J. Henry ^enger
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THE ELEMENTS OF THE DEVANAGARI CHARACTER .
6<-y^i-i.rh^
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A
GRAMMAR THE HINDUSTANI LANGUAGE,
IX THE
ORIENTAL AND ROMAN (7TARA( TKR,
NUMEROUS COPPER-PLATE ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PERSIAN AND DEVANAGARI SYSTEMS OF ALPHABETIC WRITING.
TO WHICH IS ADDED^vv
gl €'opiott0 Sktitttion of Q^a^v ^xtvacH for Meaning,
IN THE
PERSI-ARABIC & DEVANAGARI CHARACTERS, FORMING A COMPLETE INTRODUCTION TO THE BAGH-O-BAHAR;
TOGETHER WITH •
A VOCABUI.ARY, ANX> EXPIfAirATORV UTOTES.
By DUNCAN FORBES, A.M.,
Member of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland ; Membei- of the Asiatic
Society of Paris ; and Professor of Oriental Languages and Literature
in King''s College, London.
I
" W tfiat trabelletf) into a cottittri? ticforc i^e ijatt an entrance into ti)f Hanfluage. goftf) to srftool, anli not to trabel."— Bacon.
J. 0 N D 0 N :
Wm. H. ALLEN k Co.,
BOOKSELLER:* TO THK HONOURABLE EAST-INDIA COMPANY
7, LEADENHALL STREET. 1846.
Printed \)\ J.& H. COX, Brothers, 74 <fe 7-''. r.reat Queen Street, Lincoln's-Inn Fields.
m MCMomAW
I ^i^
TO
JAMES WEIR HOGG, ESQ., M.P., CHAIRMAN, HENRY ST. GEORGE TUCKER, ESU., DEPUTY CHAIRMAN,
AND
THE DIRECTORS,
OF
THE FOLLOWING WORK,
INTENDED TO FACILITATE THE ACQUISITION OF THE HINDUSTANI LANGUAGE,
IS
RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,
BY THEIR MOST OBEDIENT
AND FAITHFUL SERVANT,
DUNCAN FORBES.
Lmdon, 20th April, 1846.
926509
PREFACE.
The following work has been compiled with a view to enable every one proceeding to India to acquire a fair knowledge of the most useful and most extensively spoken language of that country. Of late years, a new sera may be said to have com- menced with regard to the study of the Hindustani language ; it being now imperative on every junior officer in the Company's service, to pass an examination in that language before he can be deemed qualified to command a troop, or to hold any staff appointment.
Such being the case, it is desirable that every facility should be afforded to young men destined for India to acquire at least an elementary knowledge of Hindustani in this country, so as to be able to prosecute the study during the voyage. That many of those who go out, do not, before their departure, study a lan- guage of so much importance to them in after-life, is to be mainly attributed to the very high price hitherto exacted for elementary books. That books of a reasonable price are in de- mand is readily proved by the fact that the publishers of this volume have, within the last two years, disposed of not fewer than five hundred copies of Arnofs Hindustani Grammar, loith Extracts for reading and a Vocabulary, edited by me, and sold at the moderate sum of half a guinea. During the last six months, the same publishers have disposed of five hundred copies of my little work entitled the Hindustani Manual. These facts clearly
vi Preface.
prove that the public are far from indifferent on the score of studying the language.
Mr. Arnot's Grammar being out of print, it became a ques- tion whether to pubhsh a new edition of it, with notes and addi- tions, or to compose an entirely new work. For many reasons, I have preferred the latter alternative, as I should thus have an opportunity of treating the subject in that manner which an ex- perience of twenty years has led me to consider as the best. I have made it my endeavour, therefore, to comprise within a volume of moderate size and price, more explicit and copious information on the grammatical principles of the language than what is found in any work, large or small, yet published. From not introducing any thing but what is really important, — from having entirely omitted whatever seemed of no value to the learner, — and by bestowing but brief notice upon all such subjects as are plain and self-evident, as forming constituent parts of our own and other European languages, I have reason to trust that I have not been altogether unsuccessful in my design.
The first section treats rather fully of the elementary sounds of the language, and of all that is requisite for reading and pronouncing correctly. The next three sections treat of the parts of speech, to the defining and explaining of which I have strictly confined myself. I have carefully avoided mixing up the syntax of the language with that part of the work which is and ought to be purely etymological. The mode of jumbling the syntax with the etymology, which prevails in most grammars, I have always looked upon as highly preposterous. It is utterly absurd to embarrass the student with a rule of syntax, at a stage of his progress where he probably does not know a dozen words of the language.
Preface, vii
, In the first four sections (up to p. 91), I have generally accompanied every Hindustani word and phrase with the pro- nunciation in Roman characters, in order that the learner might not be delayed too long in acquiring the essential elements of the grammar, and also to guard against his contracting a vicious mode of pronunciation. When he has made himself acquainted with what is technically called the accidence, that is, the declension of the nouns and pronouns, and the conjuga- tion of the verbs, he may^ after a few verbal instructions respect- ing the arrangement of words, proceed to read and translate a few pages of the Selections, by the aid of the Vocabulary. This done, he may read over the Grammar carefully from the begin- ning, for in fact the Grammar and Selections mutually assist each other.
Section V. (from p. 92 to 135) treats of the Syntax of the language. This is a portion of the work, in which, if I do not greatly mistake, I have made many improvements. I have been particularly careful in explaining those peculiarities of the lan- guage in the use of which I have observed learners most apt to err, when trying to translate English into Hindustani. I have also, in several instances, ventured to differ from all my prede- cessors on certain important points, which of course 1 have jus- tified by an appeal to the language itself.
In the sixth and last section, I have given a concise account of the Devanagari alphabet, together with an explanation of the various plates accompanying the work. The perusal of the plates will initiate the student into the mysteries of the manu- script character, which is much used in India, both in litho- graphed and printed works, to say nothing of numerous pro- ductions which still remain in manuscript. When the learner
viii Preface.
is well grounded in the NasMii^ or printed character, he should, as an exercise, endeavour to write out the same in the TaHik, or written character. When he has attained some facility in writing the latter, he will find it a very profitable exercise to transcribe the various phrases, &c. in the Hindustani Manual, fi-om the Roman character into choice Td'lik, and at the same time commit them to memory, as directed in the preface to that small work, t,;
In the compilation of this volume, my greatest obligations are due to the works of the late Dr. Gilchrist, whose fame, as the restorer and prime cultivator of the Hindustani language, will last, as his friend Mir Amman has it, " while the Ganga and Jamuna flow downwards." I have also availed myself of the Grammars of the Rev. Mr. Yeates, of Calcutta, and of Mu- hammad Ibrahim, of Bombay. Last, but not least, the valuable little Grammar by my friend Dr. Ballantyne, of Benares, served me as a regular index of all that was useful in the language. The Grammar by the late Mr. Arnot, though intended for the groundwork of the present, I found to be too concise in general to answer my purpose. From all these I cheerfully acknowledge to have procured materials, but the design and structure, and much that is new and original in the work, I claim as my own.
An elementary grammar of a language is incomplete without a certain portion of easy extracts, accompanied by a suitable vocabulary, and occasional notes explanatory of any obscure or idiomatic phrases that may occur in the text. This is the more essential in a grammar of the Hindustani, because the characters and words, being totally diff*erent from our own, it is necessary, though it may sound strange, to learn the language
Preface. ix
to a certain extent before the grammar can be perused to any advantage. As to the use of translations and other fallacious aids, such as giving the English of each word as it occurs at the bottom of the page or elsewhere, it is a method deservedly- scouted by all good teachers. On the other hand, to put a large dictionary in the hands of a beginner, is equally useless ; it is asking of him to perform a difficult work, with an instrument so unwieldy as to be beyond his strength.
In order to remedy these inconveniences, I have appended to this Grammar a selection of easy compositions for reading, commencing with short sentences. The words occurring in the extracts in the Persi-Arabic character, as far as page 30, together with all the words in the Hindi extracts, will be found in the Vocabulary, at the end of which I have added a few notes explanatory of difficult passages or peculiarities of the language, with references to the page and paragraph of the Grammar where further information may be obtained.
The extracts from page 30 to the end (p. 64), are taken from the Khirad Afroz, the style of which is generally con- sidered to be easy and graceful. All the words occurring in these will be found in my vocabulary appended to the Bagh o Bahar, to which these Selections form an introduction. The two works together make up a complete course of reading, suffi- cient for qualifying any one to pass the required examination in this department.
In the extracts from the Khirad Afroz, I have left off the use of the jazm — , except in very rare instances, in order that the student may gradually learn to read without it; and in hke manner the virdma -^ is omitted in the last live or six stories
X Preface.
of the Hindi extracts. I have been careful, throughout, to give .the essential short vowels, convinced that without them the most attentive learner will be apt to commit mistakes in pronuncia- tion. I have also inserted a rigid system of punctuation, the same as I should have done in the editing of a Latin Classic. There may be a few individuals so thoroughly wedded to what is foolish or defective, merely because it is old, as to feel shocked at this innovation. They will triumphantly ask, what is the use of punctuation, when the natives have none in their manuscripts? I answer, — the use is, simply to facilitate, for beginners, the acquisition of a knowledge of the language. .When that is once attained, they will find no difficulty in read- ing native works, though utterly void, not only of punctuation but of vowel-points and other diacritical marks. This is merely a question of time ; four hundred years ago we had no stops for our books in Europe, and the excellent monks who had the management of these matters went on complacently without them. But after all, it was found that stops were an improve- ment, and so they are admitted to be even in the East. Almost all the books printed in India since the beginning of the present century have punctuation ; and those who would make be- ginners attempt to translate from a strange language in a strange character, without the least clue to the beginning or end of the sentences, seem to have a marvellous love for the absurd. All Oriental as well as European books ought to have stops; the omission is a mere cloak for the idleness or ignorance of the editor.
Having repeatedly in the course of this work alluded to the Bagh 0 Bahdr, it may not be amiss here to draw the reader's
Preface. xi
attention to the importance of that entertaining and useful work. The following is a copy of the latest regulations by the Indian Government respecting the
TEST IN HINDUSTANI EXAMINATIONS.
*^ Fort Williamy May 31, 1844.— The following test having been fixed for the Hindustani examination of military officers prescribed in G. O. of 9th January, 1837, the same is published in General Orders for the information of the army : — Candidates shall be required to read and translate correctly, the Bagh o Bahar and the Baital PacJiisif the former in the Persian and the latter in the Devanagari character ; and further, to make an intelligible and accurate written translation into Hin- dustani, of an English passage in an easy narrative style ; this translation to be written in a legible hand in both the Persian and Devanagari characters.
''A colloquial knowledge of Hindustani being deemed an object of primary importance, the proficiency of a candidate will be tested on that point before the grant to him of a certificate of competency by the examiners."
D. F.
58, BURTON CRESCENT, April, 1846.
CORRECTIONS.
In the Grammar.
Page 52 line 23 for shartiya read shartiya
— dQ last line but one, — mariye — mariye,
JExtracts in tjie Persian Character.
9 9
Page 1 last line, for ^->^ read t-->^ — 28 line 15 — l/* "~ l5^
Devanagarl Character,
Page 1 line l\ for ^V^ read ^^
— 12-6Y^ -Tff
-16-3A^ - Vr^
ri.i
^{'.i-^^
Wr^^fif^^J.
Obtrr^ffri-
♦♦
(^
♦ ♦
-t^'^-r^^fd^r-dx
pi.r
^o^rt^-g-^^
m^/^t-
7^lit-^/>>tt
WTJT.Anrn <t C?Lmdrn.
