

Order, Family, and
Genus,

LANIIDA.
24. Lanius

CoRVID.

. Perisoreus
. Cyanocitta
. Gymnokitta
. Picicorvus

peica...

30. Corvus

C@REBIDA.
(Certhiola

MNIOTILTIDA.
31. Mniotilta

. Parula ,
. Protonotaria ...
. Helminthophaga
. Helmintherus ...
. Perissoglossa

. Dendreeca

. Oporornis...

. Geothlypis

. Setophaga

. Myiodioctes

. Siurus

. Icteria

VIREONID2.

44, Vireosylvia
45. Vireo

AMPELID#.

46. Ampelis ...
47. Pheenopepla

?

HIRUNDINIDA.

fees irondOs:.. ....
49. Petrochelidon ...
50. Cotyle =
51. Stelgidopteryx

52. Progne pC

IcTERIDA.
53. Icterus
54. Dolichonyx
55. Molothrus
56. Ageleus ...

No. of
Species.

. bo
bo cob HD Wr bh Orr

eo

—"

an

Ht et et EL OD ran)

oo ee

THE NEARCTIC REGION.

149

Range within the Region.

All N. America

Canada and Rocky Mountains

All United States and to Canada

Central and N. W. States

Central and Western States to
Sitka

Central and Western States to
Arctie Ocean

All N. America

Florida ; summer migrant)

Eastern States

Eastern States and Canada
Ohio and southwards

All N. America

S. and E. States to Canada
Eastern United States

All N. America

Eastern States

All N. America

E. States & Canadian sub-region
United States and Canada

S. and E. States to Canada

E. and Central States to Canada

All N. America

All United States

All N. America
Gila and Lower Colorado

All N. America
All N. America
All N. America
Southern States
All N. America

All United States and Canada
Eastern States and Canada

All United States and Canada
All United States and Canada

—

Range beyond the Region.

Paleare., Ethio., Orient,

Palearctic
Neotropical

Palearctic

Cosmop., excl. S. Amer.

Neotropical genus

Antilles, Andes of Co-
lumbia (migrant)

Neotropical

Neotrop. to Venezuela

Mexico to Columbia

Mexico to Veragua

Antilles

Mex. to Ecuador & Chili

Guatemala and Panama

Neotropical

Neotropical

Mex. to Columb. (migr.)

Mexico to Columbia

Mexico to Costa Rica

Antilles and Venezuela
Antilles and Costa Rica

Palzarctic, Guatemala
Mexico

Almost cosmopolite
Neotropical

All regs. but Australian
Neotropical
Neotropical

Neotropical
Neotropical
Neotropical
Neotropical

150

57. Xanthocephalus
58.
59.
60.

pagey Reae ( and

enus.

Sturnella
Scolecophagus
Quiscalus

TANAGRIDZ.

61.

Pyranga...

FRINGILLID2.

. Chrysomitris...

. Coccothraustes

. Embernagra ...

. Pipilo

3. Junco es

. Zonotrichia ...

. Melospiza

. Spizella...

. Passerella

. Passerculus ...

2. Pocecetes ...

. Ammodromus

. Coturniculus...

. Peucea...

. Cyanospiza

. Poospiza

. Carpodacus ...

. Cardinalis

. Pyrrhuloxia ..

. Guiraca ...

. Hedymeles
Souprcepaia

. Loxia at

. Pinicola..

~ anota 2.

. Leucosticte

. Calamospiza ...

. Chondestes

; Muspiza... --.

. Plectrophanes

. Centronyx

ALAUDIDE.

92.

Otocorys

MoracriLLipZ.

93.
94,

Anthus ...
Neocorys...

TYRANNIDZ.

95.
96.

Sayornis

(Py rocephalus .
Empidonax ...

No. of
Species.

~

MH CNH ERNE NHN HEH OD MW WWHAWANTAUMOMEN

“TE CS

He bo bo |

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Range within the Region.

The whole region

All United States and Canada
All United States and Canada
S. and E. States to Labrador

United States and Canada

The whole region

W. and N. W. America

Rocky Mountain district

All N. America

All United States

The whole region

All United States to Sitka

N. America

The whole region

The whole region

All United States

All United States

E. and N. of N. America

S. Atlantic States and California

All United States to Canada

California and 8. Central States

The whole region

S. and S. Central States

Texas and Rio Grande

Southern States

All United States

Texas)

_N. of Pennsylvania

Boreal America

E. and N. of N. America

Alaska to Utah

Arizona and Texas to Mexico

Western, Cen., & Southern States

S. Eastern States

Boreal America and E. side of
Rocky Mountains

Mouth of Yellowstone River

High central plains to E. States
and Canada

The whole region
Nebraska

E. States to Canada, California
Gila and Rio Grande)
The whole region

[PART III.

Range beyond the Region.

Mexico

Neotropical

Mexico

Mexico to Venezuela

Neotropical

Neotropical, Palearctic
Palearctic, Guatemala
Neotropical

Mexico and Guatemala
Mexico and Guatemala
Neotropical

Mexico and Guatemala
Mexico and Guatemala
Northern Asia

Mexico and Guatemala
Mexico

Mexico and Guntewiain
Neotropical

Mexico

Central American
Neotropical

Mexico, Palearctic
Mexico to Venezuela

Neotropical

Mexico to Columbia
Neotropical genus
Palearctic
Palearctic
Palearctic
Palearctic

Mexico

Mexico

Palzare., Columb. (mig.)
Palearctic

Paleare., Mexico, Andes
of Columbia

Cosmopolite

Mexico to Keuador
Neotropical
Mexico to Ecuador

CHAP, XV.]

THE NEARCTIC REGION.

Order, Family, and
G

enus,

. Contopus
. Myiarchus
. Empidias
. Tyrannus

(Milvulus

PICARIA.
PIcIDz.

101. Picoides
102. Picus
103.

104.
105.
106.
107.
108.

Hylatomus
Centurus

Colaptes

CuUCULIDA.

109. Crotophaga ...

110. Coccyzus
111. Geococcyx

ALCEDINIDA.
112. Ceryle

CAPRIMULGIDA.
113. Chordeiles

114. Antrostomus..

CYPSsELID&.

115. Nepheecetes ...

116. Chetura

TROCHILIDS.
117. Trochilus

118. Selasphorus .

119. Atthis

PSITTACI.
ConURIDA.
120. Conurus...

COLUMBA.
CoLUMBID.

121. Columba
122. Ectopistes

123.
124.
125.

Vou. IL—11

Melopelia
Zenaidura

Sphyrapicus a
Campephilus...

Melanerpes ..

Chemepelia O

No. of

151

= Range within the Region.

al

3 | N. and E. of Rocky Mountains

2 | E. and W. coasts and Canada

1 | Eastern States

4 | All United States to Canada

1 | Texas)

3 | Arctic zone and Rocky Mounts.

6 | All United States and Canada

6 | Brit. Columbia and Pennsylvania
southwards

2 | United States and Canada

1 | E. and W. States and Canada

3 | The whole region

3 | United States and S. Canada

3 | United States and Canada

2 | E. States from Pennsylvania S.

3 |S. E. and Cen. States to Canada

1 | California to New Mex. & Texas

2 | The whole region

3 | All United States to Canada

3 | All United States to Canada

1 | N. W. America

2 | All U. States & British Columbia

2 | The whole region

2 | W. coast and Centre

2 | California and Colorado Valley

1 |S. and 8. E. States

3 | W. and Central States to Canada

1 | E. coast to Cen. plains, Canada
and British Columbia

1 | W. and S. Central States

1 | All United States to Canada

i

California and S. E. States

Range beyond the Region

Mexico to Amazonia
Neotropical

Mexico

Neotropical
Neotropical genus

Palearctic
All regs. but Eth. & Aus.
Mexico and Guatemala

Neotropical

Mexico to Venezuela
Neotropical
Neotropical

Neotropical
Neotropical
Guatemala

Neotropical, S. Paleare-
tic, Oriental

Neotropical
Neotropical

Jamaica
Almost cosmopolite

Mexico toVeragua (? mi.)
Mexico to Veragua
Mexico to Guatemala

Neotropical

All regs. but Australian

Neotropical *
Mexico to Veragua
Neotropical

152 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PARY III,
Order, aay » and = Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region.
kat
GALLIN &.
TETRAONID.
126. Cyrotonyx 1 |S. Central States Mexico and Guatemala
127. Ortyx 5 | All United States and to Canada) Mexico to Honduras and
Costa Rica
128. Callipepla 1 | California Mexico
129. Lophortyx 2 | Arizona and California
130. Oreortyx 1 | California and Oregon
131. Tetrao 3 |N. and N. W. America Palearctic
132. Centrocercus ... 1 | Rocky Mountains
133. Pediocetes 2 |N. and N. W. America
134. Cupidonia 1 | E.& N. Cen. States and Canada
135. Bonasa... 1 |N. United States and Canada __| Palearctic
136. Lagopus... 4 | Arctic zone and to 39° N. Lat.) Palearctic
in Rocky Mountains
PHASIANIDZ.
137. Meleagris 2 | E. and Central States to Canada | Mexico, Honduras
CRACID2.
(Ortalida 1 | New Mexico) Neotropical genus
ACCIPITRES.
VULTURIDZ.
Sub-Family
(CATHARTINZ. )
138. Catharista 1 | United States to 40° N. Lat. Neotropical
139. Psuedogryphis 2 | United States to 49° N. Lat. Neotropical
FALCONIDE.
140. Polyborus 1 /S. States to Florida & California | Neotropical
141. Circus 1 | All N. America Nearly cosmopolite
142. Antenor... 2 | California and Texas Neotropical
143. Astur 1 | All N. America Almost cosmopolite
144. Accipiter 3 | All temperate N. America Almost cosmopolite
146. Tachytriorchis 1 | New Mexico to California Neotropical
146. Buteo ... ... | 12 | All N. America All regs. but Australian
147. Archibuteo 3 | All N. America N. Palzarctic
148. Asturina 1 |S. E. States Neotropical
149. Aquila... 1 | The whole region Palearc., Ethiop., Indian
150. Halizetus 2 | All N. America All regs. but Neotropical
151. Nauclerus 1 | E. coast to Pennsylvania and | Neotropical
Wisconsin
(Rostrhamus 1 | Florida) Neotropical
152. Elanus ... 1 | Southern and Western States Tropical regions
153. Ictinia .. 1 | Southern States Neotropical
154, Falco 7 | The whole region Almost cosmopolite
155. Hierofalco 2|N. of N. America N. Palearctic
156. Cerchneis 1 | All N. America Almost cosmopolite
PANDIONIDZ.
157. Pandion... 1 | Temperate N. America Cosmopolite

CHAP, XV.]

Order, Family, and

Genus.

STRIGIDA.

158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.

Surnia
Nyctea ...

Glaucidium ...

Micrathene

Pholeoptyux ...
IbubOMiyees| cee

Scops
Syrnium
MSIow =.
Nyctale ...
Strix

GRALLA.
SCOLOPACIDA.

Micropelma ...

Philohela

CHARADRIID.

Aphriza ...

ANSERES.
ANATIDA.

Jivbe MS BBR
Bucephala
(Edemia...
Harelda ...
Somateria
Camptolemus

Lafie.

Creagrus

No. of
Species.

Mobo mp eee eee

mt ON et Oo HR Ht

THE NEARCTIC REGION.

Range within the Region.

153

Range beyond the Region.

Arctic & N. Temperate America

8. Carolina to Greenland
Oregon and California
Arizona and New Mexico
N. W. America, Texas
All N. America

The whole region

E. States, California, Canada

The whole region
All N. America
Temperate N.. America

N. America
Eastern States to Canada

W. coast of America

N. America

N. America

N. America

Arctic

Arctic

N. E. America (? extinct)

California and N. Pacific coasts

N. Palearctic

N. Palearctic
Neotropical, Palearctic
Mexico

Neotropical

All regs. but Australian
Almost cosmopolite

All regs. but Australian
All regs. but Australian
Palearctic

Almost cosmopolite

Peculvar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds.

Andes to Chili

West of S. America

China

Europe

Europe

Arctic Seas
North Palearctic

CHAPTER XVI.

SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF
THE SEVERAL REGIONS.

HAVING now closed our survey of the animal life of the whole
earth—a survey which has necessarily been encumbered with a
multiplicity of detail—we proceed to summarize the general
conclusions at which we have arrived, with regard to the past
history and mutual relations of the great regions into which we
have divided the land surface of the globe.

All the paleontological, no less than the geological and
physical evidence, at present available, points to the great land
masses of the Northern Hemisphere as being of immense aunti-
quity, and as the area in which the higher forms of life were
developed. In going back through the long series of the Tertiary
formations, in Europe, Asia, and North America, we find a
continuous succession of vertebrate forms, including all the
highest types now existing or that have existed on the earth.
These extinct animals comprise ancestors or forerunners of
all the chief forms now living in the Northern Hemisphere ;
and as we go back farther and farther into the past, we meet
with ancestral forms of those types also, which are now either
confined to, or specially characteristic of, the land masses of
the Southern Hemisphere. Not only do we find that elephants,
and rhinoceroses, and hippopotami, were once far more abundant
in Europe than they are now in the tropics, but we also find
that the apes of West Africa and Malaya, the lemurs of Mada-
gascar, the Edentata of Africa and South America, and the

CHAP. XVI. ] ; SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 155

Marsupials of America and Australia, were all represented in
Europe (and probably also in North America) during the earlier
part of the Tertiary epoch. These facts, taken in their entirety,
lead us to conclude that, during the whole of the Tertiary and
perhaps during much of the Secondary periods, the great land
masses of the earth were, as now, situated in the Northern
Hemisphere; and that here alone were developed the successive
types of vertebrata from the lowest to the highest. In the
Southern Hemisphere there appear to have been three consider-
able and very ancient land masses, varying in extent from time
to time, but always keeping distinct from each other, and repre-
sented, more or less completely, by Australia, South Africa,
and South America of our time. Into these flowed successive
waves of life, as they each in turn became temporarily united
with some part of the northern land. Australia appears to have
had but one such union, perhaps during the middle or latter part
of the Secondary epoch, when it received the ancestors of its
Monotremata and Marsupials, which it has since developed into
a great variety of forms. The South African and South American
lands, on the other hand, appear each to have had several suc-
cessive unions and separations, allowing first of the influx of low
forms only (Edentata, Insectivora and Lemurs) ; subsequently of
Rodents and small Carnivora, and, latest of all, of the higher
types of Primates, Carnivora and Ungulata.

During the whole of the Tertiary period, at least, the Northern
Hemisphere appears to have been divided, as now, into an
Eastern and a Western continent ; always approximating and
sometimes united towards the north, and then admitting of much
interchange of their respective faunas ; but on the whole keeping
distinct, and each developing its own special family and generic
types, of equally high grade, and generally belonging to the same
Orders. During the Eocene and Miocene periods, the distine-
tion of the Palearctic and Nearctic regions was better marked
than it is now; as is shown by the floras no less than by the
faunas of those epochs. Dr. Newberry, in his Report on the
Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the Yellowstone and Missouri
Rivers, states, that although the Miocene flora of Central North

156 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. : [PART III.

America corresponds generally with that of the European Miocene,
yet many of the tropical, and especially the Australian types,
such as Hakea and Dryandra, are absent. Owing to the recent
discovery of a rich Cretaceous flora in North America, pro-
bably of the same age as that of Aix-la-Chapelle in Europe, we
are able to continue the comparison; and it appears, that at
this early period the difference was still more marked. The
predominant feature of the European Cretaceous flora seems to
have been the abundance of Proteacee, of which seven genera
now living in Australia or the Cape of Good Hope have been
recognised, besides others which are extinct. There are also
several species of Pandanus, or screw-pine, now confined to the
tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, and along with these, oaks,
pines, and other more temperate forms. The North American
Cretaceous flora, although far richer than that of Europe, contains
no Proteaceze or Pandani, but immense numbers of forest trees
of living and extinct genera. Among the former we have oaks,
beeches, willows, planes, alders, dog-wood, and cypress ; together
with such American forms as magnolias, sassafras, and lirioden-
dros. There are also a few not now found in America, as
Araucaria and Cinnamomum, the latter still living in Japan.
This remarkable flora has been found over a wide extent of
country—New Jersey, Alabama, Kansas, and near the sources of
the Missouri in the latitude of Quebec—so that we can hardly
impute its peculiarly temperate character to the great elevation
of so large an area, The intervening Eocene flora approximates
closely, in North America, to that of the Miocene period; while
in Enrope it seems to have been fully as tropical in character as
that of the preceding Cretaceous period ; fruits of Vipa, Pandanus,
Anona, Acacia, and many Proteaceze, occurring in the London
clay at the mouth of the Thames.

These facts appear, at first sight, to be inconsistent, unless we
suppose the climates of Europe and North America to have been
widely different in these early times ; but they may perhaps be
harmonised, on the supposition of a more uniform and a some-
what milder climate then prevailing over the whole Northern
Hemisphere ; the contrast in the vegetation of these countries

CHAP. XVI.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 157

being due to a radical difference of type, and therefore not
indicative of climate. The early European flora seems to have
been a portion of that which now exists only in the tropical and
sub-tropical lands of the Eastern Hemisphere; and, as much of
this flora still survives in Australia, Tasmania, Japan, and the
Cape of Good Hope, it does not necessarily imply more than a
warm and equable temperate climate. The early North Ameri-
can flora, on the other hand, seems to have been essentially the
same in type as that which now exists there, and which, in the
Miocene period, was well represented in Europe ; and it is such
as now flourishes best in the warmer parts of the United States.
But whatever conclusion we may arrive at on the question of
climate, there can be no doubt as to the distinctness of the floras
of the ancient Nearctic and Palzarctic regions ; and the view
derived from our study of their existing and extinct faunas—
that these two regions have, in past times, been more clearly
separated than they are now—receives strong support from the
unexpected evidence now obtained as to the character and muta-
tions of their vegetable forms, during so vast an epoch as is
comprised in the whole duration of the Tertiary period.

The general phenomena of the distribution of living animals,
combined with the evidence of extinct forms, lead us to con-
clude that the Palearctic region of early Tertiary times was,
for the most part, situated beyond the tropics, although it pro-
bably had a greater southward extension than at the present
time. It certainly included much of North Africa, and perhaps
reached far into what is now the Sahara: while a southward
extension of its central mass may have included the Abyssinian
highlands, where some truly Palearctic forms are still found.
This is rendered probable by the fossils of Perim Island a little
further east, which show that the characteristic Miocene fauna
of South Europe and North India prevailed so far within the
tropics. There existed, however, at the extreme eastern and
western limits of the region, two extensive equatorial land-areas,
our Indo-Malayan and West African sub-regions—both of which
must have been united for more or less considerable periods
with the northern continent. They would then have received

158 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II.

from it such of the higher vertebrates as were best adapted for
the peculiar climatal and organic conditions which everywhere
prevail near the equator ; and these would be preserved, under
variously modified forms, when they had ceased to exist in
the less favourable and constantly deteriorating climate of the
north. At later epochs, both these equatorial lands became
united to some part of the great South African continent (then
including Madagascar), and we thus have explained many of
the similarities presented by the faunas of these distant, and
generally very different countries.

During the Miocene period, when a subtropical climate pre-
vailed over much of Europe and Central Asia, there would be no
such marked contrast as now prevails between temperate and
tropical zones ; and at this time much of our Oriental region,
perhaps, formed a hardly separable portion of the great Palearctic
land. But when, from unknown causes, the climate of Europe
became less genial, and when the elevation of the Himalayan
chain and the Mongolian plateau caused an abrupt difference of
climate on the northern and southern sides of that great moun-
tain barrier, a tropical and a temperate region were necessarily
formed; and many of the animals which once roamed over the
greater part of the older and more extensive region, now became
restricted to its southern or northern divisions respectively.
Then came the great change we have already described (vol. i.
p. 288), opening the newly-formed plains of Central Africa to the
incursions of the higher forms of Europe ; and following on this,
a still further deterioration of climate, resulting in that marked
contrast between temperate and tropical faunas, which is now one
of the most prominent features in the distribution of animal as
well as of vegetable forms.

It is not necessary to go into any further details here, as we
have already, in our discussion of the origin of the fauna of the
several regions, pointed out what changes most probably occurred
in each case. These details are, however, to a great extent
speculative; and they must remain so till we obtain as much
knowledge of the extinct faunas and past geological history of
the southern lands, as we have of those of Europe and North

CHAP. XVI. ] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 159

America. But the broad conclusions at which we have now
arrived seem to rest on a sufficiently extensive basis of facts ;
and they lead us to a clearer conception of the mutual relations
and comparative importance of the several regions than could
be obtained at an earlier stage of our inquiries.

If our views of the origin of the several regions are correct,
it is clear that no mere binary division—into north and south,
or into east and west—can be altogether satisfactory, since at
the dawn of the Tertiary period we still find our six regions, or
what may be termed the rudiments of them, already established.
The north and south division truly represents the fact, that the
great northern continents are the seat and birth-place of all the
higher forms of life, while the southern continents have derived
the greater part, if not the whole, of their vertebrate fauna from
the north; but it implies the erroneous conclusion, that the
chief southern lands—Australia and South America—are more
closely related to each other than to the northern continent.
The fact, however, is that the fauna of each has been derived,
independently, and perhaps at very different times, from the
north, with which they therefore have a true genetic relation ;
while any intercommunion between themselves has been com-
paratively recent and superficial, and has in no way modified
the great features of animal life in each. The east and west divi-
sion, represents—according to our views—a more fundamental
diversity ; since we find the northern continent itself so divided
in the earliest Eocene, and even in Cretaceous times; while we
have the strongest proof that South America was peopled from
the Nearctic, and Australia and Africa from the Palearctic
region: hence, the Eastern and Western Hemispheres are the two
great branches of the tree of life of our globe. But this division,
taken by itself, would obscure the facts—firstly, of the close
relation and parallelism of the Nearctic and Palearctic regions,
not only now but as far back as we can clearly trace them in the
past; and, secondly, of the existing radical diversity of the
Australian region from the rest of the Eastern Hemisphere.

Owing to the much greater extent of the old Palearctic
region (including our Oriental), and the greater diversity of

160 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

Mammalia it appears to have produced, we can have little doubt
that here was the earliest seat of the development of the
vertebrate type; and probably of the higher forms of insects
and land-molluses. Whether the Nearctic region ever formed
one mass with it, or only received successive immigrations from
it by northern land-connections both in an easterly and westerly
direction, we cannot decide; but the latter seems the most
probable supposition. In any case,‘we must concede the first
rank to the Palearctic and Oriental regions, as representing the
most important part of what seems always to have been the
Great Continent of the earth, and the source from which all the
other regions were supplied with the higher forms of life. These
once formed a single great region, which has been since divided
into a temperate and a tropical portion, now sufficiently distinct ;
while the Nearctic region has, by deterioration of climate,
suffered a considerable diminution of productive area, and
has in consequence lost a number of its more remarkable forms.
The two temperate regions have thus come to resemble each
other more than they once did, while the Oriental retains
more of the zoological aspect of the great northern regions
of Miocene times. The Ethiopian, from having been once an
insular region, where lower types of vertebrates alone prevailed,
has been so overrun with higher types from the old Palearctic
and Oriental lands that it now rivals, or even surpasses, the
Oriental region in its representation of the ancient fauna of
the great northern continent. Both of our tropical regions of
the Eastern Hemisphere possess faunas which are, to some
extent, composite, being made up in different proportions of »
the productions of the northern and southern continents,—the
former prevailing largely in the Oriental, while the latter
constitutes an important feature in the Ethiopian fauna. The
Neotropical region has probably undergone great fluctuations
in early times ; but it was, undoubtedly, for long periods com-
pletely isolated, and then developed the Edentate type of
Mammals and the Formicaroid type of Passerine birds into
a variety of forms, comparable with the diversified Marsupials
of Australia, and typical Passeres of the Eastern Hemisphere,

CHAP. XVI.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 161

It has, however, received successive infusions of higher types
from the north, which now mingle in various degrees with its
lower forms. At an early period it must have received a low
form of Primates, which has been developed into the two peculiar
families of American monkeys; while its llamas, tapirs, deer,
and peccaries, came in at a later date, and its opossums and
extinct horses probably among the latest. The Australian region
alone, after having been united with the great northern
continent at a very early date (probably during the Secondary
period) has ever since remained more or less completely isolated ;
and thus exhibits the development of a primeval type of
mammal, almost wholly uninfluenced by any incursions of a
later and higher type. In this respect it is unique among all
the great regions of the earth.

We see, then, that each of our six regions has had a history
of its own, the main outlines of which we have been able
to trace with tolerable certainty. Each of them is now
characterised—as it seems to have been in all past time of
which we have any tolerably full record—by well-marked
zoological features; while all are connected and. related in the
complex modes we have-endeavoured to unravel. To combine
any two or more of these regions, on account of existing
similarities which are, for the most part, of recent origin, would
obscure some of the most important and interesting features
of their past history and present condition. And it seems no
less impracticable to combine the whole into groups of higher
rank ; since it has been shown that there are two opposing modes
of doing this, and that each of them represents but one aspect
of a problem, which can only be solved by giving equal attention
to all its aspects.

For reasons which have been already stated, and which are
sufficiently obvious, we have relied almost exclusively on the
distribution of living and extinct mammalia, in arriving at these
conclusions. But we believe they will apply equally to elucidate
the phenomena presented by the distribution of all terrestrial
organisms, when combined with a careful consideration of the

162 . ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART III.

various means of dispersal of the different groups, and the
comparative longevity of their species and genera. Even insects,
which are perhaps of all animals the farthest removed from
mammalia in this respect, agree, in the great outlines of their
distribution, with the vertebrate orders. The Regions are
admittedly the same, or nearly the same for both; and the
discrepancies that occur are of a nature which can be explained
by two undoubted facts—the greater antiquity, and the greater
facilities for dispersal, of insects.

But this principle, if sound, must be carried farther, and be
applied to plants also. There are not wanting indications that
this may be successfully done; and it seems not improbable,
that the reason why botanists have hitherto failed to determine,
with any unanimity, which are the most natural phytological
regions, and to work out any connected theory of the migra-
tions of plants, is, because they have not been furnished with
the clue to the past changes of the great land masses, which
could only be arrived at by such an examination of the past
and present distribution of the higher animals as has been
here attempted. The difficulties in the way of the study of
the distribution of plants, from this point of view, will be
undoubtedly very great; owing to the unusual facilities for
distribution many of them possess, and the absence of any
group which might take the place of the mammalia among
animals, and serve as a guide and standard for the rest. We
cannot expect the regions to be so well defined in the case of
plants as in that of animals; and there are sure to be many
anomalies and discrepancies, which will require long study to
unravel. The Six Great Regions here adopted, are however, as
a whole, very well characterised by their vegetable forms.
The floras of tropical America, of Australia, of South Africa, and
of Indo-Malaya, stand out with as much individuality as do
the faunas; while the plants of the Palearctic and Nearctic
regions, exhibit resemblances and diversities, of a character not
unlike those found among the animals.

This is not a mere question of applying to the vegetable king-
dom a series of arbitrary divisions of the earth which have been

CHAP. XVI.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 153

found useful to zoologists; for it really involves a fundamental
problem in the theory of evolution. The question we have to
answer, is, firstly—whether the distribution of plants is, like that
of animals, mainly and primarily dependent on the past revolu-
tions of the earth’s surface ; or, whether other, and altogether dis-
tinct causes, have had a preponderating influence in determining
the range and limits of vegetable forms ; and, secondly—whether
those revolutions have been, in their general outlines, correctly
interpreted by means of a study of the distribution and
affinities of the higher animals. The first question is one for
botanists alone to answer; but, on the second point, the author
ventures to hope for an affirmative reply, from such of his
readers as will weigh carefully the facts and arguments he has
adduced.

The remaining part of this volume, will consist, of a systematic
review of the distribution of each family of animals, and an
application of the principles already established to elucidate the
chief phenomena they present. The present chapter must,
therefore, be considered as the conclusion of the argumentative
and theoretical part of the present work; but it must be read
in connection with the various discussions in Parts II. and IIL,
in which the conclusions to be drawn from the several groups of
facts have been successively given ;—and especially in connec-
tion with the general observations at the end of each of the six
chapters on the Zoological Regions.

The hypothetical view, as to the more recent of the great
Geographical changes of the Earth’s surface, here set forth,
is not the result of any preconceived theory, but has grown out
of a careful study of the facts accumulated, and has led to a
considerable modification of the author's previous views. It
may be described, as an application of the general theory of
Evolution, to solve the problem of the distribution of animals ;
but it also furnishes some independent support to that theory,
both by showing what a great variety of curious facts are ex-
plained by its means, and by answering some of th2 objections,

164 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART II

which have been founded on supposed difficulties in the distri-
bution of animals in space and time.

It also illustrates and supports the geological doctrine, of the
general permanence of our great continents: and oceans, by
showing how many facts in the distribution of animals can
only be explained and understood on such a supposition; and
it exhibits, in a striking manner, the enormous influence of the
Glacial epoch, in determining the existing zoological features of
the various continents.

And, lastly, it furnishes a more consistent and intelligible
idea than has yet been reached by any other mode of investiga-
tion, of all the more important changes of the earth’s surface
that have probably occurred during the entire Tertiary period ;
and of the influence of these changes, in bringing about the
general features, as well as many of the more interesting details
and puzzling anomalies, of the Geographical Distribution of
Animals.

PART IV.
GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY:

_ 4 SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE CHIEF FAMILIES OF LAND
ANIMALS IN THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS.

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INTRODUCTION.

In the preceding part of our work, we have discussed the
geographical distribution of animals from the point of view of
‘the geographer; taking the different regions of the earth in
succession, and giving as full an account as our space would
permit of their chief forms of animal life. Now, we proceed
from the standpoint of the systematic zoologist; taking in
succession each of the families with which we deal, and giving
an account of the distribution, both of the entire family and, as
far as practicable, of each of the genera of which it is composed.
As in the former part, our mode of treatinent led us to speculate
on the past changes of the earth’s surface; so here we shall
endeavour to elucidate the past migrations of animals, and thus,
to some extent, account for their actual distribution.

The tabular headings, showing the range of the family in each
region, will enable the reader to determine at a glance the
general distribution of the group, as soon as he has familiarised
himself, by a study of our general and regional maps, with the
limits of the regions and sub-regions, and the figures (1 to 4)
by which the latter are indicated. Much pains have been taken,
to give the number of the known genera and species in each
family, correctly ; but these numbers must, in most cases, only
be looked upon as approximations; because, owing to constant
accessions of fresh material on the one hand, and the discovery
that many supposed species are only varieties, on the other, such
statistics are in a continual state of fluctuation. In the number
of genera there is the greatest uncertainty; as will be seen by
the two sets of numbers sometimes given, which denote the
genera according to different modern authorities,

Vou, Il.—12

168 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

There is also a considerable difference in the dependence to be
placed on the details given in the different classes of animals.
In Mammalia and Birds some degree of accuracy has, it is hoped,
been attained; the classification of these groups being much
advanced, and the materials for their study ample. In Reptiles
this is not the case, as there is no recently published work
dealing with the whole subject, or with either of the larger
orders. An immense number of new species and new genera of
snakes and lizards, have been described in the last twenty years ;
and Dr. Giinther—our greatest authority on reptiles in this
country—has kindly assisted me in incorporating such of these
as are most trustworthy, in a general system; but until entire
Orders have been described or catalogued on a uniform plan,
nothing more than a general approximation to the truth can be
arrived at. Still, so many of the groups are well defined, and
have a clearly limited distribution, that some interesting and
valuable comparisons may be made.

For Fishes, the valuable “Catalogue” of Dr. Giinther was
available, and it has rarely been attempted to go beyond it. A
large number of new species have since been described, in all
parts of the world; but it is impossible to say how many of
these are really new, or what genera they actually belong to.
The part devoted to this Class is, therefore, practically a summary,
of Dr. Giinther’s Catalogue; and it is believed that the dis-
coveries since made will not materially invalidate the conclusions
to be drawn from such a large number of species, which have
been critically examined and classified on a uniform system by
one of our most able naturalists. When a supplement to this
catalogue is issued, it will be easier to make the necessary altera-
tions in distribution, than if a mass of untrustworthy materials
had been mixed up with it.

For Insects, excellent materials are furnished, in the Catalogue
of Mr. Kirby for Butterflies and in that of Drs. Gemminger and
Harold for Coleoptera. I have also made use of some recently
published memoirs on the Insects of Japan and St. Helena, and
a few other recent works; and have, I believe, elaborated a more
extensive series of facts to illustrate the distribution of insects,

INTRODUC. ] INTRODUCTION. 169

than has been made use of by any previous writer. Several
discussions on the bearing of the facts of insect distribution,
will also be found under the several Regions, in the preceding
part of this work.

Terrestrial Mollusca form a group, as to the treatment of which
I have most misgivings ; owing to my almost entire ignorance of
Malacology, and the great changes recently made in the classifi-
cation of shells. There is also much uncertainty as to genera and
sub-genera, which is very puzzling to one who merely wishes to get
at general results. Finding it impossible to incorporate the new
matter with the old, or to harmonise the different classifications
of modern conchologists, I thought it better to confine myself to
the standard works of Martens and Pfeiffer, with such additions
of new species as I could make without fear of going far wrong.
In some cases I have made use of recent monographs—especially
on the shells of Europe, North America, the West Indian Islands,
and the Sandwich Islands; and have, I venture to hope, not
fallen into much error in the general conclusions at which I have
arrived,

CHAPTER XVII.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF MAMMALIA,

Order I—PRIMATES.
Famity 1—SIMIIDA. (4 Genera, 12 Species).

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

THE Simiide, or Anthropoid Apes, comprehend those forms of
the monkey-tribe which, in general organization, approach nearest
toman. They inhabit the tropics of the Old World, and are
most abundant near the equator; but they are limited to certain
districts, being quite unknown in eastern and southern Africa,
and the whole peninsula of Hindostan.

The genus 7roglodytes (or Mimetes, as it is sometimes named)
comprehends the chimpanzee and gorilla. It is confined to the
West African sub-region, being found on the coast about 12°
North and South of the equator, from the Gambia to Benguela, and
as far inland as the great equatorial forests extend. There are
perhaps other species of chimpanzee; since Livingstone met with
what he supposed to be a new species in the forest region west
of Lake Tanganyika, while Dr. Schweinfurth found one in the
country beyond the western watershed of the Nile. The gorilla
is confined within narrower limits on and near the equator.

CHAP, XVII. ] MAMMALIA, ‘ 171

We have to pass over more than 70° of longitude before we again
meet with Anthropoid Apes, in the northern part of Sumatra—
where a specimen of the orang-utan (Simia satyrus) now in the
Calcutta Museum, was obtained by Dr. Abel, and described by
him in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xv.—and in Borneo, from which
latter island almost all the specimens in European museums have
been derived. There are supposed to be two species of Sima in
Borneo, a larger and a smaller; but their distinctness is not ad-
mitted by all naturalists. Both appear to be confined to the
swampy forests near the north, west, and south coasts.

The Gibbons, or long-armed apes, forming the genus Hylobates,
(7 species) are found in all the large islands of the Indo-Malayan
sub-region, except the Philippines ; and also in Sylhet and Assam
south of the Brahmaputra river, eastward to Cambodja and
South China to the west of Canton, and in the island of Hainan.

The Siamang (Siamanga syndactyla) presents some anatomi-
cal peculiarities, and has the second and third toes united to the
last joint, but in general form and structure it does not differ
from Hylobates. It is the largest of the long-armed apes, and in-
habits Sumatra and the Malay peninsula.

Fawmy 2—SEMNOPITHECIDA. (2 Genera, 30 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

----| =e | seal | 1.2——| 1.2.3.4) ————

The Semnopithecidz, are long-tailed monkeys without cheek-
pouches, and with rather rounded faces, the muzzle not being
prominent. They have nearly the same distribution as the last
family, but are nore widely dispersed in both Africa and Asia,
one species just entering the Palearctic region.

The Eastern genus Presbytes or Semnopithecus (29 species), is
spread over almost the whole of the Oriental region wherever the
forests are extensive. They extend along the Himalayas to beyond
Simla, where a species has been observed at an altitude of 11,000

172 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

feet, playing among fir-trees laden with snow wreaths. On the west
side of India they are not found to the north of 14° N. latitude.
On the east they extend into Arakan, and to Borneo and Java,
but not apparently into Siam or Cambodja. Along the eastern
extension of the Himalayas they again occur in East Thibet; a
remarkable species with a large upturned nose (S. rowellana)
having been discovered by Pére David at Moupin (about Lat.
32° N.) in the highest forests, where the winters are severe and
last for several months, and where the vegetation, and the other
forms of animal life, are wholly those of the Palaarctic region.
It is very curious that this species should somewhat resemble
the young state of the proboscis monkey (S. nasalis), which in-
habits one of the most uniform, damp, and hot climates on the
vlobe—the river-swamps of Borneo.

Colobus, the African genus (11 species), is very closely allied
to the preceding, differing chiefly in the thumb being absent or
rudimentary. They are confined to the tropical regions—Abys-
sinia on the east, and from the Gambia to Angola and the island
of Fernando Po, on the west.

FamiLty 3—CYNOPITHECID. (7 Genera, 67 Species).

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

~---| ---- | a a (12.3 — 1.2.3.4) pes

This family comprehends all the monkeys’ with cheek pouches,
andthe baboons. Some of these have very long tails, some none ;
some are dog-faced, others tolerably round-faced; but there are
so many transitions from one to the other, and such a general
agreement in structure, that they are now considered to form a
very natural family. Their range is more extensive than any
other family of Quadrumana, since they not only occur in every
part of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but enter the Pale-
arctic region in the east and west, and the Australian region as
far as the islands of Timor and Batchian.. The African genera

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 173

are Myiopithecus, Cercopithecus, Cercocebus, Theropithecus, and
Cynocephalus ; the Oriental genera, Macacus, and Cynopithecus.

Myiopithecus (1 species), consisting of the talapoin monkey of
West Africa, differs from the other African monkeys in the
structure of the last molar tooth ; in the large ears, short face, and
wide internasal septum; in this respect, as well as in its grace
and gentleness, resembling some of the American monkeys.

Cercopithecus (24 species), contains all the more graceful and
prettily coloured monkeys of tropical Africa, and comprises the
guenons, the white-nosed, and the green monkeys. They range
from the Gambia to the Congo, and from Abyssinia to the Zambesi.

Cercocebus (5 species), the mangabeys, of West Africa, are
very closely allied to the eastern genus Macacus.

Theropithecus (2 species), including the gelada of Abyssinia
and an allied species, resemble in form the baboons, but have the
nostrils placed as in the last genus.

Cynocephalus (10 species), the baboons, are found in all parts
of Africa. They consist of animals which vary much in ap-
pearance, but which agree in having an elongated dog-like
muzzle with terminal nostrils, and being of terrestrial habits.
Some of the baboons are of very large size, the mandrill (@.
maimon) being only inferior to the orang and gorilla,

Macacus (25 species), is the commonest form of eastern monkey,
and is found in every part of the Oriental region, as well as in
North Africa, Gibraltar, Thibet, North China, and Japan ; and
one of the commonest species, M. cynomolgus, has extended its
range from Java eastward to the extremity of Timor. The tail
varies greatly in length, and in the Gibraltar monkey (Jf. innus)
is quite absent. A remarkable species clothed with very thick
fur, has lately been discovered in the snowy mountains of
eastern Thibet.

Cynopithecus (22 sp.).—This genus consists of a black baboon-
like Ape, inhabiting Celebes, Batchian, and the Philippine
Islands ; but perhaps introduced by man into the latter islands
and into Batchian. It is doubtful if there is more than one
species. . The tail of this animal is a fleshy tubercle, the nostrils
as in Macacus, but the muzzle is very prominent; and the

174 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

development of the maxillary bones into strong lateral ridges
corresponds to the structure of the most typical baboons. This
species extends further east than any other quadrumanous
animal.

Famity 4—CEBID. (10 Genera, 78 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

Se de eee oe ee

The Cebide, which comprehend all the larger American
Monkeys, differ from those of the Old World by having an
additional molar tooth in each jaw, and a broad nasal septum ;
while they have neither cheek-pouches nor ischial callosities,
and the thumb is never completely opposable. Some have pre-
hensile tails, especially adapting them for an arboreal life. They
are divided into four sub-families——Cebin, Mycetine, Pithe-
ciine, and Nyctipithecine. The Cebide are strictly confined to
the forest regions of tropical America, from the southern part of
Mexico to about the parallel of 30° South Latitude. The distri-
bution of the genera is as follows :—

Sub-family, Cebinee—Cebus (18 sp.), is the largest genus of
American monkeys, and ranges from Costa Rica to Paraguay.
They are commonly called sapajous. Lagothrix (5 sp.), the
woolly monkeys, are rather larger and less active than the pre-
ceding ; they are confined to the forests of the Upper Amazon
Valley, and along the slopes of the Andes to Venezuela and
Bolivia. Ateles (14 sp.), the spider monkeys, have very long
limbs and tail. They range over the whole area of the family,
and occur on the west side of the Equatorial Andes and on the
Pacific coast of Guatemala. Lriodes (3 sp.), are somewhat inter-
mediate between the last two genera, and are confined to the
eastern parts of Brazil south of the equator. The three last
mentioned genera have very powerful prehensile tails, the end
being bare beneath ; whereas the species of Cebus have the tail

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 175

completely covered with hair, although prehensile, and therefore
not so perfect a grasping organ.

Sub-family, Mycetine, consists of but a single genus, Mycetes
(10 sp.), the howling monkeys, characterized by having a hollow
bony vessel in the throat formed by an enlargement of the hyoid
bone, which enables them to produce a wonderful howling
noise. They are large, heavy animals, with a powerful and
perfect prehensile tail. They range from East Guatemala to
Paraguay. (Plate XIV., vol. ii, p. 24.)

Sub-family, Pitheciinz, the sakis, have a non-prehensile
bushy tail. Pithecia (7 sp.), has the tail of moderate length ;
while Brachiurus (5 sp.) has it very short. Both appear to be
restricted to the great equatorial forests of South America.

Sub-family, Nyctipithecine, are small and elegant monkeys,
with long, hairy, non-prehensile tails. Myctipithecus (5 sp.), the
night-monkeys or douroucoulis, have large eyes, nocturnal
habits, and are somewhat lemurine in their appearance. They
range from Nicaragua to the Amazon and eastern Peru. Saimiris
or Chrysothrix (3 sp.), the squirrel-monkeys, are beautiful and
active little creatures, found in most of the tropical forests from
Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia. Callithrix (11 sp.), are some-
what intermediate between the last two genera, and are found
all over South America from Panama to the southern limits of
the great forests.

FamiLy 5—HAPALIDA. (2 Genera, 32 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. ] SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL

a ed ee

The Hapalid, or marmosets, are very small monkeys, which
differ from the true Cebide in the absence of one premolar tooth,
‘ while they possess the additional molar tooth; so that while
they have the same number of teeth (thirty-two) as the Old
World monkeys, they differ from them even more than do the

176 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART LY.

Cebide. The thumb is not at all opposable, and all the fingers
are armed with sharp claws. The hallux, or thumb-like great
toe, is very small; the tail is long and not prehensile. The two
genera Hapale (9 sp.), and Midas (24 sp.), are of doubtful value,
though some naturalists have still further sub-divided them,
They are confined to the tropical forests of South America, and
are most abundant in the districts near the equator.

Sub-order—LEM UROIDE A.

Famity 6—LEMURIDZ. (11 Genera, 53 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC | PALA ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-" EGIONS.

The Lemuride, comprehending all the animals usually termed
Lemurs and many of their allies, are divided by Professor Mivart
—who has carefully studied the group—into four sub-families
and eleven genera, as follows :—

Sub-family Indrisine, consisting of the genus Jndris (5 sp.),
is confined to Madagascar.

Sub-family Lemurine, contains five genera, viz. :—Lemur,
(15 sp.); Hapalemur (2 sp.); Microcebus (4 sp.); Chirogaleus
(5 sp.); and Lepilemur (2 sp.) ;—all confined to Madagascar.

Sub-family Nycticebine, contains four genera, viz. :—Nycticebus
(3 sp.)—small, short-tailed, nocturnal animals, called slow-lemurs,
—range from East Bengal to South China, and to Borneo and
Java; Loris (1 sp.)—a very small, tail-less, nocturnal lemur,
which inhabits Madras, Malabar, and Ceylon ; Perodicticus (1 sp.)
—the potto—a small lemur with almost rudimentary fore-
finger, found at Sierra Leone (Plate V., vol. i., p. 264); Arctocebus
(1 sp.)—the angwantibo,—another extraordinary form in which
the forefinger is quite absent and the first toe armed with a long
claw,—inhabits Old Calabar.

CHAP. XVII, ] MAMMALIA, Lia

Sub-family Galagine, contains only the genus Galago (14 sp.),
which is confined to the African continent, ranging from Senegal
and Fernando Po to Zanzibar and Natal.

Famity 7—TARSIID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

se ee oe oer ae

The curious Zarsius spectrum, which constitutes this family,
inhabits Sumatra, Banca, and Borneo, and is also found in some
parts of Celebes, which would bring it into the Australian
region; but this island is altogether so anomalous that we can
only consider its productions to have somewhat more affinity
with the Australian than the Oriental region, but hardly to
belong to either. The Tarsier is a small, long-tailed, nocturnal
animal, of curious structure and appearance ; and it forms the only
link of connection with the next family, which it resembles
in the extraordinary development of the toes, one of which is
much larger and more slender than the rest. (Plate VIII, vol.
L p. 337.)

Famity 8—CHIROMYIDZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

wa5=) -an5 | 2aen) cana [aoe] soo

The Aye-aye, (Chiromys), the sole representative of this family,
is confined to the island of Madagascar. It was for a long
time very imperfectly known, and was supposed to belong to
the Rodentia; but it has now been ascertained to be an ex-
ceedingly specialized form.of the Lemuroid type, and must be
considered to be one of the most extraordinary of the mammalia
now inhabiting the globe. (Plate VI., vol. i, p. 278.)

178 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

Fossil Quadrumana.

Not much progress has yet been made in tracing back the
various forms of Apes and Monkeys to their earliest appearance
on the globe; but there have been some interesting recent
discoveries, which lead us to hope that the field is not yet
exhausted. The following is a summary of what is known as to
the early forms of each family :—

Simiide.—Two or three species of this family have been
found in the Upper Miocene deposits of France and Switzerland.
Pliopithecus, of which a species has been found at each locality,
was allied to the gibbons (Hylobates), and perhaps to Semno-
pithecus. A more remarkable form, named Dryopithecus, as large
as a man, and having peculiarities of structure which are
thought by Gervais and Lartet to indicate a nearer approach
to the human form than any existing Ape, has been found in
strata of the same age in France.

Semnopithecide.—Species of Semnopithecus hard been found
in the Upper Miocene of Greece, and others in the Siwalik
Hills of N. W. India, also of Upper Miocene age. An allied
form also occurs in the Miocene of Wurtemburg. Mesopithecus
from Greece is somewhat intermediate between Semnopithecus
and Macacus.

Remains supposed to be of Semnopithecus, have also occurred
in the Pliocene of Montpellier.

Cynopithecide—Macacus has occurred in Pliocene deposits
at Grays, Essex ; and also in the South of France along with
Cercopithecus.

Cebide.—In the caves of Brazil remains of the genera Cebus,
Mycetes, Callithriz, and Hapale, have been found; as well as an
extinct form of larger size—Protopithecus.

Lemuroidea.—A. true lemur has recently been discovered in
the Eocene of France ; and it is supposed to be most nearly allied
to the peculiar West African genera, Perodicticus and Arctocebus.

Cenopithecus, from the Swiss Jura, is supposed to have affinities
both for the Lemuride and the American Cebide.

In the lower Eocene of North America remains have been

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA, 179

discovered, which are believed to belong to this sub-order: but
they form two distinct families,—Lemuravide and Limnotheride.
Other remains from the Miocene are believed to be intermediate
between these and the Cebidze,—a most interesting and suggestive
affinity, if well founded. For the genera of these American
Lemuroidea, see vol. i, p. 133.

General Remarks on the Distribution of Primates.

The most striking fact presented by this order, from our present
point of view, is the strict limitation of well-marked families to
definite areas. The Cebidz and Hapalide would alone serve
to mark out tropical America as the nucleus of one of the great
zoological divisions of the earth. In the Eastern Hemisphere,
the corresponding fact is the entire absence of the order from
the Australian region, with the exception of one or two outlying
forms, which have evidently transgressed the normal limits of
their group. The separation of the Ethiopian and Oriental
regions is, in this order, mainly indicated by the distribution of
the genera, no one of which is common to the two regions. The
two highest families, the Simiide and the Semnopithecide, are
pretty equally distributed about two equatorial foci, one situated
in West Africa, the other in the Malay archipelago,—in Borneo
or the Peninsula of Malacca ;—while the third family, Cyno-
pithecide, ranges over the whole of both regions, and somewhat
overpasses their limits. The Lemuroid group, on the other
hand, offers us one of the most singular phenomena in geo-
graphical distribution. It consists of three families, the species
of which are grouped into six sub-families and 13 genera. One
of these families and two of the sub-families, comprising 7
genera, and no less than 30 out of the total of 50 species, are
confined to the one island of Madagascar. Of the remainder,
3 genera, comprising 15 species, are spread over tropical Africa;
while three other genera with 5 species, inhabit certain restricted
portions of India and the Malay islands. These curious facts
point unmistakably to the former existence of a large tract of
land in what is now the Indian Ocean, connecting Madagascar on
the one hand with Ceylon, and with the Malay countries on the

180 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

other. About this same time (but perhaps not contempo-
raneously) Madagascar must have been connected with some
portion of Southern Africa, and the whole of the country would
possess no other Primates but Lemuroidea. After the Mada-
gascar territory (very much larger than the existing island)
had been separated, a connection appears to have been long
maintained (probably by a northerly route) between the more
equatorial portions of Asia and Africa; till those higher forms
had become developed, which were afterwards differentiated into
Simia, Presbytes, and Cynopithecus, on the one hand, and into
Troglodytes, Colobus, and Cynocephalus, on the other. In ac-
cordance with the principle of competition so well expounded
by Mr. Darwin, we can understand how, in the vast Asiatic and
African area north of the Equator, with a great variety of
physical conditions and the influence of a host of competing
forms of life, higher types were developed than in the less
extensive and long-isolated countries south of the Equator.
In Madagascar, where these less complex conditions prevailed
in a considerable land-area, the lowly organized Lemuroids have
diverged into many specialized forms of their own peculiar type ;
while on the continents they have, to a great extent, become
exterminated, or have maintained their existence in a few cases,
in islands or in mountain ranges. In Africa the nocturnal and
arboreal Galagos are adapted to a special mode of pe in which
they probably have few competitors.

How and when the ancestors of the Cebide and Hapalide
entered the South American continent, it is less easy to conceive.
The only rays of light we yet have on the subject are, the
supposed affinities of the fossil Canopithecus of the Swiss, and
the Lemuravide of the North American Eocene, with both
Cebide and Lemuroids, and the fact that in Miocene or Eocene
times a mild climate prevailed up to the Arctic circle. The dis-
covery of an undoubted Lemuroid in the Eocene of Europe,
indicates that the great Northern Continent was probably the
birthplace of this low type of mammal, and the source whence
Africa and Southern Asia were peopled with them, as it was,
at a later period, with the higher forms of monkeys and apes.

CHAP, XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 181

Order II—CHIROPTERA.

FaMILy 9—PTEROPIDA. (9 Genera, 65 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ie Rava | metas’ | 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 we

The Pteropide, or fruit-eating Bats, sometimes called flying-
foxes, are pretty evenly distributed over the tropical regions of
the Old World and Australia. They range over all Atrica and
the whole of the Oriental Region, and northward, to Amoy in
China and to the South of Japan. They are also found in the
more fertile parts of Australia and Tasmania, and in the Pacific
Islands as far east as the Marianne and Samoa Islands; but not
in the Sandwich Islands or New Zealand.

The genera of bats are exceedingly numerous, but they are in
a very unsettled state, and the synonymy is exceedingly con-
fused. The details of their distribution cannot therefore be
usefully entered into here. The Pteropide differ so much from
all other bats, that they are considered to form a distinct
suborder of Chiroptera, and by some naturalists even a distinct
order of Mammalia.

No fossil Pteropide have been discovered.

Famity 10—PHYLLOSTOMID. (31 Genera, 60 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

Se
AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3 Wiest | ee | anes

bs

The Phyllostomide, or simple leaf-nosed Bats, are confined to
the Neotropical region, from Mexico and the Antilles to the

182 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. | PART IY.

southern limits of the forest region east of the Andes, and to
about lat. 33° S. in Chili. None are found in the Nearctic
region, with the exception of one species in California (Macrotus
Californicus), closely allied to Mexican and West Indian forms.
The celebrated blood-sucking vampyre bats of South America
belong to this group. Two genera, Desmodus and Diphylla, form
Dr. Peters’ family Desmodide. Mr. Dobson, in his recently
published arrangement, divides the family into five groups :—
Mormopes, Vampyri, Glossophage, Stenodermata, and Desmo-
dontes.

Numerous remains of extinct species of this family have been
found in the bone-caves of Brazil.

Famity 11—RHINOLOPHID. (7 Genera, 70 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

3 AUSTRALIAN
UB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

tg ga | aed pty |1.2.9.4| 1.2.3.4 /1.2.9.4| ee ee

The Rhinolophide, or Horse-shoe Bats (so-called from a
curiously-shaped membranous appendance to the nose), range
over all the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, the southern part
of the Palearctic region, Australia and Tasmania. They are
most abundant and varied in the Oriental region, where twelve
genera are found; while only five inhabit the Australian and
Ethiopian regions respectively. Europe has only one genus and
four species, mostly found in the southern parts, and none going
further north than the latitude of England, where two species
occur. Two others are found in Japan, at the opposite extremity
of the Palearctic region.

The genera Nycteris and Megaderma, which range over the
Ethiopian and Oriental regions to the Moluccas, are considered
by Dr. Peters to form a distinct family, Megadermide; and
Mr. Dobson in his recent arrangement (published after our first

CHAP, XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 183

volume was printed) adopts the same family under the name of
Nycteridz. The curious Indian genus Rhinopoma, which, follow-
ing Dr. J. E. Gray, we have classed in this family, is considered
by Mr. Dobson to belong to the Noctilionide.

Fossil Rhinolophide—Remains of a species of Rhinolophus
still living in England, have been found in Kent’s Cavern, near
Torquay.

Famity 12—VESPERTILIONID. (18 Genera, 200 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | 1.2.9.4|1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 [1.2.3.4

The small bats constituting the family Vespertilionid, have
no nose-membrane, but an internal earlet or tragus, and often
very large ears. They range over almost the whole globe, being
apparently only limited by the necessity of procuring insect food.
In America they are found as far north as Hudson’s Bay and the
Columbia river ; and in Europe they approach, if they do not pass
the Arctic circle. Such remote islands as the Azores, Bermudas,
Fiji Islands, Sandwich Islands, and New Zealand, all possess
species of this group of bats, some of which probably inhabit
every island in warm or temperate parts of the globe. .

The genus Taphozous, which, in our Tables of Distribution in
vol. i. we have included in this family, is placed by Mr. Dobson
in his family Emballonuride, which is equivalent to our next
family, Noctilionide.

Fossil Vespertilionide.—Several living European bats of this
family —Scotophilus murinus, Plecotus auritus, Vespertilio noctula,
and V. pipestrellus—have been found fossil in bone-caves in
various parts of Europe.

Extinct species of Vespertilio have occurred in the Lower
Miocene at Mayence, in the Upper Miocene of the South of
France, and in the Upper Eocene of the Paris basin.

Vor. II.—138

184 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

FamILy 13.—NOCTILIONID/. (14 Genera, 50 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | a | See 1.2.9.4 /1.2.3.4| he

The Noctilionidz, or short-headed Bats, are found in every
region, but are very unequally distributed. Their head-quarters
is the Neotropical region, where most of the genera occur, and
where they range from Mexico to Buenos Ayres and Chili, while
in North America there is only one species in California, They are
unknown in Australia; but one species occurs in New Zealand,
and another in Norfolk Island. Several species of Dysopes (or
Molossus) inhabit the Oriental region ; one or two species being
widely distributed over the continent, while two others inhabit
the Indo-Malayan Islands. A species of this same genus occurs
in South Africa, and anotherin Madagascar and in the Island of
Bourbon ; while one inhabits Southern Europe and North Africa,
and another is found at Amoy in China. It will be seen there-
fore, that these are really South American bats, which have a few
allies widely scattered over the various regions of the globe.
Their affinities are, according to Mr. Tomes, with the Phyllos-
tomide, a purely South American family. The species which
forms the connecting link is the Mystacina tuberculata, a New
Zealand bat, which may, with almost equal propriety be placed
in either family, and which affords an interesting illustration of
the many points of resemblance between the Australian and
Neotropical regions.

Dr. Peters has sevarated this family into three-—Mormopide,
which is wholly Neotropical, and is especially abundant in the
West Indian Islands; Molossidz, chiefly consisting of the
genus Molossus; and Noctilionide, comprising the remainder of
the family, and wholly Neotropical. Mr. Dobson, however,
classes the Mormopes with the Phyllostomide, and reduces the

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA, 185

Molossi to the rank of a sub-family. In our first volume we
have classed Rhinopoma with the Rhinolophide, and Taphozous
with the Vespertilionid ; but according to Mr. Dobson both
these genera belong to the present family.

Remarks on the Distribution of the Order Chiroptera.

Although the bats, from their great powers of flight, are not
amenable to the limitations which determine the distribution of
other terrestrial mammals, yet certain great facts of distribution
come out in a very striking manner. The speciality of the Neo-
tropical region is well shown, not only by its exclusive possession
of one large family (Phyllostomide), but almost equally so by the
total absence of two others (Pteropide and Rhinolophide). The
Nearctic region is also unusually well marked, by the total ab-
sence of a family (Rhinolophide) which is tolerably well repre-
- sented in the Palearctic. The Pteropide well characterize the
tropical regions of the Old World and Australia; while the Ves-
pertilionide are more characteristic of the Paleearctic and Nearctic
regions, which together possess about 60 species of this family.

The bats area very difficult study, and it is quite uncertain how
many distinct species are really known. Schinz, in his Synopsis
Mammalium (1844) describes 330, while the list given by
Mr. Andrew Murray in his Geographical Distribution of Mam-
malia (1866), contains 400 species. A small number of new
species have been since described, but others have been sunk as
synonyms, so that we can perhaps hardly obtain a nearer ap-
proximation to the truth than the last number. In Europe there
are 35 species, and only 17 in North America.

Fossil Chiroptera.—The fossil remains of bats that have yet
been discovered, being chiefly allied to forms still existing in the
same countries, throw no light on the origin or affinities of this
remarkable and isolated order of Mammalia; but as species very
similar to those now living were in existence so far back as
Miocene or even Eocene times, we may be sure the group is one
of immense antiquity, and that there has been ample time for
the amount of variation and extinction required to bring about

186 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

the limitation of types, and the peculiarities of distribution we
now find to exist.

Order III—INSECTIVORA.

Famity 14.—GALEOPITHECID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-RFGIONS.

NEaARCTIC , PALAARCTIC

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

se ee eee ere

The singular and isolated genus Galeopithecus, or flying lemur,
has been usually placed among the Lemuroidea, but it is now
considered to come best at the head of the Insectivora. Its food
however, seems to be purely vegetable, and the very small, blind,
and naked young, closely attached to the wrinkled skin of the
mother’s breast, perhaps indicates some affinity with the Marsu-
pials. This animal seems, in fact, to be a lateral offshoot of
some low form, which has survived during the process of develop-
ment of the Insectivora, the Lemuroidea, and the Marsupials,
from an ancestral type. Only two species are known, one
found in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, but not in Java; the
other in the Philippine islands (Plate VIII. vol. i. p. 337).

Famity 15—MACROSCELIDID. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ee ed eed er eens

The Macroscelides, or elephant shrews, are extraordinary little
animals, with trunk-like snout and kangaroo-like hind-legs.
They are almost confined to South Africa, whence they extend
up the east coast as far as the Zambezi and Mozambique. A

CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA, 187

single outlying species of Macroscelides inhabits Barbary and
Algeria ; while the two genera Petrodromus, and Rhyncocyon, each

represented by a single species, have only been found at
* Mozambique.

FamiLy 16.—TUPAIID. (3 Genera, 10 species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

SUB-REGIONS.

aa | ----| odie S | ep h a |-2.3.4| olen

The Tupaiide are squirrel-like shrews, having bushy tails,
and often climbing up trees, but also feeding on the ground and
among low bushes. The typical Z’upaia (7 species), are called
ground squirrels by the Malays. They are most abundant in
the Malay islands and Indo-Chinese countries, but one species
is found in the Khasia Mountains, and one in the Eastern Ghauts
near Madras. The small shorter-tailed Hylomys (2 species) is
found from Tenasserim to Java and Borneo; while the elegant
little Ptilocerus (1 species) with its long pencilled tail, is confined
to Borneo ; (Plate VIII. vol. i. p. 337). The family is therefore
especially Malayan, with outlying species in northern and con-
tinental India.

Extinct Species—Oxygomphus, found in the Tertiary deposits
of Germany, is believed to belong to this family; as is Omomys,
from the Pliocene of the United States.

Faminy 17—ERINACEID. (2 Genera, 15 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

=e | a | 1.2.3.4 SSS | tee Waa | eee

The Hedgehogs, comprised in the genus Hrinaceus (14 species),
are widely distributed over the Paleearctic, and a part of the

188 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART ly,

Oriental regions ; but they only occur in the Ethiopian region in
South Africa and in the Deserts of the north, which more properly
belong to the Palearctic region. They are absent from the
Malayan, and also from the Indo-Chinese sub-regions ; except —
that they extend from the north of China to Amoy and Formosa,
and into the temperate highlands of the Western Himalayas.
The curious Gymnura (1 species) is found in Borneo, Sumatra,
and the Malay peninsula.

Extinct Species—The common hedgehog has been found fossil
in several Post-tertiary deposits, while extinct species occur in
the lower Miocene of Auvergne and in some other parts of
Europe. Many of these remains are classed in different genera
from the living species ;—(A mphechinus, Tetracus, Galerix.)

Famity 18—CENTETID. (6 Genera, 10 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALMARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

maze |=aas onan [ene [aan [ona

The Centetide are small animals, many of them having a
spiny covering, whence the species of Centetes have been called
Madagascar hedgehogs. The genera Centetes (2 species), Hemi-
centetes (1 species), Hriculus (1 species), Hchinops (3 species), and
the recently described Oryzorictes (1 species), are all exclusively
inhabitants of Madagascar, and are almost or quite tail-less.
The remaining genus, Solenodon, is a more slender and active
animal, with a long, rat-like tail, shrew-like head, and coarse fur ;
and the two known species are among the very few indigenous
mammals of the West Indian islands, one being found in Cuba
(Plate XVII, vol. i, p. 67), the other in Hayti. Although
presenting many points of difference in detail, the essential
characters of this curious animal are, according to Professors
Peters and Mivart, identical with the rest of the Centetide.
We have thus a most remarkable and well-established case of
discontinuous distribution, two portions of the same family

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 169

being now separated from each other by an extensive continent,
as well as by a deep ocean.

Extinct Species—Remains found in the Lower Miocene of the
South of France are believed to belong to the genus Echinops
or one closely allied to it.

d

FamILy 19—POTAMOGALID. (1 Genus, 1 Species,)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL@#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

se ee ed lee

The genus Potamogale was founded on a curious, small, otter-
like animal from West Africa, first found by M. Du Chaillu ut
the Gaboon, and afterwards by the Portuguese at Angola. Its
affinities are with several groups of Insectivora, but it is
sufficiently peculiar to require the establishment of a distinct
family for its reception. (Plate V., vol. i, p. 264.)

FamiLy 20—CHRYSOCHLORID. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

SUB-REGIONS.

se le ere oe

The Chrysochlorid, or golden moles, of the Cape of Good
Hope have been separated by Professor Mivart into two genera,
Chrysochloris and Chalcochloris. They are remarkable mole-like
animals, having beautiful silky fur, with a metallic lustre and
changeable golden tints. They are peculiar to the Cape district,
but one species extends as far north as the Mozambique territory.
Their dentition is altogether peculiar, so as to completely separate
them from the true moles.

190 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 21—TALPID. (8 Genera, 19 Species.

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIFNTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

a | 1.2.9.4/ 1.2.3.4 | ----|--s8- | Seapee

The Moles comprise many extraordinary forms of small mam-
malia especially characteristic of the temperate regions of the
northern hemisphere, only sending out a few species of Talpa
along the Himalayas as far as Assam, and even to Tenasserim,
if there is no mistake about this locality ; while one species is
found in Formosa, the northern part of which is almost as much
Palearctic as Oriental. The genus Talpa (7 species), spreads
over the whole Palearctic region from Great Britain to Japan ;
Scaptochirus (1 species) is a recent discovery in North China;
Condylura (1 species), the star-nosed mole, inhabits Eastern
North America from Nova Scotia to Pennsylvania; Scapanus
(2 species) ranges across from New York to St. Francisco;
Scalops (3 species), the shrew-moles, range from Mexico to the
great lakes on the east side of America, but on the west only to
the north of Oregon. An allied genus, Myogale (2 species), has
a curious discontinuous distribution in Europe, one species being
found in South-East Russia, the other in the Pyrenees (Plate IL.,
vol. i., p. 218). Another allied genus, Wectogale (1 species), has
recently been described by Professor Milne-Edwards from Thibet.
Urotrichus is a shrew-like mole which inhabits Japan,and a second
species has been discovered in the mountains of British Columbia;
an allied form, Uropsilus, inhabits East Thibet. Anwrosorex
and Scaptonyx, are new genera from North China.

Extinct Species—The common mole has been found fossil in
bone-caves and diluvial deposits, and several extinct species of
mole-like animals occur in the Miocene deposits of the South of
France and of Germany. These have been described under the
generic names Dimylus, Geotrypus, Hyporissus, Galeospalax ; while
Palwospalax has been found in the Pliocene forest-beds of Norfolk

CHAP. XVII. } MAMMALIA. 191

and Ostend. Species of Myogale also occur from the Miocene
downwards.

FamILy 22.—SORICID. (1 Genus, 11 Sub-genera, 65 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

yey | 1.2.3.4 Ha Se 1.2.3.4 |1.2.3.4 er Sevier

|

The Shrews have a wide distribution, being found throughout
every region except the Australian and Neotropical ; although, as
a species is found in Timor and in some of the Moluccas, they
just enter this part of the former region, while one found in
Guatemala brings them into the latter. A number of species have
recently been described from India and the Malay Islands, so
that the Oriental region is now the richest in shrews, having 28
species; the Nearctic comes next with 24; while the Ethiopian
has 11, and the Palearctic 10 species. The sub-genera are
Crossopus, Amphisorex, Neosorex, Crocidura, Diplomesodon, Pinulia,
Pachyura, Blarina, Feroculus, Anausorex.

Extinct Species.—Several species of Sorex have been found
fossil in the Miocene of the South of France, as well as the
extinct genera Mysarachne and Plesiosorex ; and some existing
species have occurred in Bone Caves and Diluvial deposits.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Insectivora.

The most prominent features in the distribution of the Insecti-
vora are,—their complete absence from South America and Aus-
tralia; the presence of Solenodon in two of the West Indian islands
while the five allied genera are found only in Madagascar ; and the
absence of hedgehogs from North America. If we consider that
there are only 135 known species of the order, 65 of which belong
to the one genus Sorex ; while the remaining 26 genera contain
only 70 species, which have to be classed in 8 distinct families,
and present such divergent and highly specialized forms as Galeo-
pithecus, Erinaceus, Solenodon, and Condylura, 1t becomes evident
that we have here the detached fragments of a much more

192 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

extensive group of animals, now almost extinct. Many of the
forms continue to exist only in islands, removed from the severe
competition of a varied mammalian population, as in Madagascar
and the Antilles; while others appear to have escaped extermi-
nation either by their peculiar habits—as the various forms of
Moles; by special protection—as in the Hedgehogs; or by a resem-
blance in form, coloration, and habits to dominant groups in their
own district—as the Tupaias of Malay which resemble squirrels,
and the Elephant-shrews of Africa which resemble the jerboas.
The numerous cases of isolated and discontinuous distribution
among the Insectivora, offer no difficulty from this point of view ;
since they are the necessary results of an extensive and widely-
spread group of animals slowly becoming extinct, and continuing
to exist only where special conditions have enabled them to main-
tain themselves in the struggle with more highly organized forms.

The fossil Insectivora do not throw much light on the early
history of the order, since even as far back as the Miocene
period they consist almost wholly of forms which can be referred
to existing families. In North America they go back to the
Eocene period, if certain doubtful remains have been rightly
placed. The occurrence of fossil Centetidee in Europe, supports
the view we have maintained in preceding chapters, that the
existing distribution of this family between Madagascar and the
Antilles, proves no direct connection between those islands, but
only shows us that the family once had an extensive range.

Order IV—CARNIVORA.
Famity 23——FELID. (3 Genera, 14 Sub-genera, 66 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PALHZARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
Davee | 1.2.3.4 | We kee ee | | inte | 1.2.3.4 | ee

The Cats are very widely distributed over the earth—with
the exception of the Australian region and the island sub-region

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 193

of Madagascar and the Antilles—universally ; ranging from the
torrid zone to the Arctic regions and the Straits of Magellan.
They are so uniform in their organization that many naturalists
group them all under one genus, Felis; but it is now more
usual to class at least the lynxes as a separate genus, while the
hunting leopard, or cheetah, forms another. Dr. J. E. Gray
divides these again, and makes 17 generic groups; but as this
subdivision is not generally adopted, and does not bring out any
special features of geographical distribution, I shall not further
notice it.

The genus Felis (56 species) has the same general range
as the whole family, except that it does not go so far north;
the Amoor river in Eastern Asia, and 55° N. Lat. in America,
marking its limits. Lynceus (10 species) is a more northern
group, ranging to the polar regions in Europe and Asia, and to
Lat. 66° N. in America, but not going further south than
Northern Mexico and the European shores of the Mediterranean,
except the caracal, which may be another genus, and which ex-
tends to Central India, Persia, North Africa and even the Cape
of Good Hope. The lynxes are thus almost wholly peculiar to
the Nearctic and Palearctic regions. Cynelurus (1 species) the
hunting leopard, ranges from Southern and Western India through
Persia, Syria, Northern and Central Africa, to the Cape of Good
Hope.

Extinet Felide.—More than twenty extinct species of true
Felidze have been described, ranging in time from the epoch of
prehistoric man back to the Miocene or even the Eocene period.
They occur in the south of England, in Central and South Europe,
in North-West India, in Nebraska in North America, and in the
caves of Brazil. Most of them are referred to the genus Felis,
and closely resemble the existing lions, tigers, and other large
cats. Another group however forms the genus Machairodus, a
highly specialized form with serrated teeth. Five species have
been described from Europe, Northern India, and both North and
South America; and it is remarkable that they exhibit at least
as wide a range, both in space and time, as the more numerous
species referred to Felis, One of them undoubtedly coexisted

194 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

with man in England, while another, as well as the allied Dinictis,
has been found in the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska, associated
with Anchitherium and other extinct and equally remarkable
forms, which are certainly Miocene if not, as some geologists
think, belonging to the Eocene period. These facts clearly in-
dicate that we have as yet made little approach to discovering
the epoch when Felide originated, since the oldest forms yet
discovered are typical and highly specialized representatives of
a group which is itself the most specialized of the Carnivora.
Another genus, Psewdelurus, is common to the Miocene deposits
of Europe and North America.

Faminy 24—CRYPTOPROCTIDA. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

(ee

The Cryptoprocta ferox, a small and graceful cat-like animal, °
peculiar to Madagascar, was formerly classed among the Viver-
ridz, but is now considered by Professor Flower to constitute a
distinct family between the Cats and the Civets.

Famity 25—VIVERRIDA. (8-33 Genera, 100 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

UO,

NEOTROPICAL ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SuB-R«GIONS. ) SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,

----] 72+] -2-- liase-8-4i) siavseail(a sew

The Viverridz comprise a number of small and moderate-sized
carnivorous animals, popularly known as civets, genets, and
ichneumons, highly characteristic of the Ethiopian and Oriental
regions, several of the genera being common to both. A species
of Genetta, and one of Herpestes, inhabit South Europe; while
Viverra extends to the Moluccas, but is doubtfully indigenous.
The extreme geographical limits of the family are marked by

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 195

Genetta in France and Spain, Viverra in Shanghae and Batchian
Island, and Herpestes in Java and the Cape of Good Hope.

The following are the genera with their distribution as given
by Dr. J. E. Gray in his latest British Museum Catalogue :

Sub-family VIVERRINZ—Viverra (3 species), North and
tropical Africa, the whole Oriental region to the Moluccas ;
Viverricula (1 species) India to Java; Genetta (5 species), South
Europe, Palestine, Arabia, and all Africa; Fossa (1 species), Ma-
dagascar ; Linsang (2 species), Malacca to Java; Poiana (1
species), West Africa; Galidia (3 species), Madagascar; Hemd-
galea (1 species), Malacca and Borneo ; Arctictis (1 species) Nepal
to Sumatra and Java; Nandinia (1 species), West Africa; Para-
doxurus (9 species), the whole Oriental region; Paguma (3 species),
Nepal to China, Sumatra, and Borneo; Arctogale (1 species), Te-
nasserim to Java.

Sub-family HERPESTINA:.—Cynogale (1 species), Borneo ; Gah-
dictis (2 species), Madagascar ; Herpestes (22 species), South Pale-
‘ arctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions ; Athylax (3 species), Tro-
pical and South Africa; Galogale (13 species), all Africa, North
India, to Cambodja; Galerella (1 species), East Africa; Calictis
(1 species) Ceylon (?); Arzella (1 species), South Africa ; Jchnewmia
(4 species), Central, East, and South Africa; Bdeogale (3 species),
West and East Africa; Urva (1 species), Himalayas to Aracan ;
Teniogale (1 species), Central India; Onychogale (1 species),
Ceylon ; Helogale (2 species) East and South Africa; Cynictis
(3 species), South Africa.

Sub-family RainoGaLipz.— LRhinogale (1 species), East Africa ;
Mungos (3 species), all Africa ; Crossarchus (1 species), Tropical
Africa; Hupleres (1 species), Madagascar ; Swricata (1 species),
South Africa.

Fossil Viverride.—Several species of Viverra and Genetta have
been found in the Upper Miocene of France, and many extinct
genera have also been discovered. The most remarkable of these
was Jctitherium, from the Upper Miocene of Greece, which has
also been found in Hungary, Bessarabia, and France. Some of the
species were larger than any living forms of Viverride, and
approached the hyzenas. Other extinct genera are Thalassictis

196 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.
and Soricictis from the Upper Miocene, the former as large as a
panther; T'ylodon, of small size, from the Upper Eocene; and
Paleonyctis from the Lower Eocene, also small and showing a
very great antiquity for this family, if really belonging to it.

FaMILy 26.—PROTELID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

so od od

The curious Proteles or Aard-wolf, a highly-modified form of
hyena, approaching the ichneumons, and feeding on white
ants and carrion, is peculiar to South Africa.

Famity 27.—HY ANID. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

The Hyznas are characteristically Ethiopian, to which region
two of the species are confined. The third, Hyena striata,
ranges over all the open country of India to the foot of the
Himalayas, and through Persia, Asia Minor, and North Africa.
Its fossil remains have been found in France.

Extinct Species.—The cave hyena (H. spelea) occurs abun-
dantly in the caverns of this country and of Central Europe,
and is supposed to be most nearly allied to the H. crocuta of
South Africa. Another species is found in some parts of France.
The earliest known true hyzenas occur in the Pliocene formation
in France, in the Red Crag (Older Pliocene) of England, and in
the Upper Miocene of the Siwalik hills. In the Miocene
period in Europe, quite distinct genera are found, such as
Hyenictis and Lycena from the Upper Miocene of Greece ;

CHAP, XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 197

Ictitherium, supposed to be intermediate between Viverrids and
Hyenide ; and Thalassictis, uniting the weasels and hyznas,

Famity 28.—CANID. (3 Genera, 17 Sub-Genera, 54 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

123 — 1.2.8.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3—| 1.2.3.4 fe

The Canide, comprising the animals commonly known as
dogs, wolves, and foxes, have an almost universal range over
the earth, being only absent from the island sub-regions of
Madagascar, the Antilles, Austro-Malaya, New Zealand, and the
Pacitic Islands. With the exception of two remarkable forms—
the hyena dog (Lycaon picta), and the great-eared fox (Megalotis
Lalandet), both from South Africa—all the species are usually
placed in the genus Canis, the distribution of which will be the
same as that of the family. Dr. J. E. Gray, in his arrangement
of the family (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1868), subdivides it into fifteen
genera, the names and general distribution of which are as
follows :—

Icticyon (1 species), Brazil; Cuon (4 species), Siberia to
Java; Lupus (5 species), North America, Europe, India to
Ceylon ; Dieba (1 species), North and West Africa; Simenia
(1 species), Abyssinia; Chrysocyon (2 species), North and South
America; Canis (4 species), India, Australia (indigenous ?)
Lycalopex (2 species), South America; Pseudalopex (5 species),
South America and Falkland Islands; hous (2 species), South
America to Chili; Vulpes (17 species), all the great continents,
except South America and Australia; Fennecus (4 species), all
Africa ; Lewcocyon (1 species), Arctic regions ; Urocyon (2 species),
North America ; Vyctereutes (1 species), Japan, Amoorland to Can-
ton (Plate III. vol. 1. p. 226). These are all sub-genera according
to Professor Carus, except Jcticyon.. The same author makes
Lycaon a sub-genus, while Dr. Gray makes it a sub-family!

Extinct Species—The dog, wolf, and fox, are found fossil in

198 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iy,

caverns in many parts of Europe, and several extinct species
have been found in Tertiary deposits in Europe, North India,
and South America. Two species have been found so far back
as the Eocene of France, but the fragments discovered are not
sufficient to determine the characters with any certainty. In
North America, several species of Canis occur in the Pliocene of
Nebraska and La Plata. The genus Galecynus, of the Pliocene
of Gininghen, and Palaocyon, of the Brazilian caves, are sup-
posed to belong to the Canidz. -Amphicyon abounded in the
Miocene period, both in Europe and North America; and some
of the species were as large as a tiger. Other extinct genera
are, Cynodictis, Cyotheriwm, and Galethylaz, from the Eocene
of France; Pseudocyon, Simocyon, and Hemicyon, from the
Miocene ; but all these show transition characters to Viverridee
or Ursidee, and do not perhaps belong to the present family.

FamILy 29.—MUSTELID. (21—28 Genera, 92 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
EES
ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS, _

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NForTroPiIcaL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3 — | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3 — | 1.2.3.4 —---—

The Mustelide constitute one of those groups which range
over the whole of the great continental areas. They may be
divided into three sub-families—one, the Musteline, containing
the weasels, gluttons, and allied forms; a second, the Lutrine,
containing the otters; and a third, often considered a distinct
family, the Melinine, containing the badgers, ratels, skunks,
ard their allies.

In the first group (Musteline) the genera Maries and
Putorius (13 species), range over all the Palearctic region, and a
considerable part of the Oriental, extending through India to
Ceylon, and to Java and Borneo. ‘Two species of Martes
(=Mustela of Baird) occur in the United States. The weasels,
forming the genus Mustela (20 species), have a still wider range,
extending into tropical Africa and the Cordilleras of Peru, but

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 199

not going south of the Himalayas in India. The North American
species are placed in the genus Putorius by Professor Baird. An
allied genus, Gymnopus (4 species), is confined to the third and
fourth Oriental sub-regions. ulo (1 species), the glutton, is an
arctic animal keeping to the cold regions of Europe and Asia, and
coming as far south as the great lakes in North America. Galictis
(2 species), the grisons, are confined to the Neotropical region.

The Otters (Lutrinz) range over the whole area occupied by
the family. They have been subdivided into a number of groups,
such as Barangia (1 species), found only in Sumatra; Lontra,
containing 3 South American species ; Lutra (7 species), ranging
over the whole of the Palzarctic and Oriental regions; Nutria
(1 species), a sea-otter confined to the west coast of America
from California to Chiloe; Zutronectes (1 species), from Japan only;
Aonyzx (5 species), foundin West and South Africa, and the third
and fourth Oriental sub-regions. Hydrogale (1 species), confined
to South Africa; Zataz (2 species), Florida and California to
Canada and British Columbia; Pteronura (1 species), Brazil and
Surinam ; and Hnhydris (1 species), the peculiar sea-otter of Cali-
fornia, Kamschatka and Japan. The last two are the only groups
of otters, besides Lutra, admitted by Professor Carus as genera.

The Badgers and allies (Melininz) have also a wide range, but
with one exception are absent from South America. They com-
prise the following genera : Arctonyx (1 species), Nepal to Aracan;
Meles (4 species), North Europe to Japan, and China as far south
as Hongkong (Plate L., vol. i., p. 195) ; Taaidea (2 species), Central
and Western North America to 58° N. Lat.; Mydaus (1 species),
mountains of Java and Sumatra; Melivora (3 species), Tropical and
South Africa and India to foot of Himalayas; Mephitis (12 species),
America from Canada and British Columbia to the Straits of Ma-
gellan (Plate XX., vol. ii, p. 136). Ictonyx (2 species), Tropical
Africa to the Cape; Helictis (4 species), Nepal to Java, Formosa
and Shanghai (Plate VIL. vol. 1. p. 331).

Fossil Mustelide.—Species of otter, weasel, badger, and glutton,
occur in European bone caves and other Post-tertiary deposits ;
and in North America Galictis, now found only in the Neotro-
pical region, and, with Mephitis, occurring in Brazilian caves.

Vou. IJ].—14

200 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Species of Mustela have been found in the Pliocene of France’
and of South America; and Zwtra in the Pliocene of North America,

In the Miocene deposits of Europe several species of Mustela
and Zutra have been found; with the extinct genera Taxodon,
Potamotherium, and Paleomephitis ; as well as Promephitis in
Greece.

In the Upper Miocene of the Siwalik Hills species of Zutra
and Mellivora are found, as well as the extinct genera Enhydrion
and Ursitaxus.

The family appears to have been unknown in North Amerie
during the Miocene period.

FamiLy 30.—PROCYONID. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIO
SUB-REGIONS.

ae ee 1.2.3.4 a | ----| aiell ie ae

The Procyonide are a small, but very curious and interesting
family of bear-like quadrupeds, ranging from British Columbia
and Canada on the north, to Paraguay and the limits of the
tropical forests on the south.

The Racoons, forming the genus Procyon, are common all over
North America; a well-marked variety or distinct species inha-
biting the west coast, and another, most parts of South America.
The genus Nasua, or the coatis (5 species 7), extends from Mexico
and Guatemala to Paraguay. The curious arboreal prehensile-
tailed kinkagou (Cercoleptes candivolvus) is also found in Mexico
and Guatemala, and in all the great forests of Peru and North
Brazil. Bassaris (2 species), a small weasel-like animal with a
banded tail, has been usually classed with the Viverride or
Mustelidee, but is now found to agree closely in all important
points of internal structure with this family. It is found in
California, Texas, and the highlands of Mexico, and belongs
therefore as much to the Nearctic as to the Neotropical region.
A second species has recently been described by Professor Peters

CHAP. XVITI.] MAMMALIA. 201

from Coban in Guatemala, in which country it has also been
observed by Mr. Salvin.

Fossil Procyonide.—A species of Nasua has been found in the
bone caves of Brazil, and a Procyon in the Pliocene or Post-
pliocene deposits of Illinois and Carolina.

Famity 31— LURID. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZ ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

maa [=ees[=2s8[==== [=s8=[===5

The Panda (4lurus fulgens), of the forest regions of the
Eastern Himalayas and East Thibet, a small cat-like bear, has
peculiarities of organization which render it necessary to place
it in a family by itself. (Vlate VII. vol. i. p. 331). An allied
genus, @luropus, a remarkable animal of larger size and in
colour nearly all white, has recently been described by Professor
Milne-Edwards, from the mountains of East Thibet; so that the
family may be said to inhabit the border lands of the Oriental
and Palearctic regions. These animals have their nearest allies
in the coatis and bears

FaMILy 32.—URSID. (5 Genera, or Sub-genera, 15 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1—-—--— | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.9.4 | —----— )1.2.3.4| —--—-—-—

The Bears have a tolerably wide distribution, although they
are entirely absent from the Australian and Ethiopian, and almost
so from the Neotropical region, one species only being found in
the Andes of Peru and Chili. They comprise the following
groups, some of which are doubtfully ranked as genera.

Thalassarctos, the polar bear (1 species) inhabiting the Arctic
regions ; Ursus, the true bears (12 species), which range over

202 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

all the Nearctic and Palearctic regions as far as the Atlas Moun-
tains, the Indo-Chinese sub-region in the mountains, and to
Hainan and Formosa; Helarctos, the Malay or sun-bear (1
species) confined to the Indo-Malayan sub-region; Melwrsus or
Prochilus, the honey-bear (1 species), confined to the first and
second Oriental sub-regions, over which it ranges from the
Ganges to Ceylon; and Z’remarctos, the spectacled bear—com-
monly known as Ursus ornatus—which is isolated in the Andes
of Peru and Chili, and forms a distinct group.

Fossil Urside—Two bears (Ursus speleus and U. priscus)
closely allied to living species, abound in the Post-tertiary de-
posits of Europe; and others of the same age are found in North
America, as well as an extinct genus, Arctodus.

Ursus arvernensis is found in the Pliocene formation of France,
and the extinct genus Leptarchus in that of North America.

Several species of Amphicyon, which appears to be an ances-
tral form of this family, are found in the Miocene deposits of
Europe and N. India; while Ursus also occurs in the Siwalik
Hills and Nerbudda deposits.

FAmILy 33.—OTARIIDA. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

a—-- | 1--4|----|[--s—[----]| -a.s-

The Otariide, or Eared Seals, comprehending the sea-bears and
sea-lions, are confined to the temperate and cold shores of the
North Pacific, and to similar climates in the Southern Hemisphere,
where the larger proportion of the species are found. They are
entirely absent from the North Atlantic shores. Mr. J. A. Allen,
in his recent discussion of this family (Bull. Harvard Museum)
divides them into the following genera :—

Otaria (1 species), Temperate South America, from Chili to
La Plata; Callorhinus (1 species), Behring’s Straits and Kams-
chatka ; Avrctocephalus (3 species), temperate regions of the

CHAP. XVIL.] MAMMALIA. 203

Southern Hemisphere ; Zalophus (2 species), North Pacific, from
California to Japan, and the shores of Australia and New Zea-
land; Humetopias (1 species), Behring’s Straits and California,

Fossil Otariide.— Remains supposed to belong to this family
have been found in the Miocene of France.

Famity 34.—TRICHECHID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

mans [ane [aces [oma [>= [=

The Morse, or Walrus (T7ichecus rosmarus), which alone
constitutes this family, is a characteristic animal of the North
Polar regions, hardly passing south of the Arctic circle except on
the east and west coasts of North America, where it sometimes
reaches Lat. 60°. It is most abundant on the shores of Spitz-
bergen, but is not found on the northern shores of Asia between
Long. 80° and 160° E., or on the north shores of America from
100° to 150° west.

Its remains have been found fossil in Europe as far south as
France, and in America as far as Virginia; but the small frag-
ments discovered may render the identification uncertain.

Faminy 35.

PHOCID. (13 Genera, 21 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

OPS a eee ee
ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

epee j1-2.3.4| sales | ----|-2.8-

1 = 4?

The earless or true Seals are pretty equally divided between
the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, frequenting almost ex-
clusively the temperate and cold regions, except two species
said to occur among the West Indian islands. The genus
Phoca and its close allies, as well as Halicherus and Pelagius, are

204 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

northern; while Stenorhynchus and Morunga, with their allies,
are mostly southern. The genera admitted by Dr. Gray in his
catalogue are as follows :—

Callocephalus (3 species), Greenland, North Sea, also the
Caspian Sea, and Lakes Aral and Baikal; Pagomys (2 species),
North Sea, North Pacific, and Japan; Pagophilus (2 species),
North Pacific and North Atlantic; Halieyon (1 species), North
West coast of America ; Phoca (2 species), North Atlantic and
North Pacific, Japan ; Halicherus (1 species), Greenland, North
Sea, and Baltic ; Pelagius (2 species), Madeira, Mediterranean,
Black Sea ; Stenorhynchus (1 species), Antarctic Ocean, Falkland
Islands, New Zealand; Lobodon (1 species), Antarctic Ocean;
Leptonyx (1 species}, Antarctic Ocean, South Australia, East
Patagonia ; Ommatophoca (1 species), Antarctic Ocean ; Morunga
(2 species), California, Falkland Islands, Temperate regions of
Southern Ocean ; Cystophora (2 species), North Atlantic, Antilles.

Fossil Seals—Remains of living species of seals have been found
in Post-tertiary deposits in many parts of Europe and in Algeria,
as well as in New Zealand. Pristiphoca occitana is a fossil seal
from the Pliocene of Montpellier, while a species of Phoca is said
to have been found in the Miocene deposits of the United States.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Carnivora.

Terrestrial Carnivora.—F¥or the purposes of geographical dis-
tribution, the terrestrial and aquatic Carnivora differ too widely
to be considered in one view, their areas being limited by barriers
of a very different nature. The terrestrial Carnivora form a very
extensive and considerably varied group of animals, having, with
the doubtful exception of Australia, a world-wide distribution.
Yet the range of modification of form is not very great, and the
occurrence of three families consisting of but one species each, is
an indication of a great amount of recent extinction. One of
the most marked features presented by this group is its com-
parative scarcity in the Neotropical region, only four families
being represented there (not counting the Ursidz, which has
only one Andean species), and both genera and species are few
in number. Even the Procyonide, which are especially South

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 205

American, have but two genera and six species in that vast area.
We might therefore, from these considerations alone, conclude
that Carnivora are a development of the northern hemisphere,
and have been introduced into the Neotropical region at a com-
paratively recent epoch. The claim of the Nearctic region to
be kept distinct from the Palearctic (with which some writers
have wished to unite it) is well maintained by its possession of
at least six species of Mephitis, or skunk, a group having no
close allies in any other region,—and the genera Procyon and
Bassaris,—for the latter, ranging from the high lands of Guate-
mala and Mexico to Texas and California, may be considered
a Nearctic rather than a Neotropical form. In the other
families, the most marked feature is the total absence of Urside
from the Ethiopian region. The great mass of the generic
forms of Carnivora, however, are found in the Oriental and
Ethiopian regions, which possess all the extensive group of
Viverride (except a few species in the fourth. Palearctic sub-
region) and a large number of Felidz and Mustelide.

Aquatic Carnivora.—The aquatic Carnivora present no very
marked features of distribution, except their preference for cold
and temperate rather than tropical seas. Their nearest approxi-
mation to the terrestrial group, is supposed to be that of the
Otariidze to the Urside ; but this must be very remote, and the
occurrence of both seals and bears in the Miocene period, shows,
that until we find some late Secondary or early Tertiary formation
rich in Mammalian remains, we are not likely to get at the tran-
sition forms indicating the steps by which the aquatic Carnivora
were developed. The most interesting special fact of distribu-
tion to be noticed, is the occurrence of seals, closely allied to
those inhabiting the northern seas, in the Caspian, Lake Aral,
and Lake Baikal. In the case of the two first-named localities
there is little difficulty, as they are connected with the North Sea
by extensive plains of low elevation, so that a depression of less
than 500 feet would open a free communication with the ocean.
At a comparatively recent epoch, a great gulf of the Arctic ocean
must have occupied the valley of the Irtish, and extended to the
Caspian Sea; till the elevation of the Kirghiz Steppes cut off the

206 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

communication with the ocean, Jeaving an inland sea with its seals.
Lake Baikal, however, offers much greater difficulties ; since it is
not only a fresh-water lake, but is situated in a mountain district
nearly 2,000 feet above the sea level, and entirely separated from
the plains by several hundred miles of high land. It is true that
such an amount of submergence and elevation is known to have
occurred in Europe so recently as during the Glacial period; but
Lake Baikal is so surrounded by mountains, that it must at that
time have been filled with ice, if at anything like its present
elevation. Its emergence from the sea must therefore have taken
place since the cold epoch, and this would imply that an enormous
extent of Northern Asia has been very recently under water.

We are accustomed to look on Seals as animals which exclu-
sively inhabit salt water; but it is probably from other causes
than its saltness that they usually keep to the open sea, and
there seems no reason why fresh-water should not suit them quite
as well, provided they find in it a sufficiency of food, facilities for
rearing their young, and freedom from the attacks of enemies.
As already remarked in vol. i. p. 218, Mr. Belt’s ingenious
hypothesis (founded on personal examination of the Siberian
Steppes), that during the Glacial period the northern ice-cap
dammed up the waters of the northward flowing Asiatic rivers,
and thus formed a vast fresh-water lake which might have risen as
high as Lake Baikal, seems to offer the best solution of this
curious problem of distribution.

Range of Carnivora in Time—Carnivora have been found in
all the Tertiary deposits, and comprise a number of extinct
genera and even families. Several genera of Canidée occur in
the Upper Eocene of Europe; but the most remarkable fact is,
that even in the Lower Eocene are found two well-marked
forms, Palewonyctis, one of the Viverride, and Arctocyon, form-
ing a distinct family type of very generalized characters, but
unmistakably a carnivore. This last has been found at La Fére,
in the north-east of France, in a deposit which, according to
M. Gaudry, is the very lowest of the Lower Eocene formation
in Europe. <Arctocyon is therefore one of the oldest, if not the
very oldest, of the higher forms of mammal yet discovered.

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMATIA., 207

Order V—CETACEA.

Famity 36.—BALAENIDZ. (6 Genera, 14 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate and Cold Seas of both Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.

This family comprises the whalebone or “right ” whales, the
best known species being the Greenland whale (Balena mys-
ticetus). Allied species are found in all parts of the southern
seas, as far north as the Cape of Good Hope; while some of the
northern species are found off the coast of Spain, and even enter
the Mediterranean. As most of the species indicated are im-
perfectly known, and their classification by no means well
settled, no useful purpose will be served by enumerating the
genera or sub-genera.

Famity 37—BALASNOPTERID. (9 Genera, 22 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.—Cold and Temperate Seas of both Hemispheres.

This family comprises the finner whales and rorquals, and are
characterised by possessing a dorsal fin and having the baleen
or whalebone less developed. They are abundant in all northern
seas, less so in the southern hemisphere, but they seem occa-
sionally to enter the trdpical seas. The best known genera are
Megaptera (7 species); Physalus (4 species); and balenoptera
(2 species) ; all of which have species in the North Sea.

FamILty 38—CATODONTID. (4 Genera, or Sub-Genera,
6 Species.)

GENERALs DisTRIBUTION.—AII the Tropical Oceans, extending north and south
into Temperate waters.

This family, comprising the cachalots or sperm whales, and
black-fish, are separated from the true whales by having teeth
in the lower jaw and no whalebone. They are pre-eminently a
tropical, as distinguished from the two preceding which are

208 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

arctic and antarctic families. The spermaceti whale (Catodon
macrocephalus) abounds in the Pacific Ocean and in the deep
Molucean Sea, and also in the Indian Ocean and the Mozam-
bique Channel. In the Atlantic it is scarce, although it occa-
sionally comes north as far as our shores.

The genera of Catodontide as given by Dr. Gray are, Catodon
(2 species ?), Warm Eastern Oceans; Physeter (1 species), “the
black fish,’ North Sea; Cogia (2 species), South Temperate
Oceans ; Huphysetes (1 species), Coast of Australia.

Famity 39.—HY PEROODONTID. (9 Genera or Sub-Genera,
12 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.—Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and Southern
Ocean.

This family consists of the beaked whales, which have no per-
manent teeth in the upper jaw. The genera, according to Dr. Gray,
are, Hyperoodon (2 species) “ bottle-nosed whales,’ North Sea;
Lagenocetus (1 species), North Sea ; Hpiodon (2 species), North
and South Atlantic; Petrorhynchus (2 species), Mediterranean
Sea and Southern Ocean; Berardius (1 species), New Zealand ;
Aiphius (1 species) North Atlantic; Dolichodon (1 species), Cape
of Good Hope; Neoziphius (1 species) Mediterranean ; Dioplo-
don (1 species), Indian Ocean.

Famity 40.—MONODONTID&. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

The “ Narwhal” (J/onodon monoceros) which constitutes this
family, is placed by Dr. Gray along with the “white whales,” in
his family Belugide. It inhabits the North Sea.

Famity 41—DELPHINIDZ. (24 Genera oz Sub-Genera,
100 Species.)

GENERAL DisTRIBUTION.—AII Oceans, Seas, and Great Rivers of the globe.

This family, including the Porpojses, Dolphins, White Whales,
&c., may be described as small, fish-shaped whales, having teeth

CHAP, XVII. MAMMALIA. 209

in both jaws. According to Dr. Gray they form seven families
and 24 genera; according to Professor Carus, four sub-families
and.8 genera, but as these’ groups appear to be established on
quite different principles, and often differ widely from each other,
I shall simply enumerate Dr. Gray’s genera with their distribu-
tion as given in his british Museum Catalogue.

Platanista (2 species), long-snouted porpoises, inhabiting the
Ganges and Indus ; Znza (1 species), a somewhat similar form,
inhabiting the upper waters of the Amazonian rivers: Steno
(8 species), Indian Ocean, Cape of Good Hope, and West Pacific ;
Sotalia (1 species), Guiana ; Delphinus (10 species), all the oceans ;
Clymenia (14 species), all the oceans ; Delphinapterus (1 species),
South Atlantic ; Z7wrsio (7 species), Atlantic and Indian Oceans ;
Hutropia (2 species), Chili, and Cape of Good Hope ; Electra (8
species), all the oceans; Lewcopleurus (1 species), North Sea;
Lagenorhynchus (1 species), North Sea; Psewdorea (2 species),
North Sea, Tasmania; Orcaella (2 species), Ganges ; Acantho-
delphis (1 species), Brazil ; Phocena (2 species), North Sea; Neo-
meris (1 species), India ; Grampus (3 species), North Sea, Medi-
terranean, Cape of Good Hope ; Globiocephalus (14 species), all
the oceans; Spherocephalus (1 species), North Atlantic; Orca
(9 species), Northern and Southern Oceans ; Ophysia (1 species),
North Pacific ; Beluga (6 species), Arctic Seas, Australia ; Pon-
toporia (1 species), Monte Video.

Fossil Cetacea.

Remains of Cetacea are tolerably abundant in Tertiary
deposits, both in Europe and North America. In the Lower
Pliocene of England, France, and Germany, extinct species of
five or six living genera of whales and dolphins have been
found ; and most of these occur also in the Upper Miocene, along
with many others, referred to about-a dozen extinct genera.

In the Post-pliocene deposits of Vermont and South Carolina,
several extinct species have been found belonging to living genera;
but in the Miocene deposits of the Eastern United States ceta-
cean remains are much more abundant, more than 30 species of

210 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

extinct whales and dolphins having been described, most of them
belonging to extinct genera.

The Zeuglodontide, an extinct family of carnivorous whales,
with double-fanged serrated molar teeth, whose affinities are
somewhat doubtful, are found in the older Pliocene of Europe,
and in the Miocene and Eocene ot the Eastern United States.
Zeuglodon abounds in the United States, and one species reached
a length of seventy feet. A species of this genus is said to have
been found in Malta. Sgualodon occurs in Europe and North
America ; and in the latter country four or five other genera have
been described, of which one, Sawvocetes, has been found also at
Buenos Ayres.

Order VI—SIRENTA.

Famity 42—MANATID. (3 Genera, 5 Species 2)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETnmioPian
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

-2-4| ----| 1-—-3-— | 1.2—— | 12-4 | 1——--—

The Sea-cows are herbivorous aquatic animals living on the
coasts or in the great rivers of seyeral parts of the globe. MMa-
natus (2 species) inhabits both shores of the Atlantic, one
species ranging from the Gulf of Mexico to North Brazil, and
ascending the Amazon far into the interior of the continent ;
while the other is found on the west coast of Africa, Halicore (2.
species ?), the Dugong, is peculiar to the Indian Ocean, extending
from Mozambique to the Red Sea, thence to Western India and
Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago and the north coast of Australia.
Rytina (1 species), supposed to be now extinct, inhabited re-
cently the North Pacific, between Kamschatka and Behring’s
Straits.

Fossil Sirenia.—Extinct species of Manatus have been found
in the Post-pliocene deposits of Eastern North America from

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 211

Maryland to Florida; and an extinct genus, Prorastomus, in some
Tertiary deposits in the Island of Jamaica.

In Post-pliocene deposits in Siberia, remains of Rytina have
been found ; while several species of the extinct genus Hali-
thertum, perhaps intermediate between Manatus and Halicore,
have been found in the older Pliocene and Upper Miocene of
France and Germany.

Order VII—UNGULATA.

FamiLy 43.—EQUIDZ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PaL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUR-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,
Livine SPECIES.

_ ii | Lois | gia’ "\i sara | Eee: | Se

7
EXTINCT SPECIES.
!
.2——}1.2.3— (1.2.3.4) ———— 1-3 — --—--—
i

The Horses, Asses, and Zebras form a highly specialized group
now confined to the Ethiopian and Palearctic regions, but during
the middle and later tertiaries having a very extensive range.
The zebras (3 species) inhabit the greater part of the Ethiopian
region, while the asses (4 species) are characteristic of the deserts
of the Palearctic region from North Africa and Syria to Western
India, Mongolia, and Manchuria. The domestic horse is not
known in a wild state, but its remains are found in recent de-
posits from Britain to the Altai Mountains, so that its disappear-
ance is probably due to human agency.

Extinct Equide—Extinct forms of this family are very
numerous. The genus Hguus occurs in Post-pliocene and Plio-
cene deposits in Europe, North America, and South America.
In North America the species are most numerous. An allied
genus Hipparion, having rudimentary lateral toes, is represented

212 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV, -

by several species in the Pliocene of North America, while in
Europe it occurs both in the Older Pliocene and Upper Miocene.
Various other allied forms, in which the lateral toes are more
and more developed, and most of which are now classed in a dis-
tinct family, Anchitheride, range back through the Miocene to
the Eocene period. A sufficient account of these has. already
been given in vol. i. chap. vi. p. 135, to which the reader is
referred for the supposed origin and migrations of the horse.

Famity 44.—TAPIRID. (2 Genera? 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

—2.3— | seu a | ee eee | | aimee ae

The Tapirs form a small group of animals whose discontinuous
distribution plainly indicates their approaching extinction. For
a long time only two species were known, the black American,
and the white-banded Malay tapir, the former confined to the
equatorial forests of South America, the latter to the Malay
peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo (Plate VIII. vol. i. p. 337).
Lately however another, or perhaps two distinct species (or ac-
cording to Dr. J. E. Gray, four!) have been discovered in the
Andes of New Granada and Ecuador, at an elevation of from
8,000 to 12,000 feet; while one or perhaps two more, forming
the allied genus Elasmognathus, have been found to inhabit
Central America from Panama to Guatemala.

Extinct Tapirs—tTrue tapirs inhabited Western Europe, from
the latest Pliocene back to the earliest Miocene times ; while
they only occur in either North or South America in the Post-
pliocene deposits and caves. The singular distribution of the
living species is thus explained, since we see that they are
an Old World group which only entered the American continent
at a comparatively recent epoch. An ancestral form of this
group—Lophiodon—is found in Miocene and Eocene deposits of

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA, 213

Europe and North America; while a still more ancient form of
large size is found in the Lower Eocene of France and England,
indicating an immense antiquity for this group of Mammalia.
There are many other extinct forms connecting these with the
Palzotheride, already noticed in chapter vi. (vol. i. pp. 119-125).

Famity 45—RHINOCEROTID. (1 Genus, 9 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

Livine SPECIEs.

eae 9 | ----| beet

1.2.9-|-~3.4| Pais ee

Extinct SPECIES.

----| 1.2—— | 1.2.8.4] -——— | 1-3-| ee

Living Rhinoceroses are especially characteristic of Africa, with
Northern and Malayan India. Four or perhaps five species, all
two-horned, are found in Africa, where they range over the whole
country south of the desert to the Cape of Good Hope. In the
Oriental region there are also four or five species, which range
from the forests at the foot of the Himalayas eastwards through
Assam, Chittagong, and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo and Java.
Three of these are one-horned, the others found in Sumatra, and
northwards to Pegu and Chittagong, two-horned. The Asiatie
differ from the African species in some dental characters, but
they are in other respects so much alike that they are not gene-
rally considered to form distinct genera. In his latest catalogue
however (1873), Dr. Gray has four genera, Rhinoceros (4 species),
and Ceratorhinus (2 species), Asiatic; Rhinaster (2 species), and
Ceratotheriwm (2 species), African.

jatinet Rhinocerotide.—Numerous species of Rhinoceros ranged
over Europe and Asia from the Post-pliocene back to the Upper
Miocene period, and in North America during the Pliocene period

214 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

only. The hornless Acerotherium is Miocene only, in both
countries. Other genera are, Leptodon from Greece, and Hyra-
codon from Nebraska, both of Miocene age. More than 20
species of extinct rhinoceroses are known, and one has even been
found at an altitude of 16,000 feet in Thibet.

Famity 46.—HIPPOPOTAMID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
ss TD
NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Svs-ReEGIons. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

‘\

LivinG SPECIEs.

1.2.3— | —--—- | —_— — —

Extinct SPECIES.

----| ----| 1.2--

----|1-s-| Lae

The Hippopotamus inhabits all the great rivers of Africa; a
distinct species of a smaller size being found on the west coast,
and on some of the rivers flowing into Lake Tchad.

Fossil Hippopotami.—Eight extinct species of Hippopotamus
are known from Europe and India, the former Post-pliocene or
Pliocene, the latter of Upper Miocene age. They ranged as far
north as the Thames valley. An extinct genus from the Siwalik
Hills, Merycopotamus, according to Dr. Falconer connects Hippo-
potamus with Anthracotherium, an extinct form from the Miocene
of Europe, allied to the swine.

Famity 47—SUIDZ. (5 Genera, 22 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

—2.3— | -2.3-| 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.—-——

The Swine may be divided into three well-marked groups,
from peculiarities in their dentition. 1. The Dicotyline, or

CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 215

peccaries (1 genus, Dicotyles). These offer so many structural

differences that they are often classed as a separate family. 2.

The true swine (3 genera, Sus, Potamocherus, and Babirusa) ; and,

3. The Phacocheerine, or wart hogs (1 genus, Phacochwrus). These.
last are also sometimes made into a separate family, but they

are hardly so distinct as the Dicotyline.

The Peccaries (2 species), are peculiar to the Neotropical re-
gion, extending from Mexico to Paraguay. They also spread
northwards into Texas, and as far as the Red River of Arkansas,
thus just entering the Nearctic region ; but with this exception
swine are wholly absent from this region, forming an excellent
feature by which to differentiate it from the Palearctic.

Sus (14 species), ranges over the Palearctic and Oriental regions
and into the first Australian sub-region as far as New Guinea ;
but it is absent from the Ethiopian region, or barely enters it on
the north-east. Potamocherus (3 species ?), is wholly Ethiopian
(Plate V. vol. i. p. 278). Babirusa (1 species), is confined to two
islands, Celebes and Bouru, in the first Australian sub-region.

Phacocherus (2 species), ranges over tropical Africa from
Abyssinia to Caffraria.

Dr. J. E. Gray divides true swine (Sus) into 7 genera, but it
seems far better to keep them as one.

Fossil Suidw.—These are very numerous. Many extinct
species of wild hog (Sus), are found in Europe and North India,
ranging back from the Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene for-
mations. In the Miocene of Europe are numerous extinct
genera, Bothriodon, Anthracotherium, Paleocherus, Hyotherium,
and some others; while in the Upper Eocene occur Cebocherus,
Cheropotamus, and Acothertwm,—these early forms having more
resemblance to the peccaries.

None of these genera are found in America, where we have the
living genus Dicotyles in the Post-pliocene and Pliocene deposits,
both of North and South America; with a number of extinct
genera in the Miocene. The chief of these are, Hlotherium, Per-
cherus, Leptocherus, and Nanohyus, all from Dakota, and
Thinohyus, from Oregon. One extinct genus, Platygonus, closely
allied to Dvicotyles, is found in the Post-pliocene of Nebraska.

Vou. I1.—15

216 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Oregon, and Arkansas. lotherium is said to be allied to the
peceary and hippopotamus. Hyopotamus, from the Miocene of
Dakota, is allied to Anthracotherium, and forms with it (accord-
ing to Dr. Leidy) a distinct family of ancestral swine.

It thus appears, that the swine were almost equally well re-
presented in North America and Europe, during Miocene and
Pliocene times, but by entirely distinct forms ; and it is a re-
markable fact that these hardy omnivorous animals, should, like
the horses, have entirely died out in North America, except a
few peccaries which have preserved themselves in the sub-tropical
parts and in the southern continent, to which they are compara-
tively recent emigrants. We can hardly have a more convincing
proof of the vast physical changes that have occurred in the
North American continent during the Pliocene and Post-pliocene
epochs, than the complete extinction of these, along with so
many other remarkable types of Mammalia.

According to M. Gaudry, the ancestors of all the swine, with
the hippopotami and extinct Anthracotherium, Merycopotamus,
and many allied forms,—are the Hyracotherium and Pliolophus,
both found only in the London clay belonging to the Lower
Eocene formation.

FAmiLy 48.—CAMELID. (2 Genera, 6 Species).*

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIOC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

Livine SPEctEs.

pane | aan=| eae [aa] a= | a

Extinct SPECIES.

{= | -2.3.4| ae | ----| --3.-| men |

The Camels are an exceedingly restricted group, the majority
of the species now existing only in a state of domestication. The
genus Camelus (2 species), is a highly characteristic desert form

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 217

of the Palearctic region, from the Sahara to Mongolia as far as
Lake Baikal. Awchenia (4 species), comprehending the Llamas
and Alpacas, is equally characteristic of the mountains and deserts
of the southern part of South America. Two species entirely
domesticated inhabit the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes; and two
others are found in a wild state, the vicuna in the Andes of
Peru and Chili (Plate XVI. vol. 1. p. 40), and the guanaco over
the plains of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.

