The Glasgow NataraHst Including the Proceedings of the Urban Biodiversity Conference 2010 Volume 25 Part 4 2012 Journal of THE GLASGOW NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Glasgow Natural History Society (formerly The Andersonian Naturalists of Glasgow) The Glasgow Natural History Society is a registered charity (SCO 12586) with approximately 250 members living in Glasgow, the West of Scotland, throughout the UK and overseas. The Society arranges a full programme of events throughout the year in Glasgow and district and occasionally further afield. These are at both specialist and popular level, designed to bring together the amateur and the professional, the expert and the beginner. The Society has its own library, and provides grants for the study of natural history. Further details about the Society can be found at www.gnhs.org.uk or by contacting the Secretary, The Glasgow Natural History Society, c/o Graham Kerr (Zoology) Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland (E-mail: info@,gnhs.org.uk). The Society has microscopes and some field equipment that can be used by members. Please contact the Membership Secretary Mr Richard Weddle at the address above for further details. The Glasgow Naturalist The Glasgow Naturalist is published by the Glasgow Natural History Society ISSN 0373-241X. It was first issued in 1908-9 and is a peer reviewed journal that publishes original studies in botany, zoology and geology, with a particular focus on studies from the West of Scotland. For questions or advice about submissions please contact the Editor: Dr Dominic McCafferty (E-mail: dominic.mccaffertv@glasgow.ac.uk). Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Graham Kerr Building, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland. Advice to contributors is given on the inside cover of this edition. The publication is included in the abstracting and indexing of the Bioscience Information Service of Biological Abstracts and the Botanical Society of the British Isles Abstracts. Back numbers of the journal may be purchased by contacting the Society at the address above. Full details of the journal can be found at www.gnhs.org.uk/gnat.html Publications of the Glasgow Natural History Society The Society has published a number of books on the flora and fauna of the West of Scotland. Full details can be found at www.gnhs.org.uk/publications.html Front cover Small tortoiseshell butterfly {Aglais urticae) on the M8 motorway verge, Glasgow. Photo: Cath Scott. Back Cover Buff-tailed bumblebee (Bombiis terrestris) in a wildflower meadow in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow. Photo: Cath Scott. The Glasgow Naturalist Volume 25 Part 4 Contents EDITORIAL Impacts of television on natural history. D. J. McCafferty 1 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONFERENCE 3 FULL PAPERS From whaling to whale watching: a history of cetaceans in Scotland. E. C. M. Parsons 53 The moth assemblages of Flanders moss, Stirlingshire. J. T. Knowler 59 Diversity of wild plants in low-maintenance Scottish suburban garden. Then and now - 1986 and 2011. M. O’Reilley 71 The professor Blodwen Lloyd Binns Bequest: its contribution to the development of Glasgow’s Natural History Society. J. R. Downie, M. McKinnon, P. Macpherson, D. McCafferty & R. Weddle 79 Gartcosh great crested newts: the story so far. D. C. McNeill, J. R. Downie & B. Ross 87 Vegetation and ‘site florulas’ of islands in West Loch Roag, Outer Hebrides. P. A. Smith & J. McIntosh 93 A review of the incidence of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in surface waters in Scotland including potential effects of climate change, with a list of the common species and new records from the Scottish Environmental Protection Agency. J. T. Krokowski, P. Lang, A. Bell, N. Broad, J. Clayton, I. Milne, M. Nicolson, A. Ross & N. Ross 99 Effects of fertilisers on vegetation of ultrabasic ten-aces (1965-2010): Isle of Rum, Scotland. J. A. Gilbert & K. R. Butt 105 Long term dynamics in Scottish saltmarsh plant communities. R. B. Taubert & K. J. Murphy 1 1 1 SHORT NOTES Interesting Aculeate records from Glasgow, including eight new species records from Lanarkshire, with reflections on their wider distribution in Southem Scotland. J. Robinson & C. Fiedler 1 19 The Entomology Collection of Dr Clifford Edwards (1913-2009) in Glasgow Museums. J. Robinson 124 Adventures with Amphibians. J. R. Downie 125 The migrant moth, small m?Lxh\Q.d Eublemma parva, in central Scotland 201 1. C. Convei-y, D. Collis & G. Collis 129 The Australian landhopper, Arcitalitrus dorheni (Hunt, 1925), Crtistacea, Amphipoda, in Glasgow. E. G. Hancock . 130 Miscellaneous invertebrates recorded from the Outer Hebrides, 2010. J. H. Bratton 130 A photograph of a teacher-training course in marine zoology at Millport (1914). P. G. Moore 132 CoiTection to the statistical note in ‘Gulliver, R., 2011. Patterns of flowering on continuously-grazed dune and machair on Colonsay. The Glasgow Naturalist 25 (3) 19-28’. R. Gulliver 133 The most northerly documented record of the green alga HvdrodictyKm reticulatum (water-net) in the UK. A. McManus ’ ’. 134 Hoverfly species (Diptera, Syrphidae) collected near Rowardennan, Loch Lomondside, August, 201 1. E. G. Hancock 135 First record of larval sea lamprey Petromyzon marimis L. in the Endrick Water, Loch Lomond. J. B. Hume & C. E. Adams 137 A record of the aurochs. Bos primigeiiins, from Morayshire. A. C. Kitchener & J. Doune 1 38 The rare green alga Pediastruin priviim (Chlorophyta, Sphaeropleales) in a Scottish kettle loch: new to British freshwaters. P. Lang, J. Krokowski, N. Ross & R. Doughty 139 First records of the pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps, in Scotland. A. C. Kitchener, J. S. Hennan, R. .1. Reid & N. Anderson 142 Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment and Glasgow Natural History Society Photographic Competition 2012 147 OBITUARIES 149 BOOK REVIEWS / ) ^51 PROCEEDINGS 157 1 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges, 1 EDITORIAL Impacts of television on natural history Dominic J. McCafferty Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Graham Keir Building, Glasgow G12 8QQ E-mail: dominie. mccafferty(@glasgow. ac.uk Have you noticed how many people discuss natural history after watching an episode of BBC Springwatch or following a David Attenborough documentary? For most people television and digital media now constitute a substantial source of infonnation about the natural world. There can be no doubt that television plays a significant part in our lives as it is estimated that in Scotland we watch on average 4.2 hours of television per day (BBC Scotland 2010). Susanna Curtin (In press) argues that wildlife television programmes shape the way in which we develop our emotional relationship with wildlife and indeed influence the growing trend in wildlife tourism particularly in Scotland. In ‘The Effect of British Natural Histoiy Television Programmes: Animal Representations and Wildlife Tourism’ soon to be published, she highlights the fact that in the UK wildlife programmes are watched by over 50% of men and women and natural histoiy topics are in the top five of favourite television programmes. It is not suiprising that a third of visitors to Scotland were influenced in their choice of destination by wildlife/nature television programmes such as BBC Springy’atch. Natural history programmes have grown in popularity since the 1 960s and therefore for most of us they have contributed to our knowledge and understanding of natural history. Are there any UK biologists alive who have not been influenced by David Attenborough and many other TV naturalists? Wildlife documentaries are predominantly associated with large charismatic mega- fauna, often anthropomoiphising the lives of animals and focusing on the exciting moments of fighting, reproduction and predation. There could be a tendency for broadcasting to bias our knowledge of the natural world away from the less spectacular aspects of natural history. Thankfully there appears to be some evidence that we continue to be fascinated by the less exotic species we share our cities and gardens with. This edition of The Glasgow Naturalist features the Proceedings of the Urban Biodiversity’ Conference that was held at the University of Glasgow in 2010 which demonstrated how we value our urban wildlife as well as the charismatic species found in wild areas of Scotland and beyond. Indeed many fascinating insights into the lives of animals and plants have recently been filmed in the centres of large cities such as Glasgow. For the first time in its history, papers from The Glasgow Naturalist have been published online before appearing in print. Natural histoiy and naturalists arc certainly moving with the times and as is the case with many aspects of our lives we cannot ignore the influence of the media on our knowledge, enjoyment and relationship with the natural world. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all the authors and reviewers for their time and effort which have ensured the high quality science and scholarship of this journal. Iain Wilkie took on editorial work for this edition for which I am extremely grateful. I am indebted to Ruth Maclachlan for all secretarial work for the journal and especially her patience with my fonnatting requests. Thanks to Noniian Tait for photographic work and Bob Gray for compiling the Book Reviews. Without all their efforts this volume would not have been possible. REFERENCES BBC Scotland, 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ncws/uk- scotland-1 1024554 Accessed 28/8/12 Curtin, S. (In press). ‘The effect of British Natural Histoiy Television Programmes: Animal Representations and Wildlife Tourism ’ In: Mediating the Tourist Experience: From Brochures to Virtual Encounters. Channel View Publications. Abstract at: http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/19383/ The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges, 3-51 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BIODIVERSITY CONFERENCE Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Introduction J.R. Downie President, Glasgow Natural History Society (GNHS) Professor of Zoological Education, University of Glasgow E-mail; Roger.Downie(@glasgow. ac.uk Early in 2009, GNHS Council discussed how we might respond to International Year of Biodiversity, designated for 2010. We quickly agreed that the most appropriate theme for a city-based natural histoiy society would be a focus on urban biodiversity: after all, it is still the case that too many people think of biodiversity as something you only find ‘out there’ in the countryside. So we felt that a conference discussing the range of biodiversity in towns and cities would be valuable. We were delighted when Jim Coyle of Glasgow City Council’s biodiversity team gave immediate support and we soon assembled a steering group comprising representation from GNHS, RSPB Glasgow, SWT, Glasgow Museums and GCC’s Biodiversity team. An early meeting agreed on the title: ‘Urban Biodiversity - successes and challenges’, because we wanted to describe and celebrate the successes achieved in conserving and enhancing biodiversity in Glasgow and other towns and cities, but also to discuss the challenges we still face in making further progress. Timing was easy to decide on. Two factors settled the final weekend of October 2010. First, the United Nations Convention on Biodiversity meeting, planned to achieve agreement on new conservation targets was scheduled to end in Nagoya, Japan on Friday 29'*’ October. Second, a new book. Co-ordinated by Glasgow Museums ‘Wildlife around Glasgow’ was due to be launched during the same week. We decided early on a two-day meeting and that it should be over the weekend (the debate between weekend and weekdays for such a meeting is a tricky one, but venues are easier at weekends). The plan was to devote the Saturday to fonnal presentations: these would deal first with policy issues, achievements and benefits. We were veiy keen to ensure that the meeting would highlight the benefits of urban biodiversity to people. Saturday would also cover case histories, including single species, groups and unusual habitats, both by talks and by posters. We also hoped to entice some high level political presence and were vciy pleased when Roseanna Cunningham, Minister of the Environment, agreed to open the conference. Sunday was to be a more practical, interactive day with the morning devoted to participative workshops with choices of topics, and the afternoon to excursions to interesting biodiversity locations within easy distance: we realised the riskiness of this in terms of weather and impending darkness on the last Sunday of October. Over approximately monthly meetings from October 2009 the programme you see before you came together. We were very pleased by the response from our invited speakers: this seemed to be a meeting people wanted to contribute to. What of the omens for success? First, ‘Wildlife around Glasgow’ was successfully launched on the Thursday before the conference, and a beautiful publication it is. Many congratulations to Richard Sutcliffe and his team. Second, despite gloomy reports during the week, the 190 nations meeting at Nagoya reportedly agreed on 20 new tough biodiversity targets to be met by 2020. It will be up to all of us to ensure that these are not just paper commitments. Third, as 1 came through campus to get ready for the meeting, a fox crossed my path - now a veiy common sight in the West End of Glasgow! I’d like to thank all members of the conference steering group for their input over many meetings and e-mails; also, our funders, Glasgow City Council, the University of Glasgow and the Blodwcn Lloyd Binns Bequest. 1 also acknowledge the honour bestowed by the Lord Provost in providing the Civic Reception which closed the proceedings. Most importantly, I must thank Richard Weddle whose tireless efforts made this conference possible. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Civic welcome speech Bailie Nina Baker Glasgow City Council Ladies, gentlemen and distinguished guests, it is my great pleasure to welcome you to this event, on behalf of the Lord Provost and people of the city of Glasgow. On the eve of your 160^'’ anniversaiy, the Glasgow Natural History Society is to be congratulated for bringing together The University of Glasgow, RSPB, 3 Glasgow City Council, Culture and Sport Glasgow as was, now of course known as Glasgow Life, and the Scottish Wildlife Trust to hold this conference marking the International Year of Biodiversity. With the vast majority of our nation’s population living in urban areas, the quality of urban open spaces can have a significant effect on their attitudes to the natural world more generally. Professor Jim Dickson and others’ ground breaking book on the plants in our city showed us how even apparently grotty brownfield sites are oases in otherwise less favourable urban environments and help the overall biodiversity of the city. This work has now been complemented by the recent fauna surveys by the volunteers of the Biodiversity in Glasgow project. With the continuing shortage of allotment plots in areas of high demand, the council’s policy to help so-called Stalled Development sites become temporary community greenspaces will be welcome to many and it is to be hoped that the owners of such spaces see the benefits they can bring. Your fascinating programme of talks looks at these wider issues as well as the micro-studies of particular environments, such as bings and wildlife coixidors and of particular wildlife such as waterbeetles and epigeal invertebrates - do I assume this means our good friends the earthwonns?(Audience response; No, these are surface-livers like slaters, millipedes and ground beetles). With more and more of our schools being not only Ecoschools but also gardening and food growing schools, 1 am sure our younger generation have a keen eye for Glasgow’s biodiversity. And here in the university that enthusiasm is taken to the professional levels. You will be asked to consider if Glasgow is as green as its nickname, dear green place, but 1 am sure with the council staff, professionals and amateur enthusiasts’ energy represented today, we can look forward to every effort being put towards improving the biodiversity in the future. So, 1 am pleased to provide this civic welcome half-way through your conference and wish you a successful and interesting event. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Nature in the city Roseanna Cunningham - MSP Minister for the Environment - Scottish Government Urban environments are often thought of as human environments. After all, our towns and cities are home to over 80% of Scotland’s population. But urban environments arc so much more than this. Each town and city has its own unique mosaic of habitats and ecosystems. Gardens, parks, allotments, brownfield sites, industrial sites, rivers, ponds and even graveyards all provide different niches for the thousands of species that share our urban landscape. With all these different habitats on the doorstep it isn’t suiprising that urban environments are where most people have the opportunity to experience the natural world. But while this is obvious to us here today, it is not always so clear to other people living in urban environments - less than half of Scots get into the outdoors at least once a week. This is something that needs to change. Being outdoors and around nature brings so many benefits. It can reduce stress and improve physical and mental health. In short it improves residents’ quality of life. It is the Greenspace in our cities that can provide people with a quick and easy escape from the hubbub of city life. This is why SNH are promoting the Simple Pleasures these areas can bring. This is a new campaign aimed at getting the public out and about in their cities and introducing them to the wildlife within it. Over 20% of Glasgow is green space so the opportunities to experience nature really are on your doorstep. As part of the Simple Pleasures campaign SNH have identified routes and suggested places to visit in and around Glasgow. Similar materials are being developed for other cities and I hope they become a useful resource for those of you working with the public. I understand that this conference is also linked to the publication of the book ‘Wildlife around Glasgow’, so the materials are out there that can help introduce people to the wonders of nature without the need for expensive equipment or extensive planning. Of course, these opportunities only exist if the networks of green and blue space are properly managed. The ecological footprint of any city extends far beyond its boundaries and development pressures within the city limits can cause conflict. There is no easy solution to these pressures but planning and managing urban environments in the right way can have significant positive impacts. Connecting cities with the environment around them through habitat networks and limiting the impact of development on the surrounding ecosystems are vital parts to this. Climate change will add new pressures to the urban environment and working with the biodiversity that supports our ecosystems is one of the best ways of adapting and mitigating against its effects. We’re promoting such policies through initiatives like the Central Scotland Green Network which is a priority under the National Planning Framework. This is already enhancing greenspaces, promoting healthier lifestyles, greater biodiversity, stronger communities and economic opportunity. Many of you will be involved in making this a reality on the ground in many different ways. For example. Sustainable urban drainage (SUD) schemes help 4 mitigate against flooding and provide habitat for a variety of species. Promoting local food growing engages local people and helps reduce our overall carbon footprint. Householders can do their bit too by growing wildlife friendly plants, avoiding invasive non-native species and carefully composting what they can. When the impact of all these different initiatives is added together we end up with rich urban environments which benefit all the species that live in them. Not least the human community. I’ve briefly touched on a few themes which I know you will be discussing in more detail over the next couple of days. As you might know, discussions have also been ongoing recently in Nagoya, Japan about the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. I know such high level debate can often seem far removed from the day to day delivery of biodiversity conservation and it is easy to be cynical about the process. But these discussions included a specific focus on cities and biodiversity. And while it’s too early to have fully digested the outputs and what our response will be to it. I’m sure those aspects of the discussion in particular will be of interest to all of you. Unfortunately, due to other commitments, I am not able to stay for the rest of the conference but from looking at the agenda and field trips I am sure you will have an interesting and productive two days. (This is the fonnal version of the speech that the Minister delivered at the opening of the Conference). Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: The next generation: environmental education with the RSPB Rebekah Stackhouse' and Jenifer MacCaluim^ RSPB, Scotland Headquarters, 2 Lochside View, Edinburgh Park, Edinburgh, EH 1 2 9DH 'E-mail: rebckah.stackhouse@rspb.org.uk ^E-mail: jenifer.maccaluim@rspb.org.iik An RSPB field teaching site was established at Kelvingrove Museum and Kelvingrove Park in 2007. It provides sessions for primary schools on woodlands, urban wildlife, birds, conservation and a sensoiy walk for infants. All the sessions are based on the Scottish CuiTiculum for Excellence and involve active outdoor learning. The programme is agreed with the teacher before the visit and the quality of the service is evaluated by users and by the RSPB Education Officer. The RSPB field teaching scheme is a holder of the nationally accredited Learning Outside the Classroom Quality Badge. Around 2000 children visit the RSPB at Kelvingrove every year. Learning to appreciate the biodiversity in local parks encourages children to care for their own school grounds and gardens. A lack of knowledge about and experience of seeing wildlife is apparent in many Glasgow children making field trips a valuable part of school projects. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Biodiversity on bings Barbra Harvie University of Edinburgh, Crew Building, King’s Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JN E-mail; barbra.harvie@ed.ac.uk ABSTRACT The West Lothian oil-shale bings are important havens of biodiversity at both a local and a national (UK) level. They arc examples of true primary succession and provide a refuge for locally rare species, both plant and animal, in an urban/ industrial/ agricultural landscape making them important to conservation and increased local biodiversity. THE SITES The oil shale bings of West Lothian are piles of industrial waste; a by-product of Scotland’s first oil industry in the 1850s. Historically they are of great importance (Harvie, 2010) and given their histoiy it is perhaps not surprising that Greendykes and Five Sisters are now protected as designated Scottish Industrial Heritage Sites. Other bing sites are protected for more remarkable reasons. Addiewcll North is a Scottish Wildlife Trust Nature Reserve, Oakbank is part of Almondell Counti'y Park and all of the bings together make up a major habitat in West Lothian’s biodiversity plan (Harvie, 2005a). THE FLORA The West Lothian shale bings arc of great ecological and scientific importance. They are examples of a distinctive and rare type of post-industrial waste that is unique within Britain. They are also examples of sites of primary succession. Primaiy sites are only found naturally on sand dunes, glaciers and volcanoes; all of which are very uncommon in Britain. Habitats within the bings vary from almost bare substrate to semi- natural grassland, heather scrub and pioneering birch woodland. Differences in the age and size of the bings, how they have been managed, available seed sources, substrate type and soil chemistry all contribute to the habitats and their vegetation. They provide refuges for a wide range of animals and plants that arc under increasing pressure in the surrounding area from 5 fanning and urban development. The diversity of plant species on the bings is considerable and the sites are home to more than 350 plant species (Harvie, 2005b). This is more than have been recorded on the Ben Nevis SSSl Some of the bings support several plant species not found elsewhere in the county. Buxbaumia aphylla Hedw. is a rare moss in Britain that has been recorded in sizeable populations at Addiewell bing for more than 35 years. A small population of the montane lichen Stereocaulon saxatUe is found on Addiewell bing and extensive colonies of three related and locally rare species S. leucophaeopsis, S. nanodes and S. pileatum are found on Philpstoun bing. Faucheldean bing is noted for colonies of stag’s-hom clubmoss and alpine clubmoss {Lycopodium clavatum; Diphasiastrum alpinum), species that arc more usually associated with montane habitats, and renowned for a diverse orchid population including broad helleborine, great butterfly orchid and early purple orchid {Epipactis helleborine; Platanthera chlorantha; Orchis mascula). On the plateaued summit of Greendykes a species poor calcareous grassland has established from self seeding species above the bare steep sides of the bing. Genetically distinct birch (Betula pendula) woodland has established naturally at the base of the tiny bing at Mid Breich, complete with many of the associated ground flora and bryophyte species of long established native woodlands. There are also exotics in the fomi of garden escapes that are well established on many bing sites. Opium poppies (Papavar somniferum) grow in profusion on more than one bing. Old elder trees growing on many of the bings are an astounding source of epiphytic lichen and moss diversity. Almost half of all the biyophytes that are recorded in Britain are present in the Lothians and shale bing habitats are identified as important to the bryophyte flora (Harvie, 2007). THE FAUNA Locally rare animals are also often seen, especially on early morning visits. These include hares, red grouse, badgers, sky larks and common blue butterflies {Lepiis eiiropaeus; Lagopus lagopus scotica; Meles meles; Alauda arvensis; Polyommatus icarus). The bings are home to foxes {Vulpes vulpes), often seen in family groups, suggesting that many unobserved smaller fauna are also inhabiting the sites. Insect records from Addiewell bing include ringlet butterfly {Aphantopus hyperantus), very rare in central Scotland, and a first recording of ten-spot ladybird {Adalia decapimctatd) in the county. Additional butterfly species recorded at Faucheldean include green-veined white, small heath and common blue (Pieris napi; Coenonympha pamphilus; Polyommatus icarus). Forty seven species of bird were recorded at Addiewell during 1997, including 30 species with pennanent breeding tendtories and nine local habitat indicator species, such as the bullfinch, kestrel and yellowhammer {Pyninda pyrrhula; Falco tinmmculus; Emberiza citrinella) (Harvie, 2007). VULNERABILITY The destruction and landscaping of shale bings is a severe threat to some of the rarer plant species, both locally and nationally. Of the 27 bings extant when shale extraction ceased in 1962 only 19 remain. Many of these are slowly being demolished and the continued, recent loss of sites like Philpstoun (to industry) and Niddrie (to housing development) can only be detrimental to the biodiversity of the county of West Lothian. REFERENCES Harvie, B.A. (2005a). West Lothian Biodiversity’ Action Plan: Oil Shale Bings. Published, on behalf of West Lothian Local Biodiversity Action Plan partnership, by West Lothian Council, Linlithgow. Harvie, B.A. (2005b). The mechanisms and processes of vegetation dynamics on oil-shale spoil bings in West Lothian, Scotland, PhD Thesis, The University of Edinburgh. Harvie, B.A. (2007). The importance of the oil-shale bings of West Lothian, Scotland to local and national biodiversity. Botanical Journal of Scotland, 58(1), 35-47. Harvie, B.A. (2010). The shale-oil industiy in West Lothian, Scotland 1858-1962. I: Geology and History. Oil Shale, 27(4), 354-358. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Jupiter Urban Wildlife Centre Stephen Owen Scottish Wildlife Trust, Jupiter Urban Wildlife Centre, Wood Street, Grangemouth, FK3 8LH E-mail: jupiteiTanger@swt.org.uk Scottish Wildlife Trust’s Jupiter Urban Wildlife Centre is situated in the middle of Grangemouth. The 4 hectares are leased from the chemical company Calachem. It is a fine example of land reclamation for nature conservation. In 1989, the chemical giant ICI approached SWT regarding setting up a demonstration wildlife garden on an abandoned part of their Grangemouth site. This area had been a railway siding. Upon acquisition, it was covered in a mixture of sparse grassland, scattered scrub and marshy areas. Jupiter was opened to the public in 1992. Jupiter can be divided into three areas; wildlife gardens, habitat creation area and “wilderness woodland.” The habitat creation area and wildlife gardens contain complex habitat mosaics often with unusual combinations of species, due to their interesting histoiy, with some species having been 6 present when the area was wasteland, the deliberate creation of certain habitats and a combination of active management and natural succession over the succeeding years. The wildlife gardens show ideas for creating wildlife friendly spaces. The habitat creation area consists of a number of habitats with artificial origins: wetlands, wildflower rich grasslands and small woodlands. The regenerated “wilderness” woodland is an excellent example of the potential of wasteland if allowed to develop on its own. Thanks to the rich aiTay of habitats and careful management work, Jupiter supports a wealth of biodiversity. Over 360 species of flowering plant have been recorded and attract many invertebrates. There are records of over 50 species of bird. Mammals are more rarely seen, although some species have been recorded. The ponds support breeding populations of amphibians. Jupiter is also an important place for people. Curriculum linked education sessions, public events programmes, and volunteering are all popular. SWT’s partner organisation at Jupiter, BTCV Scotland, runs a Wildflower Nursery and a Green Gym. Secondaiy schools have been involved in exciting projects, designing and creating mosaics, murals and an outdoor classroom. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Glasgow’s local biodiversity - the way forward? Carol MacLean' and Cath Scotf Glasgow City Council, Land and Environmental Services, 231 George Street, Glasgow, G1 IRX 'E-mail: earol.maclean@glasgow.gov.uk ^E-mail: catherine.scott@glasgow.gov.uk There were 24 attendees at the ‘Glasgow’s Local Biodiversity - the way forward?’ workshop, where people were asked to consider the following four questions: 1. Do you consider that the Glasgow Biodiversity Partnership is doing enough for biodiversity in the City? 2. What does your local greenspace need to make it good for biodiversity? 3. How can the Partnership best communicate and engage with ‘hard to reach’ groups? 4. What can you personally do to improve and enhance local biodiversity? The results of the workshop, combined with a concuiTent on-line questionnaire about biodiversity provision in the City (at www.glasgow.gov.uk/biodiversitv) will help shape the future direction of the Local Biodiversity Action Plan (LBAP), which is being updated. Due to time constraints, only questions 1-3 were considered and as the first two questions were linked the responses to them have been eombined. The key responses are summarised here: Q. Do you consider that the Glasgow Biodiversity’ Partnership is doing enough for biodiversity’ in the City’? Q. What does your local greenspace need to make it good for biodiversity’? ‘More work needed in city centre areas. Everything happens north of the river. Use the Commonwealth Games to showcase biodiversity to visitors. Need better biological recording, brownfield sites need surveyed. Need better co-ordination between conseiwationists and contractors. Make sure greenspaces are high quality. Push for more allotments in the City. Provide more awareness of sites that eommunities can work on. Provide biodiversity inteipretation in local parks. Combat vandalism by encouraging community participation and schools involvement.’ Q. How can the Partnership best communicate and engage with ‘hard to reach ’ groups? ‘Engage more with local industries and companies and make better business links overall. Raise biodiversity profile by establishing a volunteer system linking various organisations. Target unemployed people at job centres to encourage volunteering - advertise. Give youth group talks and activities. Use social media such as facebook. Think about unusual media like drama groups, art and music groups - put on a biodiversity theatre production. Link more with secondaiy schools. Wider community work with different ethnic groups, taking ‘whole’ communities out on site. Use radio shows, places of worship and other venues to promote biodiversity.’ The update of the LBAP will include the development of a Community Engagement Plan which will allow local people and interest groups to help set local targets for biodiversity, and to consider the topics and queries above. The programme of Local Nature Reserves (LNRs) designation and development will help achieve many of the concerns raised. Linn Park on the south side, will soon be designated as an LNR. Damley Mill is a proposed LNR, also on the south side of the City. There are LNR leaflets which are designed to raise awareness of biodiversity and the importance of these sites for people and nature. There are already a number of volunteers helping at our LNRs and it is hoped these numbers will increase in the years ahead. New ideas such as using drama and social media to raise awareness of biodiversity could add a different strand of actions to the updated LBAP. 7 There are clearly a number of issues which have been raised by discussion within the Workshop and oppoitunities for these issues to be addressed by the new LEAP and any related policies and strategies. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Connecting habitats and communities workshop Eilidh Spence Froglifc, Room 211, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 SQQ E-mail: eilidh.spence@froglife.org Urban environments are becoming increasingly valuable habitats for a wide variety of species. As these areas are associated with large populations of people there has to be a balance between protecting valuable habitats and providing suitable housing and related industiy. Local communities have a considerable amount to offer and gain from being involved in improving their local area for wildlife. Froglife’s Living Waters projects are working in London and Glasgow to engage with local communities and help complete habitat creation and restoration work on standing open water habitats. This work is being canned out in partnership with Glasgow City Council and relevant London Boroughs, and is supported by local volunteer and ‘friends of groups from different urban parks. To promote sustainability of habitat work, communities are involved where possible on site and opportunities are provided to teach survey and practical conservation techniques. Froglife designed the workshop ‘Connecting Habitats and Communities’ to promote the importance of community involvement and raise awareness of enhancing habitats and creating essential wildlife coiridors to increase connectivity between sites. The workshop commenced with a short presentation introducing Froglife’s work followed by an interactive discussion with the audience. Eighteen people attended the workshop and were split into four groups. The groups were provided with a map of an urban site featuring a park, a school, ponds, hedgerows, ditches and allotments. A role-playing exercise was completed with each attendee being assigned a role as a different stakeholder with an interest in the local area. The character briefs included: a Head Teacher of the local school, a Council Park Manager/ Biodiversity Officer, and a representative from each of the following groups: a Friends of Group, a Local Natural Histoiy Society, a Wildlife Charity Officer and a Local Allotment foiiim. The groups held discussions in which each person gave suggestions from their point of view to provoke discussion and develop ideas for the area. This included how they would improve the selected site for wildlife, a proposed methodology for completing this work, and suggestions on how to involve members of the community. There were many aspects to cover in the session, but each group was able to provide one suggestion from their discussion to share with the rest of the audience. Groups had also written down a number of other ideas. Some similar themes emerged, as well as new initiatives for this type of urban site. Examples provided from the group discussions are shown below: • Pond creation and management - connecting and improving habitats including areas beyond the site boundary. • Conducting surveys of flora and fauna and mapping what is present to improve records. • Encouraging more local people to assist and gain new skills. • Training and sharing knowledge across different community groups on wildlife friendly gardening, vegetable growing, pond creation and surveying. • Working with local groups such as allotment users to save resources, for example water and tools. • Improving amenity grassland with wildflower meadows. Connecting habitats and encouraging communities to get involved through planting and enjoying the aesthetic value of wildflower meadows. Creating more hedgerows to connect habitats. • Writing a wildlife column for a local newspaper to share news e.g. nature diaiy or update community with recent work completed. To conclude the workshop the site for which participants had made their suggestions was revealed as Foots Cray Meadows in South London. Work completed by Froglife in the area was also discussed, including enhancement of one pond and the creation of eight new ponds. Work is also taking place to improve the suiTOunding terrestrial habitats not only for amphibians and reptiles but also wider biodiversity. Friends of Foots Cray Meadows have been involved with Froglife and support the habitat improvement work. The workshop was presented by Eilidh Spence and Sam Taylor from Froglife. Eilidh is the Glasgow Living Water Project Officer and can be contacted by email at eilidh.spence@froglife.org, or 01413390737. Eilidh is based at the University of Glasgow in the Graham Keix Building. Sam is Froglife’s Head of Communication and deputy CEO and is based at Froglife’s headquarters in Peterborough. Sam can be contacted by email at sam.taylor@froglife.org. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Excursion to Bingham’s pond Shelia Russell' & Eilidh Spence^ 'Glasgow City council ^Froglife, Room 211, Graham Kerr building. University of Glasgow G12 8QQ 'E-Mail: Sheila.russell@glasgow.gov.uk ^E-mail: eilidh. spence@froglife .org Bingham’s Pond (Fig. 1), situated just off the busy Great Western Road, Glasgow, was once a popular skating and boating pond. It became the subject of complaints by local residents concerning the rundown state of the pond and swan droppings making the path slippery and the water dirty. The large numbers of mute swans were dependent on bread as the pond supported almost no natural vegetation. Fig. 1. Bingham’s Pond In consultation with the local Community Council, it was decided to naturalise the pond to provide a more attractive place for the local people to enjoy and to enhance the biodiversity. It was hoped that by providing suitable habitat, a pair of breeding mute swans might be attracted to the pond and so control the large numbers of non-breeding swans, thus alleviating the perceived problem of the droppings and water quality. A steering group from the local community was set up to carry the project forward. In February 2003, the water level was lowered and many of the waterbirds flew off. 55 swans remained. These were rounded up and transfeiTed to Hogganfield Loch, NE Glasgow. Work then started to create two islands and a shallow shelf area around them and most of the perimeter of the pond. Over 7000 plants of over 20 species were planted. Wildflower mixes were seeded on the islands and the edge of the pond above the water level. The bulk of the plants were collected elsewhere in Glasgow. The plants were therefore of local provenance and importantly brought in aquatic invertebrates among the roots, which ‘inoculated’ Bingham’s Pond, thus enhancing the biodiversity of the site. A frog ramp was built to enable young common frogs to reach suitable habitat for feeding and hibernation and interpretation boards were erected. In the first year after naturalisation, mute swans, mallard, tufted duck, moorhen and coot bred. Surveys of the aquatic invertebrates of the pond before and after naturalisation, has revealed a large increase in the number of species present in the pond. As part of the Urban Biodiversity Conference 2010 an excursion to Bingham’s Pond was held at 2pm on 3U’ October. This session was attended by 14 people and blessed with quite good weather. Sheila Russell from Glasgow City Council led the group around the pond explaining the enhancement process and work completed on site. The excursion was concluded with examples of pond restoration and creation work in Glasgow through Froglife’s Living Water Project, provided by Project officer Eilidh Spence. Examples included restoration work at Newlands Park, Dawsholm LNR, and Alexandra Park and also pond creation work at Dams to Damley Countiy Park and Windlaw Marsh. Proposed future work and the expansion of the project into North Lanarkshire were also discussed. The pond enhancement work at Bingham’s Pond through Glasgow City Council will continue to be used as a demonstration site. The aim is to encourage landowners and stakeholders to care for standing open waters and contribute towards local biodiversity action plans to protect these valuable habitats for wildlife. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Posters - Bumblebee Conservation Trust Nornian Storie RSPB Scotland, 10 Park Quadrant, Glasgow G3 6BS E-mail: non'nan.storie@rspb. org.uk Urban habitats provide valuable nesting opportunities and forage resources for bumblebees. Six species are commonly found in gardens, providing a significant, free, pollination service for fruit and vegetables, and of course wildflowers. Planting and management of bumblebee-friendly flowers in parks, gardens, orchards 9 and other areas helps deliver substantial benefits for this erueial group of ‘keystone’ pollinators. The first British record of the tree bumblebee Bomhus hypmmm was in 2001 on the HampshireAViltshire border (Fig. 1). A population quickly became established and since 2007 the range has rapidly expanded to cover much of England. The species has not yet been recorded in Scotland. A distinctive species often found in urban areas, recording by the public is encouraged to monitor this colonisation event. Fig 1. Tree bumblebee (Bomhus hypnonmi) Photo credit: Bumblebee Conservation Trust. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Challenges in Glasgow’s urban woodlands Peter Wood Natural Environment Officer (Arboriculture & Woodlands) Arboriculture & Woodlands Team Natural Environment Unit Glasgow City Council E-mail: Peter. Wood(@glasgow.gov.uk Glasgow’s woodlands are diverse in location from stand-alone woods to park woodlands and Local Nature Reserves, yet whilst there a differing types of woodlands aeross the city many of the mature woodlands are not diverse in either species or age structures. Glasgow City Council utilises sustainable silvicultural management systems to ensure woodland cover in peipetuity whilst increasing biodiversity through developing native species elements and age structures of woodlands. There are many challenges to successfully meet the woodland management objectives, including managing woodlands as a social resource as well as an environmental resource. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Local nature reserves in Glasgow Jim Coyle MBE 6 Westerlands, Glasgow, G12 OFB E-mail: j.coylel3@ntlworld.com INTRODUCTION The City of Glasgow, commonly known as the 'dear green place', has seven Local Nature Reserves (LNRs). What is meant by the temi LNR? Put simply, LNRs are: • Statutory designations made under the National Parks & Access to the Countryside Act 1949. • Special places which are rich in wildlife, generally • Generally, readily accessible and suitable for people to visit and enjoy. The LNRs - at Garscadden Wood, Dawsholm Park, Robroyston Park, Hogganfield Park, Cardowan Moss, Bishop Loch and Commonhead Moss - were declared by the land owner of all seven sites, Glasgow City Council (GCC). In declaring these sites, GCC aims to: • Protect them from unsuitable developments • Manage and enhance the habitats to help biodiversity flourish • Improve public access • Help people understand and become more aware of the importance of the LNR • Encourage community participation and volunteering. Description of Glasgow's Local Nature Reserves All seven LNRs are located north of the River Clyde, generally on the edge of the city's built-up area, from Garscadden Wood in the west to Commonhead Moss in the east (Glasgow City Council 2008). Taking each in turn: Garscadden Wood was declared a LNR in 2006. It is one of Glasgow's oldest semi-natural woodlands in the city. Its main attractions are its bluebells Hyacinthoides non-scripla in late spring and the purple hairstreak butterfly Neozephyrus qiierciis, only one of three places where they can be found in the city. Dawsholm Park consists mainly of policy and plantation woodland and is important for its woodland bird populations. It was designated as an LNR in 2007. Robroyston Park, declared in 2006, plays host to grassland, wetland and woodland habitats. These prove 10 ideal for amphibians, dragonflies and damselflies and a host of birds. Hogganfield Park was the second LNR to be declared, in 1998. It is a great place to see birds, particularly wildfowl, with winter visitors such as whooper swan Cygniis cygniis being a speciality. It is also good for summer migrants and has a good range of butterflies. Cardowan Moss, also declared in 2006, consists of relatively new plantation woodland with a series of ponds and a relict raised bog. It is good for woodland birds, damselflies and dragonflies and amphibians. Bishop Loch, the first LNR in the city (1995), was established as a direct result of local people protesting against an open cast coal mining proposal in the vicinity of the loch. They felt sure it would destroy what they described as their "local nature reserve". The planning application for the mining was refused by GCC and thereafter by the Scottish Office, following an appeal and public inquiry. Ironically, the area eventually declared doesn't include any of the actual loch but does include the marshy areas adjoining the loch plus a woodland plantation that plays host to typical woodland birds. Commonhead Moss, the latest LNR declared in 2009, includes much of the largest raised bog in the city. It is particularly important for its butterflies. It is worth noting that there are a number of other wildlife sites in the City that are protected and, in some cases, managed for wildlife, e.g. Fossil Marsh SWT Reserve. GCC has recognized these sites in its City Plan (Glasgow City Council 2009). Management of Glasgow's Local Nature Reserves (LNRs) Generally, each LNR has a steering group of officials, interested agencies and local people. They approve, monitor and amend the Management Plans that were prepared as part of the consultation procedure with SNH. Works on the ground are funded by Council budgets. Landfill Credits and grants; and are implemented by council staff, contractors, volunteers and local people including school children. Examples of Management Works Dawsholm Park Local Nature Resen>e This LNR consists mainly of policy and plantation woodland and is important for woodland birds. However, the woodland was being smothered by rhododendron Rhododendron ponticum resulting in very little regeneration. This resulted in projects being developed, with the support of Forestry Commission Scotland (FCS) and local residents, aimed at bringing the woodland back to good health for wildlife and people. Specific projects included: • Woodland thinned • Rhododendron removed • Footpaths improved and a new fence erected • Wildflower meadows created • Highland cattle introduced • Interpretation/information provided • BBC Autumn Watch and other events held. Further improvements arc planned, including: • The planting of thousands of trees. • The erection of woodcrctc bird nest boxes. Hogganfield Park The LNR was declared primarily due to the importance of Hogganfield Loch, however, a number of works have been undertaken to widen the scope and range of habitats and species in the LNR - this is an ongoing project that was first started to demonstrate what could be done in the context of the evolving Biodiversity Plan for the city. Specific projects at Hogganfield Park LNR include: • Wetlands/ponds created • BBC SpringWatch and other events held • Information/interpretation boards erected • Wildflower meadows created/managed • Rhododendron removed • Bird perching posts and loafing pontoon installed • Loch edges improved. Further improvements are planned, including: • Naturalisation of the loch edge at the existing car park • Creation of a bird viewing and feeding platform. • Enhanced public access. The works listed above were undertaken by groups such as BTCV, Scottish Wildlife Trust, Score Environment, BBC and GCC utilising contractors, council staff, volunteers and local school children. Way Forward With the cuiTent economic crisis and the likely reduction in public sector funding for LNR type work, what can be done to ensure that people can continue to have access to nature on their doorstep? I would suggest that this can be achieved at both the macro and micro scale. Firstly, at the macro scale, partnership working is key. For example, through partnerships established with: (i) Local Groups These include groups such as Froglife, the RSPB Glasgow Local Group, and BTCV. (ii) Forestiy Commission Scotland (FCS) The Council has reached agreement, in principle, for the FCS to take over the day-to-day management of a number of woodlands in the City, including 3 LNRs - Garscadden Wood, Cardowan Moss and Bishop Loch. (Glasgow City Council 2009). (iii) Gartloch-Gartcosh Project This project covers an area stretching from Hogganfield Park LNR through to Drumpellier Country Park in North Lanarkshire and includes Cardowan Moss, Bishop Loch and Commonhead Moss LNRs. A consultants study (Land Use Consultants 2008), commissioned by a host of agencies, recognised that the area is potentially of national importance for wildlife. This Strategy - the Gartloch-Gartcosh Green Network Strategy - has been well received and a number of agencies have already progressed a variety of projects; e.g. see Section 4 in relation to Hogganfield Park LNR. It is important that the agencies that commissioned the consultants’ report continue to commit to its implementation. Whilst these projects and ideas are crucial to ensure the future of LNRs at the macro scale, the future of ‘nature’ in the City could be said to be in the hands of local people. Why local people? At the 'micro' scale', they already manage a considerable ‘green’ resource - gardens and allotments. With minor changes to their management, there could be huge benefits for nature without any cost to the public purse. As a result, green coiTidors would be created, just like the large scale habitat works proposed through the Gartloch-Gartcosh Project, but on a smaller scale. Gardens play host to a whole range of wildlife and are key to engaging with cuiTent and future generations. Even small spaces can be managed for wildlife and this in turn could awaken an interest and quest for knowledge that can only benefit us all. Having experienced what can be attracted to their garden many people will take more of an interest in their LNR or wildlife site. Who here at today's Conference hasn’t already taken that step? This leads me to my final point. If you care about wildlife or nature you can all make a difference. If you care about Glasgow’s wildlife 1 would ask you to consider whether you would join or help create a ‘Friends of Glasgow’s Local Nature Reserves’ whose aim would be to lobby and raise funds for Glasgow’s wildlife whether at the macro or micro scale. Thank you and remember Glasgow’s Wilds Better! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Much of the work in relation to LNRs in the City is unlikely to have happened without the support and dedication of the biodiversity & ecology officers in Glasgow City Council. REFERENCES Glasgow City Council (2008). Glasgow's Local Nature Reserves (leaflet). Glasgow City Council (2009). Glasgow City Plan 2. Policy ENV 7, Part 5 Environment Policies. Glasgow City Council (2009). Proposed Lease of Woodlands to Forestry Commission Scotland. Report by Bailie James McNally, Executive Member for Land and Environment to, and minute thereof, GCC Executive Committee 24 September 2009. Land Use Consultants (2008). Gartcosh Gartloch Green Network Strategy and Management Plan for Bishop's Estate; a report to Glasgow City Council, North Lanarkshire Council, Communities Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage, Forestiy Commission Scotland, Glasgow East Regeneration Agency and Glasgow and Clyde Valley Green Network Partnership. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Health-promoting environments = is good greenspace good enough? Deryck Irving Greenspace Scotland, 12 Alpha Centre, Innovation Park, University of Stirling FK9 4NF E-mail: deryck. irving(§greenspacescotland. org.uk In 2009/2010 greenspace Scotland worked with NHS Health Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage, Glasgow City Council and the Dundee Environment Partnership to develop and publish what is known as an outcomes framework showing how work to create, maintain and manage greenspace can contribute to the delivery of national and local health priorities (greenspace Scotland, 2010). An outcomes framework is a linked series of logic models which draw on available evidence to demonstrate the connection between planned actions and desired outcomes. This knowledge and approach can help practitioners to better make the case for investing time and resources into greenspace and to improve the planning and evaluation of what we do ‘on the ground’. Our research project used eight pieces of greenspace work and a review of existing research literature. The work was set in the context of national health priorities which are expressed and interpreted at a local level. We considered three outcomes - increased levels of physical activity; enhanced mental health and wellbeing; reduced health inequalities - which partners felt could easily be linked to greenspace. These were a synthesis of outcomes contained in the Dundee and Glasgow Single Outcome Agreements. This work allowed us to draw a series of important conclusions: People need to use and/or value greenspace to derive the maximum health benefits. Most of the health benefits reported in the research require either direct interaction with the environment or some level of positive personal response to the environment. Simply creating or preserving greenspace is not enough. Not all greenspace is beneficial to health - poor spaces can be detrimental to mental health and wellbeing and deter people from taking physical exercise; they can become the places which communities avoid rather than the places where they come together. The potential health benefits of greenspace are only realised if we have the right distribution and mix of spaces. Appropriate management is crucial. The potential for delivering health benefits is 12 dependent on how we manage the spaces that we have. Inappropriate or inflexible management approaches can often exclude people from spaces and fragment communities. Promotion of healthy uses of greenspace is also essential. All spaces need some fonn of active management and promotion of use (even if this is as simple as encouraging local people to adapt spaces to their own uses) - but it goes further than this. Particularly when we look at tackling health inequalities, many of our ‘target audience’ do not have a culture of using spaces. In such cases, it may be necessary to combine appropriate management of spaces with targeted support for use (from simple publicity and promotion through to behavioural change programmes such as health walks or gardening clubs). If we are genuine about tackling inequalities, our resources and actions have to be targeted. Simply improving greenspace (even in ways that are designed to provide healthy environments) will not reduce health inequalities. In practice, what is likely to happen is that those who are most disposed to use greenspace will use it more while many of those experiencing health problems which might be addressed through greenspace will not. This will widen health inequalities. There is a need, therefore, to actively target our actions either on specific geographical areas; specific communities or people experiencing specific health conditions. REFERENCES Greenspace Scotland (2010) Greenspace and Health Outcomes Framework. Greenspace Scotland, Stirling ISBN 978=0-9555092 1 -3-8 www.greenspacescotland.org.uk/healthoutcomes/ Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Glasgow’s water beetles Garth N. Foster The Aquatic Coleoptera Conservation Trust, 3 Eglinton Terrace, Ayr KA7 IJJ E-mail: latissimus(^btintemet.com INTRODUCTION Water beetles are a well-recorded freshwater group in Britain despite lacking the charisma of dragonflies and the angling interest of mayflies and the like. The conference on urban biodiversity held by the Glasgow Natural History Society in October 2010 provided the stimulus to assess their status in the area. Water beetles cannot be precisely excised from beetles as a whole. Coleoptera are divided into two major groups, the Adephaga and the Polyphaga. Within the Adephaga the name “Hydradephaga” has been coined to distinguish diving beetles and related species from the ground beetles in the Carabidae. This works fairly well so long as one ignores the fact that many ground beetles are confined to aquatic emergent vegetation or to the water’s edge. The Polyphaga are more difficult, with even the major family the Hydrophilidae including some species mainly living in dung, often a wet habitat but not one usually worked with the pond net! The problem is acute for the leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) and weevils (Curculionidae and Erirhinidae) that live on wetland plants, as sometimes the host range is quite diverse and may even include trees! The acid test applied here is whether the beetles are more likely to be encountered in the pond net wielded by an aquatic coleopterist than in a sweep net swung by a diy-shod coleopterist. This paper is in two parts, an assessment of the records available from the national recording scheme and a description of a survey of sites in and around Glasgow in 2010. RECORDING AROUND GLASGOW UP TO 2010 Infomiation was extracted from the national recording data-base for the twenty 10 km squares NS44 in the south-west comer to NS87 in the north-east. This generated 1,644 records of 141 species, the majority from the vice-county of Lanarkshire, with small contributions from the vice-counties of Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, Dunbartonshire, and Stirlingshire. These beetles belong to fifteen families, dominated by the diving beetles in the Dytiscidae (Table 1). Although 24 species have not been recorded in the area since 1979, 16 were last recorded in the 1980s. Eleven of the latter are typically associated with running water, leaving only another eleven running water species in the list of 101 species recorded from 1990 onwards. However several water beetles specialising in pond habitats have become established in the Glasgow area over a similar period. The following examples of some species in decline and some on the increase serve to illustrate the range of habitats that can be occupied. Noterm clavicorms (De Geer) This species is usually referred to as “The Large Noterus" because the name clavicorms has also been applied to the smaller, flightless N. crassicornis (Muller), which is very rare in Scotland. The earliest Scottish record is a little uncertain but by 1 946 N. clavicorms was in the garden of the greatest proponent of water beetles, Frank Balfour-Browne, in Dumfriesshire and it was first found in Kirkcudbrightshire in 1949. Roy Crowson (1987) reported it in the Glasgow area in Fossil Loch in 1985, the same year that the author found it for the first time in Ayrshire. Subsequently it has spread over more of western mainland Scotland (an early record from Raasay was spurious) and was in 2010 found for the first time in the Borders in a well-recorded site in 13 Roxburghshire. The noterine diving beetles differ from the dytiscid ones mainly in that their wirewomi-like larvae live attached to roots and rhizomes of flote- grasses and bogbean, renewing their air supply through their posterior spiracles from acrenchymatous plant tissue, whereas the dytiscids live freely. Consequently notcrids arc typical of vegetation rafts though N. clavicornis can be common among vegetation in ordinary ponds, including in 2010 Durrockstock, Gartcosh, one of the M77 balancing lagoons at the Meams Box, the Phoenix Industrial Estate, and Robroyston. Agahus congener (Thunberg) This is a scarce dytiscid diving beetle typically found in small hard-bottomed pools on peat. It persists in the Glasgow area on Lenzie Moss having first been reported in the Glasgow area in Robroyston Bog by the Reverend Hislop (1854). Rhantus sntnralis (Macleay) The name “supertramp” has been used for this species (Balke et al. 2009) respecting its remarkable range, from Ireland to New Zealand. Its ancestiy, based on mitochondrial DNA, indicates that about 1.5 million years ago it was an endemic of New Guinea mountains. Now it can be found in a great range of still water habitats north to Caithness. One specimen was found in a newly created pond at Cardowan in 2010: the only earlier record, and there is potential confusion over the names it has received, is from the 19*'^ Ccntuiy (Young 1856). Hydroporus fernigineus Stephens A major centre of biodiversity for water beetles is part of the Australian outback where each isolated pocket of subterranean water has it own endemic diving beetle species (e.g. Watts & Humphreys 2009). The northern European fauna is more restricted with only H. fernigineus being truly subterranean though, unlike many subterranean species, it retains eyes. The larva, which is unusually pale, was described from the Speedwell Cavern by Alarie et al. (2001). H. fernigineus is often found in wells and can occasionally be pumped to the surface (Young 1980). Professor Crowson’s collection, in the Hunterian Museum, has a specimen of H. fernigineus found by Mr H.D. Slack at 384, West George Street, Glasgow in December 1957. This address no longer exists, most likely lost beneath the motorway, but the possibility remains that this species survives in spring systems among the Glaswegian drumlins. Hygrotus nigroUneatus (von Steven) This beetle was first found in Britain in a pit used for gravel extraction in East Kent in 1983 by Ron Carr (1984). It subsequently spread through England as far north as Northumberland by 2004. A single specimen was taken by Craig Macadam in his Glasgow pond survey in May 2010 in a recently excavated pond at Robroyston (NS629683) (Macadam & Foster 2010). This beetle lives on an exposed substratum and cannot tolerate the presence of vegetation. Helopitonis tuherculatm Gyllenhal This rare species is 3 mm and black, resembling a fragment of charcoal (Angus 1992). It lives on wet moorland that has been burnt, its principal population in Britain being on the North Yorkshire Moors, where the heather is managed by burning. Specimens dated from 1910 to 1915, from Drumpellier, Coatbridge, can be found in many entomological collections throughout Britain. These were mainly supplied by W.J. M’Leod, who, according to Balfour-Browne (1958), visited the site along with the original discoverer, G.A. Brown, and Anderson Fergusson in 1911. The near extinction of this species might be related to the loss of steam power, which would have ensured frequent burning of moorland neighbouring railways. Macroplea appendiculata (Panzer) Most reed beetles have showy adults living above the water on emergent vegetation, in particular reeds and bur-reeds: their larvae, like those of the Noterus, depend on aerenchyma of aquatic plants for their air supply. Members of the genus Macroplea are amongst the most aquatic of all beetles, living below the water in all stages of the life-cycle unlike the majority of beetles, which pupate out of the water. The sole record of M. appendiculata stems from another specimen in Professor Crowson’s collection, taken by his wife Betty in Loch Libo, Renfrewshire on 29 April 1967. M. appendiculata has as its host plants alternate water- milfoil {Myriophylliiin alternijlorum) and fennel pondweed (Potainogeton pectinatus). According to Monahan and Caffrey (1996), working in Irish canals, this species prefers fennel pondweed when both potential hosts are available. Further attempts to find the Macroplea in Loch Libo have been unsuccessful, and the fennel pondweed, which was plentiful up to 2004, could not be found in 2008, possibly because of eutrophication. Macroplea appears to have been lost from Milton Loch, Kirkcudbrightshire, where it was abundant in 1996, and Loch Leven, Fife, where it was found in 1933: these lochs have suffered from algal blooms that would have destroyed suitable host plants. Erirhiniis aethiops (Fab.) This is a relatively large (5- 7 mm long) black and shining weevil that looks as if it may have fallen in the water by accident when caught in the pond net. It lives on bur-reed (Sparganiiun erectum) and some sedges. Morris (2002) noted that it is usually rare and found north from north-east Yorkshire, though not in northem Scotland or on any of the islands. Pitfall trapping on exposed riverine sediment has established its presence in Wester Ross, Morayshire and East Inverness-shire (Eyre et al. 2000). Crowson (1971) recorded it from Loch Libo, where the author found it again on 3 1 May 2008. THE 2010 SURVEY The author’s 2010 survey of ponds and similar habitats covered 37 sites generating 426 records of 76 species (Table 2), adding six species to the overall list. In Table 1 the other two species recorded in 2010 were from Craig Macadam’s survey, Hygrotus nigroUneatus, described above, and Halipliis fulviis. Apart from the Hygrotus nigroUneatus two other species are rated as Nationally Scarce on a GB-wide basis in a recent analysis (Foster 2010). Rhantus frontalis, represented by one specimen at Cardowan, is known in Scotland elsewhere from Angus in 1933, 14 Ayrshire, most recently in 1911, Fife, most recently in 1961, Stirling and West Perthshire in the 19*'’ Centui'y, West Lothian in 1985, and since 2005 along the Solway coast. Earlier records for the vice-county of Lanarkshire are by Magnus Sinelair and the author from Carstairs Karnes (NS957472) on 8 April 1977 and by the author from Coalbum (NS8035) on 25 May 1981. The Karnes provided a more typical habitat for this species, sparsely vegetated water over sand, than the new Glasgow site in a shaded tussock fen. This species overwinters out of the water (Galewski 1963) and probably flies to seek ponds suitable for breeding in the spring. The other Nationally Scarce species, Helophorus granularis, was common in the marsh where R. frontalis occuiTcd. This is a species of “vernal swamps” (see Balfour-Browne 1958) and occurs, scattered across the British Isles, in the micropterous fonn ytenensis Sharp, the wings of which are reduced in size but possibly not entirely incapable of flight. On the basis of these GB-nationally Scarce species the marsh at Cardowan rates as the site with the greatest conservation status in the suiwey. A system that assesses conservation quality of the basis of all species present was developed by Foster & Eyre (1992). It was based on counts of ten km square records converted to scores in a geometric series froml for the commonest species, then 2, 4, 8... etc. up to the rarest species. The scores for southern Scotland used by Foster & Eyre (1992) are out-of-date, being based on considerably less records than are currently available and on a more limited suite of species than is currently recorded. New scores were developed (Table 2) based on counts of each species in the twenty 10 km squares of the search area used for Glasgow as available in the national recording scheme data-base, supplemented by records from the Chrysomelidae atlas (Cox 2007). These counts were used to assign each species a score from 1 to 5 on an arithmetic scale (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 if geometric) that then could be used to produce an aggregate quality score and a mean quality score for each site. The mean score should be more reliable than the aggregate score or the total number of species as it reduces the impact of variable recording effort. Sites in Table 2 are ranked in order of the mean quality score. Bingham’s Pond, beside the Pond Hotel on the Great Western Road, scores highest. This site, a typical Victorian Park pond with hard edges and many water fowl, has been improved by planting vegetation from Frankfield Loch and other Glaswegian sites (pers. comm. Sheila Russell). These plantings may have contributed the reed beetles that have raised the site’s score. The second highest site is one of the few areas of seepage encountered, in this case the outflow of a balancing lagoon of the M77 at St. Martin’s. The site with the greatest number of species, a pool behind the Phoenix Industrial Estate near to Glasgow Airport, scored third highest. This pool would appear to man- made in that it is formed by subsidence. Even the lowest scoring site, a peat ditch on Lenzie Moss, has one species of interest, Hydroporiis tristis, but this and the other species present arc characteristic of acid water that is still common around Glasgow. DISCUSSION There are many species of water beetle in and around Glasgow, their habitat range is diverse, and some species are in decline if not locally extinct whilst others are increasing. Declining species are associated mainly with peat, with running water and with exposed lake shores. Pond species are generally doing well and do not require further conservation activity except that pond creation generates public interest and stewardship. The instant gratification of building a new pond cannot be denied! However, conservation activists are urged to avoid damage to existing temporaiy marsh systems in this process as many beetles require both vegetation cover and the periodic drought to eliminate prcdatoiy fish. Moving vegetation locally to soften the hard edge of a typical park pond has proved effective at Bingham’s Pond, introducing host plants for showy beetles and providing marginal refugia for others. Peatlands still exist in quantity around Glasgow despite the industrialisation and urbanisation of the area. The species dependent on a peat substratum will be the next to disappear unless the loss of peat is halted, preferably by flooding - so there is still scope for large scale pond creation. Land developments such as out-of-town shopping malls and golf courses, and the tidying up of brownfield sites just for the sake of tidying up could cause more damage than the industries from which the city grew. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks firstly go to Richard Weddle for having invited me to attend the Urban Biodiversity Conference in sufficient time to pemiit a survey to be done. Along with Elizabeth Illingworth, of the Friends of Lenzie Moss, Eilidh Spence, of Glasgow Living Water, and several members of the ranger services for Glasgow City Council and North Lanarkshire Council, Richard proved most helpful in alerting me to sites and their access. Of the rangers 1 would like to single out Lindsay Gemmell for escorting me around Pollok Country Park. My friend Steven Routledge also accompanied me on part of the survey as did Geoff Hancock, who should also be acknowledged for providing access to the collections of the Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow. The Balfour Beatty team is thanked, in particular Dave Allen for facilitating access to the lagoons along the new trunk road system and to Grant Kennedy for escorting me and Geoff to some of the ponds. It will not have escaped the attention of some that the 2010 survey conducted by the author did not yield a species new for Scotland, whereas Craig Macadam’s survey did! Thanks go to Craig for the chance to examine his beetle material. 