.%^.v-
^fW:
ttJtr^i>-i~^^
PI. IV.
^^.
♦ 4
OlKj-^rb
'o^>.-y.m
♦♦
L
♦ ♦
^^,
{
♦♦
♦♦ . ♦
^f^'^
.'.
^^i^")j
( 4'>
WKAllin k C^Zc-ndcn.
PI v.
j/.-^ ij- e ^- j^-
^.:^-^.(.:.d'-J'-f-'t-
♦♦ ♦♦^
• ♦ « ♦ «•
J ^^
WS.AlUn & aZ-rloTL.
^w^
J^
jT
J^
J^J^-
ij^c^— ^
^.^
/..
♦ ♦ ♦♦
J^
♦♦
♦ ♦♦
-rf rf
" f (
♦♦ ♦♦
WJLAileTL & CfZffndcTi.
/^'V
\- *
r
A''•^
f
I
^ C€-
♦ ♦♦
i
Jjfr^
^^C l/^
& iy- j^-
' ■ — /,v
Cf
TiTKAniK I' rrf,onJ^n .
PIX
1
PI. XL
>-
y^J^
♦ ♦
^CG
Jp^ p-^ J[p>
« ♦
L>^ -'_' -^
■tl
j^ -^
♦
lT-u^V ^ /-
G-.Hard/iy, Sc.
WH'.AIUn ir C^lcr^J^n .
\
P1.XII.
t 6 ^ S ""■ ^
-^' ^ Cf af^ C^
cf /j^c'^cT
♦♦ ♦♦
G:Barcla.v. Sc.
WS Alien * C londcn.
♦ ♦
':j
♦ ♦
^
O^
/
_r
♦ ♦
♦ ♦ ♦♦
♦■ V
^
J^ U^~ i/ J (/
♦ ♦ ♦
♦ ♦
u u
Lf'
J d
V
W-S'.AIU/L & C Lender,,.
PI. XIV
♦ ♦
ll^S^
f j>
J^ ^k.^ jl^ ^_:j^ ^
-^ ^ ^
♦♦♦
♦« ♦♦
J^
♦♦ ♦
t
♦ ♦♦
♦ ♦
u^-
u
i
♦♦
WSAl^fn A- 1 rimdrr,
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR,
SECTION I.
On the Letters and Symbols used in Writing.
1. The Hindustani language may be printed and written in two distinct alphabets, totally different from each other, viz., the Persi- Arabic and the Deva- nagari. We shall at present confine ourselves to the former, and devote a section to the latter towards the end of the volume. The Persi-Arabic alphabet con- sists of thirty-two letters, to which three more are added to express sounds peculiar to the Hindustani. These letters, then, thirty -five in number, are written and read from right to left ; and, consequently, their books and manuscripts begin at what we should call the end. Several of the letters assume different shapes, according to their position in the formation of a word or a combined group ; as may be seen in the following table, column V. Thus, in a combination of three or more letters, the first of the group, on the right- hand side, will have the form marked Initial; the letter or letters between the first and last will have the form marked Medial; and the last, on the left, will have the Final form. Observe, also, that in this table, column I. contains the names of the letters in
B
2 The Alphabet,
the Persian character; II. the same in Roman cha- racter; III. the detached form of the letters, which should be learned first; and IV. the corresponding English letters.
THE HINDUSTANI ALPHABET.
I. II. Name. |
III. Detached Form. |
IV. Power. |
V. Combined Form. |
1 Exemplifications. | |
|||||
Final. |
Mecl. |
Initial. |
Final. |
Medial. |
Initial. |
||||
alif |
\ |
a,&c. |
I |
I |
! |
b |
> |
<^1 |
|
^'■ |
he |
L^ |
h |
L^ |
iA |
J |
C^ |
v?-" |
^ |
oi |
pe |
V |
p |
V |
y |
V |
V V |
jt:" |
9 |
^ |
te |
CD |
t |
LL^ |
- |
J |
^ |
V |
|
ii |
ta |
■iS^ |
t |
(JU |
» |
a |
"V |
11. |
» |
se |
ej |
s |
(J^ |
ft |
c*^-^ |
j^ |
ft |
||
rr |
Jim |
Zl |
J |
t |
^ |
£*- |
i |
^ |
>rr^ |
^^ |
che |
^ |
ch |
t |
V |
>> V |
t 9 |
V ♦ |
V V |
u<^ |
he |
z |
h |
t |
^ |
5»- |
^ |
jr- |
|
J- |
khe |
t |
kh |
t |
iL |
£>- |
^ |
||
Jb |
dal |
J |
d |
*x |
<A |
J |
Jup |
u |
»/ j'» |
da |
4 |
n |
4X |
n |
Ji^ |
||||
JU |
zal |
t) |
$ |
S |
i^ |
J |
A£K |
^^ |
ri |
^J |
re |
J |
r |
J |
7 |
J |
r' |
V |
r-' |
^J |
ra |
n J |
r |
J |
n |
J |
• > |
!)^ |
# |
* We are not aware of any word in Hindustani beginning with
the letter J.
The Alphabet. |
3 |
||||||||
I. II. Name. |
III. Detached Form. |
IV. Power, |
V. Combined Form. |
VI. Exemplifications. |
|||||
Final. |
Med. |
Initial. |
Final. |
Medial. |
Initial. |
||||
^j |
ze |
J |
Z |
J |
i |
J |
/ |
r^ |
Jj |
^j |
zhe |
A |
zh |
t. J |
A |
i>. |
c^Ji |
4j |
|
^ |
sin |
u** |
s |
tr» |
^ |
mJ |
(^ |
j_i |
^ |
^ |
shin |
sh |
A |
t. |
u^. |
>> |
9 |
||
jU |
sU |
^ |
§ |
u^ |
*a. |
*a |
Ju? |
||
tili |
z^d |
ij |
z |
u^ |
*a |
*o |
C^«J |
^ |
J^ |
^^ |
toe |
\= |
t |
k |
L |
L |
kri. |
c;i^ |
^> |
\fP |
zoe |
li |
z |
la |
\a |
b |
> |
> |
|
^ ^ |
din |
e_ |
a, &c. |
t |
X |
£. |
e-- |
J-.^ |
|
^ |
ghdin |
i |
gh |
t |
X |
£- |
b^" |
^?^ |
p |
4 |
fe |
cJ |
f |
uJ |
A |
i |
>- |
J "y |
|
^15 |
kaf |
J |
fp |
J |
A |
i* |
cS^ |
> |
JJ |
^^ |
kaf |
cJ |
k |
d< |
i |
^ |
^. |
^. |
/ c/ |
^\r |
g¥ |
^ |
g |
^ |
t |
^ i |
^^j |
A |
/ |
c^ |
lam |
J |
I |
J |
\, |
1 |
J2^ |
G |
•^1 |
mim |
r |
m |
^^ |
<^ |
^ |
r" |
ur*r |
^ |
|
vy |
nun |
u |
n |
t:; |
- |
j |
^ |
V |
<f |
iS |
waw |
-? |
WjScc. |
^ |
^ |
J |
^i |
||
^ |
he |
^ |
h |
a; |
•v€ |
Jb |
.« |
k |
9 |
^^• |
ye |
4^ |
y,8cc. |
^ |
- |
.) |
^^ |
Jo |
4 Of the Alphabet.
The alphabet here described is used, more or less modified, by all those nations who have adopted the religion of Muhammad ; viz. along the north and east of Africa, in Turkey, Arabia, and Persia, and by the Musalman portion of the people of India and Ma- lacca.
In pronouncing the names of the letters (column II.) let it be remembered that the vowels are to be uniformly sounded as follows : — The unmarked a is always short, as a in woman, adrift y &c. ; a is always long, as a in war or art ; i is short, as in pin ; t is long, as in police ; u is short, as u in bully pull, &c. ; u is the same sound lengthened, and pronounced as u in rule, &c. ; eis sounded as ea in bear ; a is always long, as in no ; ai is pronounced as ai in aisle ; and au is sounded as in German and Italian, or very nearly like our ou in sound, or ow in coiv.
2. Perhaps the best mode of learning the alphabet is. First, to write out several times the detached or full forms of the letters in column III. Secondly, to observe what changes (if any) these undergo, when combined in the formation of words, as exhibited in column V. Lastly, to endeavour to transfer, into their corresponding English letters, the words given as exemplifications in column VI.
a. It may be observed that the letters \, 4>, >^, t3,j, jfj>Jf and j do not alter in shape, whether initial, medial, or final. Another peculiarity which they have is, that they never unite with the letter following, to the left ; hence, when the last letter of a word is preceded by any one of these, it must have the detached form, column III. The letters L and ^, in like manner, do not alter, but they always unite with the letter following on the left hand.
3. In the foregoing table, most of the characters are sufficiently represented by the corresponding English letters : it will therefore be necessary to notice only those whose sounds dift'er more or less from our own.
Powers of the Letters, 5
O The sound of this letter is softer and more dental than that of the English t ; it corresponds with the t of the Gaelic dialects, or that of the Italians in the word sotto. It represents the Sanskrit rf.
<3 This letter represents the Sanskrit Z" ; its sound is much nearer that of the Enghsh t than the preceding. In pronounc- ing it, the tongue is well turned up towards the roof of the mouth, as in the words tip, top.
lL) is sounded by the Arabs like our th hard, in the words thick f thin ; but by the Persians and Indians it is pronounced like our s in the words sick, sin.
^ This letter has uniformly the sound of our ch in the word church.
- is a very strong aspirate, comewhat like our h in the word haul, but uttered by compressing the lower muscles of the throat.
^ has a sound like the ch in the word loch, as pronounced by the Scotch and Irish, or the final ch in the German words schach and huch. This letter will be represented in Roman characters by M-
J is much softer and more dental than the English d; it
represents the Sanskrit ^, and corresponds with the d of the
Celtic dialects, and that of the Italian and Spanish, J} J This letter represents the Sanskrit '^j and is very nearly the
same as our own d. The tongue, in pronouncing it, should be well turned up towards the roof of the mouth.
t> is properly sounded (by the Arabs) like our th soft, in the words thy and thine; but in Persian and Hindustani it is generally pronounced like our z in zeal.
J is uniformly sounded very distinctly, as the French and Germans pronounce it.
J This letter is sounded like the preceding, only the tip of the tongue must be turned up towards the roof of the mouth. It is very much akin to J, with which it often interchanges ; or, more strictly speaking, in the Devanagari the same letter serves for both. In printed books, one of them has a dot under.
6 ^ Powers of the Letters,
J is pronounced like the j of the French, in the word jour, or our z in the word azure. It is of rare occurrence.
jjo In Arabic this letter has a stronger or more hissing sound than our s. In Hindustani, however, there is little or no distinction between it and ^^, which is like our own s.
^ is pronounced by the Arabs like a hard d or dh ; but in Hindustani it is sounded like z.
L and )a These letters are sounded in Hindustani like lU and J, or very nearly so. The anomalous letter c will be noticed hereafter.
4 has a sound somewhat like g in the German word sagen. About the banks of the Tweed, the natives sound what they fancy to be the letter r, very like the Eastern c. This sound will be represented in Enghsh letters by gh,
J bears some resemblance to our c hard, in the words calm, cup ; with this difference, that the j is uttered from the lower muscles of the throat.