Extinct Camelide.—No fossil remains of camels have been
found in Europe, but one occurs in the deposits of the Siwalik
Hills, usually classed as Upper Miocene, but which some natu-
ralists think are more likely of Older Pliocene age. Meryco-
thervwm, teeth of which have been found in the Siberian drift, is
supposed to belong to this family.

In North America, where no representative of the family now
exists, the camel-tribe were once abundant. In the Post-pliocene
deposits of California an Auchenia has been found, and in those
of Kansas one of the extinct genus Procamelus. In the Pliocene
period, this genus, which was closely allied to the living camels,
abounded, six or seven species having been described from
Nebraska and Texas, together with an allied form Homocamelus.
In the Miocene period different genera appear,—Pebrotherium,
and Protomeryxz—while a Procamelus has been found in de-
posits of this age in Virginia.

In South America a species of Awchenia has been found in
the caves of Brazil, and others in the Pliocene deposits of the
pampas, together with two extinct genera, Palwolama and Camelo-
thervum.

We thus find the ancestors of the Camelide in a region where
they do not now exist, but which is situated so that the now
widely separated living forms could easily have been derived
from it. This case offers a remarkable example of the light
thrown by paleontology on the distribution of living animals;
and it is a warning against the too common practice of assuming
the direct land connection of remote continents, in order to ex-
plain similar instances of discontinuous distribution to that of
the present family.

218 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS

ll | Say al Ne | == [1 -2-3.4| ae

The Tragulide are a group of small, hornless, deer-like animals,
with tusks in the upper jaw, and having some structural affinities
with the camels. The musk-deer was formerly classed in this
family, which it resembles externally ; but a minute examination
of its structure by M. Milne-Edwards, has shown it to be more
nearly allied to the true deer. The Chevrotains, or mouse-deer,
Tragulus (5 species), range over all India to the foot of the
Himalayas and Ceylon, and through Assam, Malacca, and Cam-
bodja, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java (Plate VIII., vol. i. p.
337). Hyomoschus (1 species), is found in West Africa.

Extinct Tragulide.—aA species of Hyomoschus is said to have
been found in the Miocene of the South of France, as well as
three extinct genera, Dremotheriwm (also found in Greece), with
Lophiomeryx from the Upper Miocene, said to be allied to Tra-
gulus ; and Amphitragulus from the Lower Miocene, of more
remote affinities, and sometimes placed among the Deer. There
seems to be no doubt, however, that this family existed in Europe
in Miocene times; and thus another case of discontinuous dis-
tribution is satisfactorily accounted for.

FamiLy 50.—CERVID. (8 Genera, 52 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NeEoTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1.2.3— | 1.2.3.4| 1.2.3.4 — — —— | 1.2.3.4] 1---

The Cervide, or deer tribe, are an extensive group of animals
equally adapted for inhabiting forests or open plains, the Arctic

CHAP, XVII. } MAMMALIA. 219

regions or the Tropics. They range in fact over the whole of the
great continents of the globe, with the one striking exception of
Africa, where they are only found on the shores of the Mediterra-
nean which form part of the Palearctic region. The following
is the distribution of the genera.

Alces (1 species), the elk or moose, ranges all over Northern
Europe and Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the Caucasus, and
North China ; and over Arctic America to Maine on the East, and
British Columbia on the west. The American species may
however be distinct, although very closely allied to that of
Europe. Tarandus (1 species), the reindeer, has a similar range
to the last, but keeps farther north in Europe, inhabiting Green-
land and Spitzbergen ; and in America extends farther south, to
New Brunswick and the north shore of Lake Superior. There
are several varieties or species of this animal confined to special
districts, but they are not yet well determined. Cervus (40
species), the true deer, have been sub-divided into numerous sub-
genera characteristic of separate districts. They range over the
whole area of the family, except that they do not go beyond
57° N. in America and a little further in Europe and Asia. In
South America they extend over Patagonia and even to Tierra
del Fuego. They are found in the north of Africa, and over the
whole of the Oriental region, and beyond it as far as the Mo-
luccas and Timor, where however they have probably been intro-
duced by man at an early period. Dama (1 species), the fallow
deer, is a native of the shores of the Mediterranean, from Spain
and Barbary to Syria. Capreolus (2 species), the roe-deer, inhabits
all Temperate and South Europe to Syria, with a distinct species
in N. China. Cervulus (4 species), the muntjacs, are found in
all the forest districts of the Oriental region, from India and
Ceylon to China as fat north as Ningpo and Formosa, also south-
ward to the Philippines, Borneo, and Java. Moschus (1 species)
the musk-deer, inhabits Central Asia from the Amoor and
Pekin, to the Himalayas and the Siamese mountains above
8000 ft. elevation. This is usually classed as a distinct family,
but M. Milne-Edwards remarks, that it differs in no important
points of organisation from the rest of the Cervide. Hydropotes

220 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

(1 species) inhabits China from the Yang-tse Kiang northwards.
This new genus has recently been discovered by Mr. Swinhoe,
who says its nearest affinities are with Moschus. Other new
forms are Lophotragus, and Elaphodus, both inhabiting North
China; the former is hornless, the latter has very small horns
about an inch long.

Extinct Deer—Numerous extinct species of the genus Cervus
are found fossil in many parts of Europe, and in all formations
between the Post-pliocene and the Upper Miocene. The Elk
and Reindeer are also found in caves and Post-pliocene deposits,
the latter as far south as the South of France. Extinct genera
only, occur in the Upper Miocene in various parts of Europe :—
Micromeryx, Paleomeryx, and Dicrocercus have been described ;
with others referred doubtfully to Moschus, and an allied genus
Amphimoschus.

In N. America, remains of this family are very scarce, a Cer-
vus allied to the existing wapiti deer, being found in Post-plio-
cene deposits, and an extinct genus, Leptomeryx, in the Upper
Miocene of Dakota and Oregon. Another extinct genus, Mery-
codus, from the Pliocene of Oregon, is said to be allied to camels
and deer.

In South America, several species of Cervus have been found
in the Brazilian caves, and in the Pliocene deposits of La
Plata.

It thus appears, that there are not yet sufficient materials for
determining the origin and migrations of the Cervide. There
can be little doubt that they are an Old World group, and a com-
paratively recent development; and that some time during the
Miocene period they passed to North America, and subsequently
to the Southern continent. They do not however appear to have
developed much in North America, owing “perhaps to their find-
ing the country already amply stocked with numerous forms
of indigenous Ungulates.

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 221

Famity 51—CAMELOPARDALIDA. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

_NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.
.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

Livine SPECIEs.

eS | hij ale ll ge

|

Seri on wala Ti

Extinct SPECIES.
!

oe ee ee

The Camelopardalide, or giraffes, now consist of but a single
species which ranges over all the open country of the Ethiopian
region, and is therefore almost absent from West Africa, which
is more especially a forest district. During the Middle Tertiary
period, however, these animals had a wider range, over Southern
Europe and Western India as far as the slopes of the Hima-
layas.

Extinct Species—Species of Camelopardalis have been found
in Greece, the Siwalik Hills, and Perim Island at the entrance
to the Red Sea; and an extinct genus, Helladotheriwm, more
bulky but not so tall as the giraffe, ranged from the south of
France to Greece and North-west India.

Famity 52.—BOVIDE. (34 Genera, 149 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

. NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

---- | 1.2-4]1.2.9.4[1.9.0—|1.2.3.4 | 1-~-

This large and important family, includes all the animals com-
monly known as oxen, buffaloes, antelopes, sheep, and goats,
which have been classed by many naturalists in at least three,
and sometimes four or five, distinct families. Zoologically, they

222 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

are briefly and accurately defined as, “ hollow-horned ruminants ;”
and, although they present wide differences in external form,
they grade so insensibly into each other, that no satisfactory
definition of the smaller family groups can be found. As
a whole they are almost confined to the great Old World
continent, only a few forms extending along the highlands and
prairies of the Nearctic region ; while one peculiar type is found in
Celebes, an island which is almost intermediate between the
Oriental and Australian regions. In each of the Old World
regions there are found a characteristic set of types. Antelopes:
prevail in the Ethiopian region; sheep and goats in the Pale-
arctic ; while the oxen are nes best developed in the Oriental
region.

Sir Victor Brooke, who has paid special attention to this
family, divides them into 13 sub-families, and 1 here adopt the
arrangement of the genera aud species which he has been so
good as to communicate to me in MSS.

Sub-family I. Bovrn& (6 genera, 15 species). This group is
one of the best marked in the family. It comprises the Oxen
and Buffaloes with their allies, and has a distribution very
nearly the same as that of the entire family. The genera are as
follows: Bos (1 sp.), now represented by our domestic cattle, the
descendants of the Bos primigenius, which ranged over a large
part of Central Europe in the time of the Romans. The Chil-
lingham wild cattle are supposed to be the nearest approach to
the original species. Bison (2 sp.), one still wild in Poland and
the Caucasus; the other in North America, ranging over the
prairies west of the Mississippi, and on the eastern slopes of the
Rocky Mountains (Plate XIX., vol. ii, p. 129). Bibos (3 sp.),
the Indian wild cattle, ranging over a large part of the Oriental
region, from Southern India to Assam, Burmah, the Malay
Peninsula, Borneo, and Java. Poephaqus (1 sp.), the yak, con-
fined to the high plains of Western Thibet. Bubalus (5 sp.), the
buffaloes, of which three species are African, ranging over all the
continental parts of the Ethiopian region; one Northern and
Central Indian; and the domesticated animal in South Europe
and North Africa. Anoa (1 sp.), the small wild cow of Celebes,

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 293
a very peculiar form more nearly allied to the buffaloes than
to any other type of oxen.

Sub-family II. TRAGELAPHIN® (3 genera, 11 species). The
Bovine Antelopes are large and handsome animals, mostly
Ethiopian, but extending into the adjacent parts of the Pale-
arctic and Oriental regions. The genera are: Oreas (2 sp.),
elands, inhabiting all Tropical and South Africa. Tvragela-
phus (8 sp.), cluding the bosch-bok, kudu, and other large
antelopes, ranges over all Tropical and South Africa (Plate IV.,
vol. ii, p. 261). Portax (1 sp.) India, but rare in Madras and
north of the Ganges.

Sub-family III. Orycin# (2 genera, 5 species). Oryx (4 sp.) is
a desert genus, ranging over all the African deserts to South
Arabia and Syria; Addax (1 sp.) inhabits North Africa, North
Arabia, and Syria.

Sub-family IV. Hipporracin® (1 genus, 3 species). The
Sable Antelopes, Hippotragus, form an isolated group inhabiting
the open country of Tropical Africa and south to the Cape.

Sub-family V. GAZELLIN® (6 genera, 23 species). This is
a group of small ar moderate-sized animals, most abundant in
the deserts on the borders of the Palearctic, Oriental, and
Ethiopian regions. Gazella (17 sp.) is typically a Palearctic
desert group, ranging over the great desert plateaus of North
Africa, from Senegal and Abyssinia to Syria, Persia, Beloo-
chistan, and the plains of India, with one outlying species in
South Africa. Procapra (2 sp.), Western Thibet and Mongolia
to about 110° east longitude. Antilope (1 sp.) inhabits all the
plains of India. 4&/pyceros (1 sp.) the pallah, inhabits the open
country of South and South-east Africa. Sazga (1 sp.) a singular
sheep-faced antelope, which inhabits the steppes of Eastern
Europe and Western Asia from Poland to the Irtish River,
south of 55° north latitude. (Plate II., vol. i, p. 218.) Pan-
thalops (1 sp.) confined to the highlands of Western Thibet and
perhaps Turkestan.

Sub-family VI. ANTILOCAPRINZ (1 genus, 1 species), Antilo-
capra, the prong-horned antelope, inhabit both sides of the
Rocky Mountains, extending north to the Saskatchewan and

224 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Columbia River, west to the coast range of California, and east
to the Missouri. Its remarkable deciduous horns seem to indi-
cate a transition to the Cervide. (Plate XIX., vol. ii, p. 129.)

Sub-family VII. Crrvicaprin& (5 genera, 21 species). This
group of Antelopes is wholly confined to the continental portion
of the Ethiopian region. The genera are: Cervicapra (4 sp.),
Africa, south of the equator and Abyssinia; Kobus (6 sp.), grassy
plains and marshes of Tropical Africa; Pelea (1 sp.), South
Africa; Nanotragus (9 species), Africa, south of the Sahara;
Neotragus (1 sp.) Abyssinia and East Africa.

Sub-family VIII. CEPHALOPHIN# (2 genera, 24 species), Africa
and India; Cephalophus (22 sp.), continental Ethiopian region ;
Tetraceros (2 sp.) hilly part of all India, but rare north of the
Ganges.

Sub-family [X. ALCEPHALIN® (2 genera, 11 species), large
African Antelopes, one species just entering the Palearctic
region. The genera are: Alcephalus (9 sp.) all Africa and
north-east to Syria; Catoblepas (2 sp.), gnus, Africa, south of
the Equator.

Sub-region X. Buporcin# (1 genus, 2 species) Budorcas in-
habits the high Himalayas from Nepal to East Thibet.

Sub-family XI. Ruprcaprinz (1 genus, 2 species) the Cha-
mois, Rupicapra, inhabit the high European Alps from the
Pyrenees to the Caucasus. (Plate I. vol. 1, p. 195.)

Sub-family XII. NeMoRHEDINA (2 genera, 10 species). These
goat-like Antelopes inhabit portions of the Palearctic and
Oriental regions, as well as the Rocky Mountains in the Nearctic
region. Nemorhedus (9 sp.) ranges from the Eastern Hima-
layas to N. China and Japan, and south to Formosa, the Malay
Peninsula and Sumatra. Aplocerus (1 sp.), the mountain goat
of the trappers, inhabits the northern parts of California and the
Rocky Mountains.

Sub-family XIII. Caprin# (2 genera, 23 species). The Goats
and Sheep form an extensive series, highly characteristic of the
Palearctic region, but with an outlying species on the Neilgher-
ries in Southern India, and one in the Rocky Mountains and
California. The genera are Capra (22 sp.) and Ovibos (1 sp.).

CHAP, XVII.] MAMMALTA, 225

The genus Capra consists of several sub-groups which have
been named as genera, but itis unnecessary here to do more than
divide them into “Goats and Ibexes” on the one hand and
“ Sheep ” on the other—each comprising 11 species. The former
range over all the South European Alps from Spain to the Cau-
casus ; to Abyssinia, Persia, and Scinde; over the high Himalayas
to E. Thibet and N. China; with an outlying species in the
Neilgherries. The latter are only found in the mountains of Cor-
sica, Sardinia, and Crete, in Europe; in Asia Minor, Persia,
and in Central and North-Eastern Asia, with one somewhat
isolated species in the Atlas mountains; while in America a
species is found inthe Rocky Mountains and the coast range
of California. Ovibos (1 sp.), the musk-sheep, inhabits Arctic
America north of lat. 60; but it occurs fossil in Post-glacial
gravels on the Yena and Obi in Siberia, in Germany and France
along with the Mammoth and with flint implements, and in
caves of the Reindeer period; also in the brick earth in the
south of England, associated with Rhinoceros megarhinus and
Hlephas antiquus.

Extinct Bovide.—In the caverns and diluviums of Europe, of
the Post-Pliocene period, the remains are found of extinct species
of Bos, Bison, and Capra; and in the caverns of the south of France
Rupicapra, and an antelope near Hippotragus. Bos and bison
also occur in Pliocene deposits. In the Miocene of Europe, the
only remains are antelopes closely allied to existing species, and
these are especially numerous in Greece, where remains referred
to two living and four extinct genera have been discovered. In
the Miocene of India numerous extinct species of os, and two
extinct genera, Hemibos and Amphibos, have been found, one of
them at a great elevation in Thibet. Antelopes, allied to living
Indian species, are chiefly found in the Nerbudda deposits.

In North America, the only bovine remains are those of a
Bison, and a sheep or goat, in the Post-pliocene deposits; and
of two species of musk-sheep, sometimes classed in a distinct
genus Bootherium, from beds of the same age in Arkansas and
Ohio. Casoryx, from the Pliocene of Nebraska, is supposed to be
allied to the antelopes and to deer.

226 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY.

In the caves of Brazil remains of two animals said to be ante-
lopes, have been discovered. They are classed by Gervais in the
genera Antilope and Leptothervum, but the presence of true ante-
lopes in 8. America at this period is so improbable, that there is
probably some error of identification.

The extinct family Sivatherid, containing the extraordinary
and gigantic four-horned Sivatherium and Bramatherium, of the
Siwalik deposits, are most nearly allied to the antelopes.

From the preceding facts we may conclude, that the great
existing development of the Bovidee is comparatively recent.
The type may have originated early in the Miocene period, the
oxen being at first most tropical, while the antelopes inhabited
the desert zone a little further north. The sheep and goats seem
to be the most recent development of the bovine type, which
was probably long confined to the Eastern Hemisphere.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Ungulata.

With the exception of the Australian region, from which this
order of mammalia is almost entirely wanting, the Ungulata are
almost universally distributed over the continental parts of all the
other regions. Of the ten families, 7 are Ethiopian, 6 Oriental, 5
Palearctic, 4 Neotropical, and 3 Nearctic. The Ethiopian region
owes its superiority to the exclusive possession of the hippo-
potamus and giraffe, both of which inhabited the Palearctic and
Oriental regions in Miocene times. The excessive poverty of the
Nearctic region in this order is remarkable; the swine being
represented only by Dicotyles in its extreme southern portion,
while the Bovide are restricted to four isolated species. Deer
alone are fairly well represented. But, during the Eocene and
Miocene periods, North America was wonderfully rich in varied
forms of Ungulates, of which there were at least 8 or 9 families ;
while we have reason to believe that during the same periods the
Ethiopian region was excessively poor, and that it probably re-
ceived the ancestors of all its existing families from Europe or
Western Asia in later Miocene or Pliocene times. Many types that
once abounded in both Europe and North America are now pre-
served only in South America and Central or Tropical Asia,—as

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. / 997

the tapirs and camels ; while others once confined to Europe and
Asia have found a refuge in Africa,—as the hippopotamus and
giraffe; so that im no other order do we find such striking ex-
amples of those radical changes in the distribution of the higher
animals which were effected during the latter part of the Tertiary
period. The present distribution of this order is, in fact, utterly
unintelligible without reference to the numerous extinct forms
of existing and allied families ; but as this subject has been suffi-
ciently discussed in the Second Part of this work (Chapters VI.
and VII.) it is unnecessary to give further details here.

Order VIIZL—PROBOSCIDEA.

FamILy 53.—ELEPHANTIDZ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

LivinG SPECIEs.

_ | Be 2 | = won

ExtTINcT SPECIES.

1223 — j1-2-2.4| at

1.2 —— [1.2.9.4 1.2.3.4

1—--| 1-3 — | te)

The elephants are now represented by two species, the African,
which ranges all over that continent south of the Sahara, and
the Indian, which is found over all the wooded parts of the
Oriental region, from the slopes of the Himalayas to Cey-
lon, and eastward, to the frontiers of China and to Sumatra and
Borneo. These, however, are but the feeble remnants of a host
of gigantic creatures, which roamed over all the great conti-
nents except Australia during the Tertiary period, and several of
which were contemporary with man.

Extinct Elephants——At least 14 extinct species of Hlephas,
and a rather greater number of the allied genus Mastodon (dis-
tinguished by their less complex grinding teeth) have now been

228 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

discovered. Elephants ranged over all the Palearctic and
Nearctic regions in Post-Pliocene times; in Europe and Central
India they go back to the Pliocene; and only in India to the
Upper Miocene period ; the number of species increasing as we
go back to the older formations.

In North America two or three species of Mastodon are Post-
pliocene and Pliocene ; and a species is found in the caves of
Brazil, and in the Pliocene deposits of the pampas of La Plata,
of the Bolivian Andes, and of Honduras and the Bahamas.
In Europe the genus is Upper Miocene and Pliocene, but is espe-
cially abundant in the former period. In the East, it extends
from Perim island to Burmah and over all India, and is mostly
Miocene, but with perhaps one species Pliocene in Central
India.

An account of the range of such animals as belong to extinct
. families of Proboscidea, will be found in Chapters VI. and VIT.;
from which it will be seen that, although the family Elephantidee
undoubtedly originated in the Eastern Hemisphere, it is not
improbable that the first traces of the order Proboscidea are to
be found in N. America.

Order [IX —HYRACOIDEA.
Famity 54.—HYRACIDZ. (1 Genus. 10-12 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
—————————— EES —EEEEEeeEeEEeeeeeeeEEeeeeEese
NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SuB-REGIONS. | SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

senbyiand | ---- | -2--|1.2.0- | ----| ----

The genus Hyraz, which alone constitutes this family, consists
of small animals having the appearance of hares or marmots,
but which more resemble the genus Rhinoceros in their teeth and
skeleton. They range all over the Ethiopian region, except Mada-
gascar ; a peculiar species is found in Fernando Po, and they
just enter the Palearctic as far as Syria. They may therefore
be considered as an exclusively Ethiopian group. In Dr. Gray’s

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 229

last Catalogue (1873) he divides the genus into three—Hyraz,
Euhyrax and Dendrohyrax—the latter consisting of two species
confined apparently to West and South Africa.

No extinct forms of this family have yet been discovered ; the
Hyracotherium of the London clay (Lower Eocene) which was
supposed to resemble Hyraz, is now believed to be an ancestral
type of the Suidz or swine.

Order X—RODENTIA.

Famity 55—MURIDA. (37 Genera, 330 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

= “
1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4) ac.) 1.2.3.4|1.2.3.4| —2-—-—

The Muride, comprising the rats and mice with their allies, are
almost universally distributed over the globe (even not reckon-
ing the domestic species which have been introduced almost
everywhere by man), the exceptions being the three insular
groups belonging to the Australian region, from none of which
have any species yet been obtained. Before enumerating the
genera it will be as well to say a few words on the peculiarities
of distribution they present. The true mice, forming the genus
Mus, is distributed over the whole of the world except N. and S.
America where not a single indigenous species occurs, being
replaced by the genus Hesperomys ; five other genera, compre-
hending all the remaining species found in South America are
peculiar to the Neotropical region. Three genera are confined to
the Palearctic region, and three others to the Nearctic. No less
than twelve genera are exclusively Ethiopian, while only three
are exclusively Oriental and three Australian.

Mus (100-120 sp.) the Eastern Hemisphere, but absent from the
Pacific and Austro-Malayan Islands, except Celebes and Papua;
Lasiomys (1 sp.) Guinea; Acanthomys (5-6 sp.) Africa, India and

230 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

N. Australia; Cricetomys (1 sp.) Tropical Africa ; Saccostomus (2
sp.) Mozambique ; Cricetus (9 sp.) Paleearctic region and Egypt ;
Cricetulus (1 sp., Milne-Edwards, 1870) Pekin ; Pseudomys (1 sp.)
Australia ; Hapalotis (13 sp.) Australia ; Phleomys (1 sp.) Philip-
pines ; Platacanthomys (1 sp., Blyth, 1865) Malabar ; Dendromys
(2 sp.) S. Africa; Wesomys. (1 sp. Peters, 1870) Madagascar ;
Steatomys (2 sp.) N. and 8. Africa ; Pelomys (1 sp.) Mozambique ;
Reithrodon (9 sp.) N. America, Lat. 29° to Mexico, and south to
Tierra del Fuego; Acodon (1 sp.) Peru; Myxomys (1 sp.) Guate-
mala; Hesperomys (90 sp.) North and South America ; Holochilus
(4 sp.) South America; Oxymycterus (4 sp.) Brazil and La Plata ;
Neotoma (6 sp.) U.S., East coast to California ; Sigmodon (2 sp.)
Southern United States ; Drymomys (1 sp.) Peru ; Neotomys (2 sp.)
S. America ; Ofomys (6 sp.) 8S. and E. Africa ; Meriones = Gerbillus
(20-30 sp.) Egypt, Central Asia, India, Africa; Rhombomys (6
sp.) S. E. Europe, N. Africa, Central Asia ; Malacothrix (2 sp.)
South Africa; Mystromys (1 sp.) South Africa; Psammomys (1
sp.) Egypt ; Spalacomys (1 sp.) India; Sminthus (1-3 sp.) East
Europe, Tartary, Siberia ; Hydromys (5 sp.) Australia and Tas-
mania ; Hypogeomys (1 sp., Grandidier, 1870) Madagascar; Bra-
chytarsomys (1 sp., Giinther, 1874) Madagascar; Fiber (2 sp.) N.
America to Mexico; Arvicola (50 sp.) Europe to Asia Minor,
North Asia, Himalayas, Temp. N. America; Cuniculus (1 sp.)
N. E. Europe, Siberia, Greenland, Arctic America; Myodes{4 sp.)
Europe, Siberia, Arctic America, and Northern United States ;
Myospalaxz = Siphneus (2 sp.) Altai Mountains and N. China’;
Lophiomys (1 sp.) S. Arabia, and N. E. Africa; Echiothria
(1 sp.) Australia.

Extinct Muride—Species of Mus, Cricetus, Arvicola, and
Myodes, occur in the Post-Pliocene deposits of Europe ; Arvicola,
Mervones, and the extinct genus Cricetodon, with some others, in
the Miocene.

In North America, Fiber, Arvicola, and Neotoma, occur in caves;

* Myospalax has hitherto formed part of the next family, Spalacide ; but
a recent examination of its anatomy by M. Milne-Edwards shows that it
belongs to the Muride, and comes near Arvicola.

CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 231

an extinct genus, Hwmys, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota, and
another, Mysops, in the Eocene of Wyoming.

In South America Mus, or more probably Hesperomys, is
abundant in Brazilian caverns, and Oxymycterus in the Pliocene
of La Plata; while Arvicola is said to have occurred both in the
Pliocene and Eocene deposits of the same country.

Faminty 56.—SPALACID. (7 Genera, 17 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PAaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ee | pe eee) | 1.2.3 = | 1.2.3 — | i314 | aes EEL Lt

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

—_

The Spalacide, or mole-rats, have a straggling distribution over
the Old World continents. They are found over nearly the whole
of Africa, but only in the South-east of Europe, and West of
Temperate Asia, but appearing again in North India, Malacca,
and South China. llobius (1 sp.), is found in South Russia
and South-west Siberia ; Spalax (1 sp.), Southern Russia, West
Asia, Hungary, Moldavia, and Greece (Plate II, vol. i. p. 218) ;
Rhizomys (6 sp.), Abyssinia, North India, Malacca, South China ;
Heterocephalus (1 sp.), Abyssinia ; Bathyerges (= Orycterus 1 sp.),
South Africa; Georychus (6 sp.), South, Central, and East Africa ;
Heliophobus (1 sp.), Mozambique.

Famity 57—DIPODID®. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

eS nee j1.2.0.4 |- 2-3-4 | 1.2.3 —| sire | epee.

The Jerboas, or jumping mice, are especially characteristic of
the regions about the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean,
being found in South Russia, the Caspian district, Arabia, Egypt,

Vou. IL—16

232 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

and Abyssinia; but they also extend over a large part of Africa,
and eastward to India; while isolated forms occur in North
America, and the Cape of Good Hope. Dipus = Gerbillus (20
sp.), inhabits North and Central Africa, South-East Europe, and
across Temperate Asia to North China, also Affghanistan, India,
and Ceylon; Pedetes (1 sp.), South Africa to Mozambique and
Angola ; Jaculus = Meriones (1 sp.), North America, from Nova
Scotia and Canada, south to Pennsylvania and west to California
and British Columbia (Plate XX., vol. ii. p. 135).

Extinct Dipodide.—Dipus occurs fossil in the Miocene of the
Alps; and an extinct genus, Jssiodromys, said to be allied to
Pedetes of the Cape of Good Hope, is from the Pliocene forma-
tions of Auvergne in France.

Famity 58—MYOXIDA. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Sup-reEGIoNS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

=LES [a2 [atalata|avaca | =¢-— | Geos

The Dormice (Myoxus), are small rodents found over all the
temperate parts of the Palearctic region, from Britain to Japan ;
and also over most parts of Africa to the Cape, but wanting in
India. Some of the African species have been separated under
the name of Graphidurus, while those of Europe and Asia form
the sub-genera Glis, Muscardinus, and Eliomys.

Extinct Myoxide.—Myoxus ranges from the Post-pliocene of
the Maltese caverns to the Miocene of Switzerland and the
Upper Eocene of France; and an extinct genus Brachymys is
found in the Miocene of Central Europe.

CHAP. XVL.] MAMMALIA. 233

Famity 59.—SACCOMYIDZ. (6 Genera, 33 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
——— jr.2.a.4) -~-—|-~-~|----| ----

The Saccomyide, or pouched rats, are almost wholly confined
to our second Nearctic sub-region, comprising the Rocky Moun-
tains and the elevated plains of Central North America. A few
species range from this district as far as Hudson’s Bay on the
north, to South Carolina on the east, and to California on the
west, while one genus, doubtfully placed here, goes south as far
as Honduras and Trinidad. The group must therefore be consi-
dered to be pre-eminently characteristic of the Nearctic region.

The genera are,—Dipodomys (5 sp.), North Mexico, California,
the east slope of the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia River, and
one species in South Carolina ; Perognathus (6 sp.), North Mexico,
California, east slope of the Rocky Mountains to British
Columbia; ZThomomys (2 sp.), Upper Missouri, and Upper
Columbia Rivers to Hudson’s Bay ; Geomys (5 sp.), North Mexico,
and east slope of Rocky Mountains to Nebraska (Plate XIX.,
vol. ii. p. 129); Saccomys (1 sp.), North America, locality un-
known; Heteromys (6 sp.), Mexico, Honduras, and Trinidad. ’
Geomys and Thomomys constitute a separate family Geomyide,
of Professor Carus; but I follow Professor Lilljeborg, who has
made a special study of the Order, in keeping them with this
family.

In the Post-Pliocene deposits of Illinois and Nebraska, remains
of an existing species of Geomys have been found,

a

234 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

FamILy 60.—CASTORID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ea | 1.2.9.4] 1-3 - | ——-—-— | wet a

The Beavers, forming the genus Castor, consist of two species,
the American (Castor canadensis) ranging over the whole of
North America from Labrador to North Mexico; while the
European (Castor fiber) appears to be confined to the temperate
regions of Europe and Asia, from France to the River Amoor,
over which extensive region it doubtless roamed in prehistoric
times, although now becoming rare in many districts.

Extinct Castoride—Extinct species of Castor range back
from the Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene in Europe, and to
the Newer Pliocene in North America. Extinct genera in Europe
are, Trogontherium, Post-Pliocene and Pliocene; Chalicomys,
Older Pliocene ; and Steneofiber, Upper Miocene. In North
America Castoroides is Post-Pliocene, and Paleocastor, Upper
Miocene. The family thus first appears on the same geological
horizon in both Europe and North America.

Famity 61.—SCIURID.—(8 Genera, 180-200 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN

NEARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

* NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

s@.a— | 1.2.3.4 [p2.3-4/ 1.2.3— j1-2-3.4 | aft

The Squirrel family, comprehending also the marmots and
prairie-dogs, are very widely spread over the earth. They are
especially abundant in the Nearctic, Palearctic, and Oriental
regions, and rather less frequent in the Ethiopian and Neotro-
pical, in which last region they do not extend south of Paraguay.
They are absent from the West Indian islands, Madagascar, and
Australia, only occurring in Celebes which doubtfully belongs
to the Australian region. The genera are as follows :—

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 235

Sciurus (100—120 sp., including the sub-genera Spermosciurus,
Xerus, Macroxus, Rheithrosciurus, and Rhinosciurus), comprises
the true squirrels, and occupies the area of the whole family
wherever woods and forests occur. The approximate number of
species in each region is as follows: Nearctic 18, Palearctic 6,
Ethiopian 18, Oriental 50, Australian (Celebes) 5, Neotropical 30.
Sciwropterus (16—19 sp.), comprises the flat-tailed flying squirrels,
which range from Lapland and Finland to North China and Japan,
and southward through India and Ceylon, to Malacca and Java,
with a species in Formosa; while in North America they occur
from Labrador to British Columbia, and south to Minnesota and
Southern California. Pteromys (12 sp.), comprising the round-
tailed flying squirrels, is a more southern form, being confined to
the wooded regions of India from the Western Himalayas to Java
and Borneo, with species in Formosa and Japan. Tamas (5 sp.),
the ground squirrels, are chiefly North American, ranging from
Mexico to Puget’s Sound on the west coast, and from Virginia to
Montreal on the Atlantic coast; while one species is found over all
northern Asia. Spermophilus (26 sp.), the pouched marmots, are
confined to the Nearctic and Palearctic regions ; in the former ex-
tending from the Arctic Ocean to Mexico and the west coast, but
not passing east of Lake Michigan and the lower Mississippi; in the
latter from Silesia through South Russia to the Amoor and Kams-
chatka, most abundant in the desert plains of Tartary and Mon-
golia. Arctomys (8 sp.), the marmots, are found in the northern
parts of North America as far down as Virginia and Nebraska
to the Rocky Mountains and British Columbia, but not in Cali-
fornia; and from the Swiss Alps eastward to Lake Baikal and
Kamschatka, and south as far as the Himalayas, above 8,000 feet
elevation. Cynomys (2 sp.), the prairie-dogs, inhabit the plains
east of the Rocky Mountains from the Upper Missouri to the
Red River and Rio Grande (Plate XIX., vol. i. p. 129). Anoma-
lurus (5 sp.), consists of animals which resemble flying-squirrels,
but differ from all other members of the family in some points of
internal structure. They form a very aberrant portion of the
Sciuride, and, according to some naturalists, a distinct family.
They inhabit West Africa and the island of Fernando Po.

236 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Extinet Sciwride—These are tolerably abundant. The genus
Sciwrus appears to be a remarkably ancient form, extinct species
being found in the Miocene, and even in the Upper Eocene
formations of Europe. Spermophilus goes back to the Upper
Miocene ; Avctomys to the Newer Pliocene. Extinct genera are,
Brachymys, Inthomys and Plesiarctomys, from the European
Miocene, the latter said to be intermediate between marmots
and squirrels.

In North America, Sciwrus, Tamias, and Arctomys occur in the
Post-pliocene deposits only. The extinct genera are Jschyromys,
from the Upper Miocene of Nebraska; Paramys, allied to the
marmots, and Sciwravus, near the squirrels, from the Eocene of
Wyoming.

Here we have unmistakable evidence that the true squirrels
(Sciwrus) are an Old World type, which has only recently entered
North America; and this is in accordance with the comparative
scarcity of this group in South America, a country so well
adapted to them, and their great abundance in the Oriental
region, which, with the Palearctic, was probably the coun-
try of their origin and early development. The family, how-
ever, has been traced equally far back in Europe and North
America, so that we have as yet no means of determining where
it originated.

Famity 62—HAPLOODONTID.—(1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

ETHIOPIAN ; ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

---- |1---]----|----|----| ----

The genus Haploodon or Aplodontia, consists of two curious
rat-like animals, inhabiting the west coast of America, from the
southern part of British Columbia to the mountains of Califor-
nia. They seem to have affinities both with the beavers and
marmots, and Professor Lilljeborg constitutes a separate family
to receive them.

CHAP, XVII] MAMMALIA. 237

Famity 63.—CHINCHILLID. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SuB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ee

The Chinchillide, including the chinchillas and viscachas, are
confined to the alpine zones of the Andes, from the boundary of
Ecuador and Peru to the southern parts of Chili; and over the
Pampas, to the Rio Negro on the south, and the River Uruguay
on the east. Chinchilla (2 sp.), the true chinchillas, are found
in the Andes of Chili and Peru, south of 9° S. lat., and from
8,000 to 12,000 feet elevation (Plate XVI. vol. 1. p. 40); Lagi-
dium (3 sp.), the alpine viscachas, inhabit the loftiest plateaus
and mountains from 11,000 to 16,000 feet, and extend furthest
north of any of the family ; while Lagostomus (1 sp.), the vis-
cacha of the Pampas, has the range above indicated. The family
is thus confined within the limits of a single sub-region.

Extinct Chinchillide.—Lagostomus has been found fossil in
the caves of Brazil, and in the Pliocene deposits of La
Plata. The only known extinct forms of this family are Ambly-
rhiza and Loxomylus, found in cavern-deposits in the island of
Anguilla, of Post-Pliocene age. These are very interesting, as
showing the greater range of this family so recently ; though its
absence from North America and Europe indicates that it is a
peculiar development of the Neotropical region.

Famity 64—OCTODONTIDZ. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1.2—4 | oar ge —-a——| 1 ---| ----| SSS

238 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Lv.

The Octodontide include a number of curious and obscure
rat-like animals, mostly confined to the mountains and open
plains of South America, but having a few stragglers in other
parts of the world, as will be seen by our notes on the genera.
The most remarkable point in their distribution is, that two
genera are peculiar to the West Indian islands, while no species
of the family inhabits the northern half of South America.
The distribution of the genera is as follows :—Habrocomus (2
sp.), Chili; Capromys (8 sp.), two of which inhabit Cuba, the
third Jamaica (Plate XVII. vol. ii. p. 67) ; Plagiodontia (1 sp.),
only known from Hayti; Spalacopus, including Schizodon (2
sp.), Chili, and east side of Southern Andes; Octodon (3 sp.),
Peru, Bolivia, and Chili; Ctenomys (6 sp.), the tuco-tuco of the
Pampas, the Campos of Brazil to Bolivia and Tierra del Fuego ;
Ctenodactylus (1 sp.), Tripoli, North Africa; Pectinator (1 sp.),
East Africa, Abyssinia, 4,000 to 5,000 feet.

Capromys and Plagiodontia, the two West Indian genera,
were classed among the Echimyidee by Mr. Waterhouse, but
Professor Lilljeborg removes them to this family.

Extinct Octodontide—Species of Ctenomys have been found
in the Pliocene of La Plata, and an extinct genus Megamys, said
to be allied to Capromys, in the Eocene of the same country.
In Europe, Paleomys and Archeomys from the lower Miocene of
Germany and France, are also said to be allied to Capromys.

Famity 65.—ECHIMYID. (10 Genera, 30 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1.2—— =a [plamegieat ee ae | gal i ae

The Echimyide, or spiny rats, are a family, chiefly South
American, of which the Coypu, a large beaver-like water-rat
from Peru and Chili is the best known. Two of the genera are
found in South Africa, but all the rest inhabit the continent of
South America, East of the Andes, none being yet known north

CHAP. XVII.} MAMMALIA. 239

of Panama. The genera are as follows:—Dactylomys (2 sp.),
Guiana and Brazil; Cercomys (1 sp.), Central Brazil; Lasiwromys
(1 sp.), San Paulo, Brazil; Petromys (1 sp.), South Africa; Myopo-
tamus (1 sp.), the coypu, on the East side of the Andes from
Peru to 42° 8. lat., on the West side from 33° to 48° S. lat.;
Carterodon (1 sp.), Minaes Geraes, Brazil; Aulacodes (1. sp.),
West and South Africa; Mesomys (1 sp.), Borba on the Amazon ;
Echimys (11 sp.), from Guiana and the Ecuadorian Andes to
Paraguay ; Loncheres (10 sp.), New Granada to Brazil.

Fossil and Extinet Echimyide.—The genus Carterodon was
established on bones found in the Brazilian caves, and it was
several years afterwards that specimens were obtained showing
the animal to be a living species. Extinct species of Myopo-
tamus and Loncheres have also been found in these caves, with
the extinct genera Lonchophorus and Phyllomys.

No remains of this family have been discovered in North
America; but in the Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits of
France there are many species of an extinct genus Theridomys,
which is said to be allied to this group or to the next (Cercola-
bide). Avwlacodon, from the Upper Miocene of Germany, is
allied to the West African Aulacodes ; and some other remains
from the lower Miocene of Auvergne, are supposed to belong to
Echimys.

Famtty 66—CERCOLABID. (3 Genera, 13-15 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

IPALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

= QS (1.2.3.4 Shae | was caer = SPs

The Cercolabide, or arboreal porcupines, are a group of rodents
entirely confined to America, where they range from the northern
limit of trees on the Mackenzie River, to the southern limit of
forests in Paraguay. There is however an intervening district,
the Southern United States, from which they are absent. re-
thizon (3 sp.), the Canadian porcupine, is found throughout

240 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. (PART IV.

Canada and as far south as Northern Peunsylvania, and west to
the Mississippi (Plate XX., vol. ii. p. 135); an allied species in-
habiting the west coast from California to Alaska, and inland to
the head of the Missouri River; while a third is found in the
north-western part of South America; Cercolabes (12 sp.), ranges
from Mexico and Guatemala to Paraguay, on the eastern side of
the Andes; Chatomys (1 sp.), North Brazil.

Extinct Cercolabidwe.—A large. species of Cercolabes has been
found in the Brazilian caves, but none have been discovered in
North America or Europe. We may conclude therefore that
this is probably a South American type, which has thence spread
into North America at a comparatively recent epoch. The
peculiar distribution of Cercolabes may be explained by suppos-
ing it to have migrated northwards along the west coast by means
of the wooded slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It could then
only reach the Eastern States by way of the forest region of the
great lakes, and then move southward. This it may be now
doing, but it has not yet reached the Southern States of Eastern
North America.

Famity 67.—HYSTRICID. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

be pee | ae Sea (1.2.3 — | 1.2.3.4) oe

The true Porcupines have a very compact and well-marked
distribution, over the whole of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions
(except Madagascar), and the second Palearctic sub-region.
There is some confusion as to their sub-division into genera, but
the following are those most usually admitted :—Hystrix’ (5 sp.),
South Europe to the Cape of Good Hope, all India, Ceylon, and
South China; Atherura (5 sp.), “ brush-tailed porcupines,” in-
habit West Africa, India, to Siam, Sumatra, and Borneo ; Acan-
thion (2 sp.), Nepal and Malacea, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java.

Extinct Hystricide.—Several extinct species of Hystrix have

CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA, 241

been found in the Pliocene and Miocene deposits of Europe, and
one in the Pliocene of Nebraska in North America.

Famity 68—CAVIID. (6 Genera, 28 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 H=55) 9555 | a= | —----| ----

The Cavies and Agoutis were placed in distinct families by
Mr. Waterhouse, in which he is followed by Professor Carus, but
they have been united by Professor Lilljeborg, and without pre-
tending to decide which classification is the more correct I follow
the latter, because there is a striking external resemblance be-
tween the two groups, and they have an identical distribution in
the Neotropical region, and with one exception are all found east
of the Andes. Dasyprocta (9 sp.), the agouti, ranges from Mexico
to Paraguay, one species inhabiting the small West Indian islands
of St. Vincent, Lucia, and Grenada ; Calogenys (2 sp.), the paca, is
found from Guatemala to Paraguay, and a second species (some-
what doubtful) in Eastern Peru; Hydrocherus (1 sp.), the capybara,
inhabits the banks of rivers from Guayana to La Plata; Cavia
(9 sp.), the guinea-pigs, Brazil to the Straits of Magellan, and one
species west of the Andes at Ycain Peru ; Kerodon (6 sp.), Brazil
and Peru to Magellan ; Dolichotis (1 sp,), the Patagonian cavy,
from Mendoza to 48° 30’ south latitude, on sterile plains.

Extinct Caviide.—Hydrocherus, Celogenys, Dasyprocta, and
Kerodon, have occurred abundantly in the caves of Brazil, and
the last-named genus in the Pliocene of La Plata. Hydrocherus
has been found in the Post-Pliocene deposits of South Carolina.
Cavia and Dasyprocta are said to have been found in the Mio-
cene of Switzerland and France. No well-marked extinct genera
of this family have been recorded.

Tf the determination of the above-mentioned fossil species of
Cavia and Dasyprocta are correct, it would show that this now

242 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

exclusively South American family is really derived from Europe,
where it has long been extinct.

Famity 69—LAGOMYID. (1 Genus, 11 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Sus-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,

aes | aie [ease |---- |---- | ----

The Lagomyide, or pikas, are small alpine and desert animals
which range from the south of the Ural Mountains to Cashmere
and the Himalayas, at heights of 11,000 to 14,000 feet, and
northward to the Polar regions and the north-eastern extremity
of Siberia. They just enter the eastern extremity of Europe as
far as the Volga, but with this exception, seem strictly limited
to the third Palearctic sub-region. In America they are con-
fined to the Rocky Mountains from about 42° to 60’ north latitude.

Extinct Lagomyide.—Extinct species of Lagomys have occurred
in the southern parts of Europe, from the Post-Pliocene to the
Miocene formations. TZitanomys, an extinct genus, is found in
the Miocene of France and Germany.

Famity 70—LEPORID. (1 Genus, 35-40 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ee ee eee
—2.3—|1.2.3.4|1.2.3.4| 1—3— Jz-a.a—|——- —

The Hares and Rabbits are especially characteristic of the
Nearctic and Palearctic, but are also thinly scattered over the
Ethiopian and Oriental regions. In the Neotropical region they
are very scarce, only one species being found in South America,
in the mountains of Brazil and various parts of the Andes, while
one or two of the North American species extend into Mexico

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 243

and Guatemala. In the Nearctic region, they are most abundant
in the central and western parts of the continent, and they ex-
tend to the Arctic Ocean and to Greenland. They are found in
every part of the Palearctic region, from Ireland to Japan; three
species range over all India to Ceylon, and others occur in
Hainan, Formosa, South China, and the mountains of Pegu; the
Ethiopian region has only four or five species, mostly in the
southern extremity and along the East coast. An Indian species
is now wild in some parts of Java, but it has probably been in-
troduced.

Extinct Leporide.—sSpecies of Lepus occur in the Post-Plio-
cene and Newer Pliocene of France; but only in the Post-
Pliocene of North America, and the caves of Brazil.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Rodentia.

With the exception of the Australian region and Madagascar,
where Muride alone have been found, this order is one of the most
universally and evenly distributed over the entire globe. Of the
sixteen families which compose it, the Paleearctic region has 10 ;
the Ethiopian, Nearctic, and Neotropical, each 9 ; and the Orien-
tal only 5. These figures are very curious and suggestive. We
know that the rodentia are exceedingly ancient, since some of
the living genera date back to the Eocene period ; and some an-
cestral types might thus have reached the remote South Ameri-
can and South African lands at the time of one of their earliest
unions with the northern continents. In both these countries
the rodents diverged into many special forms, and being small
animals easily able to conceal themselves, have largely survived
the introduction of higher Mammalia. In the Palearctic and
Nearctic regions, their small size and faculty of hibernation may
have enabled them to maintain themselves during those great
physical changes which resulted in the extermination or banish-
ment of so many of the larger and more highly organised Mam-
malia, to which, in these regions, they now bear a somewhat
inordinate proportion. The reasons why they are now less
numerous and varied in the Oriental region, may be of two
kinds. The comparatively small area of that region and its

244 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

uniformity of climate, would naturally lead to less development
of such a group as this, than in the vastly more extensive
and varied and almost equally luxuriant Palearctic region of
Eocene and Miocene times; while on the other hand the greater
number of the smaller Carnivora in the tropics during the Plio-
cene and Post-Pliocene epochs, would be a constant check upon
the increase of these defenceless animals, and no doubt exter-
minate a number of them.

The Rodents thus offer a striking contrast to the Ungulates ;
and these two great orders afford an admirable illustration of the
different way in which physical and organic changes may affect
large and small herbivorous Mammalia; often leading to the
extinction of the former, while favouring the comparative develop-
ment of the latter.

Order XI—EDENTATA.

Famity 71—BRADYPODIDZ. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SuR-REGIONS.

—a.a—|---- |---- |----|---- ]----

The Sloths are a remarkable group of arboreal mammals,
strictly confined to the great forests of the Neotropical region,
from Guatemala to Brazil and Eastern Bolivia. None are found
west of the Andes, nor do they appear to extend into Paraguay,
or beyond the Tropic of Capricorn on the east coast. The genera
as defined by Dr. Gray in 1871 are :—Cholepus (2 sp.), “Sloths
with two toes on fore limbs, sexes alike,’ Costa Rica to Brazil;
Bradypus (2 sp.), “Sloths with three toes on fore limbs, sexes
alike,” Central Brazil, Amazon to Rio de Janeiro; Arctopithecus
(8 sp.), “ Sloths with three toes on fore limbs, males witha
coloured patch on the back,” Costa Rica to Brazil and Eastern
Bolivia (Plate XIV., vol. ii. p. 24).

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 245

Extinct Bradypodidw.—tn the caves of Brazil are found three
extinct genera of Sloths—Calodon, Sphenodon, and Ochotherium.
More distantly allied, and probably forming distinct families,
are Scelidotherium and Megatherium, from the caves of Brazil
and the Pliocene deposits of La Plata and Patagonia.

Famity 72—MANIDIDZ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

; AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

—---|---- |---- [1.2.3 - [2.2.9.4 Le

The Manidide, or scaly ant-eaters, are the only Edentate
Mammalia found out of America. They are spread over the
Ethiopian and Oriental regions ; in the former from Sennaar to
West Africa and the Cape; in the latter from the Himalayas to
Ceylon, and Eastward to Borneo and Java, as well as to South
China, as far as Amoy, Hainan, and Formosa. They have been
sub-divided, according to differences in the scaly covering, into
five groups, Manis, Phatagin, Smutsia, Pholidotus and Pangolin,
the three former being confined to Africa, the last common to
Africa and the East, while Pholidotus seems confined to Java.
It is doubtful if these divisions are more than sub-genera, and
as such they are treated here.

No extinct species referable to this family are yet known.

Famity 72.—DASYPODID. (6 Genera, 17 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.a.a—|--~- |---- |---- |---- | wer fit Jes

The Dasypodide, or armadillos, are a highly characteristic Neo-
tropical family, ranging from the northern extremity of the region

246 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lv.

in south Texas, to 50° south latitude on the plains of Patagonia. |
The distribution of the genera is as follows:—Tatusia (5 sp.),

has the range of the whole family from the lower Rio Grande of

Texas to Patagonia; Prionodontes (1 sp.), the giant armadillo,

Surinam to Paraguay; Dasypus (4 sp.), Brazil to Bolivia, Chili,

and La Plata; Xenwrus (3 sp.), Guiana to Paraguay ; Tolypeutes

(2 sp.), the three-banded armadillos, Bolivia and La Plata;

Chlamydophorus (2 sp.), near Mendoza in La Plata, and Santa

Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia.

Extinet Armadillos—Many species of Dasypus and Xenurus
have been found in the caves of Brazil, together with many
extinct genera—Hoplophorus, Euryodon, Heterodon, Pachy-
therium, and Chlamydotherium, the latter as large as a rhino-
ceros. Hutatus, allicd to Yolypeutes, is from the Pliocene de-
posits of La Plata.

Famity 74—ORYCTEROPODIDA. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

Sao= [eons [ena [esas [aaao [aaa

The Aard-vark, or Cape ant-eater (Orycteropus capensis) is a
curious form of Edentate animal, with the general form of an
ant-eater, but with the bristly skin and long obtuse snout of a
pig. A second species inhabits the interior of North-East
Africa and Senegal, that of the latter country perhaps forming a
third species (Plate IV. vol. 1. p. 261).

Extinct Orycteropodide.—The genus Macrotheriwm, remains of
which occur in the Miocene deposits of France, Germany, and
Greece, is allied to this group, though perhaps forming a sepa-
rate family. The same may be said of the Ancylotheriwm, a
huge animal found only in the Miocene deposits of Greece.

CHAP, XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 247

FamiLy 75.—MYRMECOPHAGIDA. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

| (SS55 | sa Sana Meaes ==——

The true ant-eaters are strictly confined to the wooded portions
of the Neotropical region, ranging from Honduras to Paraguay on
the East side of the Andes. The three genera now generally
admitted are: Myrmecophaga (1 sp.), the great ant-eater,
Northern Brazil to Paraguay; Tamandua (2 sp.), 4-toed ant-
eaters, Guatemala, Ecuador to Paraguay (Plate XIV. vol. ii. p.
24); Cyclothurus (2 sp.), 2-toed ant-eaters, Honduras and Costa
Rica to Brazil.

Extinet Ant-eaters—The only extinct form of this family
seems to be the Glossotherium, found in the caves of Brazil, and
the Tertiary deposits of Uruguay. It is said to be allied to
Myrmecophaga and Manis.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Edentata.

These singular animals are almost confined to South America,
where they constitute an important part of the fauna. In
Africa, two family types are scantily represented, and one of
these extends over all the Oriental region. In Pliocene and Post-
Pliocene times the Edentata were wonderfully developed in South
America, many of them being huge animals, rivalling in bulk,
the rhinoceros and hippopotamus. As none of these forms
resemble those of Africa, while the only European fossil Edentata
are of African type, it seems probable that South Africa, like
South America, was a centre of development for this group of
mammalia ; and it is in the highest degree probable that, should
extensive fluviatile deposits of Pliocene or Miocene age be dis-
covered in the former country, an extinct fauna, not less strange
and grotesque than that of South America, will be brought to

Vou. IL—17

248 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

light. From the fact that so few remains of this order occur
in Europe, and those of one family type, and in Miocene
deposits only, it seems a fair conclusion, that this represents an
incursion of an ancient Ethiopian form into Europe analogous to
that which invaded North America from the south during the
Post-Pliocene epoch. The extension of the Manidide, or scaly
ant-eaters, over tropical Asia may have occurred at the same, or
a somewhat later epoch.

For a summary of the Numerous Edentata of North and
South America which belong to extinct families, see vol. i. p. 147.

Order XIT—MARSUPIALIA.

- Famity 76—DIDELPHYID. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.a.a—|a—a— |----|----|---- | ----

The Didelphyide, or true opossums, range throughout all the
wooded districts ‘of the Neotropical region from the southern
boundary of Texas to the River La Plata, and on the west coast
to 42° §. Lat., where a species of Didelphys was obtained by
Professor Cunningham. One species only is found in the Nearctic
region, extending from Florida to the Hudson River, and west to
the Missouri. The species named Didelphys californica inhabits
Mexico, and only extends into the southern extremity of Cali-
fornia. The species are most numerous in the great forest region
of Brazil, and they have been recently found to the west of the
Andes near Guayaquil, as well as in Chili. The exact number
of species is very doubtful, owing to the difficulty of determining
them from dried skins. All but two belong to the genus Didel-
phys, which has the range above given for the family (Plate XIV.,
vol. ii. p. 24); Chironectes (1 sp.), the yapock or water opossum,
inhabits Guiana and Brazil; Hyracodon (1 sp.), is a small

CHAP. XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 249

rat-like animal discovered by Mr. Fraser in Ecuador, and which
may perhaps belong to another family.

Extinct Didelphyide.—No less than seven species of Didelphys
have been found in the caves of Brazil, but none in the older
formations. In North America the living species only, has been
found in Post-Phocene deposits. In Europe, however, many
species of small opossums, now classed as a distinct genus, Pera-
therium, have been found in various Tertiary deposits from the
Upper Miocene to the Upper Eocene.

We have here a sufficient proof that the American Marsupials
have nothing to do with those of Australia, but were derived from
Europe, where their ancestors lived during a long series of ages.

Famity 77—DASYURID. (10 Genera, 30 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ee |-- ee

The Dasyuride, or native cats, are a group of carnivorous or
insectivorous marsupials, ranging from the size of a wolf to that
of a mouse. They are found all over Australia and Tasmania,
as well as in New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan islands.
Several new genera and species have recently been described by
Mr. G. Krefft, of the Sydney Museum, and are included in the
following enumeration. Phasgogale (3 sp.), New Guinea, West,
East, and South Australia; Antechinomys (1 sp.), Interior of
South Australia; Antechinus (12 sp.), Aru Islands, all Aus-
tralia, and Tasmania; Chetocercus (1 sp.), South Australia ;
Dactylopsila (1 sp.), Aru Islands and North Australia ; Podabrus
(5 sp.), West, East, and South Australia, and Tasmania ; Myoictis
(1 sp.), Aru Islands; Sarcophilus (1 sp.), Tasmania; Dasyurus (4
sp.), North, East, and South, Australia, and Tasmania ; Thyla-
cinus (1 sp.), Tasmania (Plate XI., vol. i. p. 439).

Extinct species of Dasywrus and Thylacinus have been found
in the Post-Pliocene deposits of Australia.

250 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART 1V.

Famity 78—MYRMECOBIID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SuB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

oe ed ee

The only representative of this family is the Myrmecobius fas-
ciatus, or native ant-eater, a small bushy-tailed squirrel-like
animal, found in the South and West of Australia.

FaMILy 79.—PERAMELIDZE. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

wane [=oa= [=a [=== [=|

The Peramelide, or bandicoots, are small insectivorous Mar-
supials, having something of the form of the kangaroos. They
range over the whole of Australia and Tasmania, as well as the
Papuan Islands. The genus Perameles (8 sp.), has the range
of the family, one species being found in New Guinea and the
Aru Islands (Plate XI. vol. i. p. 440); Peragalea (1 sp.), inha-
bits West Australia only; and Cheropus (1 sp.), a beautiful little
animal with something of the appearance of a mouse-deer, is
found in both South, East, and West Australia.

Famity 80.—MACROPODIDZ. (10 Genera, 56 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

wo2 [Rea= [esas [ease [aaa [a=

CHAP, XVII.] MAMMALIA. 251

The well-known Kangaroos are the most largely developed
family of Marsupials, and they appear to be the form best adapted
for the present conditions of life in Australia, over every part of
which they range. One genus of true terrestrial kangaroos (Dor-
copsis), inhabits the Papuan Islands, as do also the curious tree
kangaroos (Dendrolagus) which, without much apparent modifica-
tion of form, are able to climb trees and feed upon the foliage,
The genera, as established by Mr. Waterhouse, are as follows:
Macropus (4 sp.), West, South, and East Australia, and Tasmania
(Plate XIL, vol. i. p. 441); Osphranter (5 sp.), all Australia ;
Halmaturus (18 sp.), all Australia and Tasmania; Petrogale (7
sp.), all Australia; Dendrolagus (2 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X.,
vol. i. p. 414) ; Dorcopsis (2 sp.) Aru and Mysol Islands, and
New Guinea; Onychogalea (3 sp.), Central Australia; Lagor-
chestes (5 sp.), North, West, and South Australia; Bettongia (6
sp.), West, South, and East, Australia, and Tasmania; Hypst-
prymnus (4 sp.), West and East Australia, and Tasmania.

Extinct Macropodide—Many species of the genera Macropus
and Hypsiprymnus have been found in the cave-deposits and
other Post-Tertiary strata of Australia. Among the extinct genera
are Protemnodon and Sthenurus, which are more allied to the
tree-kangaroos of New Guinea than to living Australian species ;
the gigantic Diprotodon, a kangaroo nearly as large as an elephant ;
and Nototheriwm, of smaller size.

Famity 81—PHALANGISTID®. (8 Genera, 27 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

waa= [esa |aeee[=o== [ooo pee

The Phalangistidz, or phalangers, are one of the most varied
and interesting groups of Marsupials, being modified in a variety
of ways for an arboreal life. We have the clumsy-looking
tail-less koala, or native sloth ; the prehensile-tailed opossum-like
phalangers ; the beautiful flying oppossums, so closely resembling

252 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv,

in form the flying squirrels of North America and India, but
often no larger than a mouse; the beautiful dormouse-like
Dromicie, one species of which is only 24 inches long or less
than the harvest-mouse ; and the little Zarsipes, a true honey-
sucker with an extensile tongue, and of the size of a mouse.
These extreme modifications and specializations within the range
of a single family, are sufficient to indicate the great antiquity
of the Australian fauna; and they render it almost certain that
the region it occupied was once much more extensive, so as
to supply the variety of conditions and the struggle between
competing forms of life, which would be required to develop so
many curiously modified forms, of which we now probably see
only a remnant.

The Phalangistide not only range over all Australia and
Tasmania, but over the whole of the Austro-Malayan sub-region
from New Guinea to the Moluccas and Celebes. The distribu-
tion of the genera is as follows :—Phascolarctos (1 sp.), the
koala, East Australia; Phalangista (5 sp.), East, South, and West
Australia, and Tasmania; Cuscus (8 sp.), woolly phalangers,
New Guinea, North Australia, Timor, Moluccas and Celebes ;
Petaurista (1 sp.) large flying phalanger, Kast Australia ;
Belideus (5 sp.), flymg opossums, South, East, and North Aus-
tralia, New Guiana and Moluccas; Acrobata (1 sp.), pigmy
flying opossum, South and East Australia; Dromicia (5 sp.),
dormouse-phalangers, West and East Australia, and Tasmania;
Tarsipes (1 sp.), West Australia.

Thylacoleo, a large extinct marsupial of doubtful affinities,
seems to be somewhat intermediate between this family and the
kangaroos. Professor Owen considered it to be carnivorous, and
able to prey upon the huge Diprotodon, while Professor Flower
and Mr. Gerard Krefft, believe that it was herbivorous.

Famity 82—PHASCOLOMYIDZ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NFOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PALARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Srp-ReGions. | SuB-REGIONS. | SuB-REGIONS. | SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

CHAP, XVII. ] MAMMALIA. 253
The Wombats are tail-less, terrestrial, burrowing animals, about
the size of a badger, but feeding on roots and grass. They
inhabit South Australia and Tasmania (Plate XI. vol. i. p. 439),
An extinct wombat, as large as a tapir, has been found in the
Australian Pliocene deposits.

General Remarks on the Distribution of Marsupialia.

We have here the most remarkable case, of an extensive and
highly varied order being confined to one very limited area on
the earth’s surface, the only exception being the opossums in
America. It has been already shown that these are compara-
tively recent immigrants, which have survived in that country
long after they disappeared in Europe. As, however, no other
form but that of the Didelphyide occurs there during the
Tertiary period, we must suppose that it was at a far more
remote epoch that the ancestral forms of all the other Marsupials
entered Australia; and the curious little mammals of the Oolite
and Trias, offer valuable indications as to the time when this
really took place.

A notice of these extinct marsupials of the secondary period
will be found at vol. i. p. 159.

Order XIIIT—MONOTREMATA.

Famity 83.—ORNITHORHYNCHIDZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

se oe ee ee ee

The Ornithorhynchus, or duck-billed Platypus, one of the most
remarkable and isolated of existing mammalia, is found in East
and South Australia, and Tasmania.

254 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 84.—ECHIDNID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

a ed ea

The Echidna, or Australian Hedgehog, although quite as re-
markable in internal structure as the Ornithorhynchus, is not so
peculiar in external appearance, having very much the aspect of
a hedgehog or spiny armadillo. The two species of this genus
are very closely allied; one inhabits East and South Australia,
the other Tasmania.

Extinct Echidnide.—Remains of a very large fossil species of
Echidna have lately (1868) been discovered at Darling Downs
in Australia.

Remark on the Distribution of the Monotremata.

This order is the lowest and most anomalous of the mammalia,
and nothing resembling it has been found among the very
numerous extinct animals discovered in any other part of the
world than Australia.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS,

Order I[—PASSERES.

Famity 1—TURDID. (21 Genera, 205 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.41.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 }1-2.3.4/ 1.2.3 4 | i.2.3 >

The extensive and familiar group of Thrushes ranges over
every region and sub-region, except New Zealand. It abounds
most in the North Temperate regions, and has its least develop-
ment in the Australian region. Thrushes are among the most
perfectly organized of birds, and it is to this cause, perhaps, as
well as to their omnivorous diet, that they have been enabled to
establish themselves on a number of remote islands. Peculiar
species of true thrush are found in Norfolk Island, and in the
small Lord Howes’ Island nearer Australia; the Island of St.
Thomas in the Gulf of Guinea has a peculiar species; while the
Mid-Atlantic island Tristan d’Acunha,—one of the most remote
and isolated spots on the globe,—has a peculiarly modified form
of thrush. Several of the smaller West Indian Islands have
also peculiar species or genera of thrushes.

The family is of somewhat uncertain extent, blending insensibly
with the warblers (Sylviidz) as well as with the Indian bulbuls

256 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

(Pycnonotide), while one genus, usually placed in it (AZyiophonus)
seems to agree better with Hnicurus among the Cinclide. The
genera here admitted into the thrush family are the following, the
numbers prefixed to some of the genera indicating their position
in Gray’s Hand List of the Genera and Species of Birds :—

(448) Brachypteryx (8 sp.), Nepaul to Java and Ceylon (this
may belong to the Timaliide); Zurdus (100 sp.) has the range of
the whole family, abounding in the Palearctic, Oriental and
Neotropical regions, while it is less plentiful in the Nearctic
and Ethiopian, and very scarce in the Australian; (***) Oreocincla
(11 sp.), Palearctic and Oriental regions, Australia and Tas-
mania; (°) Rhodinocichla (1 sp.), Venezuela; (°°) Melanoptila
(1 sp.), Honduras; (°7 8) Catharus (10 sp.) Mexico to Equador ;
(49 90) Margarops (4 sp.), Hayti and Porto Rico to St. Lucia:
(1) Nesecichla (1 sp.), Tristan dAcunha; (°°?) Geocichla (8 sp.),
India to Formosa and Celebes, Timor and North Australia;
(4 %5) Monticola (8 sp.), Central Europe to South Africa and to
China, Philippine Islands, Gilolo and Java; (°) Orocetes (3 sp.),
Himalayas and N. China; Zoothera (3 sp.) Himalayas, Aracan,
Java, and Lombok ; Mimus (20 sp.) Canada to Patagonia, West
Indies and Galapagos ; (%*) Oreoscoptes (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains
and Mexico; (%*) Melanotis (2 sp.), South Mexico and Guatemala ;_
(°) Galeoscoptes (1 sp.), Canada and Eastern United States to
Cuba and Panama ; (°° %°) Mimocichla (5 sp.), Greater Antilles ;
(°67 %68) Harporhynchus (7 sp.), North America, from the great
lakes to Mexico; Cinelocerthia (3 sp.), Lesser Antilles; (°°)
Rhamphocinclus (1 sp.), Lesser Antilles; Chatops (3 sp.), South
Africa; Cossypha = Bessonornis (15 sp.) Ethiopian region and
Palestine.

Famity 2.—SYLVIID. (74 Genera, 640 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

- 2.3.4 1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 )1.2.3.4 (1.2.8.4 [1.2.3.4

CHAP, XVIII. ] BIRDS. Pay

This immense family, comprising all the birds usually known
as ‘‘warblers,” is, as here constituted, of almost universal distri-
bution. Yet it is so numerous and preponderant over the whole
Eastern Hemisphere, that it may be well termed an Old-World
group ; only two undoubted genera with very few species belong-
ing to the Nearctic region, while two or three others whose posi-
tion is somewhat doubtful, are found in California and the
Neotropical region.

Canon Tristram, who has paid great attention to this difficult
group, has kindly communicated to me a MSS. arrangement of
the genera and species, which, with a very few additions and
alterations, I implicitly follow. He divides the Sylviide into
seven sub-families, as follows :

1. Drymeecine (15 genera 194 sp.), confined to the Old World
and Australia, and especially abundant in the three Tropical
regions. 2. Calamoherpine (11 genera, 75 sp.), has the same
general distribution as the last, but is scarce in the Australian and
abundant in the Palearctic region ; 3. Phylloscopine (11 genera,
139 sp.), has the same distribution as the entire family, but is
most abundant in the Oriental and Palzearctic regions. 4. Syl-
viine (6 genera, 33 sp.), most abundant in the Palearctic region,
very scarce in the Australian and Oriental regions, absent from
America. 5. Ruticilline {10 genera, 50 sp.); entirely absent from
America and Australia; abounds in the Oriental and Palearctic
regions. 6. Saxicoline (12 genera, 126 sp.), absent from America
(except the extreme north-west), abundant in the Oriental region
and moderately so in the Palearctic, Ethiopian, and Australian. 7.
Accentorinz (6 genera, 21 sp.), absent from the Ethiopian region
and South America, most abundant in Australia, one small genus
(Sialia), in North America.

The distribution of the several genera arranged under these
sub-families, is as follows:

1. Drymacinz.—(™) Orthotomus (13 sp.), all the Oriental
region; ("’) Prinia (11 sp.), all the Oriental region; (7 74° 742
46) Drymeca (83 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, most
abundant in the former; (‘4 ‘ 745 #2 749 752) ({sticola (32 sp.),
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, with South Europe, China

258 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lV.

and Australia; (") Suya (5 sp.), Nepal to South China and
Formosa ; (*) Sphenceacus (7 sp.), Australia, New Zealand, and
Chatham Island, with one species (?) in South Africa; (77° 7?)
Megalurus (4 sp.), Central India to Java and Timor; (“4 ™)
Poodytes (2 sp.), Australia; (*) Amytis (3 sp.), Australia; (")
Sphenura (4 sp.), Australia ; (7°) Malurus (16 sp.), Australia and
Tasmania ; (' 7) Chthonicola (3 sp.), Australia; (7!) Calaman-
thus (2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (°°) Camaroptera (5 sp.),
Africa and Fernando Po; ("*) Apalis (1 sp.), South Africa.

2, CALAMOHERPINA.—(‘77 781 and sp. 2968) 4 erocenhalus (35 sp-),
Palearctic, Ethiopian, continental part of Oriental region, Mo-
luceas, Caroline Islands, and Australia ; ("87 ®!%) Dumeticola (4 sp.),
Nepal to East Thibet, Central Asia, high regions ; (78° °) Pota-
modus (3 sp.), Central and South Europe, and East Thibet;
(789 ana sp. 2969) Tusciniola (1 sp.), South Europe; (7! 72) Locus-
tella (8 sp.), Palearctic region to Central India and China; (7°)
Horites (5 sp.), Nepal to North-west China and Formosa; (784
— 7) Bradyptetus = Cettia (10 sp.), South Europe, Palestine, and
South Africa; (47 ™§) Catriscus (3 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa; Bernieria (2 sp.), and (°°) Ellisia (3 sp.), Madagascar ;
(82 *) Mystacornis (1 sp.), Madagascar ; ("8") Calamodus (2 sp.),
Europe and Palestine; (4) Zatare (2 sp.) Samoa to Marquesas
Islands.

3. PHYLLOScoPIN’.!—Phylloscopus (18 sp.), all Paleearctic and
Oriental regions to Batchian ; (77 8 §°°) Hremomela (16 sp.), Tro-
pical and South Africa ; (*) Hroessa (1 sp.), Madagascar ;} Hy-
polais (12 sp.), Palearctic region, all India, Timor, North and
South Africa ; (1° §6 §!9) Abrornis (26 sp.), Oriental region ; (814)
Reguloides (4 sp.), Palearctic and continental Oriental regions;
(**) Sericornis (7 sp.), Australia and Tasmania (8 64 141) 4Acan-
thiza (14 sp.), Australia and New Caledonia ; (°*") Regulus (7 sp.),
all Palearctic and Nearctic regions and south to Guatemala ;
(°°) Polioptila (13 sp.), Paraguay to New Mexico; (°°) Gerygone
(22 sp.), Australia, Papuan and Timor groups, New Zealand
and Norfolk Island.

1 The species of the genera Phylloscopus and Hypolais are so mixed up in
the Hand List, that Mr. Tristram has furnished me with the following

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 259

4, Sytvunaz.—(") Aedon (9 sp.), Spain and Palestine, to East
and South Africa; (**) Drymodes (2 sp.), Australia ; (°°) Pyroph-
thalma (2 sp.), South Europe and Palestine ; (8) Melizophilus
(3 sp.), South-west Europe and North-east Africa; (°°) Sylvia
= Alsecus (8 sp-), Palearctic region to India and Ceylon, and
North-east Africa ; (°° 5°) Curruca (7 sp.), Central and South
Europe, Madeira, Palestine, Central India, North-east Africa, and
South Africa.

5, RuricinLinz.—(*") Luscinia (2 sp.), West Asia, Europe,
North Africa; (°°) Cyanecula (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa,
India, Ceylon, and China; (8°) Calliope (2 sp.), North Asia,
Himalayas, Central India, and China; (8%) Hrithacus (3 sp.),
Europe, North-east Africa, Japan, and North China; (°8 59° 597)
Ruticilla (20 sp.), Palearctic and Oriental regions to Senegal
and Abyssinia, and east to Timor; abounds in Himalayas; (°°)
Chemarrhornis (1 sp.), Himalayas; (81 8°? 84) Larvivora (10 sp.),
Oriental region and Japan; (°°) Notodela (3 sp.), Himalayas,
Pegu, Formosa, Java; (8°) Tarsiger (2 sp.), Nepal; () Gran-
dala (1 sp.), High Himalayas of Nepal.

6. Saxiconina.—(*°) Copsychus (7 sp.), all Oriental region
and Madagascar; (°°) Kittacincla (5 sp.), Oriental region to

enumeration of the species which in his view properly belong to them, by the
numbers in that work :—

Phylloscopus. Hypolais.
3032 3026
3033 3028
3048 = 3038 3029
3039 3054=3031=3036
3063 =3047 =3054=3061 3042
3048 3043
3049 304
3050 3062 = 3047
3051 3046 = 2932
3052 3035
3053 2976
3056= 3081
3057
3059

3060

260 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Ceylon, Andaman Islands, Formosa, and Borneo ; (74-7) Tham-
nobia (10 sp.), Ethiopian region and India to foot of Himalayas ;
(7) Gervasia (2 sp.), Madagascar and Seychelle Islands ; (8 *47)
Dromolea (18 sp.), Africa to South Europe, Palestine, North-
west India, and North China; (58 4°) Saxicola (36 sp.), Africa,
North-west India, whole Palearctic region, migrating to Alaska
and Greenland; (* *°) Oreicola (5 sp.), Timor, Lombok, and
Burmah ; (**) Cercomela (6 sp.), North-east Africa to’North-west
India; (®°) Pratincola (15 sp.), Europe, Ethiopian, and Oriental
regions to Celebes and Timor; (?°") Ephthianura (3 sp.), Aus-
tralia ; (1 — 8) Petraca (17 sp.), Australian region, Papua to New
Zealand, Chatham and Auckland Islands, and Samoa ; (8°) Miro
(2 sp.), New Zealand (doubtfully placed here).

7. ACCENTORINZE.—(") Cinclorhamphus (2 sp.), Australia ;
(°) Origma (1 sp.), East Australia; (°°) Sialia (8 sp.), United
States to Guatemala; (®) Accentor (12 sp.), Palearctic region to
Himalayas and North-west China; (') Orthonyx (4 sp.), East
Australia and New Zealand (doubtfully placed here).

The following two genera, which have been usually classed as
Ampelide, are arranged by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin in the
Sylviidee :—

(1382) Myiadestes (8 sp.), Pam and Bolivia, along the Andes to
Mexico and California, also the Antilles; (*°°4) Cichlopsis (1 sp.),
Brazil.

Famity 3.——TIMALIIDZ. (35 Genera, 240 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

Sup-reEGions. | SUB-REGIONS. | SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

---- | ---- | -a-4 |1.2.5.4]2.2.8.4] i. ae

The Timaliide, or babbling thrushes, are a group of small
strong-legeed active birds, mostly of dull colours, which are
especially characteristic of the Oriental region, in every part of
which they abound, while they are much less plentiful in

CHAP, XVIII. ] BIRDS. . 261

Australia and Africa. The Indo-Chinese sub-region is the head
quarters of the family, whence it diminishes rapidly in all
directions in variety of both generic and specific forms. Viscount
Walden has kindly assisted me in the determination of the
limits of this family, as to which there is still much difference
of opinion. The distribution of the genera here admitted is as
follows; and as the genera are widely scattered in the Hand
List, reference numbers are prefixed in every case.

(1023 — 1026 1008) Pomatorhinus (27 sp.), the whole Oriental region
(excluding Philippines), Australia and New Guinea; (27)
Pterohinus (3 sp.), North China, East Thibet; (19° 1°) MMala-
cocircus (9 sp.), Continental India and Ceylon, Arabia, Nubia;
(21) Chatarrhea (5 sp.), Abyssinia, Palestine, India, Nepal,
Burmah, and Philippines; (°") Layardia (3 sp.), India and Cey-
lon ; (2%) Acanthoptila (1 sp.), Nepal; 7°) Cinclosoma (4 sp.),
Australia and Tasmania: (2° 1°) Cyateropus (18 sp.), all Africa,
Persia ; (1°") Hypergerus (1 sp.), West Africa: (1°) Cichladusa
(3 sp.), Tropical Africa ; 2%) Garrulax (23 sp.), the Oriental
region (excluding Philippines) ; (°°) Janthocinela (10 sp.), Nepal,
to East Thibet, Sumatra, Formosa ; (2% 1°) Gampsorhynchus (2
sp.), Himalayas ; 0°) Grammatoptila (1 sp.) North India ; (1% —
104) Trochalopteron (24 sp.), all India to China and Formosa ; (?*)
Actinodura (4 sp.), Nepal to Burmah, 3,000 - 10,000 feet ; (2)
Pellornewm (4 sp.), Nepal to Ceylon, Tenasserim ; (1% 1°) Timalia
(12 sp.), Malaya ;} (1) Dumetia (2 sp.), Central India and Cey-
lon; (21%) Stachyris (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Sumatra, Formosa ;
(4164) Pyctorhis (3 sp.), India to Ceylon and Burmah; (1) AMixornis
(8 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya; (“°") Malacopteron (3 sp.), Ma-
laya; (116 46) Aleippe (15 sp.), Ceylon and South India, Hima-
layas to Aracan, Malaya, Formosa, New Guinea ; (1"°) Macronus
(2 sp.), Malaya; (#!"1) Cacopitta (5 sp.), Malaya ; (1!"") Trichastoma
(11 sp.), Nepal, Burmah, Malaya, Celebes; (1) Napothera (6 sp.),
Malaya; (174) Drymocataphus (8 sp.), Burmah, Malaya, Ceylon,

1 The term “ Malaya” is used here to include the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, a district to which many species and genera are
confined. “ Malay Archipelago” will be used to include both Indo-Malaya
and Austro-Malaya.

262 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY.
Timor ; (225) Zurdinus (5 sp.), Khasia Hills, Malacca, Tenas-
serim ; (7°) T’richixos (1 sp.), Borneo, Malacca ; (2°) Sibza (6 sp.),
Nepal to Assam, Tenasserim, Formosa; (4% 178) Alethe (4 sp.),
West Africa; (4"8*) Oxylabes (1 sp.), Madagascar; (#%°) Pso-
phodes (2 sp.), South, East, and West Australia; 4%) Zurnagra
(3 sp.), New Zealand.

Famity 4—PANURID. (4 Genera, 13 Species).

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

= Heep hn a | 1a | ----|--s-|----

This new family is adopted, at the suggestion of Professor
Newton, to include some peculiar groups of Himalayan birds
whose position has usually been among the Timaliide or the
Paridee, but which are now found to be allied to our Bearded
Reedling. The supposed affinity of this bird for the Tits has
been long known to be erroneous, and the family Panuride was
formed for its reception (Yarrell’s British Birds, 4th edit. p. 512).
The genera having hitherto been widely scattered in systematic
works, are referred to by the numbers of Mr. G. R. Gray’s
Hand List.

(2%) Paradoxornis (3 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; (2%)
Conostoma (1 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; (8’*) Suthora (8
sp.), Himalayas to North-west China, Formosa; (°”) Chlenasicus
(1 sp.), Darjeeling ; (°°) Panwrus (1 sp.), Central and Southern
Europe ; (1%) Heteromorpha (1 sp.), Nepal, 10,000 feet altitude ;
Cholornis (1 sp.), Moupin in East Thibet.

Famity 5—CINCLIDZ. (4 Genera, 27 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PALZARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS,

=2.a—| —-2-—4 j1.a.9.4|—--:4 [1.2.9.4] 1L—-——

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 263

The Cinclide consist of a number of more or less thrush-like
ground-birds, of which the most remarkable are the Dippers,
forming the genus Cinclus. These are curiously distributed, from

-the Palearctic region as a centre, to the alpine districts of North

and South America; while the three genera which are here in-
cluded as somewhat allied to Cinelus, all inhabit the Oriental
region. The genera which I class in this family are the
following :—

(78) Cinclus (9 sp.), Palearctic region to West China and For-
mosa, Rocky Mountains, and Mexico in North America, and
southward to the Andes of Peru; (°°) Enicwrus (9 sp.), Hima-
layas to Java and West China; (°°) Hupetes (4 sp.), Indo-Malay
sub-region and New Guinea; (°!) Myiophonus (5 sp.), Himalayas
to Ceylon, Java, South China, and Formosa.

(°8!) Mesites (1 sp.), Madagascar, is an anomalous bird placed
with Hupetes by Mr. G. R. Gray, but of very uncertain affinities.

FamILy 6—TROGLODYTID. (17 Genera, 94 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.9.4|1.9.3.4|1.9.3.4/1.2.3—|—~3.4 | ———

The Troglodytidee, or Wrens, are small birds, rather abundant
and varied in the Neotropical region, with a few species scattered
through the Nearctic, Palearctic, and parts of the Oriental re-
gions, and one doubtful genus in Africa. The constitution of
the family is by no means well determined. The South American
genera are taken from Messrs. Sclater and Salvin’s Nomen-
clator Avium Neotropicalium.

Tesia (2 sp.), Eastern Himalayas ; Pnoepyga (6 sp.), Himalayas
to East Thibet, Java; (7° ** 8) Troglodytes (15 sp.), Neotropical,
Nearctic, and Palearctic regions to the Higher Himalayas ; (°®)
Rimator (1 sp.), Darjeeling ; Thryothorus (13 sp.), South Brazil
to Mexico, Martinique, and Nearctic region; Thryophilus (13
sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and North-west America; Cistothorus

Vou. IT.—18

264 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [Part IV:

(5 sp.), Patagonia to Greenland; Uvopsila (1 sp.), Mexico ; Do-
nacobius (2 sp.), Tropical America; Campylorhynchus (18 sp.),
Brazil, and Bolivia to Mexico and the Gila valley ; Cyphorhinus
(5 sp.), Equatorial South America to Costa Rica; Mierocerculus
(5 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Mexico; Henicorhina (2 sp.), Peru
and Guiana to Costa Rica; Salpinctes (1 sp.), High Plains of
Rocky Mountains ; Catherpes (1 sp.), Mexico and Rio Grande;
Cinnicerthia (2 sp.),*Ecuador and Columbia. () Sylvietta
(2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa—is placed in this family by
Mr. Tristram.

Famity 7—CHAMAIDZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species).

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

-== [pees [ane | =aae | aaa] aoe

The bird which forms the genus Chamea inhabits California ;
and though allied to the wrens it has certain peculiarities of struc-
ture which, in the opinion of many ornithologists, require that
it should be placed in a distinct family.

FamiLy 8.—CERTHIID. (6 Genera, 18 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL

AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. }| SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

eae | aaene 1.2.3.4) Hees | 1—3.4 | 1.2-

The Certhiide, or Creepers, form a small family whose species
are thinly scattered over North America from Mexico, the Pale-
arctic region, parts of the Oriental region, and Australia, where
they are somewhat more abundant. The distribution of the
genera is as follows:

Certhia (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palearctic regions, Nepal, and Sik-
him ; Salpornis (1 sp.), Central India; Tichodroma (1 sp.), South

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 265

Europe to Abyssinia, Nepal, and North China; Rhabdornis (1
sp.), Philippine Islands; Climacteris (8 sp.), Australia and New
Guinea.

Famity 9.—SITTID. (6 Genera, 31 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

a )1-2.9.4/1.2.3.4) —--—|1.2.8.4/1.2—4
|

The Sittidz, or Nuthatches, are another small family of tree-
creeping birds, whose distribution is very similar to that of the
Certhiide, but with a more uniform range over the Oriental
region, and extending to New Zealand and Madagascar. The
genera are as follows :—

Sitta (17 sp.), Palearctic and Nearctic regions to South India
and Mexico; Dendrophila (2 sp.), Ceylon and India to Burmah
and Malaya; Hypherpes (1 sp.), Madagascar; Szttella (6 sp.),
Australia and New Guinea. Acanthisitta (1 sp.) and Xenicus
(4 sp.), New Zealand, are placed with some doubt in this family.

Famity 10.—PARID/Z. (14 Genera, 92 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

2 SF | 1.2.9.4 1.2.3.4) 1.2.3 — | 1.2.3.4 | 4.974

The Paride, or Tits, are very abundant in the Nearctie and
Palearctic regions ; many fine species are found in the Himalayas,
but they are sparingly scattered through the Ethiopian, Oriental,
and Australian regions. The genera usually admitted into this
family are the following, but the position of some of them,
especially of the Australian forms, is doubtful.

(864 — 867 870) Parus (46 sp.), North America, from Mexico,
Palearctic, and Oriental regions, Tropical and South Africa ;

266 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

(88 86°) Lophophanes (10 sp.), Europe, the Higher Himalayas to
Sikhim, North America to Mexico ; Acredula = Orites (6 sp.),
Palearctic region; Melanochlora (2 sp.), Nepal to Sumatra ;
Psaltria (1 sp.), Java; Psaltriparus (3 sp.), Guatemala to Cali-
fornia, and Rocky Mountains; Awriparus (1 sp.), Rio Grande;
(881 882) Parisoma (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (8 84)
Aigithalus (6 sp.), South-east Europe to South Africa; (°° 5%)
Ayithaliseus (6 sp.), Afghanistan and Himalayas to Amoy ;
Cephalopyrus (1 sp.), North-west Himalayas; Sylviparus (1 sp.),
Himalayas and Central India ; Certhiparus (2 sp.), New Zealand ;
(879 88°) Snhenostoma (2 sp.), East and South Australia.

Famity 11—LIOTRICHID®. (11 Genera, 35 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

~--~ | =---| ----|----|--s.4) ----

The Liotrichide, or Hill-Tits, are small, active, delicately-
coloured birds, almost confined to the Himalayas and their ex-
tension eastward to China. They are now generally admitted te
form a distinct family. The genera are distributed as follows:

(14°) Liothrix (3 sp.), Himalayas to China ; Siva (3 sp.), Hima-
layas ; Minla (+ sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; Proparus (7
sp.), Nepal to East Thibet and Aracan; (1) Pteruthius (6 sp.),
Himalayas to Java and West China; (1) Cutia (2 sp.), Nepal;
(1°) Yuhina (3 sp.), High Himalayas and Moupin; (*°) Lxulus
(3 sp.), Himalayas to Tenasserim ; (1°!) Myzornis (1 sp.), Dar-
jeeling.

FamiLy 12—PHYLLORNITHID. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

——

---~|----]---- | ---+ 1.2.8.4] ----

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 267

The Phylornithide, or “Green Bulbuls,” are a small group of
fruit-eating birds, strictly confined to the Oriental region, and
ranging over the whole of it, with the one exception of the Philip-
pine Islands. The genera are :—

(2°) Phyllornis (12 sp.), India to Java, Ceylon, and Hainan ;
(416) Jora (4 sp.), the whole Oriental region; (8) Erpornis (2
sp.), Himalayas, Hainan, Formosa, and Borneo.

Famity 13—PYCNONOTID. (9 Genera, 139 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Pycnonotidz, Bulbuls, or fruit-thrushes, are highly charac-
teristic of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound ;
less plentiful in the Ethiopian region, and extending to Palestine
and Japan in the Palearctic, and to the Moluccas in the Aus-
tralian region, but absent from the intervening island of Celebes.
The genera are :—

Mieroscelis (6 sp.), Burmah, the Indo-Malay Islands, and
Japan ; Pycnonotus (52 sp., i many sub-genera), Palestine to
South Africa, the whole Oriental region, China and Japan;
Alcurus (1 sp.), Himalayas; Hemixus (2 sp.), Nepal, Bootan,
Hainan; Phyllastrephus (4 sp.), West and South Africa; Hypsi-
petes (20 sp.), the whole Oriental region, Madagascar and the
Mascarene Islands; 7'ylas (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Crinager (30 sp.),
the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines), West and
South Africa, Moluccas; Zzonotus (7 sp.), West Africa; (71° 1°17)
Setornis (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; Jole (4 sp.),
Aracan and Malaya; Andropadus (9 sp.), Tropical Atrica ; (117)
Lioptilus (1 sp.), South Africa.

268 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 14—ORIOLID. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SuB-REGIONS.

----— | —----— | 1.2—4 )1.2.9.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2——

The Orioles, or Golden Thrushes, are a small group charac-
teristic of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, migrating into the
western Palearctic region, and with some of the less typical
forms in Australia. The genera are :-—

Oriolus (24 sp.), Central Europe, throughout Africa, and the
whole Oriental region, northward to Pekin, and eastward to
Flores ; (1°) Analcipus (3 sp.), Himalayas, Formosa, Java and
Borneo; Mimeta (9 sp.), the Moluccas and Australia; Sphecotheres
(3 sp.), Timor and Australia. Artamia (1 sp.), Madagascar, —
perhaps belongs to the next family or to Laniide.

Famity 15—CAMPEPHAGID. (3 Genera, 100 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SuB-REGIONS.

ab sgt ad | eal | a Ah | 1.2.9.4 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3

The Campephagide, or Cuckoo Shrikes, (Campephagine of
the Hand List, with the addition of Cochoa) are most abundant
in the Australian region (especially in the Austro-Malay sub-
region) less so in the Oriental, and still less in the Ethiopian
region. The genera, for the most part as adopted by Dr. Hart-
laub, are as follows :—

Pericrocotus (22 sp.), the whole Oriental region,extending north
to Pekin, and east to Lombok; (#4? — 144) Lanicterus (4 sp.),
West and South Africa; (#74 14°) Graucalus (25 sp.), the whole
Oriental region, and eastward to Austro-Malaya, the New

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 269

Hebrides, and Tasmania; Artamides (1 sp.), Celebes; Pteropo-
docys (1 sp.), Australia ; (*#° 1° 127 1258) Campephaga (16 sp.),
Austro-Malaya, and New Caledonia, Philippines, the Ethiopian
region; Volvocivora (8 sp.) the Oriental regio (excluding
Philippines) ; Lalage (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago to
New Caledonia and Australia; Symmorphus (1 sp.), Australia;
Oxynotus (2 sp.), Mauritius and Bourbon ; (4) Cochoa (3 sp.),
Himalayas, Java. The position of this last genus is doubtful.
Jerdon puts it in the Liotrichide ; Sundeval in the Sturnide ;
Bonaparte in the Dicruride; Professor Newton suggests the
Pycnonotidz ; but it seems on the whole best placed here.

Famity 16—DICRURID. (6 Genera, 58 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

----| ---- | ---- 1.2.8.4 | 1.2.9.4 |1.2— i

The Dicruride, or Drongo Shrikes (Dicruride of the Hand
List, omitting the genus Melenornis), have nearly the same
distribution as the last family, with which they are sometimes
united. They are, however, most abundant and varied in the
Oriental region, much less so both in the Australian and Ethio-
pian regions. The distribution of the genera is as follows :—

Dicrurus (46 sp., i several sub-genera), has the range of the
whole family, extending east to New Ireland, and one species in
Australia ; Chetorhynchus (1. sp.), New Guinea; bhringa (2 sp.),
Himalayas to Borneo (Plate IX. vol. i. p. 339); Chibia (2 sp.)
Himalayas eastward to North China; Chaptia (3 sp.), all India to
Malacca and Formosa; rena (4 sp.), Central India, Assam, and
Burmah to Borneo and the Philippine Islands. This last genus
is placed by Jerdon among the Pycnonotide, but seems to come
most naturally here or in the last family.

270 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

FamILy 17.—MUSCICAPID. (44 Genera, 283 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEaARCTIC | PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ae | are aS }1.2.3.4 li.2.3.4 | 1.2.9.4 | 1.2.3.4

The Muscicapide, or Flycatchers (Muscicapine and Myiagrine
of the Hand List, omitting Cochoa and including Pogonocichla)
form an extensive family of usually small-sized and often bright-
coloured birds, very abundant in the warmer regions of the Old
World and Australia, but becoming scarce as we approach the
temperate and colder regions. They are wholly absent from
North and South America. The genera, many of which are not
well defined, are distributed as follows :—

Peltops (1 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Monarcha (28 sp.), Moluccas
to the Carolines and Marquesas Islands, Australia and Tas-
mania; Leucophantes (1 sp.), New Guinea; Butalis (4 sp.),
Ethiopian and Palearctic regions, Moluccas and Formosa ; Mus-
cicapa (12 sp.), Europe and Africa; Muscicapula (6 sp.), India to
Western China; Alseonax (1 sp.), South Africa; Hrythrosterna
(7 sp.), Europe to China and Java; Newtonia (1 sp.), Madagascar ;
Xanthopygia (2 sp.), Japan, China, Malacca; Hemipus (1 sp.),
India and Ceylon; Pycnophrys (1 sp.), Java; Hyliota (2 sp.),
West Africa; Hrythrocercus (2 sp.), West Africa and Zambesi;
Micreca (6 sp.), Australia, Timor, and Papuan Islands ; Artomyias
(2 sp.), West Africa; Pseuwdobias (1 sp.), Madagascar; Hemiche-
Midon (3 sp.), the Oriental region and North China ; Smithornis
(2 sp.), West and South Africa; Megabias (1 sp.), West Africa;
Cassinia (2 sp.), West Africa; Bias, (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; Niltava
(3 sp.), Himalayas to West China; Cyornis (16 sp.), the whole
Oriental region; Cyanoptila (1 sp.), Japan, China, Hainan;
Eumyias (7 sp.), India to South China, Ceylon, and Sumatra ;
(1213 and 1216) Sinhia (8 sp.), North India, Formosa, Timor; An-
thipes (1 sp.), Nepal; Seiswra (5 sp.), Australia and Austro-

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 971

Malaya (excluding Celebes); (Myiagra (16 sp.), Australia and
Moluccas to Caroline and Samoa Islands: Hypothymis (2 sp.),
Oriental region and Celebes ; Hlminia (2 sp.), Tropical Africa ;
Muscitodus (2 sp.), Fiji Islands ; Macherirhynchus (4 sp.), Papuan
Islands and North Australia; Platystira (12 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa; Rhipidura (45 sp.), the Oriental and Australian
regions to the Samoa Islands and Tasmania; Chelidorynz (1 sp.),
North India; Myzalestes (2 sp.), India to Ceylon, China, Java
and Celebes ; 7'chitrea (26 sp.), the entire Ethiopian and Oriental
regions, and to North China and Japan; Philentoma (4 sp.)
Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippine Islands; Todopsis
(6 sp.), Papuan Islands ; (8°) Pogonocichla (1 sp.), South Africa ;
(1061 — 1063) Bradyornis (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1)
Chasiempis (2 sp.), Sandwich Islands.

FamiLy 18.—PACHYCEPHALID2. (5 Genera, 62 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

eae | ---- | =e | —-3.4| er eS

The Pachycephalide, or Thick-headed Shrikes (Pachycepha-
line of the Hand List omitting Colluricinela, Cracticus, and
Pardalotus) are almost confined to the Australian region, a single
species extending to Java and Aracan, and another (7) to Mada-
gascar. The family has generally been united with the Laniide,
but most modern ornithologists consider it to be distinct. The
distribution of the genera is as follows :—

Orewca (1 sp.), Australia; Faleunculus (2 sp.), Australia ;
Pachycephala (44 sp.), Sula Islands (east of Celebes) to the Fiji
Islands, and Australia ; Hylocharis (4 sp.), Timor, Celebes, Indo-
Malaya, and Aracan; Calicalicus (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Hopsaltria
(14 sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides ; Ar-
tamia (4 sp.), Madagascar,—may belong to this family, or to
Laniijde, Oriolide, or Artamide, according to different authors,

272 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lV,

Famity 19—LANIID. (19 Genera, 145 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

-_---- (1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 2.2.3.4 1.2.3—
|

The Laniide, or Shrikes (Laniinze and Malaconotine of the
Hand List, and including Collwricinela), are most abundant
and varied in Africa, less plentiful in the Oriental, Australian,
and Palearctic regions, with a few species in the Nearctic region
as far as Mexico. The constitution of the family is, however,
somewhat uncertain. The genera here admitted are :—

Colluricincla (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Rectes (18 sp.),
Papuan Islands, North Australia, to Pelew and Fiji Islands ;
(1462 — 1464 1466 1470 1471 — 1478) Tonius (50 sp.), the whole Nearectic,
Palearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, one species reaching
Timor, none in Madagascar; Laniellus (1 sp.), Java; Hypocolius
(1 sp.), Abyssinia and Upper Nile; Corvinella (1 sp.), South and
West Africa; Uvrolestes (1 sp.), South and East Africa; Tephro-
dornis (4 sp.), Oriental region to Hainan and Java; Hypodes (1
sp.), West Africa; Fraseria (2 sp.), West Africa; Cuphopterus
(1 sp.), Princes’ Island; Nilaus (1 sp.), South and West Africa ;
Prionops (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; Ewrocephalus (2 sp.), North,
East, and South Africa, and Abyssinia; Chaunonotus (1 sp.),
West Africa; Vanga (4 sp.), Madagascar (Plate VI. vol. i. p. 278);
Laniarius (36 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; Zelephonus (10
sp.), all Africa and South Europe; Meristes (2 sp.), Tropical
and South Africa ; Vicator (1 sp.), East Africa.

FamiLy 20.—CORVIDE. (24 Genera, 190 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.411.9-3.4 1.a.9.4|1.2.9.4|1.2.3.4 |1-2.3-
|

CHAP, XVIII. ] BIRDS. 273

The Corvide, or Crows, Jays, &c., form an extensive and
somewhat heterogeneous group, some members of which inhabit
almost every part of the globe, although none of the genera are
cosmepolitan. The true crows are found everywhere but in
South America; the magpies, choughs, and nutcrackers are
characteristic of the Palearctic region; the jays are Palearctic,
Oriental, and American ; while the piping crows are peculiarly
Australian. The more detailed distribution of the genera is as
follows :—

Sub-family I. Gymnorhinine (Piping Crows).—Strepera (4
sp.), and Gymnorhina (3 sp.), are Australian only; Cracticus (9
sp.), ranges from New Guinea to Tasmania (this is usually put
with the Shrikes, but it has more affinity with the preceding
genera); Pityriasis (1 sp.), Borneo (an extraordinary bird of very
doubtful affinities) ; Grallina (1 sp.), Australia, is put here by
Sundevall,—among Motacillide, by Gould.

Sub-family II. Garruline (Jays)—Platylophus = Lophocitta
(4 sp.), Malaya; Garrulus (12 sp.), Palearctic region, China and
Himalayas ; Perisoreus (2 sp.), North of Palearctic and Nearctic
regions; Cyanurus (22 sp.), American, from Bolivia to Canada,
most abundant in Central America, but absent from the Antilles ;
Cyanocorax (15 sp.), La Plata to Mexico; Calocitta (2 sp.), Gua-
temala and Mexico; Psilorhinus (3 sp.), Costa Rica to Texas;
Urocissa (6 sp.), Western Himalayas to China and Formosa;
Cissa (3 sp.), South-eastern Himalayas to Tenasserim, Ceylon,
Sumatra, and Java.

Sub-family III. Dendrocittinee (Tree Crows).—Temnurus (3
sp.), Cochin China, Malacca to Borneo (not Java) ; Dendro-
citta (9 sp.), the Oriental region to Sumatra, Hainan, and For-
mosa; Crypsirhina (3 sp.), Pegu, Siam, and Java; Ptilostomus
(2 sp.), West, East, and South Africa.

Sub-family IV. Corvinz (Crows and Magpies).—Nucifraga (4
sp.), Palearctic region to the Himalayas and North China; Piet-
corvus (1 sp.), the Rocky Mountains and California; Gymnokitta
(1 sp.), Rocky Mountains and Arizona (Plate XVIII, Vol. IL,
p. 128); Pica (9 sp.), Palearctic region, Arctic America, and
California; Cyanopica (3 sp.), Spain, North-east Asia, Japan;

274 * GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. - [PART Iv.

Streptocitta (2 sp.), Celebes ; Charitornis (1 sp.), Sula Islands;
Corvus (55 sp.), universally distributed except South America
and New Zealand, but found in Guatemala and the Antilles
to Porto Rico; reaches the extreme north of Europe and Asia;
Gymnocorvus (2 sp.), Papuan Islands; Picathartes (1 sp.), West
Africa ; Corvultur (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.

Sub-family V. Fregiline (Choughs).—Fregilus (3 sp.), moun-
tains and cliffs of Palearctic region from West Europe to the
Himalayas and North China, Abyssinia (Plate L, Vol. L, p.
195) ; Corcoraxz (1 sp.), Australia,

FAMILY 21—PARADISEID. (19 Genera, 34 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Paradiseide, or “ Birds of Paradise,” form one of the most
remarkable families of birds, unsurpassed alike for the singularity
and the beauty of their plumage. Till recently the family was re-
stricted to about eight species of the more typical Paradise birds,
but in his splendid monograph of the group, Mr. Elliot has
combined together a number of allied forms which had been
doubtfully placed in several adjacent families. The various
species of true Paradise birds, having ornamental plumes deve-
loped from different parts of the body, are almost wholly confined
to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands, one species
only being found in the Moluccas and one in North Australia ;
while the less typical Bower-birds, having no such developments
of plumage, are most characteristic of the north and east of
Australia, with a few species in New Guinea. The distribution
of the genera according to Mr. Elliot’s monograph is as follows :—

Sub-family I. Paradiseine—Paradisea (4 sp.), Papuan Is-
lands ; Manucodia (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia ;
Astrapia (1 sp.), New Guinea; Parotia (1 sp.), New Guinea ;
Lophorhina (1 sp.), New Guinea; Diphyllodes (3 sp.), Papuan

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 275

Islands ; Xanthomelus (1 sp.), New Guinea; Cicinnurus (1 sp.),
Papuan Islands; Paradigalla (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Senioptera
(1 sp.), Gilolo and Batchian.

Sub-family II. Epimachinee.—Lpimachus (1 sp.), New Guinea ;
Drepanornis (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Seleucides (1 sp.), New Gui-
nea (Plate X., Vol. L., p. 414) ; Ptilorkis (4 sp.), New Guinea and
North Australia.

Sub-family IiI. Tectonarchine (Bower-birds).-—Sericulus (1
sp.), Eastern Australia; Ptilonorhynchus (1 sp.), Eastern Aus-
tralia; Chlamydodera (4 sp.), North and East Australia ; Alu-
redus (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and East Australia; Amblyornis
(1 sp.), New Guinea.

FamILy 22—MELIPHAGID. (23 Genera, 190 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ies | SSR | == ==] ele | Sess 1.2.9.4

(As in the Hand List, but omitting Zosterops, and slightly
altering the arrangement.)

The extensive group of the Meliphagide, or Honey-suckers,
is wholly Australian, for the genus Zosterops, which extends
into the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, does not naturally
belong to it. Several of the genera are confined to Australia,
others to New Zealand, while a few range over the whole Aus-
tralian region.. The genera are distributed as follows :—

Myzomela (18 sp.), has the widest range, extending from Ce-
lebes to the Samoa Islands, and to Timor and Eastern Australia ;
Entomophila (4 sp.), Australia and New Guinea; Gliciphila (10
sp.), Australia, Timor, New Guinea, and New Caledonia; Acan-
thorhynchus (2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Meliphaga (1 sp.),
Australia; Pédotis (40 sp.), Gilolo and Lombok to Australia and
Tasmania, and to the Samoa and Tonga Islands ; Meliornis (5 sp.).
Australia and Tasmania; Prosthemadera (1 sp.), Pogonornis (1
sp.), New Zealand ; Anthornis (4 sp.), New Zealand and Chatham
Islands; Anthochwra (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Yan-

276 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

thotis (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and Australia; Leptornis (2 sp.),
Samoa Islands and New Caledonia; Philemon = Tropidorhyncus
(18 sp.), Moluccas and Lombok to New Guinea, Australia, Tas-
mania and New Caledonia; Hntomiza (2 sp.), Australia; MJano-
rhina (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Huthyrhynchus (3 sp.),
New Guinea; MJelirrhophetes (2 sp.), New Guinea; Melidectes
(1 sp.), New Guinea; MJelipotes (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Melithrep-
tus (8 sp.), New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania; (°%) Moho (3
sp.), Sandwich Islands ; Chetoptila (1 sp.), Sandwich Islands.

FamILy 23.—NECTARINIID. (11 Genera, 122 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

----|----|-2--| 1.2.3.4|1.2.3.4) 1.a——

The Nectariniid, or Sun-birds, form a rather extensive group
of insectivorous honey-suckers, often adorned with brilliant me-
tallic plumage, and bearing a superficial resemblance to the
American humming-birds, although not in any way related to
them. They abound in the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian
regions, as far east as New Ireland, and south to Queensland,
while one species inhabits the hot Jordan Valley in the Pale-
arctic region. For the Eastern genera I follow Lord Walden’s
classification (Ibis, 1870); the African species not having been
so carefully studied are mostly placedin one genus. The genera
adopted are as follows :—

Promerops (1 sp.), South Africa; Nectarinia (60 sp.), the whole
Ethiopian region; Cinnyricinclus (5 sp.), West Africa; Neodre-
panis (1 sp.), Madagascar; Avrachnecthra (18 sp.), Palestine,
all India to Hainan, the Papuan Islands, and North-east Aus-
tralia ; Mthopyga (15 sp,), Himalayas and Central India to West
China, Hainan, Java, and Northern Celebes; Mectarophila (5 sp.),
Central India and Ceylon, Assam and Aracan to Java, Celebes
and the Philippines; Chalcostetha (6 sp.), Malay Peninsula to
New Guinea; Anthreptes (1 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula to

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 277

Sula Islands, and Flores; Cosmeteira (1 sp.), Papuan Islands;
Arachnothera (15 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines)
Celebes, Lombok, and Papuan Islands.

Famity 24——DICAIDZ. (5 Genera, 107 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

'
NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS. |] SUB-REGIONS.

—— = — | SSS = | ——-—4 | 1.2.9.4 1.2.3.4/1.2.9.4

The Diczeide, or Flower-peckers, consist of very small, gaily-
coloured birds, rather abundant over the whole Oriental and
much of the Australian regions, and one genus extending over
the Ethiopian region. The genera here adopted are the fol-
lowing :—

(°) Zosterops (68 sp.), the whole Ethiopian, Oriental, and
Australian regions, as far east as the Fiji Islands, and north to
Pekin and Japan ; (* — 4%) Diccewm (25 sp.), the whole Oriental
region, except China, with the Australian region as far as the
Solomon Islands; (*) Pachyglossa (2 sp. 4% 14), Nepal and
Northern Celebes ; (*°) Piprisoma (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon
and Timor; (4) Pardalotus (10 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ;
(407 — 4°) Prionochilus (5 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and Papuan
Islands.

Famity 25—DREPANIDID. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

se ee ee ed oe

The Drepanidide are confined to the Sandwich Islands, and I
follow Mr. Sclater’s suggestion in bringing together the following
genera to form this family :—

Drepanis (3 sp.) ; Hemignathus (3 sp.) ; Loxops (1 sp.) ; Psit-
tirostra (1 sp.). If these are correctly associated, the great

278 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

differences in the bill indicate that they are the remains of
a larger and more varied family, once inhabiting more extensive
land surfaces in the Pacific.

Famity 26.—CCEREBID. (11 Genera, 55 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

Sars a Katee | en | —~=+| a a

(According to the arrangement of Messrs. Sciater and Salvin.)

The Ceerebide, or Sugar-birds, are delicate little birds allied to
the preceding families, but with extensile honey-sucking tongues.
They are almost wholly confined to the tropical parts of America,
only one species of Certhiola ranging so far north as Florida.
The following is the distribution of the genera :—

Diglossa (14 sp.), Peru and Bolivia to Guiana and Mexico;
Diglossopis (1 sp.), Ecuador to Venezuela; Oreomanes (1 sp.),
Ecuador ; Conirostrum (6 sp.), Bolivia to Ecuador and Columbia ;
Hemidacnis (1 sp.), Upper Amazon and Columbia; Dacnis (13
sp.), Brazil to Ecuador and Costa Rica; Certhidea (2 sp.), Gala-
pagos Islands ; Chlovophanes (2 sp.), Brazil to Central America
and Cuba; Cereba (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; Certhiola (10 sp.),
Amazon to Mexico, West Indies, and Florida; Glossoptila (1 sp.),
Jamaica.

Famity 27.—MNIOTIT TID. (18 Genera, 115 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

IPALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

—2,.a<+4 [1.2.3.4| Sig ogc eae | ----| ificet

(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical,
Baird and Allen for the Nearctic region.)

The Mniotiltids, or Wood-warblers, are an interesting group of

small and elegant birds, allied to the preceding family and to the

greenlets, and perhaps also to the warblers and tits of Europe.

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 279

They range over all North America from Panama to the Arctic
regions, but do not extend far beyond the tropic in Southern
America. They are almost as abundant in the Nearctic as in
the Neotropical region ; and considering the favourable condi-
tions of existence in Tropical America, this fact, in connection
with their absence from the South Temperate zone would lead us
to suppose that they originated in North Temperate America, and
subsequently spread southward into the tropics. This supposi-
tion is strengthened by the fact that their metropolis, in the
breeding season, is to the north of the United States. The
genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are as follows :—

(18) Siwrus (4 sp.), Venezuela and West Indies to Eastern States
and Canada; Mniotilta (1 sp.), Venezuela, Mexico, and Antilles
to the Eastern States ; Parula (5 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and the
Eastern States, and Canada; Protonotaria (1 sp.), Antilles to
Ohio; Helminthophaga (8 sp.), Columbia to Arctic America
Helmintherus (2 sp.), Central America to Eastern States; Peris-
soglossa (1 sp.), Antilles and Eastern States ; Dendraca (33 sp.),
Amazon to Antilles, and Arctic America, and south to Chili;
Oporornis (2 sp.), Guatemala to Eastern States; Geothlypis (11
sp.), all North America and Brazil ; Myiodzoctes (5 sp.), all North
America and Columbia; Baszleuterus (22 sp.), Bolivia and Brazil
to Mexico ; Setophaga (15 sp.), Brazil to Canada; Hrgaticus (2
sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; Cardellina (1 sp.), Guatemala and
Mexico; (##°) Granatellus (3 sp.), Amazon to Mexico ; (1441) Tere-
tristis (2 sp.), Cuba; (14) Leterza (2 sp.), Costa Rica and United
States to Canada.

FAMILY 28.—VIREONIDZ. (7 Genera, 63 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC | PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-RFGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

—2.3.4|1.2.3.4) tee | ae | ----|----

(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical
genera ; Professor Baird and Mr. Allen for those of the Nearctic
region.)