15 Last record No. 10 km squares Quality score Suborder Adephaga GYRINIDAE Gyrinus aeratus Stephens 2008 1 5 Gyrimis caspius Menetries 1913 2 4 Gyrinus marimis Gyllenhal 1915 3 4 Gyrinus ininutus Fab. 1976 3 4 Gyrinus substriatus Stephens 2010 13 2 Orectochilus villosus (Muller) 1987 3 4 HALIPLIDAE Biychius elevatus ( Panzer) 1910 3 4 Haliplus confinis Stephens 2010 7 3 Ha/ip/us fiavico/lis Stumi 2010 7 3 Haliplus fluviatilis Aube 1983 6 3 Haliplus fulvus (Fab.) 2010 11 2 Haliplus iminaculatus Gerhardt 2010 6 3 Haliplus UneatocoUis (Marsham) 2010 13 2 Haliplus lineolatus Mannerheim 2004 9 2 Haliplus ohiiquus (Fab.) 2010 1 5 Haliplus ruJicoUis (De Geer) 2010 14 2 Haliplus sihiricus Motschulsky 2010 14 2 NOTERIDAE Noterus clavicornis (De Geer) 2010 6 3 DYTISCIDAE Agahus qffinis (Paykull) 2010 7 3 Agahus arcticus (Paykull) 1976 6 3 Agahus biguttatus (Olivier) 1932 5 3 Agahus hipustulatus (L.) 2010 19 1 Agahus congener (Thunberg) 2010 6 3 Agahus guttatus (Paykull) 1989 8 2 Agahus lahiatus (Brahm) 1910 3 4 Agahus nehulosus (Forster) 2010 7 3 Agahus paluclosus (Fab.) 2010 8 2 Agahus sturmii (Gyllenhal) 2010 15 2 Agahus iinguicularis (Thomson) 2010 6 3 Ilyhius aenescens Thomson 1974 2 4 llybius ater (De Geer) 2010 9 2 Ilyhius fuliginosus (Fab.) 2010 15 2 Ilyhius guttiger (Gyllenhal) 2010 5 3 Ilyhius montanus (Stephens) 2010 6 3 Platambus maculatus (L.) 2008 9 2 Colyinbetes fuscus (L.) 2010 13 2 Rhantus exsoletus (Forster) 2010 12 2 Rhantus frontalis (Marsham) 2010 2 4 Rhantus suturalis (Macleay) 2010 2 4 Rhantus suturellus (Han'is) 1976 4 3 Acilius canaliculatus (Nicolai) 1992 5 3 Acilius sulcatus (L.) 2010 6 3 Dytiscus marginalis L. 2010 10 2 Dytiscus semisulcatus Muller 2000 8 2 Graptodytes pictus (Fab.) 1980 3 4 Hydroporus angustatus Stunn 2010 11 2 Hydroporus discretus Fainnaire 2010 7 3 Hydroporus eiythrocephalus (L.) 2010 12 2 Hydroporus ferrugineus Stephens 1957 4 3 Hydroporus gy’llenhalii Schiodte 2010 18 1 Hydroporus incognitiis Shaip 2010 13 2 Hydroporus hngicornis Sharp 1990 4 3 Hydroporus melanarius Stumi 1998 5 3 Hydroporus memnonius Nicolai 2010 13 2 Hydroporus morio Aube 1989 7 3 Hydroporus nigrita (Fab.) 2010 12 2 16 Hvdroporiis ohscurus Stumi 2010 6 3 Hydroporns obsoletus Aube 1968 1 5 Hydroporus palnstris (L.) 2010 17 1 Hvdroporus planus (Fab.) 2010 13 2 Hydroporus puhescem (Gyllenhal) 2010 19 1 Hydroporus rufifrons (Muller) 1853 1 5 Hydroporus striola (Gyllenhal) 2010 13 2 Hydroporus tessellatus Drapiez 2000 1 5 Hydroporus tristis (Paykull) 2010 11 2 Hydroporus umhrosus (Gyllenhal) 2010 12 2 Nebrioporus assimilis (Paykull) 2004 11 2 Nebrioporus elegans (Panzer) 2004 12 2 Oreodytes davisii (Curtis) 1974 4 3 Oreodytes sanmarkii (Sahlberg) 2008 9 2 Oreodytes septentrionalis (Gyllenhal) 1987 9 2 Stictonectes lepidus (Olivier) 1910 2 4 Stictotarsus diiodecimpustu/atus (Fab.) 1984 10 2 Hygrotus confluens (Fab.) 1999 4 3 Hygrotus impressopiinctatus (Schaller) 2010 4 3 Hygrotus inaeqiialis (Fab.) 2010 14 2 Hygrotus nigrolineatus (von Steven) 2010 1 5 Hygrotus novemlineatus (Stephens) 1911 2 4 Hyphydrus ovatus (L.) 2010 6 3 Laccophilus minutus (L.) 2010 5 3 Suborder Polyphaga HELOPHORIDAE Helophorus aequalis Thomson 2010 13 2 Helophorus an>ernicus Mulsant 2008 4 3 Helophorus brevipalpis Bedel 2010 16 1 Helophorus Jlavipes Fab. 2010 13 2 Helophorus grandis Illiger 2010 11 2 Helophorus granularis (L.) 2010 3 4 Helophorus griseus Herbst 2010 1 5 Helophorus minutus Fab. 2010 9 2 Helophorus obscurus Mulsant 2010 8 2 Helophorus tuberculatus Gyllenhal 1915 1 5 HYDROCHIDAE Hydrochus brevis (Herbst) 1853 1 5 HYDROPHILIDAE Hydrophilinae Anacaena globulus (Paykull) 2010 19 1 Anacaena lutescens (Stephens) 2010 7 3 Chaetarthria seminulum s. lat. 1987 2 4 Enochrus coarctatus (Gredler) 2010 2 4 Hydrobius fuscipes (L.) 2010 15 2 Laccobius bipunctatus (Fab.) 2010 13 2 Laccobius colon (Stephens) 2010 3 4 Laccobius minutus (L.) 2010 4 3 Laccobius striatulus (Fab.) 1983 2 4 Sphaeridiinae Coelostoma orbiculare (Fab.) 1989 5 3 Cercyon marimis Thomson 2010 3 4 Cercyon ustulatus (Preyssler) 1985 1 5 HYDRAENIDAE Hydraena britteni Joy 2000 3 4 Hydraena gracilis Gennar 2008 2 4 Hydraena nigrita Germar 1983 1 5 Hydraena riparia Kugelann 2010 13 2 Limnebius nitidus (Marsham) 1919 1 5 Limnebius tnmcatellus (Thunberg) 2010 14 2 Enicocerus exsculptus (Germar) 1987 3 4 Ochthebius dilatatus Stephens 2010 2 4 17 Ochthebiiis minimus (Fab.) 2010 2 4 SCIRTIDAE Microcara festacea (L.) 1999 1 5 Cyphon hilaris Nyholm 1999 1 5 Cyphon padi (L.) 2000 1 5 Cyphon variahilis (Thunberg) 2010 4 3 ELMIDAE Elmis aenea (Mtiller) 2008 5 3 Esolus paral/elepipedns (Miiller) 1987 2 4 Linmius vo/ckmari (Panzer) 1990 5 3 Oulimniiis tnherculatus (Muller) 1987 4 3 Rioliis cnpreiis (Muller) 1987 2 4 Riolus suhviolacens (Muller) 2008 1 5 HETEROCERIDAE Heterocerns marginatns (Fab.) 1853 1 5 COCCINELLIDAE Coccidiila nijci (Herbst) 2010 2 4 CHRYSOMELIDAE Plaieiimaris discolor (Panzer) 2010 4 3 Plateiimaris sericea (L.) 2010 2 4 Donacia obsenra Gyllenhal 1979 1 5 Donacia simplex Fab. 2010 1 5 Donacia versicolorea (Brahm). 1992 2 4 Donacia vulgaris Zsehach 2010 2 4 Macroplea appendicnlata (Panzer) 1967 1 5 Galerucella nymphaeae (L.) 2010 4 3 1 lydrothassa marginella (L.) 2010 2 4 Phaedon armoraciae (L.) 2010 2 4 Phaedon cochleariae (Fab.) 2010 1 5 Prasocuris phellandrii (L.) 2010 5 3 CURCULIONIDAE Phytobins lencogaster (Marsham) 1994 2 4 Bagous a 1 is mat is (Marsham) 1900 2 4 ERIRHINIDAE Erirhinus aethiops (Fab.) 2008 2 4 Notaris acridnliis (L.) 1901 4 3 Gnpns equiseti (Fab.) 1901 1 5 Table 1. Water beetles reeorded in and around Glasgow. 18 National grid reference Site VC Date No. spp. AQS MQS Noteworthy spp. NS5543681 1 Bingham’s Pond 99 5 June 15 42 2.8 Halipliis confwis, Donacia simple, D. vulgaris NS50495149 M77 Meams box 76 12 May 5 13 2.6 Hyclrothassa marginella NS45286466 Phoenix Industrial Estate 76 24 April 24 61 2.5 Phaedon cochleariae NS64857181 Lenzie Moss 2 99 10 April 10 24 2.4 Agahiis congener NS6720672 Gartloch Pool 77 5 June 17 40 2.4 Halipliis confinis, Cercyon marimis NS707684 Gartcosh 4 77 20 March 15 35 2.3 Acilhfs sulcatus, Agahiis iinguicularis NS651673 Cardowan 1 77 27 March 19 43 2.3 Rhantus snturalis NS70576838 Gartcosh 6 77 5 April 15 34 2.3 Halipliis confinis. H. obliqiiiis NS4566160 Durrockstock pond 76 1 May 6 14 2.3 NS654674 Cardowan 2 77 27 March 16 35 2.2 Rhantus frontalis, Heloplioriis graniilaris NS55336220 Pollok Country Park, marsh 77 4 May 5 11 2.2 NS62806838 Robroyston Park 2 77 17 July 17 38 2.2 Phaedon arinoraciae NS62776805 Robroyston Park 1 77 10 April 15 32 2.1 NS50495147 M77 Meams box 76 12 May 19 40 2.1 llyhiiis giittiger, Phaedon arinoraciae NS707684 Gartcosh 3 77 20 March 12 24 2.0 Hydroporiis tristis NS653674 Cardowan 3 77 27 March 8 16 2.0 NS52775930 Damley Mill 76 1 May 12 24 2.0 NS60576568 Cathkin Marsh 2 77 1 May 6 12 2.0 NS60325791 Cathkin Marsh 3 77 1 May 16 32 2.0 NS707685 Gartcosh 5 77 20 March 17 33 1.9 Enochriis coarctatiis NS43926568 Linwood Moss 2 76 24 April 14 27 1.9 llyhiiis giittiger NS5 1725274 M77 Meams box 76 12 May 17 33 1.9 NS705682 Gartcosh 1 77 20 March 13 24 1.8 NS706687 Gartcosh 2 77 20 March 8 14 1.8 Ochthehius dilatatiis NS52195380 M77 Junction 5 76 12 May 14 25 1.8 NS54795411 Titwood 76 12 May 12 21 1.8 NS603722 Wilderness Plantation 1 99 5 April 3 5 1.7 NS63466936 Robroyston Road 77 10 April 1 1 19 1.7 NS55336220 Pollok Country Park, The Glade 77 4 May 3 5 1.7 NS52225375 M77 Junction 5 76 12 May 11 19 1.7 NS54565429 Titwood 76 12 May 7 12 1.7 NS43656600 Linwood Moss 1 76 24 April 16 26 1.6 NS55336220 Pollok Country Park, main pond 77 4 May 7 11 1.6 NS601721 Wilderness Plantation 3 99 5 April 5 8 1.6 NS60576568 Cathkin Marsh 1 77 1 May 4 6 1.5 NS602721 Wilderness Plantation 2 99 5 April 2 3 1.5 NS64787171 Lenzie Moss 1 99 10 April 6 8 1.3 Hydroporiis tristis Table 2. Summaiy of the 2010 sui'vey. The vice-counties (vc) are 76 Renfrewshire, 77 Lanarkshire, and 99 Dunbartonshire. AQS is the aggregate quality score, i.e. the sum of all the species quality scores. MQS is the mean quality score, the average quality score value per species. 19 REFERENCES Alarie,, Y. Wood, P.J., DeBruyn, A.M.H. & Cuppen, J. G.M. (2001). Description of the larvae of Hydroporus ferrugineus Stephens and H. polaris Fall (Coleoptera; Adephaga: Dytiscidae). Aquatic Insects 23, 123-133. Angus, R.B. (1992). Insecta: Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae: Helophorinae. SusswaJIerfaiina von Mitteleuropa 20 ( 10) part 2. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. Balfour-Browne, F. (1940). British water beetles. Volume I. London, Ray Society. Balfour-Browne, F. (1958). British water beetles. Volume 3. London, Ray Society. Balke, M., Ribera, L, Hendrich, L., Miller, M. A., Sagata, K. , Posman, A., Vogler, A. P., & Meier, R. (2009). New Guinea highland origin of a widespread arthropod supertramp. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B 276, 2359-2367. Carr, R. (1984). A Coelamhus species new to Britain (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae). Entomologist's Gazette 35, 181-184. Cox, M.L. (2007). Atlas of the seed and leaf beetles of Britain and Ireland. Pisces Publications. Crowson, R.A. (1971). Some records of Curculionoidea (Coleoptera) from southern Scotland. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine 107, 47-52. Crowson, R.A. ( 1 987). Noterus clavicornis DeGeer (Col., Notcridac) at Possil Marsh, Glasgow. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine 123, 155. Eyre, M.D., Luff, M.L. & Lott, D.A. (2000). Records of rare and notable beetle species from riverine sediments in Scotland and northem England. The Coleopterist 9, 25-38. Foster, G.N. (2010). A review of the scarce and threatened Coleoptera of Great Britain. Part 3: water beetles. Species Status No. 1. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Foster, G.N. & Eyre, M.D. (1992). Classification and ranking of water beetle communities. UK Nature Consenmtion 1. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Galewski, K. (1963). Immature stages of the Central European species of Rhantus Dejean (Coleoptera, Dytiscidae). Polskie pismo entomologiczne 33, 3-93. Hislop, R. (1854). Localities of Dytiscus lapponicus and Agabus congener. Zoologist 14, 4956. Macadam, C. & Foster, G.N. (2010). Hygrotus nigrolineatus (von Steven) (Coleoptera, Dytiscidae) new for Scotland, with an update on its status in England and Wales. The Coleopterist 19, 115-116. Monahan, C. & Caffrey, J.M. (1996). Macroplea appendiculata (Coleoptera) in the Royal and Grand Canals: a rarity or an overlooked species in Ireland. Bulletin of the Irish hiogeographical Societv 19, 182- 188. ' Moms, M.G. (2002). True weevils (Part I). Coleoptera; Curculionidae (Subfamilies Raymondionyminae to Smicronychinae). Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects 5 ( 1 7b). London: Royal Entomological Society. Watts, C.H.S. & Humphreys, W.F. (2009). Fourteen new Dytiscidae (Coleoptera) of the genera Limbodessus Guignot, Paroster Shaip, and Exocelina Broun from underground water in Australia. Transactions of the Royal SocieU’ of South Australia 133, 62-107, 108- 149. Young, M. (1856). Capture of Coleoptera in Renfrewshire. Entomologist 's Weekly Intelligencer 1 , 166. Young, M.R. (1980). Don't have the bath water too hot! Balfour-Browne Club Newsletter 15:8. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Clydebank as a hotspot for the common pill woodlouse ArmadilUdium vulgare Glyn M. Collis ‘Seasgair’, Ascog, Isle of Bute, PA20 9ET E-mail: g.m.collis(^gmail.com ABSTRACT In Scotland, the common pill woodlouse is at the Northem edge of its range. On the east coast it extends as far north as Johnshaven. Until a recent discoveiy in Helensburgh, the northernmost location in the west was Clydebank, where two sites were discovered by Futter (1998). An additional four sites have since been discovered, which is an unusual degree of clustering. Five of the six Clydebank sites are alongside railways. Consideration is given to factors pennitting the species to amive, survive and thrive in railway-side sites, and in Clydebank. THE COMMON PILL WOODLOUSE IN SCOTLAND The common pill woodlouse ArmadilUdium vulgare is the most widespread of seven native British species in the family Annadilliidae, hence the addition of “common” to its traditional vernacular name. It is one of the most common of all woodlouse species in southern Britain, but in Scotland it is more sparsely distributed and at the edge of its range. The nature of its Scottish distribution has become more clear as recording coverage has improved. The first published atlas of woodlice in Britain and Ireland (Harding & Sutton, 1985) showed three groupings of records: on the east coast as far north as Tayside; on the Solway coast; and inland among horticultural nursery sites in the Clyde valley between Rutherglen and Lesmahagow (Harding, Collis & Collis, 1980). There was just one west coast record, from Troon Station by J. Naden in 1976. By the time data were compiled for a new atlas (Gregory, 2009), increased recording effort had resulted in a good number of additional records, including some published in The Glasgow Naturalist (Stirling, 1995; Futter, 1998) and records from a field meeting of the British Myriapod 20 and Isopod Group in Ayrshire in 2006 (Collis, 2007), plus a number of additional records by the author. Comparison of the two atlases makes it clear that the difference in numbers of records between the east and west coasts in Harding and Sutton’s atlas was partly an artefact of recording effort. However, the tendency for the species to extend further north in the east than in the west seems likely to be real, with a 2005 record from as far north as Johnshaven in the east (Davidson, 2010). In the west, the northernmost locations shown in the 2009 atlas were Putter’s (1998) two sites in Clydebank, though in May 2009 the author found a site a little further north in Helensburgh, NS303820, at the shore end of a footpath from East Clyde Street. Gregory’s 2009 atlas also confirms that, in Scotland, the distribution of the pill woodlouse is predominantly coastal. Many of the coastal sites are on, or very close to the shoreline, which might be considered it’s primaiy natural habitat in most of Scotland. However, care is needed in this respect. The record from Johnshaven was among builders rubble deposited above a shingle beach (Davidson, 2010). The Helensburgh shoreline site could equally well be regarded as a suburban site with a high potential for the introduction of small invertebrates among rubble, garden waste, etc., dumped on the shoreline. There is a strikingly similar suburban shoreline site at Boathouse Road, Largs, NS 197607. A site at Fairlie, NS207541 could also be classified as suburban shoreline, but with the further complication of a nearby wholly artificial coastline constructed in the 1970s for the Hunterston deep-water ore and coal terminal. A railway line followed the artificial coastline to service a now- dismantled iron ore reduction plant. Much of the material for the construction project was obtained locally, from Biglees Quarry and Campbeltown Farm (http://www.hunterston.eu/oreterminal), but doubtless other materials were brought in from further afield. CLYDEBANK SITES The first records of the pill woodlouse in Clydebank were by Putter (1988). In the period 1995-1997, she located specimens in a suburban garden in Parkhall Road, NS488718, and around a disused band hall on Second Avenue, NS495710. I visited these two locations in June 2007 and found the species in large numbers (>100) around the band hall and also beside the church close-by on Second Avenue. On Parkhall Road, instead of searching gardens, I found the species in small numbers in public shrubbery areas at NS489718 - close to Putter’s location. Two features of the band hall site are that it is immediately adjacent to a railway line and, like much of Clydebank, it is on a south facing slope. The pill woodlouse is believed to favour sunny locations; unusually for woodlice it is sometimes found in full sunlight (Gregory, 2009). The band hall is in a very sunny location, elevated above the railway line on the other side of which the land falls away sharply to the south. Having found pill woodlice associated with railways in England and Wales, and mindful of Cawley’s ( 1 996) observations in Ireland, as and when opportunities arose I searched railway-side sites elsewhere in Clydebank. Non-railway habitats were not searched so thoroughly. Fig. 1. Sketch map of Clydebank sites for the common pill woodlouse: 1 Parkhall Road, NS488718; 2 Second Avenue (derelict band hall) NS495710; 3 Argyle Road railway bridge, NS501705; 4 John Knox Street NS504694; 5 Cable Depot Road (abandoned docks line) NS490705; 6 Clydebank Public Park/Dalmuir Station NS484714. In May 2008 I found the species among rubbish at the base of railings separating railway land from mown grass at the north-east comer of Argyle Road railway bridge, NS501705. Like the band hall site, this is on the Singer line. Subsequently, I discovered a site on the Yoker line (NS504694, November 2009), among mbble at the base of a brick wall separating railway land from the site of a demolished building, accessible from John Knox Street. The Yoker and Singer lines converge at Dalmuir Station. Here too I found pill woodlice among mbble at the base of the railway-side fence where it is accessible from the southern comer of Clydebank Public Park (NS484714, June 2010). In the park, I also found it a short distance away from the railway, where the Park borders the western end of Regent Street (NS484715). I was unable to find this species in a search of the glasshouses and their immediate sumoundings at the western-most comer of the Park (NS480716), even though glasshouses and horticultural areas are often favoured by the species. It’s absence there cannot easily be explained by an ovemse of pesticides since I easily found the woodlice Oniscis aseUits, Philoscia muscorum, Porcellio scaher, Porcellio spinicornis and Trichoniscus piisilhis agg. at this location. Of course, pill woodlice may yet be found there. 21 In addition to the Singer and Yoker branches of the railway network through Clydebank, there are also the remains of branch lines to the docks. I found pill woodlice at the foot of the embankment of one such disused line (NS490705, June 2010), accessed from an abandoned industrial site on Cable Depot Road. Conseiwatively, if we consider the two closely adjacent sites in Clydebank Public Park (Dalmuir Station and end of Regent Street) as one, and similarly with the two Parkhall Road sites (suburban garden and public shrubbery), there are now six known sites for pill woodlice in Clydebank (Fig. 1). This is a remarkable cluster of sites within a small area. There is a similar density of known sites in the Salisbury Crags/Holyrood Park/Duddingston area of Edinburgh. Not very far from this cluster, on 16/08/2010 I was able to locate three new sites along a short stretch of railway line: at the pedestrian underpass in the University sports ground at Peffennill, (NT280712); on the cycle path beside the railway at Bingham (NT297721); and by the road bridge over the railway at the south-west comer of Jewel Park (NT304721). I am also aware of two railway- side sites in Edinburgh located by the late Bob Saville in May 1994, at (NT2 19724) and (NT226718). For reasons of more ready access from my home in Bute, 1 have spent far more time on a greater number of different dates searching the Gourock-Greenock-Port Glasgow area, including many railway-side sites, and have not yet found any pill woodlice. It is probably significant that with the ground rising steeply to the south, this area is much less sunny than south-facing Clydebank. It is also possible to make comparisons with central Glasgow where I spent much time looking for woodlice in the 1970s (Collis & Collis, 1978) though I did not examine many railway-side sites. I did not find any pill woodlice though I was brought specimens from a now abandoned nursery at Westfield Avenue, Rutherglen, (NS605612). DISCUSSION How might the Clydebank cluster of sites be explained? To understand the distribution of a species that is not ubiquitous in an area, we need to consider how it might arrive at new sites, what conditions are needed in order for the anivals to breed sufficiently well for the colony to suiwive, and why the colony is able to thrive so as to become numerous enough that it will persist through occasional severe conditions. For medium-sized flightless invertebrates like pill woodlice, amval presumably requires it to be earned to a new site, conceivably in flood debris or driftwood, but more likely by inadvertent human transport. In the latter case, there will be a bias toward them arriving in habitats associated with human activity. It is well understood that many species of woodlice are particularly likely to be found in synanthropic sites, but it is not straightforward to disentangle the relative contributions of anthropic factors for andval and for survival. One strong possibility for how they might arrive at locations throughout greater Glasgow and Clyde area is through the movement of agricultural and horticultural produce. Prior to the dominance of motorised transport, the movement of fodder and bedding for horses is likely to have been a significant factor in the transport of invertebrates in urban areas. Several species of woodlice, including Armadillidimn vulgare, are known to flourish in horticultural nurseries. They are still present at two sites in Rothesay where there were once extensive commercial glasshouses (Collis & Collis, 2008), and the species is known from various sites with horticultural connections, including the nursery in Rutherglen, mentioned above, several nursery sites in the Clyde valley (Harding, Collis & Collis, 1980), Culzean Castle gardens and the ‘gardens’ area of the agricultural college site at Auchincmive (Collis, 2007). It is well understood that ‘hothouse’ alien woodlice (Gregoiy, 2009) are transported with plant material between botanic gardens, and there can be little doubt that this also applies to commonplace plants used in domestic gardens and allotments. Maybe the Parkhall Road colony of pill woodlice became established in this way. It was once common for allotments to be established beside railways, but it is not clear whether this applies to any of the railway side pill woodlouse sites in Clydebank. There is also the potential for transport in garden waste discarded onto areas that are regarded as “waste ground”. Garden waste can include rubble from paths and rockeries, etc., as well as plant material and soil. It is often seen dumped on railway land, although this was not particularly noticeable at the Clydebank sites. As noted in the introduction, garden waste is also dumped on suburban shorelines, and on rural shorelines too, especially near roadside lay-bys. There is also a strong probability that woodlice, including A.vulgare, are transported in various construction materials including quarried stone and aggregates, especially if the material had some calcareous content, or topsoil (Cawley, 1996). Other possibilities are timber, bricks, concrete fabrications, pipes, and general steelwork, especially if such items have been stored in the open for long enough for them to have become colonised by woodlice. Railway track is normally bedded on hard rock chips, which are typically non-calcareous, but I have infonnation that it is not unusual for the foundations to be fomied from softer calcareous rock. Depending on the source location, it is easy to envisage lime-loving invertebrates such as pill woodlice being introduced in such material. In addition to the basic bed of the track, a wide variety of materials are involved with railway-associated structures. Irrespective of how woodlice got to the railway-side sites, we still need to understand why they have survived and thrived, especially, it seems, in railway-side sites in Clydebank. Even if there is no calcareous rock in the foundation of the trackway, there is likely to be an ample supply of lime in mortared walls and various line-side structures. Pill woodlice are much less tolerant of wet conditions than other woodlice, and the open well- 22 drained substrate would suit them well, with relatively large interstices allowing this bulky species easy movement through spaces to find microsites that are suitable in a variety of climatie conditions. Clydebank has the added advantage of a sunny south-facing aspect. REFERENCES Cawley, M. (1996). The woodlice (Crustacea: Isopoda) of Cos Sligo and Leitrim. Irish Naturalists’ Journal 25, 273-277. Collis, G.M. (2007). Report on the 2006 BMIG meeting in Ayrshire. Bulletin of the British Myriapod and Isopod Group 22, 32-35. Collis, G.M. & Collis, V.D. (1978). Some recent Scottish records of woodlice (slaters) with particular reference to the Clyde area. Glasgow Naturalist 19 (5) 385-389. Collis, G.M. & Collis, V.D. (2008). The pill woodlouse, Armadillidium vulgare, at one-time horticultural nursery sites on Bute. Transactions of the Buteshire Natural Histoiy Society’ 27, 87-88. Davidson, M. (2010). Northerly extensions of the known UK ranges of the pill-woodlice Armadillidium vulgare (Latreille, 1804) and Armadillidium piilchellum (Zencker, 1798). Bidletin of the British Myriapod and Isopod Group 24, 36-38. Putter, S. (1998). Pill woodlouse Armadillidium vulgare in Clydebank. Glasgow Naturalist 23 (3) 62-63. Gregory, S. (2009). Woodlice and Waterlice (Isopoda: Oniscidea & Asellota) in Britain and Ireland. FSC Publications, Shrewsbury. Harding, P.T., Collis, G.M. & Collis, V.D. (1980). The pill woodlouse {Armadillidium vulgare (Latr.)) (Isopoda) in Scotland. Entomologists Monthly Magazine 1 15, 179-180. Harding, P.T. & Sutton, S.L. (1985). Woodlice in Britain and Ireland: distribution and habitat. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Huntingdon. Stirling, A. (1995). Pill woodlouse records from SW Scotland. Glasgow Naturalist 22 (5): 528-529. Urban Biodiversity: Sucesses and Challanges: Urban tern ecology: common terns in Leith Docks Gemma Jennings, Robert Furness', & Derek McGlashan^ ’ Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, GI2 8QQ ^ School of Social and Environmental Sciences, University of Dundee, DDl 4HN E-mail: g.jennings. 1 (a)research. gla.ac.uk The Imperial Dock Lock, a disused lock wall in Leith Docks, Edinburgh, supports the largest common tern {Sterna hirundo) colony in Scotland and was designated 23 as a Special Protection Area (SPA) for the species in 2004. The SPA lies in a continually changing operational port and the port owners are keen to understand more about the terns. Analysis of long-temi count data suggests that colonisation of this urban environment occuiTcd as a result of relocation from natural islands in the Firth of Forth over the past few decades, in particular Inchmickery, which was fonuerly a regional stronghold for the species, but was abandoned possibly due to high numbers of gulls. Field work was performed at the colony during the breeding seasons of 2009 and 2010. Foraging studies showed that terns fed primarily in the Firth of Forth rather than within the docks, and their diet consisted mostly of clupeids, but also sandeels and small gadoids. Predation of chicks by herring gulls {Larus argentatus) and lesser black-backed gulls {L. fuscus) was observed in both seasons, despite which, high numbers of chicks fledged from the colony. Observations and preliminaiy experiments on the terns’ sensitivity to disturbance at the colony indicated that the birds are tolerant of routine human activities in the docks and that they have become well habituated to breeding in this urban environment. The results of this study combined with continued monitioring will be useful for the conservation of this SPA. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Human perceptions towards peri-urban deer in Central Scotland Stephanie Ballantyne c/o Nonnan Dandy, Forest Research, Northern Research Station, Midlothian, EH25 9SY E-mail: stephistheone@hotmail.com Red deer {Cen’us elaphus) have been successfully breeding in the Scottish highlands for centuries, and many people have a classic association of herds of deer roaming over the vast expanding Scottish hills. However, today species such as roe deer {Capreolus capreolus) arc increasingly being seen in and around Scotland’s Central Belt, producing a very different human perception of deer than in the Scottish Highlands. Roe deer bring benefits and impacts to peri-urban areas (communities consisting of urban and rural components) within the Central Belt. It is not yet known peoples’ perception towards deer in more urbanised communities, and whether they perceive deer to be beneficial to the local environment or a hindrance. In the UK there is an estimated 3 16,000 red deer, 300,000 roe deer, 128,000 fallow {Dama dama), 128,000 muntjac {Muntiacus reevesi) and 26,600 sika {Cervus nippon) and 2100 Chinese water deer {Hydropotes iuermis) (Mammal Society, 2012). Deer abundance for all red, roe, fallow, sika and muntjae deer species has been recorded in the Scottish Highlands for 10 consecutive years, (2000-2010) indicating deer densities to be as high as 30 per km^ in the Perthshire area, just north of Pitlochry and in the north west area of Drumnadrochit (SNH, 2012). Furthermore the lowest deer density of 1-5 deer per knr stretches from Inveruglas in central Scotland to Cape Wrath in the north and from the Outer Hebrides to the west side of Banchory (SNH, 2012). Red deer were recorded throughout the Scottish Highlands, though not recorded in the Central Belt and regions to the South East of Scotland. (NBN, 2012). Roe deer are more widely distributed than red and are found throughout the whole of Scotland, except from the Shetland islands and the Outer Hebrides. (NBN, 2012). Sika deer are more widely distributed than fallow deer in Scotland, but less so than red or roe, found widely distributed in the North West Highlands of Scotland and in Central Southern Scotland (NBN, 2012). Fallow deer were recorded in over 1 10 10 km" in Scotland with a much more sparse distribution compared with red and roe deer with pockets of higher densities in the west and east central Highlands, and in South West Scotland. (NBN, 2012). Muntjae deer were noted in 15 10 knr regions in Scotland sparsely distributed throughout Scotland (NBN, 2012). Deer abundance in these peri-urban communities is also not well known. In order to address some of these questions Forest Research on behalf of the Deer Commission for Scotland was asked to undertake a social and ecological study to: A) Examine if deer presence was being felt in peri-urban communities by members of local communities in Central Scotland and to highlight the benefits of possible deer presence, B) Undertake an ecological study on deer density within Central Scotland ascertaining whether deer density figures tied in with peoples’ experience of deer presence in their local community. To complete both studies two case study areas were set up; Ravenscraig in the West of Central Scotland and Linlithgow in the East of Central Scotland. The two areas were chosen for their mosaic of urban and rural areas and were seen as classic peri-urban environments. For study A, 7 focus groups were conducted in total between each case study area (6 in Ravenscraig and 1 in Linlithgow) to examine what people in the loeal community thought about deer in their local area, and 3 manager focus groups were conducted (2 in Ravenscraig and 1 in Linlithgow) to examine what professional deer managers thought about deer in Central Scotland. ‘Deer manager’ in this ease refers to people who have a higher level of knowledge about deer management than the general public, and relates to professional deer stalkers, forestry officials and members of conservation groups. At each focus group a series of slides were shown to partieipants, and a general introduction to each slide was talked about before the group engaged with the subject. Managers and community focus group stmetures were identical. To further facilitate study A, a questionnaire was sent out to local community groups ranging from allotment groups, to local sports associations. The questionnaire like the focus groups asked about local deer presence in their area and asked partieipants to rate deer management options in response to hypothetical deer management situations. In total 415 questionnaires were sent out and 154 were returned, giving the study a successful response rate of 37%. For study B, night time thermal imaging of deer occuiTed along farm road transects in each case study area using a Pilkington Lite imager. See Dandy et al. (2009) for full survey methods. When deer were seen through the camera, the number of deer, the co-ordinates of their position and distance from the car guestimated, and noted down. The results were then placed in a statistical programme to generate density figures. For the social study A the participants did show that deer were in their area agreeing with the general pereeption that deer are using peri-urban environments: “It’s made my day when I’ve seen them It makes all the difference. . .Fantastic difference...” (Community Group 1 ) “..it’s nice to know that they are around. It just makes people feel more natural, a more natural environment.” (Community Group 7) The general feeling from the community focus groups was that deer did exist in the community but that they were not very prevalent, perhaps this relates to the roe deer’s timid nature and being mainly active very early in the morning when most people are still asleep. In no way did any community focus group think that deer were overabundant in their community. Study A also highlighted the benefits that deer bring to their community: “If you catch sight of the deer, it means the environment is on a high because they’re in the area. And if you’re not getting good ecology and good feeding grounds they just move away, you see less and less of them., it’s letting you know that the environment and the ecology in the area is really good” (Community Group 6) As well as bringing in a human wellbeing factor, deer in the local community were seen as a sign that the environment they were living in was healthy. Therefore deer presence was an indicator of living in a healthy green community which many residents see as a positive benefit to where they live. From the questionnaire participants were asked to rank statements in accordance to their preference to the question: Tf the number of deer in the area where you lived increased, which of the following would be the most important priorities?’ Participants produced the following order of statements starting with the highest priority: 24 1 . Preventing road-traffic accidents involving deer 2. Ensuring the welfare of individual deer 3. Maintaining the cultural value of deer in Scotland 4. (Joint) Preventing deer damaging local woodlands 4. (Joint) Preventing deer damaging gardens and other vulnerable sites 6. Making a living from deer through deer-watching tourism 7. Obtaining economic income from deer through sport shooting ‘stalking’ From the ranking exercise the first statement indicated that if the local deer population was to increase, preventing direct physical road traffic accidents with deer would be the highest priority. This statement being first shows that the community would like to prevent the risk of a serious accident with deer as it is the only statement which contains a serious risk to humans of having deer in the local community. No other statements perceive such a high risk to humans in particular. It could be seen that the first statement protects humans and deer from risk. In the second statement, ‘ensuring the welfare of individual deer’ it shows that people in general have a high regard for deer welfare in their area, and would like to prevent harni being inflicted on local deer populations. The second statement’s position correlates with the general findings from the focus groups that people enjoy seeing deer and therefore want to care for them in some way by looking after their welfare. Direct damage by deer seen in the two statements in joint 4* position shows that direct physical impacts by deer were not of a high concern for residents. Least concern was the statement relating to obtaining economic gain from a local deer population via sport shooting. This con'elates with results from the focus groups that sport shooting was mainly only done in the Scottish Highlands and wouldn’t be an activity by people in Central Scotland. A comment from the focus group was: “I couldn’t see them [tourists] coming here and saying ‘while we are in Motherwell and Lanarkshire, we’ll go and see deer’. But I would think they might think that way if they were heading for the Glencoe area for instance or above Stirling. . (Community Group 1 ) Therefore it is perceived that no economic value would be practically obtained by local people if deer were sport hunted in their local community. From study B it was found that deer in Linlithgow had a deer density estimate of 0.9km^ in open areas and 0.8 km' ^ in forested areas. Ravenscraig had a deer density estimate of 3.3km'^ in forested areas and 1 .4 km'^ in open areas. These density estimates are rough estimates as not all transects could be done due to access issues in 2009, but the vast majority were completed. Furthermore the estimates were taken from driving along farm roads at night and it can be assumed that not every deer can be seen from farm road positions. Roe deer were distinguished from other deer by their small to mid size and by the fact that they were seen in groups of about 2 or 3 individuals. The thermal imaging camera only showed a bright silouhette of deer so it was reliant on the observer to fully determine if the deer seen was roe. However local knowledge and experience of using the thermal imaging camera before helped to reduce identification bias. The results however show that deer densities are relatively low for both case study areas and show that Ravenscraig has a higher deer density than Linlithgow, and could be due to the Ravenscraig site having a higher sampling intensity with 1 88 km^ sampled compared to 88 km^ in Linlithgow. (This was in part due to snowfall preventing more sampling being undertaken in Linlithgow at time of survey). Overall the densities for each case study are in agreement with focus group findings that deer exist in the community but are not very commonly seen by residents. The study shows through themial imaging surveys, questionnaires and via focus groups that roe deer are penetrating into peri-urban environments within Central Scotland and this is the first study of its kind in Scotland. The density of deer is low in comparison to mean deer densities in the Scottish highlands that may be as great as 30km'^ (SNH, 2012), but the landscape and deer species (red deer) being different are contributing factors for this difference. The study also highlights the respect the general public have for deer, and the benefit deer have to the wellbeing of humans within peri-urban environments, as with most nature species. In relation to the theme of connecting communities and nature discussed at the Glasgow Natural History Society Conference on Urban Biodiversity, there were several plans to develop green conidors in urban environments to improve connectivity of nature. Such ideas were the Integrated Habitat Networks proposed by SNH, Woodlands In And Around Towns by the Forestiy Commission, Living Waters project by Froglife and the importance of bings and brownfield sites were highlighted by the University of Edinburgh and Buglife respectively. These schemes would encourage deer and other species to move into and around urban and peri-urban environments. This may help to increase peoples’ perceptions that they are living in a healthy environment because their local area is supporting species such as roe deer. Increasing deer populations in peri-urban environments may raise important management issues. If deer numbers were to increase substantially impacts such as deer vehicle collisions and damage to parks and gardens will need to be addressed. However from the focus groups and questionnaire no management was deemed necessaiy by residents as the deer population was seen as too low to justify any current management plans. Therefore deer in peri-urban environments at this moment in time present a positive factor if seen in local green spaces. REFERENCES Dandy, N., Ballantyne, S., Moseley, D., Gill, R. and Quine, C., 2009. Management of Roe Deer in Peri- Urban Scotland. Final Report. Forest Research Publication. Mammal Society. www.mammal.org.uk/index.php?option=com conten t&view=article&id=270:new-population-estimates- for°british-mammal-populations&catid=52:press- releases&Itemid=303. 25 Accessed: 2012. NBN Gateway. http://data.i'ibn.org.uk/gridMap/grid]V[ap.isp?al]Ds=l &srchSpKev=NBNSYS0000005i4. Accessed: 2012. NBN Gateway. http://data.nbn.org.uk/gridMap/gridMap.isp?allDs=l &srchSpKev=NHMSYS0000080203. Accessed: 2012. NBN Gateway. http://data.nbn. org.uk/gridMap/gridMap.isp?allDs=l &srchSpKev=NBNSYS0000005 1 44. Accessed: 2012. NBN Gateway. http://data.nbn.org.uk/gridMap/gridMap.isp?allDs=l &si-chSpKcv=NBNSYS0000005145. Accessed: 2012. NBN Gateway. http://data. nbn.org. iik/gridMap/gridMap.isp?allDs=l &srchSpKev=NHMSYS0000080204. Accessed: 2012. Scottish Natural Heritage. www.snh.gov.uk/docs/B847683.pdf Accessed: 21/01/12. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Epigeal invertebrate abundance and diversity on Yorkshire allotments S. Turnbull' & G. Scott“ 'Ladysmith, Chapel Hill, Portmahomack, by Tain. 1V20 lYH ^Biological Sciences, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Hull. HU6 7RX E-mail: s.tumbull@2004.hull.ac.uk ALLOTMENTS: FASCINATING HABITATS After more than half a century of neglect and decline, allotments are on the brink of a great revival (Foley, 2004). Recent decades in particular have witnessed a growing demand for allotments, partly linked to the demand for healthy, pesticide-free food and an escape from the pressures of modern, busy urban lives. The image of traditional plot-holders e.g. retired men may be slowly changing. Allotment plots are increasingly managed by young women and professional couples keen to grow organic crops or seek an escape from the daily grind (Buckingham, 2005; pers obs). In parallel to the increased interest in the socio-economic, health and recreational benefits of allotments, there is a growing interest in the biodiversity value of these unique mosaics of intensively managed habitat (Gilbert, 1991). However, to date there has been little published research which concentrates on them. Marshall (2009) used a questionnaire-based survey to 'i assess garden and allotment biodiversity and attitudes to it. He found that, among other things, having direct , contact with plants and wild animals in a garden or allotment helped foster a wider interest in nature. Thus, allotments, because they typically involve a cross-section of a community, can offer an ideal opportunity to engage : people on an individual or community level and allow them to take a greater interest in their local wildlife. The aims of our research were to test any variation in epigeal (ground-dwelling) invertebrate abundance and I diversity along an urban-rural gradient, in relation to any ' effects of allotment plot management styles i.e. . traditional or wildlife-friendly. GENERAL APPROACH A questionnaire-based survey was used to detennine : plot-holder attitudes to allotment management styles and ■ the importance of wildlife on the sites. From these data, individual plots across allotment sites in east Yorkshire were identified to sample the epigeal invertebrates. In addition, plots were assigned as being either ‘traditional’ or ‘wildlife-friendly’ based on self-declaration. A range ;! of environmental data were collected to detemiine the li; urban-rural gradient e.g. rural sites were likely to have a i] high percentage of sunounding farmland whilst urban ! sites were likely to have a high percentage of suiTounding hard cover. These data were infonued by the results of the Biodiversity in Urban Gardens in Sheffield (BUGS) project which examined, among other things, garden invertebrate biodiversity (Smith e! al, 2006 a,b). Three pitfall traps, pooled per plot, were used to sample invertebrate abundance and diversity in May i? and September 2006 on six plots from each of seven , sampling sites chosen (N = 6x7x2-10 plots compromised/vandalized = 74) . These sites represented an urban-rural gradient and each site contained three ‘traditionally’ managed plots and three organic, wildlife- friendly plots, as identified from the questionnaires. I BIOLOGICAL DATA | Pitfall trapping resulted in the collection of 11,718 |j individual organisms; eight taxa were subject to fiirther 1^ analysis. There was a significant difference in the mean : number of individuals per allotment site (Fig 1). The - rural Driffield allotment site contained significantly lower overall invertebrate abundance compared to the Newland site in Hull city centre, which had the highest | abundance. Although none of the other sites were f statistically different from each other, there was a trend , towards an increase in mean abundance moving towards ,■ the city centre. ' i Beetles (Coleoptera) constituted 37.95%, woodlice (Isopoda) 24.03% and spiders (Araneae), 16.93% of the v catch respectively. Urban sites tended to be dominated ( by woodlice whilst beetles tended to be more common on j some suburban and rural sites. The results for spiders and the other five taxa, whose abundance ranged between 0.73% - 8.96% of the total catch, showed mixed abundance across the urban-rural gradient (Fig 2). 26 With regard to overall invertebrate abundance in relation to management styles, the urban wildlife-friendly managed plots contained significantly higher abundance compared to all other plots, except the urban traditional plots. The latter, whilst not statistically significant, did not contain such high abundance as the urban wildlife plots. This therefore highlighted a trend towards increased abundance along the rural, suburban, urban gradient, especially on those plots managed in a wildlife- friendly way. The effects of management style on individual taxa gave mixed results; different taxa dominated over differing management styles. Beetles were significantly more abundant on traditionally managed plots. In contrast, the woodlice, slugs and snails (Mollusca) were significantly more abundant on wildlife-friendly managed plots. Spiders, opilione, millipedes and centipedes (Myriapoda) showed little difference in abundance in relation to management style. The most biologically diverse plots were managed in a wildlife-friendly way, with the highest diversity found on a rural site at Driffield. Interestingly, this site also contained the lowest diversity on the traditionally managed plots. DISCUSSION This study has shown that there is considerable interest from allotment plot-holders in projects that recognize the value of “their” allotments. Whilst older men still dominate, there are an increasing number of community groups, younger families and especially women, taking on allotments. The latter are also more likely to place a higher value on the wildlife on their plots and sites, as shown by their commitment to manage their plots in an organic, wildlife-friendly way. The epigeal invertebrate taxa on the seven allotment sites studied showed a significant variation in both abundance and diversity along an urban-rural gradient. In contrast to what may have been expected, the urban sites contained the highest abundance whilst the rural sites contained the lowest. Whist urban sites are likely to be subject to a higher range of anthropogenic pressures, each allotment site may be a small-scale biodiversity oasis, due partly to the lack of other suitable suiTounding habitat patches compared to rural areas. The composition of the taxa found in the current study was similar to that of the BUGS studies mentioned above, but the actual proportions of some of the taxa were quite different. For example. Smith et al. (2006b) found that the three most abundant taxa of the pitfall traps were woodlice (45%), beetles (25%) and slugs (19%) respectively, whilst in the current study they constituted 24%, 38% and 9% respectively. The most abundant taxa, the beetles, dominated the rural, and to lesser extent suburban, sites. The woodlice, however, dominated the urban sites, suggesting that they prefer synanthropic environments. In addition, spiders contributed 1 7% of the total catch, compared to less than 5% in the BUGS study. The reasons for these differences are likely to be many and require further exploration. However, in the case of the slugs, it is likely that this group would be very actively discouraged from allotments, due to their primary raison d'etre as a means of growing food crops. Slug pellets were the most common pesticide used, as evidenced in the questionnaires, supporting this conclusion. Whilst management style suggests no overall difference in total invertebrate abundance, the differences at geographic scale do appear to show some effect. The higher abundance found on the wildlife-friendly allotment plots in the city centre may be due to a skewed effect of the high number of woodlice on these plots, as discussed above. Overall, the diversity of the taxa found suggests that allotments are valuable habitats for epigeal invertebrates. The highest invertebrate diversity, found at the rural Driffield wildlife-friendly plots, corresponds with their low abundance and requires further study to tiy and explain the reasons. The environmental data gathered suggests that the high proportion of fannland surrounding the allotment site may account for some of the variation. Species arc likely to be able to disperse readily into the suiTounding habitat, unlike the more constrained urban habitat patches. FUTURE WORK Further work is ongoing to identify the three most abundant taxa to species level from a rural, suburban and urban allotment site respectively. Additional analysis of the questionnaire data, environmental and biological data will be published separately in due course. This work will therefore provide some much-needed empirical data on the epigeal invertebrate communities present on Yorkshire allotments. This baseline infonnation could then be used to explore further issues such as biological control methods or effects of climate change on crop growing on allotments. CONCLUSIONS The increase in popularity of allotments offers a great opportunity to study the wildlife benefits of such sites, particularly in urban areas where greenspace is at a premium. In order to advance these studies, it is important to engage with individual plot-holders. The epigeal invertebrate taxa found on these allotments are similar to those found in garden studies, but the proportions of dominating taxa vary across the urban- rural gradient and with management styles. Abundance was higher on urban plots, especially wildlife-friendly managed ones, compared to both traditionally and wildlife-friendly managed plots on mral or suburban sites. Invertebrate diversity was highest on some wildlife-friendly rural plots, which also had low abundance. Future work will help identify the specific species present and provide further clues to their ecological role on allotment sites. 27 > ■D C o c c ra o 300 RR SU DR Driffield; HN Hunmanby; CT Cottingham; BV Beverley; BR Bridlington; BD Bude; NW Newland Fig. 1. Mean number of invertebrates per Yorkshire allotment site (+ SE), based on individual plot totals (N=74), grouped per urban-rural gradient. (RR=n,iral; SU=suburban; UU=urban.) 1600 □ Driffield □ Hunmanby □ Cottingham □ Beverley H Bridlington e Bude ■ Newland Fig. 2. Total number of each invertebrate taxon from pitfall-traps on seven Yorkshire allotment sites. 28 REFERENCES Buckingham, S. (2005). Women (re)construct the plot; the rcgen(d)eration of urban food growing. Area, 37, 2, 171-179. Foley. C. (2004). The Allotment Handbook. New Holland, London. Gilbert, O.L. (1991). The Ecology’ of Urban Habitats. Chapman & Hall, London. Marshall, T. (2009). Rural gardens, allotments and biodiversity. British Wildlife, 21,2, 85-95. Smith, R. M., Warren, P. H., Thompson, K. & Gaston, K. J. (2006a). Urban domestic gardens (VI): environmental correlates of invertebrate species richness. Biodiversity’ and Consen>ation, 15, 2415- 2438. Smith, R. M., Gaston, K. J., Warren, P. H. & Thompson, K. (2006b). Urban domestic gardens (VIII): environmental correlates of invertebrate abundance. Biodiversity and Consen’ation, 15, 2515-2545. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challanges: Brownfields: oases of urban biodiversity Craig R. Macadam' and Suzanne Z. Bairner“ ‘Buglife - The Invertebrate Conservation Trust, Balallan House, 24 Allan Park, Stirling, FK8 2QG ^ BTCV Scotland Natural Talent Apprentice E-mail: craig.macadam(^buglife. org.uk ABSTRACT Despite their potential to support biodiversity, a strong negative public image has been attached to brownfield sites, with the conservation of these sites therefore lagging behind other habitats. The inclusion of ‘Open Mosaic Habitats on Previously Developed Land (OMHPDL)’ as a UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UKBAP) priority habitat has however resulted in a renewed focus on brownfields as important wildlife habitats. The experiences of Buglife - The Invertebrate Conservation Trust in both the Thames Gateway and central Scotland have shown that brownfield sites can support many rare, scarce and UKBAP priority species, some of which are becoming increasingly reliant on such sites as their natural habitats come under threat. INTRODUCTION The industrial revolution starting in the eighteenth century transfonned the scenes of our towns and countiyside. Central Scotland was at the heart of this revolution and many heavy engineering works and iron founders were based there. With the demise of these industries across the country, their fomier premises have been left derelict. Many of these ex-industrial sites have since been reclaimed by nature through natural succession. This rich industrial heritage of Scotland has resulted in over 10,000 hectares of land being listed as vacant or derelict. These brownfield sites can be incredibly important for biodiversity, often supporting nationally important populations of rare and endangered invertebrates, alongside other wildlife such as birds, reptiles, plants and lichens. With the loss of natural habitats in the wider countryside through agricultural intensification and development, wild areas within the urban environment have become crucial to the survival of many increasingly threatened species in the UK. As a result Open Mosaic Habitat on Previously Developed Land (OMHPDL) was recently included as a UKBAP priority habitat. Brownfields are any site that have been altered by human activity and are currently not fully in use (CABE, 2006). They tend to be concentrated in urban and former industrial landscapes but also include quaiTies, spoil heaps, old railway lines and disused airfields (Allan et al. 1997; Bodsworth et al. 2005; Whitehouse, 2008; Riding et al. 2010). Brownfield sites provide linkages or ‘stepping stones’ between more natural areas of habitat and facilitate the movement and mixing of individuals in a less favourable urban setting. Lack of management of brownfields often creates an open mosaic of habitats such as species rich grassland, bare ground and early successional habitats (Key, 2000; Bodsworth et al. 2005; Harvey et al. 2008). This, combined with a low nutrient content of the soil which prevents fast growing species becoming dominant, provides a continuity of resources for invertebrates throughout the season (Harvey et al. 2008). In addition, a mosaic of habitats provides a home for a wide range of species and allows many to complete their life cycles within the same site (Bodsworth et al. 2005). It has long been recognised that brownfields may have as many associated Red Data Book (RDB) and Nationally Scarce invertebrate species as ancient woodlands (Jones, 2003). At least 194 invertebrate species of conseiwation importance, including 50 red data book and 131 nationally scarce species, have been recorded from brownfield sites in the UK. This includes 50% of rare solitary bees and wasps and 35% of rare ground beetles (Bodsworth et al. 2005). Brownfields also support a suite of UKBAP priority species. For example, the lack of management on brownfield sites often provides a secure area for breeding birds such as skylark (Alauda an’ensis) and grey partridge (Perdix perdi.x), that are often absent from land under agricultural management. Many features identified at long abandoned industrial sites can no longer be found in the managed and over- fanned wider countiyside or even in over-tidied parks (Bodsworth et al. 2005). Loss of natural habitat is causing many species, including bumblebees, beetles, butterflies and reptiles, to become increasingly reliant 29 on brownfield sites. Despite their potential to support biodiversity a strong negative public image has been attached to brownfields due to lack of management and a perceived untidiness and they are increasingly threatened by development and landscaping (Key, 2000; Riding et al. 2010). Restoration of post-industrial sites into greenspace can destroy much of the existing wildlife interest through the importation of large quantities of topsoil and tree planting. Site restoration can also result in the loss of particular niches at brownfields which will have a knock on effect on the wildlife found at that site (Bodsworth et al. 2005). For example, the loss of bare ground at a site will affect themiophilic (warmth- loving) invertebrate species such as spiders and ground beetles as well as species such as mining bees and solitary wasps that nest in the ground (Key, 2000; English Nature, 2005; Whitchousc, 2008). In 2007 Open Mosaic Habitat on Previously Developed Land was added to the list of priority habitats in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (Maddock, 2008). To fit the UKBAP criteria for OMHPDL the site must be over 0.25 hectares in size and have a known history of disturbance (Table 1 ). In addition, there must also be a mosaic of vegetation on the site comprised of early successional communities and un-vegetated bare areas. Criteria 1. The area of open mosaic habitat is at least 0.25 ha in size. 2. Known history of disturbance at the site or evidenee that soil has been removed or severely modified by previous use(s) of the site. Extraneous materials/substratcs such as industrial spoil may have been added. 3. The site contains some vegetation. This will comprise early successional communities consisting mainly of stress tolerant species (e.g. indicative of low nutrient status or drought). Early successional eommunities are composed of a) annuals or b) mosses/livei'worts or c) lichens or d) ruderals or e) inundation species or f) open grassland or g) flower rich grassland or h) heathland. 4. The site contains un-vegetated, loose bare substrate and pools may be present. 5. The site shows spatial variation, fonning a mosaic of one or more of the early successional communities a) - h) above (criterion 3) plus bare substrate, within 0.25 ha. Table 1. Open mosaic habitat on previously developed land definition and criteria (Riding et al. 2010). The conservation of brownfield sites has lagged behind other important habitats for plants and wildlife. The term brownfield was first used by the government in 1 998 when they set a national target of 60 % of all new housing developments to be located on brownfield land (Bodsworth et al. 2005; Riding et al. 2010). In Scotland, the National Planning Framework aims to bring ‘vacant and derelict land’ back into productive use for housing, for economic purposes and to create attractive environments however there is potential for this vision to conflict with the conservation of Open Mosaic Habitats on Previously Developed Land I OMHPDL and urban biodiversity. ■ BROWNFIELDS AND BUGLIFE Buglife was one of the first conservation organisations to highlight the ongoing loss of brownfield habitats - j and the serious consequences of this for biodiversity - and has been working to conserve brownfield wildlife since 2004. Buglife’s flagship ‘All of a Buzz in the Thames Gateway’ project in southem England has mapped and assessed the biodiversity of over 1,000 brownfield sites. This study has identified that although as many as a third of all brownfield sites support high levels of biodiversity - in many cases significantly higher than surrounding ‘greenfield’ agricultural land - many of these sites are being lost to development as a result of government targets for new housing. Brownfield sites in the Thames Gateway are very li important for the brown-banded carder bee (Bombiis I Inimi/is) and the shrill carder bee {Bomhiis sylvarum). J: The East Thames conddor with its large areas of open | flower rich brownfield grasslands is home to the most | important remaining metapopulations of these bumblebees. [i 1 The streaked bombardier beetle {Brachiinis sclopeta) I was thought to be extinct in Britain but was :! rediscovered in 2005 on a brownfield site in London (Jones, 2006). The site is cuirently being developed j for housing and as mitigation around 65 beetles have | been translocated to a nearby site. Invertebrate j translocations typically have a low success rate, particularly with species with complex life histories as i' is the case with the streaked bombardier. It is therefore highly unlikely that this mitigation will save this species at this site and it may well become permanently S extinct in Britain. The distinguished jumping spider (Sitticiis [| distinguendus) was discovered during surveys in 2005 I at West Thurrock Marshes (Harvey, et al., 2005). This | species is only known from one other site - Swanscombe Marshes where it is threatened by re- development proposals. The site at West Thuirock | cuiTently has planning pennission for warehousing and | car parking which, if developed, would destroy the 5 habitat of this species. THE SCOTTISH EXPERIENCE \ Evidence suggests that this issue is as pressing in j Scotland as elsewhere. In September 2010 Buglife | launched a new project ‘All of a Buzz Scotland’ as a j response to this challenge. This project follows in the | successful footsteps of work completed in the Thames j Gateway. The first phase of this project assessed 1,522 sites listed as ‘derelict’ on the Scottish Vacant and 30 Derelict Land Register and identified 393 sites that had the potential to satisfy the UKBAP criteria for OMHPDL. The assessment of these sites followed a remote assessment methodology using aerial photography to identify features typical of OMHPDL (Macadam, 2011). It was noted during this initial assessment that some of the aerial photography was up to 12 years old and the sites identified as potentially fitting the criteria for OMHPDL may no longer qualify as a priority site due to re-development or succession during the intervening period. The next phase of this project is therefore to ground-truth the results from the initial assessment to ensure that we can have confidence in the findings. Advice and infonnation on how to assess a site for the presence of OMHPDL to ensure that Local/Planning Authorities and Government Agencies can identify areas of OMHPDL on ‘new’ sites in the future will also be prepared. Future phases of the project will promote the management of brownfield sites for biodiversity and provide guidance on tools for mitigation in developments such as green and living roofs, and off- site habitat creation. The ‘All of a Buzz in Scotland’ project will produce much-needed evidence and support for planners and developers, enabling them to plan and implement developments in an environmentally sustainable way. It will also promote more natural habitats, native plant species, and a ‘less tidy’ approach to land management both within developments and in the wider urban landscape. FALKIRK’S BROWNFIELDS Buglife has recently undertaken a more detailed investigation of the invertebrate diversity of brownfield sites in the Falkirk area (Baimer and Macadam, 2011). An assessment of the habitat on each of the 76 sites in the Scottish Vacant and Derelict Land Register for Falkirk was undertaken during May 2010. Details of each site were recorded using Buglife’s brownfield habitat assessment fonn and included current activity, the vegetation type, plant species diversity and abundance. Photographs were taken on each site for future reference. Potential invertebrate species diversity was estimated as low, medium or high for each site based on plant abundance and plant species diversity on the site as well as the presence of a mosaic of habitats, including bare ground, scrub and mixed grassland and herbs. From the sites on the register, 1 9 were chosen as being important for invertebrates. Invertebrate survey work was undertaken on 14 of these sites. The remaining sites from the register fitting the OMHPDL criteria were visited for assessment purposes but no invertebrate survey work was possible due to access restrictions. In addition invertebrate surveys were also undertaken at two other sites which are not on the vacant and derelict land register, but have been previously recognised as fitting the criteria for OMHPDL. Surveys of brownfield sites in Falkirk commenced in May 2010, with the majority of field work carried out between June to October 2010 and March to June 2011. Samples of teiTCStrial invertebrates were collected using pitfall traps, sweep nets and/or pan traps. When collected each sample was labelled with site name, collection method and date and stored in 70% alcohol. Samples were first sorted into different invertebrate orders and then identified to family, genus or species by close examination under a high power microscope with reference to taxonomic books and keys. Most groups were identified to species, however in the Diptera, Myriapoda, Acari, Collcmbola and Mollusca a lower taxonomic precision was used in some cases. Of the invertebrate species collected during survey work 75 have not been recorded from the Falkirk area before. A number of these species are common and widespread in Britain including the green tiger beetle {Cicindela campesths) and violet ground beetle (Carabus violaceus), the field digger wasp (Mel linns an>ensis) and maiTam spider (Tihellus mariti/niis). Results show that 44 of the 72 species of beetle recorded during survey work have not been recorded in Falkirk before. The reason why there are no records for many species, particularly beetles, may be due to the lack of a local biological records centre for the area, although there are relatively few active entomologists in the area. The diversity of invertebrate species collected clearly shows the importance of brownfields in Falkirk. As an example, the brownfield at CaiTon Works (Forge Dam) is particularly important due to the high diversity of plants and wildlife, especially the invertebrates that were recorded. Four invertebrate species collected at this site are considered rare or scarce in Scotland: • The comb-footed spider Anelosimus vittatus (Theridiidae) is widespread and common in England and Wales although there are only a few records in Scotland. • The hobo spider Tegenaria agrestis (Agelenidae) is a brownfield specialist and was previously only known from five locations in Scotland (Bo’ness, Grangemouth, two locations in Edinburgh and near Dingwall in the Highlands). • The Nationally Scarce (Notable B) ground beetle Amara praetermissa (Carabidae) was recorded in Bo’ness in the 1980s and during field work three individuals were collected from Can'on Works. This represents only the second record of this species in Scotland. • The rare (RDB3) solitary bee Andrena ruficrus (Andreninae) has previously not been recorded from Falkirk. CONCLUSIONS Open mosaic habitats with vaiying stages of natural succession are scarce in the over-managed and fanned countryside. In an urban setting brownfields can be used as ‘stepping stones’ to allow movement and 31 mixing of animals and plants across an area (Macadam, 2011). Due to natural succession at these sites, brownfields arc transitory habitats and if left un- managed they have a typical lifespan of between 15 and 20 years (Key, 2000; Bodsworth et al. 2005). This is not necessarily a problem as new 'brownfield’ sites are always being created. The transitoiy nature of these sites means that the extent of this habitat will fluctuate as a result of succession, redevelopment and dereliction. The species that inhabit these sites will colonise and retreat in response to the availability of the habitat in each local authority area however it is important that a series of ‘stepping stones’ are provided as refugia for these species. These ‘stepping stone’ sites should be managed to retain an open mosaic of habitats for the species that depend upon them. If properly managed, brownfield sites with high value for biodiversity can not only deliver suitable habitat for many species, but can also transfonn themselves into wild city spaces full of wildflowers that will attract pollinators and other animals. Such sites are an important part of the habitat network, providing coiridors for species to disperse around and through urban areas. Brownfield sites can also provide valuable open spaces for local people and are often seen as being the only truly ‘wild’ city spaces remaining for the public to enjoy - the ‘unofficial countiyside’. There is great potential to make many of these sites more accessible, safe and enjoyable through imaginative planning and positive management. In many built-up areas, brownfield sites may be the sole natural grcenspacc available. If properly managed, they could help significantly to reduce the number of areas deficient in accessible open space, and contribute to the delivery of urban green networks. Improving access to green spaces will bring attendant quality of life and health benefits to residents, as well as economic benefits. Recommendations made by Bodsworth et al. (2005) for the management of brownfield sites to maximise their value for invertebrate conservation include suiweying sites to identify their wildlife interest and the protection of sites from development. Researchers also recommend the management of bare ground, vegetation structure, floristic diversity and shelter to maintain biodiversity at a site once its value has been identified. The importance of brownfield wildlife in urban areas must be recognised and valued if it is to be protected and managed as a vital component of the townscape. Its long-term survival will depend on the support of the local people who use and value their local environment. Developing opportunities for people to see, enjoy and learn about brownfield invertebrates will help increase awareness and understanding of the value of biodiversity in urban areas. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Buglife would like to thank Scottish Natural Heritage and the Central Scotland Green Network for funding the first phase of the ‘All of a Buzz Scotland’ project. We would also like to thank BTCV for the opportunity to host a Natural Talent apprentice. REFERENCES Allan, R. L., Dickinson, G., Dickinson, J. H., Duncan, H. J., Muiphy, K. J., Pulford, I. D., Rogerson, R. and Watson, K. (1997). The natural heritage interest of bings (waste tips) in Scotland: inventoiy and review. Scottish Natural Heritage. 48. Bodsworth, E., Shepherd, P. and Plant, C. (2005). Exotic plant species on brownfield land: their value to invertebrates of nature conservation importance. English Nature Resources Report. 650. Baimer, S.Z. and Macadam, C.R. (201 1). Brownfield biodiversity in Falkirk. Forth Naturalist and Historian. Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE). (2006). Making contracts work for wildlife: how to encourage biodiversity in urban parks. CABE publications. English Nature (2005). Management of bare ground. English Nature report. IN54. Haiwey, P., Hitchcock, G. and Jones, R. (2008). Thames Gateway Brownfields; invertebrate biodiversity and management. Buglife - The Invertebrate Conservation Trust. Jones, R.A. (2003). The 2001 Presidential Address - Part 2. A celebration of urban entomology. British Journal of Entomology and Natural History 1 6 (2): 109-121. Jones, R.A. (2006). BrachUms sclopeta (Fabricius) ( Coleoptera) confimied as a British species. The Coleopterist 15: 29-33. Key, R. (2000) Bare ground and the conservation of invertebrates. British Wildlife 1 1 183-191. Macadam, C. (2011). All of a Buzz Scotland: Identifying open mosaic habitat in the Central Scotland Green Network area. Buglife - The Invertebrate Conservation Trust. Maddock, A. (ed.) (2008). UK Biodiversity Action Plan Priority Habitat Descriptions: Open Mosaic Habitat on Previously Developed Land. BRIG (Updated July 2010). Riding, A., Critchley, N., Wilson, L. and Parker, J. (2010) Definition and mapping of open mosaic habitats on previously developed land: Phase 1 Final Report. ADAS UK Ltd. Whitehouse, A. T. (2008). Managing aggregate sites for invertebrates: a best practice guide. Buglife - The Invertebrate Conser\>ation Trust. 