(^ is sounded like our g hard, in give, go ; never like our g in gem, gentle,
(^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is sounded like our n in the word now : at the end of a word, when preceded by a long vowel, it generally has a nasal sound, like the French n, in such words as mon and son, where the sound of the n is scarcely heard, its effect being to make the preceding vowel come through the nose. The same sound may also occur in the middle of a word, as in the French sans. In the Roman character, the nasal sound of ^j will be indicated by n,
a is an aspirate, like our h in hand, heart ; but at the end of a word, if preceded by the short vowel a (Fatha § 4), the a has no sensible sound, as in ij\j dana, a grain ; in which case it is
called ^Jc>k^ t-?l& hae-muMitafi, i.e., the h obscure or imper- ceptible. As this final h, then, is not sounded in such cases, we shall omit it entirely in the Roman character whenever we have occasion to write such words as <)Gb dana, &c.
a. At the end of words derived from Arabic roots, the final » is sometimes marked with two dots thus, I ; and, in such cases,
Of the Primitive Vowels, 7
sounded like the letter CJ t. The Persians generally convert the I into (JLi -, but sometimes they leave it unaltered, and frequently they omit the two dots, in which case the letter is sounded according to the general rule. Lastly, the Hindustani usually receives such words in whatever form they may happen to be used in Persian.
h. The letter J5 or ^ is frequently employed as a mere aspirate in combination with the letters <— >, c-^ ; Cl^, c3 ; — , ,-. ; J, J, J, CJ, and v^f ; as in the words l^, pha ; \^, tha, &c. In such cases the learner must be careful not to sound the ph and th as in English ; the h is to be sounded separately, immediately after its accompanying letter, as in the compound words up-hill, hot-house. In most printed books the round form of the h (js> and ^) is employed to denote the aspirate of the preceding letter, otherwise the form ^ is used ; but this rule does not apply to manuscripts, particularly those written before the days of Dr. Gilchrist.
c. Much might have been said in describing the sounds of several of the letters ; but we question whether the learner would be greatly benefited by a more detailed description. It is difficult, if not impossible, to give in writing a correct idea of the mere sound of a letter, unless we have one that corresponds with it in our own language. When this is not the case, we can only have recourse to such languages as happen to possess the requisite sound. It is possible, however, that the student may he as ignorant of these languages as of Hindustani. It clearly follows, then, as a general rule, that the correct sounds of such letters as differ from our own must be learned hy the ear — we may say, by a good ear; and, consequently, a long description is needless. This remark applies in particular to the letters C->, _, ^, ^, ^^, ^^, c, j, and the nasal jj.
Of the Primitive Vowels,
4. In Hindustani, as in many of the Oriental lan- guages, the primitive vowels are three in number. They are represented by three small marks or symbols,
8 Of the Primitive Vowels,
two of which are placed above and one beneath the letter after which they are sounded, as in the foUow-
ing syllables, j da, J di, and j du ; or ^ sar, ^ sir,
and^ sur,
a. The first is called <ts^ /a^^a (by the Persians, yj zdbar), and is written thus, — over the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is that of a short «, such as we have in the word calamus, which is of Eastern origin, and of which the first two
syllables or root, calam or kalam, are thus written, Ji. In such Oriental words as we may have occasion to write in Roman characters, the a, unmarked, is understood always to represent the vowel fatha, and to have no other sound than that of a in calamus or calendar,
h. The second is called by the Arabs kasra HjJi (by the Persians ^J zer), and is thus — written under the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is that of our short i in the word sip and fin, which in Hindustani would be written l-^w»
and ^ , The unmarked i, therefore, in the course of this
work, is understood to have the sound of i in sip and fin, in all Oriental words written in the Roman character.
c. The third is called by the Arabs zamma or dhamma
<U-i, (by the Persians, ^JL^^ pesk,) which is thus ^- written over its consonant. Its sound is like that of our short u in the words pull and push, which in Hindustani would be written
Jj and ijti : we have also its true sound in the English words
foot and hood, which would be written CUi and JJb. We shall accordingly, in the following pages, represent the zamma by the unmarked u, which in all Oriental words in the Roman cha- racter, is understood to have the sound of u in pull and push ; but never that of our u in such words as use and perfume, or such as u in sun and fun.
Weak Consonants. 9
Of the Letters \, c, ,, and ^, viewed as Consonants.
5. At the beginning of a word or syllable, the letter \, like any other consonant, depends for its sound on the accompanying vowel ; of itself, it is a very weak aspirate, like our h in the words herb^ honour, and hour. It is still more closely identified with the spiritus lenis of the Greek, in such words as oltto, stt), op$pog, where the mark ' represents the alif, and the a, s, and 0 the accompanying vowel* In fact, when we utter the syllables ab, ib, and ub, there is a slight movement of the muscles of the throat at the com- mencement of utterance ; and that movement the
Oriental grammarians consider to be the ^jsr^ maldkraj ,
or utterance of the consonant ^, as in 1 « ; 1 2 ; and \ u;
just the same as the lips form the makhraj of b, in the
syllables c.^ ba, c-> bi, and c-^ bu. Finally, the \ may
be considered as the spiritus lenis, or weak aspirate of the consonant Jb.
a. The consonant c has the same relation to the strong aspirate --, that \ has to jb; that is, the Q, like the 1, is a spiritus lenis or weak aspirate ; but the makhrajy or place of utterance df c, is in the lower muscles of the throat. Hence the sound of the letter c, like that of the letter \, depends on
the accompanying vowel ; as ^ ^ 'ab, t ^ 'ib, *, -x 'ub, which,
in the mouth of an Arab, are very different sounds from c->l ab, c-j1 lb, and l_^1 ub. ki the same time, it is impos- sible to explain in writing the true sound of this letter ; as it is not to be found in any European language, so far as we know. The student who has not the advantage of a competent teacher may treat the q as he does the \ until he has the opportunity of learning its true sound by the ear.
b. Of the consonants ^ and ^^ very little description is
10 Consonants — Moveable and Inert,
necessary. The letter j has generally the sound of our w in we, went ; but occasionally it has the sound of our Vj which must be determined by practice. The sound of the consonant ^ is exactly our own y in you, yet, or the German j in jener,
c. It appears, then, that the thirty-five letters constituting the Hindustani alphabet are all to be considered as consonants, each of which may be uttered with any of the three primitive
vowels, as \ a, \ i, and \ u; l^ ha, <— * bi, and c_^ bu, ^c. :
hence the elementary sounds of the language amount to one hundred and five in number, each consonant forming three dis- tinct syllables.
6. When a consonant is accompanied by one of the three primitive vowels, it is said to be lL^j^-^ mu-
taharrik, that is, moving, or moveable, by that vowel. Oriental grammarians consider a syllable as a step or move in the formation of a word or sentence. When, in the middle or end of a word, a consonant is not accompanied by a vowel, it is said to be ^L» sakin,
resting ov inert, and then it is marked with the symbol
- or — called aj>- jazm, which signifies *' amputation"
or *' cutting short," Thus in the word (♦j^ mardum^ the mim is moveable hyfatha ; the re is inert,^ having no vowel ; the dal is moveable by zamma; and, finally,
* The term inert is here employed for want of a better. In most Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani Grammars, a letter not fol- lowed by a vowel is called quiescent^ which is objectionable, as it is apt to mislead the beginner, the term quiescent being already applied in the English Grammar in the sense of not sounded. For instance, the letter g is quiescent in the word phlegm ; we cannot, however, say that m is quiescent in the same word, though we may say that it is inert. The student will be pleased to bear in mind, then, that a letter is said to be inert when it is not followed by a vowel.
Consonants doubled — Long Vowels. 11
the mim is inert. As a general rule, the last letter of a word is inert, and in that case the m?ixk jazm— is unnecessary.
7. When a letter is doubled, the mark — , called
tashd'id, is placed over it. Thus, in the word cj*x-2.
shid-dat, where the first syllable ends with j (d) and the next begins with a (d), instead of the usual mode
ci.vjui», the two dais are thrown into one, and the mark
/^^Mlfi?— indicates this coalition. The student must be careful to utter each of the letters thus doubled, distinctly — the first letter ends the preceding syllable, and the second begins the following ; they must not be slurred over as we do it, in such words as mummy, summer.
Of the Letters \, ^, and ^5, viewed as Vowels or Letters of Prolongation.
8. The letters 1, j, and ^c, when inert, serve to prolong the preceding vowel, as follows. When \ inert is preceded by a letter moveable by fatha, the
fatha and alif together form a long sound like our a in war, or au in haul, which in Hindustani might be
written J\^ and Jlr^. Now it so happens, that the \ inert is always preceded hy fatha: hence, as a general and practical rule, alif not beginning a word or syl- lable forms a sound like our a in war, or au in haul. In the Roman character, the sound of long \ will be represented by a, whilst the unmarked a is always understood to represent the short primitive vowel fatha.
9. When the letter^ inert is preceded by a conso- nant moveable by the vowel zamma, the zamma and ^ together form a sound like our oo in tool; which in
Hindustani might be written ^}y, or, which is the
12 Long Vowels and Diphthongs.
same thing, like our u in rule, which might be written
fj^j. The same combination forms also another sound, like our o in mole, which would in the same manner
be written J^, or, perhaps still nearer, like our oa in
coat, which might be written cL?^. In the Arabic language, the latter sound of j, viz. that of o in mole, is unknown ; hence Arabian grammarians call it Majhul, or 'Ajaml, i.e. the Unknown or Persian j; whereas the former sound, that of u in rule, is called Maruf, the Known or Familiar j. If the letter j be preceded by a consonant moveable hj fatha, the fatha and ^ united will form a diphthong, nearly like our ou in sound, or ow in town, but more exactly like the au in the German word kaum, which in Hindustani might be
written /*y. In the following pages the Maruf sound will be represented by u ; the Majhul by o, and the diphthong by an. If the ^ be preceded by the vowel kasra, no union takes place, and the ^ preserves
its natural sound as a consonant, as in the word \^ siwa.
h. When the letter ^ is preceded by ^ (moveable by fatha), and followed by \, the sound of ^ is scarcely perceptible ; as
in the word i\^ pronounced Tdiah, not khawah. This rule, how- ever, applies only to words purely Persian.
10. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a conso- nant moveable by kasra, the kasra and the ^ unite, and form a long vowel, like our ee in feel, which in
Hindustani might be written JJ ; or, which is the
same thing, like our i in machine, which might be
written ^j^^. The same combination may also form
a sound like our ea in hear, which would be written
^, or like the French e in the words tete and fete; or
Long Vowels and Diphthongs, 1 3
the German e followed by h in the words sehr, gelehrt. In the Arabic language, the latter sound of cs is un- known : hence, when the ^ forms the sound of ea in bear, &c., it is called Yae Majhul, or Yae 'Ajanfi, that is, the Unknown or Persian ^ ; whilst the former sound — that of ee in feel,, or i in machine — is called Yae Maruf, the Known or Familiar ^, When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a consonant, moveable by fatha, the fatha and the ^ unite, and form a diphthong, like ai in the German word Kaiser, which
in Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani, is written j^i. This sound is really that of our own i in wise, size, which we are pleased to call a vowel, but which, in reality, is a genuine diphthong. When the letter ^j is preceded by zamma, no union takes place, and the sj retains its usual sound as a consonant, as in the
word^P-.^ muyassar. Lastly, if the letter ^ be followed by a vowel, the above rules do not hold ; and the ^ is
to be sounded as a consonant, as in the words J^^ hayan, and j^Lj ziyan, not bai-an and zi-an, to repre- sent which latter sounds the mark hamza (No. 1 5) would be requisite. A similar rule applies to the j.
a. It must be observed, that there are very iew Hindustani works, printed or manuscript, in which all the vowels are marked as we have just described ; the primitive short vowels being almost always omitted, as well as the marks -^ jazm and -^ tashdld. This omission occasions no serious inconve- nience to the natives, or to those who know the language. To the young beginner, however, in this country, it is essential to commence with books having the vowels carefully marked; otherwise, he will contract a vicious mode of pronunciation, which he will find it difficult afterwards to unlearn. At the same time, it is no easy matter in printing to insert all the vowel-marks, &c. in a proper and accurate manner. In the present work, a medium will be observed, which, without over-
1 4 Practical Rules.
crowding the text with symbols, will suffice to enable the learner to read without any error, provided he will attend to the following rules.