Vou. II.—19

280 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

The Vireonidz, or Greenlets, are a family of small fly-catching
birds wholly restricted to the American continent, where they
range from Paraguay to Canada. They are allied to the Mniotil-
tide and perhaps also to the Australian Pachycephalide. Only
two of the genera, with about a dozen species, inhabit the
Nearetic region. The distribution of the genera is as follows :—

Vireosylvia (13 sp.), Venezuela to Mexico, the Antilles, the
Eastern States and Canada; Vireo (14 sp.), Central America and
the Antilles to Canada; Neochloe (1 sp.), Mexico; Hylophilus
(20 sp.), Brazil to Mexico ; Laletes (1 sp.), Jamaica; Vireolanius
(5 sp.), Amazonia to Mexico; Cychlorhis (9 sp.), Paraguay to
Mexico.

Famity 29—AMPELID. (4 Genera, 9 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
. SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

Seif [1.2.0.4 |1.2.9.4| ———— | ---- | ae

The Ampelide, represented in Europe by the waxwing, are a
small family, characteristic of the Nearctic and Palearctic re-
gions, but extending southward to Costa Rica and the West
Indian islands. The genera are distributed as follows :-—

(59) Ampelis (3 sp.), the Paleearctic and Nearctic regions, and —
southward to Guatemala; (°°) Ptilogonys (2 sp.), Central
America; (14?) Dulus (2 sp.), West Indian Islands ; (39%) Phano-
pepla (1 sp.), Mexico and the Gila Valley.

Famity 30.—HIRUNDINIDA. ( 9 Genera, 91 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ee oe ee | 1.2.3.4|1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 [1.2.3.4

CHAP. XVIII. | BIRDS. 281

The Hirundinide, or Swallows, are true cosmopolites. Al-
though they do not range quite so far north (except as stragelers)
as a few of the extreme polar birds, yet they pass beyond the
Arctic Circle both in America and Europe, Cotyle riparia having
been observed in the Parry Islands, while Hirundo rustica has
been seen both in Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. Cotyle riparia
and Chelidon urbica also breed in great numbers in northern
Lapland, latitude 67° to 70° north. Many of the species also,
have an enormous range, the common swallow. (Hirundo rustica)
inhabiting Europe, Asia and Africa, from Lapland to the Cape of
Good Hope and to the Moluccas. The genera of swallows are
not well determined, a number having been established of which
the value is uncertain. I admit the following, referring by
numbers to the Hand List :—

(715 — 221 226 — 228) Hirundo (40 sp.), the range of the entire
family ; (7 %) Psalidoprogne (10 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ;
(24) Phedina (1 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands; (2%)
Petrochelidon (5 sp.), North and South America and Cape of Good
Hope; (229 — 22 '284) Atticora (8 sp.), the Neotropical region and
? Australia ; (7 73) Cotyle (11 sp.), Europe, India, Africa, North
America, Antilles and Ecuador; (7°) Stelgidopteryx (5 sp.), La
Plata to United States; (7% *™* °°) Chelidon (6 sp.), Palearctic
region, Nepal, Borneo ; (74° — 74) Progne (5 sp.), all North and
South America.

Famity 31—ICTERID. (24 Genera, 110 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 ----| ----— | —-—--—— | ----—

The Icteridz, or American hang-nests, range over the whole
continent, from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the
Arctic Circle. Only about 20 species inhabit the Nearctic
region, while, as usual with exclusively American families, the
larger proportion of the genera and species are found in the

282 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART LY.

tropical parts of South America. The genera adopted by Messrs.
Selater and Salvin are the following :—

Clypeicterus (1 sp.), Upper Amazon; Ocyalus (2 sp.), Upper
Amazon to Mexico; Ostinops (8 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to
Mexico; Cassiculus (1 sp.), Mexico; Cassicus (10 sp.), South
Brazil and Bolivia to Costa Rica; Jcterws (384 sp.), La Plata to
the Antilles and United States; Dolichonyx (1 sp.), Paraguay
to Canada; Molothrus (8 sp.), La Plata to Northern United
States ; Ageleus (7 sp.), La Plata and Chili to Northern United
States ; Yanthocephalus (1 sp.), Mexico to California and Canada ;

‘anthosomus (4 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela; Amblyrhamphus
(1 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia; Gymnomystax (1 sp.), Amazonia
and Guiana; Pseudoleistes (2 sp.), La Plata and Brazil; Leistes
(3 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela; Stwrnella (5 sp.), Patagonia and
Falkland Islands to Middle United States; Curewus (1 sp.),
Chili ; Nesopsar (1 sp.), Jamaica ; Scolecophgaus (2 sp.), Mexico to
Arctic Circle; ZLampropsar (4 sp.), Amazonia and Ecuador to
Mexico; Quiscalus (10 sp.), Venezuela and Columbia to South
and Central United States; Hypopyrrhus (1 sp.), Columbia ;
Aphobus (1 sp.), Brazil and_ Bolivia; Cassidix (2 sp.), Brazil to
Mexico and Cuba.

Famity 32——TANAGRID. (43 Genera, 304 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.9.4) —2.3- | =---| ---- | ---~| ----

The Tanagers are an extensive family of varied and beautiful
fruit-eating birds, almost peculiar to the Neotropical region, only
four species of a single genus (Pyranga) extending into the
Eastern United States and Rocky Mountains. Southward they
range to La Plata. They are especially abundant in the forest
regions of South America east of the Andes, where no less
than 40 out of the 43 genera occur; 23 of the genera are
peculiar to this sub-region, while only 1 (Phlogothraupis) is

OHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 283

peculiar to Central America and Mexico, and 2 (Spindalis and
Pheenicophilus) to the West Indian islands. The genera adopted
by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin with their distribution will be
found at Vol. IL, p. 99, in our account of Neotropical Zoology.

FamILy 33.—FRINGILLID. (74 Genera, 509 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 j1-2.0.4[1.2.9.4]1.2.3.4)/1.2.3.4] ---

The great family of the Fringillide, or finches, is in a very un-
settled state as regards their division into genera, the most di-
vergent views being held by ornithologists as to the constitution
and affinities of many of the groups. All the Australian finch-
like birds appear to belong to the Ploceide, so that the finches,
as here constituted, are found in every region and sub-region,
except the Australian region from which they are entirely absent
—a peculiar distribution hardly to be found in any other family
of birds.

Many European ornithologists separate the Emberizide, or bun-
tings, as a distinct family, but as the American genera have not
been so divided I am obliged to keep them together; but the
genera usually classed as “ buntings” are placed last, as a sub-
family. In the following arrangement of the genera, I have done
what I could to harmonize the views of the best modern writers.
For convenience of reference the succession of the genera is that
of the Hand List, and the numbers of the sub-genera are given
whenever practicable :—

(2793 179) Fringilla (6 sp.), the whole Paleearctic region, includ-
ing the Atlantic Islands ; (1*) Acanthis (3 sp.), Europe to Siberia,
Persia, and North-West Himalayas; (1°) Procarduelis (1 sp.),
High Himalayas and Kast Thibet ; (77 — 18°) Chrysomitris (18
sp.), Neotropical and Nearctic regions, Europe, and Siberia; (18%)
Metoponia (1 sp.), East Europe to North West Himalayas ; (18%
and 1809) Chlorospiza (9 sp.), Palearctic region and Africa to the

284 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv,

Cape of Good Hope; (38° — 18°) Dryospiza (14 sp.), South Europe,
Palestine, Canaries, and all Africa; (18°) Sycalis (18 sp.), the
whole Neotropical region ; (811 — 1818 1816 — 1819) Pyrgita (34 sp.),
Palearctic and Oriental regions, and all Africa; (14) Montifrin-
gilla (4 sp.), Palearctic region ; (18°) Fringillauda (2 sp.), North-
West Himalayas to East Thibet ; (1°? — 18°") Coccothraustes (6 sp.),
Palearctic region and Nepal, Nearctic region to Mexico ; (188) .
Eophona (2 sp.), China and Japan; (84) Mycerobas (2 sp.), Cen-
tral Asia to Persia, High Himalayas, and East Thibet; ('%”)
Chaunoproctus (1 sp.), Bonin Islands, south-east of Japan,
(probably Palearctic) ; (18°) Geospiza (7 sp.) ,Galapagos Islands ;
(7) Camarhynchus (5 sp.), Galapagos Islands ; (#88) Cactornis
(4 sp.), Galapagos Islands; (18° — 18%°) Phrygilus (10 sp.), Colum-
bia to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands ; ('°*°) Xenospingus (1 sp.),
Peru; (4) Diuca (3 sp.), Peru to Chili and Patagonia; (8
sna 1837) Hmberizoides (3 sp.), Venezuela to Paraguay ; (38°) Dona-
cospiza (1 sp.), South Brazil and La Plata ; (8%°) Chameospiza (1
sp.), Mexico; (3838 s"4 1840) Hmbernagra (9 sp.), Arizona to La
Plata; (8) Heamophila (6 sp.), Mexico to Costa Rica; (!*#)
Atlapetes (1 sp.), Mexico; (8%) Pyrgisoma (5 sp.), Mexico to
Costa Rica; (1844 4 1845) Pinilo (12 sp.), all North ‘America to
Guatemala ; (184°) Junco (6 sp.), all the United States to Guate-
mala; ('*7) Zonotrichia (9 sp.), the whole Nearctic and Neotro-
pical regions ; (1848 184°) Melospiza (7 sp.), Sitka and United States
to Guatemala; (°°) Spizella (7 sp.), Canada to Guatemala ; (18°)
Passerella ‘4 sp.), the Nearctic region and Northern Asia; (1°?)
Passerculus (6 sp.), Nearctic region and to Guatemala ; (1%) Pow-
cetes (1'sp.), all United States and Mexico; (%*) Ammodromus
(4 sp.), all United States to Guatemala ; (18°) Cotwrniculus (6 sp.),
north and east of North America to Jamaica and Bolivia; (1%)
Peucea (6 sp.), South Atlantic States and California to Mexico ;
7") Tiaris (1 sp.), Brazil; (°°) Volatinia (1 sp.), Mexico to
Brazil and Bolivia ; (°°) Cyanospiza (5 sp.), Canada to Guatemala ;
(78 1861) Pawroaria (6 sp.), Tropical South America, east of the
Andes; (1%) Coryphospingus (4 sp.), Tropical South America ;
(°°) Haplospiza (2 sp.), Mexico and Brazil; (18% 1°) Phonipara
(8 sp.), Mexico to Columbia, the greater Antilles ; (°°) Poospiza

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 285

(13 sp.), California and South Central States to Bolivia and La
Plata; (**) Spodiornis (1 sp.), Andes of Quito ; (8% 187) Pyrrhula
(9 sp.), the whole Palearctic region to the Azores and High
Himalayas ; (88) Crithagra (17 sp.), Tropical and South Africa,
Mauritius, Syria; ('8) Ligurnus (2 sp.), West Africa; (287 1871)
Carpodacus (18 sp.), Nearctic and Palearctic regions to Mexico
and Central India; (8? — 184) Hrythrospiza (6 sp.), Southern
parts of Palearctic region, (1%) Uragus (2 sp.), Siberia and
Japan ; (1°) Cardinalis (2 sp.), South and Central States to
Venezuela: (87) Pyrrhuloxia (1 sp.), Texas and Rio Grande;
(1878 1879) Guiraca (6 sp.), Southern United States to La Plata;
(188°) Amaurospiza (2 sp.), Costa Rica and Brazil; (8%!) Hedy-
meles (2 sp.), all United States to Columbia ; (°°?) Pheucticus
(5 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia; (8°) Oryzoborus (6 sp.),
Mexico to Ecuador and South Brazil; (8) Melopyrrha (1 sp.),
Cuba; (8°) Lowigilla (4 sp.), Antilles; (°° 1887) Spermophila
(44 sp.), Texas to Bolivia and Uruguay ; (1%) Catamenia (4 sp.),
Columbia to Bolivia; (1%) Meorhynchus (3 sp.), Wegt Peru;
(182) Catamblyrhyncus (1 sp.), Columbia; (1%) Loxia (7 sp.),
Europe to North-west India and Japan, Arctic America to Penn-
sylvania, Mexico ; (4) Pinicola (3 sp.), Arctic America, North-
east Europe to the Amoor, Camaroons Mountains West Africa ;
(18%) Propyrrhula (1 sp.), Darjeeling in the winter, ? Thibet ; (18%)
Pyrrhospiza (1 sp.), Snowy Himalayas; ('”) Hematospiza (1
sp.), South-east Himalayas, 5,000 - 10,000 feet; (19 1°) Linota
(12 sp.), Europe to Central Asia, north and east of North Ame-
rica; (1%) Leucosticte (7 sp.), Siberia and Thibet to Kamschatka,
and from Alaska to Utah.

Sub-family Emberizinee.—() Calamospiza (1 sp.), Arizona
and Texas to Mexico; (1°) Chondestes (2 sp.), Western, Central,
and Southern States to Mexico and Nicaragua ; (297 — 19°) Hy-
spiza (9 sp.), Paleearctic region, India, Burmah, and South China,
South-east United States to Columbia ; (1°! —1%°) Hmberiza (28
sp.), the whole Palearctic region (continental), to Central India
in winter; (11) Gubernatrix (1 sp.), Paraguay and La Plata,
(according to Messrs. Sclater and Salvin this comes next to
Pipilo) ; 3°") Fringillaria (8 sp.), Africa and South Europe;

286 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

(193 — 1925) Plectrophanes (6 sp.), Arctic Zone to Northern Europe
and North China, Arctic America, and east side of Rocky Moun-
tains; (1°) Centronyx (1 sp.), Mouth of Yellowstone River.

FamILy 34—PLOCEID. (29 Genera, 252 species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

pf eel b | = A ee 1.2.8.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 —

The Ploceide, or Weaver-finches, are especially characteristic
of the Ethiopian region, where most of the genera and nearly
four-fifths of the species are found; the remainder being pretty
equally divided between the Oriental and Australian regions.
Like the true finches these have never been properly studied,
and it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain what genera are natural
and how far those of Australia and Africa are distinct. The fol-
lowing enumeration must therefore be taken as altogether ten-
tative and provisional. When the genera adopted differ from
those of the Hand List they will be referred to by numbers.

Textor (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; (16° — 1654 1657) Ff.
phantornis (32 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (7° 1656) Sym-
plectes (8 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Malimbus (9 sp.), West
Africa; (°° 1661) Ploceus (6 sp.), West and East Africa, the Orien-
tal region (excluding Philippines); (1°) Nelicurvius (1 sp.),
Madagascar; Foudia (12 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands,
Tropical Africa ; (1% 1) Sporopipes (2 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa ; (16> — 167) Pyromelana (14 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa, Abyssinia to 10,500 feet ; Phileterus (1 sp.), South Africa ;
Nigrita (7 sp.), West Africa to Upper Nile; Plocepasser (4 sp.),
East and South Africa ; (12 — 1%) Vidua (7 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa (Plate V., Vol. I, p. 264); (26% — 1°") Coliuspasser
(9 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Chera (1 sp.), South Africa ;
Spermospiza (2 sp.), West Africa; Pyrenestes (6 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa ; (1682 — 1687 1689 1692 1693 1698) F’'ster/da (26 sp.), Tropical
and South Africa, India, Burmah, and Java to Australia ; (1° 16°

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 287

1691 1695 1696) Pytelia (24 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1%)
Hypargos (2 sp.), Mozambique and Madagascar ; (”) Hinblema
(1 sp.), North-west Australia (16° 1712-1717) Amadina (15 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa, Moluccas to Australia and the Samoa
Islands ; (27 1701 1110) Snermestes (8 sp.), Tropical Africa and Mada-
gascar ; (17) Amauresthes (1 sp.), East and West Africa; (’
707 — 1709 111) Munia (30 sp.), Oriental region to Timor and
New Guinea; (17°) Donacola (3 sp.), Australia ; (#7 17°) Poephila
(6 sp.), Australia; (78 — 171) Hrythrura (7 sp.), Sumatra to
Java, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, and Fiji Islands; (17%)
Hypochera (3 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.

FamILy 35.—STURNIDZ. (29 Genera, 124 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-RI GIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

BPE 734 | Las Pe )1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4)1.2.3.4| 4 3.4

The Sturnide, or Starlings, are a highly characteristic Old-
World group, extending to every part of the great Eastern con-
tinent and its islands, and over the Pacific Ocean to the Samoa
. Islands and New Zealand, yet wholly absent from the mainland
of Australia. The family appears to be tolerably well-defined,
and the following genera are generally considered to belong to it :
(18 1559 1562) Hrulabes (13 sp.), the Oriental region to South-west
China, Hainan, and Java,—and Flores, New Guinea and the Solo-
mon Islands in the Australian region ; Ampeliceps (1 sp.), Tenas-
serim, Burmah, and Cochin China; Gymnops (1 sp.), Philippine
Islands; Basilornis (2 sp.), Celebes and Ceram; Pastor (1 sp.),
South-east Europe to India, Ceylon, and Burmah; Aeridotheres
(7 sp.), the whole Oriental region and Celebes ; (°° °°) Sturnia
(12 sp.), the whole Oriental region, North China, Japan, and
Siberia, Celebes ; Delophus (1 sp.) South Africa ; Stwrnus (6 sp.),
Palearctic region, to India and South China in winter ; Stwrno-
pastor (4 sp.), India to Burmah and East Java; Creadion (2 sp.)
New Zealand ; Heterolocha (1 sp.), New Zealand ; (5°) Callwas

288 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

(2 sp.), New Zealand ; Buphaga (2 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa; Huryceros (1 sp.), Madagascar (see Plate VI., Vol. L, p.
278.) This genus and the last should perhaps form distinct
families. (#7) Juda (5 sp.), Central, West, and South Africa ;
(*8) Lamprocolius (20 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Cinny-
ricinclus (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Onychognathus (2
sp.), West Africa; (8!) Spreo (4 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ;
(1582 — 1585) Amydrus (7 sp.), South and East Africa, Palestine ;
Aplonis (9 sp.), New Caledonia to the Tonga Islands ; (7°87 — 1°)
Calornis (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago and eastward
to the Ladrone and Samoa Islands ; (#°*°) Hnodes (1 sp.), Celebes ;
Scissirostrum (1 sp.), Celebes ; (2%) Saroglossa (1 sp.), Hima-
layas ; (8) Hartlaubius (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Fregilupus (1 sp.),
Bourbon, but it has recently become extinct; (°°) Faleulia (1
sp)., Madagascar.

FAMILY 36.—ARTAMID. (1 Genus, 17 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ee ee

1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3 —

The Artamide, or Swallow-shrikes, are a curious group of
birds, ranging over the greater part of the Oriental and Austra-
lian regions as far east as the Fiji Islands and south to Tasmania.
Only a single species inhabits India, and they are more plentiful
in Australia than in any other locality. The only well-marked
genus is Artamus,

There are a few Madagascar birds belonging to the genus
Artamia, which some ornithologists place in this family, others
with the Laniidz, but which are here classed with the Oriolide.

CHAP, XVIII. ] BIRDS. 289

Famity 37—ALAUDIDZ. (15 Genera, 110 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

=2.8— |—2.9.4/1.2.8.4 | 1.2.8.4 | 1.2.9.4 | 1. i

The Alaudide, or Larks, may be considered as exclusively
belonging to the great Eastern continent, since the Nearctic,
Neotropical, and Australian regions have each only a single
species. They abound most in the open plains and deserts of
Africa and Asia, and are especially numerous in South Africa.
The genera, including those recently established by Mr. Sharpe,
are as follows :—

Otocorys (8 sp.) ; the Palearctic region, North America and
south to the Andes of Columbia, North India; (195 1°) Alauda (17
sp.), Paleearctic region, all Africa, the Peninsula of India, and
Ceylon ; (*") Galerita (10 sp.), Central Europe to Senegal and
Abyssinia, Persia, India and North China ; (1°) Calendula (2
sp.), Abyssinia and South Africa ; (193 1) Calandrella (6 sp.),
Europe, North Africa, India, Burmah, North China, and Mon-
golia ; (1% — 1937) Melanocorypha (7 sp.), South Europe to Tartary,
Abyssinia, and North-west India; Pallasia (* 7%), East Asia ;
(1988) Certhilauda (4 sp.), South Europe, South Africa ; Heterocorys
(7792) South Africa; (1%) Alemon (3 sp.), South-east Europe
to Western India,‘and South Africa ; (%°) Mirafra (25 sp.), the
Oriental and Ethiopian regions to Australia ; (1°41) Ammomanes
(10 sp.), South Europe to Palestine and Central India, and to
Cape Verd Islands and South Africa; (1% 13) Megalophonus (6
sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Zephrocorys (1 sp.), South
Africa ; Pyrrhulauda (9 sp.), all Africa, Canary Islands, India
and Ceylon.

290 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lV.

Famity 38.—MOTACILLIDA. (9 Genera, 80 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ie@.3.4i.¢.3.4 [1.2.9.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 2. ae
|

The Motacillidez, or Wagtails and Pipits, are universally dis-
tributed, but are most abundant in the Palearctic, Ethiopian,
and Oriental regions, to which the true wagtails are almost con-
fined. The following genera are usually adopted, but some of
them are not very well defined :—

Motacilla (15 sp.), ranges over the greater part of Europe,
Asia, and Africa, and to Alaskain North-west America ; Budytes
(10 sp.), Europe, Africa, Asia to Philippines, Moluccas, Timor,
and North Australia; Calobates (3 sp.), South Palearctic and
Oriental regions to Java; Nemoricola (1 sp.), Oriental region ;
Anthus (30 sp.), all the great continents ; Neocorys (1 sp.), Cen-
tral North America ; Coryddila (14 sp.), South Europe to India,
China, the Malay Islands, Australia, New Zealand and the Auck-
land Islands: Macronyx (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa;
Heterwra (1 sp.), Himalayas.

FAMILY 39.—TYRANNID. (71 Genera, 329 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALRARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4|1.2.3.4,| Ys | ----| ----| oe at

The Tyrannide, or Tyrant Shrikes, form one of the most ex-
tensive and truly characteristic American families of birds; as
they extend over the whole continent from Patagonia to the
Arctic regions, and are found also in all the chief American
islands—the AntiJles, the Galapagos, the Falkland Islands, and

CHAP. XVIII. | BIRDS. 291

Juan Fernandez. As the genera are all enumerated in the table,
at p. 101 of this volume, I shall here confine myself to the dis-
tribution of the sub-families, only referring to such genera as are
of special geographical interest.

Sub-family I. CoNOPHAGINA (2 genera, 13 species). Confined
to tropical South America, from Brazil and Bolivia to Guiana
and Columbia.

Sub-family II. TNIoprerin& (19 genera, 76 species). This
group ranges from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the
northern United States; yet itis almost wholly South American,
only 2 genera and 4 species passing north of Panama, and none
inhabiting the West Indian islands. Sayornis has 3 species in
North America, while Tenioptera, Cnripolegus, Muscisaxicola, and
Centrites, range south to Patagonia.

Sub-family II]. PLATYRHYNICHIN (16 genera, 60 species). This
sub-family is wholly Neotropical and mostly South American,
only 7 of the genera passing Panama and but 3 reaching Mexico,
while there are none in the West Indian islands. Only 3 genera
extend south to the temperate sub-region, and one of these,
Aneretes, has a species in Juan Fernandez.

Sub-family IV. ELAINEINaz (17 genera, 91 species). This sub-
family is more exclusively tropical, only two genera extending
south as far as Chili and La Plata, while none enter the Nearctic
region. No less than 10 of the genera pass north of Panama,
and one of these, Hlainea, which ranges from Chili to Costa Rica
has several species in the West, Indian islands. About one
fourth of the species of this sub-family are found north of
Panama.

Sub-family V. TyRANNIN# (17 genera, 89 species). This sub-
family is that which is best represented in the Nearctic region,
where 6 genera and 24 species occur. Milvulus reaches Texas ;
Tyrannus and Myiarchus range over all the United States ;
Empidias, the Hastern States and California; Contopus extends
to Canada; Hmpidonax ranges all over North America; and
Pyrocephalus reaches the Gila Valley as well as the Galapagos
Islands. No less than 5 genera of this sub-family occur in the
West Indian islands.

292 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

Famity 39a.—OXYRHAMPHIDZ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN
Sus-rRecions. | SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

Pe es ees as ae eee

The genus Oxyrhamphus (2 sp.) which ranges from Brazil to
Costa Rica, has usually been placed in the Dendrocolaptide ;
but Messrs Sclater and Salvin consider it to be the type of a
distinct family group, most allied to the Tyrannide.

Faminy 40.—PIPRIDA. (15 Genera, 60 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

828 |= eo

---- | ----

The Pipride, or Manakins, have generally been associated
with the next family, and they have a very similar distribution.
The great majority of the genera and species are found in the
equatorial regions of South America, only 9 species belonging
to 5 genera ranging north of Panama, while 2 or 3 species ex-
tend to the southern limit of the tropical forests in Paraguay
and Brazil. The genera which go north of Panama are Piprites,
Pipra, Chiroxiphia, Chiromacheris, and Hetoropelma. Pipra is
the largest genus, containing 19 species, and having representa-
tives throughout the whole range of the family. As in all the
more extensive families peculiar to the Neotropical region, the
distribution of the genera will be found in the tables appended
to the chapter on the Neotropical region in the Third Part of
this work. (Vol. II. p. 103).

CHAP, XVIII.] BIRDS. 293

Famity 41.—COTINGID. (28 Genera, 93 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZ ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

eee Aisa tS feneaet ic stbeg ipl) ae pas | Alpe 504550

The Cotingide, or Chatterers, comprise some of the most
beautiful and some of the most remarkable of American birds,
for such we must consider the azure and purple Cotingas, the
wine-coloured white-winged Pompadour, the snowy carunculated
Bell-birds, the orange-coloured Cocks-of-the-Rock, and the mar-
vellously-plumed Umbrella-birds, (Plate XV. Vol. IT. p. 28). The
Cotingide are also one of the most pre-eminently Neotropical
of all the Neotropical families, the great mass of the genera
and species being concentrated in and around the vast equatorial
forest region of the Amazon. Only 13 species extend north of
Panama, one to the Antilles, and not more than 20 are found to
the south of the Amazon Valley. Messrs. Sclater and Salvin
divide the family into six sub-families, the distribution of which
will be briefly indicated.

Sub-family I. Trryrmv# (3 genera, 22 species). Ranges from
Brazil to Mexico, one species of Hadrostomus inhabiting Jamaica.

Sub-family II. Lipauein# (4 genera, 14 species) also ranges
from Brazil to Mexico; one genus (Ptilochloris) is confined to
Brazil.

Sub-family III. ATratin (2 genera, 10 species). Ranges from
Paraguay to Costa Rica; one genus (Casiornis) is confined to
South Brazil and Paraguay.

Sub-family IV. RupicoLin# (2 genera, 5 species). This sub-
family is restricted to the Amazonian region and Guiana, with
one species extending along the Andean valleys to Bolivia. The
genera are Rupicola (3 species) and Phenicocercus (2 species).

Sub-family V. Cotincina (10 genera, 28 species). Ranges
from Southern Brazil and Bolivia to Nicaragua; only two species

294 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Ivy,

(belonging to the genera Carpodectes and Cotinga) are found north
of Panama, and there are none in the West Indian islands. The
great majority of these, the true Chatterers, are from the regions
about the Equator.

Sub-family VI. GyMNoDERIN” (7 genera, 14 species). Ranges
from Brazil to Costa Rica ; two species, of the genera Chasmor-
hynchus and Cephalopterus, are found north of Panama, while
there are none in the West Indian islands. Only 2 species are
found south of the Amazon valley.

Famity 42.—PHYTOTOMID. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

makovied A ci antl UCR nds adi 1 ck ola 6x0 na

The Phytotomide, or Plant-cutters, are singular thick-billed
birds, strictly confined to the temperate regions of South America.
The single genus, Phytotoma, is found in Chili, La Plata, and
Bolivia. Their affinities are uncertain, but they are believed to
be allied to the series of families with which they are here
associated. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 128).

Famity 43—EURYLEMID®. (6 Genera, 9 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SuB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Eurylemide, or Broad-bills, form a very small family ot
birds, often adorned with striking colours, and which have their
nearest allies in the South American Cotingide. They have a
very limited distribution, from the lower slopes of the Himalayas
through Burmah and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. They
are evidently the remains of a once extensive group, and from
the small number of specific forms remaining, seem to be on

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 295

the road to extinction. Thus we may understand their isolated
geographical position. The following are the names and dis-
tribution of the genera :—

Eurylemus (2 species), Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and
Borneo; Corydon (1 species), Malacca, Sumatra and Borneo
(Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339); Psarisomus (1 species), Himalayas to
Burmah, up to 6,000 feet ; Serilophus (2 species), Nepal to Tenas-
serim ; Cymbirhynchus (2 species), Siam to Sumatra and Borneo ;
Calyptomena (1 species), Penang to Sumatra and Borneo.

Famity 44—DENDROCOLAPTID. (43 Genera, 217 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SN FOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Dendrocolaptide, or American Creepers, are curious
brown-coloured birds with more or less rigid tail feathers, strictly
confined to the continental Neotropical region, and very numerous
in its south-temperate extremity. They are divided by Messrs.
Sclater and Salvin into five sub-families, to which JI shall con-
fine my remarks on their distribution. The details of the
numerous genera, being only interesting to specialists, will be
given in the table of genera of the Neotropical region. No less
than 13 of the genera are confined to South-Temperate America
and the High Andes; 14 are restricted to Tropical South America,
while not one is peculiar to Tropical North America, and only 15
of the 43 genera extend into that sub-region, showing that this
is one of the pre-eminently South American groups.

Sub-family I. FuRNARIN (8 genera, 30 species). Ranges over
all South America, 4 genera and 18 species being restricted to the
temperate sub-region; one species is found in the Falkland Islands.

Sub-family II. ScLERURIN# (1 genus, 6 species). Brazil to
Guiana, Columbia, and north to Mexico.

Sub-family I. SyNALLAXIn«# (12 genera, 78 species). Ranges
from Patagonia to Mexico; 7 genera and 28 species are sccntined

Vou. I1.—20

296 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. (PART IV.

to the temperate sub-region; species occur in the islands of
Mas-a-fuera, Trinidad, and Tobago.

Sub-family IV. PutLyporin# (6 genera, 35 species). Con-
fined to Tropical America from Brazil to Mexico; 4 genera and
8 species occur in Tropical North America.

Sub-family V. DENDROcCOLAPTIN® (14 genera, 59 species).
Ranges from Chili and La Plata to Mexico; only 3 species occur in
the South Temperate sub-region, while 9 of the genera extend into
Tropical North America. Two of the continental ‘species occur
in the island of Tobago, which, together with Trinidad, forms
part of the South American rather than of the true Antillean
sub-region.

FamIiLy 45—FORMICARIID. (32 Genera, 211 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

wean |aoe [eee [eee Pee]

The Formicariide, comprising the Bush-Shrikes and Ant-
thrushes, form one of the most exclusively Neotropical
families; and the numerous species are rigidly confined to the
warm and wooded districts, only a single species extending to
La Plata, and none to the Antilles or to the Nearctic region,
Less than 30 species are found north of Panama. Messrs.
Sclater and Salvin divide the group into three sub-families,
whose distribution may be conveniently treated, as in the Den-
drocolaptide, without enumerating the genera.

Sub-family I. THAMNOPHILIN/Z.—(10 genera, 70 species.) One
species of Thamnophilus inhabits La Plata; only 3 genera and
12 species are found north of Panama, the species of this
sub-family being especially abundant in the Equatorial forest
districts.

Sub-family II. Formictvorinz.—(14 genera, 95 species.) Only
8 species occur north of Panama, and less than one-third of the
species belong to the districts south of the Equator.

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 297

Sub-family III. Formicariun£,—(8 genera, 46 species.) About
12 species occur north of Panama, and only 5 south of the Equa-
torial district.

It appears, therefore, that this extensive family is especially
characteristic of that part of South America from the Amazon
valley northwards.

FamiLy 46—PTEROPTOCHID. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

2 eee cece eed bes eo

The Pteroptochide are a group of curious Wren-like birds,
almost confined to the temperate regions of South America,
extending along the Andes beyond the Equator, and with a few
species in South-east Brazil, and one in the valley of the
Madeira. The genera are as follows :—

Scytalopus (8 sp.), Chili and West Patagonia to the Andes of
Columbia; Merulaxis (1 sp.), South-east Brazil; Rkinoerypta (2
sp.), Northern Patagonia and La Plata ; Lioscelis (1 sp.), Madeira
valley ; Pteroptochus (2 sp.), Chili; Hylactes (3 sp.), Western
Patagonia and Chili; Acropternis (1 sp.), Andes of Ecuador
and Columbia; Z7riptorhinus (1 sp.), Chili.

amity 47.—PITTID®. (4 Genera, 40 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

-==5) va te lasee | as 12.3.4) eee

The Pittas comprise a number of beautifully-coloured Thrush-
hike birds, which, although confined to the Old World, are more
nearly allied to the South American Pteroptochide than to any
other family. They are most abundant in the Malay Archipelago,

298 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

between the Oriental and Australian divisions of which they are
pretty equally divided. They seem, however, to attain their
maximum of beauty and variety in the large islands of Borneo
and Sumatra; from whence they diminish in numbers in
every direction till we find single species only in North
China, West Africa, and Australia, The genera here adopted
are the following :—

(1087 1088 1090 1092 1098) Pitta (33 sp.), has the range of the
family ; (1%) Hydrornis (3 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya;
Ewcichla (3 sp.), Malaya; Melampitta (1 sp.), recently discovered
in New Guinea.

Famity 48.—PAICTID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC

————
NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Sub-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,

sen oie | ia ia ma

This family was established by Professor Sundevall, for an
anomalous bird of Madagascar, which he believes to have
some affinity for the American Formicarude, but which perhaps
comes best near the Pittas. The only genus is Philepitta, con-
taining two species.

FAmILy 49—MENURIDZ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SvuB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

one [ann | ase |anan joann | =a

The Menuride, or Lyre Birds, remarkable for the extreme
elegance of the lyre-shaped tail in the species first discovered,
are birds of a very anomalous structure, and ‘have no near affinity
to any other family. Two species of Menwra are known, con-
fined to South and East Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441).

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 299

FamiLy 50.—ATRICHIID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

wane anes [anne | anne fans) ma

The genus Africhia, or Scrub-birds of Australia, have been
formed into a separate family by Professor Newton, on account
of peculiarities in the skeleton which separate them from all
other Passeres. Only two species are known, inhabiting East
and West Australia respectively. They are very noisy, brown-
coloured birds, and have been usually classed with the
warblers, near Amytis and other Australian species.

General remarks on the distribution of the Passeres.

The order Passeres, is the most extensive among birds,
comprehending about 5,700 species grouped in 870 genera,
and 51 families. The distribution of the genera, and of the
families considered individually, has been already sufficiently
given, and we now have to consider the peculiarities of dis-
tribution of the families collectively, and in their relations to
each other, as representing well-marked types of bird-structure.
The first thing to be noted is, how very few of these families
are truly cosmopolitan; for although there are seven which
are found in each of the great regions, yet few of these are
widely distributed throughout all the regions, and we can
only find three that inhabit every sub-region, and are distri-
buted with tolerable uniformity; these are the Hirundinide,
or swallows, the Motacillide or wagtails and pipits, and the
Corvide or crows,—but the latter is a family of so hetero-
geneous a nature, that it possibly contains the materials of
several natural families, and if so divided, the parts would
probably all cease to be cosmopolitan. The Sylviide, the

300 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.
Turdide, aud the Paride, are the only other families that ap-
proach universality of distribution, and all these are want-
ing in one or more sub-regions. If, now, we divide the
globe into the New and the Old World, the former including
the whole American continent, the latter all the rest of the
earth, we find that the Old World possesses exclusively 23
families, the New World exclusively 14, of which 5 are common
to North and South America. But if we take the division
proposed by Professor Huxley—a northern world, comprising
our first four regions (from Nearctic to Oriental), and a southern
world comprising our last two regions (the Australian and
Neotropical)—we find that the northern division possesses only
5 families exclusively, and the southern division 13 exclusively,
of which not one is common to Australia and South America.
This plainly indicates that, as far as the Passeres are concerned,
the latter bipartite division is not so natural as the former.
Again, if we compare temperate with tropical families (not too
rigidly, but as regards their general character), we find in the
northern hemisphere only two families that have the character
of being typically temperate—the Cinclide, and in a less degree
the Ampelidee—both of small extent. In the southern hemi-
sphere we have also two, the Phytotomide, and in a less degree,
the Pteroptochide ; making two wholly and two mainly tem-
perate families. Of exclusively tropical families on the other
hand, we have about 12, and several others that are mainly
tropical.

The several regions do not differ greatly in the number of
families found in each. The Nearctic has 19, the Palearctic 21,
the Ethiopian 23, the Oriental 28, the Australian 29, and the
Neotropical 23. But many of these families are only represented
by a few species, or in limited districts ; andif we count only those
families which are tolerably well represented, and help to form
the ornithological character of the region, the richness of the
several tropical regions will appear to be (as it really is) com-
paratively much greater. The families that are confined to
single regions are not very numerous, except in the case of
the Neotropical region, which has 5. The Australian has only

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 301
3, the Oriental 1, the Ethiopian 1, and the other regions have
no peculiar families.

The distribution of the Passeres may be advantageously
considered as divided into the five series of Turdoid, Tanagroid,
Sturnoid, Formicarioid, and Anomalous Passeres. The Turdoid
Passeres, consisting of the first 23 families, are especially
characteristic of the Old World, none being found exclusively
in America, and only two or three being at all abundant there.
The Tanagroid Passeres (Families 24-35) are very characteristic
of the New World, five being confined to it, and three others
being quite as abundant there as in the Old World; while there
is not a single exclusively Old World family in the series,
except the Drepanidide confined to the Sandwich Islands.
The Sturnoid Passeres (Families 34-38) are all exclusively Old
World, except that two larks inhabit parts of North America,
and a few pipits South America. The Formicarioid Passeres
(Families 39-48) are strikingly characteristic of the New World,
to which seven of the families exclusively belong; the two
Old World groups being small, and with a very restricted
distribution. The Anomalous Passeres (Families 49-50) are
confined to Australia.

The most remarkable feature in the geographical distribution
of the Passeres is the richness of the American continent, and
the large development of characteristic types that occurs there.
The fact that America possesses 14 altogether peculiar families,
while no less than 23 Old-World families are entirely absent from
it, plainly indicates, that, if this division does not represent the
most ancient and radical separation of the land surface of the
glove, it must still be one of very great antiquity, and have
modified in a very marked way the distribution of all living
things. Not less remarkable is the richness in specific forms
of the 13 peculiar American families. These contain no less
than 1,570 species, leaving only about 500 American species in
the 13 other Passerine families represented in the New World.
If we make a deduction for those Nearctic species which ovcur
only north of Panama, we may estimate the truly N eotropical
species of Passerine birds at 1,900, which is almost exactly

302 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lV.

one-third of the total number of Passeres; a wonderful illus-
tration of the Ornithological riches of South America.

Order IIT—PICARIZE.

Famity 51.—PICID. (36 Genera, 320 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

|
1.2.9.41.2.3.4/1.2.3.31.2.3— 1.2.3.4 1---—

The Woodpeckers are very widely distributed, being only absent
from the Australian region beyond Celebes and Flores. They
are most abundant in the Neotropical and Oriental regions, both
of which possess a number of peculiar genera ; while the other
regions possess few or no peculiar forms, even the Ethiopian
region having only three genera not found elsewhere. The soft-
tailed Picumnine inhabit the tropical regions only, Picwmnus
being Neotropical, Vivia and Sasia Oriental, and Verreauxia
Ethiopian. Picoides, or Apternis, is an Arctic form peculiar to
the Nearctic and Palearctic regions. Celeus, Chrysoptilus, Chloro-
nerpes, and some smaller genera, are Neotropical exclusively,
and there are two peculiar forms in Cuba. Yungipicus, Chryso-
colaptes, Hemicercus, Mulleripicus, Brachypternus, Tiga, and
Micropternus, are the most important of the peculiar Oriental
genera. Dendropicus and Geocolaptes are Ethiopian ; but there
are no woodpeckers in Madagascar. The Palearctic woodpeckers
belong to the genera Picus—which is widely distributed, Gecinus
—which is an Oriental form, and Dryocopus—which is South
American. Except Picoides, the Nearctic woodpeckers are mostly
of Neotropicalgenera; but Sphyrapicus and Hylatomus are peculiar.
The geological record is, as yet, almost silent as to this family ;
but remains doubtfully referred to it have been found in the
Miocene of Europe and the Eocene of the United States. Yet
the group is evidently one of very high antiquity, as is shown by

CHAP, XVIII.) BIRDS. 303

its extreme isolation, its great specialization of structure, its
abundant generic forms, and its wide distribution. It originated,
probably, in Central Asia, and passed through the Nearctic
region to South America, in whose rich and varied forests it
found the conditions for rapid development, and for the speciali-
zation of the many generic forms now found there.

A large number of genera have been established by various
authors, but their limitations and affinities are not very well
made out. Those which seem best established are the fol-
lowing :—

(07 — 2112) Picumnus (22 sp.), Tropical South America to Hon-
duras; (7%) Vivia (1 sp.), Himalayas to East Thibet; (244)
Sasia (2 sp.), Nepal to Java; (5) Verreauxia (1 sp.), West
Africa ; Picoides (5 sp.), northern parts of Nearctic and Pale-
arctic regions, and Mountains of Kast Thibet; Picus (42 sp.),
the whole Palearctic, Oriental, Nearctic, and Neotropical regions ;
(7°3) Hyopicus (2 sp.), Himalayas and North China; (7124) Yungi-
picus (16 sp.), Oriental region, and to Flores, Celebes, North
China, and Japan ; (7127 — 2129) Snhyrapicus (7 sp.), Nearctic re-
gion, Mexico, and Bolivia ; (728° — 7183 2189) Campephilus (14 sp.),
Neotropical and Nearctic regions ; Hylatomus (1 sp.), Nearctic
region; (7187 2140) Dryocopus (5 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil,
Central and Northern Europe; (***) Keinwardtipicus (1 sp.),
Penang to Borneo; (72% 718°) Venilia (2 sp.), Nepal to Borneo;
Chrysocolaptes (8 sp.), India and Indo-Malaya; Dendropicus (16
sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Hemicercus (5 sp.), Malabar and
Pegu to Malaya; Gecinus (18 sp.), Palearctic and Oriental re-
gions to Java; (715! — 2156) Dendromus (15 sp.), West and South
Africa, Zanzibar, and Abyssinia; (7157 — 245°) Mulleripicus (6 sp.),
Malabar, Pegu, Indo-Malaya, and Celebes ; Celews (17 sp.), Para-
guay to Mexico ; Wesoceleus (s?. 88°) Cuba; (7%) Chrysoptilus (9
sp.), Chili and South Brazil to Mexico; Brachypternus (5 sp.),
India, Ceylon, and China; (7% 6) Z%ga (5 sp.), all India to
Malaya; (7°) Gecinulus (2 sp.), South-east Himalayas to Bur-
mah ; Centwrus (13 sp.), Nearctic Region to Antilles and Vene-
zuela ; Chloronerpes (35 sp.), Tropical America, Hayti; (27)
Xiphidiopicus (1 sp.), Cuba; Melanerpes (11 sp.), Brazil to

304 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Canada, Porto Rico; JLeuconerpes (1 sp.), Bolivia to North
Brazil; Colaptes (9 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Arctic America,
Greater Antilles; Hypoxanthus (1 sp.), Venezuela and Ecuador;
(187) Geocolaptes (1 sp.), South Africa; JMiglyptes (3 sp.),
Malaya ; Micropternus (8 sp.), India and Ceylon to South China,
Sumatra and Borneo.

Famity 52—YUNGID. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

zis oage (pms: [2.2.9.4 | 35 |1--- | om

The Wrynecks (Yunzx), which constitute this family, are
small tree-creeping birds characteristic of the Palearctic region,
but extending into North and East Africa, over the greater part
of the peninsula of India (but not to Ceylon), and just reaching
the lower ranges of the Himalayas. There is also one species
isolated in South Africa.

Famiry 53.—INDICATORIDZ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

eye falca | apm Sa | SB en 1.2.3-| —-3.4) — ee

The Honey-guides (Indicator) constitute a small family of
doubtful affinities; perhaps most nearly allied to the wood-
peckers and barbets. They catch bees and sometimes kill small
birds ; and some of the species are parasitical like the cuckoo.
Their distribution is very interesting, as they are found in every
part of the Ethiopian region, except Madagascar, and in the
Oriental region only in Sikhim and Borneo, being absent from
the peninsula of India which is nearest, both geographically and
zoologically, to Africa.

CHAP, XVIII. ] BIRDS. 305

Famity 54—MEGALAMID. (13 Genera, 81 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

The Mevalemide, or Barbets, consist of rather small, fruit-
eating birds, of heavy ungraceful shape, but adorned with the
most gaudy colours, especially about the head and neck. They
form a very isolated family ; their nearest allies being, perhaps, .
the still more isolated Toucans of South America. Barbets are
found in all the tropics except Australia, but are especially
characteristic of the great Equatorial forest-zone; all the most
remarkable forms being confined to Equatorial America, West
Africa, and the Indo-Malay Islands. They are most abundant
in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and in the latter are
universally distributed.

In the beautiful monograph of this family by the Messrs.
Marshall, the barbets are divided into three sub-families, as
follows :—

Pogonorhynchine (3 genera, 15 sp.), which are Ethiopian
except the 2 species of Zetragonops, which are Neotropical ;
Megalemine (6 genera, 45 sp.), which are Oriental and Ethio-
pian; and Capitoninz (4 genera, 18 sp.), common to the three
regions.

The genera are each confined to a single region. Africa
possesses the largest number of peculiar forms, while the
Oriental region is richest in species.

This is probably a very ancient group, and its existing dis-
tribution may be due to its former range over the Miocene
South Palearctic land, which’ we know possessed Trogons,
Parrots, Apes, and Tapirs, groups which are now equally
abundant in Equatorial countries.

306 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lv.

The following is a tabular view of the genera with their
distribution :—

Genera Ethiopian Region. Oriental Region. | Neotropical Region,

POGONORHYNCHIN.

Tricholema ... 1sp.| W. Africa

Pogonorhynchus 12 ,, | All Trop. & S. Af.

Tetragonops ... 2,, pie Ae Peru & Costa Rica
MEGALEMINZ.

Megalema ... 29 ,, He ads The whole region,

Nantholema ... 4 ,, | as ae The whole region

Xylobucco 2,, | W. Africa

Barbatula 9 ,, | Trop. & S. Africa

Psilopogon os) glee we ~~ Sumatra

Gymnobueco ... 2 ,, | W. Africa

CAPITONIN.

Trachyphonus... 5 ,, Trop. & S. Africa

Capito 00 20101 3; tH Es Equatorial Amer,

to Costa Rica
Calorhamphus... 2 ,, see 4 Malay Pen., Su-
matra, Borneo
Stactolema ... 1 ,, | W. Africa

FaMILy 55—RHAMPHASTID. (5 Genera, 51 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

“asl cael eee | oa

The Toncans form one of the most remarkable and charac-
teristic families of the Neotropical region, to which they are
strictly confined. They differ from all other birds by their long
feathered tongues, their huge yet elegant bills, and the peculiar
texture and coloration of their plumage. Being fruit-eaters, and
strictly adapted for an arboreal life, they are not found beyond
the forest regions ; but they nevertheless range from Mexico to
Paraguay, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. One genus,

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 307

Andigena, is confined to the forest slopes of the South American
Andes. The genera are :—

Rhamphastos (12 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil; Pteroglossus
(16 sp.), Nicaragua to South Brazil (Plate XV. Vol. Il. p. 28);
Selenidera (7 sp.), Veragua to Brazil, east of the Andes; Andi-
gena (6 sp.), the Andes, from Columbia to Bolivia, and West
Brazil ; Aulacorhamphus (10 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia.

Famity 56..—MUSOPHAGID. (2 Genera, 18 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

~=-~ |---- |---- |1-a.2-|---- | ----

The Musophagide, or Plantain-eaters and Turacos, are hand-
some birds, somewhat intermediate between Toucans and Cuc-
koos. They are confined to the Ethiopian region and are most
abundant in West Africa. The Plantain eaters (Musophaga,
2 sp.), are confined to West Africa; the Turacos (TZ'wracus, 16
sp., including the sub-genera Corythaix and Schizorhis) range
over all Africa from Abyssinia to the Cape (Plate V. Vol. I.
p. 264).

Famity 57—COLIID. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

wo== [=-s= [=ae [eme[=— = [o=a-

The Colies, consisting of the single genus Colius, are an
anomalous group of small finch-like birds, occuping a position
between the Picariz and Passeres, but of very doubtful affinities.
Their range is nearly identical with that of the Musophagide,
but they are most abundant in South and East Africa.

308 i GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 58.—CUCULIDZ. (35 Genera, 180 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1.2.3.4) 1.2.3 — 1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4

The Cuculidex, of which our well-known Cuckoo is one of the
most widely distributed types, are essentially a tropical group
of weak insectivorous birds, abounding in varied forms in all
the warmer parts of the globe, but very scarce or only appearing
as migrants in the temperate and colder zones. Many of the
smaller Eastern species are adorned with the most intense
golden or violet metallic lustre, while some of the larger forms
have gaily-coloured bills or bare patches of bright red on the
cheeks. Many of the cuckoos of the Eastern Hemisphere are
parasitic, laying their eggs in other birds’ nests ; and they are also
remarkable for the manner in which they resemble other birds,
as hawks, pheasants, or drongo-shrikes. The distribution of the
Cuckoo family is rather remarkable. They abound most in the
Oriental region, which produces no less than 18 genera, of which
11 are peculiar ; the Australian has 8, most of which are also Ori-
ental, but 3 are peculiar, one of these being confined to Celebes
and closely allied to an Oriental group ; the Ethiopian region has
only 7 genera, all of which are Oriental but three, 2 of these being
peculiar to Madagascar, and the other common to Madagascar
and Africa. America has 11 genera, all quite distinct from those
of the Eastern Hemisphere, and only three enter the Nearctic
region, one species extending to Canada.

Remembering our conclusions as to the early history of the
several regions, these facts enable us to indicate, with consider-
able probability, the origin and mode of dispersal of the cuckoos.
They were almost certainly developed in the Oriental and Pale-
arctic regions, but reached the Neotropical at a very early date,
where they have since been completely isolated. Africa must
have long remained without cuckoos, the earliest immigration

CHAP. XVIII-] ; BIRDS. 309

being to Madagascar at the time of the approximation of that
sub-region to Ceylon and Malaya. A later infusion of Oriental
forms took place probably by way of Arabia and Persia,
when those countries were more fertile and perhaps more ex-
tensive. Australia has also received its cuckoos at a somewhat
late date, a few having reached the Austro-Malay Islands some-
what earlier.

The classification of the family is somewhat unsettled. For
the American genera I follow Messrs. Sclater and Salvin; and,
for those of the Old World, Mr. Sharpe’s suggestive paper in the
Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1873, p. 600. The following
is the distribution of the various genera :—

(71%) Pheenicophdes (1 sp.), Ceylon; (7%) Rhamphococcyx (1
sp.), Celebes; (7%). Rhinococeyx (1. sp.), Java; (297 s¢ 2203)
Rhopodytes (6 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Hainan, and Malaya;
(7203 ¥"') Poliococeyx (1 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; (71%)
Dasylophus (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; (71%) Lepidogrammus (1
sp.), Philippine Islands; (°°) Zanclostomus (1 sp.), Malaya;
(2°) Ceuthmochares (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa and
Madagascar ; (7°) Taccocua (4 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and
Malacca; (4) Rhinortha (1 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo ;
(71%) Carpococcyz (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra; (7°) Meomorphus
(4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; (7% 72%) Coua (10 sp.), Madagascar ;
(72°7) Cochlothraustes (1 sp.), Madagascar; (71) Centrepus (35
ap.), Tropical and South Africa, the whole Oriental region,
Austro-Malaya and Australia; (77!) Crotophaga (3 sp.), Brazil
to Antilles and Pennsylvania; (7!*) Guzra (1 sp.), Brazil and
Paraguay ; (7°) Geocoecyx (2 sp.), Guatemala to Texas and Cali-
fornia; (72!) Dromococcyx (2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; (*!°) Diplopterus
(1 sp.), Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil; (”°%) Saurothera (4 sp.),
Greater Antilles ; (7°) Hyetornis (2 sp.), Jamaica and Hayti;
(#25) Piaya (3 sp.), Mexico to West Ecuador and Brazil; (715)
Morococcyx (1 sp.), Costa Rica to Mexico; (*"*) Coceygus (10 sp.),
La Plata to Antilles, Mexico and Pennsylvania, Cocos Island ;
(27) Cuculus (22 sp.), Paleearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions,
to Moluccas and Australia; (”) Calecthrus (1 sp.), Papuan
Islands; (?°—2282) Cacomantis (15 sp.), Oriental and Australian

310 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. (PART IV.

regions to Fiji Islands and Tasmania; (25-257) Chrysococeyx
(16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the Oriental and Australian
regions to New Zealand and Fiji Islands ; (7755) Swrniculus (2 sp.),
India, Ceylon, and Malaya ; (7°) Hierococcyzx (7 sp.), the Oriental
region to Amoorland and Celebes; (74° 741) Coccystes (6 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa, the Oriental region, excluding Philip-
pines; (7") Hudynamis (8 sp.), the Oriental and Australian .
regions, excluding Sandwich Islands; (74%) Scythrops (1 sp.),
East Australia to Moluccas and North Celebes.

Famity 59—LEPTOSOMID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

>

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Leptosomus discolor, which constitutes this family, is a
bird of very abnormal characters, having some affinities both
with Cuckoos and Rollers. It is confined to Madagascar (Plate
VI. Vol. I..p. 278).

Famity 60—BUCCONIDZ. (5 Genera, 43 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ee a ed

The Bucconide, or Puff-birds, are generally of small size and
dull colours, with rather thick bodies and dense plumage. They
form one of the characteristic Neotropical families, being most
abundant in the great Equatorial forest plains, but extending as
far north as Guatemala, though absent from the West Indian
Islands.

The genera are :—Bucco (21 sp.), Guatemala to Paraguay, and
West of the Andes in Ecuador; Malacoptila (10 sp.), Guatemala

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 311

to Bolivia and Brazil; Noniula (3 sp.), Amazon and Columbia;
Monasa (7 sp.), Costa Rica to Brazil; Chelidoptera (2 sp.), Colum-
bia and Guiana to Brazil.

Famity 61—GALBULIDZ. (6 Genera, 19 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

| pp apne a

es
The Galbulidz, or Jacamars, are small slender birds, of gener-
ally metallic plumage; somewhat resembling in form the Bee-
eaters of the Old World but less active. They have the same
general distribution as the last family, but they do not occur
west of the Equatorial Andes. The genera are :—
Galbula (9 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia; Urogalba (2
sp.), Guiana and the lower Amazon; Brachygalba (4 sp.), Venezuela
to Brazil and Bolivia ; Jacamaralcyon (1 sp.), Brazil ; Jacamerops

(2 sp.), Panama to the Amazon; Galbalcyrhynchus (1 sp.), Upper
Amazon.

Famity 62—CORACIID. (3 Genera, 19 Species.)

‘GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
|

—--—--— (---- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 | Lanes

The Rollers are a family of insectivorous birds allied to the
Bee-eaters, and are very characteristic of the Ethiopian and
Oriental regions; but one species (Coracias garrula) spreads over
the Palearctic region as far north as Sweden and the Altai
mountains, while the genus Hurystomus reaches the Amoor
valley, Australia, and the Solomon Islands. The distribution of
the genera is as follows :—

Coracias (8 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region, the Oriental

Vou. I.—21

312 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY.

region except Indo-Malaya, the Palearctic to the above-
named limits, and the island of Celebes on the confines
of the Australian region; Zurystomus (8 sp.), West and
East Africa and Madagascar, the whole Oriental region except
the Peninsula of India, and the Australian as far as Australia
and the Solomon Islands; Brachypteracias (possibly allied
to Leptosomus ?) (4 sp.), Madagascar only, but these abnormal
birds form a distinct sub-family, and according to Mr. Sharpe,
three genera, Brachypteracias, Atelornis, and Geobiastes.

A most remarkable feature in the distribution of this family
is the occurrence of a true roller (Coractas temminckit) in the
island of Celebes, entirely cut off from the rest of the genus,
which does not occur again till we reach Siam and Burmah.

The curious Psewdochelidon from West Africa may perhaps
belong to this family or to the Cypselide. (Ibis. 1861, p. 321.)

Famity 63.—MEROPIDZ. (5 Genera, 34 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

Se
AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REG'ONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ea = pee

The Meropide, or Bee-eaters, have nearly the same distribution
as the Rollers, but they do not penetrate quite so far either into
the Eastern Palearctic or the Australian regions. The distribu-
tion of the genera is as follows :—

Merops (21 sp.), has the range of the family extending on the
north to South Scandinavia, and east to Australia and New
Guinea; Nyctiornis (3 sp.), the Oriental region, except Ceylon
and Java; Meropogon (1 sp.), Celebes ; Meropiscus (3 sp.), West
Africa; Melittophagus (6 sp.), Ethiopian region, except Madagascar.

CHAP. XVIII. | BIRDS. 313

Famity 64—TODID. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

A®@STRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUR-REGIONS.

The Todies are delicate, bright-coloured, insectivorous birds,
of small size, and allied to the Motmots, although externally
more resembling flycatchers. They are wholly confined to the
greater Antilles, the islands of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto
Rico having each a peculiar species of Zodus, while another
species, said to be from Jamaica, has been recently described
(Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 67).

FAaMILy 65.—MOMOTID. (6 Genera, 17 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

Soe eee ee

The Motmots range from Mexico to Paraguay and to the west
coast of Ecuador, but seem to have their head-quarters in Cen-
tral America, five of the genera and eleven species occurring
from Panama northwards, two of the genera not occurring in
South America. The genera are as follows :—

Momotus (10 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia, one species
extending to Tobago, and one to Western Ecuador ; Urospatha
(1 sp.), Costa Rica to the Amazon ; Baryphthengus (1 sp.), Brazil
and Paraguay ; Hylomanes (2 sp.), Guatemala; Prionirhynchus
(2 sp.), Guatemala to Upper Amazon; Humomota (1 sp.), Hon-
duras to Chiriqui.

314 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART ly.

Famity 66.—TROGONIDZE. (7 Genera, 44 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

j AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

-2.3.4| -——-— | ——— )1-2.3 - j1-2..4| pao

The Trogons form a well-marked family of insectivorous
forest-haunting birds, whose dense yet puffy plumage exhibits
the most exquisite tints of pink, crimson, orange, brown, or
metallic green, often relieved by delicate bands of pure white.
In one Guatemalan species the tail coverts are enormously
lengthened into waving plumes of rich metallic green, as grace-
ful and marvellous as those of the Paradise-birds. Trogons are
tolerably abundant in the Neotropical and Oriental regions, and
are represented in Africa by a single species of a peculiar
genus. The genera now generally admitted are the following :—

Trogon (24 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico, and west of the Andes
in Ecuador; Yemnotrogon (1 sp.), Hayti; Prionoteles (1 sp.),
Cuba (Plate XVII. Vol. IL. p. 67); Apaloderma (2 sp.), Tropical
and South Africa; Harpactes (10 sp.), the Oriental region, exclud-
ing China; Pharomacrus (5 sp.), Amazonia to Guatemala;
Euptilotis (1 sp.), Mexico.

Remains of Zvogon have been found in the Miocene deposits
of France; and we are thus able to understand the existing
distribution of the family. At that exceptionally mild period in
the northern hemisphere, these birds may have ranged over all
Europe and North America; but, as the climate became more
severe they gradually became restricted to the tropical regions,
where alone a sufficiency of fruit and insect-food is found all the
year round.

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 315

Famity 67—ALCEDINID. (19 Genera, 125 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1.2.3.4 as Se FESS 5 [tse ly Shores NEB) S Bees es

The Kingfishers are distributed universally, but very un-
equally, over the globe, and in this respect present some of the
most curious anomalies to be found among birds. They have
their metropolis in the eastern half of the Malay Archipelago
(our first Australian sub-region), from Celebes to New Guinea, in
which district no less than 13 out of the 19 genera occur, 8 of them
being peculiar ; and itis probable that in no other equally varied
group of universal distribution, is so large a proportion of the
generic forms confined to so limited a district. From this centre
kingfishers decrease rapidly in every direction. In Australia
itself there are only 4 genera with 13 species ; the whole Oriental
region has only 6 genera, 1 being peculiar; the Ethiopian also
6 genera, but 3 peculiar; and each of these have less than half
the number of species possessed by the Australian region. The
Palearctic region possesses only 3 genera, all derived from the
Oriental region; but the most extraordinary deficiency is shown
by the usually rich Neotropical region, which possesses but a
single genus, common to the larger part of the Eastern Hemi-
sphere, and the same genus is alone found in the Nearctic region,
the only difference being that the former possesses eight, while
the latter has but a single species. These facts almost inevitably
lead to the conclusion that America long existed without king-
fishers; and that in comparatively recent times (perhaps during
the Miocene or Pliocene period), a species of the Old World
genus, Ceryle, found its way into North America, and spreading
rapidly southward along the great river-valleys has become
differentiated in South America into the few closely allied forms
that alone inhabit that vast country—the richest in the world in

316 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY,

fresh-water fish, and apparently the best fitted to sustain a varied
and numerous body of kingfishers.

The names of the genera, with their distribution and the
number of species in each, as given by Mr. Sharpe in his ex-
cellent monograph of the family, is as follows :—

Alcedo (9 sp.), Palearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions (but
absent from Madagascar), and extending into the Austro-Malayan
sub-region ; Corythornis (3 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region ;
Alcyone (7 sp.), Australia and the Austro-Malayan sub-region,
with one species in the Philippine Islands ; Ceryle (13 sp.), absent
only from Australia, the northern half of the Palearctic region,
and Madagascar ; Pelargopsis (9 sp.), the whole Oriental region,
and extending to Celebes and Timor in the Austro-Malayan sub-
region ; Ceyx (11 sp.),the Oriental region and Austro-Malayan sub-
region, but absent from Celebes, and only one species in continental
India and Ceylon; Ceycopsis (1 sp.), Celebes; Myioceyx (2 sp.),
West Africa; Jpsidina (4 sp.), Ethiopian region; Syma (2 sp.),
Papua and North Australia; Halcyon (86 sp.), Australian,
Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, and the southern part of the
Palearctic ; Dacelo (6 sp.), Australia and New Guinea; Todir-
hamphus (3 sp.), Eastern Pacific Islands only; Monachaleyon (1
sp.), Celebes; Caridonaz (1 sp.), Lombok and Flores ; Carcineutes
(2 sp.), Siam to Borneo and Java ; Tanysiptera (14 sp.), Moluccas
New Guinea, and North Australia (Plate X. Vol. I. p. 414) ;
Cittura (2 sp.), Celebes group ; Melidora (1 sp.), New Guinea.

FAMILY 68.—BUCEROTIDL. (12 Genera, 50 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS.

NFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

bight rh | ---- acer (1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 nei

The Hornbills form an isolated group of generally large-sized
birds, whose huge bills form their most prominent feature.
They are popularly associated with the American Toucans, but
have no close relationship to them, and are now generally

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 317

considered to show most resemblance, though still a very distant
one, to the kingfishers. They are abundant in the Ethiopian
and Oriental regions, and extend eastward to the Solomon
Islands. Their classification is very unsettled, for though they
have been divided into more than twenty genera they have not
yet been carefully studied. The following grouping of the
genera—referring to the numbers in the Hand List—must
therefore be considered as only provisional :—

(1997 1958 1963) Buceros (6 sp.), all Indo-Malaya, Arakan, Nepal
and the Neilgherries (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339); (2% —, 1%)
Hydrocissa (7 sp.), India and Ceylon to Malaya and Celebes ;
(7%) Berenicornis (2 sp.), Sumatra and West Africa; (%*)
Calao (3 sp.), Tennaserim, Malaya, Moluccas to the Solomon
Islands; 7%) Aceros (1 sp.), South-east Himalayas ; (1% 1967)
Cranorrhinus (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, Philippines,
Celebes; (1°) Penelopides (1 sp.), Celebes; (% — 7) Tockus
(15 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (7%) Rhinoplax (1 sp.),
Sumatra and Borneo ; (1% — 1%) Bycanistes (6 sp.), West Africa
with East and South Africa; (19 1°77) Meniceros (3 sp.), India
and Ceylon to Tenasserim ; (1%) Bucorvus (2 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa.

Famity 69—UPUPIDZ. (1 Genus, 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

———_—$
NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

N FOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

a= | —----| aye" +21.2.3.4) 1.2.3 — | rpc *

The Hoopoes form a small and isolated group of semi-terres-
trial insectivorous birds, whose nearest affinities are with the
Hornbills. They are most characteristic of the Ethiopian re-
gion, but extend into the South of Europe and into all the
continental divisions of the Oriental region, as well as to Ceylon,
and northwards to Pekin and Mongolia.

318 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Fammty 70.—IRRISORID®. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ErHIOPIAN ORIENTAL

PALZARCTIC |
SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

~---|---- |---- |1.a.8-|---- | ----

The Irrisors are birds of generally metallic plumage, which
have often been placed with the Epunachide and near the Sun-
birds, or Birds of Paradise, but which are undoubtedly allied to
the Hoopoes. They are strictly confined to the continent of
Africa, ranging from Abyssinia to the west coast, and southward
to the Cape Colony. They have been divided into several sub-
genera which it is not necessary here to notice (Plate IV. Vol. L
p. 261).

FamIty 71—PODARGIDZ. (3 Genera, 20 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

-~---|---- |---- |---- |1-2-8.4] 1.2--

The Podargide, or Frog-mouths, are a family of rather large-
sized nocturnal insectivorous birds, closely allied to the Goat-
suckers, but distinguished by their generally thicker bills, and
especially by hunting for their food on trees or on the ground,
instead of seizing it on the wing. They abound most in the Austra-
lian region, but one genus extends over a large part of the Oriental
region. The following are the genera with their distribution :—

Podargus (10 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and the Papuan
Islands (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441); Batrachostomus (6 sp.), the
Oriental region (excluding Philippine Islands and China) and
the northern Moluccas ; Agotheles (4 sp.), Australia, Tasmania,
and Papuan Islands.

CHAP, XVIII. ] BIRDS. 319

Famity 72.—STEATORNITHID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

a ede

This family contains a single bird—the Guacharo—forming the
genus Steatornis, first discovered by Humboldt in a cavern in
Venezuela, and since found in deep ravines near Bogota, and also
in Trinidad. Although apparently allied to the Goat-suckers
it is a vegetable-feeder, and is altogether a very anomalous bird
whose position in the system is still undetermined.

Famity 73—CAPRIMULGID. (17 Genera, 91 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 | 1:2.3.4| 1.2 ——

The Goat-suckers, or Night-jars, are crepuscular insectivorous
birds, which take their prey on the wing, and are remarkable
for their soft and beautifully mottled plumage, swift and silent
flight, and strange cries often imitating the human voice. They
are universally distributed, except that they do not reach New
’ Zealand or the remoter Pacific Islands. The South American
genus, Nyctibius, differs in structure’ and habits from the other
goat-suckers and should perhaps form a distinct family. More
than half the genera inhabit the Neotropical region. The genera
are as follows :—

Nyctibius (6 sp.), Brazil to Guatemala, Jamaica; Capri-
mulgus (35 sp.), Palearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, with
the Austro-Malay Islands and North Australia; Hydropsalis
(8 sp.), Tropical South America to La Plata ; Antrostomus (10

320 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Canada, Cuba; Stenopsis (4 sp.),
Martinique to Columbia, West Peru and Chili ; Siphonorhis (1 sp.),
Jamaica ; Heleothreptus (1 sp.), Demerara ; Nyctidromus (2 sp.),
South Brazil to Central America; Scortornis (3 sp.), West and
East Africa; Macrodipteryx (2 sp.), West and Central Africa;
Cosmetornis (1 sp.), all Tropical Africa ; Podager (1 sp.), Tropical
South America to La Plata; Zurocalis (2 sp.), Brazil and
Guiana; Chordeiles (8 sp.), Brazil and West Peru to Canada,
Porto Rico, Jamaica ; Nyctiprogne (1 sp.), Brazil and Amazonia ;
Eurostopodus (2 sp.), Australia and Papuan Islands; Lyncornis
(4 sp.), Burmah, Philippines, Borneo, Celebes.

Yamity 74—CYPSELID. (7 Genera, 53 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4) 1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4/1.2.9.4 i ee We | 12.3

The Swifts can almost claim to be a cosmopolitan group,
but for their absence from New Zealand. They are most
abundant both in genera and species in the Neotropical and
Oriental regions. The following is the distribution of the
genera :—

Cypselus (1 sp.), absent only from the whole of North America
and the Pacific; Panyptila (3 sp.), Guatemala and Guiana, and
extending into North-west America; Collocalia (10 sp.), Mada-
gascar, the whole Oriental region and eastward through New
Guinea to the Marquesas Islands; WDendrochelidon (5 sp.),
Oriental region and eastward to New Guinea; Chetura (15
sp.), Continental America (excluding South Temperate), West
Africa and Madagascar, the Oriental region, North China and
the Amoor, Celebes, Australia; Hemiprocne (3 sp.), Mexico to
La Plata, Jamaica and Hayti; Cypseloides (2 sp.), Brazil and
Peru ; Nephecetes (2 sp.), Cuba, Jamaica, North-west America.

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 321

Famity 75.—TROCHILID. (118 Genera, 390 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL | AUSTRALIAN

1.2.8.4 (1.9.3.4) PEG fain aan ae | prey. ail:

The wonderfully varied and beautiful Humming-Birds are
confined to the American continent, where they range from
Sitka to Cape Horn, while the island of Juan Fernandez has two
peculiar species. Only 6 species, belonging to 3 genera, are
found in the Nearctic region, and most of these have extended
their range from the south. They are excessively abundant in
the forest-clad Andes from Mexico to Chili, some species extend-
ing up to the limits of perpetual snow; but they diminish in
number and variety in the plains, however luxuriant the vege-
tation. In place of giving here the names and distribution of
the numerous genera into which they are now divided (which
will be found in the tables of the genera of the Neotropical
region), it may be more useful to present a summary of their
distribution in the sub-divisions of the American continent,

as follows :—

Sub- Sub- Sub. Sub- Nearctic
region I. region II. region III. region IV. region.
(Patagonia (Tropical (Tropical (Antilles.) (Temp.

& 8. Andes.) 8. Amer.) (N. Amer.) N. Amer.)
Genera in each Sub-region 10 90 41 8 3
Peculiar Genera... ... 3 58 14 5 0
Species in each Sub-region 15 275 100 15 6

The island of Juan Fernandez has two species, and Masafuera,
an island beyond it, one; the three forming a peculiar genus.
The island of Tres Marias, about 60 miles from the west coast
of Mexico, possesses a peculiar species of humming-bird, and
the Bahamas two species; but none inhabit either the Falkland
Islands or the Galapagos.

Like most groups which are very rich in species and in
generic forms, the humming-birds are generally very local, small

322 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

generic groups being confined to limited districts; while single
mountains, valleys, or small islands, often possess species found
nowhere else. It is now well ascertained that the Trochilide
are really insectivorous birds, although they also feed largely, but
probably never exclusively, on the nectar of flowers. Their
nearest allies are undoubtedly the Swifts; but the wide gap
that now separates them from these, as well as the wonderful
variety of form and of development of plumage, that is found
among them, alike point to their origin, at a very remote period,
in the forests of the once insular Andes. There is perhaps no
more striking contrast of the like nature, to be found, than that
between the American kingfishers—confined to a few closely
allied forms of one Old World genus—and the American hum-
ming-birds with more than a hundred diversified generic forms
unlike everything else upon the globe; and we can hardly
imagine any other cause for this difference, than a (compara-
tively) very recent introduction in the one case, and a very high
antiquity in the other.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Picaric.

The very heterogeneous mass of birds forming the Order
Picarie, contains 25 families, 307 genera and 1,604 species.
This gives about 64 species to each family, while in the Passeres
the proportion is nearly double, or 111 species per family.
There are, in fact, only two very large families in the Order,
which happen to be the first and last in the series—Picide and
Trochilide, Two others—Cuculidz and Alcedinidze—are rather
large; while the rest are all small, seven of them consisting
only of a single genus and from one to a dozen species. Only
one of the families—Alcedinidee—is absolutely cosmopolitan,
but three others are nearly so, Caprimulgide and Cypselidee
being only absent from New Zealand, and Cuculidee from the
Canadian sub-region of North America. Eleven families inhabit
the Old World only, while seven are confined to the New
World, only one of these—Trochilidee —being common to the
Neotropical and Nearctic regions.

The Picariz are highly characteristic of tropical faunas, for

CHAP, XVIII. | BIRDS. 323

while no less than 15 out of the 25 families are exclusively
tropical, none are confined to, or have their chief development
in, the temperate regions. They are best represented in the
Ethiopian region, which possesses 17 families, 4 of which are
peculiar to it; while the Oriental region has only 14 families,
none of which are peculiar. The Neotropical region has also
14 families, but 6 of them are peculiar. The Australian region
has 8, the Palearctic 9 and the Nearctic 6 families, but none
of these are peculiar. We may see a reason for the great
specialization of this tropical assemblage of birds in the Ethio-
pian and Neotropical regions, in the fact of the large extent of
land on both sides of the Equator which these two regions alone
possess, and their extreme isolation either by sea or deserts
from other regions,—an isolation which we know was in both
cases much greater in early Tertiary times. It is, perhaps, for
a similar reason that we here find hardly any trace of the
connection between Australia and South America which other
groups exhibit; for that connection has most probably been
effected by a former communication between the temperate
southern extremities of those two continents. The most
interesting and suggestive fact, is that presented by the dis-
tribution of the Megalemidze and Trogonidz over the tropics
of America, Africa, and Asia. In the absence of palzonto-
logical evidence as to the former history of the Megalemide,
we are unable to say positively, whether it owes its present
distribution to a former closer union between these continents
in intertropical latitudes, or to a much greater northern range
of the group at the period when a luxuriant sub-tropical vege-
tation extended far toward the Arctic regions; but the dis-
covery of Zrogon in the Miocene deposits of the South of
France renders it almost certain that the latter is the true
explanation in the case of both these families.

The Neotropical region, owing to its enormous family of
humming-birds, is by far the richest in Picariz, possessing
nearly half the total number of species, and a still larger pro-
portion of genera. Three families, the Bucerotide, Meropide
and Coraciide are equally characteristic of the Oriental and

324 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART ly.

Ethiopian regions, a few outlying species only entering the
Australian or the Palearctic regions. One family (Todide) is
confined to the West Indian Islands ; and another (Leptosomide)
consisting of but a single species, to Madagascar; parallel cases
to the Drepanididze among the Passeres, peculiar to the Sand-
wich Islands, and the Apterygide among the Struthiones,
peculiar to New Zealand.

Order III.—PSITTACT.

The Parrots have been the subject of much difference of
opinion among ornithologists, and no satisfactory arrangement
of the order into families and genera has yet been reached.
Professor Garrod has lately examined certain points in. the
anatomy of a large number of genera, and proposes to revolu-
tionize the ordinary classifications. Until, however, a general
examination of their whole anatomy, internal and external, has
been made by some competent authority, it will be unsafe to
adopt the new system, as we have as yet no guide to the com-
parative value of the characters made use of. I therefore keep
as much as possible to the old groups, founded on external
characters, only using the indications furnished hy Professor
Garrod’s paper, to determine the position of doubtful genera.

Famity 76.—CACATUIDZ. (5 Genera, 35 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

see ee ee eer

The Cacatuidee, Plyctolophide, or Camptolophide, as they have
been variously termed, comprise all those crested parrots usually
termed Cockatoos, together with one or two doubtful forms.
They are very abundant in the Australian region, more espe-
cially in the Austro-Malayan portion of it one species inhabiting

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 325

the Philippine Islands; but they do not pass further east than
the Solomon Islands and are not found in New Zealand. The
distribution of the genera is as follow :—

Cacatua (18 sp.) ranges from the Philippine Islands, Celebes
and Lombok, to the Solomon Islands and to Tasmania; Calopsitia
(1 sp.) Australia ; Calyptorhynchus (8 sp.) is confined to Australia
and Tasmania ; Microglossus (2 sp.) (perhaps a distinct family)
to the Papuan district and North Australia; Zicmetis (3 sp.)
Australia, Solomon Islands, and (?) New Guinea; Nasiterna
(5 sp.), a@ minute form, the smallest of the whole order, and
perhaps not belonging to this family, is only known from the
Papuan and Solomon Islands.

Famity 77.—PLATYCERCID. (11 Genera, 57 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIoPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

The Platycercide comprise: a series of large-tailed Parrots, of
weak structure and gorgeous colours, with a few ground-feed-
ing genera of more sober protective tints; the whole family
’ being confined to the Australian region. The genera are :—

(1996 1999 2000) Platycercus (14 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and Nor-
folk Island; Psephotus (6 sp.), Australia; Polytelis (3 sp.),
Australia; Nymphicus (1 sp.), Australia and New Caledonia;
(2002 2003) Amrosmictus (6 sp.), Australia, Papua, Timor, and Mo-
luccas; Pyrrhulopsis (3 sp.), Tonga and Fiji Islands; Cyano-
ramphus (14 sp.), New Zealand, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia,
and Society Islands; Melopsittacus (1 sp.), Australia ; Huphema
(7 sp.), Australia ; Pezoporus (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ;
Geopsittacus (1 sp.), West Australia. The four last genera are
ground-feeders, and are believed by Professor Garrod to be allied
to the Owl-Parrot of New Zealand (Stringops).

326 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

FamiLy 78—PALAORNITHID®. (8 Genera, 65 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC

SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL

mea Page tS nels ye | Bue Le | 1a o4 | 1:2-3.4 1.2——

I class here a group of birds brought together, for the most
part, by geographical distribution as well as by agreement in in-
ternal structure, but which is nevertheless of a very uncertain
and provisional character.

Paleornis (18 sp.), the Oriental region, Mauritius, Rodriguez,
and Seychelle Islands, and a species in Tropical Africa, apparently
identical with the Indian P. torqguatus, and therefore— considering
the very ancient intercourse between the two countries, and the
improbability of the species remaining unchanged if originating
by natural causes—most likely the progeny of domestic birds in-
troduced from India. Prioniturus (3 sp.), Celebes and the
Philippine Islands ; (7°*") Geoffroyus (5 sp.), Bouru to Timor and
the Solomon Islands; Zanygnathus (5 sp.), Philippines, Celebes,
and Moluccas to New Guinea; Eelectus (8 sp.), Moluccas and
Papuan Islands ; Pszttinus (1 sp.), Tenasserim to Sumatra and
Borneo ; Cyclopsitta (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Philippines and
North-east Australia ; Loriculus (17 sp.), ranges over the whole
Oriental region to Flores, the Moluccas, and the Papuan island
of Mysol; but most of the species are concentrated in the district
including the Philippines, Celebes, Gilolo, and Flores, there
being 1 in India, 1 in South China, 1 in Ceylon, 1 in Java, 1 in
Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, 3 in Celebes, 5 in the Philip-
pines, and the rest in the Moluccas, Mysol, and Flores. This
genus forms a transition to the next family.

CHAP, XVIII ] BIRDS. 327

Famity 79.—TRICHOGLOSSIDA. (6 Genera, 57 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEOTROPICAL
SuB-REGIONS

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

Ree |---- | uh? Li | pene | ==-5| 1.2.3

The Trichoglosside, or Brush-tongued Paroquets, including the
Lories, are exclusively confined to the Australian region, where
they extend from Celebes to the Marquesas Islands, and south
to Tasmania. The genus Nanodes (= Lathamus) has been
shown by Professor Garrod to differ from Trichoglossus in the
position of the carotid arteries. I therefore make it a distinct
genus but do not consider that it should be placed in another
family. The genera here admitted are as follows :—

Trichoglossus (29 sp.), ranges over the whole Austro-Malay
and Australian sub-regions, and to the Society Islands; (7)
Nanodes (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Charmosyna (1 sp.),
New Guinea (Plate X. Vol. I. p. 414); Eos (9 sp.), Bouru and
Sanguir Island north of Celebes, to the Solomon Islands, and in
Puynipet Island to the north-east of New Ireland; (7° 4°) Lorius
(13 sp.), Bouru and the Solomon Islands ; (704! 7°) Coriphilus (4
sp.), Samoa, Tonga, Society and Marquesas Islands.

Famity 80.—CONURID. (7 Genera, 79 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

[1.2.3.4 | —-3- | ---- | eS aE se | eect | Ria

The Conuride, which consist of the Macaws and their allies,
are wholly confined to America, ranging from the Straits of
Magellan to South Carolina and Nebraska, with Cuba and

Jamaica. Professor Garrod places Pyrrhura (which has generally
Vou. IT.—22

328 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

been classed as a part of the genus Conwrus) in a separate family,
on account of the absence of the ambiens muscle of the knee,
but as we are quite ignorant of the classificational value of this
character, it is better for the present to keep both as distinct
genera of the same family. The genera are :—

Ara (15 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and Cuba; Rhyntopsitta (1
sp.), Mexico ; Henicognathus \1 sp.), Chili; Conwrus (30 sp.), the
range of the family; Pyrrhura (16 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to
Costa Rica; Bolborhynchus (7 sp.), La Plata, Bolivia and West
Peru, with one species in Mexico and Guatemala; Brotogerys (9
sp.), Brazil to Mexico.

FaMILy 81.—PsITTACIDA.—(12 Genera, 87 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Sup-recions. | SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

Ze
PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NFfOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

=a 314 | —— | atone j1.2.3.4 |---- | ap Se
i}

The Psittacidee comprise a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage
of Parrots and Paroquets of the Neotropical and Ethiopian regions,
which are combined here more for convenience than because
they are believed to form a natural group. The genera Chrysotes
and Pionus have no oil-gland, while Psittacula and Agapornis
have lost the furcula, but neither of these characters are pro-
bably of more than generic value. The genera are :—

Psittacus (2 sp.), West Africa; Coracopsis (5 sp.), Madagascar,
Comoro, and Seychelle Islands ; Peocephalus (9 sp.), all Tropical
and South Africa ; (206% — 2°66) Caica (9 sp.), Mexico to Amazonia ;
Chrysotis (32 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the West Indian
Islands; Zvriclaria (1 sp.), Brazil: Deroptyus (1 sp.), Amazonia ;
Pionus (9 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico; Urochroma (7 sp.), Tro-
pical South America; Pszttacula (6 sp.), Brazil to Mexico;
Poliopsitta (2 sp.), Madagascar and West Africa; Agapornis (4
sp.), Tropical and South Africa,

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 329

FamiLy 82.—NESTORID. (? 2 Genera, 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

a = eRe ae

ee

The present family is formed to receive the genus Nestor (5
sp.), confined to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. Its affinities
are doubtful, but it appears to have relations with the American
Conuride and the Australian Trichoglosside. With it is placed
the rare and remarkable Dasyptilus (1 sp.), of New Guinea, of
which however very little is known.

FamILy 83.—STRINGOPID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

ETHIOPIAN ; ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

Sa del eel ee a

This family contains only the curious owl-like nocturnal
Parrot of New Zealand, Stringops habroptilus (Plate XIII.
Vol .I. p. 455). An allied species is said to inhabit the Chatham
Tslands, if not now extinct.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Psittact.

Although the Parrots are now generally divided into several
distinct families, yet they form so well marked and natural a
group, and are so widely separated from all other birds, that
we may best discuss their peculiarities of geographical distri-
bution by treating them as a whole. By the preceding
enumeration we find that there are about 386 species of known
parrots, which are divided into 52 genera. They are pre-
eminently a tropical group, for although a few species extend
a considerable distance into the temperate zone, these are

330 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

marked exceptions to the rule which limits the parrot tribe to
the tropical and sub-tropical regions, roughly defined as extend-
ing about 30° on each side of the equator. In America a species
of Conurus reaches the straits of Magellan on the south, while
another inhabits the United States, and once extended to the
great lakes, although now confined to the south-eastern districts.
In Africa parrots do not reach the northern tropic, owing to the
desert nature of the country ; and in the south they barely reach
the Orange River. In India they extend to about 35° N. in the
western Himalayas ; and in the Australian region, not only to
New Zealand but to Macquarie Islands in 54° §., the farthest
point from the equator reached by the group. But although
found in all the tropical regions they are most unequally dis-
tributed. Africa is poorest, possessing only 6 genera and 25
species; the Oriental region is also very poor, having but 6
genera and 29 species; the Neotropical region is much richer,
having 14 genera and 141 species; while the smallest in area
and the least tropical in climate—the Australian region, pos-
sesses 31 genera and 176 species, and it also possesses exclusively
5 of the families, Trichoglosside, Platycercide, Cacatuide,
Nestoride, and Stringopide. The portion of the earth’s surface
that contains the largest number of parrots in proportion to its
area is, undoubtedly, the Austro-Malayan sub-region, including
the islands from Celebes to the Solomon Islands. The area of
these islands is probably not one-fifteenth of that of the four
tropical regions, yet they contain from one-fifth to one-fourth of
all the known parrots. In this area too are found many of the
most remarkable forms,—all the crimson lories, the great black
Cockatoos, the pigmy Nasiterna, the raquet-tailed Prioniturus,
and the bareheaded Dasyptilus.

The almost universal distribution of Parrots wherever the
climate is sufficiently mild or uniform to furnish them with a
perennial supply of food, no less than their varied details of
organization, combined with a great uniformity of general type,
—tell us, in unmistakable language, of a very remote antiquity.
The only early record of extinct parrots is, however, in the
Miocene of France, where remains apparently allied to the West

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 331

African Psittacus, have been found. But the origin of so wide-
spread, isolated, and, varied a group, must be far earlier than
this, and not improbably dates back beyond:the dawn of the
Tertiary period. Some primeval forms may have entered the
Australian region with the Marsupials, or not long after them;
while perhaps at a somewhat later epoch they were introduced
into South America. In these two regions they have greatly
flourished, while in the two other tropical regions only a few
types have been found, capable of maintaining themselves, among
the higher forms of mammalia,and in competition with a more
varied series of birds. This seems much more probable than
the supposition that so highly organized a group should have
originated in the Australian region, and subsequently become
so widely spread over the globe.

Order IV—COLUMBA.

Famity 84.—COLUMBID. (44 Genera, 355 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4] Tia tael 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 j1.2.3.4

The Columbide, or Pigeons and Doves, are almost universally
distributed, but very unequally in the different regions. Being
best adapted to live in warm or temperate climates, they dimin-
ish rapidly northwards, reaching about 62° N. Latitude in North
America, but considerably farther in Europe. Both the Nearc-
tic and Palearctic regions are very poor in genera and species
of pigeons, those of the former region being mostly allied to
Neotropical, and those of the latter to Oriental and Ethiopian
types. The Ethiopian region is, however, itself very poor, and
several of its peculiar forms are confined to the Madagascar sub-
region. The Neotropical region is very rich in peculiar genera,
though but moderately so in number of species. The Oriental

332 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV

region closely approaches it in both respects; but the Austra-
lian region is by far the richest, possessing nearly double the
genera and species of any other region, and abounding in re-
markable forms quite unlike those of any other part of the
globe. The following table gives the number of genera and
species in each region, and enables us readily to determine
the comparative richness and isolation of each, as regards this
extensive family :—

Regions. No. of Genera. Peculiar Genera. No. of Species.
Neotropical 3 ay 13 9 75
Nearctic & sae 5 1 7
Palearctic ee we 3 0 9
Ethiopian ae 360 6 1 37
Oriental ey wate 12 1 66
Australian ess aoe 24 14 148

With the exception of Columba and Turtur, which have a
wide range, Z7’reron, common to the Oriental and Ethiopian
regions, and Carpophaga, to the Oriental and Australian, most
of the genera of pigeons are either restricted to or very
characteristic of a single region.

The distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows :—

Treron (37 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and eastward to
Celebes, Amboyna and Flores, also the whole Ethiopian region
to Madagascar; Ptilopus (52 sp.), the Australian region (exclud-
ing New Zealand) and the Indo-Malay sub-region ; Alectranas
(4 sp.), Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands: Carpophaga
(50 sp.), the whole Australian and Oriental regions, but much
the most abundant in the former; (74) Janthenas (11 sp.),
Japan, Andaman, Nicobar, and Philippine Islands, Timor and
Gilolo to Samoa Islands; (7%) Leucomelena (1 sp.), Australia ;
Lopholaimus (1 sp.), Australia; (7279 ** 2283) Alseecomus (2 sp.),
Himalayas to Ceylon and Tenasserim; Columba (46 sp.),
generally distributed over all the regions except the Australian,
one species however in the Fiji Islands ; Hetepistes (1 sp.), east
of North America with British Columbia; Zenaidura (2 sp.),
Veragua to Canada and British Columbia ; @na (1 sp.), Tropical
and South Africa; Geopelia (6 sp.), Philippine Islands and Java
to Australia; Macropygia (14 sp.), Nepal, Hainan, Nicobar, Java,

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 333

and Philippines to Australia and New Ireland; Zwracena (3
sp.), Celebes, Timor, and Solomon Islands; Reinwardtenas (1
sp.), Celebes to New Guinea; Turtur (24 sp.), Palearctic,
Ethiopian and Oriental regions with Austro-Malaya; Chame-
pelia (7 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Jamaica, California, and
South-east United States; Columbula (2 sp.), Brazil and La
Plata to Chili; Scardafella (2 sp.), Brazil and Guatemala;
Zenaida (10 sp.), Chili and La Plata to Columbia and the
Antilles, Fernando Noronha; Melopelia (2 sp.), Chili to Mexico
and California ; Peristera (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico ; Metriopelia (2
sp.), West America from Ecuador to Chili; Gymnopelia (1 sp.),
West Peru and Bolivia; Leptoptila (11 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico
and the Antilles ; (7317 2318 = 2820) Geotrygon (14 sp.), Paraguay to
Mexico and the Antilles; Aplopelia (5 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa, St. Thomas and Princes Island; Chalocopelia (4 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa ; Starnenas (1 sp.), Cuba; Ocyphaps
(1 sp.), Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441); Petrophassa (1
sp.), North-west Australia; Chalocophaps (8 sp.), the Oriental
region to New Guinea and Australia; Zrugon (1 sp.), New
Guinea; Henicophaps (1 sp.), Waigiou and New Guinea; Phaps
(83 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Lewcosarcia (1 sp.), East Aus-
tralia; hapitreron (2 sp.), Philippine Islands ; Geophaps (2 sp.),
North and East Australia; Lophophaps (3 sp.), Australia; Calenas
(1 sp.), scattered on the smaller islands from the Nicobars and
Philippines to New Guinea; Otidiphaps (1 sp.), New Guinea ;
Phlogenas (7 sp.), Philippine Islands and Celebes to the
Marquesas Islands; Gowra (2 sp.), New Guinea and the islands
on the north-east (Plate X. Vol. I. p 414).

Famity 84a—DIDUNCULID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
SS
ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.
| | | |
SSS => =—-— == Ti eA Tr SO pari —-—-3s3--

|

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

334 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

The Didunculus stigirostris, a hook-billed ground-pigeon,
found only in the Samoa Islands, is so peculiar in its structure
that it is considered to form a distinct family.

Famity 85 —DIDIDZ.—(2 Genera, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGLONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS,

oe ed a ee

The birds which constitute this family are now all extinct ;
but as numerous drawings are in existence, taken from living
birds some of which were exhibited in Europe, and a stuffed
specimen, fragments of which still remain, was in the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford down to 1755, they must be classed among
recent, as opposed to geologically extinct species. The Dodo
(Didus ineptus) a large, unwieldy, flightless bird, inhabited
Mauritius down to the latter part of the 17th century ; and an
allied form, the Solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria), was found only
in the island of Rodriguez, where it survived about a century
later. Old voyagers mention a Dodo also in Bourbon, and a
rude figure of it exists; but no remains of this bird have been
found. Almost complete skeletons of the Dodo and Solitaire
have, however, been recovered from the swamps of Mauritius and
the caves of Rodriguez, proving that they were both extremely
modified forms of pigeon. These large birds were formerly very
abundant, and being excellent eating and readily captured, the
early voyagers to these islands used them largely for food. As they
could be caught by man, and very easily by dogs, they were soon
ereatly diminished in numbers; and the introduction of swine,
which ran wild in the forests and fed on the eggs and young
birds, completed their extermination.

The existence in the Mascarene Islands of a group of such
remarkable terrestrial birds, with aborted wings, is parallel to
that of the Apteryx and Dinornis in New Zealand, the Casso-
waries of Austro-Malaya. and the short-winged Rails of New

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 335

Zealand, Tristan d’Acunha, and other oceanic islands; and the
phenomenon is clearly dependent on the long-continued absence
of enemies, which allowed of great increase of bulk and the
total loss of the power of flight, without injury. In some few
cases (the Ostrich for example) birds incapable of flight co-exist
with large carnivorous mammalia ; but these birds are large and
powerful, as well as very swift, and are thus able to escape from
some enemies and defend themselves against others. The entire
absence of the smaller and more defenceless ground-birds from
the adjacent island of Madagascar, is quite in accordance with
this view, because that island has several small but destructive
carnivorous animals.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Columbe.

The striking preponderance of Pigeons, both as to genera and
species, in the Australian region, would seem to indicate that at
some former period it possessed a more extensive land area in
which this form of bird-life took its rise. But there are other
considerations which throw doubt upon this view. The western
half of the Malay Archipelago, belonging to the Oriental region,
is also rich in pigeons, since it has 45 species belonging to 11
genera, rather more than are found in all the rest of the Oriental
region. Again, we find that the Mascarene Islands and the An-
tilles both possess more pigeons than we should expect, in pro-
portion to those of the regions to which they belong, and
to their total amount of bird-life. This looks as if islands were
more favourable to pigeon-development than continents ; and if
we group together the Pacific and the Malayan Islands, the
Mascarene group and the Antilles, we find that they contain to-
gether about 170 species of pigeons belonging to 24 out of the 47
genera here adopted; while all the great continents united only
produce about the same number of species belonging (if we omit
those peculiar to Australia) te only 20 genera. The great deve-
lopment of the group in the Australian region may, therefore, be
due to its consisting mainly of islands, and not to the order
having originated there, and thus having had a longer period in
which to develop. I have elsewhere suggested (/bis 1865, p. 366)

336 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY:

a physical cause for this peculiarity of distribution. Pigeons
build rude, open nests, and their young remain helpless for a
considerable period. They are thus exposed to the attacks of
such arboreal quadrupeds or other animals as feed on eggs or
young birds. Monkeys are very destructive in this respect;
and it is a noteworthy fact that over the whole Australian re-
gion, the Mascarene Islands and the Antilles, monkeys are un-
known. In the Indo-Malay sub-region, where monkeys are
generally plentiful, the greatest variety of pigeons occurs in the
' Philippines, where there is but a single species in one island;
and in Java, where monkeys are far less numerous than in Sumatra
or Borneo. If we add to this consideration the fact, that mam-
malia and rapacious birds are, as a rule, far less abundant in
islands than on continents; and that the extreme development
of pigeon-life is reached in the Papuan group of islands, in which
mammalia (except a few marsupials, bats, and pigs) are wholly
absent, we see further reason to adopt this view. It is also to
be noted that in America, comparatively few pigeons are found
in the rich forests (comparable to those of the Australian insular
region in which they abound), but are mostly confined to the
open campos, the high Andes, and the western coast districts,
from which the monkey-tribe are wholly absent.

This view is further supported by the great development of
colour that is found in the pigeons of these insular regions, cul-
minating in the golden-yellow fruit-dove of the Fiji Islands, the
metallic green Nicobar-pigeon of Malaya, and the black and
crimson -Alectrenas of Mauritius. Here also, alone, we meet
with crested pigeons, rendering the possessors more conspicuous ;
such as the Lopholaimus of Australia and the crowned Gowra of
New Guinea; and here too are more peculiar forms of terrestrial
pigeons than elsewhere, though none have completely lost the
power of flight but the now extinct Didide.

The curious liking of pigeons for an insular habitat is well
shown in the genera Janthenas and Calenas. The former, con-
taining 11 species, ranges over a hundred degrees of longitude,
and forty-five of latitude, extending into three regions, yet
nowhere inhabits a continent or even a large island. It is

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 337

found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands ; in the Philippines,
Gilolo, and the smaller Papuan Islands, and in Japan; yet not in
any of the large Malay Islands or in Australia. The other genus,
Calenas, consists of but a single species, yet this ranges from the
Nicobar Islands to New Guinea. It is not, however, as far as
known, found on any of the large islands, but seems to prefer
the smaller islands which surround them. We here have the
general preference of pigeons for islands, further developed in
these two genera into a preference for small islands; and it is
probable that the same cause—the greater freedom from danger—
has produced both phenomena.

Of the geological antiquity of the Columbze we have no evi-
dence ; but their wide distribution, their varied forms, and their
great isolation, all point to an origin, at least as far back as that
we have assigned as probable in the case of the Parrots.

Order V.—GALLINZL.
FamiLy 86.—PTEROCLIDA‘, (2 Genera, 16 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
SS
ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,

PaL# ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

———— |---- | 2.9.4 1 344 | io | aoe

The Pteroclide, or Sand-grouse, are elegantly formed birds with
pointed tails, and plumage of beautifully varied protective tints,
characteristic of the Ethiopian region and Central Asia, though
extending into Southern Europe and Hindostan. Being pre-
eminently desert-birds, they avoid the forest-districts of all these
countries, but abound in the most arid situations and on the
most open and barren plains. The distribution of the genera is
as follows :—

Pterocles (14 sp.), has the same range as the family ; Syrrhap-
tes (2 sp.), normally inhabits Tartary, Thibet, and Mongolia to
the country around Pekin, and occasionally visits Eastern Europe.
But a few years back (1863) great numbers suddenly appeared in

338 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Europe and extended westward to the shores of the Atlantic,
while some even reached Ireland and the Feroes. (Plate III.
Vol. Lp. 226.)

Famity 87.—TETRAONID. (29 Genera, 170 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

—2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 [1.2.9.4 | 1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4 | 1.2—4

The Tetraonide, including the Grouse, Partridges, Quails, and
allied forms, abound in all parts of the Eastern continents ; they
are less plentiful in North America and comparatively scarce in
South America, more than half the Neotropical species being
found north of Panama; and in the Australian region there are
only a few of small size. The Ethiopian region probably contains
most species; next comes the Oriental—IJndia proper from the
Himalayas to Ceylon having twenty ; while the Australian region,
with 15 species, is the poorest. These facts render it probable
that the Tetraonide are essentially denizens of the great northern
continents, and that their entrance into South America, Aus-
tralia, and even South Africa, is, comparatively speaking, recent.
They have developed into forms equally suited to the tropical
plains and the arctic regions, some of them being among the few
denizens of the extreme north, as well as of the highest alpine
snows. The genera are somewhat unsettled, and there is even
some uncertainty as to the limits between this family and the
next; but the following are those now generally admitted :—

Ptilopachus (1 sp.), West Africa; Francolinus (34 sp.), all
Africa, South Europe, India to Ceylon, and South China; Orty-
gornis (3 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Sumatra, and Borneo : Peli-
perdiz (1 sp.), West Africa; Perdix (3 sp.), the whole Continen-
tal Palearctic region; Margaroperdix (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Oreo-
perdiz (1 sp.), Formosa; Arborophila (8 sp.), the Oriental Con-
tinent and the Philippines ; Peleperdix (4 sp.), Tenasserim and
Malaya; Coturnix (21 sp.), Temperate Palearctic, Ethiopian and

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 339

Oriental regions, and the Australian to New Zealand; Rollulus (2
sp.), Siam to Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippines ; Caloperdix (1
sp.), Malacca and Sumatra; Odontophorus (17 sp.), Brazil and
Peru to Mexico; Dendrortyx (3 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico;
Cyrtonyx (3 sp.), Guatemala to New Mexico ; Ortya (8 sp.), Hon-
duras and Cuba to Canada; Hupsychortyx (6 sp.), Brazil and
Ecuador to Mexico; Callipepla (3 sp.), Mexico to California ;
Lophortyx (2 sp.), Arizona and California ; Oreortyx (1 sp.), Cali-
fornia and Oregon (Plate XVIII., Vol. II. p. 128) ; Lerwa (1 sp.),
Snowy Himalayas and East Thibet ; Caccadis (10 sp.), Palearc-
tic region to Abyssinia, Arabia and the Punjaub; Tetraogallus
(4 sp.), Caucasus and Himalayas to Altai Mountains; Tetrao
(7 sp.), northern parts of Palearctic and Nearctic regions ; Cen-
trocercus (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains; Pediocetes (2 sp.), North
and North-west America (Plate XVIII. Vol. II. p. 128); Cupi-
donia (1 sp.), East and North-Central United States and Canada ;
Bonasa (3 sp.), north of Nearctic and Palearctic regions ; Lago-
pus (6 sp.), Arctic Zone and northern parts of Nearctic and
Palearctic regions.

Famity 88.—PHASIANID®. (18 Genera, 75 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SSS (-2.3- (2.9.4 |1.2.9.4 1.2.3.4 | 1---

The Phasianide, including the Pea-fowl, Pheasants, and Jungle-
fowl, the Turkeys, and the Guinea-fowl, are very widely distri-
buted, but are far more abundant than elsewhere in the Eastern
parts of Asia, both tropical and temperate. Leaving out the African
guinea-fowls and the American turkeys, we have 13 genera and
63 species belonging to the Oriental and Palearctic regions.
These are grouped by Mr. Elliot (whose arrangement we mainly
_ follow) in 5 sub-families, of which 3—Pavonniz, Euplocamine,
and Gallinse—are chiefly Oriental, while the Lophophornie and
Phasianinz are mostly Palearctic or from the highlands on the

340 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

borders of the two regions. The genera adopted by Mr. Elliot in
his Monograph are the following :—

PAVONINE, 4 genera—Pavo (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon,
Siam, to South-west China and Java; Argusianus (4 sp.), Siam,
Malay Peninsula, and Borneo (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339) ; Poly-
plectron (5 sp.), Upper Assam to South-west China and Sumatra ;
Crossoptilon (4 sp.), Thibet and North China. (Plate III. Vol.
I. p. 226.)

LOPHOPHORINA, 4 genera.—Lophophorus (3 sp.), High woody
region of Himalayas from Cashmere to West China; Tetraophasis
(1 sp.), East Thibet ; Ceriornis(5 sp.), Highest woody Himalayas
from Cashmere to Bhotan and Western China (Plate VII. Vol. I.
p. 331); Pucrasia (3 sp.), Lower and High woody Himalayas
from the Hindoo Koosh to North-west China.

PHASIANINA, 2 genera.—Phasianus (12 sp.), Western Asia to
Japan and Formosa, south to near Canton and Yunan, and the
Western Himalayas, north to the Altai Mountains ; Thawmalea
(3 sp.), North-western China and Mongolia. (Plate III. Vol. I.
p. 226.) |

EvPLOCAMIN#, 2 genera.—Huplocamus (12 sp.), Cashmere,
along Southern Himalayas to Siam, South China and Formosa,
and to Sumatra and Borneo; Jthaginis (2 sp.), High Himalayas
from Nepal to North-west China.

GALLINZ, 1 genus.—Gallus (4 sp.), Cashmere to Hainan,
Ceylon, Borneo, Java, and eastwards to Celebes and Timor. (Cen-
tral India, Ceylon, and East Java, have each a distinct species of
Jungle-fowl.)

MELEAGRINZ, 1 genus.—Meleagris (3 sp.), Eastern and
Central United States and south to Mexico, Guatemala and
Yucatan.

AGELASTINZ, 2 genera.— Phasidus (1 sp.), West Africa ;
Agelastes (1 sp.), West Africa.

NuMIDIN#, 2 genera—Acryllium (1 sp.), West Africa ; Nu-
mida (9 sp.), Ethiopian region, east to Madagascar, south to
Natal and Great Fish River,

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 341

FamiLy 89.—TURNICID. (2 Genera, 24 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

Bi 2. | ES ty Led ae 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4|1.2— =

The Turnicide are small Quail-like birds, supposed to have
remote affinities with the American Tinamous, and with suffi-
cient distinctive peculiarities to constitute a separate family.
They range over the Old World, from Spain all through Africa
and Madagascar, and over the whole Oriental region to Formosa,
and then north again to Pekin, as well as south-eastward to Aus-
tralia and Tasmania. The genus T7wrnix (23 sp.), has the range
of the family; Ortyzelos (1 sp.), inhabits Senegal; but the
latter genus may not belong to this family.

Famity 90—MEGAPODIID. (4 Genera, 20 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORTENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
hee ae | lial pees. | afer | Tits hal | 1.2.3 — | ee ae

The Megapodiide, or Mound-makers and Brush-turkeys, are
generally dull-coloured birds of remarkable habits and economy,
which have no near allies, but are supposed to have a remote
affinity with the South American Curassows. They are highly
characteristic of the Australian region, extending into almost
every part of it except New Zealand and the remotest Pacific
islands, and only sending two species beyond its limits,—a
Megapodius in the Philippine Islands and North-west Borneo,
and another in the Nicobar Islands, separated by about 1,800
miles from its nearest ally in Lombok. The Philippine species
offers little difficulty, for these birds are-found on the smallest

349 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

islands and sand-banks, and can evidently pass over a few miles
of sea with ease; but the Nicobar bird is a very different case,
because none of the numerous intervening islands offer a single
example of the family. Instead of being a well-marked and
clearly differentiated form, as we should expect to find it if its
remote and isolated habitat were due to natural causes, it so
nearly resembles some of the closely-allied species of the Moluc-
cas and New Guinea, that, had it been found with them, it would
hardly have been thought specifically extinct. I therefore
believe that it is probably an introduction by the Malays, and
that, owing to the absence of enemies and general suitability of
conditions, it has thriven in the islands and has become slightly
differentiated in colour from the parent stock. The following is
the distribution of the genera at present known :—

Talegallus (2 sp.), New Guinea and East Australia; Megace-
phalon (1 sp.), East Celebes; Lipoa (1 sp.), South Australia ;
Megapodius (16 sp.), Philippine Islands and Celebes, to Timor,
North Australia, New Caledonia, the Marian and Samoa Islands,
and probably every intervening island,—also a species (doubtfully
indigenous) in the Nicobar Islands.

Famity 91—CRACID. (12 Genera, 53 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

-a.s—|-a-- |----| ----|----| ----

(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin’s arrangement is here followed).

The Cracidx, or Curassows and Guans, comprise the largest
and handsomest game-birds of the Neotropical region, where
they take the place of the grouse and pheasants of the Old
World. They are almost all forest-dwellers, and are a strictly
Neotropical family, only one species just entering the Nearctic
region as far as New Mexico, They extend southward to Para-
suay and the extreme south of Brazil, but none are found in the

CHAP, XVIII. | BIRDS. 343

Antilles, nor west of the Andes south of the bay of Guayaquil.
The sub-families and genera are as follows :—

Cracin@®, 4 genera—Crax (8 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay
(Plate XV., Vol. II. p. 28); Nothocrax (1 sp.), Guiana, Upper
Rio Negro, and Upper Amazon ; Ee (1 sp.), Guiana to
Venezuela; Mitwa (2 sp.), Guiana and Upper Amazon.

PENELOPIN2, 7 genera.—sStegnolema (1 sp.), Columbia and
Ecuador ; Penelope (14 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay and to western
slope of Ecuadorian Andes; Penelopina (1 sp.), Guatemala ;
Pipile (3 sp.), Venezuela to Eastern Brazil; Aburria (1 sp),
Columbia ; Chamepetes (2 sp.), Costa Rica to Peru; Ortalida
(18 sp.), New Mexico to Paraguay, also Tobago.

OREOPHASINE, 1 genus.—Oreophasis (1 sp.), Guatemala.

It thus appears that the Cracine are confined to South America
east of the Andes, except one species in Central America;
whereas nine Penelopine and Oreophasis are found north of
Panama. ‘The species of the larger genera are strictly repre-
sentative, each having its own distinct geographical area, so that
two species of the same genus are rarely or never found in
the same locality.

Famity 92—TINAMID. (9 Genera, 39 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.a.¢— | ---~| -~~--~|-~--| ----| ----

The Tinamous are a very remarkable family of birds, with the
general appearance of partridges or hemipodes, but with the tail
either very small or entirely wanting. They differ greatly in
their organization from any of the Old World Galline, and ap-
proach, in some respects, the Struthiones or Ostrich tribe. They
are very terrestrial in their habits, inhabiting the forests, open
plains, and mountains of the Neotropical region, from Patagonia
and Chili to, Mexico ; but, like the Cracide, they are absent from
the Antilles. Their colouring is very sober and protective, as is

the case with so many ground-birds, and they are seldom adorned
Vou. IT.—28

344 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

with crests or other ornamental plumes, so prevalent in the order
to which they belong. The sub-families and genera, according
to the arrangement of Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, are as
follows :—

TINAMINA, 7 genera.—Tinamus (7 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay ;
Nothocercus (3 sp.), Costa Rica to Venezuela and Ecuador ; Crypt-
urus (16 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay and Bolivia; Rhynchotus (2
sp.), Bolivia and South Brazil to La Plata; Nothoprocta (4 sp.),
Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili ; Nothwra (4 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia
to Patagonia ; Taoniscus (1 sp.), Brazil to Paraguay.

TINAMOTINZ, 2 genera—Calodromas (1 sp.), La Plata and
Patagonia; Z'inamotis (1 sp.), Andes of Peru and Bolivia.

General Remarks on the Distribution of Galline.

There are about400 known species of Gallinaceous birds grouped
into 76 genera, of which no less than 65 are each restricted
to a single region. The Tetraonide are the only cosmopolitan
family, and even these do not extend into Temperate South Ameri-
ca, and are very poorly represented in Australia. The Cracide
and Tinamide are strictly Neotropical, the Megapodiide almost
as strictly Australian. There remains the extensive family of the
Phasianidz, which offers some interesting facts. We have first
the well-marked sub-families of the Numidine and Meleagrine,
confined to the Ethiopian and Nearctic regions respectively, and
we find the remaining five sub-families, comprising about 60
species, many of them the most magnificent of known birds,
spread over the Oriental and the south-eastern portion of the
Palearctic regions. This restriction is remarkable, since there
is no apparent cause in climate or vegetation why pheasants
should not be found wild throughout southern Europe, as they
were during late Tertiary and Post-Tertiary times. We have also
to notice the remarkable absence of the Pheasant tribe from
Hindostan and Ceylon, where the peacock and jungle-fowl are
their sole representatives. These two forms also alone extend
to Java, whereas in the adjacent islands of Borneo and Sumatra
we have Argusianus, Polyplectron, and Euplocamus. The com-
mon jungle-fowl (the origin of our domestic poultry) is the only

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 345

species which enters the Australian region as far as Celebes and
Timor, and another species (Gallus wneus) as far as Flores, and
it is not improbable that these may have been introduced by man
and become wild.