32 Urban Biodiversity! Successes and Challenges: Integrated habitat networks in our dear green space. Fiona Stewart Scottish Natural Heritage, Caspian House, South Avenue, Clydebank Business Park G8 1 2NR. E-mail: Fiona.stewart@snh.gov.uk ABSTRACT The development of the spatial habitat networks known as Integrated Habitat Networks (IHN) was developed with a range of partners using GIS and suite of spatial analyst tools known as BEETLE. The first habitat networks were produced for the Glasgow and Clyde Valley area in 2008. A post was developed to disseminate the resultant woodland, grassland and wetland networks to local authorities and to assist them with the task of utilising these visual networks in development planning, development management and Master planning. It has been used in a variety of trial projects working with architects, planners, SEPA and SNH and the use of IHN for production of green networks is slowly gaining momentum. A hypothetical use of IHN was illustrated within a presentation at the Glasgow Naturalist conference to visually demonstrate its use in land management and to illustrate the very visual use of the IHN. INTRODUCTION In 2009 I started as project officer for the Glasgow and Clyde Valley Green Network Partnership (GCVGNP) and SNH. We are very lucky in Glasgow as the Glasgow and Clyde Valley Structure Plan promotes the vision of a Green Network and the newly emerging Strategic Development Plan carries this vision within its Main Issues Report (MIR). Our area could be considered pioneers of the green network concept as we are fortunate in having a GCVGNP team. In 2008 Forest Research were commissioned to produce habitat networks for the GCV area and to illustrate where these networks “integrated” thus producing Priority Enhancement Areas (PEA’s). This was undertaken using GIS and a suite of spatial analyst tools collectively given the name BEETLE (Biological and Environmental Evaluation Tools for Landscape Ecology). The Planning etc. (Scotland) Act 2006 resulted in the previously non-statutory National Planning Framework (NPF) becoming a statutory document and this is effectively a spatial plan for Scotland. The Act also makes provision for the Framework to designate national developments. Within NPF2 (2009) The Central Scotland Green Network (CSGN) is one of these national developments and the location and design of integrated habitat networks is clearly stated as one of the matters to be addressed in the creation of a CSGN. Additionally the national developments should be included within Strategic Development Plans (SDP) and Local Development Plans (LDP). The IHN has been used to assist within the planning process and small pilot projects have been undertaken in several areas now. To borrow from the Main Issues Report (MIR) for the Edinburgh and South East Scotland SDP (2010) known as SESPlan, the Green Network could be defined: “[it] comprises the network of green spaces within and around our towns and cities, linking out into the wider countryside, which underpins the region’s quality of life and sense of place and provides the setting which high quality, sustainable economic growth occurs” SETTING THE SCENE Spatial tool. The Integrated Habitat Networks allow us to spatially see where our efforts can be concentrated. We can see very visually see where the habitats cluster into networks and equally we can see where the habitats sit in isolation (Fig.l). Lastly the modelling process gives us an indication of the possible spread of species to surrounding habitat areas by using a process known as least cost distance analysis and this gives an indication of the networks that are possible in the future if there are to be no land use changes. These are the habitat networks illustrated by BEETLE. Fig. 1. Example illustrating woodland habitat “clustering” and sitting in isolation © Crown copyright and database right [2010], All rights reserved. Ordnance Survey Licence number 100017908 However the question of whether or not to target action to habitat clusters and also the sensitive subject of whether or not to concentrate efforts only on these larger areas capable of forming habitat networks will depend on a variety of factors outwith that of forming habitat networks alone. Priorities will vary on an area to area basis but will include factors such as socio- economics, sense of place and therefore local 33 importance as well as that of providing “stepping stones” for species. The list is not exhaustive. Uses To date SEPA and the GCVGN partnership has commissioned a Clyde pilot study “Ecological Networks and River Basin Management Plans (RBMP)” ( Entec 2010) in order to to align the RBMP objectives with an IHN for this area. Opportunities have been identified addressing diffuse pollution and reduction of morphological pressures on watercourses whilst also enhancing the IHN . It has also been used to aid the master planning process in Glasgow and South Johnstone and at development plan level was used in the Strategic Environmental Assessment for the South Lanarkshire Minerals Plan. What does it actually do? The IHN addresses habitat fragmentation by veiy visually illustrating the habitats that are in existence and the concentration is on wetland, woodlands and grasslands. Using a focal species approach to assess the functional connectivity of habitat for species distribution, a limited number of species were used to map the IHN’s. This generalises the species requirements for a particular habitat and is widely used in habitat network modelling. It also removes the need to carry out a large number of individual species analyses (Smith 2008). Those used have included mountain hare Mustela putorim, great crested newt Tritimis cristatus, red admiral Vanessa atlanta , dogs mercury Mercurialis perennis and water avens Geum rivale (Fig. 2). They encapsulate species requirements for particular habitats. Similar habitats in turn have been collated to form generalist habitats, woodland, wetland and grassland (Fig. 3) it is however possible to separate the network components to show specialised networks using GIS. Networks such as acid grassland and ancient woodland can be clearly illustrated for example and this ability to “drill down” may prioritise our land management decisions in the future. The process of habitat network modelling has been taken a step further near Inverness as part of the planning process for Tomagrain to try to ensure that red squirrel strongholds are retained and expanded using the least cost distance analysis pioneered by Scottish Natural Heritage and Forest Research. Maps have been produced to illustrate the existing red squirrel areas and also the areas that could host red squin'els. All possible very quickly by computer modelling. IHN MODELLING IN GLASGOW The city of Glasgow is always depicted as the “dear green place”. The IHN generalist habitat layers allow us to see where our networks lie and see where there is habitat fragmentation. Phase 1 data, master map and a variety of other data sets have been used to calculate the networks. Note that the habitat networks are not wildlife corridors. They are a component of the green network but the habitats within the IHN must fulfil certain criteria to be part of this so for example amenity grassland is generally not part of the habitat network. As mentioned previously it is even possible to further refine our visual display to show where our areas of ancient woodland are within the woodland generalist layer and additionally to use the modelling process to show how the network could expand (Fig. 4). Fig. 4. Data licensed to Scottish Natural Heritage under the PGA, through Next Perspectives. Glasgow generalist woodland network (red), ancient woodland network (pink) and lilac and purple showing the possibility for expansion of the ancient woodland network. To explain the IHN’s possibilities it will be necessary to set the scene. Imagine that Glasgow has undergone a population explosion that necessitates the local authority to consider development of Dawsholm Park. I use this example because it is an instantly recognisable area on a map and it is an area valued for reasons other than that of being a valuable component of the IHN’s! Fig. 4 shows that within the north west of Glasgow there is a substantial area of ancient woodland and also potential for ancient woodland expansion. However to look at the ancient woodland network for the whole of Glasgow (Fig 5) it is possible to see that these areas of ancient woodland are scarce throughout the city. Equally on a larger scale we can see at a glance where the habitat networks in Glasgow integrate and although the ecologists amongst us will be well aware of these “hotspots” it allows us to visually show the high habitat value of areas such as Possil Marsh SSSI which is an important component of the IHN. It does not sit in isolation (Fig. 5). Where the habitats networks integrate can be clearly seen as can areas that could be improved by appropriate land management can also be identified helping us to prioritise our habitat management. 34 Mountain hare Lepus timidus. © Lome Gill Red Admiral Vanessa alalanta © Lome Gill. Great crested newts Triturus cristatus © Sue Scott/SNH. Dogs mercury Mercurialis perennis. © Lome Water avens Geum rivale © Lome Gill. Gill/SNH Fig. 2. Some of the focal species used for IHN analyses. 35 Woodland © Lome Gill. Wetland © Lome Gill/SNH Grassland habitat. Lome Gill/SNH. Fig. 3. Generalist habitats. 36 Fig. 5. Data licensed to Scottish Natural Heritage under the PGA, through Next Perspectives. Generalist woodland networks (red), ancient woodland (pink), grassland including marshlands (yellow and green) and wetland (blue). WEB BROWSER TOOL Scottish Natural Heritage is presently working on a web browser tool to allow all of us with a land management interest to access the IHN layers to assist with our land management decisions. It will be possible to graphically see the effect of development, land use changes and also to assist land agent with their Scottish Rural Development Priority applications as there will be a web browser tool to allow us to add and for that matter remove land to see the effect on the habitat networks. The ecological network modelling will be possible throughout Scotland and access will be possible via the SNH website, www.snh.org.uk. CONCLUSION The IHN is a spatial took which can assist us with our efforts to plan our green networks in only one area but also across our various local authorities. There will always be an element of ground tmthing required but then the same can be said of any desk top analysis. Importantly we have the opportunity to strategically address habitat fragmentation and have a tool to assist us with the best possible “locations” for expansion of these networks. FOOTNOTE Since the conference in October IHN’s have been created for the whole of the Central Scotland Green Network area. Data and further information can be obtained from the Central Scotland Green Network Support Unit. http://www.centralscotlandgreennetwork.org. REFERENCES Corbett A, Hislop M, Smith M. (2009) Landscape Approach to Conservation Management : Glasgow and Clyde Valley case study. Ecological networks: Science and Practice Proceedings of the 16"’ Annual (I ALE) UK conference September 2009. East Lothian Council. SESPlan Main Issues Report 2010. http://www.eastlothian.gov.uk/site/scripts/downloa d mfo.php?fileID=3 1 22 Entec (2010) SEP A and GCVGN partnership Ecological networks and RBMP - Clyde Pilot Study. http://www.sepa.ore.uk/water/river basin ulannim /area advisoiy eroups/clyde.aspx Smith et al, (2008) Forest Research . Glasgow and Clyde Valley Integrated Habitat Networks. http://passthrough.fw- notifV.net/static/077310/downloader.is Rehfish A, (2010) Town and Country Planning in Scotland. SPICe. Scottish Parliament. http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/business/researc h/briefings-ll/SBl l-30.pdf Scottish Government (2009) National Planning Framework. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Built- Environment/planning/National-Planning- Policv/npf Strategic Development Planning Authority for Edinburgh and South East Scotland (2010) Main Issues Report SESPlan. http://passthrougli.fw- notifV.net/download/987087/http://www.sesplan.go v.uk/consultation/docs/mir.pdf Scottish Government http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Built- Environment/planning/National-Planning- Policv/npf 37 Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: The Biodiversity in Glasgow (BIG) project: the value of volunteer participation in promoting and conserving urban biodiversity. Humphreys, E.M.‘, Kirkland, P.“, Russell, S.^, Suteliffe, R.'^, Coyle, and Chamberlain, 'BTO Scotland, School of Biological Sciences, Stirling University, Stirling. FK9 4LA. ■ Butterfly Conservation Scotland, Balallan House, 24 Allan Park, Stirling, FK8 2QG ^Clober Fann, Milngavie, Glasgow G62 7HW Glasgow Museums Resource Centre, 200 Woodhead Road, South Nitshill Industrial Estate, Glasgow, G53 7NN ■'’6 Westerlands, Glasgow, G12 OFB ^ Dipartimento di Biologia Aniinale e dell'Uomo, Universita degli Studi di Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123 Torino, Italy Conresponding author E-mail: liz.humphreys@bto.org INTRODUCTION Glasgow is an ideal city in which to look at urban biodiversity. Over 20% of the area of Glasgow is green space including 74 parks, over 30 allotment spaces and other sites of potential importance to urban biodiversity such as rivers, woodlands, cemeteries and communal gardens. In temis of nationally recognised status of nature conservation, Glasgow holds 5 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and 7 Local Nature Reserves (LNRs). It also has 46 and 49 Sites of Importance for Nature Conservation (SINCs) at the City and Local level respectively'. Glasgow City Council (GCC) in a strategic review of its green spaces identified a numbers of key actions including: (a) identifying amenity grass and road verges that could be subject to less intensive maintenance and; (b) the inclusion of biodiversity as an integral part of any development projects (GCC, 2005). GCC also has a programme of habitat enhancement including the naturalisation of artificial ponds and creation of further ponds and wetlands, wildflower meadows and native woodland. In addition the Glasgow Biodiversity Partnership has produced a Local Habitat Statement on “Built Up Areas and Gardens”, as part of the Local Biodiversity Action Plan (LBAP) which highlighted the need to raise awareness of urban biodiversity through promoting access, encouraging public participation and the use of appropriate management practices^. 'http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/en/AboiitGlasgow/Factsheets/Gl asgow/Environment.htm. 0 rtittr)://www. glasgow.gov.uk/NR/rdonlvres/5CF1528F- ABBC-4F8F-A3CC-AD6CFD8E98CB/0/LBDAPurban.Ddf The importance of urban biodiversity has also been highlighted in the Scottish biodiversity strategy, a 25 year plan for the conservation and enhancement of ' biodiversity in Scotland. This document sets out five ! main objectives: halting the loss of biodiversity; increasing awareness of biodiversity and engaging ! people in conservation; restoring and enhancing | biodiversity in urban, rural and marine environments; ensuring that biodiversity is taken into account in all decision making and; ensuring that existing knowledge on biodiversity is available to all policy makers and practitioners (Scottish Government, 2004). The Scottish Biodiversity Forum, in its implementation plans for 2005-2008, has also highlighted that urban 5 green spaces are often poorly managed and sometimes : dominated by non-native invasive species that are generally of low value for urban wildlife (Scottish | Government, 2005). Consequently, urban environments such as green spaces and corridors offer huge potential for improvement through schemes to conserve and enhance biodiversity. I The Biodiversity in Glasgow (BIG) project was set up | as a collaboration between the British Trust for Ornithology Scotland, Butterfly Conservation Scotland I and Glasgow City Council and ran from January 2007 to April 2009. The main aim of the project was to carry j out the largest ever volunteer survey of the birds, » butterflies and their associated habitats within the green ; spaces of the city. This information was then used to j determine which habitats are the most important in ! terms of enhancing bird and butterfly diversity within ’ green spaces. \ METHODS 1 Site allocation and training 1 More than 100 green spaces were surveyed during the t BIG projeet and full details are provided in Humphreys 1 et al. (20 1 1 ). The term green space, as used here covers | a wide range of sites (eg. parks, cemeteries, allotments, urban woodlands, open spaces^) and in over 90% of ; cases were owned by GCC. Site allocation was based | on proximity to either where volunteers lived or ? worked and wherever possible, were chosen by * volunteers themselves. The size of green spaces used in ; the BIG project ranged from just under 2 ha to 168 ha ^ (although the largest sites were subdivided for the purpose of surveying). :j Although some of the BIG volunteers were highly ^ experienced, many people had never earned out a j- survey before. Free training in species identification ji and survey techniques was therefore offered to all participants. A total of 1 08 and 88 people were trained i for the bird and butterfly surveys respectively. Volunteers also received regular newsletters jj throughout the project which featured interim results, ■ ^ The category of open space describes the various combination of a wide range of possible habitats which are not intensively managed including: wetland, raised bog, bums, woodlands, heathlands, pasture and open water. 38 personal accounts by participants and articles on the best green spaces in Glasgow to visit. Bird Surveys Volunteers were recommended to make a pre-survey visit in early April in order to estimate the percentage cover of the different habitats within their site. Three further visits were then made: mid April to mid May, mid May to mid June and mid June to mid July. Ideally survey visits were carried out between dawn and 09:00 but if that was not possible, observers were required to choose a time of day that was convenient and cairy out future surveys at this fixed time. Volunteers were requested to walk a survey route in such a way that they covered the whole site to within 50m ensuring that they did not double count any birds eg. either by zigzagging or using parallel lines. Any bird species seen were then counted and allocated to the habitat type in which they were first seen. Species lists for all sites were checked over by GCC staff to identify records that were unlikely. In such instances, if these sightings could not be validated, they were subsequently removed from the site lists (see Humphreys et. a! 2011). Butterfly and day-flying moth Sui-veys Volunteers were recommended to undertake a pre- survey visit in early May in order to set up their transect routes and estimate the percentage cover of the different habitats within their sites. Transects were designed to take less than 60 minutes, not exceed 2 km in length, and cover a fair representation of the habitats present at the site. A minimum of four monthly visits to carry out the transects were recommended: mid May- mid June, mid-June to mid July, mid-July to mid- August and mid-August to mid-September. Volunteers were requested to walk at a slow, steady pace counting all butterflies and any day-flying moths seen within 2.5m either side of the transect line and 5m ahead. Transects were to be canned out between 10:45 and 15:45 hours BST and ideally in good weather conditions (eg. minimum temp of 11°C and wind speeds less than 5 on the Beaufort scale). All records of butterflies were checked by BC Scotland volunteers who were able to flag up records which were questionable (based on location and time of year). In such instances unless validation was provided the record was deleted (see Humphreys et. al 2011). RESULTS Birds A total of 91 species of bird was recorded in the city of Glasgow during the BIG project (with up to 61 species being recorded at one site alone). As expected, many birds were relatively abundant species, but what was surprising was the number with high conservation value. In total, there were 15 UKBAP and 4 LBAP birds species recorded along with 47 species of Birds of Conseiwation Concern (see Eaton et al, 2009, for definition and Table 1). These key lists included species that have become synonymous with the urban environment such as House Sparrow, Swift and Starling, as well as species that are more commonly associated with rural habitats including Tree Sparrow, Skylark and Yellowhammcr. Analyses were then carried out to look at the habitat associations of birds (see Humphreys et al., 2011 for further details). Species richness was most influenced by the overall size: the larger the green space, the higher the species richness was likely to be. The presence of wild areas (unmown rank grass or wild/weedy areas) had the greatest single effect, with an average of 5.2 more species in green spaces where wild areas were present. The presence of a water body (natural or ornamental) was also found to be important. Green spaces with a water body had an average of 4.9 more species than those without. Furthermore, sites with a wetland/marsh area present had on average 2.8 more species than those sites without. Butterflies and day-flying moths Seventeen species of butterflies and 9 species of day- flying moths were recorded in the City of Glasgow by volunteers despite the relatively wet and cold conditions, particularly in 2008 when records were notably lower throughout the whole of the UK. Two species of butterfly had UKBAP listings: Small Heath and Grayling (Fox et al., 2006). Exciting records included Comma, which was the first record for the city. The Comma is a generalist species that has a southerly distribution in Britain, although over the past few decades it has shown northern range expansions, almost certainly due to climate change (Warren et al., 2001) and is therefore likely to become much more widespread in the future. Also of interest were the good numbers of Ringlets which indicate the rapid rate of colonisation of Glasgow by this particular species, which was first reported within the city boundaiy in 2005. There were conspicuously low numbers of the Common Blue, however, which is consistent with the documented widespread decline across the UK (Botham et al., 2008). Simple analyses were then earned out to compare the key habitat features of sites in which butterflies were recorded with those of sites having nil records (there were too few records for day-flying moths for any analyses to be meaningful). The mean percentage covers of wildflower/weedy areas for sites with and without butterflies were not significantly different. However, the mean percentage cover of unmown or rank grass was significantly higher for those sites with butterflies compared with those without. This suggests that the area of unmown grass could be an important determinant of whether butterflies will be present. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GREEN SPACE MANAGEMENT Birds The overall size of the green space was the most influential factor in detennining species richness for birds. Larger sites by their very nature however are more likely to contain a greater number of habitats. Consequently it is difficult to tease apart the relative importance of size of green space in relation to greater 39 diversity of habitats (Chamberlain et ciL, 2007). Although the size of existing sites eannot be easily augmented, there may be potential to increase area by landscaping adjacent land Alternatively there eould be opportunities to join up existing green space through the creation or enhaneement of conddors, defined here as linear features with eontinuous wildlife habitat. Larger green spaces could be ineoiporated into the design of new towns. Wild areas (e.g. patches of unmown rank grass and wild/weedy habitats) were also important. These partieular habitats holding important numbers of invertebrates or being an important resource for seeds, particularly outside the breeding season. The presence of water bodies creates opportunities for an additional water bird community which could otherwise not be supported e.g. ducks and geese some of which have conservation listing (see Table 1). Wetland and marsh areas were also important for overall species richness and therefore, should accompany the creation of water bodies. Moreover for existing water bodies, there may be scope to incoiporate wetland habitat if they do not already exist (e.g. naturalisation of waterbodies). Butterflies Unmown/ rank grass was shown to be an important factor in detennining the presence of buttertlies. Some sites, however, had unexpectedly poor numbers of butterflies despite having a high percentage. In such cases, the grassland was likely to be of amenity or agricultural origin and thus of little value to butterflies and moths as food resource (although it may provide over wintering habitat). In such instances the creation of new wildflowcr-rich or semi-natural grassland should be considered instead. Consideration should also be given to the frequency of cutting regimes as nectar sources and cateipillars arc destroyed by regular mowing. Even annual mowing of grasslands will cause losses to most butterflies and moths, except perhaps those that pupate in the soil. Thus if the site has to be mown, it is always better to have a variety of cutting regimes so a proportion of the population has a chance of survival. CONCLUSIONS AND LESSONS FOR THE FUTURE The BIG project was extremely successful in encouraging new volunteers to go out and survey birds and butterflies. Volunteers had often previously felt that they lacked the skills or the confidence to get involved, so offering targeted training really was key to the success of the project. The first-time surveyors also reported taking great satisfaction in developing their identification skills as the project progressed, which really reinforces the message that the only way to truly learn is to get out there and practise! There was also an issue of people’s perception of green spaces particularly when volunteers were allocated a site that was previously unknown to them. A number of volunteers actually voiced their initial misgivings over what were seemingly uninviting green spaces in the spring but by mid summer many of these sites had transfonned. Participants also expressed their sheer joy at discovering birds and butterflies found at their site that would have been potentially overlooked by a casual visit. By informing the management of urban greenspace and promoting the awareness of urban biodiversity, the BIG project made a significant contribution to the LBAP process. GCC has gone onto to be involved with the Glasgow Living Water Project, a partnership with Froglife which has resulted in the creation of new ponds across the city and North Lanarkshire. Although the management of these water bodies is intended to benefit primarily amphibians, it is likely to enhance overall biodiversity. In addition, in 2011 the council started a new partnership project with Buglife called Glasgow’s Buzzing which will create and enhance grasslands and meadows for the benefit of bees, butterflies and other key invertebrates. Although the BIG project was initially specific to Glasgow, any generic management advice will have applications for urban green spaces across Scotland and will therefore support the objectives of the Scottish Biodiversity Strategy. Therefore, if lessons from the BIG project are applied to other cities and towns, then we have demonstrated how anyone can help contribute to promoting and conserving biodiversity in Scotland. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly we would like to thank the all the volunteers who participated in the BIG project. We would also like thank Glasgow City Council who provided logistic support in temis of the distribution of promotional leaflets, free training venues and staff time in giving support and advice. Funding for the project was provided by Scottish Natural Heritage, Scottish Government, Glasgow City Council and the Robertson Trust. 40 Species UKBAP LBAP BOCC Pink-footed Goose Amber List Greylag Goose Amber List Gadwall Amber List Mallard Amber List Northern Pintail Amber List Common Pochard Amber List Tufted Duck Amber List Grey Partridge Red List Little Grebe Amber List Common Kestrel Amber List Eurasian Oystercatcher Amber List Ringed Plover Amber List Northern Lapwing UKBAP Red List Eurasian Curlew UKBAP Amber List Common Sandpiper Amber List Black-headed Gull Amber List Common Gull Amber List Lesser Black-backed Gull Amber List Herring Gull UKBAP Red List Stock Dove Amber List Common Cuckoo UKBAP Red List Common Swift LBAP Amber List Kingfisher Amber List Skylark UKBAP LBAP Red list Meadow Pipit Amber List Grey Wagtail Amber List Sand Martin Amber List Bam Swallow Amber List House Martin Amber List Dunnock Amber List Whinchat Amber List Wheatear Amber List Song Thmsh UKBAP Red list Mistle Thrush Amber List Grasshopper Warbler Red List Whitethi'oat Amber List Wood Warbler Red List Willow Warbler Amber List Spotted Flycatcher UKBAP Red List Starling UKBAP Red list House Span'ow UKBAP Red List Tree Sparrow UKBAP LBAP Red List Common Linnet UKBAP Red List Lesser Redpoll UKBAP Red List Bullfinch UKBAP Amber List Y ellowhammer UKBAP Red List Reed Bunting UKBAP LBAP Amber List Table 1. Species of bird recorded in Glasgow as part of the BIG project which had a conservation listing. BOCC, Birds of Conservation Concern; LBAP, Local Biodiversity Action Plan; UKBAP, UK Biodiversity Action Plan. 41 Species UKBAP LBAP Small Heath UKBAP Grayling UKBAP Table 2. Species of butterfly and moths recorded in Glasgow as part of the BIG project which had a conservation listing. REFERENCES Botham, M.S., Brereton, T.M., Middlebrook, 1., Cruickshanks, K.L. & Roy, D.B. (2008). United Kingdom Butterflv Monitoring Scheme Report for 2007. CEH Wallingford. Chamberlain, D.E., Gough, S., Vaughan, H.,Vickei'y, J.A. and Appleton, G.H. (2007). Determinants of bird species richness in public greenspaccs. Ibis 54, 87-97. Eaton, M.A., Brown, A.F., Noble, D.G., Musgrove, A.J., Hearn, R., Aebischer, N.J., Gibbons, D.W., Evans, A. & Gregory, R.D. (2009). Birds of Conservation Concern 3: the population status of birds in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. British Birds 102, 296-341. Fox, R., Asher, J., Brereton, T, Roy, D. & Warren, M. (2006). The State of Butterflies in Britain. Pisces, Newbury. Glasgow City Council (2005). Glasgow Parks and Open Spaces- Strategic Best Value Review and Implementation Plan. Glasgow City Council, Glasgow. Humphreys, E., Kirkland, P. & Chamberlain, D.C. (201 1). The Biodiversity in Glasgow Project. BTO Research Report 603. Scottish Biodiversity Forum. (2005) Scotland's Biodiversity: It's in Your Hands: Strategy Implementation Plans 2005-2007 . Scottish Government (2004). Scotland’s Biodiversity: It 's in your hands. Scottish Executive, St Andrews House Edinburgh. Warren, M.S., Hill, J.K., Thomas, J.A., Asher, J., Fox, R. , Huntley, B., Roy, D.B., Tclfcr, M.G., Jeffcoatc, S. , Harding, P., Jeffcoatc, G., Willis, S.G., Greatorex-Davies, J.N., Moss, D. & Thomas, C.D. (2001 ). Rapid response of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change. Nature 414, 65-69. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Bat activity in urban green space Kirsty J. Park', Fiona Mochar^ and Elisa Fuentes- Monteniayor ^ Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, UK, FK9 4LA 'E-mail: k.j.park@stir.ac.uk ^E-mail: mooha99@hotmail.com ^E-Mail: elisa.fuentes-montemayor@stir.ac.uk ABSTRACT Green spaces within urban areas can be important for ameliorating the impacts of urbanisation on biodiversity, and can hold relatively rich wildlife communities. In contrast to some other taxa, relatively little is known about the ecology of bats in urban environments, and in this study we aimed to identify site-specific and wider landscape features that influence bat foraging activity within areas of urban green space. Bat activity primarily comprised Pipistrellus pygmaeus and was detected at 86% of parks surveyed. The presence of water bodies and woodland in urban parks increased bat foraging activity by a factor of 3.2 and 1.7 respectively. Data presented in this study indicate that, for this species, habitat within a site may be more important than the level of urbanisation or woodland cover in the suiTounding landscape. INTRODUCTION Urbanisation and green space Urbanisation by expanding human populations reduces native biological diversity by decreasing the amount and quality of habitat available for wildlife, and by the fragmentation of remaining habitats (e.g. Marzluff et ah, 1998). It has been estimated that currently 50% of the world’s population live in areas classed as urban, a figure set to increase along with the human population (United Nations, 2008). Urban development will therefore continue to grow, resulting in further losses of natural and semi-natural habitats, and increasing pressure on remaining habitat fragments which may suffer increasing isolation and deterioration in quality 42 (Marzliiff and Ewing, 2001; Chamberlain et ai, 2007). Green spaces within urban areas (e.g. parks, domestic gardens) typically consist of small, highly disturbed or modified patches of vegetation distributed within a matrix of urban development such as buildings and associated infrastructure. Whilst several studies have shown that species diversity for several taxa decreases along the rural-urban gradient (e.g. Sadler et al, 2006; Duchamp and Swihart, 2008), green spaces can nevertheless ameliorate the impacts of urbanisation on biodiversity, and may hold relatively rich wildlife communities (e.g. Chamberlain et al., 2007; Davies et al, 2009). Factors commonly found to influence the abundance and diversity of several taxa (birds, mammals, invertebrates) include the size, habitat quality and stracture of green spaces, although the quality and proximity of suitable habitat in the wider landscape can also be important (e.g. Sadler et al, 2006; Baker and Harris, 2007; Chamberlain et al, 2007). Clergeau et al., (2001) and Angold et al, (2006) argue that appropriate management within areas of urban green space areas can benefit many avian and invertebrate species regardless of the sumounding landscape, and such actions may be far easier to implement. However, the relative importance of local habitat versus the wider landscape is likely to vary markedly between species depending on their ecological requirements and mobility. Status and conservation of bats in Europe There is evidence that many bat species in Europe have undergone large population declines during the 20*'’ century, driven by the loss of foraging and roosting habitat. A UK-wide bat survey in the 1990s found that habitats favoured by foraging bats were undergoing rapid rates of loss within the UK, and suggested that this may be limiting bats in some areas (Barr et al, 1993; Walsh et al, 1996). Although it remains the most abundant and widespread bat genus in the UK, estimates from the Annual Bat Colony Survey in the UK suggest a decline of over 60% between 1978 and 1993 for Pipistrellus spp. (Hutson, 1993). The species Pipistrellus pipistrellus was only recently recognised as two separate species, P. pipistrellus and P. pygmaeus (International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 2003), so it is not known whether this decline has affected both species equally. In order to sustain bat populations, urban areas need to provide both roosting and foraging sites, and routes which allow bats to commute between the two. Some bat species now commonly use buildings as maternity roosts, and exploit foraging oppoitunities provided by man made structures such as streetlamps and sewage works that are associated with high insect densities (Rydell, 1992; Altringham, 2003; Park and Cristinacce, 2006). Several studies have suggested that urban environments may have a positive role to play in resource availability for bats (e.g. Avila-Flores and Fenton, 2005; McDonald-Madden et al, 2005; Haupt et al., 2006), particularly in landscapes dominated by intensive agricultural land use, which studies have repeatedly found are avoided by bats (Walsh and Harris, 1996; Gehrt and Chelsvig, 2003). There appear to be marked species-specific responses to urbanisation, however, with other species strongly avoiding built up areas (e.g. Kurta and Teramino, 1992; Waters et al, 1999; Lesihki et al, 2000). Understanding how different species use urban environments and how habitat management and urban planning can promote population persistence is critical to their conservation. The aim of this study was therefore to identify site-specific and wider landscape features (e.g. woodland connectivity, urbanisation) that influence bat activity within areas of urban green space. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study sites Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland (UK), with the Greater Glasgow conurbation covering an area of 369km^ with a population of approximately 1 .2 million people. Over 20% of the area of Greater Glasgow is green space; including 74 parks and other potentially important features such as river comidors, woodlands, cemeteries and communal gardens (Humphries et al, 2009). Other than two very large sites (>140 ha), green space areas owned by Glasgow City Council (GCC) range from 1.5 - 68.4 ha (mean 18.2). A total of 29 sites owned and managed by GCC were surveyed for bat activity between 31 May and 11 July 2007 (Table 1). Sites were chosen randomly whilst ensuring they were a minimum of 1km apart and spanned a range of sizes (mean 24.3 ± 14.9; range 6.2 - 53.2 ha). Monitoring bat activity Point counts were used to quantify bat activity. At each park 10 minute recordings were made at between two and six locations depending on the size of the park (across parks, an average of four point counts were recorded). Each point location was chosen using randomly-generated xy coordinates but omitting areas of open water within the park and ensuring a minimum distance of 30m between points. On each survey night, one of four geographical areas of Glasgow (NE, NW, SE, SW) was chosen randomly, and between one and four parks were surveyed, again in random order, with each park being surveyed once. Within a night, all point counts were conducted within 2 h 1 5 minutes of each other, the first starting 45 min after sunset. At the start of each count air temperature was measured to the nearest 0.1 °C and wind speed was estimated using the Beaufort scale. Counts were only conducted in dry weather where the temperature at dusk exceeded 1 O^C and the strength of the wind did not exceed Beaufort 3 (since strong winds influence both insect distribution and detectability of bat calls). Sound recording and analysis A frequency division bat detector (Batbox Duet, Stag Electronics; frequency response 17- 120kHz) was connected to a MiniDisc (Sony MZ-R909; frequency 43 response ± 3dB 20Hz - 20kHz) and a continuous recording made for each point count onto a recordable MiniDisc. Frequency division is a broad-band system that records all frequencies continuously, and is sufficient for distinguishing between the genera Myotis and Pipistrellus, and between the Pipistrelhis species (e.g. Vaughan ef ai, 1997a; see sound analysis). We analysed recordings using BatSound v3.31 (Pettersson Elektronik AB, Uppsala, Sweden), with a sampling frequency of 44.1kHz with 16 bits per sample, and a 512 pt. FFT with Hanning window). One bat pass was defined as a continuous sequence of at least two echolocation calls from a passing bat (Fenton, 1970; Walsh c/ a/., 1996). Three genera of bat occur in the area where this study was conducted; Pipistrellus, Myotis and Plecotus (Richardson, 2000), although Plecotus is rarely recorded due to its quiet echolocation calls. Unfortunately, problems with the recording equipment meant that for all but seven parks (representing 25% of the point counts) recordings were made in mono (heterodyne) rather than stereo (heterodyne and frequency division. Analyses were therefore conducted on the number of bat passes per point count. Temiinal feeding buzzes emitted when attempting prey capture were also counted and provide a measure of foraging effort. Habitat availability within, and surrounding, urban parks Habitat structure within the parks was fairly simple consisting largely of a mixture of improved grassland, mixed woodland and shrubs. All but one park had some mixed woodland on site, although there was considerable variation in the amount among parks (0.3 - 45ha). Of the parks surveyed, 21 had still (> 3m width) or running water (> Im width) present. Habitat within 30m of each recording point was categorised according to the presence of woodland and still or running water. Of 1 1 1 point counts made, 3 1 were adjacent to water (i.e. within 30m), 50 were adjacent to woodland, 12 were adjacent to both water and woodland and 42 were made within grassland with no water or woodland nearby. The landscape analysis was perfonned using data from OS MasterMap Topography Layer (Digimap Ordnance Survey® Collection). We used ArcGIS 9.2 to create buffers of 1 km radius around the centre of each park and reclassify the feature classes from the topography layers into five categories (hereafter rcfeired to as habitat classes). These were: 1) urban areas (buildings, structures, roads and parking areas); 2) urban gardens (urban land not covered by buildings or structures); 3) grassland and scrub; 4) woodland (coniferous, deciduous and mixed woodland, and areas covered by scattered trees); 5) water (inland and tidal water). A 6''' category (called “other") included features that didn’t fall into any of the 5 previously mentioned habitat classes, but its proportion was less than 4% in all cases. Because the 1 km radius was taken from the centre of the park rather than the location of individual points, | the proportion of the 3.14 km^ circle that lies outside i the park varies between parks, although this variation is l relatively small (non-park area: 83-98%). We then used j the software package Fragstats 3.3 to calculate a ( selection of different landscape metrics for each habitat [ class within the 1 km buffer including the proportion of t land covered, the number of patches, mean patch area, | largest patch, total edge density, area-perimeter ratio | and Euclidean nearest neighbour distance (ENN i distance is the shortest straight-line distance between 1 the focal patch and its nearest neighbour of the same 1 class; McGarigal et ai, 2002). | ! The proportions of different habitat categories within a 1km radius of a park are not independent since all must sum to 1 . Our puipose for including information about ' the habitat surrounding each park as potential | explanatoiy variables in the model was to assess how | bat activity may be influenced by levels of urbanisation I and proximity of habitats considered important for 5 many bat species, for example woodland. We focused, therefore on the proportion of urban and woodland ' habitat, and the mean ENN distance among water bodies within a 1km radius of the centre of each park. ! The size of the park was significantly positively ■ coirelatcd with the proportion of woodland within the 1 I km buffer (rt? = 2.70, p = 0.012, r = 0.21), and % 1 woodland cover was weakly negatively coirelated with ; % urban cover {tn = -2.05, p = 0.05, r^ = 0.13) but i neither of these was sufficiently strong to cause i problems with multicol linearity. There was no coiTelation between % urban cover and the size of the ! park {tji = 0.23, p = 0.76, r~ = 0.0019). Percentage i woodland and urban cover were arcsine square root | transformed prior to analysis. i There are many different metrics that can be calculated ^ to assess the composition and configuration of habitat i patches within a landscape, and therefore potentially a | great many potential explanatory variables. We ! minimised the number of potential variables describing the configuration of woodland patches within the surrounding landscape as the proportion of woodland within a 1km radius of each park correlated strongly ; with several measures commonly used to assess | isolation of that habitat (McGarigal et ai, 2002). For example, proportion of woodland was strongly | correlated with both edge density (rt? = 4.51, /; = ! 0.0001, r~ = 0.43), and weighted-mean ENN distance (/27 = -3.78,p = 0.0008,;-- 0.35). I Data analysis ( All statistical analyses were conducted using the R computing environment (version 2.8.1, R Development ' Core team, 2008). To assess the influence of habitat = features and the surrounding matrix on bat activity in ? urban green space, we fitted a Generalised Linear j Mixed Effects model with quasi-poisson en’ors using i the number of bat passes at each location (n=l 11), as f the dependent variable. The following were included in - the starting model as potential explanatory variables: , 44 the presence or absence of a water body or woodland adjacent to each point count (within 30m) were included as fixed factors; the order in which the points were surveyed (i.e. to account for variation of activity with time of night), the proportion of woodland and urban cover, and the mean ENN distance between water bodies within a 1km radius of the centre of the park, the size of park, wind speed, temperature (linear and quadratic terms) were covariates. A two way interaction between park size and each of the landscape metrics was also included. Park was a random factor used as a grouping variable. The model was carried out in a stepwise fashion, with the least significant of the explanatory variables being removed at each step in an effort to detennine which of these variables had the most significant effect. RESULTS Bat activity A total of 852 bat passes was detected during 18.5 hours of recording during the study. On average, 14.7% of bat passes had feeding buzzes and evidence of feeding activity was detected at 62% (18/29) parks. There was a significant positive coiTelation between the number of bat passes and feeding buzzes per park (Spearman rank r s29 = 0.79, p < 0.0001), suggesting that the use of bat passes is a reasonable measure of foraging activity. For the seven parks (28 point count locations) at which bat passes could be assigned to species level (see Methods), 128 of 160 (80%) of identified Pipistrellus passes were attributable to P. pygmaeus. Total bat activity within urban parks was significantly higher adjacent to water bodies or areas of woodland; based on differences in the adjusted median values, the presence of water bodies and woodland increased bat activity by a factor of 3.2 and 1 .7 respectively (Table 2, Figs. 1 and 2). The final model explained 56% of the variation in activity among point counts. There were no significant interactions between the size of park and the surrounding landscape variables (proportion of urban, proportion of woodland, mean ENN distance between water bodies within a Ikm^ radius around each park), and none of the landscape variables had a significant influence on bat activity on their own. In this study wind speed correlated positively with bat activity (Table 2) although this relationship is entirely reliant on the data point with the highest bat activity and, if removed, wind speed becomes non-significant. The remaining variables in the model, however, are all retained. DISCUSSION The presence of both water bodies and woodland in urban parks resulted in significantly increased bat activity, with the effect of water being the most marked. This is likely to be because the majority of bat passes recorded during these surveys were of P. pygmaeus which, of the two most common pipistrelle species in the UK, is particularly associated with riparian habitats (Vaughan et ai, 1997b; Nicholls and Racey, 2006; Sattler et al, 2007). The importance of water bodies within urban green space for birds has recently been highlighted by the Biodiversity In Glasgow project, co-ordinated by the British Trust for Ornithology (Humphries et al, 2009). Between five and 61 bird species were recorded within urban green spaces in Glasgow, with sites containing water bodies having an average of five more species than those lacking water. Previous studies have shown the importance of deciduous or mixed woodland for foraging bats (e.g. Walsh and Hands, 1996; Johnson et al., 2008), and areas with higher proportions of well connected woodland might have been expected to have had higher levels of bat activity as found by Gehrt and Chelsvig, 2003. In this study, however, although woodland adjacent to recording sites had a positive effect on levels of bat activity (largely P. pygmaeus), the amount and connectivity of woodland at a larger scale did not. Previous work has indicated that species respond differently to urbanisation which, given the marked differences in roosting and foraging ecology among bat species, is not surprising. Gehrt and Chelsvig (2004) found positive associations between urban indices and activity of Eptesicus fusciis, Lasiurus borealis and L. noctivagans. Other species, however, appear to largely avoid urban areas (e.g. Nyctalus leisleri - Waters et al., 1999; Myotis sodalis - Sparks et al., 2005) or are otherwise sensitive to features associated with urbanisation such as street lighting (e.g. Rhinoloplms hipposideros - Stone et al, 2009). Duchamp and Swihart (2008) identified two groups of bat species whose populations showed opposite trends along urban and forest gradients. Species that responded negatively to urban development were those requiring tree cavities for roosting and a wing moiphology adapted to flight in cluttered environments such as woodland (ie. low wing loading), whereas the opposite was true for species that responded positively to urbanisation. These predictions fit well with our findings for P. pygmaeus, the most frequent species recorded during this study, which is commonly associated with building roosts and adapted to flight in relatively open environments. It might be expected that the two Myotis spp. commonly found in Scotland would react differently to urbanisation: M. daubentoni is also associated with riparian habitats but typically roosts in tree cavities or within the stonework of bridges, and M. nattereri, also a tree rooster, forages largely in woodland habitats (Altringham 2003). Data presented in this study suggests that, for P. pygmaeus, the habitat within a site may be more important than the surrounding landscape as Gilbert (1989) suggested may be the case for highly mobile species within urban environments. That the size of park was not an influential factor on P. pygmaeus activity suggests that even small areas of urban green space can provide valuable foraging opportunities for bats able to adapt to urbanised landscapes, provided 45 there is suitable habitat (ie. water bodies and woodland) within the site. For other species, however, a wider landscape-approach, such as increasing woodland cover both within urban parks and in the sun'ounding matrix to link foraging areas, is likely to be necessai7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many thanks to Sheila Russell (Glasgow City Council) for providing infonnation on the sites within Glasgow, Liz Flumphreys (BTO Scotland) for information on the BIG project, Kevin McCulloch for field assistance and Mario Vallejo-Marin for statistical advice. This work was funded by the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. Site name Latitude Longitude Size Date Surrounding habitat (ha) surveyed 0/ A) % Mean ENN urban woodland distance water^ Auchinlca Park 55° 52’ 16.96" -4° 8’ 1.81" 29 1 1/07/2007 24.6 5.5 395.0 Cardonald Park 55° 51’ 27.26" -4° 20’ 55.78" 7 18/06/2007 32.6 3.3 57.4 Cardowan Moss Woodland 55° 52’ 48.28" -4° 9’ 1.09" 45 10/07/2007 16.2 16.8 57.1 Clcddans Bum 55° 54’ 51.80" -4° 23’ 9.14" 15 04/06/2007 14.6 9.4 40.1 Cowlairs Park 55° 52’ 42.12" -4° 14' 46.12" 17 06/06/2007 30.7 2.4 5.6 Cranhill Park 55° 51’ 55.55" -4° 9’ 55.72" 10 1 7/06/2007 24.2 4.8 2.5 Crookston Woods 55° 50’ 16.15" -4° 20’ 51.49" 10 09/07/2007 22.2 8.5 5.4 Dawsholm Park 55° 53’ 48.65" -4° 18’ 57.62" 33 04/07/2007 24.3 17.8 8.0 Early Braes 55° 51’ 5.64" -4° 8’ 9.41" 10 03/07/2007 20.7 4.6 26.9 Elder Park 55°5r48.5r’ -4° 19’ 19.24" 14 1 8/06/2007 32.4 3.8 129.0 Garscadden Bum 55° 54’ 30.84" -4° 21’ 41.44" 23 19/06/2007 23.8 2.8 8.0 Garscadden Woods 55° 55’ 9.96" -4° 21’ 26.53" 25 04/06/2007 16.4 7.1 18.5 Glasgow Green 55° 51’ 5.25" 4° 14’ 34.79" 53 08/07/2007 36.7 4.9 754.8 Hogganfield Park 55° 52’ 47. 17" -4° 10’ 4.35" 46 1 7/06/2007 16.6 12.5 40.7 Househill Park 55° 49’ 13.64" -4° 21’ 45.20" 23 09/07/2007 18.2 8.8 5.6 Kelvingrove Park East 55° 52’ 10.59" -4° 16’ 56.68" 36 1 8/06/2007 38.0 3.8 11.9 Kings Park 55° 48’ 55.95" -4° 14’ 27.34" 28 08/07/2007 19.9 5.4 517.7 Knightswood Park 55° 53’ 49.48" -4° 21’ 4.37" 20 04/07/2007 19.7 1.5 11.8 Linn Park 55° 48’ 19.13" -4° 15’ 34.17" 50 11/06/2007 18.1 1 1.4 41.5 Maxwell Park 55° 50' 16.93" -4° 17’ 18.77" 8 10/06/2007 24.5 4.4 134.3 Mount Vernon Park 55° 50’ 33.21" -4° 8’ 13.38" 6 03/07/2007 17.4 3.6 25.3 Ncwlands Park 55° 48’ 43.51" -4° 16’ 56.04" 6 11/07/2007 23.3 2.0 84.1 Pricsthill Park 55° 48’ 39.19" -4° 20’ 45.65" 7 09/07/2007 24.2 7.3 8.0 Queens Park 55° 49' 49.00" -4° 16’ 13.88" 45 10/06/2007 30.7 7.2 129.1 Robroyston Park 55° 53’ 24.23" -4° 1 1’ 44.30" 42 1 1/07/2007 18.9 2.9 163.4 Sandyhills Park 55° 50’ 5 1.60" -4° 9’ 11.90" 9 03/07/2007 22.0 4.0 18.4 Springburn Park 55° 53’ 32.17" -4° 13’ 22.65" 31 06/06/2007 22.7 7.8 49.1 Tollcross Park 55° 50’ 56.35" -4° 10’ 49.95" 37 03/07/2007 28.1 7.1 23.8 Victoria Park 55° 52’ 29.77" -4° 20’ 1.99" 20 04/07/2007 29.8 4.8 170.4 Table 1. Locations and attributes of parks visited and the landscape metrics used in the starting model of bat activity. Mean Euclidean Nearest Neighbour Distance between water bodies (ENN distance is the shortest straight-line distance in metres between the focal patch and its nearest neighbour of the same class). 46 Source Degrees of freedom Parameter estimate Estimate Standard Error t value Adjacent water 1 1.699 0.276 6.613 *** Adjacent woodland 1 0.383 0.268 1.430 *** Wind speed 1 0.389 0.260 1.496 *** Temperature 1 -2.098 0.936 _7 242 *** Temperature^ 1 0.058 0.0288 2 017 *** Survey order 1 -0.207 0.103 -2 019 *** Table 2. Generalised linear mixed-effects model for the effects of habitat and weather variables on bat activity within urban parks in Glasgow City ( *** p < 0.0001). The sign and size of the parameter estimate (and the error) are used to assess the relative magnitude of the effects of these variables on bat activity. Fig. 1. Adjusted total bat passes at ten-minute point counts adjacent (n=3 1 ) and not adjacent (n=80) to water bodies. Values shown are those corrected for explanatory variables in the final model (Table 2). Tukey box plots are used here with boxes representing the location of the middle 50 percent of the data and the upper and lower quartiles, and the whiskers 1.5 x the interquartile range. 47 (/5 •o to "o > o 03 03 JD O to O O CO O CM O - woodland absent woodland present Fig. 2. Adjusted values of total bat passes at ten-minute point counts adjacent (n=50) and not adjacent (n=61) to woodland. Values shown are those coiTected for explanatoiy variables in the final model (Table 2). Tukey box plots are used here with boxes representing the location of the middle 50 percent of the data and the upper and lower quartilcs, and the whiskers 1.5 x the interquartile range. 48 REFERENCES Altringham, J. D. (2003). British Bats. The New Naturalist. Harper Collins, London, UK, 1-213. Angold, P. 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Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Parklife; cities for people and nature Scott Ferguson Scottish Natural heritage Some have argued that suburban gardens are England's most important nature reserve. Can that be true for Scotland too? From the butterfly on the buddleia to the raven nesting on the gas-tower, there is no doubt that the mosaic of habitats across urban areas support an amazing aiTay of wildlife - and offer a wealth of opportunities for people to enjoy, learn about and celebrate that diversity. Urban Biodiversity: Successes and Challenges: Cities deserve landscape-scale wildlife spectacles Stuart Housden Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Scotland In such uncertain financial times it is heartening to I recognise that the policy framework for delivering large scale habitat creation projects in Scotland has j never been more positive. This is a recognition that these types of projects have been delivered elsewhere , in the UK bringing with them not just a huge boost to biodiversity but a whole brigade of associated benefits. I Whether you arc interested in education, climate change, flood alleviation, economic growth, creating a ;j pleasant environment for people to live and work, direct employment or improving the social esteem of ' previously marginalised communities there is little ^ doubt that investment in landscape scale environmental / projects in an urban setting can and should make a / significant contribution to the future of Scotland. i| Urban Biodiversity: Successes and | Challenges: A tactical approach 1; Malcolm Muir jj I Countryside and Grecnspace Manager, South < Lanarkshire council |i The quality of urban open spaces can have a significant effect on their neighbouring communities. They offer opportunities for play, healthy recreation, sustainable transport and biodiversity and may indeed be the key to effecting a transfonnation in public understanding for and engagement with the natural heritage in Scotland. The eco-system approach rightly advocates acceptance I : of change, decentralisation and the participation of all |j sectors of society. Greenspaces, largely owned by | Local Authorities offer the perfect test bed for this | approach and the opportunity to clearly demonstrate to policy makers the links between environmental quality, l| health and economic and social well being. The current financial “crisis” actually presents a window of opportunity for this area of work but, despite these |i. opportunities, real challenges remain; many of them ' linked to fundamental public service processes and “mind sets”, and these will not be overcome through legislation alone. 50 Urban Biodiversity^ Successes and Challenges: Glasgow’s Freshwater Fishes - the State of the Cart (and other urban watercourses) William E. Yeomans Clyde River Foundation, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ The Clyde River Foundation (CRF) is a registered charity which researches the ecology of the River Clyde and its tributaries, and promotes environmental education throughout the catchment. Glasgow’s freshwater fishes are suiprisingly poorly known, despite the well-publicised renaissance of the local watercourses and the iconic nature of the salmon in Glasgow folklore. Our current knowledge of the fish communities of the major rivers: the Clyde, Kelvin, White Cart and North Calder will be described, together with a summary of the findings from a recent survey of Glasgow’s bums. 51 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 53-57 FULL PAPERS From whaling to whale watching: a history of cetaceans in Scotland E.C.M. Parsons' ^ 'Department of Environmental Science & Policy, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, Virginia 22030-4444, USA ^University Marine Biological Station Millport (University of London) Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland. E-mail: ecm-parsons(^earthlink.nct INTRODUCTION Historic Utilization of Cetaceans Scotland has over a thousand-year history of marine mammal exploitation dating back to the Stone Age. For example, cetacean bone was used as a building material in the wood-impoverished Orkney Islands; whale mandibles were used as rafters and in walls at the Neolithic site at Skara Brae in Orkney (Childe 1931). Spenn whale and bottlenose whale specimens were found at a Bronze Age site and spemi whale, minke whale, bottlenose whale and bottlenose dolphin artifacts have been found at a variety of Iron Age sites in South Uist (Mulville 2002). There is little evidence to suggest that these whales were butchered for food, but rather their bones used as building materials, turned into tools or utensils, and even burnt as fuel (Mulville 2002). Moreover a lack of harpoons or other tools to catch cetaceans suggest that these animals were stranded or very occasional catches rather than actively hunted (Mulville 2002). Nordic occupation of the northern and western islands of Scotland in the early middle ages was particularly accompanied by marine mammal consumption and utilisation of stranded and hunted animals (Lindquist 1995) with remains of several cetacean species being found in Nordic sites in the Western Isles dating from the 9"’ century (Sharpies 1997) to the 13"’ century (Brennand, Parker Pearson & Smith 1998). For example, on South Uist remains of pilot whale, bottlenose whale, killer whale, minke whale, spenn whale and even blue whale artefacts have been found at Norse archaeological sites (Mulville 2002). The larger number, diversity and probably age (many bones from young animals have been found) suggest that there may have been active hunting for cetaceans, although again there is no archaeological evidence of harpoons, nor any substantive evidence (from cuts on bones) of butchering cetaceans for meat (Mulville 2002). In the northern and western Isles of Scotland, Norwegian laws on whale ownership and whaling held sway until at least 1611 (Ryder 1988). For example the Gulathing (mid llthC) a law imported into Orkney presumably from Noway, has sections dealing with stranded whale ownership and distribution (Szabo 2005). In mediaeval Britain (early 14th Century) cetaceans were made 'Fishes Royale' by Edward 111 and any stranded cetaceans became property of the crown (Fraser 1977). A similar royal prerogative extended to Scotland, from at least 1603, but likely earlier (Erskine 1895). Despite this, local, subsistence, cetacean consumption continued in this region until at least the 18th Century as evidenced by this statement below: "...about one hundred and sixty’ little whales ran themselves ashore on the island of Tiree, and the natives did eat them all” (Martin 1716). Animals were also driven to the shore (Martin 1716) in a drive fisheiy akin to those seen today in the Faeroe Islands. Similar drive fisheries were conducted in the western and northern islands of Scotland until the early 20"’ century (Evans 1996). CETACEANS AND SCOTTISH CULTURE Cetaceans have been culturally significant in Scotland since at least the Iron Age, evidenced by carvings on standing stones that are believed to portray dolphins (Hicks 1996). This so-called “pictish bcasf’, appears on 44 stones caiwed between 300 and 842AD. Macleod & Wilson (2001) took the issue one step further and suggested that the Pictish beast might represent a beaked whale. The distribution of these stones certainly coincides with the present day distribution of bottlenose dolphins in eastern Scotland being found in areas adjacent to the Moray Firth and along the coast of northeastern Scotland to Aberdeen. The famous Scotland-dwelling Saint Columba is said to have warned monks travelling from the Isle of Iona to the Isle of Tiree of a “monster of the deep”, which turned out to be “a whale of extraordinary size, which rose like a mountain above the water, its jaws open to show an aiTay of teeth” (Sharpe 1995). This is not the 53 only link between one of Scotland's most famous religious figures and cetaceans, it’s been suggested that due to a mistranslation the famous first recorded sighting of the Loch Ness monster (much vaunted by the Scottish tourist board), by said Saint may actually have been an encounter with a whale near the Moray Firth (Parsons 2004). Folklore from the middle ages describes a sea unicorn from Scottish waters, the BiasJ na Srogaig or beast with the lowering horn, which is most likely to have been sightings of nawhals, which could have ranged into Scottish waters during the cooler climates of the middle ages and renaissance (Parsons 2004). The unicorn was the Royal device of the Scottish kings since Robert 111 and it appears on the Scottish Royal crest (two unicorns originally, then one of the unicorns was replaced by a lion when James VI of Scotland inherited the English crown). Likewise the unicorn (and a Shetland pony) appears in the coat of arms of Shetland. It’s been suggested that this heraldic device was influenced by Scotland’s connection to narwhals (Buezaki 2002; Parsons 2004), and thus Scotland’s cultural link to cetaceans is an important, if largely forgotten, one. COMMERCIAL WHALING Commercial whaling started in Scotland in Aberdeen in 1753, expanding to Dundee, Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Banff, on the east coast (O’ Dell & Walton 1962). By 1820 there were 15 whaling vessels, but the whaling fleet then declined with only two vessels in 1838 (O’ Dell & Walton 1962). These whaling operations were primarily to Arctic waters to pursue bowhead whales (Watson 2003). In 1882 a risky expedition was launched from Dundee to investigate whaling potential in Antarctica, an expedition that not only discovered Dundee Island (63°30'S 055°55'W), but also opened the possibilities of whaling in this region, although any increased industiy was short lived as whaling from Dundee ended in 1912 (Watson 2003). In 1903, coastal whaling stations opened in Scotland itself on Hands and the Shetland Isles - these stations caught cetaceans from Scottish wasters and operated until 1925. The HaiTis station was Nowegian owned until 1 922, then purchased by Lord Leverhulme "...partly to provide employment, hut also because he suspected that the Nonvegians were deliberately contaminating the herring-ground with whale offal to drive the herring to Nonvav.” (Page 219 in Nicolson 1960) The Harris station closed shortly after Leverhulme’s death in 1925. The majority of the whale meat landed in Scotland was exported to Nomay, although some was used as animal feed and fertilizer, and some was intended for export to Africa - there was no local consumption. The whale oil had been intended for soap production. The Hands station briefly reopened between 1950 & 1951, but commercial whaling from Scottish shores ceased after that. However, over 8,000 animals, from 7 species, were harvested from Scottish waters during this whaling period (Table 1; Thompson 1928; Brown 1976). Species Number taken blue whales 401 fin whales 6074 right whales 100 humpback whales 70 sei whales 2214 sperm whales 96 northern bottlenose whales 26 Table 1. Cetaceans taken in Scottish whaling operations (Thompson 1928; Brown 1976). TODAY - MARINE MAMMAL TOURISM Today, Scottish cetaceans are still an economic resource, albeit they are no longer killed - via whale | watching. The main whale watching areas are currently western Scotland, especially the Isle of Mull and the Small Isles, Inverness and the Moray Firth and the J Orkney and Shetland Islands. Target species are ' predominantly bottlenose dolphins, minke whales and harbour poipoises (Hoyt 2001; Parsons et al. 2003; Warburton et al. 2001). In 2000, in a survey marine | wildlife tour operators, 47% surveyed consider whale- watching to be important to local economies (Warburton et al. 2001). \ It was estimated that in 2000 the Scottish cetacean tourism was worth at least £10.7 million (US$18 I million) (Warburton et al. 2001; Parsons et al. 2003), j of £7.8 which million was from the West Coast of | Scotland alone.'' Moreover, in some remote coastal ' areas, cetacean-related tourism may account for as much as 12% of the area’s total tourism income which is substantial when one bears in mind that tourism is Scotland’s number one industiy, is a major employer in rural areas particular in rural areas, and thus an important economic activity in these marginal regions in particular (Parsons et al. 2003). More recent figures for the total value of the Scottish cetacean tourism industiy as a whole are not available, but in the Moray Firth, on the east coast of Scotland, the value of dolphin-watching has increased '' For comparison, at the time of the study, Nowegian commercial whaling worth $6 million (Toolis 2001) and that value incoiporated heavy subsidising by the Norwegian govemment. 54 substantially over the past decade: in 1998 Hoyt (2001) estimated that in total cetacean tourism in the Moray Firth attracted generated £0.48 million from trip expenditure and £2.34 million in total expenditure (when one includes expenditure on accommodation etc.); but a more recent study from 2009 (albeit using a different methodology) estimated that total direct expenditures related to the dolphin population in the Moray firth were at least £10.4 million (Davies et al. 20 1 0). One would assume that over the past decade, the value of cetacean tourism has generally increased across Scotland, not just in the Moray Firth. The whale watching industry is generally considered to be economically viable in the long-tenn (Woods- Ballard et al. 2003), appears to provide employment particularly for those working in the declining sectors of fanning and fishing (Woods-Ballard et al. 2003) and the industry could have considerable potential for further development (Howard & Parsons 2006a) if developed responsibly. Although there are some concerns, most whale watching operators in Scotland seem to be accepting of the need to follow whale watching guidelines or codes of conduct (Parsons & Woods-Ballard 2003). In fact, it is probably in the best interests of whale watching operators to be as responsible and environmentally sustainable as possible as whale watching tourists tend to be environmentally motivated, displaying a high degree of environmental participation (Rawles & Parsons 2004). Surveys in Scotland’s main cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, members of the public seemed to be aware of the opportunities for whale watching in Scotland, especially in areas such as the Moray Firth (Howard & Parsons 2006a). This high level of awareness is remarkable when one considers that the first commercial Scottish whale watching trip was in 1 989, and with only one commercial operator in 1994 (Hoyt 2001; Parsons et al. 2003). Part of the recent surge in awareness of the whale watching industry may be in part due to TV nature programmes (such as Sprmgw’atch and Coimtiyfile) that frequently feature whale watching and cetaceans, and the marketing efforts of new operator associations such as Wild Scotland (http://www.wild-scotland.org.uk/). PUBLIC AWARENESS OF CETACEANS There have been several studies in Scotland to ascertain public awareness of cetaceans and their conservation. For example, Scott & Parsons (2004) interviewed members of the public in southwestern Scotland finding that few people were aware of the diversity of cetacean species in the waters of this region (24 species; Shrimpton & Parsons 2000), although over twice as many gave the con'ect answer in rural regions as opposed to urban areas (4.4% vs. 1 .9% in rural areas and cities, respectively; Scott & Parsons 2004). When asked is specific species occun'ed in Scottish waters, members of the public fared better with 56.7% being aware of bottlenose dolphins, 50% harbour porpoises, but 0 22.6% for killer whales, 14.7% for Risso’s dolphins and only 39.3% knew of the minke whale, the most common baleen whale species in Scottish waters (Scott & Parsons 2004). Younger participants (18-30), residents of the Isles of Mull and Islay (whale watching areas), people who took part in marine activities and members of environmental groups scored significantly higher than other participants (Scott & Parsons 2004). When asked to identify photographs of common species, only 17.5% could identify a harbour poipoise (19% bottlenose dolphins; 10.7% minke whale and 7.1% common dolphin; Scott and Parsons 2004). Those sectors of the public who were more aware of the occun'ence of cetaceans also could identify them, but city dwellers and interestingly workers in fishing, tourism and education sectors were less able to identify species (Scott & Parsons 2004). AWARENESS OF CONSERVATION ISSUES With respect to threats to cetaceans in Scotland, members of the public tended to be more concerned about impacts of factors such as sewage pollution, marine litter, over-fishing and oil spills, i.e. relatively visible issues (Scott & Parsons 2005; Howard & Parson 2006b). A survey of cetacean experts was also conducted to ground truth the public perceptions and it was found that these experts were more concerned about climate change, whale-watching, military activities and dredging (i.e. issues mostly relating to noise and disturbance) than the general public, but they were less concerned about oil spills and sewage pollution (Howard & Parsons 2006b). In general, the majority of the public questioned who had an opinion, stated that they did not think cetaceans were sufficiently protected in Scotland (Table 2), although there was a high proportion of those from cities who stated that they didn’t know whether they did or not (Scott & Parsons 2005; Howard & Parsons 2006b). How well are Cetaceans protected? Percentage (South-west) Percentage (Major cities) Don’t Know 25.8 % 60.0 % Over-protected 0.4 % 0.0 % Sufficiently protected 28.2 % 7.0 % Not sufficiently protected 45.6 % 33.0 % Table 2. Public attitudes to how well cetaceans are protected in Scotland (Scott & Parsons 2005; Howard & Parsons 2006b). However, when asked whether laws should be introduced specifically for the conservation of 55 I cetaceans in Scotland (e.g., a Cetacean Protection Act for Scotland): 80% supported such a piece of legislation. Moreover, when asked if a politician were to introduce such a law would it make them see the politician more favourably 40% said yes it would make them view that politician in a better light (26% were unsure; Howard & Parsons 2006b). It is interesting to note that after these surveys were publicized, for the first time, all of the major political parties speeifically mentioned cetacean conseiwation in their next election manifestos. PUBLIC ATTITUDES TO WHALING Going from a nation which conducted whaling historically and also as a commercially for nearly two hundred years, the public seems to now be greatly opposed to this activity, with a survey conducted in 2001 finding that 96.4% of the public were opposed to whaling (75% strongly opposed; 2.4% did not know; Scott & Parsons 2005). Moreover, 79% of whale- watchers in Scotland stated in a survey that they would boycott visiting a country that conducted hunts for cetaceans, such as Iceland, Japan or Nomay (Parsons & Rawles 2003), This illustrates a dramatic sea change in attitudes to cetaceans nearly fifty years after whaling stopped in Scottish waters, arguably because of the people of Scotland appreciate the cultural and economic value of living cetaceans in their waters. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to Norman Meeres for proof reading drafts of this manuseript. REFERENCES Brennand, M., Parker Pearson, M. & Smith, H. (1998). The Norse Settlement and Pictish Cairn at Kilphaeder, South Uist. Excavations in 1998. Sheffield: Department of Archaeology & Prehistory, University of Sheffield. Brown, S.G. (1976). Modem whaling in Britain and the north-east Atlantic. Mammal Review, 6, 25-36. Buezaki, S. 2002. Fauna Britannica. London: Sterling Publications. Childe, V.G. (1931). Skara Brae: A Pictish village in Orknev. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Traubaer and Co. Ltd. Davies, B., Pita, C., Lusseau, D. & Hunter, C. (2010). The Value of Tourism Expenditure related to the East of Scotland Bottlenose Dolphin Population. Aberdeen: Aberdeen Centre for Environmental Sustainability. Erskine, J. (1895). Principles of the Law of Scotland. 19th Ed. Edinburgh: Bell and Bradfute. Evans, P.G.H. (1996). Dolphins and poipoises: order cetacea. In: The Handbook of British Mammals, (Ed by G.B. Corbett & S. Harris), pp. 299-350. Oxford, Blackwell Science. Foster, S.M. (1996). Piets, Gaels and Scots. London: Batsford. Fraser, F.C. (1977). Fishes Royal: the importance of dolphins. In: Functional Anatomy of Marine l( ’ Mammals (Ed. by J. Handson), pp. 1-41. London: >| Academic Press. i J Hicks, C. (1996). Animals in Early Medieval Art. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. I Howard, C. & Parsons, E.C.M. (2006)a. Public U awareness of whale-watching opportunities in ] Scotland. Tourism in Marine Environments, 2, 103- :| 109. { Howard, C. & Parsons, E.C.M. (2006)b. Attitudes of !j Scottish city inhabitants to cetacean conservation. ! Biodiversity’ and Conservation, 1 5, 4335-4356. « Hoyt, E. (2001). Whale-watching 2001: Worldwide | Tourism Numbers, Expenditures, and Expanding (• Socioeconomic Benefits. Crowborough: i International Fund for Animal Welfare. ] Lindquist, O. (1995). Whaling by peasant fishennen in j Norway, Orkney, Shetland, the Faeroe Islands, * Iceland and Norse Greenland: mediaeval and early | . modern whaling methods and inshore legal ; regimes. In: Whaling and Histoiy (Ed. by B. ; Basberg. J.E. Ringstad & E. Wexelsen), pp. 17-54. i Sandeljord: Kommador Chr. Christensens. ! Macleod, C.D. & Wilson, B. (2001). Did a beaked whale inspire the "Pictish Beast." Tayside and Fife Archaeological Journal, 7, 45-47. 5 Martin, M. ( 1 7 1 6). T description of the Western Isles of j Scotland. London: Bell. Millville, J. (2002). The role of cetacea in prehistoric and historic Atlantic Scotland. International Journal of Osteoarchaeolog}’, 12, 34^8. Nicolson, N. (1960). Lord of the Isles: Lord ‘ Leverhuhne in the Hebrides. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. O’ Dell, A.C. & Walton, K. ( 1962). The Highlands and Islands of Scotland. Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson and Sons. Parsons, E.C.M. (2004). Sea monsters and mermaids in Scottish folklore: can these tales give us infonnation on the historic occuiTcnce of marine animals in Scotland? Anthrozods, 17, 73-80. Parsons, E.C.M. & Rawles, C. (2003). The resumption of whaling by Iceland and the potential negative impact in the Icelandic whale-watching market. Current Issues in Tourism, 6, 444-448. Parsons, E.C.M. & Woods-Ballard, A. (2003). Acceptance of voluntary whalewatching codes of ^ conduct in West Scotland: the effectiveness of governmental versus industiy-led guidelines. Current Issues in Tourism, 6, 172-182. ! Parsons, E.C.M., Warburton, C.A., Woods-Ballard, A., | Hughes, A. & Johnston, P. (2003). The value of i consciwing whales: the impacts of whale-watching on the economy of rural West Scotland. Aquatic ) Consen’ation, 13,397-415. Rawles, C.J.G. & Parsons, E.C.M. (2004). j Environmental motivation of whale-watching j tourists in Scotland. Tourism in Marine i| Environments, 1, 129-132. Ryder, J. (1988). Udal law: an introduction. Northern \ Studies, 25, 1-4. Scott, N.J. & Parsons, E.C.M. (2004). A survey of public awareness of the occuiTcnce and diversity of 56 1 cetaceans in Southwest Scotland. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 84, 1101-1 104. Scott, N.J. & Parsons, E.C.M. (2005). A survey of public opinions in Southwest Scotland on cetacean conseiwation issues. Aquatic Conservation, \5, 299- 312. Sharpe, R. ed. (1995). Adomnan of Iona. Life of St. Columba. New York: Penguin Books. Sharpies, N. (1997). The Iron Age settlement at Bornish, South Uist: An interim report on the 1997 excavations. Cardiff: University of Wales. Shrimpton, J. H. and Parsons, E. C. M. (2000). Cetacean Consen>ation in West Scotland. Mull: Hebridean Whale and Dolphin Trust. Szabo, V.E. (2005). “Bad to the bone"? The unnatural history of monstrous medieval whales. The Heroic Age: A Journal of Early Medieval Northwestern Europe, 8. Thompson, D.A. (1928). On whales landed at the Scottish whaling stations during the years 1908- 1914 and 1920-1927. Scientific Investigations on Eisheries in Scotland, 3, 1-40. Toolis K. (2001). Eat it or save it? The Guardian (Weekend Pages) 27 October: 58. Warburton, C.A., Parsons, E.C.M., Woods-Ballard, A., Hughes, A. & Johnston, P. (2001). Whale-watching in West Scotland. London: Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Watson, N. (2003). The Dundee Whalers 1750-1914. East Linton: Tuckwell Press. Woods-Ballard, A., Parsons, E.C.M., Hughes, A.J., Velander, K.A., Ladle, R.J. & Warburton, C.A. (2003). The sustainability of whale-watching in Scotland. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1 1 , 40- 55. 57 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 59-69 The moth assemblage of Flanders Moss, Stirlingshire John T. Knowler 3 Balfleurs Street, Milngavie, Glasgow, G62 8HW E-Mail: John. knowler(§ntlwoiid. com ABSTRACT Moth records derived from an extensive programme of trapping between 2004 and 2010 have been combined with older data-sets in an assessment of the moth assemblage of Flanders Moss. Of the 282 moths species recorded, 45 are considered rare, scarce or local in Great Britain. Other species are present that have dramatically declined in their UK-wide abundance. INTRODUCTION The peat dome that forms the raised bog of Flanders Moss was once part of one of the largest complex of raised bogs and other wetland habitats found in the UK. Dotted along the fonner post ice age estuary of the Carse of Stirling they were subject to clearance and drainage and today Flanders Moss is only 60% of its original size while some other raised bogs on the Carse were completely cleared. Nevertheless, Flanders Moss, lying between Thornhill to the north and Kippen to the south, remains the biggest raised bog in the UK and one of the most important in western Europe. Lowland raised bogs tend to have a richer fauna and flora than upland blanket bogs and that of Flanders Moss is of national importance; hence it has been designated an site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and National Nature Reserve (NNR). This paper presents a compilation of the moth assemblage of the Moss that is based on an extensive programme of recording from 2004 to 2010 but also includes older data-sets. METHODS Moth traps were run in various parts of the Flanders Moss NNR between 2004 and 2010. A Robinson 125w MV trap and one or two Heath actinic traps were operated by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) staff members, Leigh Marshall and David Pickett. The author assisted with the identification of the catch. Key trapping locations were chosen to include the open moss of the raised bog, habitats dominated by bog myrtle (Myrica gale) and the fringing birch wood. The data derived from moth trapping has been combined with the data-sets of Bland (1988 and 2003); Christie (1986), Maclaurin (1974), Moms (1991), Palmer (1986) and a Scottish Entomologists weekend in 1989. Most, perhaps all, of these came from day- time obseiwations and were thus dominated by day- flying moths and species that were identified from their laiwae or evidence of larval feeding such as leaf-mines. Other day-time observation records from visitors to the NNR and Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT) reserves are included where these have been submitted to and validated by the author in his capacity as vice county moth recorder. RESULTS Table 1 lists 282 moth species recorded on Flanders Moss up to October 2010. The “code” column gives the UK checklist number (Bradley, 2000). The “records” column lists the number of times that each species has been recorded. It is not possible to list the number of individuals that have been recorded as not all recorders have collected this data. The status column indicates the UK national status of each macro moth species as defined by the Joint Nature Conseiwation Committee. The categories are as follows: Red Data Book species (RDB) - species known from 15 or less 10km squares in the UK. Proposed RDB (pRDB) - proposed for inclusion in the next Red Data Book listing because cuiTcnt infomiation indicates that the species meets the criteria. Nationally Scarce A (Na) - species recorded from 16-30 10km squares since January 1980. Nationally Scarce B (Nb) - species recorded from 30-100 10km squares since January 1980. Local - species recorded from 100-300 10km squares since January 1980. Common - species recorded from over 300 10km squares since January 1980 Uncommon on introduced food-plant. Immigrant. Rare immigrant. Import. Of the moth families collectively known as micros, the Pyralidae have also been given UK national status rankings but, of the remaining micro moth families, only those species worthy of Nationally Scarce or Red Data Book status have been categorised. 59 A list of butterflies and moths from Flanders Moss, published by Maclaurin (1974), included nine larger moth species not otherwise recorded on the Moss and not included in Table 1. They are ghost moth (Hepialus himmli), shaded broad-bar (Scotopteiyx chenopodiata), yellow shell {Camptogramma bilineata), grey mountain caipet {Entephria caesiata), juniper caipet (Thera Jiuiiperata), small yellow wave (Hydrelia JIammeo/aria), tawny-barred angle (Macaria liturata), dotted border (Agriopis marguuvia) and Scotch annulet (Gnophos obfuscaliis). Dotted border flies at a time of the year when there has been little investigation of the moth fauna of the Moss and its presence would not be unexpected. The laiwac of tawny-barred angle feeds on various conifers and the moth was recorded when there were more conifers on the Moss. However, other species on this list, including the nationally scarce, scotch annulet, would not be expected on Flanders Moss. Similarly, juniper caipet is unlikely as its foodplant, common juniper (Junipenis communis), has never been recorded on the Moss. It appears possible that Maclaurin may have included a wider spectrum of habitats in his paper than are considered a part of Flanders Moss in this assessment (no precise locations, observational methods or dates arc given in the paper). It therefore appears safest to exclude these nine species from the Flanders Moss data-base. Common rustic (Mesapamea secalis) and lesser common rustic (Mesapamea didyma) were only recognised as separate species in 1983 and can only be separated by examination of their genitalia. This has not been done on specimens from the Moss so the records are aggregated as (Mesapamea secalis agg). Elsewhere in west central Scotland the two species occur in roughly equal numbers. The ear moths (Amphipoea) comprise another genus that can only be unambiguously identified by examination of their genitalia. In August and early September, large numbers of Amphipoea come to light traps on the Moss. All of those that have been dissected have proved to be large ear (A. hicens); the remainder have been recorded as Amphipoea oculea agg. Based on records from elsewhere in the area, almost all of these will be large ear but low numbers of Crinan ear (A. crinanensis) might be expected. DISCUSSION Of the 282 moths species recorded on Flanders Moss, 45 have received a UK national status of pRDB, Nationally Scarce or Local. MOTHS CLASSED AS pRDB One pRDB moth occurs on Flanders Moss Lampronia fuscatella - This scarce micro-moth occurs in widely scattered localities throughout the UK and its provisional Red Data Book status of 3 indicates that it is vulnerable. It occurs only in regenerating birch woodland on raised peat and is characteristic of ancient birch woodland with a continual history of regeneration. The larvae fonn galls in the twigs of downy birch (Betula puhescens), usually at a node of ' twigs that are 3 - 13 mm in diameter and 1.0 to 1.5 m from the ground on trees less than 10 years old. The larva within the gall is fully grown in May when it makes a hole to the exterior which it caps with silk and s frass. It then pupates in the gall and emerges in June, j Records from Flanders Moss indicate that the species is * heavily parasitized. \ ( MOTHS CLASSED AS NATIONALLY SCARCE ■ A (Na) Two Na moths occur on Flanders Moss Rannoch brindled beauty (Lycia lapponaria) - The Rannoch brindled beauty is a moth of boggy acid ' moorland and in the UK its distribution is centred on the central highlands; particularly Rannoch and upper Speyside. Flanders Moss is the most southerly known site for the species and is well separated from other known locations. Although it has been found to feed on ' a range of moorland plants including heathers (Calluna vulgaris and Erica sp.), bilbeiTy (Vaccinium oxycoccus) and eared sallow (Salix aurita), the occuiTence of the species is strongly associated with its main foodplant, bog myrtle (Myrica gale). The moth is most easily found as an adult during late March and April by daylight searching of fence posts, old tree stumps and the trunks of trees growing close to bog myrtle. Both sexes rest on these sites and females lay | eggs into crevices in them (personal observations of the author) as well as in the dead corollas of cross-leaved heath (Erica lelralix) (South, 1908). Using this search method, males and females can be found on all those areas of the moss where bog myrtle grows including | western fragments between the A81 and B8034 ■ (Offerance Moss) that are outside the nature reserve. Limited data gained by searching the same areas every ' year indicate a fairly stable population of the moth but more organised observation over many more years ‘ would be necessary to confimi this. Great brocade (Eurois occulta) - Throughout most of ■ the UK the great brocade occurs uncommonly and irregularly as an immigrant from northern Europe. These immigrant moths are predominantly mid-grey in colouration. However, there is also a scarce resident fonn of the moth in the central and western highlands I of Scotland that is blackish, variably marbled with grey. Occasional records from Flanders Moss appeared to be of this fonn and in March 2007 the author swept ' larvae from the catkins of bog myrtle proving that the ! species breeds on the moss. Subsequently, a single Robinson trap placed near the same area of bog myrtle on 22"^* July 2010 caught five adults, all of which ■ appeared to be freshly emerged. Bretherton el al (1983) state that resident populations are found close to growths of bog myrtle; especially where these are bordered by trees. This exactly fits the location in which larvae were found on Flanders Moss and where five adults were subsequently caught in a single overnight trap. There seems eveiy reason to assume that there is a resident population on Flanders Moss 60 MOTHS CLASSED AS NATIONALLY SCARCE B(Nb) Nine species of moth recorded on the Moss have Nb status. Atemelia torquatella - A northern species in the micro moth family Yponomeutidae. The larvae fonns blotch leaf-mines in regenerating birch. Biselachista serricornis - A leaf-mining species in the micro-moth family Elachistidae. It has a scattered distribution that includes central Scotland and it inhabits boggy areas and damp shady woods where the foodplant wood sedge (Carex sylvatica) grows. On Flanders Moss this is largely at the fringes. Bryotropha boreeila - A rare and local member of the micro-moth family Gelechiidae that is found on heather {Callima vulgaris). The single record for this species on the Moss is hard to assess and requires confmnation. Bryotropha galbanella - A local member of the micro- moth family Gelechiidae that is found in forested areas and feeds on mosses. Prolita sexpimctella - A local member of the micro- moth family Gelechiidae that is found on heaths, moors and mosses and is often seen flying over burnt patches of regenerating heather. The larvae feeds within the spun leaves of heather Argent and sable {Rheumaptera hastata) - In central Scotland, the argent and sable is best known from Flanders Moss where it occurs in most areas of what is now a fragmented habitat; including Offerance Moss. It is also regularly recorded from Glen Finglas, was known historically in the area of Loch Venachar and probably awaits discovery in other areas where bog myrtle is abundant. There is considerable confusion over the various fonns of this moth. Most sources state that the southern form hastata occurs up to the southern uplands of Scotland and feeds on young birch while the smaller, more intricately marked northern fonn nigrescens feeds on bog myrtle. The moths on Flanders Moss most resemble the fonn hastata despite the fact that their larvae are found mainly on bog myrtle on which they fonn characteristic domed tents comprising the terminal leaves of young shoots. Most commonly they are on dense, tall plants (0.8 - 1.2m) where bog myrtle is the dominant vegetation often close to birches. There is just one record of a larva feeding on birch on Flanders Moss. The argent and sable has UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) status and is a UK priority species with published action plans (Department of the Environment, Transport and Regions 1999, Kinnear and Kirkland, 2000). Manchester Treble-bar (Carsia sororiata) Manchester treble-bar is a moth of wet moorland, mosses and bogs. It is confined to northern England and Scotland where it is widespread but scarce. On Flanders Moss it is common and, during July and August, is readily disturbed from ground vegetation during the day. It is also recorded in light traps. The species is much less common elsewhere in central Scotland with widespread but only occasional records. The larvae feed on bilberry, crowberry (Empetnim nigrum) and cranberry (Empetnim oxycoccus) and it seems likely that the moth will continue to fiourish as long as its open boggy habitat is preserved. Silvery arches (Folia trimaculosa) - Although recorded from heaths and mosses throughout the UK, the main centres of distribution of silvery arches are the river valleys of the Spey, Rannoch, Dee and Clyde. There are only five records from Flanders Moss but four of these were in a single trap near bog myrtle and birches on 18*’’ June 2010. The main larval foodplants are bog myrtle, birches and sallow and the western parts of the NNR would appear to offer excellent habitat for this species. Although it comes to light traps in small numbers it is more strongly attracted to sugar. The author is unaware of any sugaring on the moss but it may prove rewarding. Marsh oblique-barred (Hypenodes humidalis) - Because it is small and easily confused with a micro- moth, the marsh oblique-ban'cd is often overlooked. Its habitat requirements arc bogs, boggy moorland, swamps, water meadows and marshes and its known foodplants include cross-leaved heath and sphagnum mosses. Christie (1986) recorded it as occurring in ‘a very extensive and very numerous colony on the Moss’. However, it was only recorded once more before 2010 when on 1 C’ August, ten were found in a single overnight trap. It appears likely that the moth remains much more common than the few records suggests. MOTHS CLASSED AS LOCAL Thirty three moth species classed as local have been recorded on Flanders Moss. Although they are all listed below, not all can be regarded as important members of the Flanders Moss moth assemblage; the species accounts indicate those that are. Gold swift (Hepialus hecta) - There are few records of gold swift from Flanders Moss and it is most likely to be encountered around its fringes where the larval foodplant bracken (Pteridium aquilimtm) grows. It cannot therefore be regarded as a key member of the moth assemblage. Map-winged swift (Hepialus fusconebulosa) - Although nationally local, this species is the most common member of the genus in west central Scotland and its presence on Flanders Moss is unremarkable. Like the above species it is likely to be commonest around its fringe where the main larval food plant, bracken, grows. Pearl-band grass veneer (Catoptria margaritella) - This species can be abundant on Flanders Moss and is a part of the resident moth assemblage. Although classed as local, it can be common on boggy moorland throughout Scotland. Orange underwing (Archiearis parthenias) - The orange undewing is not an easy moth to see in central Scotland. It flies in sunshine in late March and April around the tops of birches growing on moorland and other open environments. Less often it can be seen feeding on sallow catkins and is sometimes found on the ground basking or drinking from puddles. It is never common and persistence is required to see it 61 well. The mature birches around the edge of Flanders Moss arc productive places to look for it. Smoky wave {Scapula ternata) - Although smoky wave is found on moorland and lightly wooded heath throughout central Scotland it is particularly abundant on Flanders Moss. During June and July large numbers can be disturbed when walking across the more open parts of the Moss. The larvae feed on heather and bilben'y. Plain wave {Idaea straminata) - The habitat preferences of this uncommon species are open woodland and scrubby heaths. Despite the fact that it does not appear ideal for the species, a high percentage of the historical and recent records from central Scotland come from Flanders Moss. Care must be taken with the identification of the species as it is easily confused with the very common riband wave {Idea adversata). Ling pug {Eupithecia ahsinthiata f. goossensiata) - ling pug is a local, heather-feeding form of wormwood pug {Eupithecia ahsinthiata) which is a common polyphagic species. Separation of the two forms is somewhat subjective but, suiprisingly, there appear to be no records of womiwood pug from Flanders Moss and there are just two records of ling pug. Shaded pug {Eupithecia suhumhrata) - A single example of this species in a light trap run on the moss on is'*' June 2010 was the first record from central Scotland since 1987 and the first known record from cither Flanders Moss or vice county 87. The normal habitat of the species is rough grassland and it is most common in southern England on chalk downs and in the Brocks. However, it is found locally in parts of western Scotland (Riley and Prior, 2003) and three specimens in the collection of the late Iain Christie were caught at Conic Hill in 1981 and near Gartocham in 1987. Thus, the species is not unknown in the area and it is highly desirable to tiy to discover if it is a resident member of the moth assemblage of Flanders Moss. Lunar thorn {Selenia lunularia) - Although never vei'y common, in central Scotland this species occurs in woodland, parks and gardens as well more open habitats like Flanders Moss. It is not therefore one of the more important members of the moth assemblage of the site. The larvae feed on the leaves of a range of broad-leaved trees which on the Moss will be mainly birch. Grey scalloped bar {Dyscia fagaria) - This local species of moors, bogs and mosses should be regarded as an important member of the Flanders Moss moth assemblage. All but three of the known records from central Scotland come from the site. The larvae feed on heathers and the moth appears to prefer the short swards that are typical of many open areas of the Moss. Grey scalloped bar is a UK species of conservation concern and is the subject of a south-west Scotland regional action plan (Kinncar and Kirkland, 2000). Grass wave {Perconia strigillaria) - Although grass wave has been recorded from several moorland sites in the Loch Lomond basin, it is only common on raised bogs and mosses. Like the above species, it is an important member of the Flanders Moss moth assemblage. Small elephant hawk moth {Deilephila parceUus) - This species has been recorded in increased numbers in central Scotland over the last 10 years and Flanders Moss is one of many habitats in which it has been observed. It is not considered a key member of the moth assemblage of the site. Dark tussock {Dicallomera fascelina) - Dark tussock is regularly recorded on Flanders Moss as adults and larvae and the species is a part of the resident and breeding moth assemblage. However, it is also found on moorland throughout Scotland as heather is the main larval foodplant. Round-winged muslin {Thumatha senex) - A single example of this species in a light trap run on the moss on 18*'’ June 2010 was the first record from central Scotland since 1991. Nevertheless, this is a moth of wet moorland, bogs and flushes and it appears highly likely that there is a resident if small population on the Moss. It is clearly desirable to confimi whether this is the case. Red-necked footman {Atolmis rubricollis) - During the first decade of the 2U‘ century, this species has spread spectacularly northwards through central Scotland and beyond (Knowler, 2010). Particularly high numbers are found in association with sitka spmee (Picea sitchensis) and it is likely that all records on Flanders Moss are of moths that have come from neighbouring spruce plantations. The species is likely to continue to be recorded on the Moss but it is not considered a key member of its moth assemblage. Four-dotted footman (Cybosia mesomelia) - Although the four-dotted footman is widely distributed on heaths, moorland and bogs, it is particularly common on Flanders Moss. It is frequently disturbed from ground vegetation during the day and overnight catches of up to 66 have been recorded in single light traps. The laiwa feeds on lichens (Cladonia sp.) growing on heathers and these are abundant throughout open areas of the Moss. Wood tiger {Parasemia plantaginis) - Like the above species, wood tiger is widespread but local on moorland and bogs. There is healthy population on Flanders Moss. Although larvae have been observed on various herbaceous plants, heathers arc the main foodplants and this is assumed to be the case on the Moss. As long as open areas of the moss do not become overgrown the population of this species is likely to be secure. Clouded buff {Diacrisia sannio) - Like the above two species, clouded buff is strongly associated with moorland and bogs and there is a particularly strong population on the Moss. During the flight season, multiple adults arc likely to be disturbed from the vegetation during a walk over the moss and up to 20 have been recorded in and around a single overnight light trap. The larvae feed on heathers and other herbaceous moorland plants. Neglected rustic {Xestia castanea) - The neglected rustic is found on moorland, raised bogs and in woodland with heather in the understory. The colour 62 form with buff, pink-edged forewings is regularly recorded on Flanders Moss. Larvae feed on heather, bell heather {Erica cinerea) and cross-leaved heath. UK-wide this species decreased by 82% between 1968 and 2002 (Fox et al., 2006). Heath rustic {Xestia agathina) - The heath nistic is a local moth of acid heaths, moorland and bogs but is particularly common on Flanders Moss. Thus, 77 were recorded in a single trap on 6*'’ September, 2007. The larvae feed on heather. UK-wide this species decreased by 84% between 1968 and 2002 (Fox et a!., 2006). Beautiful brocade (LacaiwMa contigua) - The beautiful brocade is an uncommon moth of lightly wooded moorland and a high percentage of records from central Scotland come from Flanders Moss. The larvae feed on birches, oaks and other woody species so the species is presumably dependent on areas of birch on the Moss. Glaucous shears (Papesira Mren) - Although classed as nationally local, glaucous shears occurs on moorland throughout Scotland and is an expected part of the Flanders Moss moth assemblage. Golden-rod brindle (Lithomoia soiidagims) - Despite occurring widely on the moorlands of Scotland, golden-rod brindle is an uncommon moth. Most recent records from central Scotland are from Flanders Moss. The larvae have been recorded from heathers, bilberry, bog myrtle and other moorland plants. Red sword-grass {Xylena vetusta) - The main habitat of this uncommon species is moorland and rough upland grassland and it would be expected to be an integral part of the moth assemblage of Flanders Moss. However, it also occurs in damp woodland and marshes and is regularly recorded in light traps in parkland and gardens near suitable habitat. Any specimen should be carefully examined to exclude the very similar and nationally scarce sword-grass {Xylena exsolela) which is unrecorded on the Moss but could occur. Suspected {Parmtichtis suspecta) - Throughout much of Scotland, suspected is a widespread but uncommon moth of fens, car and moorland with birch scrub. It is an integral component of the Flanders Moss moth assemblage. The larvae feed on the tenninal shoots of scrub birch. Light knot-grass {Acronicta menyanthidis) - An uncommon moth of the damper parts of moors and bogs, light knot-grass is typical part of the moth assemblage of Flanders Moss. As well as coming to light traps, it is often found resting on fence posts. The larvae feed on woody moorland plants including bog myrtle, heathers and bilberry. Old lady {Mormo mama) - The old lady is an uncommon moth of riverbanks, marshes, gardens and hedgerows and the single record from Flanders Moss was at its edge. Thus, the species should not be regarded as a typical member of the moth assemblage of the Moss. Large ear {AmpMpoea iucem) - Although nationally local, the large ear is the commonest member of the genus throughout central Scotland. Single overnight trap catches of over 50 AmpMpoea sp. have been recorded on Flanders Moss and all of those imambiguoiisly identified by examination of the genitalia have proved to be this species. Haworth’s minor {Celaena haworthii) - As a moth of bogs and boggy moorland, Haworth’s minor is an integral part of the moth assemblage of Flanders Moss. Its larvae feed on common cotton grass {Eriophorum angnstifolinm). UK-wide this species decreased by 89% between 1968 and 2002 (Fox et al., 2006). Crescent {Celaena leucostigma) - Although not as tied to boggy moorland as the previous species, the crescent is nevertheless an integral part of the moth assemblage of Flanders Moss. In this habitat its larvae probably feed on puiple moor-grass {Molinia caerulea). UK-wide this species decreased by 82% between 1968 and 2002 (Fox et ah, 2006). Lerapke’s gold spot {Plusia putnami gracilis ) - The common species, gold spot {Plusia festucae), and the more local Leinpke’s gold spot both occur on the moss and their separation can be challenging. Lempke’s gold spot is a more northern species and is not uncommon in damp habitats throughout central Scotland. Scarce silver Y {Syngrapha interrogationis) - Although there is only one record of this uncommon moorland species from Flanders Moss it appears likely that it is a scarce breeding resident and therefore an integral part of the moth assemblage. Its larvae feed on heather and bilberry. Pinion-streaked snout {Schrankia costaestrigalis) - A single specimen in a light trap on 22"'^ July 2010 appears to be the only record of this species from Flanders Moss. This is surprising as it is a moth of damp habitats including raised bogs. However, the lack of earlier records may reflect the ease with which this micro-like species can be over-looked. MOTHS OF FLANDERS MOSS THAT HAVE DRAMATICALLY DECLINED IN THEIR UK ABUNDANCE Fox et al. (2006) analysed thirty five years of data from the UK-wide network of Rothamsted light traps during the period 1968 to 2002. They examined the data for 337 species of common larger moths and showed that two thirds (226 species) had declined in abundance and 75 species had decreased by over 70% over the thirty five years. 14 of these are found on Flanders Moss and they are listed in table 2 in order of their percentage change in UK abundance. International Union for Conservation of Nature (lUCN) categories are based on rate of decline. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I should like to thank David Pickett for his help and enthusiasm in compiling the Flanders Moss data-set and for his valuable comments on early versions of the manuscript. 63 3 14 16 17 18 34 66 103 112 1 16 1 17 129 138 140 141 157 186 216 228 276 300 301 305 324 332 338 347 353 385 391 395 410 41 1 415 418 437 442 443 444 448 452 460 464 493 496 504 504 541 608 621 626 630 654 663 770 773 First Last Faxon Vernacular Records Recorded Recorded UK Status Micropterix aureatella 2 1991 2005 Hepiahis Inimnli Ghost Moth 1 2004 2004 Common Hepiahis hecta Gold Swift 4 1973 1991 Local Hepiahis htpidinus Common Swift 1 2004 2004 Common Hepiahis fusconelmlosa Map-winged Swift 9 1973 2010 Local Ectoecieiiiia occiiltella 3 1989 1989 Stigmella sorbi 3 1989 1989 Siigiiiella iiylaiidriella 3 1989 1989 Sligiiiella hileella 4 1989 1989 Siigiiiella lappoiiica 4 1989 1989 Stigmella coifisella 3 1989 1989 liiciimiria peclinea 0 1988 1989 Laiiiproiiia fuscatella 3 1988 2006 pRDB3 Neiiiatopogoii swamiiierclainella 2 2005 2005 Neimitopogoii scliwarziellus 1 1988 1988 Heliozela liaiiiinoiiiella 4 1989 1989 Psyche casta 3 1988 1989 Neiiiapogoii cloacelhi Cork Moth 1 1986 1986 Moiiopis weaverella 2 1986 1988 Biicciilatrix deiiiaiyella 1 1988 1988 Paroriiix logaiiella 1 1991 1991 Paroniix betiilae 3 1986 1989 Paroriiix scoticella 1 1988 1988 Pliylloiioiycter sorbi 3 1989 1989 Plniloiioiycter coiylifoliella f betiilae 2 1989 1989 Pliylloiioiycter cavella 2 1989 1989 Pliylloiioiycter aiulerhlae 3 1989 1991 Pliylloiioiycter iiliiiifoliella 3 1988 1989 Aiitlioplilla fabriciaiia 1 2005 2005 Glypliipterix siiiipliciella Cocksfoot Moth 1 2005 2005 Glypbipterix haworthana 2 1988 1989 A rgyresthia brockeelhi 1 1988 1988 A rgyrestliia goedarteUa 1 1986 1986 Argyresthia retiiiella 2 1986 1986 Argyrestliia coiijtigella Apple Fruit Moth 1 1988 1988 Swamiiterdamia caesiella 3 1988 1989 Cedestis gysseleiiiella 1 1986 1986 Cedestis siibfasciella 1 1986 1986 Ociierostoiiia piiiiariella 1 1986 1986 AtemeUa toixpiatella 2 1989 1989 Nb Ypsoloplia iieinorella 1 1983 1983 Ypsoloplia pareiithesella 3 1986 1988 Phitella xylostella Diamond-back Moth 3 1986 1989 Migrant Coleopbora serratella 7 1983 2006 Coleopliora milvipeiiiils 3 1988 1989 Coleoplioro lusciiiiaepeiinella 3 1988 2005 Coleopliora viiiiinetella 2 1983 1986 Coleopliora pyrriiiilipeiiitella 3 1988 1989 Elachista riifocinerea 1 1991 1991 Elacliista siibalhidella 1 1988 1988 Biselacliista serricoriiis 1 1988 1988 Nb Biselacliista albidella 1 1986 1986 Pleiirota bicostella 5 1983 1991 Diiiriiea fagella 1 2007 2007 Carpatolechia proximella 3 1986 1988 Pseudotelphiisa paripiinctella 2 1986 1989 64 780 783 784 794 797 954 968 970 972 986 988 989 1007 1008 1015 1021 1026 1055 1057 1073 1076 1087 1092 1093 1095 1117 1126 1128 1133 1134 1137 1151 1151 1155 1156 1159 1184 1201 1294 1301 1304 1305 1314 1334 1338 1340 1345 1350 1356 1388 1395 1405 1632 1637 1638 1640 1643 Biyotwpha siinilis 1 1991 1991 Biyotropha boreella 1 1991 1991 Biyotwpha galhanella 5 1986 1991 Prolita sexpimctella 1 1988 1988 Neofacidta ericetella 7 1986 2005 Eiipoecilia angustana 4 1986 1991 Cochylis nana 1 1986 1986 Pandemis cerasana BaiTed Fruit-tree Tortrix 3 1986 1988 Pandemis heparana Dark Fruit-tree Tortrix 2 1986 1986 Syndemis muscidana 1 1988 1988 Aphelia viburnana Bilberry Tortrix 2 1986 1986 Aphelia paleana Timothy Tortrix 1 2005 2005 Capua vidgana 1 1988 1988 Philedotie gerningana 2 1991 2005 Eiilia ministrana 2 1986 1988 Cnephasia interjectana 1 1986 1986 Exapate congelatella 1 1986 1986 Acleris hyemana 1 1986 1986 Acleris rufana 1 1986 1986 Olethreutes schidziana 4 1991 2005 Celypha lacunana 2 1986 1986 Orthotaenia undtdana 4 1983 1988 Apotomis turbidana 3 1986 1988 Apotomis betuletana 2 1986 1986 Apotomis sororculana 2 1986 1986 Ancylis imguicella 2 1988 2006 Ancylis badiana 1 2005 2005 Ancylis myrti liana 1 1991 1991 Epinoiia bilimana 1 1988 1988 Epinotia ramella 4 1986 2003 Epinotia tetraquetrana 4 1983 1988 Epinotia stroemiana 2 1986 1986 Epinotia trigonella 2 1989 2006 Epinotia brimnichana 2 1986 1991 Epinotia solandriana 3 1986 1989 Rhopobota naevana Holly Tortrix 2 1986 1986 Epiblema scutulana 1 2006 2006 Eucosma cana 1 1986 1986 Crambiis pascuella 3 1986 2005 Crambus lathoniellus 4 1986 2006 Agriphila straminella 2 1986 1986 Agriphila tristella 2 1986 2005 Catoptria margaritella Pearl-band Grass Veneer 7 1986 2005 Scoparia ambigualis 8 1986 2006 Dipleurina lacustrata 1 1986 1986 Eudonia trmicicolella 2 1986 1986 Elophila nymphaeata Brown China-mark 5 2004 2010 Nympinda stagnata Beautiful China-mark 3 2006 2010 Evergestis forficalis Garden Pebble 1 2004 2004 Udea lutealis 3 1989 2007 Udea ferrugalis Rusty-dot Pearl 2 1989 1989 Pleuroptya ruralis Mother of Pearl 4 2004 2005 Trichiura crataegi Pale Eggar 1 1991 1991 Lasiocampa quercus f. callimae Northern Eggar 7 1973 2010 Macrothylacia rubi Fox Moth 16 1973 2010 Euthrix potatoria Drinker 21 1973 2010 Saturnia pavonia Emperor Moth 7 1973 2010 Nb Nb Nb Common Common Common Common Local Common Common Common Common Common Common Common Migrant Common Common Common Common Common Common 65 1645 1648 1657 1659 1661 1666 1677 1694 1702 1713 1715 1722 1723 1724 1725 1727 1737 1738 1752 1755 1756 1758 1760 1762 1764 1768 1769 1773 1775 1776 1777 1787 1 803 1809 1831 1837 1840 1846 1857 1862 1 866 1887 1902 1904 1906 1913 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1926 1929 1931 1935 1941 1947 Falccirki lacertiiiaria Scalloped Hook-tip 12 1973 2010 Common Drepana falcalaria Pebble Hook-tip 8 1973 2010 Common Ochropacha duplahs Common Lutestring 7 1986 2010 Common Achlya jlavicornis Yellow Homed 4 1973 2010 Common A rchiearis parlhenias Orange Underwing 2 1974 2007 Local Geometra papilionaria Large Emerald 5 1988 2010 Common Cyclophora alhipimctata Birch Mocha 2 1973 2010 Local Scopitla ternata Smoky Wave 7 1973 2010 Local Idaea hiselata Small Fan-footed Wave 3 1986 2006 Common Idaec! aversala Riband Wave 6 1986 2007 Common Idaea straniinata Plain Wave 6 1986 2010 Local Xanthorhoe designata Flame Carpet 2 2010 2010 Common Xanthorhoe decoloraria Red Carpet 2 2004 2004 Common Xanthorhoe spadicearia Red Twin-spot Carpet 1 2005 2005 Common Xanthorhoe ferrugata Dark-baned Twin-spot Carpet 1 2010 2010 Common Xanthorhoe montanata Silver-ground Carpet 8 1973 2010 Common Epirrhoe tristata Small Argent & Sable 7 1973 1998 Common Epirrhoe alternata Common Carpet 11 1973 2010 Common Cosmorhoe ocellata Puqtle Bar 2 1973 2007 Common Enlithis testata Chevron 15 1973 2010 Common Eiilithis popidata Northern Spinach 2 1973 2010 Common Enlithis pyraliata Barred Straw 2 2004 2006 Common Chloroclysta siterata Red-green Carpet 1 2010 2010 Common Chlorodysta citrata Dark Marbled Carptet 3 1973 2004 Common Chloroclysta truncata Common Marbled Caipet 4 1973 2010 Common Thera oheliscata Grey Pine Carpet 7 1973 2010 Common Thera hritannica Spruce Carpet 4 2006 2010 Common Electrophaes coiylata Broken-baned Caipet 4 1973 2010 Common Colostygia nmltistrigaria Mottled Grey 2 1973 2005 Common Colospgia pectinataria Green Carpet 6 1973 2010 Common Hydriomena furcata July Highllyer 5 1973 2005 Common Rhennuiptera hastata Argent & Sable 18 1973 2010 Nb Perizoma alcheinillata Small Rivulet 2 1981 2004 Common Perizonui didymata Twin-spot Carpet 4 1973 2005 Common Eupithecia absinthiata goossensiata f Ling Pug 3 1986 1991 Local Eupithecia suhfuscata Grey Pug 2 1986 2005 Common Eupithecia suhumhrata Shaded Pug 1 2010 2010 Local Eupithecia nanata Narrow-winged Pug 9 1973 2007 Common Eupithecia tantillaria Dwarf Pug 1 2010 2010 Common Gyinnoscelis rufifasciata Double-striped Pug 3 1973 2010 Common Carsia sororiata Manchester Treble-bar 22 1973 2010 Nb Lomaspilis marginata Clouded Border 5 1973 2010 Common Petrophora chlorosata Brown Silver-line 6 1974 2005 Common Plagodis dolabraria Scorched Wing 1 2010 2010 Local Opisthograptis luteolata Brimstone Moth 6 1973 2010 Common Ennomos alniaria Canary-shouldered Thom 13 1973 2007 Common Selenia dentaria Early Thom 2 1973 2004 Common Selenia lunularia Lunar Thom 2 2005 2010 Local Selenia tetralunaria Puiple Thom 1 2004 2004 Common Odontopera bidentata Scalloped Hazel 5 1973 2007 Common C rocallis el inguaria Scalloped Oak 2 2004 2007 Common Phigalia pUosaria Pale Brindled Beauty 2 1973 2005 Common Lycia lapponaria Rannoch Brindled Beauty 22 1973 2010 Na Piston hetularia Peppered Moth 8 1973 2010 Common Erannis defoliaria Mottled Umber T 1973 1988 Common Aids repandata Mottled Beauty 1 1973 1973 Common Ectropis bistortata Engrailed 3 2009 2010 Common 66 1951 1952 1954 1955 1956 1961 1962 1969 1970 1981 1991 1992 1994 1995 1997 2000 2003 2006 2008 2011 2026 2027 2035 2039 2040 2056 2057 2059 2060 2064 2089 2098 2102 2107 2109 2110 2111 2117 2118 2120 2123 2128 2130 2132 2133 2134 2135 2137 2142 2147 2149 2156 2158 2160 2162 2163 2176 Aethalura pimctulata Grey Birch 2 1991 2010 Common Emalurga atomaria Common Heath 13 1973 2010 Common Bupalus pirtiaria Bordered White 8 1973 2010 Common Cabera pusaria Common White Wave 13 1973 2010 Common Cabera exanthemata Common Wave 1 1973 1973 Common Campaea margaritata Light Emerald 5 1986 2007 Common Hylaea fasciaria Banned Red 3 1986 2010 Common Dyscia fagaria Grey Scalloped Bar 6 1973 2007 Local Perconia strigillaria Grass Wave 23 1973 2010 Local Laothoe popult Poplar Hawk-moth 4 1973 2005 Common Deilephila elpenor Elephant Hawk-moth 6 2004 2010 Common Deilephila porcellus Small Elephant Hawk-moth 4 2004 2010 Local Phalera bucephala Buff-tip 7 1973 2010 Common Cerura vinula Puss Moth 2 1973 2007 Common Furcula fiircnla Sallow Kitten 1 1973 1973 Common Notodonta dromedarhis Iron Prominent 18 1973 2010 Common Notodonta zkzac Pebble Prominent 2 2005 2010 Common Pheosia gnoma Lesser Swallow Prominent 19 1973 2010 Common Ptilodon capitcina Coxcomb Prominent 8 1973 2010 Common Pterostoma palpina Pale Prominent 4 2004 2010 Common Orgyia antiqiia Vapourer 4 1973 2005 Common Dicallomera fascelina Dark Tussock 10 1973 2005 Local Thumatha senex Round-winged Muslin 2 1970 1991 Local Atohnis ruhricollis Red-necked Footman 3 2005 2006 Local Cybosia mesomelia Four-dotted Footman 15 1973 2010 Local Parasemia plantagmis Wood Tiger 5 1973 2007 Local Arctia caja Garden Tiger 3 2004 2010 Common Diacrisia sannio Clouded Buff 10 1974 2010 Local Spilosoma lubricipeda White Ermine 10 1973 2010 Common Phragmatobia fidiginosa Ruby Tiger 5 1973 2010 Common Agrotis exclamationis Heart and Dart 1 2004 2004 Common Axylia pntris Flame 1 2004 2004 Common Ochropleura plecta Flame Shoulder 6 1973 2010 Common Noctna proimba Large Yellow Underwing 22 1974 2010 Common Noctiia comes Lesser Yellow Underwing 3 2005 2007 Common Noctua jhnbriata Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing Lesser Broad-bordered Yellow 1 2007 2007 Common Noctna janthe Underwing 3 2005 2007 Common Eugnorisma glareosa Autumnal Rustic 6 2004 2007 Common Lycophotia porphyrea Tnie Lover's Knot 19 1973 2010 Common Diarsia mendica Ingrailed Clay 15 1973 2010 Common Diarsia rubi Small Square-spot 3 2010 2010 Common Xestia triangulum Double Square-spot 1 2004 2004 Common Xestia baja Dotted Clay 9 2005 2010 Common Xestia castanea Neglected Rustic 6 2005 2007 Local Xestia sexstrigala Six-striped Rustic 2 2005 2006 Common Xestia xanthographa Square-spot Rustic 5 2004 2007 Common Xestia agathina Heath Rustic 5 2005 2007 Local Enrols occulta Great Brocade 3 2006 2010 Na Anaria myrtilli Beautiful Yellow Underwing 11 1973 2005 Common Hada nana Shears 1 2004 2004 Common Folia irimaculosa Silvery Arches 2 2004 2010 Nb Lacanobia contigua Beautiful Brocade 3 2004 2010 Local Lacanobia thalassina Pale-shouldered Brocade 6 2004 2010 Common Lacanobia oleracea Bright-line Brown-eye 4 2006 2007 Common Papesira biren Glaucous Shears 4 2004 2010 Local Melanchra pisi Broom Moth 10 1973 2010 Common Cerapteiyx graminis Antler Moth 11 1973 2010 Common 67 2179 Panolis flammea Pine Beauty 2 2005 2010 Common 2186 Orlhosia gracilis Powdered Quaker 1 2010 2010 Common 1 2187 Orthosia cerasi Common Quaker 3 2005 2010 Common 2188 Orlhosia incerta Clouded Drab 3 2005 2010 Common 2190 Orlhosia golhica Hebrew Character 5 2004 2010 Common 2198 Mylhimmi impura Smoky Wainscot 13 1973 2010 Common ' 2199 Mylhinina palleits Common Wainscot 2 1973 2006 Common i 2225 Brachylomia viminalis Minor Shoulder-knot 1 2005 2005 Common 2232 Aporophyla nigra Black Rustic 1 2005 2005 Common [ 2233 Lilhoinoia solidaginis Golden-rod Brindle 4 1973 2007 1 Local 2241 Xylena veinsla Red Sword-grass 2 1973 2010 Local 2250 Blepharila adnsla Dark Brocade 3 2004 2007 Common ' 2258 Conisira vaccinii Chestnut 1 2005 2005 Common i 2266 Agrochola Hliira Brown-spot Pinion 2 2006 2006 Common ; 2268 Paraslichtis suspeda Suspected 2 2005 2006 Local 2273 Xanihia logala Pink-barred Sallow 3 2005 2007 Common 2274 Xanihia icierilia Sallow 4 2004 2007 Common 2280 Acronicia leporina Miller 6 1986 2010 Common 2286 Acronicia menyanihidis Light Knot Grass 12 1973 2010 Local 1 2300 Mormo inaiira Old Lady 1 2005 2005 Local 2302 Rusina ferruginea Brown Rustic 6 2004 2010 Common 2305 Eupk’xia lucipara Small Angle Shades 1 2005 2005 Common 2306 Phlogophora meliculosa Angle Shades 2 2004 2006 Common - 2321 Apaniea monoglypha Dark Arches 16 2004 2010 Common 2326 Apamea crenala Clouded-bordered Brindle 12 2004 2010 Common 2330 Apaniea reniissa Dusky Brocade 1 2007 2007 Common 2334 Apamea sordens Rustic Shoulder-knot 1 2004 2004 Common . 2340 Oligia fasciimciila Middle-baned Minor 6 1973 2010 Common 2343x Mesapamea secalis agg. Common Rustic agg. 13 1973 2010 2345 Pholedes minima Small Dotted Buff 1 2004 2004 Common 2350 Chorlodes pygmina Small Wainscot 9 1973 2007 Common ' 2357 Amphipoea hicens Large Ear 4 2005 2010 Local 2360x Amphipoea ociilea agg. Ear Moth agg. 15 1973 2010 2361 Hydraecia micacea Rosy Rustic 5 1973 2006 Common 1 2364 Gortyna flavago Frosted Orange 2 2005 2007 Coimnon 2367 Celaena hawonhii Haworth's Minor 6 1973 2007 Local 2368 Celaena leiicosligma Crescent 3 2005 2010 Local ; 2369 Nonagria typhae Bulrush Wainscot 1 2006 2006 Common 2422 Psendoips prasinana Green Silver-lines 1 2004 2004 Common 2425 Colocasia con'li Nut-tree Tussock 8 1986 2010 Common 2434 Diachiysia chiysilis Burnished Brass 1 2005 2005 Common , 2439 Phisia fesliicae Gold Spot 3 2004 2006 Common 2440 Phisia piilnami Lempke's Gold Spot 4 1998 2007 Local 2441 Aiilographa gamma Silver Y 2 1989 2006 Migrant 2443 Aulographa Jola Plain Golden Y 2 2005 2006 Common 2444 Aiilographa hraclea Gold Spangle 2 2005 2007 Common 2447 Syngrapha inlerrogalionis Scarce Silver Y 1 2006 2006 Local 2450 A hroslola Iriparlila Spectacle 1 2004 2004 Common 2474 Riviila sericealis Straw Dot 7 1986 2010 Common 2477 Hypena prohoscidalis Snout 5 1973 2005 Common 2484 Schrankia coslaesirigalis Pinion-streaked Snout 1 2010 2010 Local Nb ; 2485 Hvpeiiodes hnmidalis Marsh Oblique-barred 4 1986 2010 Table 1. Moth species recorded on Flanders Moss. 68 English Name Scientific Name UK-wide percentage change over 35 years lUCN Category Autumnal Rustic Eugnorisma glareosa -92 Endangered Garden Tiger Arctia caja -89 Vulnerable Haworth’s Minor Celaena haworthii -89 Vulnerable Pale Eggar Trichiura crataegi -86 Vulnerable Small square-spot Diarsia riibi -85 Vulnerable Heath Rustic Xestia agathina -84 Vulnerable Sallow Xanthia iceritia -82 Vulnerable Crescent Cymatophorima leucostigma -82 Vulnerable Neglected Rustic Xestia castanea -82 Vulnerable Dark Brocade Blepharita admta -78 Vulnerable White Ermine Spilosoma lubricipeda -77 Vulnerable Dusky Brocade Apamea remissa -76 Vulnerable Table 2. Moths found on Flanders Moss that declined in their UK-wide abundance by more than 70% between 1968 and 2002. REFERENCES Bland, K. P. (1988). List of Lepidoptera recorded on Flanders Moss on 18.3.1988. Unpublished report, Scottish Natural Heritage. Bland, K. P. (2003). Species list from Argent and Sable Workshop, Flanders Moss NNR, 17'’’ August 2003 unpublished report, Scottish Natural Heritage. Bradley, J. D. (2000) Checklist of Lepidoptera Recorded in the British Isles. Fordingbridge. Bretherton, R. F., Goater, B. & Lorimer R.I. (1983). Noctuidae. Pp 141 -142 in Heath J. and Emmet, M. (editors), Moths and Butterflies of Great Britain and Ireland, Curwen Press, London, Vol 9. Christie, I. C. (1986). Moths on SWT Reserve Flanders Moss Summer 1986 unpublished report Scottish Natural Heritage. Department of the Environment, Transport and Regions (DETR) (1999). UK Biodiversity Group. Tranche2 Action Plans Voll Terrestrial and Fresh Water Species and Habitats. HMSO. Fox, R., Conrad, K. F., Parsons, M. S., Warren, M. S., &. Woiwod, I. P. (2006). The State of Britain 's Larger Moths. Butterfly Conservation and Rothamsted Research, Wareham, Dorset. Kinnear P. & Kirkland P. (2000). Regional Action Plan for Butterflies and Moths of South West Scotland. Butterfly Conservation, Edinburgh. Knowler, J. T. (2010). An Annotated Checklist of the Larger Moths of Stirlingshire, West Perthshire and Dunbartonshire. Glasgow Natural History Society, Glasgow. Maclaurin, A. M. (1974). Butterflies and Moths from Flanders Moss. Glasgow Naturalist 19, 85-90. Morris, R. (1991) List of moths obtained from unpublished report, Scottish Natural Heritage. Palmer, R. (1986). List of Lepidoptera recorded on Flanders Moss. Unpublished report, Scottish Natural Heritage. Riley, A.M. & Prior G. (2003). British and Irish Pug Moths: a guide to their identification and biology, Harley Books. Scottish Entomologists (1989). Species collected on Flanders Moss during Scottish Entomologists weekend 3.9. 1989. Unpublished report. South, R. (1908) Moths of the British Isles (series 2). Wame, London. 69 I Thr Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 71-77 Diversity of wild plants in a low-maintenance Scottish suburban garden. Then and now ■“ 1986 and 2011 Myles O’Reilly Scottish Environment Protection Agency, Redwood Crescent, East Kilbride, Glasgow G74 5PP E-mail: myles.oreilly@sepa.org.uk In 1986, prior to the publication of the Wild Plants of Glasgow (Dickson, 1991), a survey was undertaken of the native (or naturalised) higher plant diversity of a large suburban garden in the south side of Glasgow. The garden harboured over sixty wild plant species, including a few unusual species for the area. A follow up survey was undertaken 25 years later in 2011, to assess how the natural plant community had changed over the years. Plants were identified with the aid of Keble Martin (1969), Garrard & Streeter (1983), and Phillips (1980). Nomenclature has been updated to match Dickson et al (2000). The garden located on Newark Drive in Pollokshields (NS 57225 63075) is moderately large with a footprint of around 1200m^. The layout comprises, to the front, a gravel driveway and a lawn with bordering beds with a few shrubs and mature trees (lime, noiway maple, sycamore, horse chestnut, holly, common whitebeam, laburnum and wych elm) (see Fig.l). The side gardens have an old concrete drive, grass areas, gravel paths i and small trees (ash, rowan, silver birch, locust tree) (see Fig.2) and the rear garden has more extensive grass areas, a concrete garage forecourt, some over- grown beds, a former vegetable garden and a few mature trees (lime, alder, wild cherry and apple) (see I Fig.3). The garden was intensively cultivated in the 1960s with many foimal beds of flowers, neat lawns, pollarded trees, vegetable patches as well as a large greenhouse and numerous exterior cold frames. From the early 1970s the cultivation regime reduced rapidly to a low maintenance level. Tree pruning ceased, the greenhouse was dismantled, and many beds and vegetable patches were converted to grass or simply became overgrown with weeds. Lawn mowing continued but bed weeding was minimal, limited to removal of large saplings with only shrubs and some hardy perennial garden flowers persisting. The front driveway was maintained with occasional weeding or application of weed killer but the concrete drive and forecourt and other paths gradually became overgrown with grass and weeds. [ The initial survey in 1 986 recorded 5 1 species of native ! (or naturalised) flowering plants, five fem species and I one horsetail (Table 1). Grasses added another, often hidden, component of higher plant diversity. Mowing and strimming often limited grass identification but during the early 1980s ten species of grass (and one msh) were identified within the garden (Table 2). The flowering plants included a variety of annual weeds {eg. thale cress, cleavers, groundsel) and several pernicious perennial “weeds” - the bane of gardeners - rosebay willowherb, ground-elder, field horsetail, large bindweed, Japanese knotweed. The grassy areas had their own distinctive flora including creeping buttercup, daisy, self-heal, and thyme-leaved speedwell. A few shade tolerant woodland species such as lesser celandine, broad-leaved helleborine and bluebell were already present under mature trees. Some species were clearly garden escapes {ie. welsh poppy, feverfew) and others, although indigenous to Scotland, are known to have been intentional introductions into the garden in the 1970s: shining crane’s-bill from Lennoxtown, bairen strawberry from Roebank Reservoir, water avens from Dairy (Ayrshire), great mullein from Dumfries, caper spurge from the derelict greenhouse of a neighbouring garden, and bluebell from Pollok Park. Others may have previously arrived with soil from greenhouse plants. This is probably the case (indirectly) for the caper spurge mentioned above and for the greater bumet- saxifrage which appeared in the early 1 980s in the area of the dismantled greenhouse. The caper spurge was introduced in 1974 and persisted by self seeding around the garden for around 12 years. It is rare in the Glasgow area, being recorded from only four tetrads (Dickson et al. 2000). The greater bumet-saxifrage appeared as a seedling in 1981 and comprised four large plants by 1986. It is veiy rare in Scotland and this was the first record for the Glasgow area (Dickson et al. 2000). Accidental introduction of some plants with commercial grass seed mix during conversion of some fomier flower beds into lawns was also a known amval route into the garden for at least three unusual species - black nightshade {Solamtm nigrum) in 1978), small- flowered catchfly (Silene gallica) in 1980, and field madder (Sherardia arvensis) in 1981- but none of these persisted into the following years. 71 Four species of fern were present in 1986. Male-fem and lady-fern were scattered throughout the garden. There were three broad buckler-fern plants - introduced from Pollok Park and on the garden walls a single hard shield-fem and a single maidenhair spleenwort. The follow-up survey in 201 1 revealed that the number of wild flower species established in the garden had increased to 60 and the number of fern species remained the same at five. Some flower species {e.g. barren strawbeny, germander speedwell, self-heal, bluebell) have spread and increased in abundance, others have decreased (tvg. red campion, american willowherb, daisy, feverfew). Altogether nine llower species and two ferns have disappeared and 1 8 new flower species and two new ferns have arrived. Mowing and strimming prevented a proper review of the grass species in 2011. In addition to the flowering plants and fems found in 2011, a large number of tree (or shrub) seedlings or saplings were noted sprouting on lawns and old border beds (Table 3). In spring 2011 nearly thirty lime seedlings (cotyledon stage) were observed on the lawn areas. Regeneration of lime is relatively unusual in Scotland (see Gray, Grist, & Hansen 1999). Among the absentees in 2011 were several annual weeds (shepherd’s purse, groundsel, and common orache) possibly edged out by overgrowth of grasses and thickets of bramble in some areas. Newly an'ived weeds included ivy-leaved speedwell, knotgrass, smooth sow-thistle, curled dock, common nettle, great willowherb and bramble. Another new weed, blinks, formed extensive patches on the gravel driveway. The introduced water avens, greater bumet-saxifrage, great mullein, and caper spurge have all died out along with the single bittersweet. The amval of the two-spined acaena is of interest (Fig. 4). Although this alien species is still rare as a naturalised plant in Glasgow it may be spreading. In the grassy areas greater plantain seems to have disappeared while a few ribwort plantain have arrived. The alien fox-and-cubs (“orange hawkweed”) has invaded the front lawn and, with a low growth habit resistant to mowing, has become exceedingly abundant and a garden variety of lady’s mantle has tumed up on a grassed over driveway. Several cuckooflower have also appeared in recent years in the grassy areas although these are more susceptible to mowing and flowering stalks persist only on untrimmed grassy borders. The continued growth of mature (and maturing) trees has encouraged the development of a woodland flora under their shade. Lesser celandine has expanded from a few patches to broad caipcts. The dozen or so native bluebell introduced in the eighties have now fomied into two natural “bluebell glades” with over 150 plants. However non-native Spanish bluebell has also spread from neighbouring gardens and it appears that they may already be hybridising with the native bluebell (see Dickson, 1991, Dickson et al. 2000). Four new shade-tolerant woodland species have colonised the garden; wood avens and wild strawberry, both of which arc already widespread, a patch of enchanter’s nightshade, and a single flowering plant of ramsons. Among the ferns the broad buckler-fem and hard shield-fem have gone but the shade loving hart’s- tongue has arrived. The single maidenhair spleenwort on the garden wall has expanded to over 100 plants and a few plants of wall-rue have established on the same wall, spread from a new colony of about 50 plants on an adjacent neighbour’s wall. Gardens are often overlooked when it comes to surveys of natural flora. It is evident from the small number examined in preparation for the Wild Plants of Glasgow (Dickson, 1991) that suburban gardens, especially if a little unkempt, can host a suiprising diversity of natural flora. In well cultivated gardens the natural flora will be dominated by plants of arable land (i.e. weeds of flower beds) or grazed pasture {i.e. weeds of lawns) but where the maintenance is less strict and where trees are allowed to mature then woodland species may become established. Accidental introduction from horticulture via grass seeding, flower seed packs or potted plants from garden centres may result in the presence of some unexpected native species. At Newark Drive accidental (or intentional) introduction has been the source of several such arrivals. Mud on tyre treads or wheel arches may possibly explain the spread of some driveway weeds such as blinks and knotgrass. Most of the other plant airivals probably derive from windblown seeds (or spores). This is undoubtedly the case for most weed species, for broad-leaved hclleborine orchids, and for fern species. Others such as bramble and wild strawbeirics may aixive as seeds within bird droppings. Wood avens and enchanter’s nightshade with barbed seeds may perhaps arrive attached to bird’s feathers or on the fur of foxes or cats. The spread of the alien two-spined acaena is likely to be similar. Colonisation by tree seedlings is mainly by wind blown seeds from near and far. Two goat willow saplings noted in 20 1 1 were growing in the house roof gutter, 8m above ground, on a bed of pigeon droppings! Although only about 30 cm tall they were already reproducing with catkins. Other trees which produce berries (rowan, whitebeam, hawthorn, wild cherry, holly and elder) may be spread via bird droppings. There is evidence in the fomi of gnawed cheiry stones secreted in holes that mice may also help distribute the wild cherry, while grey squiiTels (rare in this area in the 1980s but now common) are a possible candidate for distribution of horse chestnuts. 72 I i Species creeping buttercup Ranunculus repens meadow buttercup Ranunculus acris lesser celandine Ranunculus ficaria welsh poppy Meconopsis cambrica wavy bitter cress Cardamine flexuosa cuckooflower Cardamine pratensis shepherd ’s-purse Capsella bursa-pastoris thale cress Arabidopsis thaliana red campion Silene dioica common mouse-ear Cerastium fontamm blinks Montia fontana procumbent peaiiwort Sagina procumbens herb-robert Geranium robertianum shining crane’s-bill Geranium lucidum white clover Trifolium repens bush vetch Vida septum lady’s mantle Alchemilla mollis two-spined acaena Acaena oval folia bramble Rubus fruticosus s.l. baiTen strawberry Potentilla sterilis wild strawbeny Fragraria vesca waters avens Geum rivale wood avens Gemn urbanum rosebay willowherb Chamerion angust folium broad-leaved willowherb Epilobium montanum american willowherb Epilobium ciliatum great willowherb Epilobium hirsutum ground-elder Aegopodium podagraria greater bumet-saxifrage Pimpinella major pignut Conopodium majiis enchanter’s nightshade Circaea lutetiana common ivy Hedera helix cleavers Galium aparine daisy Beilis perennis feverfew Tanacetum parthenium groundsel Senecio vulgaris common ragwort Senecio jacobaea creeping thistle Cirsium ai'vense spear thistle Cirsium vulgare cat’s-ear Hypochaeris radicata common hawkweed Hieraceum vidgatum fox-and-cubs Pilosella aurantiaca dandelion Taraxacum sp. smooth sow-thistle Sonchus oleraceus nipplewort Lapsana communis field forget-me-not Mvosotis aixtensis large bindweed Calystegia silvatica bittersweet Solanum dulcamara great mullein Verbascum thapsus ivy-leaved toadflax Cymbalaria muralis foxglove Digitalis purpurea ivy-leaved speedwell Veronica heder folia thyme-leaved speedwell Veronica serpyll folia germander speedwell Veronica chamaedrys selfheal Prunella vulgaris greater plantain Plantago major ribwort plantain Plantago lanceolata 1986 status 2011 status common common one plant one plant several patches abundant common common common common absent five plants a few on paths absent common common common one plant one patch on lawn several on lawn absent abundant common on paths a few on paths common common common common common on lawn common on lawn one large patch four patches absent three plants absent one plant absent abundant five plants common absent common 15 plants absent absent common several stands two stands common common 30 plants one plant absent two stands abundant abundant four plants absent one on grass one on grass absent twenty plants several on walls common common common common on lawns a few on lawns common two plants common absent several common common four plants common two plants several on lawn common on lawn a few on grass three plants absent abundant on lawn common common absent two plants common common common on paths six plants common common one plant absent one plant absent common on walls common on walls common five plants absent three on drive common on grass common on grass a few on grass border abundant on grass border one patch common a few on grass absent absent three on grass 73 common orache A triplex patula a few on paths absent knotgrass Polygonum aviciilare absent ten plants on drive Japanese knotweed Fall opia japonic a common common common soitcI Riimex acetosa common on grass a few on grass broad-leaved dock Ruinex ohtitsifolius common common curled dock Riimex crispiis absent one plant caper spurge Euphorbia lathyris one plant absent common nettle Urtica dioica absent one small patch broad-leaved helleborine Epipactis helleborine four under trees nine under trees ramsons Allium ursinum absent one under trees bluebell Hyacinthoides non-scriptus twelve under trees common Spanish bluebell Hyacinthoides hispanica absent several clumps male-fern Diyopteris fil ix-mas several several broad buckler-fem Diyopteris dilitata three plants absent lady-fern A thyrium fil ix-femina several several hard shield-fern Polvstichum aculeatum one on wall absent hart’s-tongue Asplenium scolopendrium absent several wall -rue Asplenium ruta-muraria absent five on wall maidenhair splcenwort Asplenium trichomanes one on wall abundant on wall field horsetail Equisetum arvense common common Table 1 . Wild (and naturalised) llowers and ferns 1 986 and 2011. It is clear from the relative abundances of the tree seedlings and saplings that, left to itself, this suburban garden would quickly revert to deciduous woodland dominated by sycamore and norway maple, neither of which is native to Scotland (Dickson et al. 2000), with an under-storey of shade-tolerant woodland plants. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks are due to Alison Moss and Damien Hicks for assistance with some plant identifications. 74 Fig.l. Newark Drive - Front garden with border of mature trees. Fig.2. Newark Drive - Grassed over concrete driveway. 75 Fig.3. Newark Drive - Rear garden. Fig.4. Newark Drive - Two-spined acaena. 76 Species red fescue Festuca rubra perennial rye-grass Lolium pereune crested dog’s-tail Cynosurus cristatus annual meadow-grass Poa amma cock’s-foot Dactylis glomerata yorkshire-fog Holcus lauatus sweet vernal-grass Anthoxanthum oderatum reed canary-grass Phalaris arundinacea timothy Phleum pratense common couch Elytrigia repens field wood-rush Luzula can^pestris Table 2. Grass and rush species in the 1980s. Species No, of seedlings/saplings wych elm Ulmus glabra 1 silver birch Betula pendula 3 alder Alnus glutinosa 6 lime Tilia X europaea 27 goat willow Salix caprea 3 wild cherry Prunus avium 10 cheiTy laural Prunus laurocerasus 6 rowan Sorbus aucuparia 5 common whitebeam Sorbus aria 1 hawthorn Crataegus monogyma 3 broom Cytisiis scoparius 1 holly Ilex aepufolium 4 horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanwn 10 norway maple A cer platanoides 100s sycamore A cer pseudoplatanus 100s ash Fraxinus excelsior 3 elder Sambucus nigra 2 Table 3. Tree (and shrub) seedlings and saplings in 201 1 . REFERENCES Dickson, J.H. (1991). Wild Plants of Glasgow. Conservation in the City and Countiyside. Aberdeen University Press, 208. Dickson, J.H., Macpherson, P., Watson, K. (2000). The Changing Flora of Glasgow. Urban and Rural Plants through Centuries. Edinburgh University Press, 402. Garrard I. & Streeter, D. (1983). The Wild Flowers of the British Isles. MacMillan, London, 295. Gray, R.S.K., Grist, N.R. & Hansen, M.H. (1999). Natural regeneration of Limes (Tilia spp. ) in Scotland. Wann summers produce an abundance of ripe seed. Glasgow Naturalist 23(4), 19-25. (plus Errata Glas.Nat. 23(5), 74). Keble Martin, W. (1969). The Concise British Flora in Colour. Ebury Press and Michael Joseph. Second (revised) edition. 254. Phillips, R. (1980). Grasses, Ferns, Mosses & Lichens of Great Britain and Ireland. Pan Books, 191. 77 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 79-86 The Blodwen Lloyd Binns Bequest: its contribution to the development of Glasgow Natural History Society Roger Downie, Morag Mackinnon, Peter Macpherson, Dominic McCafferty and Richard Weddle Glasgow Natural History Society c/o Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ ABSTRACT Professor Blodwen Lloyd Binns (BLB) left a substantial legacy to Glasgow Natural History Society on her death in 1991. In her will, the bequest was ‘unconditional’, but she made a number of suggestions on how the money could be used both in her will and in additional coixespondence. In this paper, we describe how the Society has used the income generated by this generous bequest in the 20 years since BLB’s death. The paper covers the management of the bequest, the income generated and expenditure on the Society’s activities (nearly £214,000). The bequest has supported the Society’s journal The Glasgow Naturalist and other publications, biological recording, overseas expeditions, a lecture series, a multitude of research projects and the Society’s social activities (one of BLB’s specific suggestions). It is no exaggeration to say that the bequest has had a transfomiative effect on the Society and that, with pindent management, this effect should continue into the future. INTRODUCTION Blodwen Lloyd Binns (BLB) died in her 90*’’ year in August 1991, having been a member of Glasgow Natural History Society (initially in its earlier name of the Andersonian Naturalists of Glasgow: see Sutcliffe, 2001) since 1934. In her will, BLB left the Society a substantial legacy. Twenty years after her death seems an appropriate time to appraise the impact that her legacy has made on the Society’s affairs. As Macpherson ( 1 992) recounted, BLB was a member of the Botany Department of Glasgow’s Royal Technical College (later the University of Strathclyde) from 1926-62, then Professor of Botany at the new University of Malawi 1965-72. Her scientific work was wide-ranging, including fermentation and marine microbiology. To aid her botanical teaching, she produced a Handbook of Botanical Diagrams in 1935, with a second edition in 1949, reprinted seven times. It was the royalties on this book that made a substantial contribution to the legacy she was able to leave to the Society. BLB’s will was made in 1974 and states “this bequest... is unconditional but 1 express the hope that it may enable the Andersonian Naturalists a) to airange for refreshments and thus encourage fraternising at their meetings b) to foster interest in their own under- valued history and achievements including their current activities in conjunction with and for the Botanical Society of the British Isles and the Vegetation Atlas” (quoted from BLB’s will in the Society’s archives). Although BLB had stated that the bequest was “unconditional”, she had also conveyed to the Society, in a series of eight communications to Peter Macpherson, a number of suggestions as to how the money might be used: these are listed in Table 1 (abstracted from a document in the Society’s archives). 1 . To complete her biography of Professor Scouler 2. To research a biography of Scott Elliot 3. To research a biography of Roger Hennedy 4. To produce a brochure of the early histoiy of the Society 5. A publication on the Lost Flora of Glasgow 6. A publication on the Aliens and Adventives in Glasgow 7. A publication on the Lost Flora of Helensburgh 8. In collaboration with Strathclyde University, complete the following Herbarium Transcripts: a) Volume 1 Indigenous flowering plants b) Volume 2 Exotica c) Volume 3 Ciyptograms 9. Consider helping Strathclyde University to catalogue the Herbarium 1 0. Improve the social aspect of the Society 1 1 . Provide a home for the Society Table 1. Blodwen Lloyd Binns’s suggestions After initially depositing the legacy in the Society’s general fund. Council agreed to set up a sub-committee to administer the bequest. This first met on 4'*’ March 1993 and comprised Prof Norman Grist (President), Jean Millar (General Secretary), Bob Gray (Treasurer), Dr Peter Macpherson (Scientific Adviser) and Bruce Lindsay (Financial Adviser). At that meeting, Nonnan Grist listed several categories for possible expenditure of the legacy and Peter Macpherson read the list of 79 “suggestions” from BLB’s communications to him. Bruce Lindsay recommended appointment of a broker to advise on investments: the intention would be to maintain the capital, allowing for inflation, and spend the income generated: on the sum initially available - about £175,000 (a huge sum for a small organisation like GNHS), income expected could be around £10,500 per annum. At this first meeting, there were three applications for funding. It was agreed to investigate each further, and to produce a form for the use of all future applicants (summarised from the Minute of the first meeting of administrators of BLB’s Bequest, in the Society’s archives). Downie (1998) reported on the first few years of the Bequest’s use: by the end of 1997, £19,200 had been spent, 13% of this on the Glasgow Naturalist (enhancing its production standards, especially through the inclusion of colour), 15% on equipment, especially a computer and associated kit to bring the Society’s work into the modem age, 2% on special lectures, 3% on social events, 5% on administration of the bequest and 62% on “projects”. In terms of money spent, projects were 53% in the UK and 37% abroad, mostly undergraduate expeditions organised through the University of Glasgow’s Exploration Society. Downie ( 1 998) hoped that BLB would have approved, given her personal “histoiy of adventurous botanising in far countries”. Possibly less to BLB’s taste, projects were 61% zoological, 38% botanical and 1% miscellaneous. The aim of this paper is to analyse and report on the various contributions the BLB Bequest has made to GNHS in the 20 years since BLB’s death. L MANAGEMENT OF THE BEQUEST AND CRITERIA FOR FUNDING The rules for the management of the Bequest are laid down in the Society’s Constitution. To comply with the requirements of the Office of the Scottish Charities Regulator (OSCR), the Constitution was amended in November 2010. The rules are as follows (summarised from the Society’s Constitution, available on the Society’s web-site): The Bequest is administered by an Executive comprising the Society’s President, General Secretary and Treasurer together with scientific and financial advisers (number not specified) appointed at the Society’s AGM. The aims of the Executive are to put into effect the wishes of Professor Lloyd Binns and to further the aims of the Society. The Bequest is managed in such a way as broadly to preseiwe its capital value, allowing for inflation, with awards made from the income aceming from investments. It is worth noting that Dr Peter Maepherson has served as a scientific adviser to the Bequest since its inception, and that Bruce Lindsay served as financial adviser from the start of the Bequest until 2009-10. The BLB Committee now meets three times a year (September, Januai^ and March) to coincide with GNHS Council meetings. At these meetings, the Committee receives an update on the Bequest’s finances, considers any changes needed in the investment portfolio, makes decisions on grant applications, receives reports from work funded by the Bequest and discusses any modifications proposed to the way in which the Bequest’s income could be used. Over the years, a number of activities have become established as being funded by the Bequest without the need for specific application. These are: • A contribution to the social life of the Society. This funds wine at events like the September Exhibition, the Christmas Dinner, the BLB lecture and the Summer Social. It also funds the costs of pre-talk dinners for speakers. A summary of these costs is shown in Table 2. The Committee has taken the view that these contributions fit with BLB’s express wish to “arrange for refreshments., and encourage fraternising at meetings”. • A contribution to the costs of publication of The Glasgow Naturalist (see Table 2 and section 4). • Funding of the BLB Lecture series (see section 9). The bulk of the Bequest’s income is disbursed following applications for grants (see section 3). The Committee has made a number of modifications to the criteria for support over the years. Cuirently, these are (summarised from the Society’s web-site: Grant Infonnation page): • We assist individuals and groups in canying out projects of natural history interest. • Where we have to decide between the merits of competing applications, preference is given to Society members over non-members, to local over distant projects, and to projects likely to generate future publication. We will not nonnally give grants towards salaries. • Limited support for postgraduate students to report their results at national and international conferences. • Support for overseas natural history projects: this is given for two categories of project a) overseas natural history expeditions, mainly involving under-graduate expeditions; b) overseas natural history research by individuals. In all cases, upper financial limits are advertised (and modified by the Committee from time to time). In addition, since the start of the Bequest it has been agreed that no grant greater than £2000 will be made without the approval of the Society’s Council. 2. THE BEQUEST’S FINANCES Figure la shows the market value of the Bequest’s investments since 1993. As can be seen, there was a sharp rise over the first few years when applications for funding were significantly less than income generated and surpluses were re-invested, peaking at almost £316,000 in 1999. 80 Fig. 1. Financial history of the BLB Bequest a) Market value; b) Income Subsequent changes in the market value of the Bequest’s holdings have essentially followed the vagaries of the financial markets, especially the recent slump. Even with the recent fall in value in 2008, the Bequest is worth substantially more than at the start, even taking inflation into account. Figure lb shows the annual income generated by the Bequest’s investments. The overall policy of the Bequest Committee has been to hold a substantial proportion of the funds in ‘safe’ lowish interest investments, with a smaller proportion in carefully chosen stocks with potentially higher yields. Inevitably this has led to some variation in income, again generally following changes in the financial markets, but annual income has never fallen below £10,000, much in line with the original expectation and has generated a mean annual income of £13,327. The Bequest Committee was fortunate in having Bmce Lindsay’s careful advice on investment policy over many years. Table 2a shows the total income generated by the Bequest (1995-2010), total expenditure and a breakdown of the expenditure into its main categories. It is gratifying to note that overall administrative costs have been low (stockbroking, legal and general 5.5%). However, the 17-year average disguises some trends. Following a new arrangement with our stockbrokers, their fees rose substantially to 1 1 .5% of income over the years 2007-10. The Committee regarded this as unacceptably high and a change was made during 2010. a) Income, expenditure and main expenditure categories Total Income Total Expenditure - Grants (%) - Equipment (%) - Publications (%) - Social (%) - Meetings (%) - Stockbroking - Legal (%) - Administration (%) Total (£) 1994-2010 226.559 213.559 £ and (%) 152,386(71.4) 8,223 (3.9) 18,408 (8.6) 8,681 (4.1) 12,502 (5.9) 9,512 (4.5) 2036 (1.0) b) Grants categories: percentage of total grant expenditure (%) Conferences, exhibitions 6.4 Habitat creation/memorial 2.3 Training courses 1.5 UG expeditions (59) 22.0 UK research 19.8 Overseas research 11.8 Collcctions/recording 8.6 Publications 24.3 Excursions 1.9 Donation (SCENE) 1.3 Table 2. Income generated by the BLB Bequest, and a breakdown of the main spending streams a) total income and main spending streams, b) breakdown of grant categories. Contributions to social events and meetings average 10% of Bequest expenditure, well fulfilling BLB’s request that her legacy should contribute to ‘fraternisation’. A matter of concern to the Committee has been a recent steep rise in room charges imposed by our host, the University of Glasgow: without the benefit of the Bequest, the Society would certainly have had to move, in spite of the benefits of the Zoology Museum and our libraiy being housed in the Graham Kerr Building. Expenditure on equipment has taken up 3.8% of Bequest income. Most of this was in the early days, and was largely on computing equipment. Since 2005, the Society has had the benefit of an additional legacy (£8000, T.E. Kinsey); this is administered along with the BLB and is used wholly for the purchase of natural history equipment. The second biggest expenditure categoiy has been publications (8.6%). Initially, the Bequest simply made a contribution to colour printing in The Glasgow Naturalist. More recently, as production costs have risen and additional publications have been produced (see section 4), there has been substantial expenditure from time to time, but this is offset by income in some cases. 81 By far the biggest expenditure eategoiy has been grants (71.4%). An aecount of the variety of grants awarded is given in the next seetion. 