1 1 . The short vowel fatha — is of more frequent occurrence than the other two : hence it is omitted in the printing ; and the learner is to supply it for every consonant except the last, provided he see no other vowel, nor the mark jazrriy nor the ^ butterfly form of the letter he (par. 3, b), accompanying any of the consonants aforesaid.
a. The letter j at the beginning of a word or syllable is a consonant, and generally sounded like our w^ as in the words «^j wis, ^J?j watan. When ^ follows a consonant that has no
vowel-mark or jazm accompanying it, the ^ has the sound of o long, as in the words ^ so, <f ko. When the consonant preceding the J has the mark zamma — over it, the j has the sound of u
in rule, or oo in fool, as in the words y^ su or soo, and ^ ku or koo ; and if the preceding consonant has the vowel mark fatha
— over it, the ^ forms the diphthong au, as y^ sau or sow, ^ kau or cow.
h. The letter ^> at the beginning of a word or syllable is a consonant like our letter y, as in .^^^ yih, Jb yad. When the
letter ^ is medial or final, if the consonant preceding it has no vowel-mark ox jazm, the ^j is sounded like ea in hear, or ai in fail, as in the words ^ her, and j^ ser. If the consonant preceding the i^ has the mark kasra —under it, the \^ has the sound of 1 in machine, or ee in feel, as ^ htr or heer, and
-M-a sir or seer ; and if the preceding consonant has the mark
fatha -- over it, the ^j forms the diphthong ai, as^ bair or
byre, and j^ sair or sire.
c. There are a few instances in which the letters ^ and ^j unite with the preceding consonant, as in the words ^^^ swaml,
and U^ kya; but such combinations being of comparatively rare occurrence, they may safely be left to the student's own
Examples of Vowels — Medial or Final, 15
practice. Lastly, in a few Arabic words the final ^ occurs with an \ alif written over it, in which case the \ only is
C 9
sounded, as in the words ^^is- 'ukbd; ^\\xi ta'ald.
12. We shall now at one view exhibit the practical application of the principles treated of in the preceding paragraphs. The vowels in Hindustani, as the student may have ere now perceived, are ten in number, the manner of representing which may be seen in the following ten words. The upper line (1) contains ten English words in common use, in each of which occurs the corresponding sound of the Hindustani word beneath. The lower (3) line shews the mode in which the Oriental vowels will be uniformly re- presented in Roman characters in the course of this work.
1. fun fin foot fall foal fool fowl fail feel file
2. ^^ ^^ U-J Jli. Jy Jy Jy 3^ J^ J^
3. fan fin fut fail fol ful faul fel fil fail
13. We have now, we trust, fully explained how the vowels are to be represented when they follow an audible consonant, such as the letter uJ/ in the fore- going list of words. In order to represent the vowels as initial or commencing a word, it will at once occur to the student that we have merely to annihilate or withdraw the letter uJ from the above words, leaving every thing else as it stands, and the object is effected. This is precisely what we do in reality, though not in appearance. The Arabian grammarians have taken into their heads a most subtle crotchet on this point, which is, that no word or syllable can begin with a vowel. There- fore, to represent what we call an initial vowel, that is, a vowel commencing a word or syllable, they employ the letter \ alif as a fulcrum for the vowel. We have already stated (No. 5) that they consider the \ as a very weak aspirate or spiritus lenis ; hence its presence
16 Initial Voivels.
supports the theory, at least to the eye, if not to the ear. In order, then, to exhibit the vowels in the preceding paragraph as initial, we must, after taking away the letter cJ substitute \ in its place, which \ being nothing, or very nearly so, the process amounts in reality to the withdrawal of the letter J /, and the substitution of what may be considered as mere nothing, thus —
1. |
un |
in |
oot |
all |
ol |
dot |
owl |
ail |
eel |
aisle |
2. |
J^ |
J |
cJl |
3 |
j;i |
Ji |
J/ |
^\ |
^\ |
^^ |
3. |
an |
in |
ut |
hi |
ol |
ul |
aul |
el |
il |
ail |
Instead of writing two alifs at the beginning of a word, as in J\ al, it is usual (except in Dictionaries) to write one fl/i/* with the other curved over it ; thus, JT.
This symbol — is called sxo madda, ** extension," and denotes that the alif is sounded long, like our a in water. M. De Sacy (v. Grammaire Arabe, p. 72) considers the mark madda -^ to be nothing else than a A mlm, the initial of the word madda; but our business is simply with its practical use, and the reader if he pleases may view it as a contraction of our letter m, meaning make it long,
14. If instead of \ we substitute the letter c, we shall have virtually the same sounds, only that they must be uttered from the lower muscles of the throat, thus —
^ ^^ |
\^:l.^ |
Jl- |
J^ |
J^ |
df- J^ |
M |
^ |
'an 'in |
'ut |
'al |
'ol |
'ul |
'aul 'el |
'11 |
'ail |
a. It appears, then, that when in Hindustani, a word or syl- lable begins with what we consider to be a vowel, such word or syllable must have the letter ^ or t^ to start with. Throughout this work, when we have occasion to write such words in the Roman character, the corresponding place of the j^will be indicated by an apostrophe or spiritus lenis ; thus, J-.C 'asaly *^Jlc 'ahidf
Of the mark Hamza, 17
c
i\j«j ha'd, to distinguish the same from J-j\ asaly JoT ahid, Jo bad,
or jb Z>ac?. In other respects the reader may view the \ and c in any of the three following lights. 1st. He may consider them of the same value as the spiritus lenis (') in such Greek words as av, Iv, &c. 2ndly. He may consider them as equiva- lent to the lettei *^ in the English words hour, herh, honour, &c. Lastly. He may consider them as mere blocks, whereupon to place the vowels requisite to the formation of the syllable. Prac- tically speaking, then, \ and c when initial, and the j and ^ when not initial, require the beginner's strictest attention, as they all contribute in such cases to the formation of several sounds.
15. We have stated that, according to the notions of the Arabian grammarians, no syllable can begin with a vowel. In practice, however, nothing is more common, at least according to our ideas of such matters, than to meet with one syllable ending with a vowel, and the next beginning with a vowel. When this happens in Persian and Hindustani, the mark — called hamza is inserted between the two vowels a little above the
body of the word, as in the words ^^\:^ja,un, ^\pa,e; and sometimes there is a vacant space left for the hamza, like the initial or medial form of the ye without the dots below, thus j or -., as in the words if^\ifa,ida;
^^^ kiji'C. The hamza, then, is merely a substitute
employed in the middle of words for the letter 1, to serve as a commencement (or as the Orientals will have it, consonant) to the latter of two consecutive vowels. Practically speaking, it may be considered as our hyphen which serves to separate two vowels, as in the words co-ordinate, re-iterate. It serves another practical purpose in Persian, in the formation of the genitive case, when the governing word ends with the imperceptible d, h, or with the letter ^, as in the words ^b^'i^J^.^^ dJda-i'ddnish, the eye of intelli-
18 Letters peculiarly Arabic, Persian, S^c,
gence, where the hamza alone has the sound of the short I or e.
a. The sound of the mark hamza, according to the Arabian grammarians, differs in some degree from the letter \, being some- what akin to the letter c, which its shape £■ would seem to warrant; but in Hindustani this distinction is overlooked. We have here confined ourselves solely to the practical use of this symbol as applied in Persian and Hindustani ; for further infor- mation on the subject, the reader may consult De Sacy's Arabic Grammar.
16. Before we conclude the discussion of the alpha- bet, it may be proper to inform the student that the eight letters, c?, _, ^, ^, \s, ]a, ^ and j, are peculiar to the Arabic ; hence, as a general rule, a word con- taining any one of these letters may be considered as borrowed from the Arabic. Words contain- ing any of the letters ^, i, j, or ^ may be Per- sian or Arabic, but not of Indian origin. The few words which contain the letter J are purely Persian. Words containing any of the letters <«j, -, or f, may be Persian or Indian, but not Arabic. Lastly, words containing any of the four-dotted letters ci?, j, or J, are purely Indian. The rest of the letters are common to the Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani languages.
17. As words and phrases from the Arabic lan- guage enter very freely into the Hindustani, we cannot well omit the following remarks. Arabic nouns have frequently the definite article Ji (the) of that language prefixed to them ; and if the noun happens to begin with any of the thirteen letters, cd, ll.% j, J, J, J, ^, (J., ^, ^, t, )a, or ^J, the J of the article assumes the sound of the initial letter of the
noun, which is then marked with tashdld ; thus j^\ the light, pronounced an-nur, not al-nur. But in these instances, although the J has lost its own sound, it must always be written in its own form. Of course,
Arabic Words and Phrases. 19
when the noun begins with J, the J of the article co-
incides with it in like manner, as in the words ^Jl al- lailat, ** the night;" and in this case the J of the article is sometimes omitted, and the initial lam of
the noun marked by tashd'id, alJl al-lailat.
a. The thirteen letters, CLi, kc, above mentioned, together with the letter J, are, by the Arabian grammarians, called 5oZar
o
or sunny letters, because the word ^^;w»wi» shams, the sun," happens to begin with one of them. The other letters of the Arabic alphabet are called lunar, because, we presume, the word j^ kamaVf " the moon," begins with one of the number, or simply because they are not solar. Of course, the captious critic might find a thousand equally valid reasons for calling them by any other term, such as gold and silver, black and blue, &c. ; but we merely state the fact as we ^nd it.
18. In general, the Arabic nouns of the above de- scription, when introduced into the Persian and Hindustani languages, are in a state of construc- tion with another substantive or preposition which precedes them ; like our Latin terms '*jus gentium," ''vis inerticB,". '* ea^ officio,'" Sec. In such cases, the last letter of the first or governing word, if a substan- tive, is moveable by the vowel zamma, which serves for the enunciation of the \ of the article prefixed to the second word ; and, at the same time, the \ is marked
with the symbol — , called ^^ wasla, to denote such
union ; as in the words a^^^y^\ j^\ Amir-ul-muminin,
y^^.^} o
** Commander of the Faithful;" cCj^l\JlJ\ Ikbal-ud- daula, *' The dignity of the state."
a. Arabic nouns occasionally occur having their final letters marked with the symbol called tanwin, which signifies the using of the letter ^. The tanwin, which in Arabic grammar serves to mark the inflexions of a noun, is formed by doubling the vowel- point of the last letter, which indicates at once its presence and
20 Numerical Value of the Letters.
its sound ; thus, <-^b habun^ c-^U bdbin, bb haban. The last
form requires the letter \y which does not, however, prolong the sound of the final syllable. The \ is not required when the noun
ends with a hamza or the letter ir, as Jit shai-an, IaLs*- hik-
matan ; or when the word ends in \. ya, surmounted by \ (in
which case the \ only is pronounced), as J^jJb hudan. In Hin- dustani the occurrence of such words is not common, being
limited to a few adverbial expressions, such as Ijuoj kasdan,
^ «. purposely, \a\sj\ ittifakan, by chance.