We have very little knowledge of the extinct forms of Galline,
but what we have assures us of their high antiquity, since we
find such distinct groups as the jungle-fowl, partridges, and
Pterocles, represented in Europe in the Miocene period ; while
the Turkey, then as now, appears to have been a special American
type.

Order VI—OPISTHOCOMT.

FamiLy 93.—OPISTHOCOMIDA. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

wane [aaaa [=== [ee= fom=|--—

The Hoazin (Opisthocomus cristatus) is the sole representative
of this family and of the order Opisthocomi. It inhabits the
eastern side of Equatorial America in Guiana and the Lower
Amazon ; and at Pard is called “Cigana” or gipsy. It is a
large, brown, long-legged, weakly-formed and _loosely-crested
bird, having such anomalies of structure that it is impossible
to class it along with any other family. It is one of those
survivors, which tell us of extinct groups, of whose past existence
we should otherwise, perhaps, remain for ever ignorant.

Order VII—ACCIPITRES.

Famity 94—VULTURID. (10 Genera, 25 Species.)

=

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4 | 1.2.3.4 1.2.3—| 1.2.3~| —-—--—

346 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Vultures range over all the great continents south of the Arctic
Circle, being only absent from the Australian region, the Malay
Islands, Ceylon, and Madagascar. The Old and New World
forms are very distinct, belonging to two well-marked divisions,
often ranked as families. The distribution of the genera is as
follows :—

Sub-family I. VuLturIna (6 genera, 16 species), confined to
the Old World.— Vultur (1 sp.), Spain and North Africa through
Nepal to China north of Ningpo ; Gyps (5 sp.), Europe south of
59°, Africa, except the western sub-region, India, Siam, and
Northern China; Pseudogyps (2 sp.), North-east Africa and
Senegal, India and Burmah; Otogyps (2 sp.), South Europe,
North-east and South Africa, India, and Siam; Lophogyps (1
sp.), North-east and South Africa and Senegal; MNeophron (4
sp.), South Europe, India and the greater part of Africa.

Sub-family II. SARCORHAMPHINA (4 genera, 9 species), con-
fined to the New World.—Sarcorhamphus (2 sp.), “The Condor,”
Andes of South America, and southern extremity below 41° south
latitude ; Cathartes (1 sp.), America from 20° south latitude to
Trinidad and Mexico; Catharistes (1 sp.), America from 40° north
to 40° south latitude, but not on Pacific coast of United States ;
Pseudogryphis (5 sp.), South America and Falkland Islands, and
to 49° north latitude in North America, also Cuba and Jamaica.

FAMILY 95.—SERPENTARIID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Sus-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
ee | os | LB bos j1-2.3—| Lap. | ie

The singular Sécretary Bird (Serpentarius) is found over a
large part of Africa. Its position is uncertain, as it has affinities
both with the Accipitres, through Polyboroides (?) and with
Cariama, which we place near the Bustards. (Plate TV. Vol. I.
p. 261.)

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 347

FamILy 96.—FALCONID. (69 Genera, 325 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ss .
ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4|1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4 |1.9.9.4/1.2.2.4| 1.2.3.4

The Falconide, including the various groups of Hawks,
Kites, Buzzards, Eagles, and Falcons, are absolutely cosmopolitan,
ranging far into the arctic zone and visiting the most remote
oceanic islands. They are abundant in all the great continents
and larger islands, preferring open to woody regions. They are
divided into several sub-families, the range of some of which are
restricted. For this family as well as the preceding I follow the
arrangement of Mr. Sharpe’s British Museum Catalogue, and shall
give the approximate distribution of each sub-family, as well as
of the several genera.

Sub-family I. PoLyBorin (2 genera, 10 species), the Neo-
tropical region with California and Florida, Tropical and South
Africa.—Polyborus (2 sp.), South America, and to California and
Florida; Jbycter_ (8 sp.), Tierra del Fuego to Honduras and
Guatemala.

Cariama and Serpentarius, which Mr. Sharpe puts here, are
so anomalous that I think it better to class them in separate
families—Serpentariide among the Accipitres, and Cariamidé
near the Bustards.

Sub-family [I]. Accrprrrin& (10 genera, 87 species).—Cosmopo-
litan.— Polyboroides (2 sp.), Africa and Madagascar ; Circus(15 sp.),
Old and New Worlds, widely scattered, but absent from Eastern
Equatorial America, and the Malay Archipelago except Celebes ;
Micrastur (7 sp.), and Geranospiza (2 sp.), Tropical parts of Neo-
tropical region ; Urotriorchis (1 sp.), West Africa ; Hrythrocnema
(1 sp.), Chili and La Plata to California and Texas ; Melierax (5
sp.), Africa except West African sub-region ; Astur (30 sp.), cos-
mopolitan, except the Temperate South American sub-region ;

348 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Nisoides (1 sp.), Madagascar; Hutriorchis (1 sp.), Madagascar ;
Accipiter (23 sp.), cosmopolitan, except Eastern Oceania.

Sub-family III. BurEeontn#& (13 genera, 51 sp.), cosmopolitan,
except the Malay and Pacific Islands.—Urospizias (1 sp.),
East and Central Australia; Heterospizias (1 sp.), Tropical
South America east of the Andes; Tachytriorchis (2 sp,), Para-
guay to California ; Buteo (18 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the Aus-
tralian region and the Indo-Malayan sub-region ; Archibuteo (4
sp.), North America to Mexico and the cooler parts of the
Palearctic region; Buteola (1 sp.), Veragua to the Amazon
Valley ; Asturina (7 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to South-east
United States; Busarellus (1 sp.), Brazil to Guiana; Buteo-
gallus (1 sp.), Guiana and Columbia; Urubutinga (12. sp.),
South Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico; Harpyhaliwetus (1 sp.),
Chili and North Patagonia to Veragua ; Morphnus (1 sp.), Ama-
zonia to Panama; Zhrasaétus (1 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to
Mexico.

Sub-family IV. AquitInz (31 genera, 94 species), cosmo-
politan.—G'ypaétus (2 sp.), south of Palearctic region from Spain
to North China, Abyssinia, and South Africa; Uroaétus (1 sp.),
Australia and Tasmania; Aguila (9 sp.), Nearctic, Palearctic,
and Ethiopian regions and India; Nisaétus (4 sp.), Africa and
South Europe, India, Ceylon, and Australia; Lophotriorchis (2
sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region, and Bogota in South America ;
Neopus (1 sp.), India and Ceylon to Burmah, Java, Celebes and
Ternate ; Spiziastur (1 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil; Spizaétus (10
sp.), Central and South America, Africa, India, and Ceylon, to
Celebes and New Guinea, Formosa, and Japan; Lophoaétus (1
sp.), all Africa ; Astwrinula (1 sp.), Africa, except extreme south ;
Herpetotheres (1 sp.), Bolivia and Paraguay to Southern Mexico;
Dryotriorchis (1 sp.), West Africa; Circaétus (5 sp.) Africa to
Central Europe, the Indian Peninsula, Timor; Spilornis (6 sp.),
Oriental region and Celebes ; Butastur (4 sp.), Oriental region to
New Guinea and North-east Africa; Helotarsus (2 sp.), Africa
south of the Sahara ; Haliwetus (7 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the
Neotropical region ; Gypohierax (1 sp.), West Africa and Zan-
zibar ; Haliastur (2 sp.), Indian Peninsula to Ceylon, New Cale-

CHAP, XVIII. J BIRDS. 349

donia, and Australia; Nawelerus (= Elanoides) (1 sp.), Brazil to
Southern United States ; Hlanoides (= Nauclerus) (1 sp.), Wes-
tern and North-eastern Africa; Milvus (6 sp.), the Old World
and Australia ; Lophoictinia (1 sp.), Australia; Rostrhamus (3
sp.), Antilles and Florida to Brazil and Peru; Leptodon (4
sp.), Central America to South Brazil and Bolivia; Gypoictinia
(1 sp.), South and West Australia; Hlanus (5 sp.), Africa, India,
and Malay Archipelago to Australia, South America to California ;
Gampsonyx (1 sp.), Trinidad to Brazil; Henicopernis (1 sp.),
Papuan Islands; Macherhamphus (2 sp.), South-west Africa,
Madagascar, and Malacca; Pernis (3 sp.), Palearctic, Oriental,
and Ethiopian regions.

Sub-family V. FALconin# (11 genera, 80 species), cosmopolitan.
—Baza (10 sp.), India and Ceylon to the Moluccas and North
Australia, West Coast of Africa, Natal, and Madagascar; Har-
pagus (3 sp.), Central America to Brazil and Peru; Jctinia (2 sp.),
Brazil to Southern United States ; Hieraw (=Microhierax, Sharpe),
(4 sp.), Eastern Himalayas to Borneo and Philippines ; Polio-
hierax (2 sp.), East Africa and Burmah ; Spiziapteryx (1 sp.), La
Plata; Harpa (1 sp.), New Zealand and the Auckland Islands;
Falco (27 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the Pacific Islands ; Hierofalco
(6 sp.), Nearctic and Palearctic regions; Mieracidea (2 sp.),
Australia ; Cerchneis (22 sp.), cosmopolitan, except Oceania.

FaMILy 97.—PANDIONID. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS

-2.3.4| 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4

The Pandionide, or Fishing Hawks, are universally distributed,
with the exception of the Southern Temperate parts of South
America. The genera are :—

Pandion (1 sp.), the range of the entire family ; Polioaétus (2
sp.), India through Malay Archipelago to Celebes and Sandwich
Islands,

350 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. {PART lv.

FamILty 98.—STRIGID. (23 Genera, 180 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NeotropicaL | NEAaRcTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 [1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 | 1.2.9.4) 1.2.9.4/1.2.3.4

The Strigide, or Owls, form an extensive and well-known
family of nocturnal birds, which, although invariably placed next
the Hawks, are now believed to be not very closely allied to the
other Accipitres. They range over the whole globe, extending to
the extreme polar regions and to the remotest oceanic islands,
Their classification is very unsettled, and we therefore place the
genera, for convenience, in the order in which they follow each
other in the Hand List of Birds. Those adopted by most orni-
thologists are the following :—

Surnia (1 sp.), the Arctic regions of both hemispheres ; Nyctea
(1.sp.j), South Carolina to Greenland and Northern Europe ;
Athene (40 sp.), the Eastern hemisphere to New Zealand and the
Solomon Islands; Ninozx (7 sp.), the Oriental region, North China
and Japan; Glaucidium (7 sp.), Neotropical region, California,
and Oregon, Europe to North China; Micrathene (1 sp.), Mexico
and Arizona; Pholeoptynx (2 sp.), Neotropical region, Texas, and
North-west America; Bubo (16 sp.), universally distributed, ex-
cluding the Australian region; <Xetupa (3 sp.), the Oriental
region, Palestine; Scotopelia (2 sp.), West and South Africa ;
Scops (30 sp.), universally distributed, excluding Avstralia and
Pacific Islands ; Gymnoglaux (2 sp.), Antilles; Lophostriz (2 sp.),
Lower Amazon to Guatemala; Syrniwm (22 sp.), all regions but
the Australian; Ciccaba (10 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico ; Nyctala-
tinus (1 sp.), Columbia; Pulsatrix (2 sp.), Brazil and Peru
to Guatemala; Asio (6 sp.), all regions but the Australian,
Sandwich Islands; Nyctalops (1 sp.), Cuba and Mexico to Brazil
and Monte Video ; Pseudoscops (1 sp.), Jamaica ; Nyctala (4 sp.),
the North Temperate zone; Strix (18 sp.), universally distri-
buted ; Phodilus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya.

CHAP, XVIII. ] BIRDS. 351

In Mr. Sharpe’s Catalogue (published while this work was
passing through the press) the genera of Owls are reduced to 19,
arranged in two families—-Strigidz, containing our last two
genera, and Bubonid, comprising the remainder. The species
are increased to 190; but some genera are reduced, as Strix,
which is said to contain only 5 species.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Accipitres.

The Birds of Prey are so widely distributed over the world’s
surface that their general distribution calls for few remarks. Of
the four families all but one are cosmopolites, Vultures alone being
absent from the Australian region, as well as from Indo-Malaya
and Madagascar. If we take the sub-families, we find that each
region has several which are confined to it. The only parts of
the world where there is a marked deficiency of Accipitres is in
the islands of the Pacific ; and it may be noted, as a rule, that
these birds are more abundant in continents than in islands.
There is not so much difference between the number of Birds of
Prey in tropical and temperate regions, as is found in most
other groups of land-birds. North America and Europe have
about 60 species each, while India has about 80, and South
America about 120. The total number of Accipitres is 550
comprised in 104 genera, and 4 (or perhaps more properly 5)
families. In this estimate I have not included the Serpen-
tariidze, containing the Secretary Bird of Africa, as there is
some doubt whether it really belongs to the Order.

Order VITI—GRALLZE.
Famity 99.—RALLID. (18 Genera, 153 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

‘ NEoTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.9.4/1.2.9.4/1.2.9.4|1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4

The Rails are among the most widely distributed families of
birds, many of the genera being cosmopolitan, and several of the

352 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

species ranging over half the globe. They are found in many re-
mote islands ; and in some of these—as the Gallinula of Tristan
d’Acunha, and the Votornis of Lord Howe’s Island and New Zea-
land,—they have lost the power of flight. The classification of
the Rallidz is not satisfactory, and the following enumeration of
the genera must only be taken as affording a provisional sketch
of the distribution of the group :—

Rallus (18 sp.), Porzana (24 sp.), Gallinula (17 sp.), and
Fulica (10 sp.), have a world-wide range; Ortygometra (1 sp.),
ranges over the whole North Temperate zone ; Porphyrio (14 sp.),
is more especially Oriental and Australian, but occurs also in
South America, in Africa, and in South Europe; Hulabeornis
(15 sp.), is Ethiopian, Malayan, and Australian; Himantornis (1
sp.), is West African only; Aramides (24 sp.), is North and
South American; Rallina (16 sp.), is Oriental, but ranges east-
ward to Papua; Habroptila (1 sp.), is confined to the Moluccas ;
Pareudiastes (1 sp.), the Samoa Islands; Tribonyx (4 sp.), is
Australian, and has recently been found also in New Zealand ;
Ocydromus (4 sp.) ; Notornis (2 sp.), (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 455) ;
and Cabalus (1 sp.), are peculiar to the New Zealand group.

The sub-family, Heliornithinz (sometimes classed as a distinct
family) consists of 2 genera, Heliornis (1 sp.), confined to the
Neotropical region; and Podica (4 sp.), the Ethiopian region ex-
cluding Madagascar, and with a species (perhaps forming cuother
genus) in Borneo.

Extinct Rallide.—Remains of some species of this family have
been found in the Mascarene Islands, and historical evidence
shows that they have perhaps been extinct little more than a
century. They belong to the genus F'ulica, and to two extinct
genera, Aphanapteryx and Erythromachus. The Aphanapteryx
was a large bird of a reddish colour, with loose plumage, and
perhaps allied to Ocydromus. Erythromachus was much smaller,
of a grey-and-white colour, and is said to have lived chiefly on
the eggs of the land-tortoises. (See Jbis, 1869, p. 256; and
Proc. Zool. Soc., 1875, p. 40.)

CHAP, XVIII. ] BIRDS. 353

Famity 100.—SCOLOPACID. (21 Genera, 121 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
’ SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

| icles acs) 1.2.3.4 eae? 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4

|

The Scolopacid, comprehending the Snipes, Sandpipers, Cur-
lews, and allied genera, are perhaps as truly cosmopolitan as
any family of birds, ranging to the extreme north and visiting
the remotest islands. The genera of universal distribution are
the following :—

Numenius (16 sp.) ; Limosa (6 sp.); Totanus (12 sp.) ; Trin-
goides, (6 sp.) ; Himantopus (6 sp.) ; Tringa (20 sp.); and Galli-
nago (24 sp.). Those which have a more or less restricted dis-
tribution are :—

Ibidorhyncha (1 sp.), Central Asia and the Himalayas (Plate
VII. Vol. I. p. 331); Helodromas (1 sp.), Palearctic region and
North India; Zerekia (1 sp.), East Palearctic, wandering to
India and Australia ; Recurvirostra (6 sp.), Nearctie region to
the High Andes, South Palearctic, East and South Africa, Hin-
dostan and Australia; Micropelama (1 sp.), North America to
Chili; Machetes (1 sp.), Palearctic region and Hindostan
(Plate I. Vol. I. p. 195); Hrewnetes (3 sp.), Nearctic and Neo-
tropical ; Hurinorhynchus (1 sp.), North-east Asia and Bengal;
Calidris (1 sp.), all regions but Australian ; Macrorhamphus (3
sp.), Palearctic and Nearctic, visits Brazil and India; Scolopax
(4 sp.), the whole Palearctic region, to India, Java, and Australia ;
Philohela (1 sp.), East Nearctic; Rhynchea (4 sp.), Ethiopian and
Oriental, Australia, and Temperate South America; Phalaropus
(3 sp.), North Temperate zone, and West Coast of America to
Chili.

354 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 101—CHIONIDID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORLENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAZAKTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

|

i Nea ea ore

The Sheath-bills, Chionis (2 sp.), are curious white birds, whose
thick bill has a horny sheath at the base. Their nearest ally is
Hematopus, a genus of Charadriidz. -These birds are confined
to the Antarctic Islands, especially the Falkland Islands, the
Crozets and Kerguelen’s Land.

Famity 102—THINOCORID. (2 Genera, 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL
SuB-REGIONS. ] SUB-REGIONS.

yaaa | == | 925 [2e= [e252

The Thinocoride, or Quail-snipes, are small birds, confined to
Temperate South America. They have much the appearance of
Quails but are more nearly allied to Plovers. The two genera
are :—

Attagis (4 sp.), Falkland Islands, Straits of Magellan, Chili,
Bolivia, and the High Andes of Peru and Ecuador; Thinocorus
(2 sp.), La Plata, Chili, and Peru. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 40.)

Famity 103.—PARRID/®. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)

—

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS

ee | oo | ape (1.2.9.4 1.9.9.4) 1a

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. } 355

The Parride, or Jacanas, are remarkable long-toed birds, often
of elegant plumage, frequenting swamps and marshes, and walk-
ing on the floating leaves of aquatic plants. They are found in
all the tropics. Parra (10 sp.), has the distribution of the family ;
Hydruphasianus (1 sp.), is confined to the Oriental region.

Famity 104—GLAREOLIDZ. (3 Genera, 20 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

---- | ---- 1.2.9.4/1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4| 1.2-—

This family, comprising the Pratincoles and Coursers, 1s
universally distributed over the Old World and to Australia.

Glareola (9 sp.), has the distribution of the family; Pluvia-
nus (1 sp.), 1s confined to North Africa; Cursorius (10 sp-),
ranges over Africa, South Europe and [ndia.

The position of the genus Glareola is uncertain, for though
generally classed here, Prof. Lilljeborg considers it to be an
aberrant form of the Caprimulgide! It differs, in its insecti-
vorous habits and in many points of external structure, from all
its allies, and should probably form a distinct family.

Famity 105—CHARADIID. (19 Genera, 101 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

=

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 [1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.9/1.2.3.4

The extensive family of the Plovers and their numerous allies,
ranges over the whole globe. The genera now usually admitted
into this family are the following :—

Edicnemus (9 sp.), is only absent from North America ;
Esacus (2 sp.), India to Ceylon, Malay Islands and Australia ;

356 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Vanellus (3 sp.), Palearctic and Neotropical regions ; Chetusia
(15 sp.), the whole Eastern’ Hemisphere; Erythrogonys (1 sp.),
Australia ; Hoplopterus (10 sp.), widely scattered, but absent
from North America; Squatarola (1 sp.), all the regions; Cha-
radrius (14 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Hudromias (5 sp.), Eastern Hemi-
sphere and South Temperate America; Agialitis (22 sp.), cos-
mopolitan ; Oreophilus (1 sp.), South Temperate America ;
Thinornis (2 sp.), New Zealand; Anarhynchus (1 sp.), New
Zealand (Plate XIII. Vol I. p. 455); Hamatopus (9 sp.), cos-
mopolitan ; Strepsilas (2 sp.) almost cosmopolitan; Aphriza (1
sp.), West Coast of America; Pluvianellus (1 sp.), Straits of
Magellan; Dromas (1 sp.), India, Madagascar, and North-east
Africa; Pedionomus (1 sp.), Australia. This last genus has
usually been placed with the Turnicide.

Famity 106.—OTIDIDAL. (2 Genera, 26 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ey eee ee et == -

|

The Otidide, or Bustards, occur in all parts of the Old World
and Australia where there are open tracts, being only absent from
Madagascar and the Malay Archipelago.

Otis (2 sp.), ranges over most of the Palearctic region ; while
Eupodotis (24 sp.), has the range of the family, but is most abund-
ant in the Ethiopian region, which contains three-fourths of the
whole number of species.

Famity 107.—GRUID. (3 Genera, 16 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NeEoTROPICAL
SvUe-REGIONS,

Sete | 1.2.0 - j1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3 -| 1.2.3— | —-2——

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 357

The Gruide, or Cranes, are found in all the regions except the
Neotropical.

Grus (12 sp.) inhabits the southern and western United States,
the whole Palearctic region, South-east Africa, India, and Aus-
tralia; Anthropoides (2 sp.), Europe, North and South Africa and
India; Balearica (2 sp.), the Ethiopian region (except Madagascar).

Famity 108.—CARIAMID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
Sr B-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

aa |---- | ----|----|----| =e

The genus Cariama (2 sp.), consists of remarkable crested birds
inhabiting the mountains and open plains of Brazil and La Plata.
In the British Museum Catalogue of the Birds of Prey, they are
classed as aberrant Falconide, but their anomalous characters
seem to require them to be placed in a distinct family, which
seems better placed among the Waders.

Famity 109—ARAMIDZ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC PALZARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,

SUB-REGIONS.

2.3.4 | eae | eae | eases | ae

The Guaraiinas are birds which have somewhat the appear-
ance of Herons, but which are usually classed with the Rails.
They are now, however, considered to form a distinct family.
The only genus, Aramus (2 sp.), inhabits the Neotropical region,
from Mexico and Cuba to Central Brazil.

358 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

FaMILy 110.—PSOPHIID&. (1 Genus, 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

=a-—|----|=--=[=--+|----| ==38

The remarkable and beautiful birds called Trumpeters, are
confined to the various parts of the Amazon valley ; and it is an
interesting fact, that the range of each species appears to be
. bounded by some of the great rivers. Thus, Psophia crepitans
inhabits the interior of Guiana as far as the south bank of the
Rio Negro; on the opposite or north bank of the Rio Negro
Psophia ochroptera is found; beyond the next great rivers, Japura
and Ica, Psophia napensis occurs; on the south bank of the
Amazon, west of the Madeira, we have the beautiful Psophia
leucoptera ; east of the Madeira this is replaced by Psophia
viridis, while near Para, beyond the Tapajoz, Xingu and Tocan-
tins, there is another species, Psophia obscwra. Other species
may exist in the intervening river districts ; but we have here,
apparently, a case of a number of well-marked species of birds
capable of flight, yet with their range in certain directions
accurately defined by great rivers. (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28.)

Famity 111.—EURYPYGID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SuB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

re ee ee eee

The Eurypygide, or Sun-Bitterns, are small heron-like birds
with beautifully-coloured wings, which frequent the muddy
and wooded river-banks of tropical America. The only genus,
Eurypyga (2 sp.), ranges from Central America to Brazil.

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 359

Famity 112—RHINOCHETID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PALZARCTIC
SUB--REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

i

=

maa [=on=[=sn= [eas [==

The genus Rhinochetus (1 sp.), consists of a singular bird
called the Kagu, which inhabits New Caledonia, an island
which may be placed with almost equal propriety in our Ist,
2nd, or 3rd Australian sub-regions. It is a bird of a bluish
ash-colour, with a loose plumage, partaking something of the
appearance of Rail, Plover, and Heron, but with peculiarities of
structure which require it to be placed in a distinct family.
Its anatomy shows that its nearest allies are the South American
genera, Hurypyga and Psophia.

Famity 113.—ARDEID. (5 Genera, 80 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

=
AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.9.4/1.2.9.4 1.2.9.4 1.2.9.4/1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4

The well-known Herons and Bitterns are found in every
part of the globe, and everywhere closely resemble each other.
Omitting the minuter sub-divisions, the genera are as follows :—

Ardea (60 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Botauwrus (6 sp.), almost cos-
mopolitan ; Tigrisoma (4 sp.), Tropical America and West Africa;
Nycticorax (9 sp.), cosmopolitan; Caneroma (1 sp.), Tropical
- America.

Vou. Il.—24

360 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Faminy 114.——PLATALEID. (6 Genera, 30 Species.)

GENERAL DIstrIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS,

: aa : = = a3
1.2.9.4 /1.2.3.4'1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 | 1.2 ——

The Plataleide, including the Spoonbills and Ibises, have
been classed either with the Herons or the Storks, but have
most affinity with the latter. Though not very numerous they
are found over the greater part of the globe, except the colder
zones and the Pacific Islands. The following is the distribu-
tion of the genera :-—

Platalea (6 sp.), all the warmer parts of the globe except the
Moluecas and Pacific Islands; /bis (2 sp.), Temperate North
America and Tropical South America; Faleinellus (2 sp.),
almost cosmopolitan ; Geronticus (19 sp.), all Tropical countries
and Temperate South America; Scopus (1 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa; Baleniceps (1 sp.), the Upper Nile. This last
genus the “Shoe-bird,” or boat-billed heron, perhaps forms a
distinct family.

Famity 115—CICONIID. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHZARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3 — |--s- 1.2.9.4 |1.9.3.4 1-2-3. | 1.2——

The Ciconiide, or Storks, are mostly an Old World family,
only three species inhabiting the Neotropical, and one, the
Nearctic region. They are also absent from the islands of the
Pacific, the Antilles, and, with one exception, from Madagascar.
The genera are as follows :—

Ciconia (6 sp.), ranges through the Palearctic, Ethiopian and

CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 361

Oriental regions as far as Celebes, and in South America ; Mycteria
(4 sp.), inhabits Africa, India, Australia and the Neotropical
region ; Leptupiltus (3 sp.), the Ethiopian and Oriental regions
to Java; Tantalus (5 sp.), the Ethiopian, Oriental and Neotro-
pical regions, and the South-east of North America; Anas-
tomus (2 sp.), the Ethiopian region, and India to Ceylon.

Famity 116—PALAMEDEID. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

a a a ed ae

The Palamedeide, or Screamers, are curious semi-aquatic
birds of doubtful affinities, perhaps intermediate between Gal-
line and Anseres. They are peculiar to South America. The
genera are :—

Palamedea (1 sp.), which inhabits the Amazon valley;
Chauna (2 sp.), La Plata, Brazil and Columbia.

Famity 117—PHC@NICOPTERID®. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

,
NEOTROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

13.4 | aL fa

The Flamingoes (Phenicopterus) seem peculiar to the Ethio-
pian and Neotropical regions, ranging from the former into
India and South Europe. America has four species, inhabit-
ing Chili and La Plata, the Galapagos, Mexico and the West
Indian islands; the others range over all Africa, South Europe,
India and Ceylon. These singular birds are placed by some
authors near the Spoonbills and Ibises, by others with the
Geese. Professor Huxley considers them to be “completely

262 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

intermediate between the Anserine birds on the one side and
the Storks and Herons on the other.” The pterolysis according
to Nitzsch is “completely stork-like.”

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Gralle, or Wading
and Running birds.

The Waders, as a rule, are birds of very wide distribution,
the four largest families Rallidz, Scolopacide, Charadriide and
Ardeidze, being quite cosmopolitan, as are many of the genera.
But there are also a number of small families of very
restricted distribution, and these all occur in the two most
isolated regions, the Neotropical and the Australian. The
Neotropical region is by far the richest in varied forms of
Waders, having representatives of no less than 15 out of the 19
families, while 7 are altogether peculiar to it. The Australian
region has 11 families, with 1 peculiar. The other two tropical
regions each possess 11 families, but none are peculiar. The
Palearctic region has 10, and the Nearctic 7 families. No less
than three families—Chionidid, Thinocoridz, and Cariamidzee—
are confined to the Temperate regions and highlands of South
America; while four others,—Aramide, Psophiide, Eurypygide
and Palamedeidze,—are found in Tropical America only ; and
these present such an array of peculiar and interesting forms as
no other part of the globe can furnish. The Phcenicopteride or
Flamingoes, common to the Tropical regions of Asia, Africa and
America, but absent from Australia, is the only other feature
of general interest presented by the distribution of the Waders.

The Order contains about 610 species, which gives about 32
species to each family, a smaller average than in the Galline
or Accipitres, and only about one-fourth of the average number
in the Passeres. This is partly due to the unusual number
of very small families, and partly to the wide average range of
the species, which prevents that specialization of forms that
occurs in the more sedentary groups of birds.

CHAP, XVIII.] BIRDS. 363

Order IX —ANSERES.

FamiLy 118—ANATIDA. (40 Genera, 180 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN

ORIENTAL | AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4| 1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4|1.2.9.4

The Anatidz, comprehending the Ducks, Geese, and Swans
with their allies, are of such universal distribution that there is
probably no part of the globe where some of them are not
occasionally found. They are, however, most abundant in tem-
perate and cold regions ; and, contrary to what occurs in most
other families, the most beautifully-coloured species are extra-
tropical, and some even arctic. The distribution of the genera
is as follows :—

Anseranas (1 sp.), Australia; Plectropterus (2 sp.), Tropical
Africa ; Sarkidiornis (1 sp.), South America, Africa, and India;
Chenalopex (1 sp.), Amazonia; Callochen (1 sp.), South Europe,
North, East, and South Africa; Cereopsis (1 sp.), Australia ;
Anser (13 sp.), Palearctic and Nearctic regions to Central
America and the Antilles ; Bernicla (12 sp.), Temperate regions
of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres ; Chloéphaga (5 sp.),
South Temperate America and Aleutian Islands; Mettapus (4
sp.), Tropical Africa and Madagascar, India and Ceylon to
Malaya and Australia; Cygnus (10 sp.), Temperate regions of the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres; Dendrocygna (10 sp.),
Tropical and sub-tropical regions; TYadorna (3 sp.), Palearctic
and Australian regions; Casarca (5 sp.), Palearctic, Oriental,
Ethiopian, and Australian regions, to New Zealand; Azz (2 sp.),
Temperate North America and Eastern Asia; Mareca (4 sp.),
Palearctic region, North America, Temperate South America,
and Australia ; Dajila (3 sp.), all America and the Palearctic
region; Anas (16 sp.), cosmopolitan; Querquedula (17 sp.),

364 _ GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

cosmopolitan ; Chaulelasmus (2 sp.), Palearctic region and North
America; Spatula (5 sp.), all Temperate regions ; Malacorhynchus
(1 sp.), Australia; Catrina (1 sp.), Tropical South America;
Branta (1 sp.), Palearctic region and India; Fuligula (5 sp.),
North Temperate regions and New Zealand; dthya (5 sp.),
Palearctic and Nearctic regions, India, Australia, and South
Africa; Metopiana (1 sp.), South Temperate America ; Bucephala
(4 sp.), Nearctic and Palearctic regions ; Harelda (2 sp.), North-
ern Palartic and Nearctic regions; Hymenolaimus (1 sp.), New
Zealand; Camptolaimus (1 sp.), North-east of North America ;
Micropterus (1 sp.), Temperate South America; Somateria (5
sp.), Arctic and sub-arctic regions; Cdemia (5 sp.), Nearctic
and Palearctic regions; Biziwra (1 sp.), Australia; Thalassornis
(1 sp.), South Africa; Lrismatura (6 sp.), all America, South-
east Europe and South Africa; Nesonetta (1 sp.), Auckland
Islands ; Merganetta (3 sp.), Andes of Columbia to Chili; Mer-
gus (6 sp.), Palearctic and Nearctic regions, Brazil, and the
Auckland Islands.

FamiIty 119.—LARID. (13 Genera, 132 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

| PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4

The Laride, or Gulls and Terns, are true cosmopolites, in-
habiting the shores and islands of every zone; and most of the
genera have also a wide range. They are therefore of little use
in the study of geographical distribution. The genera are as
follows :—

Stercorarius (6 sp.), cosmopolitan, most abundant in cold and
temperate zones ; Rhodostethia (1 sp.), North America; Larus
(60 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Xema (1 sp.), North Temperate zone ;
Creagrus (1 sp.), North Pacific; Pagophila (1 sp.), Arctic seas;
Rissa (3 sp.), Arctic and Northern seas; Sterna (36 sp.), cos-
mopolitan ; Hydrochelidon (12 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones;

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 365

Gygis (1 sp.), Indian Ocean and Tropical Pacific Islands; Anous
(6 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones; Vania (1 sp.), South
Temperate America ; Rhynchops (3 sp.), Tropical America, Africa,
and India.

Famity 120.—PROCELLARIID. (6 Genera, 96 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
nn ee
NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAL#ZARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Sus-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4/1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4 1.2.3 4

The Procellariide, comprising the Shearwaters, Petrels, and
Albatrosses, are universally distributed, but some of the genera
are local.

Puffinus (20 sp.), Procellaria (18 sp.), and Fulmarus (40 sp.),
are cosmopolitan ; Prion (5 sp.) and Pelecanoides (3 sp.), belong
to the South Temperate and Antarctic regions; Diomedia (10
sp.), comprises the Albatrosses, which are tropical, occasionally
wandering into temperate seas.

Famity 121—PELECANIDZ. (6 Genera, 61 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL ARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

|
1.2.2.4|1.2.9.4/1.2.9.4]1.9.3.4/1.2.9.4/1.9.9.4

The Pelecanide, comprising the Gannets, Pelicans, Darters,
and Frigate-Birds, although universally distributed, are more
abundant in tropical and temperate regions.

Sula (8 sp.) and Phalacrocorax (35 sp.), are cosmopolitan ;
Pelecanus (9 sp.) is tropical and temperate ; Fregetta (2 sp.) and
Phaeton (3 sp.) are confined to Tropical seas; Ptotus (4 sp.) to
Tropical and warm Temperate zones.

366 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv,

FamILy 122.—SPHENISCID. (3 Genera, 18 Species.)

-—-—

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB--REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.a——|- --- | ----|-~s-|----|-a-a

The Penguins are entirely confined to the Antarctic and South
Temperate regions, except two species which are found on the
coast of Peru and the Galapagos. They are most plentiful in
the southern parts of South America, Australia, New Zealand,
and most of the Antarctic islands, and one or two species are
found at the Cape of Good Hope. The genera as given in the
Hand List are :—

Spheniscus (1 sp.), South Africa and Cape Horn; Hudyptes (15
sp.), with the range of the family; Aptenodytes (2 sp.), Ant-
arctic Islands.

Famity 123.—COLYMBID. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS,

~---|---4 |1~-s.4|----|---- | ----

The Northern Divers are confined to the Arctic and North
Temperate Seas. The only genus, Colymbus, has one species
confined to the West Coast of North America, the others being
common to the two northern continents.

Famity 124.—PODICIPIDA. (2 Genera, 33 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 j1-2.0.al1.9.0.4|1.2.0.4| 1.2.3.4

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 367

The Grebes are universally distributed. The genera are
Podiceps (26 sp.), cosmopolitan ; and Podilymbus (2 sp.), confined
to North and South America. Some ornithologists group these
birds with the Colymbide.

Famity 125——ALCIDA. (7 Genera, 28 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

mee: | at SE oe: | 1-3.4|-—~- |---~ | ee

The Alcidee, comprising the Auks, Guillemots, and Puffins,
are confined to the North Temperate and Arctic regions, where
they represent the Penguins of the Antarctic lands. One of
the most remarkable of these birds, the Great Auk, formerly
abundant in the North Atlantic, is now extinct. The genera are
as follows :—

Alca (2 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic seas; Fratercula (4
sp.), Arctic and North Temperate zones; Ceratorhina (2 sp.),
North Pacific; Simorhynchus (8 sp.), North Pacific; Brachy-
' rhamphus (3 sp.), North Pacific to Japan and Lower California ;
Uria (8 sp.), Arctic and North Temperate zones; Mergulus (1
sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic Seas. The last three genera
constitute the family Uriide, of some ornithologists.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Anseres.

The Anseres, or Swimmers, being truly aquatic birds, possess,
as might be expected, a large number of cosmopolitan families
and genera. No less than 5 out of the 8 families have a world-
wide distribution, and the others are characteristic either of the
North or the South Temperate zones. Hence arises a pecu-
liarity of distribution to be found in no other order of birds ;
the Temperate being richer than the Tropical regions. The Ne-
arctic and Palearctic regions each have seven families of Anseres,
two of which, the Colymbide and Alcide, are peculiar to them.
The Ethiopian, Australian, and Neotropical regions, which all

.

368 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

extend into the South Temperate zone, have six families, with one
peculiar to them; while the Oriental region, which is wholly
tropical, possesses the five cosmopolitan families only.

There are about 78 genera and 552 species of Anseres, giving
69 species to a family, a high number compared with the
Waders, and due to there being only one very small family, the
Colymbidx. The distribution of the Anseres, being more deter-
mined by temperature than by barriers, the great regions which
are so well indicated by the genera and families of most other
orders of birds, hardly limit these, except in the case of the
genera of Anatide.

Order X —STRUTHIONES.

Famity 126—STRUTHIONID. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.
aoe ee ea

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL | AUSTRALIAN

ae eee ed oe ee

The Ostriches consist of two genera, sometimes formed into
distinct families. Struthio (2 sp.) inhabits the desert regions of
North, East, and South Africa, as well as Arabia and Syria. It
therefore just enters the Palearctic region. Rhea (3 sp.) inhabits

Temperate South America, from Patagonia to the confines of
Brazil.

Famity 127—CASUARIID. (2 Genera, 11 Species.,

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SuB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

The Cassowaries and Emeus are confined to the Australian
region. The Emeus, Dromeus (2 sp.), are found only on the
.

CHAP. XVIII] | BIRDS. 369

main-land of Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441). Casuarius
(9 sp.) inhabits the islands from Ceram to New Britain, with
one species in North Australia; it is most abundant in the
Papuan Islands.

FamiLy 128.—APTERYGID. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
*

NEO ROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS,

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ee ee eee

The species of Apteryx are entirely confined to the two larger
islands of New Zealand. They are supposed to have some
remote affinity with Ocydromus, a genus of Rails peculiar to
Australia and New Zealand; but they undoubtedly form one of
the most remarkable groups of living birds (Plate XIII. Vol. I.
p. 445).

Struthious Birds recently extinct.

A number of sub-fossil remains of birds, mostly large and
some of gigantic size, having affinities to the Apteryx and, less
closely, to the Cassowaries, have been discovered in New
Zealand. These are all classed by Professor Owen in the
genus Dinornis and family Dinornithide ; but Dr. Haast, from
the study of the rich collections in the Canterbury (New
Zealand) Museum, is convinced that they belong to two distinct
families and several genera. His arrangement is as follows.
(See lbis, 1874, p. 209).

FamiLy 129.—DINORNITHID. (2 Genera, 7 Species.)

Dinornis (5 sp.) ; Meionornis (2 sp.).

These had no hind toe, and include the largest species. Pro-
fessor Newton thinks that they were absolutely wingless, being
the only birds in which the fore limbs are entirely wanting.

370 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART LV.

FaMILy 130.—PALAPTERYGIDZ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

Palapteryx (2 sp.) ; Euryapteryx (2 sp.).
These had a well-developed hind toe, and rudimentary wings.

FaMILy 131—PYORNITHIDA. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

A gigantic Struthious bird (pyornis), belonging to a distinct
family, inhabited Madagascar.

It was first made known by its enormous eggs, eight times
the bulk of those of the ostrich, which were found in a sub-
fossil condition. Considerable portions of skeletons have
since been discovered, showing that these huge birds formed
an altogether peculiar family of the order.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Struthiones.

With the exception of the Ostrich, which has spread north-
ward into the Palearctic region, the Struthious birds, living and
extinct, are confined to the Southern hemisphere, each continent
having its peculiar forms. It is a remarkable fact that the two
most nearly allied genera, Struthio and Rhea, should be found in
Africa and South Temperate America respectively. Equally re-
markable is the development of these large forms of wingless
birds in Australia and the adjacent islands, and especially in
New Zealand, where we have evidence which renders it probable
that about 20 species recently coexisted. This points to the
conclusion that New Zealand must, not long since, have formed
a much more extensive land, and that the diminution of its area
by subsidence has been one of the causes—and perhaps the
main one—in bringing about the extinction of many of the
larger species of these wingless birds.

The wide distribution of the Struthiones may, as we have
already suggested (Vol. I., p. 287.), be best explained, by sup-
posing them to represent a very ancient type of bird, developed
at a time when the more specialized carnivorous mammalia had

CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 371

not come into existence, and preserved only in those areas
which were long free from the incursions of such dangerous
enemies. The discovery of Struthious remains in Europe in the
Lower Eocene only, supports this view ; for at this time carnivora
were few and of generalized type, and had probably not acquired
sufficient speed and activity to enable them to exterminate
powerful and quick-running terrestrial birds. It is, however, at
a much more remote epoch that we may expect to find the
remains of the earlier forms of this group; while these Eocene
birds may perhaps represent that ancestral wide-spread type
which, when isolated in remoter continents and islands, became
modified into the American and African ostriches, the Emeus
and Cassowaries of Australia, the Dinornis and Apyornis of
New Zealand.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES
AND AMPHIBIA,

REPTILIA.

Order IT—OPHIDIA.

Famity 1.—TYPHLOPIDA.—(4 Genera, 70 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

—2.3.4 | _---— | —2-4 j1.2.9.4/1.2.9.4] 1.2——

The Typhlopide, or Blind Burrowing Snakes, are widely
scattered over the warmer regions of the earth, but are most
abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions, and least so in
the Neotropical. They are absent from the Nearctic region ;
and in the Palearctic are found only in South-eastern Europe
and Japan.

The most extensive genus is T'yphlops, comprising over 60
species, and having a range almost as extensive as the entire
family. The other well characterised genera are :—

Typhlina (1 sp.), ranging from Penang to Java and Hong Kong ;
Typhline (1 sp.), the Cape of Good Hope ; Dibamus (1 sp.), New
Guinea.

CHAP, XIXx.] REPTILES. 373

Famity 2—TORTRICIDZ. (3 Genera 5 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.

NEoTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

a | 1—--|---- | ----| 1.2.9.4] = =

The Tortricide, or Short-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are a small
family, one portion of which ranges from India to Cambodja, and
through the Malay islands as far as Celebes and Timor; these
form the genus Cylindrophis. Another portion inhabits America,
and consists of :—

Charina (1 sp.), found in California and British Columbia ;
and Tortriz (1 sp.), in Tropical America.

We have here a case of discontinuous distribution, indicating,
either very imperfect knowledge of the group, or that it is the
remnant of a once extensive family, on the road to extinction.

FAMILY 3.— XENOPELTID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

wane faaee [ance accs [ace too

The curious nocturnal carnivorous Snake, forming the genus
Xenopeltis, and the sole representative of this family, ranges from
Penang to Cambodja, and through the Malay Islands to Celebes.

Famity 4—UROPELTID. (5 Genera, 18 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC ; PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-RFGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

----|----| ----|---- | -2--] --+-

O74 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY.

The Uropeltidz, or Rough-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are
strictly confined to Ceylon and the adjacent parts of Southern
India, and would almost alone serve to mark out our second
Oriental sub-region. The genera are :—

Rhinophis (7 sp.), Ceylon; Uvropeltis (1 sp.), Ceylon; Stlybura
(8 sp.), Anamally Hills and Neilgherries ; Plectwrus (3 sp.), Neil-
gherries and Madras; and Melanophidiwm (1 sp.), the Wynand.

Famity 5.—_CALAMARIIDA. (82 Genera, 75 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4, Tigit = | ae | 1.2.6 — oe inant

The Calamariide, or Dwarf Ground Snakes, are found in all
warm parts of the globe, extending north into the United States
as far as British Columbia and Lake Superior; but they are
absent from the Palearctic region, with the exception of a species
found in Persia. The species are in a very confused state. The
best characterised genera are the following :—

Calamaria (20 sp.), Persia, India to Java and the Philippine
Islands, Celebes, and New Guinea ; Rhabdosoma (18 sp.), Mexico
and South America, and also the Malay Islands as far east as
Amboyna, Timor, and New Guinea; Zyphlocalamus (1 sp.),
Borneo ; Macrocalamus (1 sp.), India; Aspidura (3 sp.), India
and Ceylon; Haplocerus (1 sp.), Ceylon; Streptophorus (3 sp.),
Central and South America ;—with a host of others of less im-
portance or ill-defined.

Famity 6.—OLIGODONTID. (4 Genera, 40 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

$F

aoe tae es | =| ——=—— 1.2.8.4] —----

CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 375

The Oligodontidz are a small family of Ground Snakes which
have been separated from the Calamariidx, and, with the excep-
tion of a few species, are confined to the Oriental region. The
best characterised genera are :—

Oligodon (12 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Philippines ; and, Simotes
(24 sp.), India to China and Borneo. In addition to these,
Achalinus is founded on a single species from Japan; and
Teleolepis consists of three species from North and South America,

FamILy 7.—COLUBRID. (50 Genera, 270 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4) 1.2.3.4|1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4 12-——

The Colubrine Snakes are universally distributed over the
globe, and they reach the extreme northern limits of the order.
They are, however, almost absent from Australia, being there
represented only by a few species of 7'ropidonotus and Coronella
in the northern and eastern districts. This great family consists
of four divisions or sub-families: the Coronelline (20 genera,
100 species), the Colubrine (16 genera, 70 species), the Drya-
dine (7 genera, 50 species), and the Natricinee (7 genera, 50
species). The more important genera of Colubride are the
following :—

Ablabes, Coronella, Ptyas, Coluber, and Tropidonotus—all
have a very wide distribution, but the two last are absent
from South America, although Zropidonotus reaches Guatemala ;
Tomodon, Xenodon, Liopis, Stenorhina, Erythrolampus, Elapoch-
rus, Callirhinus, Enophrys, and Dromicus—are confined to the
Neotropical region; Hypsirhynchus, Cryptodacus, Jaltris, and
Coloragia, are confined to the West Indian Islands; Chilomenis-
cus, Conophis, Pituophis, and Ischcognathus, to North America,
the latter going as far south as Guatemala; Compsosoma,
Zamenis, Zaocys, Atretium, Xenochrophys, and Herpetoreas, are
peculiarly Oriental, but Zamenis extends into South Europe;

Vou. I1.—25

376 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Lytorhynchus, Rhamnophis, Herpetethiops and Grayia, are Ethio-
pian ; Rhinechis is peculiar to Europe ; Megablabes to Celebes, and
Styporhynchus to Gilolo ; Cyclophis, is found in the Oriental re-
gion, Japan, and North America; Spilotes, in the Nearctic and
Neotropical regions ; Xenelaphis in the Oriental, Ethiopian, and
Palearctic regions ; Philodryas, Heterodon and Herpetodryas in
America and Madagascar, the latter genus being also found in
China.

Famity 8.—HOMALOPSID. (24 Genera, 50 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-k1 GIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

a | 203 = |-2-3.4 | a ee (2.2.3.4) 1. oe

The Homalopside, or Fresh-water Snakes, have been separated
from the Hydride by Dr. Giinther, and they include some groups
which have been usually classed with the Natricine. They
are especially characteristic of the Oriental region, where consi-
derably more than half the genera and species are found; next
comes the Neotropical region which has 6 species; while none
of the other regions have more than 4 or 5. Itis to be observed
that the Ethiopian species occur in West Africa only, and mostly
constitute peculiar genera, so that in this family the separation
of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions is very well marked. The
best characterised genera of the family are the following :—

Cantoria (10 sp.), ranging from Europe to Japan, the Philip-
pines, and Timor, with one species in Guinea; Hypsirhina (6
sp.), Bengal, China, and Borneo; Fordonia (3 sp.), Rangoon to
Borneo and Timor; Homalopsis (2 sp,), Cambodja to Java;
Cerberus (2 sp.), Ceylon and Siam, the Malay Islands, New
Guinea, and North Australia; Herpeton (1 sp.), Siam; Ferania
(1 sp.), Bengal to Penang; Pythonopsis (1 sp.), Borneo; Myron
(2 sp.), India and North Australia; Homalophis (1 sp.), Borneo ;
Hipistes (1 sp.), Penang; Xenodermus (1 sp.), Java; Neustero-
phis and Limnophis, with one species each, are peculiar to West

CHAP. XIX. ] REPTILES. 377
Africa; Helicops (2 sp.), North and South America; Farancia

and Dimodes, with one species each, are from New Orleans; and
a few others imperfectly known from Tropical America.

Famity 9.—PSAMMOPHIDZ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

IPALMARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ae |-++-|-'s+- j1-2.3.4/1-3.4 | ro eer

The Psammophide, or Desert Snakes, are a small group
characteristic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but more
abundant in the former. The distribution of the genera is as
follows :—

Psanvmophis (16 sp.), ranges from West Africa to Persia and
Calcutta; Calopeltis (1 sp.), North and West Africa; Mimophis
(1 sp.), Madagascar ; Psammodynastes (2 sp.), Sikhim to Cochin
China, Borneo and the Philippine Islands; and Dromophis (1
sp.), Tropical Africa.

Famity 10.—RACHIODONTID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

. NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS, |

od oe ee od oe

The Rachiodontide are a small and very isolated group of
snakes of doubtful affinities. The only genus, Dasypeltts (2 sp.),
is confined to West and South Africa.

378 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

FaMILy 11—DENDROPHID. (7 Genera, 35 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

SUB-REGIONS. SuB-REGIONS. ] SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL

1.2.3.4, —_-—---— | ———— | 1.2.3.4] 1.2.9.4) 1.9——

The Dendrophide, or Tree Snakes, are found in all the Tropical
regions, but are most abundant in the Oriental. The genera are
distributed as follows :—

Dendrophis ranges from India and Ceylon to the Pelew
Islands and North Australia, and has one species in West Africa;
Ahetulla is almost equally divided between Tropical Africa and
Tropical America; Gonyosoma ranges from Persia to Java and the
Philippines ; Chrysopelea is found in India, Borneo, the Philip-
pines, Amboyna, and Mysol; Hapsidrophis and Bucephalus are
confined to Tropical Africa ; and Jthycyphus (1 sp.), is peculiar
to Madagascar.

FamILy 12.—DRYIOPHID. (5 Genera, 15 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

-2.3-| Ae a | ----| Bey | )1.2.2.4| 1-——=

The Dryiophide, or Whip Snakes, are a very well characterised
family of slender, green-coloured, arboreal serpents, found in the
three tropical regions but absent from Australia, although they
just enter the Australian region in the island of Celebes. In
Africa they are confined to the West Coast and Madagascar.
The genera are :—

Dryiophis (4 sp.), Tropical America and West Africa: Z’ropi-
dococcyx (1 sp.), Central India; 7ragops (4 sp.), Bengal to China,
the Philippines, Java, and Celebes; Passerita (2 sp.), Ceylon

——

CHAP, XIX.] REPTILES. 379

and the Indian Peninsula; and Langaha (2 sp.), confined to
Madagascar.

FamiLy 13—DIPSADID. (11 Genera, 45 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAaLZARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,
—-2.3— =| OS] 1.2.3— [1.2.3.4] 1.2 ——

The Dipsadide, or Nocturnal Tree Snakes, are distinguished
from the last family by their dark colours and nocturnal habits.
They are about equally abundant in the Oriental and Neotropical
regions, less so in the Ethiopian, while only a single species
extends to North Australia. The following are the best known
genera :—

Dipsas, comprising all the Oriental species with one in Asia-
Minor, and a few from the Moluccas, New Guinea, North Aus-
tralia, West Africa, and Tropical America; Thamnodyastes,
Tropidodipsas, and several others, from Tropical America; Dzpsa-
doboa, from West Africa and Tropical America ; Leptodeira, from
Tropical and South Africa, South America, and Mexico; and
Pythonodipsas, from Central Africa.

Famity 14—SCYTALID. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

\
NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

-a.a— |---| ----|----| ---4| ----

It is doubtful how far the three genera which constitute this
family form a natural assemblage. We can therefore draw no
safe conclusions from the peculiarity of their distribution—
Scytale and Oxyrhopus being confined to Tropical America ;
while Hologerrhum inhabits the Philippine Islands.

380 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 15—LYCODONTID®. (11 Genera, 35 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

~--- | ----|---- | 1.2.3 — jr-a.e.4| oe

The Lycodontide, or Fanged Ground Snakes, are confined to
the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, over the whole of which they
range, except that they are absent from Madagascar and extend
eastward to New Guinea. The genera have often a limited dis-
tribution :—

Lycodon ranges from India and Ceylon to China, the Philip-
pines, and New Guinea; Tetragonosoma, the Malay Peninsula
and Islands; Leptorhytaon and Ophites, India ; Cercaspis, Ceylon ;
and Cyelocorus, the Philippines. The African genera are Bowdon,
Lycophidion, Holuropholis, Simocephalus, and Lamprophis, the
latter being found only in South Africa. The species are nearly
equally abundant in both regions, but no genus is common to
the two. .

Famity 16—AMBLYCEPHALID. (5 Genera, 12 Species.

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#AARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

aaa | ieee | —--— |---| -~9.4|--are

The Amblycephalide, or Blunt Heads, are very singularly
distributed, being nearly equally divided between Tropical
America and the eastern half of the Oriental region, as will be
seen by the following statement of the distribution of the
genera :—

Amblycephalus (1 sp.), Malay Peninsula to Borneo and the
Philippines ; Pareas (3 sp.), Assam, China, Java, and Borneo;

CHAP, XIX. ] REPTILES. 381

Asthenodipsas (1 sp.), Malacca ; Leptognathus (6 sp.), Central and
South America; and Anoplodipsas (1 sp.), supposed to come
from New Caledonia, and, if so, furnishing a link, though a very
imperfect one, between the disconnected halves of the family.

Famity 17—PYTHONIDA. (21 Genera, 46 Species.)

——

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | 1—-—— | -— —~|1.0.0.4|1.a.9.4/1.2.3—

The Pythonide, comprising the Rock Snakes, Pythons, and
Boas, are confined to the tropics, with the exception of one
species in California. They are very abundant in the Neotropical
region, where nearly half the known species occur; the Austra-
lian region comes next, while the Oriental is the least prolific in
these large serpents. . The genera which have been described
are very numerous, but they are by no means well defined.
The following are the most important :—

Python is confined to the Oriental region ; Morelia, Liasis, and
Nardoa are Australian and Papuan; Hnygrus is found in the
Moluccas, New Guinea and the Fiji Islands ; Hortulia is African ;
Sanzinia is peculiar to Madagascar; Boa, Epicrates, Corallus,
Ungalia, and Ewnectes are Tropical American ; Chilabothrus is
peculiar to Jamaica and Mexico ; and Lichanotus to California.

An extinct species belonging to this family has been found
in the Brown-coal formation of Germany, of Miocene age.

FamiLy 18.—ERYCID. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

eyes caine | hay hai | hak msm | emer: eee ee
|

382 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART ly,

The Erycide, or Land Snakes, form a small but natural family,
chiefly found in the desert zone on the confines of the Palearctic,
Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. They range from South Europe
to West Africaand to Sikhim. The three genera are distributed
as follows :—

Cursoria (1 sp.), Afghanistan ; Gongylophis (1 sp.), India and
Sikhim ; Eryx (4 sp.), has the range of the entire family.

FamILy 19—ACROCHORDIDZ. (2 Genera, 3 Spec ies)

uo——

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REG'ONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ee

The Acrochordide, or Wart Snakes, form a small and isolated
group, found only in two sub-divisions of the Oriental region—
the South Indian and the Malayan, and in New Guinea.

Acrochordus, inhabits Penang, Singapore, and Borneo ; Chersy-
drus, Southern India and the Malay Peninsula, with a species
recently discovered in New Guinea.

FamiLy 20.—ELAPIDA. (23 Genera, 100 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

The Elapide, or Terrestrial venomous Colubrine Snakes, are
an extensive group, spread over the tropics of the whole world,
but especially abundant in Australia, where half the known
species occur, some of them being the most deadly of venomous
serpents. In the Oriental region they are also abundant, contain-
ing amongst other forms, the well-known Cobras, The American
species are almost equally numerous, but they all belong to one

CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 383

genus, and they are annulated with rings of various colours
in a manner quite distinct from any other members of this
family. The genera, which are all very distinct, are distributed
as follows :—

Diemenia, Acanthophis, Hoplocephalus, Brachiurophis, Tropi-
dechis, Pseudechis, Cacophis, Pseudonaje, Denisonia, and Vermi-
cella, are Australian, the first two ranging to the Moluccas and
New Guinea ; Ogmodon occurs in the Fiji Islands ; Naja, bun-
garus, Ophiophagus, Pseudonaje, Xenurelaps, Doliophis, Megero-
phis, and Callophis are Oriental, one species of the latter genus
being found in Japan, while an Ophiophagus has been discovered
in New Guinea; Cyrtophis, Elapsoidea, and Paecilophis are
African: Elaps is American, ranging as far north as South Caro-
lina, but not to the West Indian Islands.

FamiLy 21—DENDRASPIDID. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ef oe eee ee

The single genus Dendraspis, constituting the family, is con-
fined to Tropical Africa.

FaMILy 22—ATRACTASPIDID. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

=oa= [Fass [eons [=e8=|=on= [oa

This small family, consisting of the genus Atractaspis, is also
confined to Africa, but has hitherto only been found in the West
and South.

384 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY.

FaMILy 23.—HYDROPHID. (8 Genera, 50 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
_——————————————

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

mifit Pig Necteranter |----|---4 12.3.4 | 12.8.8

The Hydrophide, or Sea Snakes, are a group of small-sized
marine serpents, abundant in the Indian and Australian seas,
and extending as far west as Madagascar, and as far east as
Panama. They are very poisonous, and it is probable that many
species remain to be discovered. The genera are distributed as
follows :—

Hydrophis (37 sp.), ranging from India to Formosa and Aus-
tralia; Platurus (2 sp.), from the Bay of Bengal to New Guinea
- and New Zealand; Aipysurus (3 sp.), Java to New Guinea and
Australia; Disteira (1 sp.), unknown locality ; Acalyptus (1 sp.),
South-west Pacific ; Enhydrina (1 sp.), Bay of Bengal to New
Guinea ; Pelamis (1 sp.), Madagascar to New Guinea, New Zea-
land, and Panama ; Hmydocephalus (1 sp.), Australian Seas.

Famity 24—CROTALID. (11 Genera, 40 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,
3 Mee ent ey: t 1.2.3.4, —-3.4 ——— — 12.8.8 ee
}
»

The Crotalidz, or Pit Vipers, including the deadly Rattlesnakes,
form a well-marked family of fanged serpents, whose distribu-
tion is very interesting. They abound most in the Oriental
region, at least 5 of the genera and 20 species being found within
its limits, yet they are quite unknown in the Ethiopian region
—a parallel case to that of the Bears and Deer. A few species
are peculiar to the eastern portion of the Palearctic region, while

CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 385

the Nearctic is actually richer than the Neotropical region both
in genera and species. This would point to the conclusion, that
the group originated in the Indo-Chinese sub-region and spread
thence north-east to North America, and so onward to South
America, which, having been the last to receive the group, has not
had time to develop it largely, notwithstanding its extreme
adaptability to Reptilian life. The genera are divided among
the several regions as follows :—

Craspedocephalus (7 sp.), Tropical America and the West In-
dian Islands; Cenchris, Crotalophorus, Uropsophorus, and Crotalus,
inhabiting North America from Canada and British Columbia
to Texas, one species (Crotalus horridus) extending into South
America; 7rimeresurus (16 sp.), all India from Ceylon to Assam,
Formosa, the Philippines and Celebes; Peltopelor and Hypnale
(1 sp. each), peculiar to India; Calloselasma (1 sp.), Siam ;
Atropos (1 sp.), Java and Borneo; Halys (3 sp.), peculiar to
Tartary, Thibet, Japan, North China, and Formosa.

FamILy 25.—VIPERID. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN

pe at
NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

SusB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

Sas na — >= | 1-2.9.4)1.2.9.4 1.2.3.4 sagbeeea

The Viperide, or True Vipers, are especially characteristic of
the Palearctic and Ethiopian regions, only one species being
found over a large part of the Oriental region, and another
reaching Central India. They are especially abundant in Africa,
and the Palearctic confines in South-western Asia. The
common Viper ranges across the whole Palearctic region from
Portugal to Saghalien Island, reaching to 67° North Latitude, in
Scandinavia, and to 58° in Central Siberia. The genera, accord-
ing to Dr. Strauch’s synopsis, are distributed as follows :—

Vipera (17 sp.), which has the range of the family, extending
over the whole ofthe Palsarctic and Ethiopian regions, except
Madagascar, and as far as Ceylon, Siam, and Java, in the Oriental

386 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

region; Hchis (2 sp.), inhabiting North Africa to Persia and
to Continental India; and Atheris (3 sp.), confined to West
Africa.

Remarks on the General Distribution of Ophidia.

The Ophidia, being preeminently a Tropical order—rapidly
diminishing in numbers as we go north in the Temperate Zone,
and wholly ceasing long before we reach the Arctic Circle—we
cannot expect the two Northern regions to exhibit any great
variety or peculiarity. Yet in their warmer portions they are
tolerably rich; for, of the 25 families of snakes, 6 are found in the
Nearctic region, 10 in the Palearctic, 13 in the Australian, 16
in the Neotropical, 17 in the Ethiopian, and no less than 22 in
the Oriental, which last is thus seen to be by far the richest of
the great regions in the variety of its forms of Ophidian life.
The only regions that possess altogether peculiar families of this
order, are the Ethiopian (3), and the Oriental (2); the usually
rich and peculiar Neotropical region not possessing exclusively,
any family of snakes; and what is still more remarkable, the
Neotropical and Australian regions together, do not possess a
family peculiar to them. Every family inhabiting these two
regions is found also in the Oriental; and this fact, taken in con-
nection with the superior richness of the latter region both in
families and genera, would indicate that the Ophidia had their
origin in the northern hemisphere of the Old World (the ancient
Palearctic region) whence they spread on all sides, in successive
waves of migration, to the other regions. The distribution of the
genera peculiar to, or highly characteristic of, the several regions
is as follows :—

The Nearctic possesses 9 ; four of these belong to the Colubride,
one to the Pythonide, and four to the Crotalide. The Palzearctic
region has only 2 peculiar genera, belonging to the Colubride
and Crotalide. The Ethiopian has 25, belonging to 11 families ;
four to Colubride, five to Lycodontide, and three to Elapide.
The Oriental has no less than 50, belonging to 15 families ; five
are Colubride, five Uropeltide, twelve Homalopsidee, six Lyco-
dontids, three Amblycephalide, eight Elapide, and four Crota-

CHAP, XIX. ] REPTILES. 387

lide. The Australian has 16, belonging to three families only ;
eleven being Elapide, and four Pythonide. The Neotropical has
about 24, belonging to eight families; ten are Colubride, six
Pythonide, and the rest Dipsadide, Scytalide, Amblycephalide,
Elapide, and Crotalide.

We find then, that in the Ophidia, the regions adopted in this
work are remarkably distinct ; and that, in the case of the Orien-
tal and Ethiopian, the difference is strongly marked, a very large
number of the genera being confined to each region. It is in-
teresting to observe, that in many cases the affinity seems to be
rather between the West Coast of Africa and the Oriental
region, than between the East Coast and the plains of India;
thus the Homalopside—a highly characteristic Oriental family—
occur on the West Coast of Africa only ; the Dryiophide, which
range over the whole Oriental region, only occur in Madagascar
and West Africa in the Ethiopian ; the genus Dipsas is found over
all the Oriental region and again in West Africa. A cause for this
peculiarity has been suggested in our sketch of the past. history
of the Ethiopian region, Vol. I. p. 288. In the Lycodontide,
which are strictly confined to these two regions, the genera are
all distinct, and the same is the case with the more widely dis-
tributed Elapide; and although a few desert forms, such as
Echis and the Erycidz, are common to Africa and the dry plains
of India, this is evidently due to favourable climatic conditions,
and cannot neutralise the striking differences in the great mass
of the family and generic forms which inhabit the two regions.
The union of Madagascar with the South-western part of the
Oriental region under the appellation Lemuria, finds no support
in the distribution of Ophidia ; which, however, strikingly accords
with the views developed in the Third Part of this work, as to the
great importance and high antiquity of the Euro-Asiatic conti-
nent, as the chief land-centre from which the higher organisms
have spread over the globe.

Fossil Ophidia.—The oldest known remains of Ophidia occur
in the Eocene formation in the Isle of Sheppey ; others are found
in the Miocene (Brown Coal) of Germany, and in some Tertiary
beds in the United States. Most of these appear to have been

388 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

large species belonging to the Pythonide, so that we are evi-
dently still very far from knowing anything of the earliest forms
of this order. In some of the later Tertiary deposits the poison
fangs of venomous species have been found; also a Colubrine
snake from the Upper Miocene of the South of France.

Order II—LACERTILIA.

FamiLy 26.—TROGONOPHID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

y PALZARCTIC ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

i —-—-— — | ae ROT etka | sniee- Se | Schr a een

The single species of Z'’rogonophis, forming this family, is found
only in North Africa.

Famity 27—CHIROTID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SouB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN

SUB-REGIONS,

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

edd ee

Chirotes, the genus which constitutes this family, inhabits
Mexico, and has also been found in Missouri, one of the Southern
United States.

Famity 28.—AMPHISBAINIDA. (1 Genus, 13 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.a—-a|—--— | -a—-|1.2--|---~ | ----

CHAP. XIX. ] REPTILES. 389
See ee a a

The Amphisbenide, which, in the opinion of Dr. Giinther,
are all comprised in the genus Amphisbena, inhabit Spain and
Asia Minor, North and Tropical Africa, South America as far as
Buenos-Ayres and the West Indian Islands.

FamILy 29.—LEPIDOSTERNID. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS,

ar gen lets prez |-2-3 - | Sse a oe gates

The small family of Lepidosternide has nearly the same
distribution as the last, indicating a curious relationship between
the Tropical parts of Africa and America. Lepidosternon and
Cephalopeltis are American genera, while Monotrophis is African.

Famity 30—VARANID. (3 Genera, 30 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

SS
AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL.
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Varanide, or Water Lizards, are most abundant in the
Oriental region, whence they extend into the Austro-Malay
Islands as far as New Guinea, and into Australia. Several
species are found in Africa. Psammosaurus (1 sp.), is found in
North Africa and North-western India; Monitor (18 sp.),
has the range of the family; while Hydrosaurus (8 sp.) ranges
from Siam to the Philippines, New Guinea, and Australia.

390 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

FamILy 31.—HELODERMID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

sr eed el eee oes

The genus Heloderma, which constitutes this family, is found
n Mexico.

FamMILy 32.—TEID. (12 Genera, 74 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

|

The Teidz, or Teguexins—a group of Lizards allied to the
European Lacertide, but with differently formed superciliary
scales—are highly characteristic of the Neotropical region,
abounding almost everywhere from Patagonia to the Antilles
and Mexico, and extending northwards to California on the west
and to Pennsylvania on the.east. The most extensive genus is
Ameiva, containing nearly 60 species and having the range of
the entire family; Zecus (3 sp.), mhabits Brazil and Mendoza;
Callopistes (2 sp.), Chili; Centropyx (3 sp.), Paraguay to Alabama ;
Dicrodon (Peru); Monoplocus (Western Ecuador); with Acrantus,
Acanthopyga, Emminia, Crocodilurus, Custa, and Ada, which
each consist of a single species, and all inhabit Tropical America.

ew 1.2.3 — | —— | aie cil aA

| a eae
|

Famity 33—LACERTIDA. (18 Genera, 80 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

eos | oi \ecesetellipesea— le ef

\ | ) \

CHAP. XIX. ] REPTILES. 391

The Lacertide, or Land Lizards, are small-sized, terrestrial,
non-burrowing lizards, very characteristic of the Palearctic
region, which contains more than half the known species, and of
the adjacent parts of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, but
extending also to South Africa, to Java, and even to Australia.
The best-defined genera are the following :—

Lacerta (10 sp.), ranging over all Central and South Europe
to Poland, and farther north in Russia and Siberia, eastward to
Persia, and southward to North and West Africa; Zootoca (8
sp.), has nearly the same range in Europe as the last genus,
but has representatives in Madeira, South Africa, and Aus-
tralia; Zachydromus (7 sp.) is widely scattered in Chinese
Asia, Japan, Borneo, and West Africa ; Acanthodactylus (10 sp.)
is most abundant in North Africa, but has a species in South
Africa, and two in Central India; Hremias (18 sp.) is found all
over Africa, and also in the Crimea, Persia, Tartary and China ;
Psammodromus (2 sp.),is confined to Spain, France, and Italy ;
Ophiops (6 sp.), inhabits India, Persia, and Asia Minor to South
Russia. Less strongly marked and perhaps less natural genera
are the following :—

Thetia (1 sp.), Algiers; Teira (1 sp.), Madeira; Nueras (4
sp.), Caucasus and South Africa; Motopholis (4 sp.), South
Europe and South Africa; Algira (3 sp.), North and South Africa ;
Scrapteira (1 sp.), Nubia ; Aspidorhinus (1 sp.), Caspian district ;
Messalina (4 sp.), North Africa, Persia, and North-west India;
Cabrita(1 sp.), Central India; Pachyrhynchus (1 sp.), Benguela.

Famity 34—ZONURID. (15 Genera, 52 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

-2.9.4)1.2.3.4/ eg pee 1.2.3.4 -—3-| ghee

The Zonurid, or Land Lizards, characterised by a longitudinal
fold of skin on each side of the body, have a very remarkable
Vo. II.—26

392 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART LV.

distribution. Their head-quarters is the Ethiopian region,
which contains more than half the known genera and species,
most of which are found in South Africa and several in Mada-
gascar. Next to Africa the largest number of genera and species
are found in Mexico and Central America,with a few in the Antilles,
South America, and California, and even as far north as British
Columbia. Three of the genera form a distinct sub-group—the
Glass Snakes——the four species composing it being located in
North Africa, North America, South-eastern Europe, and the
Khasya Hills.

The prominent fact in the distribution of this family is, that
the mass of the genera and species form two groups, one in South
Africa, the other in Mexico,—countries between which it would
be difficult to imagine any means of communication. We have
here, probably, an example of a once much more extensive group,
widely distributed over the globe, and which has continued to
maintain itself only in those districts especially adapted to its
peculiar type of organization. This must undoubtedly have
been the case with the genus Pseudopus, whose two species now
inhabit South-eastern Europe and the Khasya Hills in Assam
respectively.

The genera are,—Cordylus, Pseudocordylus, Platysaurus,
Cordylosaurus, Pleurostrichus, and Sawrophis, confined to South
Africa ; Zonurus, South and East Africa and Madagascar; Ger-
rhosaurus, ranges over the whole Ethiopian region ; Cicigna is
confined to Madagascar; Gerrhonotus (22 sp.), ranges from
British Columbia, California, and Texas, to Cuba and South
America, but is most abundant in Mexico and Central America ;
Abronia and Barissia, are two genera of doubtful distinctness,
peculiar to Mexico; Ophisaurus (the Glass Snake) is found in
the Southern United States as far as Virginia ; the allied genus
Hyalosaurus in North Africa; and Pseudopus, as above stated,
in South-east Europe and the Khasya Hills.

CHAP. XIX. ] REPTILES. 393

FAMILY 35.—CHALCID. (3 Genera, 8 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

—$—$—$—$—$—— ee
ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN
SvtB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
1.2.9—| —-13— | ~---|---+|=----| —_—-—

The Chalcide are a small group of Lizards characteristic of
Tropical America, one species extending into the United States.

The genera are Chalcis (6 sp.), ranging from Central America
to Chili; two other species, which have been placed in distinct

genera, inhabit North America and Peru.

FamiLy 36.—ANADIADZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ee ed eee

The single species of Anadia, constituting this family, inhabits

Tropical America.

Famity 37—CHIROCOLIDA. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

poe [ease [anes [sons [anas [=a

The genus Heterodactylus, which constitutes this family, in-
habits Brazil.

394 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 38.—IPHISAD. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ee el eo

The single species of Jphisa, has been found only at Para in
Equatorial America.

FAaMILy 39.—CERCOSAURID. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

wane [aae= [oses [aan |sao= [eee

The genus Cercosaura, is known only from Brazil and Ecuador.

Famity 40—CHAMASAURIDZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

se eee

This family, consisting of a single species of the genus Chame-
sawra, is confined to South Africa.

CHAP, XIX.] REPTILES. 395

Famity 41.—-GYMNOPTHALMID. (5 Genera, 14 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

——————————
ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
Sup-ReEGIoNs. | SuB-kEGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PALHARCTIC
SUB-REG!ONS. | SUB-KEGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Gymnopthalmide, or Gape-eyed Scinks, so called from
their rudimentary eyelids, form a small group, which is widely
and somewhat erratically distributed, as will be seen by the
following account of the distribution of the genera :—

Lerista (1 sp.) and three other species for which Dr. Gray has
established the genera—Morethria (1 sp.), and Menetia (2 sp.),
are confined to Australia; Cryptoblepharus (4 sp.), is found in
West Australia, Timor, New Guinea, the Fiji Islands, and
Mauritius; <Ablepharus (4 sp.), inhabits Eastern and South-
eastern Europe, Persia, Siberia, West Africa, and the Bonin

Islands ; and Gymnopthalmus (3'sp.), is found in Brazil and the
West Indies.

Famity 42—PYGOPODID. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUR-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

woo [anes [ans [=== [=== [=a

This small family of two-legged Lizards, comprising the
genera Pygopus and Delma, is found only in Australia proper
and Tasmania.

396 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv,

Famity 43.—APRASIAD. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ed ere

The genus Aprasia, constituting this family, is found in West
and South Australia.

Famity 44—LIALID. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

ed eed ee

This family is also confined to Australia, the single genus,
Lialis, inhabiting the Western and Northern districts.

Famity 45.—SCINCID. (60 Genera, 300 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.9.4|1.2.3— 1.2.9.4 1.2.9.4 (1.2.9.4 1.2.3.4

The Scincide. or Scinks, are an extensive family of smooth-
scaled lizards, frequenting dry and stony places, and almost
universally distributed over the globe, being only absent from
the cold northern and southern zones. The family itself is a
very natural one, and it contains many natural genera; but a
large number have been established which probably require

careful revision. The following include the more important and
the best established groups :—

CHAP. XIX. ] REPTILES. 397

Scineus (2 sp.), North Africa and Arabia; Hinulia (20 sp.),
most of the Australian and Oriental regions; Cyclodina (1 sp.),
Hombronia (1 sp.), and Lygosomella (1 sp.), all from New
Zealand ; Keneuxia (1 sp.), Philippines, Moluccas, and Papuan
Islands; Elania (1 sp.) New Guinea; Carlia (2 sp.), North
Australia and New Guinea; Mocoa (16 sp.), Australia and New
Zealand, with species in Borneo, West Africa, and Central
America; Lipinia (3 sp.), Philippine Islands and New Guinea;
Lygosoma (12 sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, Pelew and Philip-
pine Islands ; Tetradactylus (1 sp.), Hemierges (2 sp.), Chelomeles
(2 sp.), Omolepida (1 sp.), Lissolepis (1 sp.), Siaphos (1 sp.),
fhodona (3 sp.) Anomalpus (1 sp.), Soridia (2 sp.), and Ophio-
scincus (1 sp.) all confined to Australia; Cophoscincus (3 sp.),
Philippine Islands, Celebes, and Queensland; Plestiodon (18
sp.), China and Japan, Africa, and America as far north as
Pennsylvania and Nebraska; Humeces (30 sp.), South Pale-
arctic, Oriental and Australian regions, to New Ireland and
North Australia; Mabouya (20 sp.), Oriental region, Austro-
Malaya, North Australia, the Neotropical region, and to Lat.
42° 30° in North America; Amphixestus (1 sp.), Borneo; Hagria
1 sp.), and Chiamela (1 sp.), India; Sentra (1 sp.), Philippine
Islands; Brachymeles (2 sp.). Philippine Islands and Australia ;
Ophiodes (1 sp.), Brazil; Anguis (3 sp.), West Palearctic region
and South Africa; Zribolonotus (1 sp.), New Guinea; TZ'ropido-
phorus (2 sp.), Cochin-China and Philippine Islands; Morbea
(2 sp.), Borneo and Australia ; Trachydosaurus (1 sp.), Australia ;
Cyclodus (8 sp.), Australia, Aru Islands, and Ceram ; Stlubosauwrus
(2 sp.), Hgerina (2 sp.), and Tropidolepisma (6 sp.), all peculiar
to Australia; Heteropus (7 sp.), Australia, Austro-Malaya, and
Bourbon ; Pygomeles (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Dasia (1 sp.), Malaya;
Euprepes (70 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, Austro-
Malaya, South America (?); Celestus (9 sp.), peculiar to the An-
tilles, except a species in Costa Rica; Diploglossus (7 sp.), the
Neotropical region ;—with a number of other genera founded on
single species from various parts of the world.

398 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

FamiLy 46.—OPHIOMORID®. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

BR) SA) age ane ne yeas. 0) ea

The snake-like Lizard constituting the genus Ophiomorus, is
found in Southern Russia, Greece, and Algeria; while Zygnopsis
having four weak limbs, has been recently discovered by Mr.
Blantord in South Persia. The family is therefore confined to
our Mediterranean sub-region.

FamILy 47.—SEPID. (7 Genera, 22 species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL | AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

|

The Sepide, or Sand-Lizards, are a very natural group, almost
confined to the Ethiopian region, but extending into the desert
country on the borders of the Oriental region, and into the south
of the Palearctic region as far as Palestine, Madeira, Spain,
Italy, and even the South of France. The genera are :—

Seps (10 sp.), South Europe, Madeira, Teneriffe, Palestine,
North Africa, South Africa and Madagascar ; Sphenops (2 sp.),
North Africa, Syria, West Africa; Scelotes (3 sp.), Angola to
South Africa, Madagascar ; Thyrus (1 sp.), Bourbon and Mauri-
tius ; Amphiglossus (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Sphenocephalus (1 sp.),
Afghanistan ; and Sepsina (4 sp.), South-west Africa.

CHAP, XIX. ] REPTILES. 399

Famity 48—ACONTIAD. (3 Genera, 7 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PALHARCTIC ETHIOPIAN

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

aye }---- |---- |-2.3.4, —2—— | pee

This small family of snake-like Lizards has a very curious dis-
tribution, being found in South and West Africa, Madagascar,
Ceylon, and Ternate in the Moluccas. Acontias (4 sp.), is found
in the four first-named localities; Vessia (2 sp.), is confined to
Ceylon ; Typhloscincus (1 sp.), to Ternate.

Famity 49.—GECKOTID. (50 Genera, 200 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | 19 '3— (1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4/1.9.3.4

The Geckoes, or Wall-Lizards, form an extensive family, of
almost universal distribution in the warmer parts of the globe ;
and they must have some exceptional means of dispersal, since
they are found in many of the most remote islands of the great
oceans,—as the Galapagos, the Sandwich Islands, Tahiti, New
Zealand, the Loo-Choo and the Seychelle Islands, the Nicobar
Islands, Mauritius, Ascension, Madeira, and many others. The
following are the larger and more important genera :—

Oédura (3 sp.), Australia; Diplodactylus (8 sp)., Australia,
South Africa, and California; Phyllodactylus (8 sp.), widely
scattered in Tropical America, California, Madagascar, and
Queensland ; Hemidactylus (40 sp.), all tropical and warm
countries ; Peropus (12 sp.), the Oriental region, Papuan Islands,
Mauritius, and Brazil; Pentadactylus (7 sp.), Oriental region and
Australia; Gecko (12 sp.), Oriental region to New Guinea and

400 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY, [PART Ly,

North Australia; Gehyra (5 sp.), Australia, New Guinea and
Fiji Islands; Zarentola (7 sp.), North Africa, North America,
Madeira, Borneo, South Africa ; Phelswma (6 sp.), Madagas-
ear, Bourbon, and Andaman Islands; Pachydactylus (5 sp.),
South and West Africa, and Ascension Island ; Spherodactylus
(5 sp.), the Neotropical region ; Naultinus, (6 sp.), New Zealand ;
Goniodactylus (5 sp.), Australia, Timor, South America and
Algiers ; Heteronota (4 sp.), Australia, Fiji Islands, New Guinea
and Borneo; Cubina (4 sp.), the Neotropical region ; Gymmno-
dactylus (16 sp.), all warm countries except Australia; Phyllwrus
(3 sp.), Australia ; Stenodactylus (4 sp.), North and West Africa,
and Rio Grande in North America.

The remaining genera mostly consist of single species, and
are pretty equally distributed over the various parts of the world
indicated in the preceding list. Madagascar,the Seychelle Islands,
Chili, the Sandwich Islands, South Africa, Tahiti, the Philippine
Islands, New Caledonia, and Australia—all have peculiar genera,
while two new ones have recently been described from Persia.

Famity 50.—IGUANID. (56 Genera, 236 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.9.4/1.9.a—|—-—-— | ---— |---- | --s-

The extensive family of the Iguanas is highly characteristic
of the Neotropical region, in every part of which the species
abound, even as far as nearly 50° South Latitude in Patagonia.
They also extend northwards into the warmer parts of the
Nearctic region, as far as California, British Columbia, and
Kansas on the west, and to 43° North Latitude in the Eastern
States. A distinct genus occurs in the Fiji Islands, and one
has been described as from Australia, and another from
Madagascar, but there is some doubt about these. The most
extensive genera are :—

Anolivs (84 sp.), found in most parts of Tropical America and

CHaP. XIX. ] REPTILES. 401

north to California ; Z’ropidolepis (15 sp.), which has nearly the
same range; Lezocephalus (14 sp.), Antilles, Guayaquil, and
Galapagos Islands; Leiolemus (14 sp.), Peru to Patagonia ;
Sceloporus (9 sp.), from Brazil to California and British Columbia,
and on the east to Florida ; Proctotretus (6 sp.), Chili and Pata-
gonia ; Phrynosoma (8 sp.), New Mexico, California, Oregon
and British Columbia, Arkansas and Florida; Zguana (5 sp.),
Antilles and South America; Cyclusa (4 sp.), Antilles, Hon-
duras, and Mexico.

Among the host of smaller genera may be noted :—

Brachylophus, found in the Fiji Islands ; Trachycephalus and
Oreocephalus, peculiar to the Galapagos ; Oreodeira, said to be from
Australia ; Diplolemus and Phymaturus, found only in Chili and
Patagonia; and Callisaurus, Uta, Euphryne, Uma, and Hol-
brookia, from New Mexico and California. All the other genera
are from various parts of Tropical America.

Famity 51—AGAMID. (42 Genera, 156 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ee | ----|-2.3.4] 1.2.2.4/1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3-—

The extensive family Agamide—the Eastern representative
of the Iguanas—is highly characteristic of the Oriental region,
which possesses about half the known genera and species. Of the
remainder, the greater part inhabit the Australian region ; others
range over the deserts of Central and Western Asia and Northern
Africa, as far as Greece and South Russia. One genus extends
through Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, and there are three
peculiar genera in Madagascar, but the family is very poorly
represented in the Ethiopian region. Many of these creatures
are adorned with beautifully varied and vivid colours, and the
little “dragons” or flying-lizards are among the most interesting
forms in the entire order. The larger genera are distributed as
follows :—

402 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

Draco (18 sp.), the Oriental region, excluding Ceylon;
Otocryptis (4 sp.), Ceylon, North India, Malaya; Ceratophora (3
sp.), Ceylon; Gonyocephalus (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Java, Borneo,
Pelew Islands; Dilophyrus (7 sp.), Indo-Malaya and Siam ;
Japalura (6 sp.), Himalayas, Borneo, Formosa, and Loo Choo
Islands ; Sitana (2 sp.), Central and South India and Ceylon ;
Bronchocela (3 sp.), Indo-Malaya, Cambodja, and Celebes;
Calotes (12 sp.), Continental India to China, Philippine Islands ;
Oriocalotes (2 sp.), Himalayas ; Acanthosaura (5 sp.), Malacca
and Siam; Ziaris (3 sp.), Andaman Islands, Borneo, Philip-
pine and Papuan Islands; Physignathus (3 sp.), Cochin-China
and Australia; Uromastix (5 sp.), South Russia, North Africa,
Central India; Stellio (5 sp.), Caucasus and Greece to Arabia,
High Himalayas and Central India; 7rapelus (5 sp.), Tartary,
Egypt, and Afghanistan ; Phrynocephalus (10 sp.), Tartary and
Mongolia, Persia and Afghanistan; Lophura (2 sp.), Amboyna
and Pelew Islands; Grammatophorus (14 sp.), Australia and
Tasmania; Agama (14 sp.), North Africa to the Punjaub, South
Africa. The remaining genera each consist of a single species.
Eight are peculiar to Australia, one to the Fiji Islands, one to the
Aru Islands, three to Ceylon, five to other parts of the Oriental
region, one to Persia, and one to South Russia.

Famity 52—CHAMELEONID. (1 Genus, 30 Species.)

—

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SuB-K EGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

The Chameleons are an almost exclusively Ethiopian group,
only one species, the common Chameleon, inhabiting North
Africa and Western Asia as far as Central India and Ceylon.
They abound all over Africa, and peculiar species are found in
Madagascar and Bourbon, as well as in the Island of Fer-
nando Po.

CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 403

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Lacertilia.

The distribution of the Lacertilia is, in many particulars,
strikingly opposed to that of the Ophidia. The Oriental,
instead of being the richest is one of the poorest regions, both
in the number of families and in the number of peculiar genera
it contains ; while in both these respects the Neotropical is by
far the richest. The distribution of the families is as follows :—

The Nearctic region has 7 families, none of which are peculiar
to it; but it has 3 peculiar genera—Chirotes, Ophisaurus, and
Phrynosoma.

The Palearctic region has 12 families, with two (Ophio-
moride and Trogonophide, each consisting of a single species)
peculiar ; while it has 6 peculiar or very characteristic genera,
Trogonophis in North Africa, Psammodromus in South Europe,
Hyalosaurus in North Africa, Scincus in North Africa and Arabia,
Ophiomorus in East Europe and North Africa, and Phrynocephalus
in Siberia, Tartary, and Afghanistan. We have here a striking
amount of diversity between the Nearctic and Palearctic
regions with hardly a single point of resemblance.

The Ethiopian region has 13 families, only one of which (the
Chamesauride, consisting of a single species) is altogether pecu-
liar; but it possesses 21 peculiar or characteristic genera, 9
belonging to the Zonuride, 2 to the Sepide, 7 to the Geckotide,
and 3 to the Agamide.

The Oriental region has only 8 families, none of which are
peculiar; but there are 28 peculiar genera, 6 belonging to the
Scincide, 1 to the Acontiade, 5 to the Geckotide, and 16 to the
Agamidz. Many lizards being sand and desert-haunters, it is not’
surprising that a number of forms are common to the border-
lands of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions ; yet the Sepide, so
abundant in all Africa, do not range to the peninsula of India ; and
the equally Ethiopian Zonuride have only one Oriental species,
found, not in the peninsula but in the Khasya Hills. The Acon-
tiade alone offer some analogy to the distribution of the Lemurs,
being found in Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, and the Moluccas,

The Australian region has 11 families, 3 of which are pecu-

404 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. (PART IV.

liar; and it has about 40 peculiar genera in ten families, about
half of these genera belonging to the Scincide. Only 3
families of almost universal distribution are common to the
Australian and Neotropical regions, with one species of the
American Iguanide in the Fiji Islands, so that, as far as this
order is concerned, these two regions have little resemblance.

The Neotropical region has 15 families, 6 of which are peculiar
to it, and it possesses more than 50 peculiar genera. These are
distributed among 12 families, but more than half belong to the
Iguanide, and half the remainder to the Teidee,—the two families
especially characteristic of the Neotropical region. All the Ne-
arctic families which are not of almost universal distribution are
peculiarly Neotropical, showing that. the Lacertilia of the former
region have probably been derived almost exclusively from the
latter.

On the whole the distribution of the Lacertilia shows a
remarkable amount of specialization in each of the great tropical
regions, whence we may infer that Southern Asia, Tropical
Africa, Australia, and South America, each obtained their original
stock of this order at very remote periods, and that there has
since been little intercommunication between them. The peculiar
affinities indicated by such cases as the Lepidosternide, found
only in the tropics of Africa and South America, and Tachydromus
in Eastern Asia and West Africa, may be the results either of
once widely distributed families surviving only in isolated locali-
ties where the conditions are favourable,—or of some partial and
temporary geographical connection, allowing of a limited degree
of intermixture of faunas. The former appears to be the more
probable and generally efficient cause, but the latter may have
operated in exceptional cases.

Fossil Lacertilia.

These date back to the Triassic period, and they are found in
most succeeding formations, but it is not till the Tertiary period
that forms allied to existing genera occur. These are at present
too rare and too ill-defined to throw much light on the geo-
graphical distribution of the order.

CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 405

Order IIT—RHYNCOCEPHALINA.

Famity 53—RHYNCOCEPHALID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PALHARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ce oo ed

The singular and isolated genus Hatteria—the “Tuatara” or
fringed lizard—which alone constitutes this family, has peculiari-
ties of structure which separate it from both lizards and crocodiles,
and mark it out as an ancestral type, as distinct from other living
reptiles as the Marsupials are from other Mammalia. It is con-
fined to New Zealand, and is chiefly found on small islands near
the north-east coast, being very rare, if not extinct, on the main
land. A fossil reptile named Hyperodapedon, of Triassic age, has
been found in Scotland and India, and is supposed by Professor
Huxley to be more nearly allied to Hatteria than to any other
living animal.

Order IV—CROCODILIA.

Famity 54—GAVIALID. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

=---|----|---- |---- | 1--4 | a--—

The Gavials are long-snouted Crocodiles with large front teeth,
and canines fitting in notches of the upper jaw. They consist
of two genera, Gavialis (1 sp.), inhabiting the Ganges ; Tomistoma
(2 sp.), found in the rivers of Borneo and North Australia.

406 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 55—CROCODILID. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-kEGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,
| |
“aa Pear Re ; Sy eral a ta e ci
—-2.3.4 SRST |y Sepa aee Res ae) ae 1-—--—
<4)
|

The true Crocodiles, which have the canines in notches, and
the large front teeth in pits in the upper jaw, are widely
distributed over the tropical regions of the globe, inhabiting all
the rivers of Africa, the shores and estuaries of India, Siam,
and eastward to North Australia. Other forms inhabit Cuba,
Yucatan, and Guatemala, to Ecuador and the Orinooko. Four
species are Asiatic, one exclusively Australian, three African,
and four American. These have been placed in distinct
groups, but Dr. Giinther considers them all to form one
genus, Crocodilus.

Famity 56—ALLIGATORID. (1 Genus, 10 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL | AUSTRALIAN
Sus-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

a.s—-|--s—|----|- ---|- ---|----

The Alligators, which are distinguished by having both the
large front teeth and the canines fitting into pits of the
upper jaw, are confined to the Neotropical, and the southern
part of the Nearctic regions, from the lower Mississippi and
Texas through all Tropical America, but they appear to be
absent from the Antilles. They are all placed by Dr. Giinther
in the single genus, Alligator.

General Remarks on the Distribution of Crocodilia.

These animals, being few in number and wholly confined
to the tropical and sub-tropical regions, are of comparatively

CHAP. XIX.] ' REPTILES. 407

little interest as regards geographical distribution. America
possesses both Crocodiles and Alligators; India, Crocodiles
and Gavials; while Africa has Crocodiles only. Both Croco-
diles and Gavials are found in the northern part of the
Australian region, so that neither of the three families are
restricted to a single region.

Fossil Crocodilia.

The existing families of the order date back to the
Eocene period in Europe, and the Cretaceous in North
America. In the south of England, Alligators, Gavials
and Crocodiles, all occur in Eocene beds, indicating that the
present distribution of these families is the result of partial
extinction, and a gradual restriction of their range—a most
instructive fact, suggesting the true explanation of a large num-
.ber of cases of discontinuous distribution which are sometimes
held to prove the former union of lands now divided by the
deepest oceans. In more ancient formations, a number of
Crocodilian remains have been discovered which cannot be
classed in any existing families, and which, therefore, throw no
light on the existing distribution of the group.

Order V—_CHELONTA.

Famiiy 57—TESTUDINID. (14 Genera, 126 Species.) -

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC PaL@ARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

NFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ae Eee eee :
1.2.3.4 |1.2.3.4| 1.2-—4 :1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 ----

|
The Testudinide, including the land and many fresh-water
tortoises, are very widely distributed over the Old and New
worlds, but are entirely absent from Australia. They are
especially abundant in the Nearctic region, as far north as
Canada and British Columbia, and almost equally so in the
Vou. IL.—27

408 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. ; [PART Iv.

Neotropical and Oriental regions; in the Ethiopian there is a
considerable diminution in the number of species, and in the
Palearctic they are still less numerous, being confined to the
warmer parts of it, except one species which extends as far north
as Hungary and Prussia. The genera are :—

Testudo (25 sp.), most abundant in the Ethiopian region,
but also extending over the Oriental region, into South
Europe, and the Eastern States of North America; Zmys
(64 sp.), abundant in North America and over the whole
Oriental region, less so in the Neotropical and the Palearctic
regions ; Cinosternon (13 sp.), United States and California,
and Tropical America; Avomochelys (4 sp.), confined to the
Eastern States of North America; Stawrotypus (2 sp.), Guate-
mala and Mexico; Chelydra (1 sp.), Canada to Louisiana;
Claudius (1 sp.), Mexico; Dermatemys (3 sp.), South America,
Guatemala, and Yucatan; Terrapene (4 sp.), Maine to Mexico,
Sumatra to New Guinea, Shanghae and Formosa—a doubtfully
natural group; Cinyxis (3 sp.), Pyxis (1 sp.), Chersina (4 sp.),
are all Ethiopian ; Dumerilia (1 sp.), is from Madagascar only.

Famity 58.—CHELYDID. (10 Genera, 44 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

| AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

—2-—— | oe | ~--- |1-2.8.4].---- | a

The Chelydide, or fresh-water tortoises with imperfectly
retractile heads, have a remarkable distribution in the three
great southern continents of Africa, Australia, and South
America; the largest number of species being found in the latter
country. The genera are :—

Peltocephalus (1 sp.), Podocnemis (6 sp.), Hydromedusa (A sp.),
Chelys (1 sp.), and Platemys (16 sp.), inhabiting South America
from the Orinooko to the La Plata, the latter genus occurring
also in Australia and New Guinea; Chelodina (5 sp.), Chelemys
(1 sp.), and Elseya (2 sp.) from Australia; while Sternotheres

CHAP. XIX, ] REPTILES. 409

(6 sp.), and Pelomedusa (3 sp.), inhabit Tropical and South Africa
and Madagascar.

Famity 59—TRIONYCHID. (3 Genera, 25 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAaLARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL | AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS, | SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
—--—--_— — | ---4|1-2-0—|1.2.8.4| ---—

The distribution of the Trionychide, or Soft Tortoises, is very
different from that of the Chelydid, yet is equally interesting.
They abound most in the Oriental region, extending beyond it
to Northern China and Japan. In the Nearctic region they are
only found in the Eastern States, corresponding curiously to
the distribution of plants, in which the affinity of Japan to
the Eastern States is greater than to California. The Triony-
chide are also found over the Ethiopian region, but not in
Madagascar.

The genera are—Tiionyx (17 sp.), which extends over the
whole area of the family as above indicated; Cycloderma (5 sp.),
peculiar to Africa; Hmyda (3 sp.), the peninsula of India,
Ceylon, and Africa.

Famity 60-—CHELONIID. (2 Genera, 5 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.—AII the warm and tropical Seas.

The Marine Turtles are almost universally distributed.
Dermatochelys (1 sp.), is found in the temperate seas of both
the Northern and Southern Hemispheres ; Chelone (4 sp.), ranges
over all the tropical seas—C. viridis, the epicureans’ species,
inhabiting the Atlantic, while C. imbricata which produces the
“tortoiseshell” of commerce is found in the Indian and Pacific
oceans.

410 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Remarks on the Distribution of the Chelonia.

The four families into which the Chelonia are classed have
all of them a wide distribution, though none are universal.
The Ethiopian region seems to be the richest, as it possesses 3
of the four families, while no other region has more than 2;
and it also possesses 7 peculiar genera. Next comes the Neo-
tropical region with 2 families and 6 peculiar genera; the
Australian with 3, and the Nearctic with 2 peculiar genera;
while the Oriental and Palearctic regions possess none that
are peculiar. There are about 30 genera and 200 species
in the whole order.

Fossil Chelonia.—The earliest undoubted remains of this order
occur in the Upper Oolite. These belong to the Cheloniidze
and Emydide, which are also found in the Chalk. In the
Tertiary beds Chelonia are more abundant, and the Trionychide
now appear. The Testudinide are first met with in the Miocene
formation of Europe and the Eocene of North America, the
most remarkable being the gigantic Colossochelys Atlas of the
Siwalik Hills. It appears, therefore, that the families of the
order Chelonia were already specialised in the Secondary period,
a fact which, together with their more or less aquatic habits,
sufficiently accounts for their generally wide distribution.
Species of Testudo, Emys, and Trionyx, ave found in the Upper
Miocene of the south of France.

CHAP. XIX. ] AMPHIBIA. 411

AMPHIBIA.

Order T—PSEUDOPHIDIA.

FamiLy 1—CACILIADZ. (4 Genera, 10 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

a

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIO PALAARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN

SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB~REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
e | =

HOGs | aes | oa —-2-—-— a

The Ceeciliade are a curious group of worm-like Amphibia

sparingly scattered over the three great tropical regions. The
genera are,—Cecilia, which inhabits West Africa, Malabar and

South America; Siphonopsis, peculiar to Brazil and Mexico;
Ichthyopsis, from Ceylon and the Khasya Mountains ; and Rhina-

trema from Cayenne.

Order II.—_URODELA.

Famity 2—SIRENIDZ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

a re ee eel ee ee

The genus Siren, consisting of eel-like Batrachians with two
anterior feet and permanent branchie, inhabits the South-
Eastern States of North America from Texas to Carolina.

412 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

FamiLy 3.—PROTEID. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

se eee

The Proteidz have four feet and persistent external branchie.
The two genera are,—Proteus (1 sp.), found only in caverns of
Central Europe; and Menobranchus, which are like newts in
form, and inhabit the Eastern States of North America.

Famity 4—AMPHIUMID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
Sub-REGIONS,

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

woos [anas [asso [aac fesse] =ao3

The genus Amphiwma, or Murenopsis, consists of slender eel-
like creatures with four rudimentary feet, and no external
branchiz. The species inhabit the Southern United States from

New Orleans to Carolina.

FamIty 5—MENOPOMIDE. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

SUB-REGIONS.

=== [as [ana [asas [ooo |=

There are large Salamanders of repulsive appearance, found
only in Eastern Asia and the Eastern United States. The
genera are,—Sieboldia (2 sp.), Japan and north-west China ;
Menopoma = Protonopsis (2 sp.), Ohio and Alleghany rivers.

CHAP, XIX.] AMPHIBIA. 413

FamiLy 6.—SALAMANDRID. (20 Genera, 85 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PAL ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

—2.3— | 1.2.3.4|1.2.3.4| ---- | —-3-—- | Si

The Salamandride, of which our common Newts are charac-
teristic examples, form an extensive family highly characteristic
of the North Temperate regions, a few species only extending
into the Neotropical region along the Andes to near Bogota, and
one into the Oriental region in Western China. The genera, as
arranged by Dr. Strauch, are as follows :—

Salamandra (2 sp.), Central and South Europe and North
Africa ; Plewrodeles (1 sp.), Spain, Portugal, and Morocco; Brady-
bates (1 sp.), Spain; Triton (16 sp.), all Europe except the
extreme north, Algeria, North China and Japan, Eastern States
of North America, California and Oregon ; Chioglossa (2 sp.)
Portugal and South Europe ; Salamandrina (1 sp.), Italy to Dal-
matia; Hllipsoglossa (2 sp.), Japan; Lsodactylium (2 sp.), East
Siberia; Onychodactylus (1 sp.), Japan; Amblystoma (21 sp.),
Nearctic region from Canada and Oregon to Mexico, most abundant
- in Eastern States ; Ranodon (1 sp.), Tartary and North-east China;
Dicamptodon (1 sp.), California; Plethodon (5 sp.), Massachusetts
to Louisiana, and Vancouver’s Island to California ; Desmognathus
(4 sp.), Eastern United States south of latitude 43°; Anaides (1
sp.), Oregon and Northern California; Hemidactylium (2 sp.),
South-eastern United States and Southern California; Heredia
(1 sp.), Oregon and California ; Spelerpes (18 sp.), Eastern United
States from Massachusetts to Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica and
Andes of Bogota, with a species in South Europe; Batrachoseps
(2 sp.), South-eastern United States and California; Z'ylotriton
(1 sp.), Yunan in West China.

414 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Order IIT —ANURA.

Famity 7.—RHINOPHRYNID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIC PALZARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
|

}

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

a eed oe

The Rhinophrynide are Toads with imperfect ears and a
tongue which is free in front. The single species of Rhinophry-
nus, is a native of Mexico.

Famity 8.—PHRYNISCID. (5 Genera, 13 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

mem
AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ey eee | 1.2--|-—~4 | -2--

The Phryniscidz, or Toads with imperfect ears and tongue
fixed in front, are widely distributed over the warmer regions of
the earth, but are most abundant in the Neotropical region and
Australia, while only single species occur in the Old World. The .
genera are :—

Phryniscus (7 sp.), from Costa Rica to Chili and Monte Video ;
Brachycephalus (1 sp.), Brazil; Psewdophryne (3 sp.), Australia
and Tasmania ; Henvisus (1 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Micrhyla (1 sp.),
Java.

Famity 9—HYLAPLESID. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NFOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL | AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
Su8-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

PAL#ARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

egies | eee | oe Nae | ate | ees | et

CHAP, XIX.] AMPHIBIA. 415

ee ——

The Hylapleside are Toads with perfect ears, and they
seem to be confined to the Neotropical region. The only genus,
Hylaplesia (5 sp.), inhabits Brazil, Chili, and the Island of
Hayti.

FamiLy 10.—BUFONID. (6 Genera, 64 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4|1.2.3.4|1.2.3— | 1.2.3.4| 1.2 — --

The rather extensive family of the Bufonide, which includes
our common Toad, and is characterised by prominent neck glands
and tongue fixed in front, is almost universally distributed, but
is very rare in the Australian region; one species being found
in Celebes and one in Australia. The genera are :—

Kalophrynus (2 sp.), Borneo ; Bufo (58 sp.), has the range of
the entire family, except Australia; Otilophus (1 sp.), South
America; Peltaphryne (1 sp.), Porto Rico; Pseudobufo (1 sp.),
Malay Peninsula; Schismaderma (1 sp.), Natal; Notaden (1 sp.),
East Central Australia.

Famity 11—XENORHINID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB--REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

se del oe ee

The Xenorhinide may be characterised as Toads with perfect
ears and tongue free in front. The only species of Yenorhina is
a native of New Guinea.

416 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IX.

Famity 12—ENGYSTOMID®. (15 Genera, 31 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIO
ScB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3—| — ai) Sato) = | -2.a—| 1.2.3.4 a

The Engystomidé are Toads without neck-glands and with the
tongue tied in front. They are most abundant in the Oriental
and Neotropical regions, especially in the latter, which contains
about half the known species, with isolated species in Australia,
Africa, and the Southern States of North America. They appear
to be the remnant of a once extensive and universally distributed
group, which has maintained itself in two remote regions, but is
dying out everywhere else. The genera are -—

Engystoma (9 sp.), Carolina to La Plata, with one species in
South China; Diplopelma (3 sp.), South India to China and
Java; Cacopus (2 sp.), Central India ; Glyphoglossus (1 sp.), Pegu ;
Callula (4 sp.), Sikhim, Ceylon, China, and Borneo; Brachymerus
1 sp.), South Africa; Adenomera (1 sp.), Brazil; Pachybatrachus
(1 sp.), Australia; Breviceps (2 sp.), South and West Africa ;
Chelydobatrachus (1 sp.), West Australia; Hypopachus (1 sp.),
Costa Rica; Rhinoderma (1 sp.), Chili ; Atelopus (1 sp.), Cayenne
and Peru; Copea (1 sp.), South America; Paludicola (1 sp.j,
New Granada.

FamiLy 13.—BOMBINATORID. (8 Genera, 9 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Bombinatoride are a family of Frogs which have imper-
fect ears and no neck-glands, and they have a very peculiar and

CHAP. X1x.] REPTILES. 417

interesting distribution, being confined to Central and South
Europe, the southern part of South America, and New Zealand.
They consist of many isolated groups forming five separate sub-
families. The genera are :—

Bombinator, Central Europe and Italy ; Pelobates and Didocus,
Central Europe and Spain; Zelmatobius (2 sp.), Peru and Brazil ;
Alsodes, Chonus Archipelago; Cacotus, Chili; Liopelma, New
Zealand; Nannophryne, Straits of Magellan.

Famity 14—PLECTROMANTIDZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

tase [oeee [aes one foee [ee

The Plectromantidz, which are Frogs with neck-glands, and
the toes but not the fingers dilated, consists of a single species of
the genus Plectromantis. It inhabits the region west of the
Andes, and south of the Equator.

Famity 15.—ALYTIDAL. (5 Genera, 37 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN /
SUB-REGIONS.

The Alytidz are Frogs with neck-glands and undilated toes.
They are most abundant in the Ethiopian region, with a few
species in the Nearctic and Australian regions, and one in
Europe and Brazil respectively. The genera are :—

Alytes (1 sp.), Central Europe; Scaphiopus (5 sp.), California
to Mexico and the Eastern States ; Hyperolius (29 sp.), all Africa,
and two in New Guinea and North Australia; Helioporus (1 sp.),
in Australia; Nattereria (1 sp.), Brazil.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEO'rROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

418 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lV,

FamILy 16.—PELODRYAD. (3 Genera, 7 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

The Pelodryade are Tree Frogs with neck-glands, and are
confined to the Australian and Neotropical regions.. The genera
are :-—

Phyllomedusa (3 sp.), South America to Paraguay ; Chirodryas,
Australia; and Pelodryas (3 sp.), Moluccas, New Guinea and
Australia.

Famity 17.—HYLIDZ. (11 Genera, 94 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

NEARCTIOC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4] 1.2.3 — | SSS => | ——3— | 1.2 ——

The Hylide are glandless Tree Frogs with a broadened sacrum.
They are most abundant in the Neotropical region, which con-
tains more than two-thirds of the species ; about twenty species
are Australian; six or seven are Nearctic, reaching northward to
Great Bear Lake ; while one only is European, and one Oriental.
The genera are :—

Hyla (62 sp.), having the range of the whole family; Hy/lella
(1 sp.), Ololygon (1 sp.), Pohlia (2 sp.), Triprion (1 sp.), Opistho-
delphys (1 sp.), and Nototrema (4 sp.), are South American ; while
Trachycephalus (8 sp.), is peculiar to the Antilles, except one
South American species; Psewdacris (1 sp.), ranges from Georgia,
United States, to Great Bear Lake; Litoria (7 sp.), is Australian
and Papuan, except one species in Paraguay ; Ceratohyla (4 sp.),
is only known from Ecuador.

CHAP. XIX. | REPTILES. 419

Famity 18.—POLYPEDATID. | (24 Genera, 124 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALHXARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 a | > fg Ogi 1 eetata 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3—
|

The Polypedatide, or glandless Tree Frogs with narrowed
sacrum, are almost equally numerous in the Oriental and Neo-
tropical regions, more than forty species inhabiting each, while
in the Ethiopian there are about half this number, and the re-
mainder are scattered over the other three regions, as shown in
the enumeration of the genera :—

Izalus (16 sp.), Oriental, except one' in Japan, and one in
Western Polynesia ; Rhacophorus (7 sp.), and Theloderma (1 sp.),
are Oriental; Hylarana (10 sp.), Oriental, to the Solomon Islands
and Tartary, Nicobar Islands, West Africa, and Madagascar ;
Megalixalus (1 sp.), Seychelle Islands ; Leptomantis (1 sp.), Philip-
pines; Platymantis (5 sp.), New Guinea, Philippines, and Fiji
Islands ; Cornufer (2 sp), Java and New Guinea ; Polypedates (19
sp.), mostly Oriental, but two species in West Africa, one Mada-
gascar, two Japan, one Loo-Choo Islands, and one Hong Kong ;
Hylambates (3 sp.), Hemimantis (1 sp.), and Chiromantis (1 sp.),
are Ethiopian; Rappia (13 sp.), is Ethiopian, and extends to
Madagascar and the Seychelle Islands; Acris (2 sp.), is North
American; Elosia (1 sp.), Epirhixis (1 sp.), Phyllobates (9 sp.),
Hylodes (26 sp.), Hyloxalus (1 sp.), Pristimantis (1 sp.), Crosso-
dactylus (1 sp.), Calostethus (1 sp.), Strabomantis (1 sp.), and
Leiyla (1 sp.), are Neotropical, the last two being Central Ame-
rican, while species of Hylodes and Phyllobates are found in the
West Indian Islands.