3. ACTIVITIES SUPPORTED BY GRANTS Table 2a gives a breakdown of the way in whieh the £152k on grants has been alloeated. The four major items have been Publieations, Undergraduate Expeditions, UK Research and Overseas Research. Over the years of the Bequest, there have been some changes in the procedures for recording expenditure, so there is a categoiy of Publication in Table 2a as well as under grants. Most of the grant-aided publications have been for floras, especially the Changing Flora of Glasgow (2001), the largest single item funded by the Bequest at £8459 (as noted in section 8 and in Table 1, publications on the flora of Glasgow were among BLB’s specific suggestions). The Bequest also funded a publication, jointly with Scottish Natural Heritage, on the flowers of Iona (Millar, 1993). Sec also section 8. The Undergraduate Expeditions (59) funded by the Bequest have all involved the University of Glasgow’s Exploration Society and are discussed in section 7. Research projects both in the UK and overseas have been VC17 varied: the Bequest has been valuable as a supplementary funder for postgraduate research projects where the consumables and travel budgets provided by the main grant have been inadequate - in this way, the Bequest has aided research on the diversity of sticklebacks in Scotland, the Gartcosh great crested newt translocation, ovei'wintcring of common frog tadpoles, local adaptations of common frogs in Scotland and wolf conservation in Ethiopia. Collections and bio-recording (8.6% of grants) are described in section 6 as are the training courses aimed at improving identification and recording skills (1.5%). The Bequest has helped fund attendance at conferences and also the mounting of a number of exhibitions, most notably the Animal Architecture Company, the Hunterian Museum’s contribution to Glasgow City of Design and Architecture (1999). A small proportion (2.3%) of grant funding has gone to habitat creation projects, such as wildlife gardens in schools and Froglife’s Living Waters programme which is creating amphibian habitats around the country. An important activity for the Society is the extensive scries of excursions run each year, spring to autumn. These are largely self-funding, but a small proportion of the grant money (1.9%) has helped with these, especially with transport. 4. JOURNAL AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS (INCLUDING PRIZES FOR YOUNG AUTHORS) The BLB Bequest gives financial support for the publication of The Glasgow Naturalist. The Glasgow Naturalist was first issued around 1908-9 and is a peer reviewed journal that publishes original studies in botany, zoology and geology, with a particular focus on studies from the West of Scotland. The journal is published on a 1-2 year basis and further supplements are produced to publish the proceedings of conferences. The Society is fortunate in receiving generous funding from the BLB Bequest to allow the continued publication of one of the best respected natural history journals in Scotland. The BLB currently contributes £l-£2k per edition for printing, materials and secretarial work. The BLB prize is awarded for papers submitted for publication in The Glasgow Naturalist. The subject area is the natural history of Scotland. The intention of the prize is to encourage work by younger scientists - "younger" in the sense of new to scientific writing. Submitted work should therefore be amongst the first three papers the writer has submitted for publication. This prize was first awarded in 2008 and prizes have been made to: Jill M. Williams, 2008. Flood meadow vegetation at Little Lcny Meadows, Callander: comparison of two adjacent grazed and ungrazed meadows. The Glasgow Naturalist 25( 1 ): 5 1 -56. Andrew Kyle. 2009. A comparison of grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensi.s) densities between an urban park and semi-rural woodland in Glasgow. The Glasgow Naturalist 25(2): 23-26. Lindsay J. Henderson. 2011. Pine martens, Martes martes as predators of nestling blue tits, Cyanistes caeruleus. The Glasgow Naturalist 25{3), 101-2. The BLB Bequest has also supported publications written by members of the Society and made contribution to natural history publications of national interest. These include Knowler’s (2010) checklist of the larger moths of Stirlingshire and suiTounding areas; Dickson et al.'s (2000) book on the flora of Glasgow; Walker’s (2003) book on useful herbs and Millar’s (1993) book on the flowers of Iona; and Sutcliffe’s (2010) book on interesting natural histoi7 sites of the Glasgow area. 5. CONFERENCES Prior to the existence of the Bequest, conferences figured very rarely among the Society’s activities. Since the Bequest, we have organised four (Table 3) at 2-4 year inteiwals. In all cases, the proceedings have been published, as sets of edited papers, in The Glasgow Naturalist, either as supplements or as part of a regular issue. In addition, the more recent three sets of proceedings have been published on-line. As shown in Table 3, conferences have usually been linked to an event, such as the Society’s 150‘'’ anniversary, and have often involved a collaboration with other groups, such as the 2008 Machair conference, organised jointly with the RSPB and the Aculeate Conservation Group, to cap a three-year Esmee Fairbaim Foundation - funded project on the great yellow bumble-bee. Collaborations have helped to enlarge conference attendance, which has been excellent in all cases. The Bequest’s contributions have been a) to under- write the costs of the conferences; b) to fund research 82 projects whose results have been presented at the meetings; and c) to support publications of the proceedings. Month, Year Conference Title Duration (d) Occasion Publication June, 2001 Alien species: friends or foes? 2 Society’s 150'’’ Anniversary GN 23 Supplement 2001 November, 2004 The natural history of Loch Lomond and the Trossachs 1 Recent opening of Loch Lomond & Trossachs National Park GN 24 Part 3 2005 December 2008 Machair conservation: successes and challenges 1 Culmination of joint project GN 25 Supplement 2009 October, 20 1 0 Urban biodiversity: successes and challenges 2 International Year of Biodiversity Pending Table 3. GNHS Conferences Although the conferences have been budgeted to break even, it has been very helpflil to have the cushion of the Bequest in case of financial problems; and membership income alone could simply not have provided the funds for full-scale publication. In these ways, the Bequest has been a vital factor in allowing the organisation of high quality conferences which have considerably raised the profile of the Society amongst kindred organisations. 6. RECORDING Historically the Society has always seen the recording of the wildlife of the Clyde Area as a priority, and has maintained organised lists in one fonn or another showing where various species were to be found (Weddle, 2001). Since the late 1990s this process has been considerably enhanced by a series of grants from BLB for projects aiming to collate or transcribe existing data for the Glasgow Museums Biological Record Centre database, and in recent years, financial support for taxonomic training courses. As mentioned in section 8, the aspect closest to Blodwen’s interests is the transcribing of data from the Strathclyde Herbarium sheets; so far, the British species - approximately 1484 bryophytes, 335 lichens and 2,168 flowering plant records - have been gleaned from a total of some 11,000 sheets. The remaining specimens are exotic and transcription awaits a suitably qualified volunteer. Continuing the botanical theme, we have also transcribed some 450 records from a ‘Flora of Renfrewshire’ compiled by, or under the auspices of, Morris Young the first Curator of Paisley Museum (Weddle, 2008). There are also several hundred records in the manuscript accounts of field excursions by the Andersonian Naturalists’ Society; a start has been made on transcribing these. Another major project helped by BLB funding is the transcription of records of beetles from Anderson Fergusson’s catalogue held by the Hunterian Museum some 3,050 records spanning the years 1860-1938, not all collected by Fergusson himself. This was added to by Roy and Betty Crowson (some 2,670 records spanning 1954-1998), and a further 10,000 records from that period were gleaned from Roy Crowson’s field diaries, work which is still in progress, but which is expected to bring the total to around 50,000 records. With the help of BLB funding, the Society has run two sueeessful hoverfly identification courses in conjunction with the national Hoverfly Recording Scheme, the Hunterian Museum and Glasgow Museums. Recently, in conjunction with BRISC (Biological Recording in Scotland) the Bequest has offered bursaries towards the costs of species identification courses such as those run by the Field Studies Council. Grants have also been given for the purchase of the ‘Recorder’ database software by members of the Society, and for attending training courses in its use. The software was originally installed on a personal computer which was also funded by a BLB grant; the PC is not capable of running the latest version of Recorder, but was until recently in use by volunteers at Glasgow Museums Resource Centre for entering records into spreadsheets ready for transfer to the main database: its 1 1 years lifetime was pretty good for these fast-changing times. 7, UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW STAFF- STUDENT EXPEDITIONS The University of Glasgow’s Exploration Society has a long history of organising staff-student expeditions, some to the UK but mainly overseas. These arc science-based expeditions and have included projects in medicine and veterinary medicine, geology, geography and anthropology, but most have been on wildlife and conservation. The Exploration Society fell into inactivity during the period 1975-87, but was then resurrected, with the first expeditions of the re- constituted Society occumng in 1989. Raising money for Expeditions involves a great deal of fund-raising activities as well as grant applications. No single grant 83 is likely to fund a complete expedition, so it was vciy helpful when the BLB Bequest agreed that overseas expeditions would be a suitable activity to support. The first expeditions part-funded by the BLB Bequest were in 1995, and overall 59 expeditions have been supported (3.7 per year). After some debate, the Bequest Committee set a maximum of £1000 to be awarded to an expedition as a whole, not to individual participants. Awards were initially much less than that, but over the years, supported expeditions have received an average of £568.60. Each expedition is expected to provide the Society with a report, and these are kept in the Society’s Libraiy. An on-line archive of expedition reports is in progress, and will have a link to the Society’s website. For a time (2001-4) expeditions also produced a short summary for inclusion in The Glasgow Naturalist but this fits poorly with the expectation that Naturalist articles should concern mainly Scottish subjects. Another way in which expeditions have provided feedback to the Society has been via talks in the winter programme. As well as formal reports, expeditions have contributed to several Ph.D. theses, MRcs and undergraduate final year project dissertations, and a substantial number of papers in refereed journals. The Society can be proud of its contributions to this work, and also to helping students gain unforgettable experiences of natural histoiy research abroad. 8. BLB’S REQUESTS Over the years, the suggestions made by BLB (see Introduction and Table 1) have been acted on by the Bequest Committee as thoroughly as possible. Projects in conjunction with the Botanical Society of the British Isles (BSBI): As noted earlier, BLB funding made possible the publication of The Changing Flora of Glasgow (Dickson et ah, 2000). In addition, GNHS and BSBI contributed to the publication a checklist on the flowering plants of Argyll (Rothcro & Thompson, 1994) and a flora of Tiree, Gunna and Coll (Pearman & Preston, 2000). Both are committed to supporting publication of a flora of Renfrewshire, and a flora of Lanarkshire will soon be under consideration. GNHS and BSBI also contributed to the costs of recording in the more remote upland areas of Lanarkshire for the New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora (Preston, Pearman & Dines, 2002). Sconler biography. BLB gave Peter Maepherson (PM) a copy of a letter she had sent to Professor Ewan, Tulan University, New Orleans (August, 1975) which read in part “Scoulcriana is now developing interest. I sec in the USA, and 1 am hoping that the local Andersonian Naturalists Society, whose founder president he was in 1 852, may after my demise, work through my papers so that they make much of the data available to USA. I propose to dispose some modest funds to them to encourage this work”. In 1994, PM uplifted from Strathclyde University (on loan) a box containing the draft that BLB had typed on the life of Scouler. Over the next few years, the Bequest Committee discussed whether to publish a ‘popular account’, based on BLB’s notes, in The Glasgow Naturalist, or whether a more detailed biography was desirable. After some preliminary work, it was appreciated that considerable research, some of it international, was needed for a full biography. On the suggestion of Geoff Hancock, Dr Charles Nelson, then at the National Botanic Garden, Dublin, and an experienced historian of natural history, was approached, and he agreed to take on the work. Charles Nelson worked assiduously on the task, including obtaining a copy of Scouler’s notebooks from the United States, and by late 2010 had completed a manuscript of about 125 pages plus bibliography, taxa lists and illustrations. The Bequest Committee has decided to publish this valuable material in book fonn as a Society publication most likely in 2012. BLB’s interest in Scouler included the planting of a specially grown specimen of Scouler’s willow {Salix scouleri) in the arboretum of Glasgow Botanic Gardens (Fig. 2). Scott Elliot and Hennedy biographies’. These were thoroughly researched by Eric Curtis and published in The Glasgow Naturalist (Curtis, 2009). Early history of the Society’: This was covered by Downie (2001) and Sutcliffe (2001) in the volume of The Glasgow Naturalist celebrating the Society’s 150*'’ Anniversary. The Lost Flora, Aliens and Adventives of Glasgow: These featured prominently in The Changing Flora of Glasgow (Dickson et al, 2000). This 402 page book received generous financial support from the Bequest. Lost Flora of Helensburgh : PM made enquiries of the previous and cuiTent BSBI recorders from Dunbartonshire, Allan McG. Stirling and Alison Rutherford. BLB had told the fonner that John Lee had pressed a sample of eveiy plant in Dunbartonshire and put them in matching folders. Allan had examined the herbaria of Kelvingrove Museum and Art Gallery, the University of Glasgow, and Strathclyde University. He had found a few Lee specimens but none in matching folders. PM contacted the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, and ascertained that they held no relevant material. In the mid 1960s, Robert Mill, whist a schoolboy at Hermitage Academy, Helensburgh, surveyed the plants growing wild in the town, and later published a flora based on this work (1967). Further work on this suggestion seems unlikely to be fmitful. Strathclyde University Herbarium Transcripts: Although this item was on BLB’s list, she infomied PM that it was “now in production, of interest to the Society” at Strathclyde University. However, as noted under Recording, this work is still in progress. Strathclyde University Herbarium Catalogue: The main contributors to the herbarium were Hennedy, Scouler and Scott Elliot. Computerised cataloguing of Phanerogams was completed by Keith Watson and of 84 Ciyptogams by J.A. McMullen (Macpherson & Watson, 1996). Computerisation of the Lichens was undertaken by Keith Watson in 2007. Social aspects of the Society: This has been fiilly achieved. BLB funding has helped enhance excursions, conferences and other events, especially through provision of refreshments. Home for the Society: Since the Bequest began, the Society has consolidated all operations into the University of Glasgow’s Graham Kerr Building. The Bequest funded the provision of locked cabinets for the Society’s Library, and has helped greatly with the rental costs of meeting in the Building. Fig. l.Blodwen Lloyd Binns planting a Scouler’s willow {Salix scouleri) in the arboretum of Glasgow Botanic Gardens, 1988. The tree was received as a cutting from Vancouver Botanic Gardens in 1982. Present in the upper picture (left to right) are Jim Dickson, Bill Fletcher, Alex McCaw, Alastair Laurie, Ewen Donaldson, BLB and Derek Kane. The pictures were taken by Eric Curtis. 9. THE BLB LECTURE SERIES Council agree in 2000 that it would be a good use of BLB Bequest money to fimd an annual lecture series that would bring together members of the Society and the staff and students of the University of Glasgow’s Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology (DEEB) whose Graham Kerr Building provides the Society’s ‘'home’. The idea was that an endowed series would attract prominent ecology and evolutionary biology researchers, the modem natural historians, and that we would ask them to prepare a lecture that would interest and be accessible to both professional and amateur natural historians. The staff of DEEB gave this idea a warm welcome and the first lecture was given by Tim Clutton-Brock in October 2001. A full list of the lectures (the first 1 1 years of the series) is given in Table 4. The series continues in collaboration with the recently created Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, successor to DEEB after the 20 1 0 University of Glasgow restructuring. The series began literally with a bang, since it coincided with the disastrous fire that destroyed the University’s Bower (Botany) Building. Because of the emergency electrical shutdown of the University’s main circuit, the lecture had to be moved at very short notice to the Western Infirmary Lecture Theatre. Over its 1 1 years, the series has provided an excellent overview of modem natural history, as can be seen from the lecturers and their titles, and has consistently attracted excellent audiences. As a measure of the quality of the lecturers in the series, three of the first five were Fellows of the Royal Society, and others in the series have been elected FRS since. CONCLUSION It will be obvious from the foregoing accounts that the BLB Bequest’s impact on the Society’s activities has been immense and we are exceedingly grateful to have been the recipient of this legacy. The additional annual income of £13,000 has been a huge injection of ftinds for a small Natural History Society whose annual subscription income is around £3,000. Subscription income covers room hire and speakers’ travel expenses for the winter programme, newsletter costs and a proportion of the publication costs of The Glasgow Naturalist: the remainder of the Society’s activities as described here are funded by the Bequest. We feel that the income has been used imaginatively and diversely in accordance with her wishes to benefit natural history knowledge and activity at home and abroad. With continued wise management of the Bequest’s investments, we anticipate that it will continue to be of benefit for years to come. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We gratefully acknowledge Florence McGarrity’s assistance in putting together and revising the several drafts of this paper; Bob Gray for providing copies of older Society accounts; and Barbara Mable for helpful comments on the penultimate draft. Ewen Donaldson kindly provided the photographs for Fig. 2 and the information about the planting of Scouler’s willow. 85 Year Lecturer Title 2001 Prof Tim Clutton-Brock Co-operation in mammals 2002 Prof Geoff Parker Golden flies, sunlit meadows 2003 Prof Bill Sutherland What is the future of agriculture and farmland birds? 2004 Dr Tracy Chapman The complex mating systems of insects 2005 Prof Nick Davies Cuckoos versus hosts: an evolutionary arms race 2006 Dr Mike Majerus The peppered moth saga 2007 Prof Josephine Pemberton When evolution and ecology meet: long-tenu studies on red deer and Soay sheep 2008 Prof David MacDonald A brush with foxes and some other carnivore tales 2009 Prof Peter Slater Learning about sound in animals 2010 Prof Roger Downie Adventures with amphibians 2011 Prof Richard Abbott Plant speciation in action in the UK: tales of the unexpected Table 4. The BLB Lectures REFERENCES Curtis, E.W. (2009). Two Victorian Botanists: Professor Roger Hennedy and Professor George Francis Scott Elliot. The Glasgow Naturalist 25 (2), 49-55. Dickson, J.H., Macphcrson, P. & Watson, K. (2000). The Changing Flora of Glasgow. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Downie, J.R. (1998). Sowing the seed... the first 5 years of the Blodwcn Lloyd Binns Bequest. The Glasgow Naturalist 23 (3), 1-2. Downie, J.R. (2001). 150 Years of Glasgow Natural History Society. The Glasgow Naturalist 23 (6), 57- 61. Knowler, J.T. (2010). An annotated checklist of the larger moths of Stirlingshire, West Perthshire and Dunbartonshire. Glasgow Natural History Society, Glasgow. Macpherson, P. (1992). Obituary: Blodwen Lloyd- Binns M.Sc., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.L.S. The Glasgow Naturalist 22, 155-8. Macpherson, P. & Watson, K. (1996). Strathclyde University Herbarium-Computerised Database. The Glasgow Naturalist 23 (1), 7-8. Mill, R. (1967). Checklist of the Flora of Helensburgh. Macneur & Biyden Ltd., Helensburgh. Millar, J.M. (1993). Flowers of Iona. Scottish Natural Heritage. Peannan, D.A. & Preston, C.D. (2000). A Flora of Tiree, Giinna and Coll. Published privately. Preston, C.D., Peannan, D.A. & Dines, T.D. (2002). New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora. Oxford University. Rothero, G. & Thompson, B. (1994). An Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Main Argyll. The Argyll Flora Project. Sutcliffe, R. (2010). Wildlife around Glasgow. Glasgow Museums, Glasgow. Sutcliffe, R. (2001). Glasgow’s natural history societies: an update. The Glasgow Naturalist 23 (6), 62-67. Walker, A. (2003). A garden of herbs: traditional uses of herbs in Scotland. Argyll Publishing, Argyll. Weddle, R.B. (2001). The ‘Clyde Cards’: an account of biological recording in the West of Scotland. The Glasgow Naturalist 23(6), 88-99. Weddle, R.B. (2008). Morris Young’s ‘'Flora of Renfrewshire" (VC 76). The Glasgow Naturalist 25(1), 29-50. 86 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, 87-91 Gartcosh great crested newts: the story so far McNeill, D.C.’ , Downie, J.R.^ and Ross, School of Life Sciences and Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, G12 8QQ ‘Kelvin Building, University Ave, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, ^Graham Ken- Building, University Ave, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8Q0 ■^Scottish Natural Heritage, Great Glen House, Leachkin Rd, Inverness, IV3 8NW 'E-mail: deborah.mcneill@glasgow.ac.uk ABSTRACT The Gartcosh Industrial Site, North Lanarkshire is home to the largest known population of great crested newts {Tritiirus cristatiis,) in Scotland. Economic development of the site required the translocation of the great crested newt and four other amphibian species from existing ponds to a puipose built reserve around the periphery. Monitoring the effectiveness of translocation as a mitigation method has shown that in this case, the breeding adult population is being maintained at levels comparable with the previous site although there are indications of possible declines with other life stages. Longer tenn monitoring is required at a level more in-depth than cuirently planned. The aquatic and terrestrial habitat created appears sufficient to support the population although there are problems with fragmentation, both within the site and connections to external locations. There is still pressure for further development in an area that could affect the newt population. KEYWORDS: Triturus cristatus, amphibians, translocation, mitigation, habitat, Scotland INTRODUCTION Great crested newt {Triturus cristatus, GCN) populations have declined across their range in Scotland (SNH Trends, 2004) and across the UK (Langton et al., 2001) at a rate faster than other common amphibian species throughout their entire European range (AmphibiaWeb, 2008). Habitat degradation or destmetion is a significant causal factor as GCN populations are reliant upon both good quality terrestrial and aquatic habitat. Terrestrial habitats are threatened by development, urbanisation and other land use changes. The resulting fragmented populations are generally small, isolated and vulnerable to extinction (Hanski & Gilpin, 1997; Hitchings & Beebee, 1997; 1998). Aquatic habitats are at risk through deliberate destruction, lack of management and natural succession. In Scotland, the number of ponds declined during the 1950s to 1980s by 7%, although numbers were found to have stabilised during a survey in the 1990s (SNH Trends, 2004). In the UK, GCN are protected by the Conservation (Natural Habitats etc.) Regulations, 1994. The regulations make it an offence to kill, injure or take the animals and to disturb them in certain circumstances. Furthennore, the legislation protects breeding sites and hibemacula. Development is the key pressure to GCN in the Scottish central belt where the known GCN populations arc concentrated. Development of land containing GCN populations is only possible under licence from the local Government agency (in this case, Scottish Natural Heritage). Licenses can only be issued for specific purposes and providing the impacts of the proposal does not compromise the consei'vation status of the species. This normally entails the provision of a mitigation plan to ensure that impacts on individual newts, populations and habitats arc minimised and, if appropriate, compensatory habitat is created or existing habitats enhanced. The Gartcosh Industrial site in North Lanarkshire is home to the largest known GCN population in Scotland, with 1,012 adults present. This was estimated to be 9-29% of the total Scottish population (McNeill, 2010). Approval for economic regeneration of this brownfield site meant that in 2003, the Scottish Executive granted a licence for the largest GCN translocation in Scotland. However, despite a number of reviews (Oldham et a!., 1991; Oldham & Humphries, 2000; May, 1996 unpublished; Edgar & Griffiths, 2004; Edgar et al., 2005), the question as to whether or not translocation can be an effective mitigation method remains unanswered. Some projects were doomed to failure due to poor design and implementation. Other projects were inconclusive as it was not possible to gauge success due to issues such as a lack of pre or post monitoring. The Gartcosh translocation offered an opportunity to undertake an in-depth case study on the effectiveness of translocation as a mitigation method; what would constitute a successful translocation and how this could be achieved within the Scottish context? The research was carried out by the University of Glasgow in 87 consultation with North Lanarkshire Council and Scottish Natural Heritage, which also funded the research. Development of the Gartcosh business interchange Gartcosh former steelworks: site history The Gartcosh Iron and Steel works was constructed between 1858 and 1872, with the rolling mill built in 1960. British Steel took over operations in 1962 until its closure and subsequent demolition in 1986. The site has since been subject to a long-tenn regeneration plan, including establishing motorway access, reopening the railway station and the creation of an industrial park. Ponds developed naturally within the site and anecdotal evidence suggests that the GCN population was in residence from 1972, possibly earlier, although not known to SNH (Archibald Laing pers. comm.). The site was also home to populations of Lissotriton vulgaris (smooth newts), Lissotriton helveticus (palmate newts), Biifo hiifo (common toad) and Rana temporaria (common frog). In 1998, a field survey of the site identified 13 water bodies, seven deemed suitable for GCN. The original plan had been to protect the GCN in-situ within the industrial park. The seven optimal ponds plus a ten hectare area of land was designated the Amphibian Conservation Area (ACA), with an additional eight new ponds dug in 1998 (Fig. 1). An options appraisal process was then undertaken by the Gartcosh Regeneration Partnership (members included North Lanarkshire Council, Scottish Enteiprise and others from the public and private sectors). They supported a regeneration ‘masteiplan’ that incorporated economic development of the area intended as the ACA. As an alternative for the GCN, the Gartcosh Nature Reserve (GNR) would be created around the peripheiy of the industrial park and all captured amphibians moved from the ACA to the GNR. The GNR was completed in 2003, encompassing 24 ponds within 29 hectares of land (Fig. 2). The site was divided into three zones: Bothlin Bum (9.1 Ha, 8 ponds), Gamqueen Hill (14.1Ha, 7 ponds) and Railway Junction (5.4Ha, 6 ponds). There were a further three ‘Stepping Stone’ ponds in the Bothlin Bum area, intended to aid dispersal. Pre translocation monitoring: 1998-2003 Heritage Environmental Ltd (HEL) were contracted to undertake a baseline survey of the ACA for six years prior to the translocation. Torchlight suii/eys were used to establish annual adult counts of all five amphibian species present within the breeding ponds. Peak counts for four species were observed in 2001 (GCN: 140, palmate: 148, smooth: 161, toad: 801). The peak count for frogs (747) was recorded during 2000. The Gartcosh translocation: 2004-2006 The translocation was undertaken by HEL, with 25% of the estimated adult GCN population in the ACA (sex ratio 1 : 1±10%) moved to the Railway Junction zone of the GNR during 2004 (the population estimate was based on pre-translocation monitoring). During 2005 and 2006, all GCN captured in the ACA were moved to the Bothlin Bum and Gamqueen Hill zones of the GNR. The belly pattern of an adult GCN is as unique as a fingerprint and can be used to identify individuals (Oldham & Humphries, 2000). During translocation, the belly patterns of all adult GCN were photographed and moiphometric data collected (size and weight). A total of 1,012 adult GCN were captured and moved to the GNR alongside 2,800 smooth newts, 2,705 palmate newts, 1,500 frogs and 3,168 toads. Eggs, laiwae and metamorphs of all species were also translocated. Post translocation monitoring HEL continued to monitor peak adult counts using torchlight surveys of the breeding ponds. The University of Glasgow got involved in 2005 to 2009 with a more in-depth monitoring brief looking at key aspects including population sizes, structure and assessment of the suitability of newly created habitat to support amphibian populations. By 2009, the results of the translocation were promising. Torchlight surveys indicated that the peak breeding GCN adult count in the receptor site was double the peak count in the donor site. This was supported by the results of a mark-recapture study undertaken, comparing post-translocation population size with the known number of adults translocated. Recruitment to the breeding population was occurring, but an examination of the juvenile life-stages highlighted possible future problems, with decreased production and survival of laiwae and metamorphs (McNeill, 2010). Further study is required to ascertain whether this was a natural fluctuation or of greater concern, linked to the translocation. However this type of monitoring is not part of the on-going management/surveying plan. The provision of good quality aquatic and temestrial habitat of a quantity comparable to that being lost is critical to the on-going success of the translocation. For a review on what is considered ‘good’ habitat, see McNeill (2010). There has been a significant reduction in available teiTCStrial habitat when comparing the original Industrial Site (86Ha) to that made available for the GNR (29Ha), although only a proportion of the Industrial site could be considered to have been ‘newt- friendly’. However, the GNR has a considerably larger area of good teixestrial habitat if compared directly with the ACA (lOHa). There was an increase in the number of ponds created as part of the GNR but an overall decrease in pond surface area. This was avoidable, the result of a number of ponds dug that were below the recommended size threshold for GCN suitability described as 100 m^ minimum (English Nature, 2001) and 250 m^ as the optimum (Gent & Gibson, 2003). The entire Railway Junction zone was of sub-optimal size. 88 Fig, 1, Amphibian Conservation Area (ACA). Includes six of the seven original ponds, labelled C,D,E,F,G,I. Pond L is not shown on this map. The eight newly created ponds are also shown, labelled 1-8. Map reproduced with permission from Ironside Fan’er. Modified to show the location of Pond 1. I I GATEW/ MOliSTWAL SITES Fig. 2, Map of the Gartcosh Industrial Site. The locations of the donor Amphibian Conservation Area (ACA) and the newly created Gartcosh Nature Reserve are shown. The reserve by line hatchings, with labels showing the position of the three zones Bothlin Bum (BB), Gamqueen Hill (GQH) and Railway Junction (RJ). Modified from a map provided by Scottish Enterprise. 89 Habitat quality was detemiined using a combination of measures including the GCN Habitat Suitability Index (Oldham el al. 2000), aquatic macrophyte sampling, macroinvertebrate analyses (Biggs el al., 1998) and interpretation of teirestrial records provided by Ironside Farrer who undertook the habitat creation works. Analyses indieated that the GNR habitat was of good quality, capable of supporting the GCN population (McNeill, 2010). Notably, the Habitat Suitability Index scored the GNR higher than the ACA (McNeill, 2010). This is based on ten metrics incoiporating data from both the aquatic and terrestrial habitat. The higher the score, the more suitable a habitat is for GCN occupation. The GNR was fragmented for its initial years due to the provision of ring fencing around each of the individual zones (MeNeill, 2010). Dispersal throughout the site remains problematic, with limited migration corridors. Of particular coneem is the Railway .lunction zone as only 56 adults were originally translocated there, below the minimum viable breeding population size described as 40 females (Halley et al., 1996) or minimum of 100 adults (Shaffer, 1981; Griffiths and Williams, 2000; 2001). Gartcosh remains isolated within a fragmented landscape. This was not as a result of the translocation. The nearest known population is in Drumcavel Quan'y, outwith the range of natural migration and separated by a motoway. The lack of immigration is a threat to the long term viability of the Gartcosh population. CONCLUSIONS The stoiy so far at Gartcosh is one of short-term success with further study required to ascertain whether the population will be self-sustaining in the long-term. The monitoring brief post-2009 is not comprehensive enough to provide the required long term data, consisting primarily of peak breeding adult counts. While this provides useful information on annual population fluctuations, it does not detail crucial infomiation relating to population size, survival and recruitment. There is considerable development pressure in the area around Gartcosh. This development has the potential to impact directly on the Gartcosh Nature Reserve, but also more widely on potential movement of newts through the wider countryside. It is important that the consideration of any development proposals in the area take the great crested newt population at Gartcosh into account and that they are designed to minimise impacts and even promote free movement of the population. The decision to relocate to the GNR instead of protecting the newts in-.situ was taken because of the economic imperative to develop the ACA along with the rest of the Industrial Site. The development of the site has been relatively slow but is now gathering speed. Great crested newts may still be present in some areas of the site due for development and it is essential that their presence is considered as part of this work. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Scottish Natural Heritage, Blodwen Lloyd Binns trust and the University of Glasgow for financial assistance; North Lanarkshire Council for help and advice; Heritage Environmental Ltd and Ironside FaiTcr for kindly providing data and infonnation; Scottish Enteiprise for site access. We thank the many volunteers who helped with fieldwork, particularly Jonathan Kennedy, Anthony McNeill, Laura Robertson and Lisa McNeill. REFERENCES AmphibiaWeb (2008). www.amphibiaweb.org/index.html Accessed: Nov 2008. Biggs, J., Fox, G., Nicolet, P., Walker, D., Whitfield, M. & Williams, P. (1998). A Guide to the Methods of the National Pond Suiwey. Pond Action; Oxford. Edgar, P.W. & Griffiths, R.A. (2004). An evaluation of the efficiency of great crested newt Thlurus cri.statiLS mitigation projects in England, 1990- 2001. English Nature Research Report No. 575. Edgar, P.W., Griffiths, R.A. & Foster, J.P. (2005). Evaluation of translocation as a tool for mitigating development threats to great crested newts ( Thturus cristatus) in England, 1 990 - 200 1 . Biological Con.sen>aiion 122,45-52. 1 1. English Nature (2004). An assessment of the efficiency of capture techniques and the value of difference habitats for the great crested newt Tritiims cristatus. English Nature Research Reports, number 576. Gent, A.H. & Gibson, R.A. (1998). Heipetofauna Workers' Manual, Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), Peterborough. Griffiths, R.A. & Williams, C. (2001). Population modelling of great crested newts (Triturus cristatus). Raiia 4, 239-247. Griffiths, R.A. & Williams, C. (2000). Modelling population dynamics of great crested newts (Triturus cristatus): a population viability analysis. Herpetological Journal 10, 157- 163. Halley, J.M., Oldham, R.S. & Amtzen. J.W. (1996). Predicting the persistence of amphibian populations with the help of a spatial model. Journal of Applied Ecology’. 33, 455- 470. Hanski, L. & Gilpin, M. (1991). Metapopulation dynamics: brief history and conceptual domain. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society’ 42, 3-16. Hitchings, S. P. & Beebee, T. J. C. (1998). Loss of genetic diversity and fitness in Common Toad (Bufo biifo) populations isolated by inimical habitat. Journal ofEvolutionaiy Biologi’ 1 1 , 269-283. Hitchings S.P & Beebee T.J.C. (1997). Genetic substructuring as a result of barriers to gene flow in urban Rana temporaria (common frog) populations: implications for biodiversity conservation. Heredity’ 79, 1 17-127. May, 1996. The translocation of great crested newts, a protected species, MSc thesis, University of Wales, Abeiystwyth. McNeill, D.C. 2010. Translocation of a population of Great Crested Newts (Triturus cristatus): a Scottish case study. PhD thesis. University of Glasgow, Scotland. 90 Oldham, R.S. & Humphries, R.N. (2000). Evaluating the success of great crested newt {Triturus cristatm) translocation. Herpetological Journal 1 0, 183490. Oldham, R.S., Keeble, J., Swan, M.J.S. & Jeffcote, M. (2000). Evaluating the suitability of habitat for the great crested newt {Triturus crislatus). HerpetologicalJournal. 10, 143-155. Oldham, Musson & Humphries, (1991). Translocation of crested newt populations in the UK. Herpetofauna News: 2, 3-5. Scottish Natural Heritage (2004). Infonnation. Natural Heritage Trends. Fresh Waters; Summary. Shaffer, M.L. (1981). Minimum population sizes for species conservation. Bioscience 31, 131- 134. 91 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4. 93-97 Vegetation and ‘site florulas’ of islands in West Loch Roag, Outer Hebrides Paul A. Smith' & Jim McIntosh^ ^ 128 Llancayo Street, Bargoed, Mid Glamorgan, CF81 8TP, UK “ BSBI Scottish Officer, Royal Botanic Garden, Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 SLR 'E-mail: pa.smith@mypostoffice.co.uk ^E-mail: j.mcintosh@rbge.ac.uk ABSTRACT Four small, uninhabited islands in West Loch Roag, a sea loch in the west of the island of Lewis, Outer Hebrides, were visited in early July 2008, two grazed - Flodaigh and Campaigh, and two ungrazed - Bearasaigh and Seana Cnoc. The habitats present and the interesting species are discussed, and the limited floras (‘florulas’) of each island are described, with full species lists. The species recorded for Campaigh are compared with a visit to the same island 30 years earlier. INTRODUCTION There are many small islands in Loch Roag, a series of sea lochs in the west of Lewis, Outer Hebrides at approx 58° 16'N 6° 54'W (NB14 on the British National Grid). In spite of the draw of islands for visitors, they have only rarely been visited in the history of botanical recording in the Outer Hebrides, if at all. Currie (1981) reports a visit in 1977, when several islands were circumnavigated, but a landing was made only on Campaigh (Campay), NB1442. A list of the plant species was made, and this gives us a baseline with which to compare. On 3 July 2008 as part of recording for a projected tetrad (2kmx2km square) flora of the Outer Hebrides a visit was made to several of the islands - Flodaigh (NB1241), Bearasaigh (NB1243), Seana Cnoc (Old Hill) (NB1143) and Campaigh (NB1442). It proved impossible to land on two smaller islets, Hairsgeir (NB14A) and Mas Sgeir (NB1443). The islands and their vegetation Two of the four islands visited, Flodaigh and Campaigh are low-lying with relatively easy access, and therefore used for sheep grazing. They have short, well-cropped turf, but there are a few refugia on less sheep-friendly habitat (coast, rocks, pebbles) where plants less tolerant of grazing (for example Aster tripolium (sea aster) on Flodaigh) can grow. Bearasaigh and Seana Cnoc, by contrast, have steep rocky sides; they are grazed, but only by geese (which in places make paths) and therefore at a much lower intensity than the sheep, and in consequence they have well-developed tussocks and hummocks, with some Armeria maritima (thrift) tussocks becoming very large (Fig. 1). They also have much more cliff habitat and therefore some different species. Fig. 1. Large Armeria maritima (thrift) tussocks on the NW plateau of Bearasaigh. There are three broad communities on the four islands visited. Much of the flatter surfaces of the tops is covered by a plantain sward, containing Pkmtago coronopus, P. lanceolata and P. maritima (buck’s- hom, ribwort and sea plantain respectively), and also with varying amounts of Armeria maritima and grasses. On the sheep-grazed islands the sward is grazed very short, but otherwise it grows into tussocks and forms a maritime peat. In this habitat there are also occasional species such as Oplhoglossum viilgatum (adder’ s-tongue fern) (Flodaigh), and where there is no grazing Silene uniflora (sea campion) (Bearasaigh and Seana Cnoc). Seana Cnoc has an area dominated by Rumex acetosa (sheep’s sorrel) forming a turf. The sides of the islands, whether steep cliffs or smaller, sloping rocks have a different community, with Aster tripolium, Ligusticum scoticum (Scots lovage), Silene uniflora, and Tripleurospermum maritimum (sea mayweed). Flodaigh and Bearasaigh both have small, pennanently wet depressions. On Bearasaigh the edge of the depression has Ophioglossum vulgatum, and on Flodaigh there is a small amount of Apium inundatum (lesser marshwort). Both these islands also have Ranunculus Jlammula (lesser spearwort) in the damp areas, but on Bearasaigh there is also the small variety of this species with veiy round leaves, R. flammula ssp 93 minimus which is characteristic of damp patches in very exposed situations near the sea. The most interesting species, abundant on all four of the visited islands, was Lychnis flos-cuciili (ragged robin), which was scattered throughout the turf. This is a much shorter variety than the usual one of marshy areas, with the flowers forming a dense cluster at the top of the short stem and with wide petals, and it is unclear what the appropriate name for this variety is (although it may be forma pygmaea Ostenf., see Jonsell 2001, pi 78). It is known from other islands in the Sound of Harris (Heslop Harrison 1954, 1956). On Seana Cnoc there were two colour fonns - most specimens the usual deep pink, with a few much paler (but not quite white). The rocks round Flodaigh, Bearasaigh and Seana Cnoc all have Aster tripolium (sea aster), as var condensatus, a fleshy-leaved plant of rocky places which looks quite different from the more usual var tripolium on salt marshes. On Flodaigh it occurs in small quantity, on coastal rocks where there is protection from grazing. On Bearasaigh the absence of sheep has allowed the Aster to thrive away from the rocks, and it has colonised in bare peaty pools and hollows, so it is common on the top of the islands as well as round their coasts. Site Floras The Botanical Society of the British Isles has been suggesting the concept of site floras, a description of the plants for relatively small, well-defined sites that can be visited regularly with a reasonable degree of coverage (Lockton 2007). It is generally difficult to define such sites in the Outer Hebrides away from habitation, but islands form natural sites, though with small floras (‘florula’). They will generally be covered by only a single visit, but these visits are much more likely to be recorded than visits to mainland sites of comparable size. Since it is sensible to follow up existing site descriptions, we provide a site florula for Campaigh, and we also give initial descriptions for the other islands visited as a baseline for future visits. Summary infonnation is given in Table 1. Site florula for Campaigh Campaigh is approximately 500m long and 250m across at its widest, and rises to just over 30m above sea level at its highest. It runs roughly from SW to NE, with the SW end being lower and shelving to low rocky sides; the NE end is separated from the rest of the island by a natural arch, and has some cliffs. The underlying rock is gneiss (Fettes et al. 1 992), although the arch is presumably formed by erosion of a softer dyke. The island is turf-covered away from the rocky and cliffy edges, and grazed throughout by sheep. The cliff parts are used by nesting seabirds, and there is some evidence of eutrophication from their use of the island. There is no standing water. A list was published for Campaigh by Currie (1981) from a visit of “an hour or two” on the evening of 23 June 1977, apparently for bird counting as well as botany. The authors of the present paper visited for one hour on 3 July 2008, a very similar time of the year to the previous visit, and our attentions were more exclusively botanical. Currie commented that some species could be added to his list, and although we have made a nearly complete list, it is likely that a few species still lurk undetected. The taxa recorded on 3 July 2008 are listed in Table 2, with a * denoting that they were also recorded by Currie Nine species were recorded in 2008 but not seen during the visit in 1977; they are generally less conspicuous species such as the Euphrasia (eyebright) which was in small quantity as non-flowering plants, and Sagina maritima (sea pearlwort) which is an annual of bare peaty patches near the sea. The most obvious of the species present in 2008 but not recorded in 1977 was Spergularia rubra (sand spurrey), which was abundant in barer patches at the western end of the island. It is interesting to speculate that both the bare patches and presence of Spergularia are connected with the sheep grazing, although Currie noted grazing in 1977 too. Currie additionally recorded Aira praecox (early hair- grass), Asplenium marimim (sea spleenwort), Carex panicea (carnation sedge), Festiica ovina (sheep’s fescue) and Tripleurospermum maritimum. Any of these could still be present and overlooked, but particularly Tripleurospermum is very obvious and it seems likely that this has declined. Island Maximum Dimensions (length X breadth x height) (m) Approx area (ha) Time spent recording (hrs) Grazing Taxa recorded Taxon density (taxa ha’*) Bearasaigh 400 X 250 X 58 9.8 l'/2 geese (v light grazing) 49 5.0 Campaigh 500 X 250 X 30 10.2 1 sheep (heavy grazing) 34 3.3 Flodaigh 450 X 400 X 22 18.6 y4 sheep (heavy grazing) 66 3.5 Seana Cnoc 600 X 300 X 90 11.1 l'/4 geese (v light grazing) 28 2.5 Table 1. Summaiy information on islands visited on 3 July 2008. 94 Site Jlomla for Bearasaigh Bearasaigh (Fig. 2) is a steep-sided island with cliffs most of the way round. Its summit is 58m, and the top of island forms a plateau, sloping down slightly to the north-west, sloping more steeply to around 30m in the east. Its longest axis runs roughly NW to SE, about 400m long, and it is about 250m wide at its widest. There is a stac to the SW, Stac an Tuill, but this was not visited. The underlying rock is gneiss (Fettes et al. 1992). The NW part of the island consists of a tussocky maritime heath, with very large Anneha tussocks (Fig. 1), and a few boulders, many with temporary pools at their bases. The SE part is more grassy, with one permanent pool. Fig. 2. Bearasaigh looking at the NW end, with Stac an Tuill to the right, and Flodaigh the lower island behind the Stac. Bearasaigh was visited on 3 July 2008 for \Vz hours; coverage was good at the western end where we landed, but more rushed at the eastern end, and it is likely that additional searching will turn up a few extra species here too. 49 taxa were recorded (see Table 2) Site florula for Seana Cnoc Seana Cnoc (Fig. 3) is another steep-sided island, basically a long ridge running almost E to W, its edges a combination of cliffs and very steep vegetated slopes. It is about 600m long, and 300m wide and is the tallest of the islands visited, with a summit just over 90m. The underlying rock is gneiss (Fettes et al. 1992). Seana Cnoc is a dry island without standing water, and without the peaty pools found on Bearasaigh. It is predominantly grassy with a mainly Festuca rubra (red fescue) turf, with abundant Lychnis jlos-cuculi and Silene uniflora. Fig. 3. Seana Cnoc, looking at the South side. Seana Cnoc was visited on 3 July for 1 Va hours. Since the variety of habitats was smaller than on the other islands visited, it is likely that a reasonably comprehensive list was obtained. 28 taxa were recorded (see Table 2). Site florula for Flodaigh Flodaigh (Fig. 2) is a low-lying, sheep-grazed island, with a variety of habitats. It has an irregular outline with several geos, and at its largest is about 450m long and 400m wide. The bay on the south side that faces the islet of Tamna was fonned by a pebble beach, partly vegetated, and there was a small permanent pool in the peatier ground some way to the north of this. Much of the turf was damp and peaty. The underlying rock is gneiss (Fettes et al. 1992). We had a short visit of only y4 hour to Flodaigh on 3 July 2009. This was therefore the least well covered of the islands discussed here, with nearly all the effort on the eastern part, and it is likely that several additions could be made to the species list with a longer visit. Nevertheless it had the greatest diversity of the islands visited, with 66 taxa recorded (see Table 2). DISCUSSION The limited number of habitats on small islands means that the numbers of species found was small relative to the main islands of the Outer Hebrides. 20 species were common to all four islands, all of them common and widespread in exposed coastal habitats in the Outer Hebrides. Additional species are found according to the different habitats present, and presumably their occuiTence is also affected by how easily seeds can reach isolated islands. Some species are likely to have come in with sheep as they are moved to and from the grazed islands, and Spergularia rubra may be an example of this type of translocation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Murray and Hannah of Sea Trek for their skill in getting us on and off the islands, and to Mila Teneva and Simon Drysdale for joining us in island-hopping. 95 Species Campaigh Bearasaigh Seana Cnoc Flodaigh Agrostis stokmifera y* y Aim praecox 'Z z A lopeciirus geniculatus Anagallis tenella z Angelica svivestris A nthoxanthum odor at um y Apinin innndatinn y Anneria maritima z y Aster tripolium var condensatus y y Atrip lex sp. y* y z Beilis perennis y CalUtriche sp. Calluna vulgaris y Cardamiue pratensis y Carex flacca z C. nigra y y C. oval is y C. viridula ssp oedocarpa z C. viridula ssp viridula y* z Cerastium diffiiswn Cerastiiun fontanum y^ y z Cirsium vulgare y Cochlearia officinalis s.l. y ^ y y y DacB’lorhiza maculata y Dactylis glomerata Danthonia decuinbens y Deschampsia cespitosa Eleocharis palustris y Empetrum nigrum Erica cinerea y Eriophorum angustifolium y y Euphrasia foulaensis y Euphrasia officinalis agg. y y y Festuca rubra s.l. y y y Galium aparine z Glaux maritima y:>. y Holcus lanatus y* •/ z y Hydrocotyde vulgaris * z Juncus articulatus y Juncus hufonius s.s. y y Juncus hulhosus y Leontodon autumnalis y y Lcontodon autumnalis var autumnalis Ligusticum scoticum y y Lotus corniculatus y^ y y Luzula multiflora ssp multiflora y Lychnis flos-cucidi y^ y z y Montia fbntana ssp fbntana z z Nardus stricta y Ophioglossum vulgatum y Plantago coronopus y y z y Plantago lanceolata y^ y y y Plantago maritima y* y y Poa annua y Poa humilis y* y z y Poa trivialis z Potentilla anserina y Potentilla erecta y Primula vulgaris z Prunella vulgaris y y Puccinellia maritima y y y 96 Ranunculus acris V'* V V Ranunculus ficaria ssp Jicaria V V Ranunculus flammula V V Ranunculus flammula ssp minimus V Rumex acetosa V V V Rumex crispus ✓ •/ Sagina maritima Sagina procumbens ■V* V V Sedum rosea ■/ Selaginella selaginoides V Silene uniflora ■/ V V Spergularia rubra ✓ Stellaria media V V Succisa pratensis V V Thymus polytrichus V V Trifolium repens V ■/ ■/ Triglochin maritimum •/ Tripleurospermum maritimum V ■/ Urtica dioica d Viola riviniana V Table 2. Species recorded in the four islands on 3 July 2008; * denotes species also recorded for Campaigh by Cuirie (1981). REFERENCES Currie, A. (1981). Vegetation on islands of West Loch Roag, Lewis. Hebridean Naturalist 5, 57-58. Fettes, D.J., Mendum, J.R., Smith, D.l. & Watson, J.V. (1992). Geology of the Outer Hebrides. Memoirs of the British Geological Siin^ey Sheet (solid edition) Lewis & Harris. Heslop Harrison, J.W. (1954). Botanical investigations in the Isles of Lewis, Harris, Taransay, Coppay, and Shillay in 1953. Proceedings of the University of Durham Philosophical Society 1 1, 135-142. Heslop Harrison, J.W. (1956). Botanizing in the Outer Hebrides in 1955 and 1956. Proceedings of the University of Durham Philosophical Society 12, 141-149.' Jonsell, B. (ed.) (2001). Flora Nordica 2. Bergius Foundation, Stockholm. Lockton, A. (2007). Coordinator’s comer: site surveys. BSBlNews 104, 79. 97 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 99-104 A review of the incidence of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in surface waters in Scotland including potential effects of climate change, with a list of the common species and new records from the Scottish Environment Protection Agency J.T. Krokowski, P. Lang, A. Bell, N. Broad, J. Clayton, I. Milne, M. Nicolson, A. Ross & N. Ross Scottish Environment Protection Agency, 5 Redwood Crescent, Peel Park, East Kilbride, G74 5PP, UK E-mail: j an. krokowski(^sepa. org.uk ABSTRACT Cyanobacteria, commonly known as blue-green algae, are a ubiquitous component of the freshwater microflora. Cyanobacteria are capable of producing toxic compounds that pose a risk to water-users, pets and livestock, with increased risk when they form dense growths, termed blooms, which may accumulate at the leeward shores of water bodies, often fanning visible scums. The Scottish Environment Protection Agency receives numerous water samples annually for algal analyses, including detennining the presence or absence of cyanobacteria, which are used in the management of risk to water users by water owners, local Councils and Health Authorities. The commonest cyanobacterial taxa recorded over the period 2008- 2010 are detailed, along with new cyanobacterial records for Scotland. The current scenarios of climate change predict an overall increase in phytoplankton biomass, with potential increased dominance of cyanobacteria including increased intensity and frequency of blooms. INTRODUCTION Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous and contribute to the natural community of photosynthetic microscopic algae living in fresh waters. Cyanobacteria are more commonly refeired to as blue-green algae due to the colour of the cells, which contain a mixture of photosynthetic pigments including chlorophyll (green), phycocyanin (blue) and sometimes phycoerythrin (red). Excessive growths of cyanobacteria, temied blooms, have been related to the elevated nutrient status of water bodies (Reynolds and Petersen, 2000), to a number of seasonal factors (warmer temperatures, intensity of water themial stratification) (Reynolds, 2006), to high alkalinities and pH (Shapiro, 1984), and to a number of physiological adaptations and mechanisms (Fogg, 1969; Reynolds, 1987; Shapiro, 1990). Carvalho et al. (2011) found that low water colour and neutral-alkaline conditions were the significant explanatory variables in dctemiining which water bodies in the UK were vulnerable to cyanobacterial blooms, with increasing retention time and total phosphorus concentrations being borderline significant explanatory variables. Certain cyanobacteria are able to form surface blooms through the regulation of their buoyancy by the use of gas vesicles, and such blooms may be restricted to the surface layers of the water. Light winds may concentrate the blooms to further accumulate and fomi scums, which may be extremely dense at leeward shores, bays and inlets, often where members of the public identify the problem, though when wind speeds increase the blooms disperse within the deeper water layers. Consequently blooms may fonn and disappear rapidly, within hours, due to variable weather conditions. Blooms arc commonest during the summer, persisting into late-autumn, and are of concern to many water users as well as a danger to pets and livestock when the excessive growths and concentrations of cyanobacteria result in dense surface and shore-line scums. This is because cyanobacteria have the potential to produce toxins, and cyanotoxin production is much greater where cyanobacteria accumulate and form surface blooms and scums. The different types of cyanotoxins produced by cyanobacteria and their mode of action have been widely documented (Chorus and Bartram, 1999). Cyanotoxins include neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, lipopolysaccharides, and a wide range of other products leading to enzyme inhibition and skin and gastrointestinal irritations (Chorus and Bartram, 1999). The exposure routes of cyanotoxins are diverse, mainly through ingestion, inhalation and skin contact. Exposure to cyanotoxins is therefore greatest during participation in water-based recreational activities. However, cyanotoxins may also be taken up directly through food consumption (Funari and Testai, 2008; Murch el al, 2004). Symptoms produced by cyanotoxins can be mild (skin iiritations and gastrointestinal illness), serious (acute poisoning and potential long-temi illness) or temiinal (death) (Chorus and Bartram, 1999). Cyanotoxins may also pose an 99 additional threat due to their carcinogenic properties (Falconer, 2005). Furthermore, the issue of toxicity is complicated by the occurrence of both toxic and non- toxic strains within the same species of cyanobacteria. However, a high percentage (59%) of all samples are toxic (Chorus and Bartram, 1999). Cyanobacterial blooms and associated toxicity have been reported worldwide over the years (Francis, 1878; Metcalf and Codd, 2004) and although previously limited in frequency, in recent decades the frequency, intensity and reporting of cyanobacterial blooms has become widespread (Krokowski and Jamieson, 2002; Camiichael, 2008). There continue to be reports of animal deaths and skin initation in humans associated with algal and cyanobacterial blooms and scums throughout Scotland (Scottish Government, 2007; Krokowski, 2009), although objective evidence is difficult to obtain to confinn an association with cyanotoxin exposure. A number of Scottish freshwater bodies, however, continue to be perennial ‘hot spots’ containing high concentrations of cyanobacteria throughout summer and into autumn. Cyanobacteria are therefore arguably the most visible symptoms of eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) of surface waters, and there is growing concern about the likely increase in the frequency and intensity of cyanobacterial blooms associated with global warming (Mooij et a/., 2005). ASSESSMENT OF CYANOBACTERIA- RELATED BLOOMS AND SCUMS IN SCOTTISH FRESHWATER BODIES Background A comprehensive inventoiy of standing freshwaters derived from Ordnance Survey digital map data in Great Britain identified 25,615 water bodies in Scotland with surface area larger than 0.0 Ikm^ (Hughes et al., 2004). The majority of these are in north-west Scotland. The data set contains no water bodies <0.0002 km", with the numbers between 0.0002 km^ and 0.002 km" almost certainly under-represented so numbers may be closer to 31,460 standing water bodies as identified earlier (Lyle and Smith, 1994). It is therefore impossible to accurately assess the extent of cyanobacterial blooms and scums in Scottish freshwater bodies, as there is no comprehensive survey of all freshwaters. Moreover, a reactive monitoring strategy has been adopted where samples are received for analysis from external sources from sites with a perceived visual algal problem. In 1997, the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) cairicd out an assessment of a selected number of lochs (based on size, amenity value and recreational potential) to assess the degree of eutrophication through the prevalence of cyanobacterial blooms (SEPA, 1999). The results are not representative of the total incidence of blooms across water bodies in Scotland, but of the 77 lochs monitored, 38 had a cyanobacterial scum present and an additional 20 lochs had cyanobacteria present at sufficient levels for bloom fomiation (this level is taken to be equivalent to more than 20,000 cyanobacterial cells/ml). A subsequent assessment of eutrophication in 2005, carried out as part of statutory review of eutrophication under the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive, identified 17 lochs with excessive nutrient levels (primarily phosphorus) (SEPA, 2005). Although cyanobacteria were not monitored directly during the 2005 assessment, criteria selected were based on the exceeding of set thresholds of total phytoplankton biomass measured as chlorophyll a, as well as the exceeding of set thresholds for nutrient concentrations (nitrogen and phosphorus) and other selected attributes and biota (dissolved oxygen, macrophytes). Algal and cyanobacterial assessment during 2008- 2010 SEPA, amongst its other duties, continues to carry out suiweillance monitoring in response to environmental legislation and is able to provide an analytical service for the analysis of algae and cyanobacteria. SEPA, however, does not cany out targeted monitoring and assessment for frequency and intensity of cyanobacteria, but relies on others to provide samples from affected waters that are perceived to pose a risk to water users. Samples received by SEPA are nonnally collected from a point on the downwind shore of the water body where the concentration of cyanobacteria is greatest. If the downwind site is inaccessible, the water body is sampled at the nearest accessible point to the downwind shore. Details of sampling and location are provided to SEPA. Algae are sampled at or just below the water surface, and benthic algae are occasionally also collected. A full sampling protocol is detailed in the Scottish Government guidance (Scottish Government, 2007). Live samples are sent as quickly as possible to local SEPA laboratories for analysis (Aberdeen, Dingwall, Perth, Edinburgh, Galashiels, East Kilbride and Dumfries). Standard operating procedures are used by SEPA to quantify the type of cyanobacteria present, and their abundance is reported against the World Health Organisation guidance levels (Scottish Government, 2007). Microscopic analysis is canied out with identification to species level where possible, and algae and cyanobacteria are identified with the aid of taxonomic guides and keys (John et al., 2011; Komarek and Anagnostidis, 1999, 2005). Results are generally reported the same day. Infomiation on cyanobacteria samples received from such assessment over the period 2008-2010 is summarised in Table 1, with a list of the common cyanobacteria and new records from Scottish freshwater bodies detailed in Table 2. In the period 2008-2010, a total of 422 samples was received by SEPA and analysed for the type of algae present and their abundance (Table 1). 100 2008 2009 2010 SEPA Ecology laboratory Total number samples received Number exceeding of cyanobacterial threshold, expressed as % of the total Total number samples received Number exceeding of cyanobacterial threshold, expressed as % of the total Total number of samples received Number exceeding cyanobacterial threshold, expressed as % of the total Aberdeen 23 5 (22%) 29 12 (41%) 27 14(52%) Dingwall 8 4 (50%) 5 2 (40%) 8 4 (50%) Perth 66 37 (56%) 36 11 (31%) 24 10(42%) East Kilbride Edinburgh and 83 17(20%) 63 13 (21%) 45 31 (69%) Galashiels 1 1 (100%) 5 5 (100%) 6 4 (67%) Dumfries 0 0 9 4 (44%) 20 7 (35%) All combined 181 64 (35%) 147 47 (32%) 130 70 (54%) Table 1. Summary of the annual number of samples received by each SEPA Ecology laboratory for algal analysis from the reactive monitoring programme. Detailed are number of samples exceeding the cyanobacterial concentrations of 20,000 cells/ml (representing a relatively low probability of adverse health effects) and expressed as a percentage of the total number of samples received. Order Cyanobacteria taxon Frequency Chroococcales Aphanocapsa Nageli 1 849 F Aphanothece \%A9 F A. miimtissima (W.West) Komarkova-Legnerova et Cronberg 1994 R Chroococcus Unmeticus Lemmemiann 1 898 O Coelosphaeriiim kiielzingianiiin 'NageW 1849 O Gomphosphaeria apoiiina Kutzing 1 836 O Merismopedia Meyen 1 839 O M. warmingiana Lagerheim 1 883 R Microcystis Kutzing 1833 ex Lemmermann 1907 nom.cons F M. wesenhergii (Komarek) Komarek in Kondrateva 1968 O Radiocystis geminata Skuja 1948 R Elenkin 1938 O S. atomus Komarek et Hindak 1988 N S. septentrionalis Komarek et Hindak 1988 N Syrrec/rococaw Nageli 1849 O Woronichinia naegeliana (Unger) Elenkin 1933 F W. karelicci Komarek et Komarkova-Legnerova 1 992 N Oscillatoriales O^c/Y/otom/ (Vaucher 1803) Gomoiit 1892 F O. tenuis (C.Agardh 1813) Gomont 1892 O Planktothrix agardhii (Gomont) Anagnostidid et Komarek 1988 F P. isothri.x (Skuja) Komarek et Komarkova 2004 O Pseudanahaena Lauterbom 1914-17 F P. //wneZ/cr/ (Lemmemiann) Komarek 1974 O Nostocales (Bory 1822) Bomet et Flahault 1886 F A. qffinis Lemmemiann 1 897 O A. catemda (Kutzing 1849) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 O A. circinalis (Rabenliorst 1852) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 F A. flos-aqiiae ((Lyngbye) Brebisson 1835) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 F A. spiroides (Klebalin 1895) F Aphanizoinenon flos-aqtiae ((Linnaeus 1753) Ralfs 1850) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 F A. gracile Lemnierman 1910 O Gloeotrichia (J.Agardh 1842) Bomet et Flaliault 1886 F G. echimdata (J.E. Smith) P.G. Richter 1894 F Table 2. Cyanobacterial taxa recorded from Scottish freshwaters as part of SEPA’s algal analysis, indicating frequency - F (frequent), O (occasional), R (rare) and N (new - requiring flirther verification). 101 No clear trend was evident in the incidence and frequency of cyanobacteria over the three-year period. The highest numbers of samples were received by East Kilbride and Perth laboratories, whereas the lowest numbers of samples were received by laboratories in Edinburgh and Galashiels. No samples were received by Dumfries laboratoi'y in 2008. The proportion of samples analysed and found to contain cyanobacteria exceeding the threshold concentration of 20,000 cells/ml also varied between the laboratories and over the years, but in general over one third of samples analysed contained cyanobacteria at concentrations above the threshold value. In total, 33 cyanobacteria taxa from 17 genera were recorded from Scottish fresh waters (Table 2), with the most frequent toxin-producing cyanobacteria genera recorded as Aphauocapsa, Aphanothece, Microcystis, Woronidunia, Oscillatoria (Planktothrix), Anahaeiia, Aphanizomenon and Gloeotrichia (Table 2.). Cyanobacteria species not previously recorded from Scotland are also detailed, and include records from SEPA’s phytoplankton monitoring canied at a number of lochs (>lkm^) across Scotland over the summer months (July to September) as required under the Water Framework Directive (European Commission, 2000). The WFD-related monitoring results are not detailed here in full, but of note are new records for Siiowella atonnis, S. septetrionalis and Woroiiichinia korelica. A number of these records require confirmation, if possible from live material, due to the very small dimensions of the cells and colonies and difficulties in correctly identifying the taxa from Lugol's iodine preserved material. DISCUSSION The 2008-2010 assessment It is difficult to identify trends in the frequency and intensity of cyanobacteria across Scottish freshwaters based on the results presented here, mainly because they are based on subjective monitoring, since only sites that have a perceived algal problem are investigated. Furthennore, sites that have perennial cyanobacterial problems may not have been monitored in subsequent years. It is likely that visible warning signs of the presence of high concentrations of cyanobacteria in the water may be a deterrent in itself, and avoid the need to provide samples for analysis. However, the seiwice provided by SEPA for the assessment of algae and cyanobacteria is cmcial in providing an early detection system for the presence of potentially toxic species enabling appropriate monitoring and remedial action to be taken, not only for cyanobacteria (local algal action plan), but also for other algal groups {Chiysochromulma, Krokowski, 2009). Empirical evidence indicates a direct positive relationship between increasing external load of nutrients and algal biomass, although each water body is unique (Vollenweider and Kerekes, 1982). In attempts to control eutrophication and its symptoms (such as excessive algal and cyanobacterial biomass) the most widely accepted and employed option is to reduce nutrient inputs, which has to be part of a long- temi restoration and management strategy (Sas, 1989). The long-tenn restoration may also include methods aimed at reducing in-lake nutrient concentrations, controlling nutrient sources from sediments, and controlling in-lake levels of algae and cyanobacteria. Any future management options to control eutrophication, and the abundance of potentially toxic cyanobacteria, should be carefully assessed with a detailed restoration and management action plan. Management of the health risks posed by cyanobacteria To help provide effective management of the health risks associated with the exposure of humans and animals to cyanotoxins, the Scottish Government has produced guidance for the assessment and minimisation of risks to public health in inland and inshore waters (Scottish Government, 2007). Guidance adopted following equivalent guidance provided by the World Health Organisation (Chorus and Bartram, 1999) produced guideline values based on cyanobacterial abundance for recreational waters, relating them to a relatively low probability of adverse health effects (cyanobacterial concentrations of 20,000 cells/ml), moderate probability of adverse health effects (cyanobacterial concentrations of 100,000 cells/ml), and high probability of adverse health effects (where cyanobacterial scum is present). As an additional precaution, the guidance adopted in Scotland is at the lower level of risk, at the limit of 20,000 total cyanobacterial cells/ml at which bathing should be discouraged and the hazard investigated further, on-site risk advisory signs posted, relevant authorities informed, and mindful watch kept out for scum conducive conditions. The Scottish Government guidance includes the development, implementation and coordination of local blue-green algae monitoring and action plans involving a number of organisations and stakeholders, aimed at identifying, inspecting and monitoring those water bodies most at risk of cyanobacteria, and providing remedial and preventative measures as well as providing infomiation to the public. SEPA is one such organisation involved in helping to develop local action plans and able to provide an analytical service to identify and quantify algae and cyanobacteria from water samples. SEPA also contributes to the surveillance of environmental incidents as recorded via the Scottish Environmental Incident Suiweillance System. Potential effects of climate change Climate change may pose significant and extreme threats to the phytoplankton community structure and hence to the ecological status of Scottish freshwater bodies. Modelled increases in annual air temperatures (IPCC, 2007) would give rise to increased water 102 temperatures, and with high summer temperatures predicted there could be prolonged periods of thennal stratification of relatively deep water bodies. Predicted increases in rainfall would also increase nutrient mn- off. Consequently, modelling predicts an increase in phytoplankton biomass, potentially increased dominance of cyanobacteria, and increased intensity and frequency of cyanobacterial blooms (Wagner and Adrian, 2009). The effects of wanning on increasing cyanobacterial biomass, and frequency and intensity of blooms may however be more pronounced in relatively deeper, stratified water bodies, where there are relatively fewer macrophytes and where phytoplankton dominance is established (Moss et a!., 2003). There are also likely to be expansions of wann-watcr species at the expense of cold-water species, with potential expansion of invasive cyanobacteria such as Cylindrospennopsis raciborskii (Wiedner et ai, 2007). C. raciborskii has spread from the tropics to temperate zones over recent decades and is now found in most northern European water bodies. C. raciborskii has the potential to produce toxins hannful to animals and humans (a neurotoxin saxitoxin and hepatotoxin cylindrospemiopsin). There are currently no known records of C. raciborskii in Scotland, but if the succession of warmer summers continues it is likely that it may be recorded in the British Isles. The new phytoplankton taxa already recorded in the British Isles may reflect climate change or the increased sampling frequency across Scotland that is a consequence of the statutory WFD monitoring. In order to be able to understand these complex water body-specific responses to climate change and to be able to predict response patterns, understanding of freshwater ecosystems will be required on a case by case basis. We therefore need to continue to monitor the aquatic environment to provide infonnation for rapid and effective management of algal incidents, and to develop novel techniques for effective monitoring and remediation of freshwaters. We also need to acknowledge that current remedial measures may need to be considerably adjusted to take into account the effects of climate change, and that current restoration techniques may become less effective due to exacerbated effects of eutrophication brought on by climate change. It may be that green is the colour of environmental acceptability, unless it refers to the colour of water bodies (Reynolds 1997). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge SEPA regional ecologists who helped with data provision and analysis. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of SEPA. REFERENCES Cannichael, W.W. (2008). A world overview one- hundred, twenty-seven years of research on toxic cyanobacteria - Where do we go from here? Pp. 99- 119 In; Hudnell, H.K. (editor) Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: State of the Science and Research Needs. Advances in Experimental Medicine & Biology 619. Springer. Carvalho, L., Miller, C.A., Scott, E.M., Codd, G.A., Davies, P.S. & Tyler, A.N. (201 1). Cynaobacterial blooms: Statistical models describing risk factors for national-scale lake assessment and lake management. Science of the Total Environment 409, 5353-5358. Chorus, I. & Bartram, J. (1999). Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: a Guide to Public Health Significance, Monitoring and Management. WHO, E & FN Spon/Chapman & Hall, London. European Commission (2000). Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy. Official Journal of the European Communities L327, 1-72. Falconer, I. R. (2005). Cyanobacterial Toxins of Drinking Water Supplies: Cylindrospermopsins and Microcystins. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. Fogg, G. E. (1969). The physiology of an algal nuisance. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B, Biological Sciences 173, 175-189. Francis, G. (1878). Poisonous Australian lake. Nature 18, 1 1-12. Funari, E. & Testai, E. (2008). Human health risk assessment related to cyanotoxins exposure. Critical Reviews in Toxicology' 38, 97-125. Hughes, M., Hornby, D.D., Bennion, H., Keman, J., Hilton, J., Phillips, G. & Thomas, R. (2004). The development of a GIS-based inventoiy of standing waters in Great Britain together with a risk-based prioritisation protocol. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution: Focus 4, 73-84. IPCC (2007). The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. John, D.M., Whitton, B.A., & Brook, A.J. (eds) (201 1 ). The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Komarek, J. & Anagnostidis, K. (1999). Cyanoprokaiyota 1, Teil: Chroococcales - Siisswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, Band 19/1. Jena. Komarek, J. & Anagnostidis, K. (2005). Cyanoprokaryota 2, Teil: Oscillatoriales - Siisswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, Band 19/2. Jena. Krokowski, J.T. (2009). Chiysochromiilina associated with fish mortalities in a Scottish freshwater loch. The Glasgow Naturalist 25, 43-47. Krokowski, J.T. & Jamieson, J. (2002). A decade of monitoring and management of freshwater algae, in particular cyanobacteria in England and Wales. Freshwater Forum 18, 3-12. Lyle, A. A. & Smith, I. R. (1994). Standing waters. Pp. 35-50 In: Maitland, P.S., Boon, P.J. & McLuskey, D.S. (editors). The Freshwaters of Scotland: A National Resource of International Significance. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester. Metcalf, J.S. & Codd, G.A. (2004). Cyanobacterial Toxins in the Water Environment. A Review of 103 I Current Knowledge. FR/R0009. Foundation for Water Research. February 2004. Mooij, W.M., Hulsmann, S., Domis, L.N.D., Nolet, B.A.. Bodelier, P.L.E., Boers, P.C.M., Pires, L.M.D., Gons, H.J., Ibelings, B.W., Noordhuis, R., Portielje, R., Wolfstein, K. & Lainmens, E. (2005). The impact of climate change on lakes in the Netherlands: a review. Aquatic Ecology 39, 381- 400. Moss B., McKee D., Atkinson D., Codings, S.E., Eaton, J.W., Gill, A.B., Hatton, H.K., Heyes, T. & Wilson, D. (2003). How important is climate? Effects of wanning, nutrient addition and fish on phytoplankton in shallow lake microcosms. Journal of Applied Ecolog}’ 40, 782-792. Murch, S.J., Cox, P.A., & Banack, S.A. (2004). A mechanism for slow release of biomagnified cyanobactcrial neurotoxins and neurodegencrative disease in Guam. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101, 12228-12231. Reynolds, C. S. (1987). Community organization in the freshwater plankton. Symposium of the British. Ecological. Society 27, 297-325. Reynolds, C. S. (1997). Vegetation Processes in the Pelagic. A Model for Eco.system Theoiy. ECl, Oldendorf Reynolds, C.S. (2006). The Ecolog}’ of Phytoplankton. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Reynolds, C.S. & Petersen, A.C. (2000). The distribution of planktonic Cyanobacteria in Irish lakes in relation to their trophic states. I lydrobiologia 424, 91-99. Sas, H. (1989) Lake Restoration by Reduction of Nutrient Loading. Akadcmia Verlag Richarz, Saukt Augustin. Scottish Government (2007). Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) in Inland and Inshore Waters: Assessment and Minimisation of Risks to Public Health: Revised Guidance. Scottish Executive, Edinburgh. SEPA (1999). Improving Scotland’s Water Environment. SEPA State of the Environment report. Scottish Environment Protection Agency, May 1999. SEPA (2005). Eutrophication Assessment of Scottish Coastal, Estuarine and Inland Waters. Scottish Environment Protection Agency, 2005. Shapiro, J. (1984). Blue-green dominance in lakes: the role and management significance of pH and CO2. Internationale Revue gesamten Hydrobiologie 69, 765-780. Shapiro, J. (1990). Current beliefs regarding dominance by blue-greens: the case for the importance of CO2 and pH. Verhandlungen Internationale Vereinigung fiir Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie 24, 38-54. Vollenwcider, R.A., & Kcrckcs, J. (1982). Eutrophication of Waters. Monitoring, Assessment and Control. Organization for Economic Co- Operation and Development (OECD), Paris. Wagner, C. & Adrian, R. (2009). Cyanobacteria dominance - quantifying the effects of climate change. Limnology’ and Oceanography 54, 2460- 2468. Wiedner, C., Rucker, J., Fastner, J., Chorus, I. & Nixdorf, B. (2008). Seasonal dynamics of cylindrospermopsin and cyanobacteria in two Gemian lakes. Toxicon 52, 677-686. 104 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 105-1 10 Effects of fertilisers on vegetation of ultrabasic terraces (1965-2010): Isle of Rum, Scotland Jackie Anne Gilbert and * Kevin Richard Butt School of Built and Natural Environment, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PRl 2HE, UK *E-mail: krbutt@uclan.ac.uk ABSTRACT An experiment was set up in 1965 on the Isle of Rum to detennine the reasons for poor vegetation cover on an exposed mountain ridge. Suggested hypotheses related to effects of grazing herbivores, site exposure or soil infertility. To test one of these, a 100 m" experimental plot was subjected to a fertiliser regime over a period of three years with a vegetation survey and soil analysis conducted at the outset of the research period (1965), in 1969 and in 1996. Plant cover within the experimental plot increased from 5 % (1965) to 100 % (1996), and was maintained at this level in a recent monitoring (2010). A change from acidophilic plants dominated by heather to a grass/moss assemblage was also recorded within the plot over the monitoring period. Within an unfertilised control plot set up in 1996, plant cover had increased from 25 % to 50 % (2010), although there was little change in composition of plant species. Key words: Soil nutrients, plant cover. Inner Hebrides, grazing herbivores, long-temi trends, ultra-basic teiTaces. INTRODUCTION Higher plants grow where conditions permit, but some basic requirements must usually be met. A soil, or a substrate, capable of supporting root structures must be present, suitable nutrients, light and water need to be available and prolonged existence must allow for vegetative or sexual reproduction within acceptable climatic conditions. In 1965, on the Isle of Rum, Inner Hebrides, an experiment was set up to determine potential reasons for poor vegetation cover on an exposed mountain ridge (Ferreira & Wormell 1971). These authors suggested that grazing herbivores, red deer {Cervus elapinis) and feral goats {Capra hircus), site exposure (at 650 m) or the infertility of the soil (derived from ultrabasic rocks) might be causal factors. To test one of these hypotheses, a single 10 x 10m experimental plot was subjected to a fertiliser regime over a period of three years. This involved the following additions: August 1965, N (1125 kg ha"'), P (500 kg ha"') and K (500 kg ha"'); April 1967 and 1968, N (250 kg ha ') P (235kg h') K (208 kg ha') and Ca (470 kg ha"'). No reason was given for the use of only one experimental plot with no control (Ferreira & Wormell 1971), however the constraints of the site in temis of altitude, remoteness and effort of transporting fertiliser to the site may well account for this. A vegetation survey was conducted at the outset of the research period (1965) and after a period of four years (Ferreira & Wonnell 1971). Thereafter, the site remained almost undisturbed until revisited in 1996 and monitored by Wilson et al. (1998). These authors also pegged the comers of and set up four additional plots (each 10 x 10m), close to the original (Wonnell) plot. The newer plots had single applications of nitrogen, potassium or phosphorus with a control plot having no nutrient additions. Documented research on soil fauna in this location is vciy limited, however. Butt & Lowe (2004), sampling for earthwonns on Rum, found a density of 1 7 individuals m'“ (represented by 2 epigeic earthworm species) in the Wonnell fertiliser plot, compared with an adjacent (control) area which yielded no earthwonns. The current investigation, undertaken in 2009 and 2010, revisited the fertiliser plot and suiTounding area to tiy and establish recent vegetation developments. Specific objectives were: • To record plant cover on fertilised and control plots and compare results with previous findings; • To sample soils and draw comparisons with previous findings; • To use the results, with other data to predict the cause of vegetation change on the exposed experimental site. Site Details The Isle of Rum lies in the Inner Hebrides, 21 km off the west coast of Scotland. Since 1957, the whole island, of 10,650 ha, has been a National Natural Reserve, and is currently owned and managed by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH). The natural and cultural history of the island is well documented (e.g. Clutton-Brock & Ball 1987; Magnusson 1997; SNH 2011) but critical details are that domestic grazing animals are restricted to a herd of Highland cattle (Bos iaiirus) and a collection of Rum ponies (Eqims cahallus) (Gordon et al. 1987), kept in lowland areas. A substantial population of red deer is present on Rum. Although reduced in recent years, from 1,200-1,700 of the last centuiy (Clutton-Brook & Guiness 1987), 105 Payne (2003) reported approximately 1,000 animals and this level has been maintained to date. Feral goats also graze the upland areas of the island but smaller grazing mammals such as rabbits and hares are absent from Rum. However, a study between 1958 and 1970 using controlled plots on the grasslands and heaths of the island have shown that reduced grazing increases the plant litter and taller vegetation which reduces the diversity of vegetation. The management plan of the island was to maintain the high tloristic diversity of all vegetation types present which led to the annual cull of red deer being severely reduced (Ball 1974). The fertiliser plot experimental site is on the exposed Barkeval-Hallival ridge (Nat Grid Ref; NM39260 96433) comprised of peridotitc and allivalite igneous ultra-basic rocks, with many exposed rocks (Ragg & Ball 1964). The thin soils fonned over these base rocks have high levels of magnesium, low levels of calcium and exceptionally low levels of phosphorus; calcifuge plants often dominate here due to the low levels of calcium within the soil. There is evidence that the oceanic climate on Rum, with an annual rainfall ranging from 1,397 to 3,302 mm (Ragg & Ball 1964), is warming. The extent of snow cover and sea ice in the Northern Hemisphere has declined since 1979 (Dei'y & Brown 2007; SeiTcze et al. 2007) leading to increased plant growth in northern high latitudes (Myneni et al. 1997). On Rum, the oestrus date and parturition date in female red deer, and antler cast date, antler clean date, rut start date and rut end date in males has advanced between 5 and 12 days across a 28 year study period with the plant growth in spring and summer (growing degree days) explaining a significant amount of variation in all six of these phonological traits. (Moyes 2011). METHODS Fertiliser Plots An initial survey in 2009 (26-29"^ April) sought to locate the plots set up by Wilson et al. (1998), but found that many of the metal pegs used to mark out the more recent treatments had been dislodged/removed and exact positions could not be deliniated with any confidence. Surface water was also seen to run from the location of the potassium-enhanced plot into the area where the phosphoms plot was positioned. It was therefore detemiined that it was unsound to survey these plots, and only work within Wilson et al.'s (1998) control plot and the original (Wormell) plot was undertaken. The main investigation of these two plots was undertaken in 2010 (24-28*'’ May). Plant Cover. The 2009 survey of the original (Wormell) and the control plot was undertaken following the methodology described by Gilbert & Butt (2009). This made use of digital photography of vegetation within 0.5 x 05m quadrats. Although this size of quadrat was different to the original surveys ( 1 x Im) the area suiweyed was the same (4m'^). Images were manipulated in Adobe Photoshop (2000) to produce a ‘squared’ image and the percentage cover of each plant species was estimated by means of digital superimposition of a grid on to the image. In 2010 (24-28’'’ May), a more traditional vegetation survey of both plots was conducted using a point quadrat (100 points nW) as described by Chalmers & Parker (1989). Here, only the first plant species contacted was recorded per point, to provide an estimate of mean percentage cover for each species over the whole plot. This was the same sampling technique used in earlier (1969, 1996) surveys of this area and the same area of experiment plot was sampled (4m^). Soil Sampling and Analyses Soil cores (0.05 m diameter) were collected using a random sampling scheme to a depth of 0. 1 5 m in the experimental (n=16) and control (n=16) plots, and sub- divided into samples at 0.05 m depths. Due to the shallowness of soil only eight of the control plot sample cores achieved the depth of 0. 1 5 m in contrast to all experimental plot samples. Each soil horizon was described by reference to a Munsell soil colour chart (1992). Soil bulk density was determined after samples were air dried, sieved to <2 mm and calculated as mass of air diy soil per unit volume, corrected for stone content. Soil collection and soil analyses duplicated as closely as possible that utilised by FciTeira & Womiell (1971) and Wilson et al (1998). However, in the cuirent survey nutrient content of soils was not analysed by the authors, but undertaken at an accredited laboratory (Macaulay Land Use Research Institute). RESULTS Plant Cover The 2009 survey using digital photography showed the fertiliser plot to be completely vegetated, except for areas covered by a few large rocks that protruded through the plants. This showed no change since the survey of 1996. The photographic survey of the control plot showed a vegetation cover of 48 %, an increase from 25.2 % in 1996, very similar to the 2010 point quadrat survey of 50%. Table 1 shows the species list for plants found in both the fertiliser plot and the control plot, obtained from point quadrat survey in 2010. Comparative results from previous surveys are also provided in Table 1. Results from 2010 also confimied the 2009 photographic survey results that the fertiliser plot is still 100 % vegetated, an increase from 5-10 % vegetation cover recorded prior to fertiliser addition in 1965. Calcifuges such as Callima vulgaris (L.) Hull (heather) and Rhacoinitriiim laniiginosum (Hedw.) Brid. reported in 1998, were not recorded within the fertiliser plot in the current survey. Grasses and mosses accounted for the majority of the plant cover within the plot with Hypninn cupressiforme (Hedw), Rhytidiadelplms sqiiarrosiis (Hedw.) Wamst. and Festuca vivipara (L.) offering most of the cover. Anthoxanthum odoratum (L.) and Taraxacum ofjicinale (Weber.) first obseiwed in 1996 but not recorded in the survey, accounted in 2010 for 9 % and 0.5 % of the cover respectively. Peltigera spp was observed for the first time within the fertiliser plot during the cuiTent survey. 106 Fertiliser Plot - set up in 1965 1965 1969 1996 DA FOR DA FOR % Control - set up in 1996 2010 1996 2010 % % cover % cover cover cover Agwstis capillaris L. Common Bent M f cd(I5%) 7.75 2.0 1.46(5.9) 2.5 (5.2) Alchemilla alpina L. Alpine Lady’s mantle D - - • - - - Antennaria dioica (L.) Gaerin. Mountain D 0 r • - 0.77(3.1) 0.5 (1.05) Everlasting Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sweet Vernal-grass M • 8.75 _ _ Arabis pelraea (L.) Lam [Cardaminopsis pelraea D r r • - - - (L.) Hiil], Northern Rock-cress Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. Thrift D . • 0.5 _ _ Barbiila rigidula (Hedw.) Mill. B - a - - - - Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull Heather D .f 0 0.25 - 10.62 (42.1) 23.75 Campylopus alrovirens De Not. B r _ _ _ (49. 75) Carex binervis Sin Green-ribbed Sedge M - r - - - - Carex viridiila [demissa] Michx. Yellow-sedge M r - - - 0.46 (1.8) 12.75 Carex panicea L. Carnation Sedge M _ _ . 0.23 (0.9) (26. 70) Carex pilulifera L. Pill Sedge M - r - - - - Cerastium fontanum (holost.) Bailing. Common D - r 0.25 1.0 0.03(0.1) 0.25 (0.52) Mouse-ear Cladonia imcialis (L.) Weber B . 0.25 0.03(0.1) Cynosurus cristatus L. Crested Dog’s tail M - - - - - - Danthonia decuinbens (L.) [Siegliiigia M 0 r - - - - decumbens] Heath grass Deschampsia jlexuosa (L.) Trin. M f a • _ 0.20(0.7) _ Wavy Hair-grass Dicramnn scoparium Hedw. B _ _ 3.75 _ _ Euphrasia sp. L. Eyehright D 0 - 0.25 - 0.03 (0.1) Festuca rubra L. Red Fescue M - r • - - - Festuca vivipara (L.) Sin. Sheep ’s fescue M cd (15%) 27.75 30 1.72(6.8) 3.0(6.28) Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw. M 0 - 16.25 32 - - Jimiperus communis alpine, Celak. Alpine G r - - - - - Juniper Molinia caerulea (L.) Moeiich. Purple moor- M 0 _ _ _ _ _ grass Nardus stricta L. Mat-grass M 0.5 0.33 (1.3) Oligolricliuin hercynicum (Hedw.) Lam & Cand. B - o - - - - Plantago lanceolala L. D - - • - - - Plantago maritima L. D f a (5%) 3.00 - 2.15 (8.5) 2.00 (4.19) Polygala serpyllifolia Hose. Heath Milkwort D 0 - • - 0.03(0.1) - Polvtrichiim alpinum Hedw. B - 0 5.25 7.5 - - Polytrichum piliferum Hedw. B 0 - - - - - Polytrichum urnigeruin Hedw. B - a - - - Potentilla erecta (L.) Rausch. Tormentil D 0 1.5 0.25 0.72 (2.9) • Rhacomitrium lanuginosum (Hedw.)Brid. B - 0.5 - 3.36(13.3) 0.75 (1.57) Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus (Hedw.) Warns!. B r - 18.5 11.75 0.05 (0.2) 0.5 (1.05) Riibus saxatilis L. Stone Bramble D 0 f 0.25 - 0.08(0.3) - Selaginella selaginoides (L.) Beauv. Lesser B r r • - 0.05 (0.2) - Clubmoss Silene acaulis (L.) Jacq. Moss Campion D • _ . Solidago virgaurea L. Goldenrod D o o • - 0.21 (0.9) - Succisa pratensis Moench Devil’s-bit Scabious D 0 - - - - - Taraxacum officinale Weber. D - - • 0.5 - - Thymus polytrichus [praecox OpizJ Wild Thyme D f ./■ 11.75 5.25 2.13 (8.5) 1.75 (3.66) Trichophorum cespilosum (L.) Hartm. Deergrass M - - - - 0.41 (1.6) Vaccinium myrtillus L. Bilberry' D - - • • - - Viola riviniana Reichh. Common Dog-violet D 0 0 2.75 0.15 (0.6) • Peltigera spp L - - - • - - Total plant cover (%) 5-10 60 100 100 25.2 (100) 50.25 (100) Table 1. Plant species recorded in the fertiliser plot and control plot at an altitude of 650 in on the Barkeval-Hallival ridge. Isle of Rum. Results from previous studies (Ferreira and Wormell 1971; Wilson et al. 1998) also provided. Figures in parentheses are percentage of total vegetation cover, • denotes species that were observed but not recorded, cd =co-dominant. (M=Monocotyledonous, B=bryophyte, D=dicotyledonous, P=pteridophyte, L=lichen, G=Gymnospenns, [ ] = former names). English names (Stace 2010). 107 The vegetation cover of the fertiliser plot changed considerably since 1965 and contrasts with the control plot, delineated by Wilson et al. (1998). Overall, vegetation cover of 50 % was recorded in the control plot, an increase from the 25 % noted in 1996, the dominant vegetation was heather with 24 % cover. Soils Soil profiles of the untreated (control) plots in 1965, 1996 and 2009 are very similar with approximately 0.03 m of very dark brown organic matter (lOYR 2/2) above a yellowish-brown mineral horizon (lOYR 5/4). This profile was not uniform across the control plot in 2009, with the organic horizon ranging from 0-0.1 m, due to erosion and deposition. The horizon below the fertiliser plot was vciy different, with a deeper organic horizon to 0.04 m (lOYR 2/1) and organic staining ( lOYR 2/2) down to 0.08 m, above a similar yellowish- brown mineral horizon (lOYR 5/4). This was deeper than records from 1996, when the organic horizon reached to a depth of 0.03 m with staining to 0.06 m. Soil bulk density within both the fertiliser plot and the control plot increased with depth, although both results recoded were generally lower than those reported by Wilson et ai (1996) except in the control plot at 10 - 15 cm (Fig. 1). Fig. 2 provides results from the fertiliser plot before treatment (1965), in 1996 and 2010. Most measurements showed an increase over time of; organic matter, pH and nutrients, which generally reduced with increasing depth. The exception was phosphorus, as Wilson et al. (1998) previously recorded a much higher level. There was also an increase in magnesium recorded in the upper section of the soil cores (0 - 0.05 m) extracted from the fertiliser plot. Results from the control plot, in addition to the fertiliser plot before treatment, arc given in Table 2. Here, within the upper 0.05 m, there has been an increase in organic content, pH and some nutrients, although no phosphorous was recorded in 2009. A much higher level of magnesium (135 mg kg ') was also recorded. Although comparison of nitrate content of the plots was not possible, due to different analyses undertaken, the results arc presented for possible comparison in future studies. Fertiliser plot; 0 - 0.05, 0.05 - 0.10, 0.10 - 0.15 m contained 1.65, 4.78, 6.66 mg kg' respectively (n=16). The control plot contained 18.48 mg kg'' at 0 - 0.05 m (n=16). DISCUSSION Results from the original (Wormell) plot suggest that even after 45 years the fertiliser continues to have an effect. Acidophiles within the plot continue to decline, for example, reduced cover of heather was reported by previous authors but not recorded within the cuiTent survey. A similar reduction for heather has been reported on hcathland sites that have received fertiliser applications (Aerts 1993). Here on Rum, there was no evidence of an increase in heather, as previously suggested by Wilson et al. ( 1 998). However, grass and moss species (F. vivipara and H. ciipressifonne specifically) dominate the plot. (There is also increased pH and nutrient content of the soil.) The ultrabasic rocks, with low plant nutrients, but high concentrations of magnesium, now appear to have little effect on the plant species in the area. However, a high recording of magnesium (675.4 mg kg'') was found in the upper (0 - 0.05 m) cores from the fertiliser plot. This may in part be wind-borne material from the surrounding unvegetated areas, or from the analysis method used. However, high concentrations of potentially toxic elements, such as magnesium, have been shown to have little effect on vegetative growth (Looney and Proctor 1990). Vegetation cover within the control plot has increased from 25 to 50 % (1996-2010) and from (at best) 10 % in 1965. This, seemingly un-manipulated increase, may be accounted for by a number of factors. The known reduction in deer number, particularly in recent years, may be partially responsible, with less than half the number of 15 years ago, now grazing on Rum (Payne 2003). This may be particularly important at the experimental plot site, as this green square at altitude of 650m must act as an attraction to herbivores. In addition, enhanced climatic conditions (e.g. Moyes 2011; Myneni et al. 1997) may have led to a prolonged growth period each year. The assumption by Wilson et al. (1998) that heather had influenced pH in the control plot was not confimied in the cuiTcnt survey. Although cover of heather had increased (10.6 to 23.7 %), pH had also increased from 4.9 to 5.7. This may be accounted for by the increased vegetation cover reducing leaching with more minerals and nutrients held in the substrate beneath the plants. It was unfortunate that the additional (single element) fertiliser plots set up by Wilson et al. (1998) were considered unfit for survey. Continued monitoring of these plots might have led to a clearer understanding of how specific nutrients affect plant growth at an altitude of 650m in an exposed environment. However, it docs demonstrate that experiments of this type on an exposed mountain ridge need to be robust in their design and execution. That earthworms are present in the fertiliser plot (Butt & Lowe, 2004) is not unexpected, as these animals require a minimum level or organic matter (as shown in Fig. 2). Such animals are not uncommon at this altitude on these rocks/soils but are usually associated with natural “greens” created through fertiliser addition from nesting bird faeces (e.g. Fumess, 1991). Further research in this area is ongoing (Callaham et al., in press). 108 □ 1996 ■ 2009 Depth of core (cm) Wormell plot b. (A C 0) •O 3 m □ 1996 ■ 2009 Depth of core (cm) Control plot Fig. 1. Bulk density soil measurements from (a) (Wormell) fertiliser plot and (b) control plot. 109 Organic matter content pH Phosphorous mg kg ’ Potassium mg kg ' Magnesium mg kg ' Fertiliser plot pre treatment 4.15 5.3 2.0 13 37 Control 1996 Plot 4.85 4.9 3.1 29 20 Control 2009 Plot 6.4 5.7 0.0 41 135 Table 2. Soil data derived from control plots over a 45 year period, only results of the upper 5 cm of the core provided. It is currently difficult to assess the direct influence brought about by reduced levels of grazing, and/or the increase in temperature on vegetation growth days on the fertiliser plot. Increased vegetation cover within the control plot indicates that there has been some effect, as this is not directly related to historical fertiliser addition. Further carefully designed experiments, to address Wonnell’s original hypotheses may still be warranted, to fully detemiine limiting factors associated with plant growth of patchy herb-rich Calluna heath/grass-dominated swards at altitude on Rum. REFERENCES Adobe Photoshop. (2000). Version 9.9, Adobe Systems Incorporated, USA. Ball M.E. (1974). Floristic changes on grasslands and heaths on the Isle of Rhum after a reduction or exclusion of grazing, Joiinuil of Environmental Management, 2, 299-3 1 8. Butt K.R. & Lowe C.N. (2004). Anthropic influences on earthwonn distribution. Rum National Nature Reserve, Scotland. European Journal of Soil Biology’ 40:63-72. Callaham M.A. Jr, Butt K.R., Lowe C.N. (in press) Stable isotope evidence for marine-derived avian inputs of nitrogen into soil, vegetation, and detrital foodwebs on the Isle of Rum, Scotland, UK. European Journal of Soil Biology’. Chalmers N. 8l Parker P. (1989). The OU Project Guide, 2'’‘* ed. Field Studies Council, Shrewsbury. Clutton-Brock T.H. & Ball M.E. (1987). Rhum the Natural History’ of an island, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Clutton-Brook T. & Guiness F.E. (1987). Red Deer, pp 95-109. In Clutton-Brock & Ball (eds) Rhum The Natural Histoiy of an island. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Dery S.J. & Brown R.D. (2007). Recent Northern Hemisphere snow cover extent trends and implication for the snow-albedo-feedback. Geophysical Research Letters, 34: L22504. Ferreira R.E.C. & Womiell P, (1971). Fertiliser response of vegetation ultrabasic terrace on Rlium, Transactions of the Botanical Society’ of Edinburgh, 41: 149-154. Furness R.W. (1991). The occurrence of bun-ow- nesting among birds and its influence on soil fertility and stability. Symposia of the Royal Zoological Society’ of London. 63:53-67. Gilbert J.A. &, Butt K.R. (2009). Evaluation of digital photography as a tool for field monitoring in potentially inhospitable environments. Mires and Peat 5, 1-6. Gordon I. Dunbar R. Buckland D. Millar D. (1987). Ponies, Cattle and Goats, pp 110-125. In Clutton- Brock & Ball (eds) Rhum The Natural Histoiy of an island. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Looney J. H. & Proctor J. (1990). The vegetation of ultrabasic soils on the Isle of Rhum II, The causes of the debris. Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh 45:35 1 -364. Magnusson M. (1997). Rum: Nature’s Island. Luath Press, Edinburgh. Moyes K. Nussey D.H. Clements M.N. Guiness F.E. Morris A. Morris S. Pemberton J.M. Kruuk L.E.B. Clutton-Brock T.H. (2011). Advancing breeding phenology in response to environmental change in a wild red deer population, Global Change Biology’, Published on line. Munsell Colour Chart, (1992). Macbeth, Division of Kollmorgen Instruments Corp. New York. Myneni R.B. Keeling C.D. Tucker C.J. Asrar G. Nemani, R.R. (1997). Increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes from 1981 to 1991, Nature 386:698-702. Payne A.G. (2003), Rum habitat restoration project; environmental statement, unpublished report, Scottish Natural Heritage. Ragg J.M. Ball D.F. (1964). Soils of the ultra-basic rocks of the island of Rhum, Journal of Soil Science 15: 124-133. Serreze M.C. Holland M.M. Stroeve J. (2007). Perspectives on the Arctic’s shrinking sea-ice cover. Science 315:1533-1536. SNH (2011). The Plan for Rum National Nature Reseiwe. http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/publications/nnr/The R eserve Plan for Rum National Nature Reserve 2 010 2016.pdf Accessed March 2011). Stace, C. A, (2010), New Flora of the British Isles, 3'^'* Ed. Cabridge University Press, UK. Wilson B.R. Longworth D. Wormell P. Ferreira R.E.C. (1998). Fertiliser Response of Soils and Vegetation on Ultrabasic Terraces on the Isle of Rum between 1 965 and 1 996, Botanical Journal of Scotland. 110 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 111-118 Long-term dynamics in Scottish saltmarsh plant communities Rebecca B. Taubert and Kevin J. Murphy IBAHCM, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland E-mail; taiibertr@gmail.com ABSTRACT In 2011, we conducted a resurvey of saltmarsh plant communities present at six sites along the mainland coasts of Scotland, previously surveyed in 2006. Three sites located on the Isle of Mull (Inner Hebrides) that were previously studied in 1957 were also resurveyed. The data, analyzed using TWINSPAN classification and CCA ordination procedures, suggested that geographical factors were more important than time in driving the observed differences in plant community composition. For example, only at Ardmore Point (Firth of Clyde), and Aberlady and Skinflats (Firth of Forth), were there distinct pioneer zones containing Salicornia europaea found in 201 L All sites supported recognizable mid-marsh and upper marsh communities. Overall, this study provides evidence for some degree of stability in Scottish saltmarsh plant communities, whether over a short timescale of 5 years or a longer period of 54 years. INTRODUCTION Saltmarshes develop on wave-protected shorelines in temperate regions worldwide as a result of interactions between vegetation and tidal action, relative sea level rise, climatic extremes, and sediment deposition rate (Harvey and Allan 1998; Beeftink 1977). The accumulation of sediment, vegetation fragments and various other suspended materials deposited by the tide creates a mudflat, which facilitates the settlement of specialist halophytic vegetation such as Salicornia and Puccinellia spp. (Farina et al 2009; Steers 1977). This leads to an increase in the elevation and stabilization of substrate and ultimately, to the fomiation of creeks, channels and other conditions favourable for plant species less tolerant of frequent tidal submergence (Steers 1977). The change in elevation gives rise to distinct patterns of vegetation, known as zones, which typically occur in belts that run parallel to the shoreline (Adam 1990). Most established saltmarshes can be divided into three distinct vegetation zones (species given as examples here relate to UK saltmarshes, though many of the saltmarsh plants have rather broad, cosmopolitan distributions in Europe): (1) a pioneer/low marsh zone defined by soft sediments, seaweeds and a few specialist halophytes such as Salicornia europaea and Puccinellia maritima, (2) an accretion/mid marsh zone that usually displays a large variety of environmental conditions and supports common saltmarsh species such as Festuca rubra, Jimcus gerardi and Agrostis stolonifera, and (3) a mature/upper marsh zone, which occurs towards the upper limit of tidal influence and contains species less tolerant to salt and regular submergence, such as Elymus pycnanthus. Saltmarshes offer a plethora of ecosystem services, including biodiversity preservation, water quality improvement, flood abatement, shoreline stabilization and carbon and nutrient sequestration. They also provide valuable habitat for migratoi'y waterfowl and young commercially important species of fish (Zedler and Kercher 2005). Since vegetation plays a crucial role in the establishment and growth of saltmarshes, monitoring the changes in the composition of plant communities over time is one way to detemiine whether these systems are functioning properly. Such studies can then provide an indication of any significant variation occurring and whether these changes are due to anthropogenic pressures, such as abnonnal rise in sea level, invasive species or development (Gedan et al 2009). Previous long-tenn studies of saltmarsh plant communities have focused on the effects of sudden and extreme changes of weather, planned technical interference, dynamics of vegetational change (Beeftink 1979) and grazing intensity (Andresen et al 1990) to identify the responses of different species to environmental disturbances. Studies of the long-tenn composition of saltmarsh vegetation through the use of permanent plots (accurately marked plots where vegetation releves have been sampled repeatedly over a period of time), have been undertaken at Boschplaat on the island of Terschelling in The Netherlands, where a saltmarsh began to form on a sand flat after the construction of a sand dam in the 1930s (Leendertse et al 1997; Roozen and Westhoff 1985; Smits et al 2002). Scottish coasts contain about 15% of the UK’s 44,000ha saltmarsh resource, of which the marshes in the Solway Firth account for 8% (Hansom and McGiashan 2004). Saltmarshes in Scotland occur mainly in estuaries and at the heads of sea lochs (Harvey and Allan 1998). Two previous studies of vegetation communities of various saltmarshes in 111 Scotland include Gillham’s 1957 survey of three sea loch marshes located on the Isle of Mull in the Inner Hebrides, and Zimmerman and Muiphy’s 2006 survey of three sea loch and four estuarine marshes on the east, west and southem mainland coasts. We were able to obtain the raw plant species abundance data from both studies, which made it possible to visit and resurvey these sites in 201 1 in order to examine the dynamics of Scottish salt marsh plant communities over a short time scale of five years at the mainland sites, and a longer period of 54 years at the sites on the Isle of Mull. In addition to this comparison of historical and recent vegetation data, environmental variables such as soil pH, vegetation height, and soil conductivity were measured in the cuiTcnt study to assist in detemiining what factors are responsible for plant community patterns within a marsh (zonation) and between different marshes (geographical location). METHODS Study Sites Nine sites from earlier studies were resurveyed (Fig. 1). Three of these were previously surveyed in 1957 by Gillham and are situated along sea lochs located on the Isle of Mull in the Inner Hebrides: Loch Guin, Loch naKeal and Loch Scridain. The other six sites were last surveyed by Zimmermann and Murphy in 2006 and included four along the west coast of mainland Scotland: Port Appin, Loch Etive and Loch Creran near Oban; and Ardmore Point in the Inner Clyde, plus two on the east coast: Abeiiady Bay in the outer Firth of Forth and Skinflats, which is also located in the Forth, near Falkirk. The tenth site, Powfoulis New Lagoon, is a newly restored saltmarsh, on previously reclaimed familand, which is located directly inland from the Skinflats site: no historic data (prior to restoration) were available for this site. These locations were primarily chosen because data existed from previous years from which to compare possible shifts in vegetation communities over different time scales. They are also representative of the different habitats in (estuaries and sea lochs) and environmental conditions (West and East coasts; island and mainland; and lower and higher latitudes) under which saltmarshes may develop in Scotland. Zimmerman and Muiphy (2007) also sampled a site in the Solway Firth (River Cree), but we were unable gain access to the site late in the season, at the time of the fieldwork for this study. Survey Methods Surveys of the ten sites were done late September through mid-November 2011. At each site, samples from three randomly located replicate stations were collected from each of three sub-sites coiTesponding with the three distinct vegetation zones: pioneer/low marsh, accretion/mid marsh and mature/high marsh. One GPS reading was taken (using a Gamiin Etrex instrument) to accurately geolocate evei’y sub-site. PA LC LE SF AP AB Fig. 1. 2011 Survey site locations. AB = Aberlady Bay, AP = Ardmore Point, LC = Loch Creran, LE = Loch Etive, LG = Loch Guin, LK = Loch naKeal, LS = Loch Scridian, PA = Port Appin; SF = Skinflats (Powfoulis New Lagoon, PNL, also exists at Skinflats, as a newly-created saltmarsh site behind the seawall). Plant species abundance was quantified by using a 0.5m X 0.5m quadrat subdivided into twenty-five 0.1m X 0.1m squares and scoring how many of the twenty- five squares within the quadrat were occupied by each species. Vegetation height was recorded at three randomly chosen points in each quadrat. Plant community diversity was recorded simply as total number of species present per sample. A soil sample was taken from each quadrat to measure pH and conductivity levels. The pH level was recorded in the field using a Hanna pH EP4 meter while conductivity was detennined back at the University with a Jenway 4071 conductivity meter. Grazing pressure and environmental disturbance were scored on a scale of one to three with one coiTesponding to areas with a minimal amount of disturbance and three to more heavily impacted sites. In total, 99 samples were collected from the ten sites. Data Analysis Species abundance scores from the 2011 survey were converted by simple multiplication into percentages (%A). The multivariate classification procedure Two- Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN: Hill and Smilauer, 2005) was then utilized in order to group together the samples in the 2011 dataset that had similar assemblages of species. A second TWINSPAN analysis was done on the complete dataset (1957, 2006 and 20 1 1 data) to compare and contrast past and present species assemblages. In order to make the year 112 datasets comparable, modifications of the raw data were required. Raw data scores from the 2006 survey were averaged and multiplied by four in order to convert the values to %A values. Data were extracted from the 1957 paper by detennining percentage abundance of each species present from individual sections along the detailed transect diagrams given in the article. Prior to pcrfomiing statistical tests in Minitab (version 15), the raw 201 1 environmental data set was tested for normality by perfonning Ryan-Joiner tests and certain variables were then loge transformed, where necessary, in order to nomialize the data. One-way analysis of variance and Tukey’s mean comparison tests were used to determine whether there were any significant differences in mean values for soil pH, conductivity, vegetation height and plant species diversity, between the groups designated by TWINSPAN. Ordination of the 20 1 1 vegetation and environmental data was done using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA, utilizing CANOCO: ter Braak and Smilauer, 1998). CCA is a multivariate procedure, which can be used to identify patterns of plant species distribution in the context of the environmental variables measured. A Monte Carlo test was used to detennine whether the variation explained by the CCA results was significant, across the first (major) axis, or all axes combined for the ordination. Plant assemblages for each zone at each site were allocated to National Vegetation Classification (NVC) saltmarsh/maritime communities using the program TABLEFIT (Hill, 1996). RESULTS In total, 37 species were observed in the 201 1 resurvey. The five most common species were Puccmellia maritima, Glaiix mavitima, Triglochin mahtima, Festuca rubra and Juncus gerardi. TWINSPAN initially divided the 99 sample stations from 2011 into a large group (n=81) and a smaller group (n=18) with an eigenvalue of 0.514. At the next level, both groups were further divided into two groups each to create four groups in total (Group A: n=13 and Group B: n=68; eigenvalue = 0.474 and Group C: n=l 1 and Group D: n=7; eigenvalue = 0.770). Analysis stopped by the third division because eigenvalues became weaker (0.388 or less), suggesting substantial overlap between species composition of sample-groups at this point. ANOVA analyses confimied that there were significant differences between the four TWINSPAN groups for mean soil pH {P < 0.027), mean soil conductivity {P = 0.000) and mean vegetation height {P = 0.000). There was no significant difference in mean species diversity among the groups (Table 1). Group A was made up entirely of sample stations located in the pioneer zones of Aberlady, Skinflats and Ardmore Point. The indicator species listed were S. europaea and Cladophora spp. This group had the highest mean conductivity and the shortest mean vegetation height. Group B was the largest one classified by TWINSPAN containing more than half of the total sample stations. This group contains data from all survey locations and is composed primarily of mid-marsh sites with pioneer and high marsh sites that did not display distinct high marsh (Groups C and D) or pioneer marsh (Group A) species. The indicators were G. maritima, F. rubra, and J. gerardi and mean conductivity, pH levels and vegetation height values were intemiediate compared to values for the other three groups. Variable TWINSPAN sample groups Paso\ a A B C D Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE Soil pH 7.16 0.18 6.91 0.07 6.86 0.15 7.54 0.26 P< 0.027* loge mean soil conductivity (pS/cm) 8.76 0.12 7.66 0.10 7.90 0.17 6.69 0.29 P =0.000*** loge mean vegetation height (cm) 1.91 0.17 2.04 0.08 3.35 0.18 2.43 0.28 P =0.000*** Table 1. Mean values (±1 standard error) of statistically significant environmental variables compared between the 201 1 TWINSPAN groups. For group A, n = 13; B, n = 68; C, n = 11; and D, n = 7. Stars next to P-values reflect different levels of significance {* = P < 0.05, ** = P < 0.01, *** = P < 0.001). 113 Groups C and D consist exclusively of high marsh zone sample stations. Group C included data from Ardmore Point and Powfoulis New Lagoon (by Skinflats). E. pycmmthm was the indicator species and this group had the highest mean vegetation height but the lowest mean soil pH. Samples from Port Appin, Loch Creran, Loch Scridain and Loch Na Keal comprised Group D. Group D’s indicator species were Cochlearia officinalis and Agrostis Stolonifera. The average conductivity for this group was the lowest, but the average sediment pH was the highest. The CCA ordination of the 2011 survey data, constrained by environmental variables (Fig. 2), suggests that several of the environmental factors measured arc good predictors of saltmarsh plant community composition for the sites surveyed (Monte Carlo test for axis \ \ P < 0.002, all axes; P < 0.002). Mean vegetation height, mean soil conductivity, longitude and latitude proved to be the significant environmental variables in predicting saltmarsh plant community distribution while factors such as soil pH, environmental disturbance and grazing pressure were less important. The overlay of the TWINSPAN groups from the 20 1 1 data shows a strong association between high mean soil conductivity and Group A and between mean vegetation height and Group C. Groups B and D were not associated with any environmental variable in particular. The location of Group B was not displayed on the ordination graph because it consisted of sampling stations that were ubiquitously distributed across the plot. Fig. 2. Canonical CoiTespondence Analysis sample ordination for the 2011 survey data. Approximate location on the plot of samples making up three individual TWINSPAN sample groups is indicated for groups A, C and D. The fourth group (B) had a more scattered distribution of component samples across the ordination plot. Lat = latitude; Long = longitude; Grazpres = grazing pressure score; SoilPH = mean soil pH; Avgeon = mean soil conductivity; Avgveg = mean vegetation height; Envdist = environmental disturbance score. Table 2 displays the 12 NVC community and sub- community types assigned to the 30 sub-sites sampled in 2011. The goodness of fit for the NVC communities allocated to the sub-sites ranged widely, from 96% and 94% for pioneer/low marsh sub-sites at Powfoulis New Lagoon and Skinflats, to 49% and 50% for mature/high marsh sub-sites at Powfoulis New Lagoon and Ardmore Point. Another four TWINSPAN groups emerged from the comparison of the historical and cuiTent vegetation data; Group A was composed of samples collected in 2011 only and contains data from Ardmore Point, Port Appin, Loch Creran, Loch na Keal, Loch Scridain, Aberlady Bay, Skinflats and Powfoulis New Lagoon. Species indicators included Phalaris arundinacea, F. rubra, C. qffinalis and E. pycnanthus. Group B consisted of samples collected from all three years and was the largest group defined. At least one sample from eveiy site from the 2011 survey was represented except for Powfoulis New Lagoon. The majority of the samples taken during the 2006 survey were allocated to this group with sub-sites from Ardmore Point, Port Appin, Loch Creran, Loch Etive, Aberlady Bay and Skinflats. All the data points extracted from the 1957 survey were also included (samples from Loch Guin and Loch Scridain). The species indicators were J. gerardi, Plantago maritiina, G. maritima and Armeria maritiina. Group C was the smallest and the majority of the samples were from the 20 1 1 survey at Powfoulis New Lagoon, with one sample each from Aberlady Bay, Loch Creran and Skinflats. The rest of the samples were from the 2006 survey and were located at Ardmore Point. The indicator species were Aster tripolium, A. maritima, Plantago maritima and Spergularia maritima. Group D very closely resembled Group A from the 2011 TWINSPAN analysis containing sub-sites from Ardmore Point, Aberlady Bay, Skinflats and Powfoulis New Lagoon with additional samples from the 2011 survey of Loch na Keal and a sample from Aberlady Bay that was from 2006. The indicator was Cladophora spp. 114 Sub-site NVC Community NVC Community NVC Code Goodness of Fit (%) AP 1 PuccineUia maritima saltmarsh None SM 13 80 AP2 Festiica rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi Juncus gerardi SM 16b 86 AP3 Juncus maritimus saltmarsh None SM 18 49 PA 1 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi Festuca rubra SM 16d 71 PA 2 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi Juncus gerardi SM 16b 85 PA 3 Pucinellia maritima saltmarsh Glaiix maritima SM 13b 84 LC 1 Festuca rubra - Armeria maritima maritime grassland Typical MC 8a 67 LC2 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi None SM 16 67 LC3 Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh None SM 13 84 LE 1 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardii None SM 16 97 LE2 Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh None SM 13 77 LE3 Pucinellia maritima saltmarsh Glaux maritima SM 13b 51 LG 1 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi Puccinellia maritima SM 16a 87 LG 2 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi None SM 16 79 LG 3 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi None SM 16 69 LK 1 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi Leontodon autumnalis SM 16e 70 LK2 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi None SM 16 83 LK3 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi Puccinellia maritima SM 16a 83 LS 1 Juncus maritimus - Triglochin maritima saltmarsh None SM 15 68 LS2 Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh None SM 13 79 LS3 Pucinellia maritima saltmarsh Glaux maritima SM 13b 78 AB 1 Annual Salicornia saltmarsh None SM 8 94 AB 2 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardi Puccinellia maritima SM 16a 79 AB3 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardii Juncus gerardii SM 16b 82 SF 1 Festuca rubra saltmarsh - Juncus gerardii Festuca rubra SM 16d 63 SF2 Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh Limonium vulgare - Armeria maritima SM 13c 71 SF3 Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh None SM 13 94 PNL 1 Elymus pycnanthus saltmarsh None SM 24 50 PNL2 Spergularia marina - Puccinellia distans saltmarsh None SM 23 84 PNL 3 Puccinellia maritima saltmarsh None SM 13 96 Table 2. National Vegetation Classification (NVC) community designations for sub-sites surveyed in 201 1 . For site codes see caption to Fig. 1 115 DISCUSSION In 2011, a classic zoned plant community was present at every site, but there were differences in the precise composition of the vegetation communities between different sites. Ardmore Point. Aberlady Bay and Skinflats were grouped together by TWINSPAN as being the only sites with pioneer zones colonized by 5. eiiropaea. This group has the highest average mean conductivity and the shortest average mean vegetation height, which is reflected in the CCA analysis because its sample stations are placed among those most positively associated with high mean conductivity and those most negatively associated with mean vegetation height. Salt water contains a high concentration of ions and halophytes such as S. eiiropaea and PuccineUia maritima achieve tolerance of high salinity at the expense of growth (Adam 1990). The largest TWINSPAN group contained representatives from all sites and zone types. The indicators were G. maritima, F. rubra, and J. gerardi, which are species characteristic of the mid-marsh zone (Rodwell 2000). The sample stations were widely distributed about the CCA ordination plot, suggesting that this group tolerates a large range of environmental conditions. None of the NVC low-marsh designations were typical of Loch Guin or Loch naKeal, but a PuccineUia maritima sub-community was still assigned indicating a presence of low marsh species. Since Loch Guin and Loch naKeal are island sea lochs that are veiy rocky and receive a large amount of rain compared to the other areas surveyed, this may have caused a more unifonn plant community distribution. High marsh sample sites from Ardmore Point and Powfoulis New Lagoon were associated with E. pycnanthus and Jimcus maritimus dominant communities - both typical of upper marshes with soils of high organic content. A fenced grazing area for livestock (horses) backs the Ardmore Point marsh, so runoff from this area may result in nutrient enriched soils. Since Powfoulis New Lagoon used to be an agricultural field separated from the site at Skinflats by a seawall, it is also appropriate that it would be characterized by a S. maritima dominated community, which commonly occurs on or behind seawalls and generally in areas of disturbed soil and variable salinity (Rodwell 2000). This TWINSPAN group had an intemiediate mean conductivity and the highest average vegetation height, which is probably due to the estuarine nature of the sites and the relatively high nutrient runoff from familand and urban centres. The Port Appin, Loch Creran, Loch na Keai and Loch Scridain upper marsh sites that comprise group D differ from those in group C (Ardmore Point and Powfoulis New Lagoon) almost certainly since they are all located within sea lochs. These sites collectively had the lowest average conductivity - mainly because of fresh water influence from inland rivers (the conductivity of fresh water being much less than sea water). PuccineUia maritima, F. rubra, J. gerardi, G. maritima and T. maritimiim were the five commonest species observed in 2011. Four out of five of these species were the same as those from the 2006 survey. The one exception was that Plantago maritima was much more abundant than PuccineUia maritima in 2006. Plantago maritima was also one of the commonest species found during the 1957 survey of the Isle of Mull sites. However, this species was only present in the upper marsh of Loch naKeal in the 20 1 1 survey. The general absence of Plantago maritima from the 201 1 survey is most likely because it is a herbaceous perennial plant, which blooms in the spring and summer months and dies back to the rootstock in autumn. The sampling for the 201 1 survey was done in autumn, while sampling in 1957 and 2006 occurred during the spring and summer months. The shift in dominance from Plantago maritima to PuccineUia maritima might also signify retrogressive succession to an earlier successional stage, which usually occurs as a result of a decrease in marsh elevation and increase in sea level rise (Warren and Niering 1993). Leendertse et al (1997) observed a change in species dominance from PuccineUia maritima in 1957 to Plantago maritima between 1967- 1990 in three mid marsh plots during their study. Increases in elevation and silt thickness coupled with a decrease in the number of floodings per year were cited as the causes. This suggests that if elevation and silt thickness were to decrease while the number of floodings per year increased, the plant community dominance might regress from Plantago maritima to PuccineUia maritima. This could perhaps contribute to the relative the lack of Plantago maritima observed in 2011 - especially considering the absence of PuccineUia maritima from Loch Scridain in 1957 and its abundance of it in 2011. However, historical measurements of elevation and flooding frequency at these sites are unavailable to allow further examination of this point. Another change we noticed was the appearance of a S. eiiropaea dominated pioneer zone at Skinflats in 2011 that was absent in 2006. The site at Skinflats was backed by a sea wall separating it from an agricultural field (historically reclaimed salt marsh) up until recently. By the time the present survey was conducted, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) had introduced a regulated tidal exchange scheme between the field and the suiwey site. This action is part of a salt marsh restoration programme with the puipose of creating more migratory waterfowl habitat and preventing fiirther erosion of the area. Since the hydrology of the site was altered as a result of this endeavour, this could account for a change in the intensity of the wave action, possibly generating conditions along the shoreline 116 more conducive to the establishment of S. europaea seedlings. In addition to these differences, Elymiis. pycnanthus, a species not commonly observed north of the Solway Firth, was present at four of the sites surveyed in 201 1 : Powfoulis New Lagoon, Ardmore Point, Loch Scridain and Port Appin. The species had been observed at the Ardmore Point and Loch Scridain sites in previous years, however, its presence at the Port Appin site had not been recorded before, to our knowledge. Reasons for the difference in distribution of this species could include climate change, seed dispersal through vectors such as birds, wave or wind action or both, as seed distributing animals such as birds may alter their distributions to cope with climate change (Walther et al. 2002; Howe and Smallwood 1984). At the new Powfoulis New Lagoon site, the presence of E. pycnanthus could also be due to the introduction of a seed mix (normally used to re=vegetate sand dunes) by RSPB there in order to help vegetate the newly constructed lagoon banks, which would be likely to include seed of E. pycnanthus (N. Chambers, RSPB, pers. comm.). TWFNSPAN classification of the past and present vegetation data generated four groups, three of which contain data from more than one year. One group in particular (Group B) contained 55% of the sample sites from 2011, 100% of the samples from 1957 and 91% from 2006 (Fig. 3). When comparing the plant species present at each site in 2011 to those species existing there in the previous survey, 25 - 64% of the species were the same. Since conditions in the saltmarsh ecosystem can fluctuate dramatically, the fact that the sites retained about 45% of the plant species, on average, that were observed during previous surveys provides evidence for some degree of vegetation community stability over time, whether over a short timescale of 5 years (mainland sites), or a longer period of 54 years (Isle of Mull sites). A B C D Fig. 3. Composition of the TWINSPAN sample groups (A-D) produced by classification of vegetation data from all three surveys by year (Black = 2011, Grey = 2006 and White = 1957) Resistance and resilience to peiturbations are strong influences on ecosystem stability (Tilman and Downing 1994). Long-term stability of saltmarshes is regulated by interactions between factors such as tidal inundation, land elevation, primary production and sediment accretion (Morris et a! 2002). Sea level rise, invasive species and development are major threats to saltmarsh stability (Gedan et al 2009). If the level of the sea rises at a faster rate than the salt marsh can accumulate sediment and increase its elevation, then the marsh will be completely submerged, leaving behind mudflats or open water (Leendertse et al 1997). Invasions of non-native species and development of the coast can exacerbate this condition by leading to severe disraptions in salt marsh plant communities, causing the marsh to erode (Gedan et al 2009). For future studies of long-term change in Scottish salt marsh plant communities, it would be useful to monitor additional variables such as sediment type, land elevation, sediment accretion, biomass and tidal height and frequency, in addition to those looked at in this survey. This way, if there is a very prominent change ill the abundance of a certain species, such as the development of a S. europaea dominated pioneer zone, we can make inferences based on these measurements and observations as to whether antliropogenically- induced threats to salt marsh existence and functioning (such as sea level rise, development and invasive species) are the cause or whether natural change in the species dynamics of salt marsh ecosystems are of greater importance in explaining and predicting such vegetation changes. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A special thanks to Nick Chambers of RSPB and John Hanison of East Lothian District Council for helping us gain access to the sites at Skinflats and Aberlady Bay. REFERENCES Adam, P. (1990) Saltmarsh Ecology’. Cambridge Studies in Ecology, Cambridge University Press. Andresen, H., Bakker, J.P., Brongers, M., Heydemann, B., & Imiler, U. (1990) Long-term changes of salt marsh communities by cattle grazing. Plant Ecology ^9: 137-148. Beeftink, W.G. (1977) The coastal saltmarshes of Western and Northern Europe: An ecological and phytosociological approach. Wet Coastal Ecosystems (Ed. By V.J. Chapman), 109-55. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Beeftink, W.G. (1979). The structure of salt marsh communities in relation to environmental disturbances. Ecological processes in coastal environments: The 1st European Ecological Symposium and 19th Symposium of the British Ecological Society, Nom’ich, 12-16 September 1977. (Ed. By Jefferies, R.L. et al.) 77-93. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Farina, J.M., Silliman, B.R. & Bertness, M.D. (2009) Can conservation biologists rely on established community structure rules to manage novel systems? Not in salt marshes. Ecological Applications 19: 413-422. Gedan, K.B., Silliman, B.R. & Bertness, M.D. (2009) Centuries of human-driven change in salt marsh ecosystems. Annual Review of Marine Science 1: 117-41. 117 Gillham, M.E. (1957) Coastal Vegetation of Mull and Iona in Relation to Salinity and Soil Reaction. Journal of Ecology’ 45: 757-778. Hansom. J.D. & McGlashan, D.J. (2004) Scotland’s coast: understanding past and present processes for sustainable management. Scottish Geographical Journal 120: 99-1 16. Harvey, M.M. & Allan, R.L. (1998) The Solway Firth saltmarshes. Scottish Geographical Magazine 114: 42-45. Hill, M.O. (1996) TABLEFIT Version LO for Identification of Vegetation Types. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology. Hill, M.O. & Smilauer, P. (2005) TWINSPAN for Windows version 2.3. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology & University of South Bohemia, Huntingdon & Ceske Budejovice. Howe, H.F. & Smallwood, J. (1984) Ecology of seed dispersal. Annual Review of Ecologx’ and Systeinatics 13: 201-228. Leendertse, P.C., Roozen, A.J.M. & Rozema, J. (1997) Long tenn changes (1953 - 1990) in the salt marsh vegetation at the Boschplaat on Terschelling in relation to sedimentation and flooding. Plant Ecology’ 132: 49-58. Moms, J.T., Sundareshwar, P.V., Nietch, C.T., Kjerfve, B. & Cahoon, D.R. (2002) Responses of coastal wetlands to rising sea level. Ecology' 83: 2869-2877. Rodwell, J.S. (ed) (2000) British Plant Communities, Vol.5; Maritime Communities and Vegetation of Open Habitats. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Roozen, A.J.M. & Westhoff, V. (1985) A study on long-term salt-marsh succession using pemianent plots. Plant Ecology’ 61 : 23-32. Smits, N.A.C., Schaminee, J.H.J. & van Duuren, L. (2002) 70 years of pemianent plot research in The Netherlands. Applied Vegetation Science 5: 121- 126. Steers, J.A. (1977) Physiography. Wet Coastal Ecosystems (Ed. By V.J. Chapman), pp. 109-55. Elsevier, Amsterdam. ter Braak, C. J. F. & Smilauer, P. (1998) CANOCO reference manual and users guide to Conoco for windows: software for canonical community’ ordination (version 4). Micro-computer Power, Ithaca, USA. Tilman, D. & Downing, J.A. (1994) Biodiversity and stability in grasslands. Nature 367: 363-365. Walther, G., Post, E., Convey, P., Menzel, A., Parmesan, C., Beebee, T.J.C., Fromentin, J., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. & Bairlein, F. (2002) Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature A\6: 389-395. WaiTen, R.S. & Niering, W.A. (1993) Vegetation change on a northeast tidal marsh: Interaction of sea-level rise and marsh accretion. Ecologx’ 74: 96- 103. Zedler, J.B. & Kercher, S. (2005) Wetland resources: Status, trends, ecosystem services and restorability. Annual Review of Environmental Resources 30: 39- 74. Zimmermann, S. & Muiphy, K.J. (2007) Plant communities and vegetation diversity in Scottish saltmarshes in relation to land use. Botanical Society’ of Scotland News 89: 26-31. 118 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 119-147 SHORT NOTES Interesting Aculeate records from Glasgow, including eight new species records for Lanarkshire, with reflections on their wider distribution in Southern Scotland Jeanne Robinson' and Cathy Fiedler“ ‘ Jeanne Robinson, Curator of Entomology, Glasgow Life, Glasgow Museums, Kelvingrove Museum and Gallery, Glasgow, G3 SAG. ^Cathy Fiedler, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh, EH26 OQB. 'E-mail: jeanne.robinson@csglasgow.org ^E-mail: catedl@ceh.ac.uk INTRODUCTION With the exception of the bumblebees, there has been a general lack of recording for the aculeates in south west Scotland, least of all in urban areas such as Glasgow. They are a fascinating but intimidating group for the uninitiated. They can be challenging to identify and user friendly taxonomic guides are not readily available; consequently general naturalists tend to shy away from them when compiling their biological records. Published articles and our museum collections reveal more active aculeate recording during the early part of the 20''’ century (see results), coinciding with the publication of identification keys, which often help generate an interest. There are a few members of the Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society (BWARS) that have been actively recording in Scotland recently, but there is still much to do to address the gaps in our knowledge of the current species distribution. This paper presents interesting records resulting from fieldwork in Glasgow and from speeimens submitted for identification in 2009. In addition to this, earlier local records have arisen from the identification of undetennined museum specimens. The 2009 records include six species that have not previously been recorded from Lanarkshire (VC77) and two species which were thought to be new but turn out to have been active here longer than expected. Historical records compiled from museum collections and publications are also presented; these records provide a valuable insight into the wider and historical distribution of these species in Scotland in relation to our recent findings. The principal Scottish aculeate collectors whose records and specimens were examined to produce this article include John Russell Malloch and Andrew Adie Dalglish, who collected and documented the aculeates for The Fauna and Flora of the Clyde Area (Elliott et al. 1901) and deposited many specimens with the Glasgow Museums (GM). James Joseph Francis Xavier King, whose prolific collecting between 1877 and 1930 has yielded useful information on species distributions and abundance throughout Scotland, and provided a substantial reference collection for researchers. King’s collection is housed at the University of Glasgow’s Hunterian Museum (HM). William Evans (Evans 1900, 1901), who recorded and published his findings about the aculeates in the Lothians, Clyde and beyond, T. M. McGregor (McGregor, 1893) for those of Perthshire, James Clark (Clark, 1909) who, with the assistance of Henry Thomas did the same for Ayrshire and Arran and A. B. Duncan, a contemporary collector, who recorded in many parts of Scotland in the 1970s and 80s; all of whom have specimens deposited at the National Museum of Scotland (NMS). METHODS Fieldwork was under taken by the authors during wann sunny days between April and the end of July 2009, which ensured that insects were active. Specimens were collected by sweep netting individuals on the wing or targeting nesting sites in the case of species nesting in aggregations. Other specimens were collected directly into a pot whilst foraging on flowers or at rest on the ground. Specimens were identified using Else (in prep) and the Nomada test key (Stubbs, 2007). The voucher specimens from the fieldwork and identifications for 2009 are housed with cither Glasgow Museums (GM) or the Hunterian Museum (HM), Glasgow. Previously unidentified specimens housed at the GM were identified by Cathy Fiedler as part of her Natural Talent Hymenopterist apprenticeship with the British Trust for Conservation Volunteers (BTCV). Recent species distributions were checked online using the BWARS database, via the NBN Gateway (BWARS, 2010 and NBN, 2010) and the Scottish Aculeates List (SAL, 2010). The Glasgow Species Audit list 2009 (GSA, 2009) was also examined. The audit is kept by the Local Records Centre at GM and details published and submitted floral and faunal records dating from 1801. Published records from across Scotland were identified on the Scottish Invertebrates Records Index (SIRI), which is housed at the NMS. The collections of the GM, HM and NMS were inspected for specimens from Glasgow and the 119 surrounding areas. Where Scottish records were numerous for a species on the NBN or in the museum collections, only key records arc included in the results data, which arc generally those from south west Scotland The species records that resulted from this study have been passed on to BWARS for incorporation in their national recording scheme and to the compiler of the Scottish Aculeates List for information. RESULTS Results below arc from museum collections and publications. Collections arc referenced if data was collected directly from a specimen - the name of the collection the specimens arc housed at are given in brackets i.e. (GM), (HMj or (NMS). Publications are referenced as standard and (NBN) indicates data was from the NBN database. Andreua clarkella Renfrewshire, Giffnock, collected by J. R. Malloch pre 1901 (Elliot ct al. 1901); Ayrshire, Craufurdland, Dalrymple, Ness Glen nr. Dalmellington, collected by J. Clark, 1907-1909 (Clark, 1909), Iiwinc, collected by A. Dalglish, pre 1901 (Elliot et al, 1901), Clyde Islands, Airan, Lamlash, collected by J. Clark, 1908 and Brodick, collected by W. Evans, pre 1909 (Clark, 1909); West Lothian. Drumshorcland, collected by W. Evans, 1902 (NMS); Midlothian, Inveresk, collected by W. Evans, 1901 (NMS) and Balerno, various collectors, 1900-1938 (NMS); Dunbartonshire, MuiToch Glen, collected by J.R. Malloch pre 1901 (GM); Stirlingshire, Callander, collected by W. Evans 1900 and 1902 (NMS); West Perthshire, Dollar, collected by W. Evans, 1897, (NMS); Dumfries and Galloway, Castlehill, collected by A.B. Duncan, 1974 (NMS); Wigtonshire, Southerness and Ton's, collected by A.B. Duncan, 1981-1983 (NMS). Bomhiis sylvestris Midlothian, 2006 (NBN), Balcmo, Anon, 1922 (NMS); Mid/West Lothian, 2008 (NBN); Dunbartonshire, Bonhill, collected by J.R. Malloch, cl 900 (GM); Ayshire, 1995 and 2008 (NBN), Dreghom, Anon., 1923 (NMS); Wigtonshire, 2005, and Wigtonshire/Kirkcudbrightshire, 1987 (NBN); Dumfriesshire, 1975 (NBN), Newlands, collected by A. B. Duncan, 1929 (NMS); near Kim in Argyll, K. M. Guichard. 1939 (Guichard, 1940) and more widely across Scotland including Invemcss-shire (NMS) Fladday (Guichard, 1940) and Morayshire (HM). Colletes daviesamis Lanarkshire, Glasgow, Kelvingrove Park collected by F.R. Woodward, 4“’ July 1984 (GM); Midlothian, Musselburgh, collected by W. Evans, 1900 (NMS); Dumfriesshire (SIRl/NBN); and more widely across Scotland including Fife (NMS), Perthshire (McGregor, 1893), Morayshire (HM) and supposedly the Hebrides (SlRl). The Hebrides specimen is however likely to be a misidentification of C. fJoralis. Lasioglossum calceatiim Lanarkshire, Glasgow, Glasgow Botanic Gardens, 12"' August 1984 and Kelvingrove Park, S'" August 1983, collected by R. Sutcliffe, (GM); Renfrewshire, Kilbarchan, F.J. Ramsay, 1944 (NMS); Ayrshire, Clyde Islands, Arran, Anon., 1900 (NMS); Dunbartonshire, Loch Lomond, collected by R. Sutcliffe, 26"’ May 1986 (GM), Bonhill, collected by J.R. Malloch, 1901 and Anon., 1900 (GM and NMS respectively); common in the south of Dumfriesshire in May and Autumn circa 1940 (Murray, 1940), and more widely distributed records include Perthshire (GM), Aberdeenshire (HM), Kincardineshire (HM), Morayshire (HM). Lasioglossum fratellum Stirlingshire, Mugdock Wood, collected by J. Cooter, 1976 (GM); Renfrewshire, Kilbarchan, collected by F.J. Ramsay, 1944 and 1947 (NMS); Ayrshire, Irvine Moor, Anon., 1900 (NMS), Aman, collected by Waterston, 1936 and 1937 (NMS) and Corrie, 1939, K. M. Guichard (Guichard, 1940); Bute, Rothesay, Anon., 1901 (NMS); East Lothian, Longniddry, Anon., 1895- 1898 (NMS) and Aberlady, collected by W. Evans, 1895 and 1896 (NMS); Dunbartonshire, Bonhill, collected by J.R. Malloch, 1901 (GM); Argyll, Alt Broiglechan, Anon., 1988 (GM) and Glen Nant, collected by J. Cooter, 1978 (GM); and more widely across Scotland including Perthshire (NMS), Invemesshire (HM, NMS, Guichard. 1940), Colonsay (NMS), Aberdeenshire (HM), Morayshire (HM), and possibly Sutherland (HM). Lasioglossum smeathmanellum Ayrshire, Shewalton Pits, collected by J. Robinson, 2009 (GM), Arran, Brodick, 1909 (Clark, 1909), Kilmarnock, collected by J. Clark, 1908 (Clark, 1909), the Dean and Fenwick 1907-1909 (Clark 1909), Ness Glen nr Dalmellington, 1909 (Clark. 1909); Midlothian, 1995 (NBN); East Lothian, Haddington 1996 (NBN); Dunbartonshire, Bonhill and Cardross, collected by J.R. Malloch, 1901 (GM), Elliot et al., 1901); Dumfriesshire, nr Gretna, J. Mumay, circa 1940 (Mumay, 1940) and more widely across Scotland including Perthshire (McGregor 1893, Carter 1901, Rothney 1906), North budes (SIRI), Morayshire (HM). Megachile willughhiella Renfrewshire, Damley, Waulkmill Glen collected by E. G. Hancock, 1993 (GM/Hancock, 1994); Ayrshire, Craufurdland, 1908, (Clark, 1909) nr Kirk Alloway, 1907-1909 (Clark, 1909), Ness Glen, 1907-1909 (Clark, 1909), Kilkeman, collected by Heni-y Thomas, 1908 (Clark, 1909), and Bam, collected by A. Dalglish, pre 1901 (Clark, 1909); Dumfries and Galloway, Rockcliffe, collected by R.A. Crowson, 1966 (HM), Caerlaverock, collected by A. B. Duncan, 1984 (NMS), nr Dumfries, R. Service, 1879 (Sei'vice, 1879); East Lothian, Dunbar, collected by W. Evans, 1893 -1900 (Evans, 1901), and more widely across Scotland including Fife (NMS) and Kirkcudbrightshire(NMS). 