19. We may here mention, that the twenty-eight letters of the Arabic language are also used (chiefly in recording the tariJdiy or date of historical events, &c.) for the purpose of numerical computation. The nu- merical order of the letters differs from that given in pages 2 and 3, being, in fact, the identical arrange- ment of the Hebrew alphabet, so far as the latter ex- tends, viz. to the letter ci^, 400. The following is the order of the numerical alphabet with the corre- sponding number placed above each letter ; the whole being grouped into eight unmeaning words, to serve as a memoria technica.
ooo ooo oooo ooo ooo oooo
where \ denotes one, l^ two, ^ three, j four, &c.
a. In reckoning by the preceding system, the seven letters peculiarly Persian or Indian, viz. l->, <-1>, ^, J, J, j, and (^, have the same value as their cognate Arabic letters of which they are modifications, that is, of c->, c:-?, «-., c>, j, J, and cJl/, respectively. The mode of recording any event is, to form a brief sentence, such, that the numerical values of all the letters, when added together, amount to the year (of the Hijra) in which the event took place. Thus, the death of AhlT of Shiraz, who may be considered as the last of the classic poets of Persia,
Of Dates. 21
happened in A.H. 942 (A.D. 1535). This date is recorded in
i^ p p (. the sentence ^)ji>\ J^ \jxJ^ ii\Jtid\j i, e. " Ahli was the king of
poets ;" where the sum of all the letters be, alify dal, &c., when added together, will be found to amount to 942. The follow- ing date, on the death of the renowned Hyder Ali of Maisur (A.H. 1196), is equally elegant, and much more appropriate.
».::^i^ <jl:\^% j^U. *' The spirit of Balaghat is gone."
b. Sometimes the title of a book is so cunningly contrived as to express the date of its completion. Thus, several letters written on various occasions by Abu'1-Fazl, surnamed 'Allami, when secretary to the Emperor Akbar, were afterwards collected into one volume by 'Abdus-samad, the secretary's nephew, and the
work was entitled ^^^cijLjICo mukatabatVallamz, "The letters
of 'AllamT," which at the same time gives the date of publica- tion, A.H. 1015. We may also mention that the best prose work in Hindustani — the Bagh-o-Bahar j\j^ ^ qIj, by MTr Amman, of Delhi, was so called merely because the name includes the date, the discovery of which we leave as an exercise to the student.
c. It is needless to add that the marks for the short vowels count as nothing ; also a letter marked with tashdid, though double, is to be reckoned but once only, as in the word 'alldnn, where the lam though double counts only 30. The Latin writers of the middle ages sometimes amused themselves by making verses of a similar kind, although they had only five numerical letters to count with, viz. i, v, x, d, and m. This they called carmen eteostichon or chronostichon, out of which the following effusion on the restoration of Charles II., 1660, will serve as a specimen.
Cedant arma olese, pax regna serenat et agros.
22
SECTION II.
Of the Names (\aJ\ asma) including Substantives, Adjectives, and Pronouns,
20. Oriental grammarians, both Hindu and Musal- man, reckon only three parts of speech, viz. the noun
or name {m^\ ism), the verb ( J*s Ji'l), and the particle
((—i^ fiarf). Under the term noun, they include substantives, adjectives, pronouns, infinitives of verbs, and participles. Their verb agrees with our part of speech so named; and under the general term of particle are comprised adverbs, prepositions, con- junctions, and interjections. The student will find it necessary to bear this in mind when he comes to read or converse with native teachers ; in the meanwhile we shall here treat of the parts of speech according to the classification observed in the best Latin and English grammars, with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
Of the Article.
21. The Hindustani, and all the other languages of India, so far as we know, have no word corresponding exactly with our articles the, a, or an; these being really inherent in the noun, as in Latin and Sanskrit. Hence, as a general rule, the context alone can deter- mine whether, for example, the expression l5-j l^ \pr]j raja ka beta, ** regis filius," may signify — a son of a king, the son of a king, a son of the king, or the son of the king. When, however, great precision is required, we often meet with the demonstrative pro- nouns 7/ih, this, and wuh, that, together with their
Genders of Nouns. 23
plurals, employed in the same sense as our definite article the. Our indefinite article a or an is expressed in many instances by the numeral CS^\ ek, one ; or by the indefinite pronoun ^""^ koi, some, a certain one ;
as^ CSi\j^\ t^ lUoI ek mard aur ek she7\ a man and
a tiger ; ^^s^ ^ / koi shakhs, some person ; but of this
we shall treat more fully in the Syntax.
^^.-^ ^^ Of Substantives.
CJ^^, Substantives in Hindustani have two genders only, the masculine and feminine ; two numbers, the singular and plural ; and eight cases, as in Sanskrit, viz. nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, locative, instrumental or agent, and vocative. The ablative, locative, and instrumental, correspond with the Latin ablative. It has been deemed proper here to retain the Sanskrit classification of the cases, in accordance with the grammars of the Mahratta, Ben- gali, and other cognate Indian dialects.
23. Gender. — To the mere Hindustani reader, it is difficult, if not impossible, to lay down any rules by which the gender of a lifeless noun, or the name of a thing without sex, may be at once ascertained. With regard to substantives that have a sexual distinction, the matter is easy enough, and is pithily expressed in the three first lines of our old school acquaintance, Ruddiman.
1. Quae maribus solum tribuuntur, mascula sunto.
2. Esto femineum, quod femina sola reposcit.
3. Sit commune duum, sexum quod signal utrumque.
This means, in plain English, that ** all animate beings of the male kind, and all names applicable to males only, are masculine. Females, and all names applicable to females only, are feminine ; and a few
24 Gender of Inanimate Objects,
words which may be applied to both sexes, may be of either gender, according to circumstances."
a. To the foregoing general rules, there is one (perhaps the only) exception. The word A^ kahlla, which hterally means tribe or family, also denotes a wife, and is used, even in this last sense, as a masculine noun. Thus in the Bagh-o-Bahary p. 27,
we have the expression U ^L ^'\:l^^j^ i^.».,y <3j ^ ij^
kahtle ko ha sahah muhahhat ke sath liya, " out of affection I brought my wife with me," where kahila is inflected like a mascu- line noun. This, however, is merely an Oriental mode of expres- sion, it being usual with the people to employ the terms house or family^ when alluding to their wives. Our neighbours, the Germans, without any such excuse, have been pleased to deter- mine that the word weibf wife, should be of the neuter gender.
24. With regard to nouns denoting inanimate objects, the practical rule is, that those ending m ^i, lu t, and ^ shy are generally feminine o^^ Those ending in any other letter, are, for the most ^tpart, masculine ; but as the exceptions are numerous, the student must trust greatly to practice; and when in speaking he has any doubts respecting the gender of a word, it is preferable to use the masculine.
a. It is said that there is no general rule without exception, and some have even gone so far as to assert that the exception absolutely proves the rule. If this latter maxim were sound, nothing could be better established than the general rule above stated respecting the gender of inanimate nouns. We have given it, in substance, as laid down by Dr. Gilchrist, succeeding grammarians having added nothing thereto, if we except the Rev. Mr. Yates, who in his grammar has appended, as an amend- ment, a list of some twelve or fifteen hundred exceptions. This we have always looked upon as a mere waste of paper, believing as we do that no memory can possibly retain such a dry mass of unconnected words. The fact is, that the rule or rather the labyrinth, may be considerably restricted by the application of a few general principles which we shall here state.
General Principles, 25
Principle \st. — Most words purely Sanskrit, which of course abound in Hindustani, and more particularly in Hindi works, such as the Prem Sagavy &c., retain the gender which they may have had in the mother tongue. Thus, words which in Sanskrit are masculine or neuter, are masculine in Hindi ; and those which in Sanskrit are feminine, are feminine in Hindi. This rule absolutely does away with several exceptions which follow one of the favourite maxims of preceding grammarians, viz. that " names of lifeless things ending in tJ — ?, are femi- nine," but panlf water, motif a pearl, ghly clarified butter (and they might have added many more, such as manly a gem, &c.), are masculine, and why ? because they are either masculine or neuter in Sanskrit. It is but fair to state, however, that this principle does not in every instance apply to such words of Sanskrit origin as have been greatly mutilated or corrupted in the vulgar tongue.
In the French and Italian languages which, like the Hindu- stani, have only two genders, it will be found that a similar principle prevails with regard to words from the Latin. The classical scholar will find this hint to be of great service in ac- quiring a knowledge of the genders of such French words as end in e mutCy the most troublesome part of that troublesome subject.
Principle 2nd. — Arabic nouns derived from verbal roots by the addition of the servile c:.^ ty are feminine, such as khilkat, creation, people, &c., from khalaka, he created. These in Hin- dustani are very numerous, and it is to such only that the general rule respecting nouns in lu ty rigidly applies. Arabic roots ending in CJ t, are not necessarily feminine ; neither are words ending in t derived from Persian and Sanskrit, those of the latter class being regulated by Principle 1st. Arabic nouns
of the form Jj**aj are feminine, probably from the attraction of
the I in the second syllable ; the letter i being upon the whole the characteristic feminine termination of the Hindustani lan- guage. To this general principle the exceptions are very few, among which we must reckon c:.-^^ i-^ sharhaty sherbet, and
*ij^' ta'wlz^ an amulet, which are masculine.
Principle 3rd. — Persian nouns derived from verbal roots by
26 Number and Case.
the addition of the tei*mination ^J: — ish, are feminine. These are not few in Hindustani, and it is to such only that the rule strictly applies. Nouns from the Persian, or from the Arabic through the Persian, ending in the weak or imperceptible a^ A,
such as ^l3 namay a letter, <ul5 kiVa, a fortress, are generally
masculine. This again may be accounted for by the affinity of the final a to the long a, which is a general masculine termination in Hindustani.
Principle 4tk. — Pure Indian words, that is, such as are not traceable to the Arabic, Persian, or Sanskrit, are generally masculine if they terminate in 1 a. Arabic roots ending in \ a, are for the most part feminine ; nouns purely Sanskrit ending in \ a, are regulated by Principle 1st, but we may add, that the long a being a feminine termination in that language, such words are generally feminine in Hindustani. Words purely Persian when introduced into Hindustani, with the exception of those ending in (jZ^— ish and <t already mentioned, are not reducible to any rule ; the Persian language having no gender of its own in the grammatical sense of the term.
Principle bth, — Compound words, in which the first member merely qualifies or defines the last, follow the gender of the last member, as «l^ld shikdr-gdh, hunting-ground, which is femi- nine ; the word gdh being feminine, and the first word sJiikar qualifying it like an adjective.
h. It must be confessed, in conclusion, that, even after the application of the foregoing principles, there must still remain a considerable number of words reducible to no sort of rule. This is the inevitable fate of all such languages as have only two genders. Another natural consequence is, that many words occur sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine, depending on the caprice or indifference of the writer or speaker. We have also good grounds to believe that a word which is used in the masculine in one district may be feminine in another, as we know from experience to be the case in Gaelic, which, like the Hindustani, has only two genders.
25. Number and Case. — The mode in which the
Decle?ision, 27
plural number is formed from the singular, will be best learned by inspection from the examples which we here subjoin. The language has virtually but one declension, and the various oblique cases, singular and plural, are generally formed by the addition of certain particles oxpost-positmis, &c., to the nominative singular. All the substantives of the language may be very conveniently reduced to three classes, as follows :—
Class I. — Including all Substantives of the Feminine Gender.