420 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

Famity 19.—RANID. (26 Genera, 150. Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

NEARcTIC | PAL#ARCTIC

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4] 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 oe

The Ranide, or true Frogs, are characterised by having simple
undilated toes, but neither neck-glands nor dilated sacrum.
They are almost cosmopolitan, extending to the extreme north
and south from the North Cape to Patagonia, and they are equally
at home in the tropics. They are perhaps most abundant in
South America, where a large number of the genera and species
are found; the Ethiopian region comes next, while they are
rather less abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions; the
Nearctic region has much less (about 12 species), while the Pals-
arctic has only five, and these two northern regions only possess
the single genus Rana. The genera are distributed as follows :—

Rana (60 sp.), ranges all over the world, except Australia and
South America, although it extends into New Guinea and into
Mexico and Central America; it is most abundant in Africa.
Pyxicephalus (7 sp.), extends over the whole Ethiopian region,
Hindostan, the Himalayas, and Japan; Cystignathus (22 sp.),
is mainly Neotropical, but has three species Ethiopian. All the
other genera are confined to single regions. The Neotropical
genera are :—Odontophrynus (1 sp.), Pseudis (1 sp.), Pithecopsis
(1 sp.), Ensophleus (1 sp.), Limnocharis (1 sp.), Hemiphractus
(1 sp.), all Tropical South American east of Andes; Ceratophrys
(5 sp.), Panama to La Plata ; Cycloramphus (1 sp.), West Ecuador
and Chili ; Plewrodema (6 sp.), Venezuela to Patagonia ; Levwperus
(12 sp.), Mexico and St. Domingo to Patagonia; Hylorhina
(1 sp.), Chiloe. The Australian genera are :—Myxophyes (1 sp.),
Queensland ; Platyplectrum (2 sp.), Queensland and West Aus-
tralia; Neobatrachus (1 sp.), South Australia ; Limnodynastes
7 sp.), and Crinia (11 sp.), Australia and Tasmania. The

CHAP. XIX. ] REPTILES. 421

Oriental genera are :—Dicroglossus (1 sp.), Western Himalayas ;
Oxyglossus (2 sp.), Siam to Java, Philippines and China; Hoplo-
batrachus (1 sp.), Ceylon; Phrynoglossus (1 sp.), Siam. The
Ethiopian genera are:—Phrynobatrachus (1 sp.), Stenorhynchus
(1 sp.), both from Natal.

Famity 20—DISCOGLOSSIDA., (14 Genera, 18 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

aC ee | ee | 1.2.3.4) aierae= [2-3-4 }2-2——

The Discoglosside, or Frogs with a dilated sacrum, are re-
markable for the number of generic forms scattered over a large
part of the globe, being only absent from the Nearctic and the
northern half of the Neotropical regions, and also from Hindostan
and East Africa. The genera are :-—

Chiroleptes (4 sp.), Australia ; Calyplocephalus (1 sp.), allied to
the preceding, from Chili; Cryptotis (1 sp.), Australia; -As-
terophys (2 sp.), New Guinea and Aru Islands ; XYenophrys (1 sp.),
Eastern Himalayas ; Megalophrys (2 sp.), Ceylon and the Malay
Islands; Mannophrys (1 sp.), Ceylon; Pelodytes (1 sp.), France
only ; Leptobrachium (1 sp.), Java ; Discoglossus (1 sp.), Vienna
to Algiers; Laprissa (1 sp.), Latonia (1 sp.), Palearctic region ;
Arthroleptis (2 sp.), West Africa and the Cape; Grypiscus (1
sp.), South Brazil.

Famity 21—PIPID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC

ETHIOPIAN ,; ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS, | SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

-a--|----|---- | ee oe ||

422 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

The Pipide are toads without a tongue or maxillary teeth, and
with enormously dilated sacrum. The only species of Pipa is a
native of Guiana.

FamMity 22.—DACTYLETHRID&. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ae | ---- | asp Es | ote | ee pe | oy Sea

The Dactylethride are Toads with maxillary teeth but no
tongue, and with enormously dilated sacrum. The species of
Dactylethra are natives of West, East, and South Africa.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Amphibia.

The Amphibia, as here enumerated, consist of 22 families,
152 genera, and nearly 700 species. Many of the families have a
very limited range, only two (Ranide and Polypedatide) being
nearly universal; five more extend each into five regions, while
no less than thirteen of the families are confined to one, two, or
three regions each. By far the richest region is the Neotropical,
possessing 16 families (four of them peculiar) and about 50
peculiar or very characteristic genera. Next comes the Austra-
lian, with 11 families (one of which is peculiar) and 16 pecu-
liar genera. The Nearctic region has no less than 9 of the
families (two of them peculiar to it) and 15 peculiar genera,
13 of which are tailed Batrachians which have here their
metropolis. The other three regions have 9 families each ;
the Palzarctic has no peculiar family but no less than 15
peculiar genera ; the Ethiopian 1 family and 12 genera peculiar
to it; and the Oriental, 19 genera but no family confined to it.

It is evident, therefore, that each of the regions is well
characterised by its peculiar forms of Amphibia, there being
only a few genera, such as Hyla, Rana, and Bufo which have a
wide range. The connection of the Australian and Neotropical

CHAD. XIX. ] REPTILES. 423

regions is well shown in this group, by the Phryniscide,
Hylide, and Discoglosside, which present allied forms in both ;
as well as by the genus Liopelma of New Zealand, allied to
the Bombinatoride of South America, and the absence of the
otherwise cosmopolitan genus Rana from both continents. The
affinity of the Nearctic and Palearctic regions is shown by the Pro-
teidz, which are confined to them, as well as by the genus 7’riton
and almost the whole of the extensive family of the Salaman-
dridz. The other regions are also well differentiated, and there
is no sign of a special Ethiopian Amphibian fauna extending
over the peninsula of India, or of the Oriental and Palearctic
regions merging into each other, except by means of genera of
universal distribution.

Fossil Anphibia.—The extinct Labyrinthodontia form a separ-
ate order, which existed from the Carboniferous to the Triassic
period. No other remains of this class are found till we reach
the Tertiary formation, when Newts and Salamanders as well
as Frogs and Toads occur, most frequently in the Miocene de-
posits. The most remarkable is the Andrias scheuchzeri from
the Miocene of (Eningen, which is allied to Steboldia maxima
the great salamander of Japan.

VoL. II.—28

CHAPTER XX.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE
RANGE OF SUCH GENERA AS INHABIT FRESH WATER.

Sus-cLass I.—TELEOSTEI.

Order IT—ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Famity 1—GASTEROSTEIDZ. (1 Genus, 11 Species.)

“ Fresh-water or marine scaleless fishes, with elongate com-
pressed bodies and with isolated spines before the dorsal fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.— Palearctic and Nearctic regions.

The species of Gasterosteus, commonly called Sticklebacks, are
found in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, as far south as Italy
and Ohio. Four species occur in Britain.

Famity 2.—BERYCID. (10 Genera, 55 Species.)

“ Marine fishes, with elevated compressed bodies covered with
toothed scales, and large eyes.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Tropical and temperate seas of both hemi-
spheres.

Their northern limit is the Mediterranean and Japan. Most
abundant in the Malayan seas.

CHAP. XX. ] : FISHES. 425

FamILty 3—PERCID. (61 Genera, 476 Species.)

“ Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with oblong bodies
covered with toothed scales.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Seas, rivers and lakes, of all regions.

The genera which inhabit fresh-waters are the following :—

Perca (3 sp.), inhabits the Nearctic and Palearctic regions as
far south as Ohio and Switzerland ; one species, the common
perch, is British. Percichthys (5 sp.), Chili and Patagonia, with
one species in Java; Paralabrax (2 sp.), California; Labrax
(8 sp.), Six species are marine, inhabiting the shores of Europe
and North America, one being British, two species inhabit the
rivers of the northern United States; Lates (2 sp.), Nile and
large rivers of India and China; Acerina (3 sp.), Europe, from
England to Russia and Siberia ; Percarina (1 sp.), River Dniester ;
Lnucioperca (6 sp.), North America and Europe; Pileoma (2 sp.),
North America, Texas to Lake Erie ; Bolcosoma (3 sp.), Texas to
Lake Superior ; Aspro (2 sp.), Central Europe ; Huro (1 sp.), Lake
Huron ; Percilia, (1 sp.), Rio de Maypu in Chili; Centrarchus (10
sp.), North America and Cuba; Bryttus (8 sp.), South Carolina
to Texas; Pomotis (8 sp.), North America, Lake Erie to Texas.

Of the exclusively marine genera a species of Polyprion
and one of Serranus are British. The latter genus has nearly
150 species spread over the globe, but is most abundant in the
Tropics. Mesoprion is another extensive genus confined to the
Tropics. -Apogon abounds from the Red Sea to the Paeific, but
has one species in the Mediterranean and one in the coast of
Brazil.

Famity 4.—APHREDODERIDZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“Fresh-water fish, with oblong body covered with toothed
scales, and wide cleft mouth.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Atlantic States of North America.

426 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. ~ [PART Iv,

FaMmILy 5.—PRISTIPOMATIDA. (25 Genera, 206 Species.)

“ Marine carnivorous fishes, with compressed oblong bodies,
and without molar or cutting teeth.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few
only entering fresh water.

Of the more extensive genera, nine, comprising more than
half the species, are confined to the Indian and Australian seas,
while only one large genus (Ha@mulon) is found in the Atlantic
on the coast of Tropical America. The extensive Pacific genus,
Diagramma, has one species in the Mediterranean, One genus
is confined to the Macquarie River in Australia. A species of
Dentex has occurred on the English coast, and this seems to be
the extreme northern range of the family, which does. not
regularly extend beyond the coast of Portugal, and in the East to
Japan. Australia seems to form the southern limit.

Famity 6—MULLIDAS. (5 Genera, 34 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with elongate slightly compressed bodies
covered with large scales, and two dorsal fins at a distance from
each other.”

DisTRIBUTION.—AIl tropical seas, except the West Coast 0
America, extending into temperate regions as far as the Baltic,
Japan, and New Zealand.

Two species of Mullus (Mullets) are British, and these are
the only European fish belonging to the family.

Famity 7.—SPARIDA. (22 Genera, 117 Species.)

“ Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with oblong com-
pressed bodies covered with minutely serrated scales, and with
one dorsal fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few
entering rivers.

CHAP. XX, ] FISHES. 427

Cantharus, Pagellus, and Chrysophrys, have occurred on the
English Coast. Haplodactylus is confined to the West Coast of
South America, and Australia; Sargus to the temperate and
warm parts of the Atlantic and the shores of East Africa;
Pagellus to the western coasts of Europe and Africa.

The other large genera have a wider distribution,

FaMILy 8.—SQUAMIPENNES. (12 Genera, 124 Species.)

“Carnivorous marine fishes, with compressed and elevated
bodies, and scaly vertical fins.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The seas between the tropics, most abundant
in the Oriental and Australian regions, a few entering rivers or
extending beyond the tropics.

The extensive genus Chetodon (67 sp.), ranges from the Red
Sea to the Sandwich Islands, and from Japan to Western Aus-
tralia, while two species are found inthe West Indies. Holacan-
thus (36 sp.), has a similar distribution, one species only occurring
in the West Indies and on the coast of South America. Only
one genus (Pomacanthus), with a single species, is confined to
the West Atlantic.

Famity 9.—CIRRHITID. (8 Genera, 34 Species.)

“Carnivorous marine fishes, with a compressed oblong body,
covered with cycloid scales.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The tropical and south temperate waters of
the Indian and Pacific oceans, from Eastern Africa to Western
America. Absent from the Atlantic.

Famity 10.—TRIGLID. (50 Genera, 259 Species.)

“Carnivorous, mostly marine fishes, with oblong compressed
or subcylindrical bodies, and wide cleft mouths. They live at
the bottom of the water.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—AII seas, some entering fresh water, and a few
inhabiting exclusively the fresh waters of the Arctic regions, .

428 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

They are divided by Dr. Giinther into four groups. The
Heterolepidina (comprising 4 genera and 12 species) are con-
fined to the North Pacific. The Scorpenina (23 genera 113
species) have an almost universal distribution, but the genera
are each restricted to one or other of the great oceans. Sebastes
has occurred on the English coast. The Cottina (28 genera110 _
species) have also a universal distribution ; the numerous species
of Cottus are found either in the seas or fresh waters of Europe
and North America; four species are British, as well as seven
species of the wide-spread genus Zrigla. Ptyonotus (1 sp.) is
confined to Lake Ontario. The Cataphracti (5 genera, 23 species)
have also a wide range; one genus, Ayonus, is found in the
British seas, and also in Kamschatka and on the coast of Chili.
Peristethus is also British.

Famity 11—TRACHINID. (24 Genera, 90 Species.)

“ Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies, living at the
bottom, near the shore.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Almost or quite universal.

Trachinus is a British genus. <A species of Aphritis inhabits
the fresh waters of Tasmania, while its two allies are found on
the coasts of Patagonia.

FamiLty 12. SCILANIDA. (13 Genera, 102 Species.)

“ Marine or fresh-water fishes, with compressed and rather
elongate bodies, covered with toothed scales.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate and tropical regions, but absent
from Australia,

Larimus is found in the Atlantic, and in African and American
rivers. Corvina, Sciena, and Otilothus are also marine and fresh-
water, both in the Atlantic and Pacific. The other genera are of
small extent and more restricted range. Umbrina and Sciena
have occurred in British seas.

CHAP. XX. ] | FISHES. 429

Famity 13—POLYNEMIDZ. (3 Genera, 23 Species.)

“ Marine or fresh-water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies
and entire or ciliated scales.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Tropical seas and rivers of both the great
oceans, but most abundant in the Pacific.

Famity 14—SPHYRENIDA. (1 Genus, 15 Species.)

“Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate sub-cylindrical
bodies covered with small cycloid scales.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The warm and tropical seas of the globe.

FaMILy 15.—TRICHIURID. (7 Genera, 18 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies covered with
minute scales or naked.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—AlIl the tropical and sub-tropical seas.

Famity 16.—SCOMBRIDZ. (20 Genera, 108 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies, scaled or
naked.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—All the temperate and tropical oceans. Mostly
inhabiting the open seas.

Scomber, (the Mackerel) Thynnus, Nauerates, Zeus, Centro-
lophus, Brama, and Lampris, are genera which have occurred in
the British seas.

Famity 17—CARANGIDZ. (27 Genera, 171 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with compressed oblong or elevated bodies
covered with small scales or naked.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—AI1 temperate and tropical seas ; some species
occur in both the great oceans, ranging from New York to Aus-
tralia.

Trachurus and Capros are genera which occurin British seas.

430 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

Famity 18—XIPHIIDA. (2 Genera, 8 Species.)

“ Marine fishes, with elongate compressed body and a produced
sword-shaped upper jaw.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Mediterranean, and open seas between or near
the Tropics.

NXiphias (the Sword-fish) has occurred on the English coast.

FamILy 19.—GOBIIDA. (24 Genera, 254 Species.)

« Carnivorous fishes, with elongate low, naked, or scaly bodies,
living at the bottom of the shallow seas or fresh waters of tem-
perate or tropical regions. Individuals of the same species often
differ in inhabiting exclusively fresh or salt water. —

DIsTRIBUTION.—All temperate and tropical regions, from
Scotland and Japan to New Zealand. Species of Gobius, Latrun-
culus, and Callionymus occur in Britain. Several genera are
confined to the. East Indian seas and rivers, but none seem
peculiar to America. The genus Periopthalmus consists of the
curious, large-headed, projecting-eyed fishes, so abundant on the
muddy shores of African and Eastern tidal rivers, and which seem
to spend most of their time out of water, hunting after insects, &e.

Famity 20.—DISCOBOLI. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)

“Carnivorous fishes, with oblong naked or tubercular bodies,
living at the bottom of shallow seas, and attaching themselves
to rocks by means of a ventral disc.

Disrripution.—All northern seas, as far south as Belgium,
England, and San Francisco.

“Species of both genera (Cyclopterus and Liparis) occur in
British seas.

CHAP, XX.] FISHES. 431

Famity 21—OXUDERCIDZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

« A marine fish, with an elongate sub-cylindrical body and ne
ventral fins.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Macao, China.

FaMILy 22.—BATRACHID. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)

“ Marine fishes, with sub-cylindrical body and broad depressed
head.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—The coasts of nearly all tropical and south
temperate regions, ranging from New York and Portugal to
Chili and Tasmania.

Famity 23—PEDICULATI. (8 Genera, 40 Species.)

“ Marine carnivorous fishes, with very large heads and without
scales.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Seas of all temperate and tropical regions,
extending south to New Zealand and north to Greenland.

A species of Lophius (the Fishing-frog or Sea-Devil) is found °
in British seas. The genus Antennarius, eomprising two-thirds
of the species, is wholly tropical.

Famity 24.—BLENNIDA. (83 Genera, 201 Species.)

“Carnivorous fishes, with long sub-cylindrical naked bodies,
living at the bottom of shallow water in seas, or tidal rivers.”

DistrisuTion.—All seas from the Arctic regions to New
Zealand, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope.

Species of Anarrhichas, Blennius, Blenniops, Centronotus and
Zoarces occur in British seas. Chasmodes (3 sp.) is confined to
the Atlantic coasts of Temperate North America; Petroscirtes
(26 sp.) to the tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans ;
_ and Stichewus (9 sp.) to the Arctic Seas.

432 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY.

Famity 25.—ACANTHOCLINID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“A carnivorous marine fish, with long flat body and very
long dorsal fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Coasts of New Zealand.

Famity 26—COMEPHORIDA, (1 Genus, 1 Species.)
“ An elongate, naked, large-headed fish, with two dorsal fins.”
DistripuTion.—Lake Baikal.

Dr. Giinther remarks, that this fish approaches the Scombrina
(Mackerel) in several characters. These are exclusively marine
fishes, while Lake Baikal is fresh-water, and is situated among
mountains, at an elevation of nearly 2000 feet, and more than a
thousand miles from the ocean!

Famity 27.—TRACHYPTERID. (3 Genera, 16 Species.)

“Deep sea fishes, with elongate, much compressed, naked
" bodies.”

Distrisution.—Europe, East Indies, West Coast of South
America, New Zealand. Dr. Giinther remarks, that little is
known of these fishes, from their being so seldom thrown on
shore, and then rapidly decomposing. The Ribbon-fish (Aegale-
cus banksiz) has occurred frequently on our shores. They have
soft bones and muscles, small mouths, and weak dentition.

FamiLy 28.—LOPHOTID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“A marine fish, with elongate compressed naked body, and
high crested head.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Mediterranean Sea and Japan.

CHAP, XX. ] FISHES. 433

Famity 29.—TEUTHIDIDA. (1 Genus, 29 Species.)

“Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, oblong, small-
scaled bodies.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Eastern tropical seas, from Bourbon and the
Red Sea to the Marianne and Fiji Islands.

Famity 30.—ACRONURID. (5 Genera, 64 Species.)

“Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, minutely-scaled
bodies.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—AII tropical seas, but most abundant in the
Malay region, and extending to Japan and New Zealand.

FAMILY 31—HOPLEGNATHID. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

“ Marine fishes, with compressed elevated bodies, covered with
very small toothed scales,”

DISTRIBUTION.—Seas of Australia, China, and Japan.

FamILy 32.—MALACANTHID. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

“ Marine fishes, with elongate bedies covered with very small
scales, and with very long dorsal and anal fins.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Atlantic coasts of Tropical America, Mauritius,
and New Guinea.

Famity 33.—NANDID. (6 Genera, 14 Species.)

“ Marine or fresh-water carnivorous tishes, with oblong, com-
pressed, scaly bodies.”

DISTRIBUTION.—From the Red Sea to the coasts of China
and Australia; and the fresh waters of the Neotropical and
Oriental regions. Badis, Nandus, and Catopra inhabit the

434 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART ly.

rivers of India and the Malay Islands; Acharnes the rivers of
British Guiana,

FamILy 34.—POLYCENTRID. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

“Fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with compressed elevated
scaly bodies, and many-spined dorsal and anal fins.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Rivers of Tropical America.

FamiLy 35.—LABYRINTHICI. (9 Genera, 25 Species.)

“Fresh-water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and
capable of living for some time out of water or in dried mud.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Freshwaters of South Africa and the East
Indies from the Mauritius to China, the Philippines, Celebes,
and Amboyna.

FamILy 36.—LUCIOCEPHALID. (1-Genus, 1 Species.)

“Fresh-water fish, with elongate scaled body, and a dilated
branchial membrane.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Rivers of Borneo, Biliton, and Banca.

FaMILy 37.—ATHERINIDA. (3 Genera, 39 Species.)

“Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with subcylind-
rical scaled bodies, and feeble dentition.”

DistrIBpuTion.—All temperate and tropical seas, from Scotland
and New York to the Straits of Magellan and Tasmania.

Atherina presbyter occurs in British seas. Species of Atherina
and Atherinichthis are found in fresh-water lakes and rivers in
Europe, America, and Australia.

CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 435.

FamiLty 38—MUGILID. (3 Genera, 78 Species.)

“ Fresh-water and marine fishes, with oblong compressed
bodies, cycloid scales, and small mouths, often without teeth.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Coasts and fresh waters of all temperate and
tropical regions. ae

Mugil (66 sp.) is mostly marine, and is very widely distri-
buted ; several species (Grey Mullets) occur on the British
coasts. Agonostoma (9 sp.) is confined to the fresh waters of
the West Indies, Central America, New Zealand, Australia,
Celebes, and the Comoro Islands. Myzxus (3 sp.) is marine, and
occurs both in the Atlantic and Pacific. )

Famity 39.—OPHIOCEPHALID. (2 Genera, 26 Species.)

“Fresh-water fishes, with elongate subcylindrical sealed bodies;
oftew leaving the water for a considerable time.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Rivers of the Oriental region:—India, Ceylon,
China, Malay Islands to Philippines and Borneo.

Famity 40—TRICHONOTID. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

~“Marine carnivorous fishes, with elongate subcylindrical
bodies, cycloid scales, and eyes directed upwards.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Coasts of Celebes, Ceram, and New Zealand.

Famity 41.—CEPOLID. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)

“ Marine fishes, with very long, compressed, band-like bodies,
covered with small cycloid scales.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate seas of Western Europe and East-
ern Asia, and one species in the Malayan Seas. ;

Cepola rubescens (the Band fish) ranges from Scotland to the
Mediterranean. All the other species but one are from Japan.

436 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

FAMILY 42.—GOBIESOCIDA. (9 Genera, 21 Species.)

“Carnivorous marine fishes, elongate, anteriorly depressed
and scaleless, with dorsal fin on the tail.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Temperate and tropical seas ; Scandinavia to
the Cape, California to Chili, West Indies, Red Sea, Australia,
New Zealand, and Fiji Islands.

Three species of Lepadogaster have occurred in the English
Channel.

Famity 43.—PSYCHROLUTID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“A large-headed, elongate, naked marine fish, with small
teeth, and dorsal fin on the tail.”

DISTRIBUTION.— West Coast of North America (Vancouver's
Island.)

Famity 44.—CENTRISCID. (2 Genera, 7 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with compressed, oblong or elevated bodies,
elongate tubular mouth and no teeth.”

DISTRIBUTION.— West Coast of Europe and Africa, Mediterra-
nean, Indian Ocean to Java, Philippines, and Japan.

A species of Centriscus has occurred on the South Coast of
England, and another species is found both at Madeira and
Japan.

FamiLty 45—FISTULARIDA. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

“Marine fishes, very elongate, with long tubular mouth
and small teeth.”

Disrrinution.—Tropical seas, both in the Atlantic and Indian
Ocean, and as far east as the New Hebrides.

CHAP. XX, ] FISHES. 437,

Famity 46.—MASTACEMBELID®. (2 Genera, 9 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, with eel-like bodies and very long dorsal
fim.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Rivers of the Oriental region, one species from
Ceram (?).

FamILy 47.—NOTACANTHI. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
“Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very small

scales, and snout protruding beyond the mouth.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Greenland, Mediterranean, and West Aus-
tralia.

Order IT—ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNGOGNATHI.

Famity 48.—POMACENTRID®. (8 Genera, 143 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with short compressed bodies covered with
toothed scales, and with feeble dentition.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Tropical parts of Pacific and Indian Ocean,
less numerous in Tropical Atlantic, a few reaching the Medi-
terranean, Japan, and South Australia. Pomacentrus, Glyphi-
dodon, and Heliastes are Atlantic genera.

Famity 49.—LABRIDAi. (46 Genera, 396 Species.)

“Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate
bodies covered with cycloid scales, and teeth adapted for
crushing the shells of mollusca.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate and tropical regions of all parts
of the globe.

The genera Labrus, Crenilabrus, Ctenolabrus, Acantholabrus,
Centrolabrus, and Coris, have occurred in British seas, and all of

438 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

these, except the last, are confined to the Mediterranean and the
Atlantic as far as Madeira. Eight other genera are characteristic
of the Atlantic, most of them being West Indian, but one from
the coasts of North America. Seven genera are common to all
the great oceans ; the remainder being confined to the Indian
and Pacific Oceans, ranging from Japan to New Zealand, but
being far more abundant between the Tropics.

Famity 50.—EMBROTOCID. (2 Genera, 17 Species.)

“ Marine viviparous fishes, with compressed elevated bodies
covered with cycloid scales, and with small teeth.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Pacific Ocean from Japan and California
northwards. One species enters the fresh waters of California.

FAMILY 51.—GERRID. (1 Genus, 28 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with compressed oblong bodies covered with
minutely serrated scales, and with small teeth.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Tropical seas; ranging south as far as the
Cape of Good Hope and Australia, and north to Japan and
(one species) to New Jersey, U.S.

Famity 52.—CHROMID. (19 Genera, 100 Species.)

“ Fresh-water herbivorous or carnivorous fishes, with elevated
or elongate scaly bodies, and small teeth.”

DistTRIBUTION.—The Oriental, Ethiopian, and Neotropical re-
gions.

Eutroplus (2 sp.) is from the rivers of Southern India and
Ceylon; Chromis (15 sp.), Sarotherodon (2 sp.), and Hem-
chromis (4 sp.), are from the rivers and lakes of Africa, ex-
tending to the Sahara and Palestine. The remaining 15 genera
are American, and several of them have a restricted distribution.
Acara (17 sp.) inhabits Tropical South America and the
Antilles ; Theraps (1 sp.), Guatemala; Heros (26 sp.), Texas and

CHAP, XX. ] FISHES. 439
See ee ee
Mexico to La Plata; Mesonauta (1 sp.), Brazil; Petenia (1 sp.),
Lake Peten, Guatemala; Uarw (2 sp.), Brazil; Hygrogonus
(1 sp.), Brazil ; Cichla (4 sp.), Equatorial America; Crenicichla
(9 sp.), Brazil and Guiana; Chetobranchus (3 sp.), Brazil and
Guiana; Mesops (2 sp.), Brazil; Satanoperca (7 sp.), Amazon
Valley and Guiana; Geophagus (1 sp.), North Brazil and Guiana :
Symphysodon (1 sp.), Lower Amazon; Pterophyllum (1 sp.),
Lower Amazon.

Order III.—ANACANTHINT.

FaMILy 53.—GADOPSID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fish, with rather elongate body covered with very
small scales, the upper jaw overhanging the lower, forming an
obtuse snout.” .

DIsTRIBUTION.—Rivers of Australia and Tasmania.

Famity 53a—LYCODIDA. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with elongate bodies, and the dorsal united
with the anal fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Arctic seas of America and Greenland, and
Antarctic seas about the Falkland Islands and Chiloe Island.

Famity 54—GADID. (21 Genera, 58 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies covered
with small smooth scales.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Cold and temperate regions of both hemi-
spheres; in the North extending as far south as the Mediterranean,
Canary Islands, New York and Japan (and one species to thé
Philippines and Bay of Bengal), and in the South to Chili and
New Zealand.

Gadus (Cod), Merluccius (Hake), Phycis, Lota, Molva, Couchia,
Motella, and Raniceps, are British. Lota inhabits fresh waters.
Vou. IT.—29

440 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 55—OPHIDIIDA. (16 Genera, 43 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies, the dorsal
and anal fins united, and the ventral fins rudimentary or absent.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Almost universal; from Greenland to New
Zealand, but most abundant in the Tropics.

Ophidium and Ammodytes occur in British seas; Lucifuga
inhabits subterranean fresh waters in Cuba.

Famity 56.—MACROURID. (3 Genera, 21 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with the body terminating in a long, com-
pressed tapering tail, and covered with spiny, keeled or striated
scales.” a

Distrrisution.-—North Atlantic from Greenland to Madeira
and the Canary Islands, Mediterranean, Japanese and Australian
seas.

None of these fishes have occurred in the British seas.

Famity 57,—ATELEOPODID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“Marine fishes, with the naked body terminating in a long
compressed, tapering tail.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Japan.

Famity 58.—PLEURONECTID. (34 Genera, 185 Species.)

“Marine carnivorous fishes, with strongly compressed flat
bodies, one side of which is colourless, and eyes unsymmetrically
placed, both on the coloured side. They inhabit the sandy
bottoms of shallow seas, and often ascend rivers.”

DisTRIBUTION.—Universal, on Arctic, Temperate, and Tropical
coasts.

CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 441

Seven genera occur in British seas, viz.: Hippoglossus, Hippo-
glossoides, Rhombus, Phrynorhombus, Arnoglossus, Pleuronectes
(Turbot), and Solea (Sole). There are 13 genera in the Atlantic
and 23 in the Pacific, 4 being common to both; and 2 found
only in the Mediterranean. A Pacific genus, Synaptura, has
one species in the Mediterranean.

Order IV.—PHYSOSTOMI.

Famity 59.—SILURID. (114 Genera, 547 Species.)

“Fresh-water or marine, scaleless fishes, often with bony
shields, and the head always furnished with barbels.”

DistripuTion.—The fresh waters of all the temperate and
tropical regions, those which enter the salt water keeping near
the coast.

e

This extensive family is divided by Dr. Giinther into eight
sub-families and seventeen groups, the distribution of which is
as follows :—

Sub-family 1 (SIturIDZ HoMALOPTER#) is confined to the
Old World. It consists of three groups: Clarina (2 genera,
Clarias and Heterobranchus) ranges over the whole area of the
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, to which it appears to be strictly
confined ; Plotosina (3 genera, Plotosus, Copidoglanis, and Cnido-
glanis) ranges from the eastern coasts of Africa to Japan, Poly-
nesia, and Australia, in seas and rivers; Chacina (1 genus, Chaca)
ranges from India to Borneo.

Sub-family 2 (StLuRIDA HETEROPTER2) is also confined to the
Old World; it consists of one group,—Silurina, containing 19
genera, viz. :—Saccobranchus (4 sp.), India to Cochin China and
Ceylon; Stlurus (5 sp.), Palearctic region from Central Europe
to Japan, China, and Afghanistan, and a species in Cochin China;
Silurichthys (3 sp.), Cashmere, Java, and Borneo; Wallago (2 sp.),
Hindostan, Sumatra, and Borneo ; Belodontichthys (1 sp.), Su-
matra and Borneo; Eutropiichthys (1 sp.), Bengal; Cryptopterus

442 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY, [PART IV.

(15 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, with a species in the
Ganges, in Siam, and (?) in Amboyna; Callichrous (10 sp.),
Afghanistan to Borneo and Java; Schilbe (5 sp.), Tropical Africa;
Eutropius (6 sp.), Tropical Africa and Central India ; Hemisilurus
(2 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Silwranodon (1 sp.), Nile; Alia
(2 sp.), Bengal; Schalbichthys (1 sp.), Bengal ; Lats (1 sp.), Java,
Sumatra, Borneo ; Pseudeutropius (6 sp.), India and Sumatra;
Pangasius (7 sp.), Ganges, Sumatra, Java, Borneo ; Helicophagus
(2 sp.), Sumatra ; Silondia (1 sp.), Ganges.

Sub-family 3 (SmLuRIDA! ANOMALOPTER) is confined to
Equatorial America; it consists of the group Hypopthalmina,
containing 2 genera: Helogenes (1 sp.), Hypopthalmus (4 sp.),
from the country north of the Amazon, Surinam, and the Rio
Negro.

Sub-family 4 (SILURIDA PROTEROPTER#) ranges over all the
tropical and most of the temperate parts of the globe, except
Europe and Australia. It consists of four groups: Bagrina
(16 genera), ranging over most of the Old World and North»
America; Pimelodina (15 genera), confined to Tropical America,
except one genus which is African; Ariina (10 genera), all
Tropical regions ; and Bagarina (3 genera), Oriental region. The
distribution of the genera is as follows :—

Bagrus (2 sp.), Nile; Chrysichthys (5 sp.), Tropical Africa ;
Clarotes (1 sp.), Upper Nile; Macrones (19 sp.), India, Ceylon
to Borneo, and one species in Asia Minor; Pseudobagrus (4 sp.),
Japan, China, and Cochin China; Liocassis (5 sp.), Japan, China,
Java, Sumatra, and Borneo; Bagroides (3 sp.), Sumatra and
Borneo; Bagrichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; Aita (5 sp.),
Continental India and Manilla; Acrochordonichthys (6 sp.), Java
and Sumatra; Akysis (3 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Olyra (1 sp.),
Khasya; Branchiosteus (1 sp.), Khasya; Amiurus (13 sp.),
Nearctic region to Guatemala and China; Hopladelus (1 sp.),
North America; Notwrus (4 sp.), North America; Sorubim
(1 sp.), Amazon ; Platystoma (11 sp.), Tropical South America ;
Hemisorubim (1 sp.) Rio Negro, Brazil; Platistomatichthys
(1 sp.), Rio Branco, Brazil; Phractocephalus (1 sp.), Amazon ;
Piramutana (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Platynematichthys

CHAP, XX.] FISHES. 443

(1 sp.), northern and southern tributaries of Amazon ; Piratinga
(3 sp.), Amazon Valley; Sciades (2 sp.), Amazon ; Pimelodus
(42 sp.), Mexico to La Plata, single aberrant species from West
Africa, Java and the Sandwich Islands; Pirinampus (1 sp.),
Brazil ; Conorhynchus (1 sp.), Brazil; Notoglanis (1 sp.), Madeira,
Amazon Valley ; Callophysus (3 sp.), Tropical South America ;
Auchenaspis (1 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Arius (68 sp.), all Tropical
regions ; Galeichthys (1 sp.), Cape of Good Hope; Genidens (1
sp.), Brazil; Hemipimelodus (3 sp.), India, Sumatra, and Borneo ;
Ketingus (1 sp.), Sunda Islands; Ailurichthys (4 sp.), Eastern
United States to Guiana; Paradiplomystax (1 sp.), Brazil ; Di-
plomystax (1 sp.), Chili; Osteogeniosus (3 sp.), India to Java;
Batrachocephalus (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra; Bagarius (1 sp.),
India to Java; Huclyptosternum (1 sp.), India; Glyptosternwm.
(8 sp.), Himalayas, Central India, Java, and Sumatra; Hara (3
sp.), Continental India; Amblyceps (3 sp.), Continental India.

Sub-family 5 (SILURID STENOBRANCHIZ) is confined to South
America and Africa, with one genus and species in the Ganges.
It consists of three groups: Doradina (12 genera), South America
and Africa; Rhinoglanina (3 genera), Central Africa and the
Ganges ; Malapterurina (1 genus), Tropical Africa. The distri-
bution of the genera is as follows :—

Ageniosus (4 sp.), Surinam to La Plata; Zetranematichthys (1
sp.), Central Brazil, Rio Guaporé ; Huanemus (1 sp.), Surinam
and Brazil; Auchenipterus (9 sp.), Equatorial America; Centro-
mochlus (2 sp.), Equatorial America; TZrachelyopterus (2 sp.),
Equatorial America; Cetopsis (3 sp.), Brazil; Asterophysus (1
sp.), Rio Negro, North Brazil; Doras (13 sp.), Tropical South
America east of Andes; Oxydoras (7 sp.), Amazon Valley and
Guiana; Rhinodoras (3 sp.), Tropical South America east of
Andes ; Synodontis (12 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Rhinoglanis (1 sp.),
Upper Nile; Mochocus (1 sp.), Nile; Callomystaz (1 sp.), Nile;
Malapterurus (3 sp.), Tropical Africa.

Sub-family 6 (SILURIDA PROTEROPODES) inhabits Tropical
America and Northern India as far as Tenasserim. It consists
of two groups: the Hypostomatina (17 genera), with the same
‘distribution as the sub-family, and the Aspredinina (3 genera),

444 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART ly.

confined to Equatorial America. The distribution of the genera
is as follows :—

Arges (2 sp.), Andes of Peru and Ecuador; Stygogenes (2 sp.),
Andes; Brontes (1 sp.), Andes; <Astrob/epus (1 sp.), Popayan;
‘Callichthys (11 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes, and
Trinidad ; Plecostomus (15 sp.), Tropical South America east of
Andes, and Trinidad ; Liposarcus (3 sp.), Surimam and Brazil ;
Chetostomus (25 sp.), Tropical America, Trinidad, and Porto
Rico ; Pterygoplichthys (4 sp.), Brazil; Rhinelepis (1 sp.), Brazil;
Acanthicus (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Loricaria (17 sp.),
Tropical South America east of Andes ; Acestra (4 sp.), Brazil
and Guiana; Sisor (1 sp.), Northern Bengal; Hrethistes (1 sp.),
Assam ; Pseudechenets (1 sp.), Khasya Hills; Hzostoma (2 sp.),
Assam and Tenasserim; Bunocephalus (2 sp.), Guiana; Buno-
cephalichthys (1 sp.), Rio Branco, North Brazil ; Aspredo (6 sp.),
Guiana.

Sub-family 7 (SILURIDA OPISTHOPTER®) consists of two
groups: Nematogenyina (2 genera), and Trichomycterina (3
genera), and is confined to South America. The distribution of
the genera is as follows :—

Heptapterus (2 sp.), South America; Nematogenys (1 sp.),
Chili; TZrichomycterus (7 sp.), South America to 15,000 feet
elevation; Hremophilus (1 sp.), Andes of Bogota; Pariodon (1
sp.), Amazon.

Sub-family 8 (StturIDA BRANCHICOLA) is confined to Tropi-
cal South America. It consists of one group, Stegophilina, and
2 genera: Stegophilus (1 sp.), Brazil; and Vandellia (2 sp.),
Amazon Valley.

Famity 60. CHARACINIDA. (47 Genera, 230 Species.)
“ Fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and without barbels.”
DIsTRIBUTION.—The Neotropical and Ethiopian regions.

This extensive family is divided by Dr. Giinther into 10 groups,
viz.: Erythrinina (5 genera), South America; Curumatina

CHAP. XX. ] FISHES. 445

(6 genera), South America; Citharinina (1 genus), Tropical Africa ;
Anostomatina (3 genera), South America; Tetragonopterina (16
genera), South America and Tropical Africa; Hydrocyonina
(9 genera), Tropical America and Tropical Africa ; Distichodon-
tina (1 genus), Tropical Africa; Icthyborina (1 genus), Africa ;
Crenuchina (1 genus), Equatorial America; Serrasalmonina (4
genera), South America.

The following is the distribution of the genera :—

Macrodon (4 sp.), Tropical America; Erythrinus (5 sp.),
Brazil and Guiana; Lebiasina (1 sp.), West Equatorial Ame-
rica ; Pyrrhulina (1 sp.), Guiana ; Corynopoma (4 sp.), Trinidad
only; Curimatus (15 sp.), Tropical South America and Trini-
dad; Prochilodus (12 sp.), South America to the La Plata;
Centropus (2 sp.), East Equatorial America; Hemiodus (8 sp.),
Equatorial America east of Andes; Saccodon (1 sp.), Ecuador ;
Parodon (1 sp.), Brazil; Citharinus (2 sp.), Tropical Africa ;
Anostomus (8 sp.), Tropical America; Ahytiodus (2 sp.), Equa-
torial America; Leporinus (14 sp.), South America East of
Andes; Piabucina (2 sp.), Guiana; Alestes (4 sp.), Tropical
Africa: Brachyalestes (5 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Tetragonopterus
(32 sp.), Tropical America ; Scissor (1 sp.), South America; Psew-
dochalceus (1 sp.), West Ecuador ; Chirodon (2 sp.), Chili; Chal-
ceus (1 sp.), Guiana; Brycon (10 sp.), South America east of
Andes; Chalcinopsis (4 sp.), Central America and Ecuador;
Bryconops (2 sp.), Tropical America; Creagrutus (1 sp.), Western
Ecuador; Chalcinus (4 sp.), Tropical South America; Gastro-
pelecus (8 sp.), Tropical South America; Piabuca (2 sp.), Equa-
torial America; Agoniates (1 sp.), Guiana; Anacyrtus (7 sp.),
‘Central and South America; Hystricodon (1 sp.), Equatorial
America; Salminus (3 sp.), South America; Hydrocyon (3 sp.),
Tropical Africa; Sarcodaces (1 sp.), West Africa; Oligosarcus
(1 sp.), Brazil; Xiphoramphus (7 sp.), South America east of
Andes; Xiphostoma (5 sp.), Equatorial America east of Andes ;
Cynodon (3 sp.), Tropical America East of Andes ; Distichodus
(7 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Icthyborus (3 sp.), Nile; Crenuchus (1
sp.), Guiana ; Mylesinus (1 sp.), Equatorial America; Serrasalmo
(13 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes ; Mzyletes (18 sp.),

446 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Tropical South America east of Andes; Catoprion (1 sp.), Brazil
and Guiana.

FamiLty 61—HAPLOCHITONID. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

“Fresh-water fishes, with naked or scaly bodies and without
barbels.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate South America and South Aus-
tralia.

The genera are, Hapluchiton (2 sp.), Tierra del Fuego and the
Falkland Islands; Prototroctes (2 sp.), Southern Australia and
New Zealand.

FAMILY 62.—STERNOPTYCHID. (6 Genera, 12 Species.)

“ Marine fishes, with very thin deciduous scales or none, and
with a row of phosphorescent spots or organs on the under
surface of the body.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Mediterranean and Atlantic.

These are deep-sea fishes found in the Mediterranean sea, and
in the deep Atlantic from the coasts of Norway to the Azores
and the Tropics.

FamILty 63—SCOPELIDAE. (11 Genera, 47 Species.)
“Marine fishes, somewhat resembling the fresh-water Siluride.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—AImost universal, but most abundant in warm
and tropical seas.

These are deep-sea fishes, abounding in the Mediterranean
and the great oceans, a few extending north to near Greenland
and south to Tasmania.

CHAP. XX. ] FISHES. 447

Famity 64—STOMIATID. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)
“Small marine fishes, naked or with very fine scales.”
DistTripution.—The Mediterranean and Atlantic.

These are deep-sea fishes, ranging from Greenland to beyond
the Equator. .

FamIty 65.—SALMONID#. (15 Genera, 157 Species.)

“Fresh-water fishes, many species periodically descending
to the sea and a few altogether marine :—Salmon and Trout.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The Palearctic and Nearctic Regions, and one
genus and species in New Zealand. A considerable number of
species are confined to single lakes or rivers, others have a wide
distribution.

The genera are distributed as follows :—

Salmo (83 sp.), rivers and lakes of the Palearctic and
Nearctic Regions, as far south as Algeria, Asia Minor, the Hindoo-
Koosh and Kamschatka, and to about 38° North Latitude in
North America, many of the species migratory ; Onchorhynchus
(8 sp.), American and Asiatic rivers entering the Pacific, as far
south as San Francisco and the Amur; Brachymystax (1 sp.),
Siberian rivers, from Lake Baikal and the Atlai Mountains
northwards; Luciotrutta (2 sp.), Caspian Sea and Volga;
Plecoglossus (1 sp.), Japan and Formosa; Osmerus (3 sp.), rivers
of temperate Europe and North America entering the Atlantic,
and one species in California; Thaleichthys (1 sp.), Columbia
River, Vancouver’s Island; Hypomesus (1 sp.), coasts of Cali-
fornia, Vancouver’s Island, and North-eastern Asia; Mallotus
(1 sp.), coasts of Arctic America from Greenland to Kams-
chatka; Retropinna (1 sp.), fresh waters of New Zealand;
Coregonus (41 sp.), fresh waters of northern parts of temperate
Europe, Asia and North America, many of the species migra-
tory: Thymailus (6 sp.), fresh waters of temperate parts of

448 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

Europe, Asia, and North America ; Argentina (4 sp.), Mediter-
ranean and deep seas of Western Europe ; Microstoma (2 sp.),
Mediterranean, and seas of Greenland; Salarix (2 sp.), China and
Japan, in seas and rivers. Salmo, Osmerus, Coregonus, and
Thymallus, are British genera.

FaMiLy 66.—PERCOPSID. (1 Genus, 1, Species.)

“ A fresh-water fish covered with toothed scales.”

DistrisuTion.—Lake Superior, North America.

Famity 67.—GALAXIDA. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)
“ Fresh-water fishes, with neither scales nor barbels.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The temperate zone of the Southern Hemi-
sphere.

The only genus, Galawxias,is found in New Zealand, Tasma-
nia, and Tierra del Fuego, ranging north as far as Queensland
and Chili; and one of the species is absolutely identical in the
two regions.

Famity 68—MORMYRID. (3 Genera, 25 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, with scales on the body and tail but not
on the head, and no barbels.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—The Ethiopian Region.

Most abundant in the Nile, a few from the Gambia, the
Congo, and Rovuma. The genera are :—

Mormyrus (1 sp.), Nile, Gambia, West Africa, Mozambique,
tovuma ; Hyperopsius (2 sp.), Nile and West Africa; Mormy-
rops (4 sp.), Nile, West Africa and Mozambique.

CHAP. XX. ] FISHES. 44)

FamiLy 69.—GYMNARCHID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, resembling the Mormyride, but with
tapering finless tail, and neither anal nor ventral fins.”
per

DIstTRIBUTION.—Ethiopian region.

The only genus, Gymnarchus, inhabits the Nile and the rivers
of West Africa.

Famity 70.—ESOCIDA®. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies, no barbels, and dorsal
fins situated towards the tail.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The Nearctic and Palearctic regions.

One species, the Pike (Hsox luctus) ranges from Lapland to
Turkey, and in America from the Arctic regions to the Albany |
river; the remainder are American species extending South as
far as New Orleans.

Famity 71—UMBRID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)
“ Small fresh-water scaly fishes, without barbels or adipose fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.— Central Europe and Temperate North America.

Famity 72.—SCOMBRESOCIDZ. (5 Genera, 136 Species.)

“ Marine or fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and a series
of keeled scales along each side of the belly.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Temperate and tropical regions.

All the genera have a wide distribution. A species of Belone
and one of Scombresox are found on the British coast. The Flying
fishes (Exocetus, 44 sp.), belong to this family. They abound
in all tropical seas and extend as far as the Mediterranean and
Australia. None of the genera are exclusively fresh-water,

450 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY, [PART IV,

but a few species of Belone and Hemiramphus are found in rivers
in various parts of the world.

FamiLy 73.—CYPRINODONTID. (20 Genera, 106 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, covered with scales, the sexes frequently
differing, mostly viviparous.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Southern Europe, Asia, Africa and North
America, but most abundant in Tropical America.

The distribution of the genera is as follows :—

Cyprinodon (11 sp.), Italy, North Africa and Western Asia to
Persia, also North America from Texas to New York ; Fitzroya
(1 sp.), Montevideo ; Characodon (1 sp.), Central America ; Tellia
(1 sp.), Alpine pools of the Atlas: Limnurgus (1 sp.), Mexican
plateau; Lucania (1 sp.), Texas; Haplochilus (18 sp.), India,
Java, Japan, Tropical Africa, Madagascar, and the Seychelle
Islands, Carolina to Brazil, Jamaica; Fundulus (17 sp.), North
and Central America and Ecuador, Spain and East Africa ;
Rivulus (3 sp.), Tropical America, Cuba and Trinidad ; Orestias
(6 sp.), Lake Titacaca, Andes ; Jenynsia (1 sp.), Rio Plata; Pseu-
doxiphophorus (2 sp.), Central America ; Belonesox (1 sp.), Cen-
tral America; Gambusia (8 sp.), Antilles, Central America
and Texas; Anableps (3 sp.), Central and Equatorial America ;
Pecilia (16 sp.), Antilles, Central and South America; Jol-
lienesia (4 sp.), Louisiana to Mexico; Platypacilus (1 sp.),
Mexico; Girardinus (10 sp.), Antilles and South Carolina to.
Uruguay ; Lepistes (1 sp.), Barbadoes.

Famity 74—HETEROPYGII. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, with posterior dorsal fin, and very small
scales.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Fresh waters of the United States.

Amblyopsis (1 sp.) is a blind fish found in the caverns of Ken-
tucky ; while Chologastes (1 sp.), which only differs from it in
having perfect eyes, is found in ditches in South Carolina.

CHAP. XX. ] FISHES. 451

Famity 75—CYPRINID. (109 Genera, 790 Species.)

“Fresh-water fishes, generally scaly, with no adipose fin, and
pharyngeal teeth only, the mouth being toothless.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Fresh waters of the Old World and North
America, but absent from Australia and South America.

This enormous family is divided by Dr. Giinther into fourteen
groups, the distribution of which is as follows :—

Catostomina (4 genera), North America and North-east Asia ;
Cyprinina (39 genera), same range as the family ; Rohteichthyina
(1 genus), Malay Archipelago ; Leptobarbina (1 genus), Malay
Archipelago ; Rasborina (5 genera), East Africa to China and
Borneo; Semiplotina (2 genera), Western Asia; Xenocypridina
(3 genera), Eastern Asia; Leuciscina (10 genera), Palearctic
and Nearctic regions; Rhodeina (3 genera), Palearctic region ;
Danionina (9 genera), India to China and Japan ; Hypophthal-
michthyina (1 genus), China; Abramidina (16 genera), same
range as the family; Homalopterina (2 genera), India to Java ;
Cobitidina (10 genera), Palearctic and Oriental regions.

The following is the distribution of the genera :—

Catostomus (16 sp.), Nearctic region and Eastern Siberia;
Moxostoma (2 sp.), Eastern United States ; Sclerognathus (5 sp.),
Temperate North America to Guatemala, also Northern China;
Carpiodes (1 sp.), United States; Cyprinus (2 sp.), Temperate
parts of Palearctic region (1 sp. British); Carassvus (3 sp.),
Temperate Palearctic region (1 sp. British); Catla (1 sp.),
Continental India ; Cirrhina (5 sp.), Continental India to China;
Dangila (6 sp.), Java, Sumatra, Borneo; Osteochilus (14 sp.),
Siam to Java and Sumatra; Labeo (27 sp.), Tropical Africa and
Oriental region: Tylognathus (10 sp.), Syria, India to Java;
Abrostomus (2 sp.), South Africa ; Discognathus (4 sp.), Syria to
India and Java, mostly in mountain streams ; Crossochilus (9 sp.),
India to Sumatra and Java; Gymnostomus (7 sp.), Continental
India; Epalzeorhynchus (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; Capoeta
(13 sp.), Western Asia; Barbus (163 sp.), Temperate or Tropical

452 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa (1 sp. British); Thynnichthys
(2 sp.), Pegu, Borneo, and Sumatra; Barbichthys (1 sp.), Java,
Sumatra, and Borneo ; Amblyrhynchichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and
Borneo ; Albulichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Oreinus (3
sp.), Himalayan region ; Schizothorax (13 sp.), Himalayan region
and west to Afghanistan and Persia ; Ptychobarhus (1 sp.), Thibet;
Gymnocypris (1 sp.), loc. unknown ; Schizopygopsis (1 sp.), Thibet ;
Diptychus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Thibet; Awlopyge (1 sp.),
Western Asia; Gobio (2 sp.), Temperate Europe (1 sp. British) ;
Pseudogobio (4 sp.), China, Japan, and Formosa; Ceratichthys (9
sp.), Temperate North America; Bungia (1 sp.), Western Asia,
Herat ; Pimephales (2 sp.), Eastern United States ; Hyborhynchus
(3 sp.), Eastern United States; Hricymba (1 sp.), United States ;
Pseudorasbora (1 sp.), Japan, China ; Cochlognathus (1 sp.), Texas;
Exoglossum (2 sp.), United States ; Rhinichthys (6 sp.), Eastern
United States ; Rohteichthys (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra ; Lepto-
barbina (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; Rasbora (12 sp.), East
Coast of Africa, India, to Java and Borneo; Luciosma (3 sp.),
Java, Sumatra, and Borneo; Nuria (2 sp.), India, Tenasserim,
and Ceylon; Aphyocypris (1 sp.), North China; Ambdblypharyn-
godon (3 sp.), India to Tenasserim ; Cyprinion (3 sp.), Syria and
Persia ; Semiplotus (1 sp.), Assam; Xenocypris (1 sp.), China ;
Paracanthobrama (1 sp.), China; Mystacoleucus (1 sp.), Sumatra ;
Leuciscus (84 sp.), Nearctic and Palearctic regions (5 sp. are
British) ; Ctenopharyngodon (1 sp.), China; Mylopharedon (1
sp.), California; Paraphoxinus (2 sp.), South-eastern Europe ;
Meda (1 sp.), River Gila; Tinca (1 sp.), Europe (Britain to Con-
stantinople) ; Lewcosomus (8 sp.), Nearctic region; Chondrostoma
(7 sp.), Europe and Western Asia; Orthodon (1 sp.), California ;
Acrochilus (1 sp.), Columbia River ; Achilognathus (6 sp.), China,
Japan, and Formosa; Rhodeus (3 sp.), Central Europe and China;
Pseudoperilampus (1 sp.), Japan; Danio (8 sp.), India and Cey-
lon; Pterosarion (2 sp.), Central India and Assam ; Aspidoparia
(3 sp.), Continental India; Barilius (15 sp.), East Africa and Con- |
tinental India; Bola (1 sp.), Ganges to Bramahputra ; Schacra
(1 sp.), Bengal; Opsariichthys (5 sp.), Japan and Formosa ;
Squaliobarbus (1 sp.), China; Ochetobius (1 sp.), North China ;

CHAP. XX. ] FISHES. 453

Hypophthalmichthys (2 sp.), China; Abramis (16 sp.), North
America, Central Europe, and Western Asia (1 sp. is British) ;
Aspius (3 sp.), East Europe, Western Asia, China; Alburnus (15
sp.), Europe and Western Asia (1 British sp.); Rasborichthys
(1 sp.), Borneo; Llopichthys (1 sp.), China; Pelotrophus (2 sp.),
East Africa; Acanthobrama (3 sp.), Western Asia; Osteobrama
(5 sp.), Continental India; Chanodichthys (6 sp.), China and
Formosa; Smiliogaster (1 sp.), Bengal; Culter (2 sp.), China ;
Pelecus (1 sp.), Eastern Europe ; Lustira (1 sp.), Ceylon; Chela
(16 sp.), India to Siam, Java and Borneo ; Pseudolabuca (1 sp.),
China; Cachius (1 sp.), Continental India; Homaloptera (8 sp.),
India to Cochin China, Java, and Sumatra; Psilorhynchus (2
sp.), North-eastern India; Misgurnus (5 sp.), Europe to India,
China, and Japan; Nemachilus (37 sp.), Europe and Asia;
Cobitis (3 sp.), Europe, India, Japan; Lepidocepalichthys (3 sp.),
India, Ceylon, and Java; <Acanthopsis (2 sp.), Tenasserim, Su-
matra, Java, and Borneo; JSotia (7 sp.), India to Japan and
Sunda Isles; Oreonectes (1 sp.), China; Lepidocephalus (1 sp.),
Java and Sumatra ; Acanthopthalmus (2 sp.), Java and Sumatra ;
Apua (1 sp.), Tenasserim ; Aneria (2 sp.), Tropical Africa.

Famity 76.—GONORHYNCHID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

«A marine fish with spiny scales, mouth with venir, and
with short dorsal fin opposite the ventrals.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate parts of Southern Oceans, and
Japan.

Famity 77.—HYODONTID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“ A fresh-water fish with cycloid scales and posterior dorsal
fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Fresh waters of North America.

454 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV

FamiLy 78.—OSTEOGLOSSID. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)

“Fresh-water fishes, with large hard scales, and dorsal fin
opposite and equal to the anal fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Tropical rivers.

The genera are :—Osteoglosswm (3 sp.), Eastern South America,
Sunda Islands, and Queensland; Arapaima (1 sp.), Eastern

23)

South America—the “ Piraruci” of the Amazon; Heterotis (1
sp.), Tropical Africa.

FamILty 79.—CLUPEID. (18 Genera, 161 Species.)

“ Marine scaly fishes, without barbels, and with the abdomen
often compressed and serrated.”

, DISTRIBUTION.—Seas of the whole globe, many species enter-
ing rivers. They are most abundant in the Indian seas, less so
in America, scarce in Africa, while they are almost absent from
Australia. The Herring, Sprat, Shad, and Pilchard, are British
species of Clupea, a genus which contains 61 species and ranges
all over the world.

Famity 80.—CHIROCENTRID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“A marine fish, with thin deciduous scales, no barbels, and
posterior dorsal fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The Eastern seas from Africa to China.

Famity 81.—ALEPOCEPHALID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“A marine fish, covered with thin cycloid scales, no barbels,
and posterior dorsal fin.”

DistRIBUTION.—Deep waters of the Mediterranean.

CHAP. XX. ] FISHES. 455

FamiLy 82.—NOTOPTERID. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

“Fresh-water fishes, without barbels, head and body scaly,
long tapering tail, and short posterior dorsal fin.”

DIsSTRIBUTION.—Rivers of India, Siam, the Sunda Islands, and
West Africa.

FamiLy 83.—HALOSAURID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“ Marine fishes, with cycloid scales, a short median dorsal fin,
and no barbels.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Deep waters of the Atlantic, Madeira.

Famity 84.—GYMNOTID. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, with elongate bodies, pointed tail, and no
dorsal fin.”

DistTRIBUTION.—Tropical America from Trinidad to the River
Parana.

The genera are distributed as follows :—

Sternarchus (8 sp.), Guiana and Brazil; Rhamphichthys
(6 sp.), Guiana and Brazil; Sternophygus (4 sp.), Tropical
America; Carapus (1 sp.), Trinidad to Brazil; Gymnotus, (1 sp.
—the Electric eel), Tropical South America.

Famity 85—SYMBRANCHID. (4 Genera, 6 Species.)

“ Marine and fresh-water fishes, having elongate bodies without
fins, and very minute scales or none.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Fresh waters and coasts of Western Australia
and Tasmania.

The genera are :—

Amphipnous (1 sp.), Bengal; Monopterus (1 sp.), Siam to
Northern China and Sunda Islands ; Symbranchus (3 sp.), Tropical

Vou. II.—30

456 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

America, and India to Australia > Chilobranchus (1 sp.), Australia
and Tasmania.

FamiLy 86—MURENIDA (26 Genera, 230 Species.)

“Marine or fresh-water fishes, with cylindrical or band-like
bodies and no ventral fins.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The seas and fresh waters of temperate and
tropical regions. This family is divided by Dr. Giinther into
two sub-families and nine sections. The genus Anguilla, com-
prising our common Eel and a number of species from all parts
of the world, is the only one which is found in fresh water,
though even here most of the species are marine. Anguilla and
Conger are the only British genera.

Famity 87—PEGASID. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

“Small marine fishes, covered with bony plates, and short
opposite dorsal and anal fins.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Indian Ocean and seas of China and Aus-
tralia.

Order V—LOPHOBRANCHIT.

“Fish with a segmented bony covering, long snout, and small
toothless mouth.”

Famity 88—SOLENOSTOMIDE. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

“Marine Lophobranchii, with wide gill openings and two
dorsal fins.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Indian Ocean, from Zanzibar to China and
the Moluccas.

CHAP, XX. ]} FISHES. 457

FamiLy 89.—SYNGNATHID. (15 Genera, 112 Species.)

“Marine Lophobranchii, with very small gill opening and one
soft dorsal fin.”

Distrisution.—All the tropical and temperate seas. Some
species of Syngnathus, Dorywhthys, and Culonotus enter fresh
water, and a few live in it exclusively. Siphonostoma, Syngna-
thus, Nerophis, and Hippocampus are British genera. The
Hippocampina (5 genera, 25 sp.), or Sea-horses, are peculiar to
the Indian and Pacific Oceans, except three or four species of
Hippocampus in the Atlantic and Mediterranean.

Order VI—PLECTOGNATHI.

“Fishes covered with rough scales or shields, having a
narrow mouth, and soft posterior dorsal fin.”

Famity 90—SCLERODERMI. (7 Genera, 95 Species.)
“Marine Plectognathi, with toothed jaws.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Temperate and Tropical seas, but much more
abundant in the Tropics.

\

Famity 91—GYMNODONTES. (10 Genera, 82 Species.)

“Marine or fresh-water Plectognathi, with jaws modified into
a beak.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Temperate and tropical regions.

Some species of Zetrodon are found in the rivers of Tropical
America, Africa, and Asia. Species of TYetrodon and Ortha-
goriscus have been found on the British coasts.

458 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Sus-ctass II.—-DIPNOI.

FAMILY 92.—SIRENOIDEI. (3 Genera, 3 Species.)

“Eel-shaped fresh-water fishes, covered with cycloid scales ;
the vertical fins forming a continuous border to the compressed
tapering tail.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—Rivers of Tropical Africa, South America, and
Australia.

The genera are :—Protopterus (1 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Lepido-
siren (1 sp.), Amazon Valley; Ceratodus (1 sp.), Queensland.

Sus-cLass IIL.—GANOIDEI.

Order —HOLOSTET.

“ Body covered with scales.”

FamiLy 93.—AMIID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“ A fresh-water fish, with cycloid scales and a long soft dorsal
fin.”

DISTRIBUTION.— United States.

Famity 94.—POLYPTERID. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)
“ Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales and dorsal spines.”
DiIstTRIBUTION.—Central and Western Africa.

The genera are :—
Polypterus (1 sp.), the Nile and rivers of West Africa; Cala-
moichthys (1 sp.), Old Calabar.

CHAP, XX, ] FISHES. 459

Famity 95.—LEPIDOSTEID. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales, and dorsal and anal
fins composed of articulated rays.”

_ DISTRIBUTION.—The genus Lepidosteus, the Garfishes or Bony
Pikes, inhabits North America to Mexico and Cuba.

Order II —CHONDROSTEI.

“ Sub-cartilaginous scaleless fishes with heterocercal tail, the
skin with osseous bucklers or naked.”

Fami.y 96.—ACCIPENSERID. (2 Genera, 20 Species.)

“ Marine or fresh-water fishes with osseous bucklers and inferior
mouth.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate and Arctic regions of the northern
hemisphere. Accipenser (19 sp.), comprising the Sturgeons, has.
the distribution of the family ; most of the species are marine,
but some are confined to the Caspian and Black Seas and the
great American lakes with the rivers flowing into them, while
the Danube, Mississippi, and Columbia River have peculiar
species. The other genus, Scaphirhynchus (1 sp.), is confined to
the Mississippi and its tributaries.

Famity 97.—POLYDONTID. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

“ Fresh-water fishes, with wide lateral mouth and naked
skin.”

DISTRIBUTION.—The Mississippi and Yang-tse-kiang rivers,

460 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Ly.

Sus-ctass 1V.—CHONDROPTERYGII. (SHarxks
AND Rays.)

Order I—HOLOCEPHALA. (Chimeras.)

Famity 98—CHIMARIDA. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

“ Shark-like marine fishes, snout of the male with a prehensile
organ.”

DIsStRIBUTION.—Northern and Southern temperate seas. Chi-
mera is British.

Order II —PLAGIOSTOMAT A.

Sub-order.—SELACHOIDEA. (Sharks.)

Famity 99.—CARCHARIID. (11 Genera, 59 Species.)
“ Sharks with two dorsals and a nictitating membrane.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Seas of the Arctic, temperate, and tropical
regions. Species of Galeus and Mustelus have occurred on our
coasts.

Famity 100.—LAMNIDZE. (5 Genera, 7 Species.)
“ Sharks with two dorsals and no nictitating membrane.”

DISTRIBUTION.— Temperate and tropical seas. Species of
Lamna, Alopecias, and Selache have occurred in British seas.

CHAP, XX. ] FISHES. 461

Famity 101—RHINODONTID. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“ Sharks with two dorsal fins, the second small, and no nicti-
tating membrane.”

DISTRIBUTION.—South and East Africa.

Famity 102.—NOTIDANID. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
“ Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate and tropical seas, from the North
Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope and California. One species
has occurred on our southern coasts.

Faminy 103.—SCYLLIIDZ. (7 Genera, 25 Species.)
“ Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane.”

DIstTRIBUTION.— All temperate and tropical seas. Species of
Scyllium and Pristiurus are British.

Famity 104.—CESTRACIONTID. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)
“ Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Pacific Ocean from Japan to New Zealand,
“Moluccan Sea.

Famity 105.—SPINACID&. (10 Genera, 21 Species.)

“ Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane, no
anal fin.”

DIstTRIBUTION.—Arctic, temperate, and tropical seas. Species
of Acanthias, Lemargus, and Echinorhinus have occurred on our
coasts.

462 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. (PART IV

Famity 106—RHINIDZ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“ Sharks with depressed flat body and large expanded pectoral
fins.”

DistTRIBUTION.—Temperate and tropical seas, from Britain to
California and Australia.

Famity 107—PRISTIOPHORID. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

“ Sharks with produced flat snout, armed with teeth on each
edge.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Seas of Japan and Australia.

Sub-order BATOIDEI (Rays.)

Famity 108.—PRISTIDA. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)
“ Rays with produced snout and lateral saw-like teeth.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Seas of tropical and sub-tropical regions.

Famity 109.—RHINOBATID. (3 Genera, 15 Species.)

“Rays with long and strong tail, having a caudal and two
dorsal fins.”

DisTRIBUTION.—Tropical and sub-tropical seas.

Famity 110.—TORPEDINID. (6 Genera, 15 Species.)
“ Rays with broad smooth disc, and an electric organ.”
DistRIBUTION.—Tropical and temperate seas, from Britain to
Tasmania.
Famity 111.—RAIIDA. 4 Genera, 29 Species.)

“ Rays with broad rhombic disc and no serrated caudal spine.”

DistriBuTION.—AlIl temperate and tropical seas. Several
species of Raza are found on our coasts.

CHAP, XX. ] FISHES. 463

Famity 112—TRYGONIDA. (6 Genera, 43 Species.)
“ Rays with the pectoral fins extending to end of snout.”

__ Distripution.—Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, and

rivers of Tropical America. A species of Zrygon has occurred
on our Southern coast. Lllipesurus and Teniura are found in
the fresh waters of the interior of South America, while the
latter genus occurs also in the Indian seas, but not in the
Atlantic.

Famity 113.—MYLOBATID. (5 Genera, 22 Species.)

“ Rays with very broad pectoral fins not extending to end
of snout.”

DISTRIBUTION.—Temperate and tropical seas. A species of
Myliobatis is British, but most of the species and genera are
confined to tropical seas. Dicerobatis and Ceratoptera are very
large Rays, commonly called Sea-devils.

Sus-cLtass V.—CYCLOSTOMATA.

“ Cartilaginous fishes, with suctorial mouths and without
lateral fins.”

Famity 114—PETROMYZONTID. (4 Genera, 12 Species.)

“ Marine or fresh-water eel-like fishes, with suctorial mouths
and without barbels.”

DistTRIBUTION.—Coasts and fresh waters of temperate regions
of both hemispheres. Three species of Petromyzon (Lampreys),
are British.

464 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 115.—MYXINIDZ. (2 Genera, 5 Species.)
“ Marine eel-like fishes, with four pairs of barbels.”

DISTRIBUTION.
spheres.

Seas of the temperate regions of both hemi-

Sus-ctass VI.—LEPTOCARDII.

Famity 116.—CIRRHOSTOMI. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

“ A small marine fish with no jaws or fins, and with rudi-
mentary eyes.”

DIsTRIBUTION.—The only species, the Lancelet (Amphioxus),
is the lowest form of living vertebrate. It is found in the tem-
perate regions of both hemispheres, and has occurred on our
southern coast.

Remarks on the Distribution of Fishes.

Marine Fish—There are about 80 families of marine fishes,
and of these no less than 50 are universally, or almost uni-
versally, distributed over the seas and oceans of the globe. Of
the remainder many are widely distributed, some species even
ranging from the North Atlantic to Australia. Six families are
confined to the Northern Seas, but four of these consist of single
species only, the other two being the Discoboli (2 genera,
11 sp.), and the Accipenseride (2 genera and 20 sp.). Only one
family (Acanthoclinide) is confined to the Southern oceans, and
that consists of but a single species. Four families (Sternop-
tychide), Stomiatide, Alepocephalide and Halosauride) are
confined to the Atlantic Ocean, while 13 are found only in the
Pacific ; and of the remainder several are more abundant in the
Pacific than the Atlantic. Two families (Lycodide and Gadide) -
are found in the Arctic and Antarctic seas only, though the

CHAP. XX. ] FISHES. 465 .

latter family has a single species in the Indian seas. Among the
curiosities of distribution are,—the extensive genus Diagramma,
confined to the Pacific with the exception of one species in the
Mediterranean ; the single species constituting the family Lopho-
tide, found only in the Mediterranean and Japan; the small
family of Notacanthi, confined to Greenland, the Mediter-
ranean, and West Australia; and the four families, Sternop-
tychide, Stomiatide, Alepocephalide, and Halosauride, which
are believed to inhabit exclusively the depths of the ocean, and
are therefore very rarely obtained.

Fresh-water Fish—There are 36 families of fishes which
inhabit, fresh water exclusively, and 5 others, which are both
marine and fresh-water. These present many interesting pecu-
liarities of distribution. The Neotropical region is the richest
in families, and probably also in genera and species. No less
than 22 families inhabit it, and of these 6 are altogether peculiar.
The Ethiopian and Nearctic regions each have 18 families, the
former with 3, and the latter with 5 peculiar. Several isolated
forms, requiring to be placed in distinct families, inhabit the
great American lakes; and, no doubt, when the African lakes
are equally well known, they will be found also to possess many
peculiar forms. The Oriental region comes next, with 17 families,
of which 3 are peculiar. The Palearctic has 12, and the Aus-
tralian 11 families, each with only 1 altogether peculiar to it.

If we take those regions which are sometimes supposed to be
so nearly related that they should be combined, we shall find the
fresh-water fishes in most cases markedly distinct. The Nearctic
and Palearctic regions, for example, together contain 20 families,
but only 11 of these occur in both, and only 5 are exclusive
inhabitants of these two regions. This shows an amount of
diversity that would not, perhaps, be exhibited by any other
class of animals. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions together
possess 24 families, only 11 of which are found in both, and
only 1 exclusively characteristic of the two. The Australian
and Neotropical regions possess together 27 families, of which 7
are found in both, and 3 are exclusively characteristic of the
two. This last fact is very interesting: the marine family of

466 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Trachinidz possesses a fresh-water genus, Aphritis, one species
of which inhabits Tasmania, and two others Patagonia; the
Haplochitonide (2 genera, 3 sp.) are found only in Tierra del
Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and South Australia; and the
Galaxide (1 genus, 12 sp.) inhabit the same regions, but extend
to Chili, to New Zealand and to Queensland. We have here an
illustration of that connection between South America and
Australia which is so strongly manifested in plants, but of which
there are only scattered imdications in most classes of animals.
The dividing line across the Malay Archipelago, separating the
Oriental from the Australian regions, and which is so strikingly
marked in mammalia and birds, is equally so in fresh-water
fishes. No less than six families have their eastern limits in
Java and Borneo; while the extensive family of Cyprinidz has
no less than 23 genera in Java and Borneo, but not a single
species has been found in Celebes or the Moluccas.

The distribution of fresh-water fishes lends no support to the
view that the peninsula of India belongs to the Ethiopian
region. A large proportion of the Oriental families are common
to the whole region; while there is hardly a single example, of
a characteristic Ethiopian family or genus extending into the
peninsula of India and no further.

Among the special peculiarities of distribution, is the curious
fish, forming the family Comephoride, which is confined to Lake
Baikal, among the mountains of Central Asia, 2,000 feet above
the sea, and a thousand miles distant from the ocean; yet
having its nearest allies in the exclusively oceanic family of the
mackerels (Scomberide). The Characinide are confined to Africa
and South America, distinct genera inhabiting each region. The
Salmonide are confined to the two northern regions, except a
single species of a peculiar genus in New Zealand. The genus
Osteoglossum has a species in South America, another in the
Sunda Islands, and a third in Queensland; while the curious
Sirenoidei are represented by single species of peculiar genera
in Tropical America, Tropical Africa, and Tropical Australia.

Fossil Fishes.—Fishes have existed from a very remote era,
and it is remarkable that the first whose remains have been dis-

CHAP. X1X.] FISHES. 467

covered belong to the Ganoidei, a highly developed group which
has continued to exist down to our times, and of which the
sturgeon is the best known example. We may therefore be sure
that the Upper Silurian rocks in which these are found, although
so very far back in geological history, do not by any means lead
us to the time when the primitive fish-type appeared upon the
earth. In the Carboniferous and Permian formations numerous
remains of fishes are found, allied to the Lepidosteus or Gar-pike
of North America. The next group in order of appearance, are
the Plagiostomata, containing the existing Sharks and Rays.
Traces of these are found in the highest Silurian beds, and be-
come plentiful in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations
and in all succeeding ages, being especially abundant in Creta-
ceous and Eocene strata. The Holocephali appear first in the
Oolitic period, and are represented by the living Chimeride.
The Dipnoi, to which belong the Lepidosiren and Ceratodus, are
believed to have existed in the Triassic period, from the evidence
of teeth almost identical with those of the existing Australian
fish. All the ancient fossil fishes belong to the above-mentioned
groups, and many of them have little resemblance to existing
forms. The Teleostean fishes, which form the great bulk of
those now living, cannot be traced back further than the Creta-
ceous period, while by far the larger number first appear
in the Tertiary beds. The Salmonide, Scopelide, Percide,
Clupeide, Scombresocide, Mugilide, and Siluride, or forms
closely allied to them, are found in the Cretaceous formation.
In the Eocene beds we first meet with Squammipennes, Cypri-
nide, Pleuronectide, Characinide, Murenide, Gadide, Pedi-
culati, Syngnathide, and Hippocampide.

Most of these fossils represent marine fishes, those of fresh-
water origin being rare, and of little importance as an aid in
determining the causes of the distribution of living forms. To
understand this we must look to the various changes of the
land surface which have led to the existing distribution of all
the higher vertebrates, and to those speciak means of dispersal
which Mr. Darwin has shown to be possessed by all fresh-water
productions.

CHAPTER XXI.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES
AND GENERA OF INSECTS.

ALTHOUGH insects are, for the most part, truly terrestrial animals,
and illustrate in a very striking manner the characteristic pheno-
mena of distribution, it is impossible here to treat of them in
much detail. This arises chiefly from their excessive numbers,
but also from the minuteness and obscurity of many of the
groups, and our imperfect knowledge of all but the European
species. The number of described species of insects is uncertain,
as no complete enumeration of them has ever been made; but
it probably exceeds 100,000, and these may belong to some-
where about 10,000 genera—many times more than all verte-
brate animals together. Of the eight Orders into which Insects
are usually divided, only two—the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera
—have been so thoroughly collected in all parts of the globe
that they can be used, with any safety, to compare their distri-
bution with that of vertebrate animals; and even of these it is
only certain favourite groups which have been so collected.
Among Lepidoptera, for example, although the extensive group
of Butterflies may be said, in a general sense, to be thoroughly
well known—every spot visited by civilized man having fur-
nished its quota to our collections—yet the minute Tineide, or
even the larger but obscure Noctuide, have searcely been col-
lected at all in tropical countries, and any attempt to study
their geographical distribution would certainly lead to erroneous
results. The same thing occurs, though perhaps in a less degree,
among the Coleoptera. While the Carabide, Buprestidz, and

CHAP, XXI.] INSECTS. 469

Longicorns of the Tropics, are almost as well known as those of
the Temperate Zones, the Staphylinide, the smaller Elateride,
and many other obscure and minute groups, are very imperfectly
represented from extra-European countries. I therefore propose
to examine with some care the distribution of the Butterflies,
and the Sphingina among Lepidoptera, and the following large
and well-known families of Coleoptera :—Cicindelide, Carabide,
Lucanide, Cetoniide, Buprestide, and the three families of Lon-
gicorns. These families together contain over 30,000 species,
classed in nearly 3,000 genera, and comprise a large proportion
of the best known and most carefully studied groups. We may
therefore consider, that a detailed examination of their distribu-
tion will lead us to results which cannot be invalidated by any
number of isolated facts drawn from the less known members of
the class.

Range of Insects in Time—In considering how much weight
is to be given to facts in insect distribution, and what inter-
pretation is to be put upon the anomalies or exceptional cases
that may be met with, it is important to have some idea of the
antiquity of the existing groups, and of the rate at which the
forms of insect life have undergone modification. The geo-
logical record, if imperfect in the case of the higher animals,
is fragmentary in the extreme as regards indications of former
insect life; yet the positive facts that it does disclose are of
great interest, and have an important bearing on our subject.
These facts and the conclusions they lead to have been discussed
_ in our first volume (p. 166), and they must be carefully weighed
in all cases of apparent conflict or incongruity between the dis-
tribution of insects and that of the higher animals.

470 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Order—LEPIDOPTERA.
Sub-order—LEPIDOPTERA RHOPALOCERA, or BUTTERFLIES.

Famity 1—DANAIDA. (24 Genera, 530 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
—.——.

ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN

SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | —2--— | 1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4

The Danaide are now held to comprehend, not only the whole
of the group so named by Doubleday, but a large portion of the
Heliconide of that author. Their range is thus extended over the
whole of the tropical regions. A few species spread north-
wards into the Palearctic and Nearctic regions, but these are
only stragglers, and hardly diminish the exclusively tropical cha-
racter of the group. The more remarkable genera are,—Hestia
(10 sp.), and Jdeopsis (6 sp.), confined to the Malayan and
Moluccan districts ; Danais (50 sp.), which has the range of the
whole family ; Huplwa (140 sp.), confined to the Oriental and
Australian regions, but especially abundant in the Malayan and
Moluccan districts ; Hamadryas (4 sp.), Australian region only. °
The remaining genera constitute the Danaioid Heliconide, and
are strictly confined to Tropical America, except a few species
which extend into the southern parts of the Nearctic region.
The chief of these genera are :—

Ithomia (160 sp.), Melina (18 sp.), Napeogenes (20 sp.), Me-
chanitis (4 sp.), Ceratina (32 sp.), Dircenna (10 sp.), and Lycorea
(4 sp.). Florida, Louisiana, and Southern California, mark the
northern extent of these insects.

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 471

Famity 2.—SATYRID. (60 Genera, 835 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
—.—__-_- ———rn —— — -
NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PaL@ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
StuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.9.4|1.2.3.4 [1.2.9.4 /1.2.9.4/1.2.9.4| 1.2.3.4

This family has an absolutely universal distribution, extending
even into the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Many of the genera
are, however, restricted in their range.

Hetera, Lymanopoda, Calisto, Corades, Taygetis, Pronophila,
Luptychia, and some allied forms (25 genera in all) are Neotropi-
cal, the last named extending north to Canada; Debis, Melanitis,
Mycalesis and Ypthima, are mostly Oriental, but extending also
into the Australian and the Ethiopian regions; Gnaphodes,
Leptoneura, and a few other small genera, are exclusively Ethio-
pian ; Xenica, Hypocista, and Heteronympha, are Australian ; Hre-
bia, Satyrus, Hipparchia, Cenonympha, and allies, are mostly
Palearctic, but some species are Ethiopian, and others Nearctic ;
Chionabas, is characteristic of the whole Arctic regions, but is
also found in Chili and the Western Himalayas. The peculiar
genera in each region are,—Neotropical, 25; Australian, 7 ;
Oriental, 11; Ethiopian, 5:-; Palearctic, 3; Nearctic, 0.

Famity 3.—ELYMNIIDZ. (1 Genus, 28 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ene | ---- | Sea | go Peel ee

| |

The genus Hlymnias, which constitutes this family, is char-
acteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, with some
species in Northern India and one in Ashanti. It thus agrees

with several groups of Vertebrata, in showing the resemblance
Vou. I1.—31

472 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART ly.

of Malaya with West Africa independently of the Peninsula of
India.

Famity 4. MORPHIDZ. (10 Genera, 106 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

—
Neotropical | NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

-2.3-| —_——— |---- | ——--|| —-3.4| 1-—s—

The Morphide are a group of generally large-sized butterflies,
especially characteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts,
and of Tropical America; with a few species extending to the
Himalayas on the west, and to Polynesia on the east. The
genera are :—

Amathusia (6 sp.), Northern India to Java; Zeuxidia (9 sp.),
the Malay district; Duscophora (7 sp.), Northern India to
Philippines, Java and Timor; Enispe (3 sp.), Northern India ;
Hyades (15 sp.), Moluccan and Polynesian districts, except one
_ species in Java; Clerome (11 sp.), Northern India to Philippines
and Celebes ; Amona (1 sp.), Sikhim ; Hyantis (1 sp.), Waigiou ;
Thaumantis (10 sp.), Indo-Chinese and Malayan districts ;
Morpho (40 sp.), Neotropical region, Brazilian and Central
American sub-regions.

Famity 5. BRASSOLID/. (7 Genera, 62 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN
SuB-kEGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

~a.a— | ----|---- |----]----|----

The Brassolide have the same distribution as the genus
Morpho. The genera are :—

Brassolis (5 sp.); Opsiphanes (17 sp.); Dynastor (2 sp.);
Penetes (1 sp,) ; Caligo (21 sp.); Narope (5 sp.); and Dasyop-
thalma (3 sp.)

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 473

Famity 6—ACRAIDA, (1 Genus, 90 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

NEARCTIC PaL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS,

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

Se e® | Ey ERS | ae ee j1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 |1.2——

The genus Acrea is especially abundant in the Ethiopian
region, which contains two-thirds of all the known species; 3 or
4 species only, range over the whole Oriental, and most of the
Australian regions ; while all the rest inhabit the same districts
of the Neotropical region as the Brassolide.

Famity 7—HELICONIDA. (2 Genera, 114 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

—

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

NFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

meveva I ati YON Se fl 20 [ao OT
\ | 1

The true Heliconide are very characteristic of the Neotropical
region ; one species only extending into the Southern States of
North America as far as Florida. The genus Heliconius (83
sp.), has the range of the family ; while Hweides (19 sp.), is con-
fined to the Brazilian and Central American sub-regions.

_Famity 8.—NYMPHALIDA. (113 Genera, 1490 Species.)

JENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 |1.2.3.4 (1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4) 1.2.9.4/1.9.9.4

This is the largest and most universally distributed family of
butterflies, and is well illustrated by our common Fritillaries,

474 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. (PART ly.

Tortoise-shell, Peacock, Painted Lady, and Purple Emperor
butterflies. They are found wherever butterfly-life can exist,
and some single species—like the Painted Lady (Pyrameis
cardui)—range almost over the globe. A few of the more
extensive and remarkable genera only, can be here noticed :—

Colenis, Agraulis, Eresia, Synchloe, Epicalia, Eunica, Eubagis,
Catagramma, Callithea, Ageronia, Timetes, Heterochroa, Prepona,
Hypna, Paphia, and Siderone, are wholly Neotropical, as well
as many others which have a smaller number of species.
Euryphene, Romaleosoma, Aterica, and Harma, are exclusively
Ethiopian. TZerinos, Athyma, Adolias, and Tancecia, are Oriental,
but they mostly extend into the Moluccan region; the last
however is strictly Malayan, and Adolias only reaches Celebes.
Mynes alone, is exclusively Australian, but Prothoe is almost so,
having only one outlying speciesin Java. Hurytela and Ergo-
lis are confined to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, but the
latter reaches the Moluccas. Cethosia, Cirrhochroa, Messaras, and
Symphedra, are both Oriental and Australian ; while Junonia,
Cyrestis, Diadema, Neptis, and Nymphalis, are common to the
three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisph ere, the latter ex-
tending into the Mediterranean district, while Junonia occurs
also in South America and the Southern United States.

The most cosmopolitan genus is Pyrameis, which has repre-
sentatives in every region and every district. Apatwra is found
in all but the Ethiopian and the Australian, although it just
enters the confines of the latter region in Celebes; Limenitis
is abundant in the Oriental region, but extends eastward to
Celebes and westward into Europe, North America, and even
into South America. Argynnis, Melitea, and Vanessa, are almost
confined to the Palearctic and Nearctic regions; the former
however occurs in the Himalayas and in the mountains of Java,
and also in Chili and in Jamaica. Two genera—Dicrorrhagia
and Helcyra—have both one species in North India and another
in the island of Ceram. The number of genera peculiar to each
region is as follows :—Neotropical, 50; Australian, 2; Oriental
15; Ethiopian, 14; Palearctic, 1; Nearctic, 0.

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 475

Famity 9.—LIBYTHEID. (1 Genus, 10 Species.)

ee:

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

PAL#ZARCTIC ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

2—--4 | -2.3— | 12-—| —2-—4 (1.2.9.4) 1--—

The genus Libythea, which constitutes this family, appears to
have its head-quarters in the Oriental region, but extends on all
sides in an erratic manner, into various remote and disconnected
portions of the globe, as indicated above.

Famity 10.—NEMEOBIID. (12 Genera, 145 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

This group has been separated from the Erycinide of the
older authors, and contains all the non-American genera and
species. Half the genera and nearly four-fifths of the species of
this group are, however, Neotropical; one is European; two or
three African; and twenty-six Oriental and Australian. The
genera are :—

Nemeotius (1 sp.), Europe; Dodona (6 sp.), North India;
Zemeros (2 sp.), North India and Malaya; <Abzsara (11 sp.),
North India, Malayan and Moluccan districts, Madagascar and
West Africa; Taaxila (8 sp.), North India and Malaya ; Dical-
laneura (2 sp.), Moluccan district; Alesa (6 sp.), Hunogyra (2
sp.), Cremna (7 sp.), Beotis (3 sp.), are all from the Brazilian
sub-region; Hurybia (10 sp.), Mesosemia (80 sp.), inhabit both
the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions.

476 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

FamIty 11—EURYGONIDZ. (2 Genera, 78 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

meas [moos [ooas [anne [aao= [ee

This small family, separated from the true Erycinide by
Mr. Bates, is confined to the tropical forest-districts of con-
tinental America. The genera are :— .

Eurygona (71 sp.); Methonella (1 sp.); the latter found in
Equatorial South America.

Famity 12.—ERYCINIDZ. (59 Genera, 560 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PaL#ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS,
mn
|
—2.3.4|, 1.2.3 — ----— —-—-—-—— —---— —---——
|

This extensive family of small, but exquisitely beautiful
butterflies, is especially characteristic of the virgin forests of
the Neotropical region, only a few species of three genera ex-
tending into the Nearctic region. The more important genera,
and those which have an exceptional distribution, can alone be
here noticed. Charis extends from Brazil to New York; Apo-
demia from Brazil to California, Utah, and Oregon; Amarynthis
inhabits the Brazilian and Antillean sub-regions ; Lepricornas
and Metapheles are small genera found only in the Mexican
sub-region; Lymnas, Ni ecyria, Ancyluris, Diorhina, Esthemopsis,
Anteros, Emesis, Symmachia, Cricosoma, Calydna, Lemonias,
Nymphidium, Theope, and Aricoris are common to the Brazilian
and Mexican sub-regions. All the other genera (40 in number)
are only known from the Brazilian sub-region, and of these a
considerable proportion are confined to the damp equatorial —
forests of the Amazon Valley.

CHAP, XXI.] INSECTS. 477

Famity 13.—LYCANIDA. (39 Genera, 1,220 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

'
1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4] 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4

The Lyczenidee—of the variety and beauty of which in tropical
regions our own “ Blues” and “ Coppers” give but a faint idea
—are a group of universal distribution. We shall therefore in-
dicate those genera which are restricted to one or more regions,
or are nearly cosmopolitan. The large genus Polyommatus (con-
taining 325 species) has the same universal distribution as the
entire family. Our common “ Blues” well represent this genus.
Lycena (comprising the “ Coppers”) is more especially charac-
teristic of the Palearctic and Nearctic regions, but straggling
species occur also in North India, South Africa, Chili, and New
Zealand. Thecla is especially characteristic of the Neotropical
region, where there are about 370 species; in the Nearctic
region, 36; in the Palearctic 13; and in the Ethiopian 3.
Miletus, Lucia, Hypolycena, Myrina, and Deudorix are common
to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere—the
Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian. Aphneus and Jolaus are
common to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, the latter
extending to Celebes. Jalmenus, Pseudodipsas, Curetis, and
Amblypodia are common to the Oriental and Australian regions,
but the first-named is found also in Madagascar. Zephyrus is
found only in the Nearctic and Palearctic, Hwmeus in the
Nearctic and Neotropical regions. The Nearctic region has one
peculiar genus (Feniseca) ; the Palearctic has two—Thestor and
Leosopis ; the Ethiopian has nine—Pentila, Liptana, D’ Urbania,
Axiocerces, Capys, Phytala, Epitola, Hewitsonia, and Deloneura ;
the Oriental has five—Allotinus, Ilerda, Poritia, Camena, and
Liphyra; the Australian has three—Hypochrysops, Utica, and
Ogyris ; and the Neotropical also three—Lamprospilus, Theorema,
and Zrichonas.

478 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

Famity 14—PIERID. (35 Genera, 817 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.9.4/1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4)1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4 1.2.3—

The Pieride are distributed almost, if not quite, as widely over
the globe as the last family, and we shall group the genera in
the same manner. Pieris (130 sp.) is cosmopolitan; J'erias
and Callidryas are found in all the four tropical regions, and as
far north as Pennsylvania in the Nearctic region; Pontia,
Tachyris, Eronia, and Thestias are common to the Ethiopian,
Oriental, and Australian regions, the last-named, however,
only extending as far as Timor; Colias is pre-eminently
Palearctic and Nearctic, with a few Ethiopian species, one
Indian, two in Chili, and one in the Sandwich Islands ; Antho-
charis is wholly Palearctic and Nearctic ; Midea has two species
Nearctic, and one in Japan; Gonepteryx is Palearctic and Neo-
tropical, extending into Texas; Jdmais and Callosune are
Ethiopian and Oriental; Zhyca and Iphias are Oriental and
Australian; Meganostoma is Nearctic and Neotropical; Wa-
thalis and Kricogonia are Neotropical, ranging into Florida,
Texas, and Colorado.

The peculiar genera are pretty equally distributed. The
Neotropical region has ten, two being confined to Chili ; Luterpe
and Leptalis are the most remarkable, the latter containing a
number of forms mimicking the Heliconide and Danaide. The
Oriental region has two, Prioneris and Dercas; the Australian
one, Llodina ; the Ethiopian two, Teracolus and Pseudopontia ;
the Palearctic two, Lewcophasia and Zegris; the Nearctic one,
Neophasia.

CHAP. XXI. ] INSECTS. 479

Famity 15—PAPILIONID. (13 Genera, 455 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NeotropicaL | NEARCTIC

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

oe 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 j2-2-3-4/1.2.3.4/1.2.3.4

The Papilionid, comprising many of the noblest and richest-
coloured butterflies, and long placed at the head of the group,
are almost as universally distributed as the Pieridz, but they do
not extend to so many remote islands nor so far into the Arctic
and Antarctic regions. Nine-tenths of the species belong to the
genus Papilio, and these are especially abundant in tropical
regions, although species occur in every region and every sub-
region. Well-marked sub-divisions of this large genus are
characteristic of each great region—as the “ AZneas” group in the
Neotropical, the “Paris” group in the Oriental, the “Aigeus” group
in the ‘Australian, the “ Zenobius” group in the Ethiopian, and
many others. The few species of the Palzearctic region belong,
on the other hand, to a group of universal distribution, and the
Nearctic has a good number of species allied to Neotropical
forms.

The other genera have mostly a very restricted range. Par-
nassius is an Alpine genus, confined to the Palearctic and
Nearctic regions. The Palearctic region further possesses 5
peculiar genera—Mesapia, Hypermnestra, Doritis, Sericinus, and
Thais; the Oriental has 4, Calinaga, Teinopalpus, Bhutanitis,
and Leptocircus, the latter going as far as Celebes; the Aus-
tralian has 1, Zurycus; and the Neotropical 1, Huryades, con-
fined to the Chilian sub-region. The Ethiopian and the Nearctic
regions have no peculiar genera.

480 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 16—HESPERID. (52 Genera (?) 1,200 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALAARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4] 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4 | 1.2.3.4

The Hesperide, or Skippers, are an immense group of mostly
small obscurely coloured butterflies, universally distributed, and
of which hosts of species still remain to be discovered and
described. As the grouping of these into genera is not yet
satisfactorily accomplished, only the more extensive and _ best
known groups will be here noticed. Pamphila and Hesperia
are universally distributed ; Misoniades seems to be only absent
from the Australian region. The Neotropical region is pre-
eminently rich in Hesperide, 33 genera being found there, of
which 20 are peculiar to it; the Australian region has 12
genera, only 1 (Huschemon) being peculiar; the Oriental has 18,
with 3 peculiar; the Ethiopian, 13, with 3 peculiar; the Pale-
arctic 6, with 1 (Zrynnis) almost peculiar, a species occurring
in Mexico; the Nearctic 9, with none peculiar, 4 being found
also in the Neotropical region, 2 in the Palearctic, and the rest
being of wide distribution. Many new genera have, however,
been recently described in the United States, but it is impos-
sible yet to determine how many, if any, of these are peculiar.
More than 100 species of the family are included in Mr.
Edwards’ “Synopsis of North American Butterflies,’—a very
large number considering that Europe possesses only about 30.

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 481

Sub-order—LEPIDOPTERA HETEROCERA, or Morus,

The Lepidoptera Heterocera, or Moths, are of such immense
extent, and are, besides, so imperfectly known compared with
the Butterflies, that it would serve no purpose to go into the
details of their distribution; especially as most of the families
and a considerable number of the genera are cosmopolitan. We
propose therefore to notice only the Sphingina, which, being
generally of large size and finely marked or coloured, and many
of them day-fliers, have been extensively collected; and whose
numbers are more manageable than the succeeding groups.

Group I—SPHINGINA.

Famity 17—ZYGANIDA (46 Genera, about 530 Species).

The Zygenide are universally distributed, but many of the
genera are restricted in their range. Zygena (85 sp.) is mainly
Palearctic, but 2 species are South African, and 1 North
American ; Procris (22 sp.) has a scattered distribution, from the
Palearctic region to South America, South Africa and North
India ; Heterogynis (3 sp.) and Dysauxis (3 sp.) are European ;
Pollanisus (3 sp.) is Australian; Glaucopis (120 sp.) is mainly
Neotropical, with a few Oriental; Syntomis (94 sp.) is found in
all the Old-World regions; and Luchromia (150 sp.) is found
in all warm countries, though especially abundant in South
America.

Famity 18.—CASTNIIDZ (7 Genera, 63 Species).

The Castniide have an interesting distribution, being mainly
Neotropical, with four genera in Australia and New Guinea.
Castnia, Coronis, and Gazera, with 51 species, are Neotropical ;
Synemon, Euschemon, Damias and Cocytia, with 12 species, are
Australian, the latter bemg found only in the Papuan Islands,

482 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 19—AGARISTID (13 Genera, 76 Species).

The Agaristide are beautiful diurnal moths, allied to the
Castniide, but almost confined to the Australian and Oriental
regions, with a few in the Ethiopian. The most important
genera are,—Agarista (21 sp.), Australia and New Guinea; Hu-
semia (31 sp.), A’gocera (7 sp.), Oriental and Ethiopian regions ;
the other genera being confined to the islands from Java to New
Guinea,

Famity 20.—URANIID/ (2 Genera, 12 Species).

These magnificent insects have a singular distribution.
The gold-spangled Urania (6 sp.) 1s characteristic of Tropical
America, but a single species of great magnificence occurs in
Madagascar. The large but sober-tinted Vyctalemon (6 sp.) is
found in the Neotropical, Oriental, and Australian regions.

Famity 21.—STYGIID. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

These insects are confined to the Palearctic and Neotropical
regions, 2 genera in the former, 1 in the latter.

Famity 22—/EGERIIDA. (24 Genera, 215 Species.)

This family is found in all parts of the world except
Australia. geria is most abundant in Europe, but is found
also in North and South America.

FamiLy 23.—SPHINGID. (40 Genera, 345 Species.)

The Sphinx Moths are cosmopolitan. The most important
genera are,—Macroglossa (26 sp.), Cherocampa (46 sp.), and
Macrosila (21 sp.), all cosmopolitan ; Sesia (12 sp.), Europe, Asia,
and North America ; Deilephila (19 sp.), Palearctic and Oriental
regions, Nearctic region, and Chili; Sphina (21 sp.), Europe,

CHAP, XXI.] INSECTS. 483

North and South America; Smerinthus (29 sp.), all regions
except Australia. Our Death’s Head Moth (Acherontia atropos)
ranges to Sierra Leone and the Philippine Islands.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Diurnal Lepidoptera
and Sphingidea.

The Diurnal Lepidoptera or Butterflies, comprehend 431
genera and 7,740 species, arranged in 16 families, according to
Mr. Kirby’s Catalogue published in 1871. The Sphingidea con-
sist of 135 genera and 1,255 species, arranged in 7 families,
according to the British Museum Catalogue dated 1864; and as
this includes all Mr. Bates’ collections in America and my own
in the East, it is probable that no very large additions have
since been made.

The distribution of the families and genera of Butterflies
corresponds generally with that of Birds—and more especially
with that of the Passerine birds—in showing a primary division of
the earth into Eastern and Western, rather than into Northern and
Southern lands. The Neotropical region is by far the richest and
most peculiar. It possesses 15 families of butterflies, whereas the
other regions have only from 8, in the Palearctic, to 12 in the
Ethiopian and Oriental regions; and as none of the Old World
regions possess any peculiar families, the New World has a very
clear superiority. In genera the preponderance is still greater,
since the Neotropical region possesses about 200 altogether
peculiar to it, out of a total of 431 genera, many of which are
cosmopolitan. Comparing, now, the Eastern regions with the
Western, we have two peculiar families in the former to 4 in the
latter; while the Southern regions (Australian and Neotropical)
possess not a single peculiar family in common.

In the Sphingidea the same general features recur in a less
marked degree, the Neotropical being the richest region; but
here we have one family (Castniide) which appears to be con-
fined to the two southern regions,—the Australian and Neo-
tropical.

The distribution of the genera affords us some facts of special
interest, which must be briefly noticed. There are several

484 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY.

genera typically characteristic of the North Temperate regions
which have a few species widely scattered on mountains, or in
the temperate parts of the Southern Hemisphere. Chili possesses
representatives of four of these genera—Argynnis, Lycena, Co-
lias, and Deilephila ; and this has been thought by some natura-
lists to be of such importance as to outweigh the purely Neo-
tropical character of a large portion of the Chilian fauna, and
to render it advisable to join it on, as an outlying portion of a
great North Temperate zoological region. But when we re-
member that Argynnis occurs also in Java, and Lycena in New
Zealand, while Colias ranges to Southern Africa, Malabar, and
the Sandwich Islands, we can hardly admit the argument to be
a sound one. For a fuller discussion of this question see Vol.
IL, pp. 43—47. The remarkable fact of the existence of the
otherwise purely Neotropical genus, Urania, in Madagascar is
even more striking, supported as it is by the Antillean, Solenedon,
belonging to a family of Mammalia otherwise confined to Mada-
gascar, and by one or two Coleopterous genera, to be noticed
farther on as common to the two countries. Our view as to the
true explanation of this and analogous phenomena will be found
at Vol. L., p. 284.

The division of the Castniide (a family almost confined to
the Tropics), between the Neotropical and Australian regions, is
also a very curious and important phenomenon, because it seems
to point to a more remote connection between the two countries
than that indicated by the resemblance between the productions
of South Temperate America with those of Australia and New
Zealand; but we have already shown that the facts may be
explained in another way. (See Vol. I., pp. 898 and 404),

The division of the Malay Archipelago between the Oriental
and Australian regions is clearly marked in the Lepidoptera,
and it is very curious that it should be so, for in this, if in any
croup of animals, we should expect an almost complete fusion
to have been effected. Lepidoptera fly readily across wide
tracts of sea, and there is absolutely no climatal difference to
interfere with their free migration from island to island. Yet
we find no less than 10 genera abundant in the Indo-Malayan

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 485

sub-region which never cross the narrow seas to the east of
them ; 6 others which only pass to Celebes; and 2 more which
have extended from Java along the closely connected line of
islands eastwards to Timor. On the other side, we find 5 strictly
Austro-Malayan genera, and 2 others which have a single re-
presentative in Java. The following is a list of these genera :—

InDO-MALAYAN GENERA :—Amathusia, Thawmantis, Tanecia,
Hurytela, Ilerda, Zemeros, Taxila, Aphneus, Prioneris, Dercas,
Clerome, Adolias, Apatura, Limenitis, Iolaus, Leptocircus, (the
last six reach Celebes) ; Discophora, Thestias; (the last two reach
Timor.)

AUSTRO-MALAYAN GENERA :—Hamadryas, Hypocista, Mynes,
Dicallaneura, Elodina, Hyades, Prothoé (the last two reach
Java).

The most characteristic groups, which range over the whole
Archipelago and give it a homogeneous character, are the various
genera of Danaide, the genus Elymnias, and Amblypodia with a
few other Lycenide. These are all abundant and conspicuous
groups, but they are nevertheless exceptions to the general rule
of limitation to one or other of the regions. The cause of this
phenomenon is probably to be found in the limitation of the larvee
of many Lepidoptera to definite species, genera, and families of
plants ; and we shall perhaps find, when the subject is carefully
investigated, that the groups which range over the whole Archi-
pelago feed on genera of plants which have an equally wide range,
while those which are limited to one region or the other, have food-
plants belonging to genera which are similarly limited. It is
known that the vegetation of the two regions differs largely in a
botanical sense, although its general aspect is almost identical ;
and this may be the reason why the proportion of wide-ranging
genera is greater among such insects as feed upon dead wood,
than among those which derive their support from the juices of
the living foliage. This subject will be again discussed under
the various families of Coleoptera, and it will be well to bear in
mind the striking facts of generic limitation which have been
here brought forward.

486 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

Fossil Butterflies, apparently of existing genera, occur in the
Miocene and Eocene formations, and an extinct form in the
Lower Oolite ; but these cannot be held to give any adequate
idea of the antiquity of so highly specialised a group, which, in
all probability, dates back to Paleozoic times, since one of the
Bombycide,—a group almost as _ highly-organised—has been
discovered in the coal formation of Belgium. (See Vol. I. p. 168.)

Order—COLEOPTERA.

GEODEPHAGA, or CARNIVOROUS GROUND BEETLES.

The Geodephaga consist of two families, Cicindelide and
Carabide, differing in their form and habits no less than in their
numbers and distribution. The former, comprising about 800
species, are far more abundant and varied in Tropical regions ;
the latter, more than ten times as numerous, are highly charac-
teristic of the North Temperate zone, where fully half of all the
known species occur.

CICINDELID. (35 Genera, 803 Species.)

The Cicindelide, or Tiger Beetles, are a moderately extensive
group, spread over the whole globe, but much more abundant
in tropical than in temperate or cold countries. More than half
of the species (418) belong to the single genus Cicindela, the
only one which is cosmopolitan. The other large genera are-—
Collyris (81 sp.), wholly Oriental ; Odontochila (57 sp.), South
American, with species in Java and Celebes; Zetracha (46 sp.),
mostly South American, but with species in South Europe,
North America, and Australia; Zricondyla (31 sp.), characteristic
of the Oriental region, but extending eastward to New Guinea ;
Ctenostoma (26 sp.), wholly Neotropical; Dromica (24 sp.),
wholly African, south of Lake Ngami and Mozambique ; Zherates
(18 sp.), wholly Malayan, from Singapore to New Guinea.

The genera are distributed in the several regions as follows :—
the Nearctic region has 5 genera, 3 of which are peculiar to it; the

CHAP. XXI.j INSECTS. 487

Palearctic has 2, but none peculiar; the Ethiopian 13, with 11
peculiar ; the Oriental 8, with 3 peculiar; the Australian 9, with
2 peculiar; and the Neotropical 15, with 10 peculiar. The
connection between South America and Australia is shown by
the latter country possessing 9 species of the characteristic
South American genus Zetracha, as well as one of Megacephala.
The small number of peculiar genera in the Oriental and Aus-
tralian regions is partly owing to the circumstance that two
otherwise peculiar Oriental genera have spread eastward to the
Moluccas and New Guinea, a fact to be easily explained by the
great facilities such creatures have for passing narrow straits, and
by the almost identical physical conditions in the Malayan portion
of the two regions. The insects of Indo-Malaya were better
adapted to live in the Austro-Malay Islands than those of
Australia itself, and the latter group of islands have thus ac-
quired an Oriental aspect in their entomology, though not with-
out indications of the presence of an aboriginal insect-fauna of a
strictly Australian type. The relation of the Australian and
Neotropical regions is exhibited by this family in an unusually
distinct manner. Tetracha, a genus which ranges from Mexico
to La Plata, has 9 species in Australia; while Megacephala has
2 American and 1 Australian species., Another curious, and
more obscure relation, is that between the faunas of Tropical
America and Tropical Africa. This is also illustrated by the
genus Megacephala, which has 4 African species as well as 2
South American; and we have also the genus Peridexia, which
has 2 species in South America and 2 in Madagascar.

Several of the sub-regions are also well characterised by pecu-
liar genera; as Amblychila and Omus confined to California and
the Rocky Mountains; Manticora, Ophryodera, Platychile and
Dromica, characteristic of South Africa; MZegalomma and Pogonos-
toma peculiar to the Mascarene Islands; and Caledoniea to the
islands east of New Guinea. The extensive and elegant genus
Collyris is highly characteristic of the Oriental region, over the
whole of which it extends, only just passing the limits into
Celebes and Timor.

The Cicindelide, therefore, fully conform to those divisions of
Vou. II.—382

488 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv,

the earth which have been found best to represent the facts of
distribution in the higher animals.

CARABIDZ. (620 Genera, 8500 Species.)

‘The enormous extent of this family, necessitates a somewhat
general treatment. It has been very extensively collected, while
its classification has been most carefully worked out, and a
detailed exposition of its geographical distribution by a compe-
tent entomologist would be of the greatest interest. A careful
study of Gemminger and Harold’s Catalogue, however, enables
me to sketch out the main features of its distribution, and to
detail many of its peculiarities with considerable accuracy.

The Carabidee are remarkable among insects, and perhaps
among all terrestrial animals, as being a wonderfully numerous,
varied, conspicuous, and beautiful group, which is pre-eminently
characteristic of the Palearctic region. So strikingly and
unmistakably is this the case, that it must be held completely
to justify the keeping that region distinct from those to which
it has at various times been proposed to join it. Although the
Carabide are thoroughly well represented by hosts of peculiar
genera anc abundant species in every part of the world without
exception, yet the Palearctic region alone contains fully one-
third, or perhaps nearer two-fifths, of the whole. It may also be
said, that the group is a temperate as compared with a tropical
one; so that probably half the species are to be found in the
temperate and cold regions of the globe, leaving about an equal
number in the much more extensive tropical and warm regions.
But, among the cold regions, the Palearctic is pre-eminent.
North America is also rich, but it contains, by far, fewer genera
and fewer species.

The magnificent genus Carabus, with its anes Pr ocerus
and Procrustes, containing about 300 species, all of large size,
is almost wholly confined to the Palarctic region, only 10
species inhabiting North America, and 11 Temperate South
America, with one on the African mountain of Kilmandjaro.
Twelve large genera, containing together more than 2000 species,
are truly cosmopolitan, inhabiting both temperate and tropical

CHAP, XX1.] INSECTS. 489

countries all over the globe; but many of these are more abun-
dant in the Palearctic region than elsewhere. Such are Scarites,
Calosoma, Brachinus, Cymindis, Lebia, Chlaenius, Platynus, Har-
palus, Bembecidium, Peecilus, and Argutor. Of tropical cosmopo-
lites, or genera found in all the tropical regions, but not in the
temperate zones, there seem to be only four,—Catascopus, Cop-
todera, Colopodes, and Caasnonia. Pheropsophus is confined to the
tropics of the Old World; while Drimostoma, though widely
scattered, is characteristic of the Southern Hemisphere.

The Palearctic region has about 50 genera of Carabide which
are strictly confined to it, the most important being,—Leistus
(30 sp.), Procerus (5 sp.), Procrustes, (17 sp.), Zabrus (60 sp.),
Pristonychus (42 sp.), and Ophonus (60 sp.) ; but it possesses a
large number in common with the Nearctic region. The more
remarkable of these are,—Carabus, Nebria, Amara, Cyrtonotus,
Bradycellus, Anopthalinus, Celia, Cychrus, Patrobus, Elaphrus,
Notiophilus, Bradytus, Callisthenus, Blethisa, and several others.
Many too, though not strictly confined to the North Temperate
regions, are very abundant there, with a few species isolated in
remote countries, or widely scattered, often in an eccentric man-
ner. Among these may be mentioned, Z’echus (120 sp.), all
North Temperate but 8, which are scattered in Java, New Cale-
donia and South America ; Dyschirus (127 sp.), North Temperate,
with 3 or 4 species in Australia, China and La Plata; Omaseus,
(88 sp.), Steropus (90 sp.), Platysoma (114 sp.), and Pterostichus
(138 sp.), are mostly North Temperate, but each has a few
species in the South Temperate zone, New Zealand, Australia,
Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope. Dromius (54 sp.), is about
two-thirds Palearctic, the rest of the species being scattered over
the world, in Chili, North and South America, South Africa,
Burmah, Ceylon, and New Zealand. The North Temperate
genera Calathus and Olisthopus, have each one species in New
Zealand ; Percus has most of its species in South Europe, but 3
in Australia; Abax is confined to the north temperate zone,
but with one species in Madagascar while Lwmosthenes is said
to have a species identically the same in South Europe and
Chili. Some of these apparent anomalies may be due to wrong

490 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

determination of the genera, but there can be little doubt that
most of them represent important facts in distribution.

The Nearctic region is comparatively poor in Carabidae. Its
more important peculiar genera are,—Dicelus (22 sp.), Pasimachus
(17 sp.), Zurytrichus (9sp.), Spheroderus (7 sp.), Pinacodera (6 sp.),
and others of smaller extent, about 30 in all. It also possesses
representatives of a considerable number of Palearctic genera,
as already indicated; anda few of South American genera, of
which Hellwomorpha and Galerita are the most important.

The Neotropical region is very rich in peculiar forms of Cara-
bidee, as in almost all other great groups. It possesses more than
100 peculiar genera, but about 30 of these are confined to the
South Temperate sub-region. The more important peculiar genera
of Tropical America are,—Agra (144 sp.), Ardistomus (44 sp.),
Schizogenius (25 sp.), Pelectwm, (24 sp.), Calophena (22 sp.),
Ctenodastyla (7 sp.). Among:the Chilian and South Temperate
peculiar forms are,—Antarctia (29 sp.), Scelodontis (10 sp.), Tropi-
dopterus (4 sp.) Among the Neotropical genera with outlying
species are,—Pachyteles (50 sp.), one of whichis West African ;
Selenophorus (70 sp.), with 4 African, 4 Oriental, and 1 from New
Caledonia; Hyga (11 sp.), with one in the East Indies, and one in
New Caledonia ; Galerita, with 36 American species, 8 African,
and 3 Indian; Callida and Tetragonoderus, mostly American,
but with a few African, Oriental and Australian species; and
Pseudomorpha, common to America and Oceania.