120 Nomada niarshamella Moss, collected by R. Service, 1879 (Service, 1879) South Dumfriesshire, J. Murray circa 1940 (Mun'ay, 1940); StirlingshireA¥est Perthshire (1983); Argyllshire, 1988 (NBN), Kintyre, Tayvallich, 1988 (NBN) and more Renfrewshire, Kilbarchan, collected by FJ. Ramsay, 1944 and 1946 (NMS); Dunbartonshire, Gartlea, 1985 (NBN), Bonhill, collected by J.R. Malloch, 1901 (GM) and Milton on Campsie, collected by J. Cooter, 1977 (GM); Dumfries and Galloway, Dalskairth and Lochar widely across Scotland including Perthshire (McGregor, 1893), North (SIRI) and South Ebudes (NBN). Species County Location Date Collected by Determined Specimen held Andrena clarkella Lanarkshire Glasgow, Bunhouse Road, NS563663 01/04/2009 E.G. Hancock C. Fiedler HM Bombiis sylvestris Lanarkshire Glasgow, Provan Hall, NS669664 30/05/2009 J. Robinson J. Robinson GM Colletes daviesanus Lanarkshire Glasgow, Binghams pond, NS554681 05/07/2009 J. Robinson J. Robinson GM Lanarkshire Glasgow, Binghams pond,NS554681 26/07/2009 R. Weddle C. Fiedler HM Lanarkshire Necropolis, NS605654 07/07/2009 R. Weddle C. Fiedler HM Lasioglossiim calceatiim Lanarkshire Glasgow, Commonhead Moss, NS697659 29/05/2009 J. Robinson J. Robinson GM Lasioglossiim fratellum Lanarkshire Glasgow, Commonhead Moss, NS697659 29/05/2009 J. Robinson J. Robinson GM Lasioglossiim smeathmanel lum Lanarkshire Glasgow, NS599651 10/05/2009 R. Weddle C. Fiedler HM Megachile willughbiella Lanarkshire Glasgow, Binghams Pond.NS554681 5/07/2009 J. Robinson J. Robinson GM Nomada marshamella Lanarkshire Glasgow, Haybum Lane, NS556676 24/5/2009 R. Weddle C. Fiedlier HM Nomada marshamella Lanarkshire Glasgow, Provan Hall, NS669664, on garden wall by Andrena scotica nests 30/05/2009 J. Robinson J. Robinson GM Table 1, Aculeate specimens collected in Lanarkshire during 2009 fieldwork. DISCUSSION Western Scotland experienced mixed fortunes weather- wise during the summer of 2009, with 60% more rain than nonnal but warmer temperatures than either 2008 or 2007 (Met Office, 2009). On a number of days, we were met with ideal field conditions for suiweying aculeates, of especially warn and diy weather. Initial searches on the BWARS database, Scottish Aculeates List and Glasgow Species Audit led us to believe that many of our finds were new records for Glasgow and possibly the wider area. Inspection of the three museum collections and historical documents revealed that much work has been caiTied out on aculeates in Scotland during the 20'*’ century, but is not widely known about or cited. Indeed, many species that appeared of particular note were recorded previously, up to a century ago. These new records contribute to our knowledge of the species’ distribution over time, and reassuringly for aculeate conservation, reveals that some populations may have persisted in the south of Scotland for over a centuiy. A. clarkella, B. sylvestris, L. fratellum, L. smeathnumelliini, M. williiglihiella and N. marshamella have not previously been recorded from Lanarkshire. C daviesainis and L. calceatiim were thought to be new but turn out to have been here longer than expected. Male and female solitaiy bees of the attractive, tawny- thoraxed A. clarkella were active at the start of April. They had excavated burrows beneath the scrubby borders of one the West End’s car parks, adjacent to the river Kelvin. All the Scottish records, we examined, are from between early March and April. Their season in Scotland is February and May. They are oligolectic on Salix, hence the early season (Pers. Comm. Murdo Macdonald. October 2011). Although a new record for Lanarkshire, historically, A. clarkella 121 appears widespread in southwest Scotland. It has certainly been recorded from the majority of vice counties that border Lanarkshire over the last centuiy, so could have been active but undetected in Glasgow for some time. A B. sylvesths male, the four-coloured cuckoo bee, was caught flying in the gardens of one of Glasgow’s oldest buildings, the Provan Hall on a scorching May day. Its major host species, Bomhus pratoriim, the early bumblebee was abundant in the grounds. This species has also been found across Scotland. It is a first record for Lanarkshire, although it was recorded from the adjoining counties of Dunbartonshire, at the beginning of the last century and Dumfriesshire in 1975. Given this and the abundance of potential hosts, it is unlikely that this species has only just an'ived in Glasgow. Cuckoo bees arc often overlooked or misrccordcd as social bumblebees. The Scottish records we examined have all been between mid-May and September. These bees are known to be active in Scotland between March and October (Pers. Comm. Murdo Macdonald. October 2011). C. daviesanus was found foraging once in the Necropolis and on two separate occasions at Bingham’s pond in July 2009. Bingham’s pond was an artificial boating lake with little wildlife interest. Since 2003 the Glasgow City Council’s Biodiversity team has done extensive work to naturalise and enhance it. Many C. daviesanus bees, with their blond hairy thoraxes and banded abdomens, were observed foraging there on July 5'*’ in the specially planted wildflower borders (Fig. 1 ). This species was not listed in the Glasgow Species Audit, so the 2009 sightings were believed to be new county and city records. However, when checking older specimens that had been recently identified in GM collections, a specimen collected in 1984 from Kelvingrove Park was discovered, collected by a fomicr member of staff. These 1984 and 2009 sightings are the first for Lanarkshire, but there arc scattered records from all over the countiy. Whilst these bees may have been exploiting the established green areas such as the Necropolis and Kelvingrove Park for a number of years, Bingham’s pond has evidently become a valuable foraging site. All the Scottish records we examined were from between the beginning of July and the beginning of August for this species. This species may be active as early as June in Scotland (Pers. Comm. Murdo Macdonald. October 2011). To the untrained eye, the Lasioglossiim bees do not appear to be bees at all. Most species are very small and apparently unhaiiy, although do have patches or bands of hair on the abdomen on closer inspection. L. calceatwn was found at Commonhead Moss Local Nature Reserve. It is one of the larger species of Lasioglossum. Males are more distinctive than females, with a naiTow black and orange-red abdomen. Females have a more rounded abdomen with only tinges of orange-red colouration. Identification of museum specimens revealed that Richard Sutcliffe had collected L. calceatwn from Glasgow Kelvingrove Park and the Botanical Gardens in 1983 and 1984 respectively, and from Dunbartonshire in 1986. Murray (1940) described it as common in south Dumfriesshire at the end of the 1930s. Modem and historical records reveal that this is a widespread species across Scotland, and further searching in the field is likely to reveal even more records. Lasioglossum fratellum is a small, black bee with indistinct patches of hair on its abdomen. Modern and historic records have shown it to be widespread across Scotland. Our record from Commonhead Moss is the first for Lanarkshire but it has been found in the neighbouring counties of Renfrewshire, Stirlingshire, Ayrshire and Dunbartonshire. It forages on a range of flower species, such as daisies {Beilis perennis) and rosebay willowhcrb {Epilobium angustifolium) (Allen, 2006), which are broadly available, contributing to its wide distribution. L. smeatlunanellum has a characteristic metallic blue- green sheen over the thorax and abdomen (Edwards, 2005). Although not scarce or threatened, as it is common in England, its distribution in Scotland is more limited, being replaced by a closely related (and morphologically very similar) species, L. cupromicans further north (Edwards, 2005). Found in Glasgow’s city centre, this is a new record for Lanarkshire. Research has revealed a number of records in nearby counties of Ayrshire, Dunbartonshire, Dumfriesshire and Midlothian, and more widely across Scotland. Clark (1909) described this species as fairly common at some sites in Ayrshire at the beginning of the 1900s. So it seems its distribution is more extensive than initially anticipated. Like C. daviesanus, M. willughhiella, Willughby’s leaf-cutting bee, was also obseiwed on July 5''’ 2009 foraging in the wild flowers planted around Bingham’s pond. There was a published record for this species from Darnley in the South of the city (Renfrewshire) from 1993 (Hancock, 1994) but no records since and nothing previously from Lanarkshire. The south west of Scotland is devoid of records according to the latest distribution maps (BWARS 2010, NBN 2010) but in addition to these recent records, this species has also been active in the adjoining counties of Dumfries and Galloway and Ayrshire over the last century. This species has been recorded between the end of May and end of August in Scotland so far. Marsham’s Nomad bee, N. marsbamella was captured for the first time at the end of May in Haybum Lane, a small green corridor in Glasgow’s west end. There was a second record less than a week later, from Provan Hall in the east of the city, at the same site and date that the cuckoo bee, B. sylvesths sighting. About a dozen of these boldly banded, wasp-like bees were observed investigating entrances to nest burrows of the solitary bee Andrena scotica (= A. carantonica) in a 122 south facing garden wall. This species is a cleptoparasite, which parasitizes a few species of Andrena. The only host cuiTcntly known from Glasgow (GSA, 2009) is Andrena scotica, which was first confinned from a residential area in the West End in 2006 from a specimen submitted by Norman Grist (GM). These are the first records for any species of Nomad bees in Lanarkshire, however, in addition to the two Glasgow sightings, N. inarshamella has been recorded widely across Scotland including from the neighbouring counties of Dunbartonshire, Renfrewshire, Stirlingshire and Dumfries and Galloway. Over 60 years ago Murray (1940) commented that it was the only Nomada he had met with in any number in Dumfriesshire. All the records we examined for this species in Scotland are from between early May and the end of June. They are however known to be active between April and July in Scotland (Pers. Comm. Murdo Macdonald. October 2011). There are likely to be further interesting specimens in other museums and at other sites in the south west of Scotland relevant to this study. The authors would be interested to hear of them. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank members of the Glasgow Natural History Society, Richard Weddle and Nonnan Grist and Glasgow Museums cuiTent and fonner staff, Richard Sutcliffe, Jonathan Cooter and Fred Woodward for their contributions of specimens; Geoff Hancock at the Hunterian museum for specimens, references and staff at NMS for access to SIRI and both the fore mentioned for access to their collections. Many thanks to Carl Clee of National Museum Liveipool, Mark Pavett of National Museum of Wales, and Mike Edwards for verification of species identifications. Thanks to the BWARS for their records and to BTCV for funding the Natural Talent Apprenticeship, through which the aculeate specimens at Glasgow Museums are far more accessible. REFERENCES Allen, G. (2006). Lasioglossum fratelliiin, 76-77; in Edwards, R. and Broad, G. (editors) Provisional atlas of the aculeate Hymenoptera of Britain and Ireland: Part 6. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. BWARS. (2010). 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(1901). Mimesa dahlhombi and other aculeates in Scotland. Entomologist ’s Monthly Magazine ( 1 90 1 ) 37, 301. Glasgow Species Audit (GSA). (2009). Available electronically from the Glasgow Museums Resource Centre, 200 Woodhead Road, South Nitshill Industrial Estate, Glasgow. G53 7NN Tel: 0141 276 9330, Fax: 0141 276 9305, E-mail: biological. records@,csglasgow.org. Hancock, E. G. (1994). Leafeutter bees Megachile wilhighbiella Kirby at Waulkmill Glen, Damley Glasgow. Glasgow Naturalist 22 (4), 430. Guichard, K, M. (1939). Aculeate Hymenoptera from the Highlands Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine (1940) 76,43-44. Met Office. (2010). UK weather statistics available at www.metofficc.gov.uk. Accessed in Janiiaiy 2010. McGregor, T. M. (1893). Notes on the aculeate hymenoptera, with a list of the wild bees and wasps collected in Perthshire in 1887. Transactions of the Perthshire Society of Natural Science ( 1 893)72). MuiTay, J. A. (1940). Dumfriesshire Aculeate Hymenoptera. Entomologist ’s Monthly Magazine (1940)76,60-61. NBN. (2010). The National Biodiversity Network for interactive maps of the distribution of British species available at http://www.nbn.org.uk/. Accessed in Janiiaiy 2010. Rothney, G.A. James. (1906). Aculeate Hymenoptera at St Fillans and the Braes of Balquhiddcr, Perthshire. Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine (1906) 257. Scottish Aculeates List. (2010). List of Aculeates known from Scotland and their current status available at http://www.hbrg.org.uk/SAL/indcx.html. A ccessed in Janiiaiy 2010. Service, Robert. (1879). The aculeate hymenoptera of the district suiTounding Dumfries. The Scottish Naturalist 5, 63-68. Stubbs, Alan. (2007). The Nomada test key. See the BWARS website http://www.bwars.com/bee test kevs.htm. Accessed in Janiiaiy 2010. 123 The entomology collection of Dr Clifford Edwards (1913-2009) in Glasgow Museums Jeanne Robinson Curator of Entomology, Glasgow Life, Glasgow Museums, Kelvingrove Museum and Galleries, Glasgow, G3 SAG E-mail: jeanne.robinson@glasgowlife.org.uk Fig. 1, Clifford Edwards Clifford Edwards was born in Bristol in 1913 (Fig. 1). He worked in insurance before the Second World War and again on his return from active service. He left the insurance business to attend Southampton University, where he was awarded his BSc. He went on to obtain a PhD before starting as assistant lecturer at the Queen’s University, Belfast in 1953. He moved to Scotland, where he lived and worked for much of his adult life as a professional biologist for the Scottish Marine Biological Association. He studied the zooplankton of the Clyde at Millport between 1956 and 1969. He moved to Dunstaffnage in 1969, shortly after the new marine laboratory opened and worked there until he retired in 1980. He was awarded a DSc from the University of London in 1975 for his work on the life-histories, systematics, ecology and distribution of British hydroids and hydomcdusac; the significance for classification of the Hydroida and histoiy of the study of Hydroida. Whilst he had not published as much as some DSc applicants, his work was of such quality he was deemed deserving. Dr Paul Cornelius, a fellow Cnidarian expert, fomierly of the Natural History Museum, London described his publications and the man himself as meticulous and totally reliable. Dr Edwards specialised in rearing and describing hydroids. There was much taxonomic confusion in the group, with the early and later life stages being given different species names. With the assistance of Martyn Harvey, he managed to establish what a number of these organisms looked like at each stage of development, clearing up the taxonomy.. He has a Hydrozoan named in his honour, Sarsia clijfordi Brinckmann-Voss, 1989. Dr Anita Brinkmann-Voss, the author, said that she and her Canadian colleagues had greatly admired his work and refen-ed to him as an ‘outstanding scientist’. Looking at Dr Edwards’ entomology collection it is apparent that he also brought professional scientific rigour to his ‘amateur’ entomological investigations. The collection contains over 100 store boxes of beautifully preserved pinned specimens from the West of Scotland and beyond (Fig. 2). There are numerous boxes of Scottish material, including 17 boxes of Hymenoptera, 7 of Coleoptera and 2 of Diptera. The remaining boxes arc lepidoptera. Most of the collection is contemporai7, collected by Clifford Edwards between the 1930s and the 1980s. He did not drive so was largely reliant on public transport and his fondness for cycling to find his specimens; consequently many come from in and around Oban. There are often a large number of examples of the same species collected from different locations and on different dates, including speckled woods, marsh fritillaries and bumet moths. Whether this sampling was to support particular investigations or just reflect his strong collector’s instinct remains to be established. His colleagues knew he was knowledgeable about insects, amongst many other things, but had no idea he actually collected insects. Dr Edward’s sister said that Clifford was always a keen insect collector. In addition to the store boxes there are several boxes of papered lepidoptera that were collected by Dr Edwards in the 1970s and 80s, from Ireland. Dorset and Cornwall amongst others. Dr Edwards regularly took holidays in the South West of England. There are a number of more aged tins of unlabelled specimens wrapped in paper of foreign origin. Several specimens are wrapped in army stationaiy and one of the tins is dated 1942, so were probably collected by him during his military service with the Hampshire Regiment. There are specimens in a tin labelled with Perugia, dated the 8''’ August 1945, just over a year after the Italian town was seized by the British troops. Martyn Harvey remembers Dr Edwards mentioning that he worked making maps for the army, following the invading forces through North Africa and Italy. Dr Edwards had purchased and collected foreign butterfly and moth specimens to complement and enhance his collected material. Between 1970 and 1974, he spent nearly £1000 on specimens. There are 124 examples purchased from Worldwide Butterflies, R. N. Baxter, the Butterfly Centre, Saruman Butterflies, J. W. Smale, L. Christie, G. Hanrahan and K. P and D. J. Tolhurst. There are two specimens labelled as types in the box of Indian Lycaenid butterflies, which require some research to determine their authenticity. Dr Clifford Edwards bequeathed his entomology collection to the Glasgow Natural History Society (GNHS) in the winter of 2009. Glasgow Museums (GM) was given first refusal of the specimens. In addition to the insect collection, Dr Edwards amassed a considerable natural history libraiy, which he left to the Glasgow University Library (GUL). The GUL contacted GM around the same time to offer the museum the books that they did not require. Early in 2010, Jeanne Robinson, Curator of Entomology went to assess the insect and library holdings in Dr Edwards’ home. GM subsequently agreed to take all of the insect collection and a selection of the books. Scottish insect collections are few and far between and this collection complements and enhances GM’s existing holdings in line with the collecting policy. Fig. 2. A selection of Scottish bumblebees from Clifford Edwards’ collection Thus GM has acquired a large volume of reference material concerning the taxonomy and biology of lepidoptera of the world and a select few about other groups of organisms. The collection has been accessioned as Z. 2010. 19 and can be viewed by appointment with the Entomology curator at the Glasgow Museums Resource Centre (GMRC). Dr Edward’s books are also housed at GMRC and a list of these volumes acquired is in preparation. Many thanks to May Edwards, Allan Davis, Clive Craik, Paul Cornelius, Anita Brinkmann-Voss and Martyn Harvey for providing biographical infonnation about Clifford Edwards. If you knew Dr Edwards and have any additional information for inclusion in GM’s biographical files please contact the author. Adventures with Amphibians J.R. Downie School of Life Sciences, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ E-mail: roger.downie@glasgow.ac.uk INTRODUCTION A retirement lecture gives an opportunity for looking back and reviewing, and attempting to give coherence to a career. I can think of scientists who set off early on a theme and pursued it doggedly throughout their careers. Mine hasn’t been like that. I began as an avian embryologist, then got interested in the reproductive ecology of amphibians. Then, through involvement in student expeditions overseas, marine turtle life histories and conseiwation developed as a side interest. Along the line bioethics and evolution edueation became research themes too, so there is little eoherence, but diversity of interests is not such a bad thing for a biologist. I’ve chosen to concentrate here on amphibians, and have called my experiences ‘Adventures’, partly because amphibian work is often at night, and in the tropics, night work in swamps can lead to all sorts of unexpected happenings. ‘Chance encounters might be a better title, because chance has played a major part in the research I’ve been able to do. My interest in amphibians grew out of teaching a course on reproductive biology, mainly in the vertebrates. In 1982, 1 got the chance to spend five months study leave in Trinidad. This was quite serendipitous. Robin Bruce, an ex-student who had been with us on an expedition to Iceland (1972) obtained his first lecturing post at the University of the West Indies in Trinidad. He reported that Trinidad and Tobago were good places to study frogs, and that his head of department had written the guide to them (Kenny, 1969). So my family and I went to Trinidad and I got hooked for life, having now visited the islands more than 20 times. In recent years, I’ve become involved in amphibian work in the UK too, but in this lecture. I’ll concentrate on four themes from our Trinidad work. FOUR AMPHIBIAN ADVENTURES Foam-nesting frogs My first serious work in Trinidad in 1982 shows the influence of luck and chance. We arrived in the dry season with not many frogs around. Then there was some patchy rain, and puddles began fonning on a pieee of waste ground on the UWI campus: I passed these each day. After a heavy shower, I was surprised to find well developed tadpoles in the puddle as well as floating foam nests. I was fairly sure there had been no tadpoles previously. A few dry days and the puddle 125 dried up. Hard luck on these tadpoles and the foam nests, I thought, but then it rained again, and there were tadpoles again. What was going on? Next time it dried, I searched the damp mud at the low point and found, under dead leaves, an aggregation of tadpoles, wriggling about in a little heap of froth. A bit more searching, and in a burrow, under a stone was a white foam nest, containing early hatchling tadpoles. This was my first encounter with the whistling frog Leptodactylus fusciis, and it was a matter of luck because the ground staff tidied up the area a few years later and the frog populations disappeared. L. fuscus is a foam-nesting species, and often shares breeding pools with another foam nester, the tungara frog Engy’stomops pustulosiis, which produces the floating foam. An aside at this point: one of the real bugbears of working on tropical amphibians is unstable taxonomy. This is partly a consequence of colonial times with French, Dutch, Spanish and British natural historians giving different names to what turned out to be the same species, then having to soil out the mess. L. fuscus has had NINE names: Raua fusca (1799), Rana typhouia, Rana sihilathx, Leptodactylus typhonius, Cystignafhus typhonius, Cystignathus fuscus, Leptodactylus sihilator, Leptodacty’lus sihilatrix, Leptodactylus fuscus (1983). More recently, molecular phylogenetics have revolutionised our understanding of the evolutionai'y relationships of amphibians and unleashed a continuing spasm of taxonomic revision. Few of the frog species I first encountered in Trinidad in 1982 now have the same names. This is a curse, but also an opportunity: the unravelling of relationships has generated many opportunities to think again about the evolution of life histories and other adaptive features, as we’ll see later. When I started, the Trinidad tungara frog was Eupemphix then Physalaennis, now Engy’stomops and it is now in a separate family, the Leiuperidae, no longer a leptodactylid. Here are some of the things we found about these two frogs (Downie & Nicholls, 2004). Leptodactydus fuscus • Eggs are deposited in hidden burrows close to where temporary pools fonn. Buitows are closed by mud ‘lids’. Most nests are deposited on dry nights, not after rain. We find them by prodding a spoon handle into the mud. • Hatching occurs after 3 days. Tadpoles make a new kind of foam via oral secretions, and tadpoles can remain in this, without developing further, up to 4 weeks. • If heavy rain falls, the tadpoles - already developed beyond hatching stage, enter the pool as the nest opens up - and are capable of eating newly deposited eggs of other species. • The longer tadpoles stay in foam, the poorer their condition, and less able they are to grow successfully to metamorphosis. • Burrow nests seem an excellent adaptation to an unpredictable environment but they do face a threat: a species of phorid fly, ‘frogflies’, can deposit their eggs in the foam and become maggots fast enough to destroy the frog embryos (this turned out to be a new species that we were able to describe). • If the pond dries up, tadpoles can shelter under leaves or rocks on the damp mud surface and can survive several days - our original observation. Engy’stomops pustulosiis • Floating foam nests are laid after rains. Hatching occurs after 2-3 days, with some larvae emerging late from the nest, possibly allowing development to a more advanced stage. • Tadpoles have no ability to survive if the pond dries up. • In competition with L. fuscus tadpoles, E. pustulosiis tadpoles fare poorly - taking longer to reach metamorphosis and at a smaller size. Conclusion: L. fuscus seems the superior competitor when pools are temporary and rainfall is unpredictable. Yet you see E. pustiilosus everywhere: it seems especially well suited to human-related habitats like flooded tyre-ruts and must be a very effective colonizer of disturbed habitats. Perhaps the larger clutch size (about 100 for L. fuscus; 400 for E. pustiilosus) is important here. Phyllomedusa: one of the charismatic poster frogs Here we have a piece of Glasgow Zoological history (Downie, 1997). The first generally cited paper on Phyllomedusa is by J.S. Budgett (1899) - a friend and colleague of John Graham Kerr’s before Kerr came to Glasgow. Budgett’s observations of Phyllomedusa were made on the Gran Chaco (Argentina-Paraguay) expedition where Kerr collected the lungfish embryos that were to be his main study. The second widely cited paper is by Wilfrid Agar (1910): Agar joined Graham Kerr in the Zoology Department in Glasgow and made observations on Phyllomedusa during another lungfish collecting trip in 1907-8 (not accompanied by Kerr). Agar eventually became Professor of Zoology in Melbourne, Australia from 1920. Both Budgett and Agar made important observations on Phyllomedusa reproduction, and we have recently been able to extend these. The Phyllomedusinae are a sub-family of a major treefrog family, the Hylidae. There are (so far) 60 species of Phyllomedusine frogs, distributed throughout the neo-tropics, from Argentina through Central America and into Southern Mexico (Frost, 2011). There are two main genera, Agalychnis (including the widely-photographed A. callidiyas - the red-eyed treefrog) and Phyllomedusa. Phyllomedusines do not deposit their eggs in water. In Agalychnis eggs are deposited in clumps on open leaves overhanging water in wet rainforest. Since 1996, Karen Warkentin has published a large number of studies on Agalychnis 126 based on her original finding that Agalydmis development shows considerable plasticity: egg clutches are heavily predated by snakes, but embryos can detect them and - within limits - hatch prematurely to escape the snakes, which tend not to swim after them. There is a classic trade off in operation here: embryos which develop fully on the leaf before hatching do better once they reach water than premature hatchlings: but if snakes attack, all embryos may be eaten, so premature hatching gives them a survival chance (Warkentin, 1999). In comparison, Phyllomediisa incubation and hatching has been comparatively neglected, with few publications since Pybum (1980). In Trinidad, we have Phylloinedusa trwitatis (which also occurs in northem Venezuela); in Phylloinedusa, eggs are deposited as an elongated clump on a leaf, but the adults use their limbs to fold the leaf around the clump, often managing to enclose the egg clump more or less completely - with an opening top and bottom. These openings are plugged by dense masses of jelly. Throughout the egg clutch are scattered large numbers of small round jelly capsules. The jelly capsules and plugs, and the eggs themselves (with thin jelly coats) are adhesive - so once the leaf has been folded over the clutch, it sticks in place. Generally, the leaf-nest overhangs a pool of water, so when the embryos hatch and emerge from the nest, they drop into the water below. But it seems not always possible for adults ready to reproduce to find a suitable leaf or leaves in a good place. They have two solutions. First, there may be better leaves a short distance away from the pool: once hatchlings emerge, they land on the ground, and are well capable of moving to water by flipping movements of their already powerful tails. Second, they can make rudimentary nests even from blades of grass overhanging a pool: we don’t think these are very successful, and it would be interesting to investigate what factors drive frogs to make this choice. Agar (1910) suggested that the jelly capsules help hydrate the eggs, since he noticed that during incubation, eggs swell with fluid and jelly capsules shrink: the hydration role of jelly capsules has been confinned (Pybum, 1980). How the frog’s oviduct is able to make separate secretory releases (top and bottom jelly plugs, quite complex stmcturally; scattered capsules; a thin jelly coat round each egg), is not clear. What we’ve found (work in preparation); • Contrary to previous reports, eggs do develop in aquatic media, the better the later they enter water and the better if the medium is a dilute balanced salt solution. • The covering leaves do not need to be alive: incubation in cut leaf-nests is as successful as in live leaf-nests. • Hatching of individual eggs can be stimulated by immersion in water, once they are hatching competent, or by contact with already hatched larvae, by a kind of chain reaction. • Emergence from the nest does not occur until the lower jelly plug has been dissolved - probably as a result of enzymes released by larval hatching gland cells. • Because of the time-lag between individual egg hatching and nest emergence, we do not think that premature hatching in response to predator attacks is relevant in Phyllomedusa. Rather, the leaf-fold nest and jelly plugs act as effective banders to many kinds of predators. • But there is a puzzle, yet to be resolved: how do Phyllomedusa eggs respire when they arc apparently completely cut off from the air by leaf and jelly? The diversity of embryo-specific surface structures I’ve been fortunate for some years to have Mohsen Nokhbatolfoghahai working with me on the diversity of embryo and larval specific structures such as: • Surface ciliation • External gills • Cement glands • Hatching gland cells • Tails Scanning electron microscopy of these stmcturcs produces beautiful images (for example, Nokhbatolfoghahai & Downie, 2005). The example discussed here is that of the tails of direct-developing frogs, and luck is again important. There are several lineages of anurans where a trend involving egg size increase and incubation on land has led to the suppression of the tadpole stage, and direct development to a juvenile frog. Generally, this involves the deletion from development of several larval specific stmetures, such as cement glands and external gills. But the tail is retained in modified form through the incubation stage, usually being resorbed just before hatching. We had included some observations on a Trinidad species Eleutherodactylus urichi in our paper on surface ciliation (Nokhbatolfoghahai el ah, 2005). Then Nicola Mitchell (Western Australia) asked us to look at some direct-developing embryos of the turtle frog, and we elected to do this as a more detailed comparison with Eleutherodactylus. However, molecular phylogenetics had by then sub-divided the vast neo-tropical genus Eleutherodactylus (800+ species) into three main ancient sub-lineages and given the whole group super-family status (Hedges et ah, 2008). Our Eleutherodactylus was no longer in that genus: now Pristimantis, whereas the only other member of the group whose embryos had been looked at in detail, the coqui frog of Puerto Rico, remained Eleutherodactydus coejui. This taxonomic revision made us look harder, and we discovered a veiy surprising feature (Nokhbatolfoghahai et al., 2010). In most direct-developing frogs, the tail is retained, but as a respiratory organ with highly vascular skin. In the 127 coqui frog and in the turtle frog, this involves some elongation of the tail fins to inerease respiratoi’y exehange surface area. But in Pristimantis urichi, we found that tail surface area expanded not by fin elongation, but by lateral expansion of skin, blood vessels and connective tissue. In coqui frogs and turtle frogs, the tail has well developed muscle, allowing the tail to move from side to side. In Pristimantis, the muscle is reduced, so that the tail has become a fixed respiratory organ, with its outer surface close to the inner wall of the vitelline membrane - in some ways reminiscent of the allantois in amniote embryos (though referees would not allow us to suggest that analogy!). Will this evolutionaiy innovation be found in other Pristimantis? Manna the stream frog 1 talked about our work on Maimopluyne trinitatis, Trinidad’s only dendrobatid (now aromobatid) in my 2005 Presidential Address (Downie, 2005), so I won’t go over this in detail again. However, there is a footnote to the story. M. trinitatis males guard the eggs on land till they hatch. The male then carries the tadpoles on his back till he finds a suitable stream to deposit them into. Our work showed that suitable streams can be hard to find ~ since the males avoid leaving tadpoles in streams containing predators such as Rivulus fish. This is another case of good luck: for some time. I’d wondered where the males deposited their tadpoles, because we knew of many streams with large frog population but no tadpoles (but abundant Rivulus). Then one trip we chanced on a stream with hundreds of tadpoles (and no fish). Since each male only cairics about 12 tadpoles, clearly frogs were coming to this stream from some distance, to avoid fish predation. Eventually, 1 realised that these males arc on a dangerous quest and wrote it up as a children’s story. We’ve now successfully told it - in the form of a play - to children’s groups in Scotland and Trinidad. In my view, we need to develop stories about animals that can grab the attention of young people and help re-connect them with nature - if we are to halt the alanning declines in biodiversity we see everywhere - and in amphibians in particular. To give the stoiy ‘human’ interest, Manno the male stream frog meets a female called Trini, and really fancies her. Trini is older and a bit bossy and when Manno suggests that after he’s found a good stream for their first batch of tadpoles, that they might get together again “to get to know each other better’’ - Trini is pretty sharp with him. I put in the idea of Manno and Trini becoming a faithful pair to add some human interest, and knowing that monogamy isn’t supposed to happen in any frogs. However, a recent report shows that it does, and in a species of the same general type as M. trinitatis. In the mimic poison frog Ranitomeya imitator, males transport tadpoles on their backs to tiny bromeliad tanks. There is so little water and food per tank that tadpole growth depends on the female depositing trophic eggs to feed the tadpoles. The male stays on guard, and calls the female when more food is needed. Clearly, they care for the young together - and a possible hypothesis, yet to be tested, is that if the parents are successful in their different parental roles, it makes sense in tenns of Darwinian fitness to remain together as a pair - for life (Kokko & Jennions, 2010). CONCLUSION Most people arc now aware of the serious threat to amphibian populations around the world. In my view, we need to do a lot more of the basic natural histoi'y work I’ve described, in order to understand better the lives of amphibians. If we don’t, we are unlikely to devise sensible and effective conservation procedures. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper is the edited text of the Presidential Address delivered to the Glasgow Natural History Society in October, 2010. The Address also acted as the 10'*’ Blodwcn Lloyd Binns lecture and as a lecture to mark my retirement after 40 years on the staff of the University of Glasgow. I’d like to thank the many undergraduate and postgraduate students who have contributed to the work described here. I’d also like to acknowledge the funders of this work, especially the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, the University of Glasgow and the Blodwen Lloyd Binns bequest. REFERENCES Agar, W.E. (1910). The nesting habits of the tree-frog Phyllomedusa sauvagii. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 2010, 893-7. Budget!, J.S. (1899). Notes on the Batrachians of the Paraguayan Chaco, with observations upon their breeding habits and development, especially with regard to Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis Cope. Also a description of a new genus. Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical Societ)' (N.S.) 42, 305-33. Downie, J.R. (1997). Glasgow’s neotropical frog connection. The Glasgow Naturalist 23(2), 54. Downie, J.R. (2005). In cold blood: tales of a heipctologist. The Glasgow Naturalist 24(3), 56-9. Downie, J.R. & Nicholls, B. (2004). Comparative breeding ecology of the frogs Leptodactylus fuscus and Physalaemus pustulosus in Trinidad, West Indies. Living World 2004, 12-16. Lrost, D.R. (201 1). Amphibian species of the world: an online reference. Version 5.5 (31 Januai-y 2011). Electronic database accessible at http://research.amnh.org/vz/lieipetologv/amphibia/ American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA. Hedges, S.B., Duellman, W.E. & Heinicke, M.P. (2008). New World direct-developing frogs (Anura: TciTarana): molecular phylogeny, classification, biogcography and conservation. Zootaxa 1737, 1- 182. Kenny, J.S. (1969). Amphibia of Trinidad. Studies on the fauna of Curac^'ao and other Caribbean Islands 128 29, 1-78. Kokko, H. & Jennions, M. (2010). Ways to raise tadpoles. Nature 464, 990-1. Nokhbatolfoghahai, M., Downie, J.R., Clelland, A.K. & Rennison, K. (2005). The surface ciliation of anuran embryos and early lai'vae: patterns, timing differences and functions. Journal of Natural History! 39, 887-929. Nokhbatolfoghahai, M., Mitchell, N.J. & Downie, J.R. (2010). Surface ciliation and tail structure in direct- developing frog embryos: a comparison between Myobatrachus gouldii and Pristimantis (= Eleutherodactylus) urichi. Herpetological Journal 20, 59-68. Pybum, W.F. (1980). The function of eggless capsules and leaf in nests of the frog Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis (Anura: Hylidae). Proceedings of the Biological Society’ of Washington 93, 153-67. Warkentin, K.M. (1999). The development of behavioural defenses: a mechanistic analysis of vulnerability in red-eyed tree frog hatchlings. Behavioural Ecology 10, 251-62. The migrant moth, small marbled Eublemma parva^ in central Scotland in 2011 Carina Convery', Dawn Collis" & Glyn Collis‘ ' Upper Flat, Lower Abercom, South Queensferry, EH30 9SL. ^ Seasgair, Ascog, Isle of Bute, PA20 9ET. ' E-mail: carinaconvery(^yahoo. co.uk ^E-mail: g.m.collis(^gmail.com The small marbled Eublemma parva is a small noctuid moth resident in southern Europe and parts of Africa and Asia. As an immigrant from southern Europe to the UK, it is most often recorded from the coastal counties of southern England with the density of records decreasing northwards. It sometimes produces larvae and late season adults, but there is no evidence of over- wintering in the UK. Most UK sources give common fleabane Pulicaria dysenterica and ploughman's spikenard Inula conyzae as larval foodplants. Other foodplants have been noted elsewhere in Europe, including several species that are on the British list. In appearance, the small marbled is very small for a member of the family Noctuidae, and quite likely to be mistaken as belonging to one of the microlepidoteran families. The base of the forewings have a washed-out tan colour, increasing in intensity toward the central band where there is usually an abrupt change to white, thus forming a centra! line, followed by a renewed darkening toward a second crossline which has a shape that has been likened to a question-mark (when viewed from the trailing edge of the right forewing). Beyond the second crossline there is another somewhat diffuse tan-coloured band which extends toward the wing tip. According to South (1920) the small marbled (referred to by South as Thalcopares pan’o) was first noted in Britain in July 1844 in South Devon. It is widely reported that there was a particularly dramatic influx in 1953. As far as can be ascertained, the first Scottish record was by R. Knill-Jones at Parkgate, Dumfriesshire, VC72, inferred 1km grid reference NY0287, where it was attracted to mercury vapour light on 1 0th July 1 982 (Bretherton & Chalmers-Hunt, 1983, pi 49). Bretherton and Chalmers-Hunt noted (p89) that this was the only record of an adult in that year though many larvae were found in south Devon in August and September and adults were reared from these larvae. The second Scottish record, also in the south-west, was by R. Meams at Clanyard Mill, Drummore, Wigtownshire, VC74, inferred 1km grid reference NX1037, on 20th June 1998 (Skinner & Collins, 2000, p246). The latter specimen is now in the National Museums of Scotland in Edinburgh. In England too, 1998 was a good year for small marbled with records from seven English vice-counties, from the Scillies in the south-west to Holy Island in the north-east, plus a record from the Isle of Man. Larvae were found in Portland. In 2011, there were two further Scottish records of adult small marbled, both in Central Scotland. On the east coast, the first author, C.C., caught one on 04 July 2011 in an 8W actinic portable Heath trap in her garden in Abercom, West Lothian VC84, grid ref NT080789. Subsequently, in the west, D.C. and G.C. caught one on 27 July 2011 in a 40w actinic trap in their garden in Ascog, Isle of Bute, VC 100, grid ref NS 105639. Informal reports indicate that 2011 has been a good year for small marbled in the UK as a whole. Thus, as far as we are aware, there have now been just four records of the small marbled in Scotland, in four different vice counties, the furthest north being the West Lothian record. REFERENCES Bretherton, R. F. & Chalmers-Hunt, J. M. (1983). The Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation 95: 89-94, 149-152. Skinner, B. & Collins, G.A. (2000). The immigration of Lepidoptera to the British Isles in 1998. Entomologist’s Record & Journal of Variation, 112:233-251. South, R.E. (1920). Moths of the British Isles, second series. Wame, London. http://www.biodiversitvlibrary.org/page/12260522 Accessed: 07 November 2011. 129 The Australian landhopper, Arcitalitrus dorrieni (Hunt, 1925), Crustacea, Amphipoda, in Glasgow E. Geoffrey Hancock The Hunterian, Zoology Museum, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ E-mail: Geoff.Hancock@glasgow.ac.uk The landhopper Arcitalitrus dorrieni, was found in Glasgow amongst leaf litter and under wood and stones in bushes at the southern end of the public car park, Bunhouse Road, in April, 2009. Landhoppers are obvious when the surface of the leaf litter is disturbed or exposed (Figure 1). Their dark brown shiny bodies can be seen as they jump several centimetres in the air before burying rapidly back into the dead leaves. This behaviour is typical of the animal and immediately recognisable in the field. The population appears to be established as they have been seen on several occasions since then. Some specimens were collected and are preserved in the Hunterian Museum (Zoology). It was conjectured that the landhoppers might have been transported to the site during some recent landscaping at the car park. The City Council maintains a large depot at Bellahouston Park where shrubs and other plants are kept prior to use. If plants had been brought from there which already contained landhoppers in the soil around their roots this could explain their origin on a local scale. Searching under bushes around the entrance to the depot did reveal landhoppers, showing this was indeed the probable immediate source. These animals can be transported over long distances by such means. The original transfer from Australia to Europe was in plants, probably tree ferns, imported to Tresco Abbey Gardens in the Scillies, sometime prior to 1924. Previous occurrences in Scotland are from the three Scottish Islands of Colonsay (Moore & Spicer, 1986), Gigha (Cowling, et ah, 2004) and Arran (Brodick Castle Gardens on 13 September, 2010, unpublished record from a British Isopod and Myriapod Group field meeting), plus two mainland localities, Inverewe Garden, Wester Ross, 29 June 1998 and Loch Laich, Appin, Argyll, 21 June 2001, on both these occasions by G.B. Corbet (personal communication). A survey by questionnaire was conducted by Cowling and her colleagues using a wide distribution of posters and questionnaires over the whole of Britain. From this about 170 negative records were created for Scotland. Thus, the finding of landhoppers in Glasgow would seem to be a recent establishment of the species. Added to a few sites in London where the landhopper has become resident these seem to be the only known established urban populations in the British Isles. Fig. L Australian land hoppers amongst debris, Bunhouse Road, Glasgow, 2009 REFERENCES Cowling, J., Spicer, J.I., Gaston, K.J. & Weeks, J.M. (2004). Current status of an amphipod invader Arcitalitrus dorrieni (Hunt, 1925) in Britain. Journal of Natural History 3^: 1665-1675. Moore, P. G. and Spicer, J.I. (1986). On the status of Arcitalitrus dorrieni (Crustacea: Amphipoda) on the island of Colonsay, Inner Hebrides. Journal of Natural History 20(3): 667-680. Miscellaneous invertebrates recorded from the Outer Hebrides^ 2010 John H. Bratton 18 New Street, Menai Bridge, Anglesey, LL59 5HN E-mail: jhnbratton@yahoo.co.uk While attending the Botanical Society of the British Isles field meeting on North Uist in August 2010, the opportunity was taken to collect invertebrates. The records presented here fall into two categories, being either the less common species found on North Uist, or lengthier species lists from two smaller and less well recorded islands. The three flies recorded from Hermetray may be the first records of Diptera from this island (Skidmore, 2009).The species' status are taken from Foster (2010) for aquatic beetles, Hyman & Parsons (1992) for other beetles, and Falk (1991) for flies. Heteroptera Halosalda lateralis: 2 in saltmarsh, Claggan Sollas, NF8 18758, 5 August. A shorebug found in 130 saltmarshes. Homoptera Euconomelm lepidus: 1 male and 3 females swept from moss beside Loch a' Roe, NF69077045, 2 August. A small plant-hopper associated with rushes, Juncus spp. Coleoptera Chaetarthria simillima: 4 sieved from moss beside Loch a' Roe, NF69077045, 2 August. A tiny water beetle, Nationally Scarce, described new to science as a segregate of C. seminulum in 2003. See Levey (2005) for how to distinguish the species and Foster (2009) for distribution maps. C. simillima has been recorded previously from the southern end of the Outer Hebrides. Cercyon littoral is: 2 in beach driftline, Traigh lar, NFS 16767, 5 August. A small beetle. Nationally Scarce, found in coastal driftlines. Gyrinus minutus: 2 males in a small peat pool near Loch Sgadabhagh, NF87 136725, 3 August. A Nationally Scarce whirligig beetle. Silpha tyrolensis: 1 on dunes, Machair Leathann, NF820772, 1 August; 1 dead on machair, Claggan Sollas, NF806761, 5 August. A Nationally Scarce carrion beetle, possibly a predator of molluscs according to Hyman & Parsons (1992). The specimen from Claggan Sollas was in a bucket part full of water which had acted as an insect trap and contained dozens of dor beetles Geotrupes stercorarius, many of them decomposing. Diptera Nemotelns uliginosus: female in saltmarsh, Claggan Sollas, NFS 18758, 5 August. A soldierfly which breeds in saltmarsh. Gimnomera tarsea: two females swept from moss beside Loch a' Roe, NF69077045, 2 August. A Nationally Scarce scathophagid fly which breeds in the seed heads of marsh lousewort Pedicidoris palustris. Calliphora walensis: 1 male and 2 females collected from a group of 10 bluebottles in the porch of Sheillaidh, Sollas, NF81957536, 11 pm, 4 August; 1 male on beach, Traigh lar, NFS 16767, 5 August. A boreal blowfly or bluebottle. Red Data Book category 3, Rare, restricted in Great Britain to Scotland, and mainly coastal (Davies, 1987). Hymenoptera Bombus muscorum ssp. liepeterseni: worker dead on dunes, Machair Leathann, NF820772, 1 August; worker, machair, Balranald, NF697698, 2 August. We were told by the Balranald warden Jamie Boyle that the bumblebee Bombus muscorum is frequent on North Uist. However, the two collected specimens have black hairs on the abdomen, which indicates they should be B. pascuorum according to Edwards & Jenner (2009), a species not found in the Outer Hebrides. The issue was resolved by Dr Oliver Prys-Jones who identified them as this subspecies of muscorum, which does have black hairs, as explained in his recent book (Prys-Jones, Corbet & Hopkins 2011). In Britain, it is known only from the Outer Hebrides. Hermetray, 4 August Small pool in valley bog, NF98687412: Agabus bipustulatus, Hydroporus gyllenhalii, H. pubescens, H. tristis, Enochrus fuscipetmis (aquatic Coleoptera). Lake, NF988741: Isclvmra elegaus, Sympetrum nigrescens det. R. Youngmann (Odonata). Same lake, NF989739: Mystacides azurea, 2 females (Trichoptera). Rocky shore, NF99047398: Ligia oceanica (Crustacea, Isopoda). Driftline of sand and shingle beach, NF98637367: Fucellia tergina male, Scathophaga litorea (Diptera). Freshwater spring by beach, NF98617371: Hydroporus pubescens (aquatic Coleoptera). Pool above north end of beach, NF98587371: Gammarus duebeni (Crustacea, Amphipoda). Bay, NF98557442: Petrobius hrevistydis (Thysanura), Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera), Clivina fossor, Ocypus ater (Coleoptera), Eristalimis aeneus (Diptera), Porcellio scaber (Cmstacea, Isopoda). Ronay, 6 August Seepage, NF88775593: Agabus bipustulatus, Hydroporus nigrita, Anacaena globulus, Laccobius bipunctatus (aquatic Coleoptera), Fox moth Macrothylacia rubi larvae (Lepidoptera). Under litter on turf, NF887559: Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera), Philoscia muscorum (Crustacea, Isopoda). Moorland, NF894558; Knotgrass moth Acronicta rumicis 2 larvae (Lepidoptera). Moorland, NF899557: Magpie moth Abraxas grossulariata. Garden Tiger Arctia caja (Lepidoptera). Small peaty lake, NF90085566: Sympetrum danae larva (Odonata), Agabus arcticus, Enochrus fuscipennis (aquatic Coleoptera). Another small lake, NF89845569: Hydroporus obscurus, Gyrinus minutus, G. substriatus (aquatic Coleoptera). Shore of rocky lake, NF897 15537: Emperor moth Saturnia pavonia larva (Lepidoptera). I wish to thank Wendy McCarthy and Martyn Stead for driving me to and around the island; Paul Smith for arranging the trips to Heirnetray and Ronay; Rosemarie MacCuish of Sheillaidh, Sollas, for accommodation; Dmitri Logunov of Manchester Museum for access to Silphidae reference specimens; and Dr Oliver Piys- Jones for solving the bumblebee conundrum. REFERENCES Davies, L. (1987). The distribution in Scotland and Ireland of Calliphora uralensis and its occurrence with and separation from C. vicina (Insecta: Diptera). Irish Naturalists' Journal 22, 241-244. Edwards, M., & Jenner, M. (2009). Field guide to the bumblebees of Great Britain & Ireland. Revised edition. Ocelli. Falk, S. (1991). A review of the scarce and threatened flies of Great Britain (part I). Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough. Foster, G.N. (2009). Chaetarthria in Britain and 131 Ireland. Latissinius, no. 25, 14. Foster, G.N. (2010). A review of the scarce and threatened Coleoptera of Great Britain. Part 3: water beetles of Great Britain. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. Hyman, P.S., & Parsons, M.S. (1992). A review of the scarce and threatened Coleoptera of Great Britain. Part 1. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. Levey, B. (2005). Some British records of Chaetarthria simillima Vorst & Cuppen, 2003 and C. seminiiliim (Herbst) (Hydrophilidae), with notes on their differentiation. The Coleopterist, 14, 97-99. Piys-Jones, O.E., Corbet, S.A., & Hopkins, T. (2011). Bumblebees. 3rd ed. Pelagic Publishing, Exeter. (Naturalists' Handbooks no. 6.). Skidmore, P. (2009). A review of the Diptera of the Western Isles of Scotland. Dipterists Digest, second series 15 (for 2008), 99-194. A photograph of a teacher-training course in marine zoology at Millport (1914) P. G. Moore University Marine Biological Station Millport, Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland KA28 OEG E-mail: pmoore(^millport. gla.ac.uk At a recent members’ evening of Cumbrae Historical Society, James Peacock showed me an old unused postcard from his collection featuring a photograph (Fig. 1) taken at the Marine Station, Millport on 6 July 1914. The photographer, as recorded on the reverse, was George Keppie, Stuart Street, Millport.' It depicts a class of school teachers studying junior and senior courses in nature study (course number 573G; marine zoology) held during the first fortnight of July 1914. Few such early Millport class photographs exist. Fig. 1. A class photograph of school teachers at the Marine Station, Millport, 6 July 1914, against a backdrop of the, now ivy-clad, Deil’s dyke. Seated in the front row (left to right) number 1, Professor L. A. L. King (St Mungo’s College of Medicine, Glasgow; incorporated since 1947 into Glasgow University’s medical faculty); number 3, J. G. Connell; number 5, Dr J. F. Gemmill. Number 7 may be Mr Frank W. Young, His Majesty’s Chief Inspector for Schools for the West of Scotland who reported on the quality of these classes. One of the walms-moustached, flat-cap- wearing gentleman (back row, centre) could be John Peden, the Laboratory Attendant, but which one of the two such gentlemen shown, I cannot be sure. Miss Alice Jones is likely to be one of the ladies in the front row (photograph by G. Keppie). According to the annual report of the Scottish Marine Biological Association (SMBA, 1914: 12-13, 73) 18 students attended in July 1914: seven taking the junior course (Course I) and 1 1 taking the senior course (Course II). The instmetors on the course were John Gibson Connell FRMS (c. 1876-1 946) (from Glasgow Provincial Training College; subsequently to beeome Jordanhill College, now the Faculty of Education, Strathclyde University), who conducted the senior course, and Dr James Fairlie Gemmill (1867-1926) (Glasgow University), assisted by Miss Alice Jones, who conducted the junior course: “much work of excellent character was accomplished, and all the students received certificates from the Glasgow Provincial Committee” (SMBA 1914: 12-13): “it is interesting to note that, while most of the teachers enrolled in these classes, were from Glasgow and the West of Scotland, two were from Aberdeen, two were from Falkirk, and one from India.” Prizes, as a result of voluntary competition, were awarded to: Course I, 1. Jessie A. Hutcheon, Victoria Road School, Aberdeen, 2. William C. Forsyth, BSc, Glasgow; Course II, 1. Mary D. Currie, MA, Hutchesons’ Girls’ Grammar Sehool, Glasgow, 2. George Nelson, Northem Public School, Falkirk’. The students were listed (SMBA, 1914: 73) as follows: Course I (Annie E. Craib, William C. Forsyth, Jessie A. Hutcheon, Sara C. Jones, Wilhelmina M. G. Mackenzie, James Piyde, William Rowatt), Course II (Isabella Abel, Mary D. Cume,"' Jemima Downie,^ Georgina M’llvain, Lillie A. M’llvain, James Mather, John D. Milne, George Nelson, Annie M. Russell,'' George Russell, James Shearer). I have been able to identify only three persons by comparing Fig. 1 (see caption) with an earlier (1909?) Millport teachers’ class photograph (Moore, 2008, Fig. 5). Note that over half of the students were women. Sixty-three percent of the class shown in Millport’s 1909(7) photograph were women (Moore, 2008, Fig. 5). By 1911, nearly three-quarters of teachers in Scotland were women. ^ Between 1880 and 1914, Scottish school masters commanded higher salaries than their English counteiparts, whereas Scottish school mistresses (higher in number than male teachers 132 across the United Kingdom) were consistently less well paid than English women teachers, although they were more highly qualified (Corr, 1997; Hulme, 2011). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to Mr James Peacock, Millport, for bringing this postcard to my attention. NOTES ’ Keppie, George (aka George Kippie) [(c.l871- 1917)]. Photographers of Great Britain and Ireland, 1840-1940 (URI., accessed 17 January 2012, http://www.victorianphotographers.co.uk/index.php/vic torian-photographers-k/keppie-george-aka-george- kippie-/p 30356.html). ■ Mary Darroch Currie (1878-1936) graduated MA from Glasgow University in 1905. Isabella Blacklock (b. 1869) had been the first female to graduate MA from Glasgow University, graduating in 1895 (URL, accessed 13 January 2012, http://www.universitvstorv.gla.ac.uk/alumni/help/fmdi ng-graduates/). Women were only pennitted to study at Scottish universities after 1892. ^ A Jemima Wright Downie (1876-1965) graduated MA from Glasgow University in 1902. Annie Russell, 1 know, taught at Kilmarnock Academy. ^ Knox, W. W., The Scottish educational system 1840-1940 (URL, accessed 12 January 2012, www.scran.ac.uk/Scotland/pdf/SP2 1 Education.pdf). REFERENCES Corr, H. (1997). Teachers and gender: debating the myths of equal opportunities in Scottish education 1800-1914. Cambridge Journal of Education 27, 355-363. Hulme, M. (2011). Histories of Scottish teacher education: sources for research. Scottish Educational Review 43, 41-55. Moore, P. G. (2008). The Marine Station at Millport: the “troubled years” between 1897-1907 and their continuing resonance. The Linnean 24, 21-36. SMBA (1914). Annual Report 1914. Scottish Marine Biological Association, Millport. Correction to the statistical note in ‘Gulliver, R,, 2011. Patterns of flowering on continuously-grazed dune and machair on Colonsay. The Glasgow Naturalist 25 (3) 19-28’ Richard Gulliver’’" ’ Carraig Mhor, Imeravale, Port Ellen, Isle of Islay, Argyll PA42 7AL, UK ^ Geographical and Earth Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK E-mail : richardlgul 1 i ver@gmail .com INTRODUCTION The data analyses in the article on the phenology of dune and machair communities on Colonsay were correct. However the statistical note in the Methods section was incorrect. The author apologises for this error. A revised set of notes follows. MAIN TEXT No overlap hetw’een samples; t, z and U test When there is no overlap between samples (that is, where all the values in one sample are greater in magnitude than all the values in the other) and the data is parametric (that is, the distribution of sample values is well approximated by a Normal distribution), the t or z test should be applied. For sample sizes of 5 to 20 of non parametric data, and using the form of Mann Whitney U test where the lower of the two U values is the test statistic, it is advisable procedure that a test be applied. However, in these cases the outcome of operating the test is known in advance. The lower value of U will be zero. Reference to the tabulated values of U will show that significance has been obtained and that the null hypothesis can be rejected. For sample sizes of above 20 a fonnula exists for converting the lower U value to z (Campbell, 1974 p61). For non overlapping samples nl=n2=21, z has a probability of less than 0.1% using the formula. Hence a very highly significant difference will be obtained in all cases where both nl and n2 are above 20 for non overlapping samples. For the Mann Whitney U test some tabulated values use the higher of the two U values. Use of the lower value means there is always the same value of U which shows the maximum difference between samples i.e. 0. Use of the upper value means that the values of U associated with maximum difference between samples varies with sample size. Paired data: the case when the trend in every pair of values is the same throughout; paired t, paired z and Wilcoxon tests When the trend in every pair of values is the same throughout (i.e. the larger value in each pair always belongs to the same one of the two conditions) for parametric data (where the differences between the two values in each pair give a distribution which is well approximated by a Normal curve), the paired t, or paired z test should be applied. Where the trend is the same throughout all the pairs of values of non parametric data, for sample sizes of 7 to 25, it is advisable procedure that a Wilcoxon test be applied. However, in these cases the outcome of operating the test is known in advance. The test statistic W (T) i.e. the lower value of R+ or R- will be zero. Reference to the tabulated values of W will show that significance has been obtained and that the null hypothesis can be rejected. For sample sizes of above 133 25 a formula exists for converting the lower W (T) value to z (Campbell, 1974 p66). For pairs of values when the trend is the same throughout for n=26, z has a probability of less than 0.1% using the fonnula (n=26 excludes zero differences). Hence a very highly significant difference will be obtained for all paired values of n above 26 when the trend is the same throughout. Some tabulated values of W (T) use the higher value of R+ or R-. Use of the lower value means there is always the same value of W (T) which shows the maximum difference between the paired replicates i.e. 0. Use of the upper value of R+ or R- means that the values associated with maximum difference between the paired replicates varies with sample size. Biologists do not always agree on whether data are paired or not. In case of doubt, assume data are not paired. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The helpful advice provided by Dr Tim Sparks is gratefully acknowledged. However, the total responsibility for the text rests with the author. REFERENCE Campbell, R. C. (1974, second edition). Statistics for Biologists. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. SUPPLEMENT The application of a Mann Whitney U test to the case of non overlap on p21 of Gulliver 2011 results in a significant difference being generated, as docs the application of a Wilcoxon test to the case of the trend being the same throughout in all pairs of values on p22. NB the median of 23 for 4m^ machair quadrats on p21 & p23 is coiTect, the value in Table 1 should be 23 not 25, author’s eiTor. The most northerly documented record of the green alga Hydrodictyon reticulatum (water-net) in the UK Alison McManus Scottish Environment Protection Agency, 5 Redwood Crescent, Peel Park, East Kilbride G74 5PP. E-mail: alison.mcmanus(^sepa. org.uk Strathclyde Loch is located within Strathclyde Country Park, Mothewell (NS 73290 56980) and is designated as a Sensitive Area (Eutrophic) under the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive, and of poor ecological potential under current Water Framework Directive (WFD) classification. A macrophyte survey of the loch was carried out in September 2011 by Alison McManus, Thomas Coy and Jan Krokowski (SEPA). This was done as part of SEPA’s WFD monitoring and classification. During the survey the invasive nuisance green alga Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Bory de Saint-Vinceiit, 1824 (water-net: Fig. 1) was discovered at one of the sampling points and is believed to be the most northerly documented record of this species in the UK. Fig. 1. Hydrodictyon reticulatum, Strathclyde Loch, September 201 1. Scalebars 100 Dm. This species is known as a nuisance because it can clog waterways, smother aquatic plants and fauna and adversely impact boating, fishing, swimming and tourism. The spread of this alga is believed to be a response to elevated and extended summer water temperatures (John et ai, 1998). The species is confined to downstream sections of waterbodies, partially due to its nutrient requirements, and populations of the alga usually only become obvious in mid-summer, suggesting a need for high temperatures (Whitton, 2000). It appears that the water-net has become widely distributed over the past two decades and is gradually beginning to colonise more northern waterbodies. Until 2011 the most northern documented records of the species were in Dumfries and Galloway, with other undocumented reports of the species as far north as Aberdeenshire. There are also anecdotal records of the species in Castle Semple Loch, Renfrewshire. The species is well documented in rivers in the Scottish Borders and northern England, especially the Tweed, Tyne, Wear and the Swale. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks to Alison Bell, John Clayton, Robin Guthrie (SEPA) and Professor Brian A. Whitton (Durham University) for their records of water-net distribution. REFERENCES John, D.M., Douglas, G.E., Brooks, S.J., Jones, G.C., Ellaway, J. & Rundle, S. (1998). Blooms of the water net Hydrodictyon reticulatum (Chlorococcales, Chlorophyta) in a coastal lake in 134 the British Isles: their cause, seasonality and impact. Biologia, 53: 537-545. Whitton. B.A. (2000). Increases in nuisance macro- algae in rivers: a review. Verb. Inf. Verein. LimnoL, 27: 1257-125. Hoverfly species (Diptera, Syrphidae) collected near Rowardennan, Loch Lomondside, August, 2011 E. Geoffrey Hancock The Hunterian, Zoology Museum, Graham Ken- Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ E-mail: Geoff.hancock(@glasgow. ac.uk A field outing to the Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment (SCENE) at Rowardennan, Stirlingshire, followed the Sixth International Symposium on the Syiphidae (Diptera). It was the final day of this biennial meeting, held at the Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, during which 72 delegates had debated and discussed the systematics, ecology and biology of the hoverflies on a worldwide scale. The field outing on 8‘'’ August was essentially an oppoi-tunity to relax after three days of being indoors listening to lectures and viewing poster presentations on research in progress. A number of the delegates took the opportunity to record the hoverfly species that could be seen around the immediate environs of the SCENE field station buildings on the Ross peninsula. The following list is the product of this effort and is a good representation of the expected fauna. The sunny weather undoubtedly helped in producing a total of 63 species, a few of which are commented on individually in the following two paragraphs. During the symposium a new edition of distribution maps for hoverflies in the United Kingdom was launched which contains new data on altitudinal and habitat preferences and phenology. Analyses of trends have been included for both recording effort and recent changes in species’ ranges (Ball, et a!., 2011). This publication is used here to indicate species that deserve special mention for various reasons. Some are scarce in the north of Britain such as Cheilosia proximo and C. vernalis. Species that require good quality wooded habitat include Arcfophila snperbiens, Ferdinandea cuprea and Xylota jakiiatorum. Although these three species have been recorded previously in the area it is good to know they are still resident. With similar habitat requirements, but developing as larvae in woodland fungi, are records of Cheilo.sia longula and C. scutellata. Generally scarce species of local note are Didea fasciata, Dasysyrphus pinastri, Helophilns trivitfatiis, Meli.scaeva compositorwn, M. umhellatorum and Scaeva pyrastri. One of the more interesting species is Eriozona syrphoides which became established in Britain about 40 years ago in association with spruce plantations. These trees support an aphid species, Cinara piceae (Panzer), that the larvae utilise as a food source. There are only thirteen other lOKm Ordnance Survey grid squares in Scotland where it has been seen since 2000 (Ball, et al., 2011). An outstanding addition to Scotland’s fauna as a result of this meeting is Ferdinandea riificornis. The latest distributional data show no known records north of Yorkshire (Ball, et al., 2011). This species is regarded as rare or even endangered in many areas of mainland Europe. Like its more common sibling, F. cuprea, the larvae develop in sap in deciduous trees. Often, but not exclusively, these are oak trees in which this resource has been created by the tunnelling activities of the goat moth (Cossus cossu.s Linn.). The larvae of F. ruficornis have not been described (Rotheray, 1993) but arc presumed to be very similar to F. cuprea. Goat moths are known from Central Scotland but arc rare and have not been positively recorded on Lochlomondside (Knowler, 2010). Combined searching for the larvae of the moth and both species of Ferdinandea in the area around SCENE is an obvious strategy. More details of the Lochlomondside finding of F. ruficornis have been written up (Ricarte, et al., 2011). Species list in alphabetical order Nomenclature follows Chandler (1998) with any changes or species added since then given in Ball et al. (2011). The asterisk * denotes records that were provided by Jeroen van Steenis just south of the field station on 2"‘* August, 2011, within the same NGR lOKm square as SCENE. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks are due to Glasgow Natural History Society, British Entomological and Natural History Society, Dipterists Forum, Malloch Society, B&S Entomological Supplies and the Samuel Wendell Williston Diptera Research Fund (administered by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, USA) as sponsors of the Symposium. Excellent hospitality was provided at SCENE, and particular thanks to Rona Brennan, bursar and provider of catering. The compiler of this list is grateful to all the participants for their efforts and company on the day. 135 Species Recorder Arctophila superbiens (Muller) * (JvS) Baccha elongata (Fabricius) (MR) Cheilosia antiqua (Meigen) (ASs) Cheihsia betgenstammi Becker (EGH, JvS; WvS) Cheliosia fratema (Meigen) (RM) Cheilosia ilhislrata (Hams) (JSetal) Cheilosia kmgula (Zetterstedt) (WvS) Cheilosia proxima (Zetterstedt) * (JvS) Cheilosia sciitellata (Fallen) (JvS; WvS) Cheilosia vemalis (Fallen) (MR) Chiysogaster solstitialis (Fallen) (ASs) Chiysotoxiim arcuatiwi (Linnaeus) (ASs; JSet al; WvS) Chiysofoxiini hicinctum (Linnaeus) (ASs; JSet al; JvS) Dasysyrphus albostriatus (Fallen) (EGH; MM) Dasysyrphiis pinastri (De Geer) (KW) Dasysyrphus tricinctiis (Fallen) (EGH; JSet al; JvS) Didea fasciata Macquart (ASs) Epistrophe grossulariae (Meigen) (AR; EGH; KW; WvS) Episyrplnis halteatus (De Geer) (ASs; EGH; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN) Eriozona syrphoides (Fallen) (ASs) Erisfalis ahusiviis Collin * (JvS) Eristalis interniptus (Poda) (RM) Eristalis intricarius (Linnaeus) (NJ; JSet al) Eristalis pertinax (Scopoli) (AR; ASs; EGH; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS) Eiipeodes corollae (Fabricius) (JSet al) Ferdinandea cuprea (Scopoli) (MR) Ferdinandea ruficornis (Fabricius) (JQ; detemiined by AR & ZN] Helophiliis pendulus (Linnaeus) (JSetal; KW; WvS;) Helophilus trivittatus (Fabricius) (JSet al) Leucozoiia hicoriim (Linnaeus) (JSet al; KW; RW; WvS) Leiicozona glaucia (Linnaeus) (AR; ASs; JSet al; KW; WvS; ZN) Melangyma compositarum (VeiTall) (AR; WvS; ZN) Melaugy’ua wnhellatarum (Fabricius) * (JvS) [a female] Melanostoma mellinum (Linnaeus) (ASs, JSet al; WvS; ZN) Melanostoma scalare (Fabricius) (ASs; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN) Meliscaeva aiiricollis (Meigen) (ASs; JvS; WvS) Meliscaeva cinctella (Zetterstedt) (AR; ASs; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN) Myathropa florea (Linnaeus) (AR; ASs; JSet al; JvS; WvS) Neoascia podagarica (Fabricius) (MR; JSet al) Orthonevra nobilis (Fallen) (RM) Platycheirus alhimanus (Fabricius) (ASs; JSet al ; KW; JvS; WvS; ZN) Platy'cheirus clypeatus (Meigen) (ASs; JSet al; MR) Playcheinis fuliviventris (Macquart) (RM) Platycheirus granditarsis (Forster) (JSet al) Platycheirus nielseni Vockereth (WvS) Platycheirus occultus Goeldlin de T., ct al. (WvS) Platycheirus peltatus (Meigen) (ASs) Rhingia campestris Meigen * (JvS) Riponnensia splendem (Meigen) (AR; ZN) Scaeva selenitica (Meigen) (AR; WvS; ZN) Sericomyia silentis (Harris) (AR; ASs; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN) Sphaerophoria interrupta (Fabricius) * (JvS) Sphegina climipes (Fallen) (JvS; MR) Sphegina elegans Schummel (JvS; WvS) Sphegina sibirica Stackelberg (AR; ASs; JSet al; NJ; WvS; ZN) Syritta pipiens (Linnaeus) (JSet al) Syrphus ribesii (Linnaeus) (AR; ZN) Syrphiis torvus Osten Sacken (WvS) Syrphus vitripennis Meigen (AR; KW; JSet al; WvS; ZN) Volucella pellucens (Linnaeus) (AS; ZN) Xylota jakatorum Bagachanova (WvS) Xylota segnis (Linnaeus) (AR; ASs; EGH; JSet al; KW; RW; WvS; ZN) Xylota sylvarum (Linnaeus) * (JvS) Recorders Antonio Ricarte (AR); Alan Stubbs (AS); Axel Ssymank (ASs); Geoff Hancock (EGH); Javier Quinto (JQ); Jeroen van Steenis (JvS); Menno Reemer (MR); Nigel Jones (NJ); John Smit, Maarten de Groot; Catalina Guitterez-Chacon, Jiri Hadrava (JH), Michael Mikal, working as a group (JSet al), Miriam Morales (MM); Roger Monis (RM); Richard Weddle (RW); Wouter van Steenis (WvS); Kenn Watt (KW); Zorika Nedeljkovic (ZN). 136 REFERENCES Ball, S.G., Morris, R.K.S., Rotheray, G.E. and Watt, K.R. (201 1). Atlas of the hoverjlies of Great Britain (Diptera, Syphidae). Wallingford, Biological Records Centre, pp. 183. Chandler, P. J. (1998). Checklists of British Insects (New Series) Diptera, 12. Royal Entomological Society of London, London. Knowler, J.T. (2010). An annotated checklist of the larger moths of Stirlingshire, West Perthshire and Dunbartonshire. Glasgow, Glasgow Natural History Society, pp. 143. Ricarte, A., Nedeljkovic, Z. and Quinto, J. (2011). Ferdinandea ruficornis (Fabricius) (Diptera, Syrphidae) new to Scotland. Dipterists Digest 18: 119-120. Rotheray, G.E. (1993). Colour guide to hoverfly larvae (Diptera, Syrphidae). Dipterists Digest 9: 1-155. First record of larval sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus L. in the Endrick Water, Loch Lomond J. B. Hume & C. E. Adams Scottish Centre for Ecology & the Natural Environment, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ. E-mail: j.hume.l(^research.gla. ac.uk Three lamprey species are known to occur in Scotland: European river Lampetra fJuviatilis and brook lamprey L planeri, and the sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus. Although detailed records of their distribution remain scarce, lampreys have been sampled from 79 Scottish regions (ERA 2005). The sea lamprey is the rarest species in both records and surveys and has been recorded nationally in just 35 rivers, although their continuing presence in some is uncertain (ERA 2005). The Endrick Water drains the South East catchment of Loch Lomond into its south basin. The river contains scientifically important populations of brook and river lamprey, and has been designated a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) as a result (Bond 2003; Hume 2011). Although several lamprey surveys have been conducted in recent years (Maitland et al. 1994; Gardiner et al. 1995; Gardiner & Stewart 1997, 1999; Forth Fisheries Foundation 2004; Hume 2011; Watt et al. 2011) adult sea lamprey have been recorded only very occasionally in the Endrick Water, and they have not been observed since the 1960s (Hunter et al. 1959; Maitland 1966). Spawning is believed to be restricted to the efferent River Leven between the barrage (NS 393 894) and footbridge (NS 394 793) in Balloch (Maitland et al. 1994; Gardiner et al. 1995). Despite extensive sampling of larval habitat around the Loch Lomond basin in recent years, sea lamprey ammocoetes have until now only been recorded in the River Leven. On March 2U* 2012 a single sea lamprey ammocoete was collected immediately downstream of Drymen Bridge on the Endrick Water (NS 473 874) in static traps designed to capture adult lampreys on their upstream spawning migration. This individual measured 151 mm in total length and was 4.6 g wet weight. Positive identification as Petromyzon as opposed to Lampetra spp. was confirmed from the following meristic and morphometric characteristics (Fig. 1): trunk myomeres 71 {P. marinus 61-1 A', Lampetra spp. 58-64), oral hood fully pigmented {Lampetra spp. upper/lower lip unpigmented), caudal fill spade-like {Lampetra spp. typically rounded), robust head region {Lampetra spp. distinct pre-nostril region) (Renaud 2011). Sea lamprey larval duration is typically five years, although it can be as long as 19 years as growth rates vary enormously, so an accurate age estimate of just one individual is fraught with uncertainty. Based on typical values from other U.K. populations this individual is likely to be 3-5 years old, indicating that spawning took place in the Endrick Water at sometime between May/June 2007-2009 (Hardisty 1969; Bird et al. 1994). Fig. 1, P. marinus ammocoete Throughout Scotland larval Petromyzon are recorded in very low densities compared with Lampetra spp., even in rivers known to contain strong adult spawning populations (APEM 2004; ERA 2004; Watt et al. 2008). There remains the possibility that sea lamprey spawn in the Endrick Water in small numbers, but; that adults are not detected because trapping methodology excludes the larger body size of mature sea lamprey, and sea lamprey ammocoetes are not detected during routine surveys due to their inherent scarcity. Currently, the Endrick Water is a stronghold for lamprey in Scotland, with both L. fluviatilis and L. planeri populations being of international conservation importance (Bond 2003). If indeed this isolated record of larval P. marinus represents the first indication that 137 the species now maintains a spawning population within the Endrick Water, there is an implication that the consei-vation strategy for this river should be modified to include sea lamprey as a qualifying feature of the SAC. REFERENCES APEM. (2004). Distribution of sea, brook and river lampreys on the River Tay. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No 032 (ROAME No. F01AC610). Bird, D.J., Potter, I.C., Hardisty, M.W. & Baker, B.I. (1994). Morphology, body size and behaviour of recently-metamorphosed sea lampreys, Petromyzon marimis, from the lower River Severn, and their relevance to the onset of parasitic feeding. Journal of Fish Biology’ 44, 61-1 A. Bond, L. (2003). The Endrick Water cSAC conservation strategy. Conserving Natura 2000 Rivers. English Nature, Peterborough. Ecological Research Associates (ERA). (2005). A national lamprey survey of Scotland. Report for Scottish National Heritage, Clydebank. Forth Fisheries Foundation (2004). River and brook lamprey monitoring of the Endrick Water cSAC/SSSl. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No 057. (ROAME No. F03AC607). Gardiner, R., Taylor, R. & Araistrong, J. (1995). Habitat assessment of survey of lamprey populations occuiTing in areas of conservation interest. Report to Scottish Natural Heritage. Fisheries Research Services, Report No 4/95. Gardiner, R. & Stewart, D. (1997). Spawning habitat assessment and survey of lamprey populations occurring in areas of conseiwation interest. Fisheries Services Report to SNH. Gardiner, R. & Stewart, D. (1999). Survey of the Blane Water. Fisheries Research Sen’ices Report to SNH. Hardisty, M.W. (1969). A comparison of gonadal development in the ammocoetes of the landlocked and anadromous forms of the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus L. Journal of Fish Biology 2, 153-166. Hume, J.B. (2011). Adult lamprey survey of the Endrick Water SSSI and SAC 2009-2010. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 480. Hunter, W.R., Slack, H.D. & Hunter, M.R. (1959). The lower vertebrates of the Loch Lomond District. The Glasgow Naturalist 18: 84-90. Maitland, P.S. (1966). The fauna of the River Endrick. Glasgow, Blackie. Maitland, P.S., Morris, K.H. & East, K. (1994). The ecology of lampreys (Petromyzontidae) in the Loch Lomond area. Hydrohiologia 290: 105-120. Renaud, C.B. (2011). Lampreys of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of lamprey species known to date. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 5. Rome, FAO, 109pp. Watt, J., Ravenscroft, N.O.M. & Seed, M. (2008). Site condition monitoring of lamprey in the River Tay Special Area of Conservation. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 292 (ROAME No. R07AC606). Watt, J., Bull, C., Ravenscroft, N.O.M. & Seed, M. (201 1). Lamprey survey of the Endrick Water SSSI/SAC 2008. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No. 320. A record of the aurochs, Bos primigenius, from Morayshire Andrew C. Kitchener' & John Doune^ 'Department of Natural Sciences, National Museums Scotland, Chambers Street, Edinburgh EHl IJF ^Damaway Castle, Forres, Morayshire IV36 2ST E-mail: a.kitchener@nms.ac.uk In May 2004 two horn cores attached to the frontal bone of a skull (Fig. 1) were discovered at the bottom of the main drainage ditch in the northeast comer of Ardgye Fann, three miles west of Elgin in Morayshire (Grid Reference NJl 55638). These horn cores were recovered by Martin Bridges, the Moray Estates fann manager, and were sent to the National Museums Scotland for identification and conservation. Comparison with specimens in the NMS collection confinned that the horn cores were from an aurochs. Bos primigenius. From their size and shape the hom cores were probably from a male. The left hom core measures 700 mm on the outside of the curve and 550 cm on the inside of the curve, whereas the right hom core measures 670 mm on the outside curve and 570 mm on the inside curve. The basal circumferences of the hom cores are 350 mm (right) and 340 mm (left). A bone sample was sent to SUERC, East Kilbride, where it yielded a radiocarbon date of 9690 ± 35 BP and a calibrated date of 1 1,120-1 1,260 BP (SUERC-20754). Calendar dates are increasingly underestimated by increasingly earlier radiocarbon dates (Lowe and Walker, 1997). This is because the amount of radiocarbon in the atmosphere has not been constant over time. Uncalibrated dates can be corrected using a calibration curve that is derived from samples that have been dated independently with other methods such as uranium time series, dendrochronology, varves and deep ocean sediment cores. The aurochs is widely recorded in Scotland and the rest of Britain. Yalden (1999) records 30 Scottish sites ranging from Orkney to Berwick in the south east and New Galloway in the south west. However, most records are from the Borders with a few in Perthshire. Therefore, these hom cores represent one of the most northerly records in Scotland. There are few radiocarbon dates for aurochs in Scotland. Kitchener & Bonsall (1999) give five dates, 138 ranging from 9170 ± 70 BP (10,350-9,980 Cal BP age - AA18516) for a skull from Newburgh, Fife to 3315 ± 55 bp (3690-3390 cal BP - AA- 1 85 1 7) for skull from Galloway. The latter is one of the most recent dates for Britain, suggesting that it survived until at least the early Bronze Age in Scotland (Yalden & Kitchener, 2008). A similar date was recorded for a skeleton from Charterhouse Warren Farm, Somerset (Burleigh & Clutton-Brock, 1977). However, the Ardgye Fann specimen is the oldest recorded post-glacial date for an aurochs in Scotland, and demonstrates that this species was an early post-glacial coloniser. b. Fig. 1. Dorsal (a.) and ventral (b.) views of the horn cores of an aurochs, Bos primigenius, from Ardgye Farm, Morayshire (Neil McLean, National Museums Scotland). The horn cores are available for viewing by appointment at Moray Estates (013096 72213 or admin(^medco. co.uk). REFERENCES Burleigh, R. & Clutton-Brock, J. (1977). A radiocarbon date for Bos primigenius from Charterhouse Warren Farm, Mendip. Proceedings of the University’ of Bristol Speleological Society’ 14(3), 225-257. Kitchener, A.C. & Bonsall, C. (1999). Further AMS radiocarbon dates for extinct Scottish mammals. Quaternary Newsletter No. 88, 1-10. Lowe, J.J. and Walker, M.J.C. (1997). Reconstructing Quaternajy environments. 2nd editionPrentice Hall, Harlow. Yalden, D. (1999). The histojy of the British mammals. Poyser, London. Yalden, D.W. & Kitchener, A.C. (2008). History of the fauna. Pp. 17-31. In: Harris, S. and Yalden, D.W. (editors). Mammals of the British Isles: Handbook, 4''' edition. The Mammal Society, Southampton. The rare green alga Pediastrum privum (Chlorophyta^ Sphaeropleales) in a Scottish kettle loch: new to British freshwaters 'Pauline Lang, Jan Krokowski, Nicole Ross & Ross Doughty Scottish Environment Protection Agency, 5 Redwood Crescent, Peel Park, East Kilbride, G74 5PP, Scotland, UK 'E-mail: pauline.lang(^sepa. org.uk Pediastrum is a widely-distributed genus of green alga characteristically consisting of disc-shaped colonies or ‘coenobia’, assembled from at least four inter- connecting cells (Komarek & Jankovska, 2001). Many species belonging to the genus are common constituents of lake phytoplankton communities, though Pediastrum privum (Printz) Hegewald [=Stauridium privum (Printz) Hegewald in Buchheim et al., 2005] is notably rare (Komarek & Jankovska, 2001; Tsarenko & John, 201 1). There appear to be no published records from Britain. Sporadic lake phytoplankton and sub-fossil sediment finds from Europe, reflect a sparse scattering of Pediastrum privum, confined mostly to temperate and sub-arctic latitudes of the northern hemisphere (Hegewald & Schnepf, 1979; Komarek & Jankovska, 2001; Geris, 2004; Kowalska & Wolowksi, 2010). By comparison, the close phylogenetic relative Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenberg) Ralfs [=Stauridium tetras (Ehrenberg) Hegewald in Buchheim et al., 2005] displays a cosmopolitan distribution (Komarek & Jankovska, 2001). Freshwater phytoplankton communities are important indicators of the biointegrity of standing waters and are therefore used by the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) to assess the ecological status of around 80 freshwater lochs in Scotland. Phytoplankton samples are collected at varying frequencies, but at a minimum are taken three times a year between July and September. Sub-samples of phytoplankton (preserved in Lugol’s iodine) are examined using an inverted microscope and analysed according to standard 139 procedures with counts of approximately 400 individuals (Brierley el al., 2007; CEN, 2004 & 2008). Low abundances (typically 1-5 coenobia, comprising both four- and eight-cells, per 100 ml sub-sample) of Pediastrwn privum were found in phytoplankton samples colleeted from Loch Kinord during 2009- 2011. Loch Kinord is a small kettle lake located in Aberdeenshire, Scotland (NGR: NO 44150 99388). The loch, formed by glacial retreat approximately 10,000 years ago, has an area of c. 0.8 km”, is shallow (mean depth <2 m) and is characterized by relatively low alkalinity (annual mean 10.7 mg L"' as CaCOs over 2009-11) and mesotrophic water chemistry (annual mean total phosphorus (TP) concentration 19.9 pg L'' over 2009-11). A palaeolimnological study using fossil diatoms implied that eutrophication has driven water quality in Loch Kinord slightly away from its reference state (Bennion et al., 2004). Pediastrwn privwn has appeared consistently in the phytoplankton community of Loch Kinord since 2009. This is the first known documented record of Pediastrwn privwn in British freshwaters. Previously, this uncommon species may have gone unnoticed or been misidentified due to its ineonspicuous size and general unfamiliarity to UK taxonomists. The coenobia of Pediastrwn privwn (Figs la-d) morphologieally resemble Pediastrum tetras (Figs 2a- d), in terms of their relatively small diameter (usually 15-25 pm). However, it is possible to separate the two species by comparison of the outer cell wall structure, which is weakly concave (central depression) in P. privwn and distinctly notched (central incision) in P. tetras (Komarek & Jankovska, 2001; Kowalska & Wolowksi, 2010; Tsarenko & John, 2011). Pediastrwn privwn has been recorded mostly from European waterbodies including Norway (Printz, 1914), Finland (Hegewald & Schnepf, 1979), Poland (Pelechaty et al., 2007; Kowalska & Wolowksi, 2010), Russia (Jankovska & Komarek, 2000), Slovakia Fig. la. Photo-micrograph of Pediastrwn privwn 4-celled coenobium (x630 magnification) preserved in LugoFs Iodine. (Hindak & Hindakova, 2008), and the Czech Republic (Geris, 2004), though the WISER phytoplankton database (www.wiser.eu) may also contain previously undocumented localities. Other reports exist from the USA (Smith, 1920; Prescott, 1962), as well as more recently from Korea (An et al, 1999), Spain (Negro et al., 2000) and Canada (Hindak & Hindakova, 2008). Collectively, observations suggest that Pediastrwn privwn occurs discretely in oligotrophic and/or dystrophic freshwaters (Jankovska & Komarek, 2000; Komarek & Jankovska, 2001). However, some accounts suggest it is also capable of occupying nutrient-enriched habitats (An et al., 1999), typically associated with P. tetras (Komarek & Jankovska, 2001), which makes its restricted distribution difficult to explain (Kowalska & Wolowksi, 2010). Morphological plasticity (variation between the 4- and 8-celled life cycle stages) has been related to environmental nutrient concentrations or zooplankton predation in Pediastrum tetras (Rojo et al., 2008), and though fully described (Hegewald & Jeon, 2000) is as yet inadequately understood for P. privwn. More research is required to establish the ecological requirements of Pediastrum privum and the reasons for its apparent rarity. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks especially to Prof David John (Natural History Museum London) and Prof Brian Whitton (University of Durham) for fomially verifying the identity of Pediastrwn privum. We are grateful to Dr Elizabeth Haworth (Freshwater Biological Association) for confinning that no UK records of P. privum pre-existed in the Fritsch Collection (documented only from Norway, Europe and North America). We are also appreeiative to Dr Kevin Murphy (University of Glasgow) for commenting on an earlier version of the manuscript. 10 pm Fig. lb. Illustration of Pediastrum privum 4-celled coenobium. 140 Fig. Ic. Photo-micrograph of Pediastrum priviim 8-celled coenobium (x630 magnification) preserved in LugoFs Iodine. 10 pm Fig. Id. Illustration of Pediastrum priviim 8-celled coenobium. 10 pm Fig. 2b. Illustration of Pediastrum tetras 4-celled coenobium. 10 pm Fig. 2d. Illustration of Pediastrum tetras 8-celled coenobium. 141 REFERENCES An, S.S., Hegewald, E. cS: Jeon, S.L. (1999) Pediastriim privum (Printz) Hegewald new to Korea, Algae, 14, 83 -85. Bennion, H., Fluin, J. & Simpson, G.L. (2004) Assessing eutrophication and reference conditions for Scottish freshwater lochs using subfossil diatoms, Journal of Applied EcoIog\\ 41, 124 - 138. Brierley, B., Carvalho, L., Davies, S. & Krokowski, J. (2007) Guidance on the quantitative analysis of phytoplankton in freshwater samples, 24 pp. [In Carvalho, L., Dudley, B., Dodkins, L, Clarke, R., Jones, I., Thackeray, S., and Maberly, S. (2007) Phytoplankton Classification Tool (Phase 2), Final Report, Project WFD80, SNIFFER, Edinburgh]. Buchheim, M., Buchheim, J., Carlson, T., Braband, A., Hepperle, D., Krienitz, F., Wolf, M. & Hegewald, E. (2005) Phylogeny of the Hydrodictyaceae (Chlorophyceae); inferences from rDNA data. Journal ofPhycolog}’, 41,1 039 - 1 054. CEN (2004) Water quality - guidance standard for the routine analysis of phytoplankton abundance and composition using inverted microscopy (Utermohl technique), CEN/TC230/WG2/TG3. CEN (2008) Water quality ~ phytoplankton biovolume determination bv microscopic measurement of cell dimensions, CEN/TC230/WG2/TG3. Geris, R. (2004) Pediastriim privum (Printz) Hegewald in the Czech Republic, Czech Phvcolog)’, Olomouc, 4, 63 - 66. Hegewald, E. & Schnepf, E. (1979) Pediastriim privum (Printz) Hegewald comb, nova, Algological Studies, 22, 24-28. Hegewald E. & Jeon S.L. (2000) The coenobial moiphology of Pediastriim privum (Printz) Hegewald, Algological Studies, 98, 43 - 48. Hindak F. & Hindakova A. (2008) Moiphology and taxonomy of some rare chlorococcalean algae (Chlorophyta), Biologia, 63, 781 - 790. Jankovska, V. & Komarek, J. (2000) Indicative value of Pediastriim and other coccal green algae in palaeoecology, Folia Geobotanica, 35, 59 - 82. Komarek, J. & Jankovska, V. (2001) Review of the green algal genus Pediastrunr, Implication for pollen-analytical research, Bibliotheca Phycologica, Band 108, 127., Gebriider Bomtraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin, Stuttgart. Kowalska, J. & Wolowski, K. (2010) Pediastmm privum (Printz) Hegewald (Chlorophyceae) in Lake Male Zmarle, northern Poland, Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies, 39, 137 - 143. Negro, A. I., De Hoyos, C. & Vega, J.C. (2000) Phytoplankton staicture and dynamics in Lake Sanabria and Valparaiso reservoir (NW Spain), Hydrobiologia, 424, 25 - 37. Pelechaty M., Pelechata A., Pukaez, A. (2007) Charophyte flora and vegetation against the background of the trophy state of lakes of Lubuskie Lakeland (mid-Westem Poland), Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznan, 137. Prescott G.W. (1962) Algae of the Western Great Lake Area, W.C. Brown Company Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. Printz, H. (1914) Kristianiatraktens Protococcoideer, Skrifter Utgit av Videnskapsselskapet i Kristiania, Matematisk-Naturvidenskabelig Klasse, 1913, 1- 121. Rojo, C., Segura, M., Rodrigo, M.A. & Salazar, G. (2008) Factors controlling the colonial structure of Pediastriim tetras (Chlorophyceae), Hydrobiologia, 617, 143 -155. Smith, G.M. (1920) Phytoplankton of the Inland Lakes of Wisconsin, Part 1, Bulletin of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural Histoiy Suiwey, 57, 1 - 243. Tsarenko, P.M. & John, D.M. (2011) Phylum Chlorophyta (Green Algae) Order Sphaeropleales p. 461-465 In; John, D.M., Whitton, B.A. & Brook, A.J., The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles, 2"'* Edition, Cambridge University Press. First records of the pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps, in Scotland Andrew C. Kitchener', Jerry S. Herman'*, Robert J. Reid^ and Neil Anderson^ ' Department of Natural Sciences, National Museums Scotland, Chambers Street, Edinburgh EHl IJF ' SAC Consulting: Veterinary Services, Drummondhill Stratherrick Road, Inverness, IV2 4JZ ^ Houster, Tingwall, Shetland ZE2 9SF 'E-mail: a.kitchener@nms.ac.uk '*E-mail: j.henTian@nms.ac.uk The pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps, is a poorly known cetacean species, which has been recorded rarely in the British Isles (Leaper and Evans, 2008). It is an oceanic species that inhabits tropical to wanner temperate waters worldwide (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). In the North Atlantic it strands reasonably commonly on the coast of the southeast USA (125 strandings between Puerto Rico and Maine 1999-2003 (Waring et al, 2005) as far north as Canada, and in the eastern Atlantic it has been recorded from the Bay of Biscay, stranding from Portugal to the western coast of France with fewer records from the Netherlands and the British Isles (Evans, 1991; Santos et al, 2006). Here we record the first strandings of pygmy sperm whales in Scotland. Pygmy spenn whales are usually found in small groups of up to six individuals, but more often they are seen alone or in pairs; strandings are most often large males, or mothers and their calves of vaiying ages, or single females that have recently given birth (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; McAlpine, 2002). They feed mostly on 142 squid (e.g., Brachioteuthis, Chiroteufhis, Chtenoptery^x, Galitenthis, Gonatm, Histioteuthis, Lepidoteuthis, Loligo, Mastiogoteuthis, Ommastrephes, Pholidoteuthis, Taonius, Teuthhowenia, Todarodes), octopus {Eledona sp., Octopoteuthis) and sepiolids {Sepiola, Rossia), and also some deep-water fish (e.g., Micromesistius spp., Chaiiliodus sloani) and crustaceans (e.g., swimming crabs, Polybius henslowi, mysids, Gnathophausia sp.) at or near the bottom of the sea at a depth of 500-1000 metres on the deep shelf or slope, although dives may be less than this, because both squid and fish commonly migrate towards the surface at night (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; Evans, 1991; Santos et al, 2006). Females and their well- grown calves may feed on coastal cephalopod species, where available. Pygmy sperm whales grow to about 3.8 m long and weigh up to 450 kg (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; McAlpine, 2002). In recent strandings in Spain and France body length (from tip of upper jaw to fluke notch in a straight line) ranged from 1.6 m to 2.75 m for males (n=9), and 1.47 m to 3.24 m in females (n=8) (Santos ei al., 2006). Females reach sexual maturity at about 2.6 metres in length and give birth to a calf of about 1.2 m after an estimated gestation of about nine months (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; McAlpine, 2002). Pygmy sperm whales strand rarely in the British Isles. Since formal records began in 1913, there were only eight strandings on the British coast from 1980 to 2006, mostly in southwest England and Wales (Sabin et al, 2003). In 1999 an adult female and a calf of unknown sex stranded at Loch Ryan, Stranraer, Dumfries and Galloway. Measurements and other details of these specimens are given in Table 1. The adult female was in the early stages of pregnancy with a male foetus 25 cm long. The dead calf floated away, but was subsequently recovered 1 1 days later after being buried at a landfill site, by which time it was too decomposed to determine its sex. Analysis of stomach contents of the mother and calf have confinned that their diet comprised mainly oceanic squid, mainly three species of Histioteuthis, but also 1 1 other cephalopod species from a total of nine families, as well as unidentified fish and crustaceans (shrimps) (Santos et al, 2006). The skeletons of the female and calf are in the collections of the National Museums Scotland (NMS.Z. 1999.264. 1-2) and the male foetus is preserved intact in spirit (NMS.Z. 1999.264.3). A cast of the head of the adult female was also taken for future reference. Measurements and characteristics of the skull and mandible of the adult female (NMS.Z. 1999.264.1), following Ross (1984), are given in Table 1 in comparison with similar data from a specimen that stranded in Ireland, which is also in NMS’s collection. Both specimens have 13 tooth alveoli on each side of the mandible, which falls within the reported range of 11-17 (Best, 2007). There were no teeth in the maxillae of either specimen. There were no further records in Scotland until 2007 when one or two pygmy spenn whales were reported from Shetland (Harvey et al, 2011). An animal was seen and photographed off the west mainland of Shetland at Aith on 14*'’ October 2007 (Irene Gray pers. comm.), although two animals of different sizes were seen together at Olnafirth, Delting on 15*'’ October (Gibby Fraser, pers. comm.). On 1 7“’ October a pygmy sperm whale was photographed at Busta Voe (HU357679) (Roger Tait, pers. comm.). Later the same day a young animal was stranded alive at Brae. Therefore, the two animals seen at Olnafirth may have been an adult female and a well-grown calf, which eventually stranded and was euthanased by a vet. The stranded animal was initially identified as an Atlantic white-sided dolphin, Leucopleurus acutus, but by the time it had been correctly identified this specimen had been irretrievably buried at a landfill site in Lerwick. No. Sex Age Length (m) Date Location SW no Comments 1. F Adult 2.68 18.10.99 Loch Ryan, Stranraer, Dumfries and Galloway SW1999/185d.l Pregnant with 25-cm-long foetus 2. U Juvenile 2.08 18.10.99 Loch Ryan, Stranraer, Dumfries and Galloway SW1999/185d.2 Refloated and restranded 1 1 days later 3. u Juvenile C.2. 1-2.4 17.10.07 Brae, Shetland (HU355680) SW2007/207A Specimen lost at landfill site 4. M Adult 2.11 6.10.11 Easdale, Seil, Argyll (NM75231686) SW20 11/459 Table 1. Strandings of pygmy sperm whales, Kogia breviceps, in Scotland. 143 Fortunately, digital photographs were taken prior to burial, which allowed correct identification (Fig. 1) (Ellis Nicolson, pers. comm.), but the loss of this important specimen demonstrates the importance of ensuring that identification is confirmed before an animal is disposed of Cuts on the animal photographed by Roger Tait, including a distinctive one on the left side of the spermaceti organ, appear to match those on the stranded animal (Fig. 1). However, a distinctive cut on the upper left hand side in front of the dorsal fin, which can be seen in the photographs by Irene Gray and Roger Tait, is apparently absent from the stranded animal and the cut on the spermaceti organ appears to be longer in the live animal. Closer examination of Roger Tait’s photographs reveals two whale barnacles (Family Coronulidae) on the upper left side of the tail stock (Fig. 2 b,c), which appear to be absent from the stranded animal (Fig. 2 a). As far as we know this is the first record of whale bamacles on this species and genus, but unfortunately the quality of the photograph does not allow a more specific identification. Roger Tait estimated that the live animal was perhaps 10 feet (3 metres) long, whereas the stranded animal, compared with the wheel barrow, is probably 2. 1-2.4 metres long. Although uncertain, evidence from these photographs supports the presence of two animals in Shetland and that it was the younger of these that stranded. Fig. 1. Photographs of pygmy spenn whale from Shetland, 2007. a. Live animal Busta Voe, 1 7 October 2007 (Roger Tait), b. stranded animal prior to disposal on 17th October 2007 (Ellis Nicolson). Skin lesion present in the living animal (a., arrow) is not apparent in stranded one. Fig, 2. Photographs of pygmy spemi whale from Shetland, a. No whale bamacles are apparently present on the tail stock of the stranded animal from Shetland, but are visible on the live swimming animal (c; arrow). See close up in b. On 6“’ October 2011 a juvenile male pygmy spenn whale stranded at Easdale, Seil, Argyll (Table 1). The skeleton is preserved at NMS (register no. NMS.Z. 201 1.97.192) and measurements of the skull are given in Table 2. A small whale barnacle was observed on the right side of the dorsal fin of this 144 specimen, but was not recovered. Stomach contents included fish eye lenses, otoliths, squid beaks and small fragments of squid tissue, showing that it had fed recently, but these have not yet been identified. Measurement (m) Adult female Stranraer, Dumfries and Galloway, 18.10.99 Juvenile male Easdale, Sell, Argyll 6.10.11 Subadult male Beartragh Bay, Co. Mayo, Ireland, 19.6.99 NMS.Z.2001. 108.28 NMS.Z.1999.264.1 NMS.Z.201 1.97.192 1 Total (condylobasal) length 372.0 291.0 307.5 2 Rostnim length 192.3 142.3 156.6 3 Basal width of rostrum 158.1 140.3 130.9 4 Width of rostrum at its midlength 103.8 97.0 96.5 5 Breadth across pre-orbital angles of supra-orbital processes 302.2 263.3/267.8 264.4 6 Breadth across post-orbital processes of frontals 324.0 269.8 276.6 7 Breadth of skull across zygomatic processes of squamosals 310.0 267.4 262.3 8 Height of vertex 265.2 201.9 215.9 9 Width of vertex 49.9 20.9 25.2 10 Width of supra-occipital at narrowest part between posterior margins of temporal fossae 236.0 194.2 196.8 11 Tip rostnim to anterior border of left naris 187.1 137.9 145.7 12 Height of ventral border of foramen magnum 1 19.9 95.0 99.8 13 Length maxillary tooth groove, right 153.6 60.0 103.0 14 Length maxillary tooth groove, left 156.2 (est.) 52.5 1 16.7 15 Width between outer margins of occipital condyles 81.3 66.5 65.2 16 Tip of rostrum to hind margin of pterygoids near the midline 224.5 173.8 191.1 17 Length of mandible, left side (est.) 325.0 (est.) 270.6 265.6 18 Number of alveoli, left 13 11 13 19 Number of alveoli, right 13 11 13 20 Height of mandible at coronoid process, left side 92.9 (est.) 74.3 74.4 21 Length of mandibular symphysis, left side (est.) 68.2 (est.) 59.3 55.1 22 Length of tooth row, lower left (est) 132.6 (est.) 90.4 114.3 23 Length of tooth row, lower right (est.) 138.5 (est.) 91 .3 (est.) 1 19.0 24 Height dorsal border of foramen magnum to vertex 133.5 117.0 121.0 25 Length, anterior margin mesorostral ossification to anterior border of left naris 28.9 12.5 24.0 Table 2. Measurements of the skulls of an adult female pygmy sperm whale stranded at Stranraer, a juvenile male from Argyll and a subadult male from Co. Mayo, Ireland. All specimens in National Museums Scotland. Measurements follow Ross (1984). 145 These are the first records and strandings of pygmy spenn whale in Scotland and have coincided with an increase of other wann water cetacean stranding on the Scottish coast since the late 1980s, including striped dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba, and Fraser’s dolphin, Lagejiodelphis liosei (Reid et al., 1996; Bones et al., 1998). Analyses of strandings patterns in Scotland suggest that these wann-water species may be moving further north, owing to wanner sea temperatures as a result of global climate change (MacCleod et al., 2005). Interestingly, both records appear to be of mothers and a calf at the same time of the year, which is consistent with strandings elsewhere. Taking the foetus length of 25cm as about two months into gestation (i.e. about 20% of birth length), indicates conception occuiTed in about August, suggesting the older calf was about five to six months old. There is a risk that strandings of pygmy sperm whales might be confused with large porpoises, but it will be interesting to see if the trend continues with increasing records of this species as we have seen already with the striped dolphin. REFERENCES Best, P. (2007). Whales and dolphins of the southern African subregion. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Bones, M., Neill, B. and Reid, R.J. (1998). Fraser’s dolphin Lagenodelphis hosei stranded on South Uist: First record in UK waters. Journal of Zoology’, London 246, 460-46 1 . Caldwell, D.K. and Caldwell, M.C. (1989). Pygmy sperm whale Kogia hreviceps (de Blainville, 1838): Dwarf spenn whale Kogia simus Owen, 1 866. In: Ridgway, S.H. and Flarrison, R. (eds.). Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 4: River dolphins and the larger toothed whales, pp. 235-260. London: Academic Press. Harvey, P.V., Anderson, N. and Rushton, D.R.A. (2011). A pygmy sperm whale, Kogia hreviceps (de Balinvillc), in Shetland in 2007. Shetland Naturalist 3(1), 1 8-20. Lcaper, R. and Evans, P.G.H. (2008). Genus Kogia. Pp. 683-685 In: Hainis, S. and Yalden, D.W. (editors). Mammals of the British Isles: Handbook 4th edition. The Mammal Society, Southampton. McAlpine, D.F. (2002). Pygmy and dwarf sperm whales. Pp. 1007-1009. In: Pemn, W.F., Wiirsig, B. and Thewissen, J.G.M. (editors). Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic Press, London. MacCleod, C.D., Bannon, S.M., Pierce, G.J., Schweder, C., Learmonth, J.A., Hennan, J.S. and Reid, R.J. (2005). Climate change and the cetacean community of north-west Scotland. Biological Consen’ation 124,477-483. Reid, R.J, A Kitchener, H M Ross and J Hennan (1993). First records of the striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba, in Scottish waters. Glasgow Naturalist 22, 243-245. Ross, G.J.B. (1984). The smaller cetaceans of the south east coast of southern Africa. Annals of the Cape Province Museum (Natural Histoty) 15, 173-410. Sabin, R.C., Jcpson, P.D., Reid, R.J., Chimonides, P.D.J., Deaville, R., Patterson, l.A.P. and Spurrier, C.J. (2003). Trends in cetacean strandings around the UK coastline and marine mammal post-mortem investigations for the year 2002. NHM Consultancy Report ECM 516F00/03. Santos, M.B., Pierce, G.J., Lopez, A., Reid, R.J., Ridoux, V. and Mente, E. (2006). Pygmy spenn whales Kogia hreviceps in the northeast Atlantic: New infonnation on stomach contents and strandings. Marine Mammal Science 22(3), 600- 616. Waring, G.T., Josephson, E., Fairfield, C.P., Maze- Foley, K. (eds.). (2005). US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico marine mammal stock assessments - 2005. Pygmy sperm whale {Kogia hreviceps): Western North Atlantic stock. NOAA Tech memo 194: 50- 54. http://www.ncfsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/tm/tml94/ 146 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 147 Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment and Glasgow Natural History Society Photographic Competition 2012 First Prize. Male palmate newt (Lissotriton helveticus), Ben Lomond April 2011, Anna Muir Second prize The Dubh Lochan, Loch Lomondside, John Hume 147 The Glasgow Naturalist (2012) Volume 25, Part 4, 149-150 OBITUARIES OBITUARY Norman Roy Grist, 1918 -2010 Nonnan Roy Grist was bom in Doncaster on 9th March 1918. His inquisitive mind and love of nature was evident at an early age. Among his childhood possessions were astronomy books and a telescope. When he moved to Glasgow as a schoolboy he lived in Shawlands where he put the garden to good use; he set up a den with his Meccano set, created a museum with a Great Diving Beetle as a central exhibit, and made an aquarium in a basin with snails, beetles and tadpoles. At Shawlands Academy he excelled academically, especially in Science. He expanded his love of music, made many friends and cycled through the Highlands. He became Dux of the school, and gained a Bursary to Glasgow University where he studied for a combined science and medical career. As a student at the outbreak of war, Roy volunteered to help man a First Aid Post in Pollokshaws Baths. He graduated BSc in 1939 and MB, ChB in 1942. In 1941 he met his future wife Mary. During many tennis matches, films, theatre visits and dances, they got to know each other, and they were mamied in 1942. Wartime duties and university studies kept them apart for much of the war. After completing his medical studies, Roy embarked on military training in Leeds, which led to his involvement in the D-Day landings as a captain in the Royal Medical Corps. He went from the beaches of Normandy through Northern France, Belgium, Holland and through to the Rhine, enduring many hardships of war, and later went on to serve in Palestine. Returning to Glasgow in 1946 he was reunited with Mary, now discharged from the WAAF, and started what became an internationally renowned medical career. His specialism was infectious diseases, at which he excelled. He pioneered research into influenza at Knightswood and Ruchill Hospitals in Glasgow which helped to improve the lives of many Glaswegians. While his reputation spread internationally he continued with his love of natural history; for example taking great delight in pointing out Kestrels nesting in the tower of Ruchill Hospital. By 1952 Roy was a lecturer in virus diseases, and became head of the Regional Virus Laboratory at Ruchill from 1958 to 1983. He became closely involved with the World Health Organisation, travelling abroad giving lectures, some of them in his fluent French. He became Professor of Infectious Diseases at Glasgow University in the mid 1960s. Meanwhile, previous collaboration with other leading workers in the field led to the formation in 1967 of the Communicable Diseases (Scotland) Unit, recognised as a prime example of a national suiweillance centre. He was honoured by the Spanish Government for his meticulous study (with others) of the Legionnaire's Disease outbreak in Benidonn in 1973. He was part of the virology initiative in creating the first virus laboratory, was a founder member of the first university virology department in 1962, and advised the Western Regional Hospital Board from 1960 to 1974. He was a member of the Expert Advisory Panel on Virus Diseases to the WHO from 1967 to 2001. He developed a diagnostic and epidemiological service in smallpox and polio. Roy retired in 1983 but never stopped inquiring and learning. Roy's life with Maiy was central; they shared many interests and were always together. They continued various activities into their eighties, including their cottage in Arran which they shared with Malay's brother Angus and his family. For 40 years they lived in their home at Sydenham Court, where they enjoyed working in the garden and watching wildlife. They were both keen members of the Glasgow Natural History Society and this undoubtedly played a big part in their lives. Roy was President of the GNHS from 1993 to 1996. His almost obsessional interest in natural history was demonstrated at a medical colleague’s retirement when he was wearing his slug tie and talked about slugs in his garage from the starter right through to the coffee with no problem at all. His passion for wildlife and knowledge generally was amazing. He edited the GNHS newsletter for many years until 2004, when he passed it over in very good shape to his successor. Roy and Mary were very sociable, outgoing people, and it was with great sadness to Roy that Mary passed away in 2009. Roy's life was appreciated greatly by many people. He lived a good life and the world was a better place for his contribution to it. Roy spent his final year in the Red Cross House at Erskine Care Home. Even there he had a computer set up with an 149 internet connection and would still send contributions for the GNHS newsletter! Roy died on June 7th, 2010 at the age of 92. David Palmar OBITUARY Agnes Walker March 1930 - August 201 1 Agnes had many and varied interests, and as a result had acquired friends from a variety of backgrounds. She really loved people and greeted acquaintances so enthusiastically whenever she met them. Agnes was the eldest daughter of James and Elizabeth McDonald. She was educated at Hutchesons' Girls Grammar School, where she was the first science dux. Having also passed her music grades to a high standard she chose science as her future. Her studies at Glasgow University were interrupted for a year when she contracted TB, so she settled for an ordinary B Sc. Her first post was at the National Engineering Laboratory in East Kilbride. She gave up work to many Nomian Walker and raise a family - a daughter followed by three sons. She spent holidays at Nomian's second home, Abemethy House, which later became a Christian Outdoor Centre. While there she made contact with the outdoor centre at Glenmore Lodge, and used to lead students from Moray House on expeditions to the Caimgonns to study the plant life. Her determination to continue her academic studies led to the breakdown of her marriage. She worked in the Botany Department of Glasgow University with Dr Jim Dickson researching the ancient history of bogs and lochs using pollen identification, and gained an M Sc. Her PhD was in a different field and at Belvidere Hospital - the reactions of tumours (in mice) to hypothermia. The post of Assistant Keeper of Natural History at Kelvingrove was an ideal one for Agnes. She focussed on the botanical side, and set up many exhibitions, one of the most important being that on the Scottish Thistle. For this she drove to Blair Castle and was allowed to transport in the boot of her car a valuable historic painting in which the thistle is depicted. During this time she also gave lectures on Botany and Fungi for the adult education department of Glasgow University. She joined the Glasgow Natural History Society in 1969 and was a member of Council from 1990 - 1992. At the time of the Glasgow Garden Festival, Agnes designed a poster on the Classification of Flowering Plants, which was published by the Natural History Museum in London. Having been a member of the Botanical Society of the British Isles for some years, in 1989 she was appointed reeorder for vc 103, Mid Ebudes, which comprises the islands of Mull, Coll and Tiree. She organised several recording meetings in these islands, which were attended by many expert botanists. On Tiree the outdoor centre which she had hoped to use was not ready, but Agnes organised a stone bam beside the guest house to be supplied with electricity and tables set up with microscopes to help identification of plants in the evening. On the last night, a ceilidh was held in the same bam. After she retired from her job at Kelvingrove, Agnes took a course on computing, and also acquired a knowledge of how to computerise music. Her technical expertise enabled her to work with Dr Kenneth Elliot who had been for many years restoring the works of Robert Carver, Scotland’s greatest 16“ Cent. Composer. With the help of others in GU music department , he succeeded in his ambition and the eomplete works were published and are being widely performed. Through friendship with Mrs Dudgeon of Helmsdale who started the herb garden at Timespan Museum in Helmsdale, Agnes developed a great interest in herbs. She researched the use of herbs in Scotland, for both medicinal and culinary purposes. This resulted in the beautifully illustrated book a “Garden of Herbs”. The illustrations were from Nicolas Culpepper’s Herbal (no copyright needed) and some by her friend Anita Peannan. She gave a talk on this subjeet in the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow and was shown a notebook of herbal remedies from 18“ Cent. Scotland. She had transcribed this for issue as a CD when she suffered the severe stroke which put an end to her many activities. Edna Stewart 150 The Glasgow’ Naturalist (online 20 1 2) Volume 25, Part 4, 151-155 BOOK REVIEWS Blumea - Biodiversity, Evolution and Biogeography of Plants Proceedings of the Flora Malesiana Symposium National Herbarium of the Netherlands. 2009. c.300 pages, colour and black white photographs, softback. ISSN 0006-5196, £102. “Flora Malesiana” is a forum for the entire field of Malesian botany, facilitating the exchange of infonnation and producing a variety of output fonnats ranging from identification lists and specimen databases to monographs, biodiversity assessments and analysis of spatial patterns of biodiversity. It is hoped that after the 2007 Symposium the Flora Malesiana Project will turn into one of the first mnning mega flora projects to become truly web-based and interactive. This publication consists of the presentations given at the 2007 Symposium. Malesiana is recognised as a floristic region. It includes the South Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Sulawesi and islands to the east as far as New Guinea. Divisions within the region coirespond to the geological history. The most famous division is in a western and eastern sub-region, separated by Wallace’s Line. Wallace found a distinct boundary between the Southeast Asian- and the New Guinea- Australian fauna, located east of the Philippines, between Borneo and Sulawesi and finally between Bali and Lombok. (Wallace was the British naturalist who proposed the Theory of Evolution simultaneously with Darwin.) Although this publication is directed towards professionals, the general reader can find much of interest. There is an amazing series of scanning electron micrographs of pollen grains of 21 Phyllanthus species found in the Philippines as an aid to classification. There are wonderful photographs of flowers of the parasitic Rafflesia - some species of which include the world’s largest flowers, up to 1.5 m. diameter. New species are still being discovered, yet the lowland tropical rain forest which is an important habitat for many species of Rafflesia is one of the most threatened forest types in the Philippines and other tropical areas. Even in protected areas such as the Mt. Kilanglad Range Natural Park, unsustainable ecotourism activities can damage Rafflesia plants and the roots of their host vines. The flowers of some montane species have been known to be brought down from the mountains for visitors to see - greatly endangering the survival of these populations. Two botanists, C. Pendry and M. Watson based at the RBG Edinburgh have been working on the Flora of Nepal. They have a paper in which they argue that there is a significant overlap of plant species and genera between Nepal and Malesia, and that it would be advantageous to workers on the Floras of each region to cooperate with each other, allowing transfer of expertise and speeding up the preparation of accounts. Throughout this publication and especially under the heading of Conservation Studies, one is aware of the rate at which the tropical rain forests arc disappearing due to logging and mining. As more information on the flora of this endangered habitat is gathered, perhaps there will be more effort to save what is left. Edna Stewart Mayfly larvae (Ephemeroptera) of Britian and Ireland: keys and a review of their ecology J.M. Elliott and U.H.Humpesch Freshwater Biological Association Scientific Publication No. 66, Ambleside, Cumbria. 152 pages, soft back illustrated with colour photographs, diagrams and drawings. ISBN 978-0-900386-78-7, £27.00. From the FBA stable comes another publication which is only partly an update of an earlier key on mayfly larvae. The other part is a comprehensive account of their ecology with a massive bibliography of primaiy sources. Added information is given on Red Data Book status and a list of anglers’ names. A pictorial key to families accompanied by whole habitat drawings of typical examples with realistic backgrounds give users a high degree of confidence in correct assignation. As is often the case with insects, naming ones captured to species level in several cases requires patience involving microscope work. The utility of mayflies in water quality assessment is well known. This requires accurate species identification and knowledge of their individual ecologies. This new publication provides for that process. The discussion of various mayfly studies in the context of stream drift is of interest. The principal author pioneered the British side of investigations into drift, in which the Ephemeroptera are a prominent part, starting in 1965. All the aspects covered in this work are comprehensively sourced; one rather encyclopaedic sentence is accompanied by references to 60 scientific papers. E. Geoffrey Hancock 151 Lost Land of the Dodo Anthony Cheke and Julian Hume T & A D Poyser, London 2008, 464pp hardback with numerous figures, illustrations and maps, including a series of colour paintings of extinct and living species. ISBN 978 0 7136 6544, £45 The Dodo must be the most famous of all extinct birds. But it is only the sad flagship for a whole wildlife community that once existed on the islands of Mauritius, Reunion and Rodriguez in the Indian Ocean, and which has been destroyed or severely disrupted by human settlement. This book is more than just another account of wildlife on a tropical holiday destination. It is a major study of the impact and histoiy of human settlement on island wildlife. The islands were uninhabited when first discovered and so the remarkable animals and plants found there had evolved in the absence of human contact. The islands were also on a major trading route from Europe to the Far East and so soon became visited by many passing sailing ships for water and supplies. Crucially, the first sailors and settlers to arrive there have left good records of what they found and saw. So there are better accounts of what happened to the dozens of species of giant tortoises, birds and bats which became extinct, and the habitat changes that man brought about, than for any other island archipelago in the world. Darwin visited for a few days in 1836 but already by then the native species were so rare that Darwin never saw any - the only animals he found were introduced species. This will be the definitive account of the history and fate of wildlife in the Mascarene islands. One of the authors, Anthony Cheke, has had a lifetime fascination with the islands and his deep passion and commitment shine through this book. Both authors are research scientists but unusually they can convey their infonnation in a most lively and often amusing way. This book is a genuine delight to read, always turning up strange and fascinating stories and facts. It is also a work of real scholarship. There are no less than 128 pages of appendices and chapter notes. This might sound profoundly dull but they contain so many strange and unexpected delights that you soon find yourself browsing for more. It is not intended as a holiday guide to the wildlife but anyone taking a holiday to the islands with a serious interest in wildlife will find this book infinitely rewarding. It is also not a totally bleak story. The book contains a chapter by Carl Jones on the development and successes of the conservation movement in Mauritius and the many success stories in species recovery and habitat restoration. Highly recommended. David Houston The Encyclopedia of Birds Edited by Christopher Perrins Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009, 656 pages, paperback with colour illustrations, distribution maps and scale drawings. ISBN 978-0-19-956800, £19.99. This is quite a heavy tome, at 656 quarto pages, printed on quality paper and full of illustrations. It covers the bird families of the entire world, and was issued in paperback form in September 2009. The editor, Christopher Perrins, is a fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford, was Professor of Ornithology at Oxford for 10 years and is a Fellow of the Royal Society. Written by an international team of experts, it reflects the latest developments in zoology. Accompanied by a comprehensive index, giving both common and scientific names, it covers bird families rather than individual species in detail. In order to sec what to expect of this book, 1 looked up a couple of common British species. The Stoncchat is merely mentioned once, as part of a treatment of behaviour in thrushes, and is said to defend its territory vigorously against potential predators. Look in the index under Golden Eagle, and you will find no index entry. Under Eagle, Golden, you are redirected to Aquila chiysaetoc, rather than the usual chiysaelos, which is also mentioned elsewhere. Once at the several pages on the Hawks, Eagles and Old World Vultures, one learns about the Golden Eagle only that: • Eagles of the genus Aquila feed on live prey as well as carrion, and about siblicide in which the older of two chicks nonnally kills the younger one. • Home ranges of the Golden Eagle vaiy in size between 4500 and 7300 hectares. • Certain nest sites are used for at least a centuiy, and the nests may grow to an enonnous size. So, anyone expecting a page or a set of pages about a particular species will be disappointed. Despite the capacious nature of this tome, there is, necessarily and understandably (although also perhaps disappointingly), no coverage of individual species, but only of a whole family at a time. Since the scope of the book is the entire World, this is perhaps hardly suiprising. Rather than species accounts, the treatment is themed within the chapters about Families. It is these themes (behavioural and conseiwation topics) which make the book very readable, rather than being a species by species treatment. Themes to do with Hawks, Eagles and Old World Vultures include such topics as “Death on Wings”, “Couples and Colonies”, “Nowhere to Nest”, “Top Predators at Risk”, or “Preying on Livestock”. The Factfile which accompanies each chapter lists the distribution, habitat, plumage, voice, eggs, diet and conservation status of a Family. In conclusion, anyone could pick up this book and be delighted with a readable account of groups of bird 152 species, provided that one is prepared to rest this heavy tome somewhere convenient. It is hardly a laptop or bedside reading book! The photographs of representative species of each family arc stunning, and the book is good value for its size and comprehensive nature, and worth having for the photographs alone. David Palmar An Odyssey with Animals: A Veterinarian’s Reflections on the Animal Rights & Welfare Debate Adrian R. Morrison. Oxford University Press, 2009. 288 pages, hardback. ISBN 978-0-19-537444-5, £19.99 Adrian Morrison is an American veterinaiy surgeon who is now Professor Emeritus of Behavioural Neuroscience at the University of Pennsylvania’s Veterinary Medical School. It was here that he became widely known for his research into REM sleep using cats. ( REM is a phase in sleep associated with rapid eye movement). In the introduction the author explains how an attack on his laboratory by animal rights activists in 1990, was the catalyst which ultimately caused him to write this most interesting and veiy readable book, which at first glance appears to be a comparatively slim volume, but which in content is far from slim. “An Odyssey with Animals” is exactly what it says on its well designed dust jacket : “A veterinarian’s Reflections on the Animal Rights and Welfare Debate”. In the early part of the book the reader is lead into the world of the experimental laboratory where the findings are discussed and explained. That Moirison loves his work is clear, as is the frustration and depression that followed the attack on his laboratory. He describes the Animal Rights Societies in the USA as being large, wealthy and powerful organisations, whose extremist members are regarded by the FBI as; “one of today’s most serious domestic teiTorism threats.” (page 7). He admits that at one time, along with other scientists involved in biomedical research, he was reluctant to stand up and be counted, such was the perceived threat from some such organisations. His attitude has now changed however, as has his acceptance that many moderate Welfare Societies can be a force for good. As he reflects on animal welfare as a whole and on the use of animals in biomedical research in particular, Morrison makes a strong case for their continued use in this type of research. It is his contention that medical knowledge cannot progress without the use of animals at some stage and he reminds the reader of the huge benefits there have been to the health of humans and animals alike, thanks to such research. He goes on to point out that effective legislation has been in place since 1985 in the USA to ensure that animal experimentation is earned out in a humane manner and in approved laboratories which are regularly inspected by the authorities. America has in this respect followed the lead of the UK, which had such laws in place more than a century before. Efforts are now made to keep animal experiments to a minimum and to use analgesics (pain relieving drugs) even when the animal is showing no overt sign of pain. There can be no doubt that Mondson loves animals. There are many references to his pet cat Buster. It is his contention, and I agree, that animals cannot contemplate their own death. Were this to be otherwise Moirison says he could not have conducted the research he did. The many other uses man makes of animals are considered as are the ways in which these are viewed. As someone who spent his boyhood on a farm, Morrison’s perception of what is or is not good practice may differ from that of many young people of today, whose understanding and experience of the countryside may now be remote. He does express concem that in the world of food production, commercial considerations will sometimes take precedence over that of animal welfare. I agree, and believe that the poultiy industiy on both sides of the Atlantic may be an example of this. In the final part of the Odyssey we return to the Welfare Debate, this time with the “Philosophers”. Here the author discusses the views of those with whom he most strongly disagrees, using quotations from the writings of many erudite individuals to support his own arguments. Morrison has by now, however, modified some of his opinions and, to illustrate this, tells of how he had even invited a new “ animal rightist” friend (page 221 ) to deliver a lecture to his students. This is a most thoughtful and thought provoking book. It is veiy well written and researched. (There are more than three hundred references.) 1 recommend it, in particular to anyone with a scientific background. Margaret Stead The World from Beginnings to 4000 BCE Ian Tattersall New Oxford World History, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008, 143 pp hardback with b & w illustrations and photographs. ISBN 978 0 19 516712 2 hardback £10.99 and 978 0 19 533315 2 paperback. Despite the rather misleading title, this is a book on human evolution. Yet another. There are so many books in this field that the first question must be, what does this one offer thatn the others don't. One answer is brevity - at only about a hundred pages it offers a snappy introduction that is also authoritative and reasonably up to date. The author is a prolific research scientist on the human fossil record and curator of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural 153 History. Perhaps we should also add that it is eheap! The book is part of an OUP series on World History and is clearly aimed at the general reader who may be new to biology. So there are general introductions to the process of evolution, how fossils are fonned and how animals are classified. It gives a good summary of the key stages in human evolution, dealing with infomiation from DNA and other molecular techniques as well as the classic fossil and archaeological evidence. The book is clearly written and docs provide a handy and accessible introduction to what can be a rather complicated story. David Houston Wildlife Around Glasgow. 50 Remarkable Sites to Explore Richard Sutcliffe and over 40 other authors Glasgow Museums, 2010. 176 pages, softback, ISBN 0902752960, £9.99. This is an excellent and inexpensive book that caters for a wide range of tastes. Don't be put off by its initial appearance which may remind you of Glasgow Corporation and its associated political coiTcctness. The format resembles “Archaeology Around Glasgow; 50 Remarkable Sites to Visit” also published by Glasgow Museums. In the wildlife book those interested in natural history will find a remarkable depth of knowledge and be continually suipriscd by new aspects of a wide range of natural history, including geology and soils, as well as animals, plants, fungi and trees. If on the other hand you want to know about green and pleasant places to go for a walk in that arc reached easily from Glasgow, this book is also useful. On Christmas day every year, rather than spend all the day indoors, I like to go somewhere to take exercise with my family. It has to be reasonably accessible and not too rough ground. Reading the book gave a wide choice of venues and we chose this year to go to Ardmore Point near Cardross on the Clyde Estuaiy. This turned out to be a 3km walk around a coastal promontory with great views on all sides and amazing sea birds in large numbers. The book describes its interesting geology but we will have to return on a warmer day when the rocks are not covered in snow. The place is suiprisingly wild and natural, including the thick gorsc that impedes progress at one point in the walk. The other site near my home in the book is Loch Libo. The loch itself is a half mile long and is in the valley, sun'ounded by trees, just beside Uplawmoor. I thought I knew about its wildlife (clumps of aspen, tufted sedges, bogbean, an assortment of ducks, grebes and Whooper swans), but it turns out there are many other fomis of life I had not seen (more sedges, a poisonous plant called cowbane and water voles which arc now rare in Scotland). The site is owned by Scottish Natural Heritage and you also have to cross the railway line to get in to it, which puts many people off, so you are unlikely to meet anyone except a few fishennen. Without a guidebook like this you might miss it, which would be a shame. An interesting part of this book is the Introduction. It provides intriguing infomiation about the local history of Glasgow landscapes since the ice age. I was unaware that 6,000 years ago our climate went through a period when it was both hotter and drier than it is now; at that time it was mainly covered by forest. This is not to be confused with the medieval period about 1,000 years ago when there was another, but slightly less pronounced, warm period compared to the present. The main changes in plants and animals are described, some of which arc recent. The large amounts of de- icing salt put on roads during the winter has given rise to the presence of salt-tolerant grasses, that otherwise grow near the sea, along motorways and bus routes. A Student’s Guide to the Seashore (third edition) J D. Fish & S. Fish Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2011. 527 pages, paperback with 408 line drawings and 32 colour plates. ISBN 978-0-521-72059-5, £35. ‘Fish & Fish’ has been a successful guide to the seashore because it meets the needs of a varied readership. As both an identification guide and a source of information on the biology of littoral organisms, it has proved useful to students, secondary and tertiary educators, and amateur naturalists. The second edition was “the first choice of students of marine biology in NW Europe”, according to the publisher. The third edition, appearing after a 15 year gap, is likely to maintain this position. It covers more species than did the previous two editions (over 650, compared with the second edition’s 600 and the first’s 500), and now includes introduced species, such as the invasive wireweed Sargasswn muticinn and caipet sea-squirt Dideimnim vexiUum (both now present in the Firth of Clyde); the taxonomy and the biological information on individual species have been updated; and the book is “now enhanced” with 32 colour plates. The general format of the previous editions has been retained. After a brief introduction to tides and different shore types, there is an “Illustrated Guide” in the fomi of an identification key enabling organisms to be quickly assigned to a phylum and class, which has been reorganised and made more user friendly. The rest of the book is a series of chapters, each devoted to a major plant group or animal phylum and including dichotomous keys to families (where appropriate) and species. The diagnostic features of each species are described and an overview of its biology is provided. 154 Changes in the formatting of the headings, such as all headings being in a sans serif font and class and sub- class names being ‘boxed’, are improvements that make it easier for readers to find their way around the third edition than the previous two. Most species are still illustrated with detailed and accurate line drawings. Although there are a few entirely new drawings, and some new labelling and insets have been added to others, the majority remain unchanged, except that they are now set against a pale grey background. Whilst no doubt the latter feature has been introduced to give the book a more contemporary appearance, it has unfortunately resulted in a slight reduction in the sharpness of the drawings, which made me wonder why aesthetic design considerations should have taken priority over scientific clarity. The first edition included four colour plates, which were omitted in the second edition. The return of colour in the fonn of 32 plates (including some photographs carried over from the first edition) is a welcome bonus, perhaps made affordable by the economics of digital technology; some groups, such as the lichens, are illustrated only in colour photographs, and distinctions between certain easily confused species, notably limpets, are clarified. It is regrettable that, as in the previous editions, no scale-bars are given in any line drawings or photographs. The authors continue to justify this by stating that sizes are included in the diagnostic information. However, this is not always the case (e.g. there are no indications of size for the majority of lichens), and to identify some organisms you have to oscillate between keys, diagnostic infonnation and drawings all on different pages. The presence of scale- bars would have eliminated the need for at least some of this page flipping. This is a minor initation, which does not detract from the overall usefulness of the book. ‘Fish & Fish’ is too big and heavy to be practicable as an aid to identifying specimens in the field, and so, on this score an5rway, it cannot compete with any of the currently available pocket-sized identification guides. It can, however, be recommended unreservedly for indoor-based identification work and as a preliminary source of information on the life-cycle and ecology of individual seashore organisms. Iain C. Wilkie 155 The Glasgow Naturalist (online 2012) Volume 25, 157-158 Proceedings 2010 The chair, place, lecturer’s name and title of lecture are given for most meetings. GKB - Graham Kerr Building. All meetings were well attended. O* January Visit to University of Glasgow Library to see natural history books in their special collection. IS*** January Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Rosin Campbell- Palmer, “Re-introducing beavers to Scotland”. Held jointly with Glasgow University Zoological Society. 9“* February Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Heather McHaffie, “Scottish plants at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh”. 23’'*’ February Roger Downie, GKB. 80'*’ AGM followed by a lecture from Debbie McNeill, “Great crested newts in Scotland, and the Gartcosh translocation”. 9*** March Roger Downie, GKB. Members’ photographic night. Preceded by a tutorial from Jeanne Robinson, “Orthoptera - grasshoppers and their allies”. 13“* April Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture held jointly with Hamilton NHS and Paisley NHS from Mel Tonkin, “Red squirrels”. Preceded by a tutorial from Eilidh Spence, “The Glasgow Living Water Project”. 11*** May Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Willie Yeomans, “Clyde River Trust”. Excursions Including the summer social 20 day excursions and 2 weekend excursions were held throughout the year. 14*** September GKB. Exhibition meeting with wine and cheese. 6th October GKB. Blodwen Lloyd Binns lecture and presidential address from Roger Downie, “Adventures with amphibians”. 30“* and3f‘ October Weekend Conference on Urban Biodiversity. 9*** November Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Sarah Cleveland, “Wildlife disease research in Africa: protecting the health of parks and people”. Preceded by tutorials from Maggie Reilly and Anne Orchardson on “Elizabeth Gray’s fossils and Hannah Robertson’s marine biology”. IS*** November Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Shanan Tobe, “Tigers and Leopards and Bears, Oh My!! Identification of Endangered species in Traditional East Asian Medicines”. Held jointly with Glasgow University Zoological Society. 14“* December Christmas Dinner at Cafe Connect followed by a talk from David Hawker, “An island biosphere: Menorca’s plants”. Officers and Council elected at the 2010 AGM President Roger Downie, BSc, PhD Vice Presidents John Knowler, PhD Bob Gray, BSc, MBiol Councillors Lindsay Gemmell Susan Putter General Secretary Mary Child, BSc, MEd Assistants Lynn Diinnachie Council Meetings Anne Orchardson Minute Book Avril Walkinshaw Social Roger Downie Winter programme Treasurer Morag Mackinnon, BA, BSc Membership Secretary Richard Weddle, BSc Librarian Janet Palmar, BSc, PhD Pam Murdoch - Assistant Editor Dominic McCafferty, BSc, PhD Newsletter Editor David Palmar, MA, Dip Ed, Dip Comp Ed Section Convenors Richard Weddle Bio-recording Edna Stewart Botany Anne Orchardson Excursions 157 David Palmar Ornithology David Palmar Photography BLB Executive President, Secretary, Treasurer Scientific Advisors Peter Maepherson FRCP. FRCR. DTDC, FLS and John Knowler Technical advisor Richard Weddle Proceedings 2011 The chair, place, lecturer’s name and title of lecture are given for most meetings. GK.B - Graham Kerr Building. All meetings were well attended. 1 1"' January Roger Downic, GKB. Tutorial and lecture from Colin Wolfe, “Inspired by the natural world”. February Paisley Museum. Joint lecture with Paisley NHS. 8*'’ February Roger Downie, GKB. Lecture from Keith Watson, “Flora of Renfrew”. Preceded by a tutorial from Zara Gladman on crayfish. 22"*' February Barbara Mable, GKB. 8L' AGM followed by a lecture from Richard Tipping, “Moments of crisis: past climatic changes and their impacts in Scotland”. 8"' March Barbara Mable, GKB. Members' photographic night. Preceded by a tutorial from Tom Prescott, “Biodiversity and management of aspen”. 12'" April Barbara Mable, GKB. Lecture from lain Wilkie, “Autotomy and other animal detachment mechanisms in the home, garden and beyond” 10'" May Barbara Mable, GKB. Lecture from Barbara Mable, “Evolution of plant reproductive systems in changing environments”. Preceded by a tutorial from Jon Barnes on intertidal Scottish crabs. Excursions Including the summer social 24 day excursions and 2 weekend excursions were held throughout the year. 20'" September GKB. Exhibition meeting with wine and cheese. October ll'" Barbara Mable, GKB. Lecture from Scott Wilson, “Introduced tree species in Scottish forests: recruits, renegades or refugees?”. Preceded by a tutorial from Roy Watling, “In the footsteps of Frederick Klotzch: fungi and mycologists past and present”. 8'" November Barbara Mable, GKB. Lecture from Keith Cohen, “The bats of Scotland and Trinidad”. Preceded by a tutorial from Crispin Hayes, “Working towards a revival of the Clyde Valley orchards”. 16'" November Barbara Mable, GKB. Blodwen Lloyd Binns Lecture from Richard Abbott, “Plant speciation in action in the UK: tales of the unexpected”. 13'" December. Christmas Dinner at Cafe Connect followed by a talk from David Bradley and Emily Waddell, “A contrast in expedition locations: Iceland and Peru”. Officers and Council elected at the 201 1 AGM President Barbara Mable BSc MSC PhD Vice Presidents Bob Gray BSC MlBiol Roger Downie BSC PhD Councillors Lindsay Gemmcll Susan Flitter General Secretary Mary Child, BSc, MEd Assistants Lynn Dunnachie Council Meetings Anne Orchardson Minute Book Avril Walkinshaw Social Roger Downie Winter programme Treasurer Morag Mackinnon, BA, Bsc Membership Secretary Richard Weddle, BSc Librarian Janet Palmar, BSc, PhD Pam Murdoch - Assistant 158 Editor Dominic McCafferty, BSc, PhD Newsletter Editor David Palmar, MA, Dip Ed, Dip Comp Ed Section Convenors Richard Weddle Bio-recording Edna Stewart Botany Anne Orchardson Excursions David Palmar Ornithology David Palmar Photography George Paterson Zoology BLB Executive President, Secretary, Treasurer Scientific Advisors Peter Macpherson FRCP. FRCR, DTDC, FLS and Roger Downie Technical advisor Richard Weddle Financial Advisor Bob Gray 159 The Glasgow Naturalist Advice to Contributors 1. The Glasgow Naturalist publishes articles, short notes and book reviews. All articles are peer reviewed by a minimum of two reviewers. The subject matter of articles and short notes should concern the natural history of Scotland in all its aspects, including historical treatments of natural historians. Details of the journal can be found at www.gnhs.org.uk/publications.html 2. Full papers should not normally exceed 20 printed pages. They should be headed by the title and author, postal and email address. Any references cited should be listed in alphabetical order under the heading References. All papers must contain a short abstract summarising the work. The text should normally be divided into sections with sub-headings such as Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion and Acknowledgements . 3. Short notes should not normally exceed one page of A4 single-spaced. They should be headed by the title and author's name, postal and email address. Any references cited should be listed in alphabetical order under the heading References. There should be no other sub-headings. Any acknowledgements should be given as a sentence before the references. Short notes may cover, for example, new locations for a species, rediscoveries of old records, ringed birds recovered, occurrences known to be rare or unusual, interesting localities not usually visited by naturalists, and preliminary observations designed to stimulate more general interest. 4. References should be given in full according to the following style: Pennie, I.D. (1951). Distribution of Capercaillie in Scotland. Scottish Naturalist 63, 4-17. Wheeler, A. (1975). Fishes of the World. Femdale Editions, London. Grist, N.R. & Bell, E.J (1996). Enteroviruses. Pp. 381- 90 In: Weatherall, D.J. (editor). Oxford Textbook of Medicine. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 5. An organism’s genus and species should be given in italics when first mentioned. Thereafter the common name is only required. Please use lower case initial letters for all common names e.g. wood avens, blackbird; unless the comro.on name includes a normally capitalised proper name e.g. Kemp's ridley turtle. The nomenclature of vascular plants should follow Stace, C.A. (1997). The new Flora of the British Isles, (Second Edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Normal rules of zoological nomenclature apply. When stating distribution, it may be appropriate to give information by vice-county. 6. All papers, including electronic versions, must be prepared on A4, double spaced throughout, with margins of 25mm, with 12 point Times New Roman font. Tables and the legends to figures should be typed separately and attached to the end of the manuscript. The Editor can make arrangements to have hand- v/ritten manuscripts typed if necessary. 7. Tables are numbered in arabic numerals e.g. Table 1. These should be double-spaced on separate sheets with a title and short explanatory paragraph underneath. 8. Line drawings and photographs are numbered in sequence in arabic numerals e.g. Fig. 1. If an illustration has more than one part, each should be identified as 9 (a), (b) etc. They should be supplied as a high resolution digital image or camera-ready for uniform reduction of one-half on A4 size paper. Line drawings should be drawn and flilly labelled in Indian ink, dry-print lettering or laser printed. A metric scale must be inserted in photo-micrographs etc. Legends for illustrations should be typed on a separate sheet. Photographs are normally printed in black and white, however the Editor is able to accept a small number of high quality colour photographs for each issue. 9. Articles should be submitted to the Editor: Dr Dominic McCafferty by email dominie. mccaffertv@glasgow.ac.iik either as a single word processed document or pdf. Photographs and illustrations should be high resolution with a minimum of 300 dpi in tif or jpeg format. Please contact the Editor if you require assistance with photographs as in some cases suitable photographs can be obtained. 10. When the article is accepted for publication, the author should return the corrected manuscript to the Editor as soon as possible. Final proofs should be returned to the Editor by email / return of post. Alterations at this stage should be kept to the correction of typesetting errors. More extensive alterations may be charged to the author. 1 1 . A copy of the published article will be sent to the first author as a pdf file. Ten reprints will be supplied free of charge for full papers only. Additional reprints required will be charged at extra cost. 12. All submissions are liable to assessment by the Editor for ethical considerations, and publication may be refused on the recommendation of the Editorial Committee. SMITHSONIAN LIBRARIES 3 9088 ©1934 0546