Singular.
;
0)
O
Nominative Cl^]^ raty the night
Genitive i/ ^^ ^-^b ^^^-^^> -^^> -^«> of the night
Dative ^ Cl?]^ rai-ko^ to the night
Accusative 1 • f^ _ \ / the night
L / Li^\j rat-ko, J ^
Ablative ^ CL^\j rat-se, from the night
Locative ^ ^jlo d^lj rat-men, --par, in, on, the night
Agent 3 CLi\j rat-ne, by the night
Vocative clAj ^^1 ai rat, O night.
Plural. Nominative ^\j raten, the nights
'Genitive \^ \^^ uyb "raton-ka, -ke, -kl, of the nights
Dative ^ uy)j '^^ton-ko, to the nights
Accusative \ . ^^ a en, | ^j^^ nights
L yi uy\j raton-ko, J Ablative ^^ L^l^b '^^.ton-se, from the nights
Locative ^ ^^^ (j^b 'raton-merLf-par, in, on, the nights
Agent 3 j^^l; "raton-ne, by the nights
Vocative ^\j ^\ ai rato, O nights.
Feminine nouns ending in ^J ~i, add ^ an in the nominative
plural ; thus ^Jjj roti, bread, a loaf, nom. plur. ^J^^j rotiyarl.
In the oblique cases plural, they add ^j^ on as above.
In like manner a few words inj — u, add av, B.Sjjy>-joru, a wife, nom. iplur. joruwan or j or u, an.
at
<v
a o
(U
S3
O
28
Declension.
a. We may now take a brief view of the formation of the cases. It will be seen that in the singular, the oblique cases are formed directly from the nominative, which remains un- changed, by the addition of the various post-positions. The genitive case has three forms of the post-position, all of them, however, having the same signification, the choice to be deter- mined by a very simple rule which belongs to the syntax. The accusative is either like the nominative or like the dative, the choice, in many instances, depending on circumstances which will be mentioned hereafter. The nominative plural adds m to the singular {an if the singular be in t). The oblique cases plural in the first place add on to the singular, and to that they affix the various post-positions ; it will be observed that the accusative plural is either like the nominative or dative plural. The voca- tive plural is always formed by dropping the final n of the oblique cases. Let it also be remembered that the final j^ added in the formation of the cases of the plural number is always nasal. Vide letter ^, page 6.
Class II. — Including all Masculine Nouns, with the exception of such as end in \ a (purely Indian), ^ an, and a; a. .
Example, tX^ mard, man.
Singular.
N
<^jo mard, man G,^^^S^ mard kd, &c.,
of man D. ^ S^o mardkoytomsin
Ac, Ab
f
i^ mard,
1
man
\ ^^ S^o mard ko,j ^«j Syo mard se, from
Ag
^^J^
jj^fc^l
man mard men par,
in, on, man mardne,hymQn
ai mardfO man
Plural. Jy< mard, men
^ ^ l^ t^^^j^ mar don kd, &c. , of men S f^*^yo mardon ho, to men Syo mard, \ a ^ U^'i'* niardonko,) S lS^ U^'^y* Twarcfow 56, from men y c^ UJ'^'* jwarcfow menpar, in, on, men J (jj*^-* mardon ne, by
men jS^e ^\ ai mardo, O men.
Declension.
29
This class, throughout the singular, is exactly like class I., and in the plural . the only difference consists in the absence of any termination added to the nominative and consequently to the first form of the accusative, which is the same.
All the other cases in the plural are formed precisely as before. It must be admitted that the want of a distinct termina- tion to distinguish the nominative plural from the singular is a defect in masculine nouns. This, however, seldom occasions any ambiguity, the sense being quite obvious from the context. The German is liable to a similar charge, and sometimes even the English, in the use of such words as deer, sheep, and a few others.
Class III. — Including Masculine Nouns purely Indian ending
in 1 a, a few ending in ^ an, and several words, chiefly from
the Persian, ending in the imperceptible ^ or short a.
^? Example, l::*^ kutta, a dog.
Singular. N. l::^^ kutta, a dog
of a dog
B. ^ j:^ kutte ko, to a dog
K \ ^ kutta, "]
^^' S -? Sadog
X,^ ^ti^ kutte ko,]
Ab. ^ ^ kutte se, from a dog
hoCji^^j^^S kutte men par,
in, on, a dog
<« '
^^* LS^ L5^ kutte ne, by a dog
Voc. ^ J ai kutte, O dog
Plural. j^^ kutte, dogs
u/ l/ ^ (jf^ /:m^^ow ka, &c.,
of dogs
^p
^ (jt;^ kutton ko, to dogs
^^ kutte,
^ ^ySi kutton ko,
(^ ^^j:S kutton se, from dogs
ji tiTi"* U^ kuttonmenpar, in, on, dogs
J ^^ kutton ne, by dogs
y;^ t^l cfi kuttOjO dogs.
30 Declension.
a. In like manner may be declined many words ending in d,, as
c
i(i\uj banda, a slave, gen. hande ka, &c., nom. plur. bande, slaves, gen. bandoti ka, &c. Nouns in an are not very nume- rous, and as the final n is very little if at all sounded, it is often omitted in writing ; thus ^J^ baniyan or Lj baniya, a trader,
gen. baniyenka or baniye ka, which last is the more common.
In the ordinal numbers, such as ^y^t^ daswauj the tenth, &c.,
the nasal n generally remains in the inflection, as ^^v-j<^ daswen ka, &c., of the tenth. In the oblique cases plural, the jjl an, is changed into ^^ on. With regard to this third class of words, we have one more remark to add, which is, that the vocative singular is often to be met with uninflected, like the nominative.
b. The peculiarity of class III. is, that the terminations \ a and ^ a, of the nominative singular, are entirely displaced in the oblique cases singular and nominative plural by o ^> and in the oblique cases plural by ^^ on. This change or displacement of termination is called inflection, and it is limited to masculine nouns only with the above terminations ; for feminines ending in \, ^, or ^, are never inflected, nor are all masculines ending in the same, subject to it. A considerable number of masculine nouns ending in \ a, purely Arabic, Persian, or Sanskrit, are not inflected, and consequently belong to class II. On the other hand, masculine nouns purely Indian, such for example as the infinitives and participles of verbs used substantively, are uni- formly subject to inflection. In like manner, several masculine nouns ending in the imperceptible ^ are not subject to inflection, and as these are not reducible to any rule, the student must be guided by practice.
c. Mascuhnes in <X from the Persian often change the <^ into \
in Hindustani ; thus i^j^ darja, grade, rank, becomes W^J darja ; so 2r^ maza, taste, \j<> maza. All such words are subject to inflection, for by this change they become as it were Indianized. The final ^ is not inflected if in a state of construc- tion (agreeably to the rules of Persian grammar) with another word, as ^^^ J!:^ )^*x>t> dida e hosh men, ' in the eye of pru-
General Rules for Declension, 31
dence ; ' ^j^ ^^^^j ^j zahani rekhta men, ' in the Rekhta dialect.'
26. General rules for the Declension of Nouns, — 1. In classes I. and 11. the nominative singular remains unaltered throughout, the plural terminations being superadded. 2. In class III. the nominative singular is changed or inflected into ^^ e, for the oblique sin- gular and nominative plural, and the terminations of the oblique cases plural are substituted for, not added to, the termination of the singular. 3. All plurals end in ^^ on in the oblique cases, that is, whenever a post-position is added or understood. 4. The vocative plural always ends in ^ o, having dropped the final ^ n of the oblique. 5. Words of the first and second classes, consisting of two short syllables, the last of which \i^\wgfatha, drop \}i\.Qfatha on receiving a plural
termination ; thus uJ^ tfiraf, aside, nom. plur. ^j^
tar fen, gen. l^ \j^}=> tarfon kd. See, not tarafen, &C.
a. A few words are subject to slight deviations from the strict rule, among which we may mention the following. 1. Words
ending y nw, preceded by a long vowel, as yli ndnw, a name,
^hpdnw, the foot, and ^^ gdnw, a village, reject the y nw, and substitute the mark hamza on receiving a plural termina- tion, thus l^ (j; ^ ydfOn kd, &c., of the feet. 2. The word ^j b gd,e, a cow, makes in the nominative plural ^l^ gd,en^ and in the oblique plural ^jl^ gd,on, thus resembling the oblique plural
oi ^^ gdnw, a village. 3. A few feminine diminutives in b^ iyd, like randiyd, chiriyd, &c., form the nominative plural by merely adding a nasal n, as (jbjf" chiriydn, which is evidently
a contraction for cJiiriyd,en, the regular form. 4. Masculines of the third class ending in aj ya, may follow the general rule, or change the ^ y into a hamza before the inflection ; thus ^U say a, a shade (of a tree), gen. \^ ^^U sdye kd, or ^uf*^ 5a,e kd.
32 Post -position — A dject ives .
5. The word ^^jj rupii/a, a roopee, has generally Jj rupae, for the nominative plural.
27 . Post-position. — In this work, to avoid confusion, we apply the term post-position only to those insepar- able particles or terminations which invariably follow the nouns to which they belong. They may be united with their substantives so as to appear like the case terminations in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, or they may be written separately, as we have given them in the examples for declension. The most useful and important of them are the following, viz. :^ ka, ^ ke, ^ ki, * of,' the sign of the genitive case ; ^ ko, "' to,'
the sign of the dative, and sometimes of the accusative or objective case ; ^*^ se, * from,' or ' with ' (also ^^ son, ^j^ sen, ^j:>^ siti, are occasionally met with), the
sign of the ablative and instrumental; ^ par (some- times in poetry <u pa), ' upon,' ' on,' * at,' ^^^ men, * in,' ' into,' uJo tak, lU3j talak, c^ lag, ' up to,' * as far as,' ' till,' the sign of the locative case ; and, lastly, J ne, ' by,' the sign of the agent.
a. The post-positions require the words to which they are affixed to be in the inflected form, if they belong to class III. ; and they are generally united with the oblique form in ,j^ on of all plurals. On the other hand, an inflected form in the singular can only occur in combination with a post-position, expressed or understood ; and the same i*ule applies to all bond fide oblique forms in ^^ on of the plural. There are a few expressions in which the oblique form in ^^ on is used for the nominative plural ; and when a numeral precedes, the nominative form may be used for the oblique, as will be noticed more fully in the Syntax.
Of Adjectives.