The Australian region is almost equally rich, possessing about
95 peculiar genera of Carabide, no less than 20 of which are con-
fined to New Zealand. The most important are, Carenum, Pro-
mecoderus, Scaraphites, Notonomus, Afnigma, Sphallomorpha, Sil-
phomorpha, and Adelotopus. The gigantic Catadromus has 4
Australian species and 1 in Java; Homalosoma has 31 species
in Australia and New Zealand, and 1 in Madagascar. Celebes
and New Guinea have each peculiar genera, and one is common
to Australia and the Cape of Good Hope.

The Oriental region possesses 80 peculiar genera, 10 of which
are confined to Ceylon. The more important are,—Pericallus,
Planetes. and Mormolyce. Distrigus is also characteristic of this

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 491

region, with one species in Madagascar; while it has Orthogo-
nius, Hexagonia, Macrochilus, and Thyreopterus in common with
the Ethiopian region, and is rich in the fine tropical genus,
Catascopus.

The Ethiopian region has 75 peculiar genera, 8 of which are
confined to Madagascar. The more important are,—Polyhirma,
Graphipterus, and Piezia. Anthia is chiefly African, with a
few species in India; <Abacetus is wholly African, except a
species in Java, and another in South Europe; and Hypolithus
is typically African, but with 7 species in South America and 1
in Java.

The facts of distribution presented by this important family,
looked at broadly, do not support any other division of the earth
into primary regions than that deduced from a study of the
higher animals. The amount of speciality in each of these
regions is so great, that no two of them can be properly. united ;
and in this respect the Carabide accord wonderfully with the
Vertebrates. In the details of distribution there occur many
singular anomalies ; but these are not to be wondered at, if we
take into consideration the immense antiquity of Coleopterous
insects—which existed under specialised forms so far back as the
Carboniferous epoch,—the ease with which they may be dispersed
as compared with larger animals, and the facilities afforded by
their small size, habits of concealment, and often nocturnal habits,
for adaptation to the most varied conditions, and for surviving
great changes of surface and of the surrounding organic forms.
The wonder rather is, not that there are so many, but so few cases
of exceptional and anomalous distribution ; and the fact that
these creatures, so widely different from Vertebrates in organi-
sation and mode of life, are yet on the whole subject tothe same
limitations of range as were found to occur among the higher
animals, affords a satisfactory proof that the principles on which
our six primary regions are founded, are sound; and that they
are well adapted to exhibit the most interesting facts of geo-
graphical distribution, among all classes of animals.

Much stress has been laid on the fact of a few species of such
typical European genera as Carabus, Dromius, and others, being

492 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. _ [PART IV,

found in Chili and Temperate South America; and it has been
thought, that im a system of Entomological regions this part of
the world must be united to the Northern Hemisphere. But these
writers omit to take into account, either the large numbers of
isolated and peculiar forms characteristic of South Temperate
America, or the indications of affinity with Tropical America
and Australia, both of which are really more important than the
connection with Europe. The three important Chilian genera,
Cascelius, Barypus, and Cardiopthalmus, are closely allied to the
Australian Promecoderus ; others, as Omostenus and Plagioteliwm,
are quite isolated; while Antarctia and Metius, according to
Lacordaire, form a distinct division of the family. Chili, too, has
many species of Pachyteles, Coptodera, and other South American
genera; and this affinity is far stronger in many other families
than in the Carabide. The existence of representatives of
typical northern forms in Chili, is a fact of great interest, and
may be accounted for in a variety of ways; (see Vol. II. p. 44)
but it is not of such a magnitude as to be of primary import-
ance in geographical distribution, and it can only be estimated
at its fair value, by taking into account the affinities of all the

groups inhabiting that part of the world. ?

LUCANID. (45 Genera, 529 Species.)

Passing over a number of obscure families, we come to the
remarkable group of the Lucanide, or Stag-beetles, which, being
almost all of large size, and many of them of the most striking
forms, have been very thoroughly collected and assiduously
studied.

The most curious feature of their general distribution, is
their scarcity in Tropical South America, and their complete
absence from Tropical North America and the West Indian
Islands, though they appear again in Temperate North America.
In the New World they may, in fact, be looked upon as a
temperate group characteristic of the extra-tropical regions and -
the highlands ; while in the Old World, where they are far more
abundant, they are distinctly tropical, being especially numerous

CHAP. XXI. ] INSECTS. 493

in the Oriental and Australian regions. No genus has the
range of the whole family, Dorcus and Lucanus being absent
from Africa, while Cladognathus is unknown in the New World
and on the continent of Australia. The Oriental region is the
richest in peculiar forms, possessing 16 genera, 7 of which are
wholly confined to it, while 3 others only just range beyond it
to North China on the one side, or to the Austro-Malayan
islands on the other. The Australian region comes next, with
15 genera, of which 7 are wholly peculiar. South America has
12 genera, 10 of which are peculiar. The Ethiopian region has
.10 genera, 7 of which are peculiar, and 2 of these are confined
to the island of Bourbon. The Palearctic region has 8 genera,
and the Nearctic 5; one genus being peculiar to Europe, and
two confined to Europe and North America. The Ethiopian and
Oriental regions have 3 genera in common and peculiar to them;
the Oriental and Australian 3; while the Australian and Neo-
tropical have 1 in common, to which may be added Streptocerus,
which represents in Chili the Australian Lamprima.

Among the special features presented by the distribution of
the Lucanide, may be mentioned—the remarkable group of
genera, Pholidotus, Chiasognathus, and Sphenognathus, confined
to Temperate South America, the Andes, and mountains of
Brazil; Zucanus (19 sp.), almost confined to the Oriental and
Palearctic regions, three species only inhabiting North America ;
Odontolabris (29 sp.), wholly Oriental, with 2 sp. in Celebes ;
Nigidius (11 sp.), Ethiopian, but with species in Formosa, the
Philippines, and Malacca; Syndesus (11 sp.), common to Australia,
New Caledonia, and South America; Migulus (20 sp.), divided
between Africa and Madagascar on the one hand, and Australia,
with the Malay and Pacific Islands, on the other.

The facts of distribution here sketched out are in perfect
accordance with those of many groups of Vertebrates. The
regions are sharply contrasted by their peculiar and character-
istic genera; the several relations of those regions are truly
indicated ; while there is a comparatively small proportion of
cases of anomalous or eccentric distribution.

494 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IY.

CETONIID®. (120 Genera, 970 Species.)

As representative of the enormous group of the Lamellicorns,
which, according to continental entomologists, forms a single
family numbering nearly 7,000 species, we take the Cetoniide
or Rose-Chafers. These comprise a number of the most bril-
liant and beautifully-coloured insects, including the gigantic
Goliathi, which are among the largest of known beetles. They
have been assiduously collected in every part of the world, and
their classification has been elaborated by many of our most
eminent entomologists.

The Cetoniidz are especially abundant in tropical and warm
countries, yet far more so in the Old World than in the New;
and in the Old World, the Ethiopian region exhibits a marvellous
richness in this family, no less than 76 genera being found there,
while 64, or more than half the total number, are peculiar to it.
Next in richness, though still very far behind, comes the Oriental
region, with 29 genera, 17 of which are peculiar. The Neo-
tropical has only 14 genera, but all except two are peculiar to it,
and one of these is not found out of the New World. The
Australian region has 11 genera, three only being peculiar.
The Palearctic region has 13, with 4 peculiar; the Nearctic 7,
with 2 peculiar. The affinities of the regions for each other, as
indicated by the genera confined to two adjacent regions, are in
this family somewhat peculiar. The Ethiopian and Oriental
show the most resemblance, 6 genera being common and peculiar
to the two; the Oriental and the Australian are unusually well
contrasted, having only one genus exclusively in common, while
8 genera are found in the Indo-Malay Islands which do not
cross the boundary to the Austro-Malayan division, and several
others only pass to the nearest adjacent islands ; on the other hand,
the only large Australian genus, Schizorhina, is found in many
parts of the Moluccas, but not further west. The Australian
and Neotropical regions exhibit no direct affinity, the nearest
ally to the South American Gymnetide being Clinteria, an
African and Asiatic genus; while not a single genus is common

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 405

to Australia and South America. The Nearctic and Palearctic
regions have 3 genera in common, which are found in no other
part of the world.

Among the special features of interest connected with the
distribution of this family, we must first notice the exceptional
richness of Madagascar, which alone possesses 21 peculiar
genera. South Africa is also very rich, having 8 peculiar
genera. Stethodesma is very peculiar, being divided between
South America and Mexico on the one hand, and West and
South Africa on the other. Stalagmosoma is a desert genus,
ranging from Persia to Dongola. No genus is cosmopolitan, or
even makes any approach to being so, except Valgus, which
occurs in all the regions except the Neotropical; and even the
family seems to be not universally distributed, since no species
are recorded either from New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, or
the Antilles.

The facts here brought forward, lead us to the conclusion that
the Cetonudze are an Old-World tropical family, which had
been well developed in Africa and Asia before it spread to
Australia and America; and that it is only capable of being
freely dispersed in the warmer regions of the earth. This view
will explain the absence of affinity between the Australian and
Neotropical regions, the only closer connection between which,
has almost certainly occurred in the colder portions of the Tem-
perate zone.

BUPRESTIDZ. (109 Genera, 2,686 Species.)

The next family suited to our purpose is that of the Bupres-
tide, consisting as it does of many large and some gigantic
species, generally adorned with brilliant metallic colours, and
attracting attention in all warm countries. Although these in-
sects attain their full development of size and beauty only in
the Tropics, they are not much less abundant in the warmer
parts of the Temperate zone. In the Catalogue of the Coleop-
tera of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, by M. de Marseul
(1863), we find 317 species of Buprestidee enumerated, although

496 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lV.

the district in question only forms a part of the Palearctic
region, which would thus seem to possess its full proportion of
the species of this family. Confining ourselves to the generic
forms, we find far less difference than usual between the
numbers possessed by the tropical and the temperate regions ;
the richest being the Australian, with 47 genera, 20 of which
are peculiar; and the poorest the Nearctic, with 24 genera, of
which 7 are peculiar. ‘The Oriental has 41 genera, 14 of which
are peculiar ; the Neotropical 39, of which the large proportion
of 18 are peculiar; the Ethiopian 27, of which 6 are peculiar;
and the Palearctic also 27, but with 9 peculiar.

A most interesting feature in the distribution of this family,
is the strong affinity shown to exist between the Australian
and Neotropical regions, which have 4 genera common. to both
and found nowhere else; but besides this, the extensive and
highly characteristic Australian genus, Stigmodera, is closely
related to a number of peculiar South American genera, such as
Conognatha, Hyperantha, Dactylozodes,—the last altogether con-
fined to Chili and Temperate South America. Here we have
a striking contrast to the Cetoniide, and we can hardly help
concluding, that, as the latter is typically a tropical group, so
the present family, although now so largely tropical, had an
early and perhaps original development in the temperate regions
of Australia, spreading thence, to Temperate South America as
well as to the tropical regions of Asia and Africa. The
Australian and Oriental regions have 4 genera exclusively in
common, but they also each possess a number of peculiar or
characteristic genera, such as the Indo-Malayan Catoxantha
(which has only a single species in the Moluccas) and nine others
of less importance; and the exclusively Austro-Malayan genus,
Sambus, with five smaller groups, and Cyphogastra, with only 2
Indo-Malay species. The Oriental and Ethiopian regions are very
distinct, only possessing the single genus, Sternocera, exclusively .
in common. The Nearctic and Palearctic are also distinct, only
one genus, Dicerca, being confined to America (North and South)
and Europe, a fact which again points to a southern origin for
this family, and its comparatively recent extension into the

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 497

North Temperate zone. It must be remembered, however, that
in view of the immense geological antiquity of the existing
families of Beetles, dating back certainly to the Secondary and
probably to the Paleeozoic epoch, “comparatively recent” may
still be of considerable antiquity.

It is somewhat singular that North and South America have
no genera exclusively in common. The connection between
South America and Africa seems to be shown,—by the genus
Psiloptera, the mass of the species being divided between these
regions, with a few widely scattered over the globe; and the
American genus Actenodes, which has one species in West
Africa. Somewhat allied, is the extensive genus Polybothris,
strictly confined to Madagascar. The genus Agrilus is perhaps
cosmopolitan, although no species of the family is recorded from
New Zealand. Among the peculiarities of distribution we may
. notice,—the genus Sponsor, with 8 species in the island of
Mauritius, 1 in Celebes, and 1 in New Guinea; Ptosima, scat-
tered between the United States, Mendoza in South Temperate
America, South Europe, the Philippine Islands, and North
China; Polycesta, which besides inhabiting South America,
North America, and Europe, has a single species in Madagascar ;
and Belionota, which has 8 species African, 8 Indo-Malayan, 2
. Austro-Malayan, and 1 in California. The extensive genus
Acmeodera, is most abundant in the warm and dry portions of
the Palearctic, Ethiopian, and Nearctic regions, with some in
the Andes and South Temperate America, a few in Brazil and
the West Indies, and 1 said to be from the Philippines. About
one-third of the genera (containing more than half the species)
have a tolerably extensive range, while the genera confined to
single regions contain only about one-fourth of the total number
of species.

It will, I think, be admitted, after a careful study: of the
preceding facts, that the regions and sub-regions here adopted,
serve to exhibit, with great clearness, the chief phenomena of
distribution presented by this interesting family.

498 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

LONGICORNIA. (1,488 Genera, 7,576 Species).

The elegant and admired group of the Longicorn Beetles, is
treated by continental authors as a single family, consisting of
three sub-divisions—the Prionidie, Cerambycidze, and Lamiide
of English entomologists. These are so closely related, and are
so similar in form, habits, and general distribution, that it will
be best to consider the whole as one group, noticing whatever
peculiarities occur in the separate divisions. The endless
structural differences among these insects, have led to their
being classed in an unusual number of genera, which average
little more than 5 species each; a number far below that in any
of the other families we have been considering, and probably
below that which obtains in any of the more extensive groups
of animals or plants. This excessive subdivision of the genera,
a large number of which consist of,only one or two species,
renders it difficult to determine with precision the relations of
the several regions, since the affinities of these genera for each
other are in many cases undetermined. A group of such
enormous extent as this, can only be properly understood after
years of laborious study ; we must therefore content ourselves
with such results as may be obtained from a general survey of
the group, and from a comparison of the range of the several
genera, by means of a careful tabulation of the mass of details
given in the recent Catalogue of Messrs. Gemminger and Harold
and the noble work of Lacordaire.

The proportionate extent of the three families of Longicorns is
very unequal; the Prionide comprising about 7 per cent., the
Cerambycide 44 per cent., and the Lamiide 49 per cent. of the
total number of species ; and the genera are nearly in the same
proportions, being almost exactly 10, 40, and 50 per cent. of the
whole, respectively ; or, 135 Prionide, 609 Cerambycide, and 746
Lamiide. The several regions, however, present marked differ-
ences in their proportions of these families. In the two North
Temperate regions, the Cerambycide are considerably more
numerous than the Lamiide, in the proportion of about 12 to

CHAP. XX‘. ] INSECTS. 499

9; and in this respect the Neotropical region agrees with them,
though the superiority in the proportion of Cerambycide is
somewhat less. In the Old World tropical regions, however,
and in Australia, the Lamiide greatly preponderate—being
nearly double in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions (or as 11 to
6), while in the Australian it is as 6 to 5. The Prionide show
a similar difference, though in a less degree; being proportion-
ately more numerous in the North Temperate and Neotropical
regions. Now, as regards the North Temperate regions, this
difference can be, to some extent explained, by a difference in
the habits of the insects. The Lamiide, which both in
the larva and perfect. state have exceedingly powerful jaws,
exclusively frequent timber trees, and almost always such as
are dead; while the Cerambycide, are generally more delicate
and have weaker mandibles, and many of the species live on
shrubs, dead twigs, foliage, and even on flowers. The immense
superiority of the Tropics in the number and variety of their
timber trees, and the extent of their forests, sufficiently accounts
for their superiority to the Temperate regions in the develop-
ment of Lamiide; but the great excess of Cerambycide in
South America as compared with the rest of the Tropics, is not
to be so readily explained.

Bearing in mind the different proportions of the families, as
above noted, we may now consider the distribution of the
Longicorns as a whole. In number of generic forms, the Neo-
tropical. region, as in so many other groups, has a marked
superiority. It possesses 516 genera, 489 of which (or about
42 of the whole) are peculiar to it. The Australian and Orien-
tal regions come next, and are exactly equal, both possessing
360 genera, and having almost exactly the same proportion (in
each case a little less than ?) peculiar. The Ethiopian region
has 262 genera, with about $ peculiar ; the Palearctic 196, with
51 (rather more than }) peculiar; and the Nearctic 111, with
59 (a little more than half) peculiar. The more isolated of
the sub-regions are also well characterised by peculiar genera.
Thus, Chili with Temperate South America possesses 37, a
large proportion being Cerambycide; the Malagasi group 26,

500 : GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

with a preponderance of Lamiide ; and New Zealand 12, of which
the Cerambycide are only slightly in excess.

The relations between the Longicorn fauna of the several
regions, are such as are in accordance with the dependence of the
group on a warm climate and abundant vegetation ; and indicate
the efficiency of deserts and oceans as barriers to their migration.
The Neotropical and Australian regions have only 4 genera in
common, but these are sufficient to show, that there must proba-
bly once have been some means of communication between the
two regions, better adapted to these insects than any they now
possess. The Nearctic and Neotropical regions have 5, and the
Nearctic and Palearctic 13 genera in common and peculiar to
them, the latter fact being the most remarkable, because no
means of inter-communication now exists, except in high lati-
tudes where the species of the Longicorns are very few. The
Oriental and Australian regions, on the other hand, are closely
connected, by having no less than 52 genera of Longicorns in
common and peculiar to them. Most of these are specially
characteristic of the Malay Archipelago, often extending over all
the islands from Sumatra to New Guinea. This large number of
wide-spread genera of course gives a character of uniformity to
the entire area over which they extend ; and, with analogous facts
occurring in other families, has led many entomologists to reject
that division of the Archipelago between the Australian and
Oriental regions, which has been so overwhelmingly demon-
strated to be the natural one in the case of the higher animals.
The general considerations already advanced in Chapter II.
enable us, however, to explain such anomalies as this, by the
great facilities that exist for the transfer from island to island
of such small animals, so closely connected with woody vege-
tation in every stage of their existence. That this is the true
and sufficient explanation, is rendered clear by certain additional
facts, which those who object to the sharp division of the Indo-
Malay and Austro-Malay sub-regions have overlooked.

An analysis of all the Malay Longicorns proves, that besides the
52 genera characteristic of the Archipelago as a whole, there are
100 genera which are confined to one or other of its component

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 501

sub-regions. Many of these, it is true, consist of single species
confined to a single island, and we will not lay any stress on
these ; but there are also several important groups, which extend
over the Indo-Malay or the Austro-Malay islands only, stopping
abruptly at the dividing-line between them. For example, on
the Indo-Malay side we have Huryarthrum, Leprodera, Aris-
tobia, Celosterna, and Entelopes, and what is perhaps even more
satisfactory, the large genera Agelasta and Astathes, abundant in
all the Indo-Malay islands, but having only one or two species
just passing the boundary into Celebes. On the other side we have
Tethionea, Sphingnotus, Arrhenotus, Tmesisternus (the last three
genera abounding from New Guinea to Celebes, but totally
unknown further west), Hestima, Trigonoptera, Amblymora, Ste-
stlea, Enes, and the large genus Micracautha, with but a single
species beyond the boundary,—30 Austro-Malayan genera in all,
each found in more than one island, but none of them extending
west of Celebes. Here we have clear proof that the boundary
line between the two great regions exists for Longicorns, as well
as for all other animals; but in this case an unusually large
number have been able to get acrossit. This, however, does not
abolish. the barrier, but only proves that it is not absolutely effect-
ual in all cases. Those who maintain that the Malay Archi-
pelago forms a single Coleopterous region, must disprove or
explain the instances of limited range here adduced.

Out of nearly 1500 known genera of these insects, only one
genus, Clytus, appears to be cosmopolitan. Saperda and Callichro-
ma are the only others that perhaps occur in every region ; but
these are both wanting over wide tracts of the earth’s surface,
Saperda being absent from Tropical Africa and the Malay Archi-
pelago; and Callichroma from the Australian region, except one
species in Polynesia. Many of the genera of Longicorns have a
somewhat wide and scattered distribution, indicative of decadence.
or great antiquity. Mallodon and Parandra are mostly South
American, but have species in Australia and Africa; Oeme is
found in Brazil and the United States, with one species in West
Africa; Ceratophorus has 2 species in West Africa and 1 in New
Zealand. Yystrocera is mostly African, but has single species in

502 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART LV.

Borneo, Java, Amboyna and South Australia; Phyton has one
species in North America and the other in Ceylon; Philage-
tes has 2 in South Africa, and 1 in Malacca: Tozxotus abounds
in North America and Europe, with one species away in Mada-
gascar. Leptura is also North Temperate, but has a species at
the Cape, one at Singapore and a third in Celebes. Necydalis
has species in North and South America, Europe and Australia.
Hylotrupes has 1 species in North America and Europe, and 1 in
Australia; Leptocera prefers islands, being found only in Ceylon,
Madagascar, Bourbon, Batchian, the New Hebrides, New
Caledonia and North Australia; Hathliodes is Australian, with
1 species in Ceylon; Schenionta has 3 Malayan species, and 1
in Natal. Many other cases equally curious could be quoted,
but these are sufficient. They cannot be held to indicate any
close relation between the distant countries in which species of
the same genus are now found, but perhaps serve to remind
us that groups of great antiquity, and probably of great extent,
have dwindled away, leaving a few surviving relics scattered far

>
and wide, the sole proofs of their former predominance.

General Observations on the Distribution of Coleoptera.

We have now passed in review six of the most important and
best known groups of the Coleoptera or Beetles, comprising
about 2,400 genera, and more than 21,000 species. Although
presenting certain peculiarities and anomalies, we have found
that, on the whole, their distribution is in very close accordance
with that of the higher animals. We have seen reason to
believe that these great and well-marked groups have a high
geological antiquity, and by constantly bearing this fact in mind,
we can account for many of the eccentricities of their distribu-
tion. They have probably survived changes of physical geo-
graphy which have altogether extinguished many of the more
highly organised animals, and we may perhaps gain some insight
into the bearing of those changes, by considering the cross rela-
tions between the several regions indicated by them. On care-
fully tabulating the indications given by each of the groups here
discussed, I arrive at the following approximate result. The

CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 503

best marked affinities between the regions are those between
the Nearctic and Palearctic,—the Oriental and Australian,
—the Australian and Neotropical,—which appear to be about
equal in each case. Next comes that between the Ethiopian
and Oriental on the one side, and the Ethiopian and Neotropical
on the other, which also appear about equal. Then follows that
between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions ; and lastly, and far
the least marked, that between the North Temperate and South
Temperate regions. That the relation between the Ethiopian
and Neotropical region should be so comparatively well marked,
is unexpected ; but we must consider that in such a comparison
as the present, we probably get the result, not of any recent
changes or intermigrations, but of all the long series of changes
and opportunities of migration that have occurred during many
geological epochs,—probably during the whole of the Tertiary
period, perhaps extending far back into the Secondary age.

It appears evident that Insects exhibit in a very marked
degree in their actual distribution, the influence both of very
ancient and very modern conditions of the earth’s surface. The
effects of the ancient geographical features of the earth, are to be
traced, in the large number of cases of discontinuous and widely
scattered groups which we meet with in almost every family,
and which, to some extent, obscure the broader features of distri-
bution due to the period during which the barriers which divide
the several primary regions have continued to exist. And this,
which we may consider as the normal distribution, is still
further obscured in those cases where the barriers between
existing regions are of such a nature as to admit of the free
passage of insects or their larva in a variety of ways, and (what
is perhaps of more importance) in which the physical features
on both sides of the barrier are so nearly identical, as to admit
of the ready establishment of such immigrants as may occasion-
ally arrive. These conditions concur, for some families of insects,
in the case of the Oriental and Australian portions of the Malay
Archipelago: and it is there that the normal distribution has
been sometimes greatly obscured, but never, as we have suffi-

ciently shown, by any means obliterated.
Vou. Il.—33

CHAPTER XXII.

AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA.

THE Mollusca being for the most part marine, it does not enter
into the plan of this work to go into much detail as to their
distribution. The orders and families will, however, be passed
briefly in review, and all terrestrial and fresh-water groups
discussed in somewhat more detail; with the object of showing
how far their distribution accords with that of the higher
animals, and to what extent the anomalies they present can be
explained by peculiarities of organisation and habits. If the
views advocated in our fifth chapter are correct, the regions
there marked out must apply to all classes of animals; and it
will be the task of the students of each group, to work out in
detail the causes which have led to any special features of
distribution. All I can hope to do here, is to show, generally
and tentatively, that such a mode of treatment is possible; and
that it is not necessary, as it is certainly not convenient or
instructive, to have a distinct set ‘of “Regions” established for
each class or order in the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms.

For all the Marine groups I have merely summarised the
information contained in Mr. Woodward’s Manual of the
Mollusca, but in the case of the Land Shells I have consulted
the most recent general works, and endeavoured to give an
accurate, though doubtless a very incomplete, account of the
most interesting facts in. their distribution. As their classifica-
tion is very unsettled, I have followed that of the two latest
great works, by Martens and Pfeiffer.

CHAP. XXII. ] MOLLUSCA. 505

Ciass.—CEPHALOPODA.

Order I—DIBRANCHTIATA.
FAMILY 1—ARGONAUTID. “Paper Nautilus.” (1 Genus,
4 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.—Open seas of all warm regions. Two species
fossil in Tertiary deposits.

_Famity 2.—OCTOPODID®. “ Polypi.’ (7 Genera, 60
Species).

DisTRIBUTION.—Norway to New Zealand, all tropical and
temperate seas and coasts.

FamIty 8.—TEUTHID®. “Squids or Sea-pens.” (16 Genera,
102 Species.)

DIsTRIBUTION.— Universal, to Greenland ; 2 other genera are
“ fossil, in the Lias and Oolite.

Famity 4.—SEPIAD/. “Cuttle Fish.” (1 Genus, 30 Species).
DISTRIBUTION.— Al] seas : 4 other genera are fossil, in Eocene
and Miocene deposits.
Famity 5.—SPIRULID. (1 Genus, 3 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.—AI] the warmer seas.

506 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY, [PART IV.

Famity 6.— BELEMNITID. Fossil. (6 Genera, 100
Species).

DISTRIBUTION.—Lias to Chalk in Europe, India and North
America.

Order II—TETRABRANCHIATA.
Famity 7.—NAUTILID. (1 Genus, 3 Species, Living; 4
Genera, 300 Species, Fossil).

DIstRIBUTION.—Indian and Pacific Oceans; and the fossil
species from the Silurian Period to the Tertiary, in all parts
of the world.

Famity 8—ORTHOCERATIDA. Fossil. (8 Genera, 400
- Species).

DISTRIBUTION.—Lower Silurian to Lias.

Famity 9.—AMMONITIDZ. Fossil. (14 Genera, 1100
Species).

DISTRIBUTION.—Upper Silurian to Chalk. Found at 16,000
feet elevation in the Himalayas.

CHAP. XXII.] MOLLUSCA. 507

Crass.—_GASTEROPODA.

Order I—PROSOBRANCHIAT A.

FamILty 1—STROMBID. (4 Genera, 86 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—The Strombide, or Wing-shells, inhabit tropi-
cal and warm seas from the Mediterranean to New Zealand ; most
abundant in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are nearly
* 200 fossil species, from the Lias to Miocene and recent deposits.

Fammty 2——MURICIDA. (12 Genera, 1000 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—All seas, most abundant in the Tropics.
Trichotropis is confined to Northern seas; Murex and Fusus are
cosmopolitan. There are about 700 fossil species, ranging from
the Oolite to the Miocene and recent formations.

Famity 3—BUCCINIDAL. (24 Genera, 1100 Species.)

Distripution.—The Buccinide, or “ Whelks,” range over the
whole world, but some of the genera are restricted. Buccinum
inhabits the north and south temperate seas; Monoceros the
West Coast of America; Cassidaria the Mediterranean ; Phos,
Harpa, Eburna, and Ricinula, are confined to the Pacific ; Dol-
ium inhabits the Mediterranean as well as the Pacific. There
are about 350 fossil species, mostly from the Eocene and Miocene
beds.

508 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART lV.

Famity 4—CONID. (3 Genera, 850 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—The Cones are universally distributed, but
this applies only to the genus Pleurotoma. Conus is tropical
and sub-tropical, and Cithara is confined to the Philippine
Islands. There are about 460 fossil species, from the Chalk
formation to the most recent deposits.

FaMILy 5.—VOLUTID (5 Genera, 670 Species.)

DIsrRIBUTION.—The Volutes are mostly tropical; but a small
species of Mitra is found at Greenland, and a Marginella in the
Mediterranean. Cymba is confined to the West Coast of Africa
and Portugal. Voluta extends south to Cape Horn. There are
about 200 fossil species, from the Chalk and Eocene to recent
formations.

Famity 6.—CYPRAIDA. (3 Genera, 200 Species.)

DIsTRIBUTION.—The well-known Cowries are found all over
the world, but they are much more abundant in warm regions,
One small species extends to Greenland. There are nearly 100
fossil species, from the Chalk to the Miocene and recent forma-
tions.

Famity 7.—NATICID®. (5 Genera, 270 species.)

DIsTRIBUTION.—The Naticide, or Sea-snails, though most
abundant in the Tropics, are found also in temperate seas, and
far into the Arctic regions. Two other genera are fossil; and
there are about 300 extinct species, ranging from the Devonian
to the Pliocene formations.

CHAP, XXII.] MOLLUSCA. 509

Famity 8.—PYRAMIDELLID. (10 Genera, 220 Species.)

DIsTRIBUTION.—These turreted shells are very widely distri-
buted both in temperate and tropical seas; and most of the
genera have also a wide range. There are about 400 extinct
species, from so far back as the Lower Silurian to the Pliocene
formations.

Famity 9.—CERITHIAD. (5 Genera, 190 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—These are marine, estuary, or fresh-water
shells, of an elongated spiral form; they have a world-wide
distribution, but are most abundant in the Tropics. Potamides
(41 sp.), is the only fresh-water genus, and is found in the
rivers of Africa, India and China, to North Australia and Cali-
fornia. Another genus is exclusively fossil, and there are
about 800 extinct species, ranging from the Trias to the Eocene
and recent formations, )

Famity 10.—MELANIADZ. (3 Genera, 410 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—Fresh-water only: lakes and rivers in warm
countries, widely scattered. South Palearctic and Australian
regions, from Spain to New Zealand ; South Africa, West Africa,
and Madagascar; United States. There are about 50 fossil
species, from the Wealden and Eocene to recent formations.

FamiLy 11.—TURRITELLID. (5 Genera, 230 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.— Universal. Caecum is found in north tem-
perate seas only. The other genera are mostly tropical, but some
species reach Iceland and Greenland. There are near 300
species fossil, ranging from the Neocomian to the Pliocene
formations.

510 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iy-

Famity 12,—LITTORINIDA, (9 Genera, 310 Species.)

DistRIBUTION.—The Littorinide are mostly found on the coasts
in shallow water; as the common Periwinkle (Littorina littorea).
They are of world-wide distribution; but Solariwm and Phorus
are tropical; while Lacuna, Skenea, and most species of Rissoa
are Northern. About 180 species are fossil, ranging from the -
Permian to the Pliocene formations.

Famity 13.—PALUDINID. (4 Genera, 217 Species.)

DistripuTion.—The Paludinide, or River-snails, are all fresh-
water, and range over the whole world. Paludina (60 sp.), is
confined to the Northern Hemisphere ; Ampullaria (136 sp.),
is tropical; Amphibola (3 sp.), inhabits New Zealand and the
Pacific Islands ; Valvata (18 sp.), North America and Britain.
There are 72 fossil species of Paludina and Valvata, in the
Wealden formation and more recent fresh-water deposits.

Famity 14.—NERITIDEZ. (10 Genera, 320 Species.)

DIsTRIBUTION.—AIl warm seas, ranging north to Norway and
the Caspian Sea. Neritina and Navicella inhabit fresh or brack-
ish waters, the latter confined to the countries bordering the
Indian Ocean and the islands of the Pacific. There are 80 fossil
species, from the Trias, Lias, and Eocene formations down to
recent deposits.

Famity 15.—TURBINID. (10 Genera, 425 Species).

DistrIBuTION—The genus Z’rochus (200 sp.) has a world-wide
range, but the other genera are mostly tropical, and are most
abundant in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are more
than 900 fossil species, found in all parts of the world, from the
Lower Silurian to the Tertiary formations.

CHAP. XXII. ] MOLLUSCA. 511

FamiLy 16—HALIOTID. (6 Genera, 106 Species),

DistrisuTION.—The Ear-shells are most abundant in the
Indian and Pacific Oceans; some are found on the east coasts
of the Atlantic, but there are very few in the West Indies.
Lanthina (10 sp.) consists of floating oceanic snails found in the
warm parts of the Atlantic. Three other genera are fossil, and
there are near 500 fossil species of this family ranging from the
Lower Silurian to the Pliocene formations.

Famity 17.—FISSURELLID. (5 Genera, 200 Species).

DistrisutTion.—All seas. Punctwrella (6 sp.) is confined to
Northern and Antarctic seas; Rimula to the Philippines; and
Parmophorus (15 sp.) from the Cape of Good Hope to the
Philippines and New Zealand. There are about 80 fossil
species, ranging from the Carboniferous formation to the
deposits of the Glacial epoch.

Famity 18.—CALYPTRAID. (4 Genera, 125 Species).

DistTripuTion. — The Calptreide, or Bonnet-Limpets, are
found on the coasts of all seas from Norway to Chili and
Australia; but are most abundant within the Tropics. The
genera are all widely scattered. There are 75 fossil species,
ranging from the Devonian to recent formations.

Famity 19.—PATELLID. (4 Genera, 254 Species).

DistriBuTION.—The Patellide, or Limpets, are universally
distributed, and are as abundant in the temperate as in
tropical seas. There are about 100 fossil species, ranging from
the Silurian to the Tertiary formations.

512 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Famity 20.—DENTALIAD. (1 Genus, 50 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.—The genus Dentaliuwm is found in the North
Atlantic, Mediterranean, West Indies and India. There are
125 fossil species, found in various formations as far back as
the Devonian in Europe and in Chili.

Famity 21—CHITONID. (1 Genus, 250 Species).

DIsTRIBUTION.—On rocky shores in all parts of the world.
There are 37 fossil species ranging back to the Silurian
period.

Order IT—PULMONIFERA. (“ Terrestrial Molluses.”)

The Land and Fresh-water snails are so important and exten-
sive a group, and their classification has been so carefully
studied, that their geographical distribution is a subject of much
interest. The range of the genera will therefore be given in
some detail. For the Helicide I follow the classical work of
Albers—Die Helicien, Von Martens’ Edition (1860); and for
the Operculate families, Pfeiffer’s Monographia Pneumonopo-
morum Viventium, 2nd Supplement, 1865. The number of
species is, of course, very considerably increased since these
works were published (and the probable amount of the increase
I have in most cases indicated), but this does not materially
affect the great features of their geographical distribution.

Famity 22—HELICID®. (33 Genera, 3,332 Species) (1860).
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.— Universal.

The Helicidz, or Snails, are a group of immense extent and
absolutely cosmopolitan in their range, being found in the most
barren deserts and on the smallest islands, all over the globe.
They reach to near the line of perpetual snow on mountains, and

CHAP. XXII.] MOLLUSCA. 513

to the limit of trees or even considerably beyond it, in the
Arctic regions ; but they are comparatively very scarce in all
cold countries. The Antilles, the Philippine Islands, Equa-
torial America, and the Mediterranean sub-region are especially
rich in this family. Comparatively few of the genera, and those
generally small ones, are restricted to single regions; but on the
other hand very few are generally distributed, only two— Helix
~ and Pupa—occurring in all the six regions, while Helix alone is
truly cosmopolitan, occurring in every sub-region, in every
country, and perhaps in every island on the globe.

The Neotropical region is, on the whole, the richest in this
family, the continental Equatorial districts producing an abun-
dance of large and handsome species, while the Antilles are
pre-eminent for the number of their peculiar forms. This
region possesses 22 of the genera, and 6 of them are peculiar.

The Palearctic region seems to come next in productiveness,
but this may be partly owing to its having been so thoroughly
explored. It possesses 16 of the genera, and 3 of them are
confined to it. The great mass of the species are found in
the warm and fertile countries surrounding the Mediterranean
Sea. ;

The Ethiopian region has 13 genera, only one of which is
peculiar.

The Australian region has 14 genera, 2 of which are confined
to the Pacific Islands.

The Oriental has 15 genera and the Nearctic 12, but in
neither case are there any peculiar generic types.

The following is the distribution of the several genera taken
in the order of their magnitude :—

Helix (1,115 sp.), cosmopolitan. This genus is divided into
88 sub-genera, a number of which have a limited distribution.
An immense quantity of species have been recently described,
so that the number now exceeds 2,000.

Nanina (290 sp.) is characteristic of the Oriental and Aus-
tralian regions, over the whole of which it extends, just entering
the Palearctic region as far as North China and Japan.
Isolated from this area is a small group of 4 species occurring

514 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Ly.

in West Africa. The number of species in this genus have
now been increased to about 400.

Clausilia (272 sp.) is most abundant in Europe, with a few
species widely scattered in India, Malaya, China, Japan, Equa-
torial America, and one in Porto Rico. The described species
have been increased to nearly 500.

Bulimulus (210 sp.) is American, and almost exclusively
Neotropical, ranging from Montevideo and Chili, to the West
Indian Islands, California and Texas ; with two sub-genera con-
fined to the Galapagos Islands. About 100 uew species have
been described since the issue of the second edition of Dr.
Woodward's Manual.

Pupa (210 sp.) abounds most in Europe and the Arctic
regions, but has a very wide range, being scattered throughout
Africa, continental India, Australia, the Pacific Islands, North
America to Greenland, and the Antilles; but it is absent
from South America, the Himalayan and Malayan sub-regions,
China and Japan. An extinct species has occurred abundantly in
the carboniferous strata of North America. About 160 addi-
tional species have been described.

Bulimus (172 sp.) abounds most in Tropical South America ;
it is also found from Burmah eastward through Malaya to the
Solomon and Fiji Islands; there are also scattered species in
Patagonia, St. Vincents, Texas, St. Helena, and New Zealand.
More than 100 additional species have been described.

Buliminus (132 sp.) ranges from Central and South Europe
over the whole Ethiopian and Oriental regions to North China,
and through the Australian to New Zealand; there is also a
single outlying species in the Galapagos Islands. About 50
more species have been described.

Cochlostyla (127 sp.) is almost peculiar to the Philippine
Islands, beyond which, are a species in Borneo, one in Java, and
two in Australia. Very few new species have been added to
this genus.

Achatinella (95 sp.) is absolutely confined to the Sandwich
Island group. Recent researches have more than tripled the
number of described species.

CHAP, XXII. ] MOLLUSCA. 515

Achatina (87 sp.) is most abundant and finest in the Ethio-
pian region, over the whole of which it ranges; but there are
also species in Florida, the Antilles, the Sandwich Islands,
Ceylon and India. The described species are now more than
doubled.

Hyalina (84 sp.) inhabits all Tropical America and the
Antilles, North America to Greenland, and Europe to the
Arctic regions. Comparatively few new species have been
described.

Cylindrella (83 sp.) inhabits the West Indian islands and
Guatemala to Texas, with a sub-genus in the Philippine Islands.
Species since described have more than trebled the number in
this genus.

Cionella (67 sp.) is widely scattered ; in India from Ceylon to
the Khasia Mountains, Brazil, New Granada, the West Indian
islands, Palearctic, and northern part of Nearctic regions,
Pacific Islands, New Zealand, and Juan Fernandez. About 20
new species have since been described.

Glandina (66 sp.), Peru to South Carolina and the Antilles,
with three species in Central Africa and one in South Europe.
About 40 species have been added to this genus.

Stenogyra (49 sp.), widely distributed: Tropical America and
West Indies to Florida, South and West Africa, the Mediter-
ranean region, India and the Philippines. About a dozen new
species have been described.

Succinea (41 sp.), widely scattered in all the regions, and in
St. Helena, Juan Fernandez, Tahiti, Chiloe, Greenland, West
Africa, Himalayas and Australia. The described species are
now more than 100.

Partula (39 sp.), Solomon Islands to Tahiti and Sandwich
Islands. This genus has also been increased to near 100
species.

Streptaxis (34 sp.), most abundant in Tropical South America,
but occurs in West Africa, the Seychelles and Rodriguez Islands,
Ceylon and Burmah. It now contains over 100 described species.

Spiraxis (33 sp.), Yucatan to Mexico, and less abundant in the
West Indian Islands. About 20 species have been added.

516 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

Macroceramus (27 sp.), Antilles, Florida, and Peru. The
species have been more than doubled.

Vitrina (26 sp.), widely scattered through North and Central
Europe, North-west America and Greenland, Abyssinia, Mada-
gascar and South Africa, Himalayas to Burmah and Australia.
Species since described have more than doubled the number in
this genus.

Orthalicus (23 sp.), Bolivia to Mexico and Antilles. This genus
has been increased to about 40 species.

Sagda (19 sp.), Antilles only: Very few new species, if any,
have been described.

Zonites (12 sp.), South Europe, with one species of a distinct
type in Guatemala. The number of species in this genus has
been since about, tripled.

Leucochroa (11 sp.), Mediterranean region to Syria and
Arabia Petrea.

Simpulopsis (7 sp.), Bahia, Antilles, and far away in the .
Solomon Islands. Two or three have been added.

Balea (6 sp.), Middle and North Europe, Brazil, and the
Island of Tristan d’Acunha.

Daudebardia (6 sp.), Central and South Europe ; and a species
has since been discovered in New Zealand.

Macrocycles (4 sp.), Chili, California, Oregon and Central
North America.

Columna (3 sp.), West Africa, Princes Islands and Madagascar.

Stenopus (2 sp.), Island of St. Vincent (West Indies.)

Pfeifferia (2 sp.), Philippines and Moluccas.

Testacella (2 sp.), West Europe and Teneriffe. About 8 species
have been since described, including one from New Zealand.

Fossil species of Helix, Bulimus, Achatina, Balea, and Clau-
silia, are found in all the Tertiary formations ; while a species
of Pupa (as already stated) occurs in the carboniferous forma-
tion. For interesting details of the distribution of the sub-
genera and species of Achatinella in the Sandwich Islands, see a
paper by Rev. J. T. Gulick in the Journal of the Linnean
Society. (Zoology, vol. xi. p. 496.)

CHAP. XXII. ] MOLLUSCA. 517

Famity 23.—LIMACID.—(12 Genera, 116 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

a | 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 | SoS | 1.2.3.4 | ree Me ae

The Limacide, or Slugs, are widely distributed, but they are
absent from South America, where they are represented by the
next family. They also seem to be absent from the greater part
of Africa. The genera are distributed as follows :—

Limaxz (51 sp.), Palearctic region, Australia and the Sand-
wich Islands ; Anadenus (2 sp.), Himalayas ; Philomychus (9 sp.),
North America, China and Java; Arion (25 sp.), Norway to
Spain and South Africa; Parmacella -(7 sp.), South Europe,
Canary Islands and North India; Janella (1 sp.), New Zealand ;
Aneitea (1 sp.), NewHebrides and New Caledonia; Parmarion
(4 sp.), India ; Zriboniophorus (3 sp.), Australia ; Testacella (3 sp.),
South Europe, Canary Islands, and New Zealand; Hyalimaz
(2 sp.), Bourbon and Mauritius; Krynickia (8 sp.), Eastern
Europe and North America. A few species of Limaxz, Arion, and
Testacella have been found fossil in Tertiary deposits.

Famity 24.—ONCIDIADZ. (2 Genera, 36 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC PAL#ZARCTIC
SuB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.

1.2.3.4 | ---- | 1.2) — — | —— — & | 1.2.3.3 |-2-4

INFOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

The Oncidiad, or Slugs with a coriaceous mantle, mhabit
the Oriental region, Mauritius, Australia, the Pacific Islands,
South America and South Europe. The genera are :—

518 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv,

Oncidiwm (16 sp.), South Europe (1 sp. British), Mauritius,
Australia and Pacific Islands; Vaginulus (20 sp.), Neotropical
and Oriental regions.

Famity 25.—LIMNAIDZ. (7 Genera, 332 Species.)

GENERAL DIsTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PAL#ARCTIC
SUB-KEGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

SUB-REGIONS,

1.2.9.4| 1.2.3.4 1.2.9.4] a /1.2.3.4 | ePaet

The Limneide, or Fresh-water Snails, inhabit ponds and
rivers in most parts of the world, but appear to be absent from
the Australian region. The genera are distributed as follows :—

Limnea (95 sp.), Nearctic, Palearctic, and Oriental regions ;
Choanomphalos (2 sp.), Lake Baikal ; Pompholyx (2 sp.), Western
America; Ohilinia (18 sp.), South America; Physa (20 sp.),
Nearctic, Palearctic, Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and extends
to above 73° North Latitude in Siberia, being the most Arctic of
land or fresh-water shells; Ancylus (49 sp.), Nearctic and
Neotropical regions, Europe and New Zealand; Planorbis (145
sp.), Nearctic, Palzearctic and Oriental regions. Several genera

are found fossil, chiefly in the Wealden, Eocene, and Miocene
formations.

Famity 26—AURICULIDZ. (3 Genera, 210 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

1--4 [1.2.9.4 1.a-—|1.2.9—|1.2.9.4|1.9—4

The Auriculide are chiefly found near the sea in hot countries
and are most abundant in the Eastern tropics. They are absent

CHAP. XXII. ] MOLLUSCA. 519

from the East coast of South America. The genera have a
somewhat restricted distribution as follows:—

Auricula (128 sp.), India, Pacific Islands, Peru and West
Indies; Melampus (56 sp.), West Indies and Europe; Cary-
chium (9 sp.), Europe and North America ; Plectrotrema (14 sp.),
Australia, Malay Islands, China, Cuba; Blatneria (2 sp.), West
Indian and Sandwich Islands. There are many fossil species
ranging back to the Eocene formation.

Famity 27.—ACICULIDE. (4 Genera, 65 Species.) (1865.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PALZARCTIC ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS.
~2.9.4 | 1.2—— | 1-2-4 |---4|-a—« | 12.3 —

The Aciculide are small cylindrical shells chiefly found in
the West Indian Islands, but with representatives widely
scattered over the globe.

Acicula (5 sp.) is European only; Geomelania (21 sp.), and
Chittya (1 sp.), are confined to the Island of Jamaica; Zrwnca-
tella (38 sp.),is most abundant in the Antilles, but is aie found
in some part of each of the six regions, as indicated by the
diagram of the family. But few new species have been added
to this group. ;

Famity 28—DIPLOMMATINID. (3 Genera, 23 Species.)
(1865.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

|

The Diplommatinide are minute shells of the Oriental pea
Australian regions. Es iC CA ys
Vor, II.--34

Phe | ee en | pe ee |---- | 19.4 | 1-e"sea

520 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

Diplommatina (18 sp.) inhabits India to Burmah, and the
greater part of the Australian region ; the number of species has
now been doubled, and one has been discovered in the island
of Trinidad ; Clostophis (1 sp.), Moulmein; Paxillus (3 sp.),
Borneo, Hong Kong, and Loo Choo Islands.

Famity 29—CYCLOSTOMIDA. (41 Genera, 1009 Species.)
(1865.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS,

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

2.3.4 —-—3— | ———4 | —-—3.4 1.2.3.4 l---—

This extensive group, comprising the largest of the opercu-
lated land-shells, is especially characteristic of the Oriental
region, which possesses 25 genera, no less than 12 of them being
wholly confined toit. The Neotropical region comes next, with
15 genera, 9 of which are peculiar; but a large number of
these are confined to the West Indian Islands, South America
itself being very poor in this group. The Palearctic region
has 3 peculiar genera; the Ethiopian and Australian 1 each.
The Nearctic region has but a single West Indian species in
Florida. The distribution of the genera is as follows :—

Peculiar to or characteristic of the Oriental region are, Opis-
thoporus (11 sp.), Rhiostoma (6 sp.), Alycaeus (39 sp.), Opisthos-
toma (1 sp.), Hybocistis (3 sp.), Pterocyclos (19 sp.), extending to
the Moluccas ; Aulopoma (4 sp.), Dermatocera(4 sp.), Leptopoma
(54 sp.), extending west to the Seychelles and east to the Mo-
luccas and New Guinea; Cyclophorus (163 sp.), most abundant
in the Oriental region, but ranges to Japan, to Chili, and all
Tropical America, over the whole Australian region, and to
Natal aud Madagascar; Cataulus (15 sp.), confined to Ceylon,
the Neilgherries and Nicobar Islands; Rhaphaulus (4 sp.),
Penang to Ceram ; Streptaulus (1 sp.), Arinia (3 sp.), Pupinella
(2 sp.), Pupina (24 sp.), half in North India to Philippines and

CHAP. XXII.] 7 MOLLUSCA. 521

Japan, the other half in Moluccas, New Guinea and Australia ;
Cyclotopsis (2 sp.), India and Malaya: Registoma (9 sp.), Philip-
pines and Moluccas, New Caledonia and Pacific.

Characteristic of the Neotropical region are :—Cyclotus (111
sp.), half in the Antilles and Tropical America, the rest in the
Moluccas, China, Malaya, India, Natal, and the Seychelle
Islands; Megalomastoma (27 sp.), abundant in Cuba, West
Indies and South America, others in India, Malaya, and
Mauritius; Jamaicia (2 sp.), Jamaica; Licina (5 sp.), Antilles ;
Choanopoma (49 sp.), Antilles; Ctenopoma (25 sp.), Antilles ;
Diplopoma (1 sp.), Cuba; Adamsiella (15 sp.), Jamaica, Cuba,
Guatemala ; Cyclostomus (113 sp.), abundant in Antilles, also
occurs in Madagascar, Arabia, Syria, Hungary and New Zealand ;
Tudora (34 sp.), Antilles, and one species in Algeria; Cistula
(40 sp.), Chondropoma (94 sp.), Bourcierta (2 sp.), Tropical
America.

Peculiar to or characteristic of the Palearctic region are :—
Craspedopoma (5 sp.), confined to Madeira, the Azores and
Canaries ; Leonia (1 sp.), Spain and Algeria; Pomatias (22 sp.),
Europe and Canaries with a species in the Himalayas ; Cecina
(1 sp.), Manchuria.

The Ethiopian region has the peculiar genus Lithodion (5 sp.),
Madagascar, Socotra and Arabia; and Otopoma(19 sp.), Mascarene
Islands and Socotra, with a species in Western India and another
in New Ireland. :

The Australian region is characterised by Callia (3 sp.), in
Ceram, Australia, and the Philippines respectively ; Realia (7
sp.), New Zealand and the Marquesas Islands; Omphalotropis
(38 sp.), the Australian region, with some species in India,
Malaya, and the Mauritius.

The remaining genus, Hydrocena (27 sp.), has a very
widely scattered distribution, being found in South Europe,
Japan, the Cape, China, Malaya, New Zealand, the Pacific
Islands and Chili. From 10 to 20 per cent. of new species have
been since described in most of the genera of this family.

522 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

FamiLy 30.—HELICINID. (7 Genera, 433 Species.) (1868.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.

AUSTRALIAN
SUB-REGIONS,

ORIENTAL
SUB-REGIONS.

ETHIOPIAN
SUB-REGIONS.

PALZARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEARCTIC
SUB-REGIONS.

NEOTROPICAL
SUB-REGIONS.

- 2.3.4 |——3- |----|---- |--s-4| 1.2.3 —

The Helicinide are very characteristic of the Antilles, com-
paratively few being found in any other part of the world
except the Islands of the Pacific. The genera are :—

Trochatella (33 sp.), Antilles witha species in Venezuela, and
another in Cambodja; Lucidella (5 sp.), Antilles; Helicina (274
sp.), Antilles, Pacific Islands, Tropical America, Southern
United States, Moluccas, Australia, Philippines, Java, Andaman
Islands and North China; Schasicheila (5 sp.), Mexico, Guate-
mala and Bahamas; Alcadia (28 sp.), Antilles; Georissa (5 sp.)
Moulmein to Burmah. About 10 per cent. of new species
appear to have been since described in the larger genera of this

family.

General Observations on the Distribution of the Land Mollusca.

A consideration of the distribution of the families and genera
of land-shells shows us, that although they possess some special
features, yet they agree in many respects with the higher animals
in their limitation by great natural barriers, such as oceans,
deserts, mountain ranges, and climatal zones. A remarkable
point in the distribution of these animals, is the number of
genera which have a very limited range, and also the prevalence
of genera having species seattered, as it were at random, all
over the earth. No less than 14 genera (or about one-sixth of
the whole number) are confined to the Antilles, while the
greater part of the sub-genera of modern authors are restricted to
limited areas.

If we first compare the New World with the Old, we find the
difference as regards genera quite as great as in most of the

CHAP. XXII. ] MOLLUSCA. 523

vertebrates. In the Helicide, 10 genera are confined to the
New, and 7 to the Old World, 16 being common to both. In the
Operculata the number of genera of restricted range is greater,—
the New World having 15, the Old World 32 genera, only 8 being
common to both. Of the New World genera 12 out of the 15 do
not occur at all in South America; and of those of the Old
World, 22 out of the 32 occur in a single region only. If we
take the northern and southern division proposed by Professor
Huxley (the latter comprising the Australian and Neotropical
regions), we find a much less well-marked diversity. Among
the Helicidz only 4 are exclusively northern, 8 southern ; while
among the Operculata 22 are northern, 16 southern. The best
way to compare these two kinds of primary division will be to
leave out all those genera confined to a single region each, and
to take account only of those characteristic of two or more of the
combined regions; which will evidently show which division is
the most natural one for this group. The result is as follows :—

GENERA COMMON TO TWo OR MORE REGIONS IN, AND CONFINED TO, EACH
Primary Division oF THE EARTH.

Helicide Operculata. Totals.
-Northern Fen, , SF Ors: bf 530
Southen . F sel Ob ec ; Tre ; 5
Old World . : ie Ia 3 Bb ee ; 2 13
New World : eto : = 0. x é ah di!

We find then that the northern and southern division of the
globe is not at all supported by the distribution of the terrestrial
molluscs. It is indeed very remarkable, that the connection so
apparent in many groups between Australia and South America
is so scantily indicated here. The only facts supporting it seem
to be, the occurrence of Geotrochus (a sub-genus of Helix) in
Brazil, as well as in the Austro-Malayan and West Pacific Islands
and North Australia; and of Bulimus in the same two parts of
the globe, but peculiar sub-genera in each. But in neither case
is there any affinity shown between the temperate portions of the
two regions, so that we must probably trace this resemblance to
some more ancient diffusion of types than that which led to the
similarity of plants and insects. Still more curious is the entire

524 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

absence of genera confined to, and characteristic of Africa and
India. One small sub-genus of Helix, (Rachis), and one of Acha-
tina, (Homorus), appear to have this distribution—a fact of but
little significance when we find another sub-genus of Helix,
(Hapalus), common and confined to Guinea and the Philippine
Islands ; and when we consider the many other cases of scattered
distribution which cannot be held to indicate any real connection
between the countries implicated. No genus is confined to the
Palearctic and Nearctic regions as a whole. A large number
of sub-genera, many of them of considerable extent, are peculiar
to one or other of these regions, but only 3 sub-genera of Helix
and 2 of Pupa are common and peculiar to the two combined,
and these are always such as have an Arctic range and whose
distribution therefore offers no difficulty.

We find, then, that each of our six regions and almost all of
our sub-regions are distinctly confirmed by the distribution of the
terrestrial mollusca; while the different combinations of them
which have at various times been suggested, receive little or no
support whatever. Even those remarkably isolated sub-regions,
New Zealand and Madagascar, have no strictly peculiar genera of
land-shells, although they both possess several peculiar sub-
genera; being thus inferior in isolation to some single West
Indian Islands, to the Sandwich Islands, and even to the North
Atlantic Islands (Canaries, Madeira, and Azores), each of which
have peculiar genera. This of course, only indicates that the
means by which land mollusca have been dispersed are some-
what special and peculiar. To determine in what this speciality
consists we must consider some of the features of the specific
distribution of this group.

The range of genera, and even of sub-genera is, as we have
seen, often wide and erratic, but as a general rule the species
have a very restricted area.

Hardly a small island on the globe but has some land-shells
peculiar to it. Juan Fernandez has 20 species, all peculiar.
Madeira and Porto Santo have 109 peculiar species out of a total
of 134. Every little valley, plain, or hill-top, in the Sandwich
Islands, though only a few square miles in extent, has its

CHAP, XXII.] MOLLUSCA. 525

peculiar species of Achatinella. Another striking feature of the
distribution of land molluscs, is the richness of islands as com-
pared with continents. The Philippines contain more species
than all India; and those of the Antilles according to Mr. Bland
almost exactly equal the numbers found in the entire American
continent from Greenland to Patagonia. Taking the whole world,
it appears that many more species of land-shells are found in the
islands than on the continents of the globe, a peculiarity that
obtains in no other extensive group of animals.

Looking at these facts it seems probable, that the air-breathing
molluscs have been chiefly distributed by air- or water-carriage,
rather than by voluntary dispersal on the land. Even seas and
oceans have not formed impassable barriers to their diffusion ;
whereas they only spread on dry land with excessive slowness and
difficulty. The exact mode in which their diffusion is effected isnot
known, and it may depend on rare and exceptional circumstances ;
but it seems likely to occur in two ways. Snails frequently
conceal themselves in crevices of trees or under bark, or attach
themselves to stems or foliage, and either by their operculum or
mucous diaphragm, are able to protect themselves from the in-
jurious effects of salt water for long periods. They might there-
fore, under favourable conditions, be drifted across arms of the
sea or from island to island; while wherever there are large
rivers and occasional floods, they would by similar means be
widely scattered over land areas. Another possible mode of dis-
tribution is by means of storms and hurricanes, which would
carry the smaller species for long distances, and might occasionally
transport the eggs of the larger forms. Aquatic birds might
occasionally get both shells and eggs attached to their feet or
their plumage, and convey them across a wide extent of sea.
But whether these, or some other unknown agency has acted, the
facts of distribution clearly imply that some means of transport
over water is, and has been, the chief agent in the distribution of
these animals ; but that its action is very rare or intermittent, so
that its effects are hardly perceptible in the distribution of single
species.

Another important factor in enabling us to account for the

526 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.
distribution of these animals is the geological antiquity of the
group, and the amount of change exhibited in time, by species
and genera. Now we find that most of the genera of land-shells
range back to the Eocene period, while those inhabiting fresh
water are found almost unchanged in the Wealden. In North
America a species of Pupa and one of Zonites, have been dis-
covered in the coal measures, along with Labyrinthodonts ; and
this fact seems to imply, that many more terrestrial molluscs
would be discovered, if fresh-water deposits, made under favour-
able conditions, were more frequently met with in the older
rocks. If then the existing groups of land-mollusces are of such
vast antiquity, and possess some means, however rarely occurring,
of crossing seas and oceans, we need not wonder at the wide and
erratic distribution now presented by so many of the groups ;
and we must not expect them to conform very closely to those
regions which limit the range of animals of higher organization
and less antiquity. |

The total number of species of pulmoniferous mollusca is about
7,000, according to the estimate of Mr. Woodward, brought down
to 1868 by Mr. Tate. But this number would be largely in-
creased if the estimates of specialists were taken. Mr. Woodward.
for example, gives 760 as the number of species in the West
Indian Islands; whereas Mr. Thomas Bland, who has made the
shells of these islands a special study, considers that there were
1,340 species in 1866. So, the land-shells of the Sandwich
Islands are given at 267; but Mr. Gulick has added 120 species
of Achatinellide, bringing the numbers up to nearly 400,—but
no doubt several of these are so closely related that many con-
chologists would class them as varieties. The land-shell fauna
of the Antilles is undoubtedly the most remarkable in the world,
and it has been made the subject of much interesting discussion
by Mr. Bland and others. This fauna differs from that of all
other parts of the globe in the proportions of the operculate to
the inoperculate shells. The Operculata of the globe are about
one-seventh, the Inoperculata about six-sevenths of the whole ;
and some general approximation to this proportion (or a much
sinaller one) exists in almost all the continents, islands, and

CHAP. XXII. ] MOLLUSCA, 527

archipelagoes. In the Philippines, for example, the proportion
of the Operculata is a little more than one-seventh; in the
Mauritius, between one-third and one-fourth; in Madeira, one-
fourteenth ; in the whole American continent about one-eighth ;
but when we come to the Antilles we find them to amount to
nearly five-sixths, about half the Operculata of the globe being
found there !

Mr. Bland endeavours to ascertain the source of some of the
chief genera found in the West Indian Islands, on the principle
that “each genus has had its origin where the greatest number
of species is found ;” and then proceeds to determine that some
have had an African, some an Asiatic, and some an American
origin, while others are truly indigenous. But we fear there is
no such simple way of arriving at so important a result ; and in
the case of groups of extreme antiquity like the genera of mol-
lusea, it would seem quite as possible that the origin of a genus
is generally not where the greatest number of species are now
found. For during the repeated changes of physical conditions
that have everywhere occurred since the Eocene period (to go
no further back) every genus must have made extensive migra-
tions, and have often become largely developed in some other
district than that in which it first appeared. As a proof of this,
we not unfrequently find fossil shells where the species and even
the genus now no longer exists; as Awricula, found fossil in’
Europe, but only living in the Malay and Pacific Islands; Anas-
toma and Megaspira, now peculiar to Brazil, but fossil in the
Eocene of France ; and Proserpina of the West Indies, found in
the Eocene formation of the Isle of Wight. The only means by
which the origin of a genus can satisfactorily be arrived at, is by
tracing back its fossil remains step by step to an earlier form;
and this we have at present no means of doing in the case of
the land-shells. Taking existing species as our guide we should
certainly have imagined that the genus Hguus originated in
Africa or Central Asia; but recent discoveries of numerous
extinct species and of less specialized forms of the same type,
seem to indicate that it originated in North America, and that
the whole tribe of “horses” may be, for anything we yet know

528 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

to the contrary, recent immigrants into the Old World! This
example alone must convince us, that it is impossible to form
any conclusion as to the origin of a genus, from the distribution
of existing species only.

The general conclusion we arrive at, therefore, is, that the
causes that have led to the existing distribution of the genera
and higher groups of the terrestrial mollusca are so complex, and
have acted through such long periods, that most of the barriers
which limit the range of other terrestrial animals do not apply to
them, although the species are, in most cases, strictly limited
by them. Some means of diffusion—which, though probably
acting very slowly and at long intervals, and more powerfully
on continents than between islands, is yet highly efficient when
we consider the long duration of genera—has, to a considerable
extent, dispersed them across continents, seas, and oceans. On
the other hand, those mountain barriers which separate many
groups of the higher vertebrates, are generally less ancient than
the genera of land-shells, which are thus often distributed inde-
pendently of them. In order to compare the distribution of the
terrestrial mollusca on equal terms with those of land animals
generally, we must take genera of the former as equivalent to
family groups of the latter; and we shall, I believe, then find
that the distribution of the sub-genera and smaller groups of
species do accord mainly with those divisions of the earth into
regions and sub-regions which we have here indicated. Mr.
Harper Pease, in a communication on Polynesian Land Shells
in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1871 (p. 449),
marks out the limits of the Polynesian sub-region, so as exactly
to agree with that arrived at here from a consideration of the
distribution of vertebrata; and he says that this sub-region, (or
region, as he terms it) is distinctly characterised by its land-
shells from all the surrounding regions. The genera (or sub-
genera) Partula, Pitys, Achatinella, Palaina, Omphalotropis,
and many others, are either wholly confined to this sub-region
or highly characteristic of it. Mr. Binney, in his Catalogue of
the Air-breathing Molluscs of North America, marks out our
Nearctic region (with almost identical limits) as most clearly

CHAP. XXII. | MOLLUSCA. 529

characterised. He also arrives at a series of sub-divisions,
which generally (though not exactly) agree with the sub-regions
which I have here adopted. The Palearctic, the Ethiopian, and
the Oriental regions, are also generally admitted to be well
characterised by their terrestrial molluscs. There only remain
the Australian and the Neotropical regions, in which some want
of homogeneity is apparent, owing to the vast development and
specialisation of certain groups in the islands which belong to
these regions. The Antilles, on the one hand, and the Polyne-
sian Islands, on the other, are so rich in land-shells and
possess so many peculiar forms, that, judged by these alone,
they must form primary instead of secondary divisions. We
have, however, already pointed out the inconvenience of any
such partial systems of zoological geography, and the causes
have been sutficiently indicated which have, in the case of
land-shells as of insects, produced certain special features of
distribution.

We therefore venture to hope, that conchologists will give us
the advantage of their more full and accurate knowledge both of
the classification and distribution of this interesting group of
animals, not to map out new sets of regions for themselves, but
to show what kind of barriers have been most efficient in
limiting the range of species, and how their distribution is
actually effected, so as to be able to explain whatever dis-
crepancies exist between the actual distribution of land-shells
and that of the higher animals.

Order IIT—OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA.

There are ten families in this order, all of which, as far as
known, are widely or universally distributed. Some of them
are found fossil, ranging back to the Carboniferous epoch. They
are commonly termed Sea-slugs, and have either a thin small
shell or none. Weshall therefore simply enumerate the families,
with the number of genera and species as given by Mr. Wood-
ward.

530 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

Famity 31—TORNATELLID&. (7 Genera, 62 Species living,
166 fossil.)

Famity 32.—BULLID. (12 Genera, 168 Species living,
88 fossil.)

FamMILy 33—APHYSIAD. (8 Genera, 84 Species living,
4 fossil.)

Famity 34.—PLEUROBRANCHID. (7 Genera, 28 Species
living, 5 fossil.)

FamILy 35.—PHYLLIDIAD. (4 Genera, 14 Species living,
0 fossil.)

FamILy 36.—DORID. (23 Genera, 160 Species living, 0
fossil.)

FAMILY 37.—TRITONIADA. (9 Genera, 38 Species living,
0 fossil.)

FamiLy 38.—ZOLIDZ. (14 Genera, 101 Species living, 0)
fossil.)

FamiLy 39.—PHYLLYRHOID. (1 Genus, 6 Species living,
0 fossil.) ,

FamILy 40.—ELYSIADZ. (5 Genera, 13 Species living, 0
fossil.)

CHAP, XXII. | MOLLUSCA. 531

Order IV.—_NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA.

These are oceanic, swimming molluscs, of a delicate texture.
They are found in all warm seas, and range back to the Lower
Silurian epoch. There are only two families.

Famity 41—FIROLID. (2 Genera, 33 Species living, 1
fossil. )

Famity 42.—ATLANTID. (5 Genera, 22 Species living,
159 fossil.)

Ctass.—PTEROPODA.

These are swimming, oceanic mollusca, inhabiting both Arctic,
Temperate, and Tropical seas. The three families have each a
wide distribution in all the great oceans.- They range back to
the Silurian period.

FamIty 1—HYALEIDA. (9 Genera, 52 Species living,
95 fossil.)

FaMILy 2.—LIMACINID. (4 Genera, 19 Species living, 0
fossil.)

Famity 3—CLIONIDA. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, 0
fossil.)

532 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

Ciass.—BRACHIOPODA.

These are sedentary, bivalve, marine mollusca, having laterally
symmetrical shells, but with unequal valves. Both in space and
time they are the most widely distributed molluscs. They are
found in all seas, and at all depths; and when any of the families
or genera have a restricted range, it seems to be due to our im-
perfect knowledge, rather than to any real geographical limita-
tions. In time they range back to the Cambrian formation, and
seem to have had their maximum development in the Silurian
period. It is not, therefore, necessary for our purpose, to do
more than give the names of the families with the numbers of
the genera and species, as before.

Famity 1.—TEREBRATULID®. (5 Genera, 67 Species
living, 340 fossil.)

Famity 2.—SPIRIFERIDA. (4 Genera, 0 Species living,
380 fossil.)

FamIty 3.—RHYNCHONELLID. (3 Genera, 4 Species
living, 422 fossil.)

Famity 4—-ORTHIDA. (4 Genera, 0 Species living, 328
fossil.)

FamILy 5.—PRODUCTIDZ. (3 Genera, 0 Species living, 146
fossil.)

Famitry 6.—CRANIADA. (1 Genus, 5 Species living, 37
fossil.)

FamILy 7.—DISCINIDA. (2 Genera, 10 Species living, 90
fossil.)

Famity 8.—LINGULID. (2 Genera, 16 Species living, 99
fossil.)

CHAP, XXII. | MOLLUSCA. 533

Ciass.—CONCHIFERA.

The Conchifera, or ordinary Bivalve Molluscs, may be distin-
guished from the Brachiopoda by having their shells laterally
unsymmetrical, while the valves are generally (but not always)
equal. They are mostly marine, but a few inhabit fresh water.
As the distribution of some of the families presents points of
interest, we shall treat them in the same manner as the marine
Gasteropoda.

FamiLy 1.—OSTREID. (5 Genera, 426 Species.)

DIsTRIBUTION.— The Ostreide, including the Oysters and Scal-
lops, are found in all seas, Arctic as well as Tropical. There are
nearly 1,400 species fossil, ranging back to the Carboniferous
period.

Famity 2.—AVICULIDZ. (3 Genera, 94 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION,—The Aviculide, or Wing-shells and Pearl
Oysters, are characteristic of Tropical and warm seas, a few only
ranging into temperate regions. Nearly 700 fossil species are
known from various formations ranging back to the Devonian,
and Lower Silurian.

Famity 3.—MYTILID. (3 Genera, 217 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—The Mytilide, or Mussels, have a world-wide
distribution. There is one fresh-water species, which inhabits
the Volga. There are about 350 fossil species, ranging back to
the Carboniferous epoch.

534 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

Famitry 4—ARCAD. (6 Genera, 360 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—The Arcade are universally distributed, and
are most abundant in warm seas. The genus Leda is, however,
abundant in Arctic and Temperate regions, and Solenella is con-
fined to the South Temperate zone. There are near 1,200 fossil
species, found in all strata as low as the Lower Silurian.

FamiLy 5.—TRIGONIAD. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—The living Trigonie are confined to Australia,
but there are 5 other genera fossil, containing about 150 species,
and found in various formations from the Chalk to the Lower
Silurian.

Famity 6—UNIONIDA. (7 Genera, 549 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—The Unionide, or Fresh-water Mussels, are
found in all the fresh waters of the globe, but some of the genera
are restricted. Castalia, Mycetopus and Mulleria are confined to
the rivers of South America; Anodon, to the Nearctic and Pale-
arctic regions; Iridina, and Etheria, to the rivers of Africa;
Unio has a universal distribution, but is especially abundant in
North America. About 60 fossil species are found in the Tertiary
and Wealden formations.

Famity 7.—CHAMID. (1 Genus, 50 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—The Chamide, or Giant Clams, are confined
to Tropical seas, chiefly among coral reefs, There are two other
genera and 62 species fossil, ranging from the Chalk to the
Oolite formations.

Famity 8.—HIPPURITIDZ. (5 Genera, 103 Species.)
Fossils of doubtful affinity, from the Chalk formation.

CHAP, XXII. ] MOLLUSCA. 535

Famity 9.—TRIDACNIDA. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

DistriBuTION.—The Tridacnidx, or Clam-shells, are of very
large size, and are confined to the Tropical regions of the Indian
and Pacific Oceans. A few species have been found fossil in the
Miocene formation.

Famity 10—CARDIADA (1 Genus, 200 Species.)

DiIstTRIBUTION.—The Cardiade, or Cockles, are of world-wide
distribution. Another genus is fossil, and nearly 400 fossil
species are known, ranging back to the Upper Silurian forma-
tion.

Famity 11.—LUCINID. (8 Genera, 178 Species.)

DistriBuTion.—The Lucinide inhabit the Tropical and Tem-
perate seas of all parts of the world; but the genus Corbis is con-
fined to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, Montacuta and Lepton,
to the Atlantic. There are nearly 500 extinct species, ranging
from the Tertiary back to the Silurian formation. _

Faminty 12—CYCLADID. (3 Genera, 176 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—The Cycladide are small fresh- or brackish-
water shells found all over the globe. The genus.Cyclas is most
abundant in the North Temperate zone, while Cyrena inhabits
the warmer shores of the Atlantic and Pacific, but is absent from
the West Coast of America. There are about 150 species fossil,
ranging back from the Pliocene to the Wealden formations.

Famity 13.—CYPRINIDA. (10 Genera, 176 Species).

DIsTRIBUTION.— Universal. Cyprina and Astarte are Arctic
and North Temperate ; Cardita is Tropical and South Temperate.
There are several extinct genera and about 1,000 species found
in all formations as far back as the Lower Silurian.

Vou. II.—35

536 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. (PART IV.

Famity 14.—VENERID, (10 Genera, 600 Species. )

DIstTRIBUTION.— Universal. wucinopsis is confined to the
North Atlantic ; Glauconeza to the mouths of rivers in the Orien-
tal region; Meroe and Zrigona to warm seas. There are about
350 fossil species, ranging back to the Oolitic period.

Famity 15.—MACTRIDA. (5 Genera, 147 Species.)

DIsTRIBUTION.—AIl seas, but more abundant in the Tropics.
Gnathodon is, found in the Gulf of Mexico; Anatinella in. the
Oriental region. There are about 60 fossil species, ranging back
to the Carboniferous period.

Famity 16.—TELLINIDA. (11 Genera, 560 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—All seas; most abundant in the Tropics.
Galatea is confined to African rivers. There are about 60 fossil
species, mostly Tertiary, but ranging back to the Carboniferous
period.

Famity 17.—SOLENIDA. (38 Genera, 63 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—AIl Temperate and Tropical seas. There are
80 fossil species which range back to the Carboniferous epoch.

Famity 18.—MYACID. (6 Genera, 121 Species.)

DIsTRIBUTION.—AI1 seas. Panopeea inhabits both North and
South Temperate seas ; Glycimeris, Arctic seas. There are near
350 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Oolite formation.

Famity 19.—ANATINIDZ. (8 Genera, 246 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.—AI1 seas. Pholadomya is from Tropical Africa ;
Myadora from the Western Pacific ; Myochama and Chamostrea
are Australian. There are about 400 fossil species, ranging back
to the Lower Silurian formation.

CHAP, XXII. ] MOLLUSCA, 537

Famity 20. —GASTROCH NIDA. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION. =\penpanite and warm seas. A spergillum ranges
from the Red Sea to New Zealand. There are 35 fossil species,
ranging back to the Lower Oolite.

Famity 21—PHOLADIDA. (4 Genera, 81 Species.)

DistTrIBUTION.—These burrowing molluscs inhabit all Tempe-
rate and warm seas from Norway to New Zealand. There are
about 50 fossil species, ranging back to the epoch of the Lias.

General Remarks on the Distribution of the Marine Mollusca.

The marine Mollusca are remarkable for their usually wide
distribution. About 48 of the families are cosmopolitan, rang-
ing over both hemispheres, and in cold as well as warm seas.
About 15 are restricted to the warmer seas of the globe; but
several of these extend from Norway to New Zealand, a distri-
bution which may be called universal, and only 2 or 3 are
absolutely confined to Tropical seas. Two small families only,
are confined to the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Marine fishes,
on the other hand, have a much less cosmopolitan character, no
less than 30 families having a limited distribution, while 50
are universal. Some of these 30 families are confined to the
Northern seas, some to the Atlantic-and Mediterranean, and a
considerable number to the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific.
Many of these families, it is true, are much smaller than those
of the Mollusca, which seem to possess very few of those small
isolated families of two or three species only, which abound in
all the Vertebrate classes. These differences are no doubt con-
nected with the higher organisation of fishes, which renders them
more susceptible to changed conditions of life ; and this is indi-
cated by the much less antiquity of existing families of fishes,
the greater part of which do not date back beyond the Cretaceous
epoch, and many of them only to the Eocene. In striking con-
trast we have the vast antiquity of most of the families of Mol-

538 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

lusca, as shown in the following table of their range taken from
Mr. Woodward's work, but re-arranged, and somewhat modified.

Range of Families of Mollusca
in Time; arranged in their
order of appearance and
disappearance.

Productide
Orthoceratide ... ze
Spiriferide, Orthide ...
Atlantide, Hyaleide ...
Pyramidellide, Turbinide
Ianthide, Chitonide ..,
Lingulide sot
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Nor is this enormous antiquity confined to family types alone.
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CHAP. XXII] MOLLUSCA. 539

existed from the earliest Paleozoic times down to the present
day ; while Terebratula, Rhynchonella, Discina, Nautilus, Natica,
Pleurotomaria, Patella, Dentalium, Mytilus and many other
living forms, range back to the Palzozoic epoch. That groups
of such immense antiquity, and having power to resist such vast
changes of external conditions as they must have been subject
to, should now be widely distributed, is no more than might
reasonably be expected. It is only in the case of sub-genera
and species, that we can expect the influence of recent geological
or climatal changes to be manifest ; and it must be left to special
students to work out the details of their distribution, with
reference to the general principles found to obtain among the
more highly organised animals.

CHAPTER XXIII.

SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION, AND LINES OF MIGRATION, OF
THE SEVERAL CLASSES OF ANIMALS.

HAVING already given summaries of the distribution of the
several orders, and of some of the classes of land animals, we
propose here to make a few general remarks on the special
phenomena presented by the more important groups, and to
indicate where possible, the general lines of migration by which
they have become dispersed over wide areas.

MAMMALIA.

This class is very important, and its past history is much
better known than that of most others. We shall therefore
briefly summarise the results we have arrived at from our ex-
amination of the distribution of extinct and living forms of
each order.

Primates,—This order, being pre-eminently a tropical one,
became separated into two portions, inhabiting the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres respectively, at a very early epoch. In
consequence of this separation it has diverged more radically
than most other orders, so that the two American families, Cebidee
and Hapalide, are widely differentiated from the Apes, Monkeys,
and Lemurs of the Old World. The Lemurs were probably still
more ancient, but being much lower in organisation, they
became extinct in most of the areas where the higher forms of
Primates became developed. Remains found in the Eocene
formation indicate, that the North American and European

CHAP, XXII. f SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 541

Primates had, even at that early epoch, diverged into distinct
series, so that we must probably look back to the secondary
period for the ancestral form from which the entire order was
developed.

Chiroptera.—These are also undoubtedly very ancient. The
most generalised forms—the Vespertilionide and Noctilionidzee—
are the most widely distributed ; while special types have arisen
in America, and in the Eastern Hemisphere. Remains found in
the Upper Eocene formation of Europe differ little from species
still living in the same countries ; so that we can form no con-
jecture as to the origin or migration of the group. Their power
of flight would, however, enable them rapidly to aber over
all the great continents of the globe.

Insectivora.—This very ancient group, now probably verging
towards extinction, appears to have originated in the Northern
continent, and never to have reached Australia or South America.
It may, however, have become extinct in the latter country
owing to the competition of the numerous Edentata. The In-
sectivora now often maintain themselves amidst more highly
developed forms, by means of some special protection. Some
burrow in the earth,—like the moles ; others have a spiny cover-
ing,—as the hedgehogs and several of the Centetide ; others
are aquatic—as the Potamogale and the desman ; others have a
nauseous odour, —as the shrews; while there are several which
seem to be preserved by their resemblance to higher forms,—as
the elephant-shrews to jerboas, and the tupaias to squirrels.
The same need of protection is shown by the numerous Insecti-
vora inhabiting Madagascar, where the competing forms are
few; and by one lingering in the Antilles, where there are
hardly any other mammalia.

Carnivora.—Although perhaps less ancient than the preced-
ing, this form of mammal is far more highly organised, and
from its earliest appearance appears to have become dominant
in the world. It would therefore soon spread widely, and
diverge into the various specialised types represented by exist-
ing families. Most of these appear to have originated in the
Eastern Hemisphere, the only Carnivora occurring in North

542 _ GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

American Miocene deposits being ancestral forms of Canidz
and Felide. It seems probable, therefore, that the order had
attained a considerable development before it reached the
Western Hemisphere. The Procyonide, now confined to
America, are not very ancient; and the occurrence of a few
allied forms in the Himalayas (lurus and Ailuropus) render
it probable that their common ancestors entered North America
from the Palearctic region during the Miocene period, but being
a rather low type they have succumbed under the competition of
higher forms in most parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. Bears
and Weasels are probably still more recent emigrants to
America. The aquatic carnivora (Seals, &c.) are, as might be
expected, more widely and uniformly distributed, but there is
little evidence to show at what period the type was first
developed.

Ungulata.—These are the dominant vegetable-feeders of the
great continents, and they have steadily increased in numbers
and in. specialisation from the oldest Tertiary times: to the
present day. Being generally of larger size and less active
than the Carnivora, they have somewhat more restricted powers
of dispersal. We have good evidence that their wide range over
the globe is a comparatively recent phenomenon. Tapirs and
Llamas have probably not long inbabited South America, while
Rhinoceroses and Antelopes were once, perhaps, unknown in
Africa, although abounding in Europe and Asia. Swine are
one of the most ancient types in both hemispheres; and their
great hardiness, their omnivorous diet, and their powers of
swimming, have led to their wide distribution. The sheep and
goats, on the other hand, are perhaps the most recent develop-
ment of the Ungulata, and they seem to have arisen in the
Palearctic region at a time when its climate already ap-
proximated to that which now prevails. Hence they are
pre-eminently a Temperate group, never found within the
Tropics except upon a few mountain ranges.

Proboscidea.—These huge animals (the Elephants and Masto-
dons) appear to have originated in the warmer parts of the
Palearctic region, but they soon spread over all the great

CHAP. XXIII. ] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 543

continents, even reaching the southern extremity of America.
Their extinction has probably depended more on physical than
on organic changes, and we can clearly trace their almost total
disappearance to the effects of the Glacial epoch.

Rodentia.—Rodents are a very dominant group, and a very
ancient one. Owing to their small size and rapid powers of
increase, they soon spread over almost every part of the globe,
whence has resulted a great specialisation of family types in
the South American continent which remained so long isolated.
They are capable of living wherever there is any kind of
vegetable food, hence their range will be determined rather by
organic than by physical conditions; and the occupation of a
country by enemies or by competing forms, is probably the chief
cause which has prevented many of the families from acquiring
a wide range. The occurrence of isolated species of the South
American families, Octodontide and Echimyide in the Ethiopian
and Palearctic regions, is an indication that the range of many
of the families has recently become less extensive.

Edentata.—These singular and lowly-organised animals ap-
pear to have become almost restricted to the two great Southern
lands—South Africa and South America—at an early period ;
and, being there free from the competition of higher forms,
developed a number of remarkable types often of huge size, of
which the Megatherium is one of the best known. The incur-
sion of the highly-organised Ungulates and Carnivora into
Africa during the Miocene epoch, probably exterminated most
of them in that continent; but in America they continued in
full force down to the Post-Pliocene period ; and even now, the
comparatively diminutive Sloths, Ant-eaters, and Armadillos,
form a large and important portion of the fauna.

Marsupialia and Monotremata—These are probably the
representatives of the most ancient and lowly-organised types
of mammal. They once existed in the northern continents,
whence they spread into Australia; and being isolated, and
preserved from the competition of the higher forms which soon
arose in other parts of the world, they have developed into a
variety of types, which, however, still preserve a general

Sat GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY, [PART IV.

uniformity of organisation. One family, which continued to
exist in Europe till the latter part of the Miocene period,
reached America, and has there been preserved to our day.
Lines of Migration of the Mammalia.—The whole series of
phenomena presented by the distribution of the Mammalia,
looked at broadly, are in harmony with the view that the great
continents and oceans of our own epoch have been in existence,
with comparatively small changes, during all Tertiary times.
Each one of them has, no doubt, undergone considerable modifi-
cations in its area, its altitude, and in its connection with other
lands. Yet some considerable portion of each continent has,
probably, long existed in its present position, while the great
oceans seem to have occupied the same depressions of the
earth’s crust (varied, perhaps, by local elevations and sub-
sidences) during all this vast period of time. Hence, allowing
for the changes of which we have more or less satisfactory
evidence, the migrations of the chief mammalian types can be
pretty clearly traced. Some, owing to their small size -and
great vitality, have spread to almost all the chief land masses ;
but the majority of the orders have a more restricted range.
All the evidence at our command points to the Northern
Hemisphere as the birth-place of the class, and probably of all
the orders. At a very early period the land communication
with Australia was cut off, and has never been renewed; so
that we have here preserved for us a sample of one or more
of the most ancient forms of mammal. Somewhat later the
union with South America and South Africa was severed;
and in both these countries we have samples of a somewhat
more advanced stage of mammalian development. Later still,
the union by a northern route between the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres appears to have been broken, partly by a physical
separation, but almost as effectually by a lowering of tempera-
ture. About the same period the separation of the Palearctic
region from the Oriental was effected, by the rise of the
Himalayas and the increasing contrast of climate; while the
formation of the great desert-belts of the Sahara, Arabia,
Persia, and Central Asia, helped to complete the separation of

CHAP. XXUI.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 545

the Temperate and Tropical zones, and to render further intermi-
gration almost impossible.

In a few cases—of which the Rodents in Australia and the
pigs in Austro-Malaya are perhaps the most striking examples
—the distribution of land-mammals has been effected by a sea-
passage either by swimming or on floating vegetation; but, as
a rule, we may be sure that the migrations of mammalia have
taken place over the land; and their presence on islands is,
therefore, a clear indication that these have been once connected
with a continent. The present class of animals thus affords the
best evidence of the past history of the land surface of our
globe; and we have chiefly relied upon it in sketching out (in
Part III.) the probable changes which each of our great regions
has undergone.

Birds.

Although birds are, of all land-vertebrates, the best able to
cross seas and oceans, it is remarkable how closely the main
features of their distribution correspond with those of the Mam-
malia. South America possesses the low Formicaroid type of
Passeres,—which, compared with the more highly developed
forms of the Eastern Hemisphere, is analogous to the Cebide
and Hapalidz as compared with the Old World Apes and Mon-
keys; while its Cracide as compared with the Pheasants and
Grouse, may be considered parallel to the Edentata as compared
with the Ungulates of the Old World. The Marsupials of
America and Australia, are paralleled. among birds, in the Stru-
thionide and Megapodiide ; the Lemurs and Insectivora pre-
served in Madagascar are represented by the Mascarene Didide ;
the absence of Deer and Bears from Africa is analogous to the
absence of Wrens, Creepers, and Pheasants; while the African
Hyracide and Chrysochloride among mammals, may well be
compared with the equally peculiar Coliide and Musophagide
among birds.

From these and many other similarities of distribution, it is
clear that birds have, as a rule, followed the same great lines of
migration as mammalia ; and that oceans, seas, and deserts, have

546 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

always to a great extent limited their range. Yet these barriers
have not been absolute ; and in the course of ages birds have
been able to reach almost every habitable land upon the globe.
Hence have arisen some of the most curious and interesting
phenomena of distribution ; and many islands, which are entirely
destitute of mammalia, or possess a very few species, abound in
birds, often of peculiar types and remarkable for some unusual
character or habit. Striking examples of such interesting bird-
faunas are those of New Zealand, the Sandwich Islands, the
Galapagos, the Mascarene Islands, the Moluccas, and the An-
tilles; while even small and remote islets—such as Juan Fer-
nandez and Norfolk Island, have more light thrown upon their
past history by means of their birds, than by any other portion
of their scanty fauna.

Another peculiar feature in the distribution of this class is
the extraordinary manner in which certain groups and certain
external characteristics, have become developed in islands,
where the smaller and less powerful birds have been pro-
tected from the incursions of mammalian enemies, and where
rapacious birds—which seem to some degree dependent on the
abundance of mammalia—are also scarce. Thus, we have the
Pigeons and the Parrots most wonderfully developed in the
Australian region, which is pre-eminently insular; and both
these groups here acquire conspicuous colours very unusual, or
altogether absent, elsewhere. Similar colours (black and red)
appear, in the same two groups, in the distant Mascarene islands;
while in the Antilles the parrots have often white heads, a
character not found in the allied species on the South American
continent. Crests, too, are largely developed, in both these
groups, in the Australian region only ; and a crested parrot for-
merly lived in Mauritius,—a coincidence too much like that of
the colours as above noted, to be considered accidental.

Again, birds exhibit to us a remarkable contrast as regards
the oceanic islands of tropical and temperate latitudes; for
while most of the former present hardly any cases of specific
identity with the birds of adjacent continents, the latter often
show hardly any differences. The Galapagos and Madagascar

CHAP. XXIII. ] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 547

are examples of the first-named peculiarity ; the Azores and the
Bermudas of the last; and the difference can be clearly
traced to the frequency and violence of storms in the one case
and to the calms or steady breezes in the other.

It appears then, that although birds do not afford us the same
convincing proof of the former union of now disjoined lands as
we obtain from mammals, yet they give us much curious and
suggestive information as to the various and complex modes in
which the existing peculiarities of the distribution of animals
have been brought about. They also throw much light on the
relation between distribution and the external characters of
animals ; and, as they are often found where mammalia are quite
absent, we must rank them as of equal value for the purposes of
our present study.

Reptiles.

These hold a somewhat intermediate place, as regards their
distribution, between mammals and birds, having on the whole
rather a wider range than the former, and a more restricted
one than the latter.

Snakes appear to have hardly more facilities for crossing the
ocean than mammals; hence they are generally absent from
oceanic islands. They are more especially a tropical group, and
have thus never been able to pass from one continent to another
by those high northern and southern routes, which we have seen
reason to believe were very effectual in the case of mammalia
and some other animals. Hence we find no resemblance between
the Australian and Neotropical regions, or between the Pale-
arctic and Nearctic; while the Western Hemisphere is com-
paratively poor as regards variety of types, although rich in
genera and species. Deserts and high mountains are also very
effectual barriers for this group, and their lines of migration have
probably been along river valleys, and occasionally across narrow
seas by means of floating vegetation.

Lizards, being somewhat less tropical than snakes, may have
passed by the northern route during warmepochs. They are also
more suited to traverse deserts, and they possess some unknown

548 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART Iv.

means of crossing the ocean, as they are not unfrequently
found in remote oceanic islands. These various causes have
modified their distribution. The Western Hemisphere is much
richer in lizards than it is in snakes; and it is also very distinct
from the Eastern Hemisphere. The lines of migration of lizards
appear to have been along the mountains and deserts of tropical
countries, and, under special conditions, across tropical seas from
island to island.

Crocodiles are a declining group. They were once more gene-
rally distributed, all the three families being found in British
Eocene deposits. Being aquatic and capable of living in the
sea, they can readily pass along all the coasts and islands of the
warmer parts of the globe. Tortoises are equally ancient, and
the restriction of certain groups to definite areas seems to be also
a recent phenomenon.

Amphibia.

The Amphibia differ widely from Reptiles in their power of
enduring cold; one of their chief divisions, the Urodela or
Tailed-Batrachia, being confined to the temperate parts of the
Northern Hemisphere. To this class of animals the northern and
southern routes of migration were open; and we accordingly find
a considerable amount of resemblance between South America and
Australia, and a still stronger affinity between North America
and the Palearctic continent. The other tropical regions are
more distinct from each other; clearly indicating that, in this
group, it is tropical deserts and tropical oceans which are the
barriers to migration. The class however is very fragmentary,
and probably very ancient; so that descendants of once wide-
spread types are now found isolated in various parts of the
globe, between which we may feel sure there has been no direct
transmission of Batrachia. Remembering that their chief lines
of migration have been by northern and southern land-routes,
by floating ice, by fresh-water channels, and perhaps at rare
intervals by ova being carried by aquatic birds or by violent
storms,—we shall be able to comprehend most of the features
of their actual distribution.

fe Le ee

CHAP, XXIII] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 549

Fresh-water Fishes.

Although it would appear, at first sight, that the means of
dispersal of these animals are very limited, yet they share
to some extent the wide range of other fresh-water organisms.
They are found in all climates; but the tropical regions are
by far the most productive, and of these South America
is perhaps the richest and most peculiar. There is a certain
amount of identity between the two northern continents, and
also between those of the South Temperate zone; yet all are
radically distinct, even North America and Europe having but
a small proportion of their forms in common. The occurrence
of allied fresh-water species in remote lands—as the Aphritis
of Tasmania and Patagonia, and the Comephorus of Lake
Baikal, distantly allied to the mackerels of Northern seas—
would imply that marine fishes are often modified for a life in
fresh waters; while other facts no less plainly show that per-
manent fresh-water species are sometimes dispersed in various
ways across the oceans, more especially by the northern and
southern routes.

The families of fresh-water fishes are often of restricted
range, although cases of very wide and scattered distribution
also occur. The great zoological regions are, on the whole, very
well characterized ; showing that the same barriers are effectual
here, as with most other vertebrates. We conclude, therefore,
that the chief lines of migration of fresh-water fishes have been
across the Arctic and Antarctic seas, probably by means of float-
ing ice as well as by the help of the vast flocks of migratory
aquatic birds that frequent those regions. On continents they
are, usually, widely dispersed; but tropical seas, even when of
small extent, appear to have offered an effectual barrier to their
‘dispersal. The cases of affinity between Tropical America,
Africa, Asia, and Australia, must therefore be imputed either to
the survival of once widespread groups, or to analogous adap-
tation to a fresh-water life of wide-spread marine types; and
these cases cannot be taken as evidence of any former land
connection between such remote continents.

550 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV.

Insects.

It has already been shown (Vol. I. pp. 209-213 and Vol. IT.
pp. 44-48) that the peculiarities of distribution of the various
eroups of insects depend very much on their habits and
general economy. Their antiquity is so vast, and their more
important modifications of structure have probably occurred so
slowly, that modes of dispersal depending on such a combina-
tion of favourable conditions as to be of excessive rarity, may
yet have had time to produce large cumulative effects. Their
small specific gravity and their habits of flight render them
liable to dispersal by winds to an extent unknown in other classes
of animals; and thus, what are usually very effectual barriers
have been overstepped, and sometimes almost obliterated, in
the case of insects. A careful examination will, however, almost
always show traces of an ancient fauna, agreeing in character
with other classes of animals, intermixed with the more promi-
nent and often more numerous forms whose presence is due to
this unusual facility of dispersal.

The effectual migration of insects is, perhaps more than in
any other class of animals, limited by organic and physical
conditions. The vegetation, the soil, the temperature, and the
supply of moisture, must all be suited to their habits and
economy; while they require an immunity from enemies of
various kinds, which immigrants to a new country seldom
obtain. Few organisms have, in so many complex ways, become
adapted to their special environment, as have insects. They are
in each country more or less adapted to the plants which
belong to it; while their colours, their habits, and the very
nature of the juices of their system, are all modified so as to
protect them from the special dangers which surround them in
their native land. It follows, that while no animals are so well
adapted to show us the various modes by which dispersal may
be effected, none can so effectually teach us the true nature and
vast influence of the organic barrier in limiting dispersal.

It is probable that insects have at one time or another taken
advantage of every line of migration by which any terrestrial

CHAP. XXIII. ] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 551

organisms have spread over the earth, but owing to their small
size and rapid multiplication, they have made use of some which
are exclusively their own. Such are the passage along moun-
tain ranges from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, and the
dispersal of certain types over all temperate lands. It will
perhaps be found that insects have spread over the land surface
in directions dependent on our surface zones—forests, pastures,
and deserts ;—and a study of these, with a due consideration of
the fact that narrow seas are scarcely a barrier to most of the
groups, may assist us to understand many of the details of
insect-distribution.

Terrestrial Mollusca.

The distribution of land-shells agrees, in some features, with
that of insects, while in others the two are strongly contrasted.
In both we see the effects of great antiquity, with some special
means of dispersal ; but while in insects the general powers of
motion, both voluntary and involuntary, are at a maximum, in
land-molluscs they are almost at a minimum. Although to
some extent dependent on vegetation and climate, the latter are
more dependent on inorganic conditions, and also to a large
extent on the general organic environment. The result of these
various causes, acting through countless ages, has been to spread
the main types of structure with considerable uniformity over
the globe ; while generic and sub-generic forms are often
wonderfully localized.

Land-shells, even more than insects, seem, at first sight, to
require regions of their own; but we have already pointed out
the disadvantages of such a method of study. It will be far
more instructive to refer them to those regions and sub-regions
which are found to accord best with the distribution of the
higher animals, and to consider the various anomalies they pre-
sent as so many problems, to be solved by a careful study of
their habits and economy, and especially by a search after the
hidden causes which have enabled them to spread so widely
over land and ocean.

The lines of migration which land-shells have followed, can

Vou. II.—36

552 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV,

hardly be determined with any definiteness. On continents they
seem to spread steadily, but slowly, in every direction, checked
probably by organic and physical conditions rather than by the
barriers which limit the higher groups. Over the ocean they
are also slowly dispersed, by some means which act perhaps at
very long intervals, but which, within the period of the duration
of genera and families, are tolerably effective. It thus happens
that, although the powers of dispersal of land-shells and insects
are so very unequal, the resulting geographical distribution is
almost the opposite of what might have been expected,—the
former being, on the whole, less distinctly localized than the
latter.

CONCLUSION.

The preceding remarks are all I now venture to offer, on the
distinguishing features of the various groups of land-animals as
regards their distribution and migrations. They are at best
but indications of the various lines of research opened up to us
by the study of animals from the geographical point of view, and
by looking upon their range in space and time as an important
portion of the earth’s history. Much work has yet to be done
before the materials will exist for a complete treatment of the
subject in all its branches; and it is the author’s hope that his
volumes may lead to a more systematic collection and arrange-
ment of the necessary facts. At present all public museums and
private collections are arranged zoologically. All treatises, mo-
nographs, and catalogues, also follow, more or less completely, the
zoological arrangement ; and the greatest difficulty the student
of geographical distribution has to contend against, is the total
absence of geographical collections, and the almost total want of
complete and comparable local catalogues. Till every well-
marked district,—every archipelago, and every important island,
has all its known species of the more important groups of animals
catalogued on a uniform plan, and with a uniform nomenclature,

a thoroughly satisfactory account of the Geographical Distribu- .

tion of Animals will not be possible. But more than this is
wanted. Many of the most curious relations between animal

a

CHAP. XXIII. ] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 553

forms and their habitats, are entirely unnoticed, owing to the -
productions of the same locality never being associated in our
museums and collections. A few such relations have been
brought to light by modern scientific travellers, but many more
remain to be discovered; and there is probably no fresher and
more productive field still unexplored in Natural History. Most
of these curious and suggestive relations are to be found in the
productions of islands, as compared with each other, or with the
continents of which they form appendages; but these can never
be properly studied, or even discovered, unless they are visibly
grouped together. When the birds, the more conspicuous families
of insects, and the land-shells of islands, are kept together so as
to be readily compared with similar associations from the adja-
cent continents or other islands, it is believed that in almost every
case there will be found to be peculiarities of form or colour
running through widely different groups, and strictly indicative
of local or geographical influences. Some of these coincident
variations have been alluded to in various parts of this work,
but they have never been systematically investigated. They
constitute an unworked mine of wealth for the enterprising
explorer; and they may not improbably lead to the discovery of
some of the hidden laws (supplementary to Natural Selection),
which seem to be required, in order to account for many of the
external characteristics of animals.

In concluding his task, the author ventures to suggest, that
naturalists who are disposed to turn aside from the beaten track
of research, may find in the line of study here suggested a new
and interesting pursuit, not inferior in attractions to the lofty
heights of transcendental anatomy, or the bewildering mazes of
modern classification. And it is a study which will surely lead
them to an increased appreciation of the beauty and the harmony
of nature, and to a fuller comprehension of the complex relations
and mutual interdependence, which link together every animal
and vegetable form, with the ever-changing earth which supports
them, into one grand organic whole.

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GENERAL INDEX.

: : rh fs

CRCRULL® cP ATOR ADE

GENERAL INDEX.

ALL names in Italics refer, either to the genera and other groups of Extinct
Animals in Part II. of the First Volume ;—or to the genera whose distribution
is given under Geographical Zoology (Part IV.) in the Second Volume; the
Families and higher groups being in small capitals. All other references are in
ordinary type.

The various matters discussed under Zoological Geography (Part III.), are
indexed as much as possible by subjects and localities. None of the genera
mentioned in this Part are indexed, as this would have more than doubled the
extent of the Index, and would have served no useful purpose, because the
general distribution of each genus is given in Part IV., and the separate details
can always be found by referring to the region, sub-region, and class.

A. Acara, ii. 438
Accentor, ii. 260

Accentorine, ii. 257

Aard-vark of East Africa, figure of, i. 261

Aard-vark, ii. 246
Aard-wolf, ii. 196
Abacetus, li. 491

Abaz, ii. 489

Abisara, ii. 475
Ablabes, ii. 375
Ablepharus, ii. 395
Abraimis, ii. 453
Abronia, ii. 392
Abrornis, ii. 258
Abrostomus, ii. 451
Aburria, ii. 343
Acalyptus, ii 384
Acanthias, ii. 461
Acanthicus, ii. 444
Acanthion, ii. 240
Acanthis, ii. 283
Acanthisitta. ii. 265
Acanthiza, ii. 258
Acanthobrama, ii. 453
ACANTHOCLINIDA, ii. 432
Acanthodactylus, ii. 391
Acanthodelphis, ii. 209
Acantholabrus, ii. 437
Acanthomys, ii. 229
Acanthophis, ii. 383
Acanthopsis, ii. 453
ACANTHOPTERYGII, ii. 424

ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNCO-

GNATHL, ii. 437
Acanthopthalmus, li. 453
Acanthoptila, ii. 261
Acanthopyga, ii. 390
Acanthorhynchus, ti. 275
Acanthosaura, ii. 402

Accipenser, li. 459

ACCIPENSERIDA,, ii. 459

Accipiter, ii. 348

Accipitres, European Eocene, i. 163

Accipitres, classification of, i. 97
range of Palearctic genera of, i. 248
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 312
range of Oriental genera of, i. 385
range of Australian genera of, i. 486

ACCIPITRES, ii. 345

general remarks on the distribution of, ii.

351
ACCIPITRINA, ii. 347
Acerina, ii. 425
Aceros, li. 317
Acerotherium, ii. 214
Acerotherium, European Miocene, i. 119
N. American Tertiary, i. 136
Acestra, ii. 444
Acestura, ii. 108
Achalinus, ii. 375
Acharnes, ii. 434
Achatina, ii. 515
Achatinella, ii. 514
Acherontia, ii, 483
Achilognathus, ii. 452
Achenodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
Acicula, ii. 519
ACICULIDA, ii. 519
Acmeeodera, ii. 497
Acodon, ii. 230
ACONTIADA, ii. 399
Acontias, ii. 399
Acotherium, European Eocene, i. 126
Acotheriwm, li. 215

558 GENERAL INDEX.

Acreea. ii. 473 Aiz, ii. 363

ACREID4&, ii. 473 . Akysis, ii. 442

Acrantus, ii. 390 Alemon, ii. 289

Acredula, ii. 266 Alaska, birds of, ii. 136

Acridotheres, ii. 287 Alauda, ii. 289

Acris, ii. 419 ALAUDID4, ii. 289

Acrobata, ii. 252 Albatrosses, ii. 365

Acrocephalus, ii. 258 Albulichthys, ii. 452

Acrochilus, ii. 452 Alburnus, ii. 453

ACROCHORDIDA, ii. 382 Alca, ii. 367

Acrochordonichthys, ii. 442 Alcadia, ii. 522

Acrochordus, ii. 382 ALCEDINID4,, ii. 315
ACRONURIDA,, ii. 433 Alcedo, ii. 316

Acropternis, ii. 297 ALCEPHALINA, ii. 224

Acryllium, ii. 340 Alcephalus, Indian Miocene, i. 122
Actenodes, ii. 497 Alcephalus, ii. 224

Actinodura, ti. 261 Alces, ii. 219

Ada, ii. 390 ALCID&, ii. 367

Adamsiella, ii. 521 Alcippe, ii. 261

Adapis, European Eocene, i. 125 Alecwrus, ii, 267

Addaz, ii. 223 Alcyone, ii. 316

Adelomia, ii. 108 Aldabra Islands, land-tortoises of, i. 289
Adelotopus, ii. 490 Alectorurus, ii. 100

Adenomera, ii. 416 Alectreenas, ii. 332

Adblias, ii. 474 ALEPOCEPHALIDA, ii. 454

Aedon, ii. 259 Alesa, ti. 475

Ageria, ii. 482 Alestes, ii. 445

ZEGERIIDA, ii. 482 Alethe, ii. 262

Zi gialitis, ii. 356 Aletornis, N. American Eocene, i. 163
AE githaliscus, ii. 266 Alentian Islands, birds of, ii. 137
AEgithalus, ii. 266 Algeria, Post-Pliocene deposits and caves of,
AE gocera, ii. 482 i. 111

A gotheles, ii. 319 Algira, ii. 391

A luredus, ii, 275 Alleghany sub-region, ii, 130
Alurichthys, ii. 443 mammalia of, ii. 132

ZELURIDA, ii. 201 birds of, ii. 132

lurogale, European Eocene, i. 125 reptiles of, ii. 133

Aluropus, ii. 201 amphibia of, ii. 134

Alurus, ii. 201 fishes of, ii. 134

mona, ii. 472 islands of, ii. 134

Enigma, ii. 490 Allen, Mr. J. A., on Zoological regions, i. 61
Eolide, ii. 530 objections to his system of circumpolar
Epyceros, ii. 223 zones, i. 67

Zipyornis, of Madagascar, i. 164 objections to his zoo-geographical nomen-
pyornis, ii. 370 clature, i. 68
ZEPYORNITHID ii. 370 on birds of N. America, ii. 133, 186
sacus, ii. 355 Alligator, ii. 406

shina, from the Lias, i. 167 ALLIGATORID4A, ii. 406

Ethopyga, ii. 276 Alligators, ii. 406

AEthya, ii. 364 Allotinus, ii. 477

Agama, ii. 402 Alopecias, ii. 460

AGAMIDA, ii. 401 Alsceecomus, ii. 332

Agapornis, ii 328 Alsecus, ii. 259

Agarista, ii. 482 Alseonaa, ii. 270

Agaristide, ii. 482 Alsodes, ii. 417

Agelasta, ii. 501 : Altai mountains, fossils in caves, i. 111
AGELASTINA, ii. 340 Alytes, ii. 417

Ageleeus, ii. 282 ALYTID#, ii. 417

Ageniosus, ii 443 Amadina, li. 287

Ageronia, ii. 474 Amara, ii. 489

Agleactis, ii. 108 Amarynthis, ii. 476

Agnopterus, European Eocene, i. 163 Amathusia, ii. 472

Agoniates, ii. 445 Amauresthes, ii. 287

Agonostoma, ii, 435 Amanurospiza, ii, 285

Agonus, ii. 428 Ainazilia, ii. 109

Agouti, ii. 241 Amblyrhiza, Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148
Agra, ii. 490 AMBLYCEPHALIDA,, ii 380
Agraulis, ii. 474 Amblycephalus, ii. 380

Agrilus, ii. 497 Amblyceps, ii. 443

Agriocherus, N. American Tertiary, i. 188 Amblychila, ii. 487

Agrion, from the Lias, i. 167 Amblymora, ii. 501

Agriornis, ii. 100 Amblyopsis, ii. 450

Ahetulla, ii. 379 Amblyornis, ii. 275

Ailia, ii. 442 Amblypharyngodon, ti. 452

Aipysurus, ii. 384 Amblypodia, ii. 477

Aithurus, ii. 107 Amblyrhamplhus, ii. 282

GENERAL INDEX.

559

Amblyrhiza, ti. 237
Amblyrhynchichthys, ii. 452
Amblystoma, ii. 413
Ameiva, ii. 390
America, recent separation of North and
South, i. 40
extinct mammalia of, i. 129
N., Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 129
American Creepers, ii. 295
AMIIDA,, ii. 458
Amiurus, ii. 442
Ammodromus, ii. 284
Ammodytes, ii. 440
Ammomanes, ii. 289
AMMONITIDA,, ii. 506
Amomys, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
Ampeliceps, ii. 287
AMPELIDA,, ii. 280
Ampelio, ii. 102
Ampelis, ii. 280 4
Amphechinus, European Miocene, i. 117
ii. 188
Amphibia, means of dispersal of, i. 28
classification of, i. 100
peculiar to Palearctic region, i. 186
of Central Europe, i. 196
of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 226
table of Palearctic families of, i. 237
of the Ethiopian region, i, 255
of West Africa, i. 264
8. African, i. 268
of Madagascar, i. 280
table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298
of the Oriental region, i. 317
of the Indian sub-region, i. 326
of Ceylon, i. 327
of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331
of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340
table of Oriental families of, i. 369
of the Australian region, i. 397
resemblances of Australian and South-
American, i. 400
of New Guinea, i. 416
of New Zealand, i. 457
Neotropical, ii. 11
of South Temperate America, ii. 41
of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
of the Antilles, ii. 72
table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89
of the Nearctic region, ii. 120
of California, ii. 128
of Central North America, ii. 131
of Eastern United States, ii. 134
table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143
AMPHIBIA, ii. 411
general remarks on the distribution of, ii.
422
fossil, ii. 423
summary and conclusion, ii. 648
lines of migration of, ii. 548
Amphibola, ii. 510
Amphibos, Indian Miocene, i. 122
ii, 225
Amphicyon; European Miocene, i. 118
Indian Miocene, i. 121
N. American Tertiary, i. 134
ii. 198
ii. 202
Amphiglossus, ii 398
Amphimericide, European Miocene, i. 119
Amphimoschus, European Miocene, 1. 120
ii. 220
Amphioxus, li. 464
Amphipnous, ii. 455

Amphisbeena, ii. 389

AMPHISBANIDA, ii. 388

Amphisorez, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 191

Ares, European Miocene, i. 120
1/21

Amphiwma, ii. 412

AMPHIUMIDA,, ii. 412

Amphiaestus, ti. 397

Ampullaria, ii. 510

Amydrus, ii. 288

Amytis, ii. 258

Anabatoides, ii. 103

Anabazenops, ii. 103

Anableps, ii. 450

ANACANTHINL, ii. 489

Anacyrtus, ii. 445

Anadenus, ti. 517

Anadia, ii. 393

ANADIADA,, ii. 393

Aneretes, ii. 101, 291

Anaides, ii. 413

Analcipus, ii. 268

Anarhynchus, ii. 356

Anarrhichas, ii. 431

Anas, ii. 363

Anastoma, European Tertiary, i. 169
li. 527

Anastomus, ii. 361

ANATIDA, ii. 363

ANATINIDA,, ii. 586

Anatinella, ii. 536

Anausoreg, ti. 191

Anchilophus, European Eocene, i. 125

Anchippodus, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Anchippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Anchitheride, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
ii. 212

Anchitherium, European Miocene, i, 119
European Eocene, 1. 125
N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Ancient fauna of New Zealand, i. 459

Ancistrops, ii. 103

Ancylotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 121

Ancylotherium, ii. 246

Ancyluris, ii. 476

Ancylus, ii. 518

Andaman Islands, zoology of, i. 333
probable past history of, i. 334

Andigena, ii. 307

Andrias, European Miocene, i. 165

Androdon, ii. 107

Andropadus, ii. 267

Aneitea, ii. 517

Anguilla, ii. 456

Anguis, ii. 397

Angwantibo, ii. 176

Animal kingdom, primary divisions of, i 85

Animals, development of, affecting distribu-

tion, i. 7

dispersal and migration of, i. 10
rapid multiplication of, i. 10

Anisacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Anoa of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 428

Anoa, ii. 222

Anodon, ii. 534

Anolius, ii. 400

Anomalurus, ii. 235

Anomalpus, ii, 397

Anoplodipsas, ii. 381

Anoplotheriide, European Miocene, i. 119

Anoplotherium, European Miocene, i. 119
European Eocene, i. 126
8. American Eocene, i. 1

Anopthalmus, ii. 489

560

GENERAL INDEX.

Anostomus, ii. 445
Anous, li. 365
Anser, ti. 363
Anseranas, ii. 363
Anseres, arrangement of, i. 98
peculiar Palearctic genera of, i. 250
peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 313
peculiar Australian genera of, i. 487
ANSERES, general remarks on the distribu-
tion of, ii. 367
Antarctia, ii. 490
ii 492
Ant-eaters, ii. 247
Antechinomys, ii. 249
Antechinus, ii. 249
Antelopes in the Indian Miocene deposits, i.
122
birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
Palearctic, i. 182
ii. 221
Antelotheriwm, Indian Miocene, i. 122
Antennarius, li. 431 °
Anteros, ii. 476
Anthia, ii. 491
Anthipes, ii. 270
Anthocharis, ii. 478
Anthochera, ii. 275
Anthornis, ti. 275
Anthracotheride, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
Anthracotherium, European Miocene, i. 119
ii 215
Anthreptes, ii. 276
Anthropoid apes, ii. 17
Anthropoides, ii. 357
Anthus, ii. 290
Antiacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Antillean sub-region, ii. 61
mammalia of, ii. 62
birds of, ii. 64
illustration of zoology of, fi. 67
table of distribution of resident land-
birds of, ii. 68
reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 72
fresh-water fish of, ii. 73
insects of, ii. 73
land-shells of, ii. 75
past history of, ii. 78
Antilles, Pliocene Mainmalia of, i. 148
land-shells of, ii. 526
Antilocapra, ii 223
ANTILOCAPRINA,, ii. 223
Antilope, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
li. 223

li. 226
Antiquity of the genera of insects, i. 166
of the genera of land and fresh-water
shells, i. 168
Antrostomus, ii. 319
Ant-thrushes, ii. 297
Anumbius, ii. 103
ANURA, ii. 414
Anurosorez, ii. 190
Aonyf, ii. 199
Apalis, ii. 258
Apaloderma, ii. 314
Apatura, ii. 474
Aphanapteryx of Mauritius, :. 164
ii. 352
Aphantocera, ii. 107
Aphelotherium, European Eocene, i. 125
Aphneus, ii. 477
Aphobus, ii. 283
APHREDODERIDA,, ii. 425
Aphritis, ii. 428
ii, 549

Aphriza, ii. 356

Aphysiade, ii. 530

Aphyocypris, ii. 452

Aplocerus, ii, 224

Aplodontia, ii. 236

Aplonis, ii. 288

Aplopelia, ii. 333

Apodemia, ii. 476

Apogon, ii. 425

Aprasia, ii. 396

APRASIADA, ii. 396

Aprosmictus, ii. 325 z

Aptenodytes, ii. 366

APTERYGIDA, ii. 369

Apteryz, ii. 369

Apua, ii. 453

Aquila, European Miocene, i. 161
li. 348

AQUILIN4A,, ii. 348

Ara, ii. 328

Arachnechthra, ii. 276

Arachnothera, ii, 277

ARAMID4A, ii. 357

Aramides, ii. 352

Aramus, ii. 357

Arapaima, ii. 454

Arborophila, ii. 338

ARCADA,, ii. 534

Archwomys, ii. 238

Archeopteryx, Bavarian Oolite, i. 163

Archibuteo, ii, 348

Arctic shells, ii. 518
zone not a separate region, i. 68

Arctitis, ii. 195

Arctocebus, ii. 176

Arctocephalus, ii. 202

Arctocyon, European Eocene, i. 125
ii. 206

Arctodus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
ii. 202

Arctogale, ii. 195

Arctomys, European Pliocene, i. 113
ii. 235, 236

Arctonyz, li, 199

Arctopithecus, ii, 244

Arctotherium in Brazilian caves, i. 144
§. American Pliocene, i. 146

Ardea, ii. 359

ARDEIDZ, ii. 359

Ardistomus, ii. 490

Argentina, li. 488

Arges, ii. 444

ARGONAUTIDZE ii. 505

Argus pheasant, figure of, i. 339
peculiarity in display of plumage, and con-

firmation of Mr. Darwin’s views, i. 340

Argusianus, ii. 340

Argutor, ii. 489

Argynnis, ii. 474

Aricoris, ii. 476

Ariella, ii. 195

Arinia, ii. 520

Arion, ii. 517

Aristobia, ii. 501

Arius, ii. 443

Armadillos, ii. 245

Arnoglossus, li. 441

Aromochelys, ii. 408

Arremon, ii. 99

Arrhenotus, ii. 501

Artamia, ii. 268
ii. 271

ii. 288
ARTAMIDA, ii. 288
Artamides, ii. 269
Artamus, ii, 288

GENERAL INDEX.

561

Arthroleptis, ii. 421

Artiodactyla, European Eocene, i. 126
N. American Tertiary, i. 137
S. American Pliocene, i. 146

Artomyias, ii. 270

Arundinicola, ii. 100

Arvicola, European Pliocene, i. 113
in Brazilian caves, i. 145
S. American Pliocene, i. 147
S. American Eocene, i. 148

Arvicola, ii. 230, 231

Asio, ii. 350

Aspergillum, ii. 537

Aspidoparia, ii. 452

Aspidorhinus, ii. 391

Aspidura, ii. 374

Aspius, ii. 453

Aspredo, ii. 444

Aspro, ii. 425

Astarte, ii. 535

Astathes, ii. 501

Asterophys, ii. 421

Asterophysus, ii. 443

Asthenodipsas, li. 381

Astrapia, li. 274

Astroblepus, li. 444

Astur, ii. 348

Asturing, li. 348

Asturinula, ti. 348

ATELEOPODID2, ii. 440

Ateles, ii. 174

Atelopus, ii. 416

Atelornis, ii. 312

Aterica, ii. 474

Athene, ii. 350

Atherina, ii. 434

Atherinichthys, ii. 434

ATHERINIDA,, ii. 434

Atheris, ii. 386

Atherwra, ii. 240

Athylax, ii. 195

Athyma, ii. 474

ATLANTIDA,, ii. 531

Atlapetes, ii. 284 f

ATRACTASPIDIDA,, ii. 383

Atractaspis, ii. 383

Atretiwm, ii. 375

Atrichia, 299

ATRICHIIDA, ii. 299

Atropos, ii. 385

Attagis, ii. 354

ATTALINA, ii. 293

Atthis, ii. 108

Atticora, ii. 281

Attila, ii. 102

Auchenaspis, ii. 443

Auchenia, N. American Post-Plivcene, i. 130
ii, 217

Auchenipterus, ii. 443

Auckland Islands, birds of, i. 455

Augastes, ii. 108

Auks, ii. 367

Aulia, ii. 102

Aulacodes, ii. 239

Aulacodon, ii. 239

Aulacorhamphus, ii. 307

Aulopoma, ii. 520

Aulopyge, ii. 452

Auricula, ii. 519, 527

AURICULIDA, ii. 518

Auriparus, ii. 266 :

Australia, physical features of, i. 387

Australia and S. America, supposed land con-

nection between, i. 398 ¥

Australian region, description of, i. 387

zoological characteristics of, i. 390

Australian region, mammalia of, i 390
birds of, i. 391
reptiles of, i. 396
amphibia of, i. 397
fresh-water fish of, i. 397
summary of vertebrata of, i. 397
supposed land-connection of with 8S. Am,
rica, i. 398
insects of, i. 403
lepidoptera of, i. 404
coleoptera of, i. 405
land-shells of, i. 407
sub-regions of, i. 408
early history of, i. 465
Australian sub-region, mammalia of, i. 438
illustration of maimmalia of, i. 439
birds of, i. 440
illustration of fauna of, i. 441
Australian hedgehog, ii. 254
Austro-Malayan sub-region, physical features
of, i 388
zoology of, i. 409
Automolus, ii. 103
AVICULIDA,, ii. 533
Avocettula, ii. 107
Avocettinus, ii. 108
Aye-aye, figure of, i. 278
ii. 177
Aziocerces, ii. 477
Azores, visited by European birds, i. 17
birds of, i. 207
butterflies of, i. 207
beetles of, i. 207, 209
peculiarly modified birds of, i. 207
stragglers to, i. 208
how stocked with animal life, i. 208

B

Babirusa of Celebes, peculiaritjes of, i. 428
rate ii, 215
adger, figure of, i, 195
Badis, i033
Beotis, ii, 475
Bagarius, ii. 443
Bagrichthys, ii, 442
Bagroides, ii. 442
Bagrus, li, 442
Baird, aoeeees an fauna of Cape St. Lucas
li. 130
on plesaualive birds of United States,
ii.
Balena, European Pliocene, i. 112
li. 207
Baleniceps, ii. 360
BALANIDA, ii. 207
Balenodon, European Pliocene, i, 112
Baleenoptera, 207
Balenopteride, ii. 207
Balea, ii. 516
Balearica, ii. 357
Baly, Mr., on Phytophaga of Japan, i. 230
Banca, its peculiar species and solution of a
problem in distribution, i. 356
Band-fish, ii. 435
Bandicoots, ii. 250
Barangia, ii. 199
Barbatula, ii. 306
Barbets, ii. 305
Barbichthys, ii. 452
Barbus, ii. 451
Barilius, ii. 452
Barissia, ii. 392
Barriers, as affecting distribution, i. 6
permanence of, as affecting distribution, i. 7
to the dispersal of birds, i. 17

562

Baryphthengus, ii. 318
Barypus, ti. 492
Basileuterus, ii 279
Basilornis, ii. 287
Bassaris, ii. 200
Batara, ii. 104
Bates, Mr., on Carabide of Japan, i. 228
on Longicorns of Japan, i. 230
Bathmodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
Bathrodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Bathyerges, ii. 231
BATOIDEI, ii. 462
BATRACHIDA,, ii. 481
Batrachocephalus, ii. 443
Batrachoseps, ii. 413
Batrachostomus, ii. 318
Bats, powers of flight of, i. 15
classification of, i. 87
of New Zealand, i. 450
Baucis, ii. 108
Baza, ii. 349
Bdeogale, ii. 195
Bearded Reedling, ii. 262
Bears, probable cause of absenve of, frou
tropical Africa, i. 291
ii. 201
Beaver, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
Beavers, ii. 234
Bee-eaters, ii. 312
Beetles, families selected for study,"i. 103
from the Lias, i. 167
of Azores, i. 207
of Japan, i. 228
of S. Temperate America. ii. 44
BELEMNITIDA,, ii. 506
Belemnoziphius, European Pliocene, i. 112
Belideus, ii. 252
Belionota, ii. 497
Belodontichthys, ii. 441
Belone, ii. 450
Belonesox, ii. 450
Belt, Mr., his theory of a great Siberian lake
during the glacial epoch, i. 218 ; ii. 206
on change of climate caused by diminu-
tion of obliquity of ecliptic, i. 466
Beluga, ii. 209
Bembecidiwm, ii. 489
Berardius, ii. 208
Berenicornis, ii. 317
Bermudas, zoology of, ii. 134
Bernicla,, ii. 363
Bernieria, ii. 258
BERYCIDZ, ii. 424
Bessonornis, ii. 256
Bettongia, ii. 251
Bhringa, ii. 269
Bhutanitis, ii. 479
Bias, ii. 270
Biatas, ii. 104
Bibos, ii. 222
Bison, ii. 222, 225
Binney, Mr., on Air-breathing Molluses of
N. America, ii 528
Birds, means of dispersal of, i. 15
dispersal of by winds, i. 16
American, found in Europe, i. 16
reaching the Azores, i. 17
barriers to dispersal of, i. 17
limited by forests, i. 17
classification of, i. 93
Miocene of Greece, i. 116
extinct, i. 160
fossil of Palearctic region, i. 161
European of Miocene period, i. 161
Eocene of Europe, i. 162
relations of, i. 162

GENERAL INDEX.

Birds, extinct of North America, i. 163°
recently extinct in New Zealand, i. 164
Cretaceous of N. America, i. 164
remains of in Brazilian caves, i. 164
recently extinct in Madagascar and the
Mascarene Islands, i. 164

cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176

numerous Palearctic genera, i. 183

of the European sub-region, i. 193

northern range of in Europe, i. 193

of the zone of pine forests, i. 194

of Iceland, i. 198

of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 203

of Malta, i. 206 (note)

of the Azores, i. 207

of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215

of the Siberian sub-region, i. 219

Oriental found in Siberia, i. 219

extreme northern Asiatic, i. 219

of northern Asiatic forests, i. 220

of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 223

Palearctic genera of, in the Manchurian
sub-region, i. 224

Oriental genera of, in the Manchurian
sub-region, i. 224

characteristic of N.W. China and Mon-
golia, i. 226 ;

table of Palearctic families of, i. 235

of West Africa, i. 243

list of Paleearctie genera of, i. 248

of the Ethiopian region, i. 253

of the East African sub-region, i. 260

8. African, i. 267

genera of, peculiar to Madagascar, i. 275

common to Madagascar and Oriental or
Ethiopian regions, i. 276

species common to Madagascar and Africa
or Asia, i. 277

table of Ethiopian families of, i. 295

table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 306

of the Oriental region, i. 316

of the Indian sub-region, i. 323

Oriental genera of in Central India, i. 324

Palearctic and Ethiopian genera in
Central India, i. 325

of Ceylon, i. 327

of the Indo-Chinese sub region, i. 330

of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 337

illustration of peculiar Malayan, i. 339

of the Philippine Islands, i. 346

table of Oriental families of, i. 366

table of Oriental genera of, i. 375

of Australian region, i. 391

specially organized Australian families of,
i, 392

of the Papuan Islands, i. 410

peculiarities of, iL 413

brilliant colours of, i. 413

remarkable forms of, i. 414

of the Moluceas, i. 418

peculiarities of, i. 421

of the Timor group, i. 423

of Celebes, i. 428

of Australia, i. 440

of New Zealand, i. 451

peculiar to New Zealand, i. 452

of Norfolk Island, i. 453

of Lord Howe’s Island, i. 453

of the Chatham Islands, i. 454

of the Auckland Islands, i. 455

table of families of Australian, i. 471

table of genera of Australian, i. 478

of the Neotropical region, ii. 6

distinctive characters of Neotropical, ti. 7

of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 52

of the Antilles, ii. 64

GENERAL INDEX.

563

Birds, table of distribution of, ii. 68
table of families of Neotropical, ii. 86
table of genera of Neotropical, ii, 86
of the Nearctic region, ii. 116
list of typical genera of, ii. 118
of California, ii. 127
of Central N. America, ii. 130
of Eastern United States, ii. 132
of Canada, ii. 136
table of Nearctic families of, ii. 141
table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 148
and Mammals, parallelism of distribution
of, ii. 545
lines of migration of, ii. 545
peculiar development of, in islands, ii.
546
contrast of distribution in tropical and
temperate oceanic islands, ii. 546
Biziura, ii. 364
Blacicus, ii. 102
Black ape of Celebes, i. 427
Bland, Mr. Thomas, on Antillean land-shells,
ii. 19
ji. 526
Blanford, Mr. W. T., on the
region, i. 60
on relations of Indian sub-region with
Africa, i. 321
Blapsidiwm, Oolitic insect, i. 167
Blarina, ii. 191
Blauneria, ii. 519
BLENNIDA,, ii. 431
Blenniops, ti. 431
Blennius, ti. 431
Blethisa, ii. 489
Blind burrowing snakes, ii. 372
Blunt-heads, ii. 380
Blyth, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 60
on the relations of Indian sub-region with
Africa, i. 321
Boa, ii. 381
Bocdon, ii. 380
Boas, ii. 381
Bola, ii. 452
Bolborhynchus, ii. 328
Boleosoma, ii. 425
BOMBINATORIDA,, ii. 416
Bombinator, ii. 417
Bonasa, ti. 339
Bonnet-limpets, ii. 511
Bony Pikes, ii. 459
Bootherium, ii. 225
Borneo, probable recent changes in, i. 357
Bos, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
Indian Miocene, i. 122
ii, 222, 225
Botawrus, ii. 359
Bothriodon, ii. 215
Botia, ii. 453
Bourbon, zoology of, i. 280
reptiles of, i. 281
Bourcieria, ii. 108
li. 521
Bovide, European Miocene, i. 120
BOVID4, ii. 221
BOVINA, ii. 222
Brachinus, ii. 489
BRACHIOPODA, ii. 532
Brachiwrophis, ii. 383
Brachiwrus, ii. 175
Brachyalestes, ii. 445
Brachycephalus, ii. 414
Brachygalba, ii. 311
Brachylophus, ii. 401
Brachymeles, ii. 397
Brachymerus, li. 416

* Indian ”

Brachymys, European Miocene, i. 120
li. 232
li. 236
Brachymystax, ii. 447
Brachypterya, ii. 256
Brachypternus, ii. 303
Brachytarsomys, ii. 230
Brachypteracias, ii. 312
Brachyrhamphus, ii. 367
Bradybates, ii. 413
Bradycellus, ii. 489
Bradyornis, ii. 271
BRADYPODIDA, ii. 244
Bradyptetus, ti. 258
Bradypus, ii. 244
Bradytus, ii. 489. ~
Brame, ii. 429
Bramatheriwm, Miocene of Perim Island, i. 129
li. 226
Braichiosteus, ii. 442
Branta, ii. 364
BRASSOLID&, ii. 472
Brassolis, ii. 472
Brazilian cave-fauna, i. 143
remarks on, i. 145
Brazilian sub-region, description of, ii. 21
mamumalia of, ii. 23
birds of, ii. 24
illustration of mammalia of, ii. 23
illustration of birds of, ii. 28
islands of, ii. 29
Breviceps, ii. 416
Breyeria borinensis, Carboniferous insect, i, 168
Britain, peculiar species in, i. 197
British Isles, zoology of, i. 197
Broad-bill, Malayan, figure of, i. 340
Broad-bills, ii. 294
Bronchocela, ii. 402
Brontes, ii. 444
Brontotheride, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
Brontotherium, N. American Tertiary, i 137
Brotogerys, ii. 328
Brush-turkeys, ii. 341
Brycon, ii. 445
Bryconops, ti. 445
Bryttus, ii. 425
Buarremon, ii. 99
Bubalus, ii. 222
Bubo, European Miocene, i. 162
ii. 350
BUCCINID&, ii. 507
Buccinum, ii. 507
Bucco, ii. 310
BUCCONIDA, ii. 310
Bucephala, ii. 364
Bucephalus, ii. 379
Buceros, ii. 317 ‘
BUCEROTIDA,, ii. 316
Bucorvus, ii. 317
Budoreas, ii. 224
BuUDORCINA, ii. 224
Budytes, ii. 290
Buffaloes, ii. 221
Bufo, ii. 415
BUFONIDA,, ii. 415
Bulbuls, ii. 267
BULLIDA,, ii. 530
Buliminus, ii. 514
Bulimulus, ii. 514
Bulimus, Eocene, i. 169
ii. 514, 523
Bunelurus, N. American Tertiary, 1. 134
Bungarus, ii. 383
Bungia, ti. 452
Bunocephalichthys, ii. 444
Bunocephalus, ii. 444

564

Buphaga, ii. 288
BU PRESTIDA,, ii. 495
Buprestidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167
Busarellus, ii. 348
Bush-shrikes, ii. 297
Bustards, ii. 356
Butalis, ti. 270
Butastur, ii. 348
Buteo, ii. 348
Buteogallus, ii. 348
BUTEONINA, ii. 348
Buteola, ii. 348
Buthraupis, ti. 98
Butterflies, arrangement of, i. 103
Palearctic, i. 187
of Central Europe, i. 196
of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
of Azores, i. 207
peculiar to Siberian sub-region, i. 220
of Japan and North China, i. 227
of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
number of Ethiopian species, i. 256
of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342
of the Australian region, i. 404
of the Austro-Malay sub-region, i. 404
of the Moluccas, i. 419
of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 434
of New Zealand, i. 457
li. 470
general remarks on the distribution of, ii.
483

fossil, ii. 486
of 8. Temperate America, ii. 43
Bycanistes, ii. 317

Cabalus, ii. 352

Cabrita, ii. 391

Cacatua, ii. 325

CACATUID&, ii. 324

Caccabis, ii. 339

Cachius, ii. 453

Cacomantis, ii. 309

Cacophis, ii. 383

Cacopitta, ii. 261

Cacopus, ii. 416

Cacotus, ii. 417

Cactornis, ii. 284

Cadurcotherium, European Eocene, i. 125

Cecilia, ii. 411

CACILIADA, ii. 411

Ceecum, ii. 509

Celodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

Celogenys, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 241

Cenopithecus, European Eocene, i. 124
ii. 178

Centropus, ii. 445

Cainotherium, European Miocene, i. 120
European Eocene, i. 126

Cairina, ii. 364

Caica, ii. 328

Calamanthas, ii. 258

Calamaria, ii. 374

CALAMARIIDA,, ii. 374

Calamodon, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Calamodus, ii. 258

CALAMOHERPIN&, ii. 287

Calamoichthys, ii. 458

Calamospiza, ii. 285

Calandrella, ii. 289

Calao, ii. 317

Calathus, ii. 489

Caledonica, ii. 487

GENERAL INDEX.

Calendula, ii. 289

Caliealicus, ii. 271

Calictis, ii. 195

Calidris, ii. 353

Caliecthrus, ii. 309

California, illustration of zoology of, ii. 128

Californian sub-region, ii. 127
mammialia of, ii. 127
birds of, ii. 127
reptiles of, ii. 128
amphibia of, ii. 128
fresh-water fishes of, ii. 128

Caligo, ii. 472

Calinaga, ii. 479

Calisto, ii. 471

Calleas, ii. 287

Callia, ii. 521

Callichroma, ii. 501

Callichrous, ii. 442

Callichthys, ii. 444

Callida, ii. 490

Callidryas, ii. 478

Callionymus, ii. 430

Calliope, ii, 259

Callipepla, ii. 339

Calliperidia, ii. 108

Calliphlox, ii. 198

Callirhynus, ii. 375 =

Callisawrus, ii. 401

Calliste, ii. 98

Callisthenus, ii. 489

Callithea, ii. 474

Callithria, in Brazilian caves, i. 184
ii. 175
ii. 178

Callocephalus, ii. 204

Callochen, ii. 363

Callomystaz, ii. 443

Callophis, ii. 383

Callophysus, ii. 443

Callopistes, ii. 390

Callorhinus, ii. 202

Calloselasma, ii. 385

Callosune, ii. 478

Callula, ii. 416

Calobates, ii. 290

Calocitta, ii. 273

Calodromas, 1i. 344

Calenas, ii. 333

Caloperdia, ii. 339

Calophena, ii, 490

Calopsitta, ii. 325

Caloragia, ii. 375

Calorhamphus, ii. 306

Calornis, ii. 288

Calosoma, ii. 489

Calostethus, ii 419

Calotes, ii. 402

Calothoraz, ii. 108

Calydna, ii. 476

Calypte, ii. 108

Calyptocephalus, ii. 421

Calyptomena, ii. 295

Calyptorhynchus, ii. 324

CALYPTREIDA, ii. 511

Calyptura, ii. 102

Camarhynchus, ii. 284

Camaroptera, ii. 258 ©

Camel, fossil in Indian Miocene, i. 122
birth-place and migrations of, i. 155
Palearctic, i. 182

Camelidw, essentially extra-tropical, i. 112
N. American Tertiary, i. 138

CAMELIDZ, ii. 216

CAMELOPARDALIDA,, ii. 221

Camelopardalis, Miocene of Greece, i. 116

GENERAL INDEX. 56

Camelopardalis, Indian Miocene, i. 122
ii. 221

Camelotheriwm, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147
ii. 217

Camels, ii. 216

Camelus, ii. 216

Camena, ii. 477

Cumpephaga, ii. 269

CAMPEPHAGIDA,, ii. 268

Campephilus, ii. 303

Campsiempis, ti. 101

Camptolaimus, ii. 364

Campylopterus, ii. 107

Campylorhynchus. ti. 264

Canadian sub-region, mammalia of, ii, 135
birds of, ii. 136
reptiles and fishes of, ii. 137
insects of, 11. 137

Canaries, birds of, i. 208
beetles of, i. 209

Cancroma, ii. 359

Canide, European Miocene, i. 118
European Eocene, i. 125
N. American Tertiary, i. 134
remarkable 8. African, i. 267

CANIDZ, ii. 197

Canis, European Pliocerte, i. 112
Post-Pliocene, i. 112
European Miocene, i. 118
Indian Miocene, i. 121
European Eocene, i. 125
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
N. American Tertiary, i. 134, 135
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
S. American Pliocene, i. 146
ii. 197

Cantharus, ii. 427

Cantoria, ii. 376

Cape Ant-eater, ii. 246

Cape of Good Hope, peculiar flora and fauna

of, i. 266

Cape Verd Islands, zoology of, i. 214

Cape-hare, S. African, i. 267

Capito, ii. 306

CAPITONINA, ii. 306

Capoeta, ii. 451

Capra, ii. 224, 225

Capreolus, ii. 219

CAPRIMULGID4A2, ii. 319

Caprimulgus, ii. 319

CAPRINA, ii. 224

Capromys, ii. 238

Capys, ii. 477

CARABID4, ii. 488

Carabus, ii. 488
ii. 489

CARANGIDA, ii. 429

Carassius, ii. 451

CARCHARIID&, ii. 460

Carcineutes, ii. 316

Cardellina, ii. 279

CARDIADA, ii. 535

Cardinalis, ii. 285

Cardiodus, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147

Cardiopthalmus, ii. 492

Cardita, ii. 535

Carenum, ii. 490

Cariama, Brazilian caves, i. 164
ii. 357

CARIAMID4Z, ii. 357

Caridonaa, ii. 316

Carlia, ii. 397

Carnivora of European Pliocene, i. 112
Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 118
Indian Miocene, i. 121 ,

qn

Carnivora, European Eocene, i. 125

N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129

N. American Tertiary, i. 134

of Brazilian caves, i. 144

S. American Pliocene, i. 146
Carnivora, classification of, i. 88

antiquity of, i. 153

of the Palearctic region, i. 182

list of Palearctic genera of, i, 240

list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 302

range of Oriental genera of, i. 273

list of Australian genera of, i. 476
CARNIVORA, ii. 192

general remarks on the distribution of,

204

range of, in time, ii. 206

summary and conclusion, ii. 541
Caroline Islands, birds of, i. 444
Carpenter, Dr. Philip, on Panama shells, ii.

20

Carpiodes, ii. 451

Carpococeyx, ii. 309

Carpodacus, ii. 285

Carpodectes, ii. 102, 294

Carpophaga, ii. 332

Carterodon in Brazilian caves, i. 145
ii, 239

Carus, and Gerstaeker on classification of

animals, i. 85
Professor, on classification of the Cetacea,
i. 88

Carychiwm, ii. 519

Casarca, ii. 363

Cascelius, ii. 492

Casiornis, ii. 102, 293

Casoryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
li. 225

Casnonia, ii. 489

Cassiculus, ii. 282

Cassicus, ii. 282

Cassidaria, ii. 507

Cassidix, ii. 283

Cassinia, ii. 270

Cassowaries, ii. 368

Castabia, ii. 534

Castnia, ii. 481

CASTNIID4&, ii. 481

Castor, European Pliocene, i. 113 ’
European Miocene, i. 120
li. 234

CASTORIDA, ii. 234
Castoroides, ii. 234
Casuarius, ii. 369
CASUARIIDA, ii. 368
Catadromus, ii. 490
Catagramma, ii. 474
Catamblyrhynchus, ii. 285
Catamenia, ii. 285
Catascopus, ti. 489

ii. 491
Cataulus, ii. 520
Catharistes, ii. 346
Cathartes, Brazilian caves, i. 124

ii. 346
Catharus, ii. 256
Catherpes, li. 264
Catla, ii, 451_
Catoblepas, ii. 224
Catodon, ii. 208
Catodontide, ii. 207
Catopra, li. 433
Catoprion, ii. 446
Catostomus, ii. 451
Catoxantha, ii. 496
Catriscus, ii. 258
Cats, ii. 192

566 GENERAL INDEX.

Cave-fauna of Brazil, i. 143
Cavia, European Miocene, i. 121
in Brazilian caves, i. 144

8. American Pliocene, i. 147
ii. 241
Cavies, ii. 241
CAVIID, ii. 241
CEBID&, ii. 174
Cebocherus, European Eocene, i. 126
ii. 215
Cebus in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 174
ii. 178
Cecina, ii. 521
Celebes, physical features of, i. 389
mammalia of, i. 426
birds of, i. 428
insects of, i. 484
origin of fauna of, i. 436
Celestus, ii. 327
Celeus, ii. 303
Celia, ii. 489
Cenchris, ii. 385
Centetes, ii. 188
Centetide, European Miocene, i. 118
CENTETIDA, ii. 188
Centrarchus, ti. 425
CENTRISCIDA,, ii. 436
Centriscus, ii. 436
Centrites, ii. 101, 291
Centrocercus, ii. 3389
Centrolabrus, ii. 437
Centrolophus, ii. 429
Centromochtlus, ii. 443
Centronotus, ii. 431
Centropus, ii. 309
Centronyx, ii. 286
Centropy2, ii. 390
Centurus, ii. 303
Cephalepis, ii. 108
Cephalopeltis, ii. 389
CEPHALOPHIN A, ii. 224
Cephalophus, ii. 224
CEPHALOPODA, ii. 505
Cephalopterus, ii. 103, 294
Cephalopyrus, ii. 266
Cepola, i. 435
CEPOLIDA, ii. 4385
CERAMBYCIDA, ii. 498
Ceratichthys, ii. 452
Ceratina, ii. 470
Ceratodus, remarkable Australian fish, i. 397
Ceratodus, ii. 458
Ceratohyla, ii. 418
Ceratophora, ii, 402
Ceratophorus, ii. 501
Ceratophrys, ii. 420
Ceratoptera, ii. 463
Ceratorhina, ii. 367
Ceratorhinus, ii. 213
Ceratotherium, ii. 213
Cerberus, ii. 376
Cercaspis, ii. 380
Cerchneis, ii. 349
Cercocebus, ii. 173 f
Cercolabes in Brazilian caves, i. 145
ii. 240
CERCOLABIDZ, ii. 239
Cercoleptes, ii. 200
Cercomacra, ii. 104
Cercomela, ii. 260
Cercomys, ii. 239
Garcon a in European Pliocene, i. 112
ii. 173
Cercosaura, ii. 894
CERCOSAURIDA, ii. 894

Cereopsis, ii. 863

Ceriornis, ii. 340

CERITHIADA,, ii. 509

Certhia, ii. 264

Certhidea, ii. 278

CERTHIIDA, ii. 264

Certhilauda, ii, 289

Certhiola, ii, 278

Certhiparus, li. 266

Cervicapra, li. 224

CERVICAPRINA, ii. 224

Cervide, European Miocene, i. 120
birth-place and migrations of, i. 155

CERVID&, ii. 218

Cervulus, ii. 219

Cervus, European Pliocene, i. 113
Indian Pliocene and Miocene, i. 122
N. American Post-Pliocene. i. 130
N. American Tertiary, i. 188
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
S. American Pliocene, i. 147
li, 219

Ceryle, ii 316

CESTRACIONTIDA, ii. 461

Cetacea, European Pliocene, i. 112
European Miocene, i. 119
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
N. American Tertiary, i. 140

Cetacea, classification of, i. 89
range of Oriental genus, i, 374

CETACBEA, ii. 207

Cethosia, ii. 474

CETONIIDA, ii. 494

Cetopsis, ii, 443

Cettia, ii. 258

Ceuthmochares, ii. 809

Ceycopsis, ii, 316

Ceylon and Malaya, resemblance of insects of,
827

Ceylonese sub-region, i. 326
mammalia of, i. 327
birds of, i. 327
reptiles of, i. 327
amphibia of, i. 327
insects of, i. 327
past history of, as indicated by its fauna,

i. 328

Ceya, ii. 316

Chaca, ii. 441

Chemarrhornis, ii. 259

Chemepelia, 333

Cherocampa, ii. 482

Cheetobranchus, ii. 439

Cheetocercus, ti. 108
ii. 249

Cheetodon, ii. 427

Cheetonvys, ii. 240

Cheetops, ii. 256

Cheetoptila, ii. 276

Chetorhynchus, ii. 269

Cheetostomus, ii. 444

Chetura, ii. 320

Chetusia, ii. 856

Chalceus, ti, 445

CHALCIDA, ii 393

Chalcinopsis, ii, 445

Chalcinus, ii. 445

Chalcis, ii. 393

Chalcochloris, ii. 189

Chalcopelia, li. 333

Chalcophaps, ii. 333

Chalcostetha, 1i. 276

Chalicomys, European Pliocene, i. 113

Chalicotheriwm, European Miocene, i. 119
Indian Miocene, i. 122
fossil in N. China, i. 123

GENERAL INDEX.

567

Chameleo, N. American Eocene, i. 165
Chalybura, ii. 107
Chameea, ii. 264
CHAM<EID4, ii. 264
CHAMALEONID &, ii. 402
Chameleons, ii. 402
Chamepetes, ii. 343
Chameospiza, ii, 284
Chamesaura, ii. 394
CHAMAESAURIDA,, ii. 394
Chameeza, ii. 104
CHAMID4&,, ii. 534
Chamois, figure of, i. 195
ii. 224
Chamostrea, ii. 536
Chanodichthys, ii. 453
CHARACINID4&, ii. 444
Characodon, fi. 450
CHARADRIIDA, ii. 355
Chiradrius, ii. 356
Charing, ii. 373
Charis, ii. 476
Charitornis, ii. 274
Charmosyna, ii. 327
Chasiempis, ii. 271
Chasmodes, ii. 431
Chasmorhynchus, ii. 103, 294
Chatarrhea, ii. 261
Chatham Islands, birds of, i. 454
Chatterers, ii. 293
Chaulelasmus, ii. 364
Chawna, ii. 361
Chaunonotus, ii. 272
Chaunoproctus, ii. 284
Chela, ii. 453
Chelemys, ii. 408
Chelidon, ii. 281
Chelidoptera, ii. 311
Chelidoryna, ii. 271
Chelodina, ii. 408
Chelomeles. ii. 397
Chelone, ii. 409
Chelonia, classification df, i. 100
CHELONIA, ii. 407
remarks on the distribution of, ii. 410
fossil, ii. 410
CHELONIID4A,, ii. 409
CHELYDIDA,, ii. 408
Chelydobatrachus, ii. 416
Chelydra, European Pliocene, i. 165
li. 408
Chelys, ii. 408
Chenalopex, ii. 363
Chera, ii. 286
Chersina, ii. 408
Chersydrus, li. 382
Chevrotain of Malaya, figure of, i. 336
Chevrotains, ii. 218
Chiamela, ii. 397
Chiasognathus, li. 493
Chibia, ii. 269
Chilabothrus, ii. 381
Chili should not be placed in the Palearctic or
Nearctic regions, i. 63
Chili and Temperate S. America, distribution
of Carabide in, ii. 492
Chilian Andes, illustration of zoology of, ‘1.
40

Chilian sub-region, ii. 36
mammalia of, ii. 36
birds of, ii. 37
illustration of zoology of, ii. 40
reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 40
fresh-water fishes of, ii 42
insects of, ii. 42 F
origin and migrations of insects 0%, ii. 47

Vou. II.—37

Chili, islands of, ii. 49
Chilinia, ii. 518
Chilobranchus, ti. 456
Chilomeniscus, ii. 375
Chimera, ii. 460
CHIMARIDA, ii. 460
China, fossil mammals in, resembling those
of Indian and European Miocene, i.
362
North, mammalia of, i. 222
Chinchilla, ii. 237
Chinchillide in Brazilian caves, i. 145
S. American Pliocene, i. 147
Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148
CHINCHILLIDA,, ii. 237
Chioglossa, ii. 413
Chionabas, ii. 471
CHIONIDIDA, ii. 354
Chionis, ii. 354
CHIROCENTRID4&,, ii. 454
CHIROCOLIDA, ii. 393
Chirodon, ii. 445
Chirodryas, ii. 418
Chirogaleus, ii. 176
Chiroleptes, ii. 421
Chiromacheeris, ti. 102, 292
Chiromantis, ii. 419
CHIROMYIDA&, ii. 177
Chironectes, ii. 248
Chiroptera, classification of, i. 87
list of Palearctic genera of, i. 239
list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
range of Oriental genera of, i. 371
list of Australian genera of, i. 475
Chiroptera, European Eocene, i. 125
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
CHIROPTERA, ii. 181
remarks on the distribution of, ii. 185
fossil, ii. 185
summary and conclusion, ii. 441
Chirotes, ii. 388
CHIROTIDA, ii. 388
Chiroxiphia, ii. 102, 292
CHITONIDA, ii. 512
Chittya, ti. 519
Chleenius, ii. 489
Chlamydodera, ii. 275
Chlamydophorus, ii. 246
Chlamydotherium, ii. 246
in Brazilian caves, i. 145
Chlenasicus, ii. 262
Chloéphaga, ii. 363
Chlorochrysa, ii. 98
ii. 99
Chloronerpes, ii. 303
Chlorophanes, ii. 278
Chlorophonia, ii. 98
li. 99
Chloropipo, ii. 102
Chlorospiza, ii. 283
Chlorospingus, ii. 99
ii. 100
Chlorostilbon, ii. 109
Choanomphalus, ii. 518
Choanopoma, ii. 521
Cheromorus, European Miocene, i. 119
Cheropotamus, European Eocene, i. 126
ii. 215
Cheeropus, ii. 250
Cherotherium, Indian Miocene, t. 122
Cholepus, ii. 244
Chologastes, ii. 450
Cholornis, li. 262
Chondestes, ii. 285
Chondropoma, ii. 521
CHONDROPTERYGILI, ii. 46

568 GENERAL INDEX.

CHONDROSTEL, ii. 459
Chondrostoma, ii. 452
Choneziphius, European Pliocene, i. 112
Chordeiles, ii. 320
Chough, Alpine, figure of, i. 195
Choughs, ii. 274
CHROMIDA, ii. 438
Chromis, ii. 438
Chrysichthys, ti. 442
Chrysobronchus, ii. 108
Chrysococcyz, ii. 310
CHRYSOCHLORID42,, ii. 189
Chrysochloris, ii. 189
Chrysocolaptes, ii. 303
Chrysocyon, ii. 197
Chrysolampis, ii. 108
Chrysomitris, li. 283
Chrysopelea, ii. 379
Chrysophrys, ti. 427
Chrysoptilus, 11. 303
Carysothriz, ii. 175
Chrysotis, ii. 328
Chrysuronia, ii. 109
Chthonicola, ii. 258
Ciccaba, ii, 350
Cichla, ii. 439
Cichladusa, ii. 261
Cichlopsis, ii. 260
Cicigna, ii. 392
Cicindela, ii. 486
CICINDELIDA,, ii. 486
Cicinnurus, ii 275
Ciconia, ii. 360
Ciconiide, ii. 360
CINCLIDAZ, ii. 262
Cinclocerthia, ii. 256
Cinclodes, ii. 103
Cinclorhamphus, ii. 260
Cinclosoma, ii. 261
Cinclus, ii. 263
Cinnicerthia, ii. 264
Cinnyricinclus, li. 276
ii. 288
Cinosternon, ii. 408
Cinywis, ii. 408
Cionella, ii. 515
Circaétus, ii. 348
Circe, ii. 109 :
Circumpolar zones, objections to system of,
i. 67
Circus, ii. 347
Cirrhina, ii. 451
CIRRHITID&, ii 427
Cirrhochroa, ii. 474
CIRRHOSTOML, ii. 464
Cissa, ii. 273
Cissopis, ii. 99
Cisticola, ii. 257
Cistothorus, ii. 263
Cistula, ii. 521
Cithara, ii. 508
Citharinus, ii. 445
Cittura, ii. 316
Cladognathus, ii. 493
Clais, ii. 108
Clam-shells, ii. 535
Clarias, ii. 441
Clarotes, ii. 442
Classification as affecting the study of distri-
bution, i. 83
Claudius, ii. 408
Clausilia, Eocene, i. 169
ii, 514
Clerome, ii. 472
Clibanornis, ii. 103
Climacteris, ii. 265

Climate, as a limit to the range of mammalia,

L il
gradual change of, before the glacial epoch,
i. 41
Clinteria, ii. 494
CLIONID&, ii. 531
Clostophis, ii. 520
Clupea, ii. 454
CLUPEIDA,, ii. 454
Clymenia, ii. 209
Clypeicterus, ii. 282
Clytoctantes, ii. 104
Clytolena, ii. 108
Clytus, ii. 501
Cnidoglanis, ii. 441
Cnipodectes, ii. 101
Cnipolegus, ii. 101, 291
Cobitis, ii. 453
Cobras, ii. 382
Coccothraustes, ii. 284°
Coccygus, ii. 309
Coccystes, ii. 310
Cochlognathus, ii. 452
Cochlostyla, ii. 514
Cochlothraustes, ii. 309
Cochoa, ii. 269
Cockatoos, ii. 324
Cockles, ii. 535
Cocos Islands, bird of, ii. 60
Cocytia, ii. 481
Ceeligena, ii. 107
Celodon, ii. 245
Celonotus, ii. 457
Celopeltis, ii. 377
Celosterna, ii. 501
Canonympha, ii. 471
Ceereba, ii. 278
CHEREBIDA, ii. 278
Cogia, ii. 208
Colaptes, ii. 304
Coleoptera, families selected for study, i. 103
Palearctic, i. 188
number of Palwarctic species, i. 189
of Central Europe, i. 196
of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
of the Ethiopian region, i. 256
8. African, i. 268
of Madagascar, i. 282, 283
of the Oriental region, 1. 319
of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342
of the Australian region, i. 405
affinity of Australian and South Aimerivan,
i. 406, 407
of Celebes, i. 485
of New Zealand, i. 457
of the Neotropical region, ii. 15
of 8. Temperate America, ii. 44
of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 56
of the Antilles, ii. 74
of the Nearctic region, ii. 123
COLEOPTERA, ii. 486
general observations on the distribution
of, ii. 502 (see also Beetles)
Colias, ii. 478
Colies, ii. 307
COLIIDA, ii. 307
Colius, ii. 307
Coliuspasser, ii. 286
Collocalia, European Miocene, i. 161
ii. 320
Colluricincla, ii. 272
Collyris, ii. 486, 487
Colobus, European Miocene, i. 117
li. 172
Colenis, ii. 474

GENERAL INDEX.

—

569

Colonoceras, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Colopterus, li. 101

Colossochelys of Indian Miocene, i. 123, 165

Colpodes, li. 489

Coluber, ii. 375

COLUBRID4A,, ii. 375

COLUBRIN&, ii. 375

Columbe, classification of, i. 96 g
range of Palearctic genera of, i. 248
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
range of Oriental genera of, i. 384
range of Australian genera of, i. 485

Colwmba, ii. 332

COLUMBA, ii. 331
general remarks on the distribution of,

ii. 335

COLUMBID4&,, ii. 331

Columbula, ii. 333

Columna, ii. 516

COLYMBIDA, ii. 366

Colymbus, ii. 366

COMEPHORIDA,, ii. 432

Comephorus, ii. 549

Comoro islands, zoology of, i. 281

Compsosoma, li. 98, 375

CONCHIFER A, ii. 533

Condylura, ii. 190

Cones, ii. 508

Conger, ii. 456

CONIDA,, ii. 508

Conirostrum, ii. 278

Conognatha, ii. 496

Conophaga, ii. 100

CONOPHAGINA,, ii. 291

Conophis, ii. 375

Conopias, ii. 101

Conorhynchus, ii. 443

Conostoma, ii. 262

Continents, distribution of, i. 37
recent changes of, i. 38

Continental extension in Mesozoic times, i. 156

Contopus, ii. 102, 291

CONURIDA,, ii. 327

Conurus, li. 328

Conus, ii. 508

Copea, ii. 416

Cophoscincus, ii. 397

Copidoglanis, ii. 441

Coptodera, ii. 489, 492

Copurus, li. 101

Copsychus, ti. 259

Coracias, ii. 311

CORACIID, ii. 311

Coracopsis, ii. 328

Corades, ii. 471

Corallus, ii. 381

Corbis, ii. 535

Cordylosaurus, ii. 392

Cordylus, ii. 392

Coregonus, ii. 447

Coriphilus, ii. 327

Coris, ii. 437

Coronella, ii. 375

CORONELLINA, ii. 375

Coronis, ii. 481

Cornufer, ii. 419

CORVIDA, ii. 272

Corvina, ii. 428

Corvinella, ii. 272

Corvultur, ii. 274

Corvus, European Miocene, i. 161
li, 274

Corydalla, ii. 290

Corydon, ii. 295

Corynopoma, ii, 445

Coryphistera, ii. 103

Coryphodon, European Eocene, i. 126
Coryphospingus, ii. 284
Corythaix, ii. 307
Corythopis, ii. 100
Corythornis, ii, 316
Cosmeteira, ii. 277
Cosmetornis, ii. 320
Cosmopolitan groups enumerated, i. 175
Cossypha, ii. 256
Cotinga, li. 102, 294
COTINGIDA, ii. 293
Cottus, ii. 428
Coturniculus, ii. 284
Coturnix, ii. 338
Cotyle, ii. 281
Coua, ii. 309
Couchia, ii. 439
Coues, Dr., on the blue crow of the Rocky
Mountains, ii, 128
Coursers, ii. 355
Cowries, ii. 508
Coypu, ii. 238
CRACIDA, ii. 342
CRACINA, ii. 343
Cracticus, li. 273
Cranes, li. 357
CRANIADA,, ii. 532
Cranorrhinus, ii. 317
Craspedocephalus, ii. 385
Craspedopoma, ii. 521
Crateropus, ii. 261
Crax, it, 343
Creadion, ii. 287
Creagrus, ii. 364
Creagrutus, ii. 445
Creepers, ii. 264
Cremna, ii. 475
Crenicichla, ii. 439
Crenilabrus, ii. 437
Crenuchus, ii. 445
Creurgops, li. 99
Cricetodon, European Miocene, i. 120
li. 230
Cricetomys, ii. 230
Cricetulus, ii. 230
Cricetus, European Pliocene, i. 113
ii. 230
Cricosoma, ii. 476
Crinia, ii. 420
Criniger, ii. 267
Crithagra, ii. 285
Crocidura, ii. 191
Crocodiles, Eocene, i. 165
ii. 406
lines of migration of, ii. 548
Crocodilia, classification of, i. 100
CROCODILIA, ii. 405
general remarks on the distribution of, ii.
406
fossil, ii. 407
CROCODILID&, ii. 406
Crocodilurus ii. 390
Crocodilus, ii. 406
Crook-billed plovers of New Zealand, i. 456
Crossarchus, li. 195
Crossochilus, ii. 451
Crossodactylus, ii. 419
Crossoptilon, ii. 340
Crossopus, il. 191
CROTALIDA, ii. 384
Crotalophorus, ii. 385
Crotalus, ii. 385
Crotch, Mr., on beetles of the Azores, i. 209
Crotophaga, ii. 309
Crowned-pigeon, figure of, i, 415
Crows, ii. 273

570

Crypsirhina, ti. 273

Cryptoblepharus, ii. 395

Cryptodacus, ii. 375

Cryptoproct 1, ii. 194

CRYPTOPROCTIDA,, ii. 194

Cryptopterus, ii. 441

Cryptornis, European Eocene, i. 163

Cryptotis, ii. 421

Crypturus, ii. 344

Ctenodactyla, ii. 490

Ctenodactylus, ii. 238

Ctenolabrus, ii. 437

Ctenomys, &. Awerican Pliocene, i. 147
ii. 238

Ctenopharyngodon, ii. 452

Ctenopoma, ii. 521

Ctenostoma, ii. 486

Cuba, extinct mammalia of, i. 148

Curculionidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167

Cubina, ii. 400

CUCULIDAZ, ii. 308

Cuculus, ii. 309

Cuackoo-shrikes, ii. 268

Cuckoos, ii. 308

Culter, ii. 453

Cunningham, Professor, lizard discovered by,
in Tierra-del-Fuego, ii. 41

Cuniculus, ii. 230

Cuphopterus, ii. 272

Cupidonia, ii. 339

Curassows, ii. 342

Cureus, ii. 282

Curetis, ii. 477

Curimatus, ii. 445

Curruea, ii. 259

Cursoria, ii. 382

Cursorius, ii. 355

Ouscus, ii. 252

Custa, ii. 390

Cutia, ii. 266

Cuttle fish, ii. 505

Cyanecula, ti. 259

Cyanocorax, ii. 273

Cyanomyia, ii. 109

Cyanopica, ii. 273

Cyanoptila, ti. 270

Cyanorhamphus, ti. 325

Cyanospiza, ii. 284

Cyanotis, ii. 101

Cyanurus, ii. 273

Cybernetes, ii. 101

Cychloris. ii. 280

Cychrus, ii. 489

CYCLADIDA, ii. 535

Cyclas, ii. 535

Cyclocorus, ii. 380

Cycloderma, ii. 409

Cyclodina, ii. 397

Cyclodus, ii. 397

Cyclophis, ii. 376

Cyclophorus, ii. 520

Cyclopterus, ii. 430

Cyclopsitta, ii. 326

Cyclorhamphus, ii. 420

Cyclostoma, Eocene, i. 169

CYCLOSTOMATA, ii. 463

CYCLOSTOMIDA,, ii. 520

Cyclostomus, ii. 521

Cyclothorus, ii, 247

Cyclotopsis, ii. 521

Cyclotus, ii. 521

Cyclusa, ii. 401

Cygnus, li. 363

Cylindrella, ii. 515

Cylindrophis, ii: 373

Cyllo sepulta, European Cretaceous, i. 167

GENERAL INDEX.

Cymba, ti. 508
Cymbilanius, ii. 104
Cymbirhynchus, ii. 295
Cymindis, ii. 489
Cynelurus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
li. 193
Cynanthus, ii. 108
Cynictis, ii. 195
Cynocephalus, ii. 173
Cynodictis, ri. 198
Cynodon, ii. 445
Cynogale, ii. 195
CYNOPITHECIDA, ii. 172
Cynopithecus of Celebes, affinities of, i. 427
Cynopithecus, it. 173
Cynomys, ii. 235
Cyornis, ii. 270
Cyotheriwm, European Eocene, i. 125
ii. 198
Cyphogastra, ii. 496
Cyphorhinus, ii. 264
CYPRAEIDA, ii. 508
Cyprina, li. 535
CYPRINIDA, ii. 451
ii. 535
Cyprinus, ii, 451
Cyprinion, ii. 452
Cyprinodon, ii. 450
CYPRINODONTIDA,, ii. 450
CYPSELIDA,, ii. 320
Cypseloides, li. 320
Cypselus, ii. 320
Cypsnagra, ii. 99
Cyrena, ii. 535
Cyrestis, ii. 474
Cyrtonotus, ii. 489
Cyrtonyx, ii 339
Cyrtophis, ii. 383
Cystignathus, ii. 420
Cystophora, il. 204

Dacelo, ii. 316
Dacnis, ii. 278
Dactylethra, ii. 422
DACTYLETHRIDA, ii. 422
Dactylomys, ti. 239
Dactylopsila, ii. 249
Dactylozodes, ii. 496
Dafila, ii. 363
Dama, ii. 219
Damias, ii 481
Damophila, ii. 109
DANAIDA, ii. 470
Danis, ii. 470
Dangila, ii. 451
Danio, ii. 452
Daptophilus, N. American Tertiary, i 134
Darters, ii. 365
Darwin, Mr., his explanation of the cause of
the abundance of apterous insects in
Madeira, i. 211
on the relation of flowers and insects, i.
468
amphibia collected by, in 8S. Temperate
America, ii. 41
mice collected by,
America, ii. 37
on physical geography of the Galapagos,
ii. 33
Dasia, ii. 397
Dasylophus, ii. 309
Dasyopthalma, ii. 472
Dasypeltis, ii. 377

in §. Temperate

GENERAL INDEX,

571.

DASYPODIDA, ii. 245
Dasyprocta, European Miocene, i. 121
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii, 241
Dasyptilus, ii. 329
Dasypus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
8. American Pliocene, i. 147
ji. 246
DASYURIDA, ii. 249
Dasyurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
ii. 249
Daudebardia, ii. 516
David, Pére, his researches in China and Thi-
bet, i. 221, 222
on birds of N. China, i. 226
Debis, ii. 471
Deer, fossil in N. American Tertiary forma-
tions, i. 138
Palearctic, i. 182 :
probable cause of absence from tropical
Africa, i. 291
li. 218
Deilephila, ii. 482
Deltatria, ii. 107
Delma, ii. 395
Deloneura, ii. 477
Delphinapterus, ii. 209
DELPHINIDA, ii. 208
Delphinus, European Pliocene, i. 112
li. 209
DENDRASPIDIDA,, ii. 383
Dendraspis, ii. 383
Dendrexetastes, ii. 104
Dendrochelidon, ii. 320
Dendrocitta, ii. 273
Dendrocolaptes, ii. 103
DENDROCOLAPTIDA,, ii. 295
DENDROCOLAPTINA, ii. 295
Dendrocincla, ii. 103
Dendrocygna, European Miocene, i. 162
ii. 363
Dendreca, ii. 279
Dendrohyraa, ii. 229
Dendrolagus, ii. 251
Dendromus, ii. 303
Dendromys, ii. 230
Dendrophila, ii. 265
DENDROPHIDA,, ii. 378
Dendrophis, ii. 378
Dendropicus, ii. 303
Dendroples, ii. 103
Dendrornis, ii. 103
Dendrortyx, ii. 339
Denisonia, li. 383
DENTALIADA,, ii. 512
Dentaliwm, ii. 512
ii. 539
Dentex, ii. 426
Dercas, ii. 478
Dermatemys, ii. 408
Dermatocera, ii. 520
Dermatochelys, ii. 409
Deroptyus, ii. 328
Dermognathus, ii. 413
Desert-snakes, ii. 377
Desman of S. Russia, figure of, i. 219
Desmodus, ii. 182
Deudoriz, ii. 477
Diadema, ii. 474
Diagramma, ii. 426
Dibamus, ii. 372
DIBRANCHIATA, ii. 505
DICZIDA, ii. 277
Dicelus, ii. 490
Dicewn, ii. 277
Dicallaneura, ii. 475

Dicamptodon, ii 413

Diceratherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

Dicerca, ii. 496

Dicerobatis, ii. 463

Dichobune, European Eocene, i. 126

Dicotyles, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
N. American Tertiary, i. 137
in Brazilian caves, i, 144
8. American Pliocene, i. 146
birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
li. 215

Dicotyline, ii. 214

Dicrocerus, European Miocene, i. 120
li. 220

Dicrodon, ii. 390

Dicroglossus, ii. 421

Dicrorrhagia, ii. 474

DICRURIDA,, ii. 269

Dicrurus, ii. 269

DIDELPHYIDA,, ii. 248

Didelphys, European Eocene, i. 126
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
in Brazilian caves, i. 145
li. 248

Didide, i. 164

DIDID4, ii. 334

Didocus, ii. 417

DIDUNCULIDA,, ii. 333

Didunculus, ii. 334

Didus, ii. 334

Dieba, ii. 197

Diemenia, ii. 383

Diglossa, ii. 278

Diglossopis, ii. 278

Dilophus, ii. 287

Dilophyrus, ii. 402

Dimodes, ii. 377

Dimylus, ii. 190

Dinictis, ii. 194

Dinoceras, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Dinocerata, N. American Tertiary, i. 139

Dinornis, allied form in European Eocene,

i, 163
of New Zealand and Australia, i. 164
ii. 369
Dinornithide of New Zealand, i. 164]
DINORNITHIDA, ii. 269
Dinotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 120
Miocene of Perim Island, i. 123
Dinyctis, N. American Tertiary, 1. 134
Dinylus, European Miocene, i. 117
Diomedia, ii. 365
Dioplodon, ii. 208
Diorhina, ii. 476
Diphlogena, ii. 108
Diphylla, ii. 182
Diphyllodes, ii. 274 r
Diplacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
Diplodactylus, ii. 399
Diploglossus, li. 397
Diplolemus, ii. 401
Diplomesodon, ii. 191
DIPLOMMATINID4,, ii. 519
Diplommatina, ii. 520
Diplomystaz, ii, 443
Diplopelma, ii. 416
Diplopoma, ii. 521
Diplopterus, li. 309
DIPNOL, ii. 458
DIPODIDA, ii. 231
Dipodomys, ii. 233
Dippers, ii. 263
Diprotodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
ii. 251
DIPSADID4, ii. 379

572

GENERAL INDEX.

Dipsadoboa, ii. 379
Dipsas, ii. 379
Diptychus, ii. 452
Dipus, ii. 232
Dircenna, ii. 470
Discina, ii. 539
DISCINID&, ii. 532
Discoboli, ii. 430
DISCOGLOSSID42,, ii. 421
Discoglossus, ii. 421
Discognathus, ii. 451
Discophora, ii. 472 .
Discwra, ii. 107
Dispersal of animals, i. 10
of mammalia, i. 10
of reptiles and amphibia, i. 28
Disteira, ii. 384
Distichodus, ii. 445
Distribution, affected by climate, i. 5
affected by physical features, i. 5
contrasts of, in similar climates, i. 5
similarities of, in diverse climates, i. 6
barriers as affecting, i. 6
study of, dependent on a good classifica-
tion, i. $3
of animals an adjunct to geology, i. 8
of animals requires certain preliminary
studies, i. 8
of animals dependent on physical geo-
graphy, i. 35
of animals, as affected by the glacial
epoch, i. 40
of animals, as affected by changes of
vegetation, i. 43
of animals, as affected by organic changes,
i. 44
of animals, hypothetical illustration of,
i. 46
of animals, complexity of the causes af-
*fecting the, i. 49
of animals, problems in, i. 51
of plants, as affected by the glacial epoch
i. 42
Distrigus, ii. 490
Diuca, ii. 284
Diucopis, ii. 99
Diwa, ii. 98
Divers, ii. 366
Docimastes, ii. 108
Dodo of Mauritius, i. 282
ii. 334
Dodoma, ii. 475
Dolerisca, ii. 107
Dolichodon, ii. 208
Dolichonyz, ii. 282
Dolichopterus, European Miocene, i. 162
Dolichotis, ii. 241
Doliophis, ii. 383
Dolium, ii. 507
Dommina, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
Donacobius, ii. 264
Donacola, ii. 287
Donacospiza, ii. 284
Doras, ii. 443
Dorcatherium, European Miocene, i. 120
Dorcopsis, ii. 251
Dorcus, ii. 493
Doricha, ii. 108
DORID2, ii. 530
Doritis, ii. 479
Dormice, ii. 232
Doryichthys, ii. 457
Doryphora, ii. 107
Douroucoulis, ii. 175
Draco, ii. 402
Dremotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116

Dremotherium, European Miocene, i. 120
ii. 218

DREPANIDIDA,, ii. 277

Drepanis, ii. 277

Drepanornis, ii. 275
ii. 276

Dresser, Mr. H. E., on northern range of

European birds, i. 193

Drimostoma, ii. 489

Dromeeus, ii. 368

Dromas, ii. 856

Dromatheriwm, N. American Triassic, i, 134
oldest American mammal, i. 160

Dromica, ii. 486, 487

Dromicia, ti. 252

Dromicus, ii. 375

Dromius, ii. 489

Dromococcyz, ii. 309

Dromolea, ii. 260

Dromophis, ii. 377

Drongo-shrike, Malayan, figure of, i. 340
ii, 269

DRYADIN4A,, ii. 375

DRYIOPHIDA, ii. 379

Dryiophis, ii. 379

Drymocataphus, ii. 261

Drymodes, ii. 259

Drymeca, ii. 257

DRYMCECINA&, ii. 257

Drymomys, ii. 2305

Drymornis, ii. 103

Dryocopus, ii 303

Dewees European Miocene, i. 117
ii. 178

Dryospiza, ti. 284

Dryotriorchis, ii. 348

Dubusia, ii. 98

Ducks, ii 363

Dulus, ii. 280

Dumerilia, ii. 408

| Dumetia, ii. 261

Dumeticola, ii, 258

Duncan, Dr., on fossil corals of the Antilles,
li. 21

D’ Urbania, ii. 477

Dwarf-ground snakes, ti. 374

Dynastor, ti. 472

Dyschirus, ii. 489

Dysauxis, ii. 481

Dysithamnus, ii. 104

Dysopes, ii. 184

Eagles, ii. 347
Eared Seals, ii. 202
Far-shells, ii. 511
East Africa, geographical features of, i. 258
wide range of genera and species over,
i. 259
few special types in, i. 260
East African sub-region, description of, i.
258
genera and species ranging over the whole
of, i. 259
mammialia of, i. 260
birds of, i. 260
reptiles of, i. 260
amphibia and fishes of, i. 260
insects of, i. 260
few peculiar types in, i. 260
illustration of zoology of, 1. 261
East Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 440

GENERAL INDEX.

East Thibet, mammalia of, i. 222
Eaton, Rev., A. E., on insects of Kerguelen
Island, i. 211 ~
Eburna, ii. 507
Echidna, ii. 254
ECHIDNIDA,, ii. 254
Echimyide, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
ECHIMYIDA,, ii. 238
Echimys, ii. 239
Echinogale, European Miocene, i. 118
Echinops, ii. 188, 189
Echinorhinus, ii. 461
Echiothriz, ii. 230
Echis, ii. 386
Eclectus, ii. 326
Ectognathus, N. American Eocene, i. 139
Ectopistes, ii. 332
Edentata, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 121
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
N. American Pliocene, i. 140
of Brazilian caves, i. 145
S. American Pliocene, i. 147
Edentata, classification of, i. 90
probable birthplace of, i. 155
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 305
range of Oriental genus of, i. 375
EDENTATA, ii. 244
general remarks on the distribution of, ii.
247
summary and conclusion, ii. 543
Ega, ii. 490
Egerina, ii. 397
Elainea, ii. 101, 291
ELAINEINA, ii. 291
Elania, ii. 397
Elanoides, ii. 349
Elanus, ii. 349
Elaphodus, ii. 220
Elaphrus, ii. 489
ELAPIDA,, ii. 382
Elapochrus, ii. 375
Elaps, ii 383
Elapsoidea, ii. 383
Elasmognathus, ii. 212
Electra, ii. 209
ELEPHANTIDA. ii. 227
Elephants, fossil, of Indian Miocene, i. 123
fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene for-
mations, i. 130
birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
ii. 227
Elephant shrews, 8S. African, i. 267
ii. 186
Elephas, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
fossil in N. China, i. 123
N. American Tertiary, i. 138
li, 227,
Eliomys, ii. 232
Elliot, Mr., his great work on the birds of
paradise, i. 415
on classification of the birds of paradise,
ii. 274
Ellipesurus, ii. 463
Ellipsoglossa, ii. 413
Ellisia, ii. 258
Ellobius, ii. 231
Elminia, ii. 271
Elodina, ii. 478
Elopichthys, ii. 453
Elornis, European Miocene, i. 162
Elosia, ii. 419
Elotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137, 139
li. 215, 216
Elseya, ii. 408
Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, i. 204

573

Elwes, Mr., on true relations of the birds of
Central India, i. 323

Elymnias, ii. 471

ELYMNIIDA,, ii. 471

ELSIADA,, ii. 530

Embasis, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Emberiza, ii. 285

EMBERIZINA, ii. 285

Emberizoides, ii. 284

Emblema, ti. 287

Embernagra, ii. 284

EMBROTOCIDA, ii. 438

Emesis, ii. 476

Emeu, figure of, i. 441

Emeus, ii. 368

Emminia, ti. 390

Empidagra, ii. 101

Empidias, ii. 102, 291

Empidochanes, ii. 102

Empidonaz, ii. 102, 291

Empidonomus, ii. 102

Emyda, ii. 409

Emydida, Indian Miocene, i. 123

Emydocephalus, ii. 384

Emys, Indian Miocene, i. 123
Miocene and Eocene, i. 165
ii. 408

Enes, ii. 501

Engystoma, ii. 416

ENGYSTOMIDA, ii. 416

Enhydrina, ii. 384

Enhydrion, Indian Miocene, i. 121
li. 200

Enhydris, ii. 199

Enicurus, ti. 263

Enispe, ti. 472

Enodes, ii. 288

Enophrys, ii. 375

Ensophleus, ii. 420

Entelopes, ii. 501

Entomiza, ii. 276

Entomophila, ii. 275

Enygrus, ii. 381

Eobasileus, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Eocene period, i. 124
fauna of 8. America, i. 148

Eophona, ii. 284

Eopsaltria, ti. 271

Eos, ii. 327

Epalzeorhynchus, ii. 451

Ephemera, from the Lias, i. 167

Ephthianura, ii. 260

Epicalia, ii. 474

Epicrates. ii, 381

EPIMACHIN#, ii. 275

Epimachus, ii. 275

Epiodon, ii. 208

Epirhixis, ii. 419

Epitola, ti. 477

Eporeodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

EQUIDA,, ii. 211

Equide, European Pliocene, i. 112
Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Eocene, 1. 125

Equus, European Pliocene, i. 112
Post-Pliocene, i. 112
Indian Miocene, i. 121
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
N. American Tertiary, i. 135
Brazilian caves, i. 144
S. American Pliocene, 1. 146
1s VAG

Erebia, ii. 471

Eremias, ii. 391

Eremomela, ii. 258

Eremophilus, ii. 444

574

GENERAL INDEX.

Ereptodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

Eresia, ii. 474

Eretiistes, ii. 444

Erethizon, ii. 239

Ereunetes, ii. 353

Ergaticus, ii. 279

Ergolis, ii. 474

Ericulus, ii. 188

Ericymba, ii. 452

ERINACEIDA2, ii. 187

Erinaceus, European Miocene, i. 117
ii. 187

Eriocnemis, ii. 109

Eriodes, ii. 174

Erismatura, ii. 364

Brithacus, ii. 259

Eroessa, ii. 258

Eronia, ii. 478

Erpornis, ii. 267

ERYCIDA, ii. 381

ERYCINIDA, ii. 476

Erynnis, ii. 480

Erythrinus, ti. 445

Erythrocercus, it. 27

Erythrocnema, ii. 347

Erythrogonys, ii. 356

Erythrolampus, ii. 375

Erythromachus of Rodriguez, i. 164
ii 352

Erythrospiza, ii. 285

Erythrosterna, ii. 270

Erythrura, ii. 387

Eryt, ti. 282

ESOCIDA, ii. 449

Esoz, ii 449

Esthemopsis, ii. 476

Esthonyx, N. American Eocene, i. 139

Estrilda, ii. 286

Etheria, ii. 534

Ethiopian region should not include any part

of India, i. 63
defined, i. 73
subdivisions of, i. 73
general features of, i. 251
zoological characteristics of, i. 252
mamunalia of, i. 253
great speciality of, i. 253
birds of, i. 253
reptiles of, i. 254
amphibia of, i 255
fresh-water fish of, i. 255
summary of vertebrates of, i. 255
insects of, i. 255
coleoptera of, i. 256
terrestrial mollusca of, i. 257
sub-regions of, i. 258
Atlantic islands of, i. 269
the probable past history of, i. 285
pea of distribution of animals of, i.
293

Euanemus, ii, 448

Eubagis, ii. 474

Eucephala, ii. 109

Eucheetes, ii. 98

Eucometis, ii. 99

Euchromia, ii. 481

Eucichla, ii. 298

Euclyptosternum, ii. 443

Eudromias, ii. 356

Eudynamis, ii. 310

Eudyptes, ii 366

Eeides, ii. 473

Eugenes, ii. 107

Eugenia, ii. 107

Euhyraz, ii. 229

Eulabeornis, ii. 352

Eulabes, ii. 287
Eulampis, ii. 107
Ewmeus, ti. 477
Eumeces, ii. 397
Eumetopias, ii, 208
Eumomota, ii. 313
Eumys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
ii, 231
Eumyias, ii. 270
Eunectes, ii. 381
‘Bunica, ii. 474
Eunogyra, ti. 475
Eupetes, ii. 263
Eupetomena, ii. 107
Euphema, ii. 325
Eupherusa, ii. 109
Euphonia, ii. 98
Ewphractus, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147
Euphryne, ii. 401
Euphysetes, ii. 208
Eupleres, ii. 195
Euplea, ii. 470
EUPLOCAMINA,, ii. 340
Euplocamus, ii. 340
Ewpodotis, ii. 356
Euprepes, ii. 397
Eupsychortysx, ii. 339
Euptilotis, ii, 314
Euptychia, ii. 471
Eurinorhynchus, ii. 353
Eurocephalus, ii. 272
Europe, recent changes in physical geography
of, i. 39
Miocene fauna of Central, i. 117
Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna
of tropical Asia and Africa, i. 124
European sub-region, description of, i. 191
forests of, i. 192
mammalia of, i. 192
birds of, i 193
reptiles and amphibia of, i. 195
fresh-water fish of, i, 196
insects of, i. 196
islands of, i. 197
Eurostopodus, ii. 320
Euryades, ii. 479
Euryapteryx, ii. 370
Euryarthriam, ii. 501
Eurybia, ii. 475
Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278
Euryceros, ii. 288
Eurycus, ii. 479
Eurygona, ii. 476
EURYGONIDA,, ii. 476
EURYLAMIDA&, ii. 294
Eurylemus, ii, 295
Euryodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
li. 246
Euryphene, li. 474
Eurypyga, ii. 358
EURYPYGIDZ, ii. 358
Eurystomus, ii. 312
Kurytela, ii. 474
Eurytherium, European Eocene, i. 126
Eurytrichus, ii. 490
Euscarthmus, ii. 101
Euschemon, ii. 480
ii. 481
Eusemia, ii. 482
Euspiza, ii, 285
Eustephanus, ii. 108
Eustira, ii. 458
Eutatus, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147
_ii. 246
Eutelodon, European Eocene, i. 126
Eutemnodus, 8. American Eocene, i. 148

GENERAL INDEX.

573

Euterpe, ii. 285
Euthyrhynchus, ii. 276
Eutozeres, ii. 107
Eutriorchis, ii. 348
Eutropia, ii. 209
Eutropiichthys, ii. 441
Eutropius, ii. 442
Eutroplus, ti. 438
Exocetus, li. 449
Exoglossum, ii. 452
Exostoma, ii. 444
Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general
considerations on, i. 126
mammalia of N. America and Europe,
comparison of, i. 140
mammalia of the Antilles, i. 148
mammalia of the Old and New Worlds,
general remarks on, i. 148
fauna of New Zealand, i. 459
Amphibia, ii. 423
Ant-eaters, ii. 247
Armadillos, ii. 246
Bovide, ii. 225
Bradypodide, ii. 245
Camelide, ii. 217
Camelopardalide, ii. 221
Canidae, ii. 197
Castoride, ii. 234
Caviide, 241
Centetidz, ii. 189
Cercolabide, ii. 240
Cetacea, ii. 209
Chinchillide, ii. 237
Chiroptera, ii. 185
Crocodiles, ii. 407
Deer, ii. 220
Didelphyide, ii. 249
Dipodide, ii. 232
Echidnide, ii. 254
Echimyide, ii. 239
Elephants, ii. 227
Equidz, ii. 211
Erinaceide, ii. 188
Felidae, ii. 193
Hippopotami, ii. 214
Hyenas, ii. 196
Hystricida, ii. 240
Insectivora, ii. 192
Lacertilia, ii. 404
Lagomyide, li. 242
Leporide, ii. 243
Macropodide, ii. 251
Muride, ii. 230
Mustelide, ii. 199
Myoxide, ii. 232 ‘
Octodontide, ii. 238
Ophidia, ii. 387
Orycteropodide, ii. 246
Otariide, ii. 203
Procyonide, ii. 201
Quadrumana, ii. 178,
Rallida, ii. 252
Rhinocerotida, ii, 213
Sciuride, ii. 236
Seals, ii. 204
Sirenia, ii. 210
Struthionide, ii. 369
Suide, ii. 215
Talpide, ii. 190
Tapirs, ii. 212
Tortoises, ii. 410
Tragulidz, ii. 218
Tupaiide, ii. 186
Urside, ii. 202
Viverride, ii. 195
Extinction of large animals, causes of, i. 158

Falcinellus, ii. 360
Falco, ii, 349
FALCONIDA,, ii. 347
FALCONIN 2, ii. 349
Falcons, ii. 347
Falculia, ii. 228
Falkland Islands, zoology of, ii. 49
Fanged ground-snakes, ii. 380
Farancia, ii. 377
Fauna of Japan, general character and affini-
ties of, i. 230
of Palearctic region, general conclusions
as to, i. 231
extinct, of Madagascar and Mascarere
Islands, i. 282
Malayan, probable origin of, i. 359
Molucean, peculiarities of, i. 419
Timorese, origin of, i. 422
of Celebes, origin of, i. 436
of New Zealand, origin of, i. 460
of Galapagos, origin of, ii. 33
of Central America, origin of, ii. 57
of Antilles, origin of, ii. 78
of Neotropical region, origin of, ii. 80
FELIDA, ii. 192
Felis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 118
Indian Miocene, i. 121
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 193
Felis spelea, i. 110
Feniseca, ii. 477
Fennecus, ii. 197
Ferania, ii, 376
Fernando Po, zoological features of, i. 265
Feroculus, ii. 191
Fiber, ii. 230
Figulus, ii. 493
Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443
Finches, il. 283
FIROLIDA, ii. 531
Fishes, means of dispersal of, i. 29
classification of, i. 101
cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
of the Palearctic region, i. 186
of the European sub-region, i. 196
of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
fresh-water, table of Palearctic families
of, i. 227
of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
of South Africa, i. 268
fresh-water, table of Ethiopian families of,
i. 298
fresh-water, of the Oriental region, i. 318
of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341
fresh-water, table of Oriental families of
i. 369
fresh-water, of the Australian region, i.
397
fresh-water,resemblance of Australian and
8. American, i. 400
how the transmission may have taken
place, i. 401
fresh-water, of New Zealand, i. 457
fresh-water, table of Neotropical families
of, ii. 89
of Central N. America, ii. 131
of Eastern United States, ii. 134
of Canada, ii. 137
fresh-water, table of Nearctic families of,
ii. 148

576

Fishes, remarks on the distribution of, ii. 464
fossil, ii. 466
Fishing-hawks, ii. 349
FISSU RELLIDA, ii. 511
FISTULARIDA, ii. 436
Fitzroya, ii. 450 :
Flamingoes, European Miocene, i. 162
ii. 361
- Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by
scarcity of insects, i. 462
fossil of Australia, i. 467
Floras, cretaceous and tertiary,
America, ii. 155
Florisuga, ii. 107
Flower-peckers, ii. 277
Flower, Professor, on classification of mam-
malia, i. 85
classification of carnivora, i. 87
Fluvicola, ii. 100
Flycatchers, ii. 270
Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, i. 337
ii. 186
Flying Lizards, ii. 401
Flying Opossum, figure of, i. 442
Fordonia, ii. 376
Forests, essential to existence of many Euro-
pean animals, i. 192
Siberian, greatest extent of, i. 216
FORMICARIID2, ii. 297
FORMICARIINA, ii. 298
Formicarius, ii. 104
Formicivora, ii. 104
FORMICIVORINA, ii. 297
Formosa, zoology of, i. 332
Fossa, ii. 195
Foudia, ii. 286
Francolinus, ii, 838
Fraseria, ii. 272
Fratercula, ii. 367
Fregetta, ii. 365
Fregilupus, ii. 288
Fregilus, ii. 274
Fresh-water fishes, Neotropical, ii. 12
of 8. Temperate America, ii. 42
of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
of the Antilles, ii 73
of the Nearctic region, ii. 120
of California, ii. 128
summary and conclusion, ii. 549
Fresh-water mussels, ii. 534
shell, the most Arctic, ii, 518
snakes, ii. 376
snails, ii. 518
Fringilla, ii. 283
Fringillaria, ii. 285
Fringillaada, ii. 282
FRINGILLID&, ii. 284
Frog-mouths, ii. 318
Frogs, ii. 420
Fulica, ii. 352
Fuligula, ii. 364
Fulmarus, ii. 365
Fundulus, ii. 450
FURNARIINA, ii. 295
Furnarius, ii. 103
Fusus, ii. 507

of North

GADID4&, ii. 439

GADOPSID&, ii. 439

Gadus, ii. 439

Galago, ii. 177

Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, i. 463

GENERAL INDEX,

| Galapagos islands, ii. 29

mammalia of, ii. 29
birds of, ii. 30
reptiles of, ii. 32
insects of, ii. 33
land-shells of, ii. 33
conclusions as to the origin of their fauna,
li. 33
Galatea, ii. 536
Galawias, ii. 448
GALAXID4A, ii. 448
Galbaleyrhynchus, ii, 311
Galbula, ii. 311
GALBULIDA,, ii. 311
Galecynus, in European Pliocene, i, 112
ii. 198
Galeichthys, ti. 448
GALEOPITHECIDA,, ii, 186
Galeoscoptes, ii. 256
Galeospalax, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 190
Galeotherium, Post-Pliocene, i. 111
Galera, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
Galerella, ii. 195
Galerita, ii. 289
ii. 490
Galeria, ii. 188
Galethylax, European Eocene, i. 125
ii. 198
Galeus, ii. 460
Galictis, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 199
Galidia, ii. 195
Galidictis, ti. 195
Galline, classification of, i. 96
range of Palearctic genera of, i. 248
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
range of Oriental genera of, i. 384
range of Australian genera of, i. 485
GALLIN A, ii. 337
ii. 340
general remarks on the distribution of, ii.
344
Gallinago, ii. 353
Gallinula, ii. 352
Gallus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
ii. 340
Gallus bravardi, European Pliocene, i. 161
Galogale, ii. 195
Gambusia, ii. 450
Gampsonyz, ii. 349
Gampsorhynchus, ti. 261
Gannets, ii. 365
GANOIDEI, ii. 458
Gape-eyed Scinks, ii, 395
Gar-fish, ii. 459
Garrod, Professor, on the Classification of
Parrots, ii. 324
Garrulaz, ii. 261
Garrulus, ii. 273
GASTEROPODA, ii. 507
GASTEROSTEIDA, ii. 424
Gasterosteus, ii. 424
Gastornis, European Eocene, i. 163
GASTROCHAENIDA, ii. 537
Gastropelecus, ii. 445
GAVIALID, ii. 405
Gawialis, ii. 405
Gavials, ii. 405
Gazella, ii. 228
GAZELLIN 4, ii. 223
Gazera, ii. 481
Gecinulus, ii. 303
Gecinus, ii. 303
Gecko, ii. 399
GECKOTIDA,, ii. 399

GENERAL INDEX. 577

Geese, ii. 363
Gehyra, ii. 400
Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene
faunas of N. America, i. 132
Genetta, ii. 195
Genidens, ii. 443
Geobates, ii. 103
Geobiastes, ii. 312
Geocichla, ii. 256
Geococcyz, ii. 309
Geocolaptes, ii. 304
GEODEPHAGA, ii. 486
Geoffroyus, ii. 326
Geographical zoology, introduction, ii. 167
materials for, ii. 168
Geological history of Oriental region, i. 362
Geology and Physical Geography of the
Antilles, ii. 62, 79
Geomelania, ii. 519
Geomys, ii. 233
Geopelia, ii. 332
Geophaps, ii. 333
Geophagus, ii. 439
Geopsittacus, ii. 325
Georissa, ii. 522
Georychus, ii. 231
Geositta, il. 103
Geospiza, ii. 284
Geothlypis, ii. 279
Geotrochus, ii. 523
Geotryon, li. 383
Geotrypus, ii. 190
Geranospiza, li. 347
Gerbillus, ii, 230
ii, 232
Geronticus, li. 360
Gerrhonotus, ii. 392
Gerrhosaurus, ii. 392
GERRIDA,, ii. 488
Gervasia, ii. 260
Gerygone, ti. 258
Giant-Clams, ii. 534
Gibbon, ii. 171
Gibraltar, cave fauna of, i. 114
Giraffes, ii. 221
Girardinus, ii. 450
Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of
animals, i. 40 2
as a cause of the great change in the
fauna of the temperate zones, since
Pliocene times, i. 151
probably simultaneous in both hemi-
spheres, i. 151
causing a general subsidence of the
ocean, i. 152
Glandina, Eocene, i. 169
ii. 515
Glareola, ii. 355
GLAREOLIDA,, ii. 355
Glaucis, ii. 107
Glaucidium, ii. 350
Glauconeza, ii. 536
Glaucopis, ii. 481
Gliciphila, ii. 275
Glis, ii. 232
Globiocephalus, ii. 209
Glossoptila, ii. 278
Glossotheriwm, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
8. American Pliocene, i. 147
li. 247
Glycimeris, ii. 536
Glyphidodon, ii. 437
Glyphoglossus, ii. 416
Glyphorhynchus, ii. 103
Glyptodon, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147
Glyptosternum, ii. 443

Gnaphodes, ii. 471
Gnathodon, li. 536
Gnathopsis, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
Goats, Palearctic, i. 182
ii. 221
Goat-suckers, ii. 519
GOBIESOCIDA,, ii. 436
GOBIIDA,, ii. 430
Gobio, ii. 452
Gobius, ii. 430
Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the
Azores, i. 207
Golden Moles, 8. African, i. 267
Goliathi, ii. 494
Gonepteryz, ii. 478
Goniodactylus, li. 400
Gongylophis, ii. 382
Gonorhynchide, ii 453
Gonyocephalus, li. 402
Gonyosoma, ii. 379
Gouldia, ii. 107
Goura, li. 333
Graculavus, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
Gralle, arrangement of, i. 97
peculiar or characteristic Palearctic ge-
nera, i. 249
peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 31
peculiar Oriental genera of, 386
peculiar Australian genera of, i. 486
GRALLA, ii. 351
general remarks on the distribution of, ii
362
Grallaria, ii. 104
Grallaricula, ii. 104
Grallina, ti. 273
Grammatophorus, ii. 402
Grammatoptila, ii. 261
Grampus, li. 209
Granatellus, ii. 279
Grandala, ii, 259
Graphidurus, ii. 232
Graphipterus, ii. 491
Graucalus, ii. 268
Gray, De J. E., on classification of Cetacea, i.

Grayia, ii. 376 s
Grayson, Col, on birds of Tres Marias, ii. 59
Grebes, ii. 367
Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, i, 115
summary of Miocene fauna of, i. 116
Green Bulbuls, ii. 267
Greenland, zoology of, ii. 135
Greenlets, ii. 280
Groupe peculiar to a region, how defined, ii.
184
Grouse, ii. 328
GRUID&, ii. 356
Grus, ii. 357
Grypsicus, ti. 421
Grypus, i. 107
Guacharo, ii. 107
Guans, ii. 342
Guaraunas, ii. 357
Gubernatriz, ii. 285
Guillemots, ii. 267
Guira, ii. 309
Gutiraca, ii. 285
Gaualick, Rey. J. T., on Achatinellide of the
Sandwich Islands, i. 446
Gulls, ii. 364
Gulo, ii, 199
Guar Bes his classification of reptiles,
is
his classification of fishes, 1. 101
on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the
Mascarene Islands, i. 289

578 GENERAL INDEX.

Giinther, Dr., on range of Indian reptiles in
the Himalayas, i. 329
on identical Atlantiic and Pacfic fishes, ii.
21
on fresh-water fishes of Central America,
ii. 54
Gygis, ii. 365
GYMNARCHIDA2, ii. 449
Gymnarchus, ii. 449
GYMNETINA, ii. 494
Gymnobuceo, ii. 306
Gymnocephalus, li. 103
Gymnocichla, ii. 104
Gymnocorvus, li. 274
Gymnocypris, ii. 452
Gymnodactylus, ii. 400
GYMNODERIN4&,, ii. 293
Gymnoderus, ii. 103
GYMNODONTES, ii. 457
Gymnoglaux, ii. 350
Gymnokitta, ii. 273
Gymnomystaz, ii. 282
Gymnopelia, ii. 333
Gymmnops, ii. 287
GYMNOPHTHALMIDA,, ii. 395
Gymnophthalmus, ii. 395
Gymnopus, ii. 199
Gymnorhina, ii. 273
Gymnostomus, ti. 451
GYMNOTIDA,, ii. 455
Gymnotus, ii. 455
Gymnura, ii, 188
Gypaétus, ii. 348
Gypohieraz, ii. 348
Gypoictinia, ii. 349
Gyps, ii. 346

H

Haast, wee on extinct birds of New Zealand,
i. 46
Habitat, definition of, i. 4
Habrocomus, ii. 238
Habroptila, ii. 252
Habrura, ii. 101
Hadrostomus, ii. 102, 293
Hematoderus, ii. 103
Hematopus, ii. 356
Hematospiza, ii 285
Hemophila, ii. 284
Hemulon, ii. 426
Hetera, ii. 471
Hagria, ii. 397
Hainan, zoology of, i. 334
Haleyon, ti. 316
Haleyornis, European Eocene, i. 103
Halicyon, ii. 204
Aaliwetus, ii. 348
Haliastur, ii. 348
Halicherus, ii. 204
Halicore, ii. 210
HALIOTIDA, ii. 511
Halitherium, European Pliocene, i. 112
European Miocene, i. 119
ii. 211
Halmaturus, ii. 251
HALOSAURIDA, ii. 455
Halys, ii. 885
Hamadryas, ii. 470
Hang-nests, ii. 281
Hapale, ii. 176
ii. 178
Hapalemur, ii. 176
HAPALIDA, ii. 175
Hapalctis, ii. 230
Hapalus, ii. 524

Haplocerus, ii. 374
Haplochilus, ii. 450

| Huplochiton, ii. 446

HAPLOCHITONIDA, ii. 446
Haplodactylus, ii. 427
Haploodon, ii. 236
HAPLOODONTIDA, ii. 236
Haplospiza, ii. 284
Hapsidrophis, 379
Harelda, ii. 364
Hares, ii. 242
Harma, ii. 474
Harpa, ii. 349
ii. 507
Harpactes, ii. 314
Harpagus, ii. 349
Harpalus, ii. 489
Harporhynchus, ii. 256
Harpyhalicetus, ii. 348
Hartlaubius, ii. 288
Hathliodes, ii. 502
Hatteria of New Zealand, i. 456
Hatteria, ii. 405
Hawks, ii. 347
Hedgehogs, ii. 187
Hedymeles, ii. 285
Helarctos, ii. 202
Heleyra, ii, 474
Heleothreptus, ii. 320
Heliactin, ii. 108
Heliangelus, ii. 108
Helianthea, ii. 108
Heliastes, ii. 437
HELICIDA, ii. 512
Helicina, ii. 522
HELICONIDA,, ii. 473
li. 522
Heliconius, ii. 473
Helicophagus, ii. 442
Helicops, li. 377
Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331
Helictis, ii. 199
Heliobletus, ii. 103
Heliochera, ii. 102
Heliodoxa, ii. 107
Heliomastes, ii. 108
Heliopeedica, ii, 107
Heliophobus, ii. 231
Helioporus, ii. 417
Heliornis, ii. 352
Heliothrix, ii 108
Heliotrypha, ii. 108
Helix, Eocene, i. 169
ii. 513
Helladotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 120
ii, 221
Helluomorpha, ii. 490
Helmintherus, ii. 279
Helminthophaga, ii. 279
Heloderma, ii. 390
HELODERMID£&, ii. 390
Helodromas, ii. 353
Helogale, ii. 195
Helogenes, ii. 442
HELORNITHINA,, ii. 352
Helotarsus, ii. 348
Hemibos, Indian Miocene, i. 122
ii. 225
Hemicentetes, ii. 188
Hemicercus, ii. 803
Hemichelidon, ii. 290
Hemichromis, 438
Hemicyon, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 198
Hemidacnis, ii. 278

GENERAL INDEX.

579

Hemidactylium, ti. 413
Hemidactylus, ii. 399
Hemierges, ii. 397
Hemigalea, ii.195
Hemignathus, ii. 277
Hemimantis, ii. 419
Hemiodus, ii. 445
Hemiphractus, ii. 420
Hemipimelodus, ii. 443
Hemiprocne, ii. 320
Hemipus, ii. 270
Hemirhamphus, ii. 450
Hemisilurus, ii. 442
Hemisorubim, ii. 442
Hemistilbon, ii. 109
Hemisus, ii. 414
Hemitriccus, ii. 101
Hemizxus, ii. 267
Henicognathus, ii. 328
Henicopernis, ii. 349
Henicophaps, ii. 333
Henicorhina, ii. 264
Henicornis, ti. 103
Heptapterus, ii. 444
Heredia, ii. 413
Herons, ii. 359
Heros, ii. 438
Herpestes, ii. 195
Herpetethiops, ii. 376
Herpetodryas, ii. 376
Herpeton, ii. 376
Herpetoreas, ii. 375
Herpetotheres, ii. 348
Herpetotheriwm, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
Herpsilochmus, ii. 104
Herring, ii. 454
Hesperia, ii. 480
HESPERIDA,, ii. 480
Hesperomys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
in Brazilian caves, i. 145
S. American Pliocene, i 147
li. 230, 231
Hesperornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
Hestia, ii. 470
Hestima, ii. 501
Heterobranchus, ii. 441
Heterocephalus, ii. 231
Heterocercus, ii. 102
Heterochroa, ii. 474
Heterocnemis, ti. 104
Heterocorys, ii. 289
Heterodactylus, ii. 393
Heterodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
ii. 246
ii. 376
Heterogynis, ii. 481
Heterolocha, 287
Heteromorpha, ii. 262
Heteromys, ii. 233
Heteronota, ii. 400
Heteronympha, ii. 471
Heteropelma, ii. 102, 292
Heteropus, ii. 397
HETEROPYGII, ii. 450
Heterospizias, ii. 348
Heterotis, ii. 454
Heterura, ii. 290
Hewitsonia, ii. 477
Hexagonia, ii. 491
Hexaprotodon, Indian Miocene, i. 122
Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinc-
tion of large animals,i 158
Hieracidea, ii. 349
Hieraa, ii. 349
Hierococcyz, ii. 310
Hierofalco, ii, 349

Hill-Tits, ii. 266
Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups
in the, i. 329, 333
Himantornis, ii. 352 ‘
Himantopus, ii. 353
Hinulia, ii. 397
Hipistes, ii. 376
Hipparchia, ii. 471
Hipparion, European Pliocene, i. 112
Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 119
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
N. American Tertiary, i. 135
ii. 211
Hippocampus, ii. 457
Hippoglossoides, ii. 441
Hippoglossus, 441
HIPPOPOTAMIDA,, ii. 214
Hippopotamus, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
Europe in Pliocene, i. 113
Indian Pliocene, i. 122
ii. 214
Hipposyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Hippotherium, European Miocene, i. 119
Indian Miocene, i. 122
HIPPOTRAGINA, ii. 223
Hippotragus, European Miocene, i. 120
li. 223
HIPPURITIDA,, ii. 534
Hirundinea, ii. 101
HIRUNDINID4A,, ii. 280
Hirundo, ii. 281
Hoazin, ii. 345
Holocanthus, ii. 427
Holbrookia, ii. 401
Holochilus, ii. 230
Hologerrhum, ii. 379
HOLOSTEI, ii. 458
Holurophis, ii. 380
Homalodontotherium, 8. American Pliocene,
i. 146
Homalophis, ii. 376
Homalophus, European Miocene, i. 161
HOMALOPSIDA,, ii. 376
Homalopsis, ii. 376
Homaloptera, ii. 453
Homalosoma, ii. 490
Hombronia, ii. 397
Homocamelus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
ii. 217
Homorus, ii. 103
li. 524
Honey-guides, ii. 304
Honeysuckers, birds specially adapted to
Australia, i. 392
ii. 275
Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New
Zealand plants, i. 464
Hoopoes, ii. 317
Hopladelus, ii. 442
HOPLEGNATHIDA,, ii. 433
Hoplobatrachus, ii. 421
HOPLOCEPHALA, ii. 460
Hoplocephalus, ii. 383
Hoplocetus, European Pliocene, i. 112
Hoplophoneus, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
Hoplophorus, ii. 246
Hoplopterus, ii 356
Horites, ii. 258
Hornbills, ii. 316
Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, i. 121
perfect series of ancestral, in N. America,
i. 136
probable birthplace of, i. 154
li. 211
Horse-shoe bats, ii. 182
PP 2

580

GENERAL INDEX.

Hortulia, ii. 381

Howling monkeys, ii. 175

Hudson, Mr., on land-birds of Patagonia, ii. 39

Humming-birds, ii. 321

Huro, ii. 425

Hutton, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand

fauna, i. 461

Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, i. 59
division of aniinal kingdom by, i. 85

Hyades, ii. 472

Hyena, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i 118
Indian Miocene, i. 121
fossil in N. China, i. 123
ii. 196

Hyenarctos in European Pliocene, i. 112
European Miocene, i. 118
Indian Miocene, i. 121
S. American Pliocene, i. 146

Hyenictis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 196

Hyenide, European Miocene, i. 118

HY NIDA, ii. 196

Hyenodon, European Miocene, i. 118
European Eocene, i. 125
N. American Tertiary, 1. 134

Hyenodontide, European Miocene, i. 118

HYALEIDA,, ii. 531

Hyalimas, ii. 517

Hyalina, ii. 515

Hyalosaurus, ti. 392

Hyantis, ii. 472

Hybocystis, ii. 520

Hyborhynchus, ii, 452

Hydrocena, ii. 521

Hydrochelidon, ii. 364

Hydrocherus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

Hydrocherus, ii. 241

Hydrocissa, ii. 317

Hydrocyon, ii. 445

Hydrogale, ii. 199

Hydromedusa, ii. 408

Hydromys, ii. 230

Hydrophasianus, ii. 355

HYDROPHID2&, ii. 384

Hydrophis, ii. 384

Hydropotes, ii. 219

Hydropsalis, ii. 319

Hydrornis, European Miocene, i. 162
ii. 298

Hydrosaurus, ii. 389

Hyetornis, ii. 309

Hygrogonus, ii. 439

Hyla, ii. 418

Hylactes, ii. 297

Hylombates, ii. 419

Hylaplesia, ii. 415

HYLAPLESID2, ii. 414

Hylarana, ii. 419

Hylatomus, ii. 303

Hylella, ii. 418

HYLIDZ&, ii. 418

Hyliota, ii. 270

Hylobates, ii. 171

Hylocharis, ii. 109
ii. 271

Hylodes, ii. 419

Hylomanes, ii, 313

Hylomys, ii. 186

Hylophilus, ii. 280

Hylorhina, ii. 420

Hylotrupes, ii. 502

Hyloxalus. ii. 419

Hymenolaimus, ii. 364

HYODONTIDA,, ii. 453
Hyohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
Hyomoschus, European Miocene, i. 120
ii. 218
Hyopicus, ii. 303
Hyopotamus, European Miocene, i. 119
N. American Tertiary, i. 137
ii. 216
Hyopsodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Hyotherium, European Miocene, i. 119
ii. 215
Hypargos, ti. 287
Hyperantha, ii. 496
Hypergerus, ii. 261
Hypermnestra, ii. 479
Hyperodapedon, ii. 405
Hyperolius, ii. 417
Hyperoodon, ii. 208
HYPEROODONTIDA, ii. 208
Hyperopsius, ii. 448
Hypertragulus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
Hyphantornis, ii. 286
Hypherpes, ii. 265
Hypisodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
Hypna, ii. 474
Hypnale, ii. 385
Hypochera, ii. 287
Hypochrysops, ii. 477
Hypocista, ti 471
Hypocnemis, ii. 104
Hypocolius, ii. 272
Hypodes, ii. 272
Hypogeomys, ii. 230
Hypolais, ii. 258
Hypolithus, ii. 491
Hypolycena, ii. 477
Hypomesus, ii. 477
Hypopachus, ii. 416
Hypophthalmichthys, ii. 453
Hypophthalmus, ii. 442
Hypopyrrhus, ii, 282
Hyporissus, ii. 190
Hypothymis, ti. 271
Hypoxanthus, ii 304
Hypsipetes, ii 267
Hypsiprymnus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
ii, 251
Hypsirhina, ii. 376
Hypsirhynchus, ii. 375
Hyrachyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
HYRACIDA, ii. 228
Hyracodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
li. 214
ii. 248
Hyracoidea, classification of, i. 90
Palearctic, i. 242
Ethiopian, i. 304
HYRACOIDEA, ii. 228
Hyracotherium, suppused, in European Eocene,
i. 125
European Eocene, i. 126
li, 216
ii. 229
Hyraz, ii. 228
HYSTRICID4A,, ii. 240
Hystricodon, ii. 445
Hystrix, European Pliocene, i. 113
Miocene of Greece, i. 116
N. American Tertiary, i. 140
ii, 240

1.

Talmenis, ii. 774
Tanthenas, ii. 332

| Ianthina, ii. 511

GENERAL INDEX.

Ibidipodia, European Miocene, i. 162
Ibidorhynchus, li. 353
Ibidorhynchus, figure of, i. 331
This, ii. 360
Ibises, ii. 360
Ibycter, ti. 347
Iceland, zoology of, i. 198
Ichneumia, ii 195
Ichthyoborus, ti. 445
Ichthyopsis, li. 411
Icteria, ii. 279
ICTERIDZ, ii. 281
Tcterus, li. 282
Icthyornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
Icticyon in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 197
Ictinia, ii. 349
Ictitheriwm, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 118
li. 195
ii. 197
Ictonysx, ii. 199
Ictops, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Ideopsis, ii. 470
Idmais, ii. 478
Iguana, ii. 401
Iguanas, ii. 400
IGUANIDZ, ii. 400
Ilerda, ii. 477
Ilicwra, ii. 102
India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of
Europe, i. 123
geological features of, i. 328
Indian sub-region, description of, i. 321
supposed relation to Ethiopian region, i.
321
mammalia of, i. 322
birds of, i. 323
reptiles and amphibia of, i. 326
Indicator, ii. 304
INDICATORIDA,, ii. 304
Indo-Chinese sub-region, description of, i. 329
zoological characteristics of, i. 330
illustration of, i. 331
reptiles of, i. 331
amphibia of, i. 331
insects of, i. 332
islands belonging to, i. 333
Indo-Malayan. sub-region, description of, i.
334
mammailia of, i. 336
illustrations of, i. 336, 339
birds of, i. 337
remote geographical relations of, i. 339
reptiles and amphibia of, i. 340
fishes of, i, 341
insects of, i. 341
coleoptera of, i. 342
terrestrial mollusca of, i. 343
zoological relations of islands of, i. 345
recent geographical changes in, i. 357
probable origin of fauna of, i. 359
Inia, ii. 209
Insectivora, European Miocene, i. 117
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Insectivora, classification of, i. 87
of the Palewarctic region, i. 181
of N. China and E. 'Thibet, i. 222
range of Palearctic genera of, i. 239
of Madagascar, i. 273
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 301
of the Oriental region, i. 315
range of Oriental genera of, i. 372
range of Australian genera of, i. 476
INSECTIVORA, ii. 186

581

INSECTIVORA, general remarks on the
distribution of, ii. 191
summary and conclusion, ii. 541
Insects, means of dispersal of, i. 32
tenacity of life of, i. 33
adapted to special conditions, i. 33
groups selected for the study of their
geographical distribution, i. 102
antiquity of the genera of, i. 166
fossil of European Miocene, i. 166
European Cretaceous, i. 167
European Wealden, i. 167
Paleozoic, i. 168
Palearctic, i. 187
of Central Europe, i. 196
of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
.of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
of the E African sub-region, i. 260
of W. African, i. 265
8. African, i. 268
of Madagascar, i. 282
general remarks on, i. 284
of tropical Africa and America, probable
cause of similarities in, i. 291
of Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 332
of the Oriental region, i. 318
of Ceylon, i. 327
of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341
Statistics of collecting in the various
islands of the Malay Archipelago, i. 343
of the Australian region, i. 403
of New Guinea, i. 417
of the Moluccas, i. 420
of the Timor group, i. 426
of Celebes,i. 454
of New Zealand, i. 458
scarcity of, in New Zealand, i. 462
influence of, on the flora, i. 463
of the Neotropical region, ii. 13
of S. Temperate America, ii. 42
of S. Temperate America, Palearctic
affinity of, ii. 45
of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 55
of the Antilles, ii. 73
of the Nearctic region, ii. 122
of Canada, ii. 137
distribution of, ii. 468
range of, in time, ii. 469
summary and conclusion, ii “550
lines of migration of, ii. 551
Todopleura, ii. 102
Iolema, ii. 107
Iolaus, ii. 477
Tole, ii. 267
Tora, ii. 267
Iphias, ii. 478
li, 394
IPHISADA, ii. 394
Trena, ii, 269
Tridina, ti. 534
Tridornis, ii. 98
Trrisor, ii. 318
IRRISORIDA, ii. 318
Isacis, N. American Tertiary, i 133
Ischcognathus, ii. 375
Ischyromys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 .
ii. 236 >
Islands, N. European, zoology of, i. 197
of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 206
of the W. African sub-region, i. 265
of the Ethioj ian region, i. 269
Mascarene, i. 280
of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 833
of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 345

582 GENERAL INDEX.

Islands, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, i. 443
Society and Marquesas, i, 444
New Caledonia and New Hebrides, i. 445
Sandwich, i. 446
of New Zealand sub-region, i. 453
Norfolk, i. 453
Lord Howe's, i. 454
Chatham, i. 454
Auckland, i. 455
of Tropical 8. America, ii. 29
of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 59
of Eastern United States, ii. 134
peculiar colours of pigeons in, ii. 336
abundance of land-shells in, ii. 525

Tsodactylium, ii. 413

Ispidina, ii. 316

Issiodromys, European Pliocene, i. 113
ii. 232

Ithaginis, ii. 340

Ithomia, ii. 470

Ithycyphus, ii. 379

Ixalus, ii. 419

Ixonotus, ii. 267

Txulus, ii. 266

J.

Jacvmaraleyon, ii. 311

Jacamars, li. 311

Jacamerops, ii. 311

Jacanas, li. 255

Jacchus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

Jaculus, ii. 232

Jaltris, ii. 375

Jamaicia, ii 521

Janella, ii. 517

Janthocinela, ii. 261

Japalura, ii. 402

Japan and North China, physical features of,
Pa

southern extremity of perhaps belongs to

the Oriental region, i. 226

Japan, general-character of the fauna of, i.
230

former land-connexions of, i. 231
Java, mammialia of, i. 349
productions of, well known, i. 350
birds of, i. 351
representative species of birds in, i. 352
origin of the anomalous features of its
fauna, i. 352
Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical
contrasts and zoological peculiarities
explained, i. 357
Jays, ii. 273
Jenynsia, ii. 450
Jerboas, ii, 231
Juan Fernandez, Carabide of, ii. 44
birds of, ii. 49
beetles and jand-shells of, ii. 51
Juida, ii. 288
Juliamyia, ii. 109
Junco, ii. 284
Junonia, European Miocene, i. 167
ii. 474

K.

Kazu, ii. 359

Kakapoe, of New Zealand, i. 455

Kalophrynus, ii. 415 :

Kangaroos, extinct in Australia, 1. 157
li. 251

Keneuxia, ii. 397

Kerguelen Island, apterous. insects of, i. 211
(note)
Kerodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
8. American Pliocene, i. 147
ii. 241
Ketingus, ii. 443
Ketupa, ii. 350
King-fisher, racquet-tailed, of New Guinea,
figure of, i. 415
King-fishers, ii. 315
Kittacinela, ii. 259
Kiwi of New Zealand, i. 455
Kneria, ii. 453
Kobus, ii. 224
Koodoo antelope, figure of, i. 261
Kricogonia, ii. 478
Krynickia, ii. 517

Labeo, ii. 451
Labrag, ii. 425
LABRID4&,, ii. 437
Labrus, ii. 437
LABYRINTHICLI, ii. 434
Lacerta, ii. 391
LACERTIDA,, ii. 390
Lacertilia, classification of, i. 99
LACERTILIA, ii. 388
general remarks on the distribution of,
ii. 403
fossil, ii. 404
Lacuna, ii. 510
Ladrone Islands, birds of, i, 444
Lemargus, ii. 461
Lemosthenes, ii. 489
Lewosopis, ii. 477
Lafresnaya, ii. 107
Lagenocetus, ii. 208
Lagenorhynchus, ii. 209
Lagidium, ii. 237
LAGOMYIDA, ii. 242
Lagomys, European Pliocene, i. 113
European Miocene, i. 120
ii. 242
Lagopus, ii. 339
Lagorchestes, ii. 251
Lagostomus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
8. American Pliocene, i. 147
ji. 237
Lagothria, ii. 174
Lais, ii. 442
Lake Baikal, seals of, i. 218
ii. 206
Lalage, ii. 269
Laletes, ii. 280
LAMIIDA, ii. 498
Lama, ii. 460
LAMNIDA, ii. 460
Lampornis, ii. 107
Lampreys, ii. 463
Lamprima, ii. 493
Lampris, ii. 429
Lamprocolius, ii. 288
Lamprolema, ii. 107
Lamrophis, ii. 380
Lampropsar, ii. 282
Lampropygia, ii. 108
Lamprospilus, li. 477
Lamprospiza, li. 99
Lamprotes, li. 98
Lancelet, ii. 464
Land-lizards, ii. 391
Land and water, proportions of, i. 35
Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the
genera of, i. 168

GENERAL INDEX.

583

Land-shells, Paleozoic, i. 169
Palzarctic, i. 190
of Madeira, i. 209
of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
of the Ethiopian region, i. 257
of W. Africa, i. 265
of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands,
i. 285
of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 344
of the Australian region, 1. 407
of the Sandwich Islands, i. 466
of New Zealand, i. 459
of the Neotropical region, ii. 19
of the Antilles, ii. 75
conditions favouring development of, ii. 75
of N. America, ii. 124
general observations on the distribution
of, ii, 522
richness of islands in, ii. 525
their mode of diffusion, ii. 525, 528
comparative distribution of Operculate
and In-operculate, ii. 526
estimated numbers of, ii. 526
Land-snakes, ii. 382
Langaha, ii. 379
Laniarius, ii. 272
Lanicterus, ii. 268
Laniellus, ii. 272
LANIIDA, ii. 272
Lanio, ii. 99
Lanius, European Miocene, i. 161
ii. 272
Laopithecus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Laornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
Laprissa, ii. 421
LARIDA,, ii. 364
Larimus, ii. 428
Larks, ii. 289
Larus, ii. 364
Larvivora, li. 259
Lasiomys, ii. 229
Lasiuromys, ii. 239
Lataz, ii. 199
Lates, ii. 425
Lathria, ii. 102
Latonia, ii. 421
Latrunculus, ii. 430
Layardia, ii. 261
Lea, Dr. Isaac, on N. American Unionide, ii.125
Lebia, ii. 489
Lebiasina, ii. 445
Legatus, ii. 101
Leiocephalus, ii. 401
Leiolemus, ii. 401
Leistes, ii. 282
Leistus, ii. 489
Leiuperus, ii. 420
Leiyla, ii. 419
Lemonias, ii. 476
Lemur, ii. 176
Lemur, fossil, ii. 178
Lemuravide, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Lemuravus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Lemuria, a hypothetical land, i. 76
Lemuride, European Eocene, i. 124
LEMURIDA,, ii. 176
Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, i.
300
range of Oriental genera of, 371
LEMUROIDBEA, ii. 176
Lemurs, ii. 176
Leonia, ii. 521
Lepadogaster, ii. 436
Lepictis, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Lepidocepalichthys, ii. 453
Lepidocephalus, ii. 453

Vou t—3s8

Lepidogrammas, ii. 309

Lepidolaryng, ii. 108

Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, i. 177
table of Palearctic families of, i. 238
8. African, i. 268
table of Ethiopian families of, i. 299
of the Oriental region, i. 318
table of Oriental families of, i. 369
of the Australian region, i. 404
table of Australian families of, i. 472
of the Neotropical region, ii. 13
of the Antilles, ii. 73
table of Neotropical families of, ii. 90
of the Nearctic region, ii. 122
Nearctic families of, ii. 143

LEPIDOPTERA, ii. 470

Lepidosiren, ii. 458

LEPIDOSTEIDA,, ii. 459

Lepidosteus, li. 459

LEPIDOSTERNIDA, ii. 389

Lepidosternon, ii. 389

Lepilemur, ii. 176

Lepistes, ii. 450

LEPORIDA,, ii. 242

Leporinus, ii. 445

Lepricornis, li. 476

Leprodera, ii. 501

Leptalis, ii. 478

Leptarchus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
li. 202

Leptasthenura, ti. 103

Leptauchenia, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Leptobarbina ii.°452

Leptobrachium, ii. 421

LEPTOCARDIL, ii. 464

Leptocera, ii, 502

Leptochwrus, N. American Tertiary. i. 137
ii, 215

Leptocircus, ii. 479

Leptodeira, ii. 379

Leptodon, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
ii. 214
ii. 349

Leptognathus, ii. 381

Leptomantis, ii. 419

Leptomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
li, 220

Lepton, ii. 535

Leptonewra, ii. 471

Leptonyx, ii. 204

Leptopogon, ii. 101

Leptoma, ii. 520

Leptoptila, ii. 333

Leptoptilus, European Miocene, i. 162
ii. 361

Leptorhytaon, ii. 380

Leptornis, ii. 276

LEPTOSOMIDA,, ii. 310

Leptosomus, allied form in European Eocene,

i. 168

ii. 310

Leptosomus of Madagascar i. 278
figure of, i. 279

Leptotheriwm, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 226

Leptotriccus, ii. 101

Leptura, ii. 502

Lepus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
S American Pliocene, i. 147

Lerista, ii. 395

Lerwa, ii. 339

Lesbia, ii. 108

Lestodon, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Leucippus, ii. 109

Lewciscus, ii. 452

Leucochroa, ii. 516

584

GENERAL INDEX.