28. Adjectives in Hindustani generally precede their substantives, and with the exception of those
Adjectives. 33
which are purely Indian words and end in \ a, together with a few from the Persian ending in a; or short a, they are, as in English, indeclinable. Words purely Indian, ending in \ a, change the final \ a into ^ e, when they qualify or agree with a masculine noun in any case except the nominative singular (or the first form of the accusative, which is the same) ; and the \ a is changed into ^~ i with feminine nouns. Thus, the
adjective (^^^ Idmh, ' good,' * fair,' is the same before nouns of either gender or number in all cases, as Miuh janwar, a fine animal ; Miuh larki, a fair girl ; Miub randiyan, fine women, khub ghore, beautiful horses. Again the adjective ^J\^ kala, * black,' is used in that form only before masculine nouns, in the nominative or the first form of the accusative singular; it will become ^!l^ kale, before masculine nouns in the oblique cases singular and throughout the plural, as kala mard, a black man, kale mard ka, of a black man, kale mard, black men, kale mardon se, from black men. Lastly, before feminine nouns, kala becomes ^^ kal'i for both
numbers and in all cases, as kali rat, the dark night, kal'i rat se, from the dark night, kal'i raton kd, of the dark nights, &c.
a. Hence it appears, as a general rule : — 1. That adjectives, before feminine nouns, have no variation on account of case or number. 2. That adjectives terminating like nouns of the second class are indeclinable ; and lastly, that adjectives, ter- minating like nouns of the third class, are subject to a slight inflection like the oblique singular of the substantives of that class.
b. The cardinal numbers, ek, one, do, two, Sec, are all inde- cHnable when used adjectively. The ordinals ohove panchwan, ' the fifth,' inclusive, follow the general rule, that is, panchwmi is inflected into panchwen before the oblique cases of masculines, and it becomes panchwin before feminine nouns.
c. Adjectives ending in s, or short a, which are principally
F
34 Degrees of Comparison.
borrowed from the Persian, are, for the most part, indedinable. There are some, however, which are inflected into ^ e for the mascuHne, and ^T'l for the feminine, Uke those ending in \ a; among these may be reckoned )i^\j randa, rejected, ^jL
o y o o
saday plain, i>^As. ^umday exalted, as^ ganda, fetid, ^JjU man-
da, tired, i^A)^ khurinda, gluttonous, 2^Jc..«-S» sharminda,
ashamed, <JUw»«^ kamina, mean, ^l^ hechara, helpless, isj^\j
ndkara, useless, i^JojU nadida, unseen, i^jU^lp- haramzadaf
base, <^U Llio yak-salak, annual, a)LjJ do salah, biennial, and perhaps a few more.
d. The majority of adjectives purely Indian, together with all present and past participles of verbs, end in 1 a (subject to inflection) for the masculine, and t/— t for the feminine. All adjectives in \ a, purely Persian or Arabic, are indeclinable, with perhaps the sole exception of 1jc>- J wc?a, 'separate,' 'distinct,' and a few that may have become naturalized in Hindustani by
changing the final ^ of the Persian into \ a, like IjIs fuldna, such a one,' or ' so and so.'
29. Degrees of Comparison- — The adjectives in Hindustani have no regular degrees of comparison, and the manner in which this defect is supplied will be fully explained in the Syntax. SuflSce it here to say that when two objects are compared, that with which the comparison is made is put in the ablative case, like the Latin. Thus, for example, * this house
is high,' ^ >xli j^ ^^ yih ghar buland hat ; * this house
is higher than the tree,' ^ jJj ^ c:-^J j^ ^^ yih
ghar darakht se buland hai, literally, * this house (com- pared) with the tree is high.' The superlative degree is merely an extreme comparison formed by reference
to the word L^^^^sab, ' all,' as ^ jjj ^ ^^^^ j^ ^^ yih
ghar sab se buland hai, ' this house (compared) with all is high,' or * this is the highest house of all.'
Pronouns,
35
Of Pronouns,
Personal Pronouns,
30. The pronouns differ more or less from the sub- stantives in their mode of inflection. Those of the first and second persons form the genitive in \j ra, ^j re, and ^jj r'l, instead of l^ ka, &c. They have a distinct dative
and accusative form in ^^ e (singular), and ^^. en (plural), besides that made by the sign^ ko. They also form the oblique in a manner peculiar to themselves, and admit generally of the elision of the termination ^^on, in the oblique plural. They have the dative and ac- cusative cases in both numbers the same ; and lastly, the cases of the Agent are never inflected in the sin- gular, these being always main ne and tu ne or tain ne, never mujh ne and tujh ne.
The first personal pronoun is thus declined : — ^j^ main, I. Singular. Plural.
N. ^^^ main, I
{^jj^\j^ mera mere,\^ my, i^j^ merz, J ofme
D.&r e*^'* mujhe, | me, or Ac. [^ 4sr* mujh ko, J to me
A. ^v-o .fsr* mujh se, from me L. ^jj^ „^js^ mujh men, in me Ag. (J ^^ main ne, by me
i^Ujb hamari, f. J
ham. We hamara hamare,']
hamen,^ ham ko,. hamon ko,.
us, or to us
ham se, | ^ hamon se, ]
us
ham men, hamon
ham ne, hamon ne
ten, "I « men, J
Jby
m us
us.
36
Demonstrative Pronouns,
In this example we have three forms essentially distinct from each other, viz., the nominative, genitive,
and oblique modification in the singular, as ^^ maiuy
\j^ mera, -^ mujh ; and in the plural ^^ ham, \j\AJb hamara, and ^ham or ^yiJb hamon. From the oblique
modifications, .^ mujh, and ^ ham or ^^^ hamon, the other oblique cases are formed by adding the re- quisite post-positions, except that the case denoting
the agent is in the singular ^ ^^^ main ne.
The second personal pronoun y tu or ^ tain is declined in a similar manner.
Plural.
Singular.
y P
N. ^ or y tu or tain, Thou G. ^j^ \j^ tera, &c., thy
D. & r j^cfsT- tujhe, 1 to thee, Ac. \Ji ,^ tujh ko,] or thee
A. ^ ,^ tujh se, from thee
L. -j-^ -fsT tujh-men, in thee
Ag. (Jy tu-ne, by thee V. y) i^\ ai'tu, O thou
jj ^wm, You ijj ijj ]J^J tumhara,&:c,,youT
^^p^ tumhen, to you
^^ ^ *j turn-, tumh; or ^ tumhon-ko, you
jj^^' ,.f4J >i" turn-, tumh', or j^ tumhon-se, from
^^^^* -^ |J ^MTw-, tumh-, or ^^^ tumhon-men, in
iJjj^f^JorAJ ^wm-, or tumhon- ^ ^ ne, by you aj u?1 ai ^Mw, O ye.
Demonstrative Pronouns,
31. In Hindustani the demonstrative pronouns, 'this,' 'that,' 'these,' and 'those,' at the same time supply the place of our third person 'he,' ' she,' ' it,'
T
Demonstrative Pronouns.
37
and 'they/ They are the same for both genders, and the context alone determines how they are to be rendered into English. The word ^^.j/f^, *this/ 'he,'
' she,' or * it,' is used when reference is made to a person
or object that is near ; and a^ wuh, 'that,' 'he,' 'she,' or * it,' when we refer to that which is more remote. The proximate demonstrative ^,3/i^, 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' 'this,'
is declined as follows : —
Singular. N. ^, yihj This, he, &c.
G. ^ iS^^ is-ka, -he, -kl, of this, him, &c.
D.^mjI ^^j^\ is-ko or isey to to this, to him, &c.
Ac. ^(^\ •^. yih, is-ko, ise, this, r him, &c.
Ab. ^ jj-^ is'Se, from this, him, &c.
L. jj-A> (jJi is-men, in this, him, &c.
Ag. <Jc"^ zVwe, by this, him, &c.
Plural. ^^ ye, These, they
these, of them
^^^ jf ^ in-ko or inhen, to these, to them
^ jjl ^^ ye, in ko, inhen, • t these, them
.^ ^J\ in-se, from these, from them
^j^ jj! in men, in these, in them
(J jjj^^ ci fj\ in-ne, inhon ne, by these, by them.
In this example we see that the nominative yih is changed into is for the oblique cases singular, and the nominative plural ye becomes in for the oblique plural, just as in English ' he ' becomes ' him,' and ' they,' ' them.' In the oblique cases plural, it may be men- tioned that besides the form ^\ in, we sometimes meet
with ^1 inh and ^^\ inhon, though not so common.
The dative singular has two forms, one by adding ko,
38
Interrogative, Relative, 8^c,
like the substantives, and another by adding ^ e, as is'ko or is-e ; in the plural we have in-ko and in-hen. The accusative is generally like the dative, but often the same as the nominative, as in the declension of substantives.
32. The demonstrative ir^, 'that/ *he,"she,' 'it;' the
interrogative ^^ kaun, 'who ? ' 'what ? ' the relative ^
jo, ' he who,' * she who,' &c., and the correlative j«j so,
' that same,' are precisely similar in termination to ^
in the foregoing example ; hence it will suffice to give the nominatives, and one or two oblique cases of each, thus : —
Remote Demonstrative,
Singular.
9
N. ^j wuh. He, she, it,
or that
9
G. *l^ ,jJ\ us ka, &c.
9 9
T>,^\ffj^ usko, use
Plural. ^^ we, They, those
jj^l ^\ j^l un,unh,unhonka, \i &c.
9 9
y^\ f ^ unko or unhen.
Interrogative (applied to persons or individuals).
N. G. |
^/ kaun, Who? which ? I? ^jS kis, ka, &c. |
^^ kaun, Who? which ? ^^^^^ kin, kinh, kinhon I? ka, &c. |
Interrogative (applied to matter or quantity).
N. ^ ^ %5, What? Same as the singular,
G. \f ^^ kdhe, ka, &c.
* Sometimes l^ {j**^wis ka, &c. ; and in the plur. »(j^^ -f'j jj^ ivin, vsinh, or winhon, ka, &c.
Possessive Pronouns. 39 |
||
Relative, |
||
Singular. |
Plural. |
|
N. G. |
who, she who, that which ^ LT^ j^^ ^^> ^' |
jjs- ^*o or jaww. They who, those who or which -f^ c;^ i^X >*^^> jinhon |
D. |
sr^-^i^ |
^'^^^fd=^ |
Correl |
^ative. |
|
N. G. |
y^ SO or ^J^taun jTho-t same \^ j_^j tis kttj &c. |
y^ SO or ^y tauTij These same ^^ ^ ^ tin, tinhy tinhon ^ (^ ' ka, &c. |
D. |
LT^* / ^* |
^^!fj^ |
Possessive Pronouns,
33. The genitives singular and plural of the per- sonal and demonstrative pronouns are used adjectively as possessives, like the mens, tuus, noster, vester, &c., of the Latin, and in construction they follow the rule giverr respecting adjectives in 1 a. There is, hov^ever, in addition to these, another possessive of frequent
occurrence, viz. [uA apna, ^\ apne, and ^\ apni,
* own,' or ' belonging to self,' which under certain cir- cumstances supplies the place of any of the rest, as will be fully explained in the Syntax. The word lJ\ ap,
* self,' is used with or without the personal pronouns ;
thus, tJT ^-^ main ap, * I myself,' which meaning may be conveyed by employing lJ\ ap alone. But the most frequent use of cJT ap is to be met with as a substi- tute for the second person, to express respect, when it may be translated, ' you, sir,' ' your honour,' * your worship,' See. When used in this sense, l->T ap is
40 Indefinite Pronouns,
declined like a word of the second class of substan- tives under the singular form, thus : —
N. L->l apf your honour
G. ^ ^ l^T dp-kd, -ke, -kJ, of your honour
D. & Ac. ^1 dp-ko, to your honour, your honour
A. ^ c-^l dp-se, from your honour
L. ^j^ c-^l dp-merLj in your honour
Agt. J^ L-M dp-nCf by your honour.
When the word lJ\ ap denotes self, it is declined as follows : —
N. t->l dp, self, myself, &c.
G. ^^\ ^i\ UjI apnd, apne, apnl, own, of self, &c.
■r^ o A \ ^ i ^^ 5^cJT dp ko or apne ko.'] D. & Ac. ^ -^ ^T^ £ ' ,, ^ ^ _.^ ' I to self, self L e;:^*■' L5^i' ^i''^^ ta,tn, J
The phrase ^^j^ ^T apas-7nen denotes ' among our- selves,' * yourselves,' or ' themselves,' according to the nominative of the sentence.