Leucocyon, ii. 197
Leucomelena, ii. 332
Leuconerpes, ii. 304
Leucophantes, ii. 270
Leucophasia, ii. 478
Leucoplewrus, ii. 209
Leucosarcia, ii. 333
Leucosomus, ii. 452
Leucosticte, ii. 285
Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan
insects, i. 228
LIALIDA4, ii. 396
Lialis, ii. 396
Liasis, ii. 381
Libellula, from the Lias, i. 167
Libythea, ii. 475
LIBYTHEIDA,, ii. 475
Lichanotus, ii. 381
Lichenops, ii. 101
Licina, ii. 521
Licmetis, ii. 325
Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the
Rodentia, i. 90
LIMACID2,, ii. 517
LIMACINIDA,, ii. 531
Limaa, ii. 517
Limenitis, ii. 474
Limnea, Eocene, 169
European Secondary, i. 169
ii. 518
LIMNZID2&, ii. 518
Limnatornis, European Miocene, i. 161
Limnocharis, ii. 420
Limmocyon, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
Limnodynastes, ii. 420
Limnohyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
Limnophis, ii. 376
Limnornis, ii. 103
Limnotheride, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Limnotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Limnurgus, ii. 450
Limosa, ii. 353
Limpets, ii. 511
Lingula, ii. 538
LINGULID, ii. 532
Linota, ii. 285
Linsang, i ii. 195
Liocassis, ii. 442
Liiopelma, ii. 417
Liopis, ii. 375
Lioptilus, ii. 267
Lioscelis, ii. 297
LIOTRICHIDA, ii. 266
Liothria, ii. 266
Lipaugus, ii, 102
Liparis, ii. 430
Liphyra, ii, 477
Lipinia, ii. 397
Lipoa, ii. 342
Liposarcus, ii. 444
Liptala, ii. 477
Lissolepis, ii. 397
Listriodon, European Miocene, i. 119
Lithiodon, ii. 521
Lithomys, "Kuropean: ‘Miocene, i. 120
ii. 236
Lithornis, European Eocene, i. 163
Litoria, ii. 418
Littorina, ii. 510
LITTORINID&, ii. 510
Lizards, classification of, i. 90
Tertiary, i. 165 ,
wide range of a species in Polynesia, i. 448
distribution and lines of migration of, ii.
547
Lobodon, ii. 204

Lochmias, ii. 103

Locustella, ii. 258

Loddigesia, ii. 108

Loncheres, in Brazilian eaves, i. 145
li. 239

Lonchophorus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
li. 239

LONGICORNIA, ii. 498

Longicornia, Palearctic, i. 188
Ethiopian, i. 257
Oriental, i. 320
Australian, i. 407
Neotropical, ii. 17
of Chili, ii. 46
Nearctic, ii. 123

Lontra, ii. 199

Lophiodon, European Eocene, i. 125
N. American Tertiary, i. 136
ji. 212

Lophiomeryz, ii. 218

Lophiotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

Lophius, ii. 431
hoaétus, ii. 348

LOPHOBRANCHII, li. 456

Lophocitta, ii. 273

Lophogyps, ii. 346

Lophoictinia, ii. 349

Lopholaimus, ii. 362

Lophiomys, ii. 230

Lophophaps, ii. 333

Lophophanes, ii. 266

LOPHOPHORIN ®, ii, 340

Lophophorus, ii. 340

Lophorhina, ii. 274

Lophornis, ii. 107

Lophortia, ii. 339

Lophostria, ii. 350

LOPHOTIDA,, ii. 432

Lophotragus, ii. 220

Lophotriorchis, ii. 348

Lophura, ii. 402

Lord Howe’s Island, birds of, i. 453

Loricaria, ii. 444

Loriculus, ii. 326

Loris, ii. 176

Lorius, ii. 327

Lota, ii. 439

Loxia, ii. 285

Lozxigilla, ii. 285

Loxomylus, Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148
ii. 237

Loops, ii. 277

Lucania, ii. 450

LUCANIDA, ii. 492

Lucanus, ii. 493

Lucia, ii. 477

Lucidella, ii. 522

Lucifuga, ii. 440

LUCINIDA,, ii. 535

Lucinopsis, ii 536

LUCIOCEPHALIDA, ii. 434

Lucioperca, ii. 425

Luciotrutta, ii. 447

LInucisoma, ii. 452

Lund, Dr, his researches in caves of Brazil, i.
143

LTupus, ii. 197

Iarocalis, ii. 320

Luscinia, ii. 259

Lusciniola, ii. 258

Lutra, European Miocene, i. 118
Indian Miocene, i. 121
ii. 199

Tattronectes, ii. 199

Lycena, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
ii. 196

GENERAL INDEX. 585

LYCANIDA,, ii. 477
Lycalopex, i. 197
LYCODIDA,, ii. 439
Lycodon, ii. 380
LYCODONTIDA, ii. 380
Lycophidion, ii. 380
Lycorea, ii. 470
Lygosoma, ii. 397
Lygosomella, ti. 397
Lymanopoda, ii. 471
Lymnas, li. 476
Lyncornis, ti. 320
Lyncus, ii. 193
Lytorhynchus, ii. 376
Lyre-bird, figure of, i. 441
ii. 298

M.

Mabouya, ii. 397
Macacus, European Pliocene, i. 112
Miocene of Greece, i. 115
Indian Miocene, i. 121
supposed in European Hocene, i. 125
ii. 173
li. 178
Macaws, ii. 327
Machairodus, i. 110, 111
Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 118
Indian Miocene, i. 121
N. American Tertiary, i. 134
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
S. American Pliocene, i. 146
ii. 193
Machetornis, ii. 101
Macherhamphus, ii. 349
Macherirhynchus, ti. 271
Macheropterus, ii. 102
Machetes, ii. 353
Macrauchenia, 8S. American Pliocene, i. 146
Macrocalamus, ii. 374
Macroceramus, ii. 516
Macrochilus, ti. 491
Macrocyclis, ii. 516
Macrodipteryx, ii. 320
Macrodon, ii. 445
Macroglossa, ii. 482
Macrones, ii. 442
Macronus, ii. 261
Macronyz, ii. 290
MACROPODIDA, ii. 250
Macropus, ii. 251
Macropygia, ii. 332
Macrorhamphus, ii. 353
MACROSCELIDIDA,, ii. 186
Macroscelides, ii. 186
Macrosila, ii. 482
Macrotheriwm, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 121
ii, 246
Macrotus californicus, ii. 182
MACROURIDA,, ii. 440
MACTRIDA, ii. 443
Madagascar, extinct birds of, i. 164
description of, i. 272
mammalia of, i. 272
birds of, i. 274
reptiles of, i. 279
amphibia of, i. 280
extinct fauna of, i. 282
general remarks on insect fauna of, i. 284
Madeira, birds of, i. 208
land-shells of, i. 208
beetles of, i. 210

Madeira, wingless insects numerous in, i. 211
how stocked with animals, i. 2138
MALACANTHIDA,, ii. 433
Malacea, Sumatra, and Borneo, zoological
unity of, i. 353
comparison of mammalia, i. 354
of birds, i. 355
Malacocircus, ii. 261
Malacopteron, ii. 261
Malacoptila, ii. 310
Malacorhynchus, ii. 364
Malacothriz, ii. 230
Malagasy sub-region, description of, i. 272
mammalia of, i. 272
birds of, i. 274
illustration of zoology of, i. 278
reptiles of, i, 279
amphibia of, i. 280
extinct fauna of, i, 282, 289
insects of, i. 282
early history of, i. 286
Malapterurus, ti. 443
Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms defined, i.
345 (note)
Malaya, meaning of term, ii. 261
Malay Archipelago, distribution of butterflies
in, ii. 484
distribution of Cicindelide in, ii. 487
distribution of Longicorns in, ii. 500°
Malayan forms of life reappearing in West
Africa, i. 263
fauna, probable origin of, i. 359
resemblances to that of Madagascar aud
Ceylon explained, i. 361
Malimbus, ii. 286
Mallodon, ii. 501
Mallotus, ii. 447
Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 114
formerly joined to Africa, i. 201
fossil elephants of, i. 201
birds of, i. 206 (note)
Malurus, ii. 258
Mammal, the most ancient American, i, 134
Mammalia, means of dispersal of, i. 10
as limited by climate, i. 11
as limited by rivers, i. 12
how far limited by the sea, i. 13
dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, i.
14

means of dispersal of aquatic, i. 15

of most importance in determining zoo-
logical regions, i. 57

classification of, i. 85

birthplace and migrations of some families
of, i. 142, 153

cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176

of the Palearctic region, i. 181

of the European sub-region, i. 192

of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 202

of the Siberian sub-region, i. 217

characteristic of Western Tartary, i. 218

of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222

Palearctic genera of, in the Manchurian
sub-region, i. 222

Oriental genera of, on borders of same
sub-region, i. 223

peculiar to Japan, i. 223

characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia,
i. 226

table of Palearctic families of, i. 234

range of Palearctic genera of, i. 239

of the Ethiopian region, i. 253

absence of certainimportant groups, i. 253

of the E. African sub-region, i. 260

of W. Africa, i. 262

of S. Africa, i. 267

586

GENERAL INDEX.

Mammalia, of Madagascar, i. 272
table of Ethiopian families of, i. 294
table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
of the Oriental region, i. 315
range of the genera inhabiting the Indian
sub-region, i. 322
of Ceylon, i. 327
of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 330
of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 336
illustration of characteristic Malayan,
i. 336
of the Philippine Islands, i. 345
table of Oriental families of, i. 365
table of Oriental genera of, i. 371
of Australian region, i. 390
of the Papuan Islands, i. 410
of the Moluccas, i. 417
of the Timor group, i. 422
of Celebes, i. 427
of Australia, i. 439
illustration of, i. 439
of New Zealand, i. 450
table of families of Australian, i. 470
table of genera of Australian, i. 475
destinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 6
of S. Temperate America, ii. 36
of Straits of Magellan, ii. 37
of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 52
of the Antilles, ii. 62
table of Ne»tropical families of, ii. 85
table of Neotropical genera of, ii. 91
of the Nearctic region, ii. 115
of California, ii. 127
of N. American central plains ii. 129
of E. United States, ii. 132
of Canada, ii. 135
table of Nearctic families of, ii. 140
table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 145
Mammalia, extinct, of Old World, i. 107
extinct, of historic period, i. 110
extinct, comparative age of in Europe, i.

extinct, of the New World, i. 129
extinct, of N. America and Europe, com-
pared, i. 141
original birthplace of some families and
genera, i. 142, 153
of the secondary period, i. 160
MAMMALIA, summary and conclusion, ii.540
lines of migration of, ii. 544
Manakins, ii. 102
MANATIDA, ii. 210
Manatus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
ii. 210
Manchurian sub-region, description of, i. 220
mammalia of, i. 222
birds of, i. 223
reptiles and amphibia of, i. 227
fresh-water fish of, i. 227
insects of, i 227
coleoptera of, i. 228
MANIDID4A,, ii. 245
Manis, ii. 245
Manorhina, ii. 276
Manticora, ii. 487
Manucodia, ii. 274
Mareca, ii. 363
Margaroperdiz, ii. 388
Margarops, ii. 256
Margarornis, ii. 103
Marginella, ii. 508
Marine Mollusea, general remarks on the
distribution of, ii. 557
Marine shells of the Neotropical region, ii. 20
Marmosets, ii. 175
Marquesas Islands, birds of, i. 443

Marsh, Mr., on improvability of Asiatic and
African deserts, i. 200
on camels and goats as destructive to
vegetation, i. 200
MARSUPIALIA, ii. 248
general remarks on the distribution of,
ii. 258
Marsupials, classification of, i. 91
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
European Miocene, i. 121
first migration to America, i. 155
diversified forms of, i. 391
of America prove no connection with
Australia, i. 399
list of Australian genera of, i. 476
MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA, sum-
mary and conclusion, ii. 543
Martes, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
ii. 198
Mascarene Islands, zoology of, i. 280
extinct fauna of, i. 282
gigantic land-tortoises of, i. 289
Masius, ii. 102
MASTACEMBELID4&, ii. 487
Mastodon, European Pliocene, i. 113
Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 120
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
8S. American Pliocene, i. 147
Indian Miocene, i. 123
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 120
N. American Tertiary, i. 138
ii. 227, 228
Mauritius, zoology of, i. 280
reptiles of, i. 281
McCoy, Professor,
Victoria, i. 466
Mechanitis, ii. 470
Meda, ii. 452
Mediterranean, recent changes in, i. 39
sub-region, description of, i. 199
mammialia of, i. 202
birds of, i. 203
reptiles and amphibia of, i. 204
fresh-water fish of, i. 205
insects of, i. 205
islands of, i. 206
sea not separating distinct faunas, i. 201
Megabias, ii. 270
Megablabes, ii. 376
Magacephala, ii. 478
Megacephalon, ii. 342
Megacerops, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
Megaderma, ii 182
Megerophis, ii. 383
Megalema, ii. 306
MEGALZAMIDA, ii. 305
MEGALEMIN4. ii. 306
Megalixalus, ii. 419
Megalocnus, fossil in Cuba, i. 148
Megalomastoma, ii. 521
Megalomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
Megalomma, ii. 487
Megalonyx, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
in Brazilian caves, i. 145
8. American Pliocene, i. 147
Megalophrys, ii. 421
Megalostoma, Eocene, i. 169
Megalurus, ii. 258
Megalophonus, ii. 289
Megamys, 8. American Eocene, i. 148
ii. 238
Meganostoma, ii. 478
MEGAPODIIDA,, ii. 341
Megapodius, ii. 342
Megaptera, ii. 207

on Paleontology ot

GENERAL INDEX.

587

Megarhynchus, ii. 101

Megaspira, European Tertiary, i. 169
li. 527

Megatheriaw, in Brazilian caves, i 145

Megatherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, i.

130
in Brazilian caves, i. 145
S. American Pliocene, i. 147
ii. 245
Meiornis, ii. 369
Melampitta, ii. 298
Melampus, ii. 519
Melanerpes, ii. 303
Melania, European Secondary, i. 169
MELANIADA,, ii. 509
Melanitis, ii. 471
Melanochlora, ii. 266
Melanocorypha, ii. 289
Melanophidiwm, ii. 374
Melanoptila, ii. 256
Melanotis, ii. 256
MELEAGRIN 4, ii. 340
Meleagris, N. American Miocene, i. 163
ii. 340
Meles, ii. 199
Melidectes, ii. 276
Melidora, ii. 316
Melieraz, ii. 348
Melincea, ii. 470
Meliornis, ii. 275
Meliphaga, ii. 275
MELIPHAGIDA,, ii. 275
Melipotes, ii. 276
Melirrhophetes, ii. 276
Melitea, ii. 474
Melithreptus, ii. 276
Melittophagus, ii. 312
Melizophilus, ii. 259
Mellisuga, ii. 108
Mellivora, Indian Miocene, i. 121
ii. 199
Melolonthidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167
Melopelia, ii. 333
Melopsittacus, ii. 325
Melopyrrha, ii. 285
Melospiza, ii. 284
Melursus, ii. 202
Menetia, ii. 395
Meniceros, ii. 317
Meniscotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
Menobranchus, ii. 412
Menopoma, ii. 412
MENOPOMIDA, ii. 412 f
Menotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Menura, ii. 298
MENURIDA,, ii. 298 \
Mephitis, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 199
Merganetta, ii. 264
Mergulus, ii. 367
Mergus, ii. 364
Meriones, ii. 232
ii. 230
Meristes, ii. 272
Merluccius, ii. 439
Meroe, ii. 536
MEROPIDA,, ii. 312
Meropiscus, ii. 312
Meropogon, ii. 312
Merops, ii. 312
Merulazis, ii. 297
Merychus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
Merychippus, N. American Tertiary. i. 135
Merychocherus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
Merycodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
li. 220

Merycopotamus, Indian Miocene, i. 122
li. 214
Merycotherium, of Siberian drift, i. 112
li. 217
Mesacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Mesapia, ii. 479
Mesites, ii. 263
Mesohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
Mesomys, ii. 239
Mesonauta, ii. 438
Mesonyx, N. American Tertiary, i. 134
Mesopithecus, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
ii. 178
Mesoprion, ii. 425
Mesops, ii. 439
Mesosemia, ii. 475
Messalina, ii. 391
Messaras, ii. 474
Metallura, ii. 108
Metapheles, ii. 476
Methonella, ii. 476
Metius, ii. 492
Metopia, ii. 102
Metopiana, ii. 364
Metoponia, ii. 283
Metopothria, ii. 102
Metriopelia, ii. 333
Mexican sub-region, li. 51
mammalia of, ii. 52
birds of, ii. 52
reptiles of, ii. 54
amphibia of, ii. 54
fresh-water fish of, ii. 54
insects of, ii. 55
land-shells of, ii. 57 ;
its relations to the N. and §. American
continents, ii. 57
islands of, ii. 59
Meyer, Dr. A. B., on reptiles and amphibia of
New Guinea, i. 415
Micreca, ii. 270
Micracantha, ii. 501
Micrastur, ii. 347
Micrathene, ii. 350
Micrhyla, ii. 414
Microbates, ii. 104
Microcebus, ii. 176
Microcerculus, ii. 264
Microchera, ii. 107
Microglossus, ii. 325
Microhieraz, ii. 349
Microlestes, oldest European mammal, i. 169
Micromeryx, European Miocene, i. 120
ii, 220
Micropelama, ii. 353
Micropternus, ii. 304
Micropterus, ii, 364
Microscelis, ii. 267
Microstoma, li. 448
Microsyops, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Microtheriwm, European Miocene, i. 120
Midas, ii. 176
Middendorf, on extreme northern birds, i. 219
Midea, ii. 478
Miglyptes, ii. 304
Migrating birds, in which region to be placed,
i. 185
Migration of animals, i. 10
general phenomena of, i. 18
of birds, i. 19
of birds in Europe, i. 19
probable origin of, i, 22
of birds in India and China, i. 23
of birds in N. America, i. 23 ‘
changes in extent of, i. 24
of birdsin S. Temperate America, i, 25

588

Migration of animals, general remarks on,
i, 25
Miletus, ii. 477
Milvulus, ii. 102, 291
Milvus, Europeau Miocene, i. 162
ii. 349
Mimeta, ii. 268
Mimetes, ii. 170
Mimocichla, ii. 256
Mimus, ii. 256
Minla, ii. 266
Miocene fauna of the Old World, i. 114
fauna of Geece, i. 115
fauna of Greece, summary of, i. 116
fauna of Central Europe, i. 117
deposits of Siwalik Hills, i. 121
faunas of Europe and Asia, general obser-
vations on, i. 123
Miohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
Mionectes, ii. 101
Mirafra, ii. 289
Miro, ii. 260
Misgurnus, ii. 453
Mitra, ii. 508
Mitrephorus, ii. 102
Mitua, ii. 343
Mivart, Professor, on classification of pri-
mates, i. 86
on classification of insectivora, i. 87
on classification of amphibia, i. 101
of classification of lemurs, ii. 176
Mixornis, ii. 261
Mniotilta, ii. 279
MNIOTILTID4A, ii. 278
Mochocus, ii. 443
Mocoa, ii 397
Moho, ii. 276
Mole-rat of W. Tartary, i. 218:
Mole-rats, ii. 231
Moles, almost wholly Palearctic, i. 181
ii. 190
Mollienesia, ii. 450
Mollusca, means of dispersal of, i. 30
classification of, i. 104
groups selected for study, i. 104
MOLLUSCA, distribution of, ii. 504
range of families of, in time, ii. 538
Moluccas, zoology of, i. 417
birds of, i. 419
reptiles of, i. 420
insects of, i. 420
peculiarities of fauna of, i. 421
Molossus, ii, 184
Molothrus, ii. 282
Molva, ii. 439
MOMOTID&, ii. 313
Momotus, ii. 313
Monachaleyon, ii. 316
Monarcha, ii. 270
Monasa, ii. 311
Monitor, ii. 389
Monkeys on the high Himalayas, i. 12
fossil in N. American Miocene, i. 133
in E. Thibet, j. 222
abundance of in the Oriental region, i. 315
Monoceros, ii. 507
Monodon, ii 208
MONODONTIDA,, ii. 208
Monoplocus, ii. 890
Monopterus, ii. 455
Monotremata, classification of, i. 91
list of Australian genera of, i. 477
MONOTREMATA, ii. 253
remarks on the distribution of, ii. 254
Monotrophis, ii. 289
Montacuta, ii. 535

GENERAL INDEX.

Monticola, ii. 256
Montifringilla, ii. 284
Morch, Dr., on Panama shells, ii. 20
Morelia, ii. 381
“‘More-pork” of Australia, figure of, i. 442
Morethria, ii. 395
Mormolyce, ii. 490
MORMYRID&, ii. 448
Mormyrops, ii. 448
Mormyrus, ii. 488
Morococcys, ii. 309
Morotherium, N. American Pliocene, i. 140
MORPHIDA, ii. 472
Morphnus, ii. 348
Morpho, ii. 472
Morunga, ii. 204
Moschus, ii. 219
Motacilla, European Miocene, i. 161
ii. 290
MOTACILLIDA, ii. 290
Motella, ii. 489
Moths, ii. 481
Motmots, ii. 313
Mound-builders, peculiar Australian birds,
i. 393
Moupin, position and zoology of, i. 221
Mouse-deer, ii. 218
Moxostoma, ii. 451
Mugil, ii. 435
MUGILLIDAZ, ii. 485
Mulleria, ii. 534
Mulleripicus, ii. 303
MULLID&, ii. 426
Mullus, ii. 426
Mungos, ti. 195
Munia, ti. 287
MURANIDA, ii. 456
Murenopsis, ii. 412
Murex, ii. 507
MURICIDA, ii. 507
Muride, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147
MURIDA,, ii. 229
Murray, Mr. Andrew, on zoological region.
i, 60
Mus, ii. 229
Muscardinus, ii. 232
Muscicapa, ii. 270
MUSCICAPIDA,, ii. 270
Muscicapila, ii. 270
Muscigralla, ii. 101
Muscipipra, ii. 101
Muscisawicola, ii, 101, 291 ¥
Muscitodus, ii. 271
Muscivora, ii. 101
Musophaga, ii. 307
MUSOPHAGIDA, ii. 307
Mussels, ii. 533
Mustela, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 118
8. American Pliocene, i. 146
ii. 198
Mustelide, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
MUSTELIDA,, ii. 1
Mustelus, ii. 460
MYACIDAZ, ii. 536
Myadora, ii. 536
Mycalesis, ii. 471
Mycerobas, ii. 284
Mycetes, ii. 175
ii. 178
Mycetopus, ti. 534
Mydaus, ii. 199
Myiadestes, ii. 260
Myjiagra, ii. 271
Myialestes, ii. 271
Myiarchus, ii. 102, 291

GENERAL INDEX. 589

Myiobius, ii. 101

Myioceysx, ii. 316

Myioch nes, ii. 102

Myjiodioctes, ii. 279

Myiodynastes, ii 101

Myiophonus, ii. 263

Myiopithecus, ii. 173

Myiotheretes, ii. 100

Myiozetetes, ii. 101

Mylesinus, ii. 445

Myletes, ii. 445

MYLIOBATIDA, ii. 463

Myliobatis, ii. 463

Myjlodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
S. American Pliocene, i. 147

Mylopharadon, ii. 452

Mynes, ii. 474

Myochama, ii. 536

Myodes, ii. 230

Myogale, European Miocene, i. 118
li. 190, 191

Mypoictis, ii. 249

Myomorphus, fossil in Cuba, i. 148

Myopotamus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

ii. 239

Myospalaz, ii. 230

MYOXIDA, ii. 232

Myoxus, European Miocene, i. 120
European Eocene, i 126
ii. 232

Myxomys, ii. 230

Myrina, ti. 477

Myrmeciza, ii. 104

MYRMECOBIID4,, ii. 250

Myrmecobius, ii. 250

Myrmecophaga, ii. 247

MYRMECOPHAGIDA, ii. 247

Myrmotherula, ii. 104

Myron, ii. 376

Myrtis, ii. 108

Mysarachne, European Miocene, 1. 118

Mysops, N. American Eocene, i. 140
ii. 231

Mystacina tuberculata, ii. 184

Mystacoleucus, ii. 452

Mystacornis, ii. 258

Mystromys, ii. 230

MYTILIDA, ii. 533

Mytilus, ii. 539

MYXINID&, ii. 464

Myzxophagus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i.
130

Myzxophyes, ii. 420
Myzxus, ii. 435

Myzomela, ii. 275
Myzornis, ii. 266,

Nenia, ii. 365
Naja, ii. 383
NANDID&, ii. 483
Nandinia, ii. 195
Nandus, ii. 433
Nanina, ii. 513
Nannophryne, ii. 417
Nannophrys, ii. 421
Nanodes, ii. 327
Nanohyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 187
ii. 215
Nanotragus, li. 224
Napeogenes, ii. 470
Napothera, ii. 261
Nardoa, ii. 381
Narwhal, ii. 208
Narope, ii. 472

Nasica, ii. 103
Nasiterna, ii. 325
Nasua, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 200
Nathalis, ii. 478
Natica, ii. 539
NATICIDA,, ii. 508
Nautilus, ii. 539
NATRICINA, ii. 375
Nattereria, ii. 417
Nauclerus, ii. 349
Naucrates, ii. 429
Naultinus ii. 400
NAUTII ID&, ii. 506
Navicella, ii. 510
Nearcuc region, defined, i. 79
subdivisions of, i. 80
distinct from Palearctic, i. 79
ii. 114
zoological characteristics of, ii. 115
mammalia of, ii. 115
birds of, ii. 116
reptiles of, ii. 119
amphibia of, ii. 120
fresh-water fishes of, ii. 120
summary of vertebrata of, ii. 120
insects of, ii. 122
land and fresh-water shells of, ii. 124
sub-regions of, 11. 125
concluding remarks on, ii. 138
tables of distribution of animals of, ii.
139
Nearctic and Neotropical regions, no decided
boundary between, ii. 117
Nebria, ii. 489
Necrornis, European Miocene, i. 161
NECTARINIIDA&, ii. 276
Nectarinia, ii. 276
Nectarophila, ii. 276
Nectogale, ii. 190
Necydalis, ii. 502
Necyria, li. 476
Nelicurvius, ii. 286
Nemachilus, ii. 453
Nematogenys, ii. 444
NEMEOBIIDA, ii. 475
Nemeobius, ii. 475
NEMORHEDIN 4, ii. 224
Nemorhedus, ii. 224
Nemoricola, ii. 290
Nemosia, ii. 99
Neobatrachus, ti. 420
Neochloe, ii. 280
Neocorys, ii. 290
Neoctantes, ii 104
Neomeris, li. 209
Neomorphus, ii. 309
Neophasia, ii. 478
Neophron, ii. 346
Neopipo, ii. 102
Neopus, ii. 348
Neorhynchus, ii. 285
Neosorex, ii. 191
Neotoma, ii. 230
Neotomys, ii. 230
Neotragus, ii. 224
Neotropical region, defined, i. 78
subdivisions of, i, 78
relations of W. African sub-region with,
i. 265
description of, ii. 1
zoological features of, ii. 5
birds of, ii. 6, 7
distinctive features of mammalia of, ii. 6
reptiles of, ii. 9
amphibia of, ii. 11

590 GENERAL INDEX.

Neotropical region, fresh-water fishes of, ii. 12
summary of vertebrates of, ii. 13
insects of, ii. 13
land-shells of, ii. 19
marine shells of, ii. 20
summary of past history of, ii. 80
tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 84
Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 21
Neoziphius, ii. 208
Nephecetes, ii. 320
Neptis, ii. 474
NERITIDAZ, ii. 510
Neritina, ii. 510
Nerophis, ii. 457
Nesoceleus, ii. 303
Nesocichla, ii. 256
Nesodon, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147
Nesomys, ii. 230
Nesonetta, ii. 364
Nesopsar, ii. 282
Nessia, ii. 399
Nestor, ii. 329
NESTORIDA&, ii. 329
Nettapus, ii. 363
Neusterophis, ii. 376
Newberry, Dr., on Cretaceous and Tertiary
floras of N. America, ii. 155
Newton, Professor, on position of Menuride
and Atrichiide, i. 95
on birds of Iceland, i. 198
on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25
on genus Camptolemus, ii, 39
on peculiar genera of Nearctic and Neo-
tropical birds, ii. 118
on family Panwride, ii. 262
Newtonia, ii. 270
Newts, ii. 413
New Caledonia, birds of, i. 444
New Guinea, zoology of, i. 409
mamunalia of, i. 410
birds of, i. 411
peculiarities of its ornithology, i. 413
illustration of ornithology of, 1. 414
reptiles and amphibia of, i. 415
insects of, i. 416
New Zealand, objections to making a primary
zoological region, i. 62
extinct birds of, i. 164
sub-region, description of, i. 449
compared with British Isles, i. 449
mamunalia of, i. 451
islets of, i. 453
illustration of ornithology of, i. 455
reptiles of, i. 456
amphibia of, i. 457
fresh-water fish of, i. 457
insects of, i. 458
Longicorns of, i. 458
Myriapoda of, i. 458
land-shells of, i. 459
ancient fauna of, i. 460
origin of fauna of, i. 460
poverty of insects in, i. 462
relations of insect-fauna and flora of, i. 472
Nicator, ii. 272 4
Nicobar Islands, their zoological relations,
ji. 332
Nightingale, migration of the, i. 21
Night-jars, ii. 319
Nigidius, ii. 493
Nigrita, ii. 286
Nilaus, ii 272
Niltava, ii. 270
Ninoz, ii. 350
Nisaétus, ii. 348
Nisoides, ii. 348

Nisoniades, ii. 480

NOCTILIONIDA, ii. 184

Nocturnal tree-snakes, ii. 379

Nonnula, ii, 311

Norbea, ii. 397

Norfolk Island, birds of, i. 453

North Africa, zoological relations of, i. 202

North America, remarks on Post-Pliocene,

fauna of, i. 130
Post-Pliocene fauna of, partly derived from
8S. America, i. 131

extinct birds of, i..163

Northern Hemisphere, zoological importance
of, ii. 155

NOTACANTHIL, ii. 437

Notaden, ii. 415 >

Notharctos, N. American Tertiary, 1. 133

Nothocerus, ii. 344

Nothocraa, ii. 343

Nothoprocta, ii. 344

Nothura, ii. 344

NOTIDANIDA,, ii. 461

Notiophilus, ii. 489

Notodela, ii. 259

Notoglanis, ii. 443

Notonomus, ii. 490

NOTOPTERIDA, ii. 455

Notopholis, ii. 391

Notornis of New Zealand, i. 455

Notornis, ii. 352

Nototheriwm, Australian Post-Tertiary, i, 157
ii. 251

Nototrema, ii. 418

Notwrus, ii. 442

Nucifraga, ii 273

NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA, 1) 531

Nucras, ii. 391

Numenius, ii, 353

NUMIDINZA, ii. 340

Numida, ii. 340

Nuria, ii. 452

Nuthatches, ii. 265

Nutria, ii. 199

Nyctala, ii. 350

Nyctalatinus, ii. 350

Nyctalemon, ii. 482

Nyctalops, ii. 350

Nyctea, ii. 350

Nyctereutes, ii. 197

Nycteris, ii. 182

Nyctibius, ii. 319

Nycticorax, ii. 359

Nyctidromius, ii. 320

Nyctiornis, ii. 312

Nyctipithecus, ii. 175

Nyctiprogne, ii. 320 ‘

Nymphalis, ii. 474

NYMPHALIDA, ii. 473

Nymphicus, ii. 325

Nymphidiwm, ii. 476

O.

Ochetobius, ii, 452

Deere in Brazilian caves, i. 145
ii. 245

Ochtheeca, ii. 100

Ochthodicta, ii. 100

Octodontide, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147

OCTODONTIDA, ii. 237

Octodon, ii. 238

OCTOPODID, ii. 505

Ocyalus, ii. 282

Ocydromus, ii. 352

Ocyphaps, ii. 333

GENERAL INDEX.

591 °

Odontochila, ii. 486
Odontolabris, ii. 493
Odontophorus, ii. 339
Odontophrynus, ii. 420
(Edemia, ii. 364
(Edicnemis, ii. 355
Oédura, ii. 399
Ena, ii. 332
Ogmodon, ii. 383
Ogyris, ii. 477
Oligdon, ii. 375
OLIGODONTIDA,, ii. 374
Oligosarcus, ii. 445
Olisthoyus, ii. 489
Olylogon, ii. 418
Olyra, ii. 442
Omaseus, ii. 489
Ommatophoca, ti. 204
Omolepida, ii. 397
Omostenus, ii. 492
Omphalotropis, ti. 521
Omus, ii. 487
ONCIDIADA, ii. 517
Oncidium, ii. 518
Onychodactylus, ii. 413
Onychogale, ii. 195.
Onychogalea, ii. 251
Onychognathus, ii, 288
Onchorhynchus, ii. 447
Oncostoma, ii. 101
Ophidia, classification of, i. 99
OPHIDIA, ii. 372 j
remarks on the general distribution of, 1i.
386
fossil, ii. 387
OPHIDIIDA, ii. 440
Ophidiwm, ii 440
OPHIOCEPHALIDA, ii 435
Ophiodes, ii. 397
OPHIOMORID&, ii. 398
Ophiomorus, ii. 398
Ophiophagus, ii. 383
Ophiops, ii. 391
Ophioscincus, ii. 397
Ophisaurus, li. 392
Ophites, ii. 380
Ophonus, ii. 489
Ophryodera, ii. 487
Ophysia, ti. 209
OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA, ii. 529
OPISTHOCOML, ii. 345
Opisthocomus, Brazilian caves, i. 164
ii. 345
Opisthodelphys, ii. 418
Opisthostoma, li. 520
Opisthoporus, ii. 520
Oporornis, ii. 279
Opossum, extinct in European Miocene, 1. 121
Opossums, ii. 248
Opsariichthys, ti. 452
Opsiphanes, ii. 472
Orang-utan’, ii. 171
Orca, ii. 209
Orcaella, ii. 209
Orchesticus, ii. 99
Orchilus, ii. 101
Oreas, ii. 223
Oreicola, ii. 260
Oreinus, ii. 452
Oreocephalus, ii. 401
Oreocincla, ii. 256
Oreodeira, ii. 401
Oreodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
Oreodontide, N. American Tertiary. i. 138
Oreeca, ii. 271
Oreomanes, li. 278

Oreonectes, ii. 453

Oreonympha, ii. 108

Oreoperdiz, li. 338

OREOPHASIN &, ii. 343

Oreophasis, li. 343

Oreophilus, ii. 356

Oreopyra, li. 107

Oreortyx, ii. 339

Oreoscoptes, ii. 256

Oreothraupis, ii. 99

Oreotrochilus, ii. 107

Orestias, ii. 450

Oriental region, defined, i. 75
subdivisions of, i. 75
description of, i. 314
zoological features of, i. 315
mammialia of, i, 315
birds of, i. 316
reptiles of, i. 317
amphibia of, i. 317
fresh-water fishes of, i, 318
summary of vertebiata of, i. 318
insects of, i. 318
sub-regions of, i. 321
concluding remarks on, i. 362
tables of distribution of animals of, i. 364

Oriental relations of W. African sub-region, i.

265

Oriental and Palearctic faunas once identical,
i. 362

Oriental and Ethiopian faunas, cause of their
resemblances, i. 363

Origma, ii. 260

Oriocalotes, ii. 402

Orioles, ii. 268

ORIOLIDA, ii. 268

Oriolus, ii. 268

Orites, li. 266

Ornithion, ti. 101

ORNITHORHYNCHIDA,, ii. 253

Ornithorhynchus, ii. 253

Orocetes, li. 256

Orohippus, N. American Tertiary, i 136

Ortalida, li. 343

Orthagoriscus, ii. 457

Orthalicus, ii. 516

ORTHIDA,, ii. 532

ORTHOCERATID ii. 506

Orthodon, li 452

Orthogonius, ii. 491

Orthogonys, ii. 98

Orthonyx, ii. 260

Orthorhynchus, ii. 108

Orthotomus, ii. 257

Ortygometra, ii. 352

Ortygornis, li. 338

Ortyx, li. 339

Ortyzxelos, ii. 341

ORYCTEROPODIDA,, ii. 246

Orycteropus, ii. 246

Orycterus, ii. 231

ORYGINA, ii. 223

Oryx, ii. 223

Oryzoborus, ii, 285

Oryzorictes, ii. 188

Osmerus, ii. 447

Osphranter, ii. 251

Osteobrama, ii. 453

Osteochilus, ii. 451

Osteogeniosus, ii. 443

OSTEOGLOSSIDA, ii. 454

Osteoglossum, ii. 454

Ostinops, ii. 282

OSTREIDA,, ii. 533

Ostrich, Miocene of N. India, i. 162

Ostriches, ii. 368

“592 GENERAL INDEX.

Otaria, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 202

OTARIIDZ, ii. 202

OTIDID, ii. 356

Otidiphaps, ii. 333

Otilophus, li. 415, 428

Otis, ii. 356

Otocorys, ii. 289

Otocryptis, ii. 402

Otogyps, il. 346

Otomys, ii. 230

Otopoma, ii. 521

Ovibos, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
ii. 224, 225

Owl-parrot, ii. 329

Owls, ii. 350

Oxen, birth-place and migrations of, i. 155
Palearctic, i. 182
qi 221

OXUDERCIDA, ii. 431

Oxyena, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Oxydoras, ii. 443

Oxyglossus, ii. 421

Oxygomphus, European Miocene, i. 118

li. 186

Oxylabes, ii. 262

Oxymycterus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
8. American Pliocene, i. 147
ii. 230, 231

Oxynotus, ii. 269

Oxypogon, ii. 108

OXYRHAMPHIDA,, ii. 292

Oxyrhamphus, ti. 292

Oxyrhopus, ii. 379

Oxyurus, ii. 103

Oysters, ii. 533

Le

Pachybatrachus, ii. 416

Pachycephala, ii. 271

PACHYCEPHALIDA, ii. 271

Pachydactylus, ii. 400

Pachyena, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Pachyglossa, ii. 277

Pachynolophus, European Eocene, i. 126

Pachyrhamphus, ii. 102

Pachyrhynchus, ii. 391

Pachyteles, ii. 490, 492

Pachytheriwm, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
ii 246

Pachywra, ii. 191

Peocephalus, ii. 328

Pecilus, ii. 489

Pagellus, ii. 427

Pagomys, ii 204

Pagophila, ii. 364

Pagophilus, ii. 204

Paguma, ii. 195

PAICTIDZA, ii. 298

Palearctic region, ancient limits of, ii. 157
defined, i. 171
subdivisions of, i. 71
general features of, i..180
zoological charcteristies of, i. 181
has few peculiar families, i. 181
mamunalia of, i. 181
birds of, i. 182
high degree of speciality of, i. 184
reptiles and amphibia of, i. 186
fresh-water fish of, i. 186
summary of vertebrata of, i. 186
insects of, i. 186
coleoptera of, i. 187
number of coleoptera of, i. 189

Palearctic region, land-shells of, i. 190
sub-regions of, i. 190
general conclusions on the fauna of, i, 231
tables of distribution of animals of, i. 233
Paleacodon, N. American Tertiary, 1 133
Paleetus, European Miocene, i. 162
Palegithalus, European Eocene, i. 162
Palelodus, European Miocene, i. 162
Paleocastor, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
ii. 234
Paleocercus, European Miocene, i. 162
Paleochwrus, European Miocene, i. 119
ii. 215
Paleocyon, ii. 198
Paleohierax, European Miocene, i. 162
Paleolagus, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
Paleolama, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147
ii. 217
Paleomephitis, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 200
Paleomeryx, European Miocene, i. 120
li. 220
Paleomys, European Miocene, i. 121
ii. 239 :
Paleontina oolitica, Oolitic insect, i. 167
Palzontology, i. 107 ;
how best studied in its bearing on geo-
graphical distribution, i. 168
as an introduction to the study of geo-
graphical distribution, concluding re-
marks on, i. 169
Paleonyctis, European Eocene, i. 125
Paleoperdiz, European Miocene, i. 161
Paleophrynus, European Miocene, i. 166
Paleoreas, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
Paleornis, ti. 326.
PALZORNITHIDA,, ii. 326
Paleonyctis, ii. 196, 206
Paleortyx, European Miocene, i. 161
Paleoryx, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
Paleospalax, i. 111
European Miocene, i. 117
li. 190
Paleosyops, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
Paleotheride, European Eocene, i. 125
Paleotherium, Enropean Eocene, i. 125
8. American Eocene, i. 148
Paleotragus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
Paleotringa, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
Pulamedea, ii. 361
PALAMEDEIDA4,, ii. 361
Palapterygide of New Zealand, i. 164
PALAPTERYGIDA,, ii. 370
Palapterys, ii. 370
Palestine, birds of, i. 203
Pallasia, ii. 289
Paloplotherium, European Miocene, i. 119
European Eocene, i. 125
Paludicola, ii. 416
Paludina, Eocene, i. 169
European Secondary, i. 169 *
ii, 510

. PALUDINIDA, ii. 510

Pampas, Pliocene deposits of, i. 146

Pamphila, ii. 480

Panda, of Nepaul and E. Thibet, i. 222
Himalayan, figure of, i. 331
ii. 201 ‘

Pandion, ii. 349

PANDIONIDZ, ii. 349

Pangasius, ii. 442

Pangolin, ii. 245

Panolaz, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

Panopea, ii. 536

Panoplites, ii. 107

Panterpe, ii. 109

GENERAL INDEX.

Panthalops, ii. 223

PANURIDA,, ii. 262

Panurus, li. 262

Panychlora, ii. 109

Panyptila, ii. 320

Paper-Nautilus, ii. 505

Paphia, ii. 474

Papilio, ii. 479

PAPILIONIDA, ii. 479

Papuan Islands, zoology of, i. 409

Paracanthobrama, ii. 452

Paradigalla, ii. 275

Paradiplomystaz, ii. 443

Paradisea, ii. 274

Paradise-bird, twelve-wired, figure of, i.
414

Paradise-birds, ii. 274

_ PARADISEIDA, ii. 274

PARADISEINA,, ii. 274

Paradoxornis, ii. 262

Paradoxrurus, ii. 195 ;

Parahippus, N. American Tertiary, 1. 136

Paralabraz, ii. 425

Paramys, N. American Eocene, i. 140
ii. 236 ;

Parandra, ii. 501

Paraphoxinus, ii. 452

Pardalotus, ii. 277

Pareas, ii. 380

Parodon, ii. 445

Pareudiastes, ii. 352

PARIDA,, ii. 265

Pariodon, ii, 444

Parisoma, ii. 266

Parmacella, ii. 517

Parmarion, ii. 517

Parmophorus, ii. 511

Parnassius, ti. 479

Paroaria, ii. 284

Parotia, ii. 274

Parra, ii. 355

PARRIDA, ii. 354

Parroquet, Papuan, figure of, i. 415

Parrots, classification of, i. 96
ii. 324, 329

Partridges, ii. 338

Partula, ii. 515

Parula, ti. 279

Parus, ii. 265

Pasimachus, ii. 490

Passerculus, ii. 284

Passerella, ii. 284

Passeres, arrangement of, i. 94
range of Palearctic genera of, i. 243
range of Ethiopian genera of, 3. 306
range of Oriental genera of, 1. 375
range of Australian genera of, i. 478

PASSERES, ii. 255
general remarks on the distribution of, ii.

299

Passerita, ii. 379

Pastor, ii. 287

Patagona, ii. 108

Patella, ii. 539

PATELLIDA,, ii. 511

Patriofelis, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Patrobus, ii. 489

Paumi, ii. 343

Pavo, ii. 340

PAVONINA, ii. 340

Pasillus, ii. 520

Pearl-oysters, ii. 533 :

Pease, Mr. Harper, on Polynesian region of

Land-shells, ii. 528
Peccaries, ii. 215
Pectinator, ii. 238

593

Peculiar groups, geographically, how defined,
ii. 184

Pedetes, ii. 232

PEDICULATI, ii. 431

Pediocetes, ti. 339

Pedionomus, ii. 356

PEGASIDA&, ii. 456

Pelagius, ii. 204

Pelagornis, European Miocene, i. 162

Pelamis, ii. 384

Pelargopsis, ii. 316

Pelea, ii. 224

PELECANID42,, ii. 365

Pelecanoides, ii. 365

Pelecanus, ii. 365 °

Pelecium, ii. 490

Pelecus, ii. 453

Pelicans, ii. 365

Peliperdiz, ii. 338

Pellorneum, ii. 261

Pelobates, ii. 417

PELODRYADZ, ii, 418

Pelodryas, ii. 418

Pelodytes, ii. 421

Pelomedusa, ii. 409

Pelomys, ii. 230

Pelopax, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

Peloperdiz, ii. 338

Pelotrophus, ii. 453

Peltaphryne, ii. 415

Peltocephalus, ii. 408

Peltopelor, ii. 385

Peltops, ii. 270

Penelope, ii. 343

Penelopides, ii. 317

Penelopina, ii. 343

PENELOPINA, ii. 348

Penetes, ii. 472

Penguins, ii. 366

Pentadactylus, ii. 399

Pentila, ii. 477

Peragalea, ii. 250

Perameles, ii. 250

PERAMELIDA,, ii. 250

Peratherium, European Miocene, i. 121
European Eocene, i. 126
li. 249

Perea, ii. 425

Percarina, i. 425

Percherus, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
ii. 215

Percilia, ii. 425

Percichthys, ii. 425

PERCIDA, ii. 425

Percnostola, ii. 104

PERCOPSID4&, ii. 448

Percus, ii. 489

Perdiz, 338

Pericallus, ii. 490

Pericrocotus, ii. 268

Peridexia, ii. 487

Perim Island, extinct mammailia of, i. 122
probable southern limit of old Palzarctic

land, i. 362

character of fossils of, ii. 157

Periopthalmus, ti. 480

Perisoreus, ii. 273

Perissodactyla, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Perissoglossa, ii. 279

Peristera, ii. 333

Peristethus, ii. 428

Periwinkle, ii. 510

Pernis, ii. 349

Perodicticus, ii. 176

Perognathus, ii. 233

Peropus, ii. 399

594 GENERAL INDEX.

Persia, birds of, i. 204 Phoca, ii. 204

Petasophora, ii. 108 | Phoceena, ii. 209

Petawrista, ii. 252 | Phocide, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

Petenia, ii. 438 PHOCIDZ&, ii. 203

Petrochelidon, ii. 281 Phodilus, ii. 350

Petrodromus, ii. 186 Pheenicocercus, ii. 102, 293

Petrels, ii. 365 | Phenicophaés, ii. 309

Petreeca, ii. 260 : PHGNICOPTERIDA, ii. 361

Petrogale, ii. 251 Phenicopterus, ii. 361

Petromys, ii. 239 PHOLADIDA,, ii. 537

Petrophassa, ii. 333 Pholadomya, ii. 536

Petrorhynchus, ii. 208 Pholeoptyna, ii. 350

Petroscirtes, ii. 431 Pholidotus, ii. 245

Peucea, ii. 284 Pholidotus, ii. 493

Pezophaps, ii. 334 Phonipara, ti. 284

Pezoporus, ii. 325 Phorus, ii. 510

Pfeifferia, ii. 516 Phos, ii. 507

Phacellodomus, ii. 103 Phractocephalus, ii. 442

Phacocheerus, ii. 215 Phrygilus, ii. 284

Pheenicophaés, ii. 309 PHRYNISCIDA, ii. 414

Phenicophilus, ii. 99 Phryniscus, ii. 414

Phenicothraupis, ii. 98 Phrynobatrachus, ii. 421

Phenopepla, ii. 280 Phrynocephalus, ii. 402

Pheeochroa, ii. 107 Phrynoglossus, li. 421

Pheolema, ii. 107 | Phrynorhombus, ii 441

Pheoplila, ii. 109 Phrynosoma, ti. 401

Phaéthornis, ii. 107 , Phycis, ii. 439

Phaeton, ii. 365 | Phyllastrephus, ii. 267

Phalacrocorax, ii. 365 PHYLLIDIADA, ii. 530

Phalangers, ii. 251 Phyllobates, ii. 419

Phalangista, it. 252 Phyllodactylus, ii. 399

Phalangistide, ii. 251 Phyllomedusa, ii. 418

Phalaropus, ii. 353 Phyllomyias, ii. 101

Phapitreron, ii. 333 Phyllomys, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

Phaps, ii. 333 ii. 239

Pharomacrus, ii. 814 Phyllornis, ii. 267

Phascogale, ii. 249 PHYLLORNITHID4A, ii. 267

Phascolarctos, ii. 252 Phylloscartes, ii. 101

PHASCOLOMYIDA, ii. 252 PHYLLOSCOPINA, ii. 257

Phascolomys, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 Phylloscopus. ii. 258

PHASIANIDA, ii. 339 Phyllostomide, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

PHASIANINA, ii. 340 PHYLLOSTOMID&, ii. 181

Phasianus, Miocene of Greece, 1. 116 Phyllurus, ii. 400
European Post-Pliocene, i. 161 PHYLLYRHOID&, ii. 530
li. 340 Phymaturus, ii. 401

Phasidus, ii. 340 Physa, ii. 518

Phatagin ii. 245 Physalus, ii. 207

Pheasants, in European Miocene, i. 161 Physeter, European Pliocene, i. 112
golden, of N. China, i. 226 ii. 208
eared, of Mongolia, i. 226 . Physical changes affecting distribution, i. 7
ii. 339 Physignathus, ii. 402

Phedina, ii. 281 PHYSOSTOML, ii. 441

Phelswma, ii. 400 Phytala, ii. 477

Phenacodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Phytotoma, ii. 294

Pheropsophus, ii. 489 PHYTOTOMIDAE, ii. 294

Pheucticus, ii. 285 Phyton, ii. 502

Phibalura, ii. 102 Piabuca, ii. 445

Philagetes, ii. 502 Piabucina, ii, 445

Philemon, ii. 276 Piaya, ii. 309

Philentoma, ii. 271 Pica, ii. 273

Philepitta, ii. 298 Picarie, arrangement of, i. 95

Phileterus, ii. 286 range of Palearctic genera of, i. 247

Philodryas, ii. 376 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 309

Philippine Islands, mammals of, i. 345 range of Oriental genera of, i. 381
birds of, i. 346 range of Australian genera of, i. 482
origin of peculiar fauna of, i. 448 PICARLA, ii. 302

Philohela, ii. 353 general remarks on the distribution of,

Philomycus, ii. 517 li. 322

Philydor, ii. 103 Picathartes, ii. 274

PHILYDORINA, ii. 295 Picicorvus, ii. 273

Phleomys, ii. 230 PICIDA, ii. 302

Phleocryptes, ii. 103 Picoides, ii. 303

Phlogenas, ii. 333 Picolaptes, ii. 103

Phlogophilus, ii. 108 Picumnus, ii. 303

Phlogopsis, ii. 104 Picus, European Miocene, i. 161

Phlogothraupis, ii. 98, 283 li. 303

GENERAL INDEX.

PIERIDA, ii. 478
Pieris, ii. 478
Piezia, ii. 491
Pigeons, classification of, i. 96
remarkable development of, in the Aus-
tralian region, i. 395
crested, of Australia, figure of, i. 441
li, 331
abundant in islands, ii. 335
Pigs, power of swimming, i. 13
Pikas, ii. 242
Pike, ii. 449
Pikermi, Miocene fauna of, i 115
Pilchard, ii. 454
Pileoma, ii. 425
Pimelodus, ii. 443
Pimephatles, ii. 452
Pinacodera, ii. 490
Pinicola, ii. 285
Pinulia, ii. 191
Pionus, ii. 328
Pipa, ii. 422
PIPID, ii. 421
Pipile, i. 343
Pipilo, ii. 284
Piping crows, ii. 272
Pipra, ii. 102, 292
Pipreola, ii, 102
PIPRIDA,, ii. 102
Pipridea, ii. 98
Piprisoma, ii. 277
Piprites, ii. 102, 292
Piramutana, ii. 442
Piratinga, ii. 443
Pirinampus, ii. 443
Pitangus, ii. 101
Pithecia, ii. 175
Pithecopsis, ti. 420
Pithys, ii. 104
ae li. 298
ittas, ii. 297
Pittasoma, ii. 104
ittide, abundant in Borneo, i. 355
ITTIDA, ii. 297
Pituophis, ii. 375
Pit-vipers, ii. 384
Pitylus, ii. 99
Pityriasis, ii. 273
Plagiodontia, ii. 238
Plagiolophus, European Eocene, i, 126
Plagiotelium, ii. 492
PLAGIOSTOMATA, ii. 460
Planetes, ii. 490
Planorbis, European Secondary, i. 169
Eocene, i. 169
li. 518
’ Plantain-eaters, ii. 307
Plant-cutters, ii. 294
Plants, distribution of, probably the same
fundamentally as that of animals, il.
162
Platacanthomys, ii. 230
Platalea, ii. 360
PLATALEIDA, ii. 360
Platanista, ii. 209
Platemys, ii. 408
Platurus, ii. 384
Platycercidw, gorgeously-coloured Australian
parrots, i. 394
PLATYCERCIDA,, ii. 325
Platycercus, ii. 325
Platychile, ii. 487
Platygonus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
li. 215
Platylophus, 11. 273
Platymantis, ii, 419

595

Platynematichthys, ii. 442
Platynus, ii. 489
Platypecilus, ii. 450
PLATYRHYNCHINA, 1i. 291
Platyrhynchus, ii. 101
Platysawrus, ii. 392
Platysoma, ii. 489
Platystira,i i. 271
Platystoma, ii. 442
Platystomatichthys, ii. 442
Plecoglossus, ii. 447
Plecostomus, ii. 444
Plecotus, ii. 183
PLECTOGNATHI, ii. 457
PLECTROMANTIDA, ii. 417
Plectromantis, ii. 417
Plectrophanes, ii. 286
Plectropterus, ii. 363
Plectrotrema, ii. 519
Plecturus, ii, 374
Plesiarctomys, European Eocene, i. 126
li. 236
Plesiomeryx, European Eocene, i. 126
Plesiosorex, European Miocene, i. 118
Plestiodon, ii. 397
Plethodon, ii. 413
PLEUROBRANCHIDA,, ii. 530
Pleurodeles, ii. 413
Pleurodema, ii. 420
Pleuronectes, ti. 441
PLEURONECTIDA,, ii. 440
Pleurostrichus, ii. 392
Pleurotoma, ii. 508
Pleurotomaria, ii. 539
Pliocene period, Old World, mammalia of,
1, 112
Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas of Europe,
general conclusions from, i. 113
of N. America, i. 132
of 8. America, i. 146
of Australia, i. 157
Pliohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
Pliolophus, European Eocene, i. 126
ii. 216
Pliopithecus, European Miocene, i. 1:7

li.

PLOCEIDA, ii. 286

Plocepasser, ii. 286

Ploceus, ii. 286

Plotosus, ii. 441

Plotus, ii. 365

Plovers, ii. 355

Pluvianellus, ti. 356

Pluvianus, ti. 355

PLYCTOLOPHIDA,, ii. 324

Pnoepyga, ii. 263

Podabrus, ii. 249 P

Podager, li. 320

PODARGIDA, 1i. 318

Podargus, li. 318

Podica, ii. 352

Podiceps, ii. 367

PODICIPIDA,, ii. 366

Podilymbus, ii. 367

Podocnemis, ii. 408

Pabrotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
li. 217

Pecilia, ii. 450

Pecilophis, ii. 383

Pecilothraupis, ii. 98

Poephagus, ii. 222

Poephila, ii. 287

Pogonocichla, ii. 271

POGONORHYNCHINA, ii. 306

Pogonorhynchus, ii. 306

Pogonornis, ii 275

596

GENERAL INDEX.

Tro sd EEnEEISSSE SESE EERE

Pogonostoma, ii. 487
Pogonotriccus, ii. 101
Pohlia, ii. 418
Poiana, ii. 195
Polemistria, ii. 107
Polieaétus, ii. 349
Poliococcyx, ii. 309
Poliohieraz, ii. 349
Poliopsitta, ii. 328
Polioptila, ii. 258
Pollanisus, ii. 481
POLYBORINA,, ii. 347
Polyboroides, i. 347
Polyborus, ii, 347
Polybothris, ii. 497
POLYCENTRIDS, li. 434
Polycesta, ii. 479
POLYDONTID4&, ii. 459
Polyhirma, ii. 491
POLYNEMIDA, li. 429
Polyommatus, ti. 477
Polynesian sub-region, description of, i. 442
birds of, i. 443
reptiles ‘of, i. 447
Polypedates, ii. 419
POLY PEDATIDA, ii. 419
Polypi, ii. 505
Polyplectron, ii. 340
Polyprion, ii. 425
POLYPTERIDA,, ii. 458
Powpterus, ii. 458
Polytelis, ii. 325
Pomacanthus, ii. 427
POMACENTRIDA, ii. 437
Pomacentrus, ii. 437
Pomatias, ii. 521
Pomatorhinus, ii. 261
Pomotis, ii. 425
Pompholyz, ii. 518
Pontia, ii. 478
Pontoporia, ii. 209
Poecetes, ii. 284
Poodytes, ii. 258
Poospiza, ii. 284
Porcupines, ii. 240
Poritia, ii. 477
Porphyrio, ii. 352
Porpoises, ii. 208
Portaz, ti. 223
Porzana, ii. 352
Post-Pliocene, mammalia of Europe, i. 110
remains imply changes of physical geo-
graphy in Europe, i. 111
fauna of N. America, i. 129
fauna of N. America, remarks on, i. 130
Potamides, ii. 509
Potamocherus, ii. 215
Potamodus, ii. 258
Potamogale of W. Africa, figure of, 1. 264
Potamogale, ii. 189
POTAMOGALIDZ, ii. 189
Potamotherium, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 200
Pats of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264
176
Poushed Rats, ii. 233
Praotherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, i.
130
Pratincola, ii. 260
Pratincoles, ii. 355
Presbytes, ii. 171
Prepona, ii. 474
Primates, classification of, i. 86
probable birthplace of, i, 153
range of Palwarctic genera of, i. 239
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300

Primates, range of Oriental genera of, i. 371
range of Australian genera of, i. 475
Primates, European Pliocene, i. 112
Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 117
Indian Miocene, i. 121
European Eocene, i. 124
N. American Tertiary, i. 132
of Brazilian caves, i. 144
PRIMATES, distribution of, ii. 170—180
general remarks on the distribution of, ii.
179
summary and conclusion, ii. 540
Prince’s Island, birds of, i. 266
Prinia, ii. 257
Prion, ii. 365
Prioneris, ii. 478
PRIONIDA, ii. 498
Prionidiwm, Oolitic insects, i. 167
Prionirhynchus, ii. 313
Prioniturus, ii. 326
Prionochilus, ii. 277
Prionodontes, ii. 246
Prionops, ii. 272
Prionoteles, ii. 314
PRISTID4A,, ii. 462
Pristimantis, ii. 419
PRISTIOPHORIDA, ii. 462
Pristiphoca, in European Pliocene, i. 112
li. 204
PRISTIPOMATID, ii, 426
Pristiurus, ii. 461
Pristonychus, ii. 489
Proboscidea, classification of, i. 90
range of Ethiopian genus, i. 303
range of Oriental genus, 1. 374
Proboscidea, European Pliocene, i. a
Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 120
Indian Miocene, i. 122
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
N. American Tertiary. i. 138
of Brazilian caves, i. 144
S. American Pliocene, i. 147
PROBOSCIDEA, ii. 227
summary and conclusion, ii. 542
Procamelus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 136
N. American Tertiary, i. 138
ii, 217
Procapra, ii. 223
Procarduelis, ii. 283
Procellaria, ii. 365
PROCELLARIIDA, ii. 365
Procerus, ii. 488
ii. 489
Prochilodus, ii. 445
Prochilus, ii. 202
Procnias, ii. 98
Procris, ii. 481
Procrustes, ii. 488
ii. 489
Proctotretus, ii. 401
Procyon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
ii. 200
Procyonide, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
PROCYONIDA, ii. 200
PRODUCTIDA,, ii. 532
Progne, ii. 281
Promecoderus, ii. 490
Promephitis, Miocene of Greece, i, 115
European Miocene, i. 115
ii. 200
Promerops of East Africa, figure of, i. 261
Promerops, ii. 276
Pronophilia, ii. 471
Propaleotherium, European Eocene, i. 126

GENERAL INDEX.

Proparus, ii. 266

Propyrrhula, ii. 285

Prorastomus, ii. 211

Proserpina, ii. 527

PROSOBRANCHIATA, ii. 507

Prosthemadera, ii. 275

PROTEIDA, ii. 412

Proteles, ii. 196

PROTELIDA, ii. 196

Protemnodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
ii. 251 ¥

Proteus, ii. 412

Prothoe, ii. 474

Protohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

Protomeryxz, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
ii 217,

Protonopsis, ii. 412

Protonotaria, ii. 279

Protopithecus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
ii. 178

Protopterus, ii. 458

Protornis, European Eocene, i. 162

Prototomus, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Prototroctes, ii. 446

Psalidoprogne, ii. 281

Psaltria, ii. 266

Psaltriparus, ii. 266

Psammodromus, ii. 391

Psammodynastes, ii. 377

Psammomys, ii. 230

PSAMMOPHID&, ii. 377

Psammophis, ii. 377

Psammosaurus, ii. 389

Psarisomus, ii. 295

Psephotus, ii. 325

Pseudacris, ii. 418

Pseudelwrus, Huropean Miocene, i. 118
ii. 194

Pseudalopex, ii. 197 *

Pseudecheneis, ii. 444

Pseudechis, ii. 383

Pseudeutropius, ii. 442

Pseudis, ii. 420

Pseudobagrus, ii. 442

Pseudobias, ii. 270

Pseudobufo, ti. 415

Pseudochaleeus, ii. 445

Pseudochelidon, ii. 312

Pseudocolaptes, ii. 103

Pseudocordylus, ii. 392

Pseudocyon, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 198

Pseudodipsas, ii. 477

Pseudogobio, ii. 452

Pseudogryphis, ii. 346

Pseudogyps, iis 346

Pseudohage, ii. 383 f

Pseudolabuca, ii. 453 r

Pseudoleistes, ii. 282

Pseudomorpha, ii. 490

Pseudomys, ii. 230

Pseudonaje, ii. 383

Pseudoperilampus, ii. 452

PSEUDOPHIDIA, ii. 411

Pseudophryne, ii. 414

Pseudopontia, ii. 478

Pseudopus, ii. 392

Pseudorasbora, ii. 452

Pseudorca, ii. 209

Pseudoscops, ii. 350

Pseudoxiphophorus, ii. 450

Psilopogon, ii. 306

Psiloptera, ii. 497

Psilorhamphus, ii. 104

Psilorhinus, ii. 273

Psilorhynchus, ii. 453

597

Psittaci, classification of, i. 96
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
range of Oriental genera of, i. 383
range of Australian genera of, i. 484

PSITTACI, ii. 324
geveral remarks on the distribution of, 1i.

9

PSITTACIDA, ii. 328

Psittacula, ii. 328

Psittacus, European Miocene, i. 161
ii. 328

Psittinus, ii. 326

Psittirostra, ii. 277

Psittospiza, ii. 99

Psophia, ii. 358

PSOPHIIDA, ii. 358

Psophodes, ii. 262

PSYCHROLUTIDA,, ii. 436

Pterocles, European Miocene, i. 161
ii. 337

PTEROCLIDA, ii. 337

Pterocyclos, ii. 520

Pterodon, European Miocene, i. 125

Pteroglossus, ii. 307

Pteromys, ii. 235

Pteromyzon, ii. 463

PTEROMYZONTIDA, 11. 463

Pteronura, ii. 199

Pterophanes, ii. 108

Pterophyllum, ii. 439

PTEROPIDA, ii. 181

PTEROPODA, ii. 531

Pteropodocys, ii. 269

PTEROPTOCHIDA, 1i. 297

Pteroptochus, ii. 297

Pterorhinus, ii. 261

Pterosarion, ii. 452

Pterostichus, ii. 489

Pteruthius, ii. 266

Pterygophlichthys, li. 444

Ptilocerus, ii. 186

Ptilochloris, ii. 102, 293

Ptilogonys, ii. 280

Ptilonorhynchus, ii. 275

Ptilopachus, ii. 338

Ptilopus, ii 382

Ptilorhis, ii. 275

Ptilostomus, ii. 273

Ptilotis, ii. 275

Ptosima, ii. 497

Ptyas, ii. 375

Ptychobarbus, ii. 452

Ptyonotus, ti. 428

Pucrasia, ii. 340

Puff-birds, ii. 310

Puftins, ii. 367

Puffinus, ii. 365

PULMONIFERA, ii. 512

Pulsatria, ii. 350

Puncturella, i. 511

Pupa, Eocene, i. 169

Pupa vetusta, Paleozoic, i. 169

Pupa, ii. 514

Pupina, ii. 520

Pupinella, ii. 520

Putorius, ii. 198

PYCNONOTIDA,, ii. 267

Pycnonotus, ii. 267

Pycnophrys, ii. 270

Pyctorhis, ii. 261

Pygarrhicus, ii. 103

Pygmornis, ii. 107

Pygomeles, ii. 397

PYGOPODIDA,, ii. 395

Pygoptila, ii. 104

Pygopus, ii. 395

598

PYRAMIDELLID&, ii. 509
Pyrameis, li. 474
Pyranga, ii. 98
Pyrenestes, ii. 286
Pyrgisoma, ii. 284
Pyrgita, ii. 284
Pyriglena, ii. 104
Pyrocephalus, ii. 101, 291
Pyroderus, ii. 103
Pyromelana, ii. 286
Pyrophthalma, ii. 259
Pyrrhocoma, ii. 99
Pyrrhospiza, ti. 285
Pyrrhula, ii. 285
Pyrrhulauda, ii. 289
Pyrrhulina, ii. 445
Pyrrhulopsis, ii. 325
Pyrrhulozia, ii. 285
Pyrrhura, ii. 328
Pytelia, ii. 287

Python, ii. 381
Pythonide, European Miocene, i. 165
PYTHONIDA,, ii. 381
Pythonodipsas, ii. 379
Pythonopsis, ti. 376
Pythons, ii. 381
Pyxicephalus, ii. 420
Pysis, ii. 408

Q.

Quadrumana, fossil, ii. 178
Quail-snipes, ii. 354
Querquedula, ii. 363
Querula, ii. 102

Quiscalus, ii. 282

R.

Rachis, ii. 524

Racoon-dog of N. China, i. 226

Racoons, ii. 200

Raia, ii. 462

RAIIDA, ii. 462

Rails, ii. 351

RALLIDA, ii. 351

Rallina, ii. 352

Rallus, ti. 352

Rana, European Miocene, i. 166
ii. 420

Ramiceps, ii. 439

RANID4,, ii. 420

Ranodon, ii. 413

Rappia, ii 419

Rashora, ii. 452

Rasborichthys, ii. 453

Rattle-snakes, ii. 384

Rays, ii. 462

Realia, ii. 521

Rectes, ii. 272

Recurvirostra, ii. 353

Regalecus, ii. 432

Region, the best term for the primary zoo-

logical divisions, i. 68

Arctic, why not adopted, i. 69
Palearctic, defined, i. 71
Palearctic, subdivisions of, i. 71
Ethiopian, defined, i. 73
Ethiopian, subdivisions of, i. 73
Oriental, defined, i. 75
Oriental, subdivisions of, i. 75
Australian, defined, i. 77
Australian, subdivisions of, i. 77

GENERAL INDEX.

Region, Neotropical, defined, i. 78
Neotropical, subdivisions of, i. 78
Nearctic, defined, i. 79
Nearctic, distinct from Palearctic, i. 79

Nearctic, subdivisions of, i. 80

| Regions, zoological, i. 50

zoological, how they should be formed, i.

53

zoological, may be defined by negative or
positive characters, i. 54
zoological, by what class of animals best
determined, i. 56
for each class of animals, not advisable,
i. 58
zoological, proposed since 1857, i. 58
| zoological, Mr. Selater’s, i. 59
zoological, discussion of those proposed
by various authors, i. 61
zoological, proportionate richness of, i. 61
temperate and tropical, well marked in
northern hemisphere, i. 65
and zones, table of, i. 66
comparative richness of, i. 81
and sub-regions, table of, i. 81
order of succession of the, i. 173
Registoma, ii. 521
Reguloides, ii. 258
Regulus, ii, 258
Reinwardtenas, ii. 333
Reinwardtipicus, ii. 303
Reithrodon, ii. 230
Representative species, i. 4
Reptiles, means of dispersal of, i. 28
classification of, i. 98
Miocene of Greece, i. 116

of Indian Miocene deposits, i. 123
extinct Tertiary, i. 165
cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
peculiar to Palearctic region, i. 186
of Central Europe, i. 195
of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 204
of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
table of Palearctic families of, i. 236
of the Ethiopian region, i, 254
of the E, African sub-region, i. 260
of W. Africa, i. 264
8. African, i. 268
of Madagascar, i. 279
table of Ethiopian families of, i. 297
of the Oriental region, i. 317
of the Indian sub-region, i. 326
of Ceylon, i. 327
of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331
of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340
table of Oriental families of, i 368
of the Australian region, i. 396
of New Guinea, i. 415
of the Moluccas, i. 420
of the Polynesian sub-region, i. 447
of New Zealand, i. 456 ’
table of Australian families of, i. 472
Neotropical, ii. 9
of 8. Temperate America, ii. 40
of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
of the Antilles, ii. 72
table of Neotropical families of, ii. 88
of the Nearctic region, ii. 119
of California, ii. 128
of Central N. America, ii. 131
of Eastern United States, ii. 133
of Canada, ii. 137
table of Nearctic families of, ii. 142
summary and conclusion, ii. 547
REPTILIA, ii. 372
| Retropinna, ii. 447

GENERAL INDEX.

Revillagigedo Islands, zoology of, ii. 60
Rhabdornis, ii. 265
Rhabdosoma, ii. 374
RACHIODONTIDA,, ii. 377
Rhacophorus, ii. 419
Rhamnophis, ii. 876
RHAMPHASTIDA, ii. 306
Rhamphastos, ii. 307
Rhamphichthys, ii. 455
Rhamphocenus, ti. 104
Rhamphococcy2, ii. 309
Rhamphocinclus, ti. 256
Rhamphocelus, ii. 98
Rhamphomicron, ii. 108
Rhaphaulus, ii. 520
Rhea, in Brazilian caves, i. 164
ii. 368
Rhinaster, ii, 213
Rhinatrema, ii. 411
Rhinechis, ii. 376
Rhinelepis, ii. 444
Rhinichthys, li. 452
RHINID4A, ii. 462
RHINOBATID&, ii. 462
Rhinoceros, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
European Pliocene, i, 113
Miocene of Greece, i. 116
Indian Miocene, 1. 122
fossil remains of, at 16,000 feet elevation
in Thibet, i. 122
fossil in N. China, i. 123
N. American Tertiary, i. 136
iL 213
Rhinoceros-hornbill, figure of, i. 339
Rhinocerotide, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
RHINOCEROTIDA,, ii. 213
RHINOCHETIDA,, ii. 359
Rhinochetus, ii. 359
Rhinococcyz, ii. 309
Rhinocrypta, ii. 297
Rhinoderma, ii. 416
RHINODONTID&, ii. 461
Rhinodoras, ii. 443
Rhinogale, ii. 195
Rhinoglanis, ii. 443
RHINOLOPHIDA,, ii. 182
Rhinolophus, ii. 183
Rhinophis, ii. 374
RHINOPHRYNIDA, ii. 414
Rhinophrynus, ii. 414
Rhinop!lax, ii. 317
Rhinopoma, ii. 183
Rhinortha, ii. 309
Rhipidura, ii. 271
Rhizomys, ii, 231
Rhodeus, ii. 452
Rhodinocincla, ii. 256
Rhodona, ii. 397
Rhodopis, ii. 108
Rhodosttehia, ii. 364
Rhombomys, ti. 230
Rhombus, ii. 441
Rhopodytes, ii. 309
Rhopoterpe, ii. 104
Rhynchea, ii. 353
RHYNCHOCEPHALIDA,, ii. 405
RHYNCHOCEPHALINA, 11. 405
Rhynchocyon, ii. 186
Rhynchocyclus, ii. 101
Rhynchonella, ii. 539
RHYNCHONELLIDA, ii. 532
Rhynchops, ii. 365
Rhynchopsitta, ii. 328
Rhynchotus, ii. 344
Rhytina, ii. 210, 211
Rhytiodus, ii, 445

VoL. II.—39

589

Ricinula, ii. 507
Rimator, ii. 263
Rimula, ii. 511
Rissa, ii. 364
Rissoa, ii. 510
Rita, ii. 442
River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, i. 264
of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278
Rivers, limiting the ringe of mammalia, 1. 12
limiting the range of birds, i. 17
River-scene in West Africa, i. 264
River-snails, ii. 510
Rivulus, ii. 450
Rock-snakes, ii. 381
Rocky mountain sub-region, i. 129
mammialia of, ii, 129
birds of, ii. 130 5
reptiles, amphibia, and fishes of, ii. 130
Rodentia, classification of, i. 90
range of Palearctic genera of, 1. 242
range of Ethiopian genera of, 1. 304
range of Oriental genera of, i. 374
range of Australian genera of, i. 476
Rodentia, European Pliocene, i. 113
Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 120
European Eocene, i. 126
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
N. American Tertiary, i. 139
of Brazilian caves, i. 144
8. American Pliocene, i. 147
of S. American Eocene, i. 148
RODENTIA, ii. 229
Rodentia, general remarks on the distribution
of, ii. 248
Rodentia, summary and conclusion, ii. 543
Rohteichthys, ii. 452
Rollers, ii. 311
Rollulus, ii. 339
Romaleosoma, ii. 474
Rose-chafers, ii. 494
Rostrhamus, ti 349
Rough-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 374
Ruff, figure of, i. 195
Rupicapra, ti. 224, 225
RUPICAPRINA, ii. 224
Rupicola, ii. 102, 293
RUPICOLINA, ii. 293
Ruticilla, ii. 259
RUTICILLINA, ii. 257

Saccobranchas, ii. 441
Saccodon, ii. 445
SACCOMYIDA&, ii. 233
Saccomys, li. 233
Saccostomus, li. 230

Sagda, ii. 516

Sahara, a debatable land, i. 251
Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, i. 218
Saiga, li. 223

Saimiris, li. 175

Sakis, ii. 175

Salamandra, ii. 413
SALAMANDRIDA, ii. 413
Salamandrina, ii. 413
Salaria, ii. 448

Salminus, ti. 445

Salmo, ii. 447
SALMONIDA,, ii. 447
Salpinctes, ii. 264
Salpornis, ii. 264

Saltator, ii. 99

600 GENERAL INDEX.

Salvin, Mr., on birds of Galapagos, ii. 30
Sambus, ii. 496
Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443
Sand-grouse, Pallas’, of Mongolia, i. 226
ii. 337
Sand-lizards, ii. 398
Sandpipers, ii. 353
Sandwich Islands, birds of, i. 445
probable past history of, i. 446
mountain plants of, i. 446
depth of ocean around, i. 447
Sanzinia, ii. 381
S uperda, ii. 501
Sapphironia, ii. 109
Sarcodaces, ii. 445
Sarcophilus, ii. 249
SARCORHAMPHINA,, ii. 346
Sarcorhamphus, ii. 346
Sargus, ti. 427
Sarkidiornis, ii. 363
Saroglossa, li. 288
Sarotherodon, ii. 438
Sasia, ii. 303
Satanoperca, ii. 439
SATYRIDA, ii. 471
Satyrites Reynesii, European Cretaceous in-
sect, i. 167
Satyrus, ii. 471
Saucerottia, ii. 109
Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestid of
Japan, i. 229
Saurocetes, ii. 210
Saurophis, ii. 392
Saurothera, ii. 309
Sazicola, ii. 260
Saxicoline, ii. 257
Sayornis, ii. 100, 291
Scallops, ii. 533
Scalops, ti. 190
Scapanus, ii. 190
Scaphiopus, ii. 417
Scaphirhynchus, ii. 459
Scaptochirus, ii. 190
Scaptonyz, ii. 190
Scaraphites, ii. 490
Scardafella, ii. 333
Scarites, ii. 489
Scelidotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
8. American Pliovene, i. 147
ii. 245
Scelodontis, ii. 490
Sceloporus, ii. 401
Scelotes, ii. 398
Schacra, ii. 452
Schasicheila, ii. 522
Schiffornis, ii. 102
Schilbe, ii. 442
Schilbichthys, ii. 442
Schismaderma, ii. 415
Schistes, ii. 108
Schistopleurum, 8. American Pliocene, i, 147
Schizodon, ii. 238
Schizogenius, ii. 490
Schizopygopsis, ii. 452
Schizorhina, ii. 494
Schizorhis, ii. 307
Schizothoraz, ii. 452
Schenionta, ii. 502
Schweinfarth, Dr., on natural history of Cen-
tral Africa, i. 252
on limits of W. African sub-region, i. 262
(note)
Sciades, ii. 443
Scieena, ii. 428
SCLENIDA., ii. 428
SCINCIDA, ii. 396

Seincus, ii. 397
Scinks, ii. 396
Scissirostrum, ii. 288
Scissor, ii. 445
Sciwravus, N. American Eocene, i. 140
Sciuravus, ii. 236
SCIURIDA, ii. 234
Sciwropterus, ii, 235
Sciurus, European Miocene, i. 120
European Bocene, i. 126
ii. 235, 236
Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 59
why his six regions are adopted, i. 63
on birds of Sandwich Islands, i. 445
on systematic position of Certhidea, ii.
, 31
Sclater and Salvin, Messrs., on Neotropical
sub-regions, ii. 25
SCLERODERML, ii. 457
Sclerognathus, ii. 451
SCLERURINA, ii. 295
Sclerurus, ii. 108
Scolecophagus, li. 282
SCOLOPACIDA, ii. 353 ,
Scolopaz, li. 353
Scomber, ii. 429
SCOMBRESOCIDA,, ii. 449
Scombresox, ii. 449
SCOMBRIDA@, ii. 429
SCOPELIDA, ii. 446
Scops, ii. 350
Scopus, ii. 360
Scortornis, ii. 320
Scotopelia, ii. 350
Scotophilus, ii. 183
Scrapteira, ii. 391
Screamers, ii. 361
Scrub-birds, ii. 299
SCYLLIDA:, ii. 461
Scylliwm, ii. 461
Scytale, ii. 379
SCYTALIDZ, ii. 379
Scytalopus, ii. 297
Scythrops, ii. 310
Sea, as a barrier to mammailia, i. 13
Sea-devils, ii. 463
Seals, fossil in European Miocene, i. 118
of Lake Baikal, i. 218
ii. 203
Sea-pens, ii. 505
Sea-snails, ii. 508
Sea-snakes, ii. 384
Sebastes, ii. 428
Secondary formations, mammalian remains in,
i. 169
Secretary bird, of Africa, figure of, i. 261
li. 346
Seemann, Dr., on protective resemblance of
sloths, ii. 24
Seisura, ii. 270
Selache, ii. 460
Selasphorus, ii. 108
Selenidera, ii. 307
Selenophorus, ii. 490
Seleucides, ii. 275
Semioptera, ii. 275
Semiplotus, ii. 452
SEMNOPITHECIDA, ii. 171
Semnopithecus, European Pliocene, i. 112
Miocene of Greece, i. 115 ’
European Miocene, i. 117
Indian Miocene, i. 121
SL
ii. 178
Semper, Dr., on Philippine mammalia, i. 345
Senira, ii, 397 ;

GENERAL INDEX.

SEPIADA,, ii. 505

SEPIDA, ii. 398

Seps, ii, 398

Sepsina, li. 398

Sericinus, ii. 479

Sericornis, ii. 258

Sericulus, ii. 275

Serilophus, ti. 295

SERPENTARIIDA,, ii. 346

Serpentarius, European Miocene, i. 162
ii. 346 ;

Serphophaga, ii. 101

Serranus, ti, 425

Serrasalmo, ii. 445

Sesia, ii. 482

Setophaga, ii. 279

Setornis, li, 267

Seychelle Islands, zoology of, i. 281
amphibia of, i. 281

Shad, ii. 454 i

Sharks, ii. 460

Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, i. 229

Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Acci-

pitres, i. 97

on birds of Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
on Classification of Cuckoos, ii. 309

Sheath-bills, ii. 354

Sheep, Palearctic, i. 182
ii. 221

Short-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 373

Shrikes, ii. 272

Sialia, ii. 260

Siamanga, ii. 171

Siaphos, ii. 397

Siberia, climate of, i. 217

Siberian sub-region, description of, i. 216
mamunalia of, i. 217
birds of, i. 219
reptiles and amphibia of, i. 220
insects of, i. 220

Sibia, ii. 262

Siderone, ii. 474

Sieboldia, ti. 412

Sigmodon, ii. 230

Silondia, ii. 442

Silphomorpha, ii. 490

Silubosaurus, ii. 397

Siluranodon, ii. 442

Silurichthys, ii. 441

SILURIDA, ii. 441

Silurus, ii. 441

Silybura, ii. 3874

Simenia, ii. 197

Simia, ii. 171

SIMIIDS, ii. 170

Simocephalus, ii. 380

Simocyon, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
ii. 198

Stimorhynchus, ii. 367

Simotes, il. 375

Simpulopsis, ti. 516

Sinopa, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Siphaa, ii. 270

Siphneus, ii. 230

Siphonopsis, ii. 411

Stphonorhis, ii. 320

Siphonostoma, ii. 457

Siren, ii. 411

Sirenia, classification of, i. 89
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303
range of Oriental genus, i. 374
range of Australian genus of, i. 476

Strenia, European Pliocene, i. 112
European Miocene, i. 119

SIRENIA, ii. 210

SIRENIDA, ii. 411

601

SIRENOIDETI, ii. 458
Sirystes, li. 101
Sisor, li. 444
Sitana, ii. 402
Sitta, ii. 265
Sittasomus, ti. 103
Sittella, ii. 265
SITTIDA, ii. 265
Siurus, ii. 279
Siva, ii. 266
Sivatheriwm, Indian Miocene, i, 122
li. 226
Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, i. 121
Skenea, ii. 510
Sloths, ii. 244
Slugs, ii. 517
Smaragdochrysis, ti. 109
Smerinthus, ii. 483
Smiliogaster, ii. 453
Sminthus, ii. 230
Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera of
Japan, i. 230
Smithoriis, ti. 270
Smutsia, li 245
Snails, ii. 512
Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, i. 220
Snakes, classification of, i. 99
Eocene, i. 165
large proportion of venomous species in
Australia, i. 396
of New Zealand, 1. 457
distribution and lines of migration of, ii.
547
Snipes, ii. 353
Society Islands, birds of, 1. 443
Socorro, zoology of, 11. 60
Soft-tortoises, ii. 409
Solarium, ii. 510
Solea, ii. 441
SOLENIDA,, ii. 536
Solenodon, ii. 188
SOLENOSTOMIDA4,, ii. 456
Solitaire, ii. 334
Somateria, ii. 364
Soricictis, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 196
Soricide, European Miocene, i. 118
SORICIDA, ii. 191
Soridia, ii, 397
Sorubim, li, 442
Sotalia, ii. 209
South African sub-region, description of, i.
266
*mammalia of, i. 267
birds of, i. 267
reptiles of, i. 268
amphibia of, 1. 268
fresh-water fish of, i. 268
butterflies of, 1. 268
coleoptera of, 1. 268 ©
summary of its zoology, 1. 269
South America, fossil fauna of, i. 143
Pliocene deposits of, i. 146
supposed land connection with Australia,
1. 398
South America and Africa, parallelism of their
past zoological history, ii 83
South Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441
SPALACID4, ii. 231
Spalacomys, ii. 230
Spalacopus, ii. 238
Spalax, ii. 231
Sparganura, ii. 108
SPARIDA, ii. 426
Spatula, ii. 364 aa
Species, representative, i. 4

602 GENERAL INDEX.

Spelerpes, ii. 413

Speothos, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

Spermestes, ii. 287

Spermophila, ii. 285

Spermophilus, European Miocene, i. 120
ii. 235, 236

Spermospiza, li. 286

Sperm Whales, ii. 207

Spherocephalus, ii. 209

Spherodactylus, ii, 400

Spheeroderus, ii. 490

Sphallomorpha, ii. 490

Sphecotheres, ii. 268

Spheneacus, ii. 258

SPHENISCID2,, ii. 366

Spheniseus, ii. 366

Sphenocephalus, ii. 398

Sphenodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
li. 245

Sphenognathus, ii. 493

Sphenoproctus, ii. 107

Sphenops, ii. 398

Sphenostoma, ii. 266

Sphenura, ii. 258

SPHINGIDA, ii. 482

Sphingidea, distribution of, ii. 483

SPHINGINA, ii. 481

Sphingnotus, ii. 501

Sphinx, in European Oolite, i. 167
ii. 482

Sphinx Moths, ii. 482

Sphyrapicus, ii. 303

SPHYRENIDA&, ii. 429

Spider monkeys, ii. 174

Spilornis, ii. 348

Spilotes, ii. 376

SPINACID4,, ii. 461

Spindalis, ii. 98, 284

Spirawis, ii. 515

PIRIFERIDA,, ii. 532

SPIRULIDA,, ii. 505

Spizaétus, ii. 348

Spizella, ii. 284

Spiziapteryz, ii. 349

Spiziastur, ii. 348

Spodiornis, ii. 285

Sponsor, ii. 497

Spoonbills, ii. 360

Sporadinus, ii. 109

Sporopipes, ii, 286

Sprat, ii. 454

Spreo, ii, 288

Squalodon, ii. 210

Squaliobarbus, ii. 452

SQUAMIPENNES, ii. 427

Squatarola, ii. 356

Squirrel monkeys, ii. 175

Squirrels, ii. 234

St. Helena, zoological features of, i. 269
coleoptera of, i. 270
landshells of, i. 271

St. Thomas’s Island, birds of, i. 266

Stachyris, ii. 261

Stactolema, ii. 306

Stag-beetles, ii. 492

Stalagmosonu, ii. 495

Starlings, ii. 287

Starnenas, ii. 33

Stations, definition of, i. 4

Staurotyyus, ii. 408

Steatomys, ii. 230

Steatornis, ii. 319

STEATORNITHIDA,, ii. 319

Steganura, ii. 108

Stegnolema, ii. 343

Stegophiius, ii. 444

Stelgidopteryz, ii. 281
Stellio, 1i. 402
Stellula, ii. 108
Steneofiber, European Miocene, i. 120
ii, 234
Steno, ii. 209
Stenodactylus, ii. 400
Stenogyra, ti. 515
Stenopsis, ii. 320
Stenopus, ii. 516
Stenorhina, ii. 375
Stenorhynchus, ii. 204
ii. 421
Stephanophorus, ii. 98
Stercorarius, ii. 364
Sterna, ii. 364
Sternarchus, ii. 455
Sternocera, ii. 496
Sternoclyta, ti. 107
STERNOPLYCHID4,, ii. 446
Sternopygus, ii. 455
Sternotheres, ii. 408
Steropus, ii. 489
Stesilea, ii. 501
Stethodesma, ii. 495
Sthenurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
ii, ‘251
Sticheus, ii. 431
Sticklebacks, ii. 424
Stigmatura, ii. 101
Stigmodera, ii. 496
SLOMIATIDAZ, ii. 447
Storks, ii. 360
Stabomantis, ii. 419
Straits of Magellan, mammalia of, ii. 37
birds of, ii. 39
Strepera, ii. 273
Strepsilas, ii. 356
Streptaulus, ii. 520
Streptawis, ii, 515
Streptocerus, ii. 493
Streptocitta, ii. 274
Streptophorus, ii. 374
STRIGIDZ, ii. 350
Stringops, li. 329
STRINGOPIDA, ii. 329
Strix, European Miocene, i. 162
li. 350
STROMBIDAZ.. ii. 507
Struthio, ui. 368
Struthiones, arrangement of, i. 98
range of Ethiopian genera of, i, 313
range of Australian genera of, i. 487
STRUTHIONES, ii. 368
general remarks on the distribution of, ii.
370
STRUTHIONIDAE, ii. 368
Struthious birds, probable origin of, i. 287
Sturgeons, ii. 459
Sturnella, ii. 282
Sturnia, ii. 287
STURNIDA, ii. 287
Sturnopastor, ii. 287
Sturnus, ii. 287
STYGIIDZ, ii. 482
Stygogenes, li. 444 :
Stylinodontia, N. American Eocene, i. 139
Stylinodontidw, N. American Eovene, i. 139
Stuporhynchus, ii. 376
Sublegatus, ii. 101
Sub-regions, on what principle formed, i. 180
Palwarctic, i. 191
Ethiopian, i. 258
Oriental, i. 321
Australian, i. 408
Neotropical, ii. 21

GENERAL INDEX.

603:

Sub-regions, Nearctic, ii. 125

Suceinea, ii. 515

Sugar-birds, ii. 278

Suide, European Miocene, i. 119

SUID4,, ii. 214

Sula Islands, fauna of, i. 433

Sula, ii. 365

Summary of relations of regions, ii. 155

Sun-birds, ii. 276

Sun-bitterns, ii. 358

Suricata, ii. 195

Surnia, ii. 350

Surniculus, ti. 310

Sus, European Pliocene, i. 113
Miocene of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 119
Indian Miocene, i. 122
ii. 215

Suthora, ii. 262

Suya, ii. 258

Swallows, ii. 281.

Swallew-shrikes, ii. 288

Swifts, ii. 320

Swine, ii. 214

Swinhoe, Mr., on zoology of Formosa and

Hainan, i. 332

Sycalis, ti. 284

Sylvia, ii. 259

Sylvietta, ti. 264

SYLVIIDA, ii. 256

SYLVIINA, ii. 257

Sylviorthorhunchus, ii. 103

Sylviparus, ti. 266

Syma, ii. 316

Symborodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

SYMBRANCHID4&, ii. 455

Symbranchus, li. 455

Symmachia, ii. 476

Symmorphus, ii. 269

Symphedra, ti. 474

Sumphysodon, ii. 439

Symplectes, li. 286

SYNALLAXINA, ii. 295

Synallazis, ii. 103

Synaphodus, European Miocene, i. 119

Synaptura, ii. 441

Synchloe, ii. 474

Syndesus, li 493

Synemon, ii. 481

Syngnathus, ii. 457

SYNGNATHID4A, ii: 457

Synodontis, ii. 443

Synoplotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

Syntomis, ii. 481

Syrnium, ii. 350

Syrrhaptes, ti. 337

Sysopygis, li. 101

Wy

Tables of distribution of families and genera
explained, i. 177

Taccocoua, ii. 309

Tachydromus, ii. 391

Tachyphonus, ii. 99

Tachyris. ii. 478

Tachytriorchis, ii. 348

Tadorna, ii. 362

Teniogale, ii. 195

Tenioptera, ii. 100, 291

TAENIOPTERINA, ii. 291

Teniura, ii. 463

Talegallus, ii. 342

Talpa, European Miocene, i. 117
ii. 190 .

TALPIDA,, ii. 190

Tamandua, ii. 247
Tamias, ii. 235, 236
Tanecia, ii. 474
Tanagers, ii. 283
Tanagra, ii. 98
Tanayrella, ii. 98
TANAGRIDA, ii. 283
Tantalus, ii. 361
Tanygnathus, ii. 326
Tanysiptera, ii. 316
Taoniscus, ii. 344
Taphozous, ii. 183
Tapir, fossil in N. China, i. 123
Tapir, Malayan figure of, i. 337
Tapiride, European Eocene, i. 125
TAPIRIDA, ii: 212
Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, i. 154
Le) 212
Tapirus, European Pliocene, i. 113
Indian Miocene, i. 122
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
Tarandus, ii. 219
Tarentola, ii 400 ;
Tarsier, Malayan, figure of, i. 337
Tarsiger, ii. 259
TARSIIDA, ii. 177
Tarsipes, ii. 252
Tarsius, ii. 177
Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of,
i. 441 :
Tutare, ii. 258
Tatusia, ii. 246
Taxidea, ii. 199
Taxila, ii. 475
Taxodon, European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 200
Taygetis, ti. 471
Tchitrea, ii. 271
TECTONARCHINA,, ii. 275
Teguexius, 11. 390
TEIDA,, ii. 390
Teinopalpus, ii. 479
Tetra, ii. 391
Teius, ii. 390
Teleopis, ii. 375
TELEOSTEI, ii. 424
Telephonus, ii. 272
Tellia, ii. 450
TELLINIDA, ii. 506
Telmatobius, N. American Cretaceous, 1. 164
li. 417
Telmatolestes, N. American Tertiary, i. 133
Temnotrogon, ii. 314
Temnurus, li. 273
Tephrocorys, li. 289
Tephrodornis, ii. 272
Teracolus, ii. 478
Terebratula, ii. 539
TEREBRATULIDA,, ii. 532
Terekia, li. 353
Terenura, ti. 104
Teretristis, ii. 279
Terias, ii. 478
Terinos, ii. 474
Terns, ii. 364
Terrapene, ii. 408
Terrestrial Molluscs, ii. 512
Terrestrial Mollusca, summary and conclusion,
li. 551
lines of migration of, ii. 552
Tesia, ii. 263
Testacella, ii. 516
Iola
TESTUDINIDA,, ii. 407
Testudo, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
Indian Miocene, i. 123

604 GENERAL INDEX.

Testudo, great antiquity of the genus, i. 289

Testudo, ii. 408

Tethionea, ii. 501

TETRABRANCHIATA, ii. 506

Tetracha, ii. 486, 487

Tetrachus, European Miocene, i. 117

Tetraceros, ii, 224

Tetracus, ii. 188

Tetradactylus, ii. 397

Tetragonoderus, ii. 490

Tetragonops, ii. 306

Tetragonopterus, ji. 445

Tetragonosoma, ii. 380

Tetranematichthys, ii. 443

Tetrao albus, in Italian caverns, i. 161

Tetrao, ii. 339

Tetraogallus, ii. 339

TETRAONIDA,, ii. 338

Tetraophasis, ii. 340

Tetrodon, ii. 457

TEUTHIDA, ii. 505

TEUTHIDID4,, ii. 433

Textor, ii. 286

Thais, ii. 479

Thalassarctos, ii. 201

Thalassictis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 118
ii. 195
ii, 197

Thalassornis, ii. 364

Thaleichthys, ii. 447

Thaluraniu, ii. 107

Thamnistes, ii. 104

Thamnobia, ii. .260

Thamnodyastes, ii. 379

Thamnomanes, ii. 104

THAMNOPHILINA, ii. 297

Thamnophilus, ii. 104

Thaumalea, ii. 340

Thaumantis, ii. 472

Thaumastura, ii. 108

Thaumatias, ii. 109

Thecla, ii. 477

Theloderma, ii. 419

Theope, ii. 476

Theorema, ii. 477

Theraps, li. 438

Therates, ii. 486

Theridomys, European Miocene, i. 126
European Eocene, i. 126
S. American Eocene, i. 148
ii.’ 239 .

Theropithecus, ii. 173

Thestias, ii. 478

Thestor, ii. 477

Thetia, ii. 391

THINOCORIDZ,, ii. 354

Thinocorus, ii. 354

Thinohyus, ii. N. American Tertiary, i. 137
ji. 215

Thinolestes, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

Thinornis, ii. 356

Thomomys, ii. 233

Thous, ii. 197

Thrasaétus, ii. 348

Threnetes, ii. 107

Thripadectes, ii. 103

Thripophaga, ii. 103

Thryophilus, ii. 263

Thryothorus, ii. 263

Thrushes, ii. 255

Thyca, ii. 471 ¥

ee Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
ii. 24

shag pee Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
fi. 252

| Thymallus, ii. 447

Thynnichthys, 452
Thynnus, ti. 429
Thyreopterus. ii. 491
Thyrus, li. 398
Tiaris, li. 284
li. 402
Tichodroma, ii. 264
Tiga, ii. 303
Tiger-beetles, ii. 486
Tigrisoma, li. 359
Tijuca, ii. 102
Tillodontia, N. American Eocene, i. 139
Tillotheride, N. American Eocene, i. 139
Tillotherium, N. American Eocene, i. 139
Tilmatura, ii. 108
Timalia, ti. 261
TIMALIID&, ii. 260
Timetes, ii. 474
Timor, physical features of, i. 389
group, mammalia of, i. 422
birds of, i. 422
origin of fauna of, i, 424
insects of, i. 426
TINAMID&, ii. 343
TINAMINA, li. 344
Tinamous, ii. 348
TINAMOTINA,, ii. 344
Tinamotis, ii. 344
Tinamus, li. 344
Tinca, ii. 452
Tinoceras, N. American Eocene, i. 139
Titanomys, European Miocene, i. 121
ii. 242
Titanotheriwm, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
Tits, ii. 265
Tityra, ii. 102
TITYRIN A, ii. 293
Tmesisternus, ii. 501
Toads, ii. 415
Tockus, ii. 317
TODIDA, ii. 313
Todies, ii. 313
Todirhamphus, 316
Todirostrum, ii. 101
Todopsis, li. 271
Todus, ii. 313
Tolypeutes, ii. 246
Tomarctos, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
Tomistoma, ii. 405
Tomodon, ii. 175
Tonga Islands, birds of, i. 443
Topaza, ii. 107
TORNATELLIDA, ii. 530
TORPEDINIDAE, ii. 462
Tortoises, classification of, i. 100
of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, i, 289
li. 407
TORTRICIDA, ii. 37:
Tortria, ii. 373
Totanus, li. 353
Toucans, ii. 306
Touraco of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264
Toxodon, 8. American Pliocene, i. 137
Toxodontide, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147
Toxotus, li, 502
Trachelyopterus, ii. 443
TRACHINIDA, ii. 428
Trachinus, ii. 428
Trachurus, ii. 429 _
Trachycephalus, ii. 401
ii. 418
Trachydosaurus, ii, 397
Trachyphonus, ii. 306
TRACHYPTERIDA, ii! 432
Trachytherium, European Miocene, i. 119

GENERAL INDEX. 605

TRAGELAPHINA, ii. 223

Tragelaphus, ii. 223

Tragocerus, Miocen:: of Greece, i. 116
European Miocene, i. 120

Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of, i, 331

Tragops, li. 379

TRAGULIDA, ii. 218

Tragulus, ii. 218

Trapelus, ii. 402

Trechus, ii. 489

Tree-crows, ii. 273

Tree-kangaroo, figure of, i. 415

Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, i. 337

Tree-snakes, ii. 378

Tremarctos, ii. 202

Treron, ii. 332

Tres Marias, zoology of, ii. 59

Tr ribolonotus, ii. 397

Triboniophorus, li. 517

Tribonys, ti. 352

Trichastoma, ii. 261

TRICHECHIDA,, ii. 203

Trichechus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
li. 203

TRICHIURIDA,, ii. 429

Trichixos, ii. 262

TRICHOGLOSSID&, ii. 327

Trichoglosside, birds specially adapted to

Australia, i. 393

Trichoglossus, ii. 327

Tricholema, ii. 206

Trichomycterus, ii. 444

Trycondyla, ii. 486

Trichonis, ii. 477

TRICHONOTIDZ, ii. 435

Lrichothraupis, ii. 99

Trichotropis, ii. 507

Triclaria, ii. 328

TRIDACNIDAZ, ii. 535

Trigla, ii. 428

TRIGLIDA, ii. 427

Trigona, ii. 536 n

TRIGONIADA, ii. 534

Trigonoptera, ii. 501

Trimeresurus, ii. 385

Tringa, ii. 353

Tringoides, ii. 353

TRIONYCHIDA,, ii. 409

Trionyx, Indian Miocene, i. 123
Miocene and Eocene, i. 165
ii. 409

Triprion, ii. 418

Triptorhinus, ii. 297 »

Tristan d’Acunha, zoology. of, i.. 271

Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of

Palestine, i. 203 ,

on the arrangement of the Sylviide, ii. 257

Triton, ti. 413. - :

TRITONIADA, ii. 530

Trochalopteron, ii. 261

Trochatella, ii. 522

TROCHILIDA, ii. 321

Trochilus: ii. 108

Trochus, ii. 510

Troglodytes, ii. 170

li. 263 .
TROGLODYTIDA.. ii. 263
Trogon, European Miocene, i. 161

ii. 314
Trogon, ii, 314
TROGONIDA,, ii. 314
TROGONOPHID#, ii. 388
Trogonophis, ii. 388
Trogontherium, Post-Pliocene of Europe, i 111

aie 234
Tropidechis, ii. 383

Tropidococcyx, ii. 379

Tropidodipsas, ii. 379

Tropidolepis, ii. 401

Tropidolepisma, ii. 397

Tropidonotus, ii. 375

Tropidophorus, ii. 397

Tropidopterus, ii. 490

Tropidorhynchus, ii. 276

Trucifelis, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129

Trugon, ii. 333

Trumpeters, ii. 358

Truncatella, ii. 519

Trgyon, li. 463

TRYGONIDA,, ii. 463

Tuatara, ii. 405

Tudora, ii. 521

Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent oe i. 216

Tupaia, ii. 186

TUPAIIDA, ii. 186

Tupaiide, European Miocene, i. 118

Turacena, ii. 333

Turacos, ii. 307

Turacus, ii. 307

TURBINID &, ii. 510

TURDIDA, ii. 255

Turdinus, ii. 262

Turdus, ii. 256

Turnagra, ii. 262

Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, i.
90

TURNICID&, ii. 341
Turnia, ii. 341
TURRITELLIDA,, ii. 509
Tursio, ii. 209
Turtles, li. 409
Turtur, re BRR}
Tylas, ii. 267
Tylodon, European Eocene, i. 125
ii. 196
Tylognathus, ii. 451
Tylotriton, ii. 413
Typhlina, ii. 372
Typhline, ii. 372
Typhlocalamus, ii. 374
TYPHLOPIDA,, ii. 372
Typhlops, ii. 372
Typhloscincus, ii. 399
Typotherium, 8. American ELS i, 147
TY RANNID&Z,, ii. 290
TYRANNINA,, ii. 291
Tyranniscus, ii, 101
Tyrannulus, ii. 101
Tyrannus, ii. 102, 291
Tyrant-Shrikes, ii. 290

U.

Uaru, ti. 439

Uintacyon, N. Arnerican Tertiary,'i. 134

Uintatherium, N. American Eocene, i.:139

Uintornis, N. American Eocene, i. 163

Uma, ii. 401 ,

UMBRID4, ii. 449

Umbrina, ii. 428

Ungalia, ii. 381

Ungulata, classification of, i, 89
antiqufty of, i. 154
of the Palearctic region, i: 182
range of Palzarctic genera of, i. 241
range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303
range of Oriental genera of, i. 374
range of Australian genera of, i. 476

Ungulata, European Pliocene, i. 112
Miocene of Greece, i. 115
European Miocene, i. 119

606 GENERAL INDEX.

Ungulata, Indian Miocene, i. 121
European Eocene, i. 125
N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 139
N. American Tertiary, i. 135
of Brazilian caves, i. 144
S. American Pliocene, i. 146
UNGULATA, ii. 211
gener remarks on the distribution of,
. 226
aincnmer and conclusion, ii. 542
Unio, European Secondary, i. 169
ii. 534
UNIONID42,, ii. 534
Upucerthia, ii. 103
UPUPID42,, ii. 317
Uragus, ii. 285
Urania of Madagascar, i. 282
Urania, ii, 482
URANIID&, ii. 482
Uria, ii. 367
Uroaétus, ii. 348
Urocissa, ii. 273
Urochroa, ii. 107
Urochroma, ii. 328
Urocyon, ii. 197
URODELA, ii. 411
Urogalba, ii. 311
Urolestes, ii. 272
Uromastiaz, ii. 402
UROPELTIDA,, ii. 373
Uuropeltis, ii. 374
Uropsila, ii. 264
Uropsilus, ii. 190
Uropsophorus, ii. 385
Urospatha, ii. 313
Urospizias, ii. 348
Urosticte, li. 108
Urotrichus, ii. 190
Urotriorchis, ii 347
Urside, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
in Brazilian caves, i. 144
URSIDA, ii. 201
Ursitaxus, Indian Miocene, i. 121
ii. 200
Ursus, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
Indian Miocene, 121
ii. 201
Urubutinga, ii. 348
Urva, ii. 195
_ Uta, ii. 401
Utica, ii. 477

Vaginulus, ii. 518
he bon li. 495
Valvata, ii. 510

Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278

Vanga, ii. 272

Vandellia, ii. 444

Vanellus, ‘ii. 356

Vanessa, ii. 474

VAKANIDA, ii. 389

Varanus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
Indian Miocene, i. 123

VENERID2, ii. 536

Venilia, ii. 303 *

Vermicella, ii. 383

Verreauzia, ii. 303

Verte ebrata, summary of Palearctic, i. 186
summary of Ethiopian, i. 255 *
summary of Oriental, i. 318
summary of Australian, i. 397
summary of Neotropical, ii. 13
summary of Nearctic, ii. 120

Vespertilio, European Mopena, L125
li. 183

VESPERTILIONIDA,, ii: 183

Vidua, ii. 286

Vipera, ii. 385. :

VIPERIDA, ii. 385

Viperus, European Miocene, i. 165

Vipers, ii. 385

Vireo, ii. 280

VIREONIDA, ii. 279

Vireolanius, ii. 280

Vireosylvia, ii. 280

Viscacha, ii. 237

Vitrina, ii. 516

Viverra, European Pliocene, i. 112
European oe 1. 118
li. 195

Viverricula, ii. 195

Viverride, European Miocene, i.118
European Eocene, i. 125

VIVERRID&, ii. 194

Vivia, ii. 303

Volatinia, li. 284

Voluta, ii. 508

Volutes, ii. 508

VOLUTIDE, ii. 508°

Volvocivora, ii. 269

Vulpes, ii. 197

Vultur, ii. 346

VULTURIDA, ii. 345

VULTURINA,, ii. 346

Ww.

Wagtails, ii. 290 ; .
Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine:
islands, 7: 346
on birds of Celebes, i. 428
on arrangement of the Timaliide, fi. 261°
Wallago, ii. 441
Wall-lizards, ii. 399
Walrus, ii. 203 *
Wart- snakes, ii. 382 *
Washakius, N. American Tertiary i 134
Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of
rodentia, i. 90 .
on Classification of marsupials, i 91
Water-lizards, ii. 389 ~
Weaver- finches, ii. 286 -
West African sub-region, description of, i. 262
mammalia of, i. 262
birds of, i. 262
Oriental or Malayan element in, i. 263
river scene with characteristic animals,
i. 264
reptiles of, i. 264
amphibia of, i. 264
Oriental and Neotropical relations of,
i. 265
insects of, i. 265
land-shells of, i. 265
islands of, i. 265 =
West Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441
Whelks, ii. 507
Whip-snakes, ii. 379
Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264
Wing-shells, ii. 507
li. 533
Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the Coleoptera of the
Atlantic Islands, i. 209
on the wings of the Madeiran beetles,
i. 211
on the origin of the insect fauna of the
Atlantic Islands, i. 214
on the Coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands,
i. 215

GENERAL INDEX.

Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the beetles of St. He-
lena, i. 270

Wombats, ii. 253

Woodpeckers, ii. 302

Wood-warblers, ii. 278

Woolly monkeys, ii. 174

Wrens, ii. 263

Wrynecks, ii. 304

x.

Xanthocephalus, ii. 282
Xantholema, ii. 306
Xanthomelus, ii. 275
Xanthopygia, ii. 270
Xanthosomus, ii. 282
Xanthotis, ii. 275
Xemu, ii. 364
Xenelaphis, ii. 376
Xenica, ii. 471
Xenicus, li. 265
Xenochrophys, ii. 375
Xenocypris, ii. 452
Xenodermus, ii. 376
Xenodon, ii. 375
XENOPELTIDA,, ii. 373
Xenopeltis, ii. 373
Xenophrys, ii. 421
Xenopipo, ii. 102
Xenops, li. 103
Xenorhina, ii. 415
XENORHINIDA,, ii. 415
Xenospingus, ii.284
Xenurelaps, ii 383
Xenurus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
li. 246
Xiphias, ii. 430
Xiphidiopicus, ii. 303
XIPHIIDA, ii. 430
Xiphius, ii. 208
Xiphocolaptes, ii. 103
Xiphodontide, European Miocene, i. 119
Xipholena, ii. 102
Xiphorhampus, ii. 445
Xiphorhynchus, 103
Xiphostoma, ii. 445
Xystrocera ii. 501

THE END.

607
Y.
Ypthima, ii. 471
Yuhina, ii. 266
YUNGIDA,, ii. 304
Yungipicus, ii, 303
Yuna, ii. 304
Z.

Zabrus, fi. 489
Zalophus, ii. 203
Zamenis, ii. 375
Zanclostomus, ti. 309
Zaocys, ii. 375
Zebras, ii. 211
Zegris, ii. 478
Zemeros, li. 475
Zenaida, ii. 833
Zenaidura, ii. 332
Zephyrus, li. 477
Zeuglodon, ii. 210
Zeuglodontide, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
ii. 210
Zeus, ii. 429
Zeuxidia, ii. 472
Zoarces, ti. 431
Zonites, ii. 516
Zonites priscus, Palwozoic, i. 169
Zonotrichia, ii 284
ZONURIDA,, ii. 391
Zonurus, ii. 392
Zoological characteristics of Palearctic region,
i. 181
Ethiopian region, i. 252
Oriental region, i. 315
Australian region, i. 390
of Neotropical region, ii. 5
of Nearctic region, ii. 115
Zoological regions, discussion on, i. 50
their origin and relations, ii. 155-161
Zoothera, ii. 256
Zootoca, ii. 391
Zosterops, ii. 277
Zygend, ti. 481
ZYGENIDS, ii. 481
Zygnopsis, ii. 398

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