Indefinite Pronouns.
34. Under this head we class all those words which
have more or less of a pronominal signification. The
following are of frequent occurrence : — CSi} ek, one ;
p _ _ L-jjj dusra, another ; y^j dono or ^y^j donon, both ; jj\
aur, other (more) ; ^ ghair, other (different) ; ^joxi
baze, certain ; l::^ bahut, many, much ; w-->^ sab, all,
every ;y> har, each; ijiifulana or \iii fulana, a certain
one \^i^ ko,i, any one, some one ; ^ kuchh, any thing, something ; ^ ka,i and jco- chand, some, several, many ; l^:;^ kitnd or li^ kittd, how many ? Ui^ jitna or {i^jittd, as many ; l^^l eVw^, or b*\ ittd, so many. They are all regular in their inflections, with the exception
Indefinite Pronouns. 41
of ^i^ koy'i, any, and ^J kuchh, some, which are thus
declined : —
^j if ko,i.
Singular. N. ^ ^ kojt, Any one,
some one
Plural. ^ S kojl or , ^ kayt, some,
Obi. l^ ^^ kisij kdf &;c.
^^ kuchh
p
N. ^ kuchhf Any thing,
some things Obi. l^^*-^ kisu ka, &c.
several * l^ ^^ kirii, ka, &c.
.^ kuchhy any, some, , &;c. ^ ^ ^:>^ kinu ka, &c.
a. The word koji^ unaccompanied by a substantive, is gene- rally understood to signify a person or persons, as koyi hai? is there any one?' (vulgarly qui-hy) ; and in similar circumstances kuchh refers to things in general, as kuchh naJun, ' there is nothing,* no matter.' When used adjectively, ko^ and kuchh may be applied to persons or things indifferently, particularly so in the oblique cases.
h. The following is a useful list of compound adjective pro- nouns ; and as almost all of them have already been noticed in their simple forms, it has been deemed superfluous to add the pronunciation in Roman characters. They are for the most part of the indefinite kind, and follow the inflections of the simple forms of which they are composed ; thus ek ko,iy some one, ekkisi ka, &c., of some one. If both members be subject to inflection in the simple forms, the same is observed in the compound, asjo-ko,!, whosoeyer, jis-kisi ka. Sic, of whomsoever, so JO kuchh, whatsoever, J ^s-/(;^5^i ka, &,c., of whatsoever.
* We have given the oblique forms of the plural kini and kinu on the authority of Mr. Yates ; at the same time we must confess that we never met with either of them in the course of our reading.
G
42 Indefinite Projiouns.
The compound adjective pronouns of the indefinite kind are jjl lS^}, CS^\^\ or Llio\ }^jc3 another, ^j^ (JJol some one,
L^^ V'J'^ ^^ "^ IriJ'^ some other, LLioJ <0 tlX>l one or other, y^S j^ some one else, -ff^ j^^ something else, k^^^ ^^ the
rest, ^^ 1^*^ 0^^ JJ^ l5*^ some others, lLCJ c^^ many
"" <" *^ '* " '
a one, ^^ ^-^^-vi much, j^l '^i^'i^ many more, ^f c-^v-j or
.^^fj^ every one, ^^^ u^..wj or -^ yb every thing, CS^} S^**'? vlX>t Jb or ^S Jb every one, (JJo^ ^*^ whichever, jj^ ^^j^
some other, ^ffr whoever, .^ ^ w^hatever, i^ <iG ^^
some one or other, CS^\ -ffr or .^s^ ^ somewhat, j^ .^
9 ^ '
some more, -^^ <0 .^ something or other. The use and ap- plication of all the pronouns will be fully explained under that head in the Syntax.
c. Under this section we ought in strictness to include the numerals, of which we here subjoin the first decade, together with the corresponding figures, Arabian and Indian, both of which are employed exactly like our own.
Figures. |
Names. |
Figures. |
Names. |
||||
1 < |
1 |
1 •< |
t |
« |
|||
1 |
i |
\ |
lL^J ek |
6 |
1 |
i |
i^j>- chha |
2 |
r |
'^ |
jJ do |
7 |
V |
>o |
lzjL» sat |
3 |
r |
^ |
^^- tin |
8 |
A |
-a |
^T dth |
4 |
i^ |
8 |
jl^ char |
9 |
1 |
£- |
y nau |
5 |
c |
^ |
-^b punch |
10 |
1. |
^o |
(J-.J das. |
In Hindustani, the numerals from ten to a hundred are not so simple and regular as ours ; these we shall treat of hereafter.
43
SECTION III.
Of the Verb ^hfiL
35. All verbs in Hindustani are conjugated in exactly the same manner. So far as terminations are concerned, there is not a single irregular verb in the language. There is, strictly speaking, but one simple tense (the aorist), w^hich is characterized by distinct personal endings ; the other tenses being- formed by means of the present and past participles, together with the auxiliary 'to be.' The infinitive or verbal noun, which always ends in \j na (subject to inflection), is the form in which verbs are given in Dictionaries ; hence it will be of more practical utility to consider this as the source from which all the other parts spring.
36. From the infinitive are formed, by very simple and invariable rules, the three principal parts of the verb, which are the following : — 1. The second person singular of the imperative or root, by rejecting the
final \3 na ; as from L)y bolna, to speak, comes J^j bol, speak thou. 2. The present participle, which is always formed by changing the final l3 na of the
infinitive into If ta, as Uy bolna, to speak, y^ bolta, speaking. 3. The past participle is formed by leaving
out the ^ w of the infinitive, as Uy * bolna, to speak, il^j bola, spoken. If, however, the I) na of the infinitive be preceded by the long vowels \ a or j a, the past participle is formed by changing the ^ n into t^ j/, in order to avoid a disagreeable hiatus ; thus from li^ lana, to bring, comes U lai/a (not f^ la-a), brought; so \j^j rona, to weep, makes b^j roya in the past participle. These three parts being thus ascertained, it will be
44 Auxiliary Verb. X
very easy to form all the various tenses, &c., as in the examples w^hich we are about to subjoin.
37. As a preliminary step to the conjugation of all verbs, it will be necessary to learn carefully the following fragments of the auxiliary verb * to be,' which frequently occur in the language, not only in the formation of tenses, but in the mere assertion of simple existence.
Present Tense,
Singular.
Plural.
^j^ ^j^< main hurt, I am Jb y tu haif thou art ^ a^ wuh half be, she, it is
Past Tense.
\^'.^^^ main thdy I was \^ ^ tu tha, thou wast If* yj wuh tha, he or it was
^j^ Mi> ham hain, we are
^ J tum ho, you are
^^ c5j ice hain, they are.
^ jfSb ham the, we were
^ w turn the, you were
L5^ c/j we the, they were.
a. The first of these tenses is a curiosity in its way, as it is the only present tense in the language characterized by different terminations, and independent of gender. Instead of
the form Jb hai, in the second and third persons singular,
IxJb haiga is frequently met with in verse ; and in the plural,
yS^ hainge for ^j^ hain in the first and third persons. In the past tense, \^ tha of the singular becomes ^ tlii when
the nominative is feminine, and in the plural ^-^j tKin. We may
here remark that throughout the conjugation of all verbs, when the singular terminates in a (masculine), the plural becomes e ; and if the nominatives be feminine, the a becomes 7 for the sin- gular and m (contracted for ii/dn) for the plural. If several feminine terminations in the plural follow in succession, the In is added, only to the last, but even here there are exceptions.
Conjugation, 45
38. We shall now proceed to the conjugation of an intransitive or neuter verb, and with a view to assist the memory, we shall arrange the tenses in the order of their formation from the three principal parts already- explained. The tenses, as will be seen, are nine in number — three tenses being formed from each of the three principal parts. A few additional tenses of com- paratively rare occurrence will be detailed hereafter.
Infinitive, Uy bolna, To speali. §^ ^ r Imperative and root Jy hol^ speak (thou) .1 ^1 Present participle Id^j holtay speaking
PLh I Past participle ^y holoij spoke or spoken.
1. Tenses formed from the root.
Aorist. English — ' I may speak/ &c.
jj^ly c^-* '^^^^ ^^^^^ p |
^^» >Jb ham bolen |
|
Jy y tu hole |
jl^j -J turn holo |
|
Jjj y« wuh hole |
jjJy (_^^ we holen. |
|
Future. |
||
English — * I shall or will speak,' &c. |
||
l^jl^ ^Jf;^ main holunga |
^^^J^j ^ ham holenge |
|
^^. y tu holega |
^^j j^ turn hologe |
|
ILly ^ wuh holega |
^J^^ lJj fjoe holenge |
|
fem. holungly &c. |
fem. holengln, &c. |
Imperative, JEjnglish — * Let me speak, speak thou,' &c.
^^y ^j^ main holun Jjj y tu hoi
^yi Hy wuh hole
^y^ M^b ham holen
\ 9
^y *j* tum holo jjJjj c^j we holen.
46 Conjugatio?i.
2- Tenses formed from the present participle :
Indefinite. English (as a present tense), — ' I speak, thou speakest,' &c., (conditional)— * If I spoke, had I spoken,' &c., (habitual) — ' I used to speak/
9
y^ y tu holta y^j ^j wuU holta
^^^ AJb ham holte jjJ^ p turn holte L5^>^ uij we holte.
Present. English — ' I speak or am speaking,' &c.
jj,yb U^ ^^ main holta hun Jt> \s\jj y tu holta hai Jb y^ if. wuh holta hai
CJ^ Li^^ (*^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^'^^^
jJb i^y (J ^w/w JoZfe ho ^Jb ^y^ 1^ we holte hain.
Imperfect. EngUsh — ' I was speaking, thou wast,' &c.
l^ y^ j^^ main holta tha
9
\^ y^j ^ tu holta tha
9
j^ LS^^ f^ ^^'^ Jo/^e the ^^ L<^y (*^ ^^'^ 6oZ^e Me L5^ ^jJ t/^ «^^ ^oZ^e Me.
3. Tenses from the past participle:
Past, English — ' I spoke, thou spokest,' &c.
^ ^j^ main hola
Jy Mh ham hole Jy *j ^Mw hole ^y ^j ?t?e 5oZe
Perfect. fehglish — ' I have spoken, thou hast,' &c.
9
^Jy^ i!y ^j^ main hola hun
y 9
j^jfc^y y tu hola hai
" " 9
^ "^^ ifj wuh hold hat
jj-Jb jjy *Jb Aam ^oZe hain
^ ^yi ^ turn hole ho ^j^ ^yi i/^ we hole hain.
Conjugation.
47
Pluperfect. English — ' I had spoken, thou hadst spoken/ kc.
\^ iL ^j^ main bold thd \^ iJy y tu bold thd
9
\^ ^^ )i^ wuh bold thd
4. Miscellaneous verbal expressions :
Respectful Imperative or Precative.
s.
^J^ bollye or ^l^i boliyo, ' You, he, &c., be pleased to speak.' Iw^ boliyegd, You, he, &c., will have the goodness to speak.'
Infinitive (used as a gerund or verbal noun).
Norn. Uy bolnd, 'Speaking:' gen. l^ ^^y bolnekd, &c., 'Of speaking,' &c., like substantives of the third class.
Noun of Agency.
%^ itf^y bolne-wdldf and sometimes Ijbb ^y bolne-hdrd, A speaker,' ' one who is capable of speaking.'
Participles, used adjectively.
Pres. ls]y boltd or Ujb Wy ^oZ^a hujd, fem. JoZ^z or 5oZ^7 hu,t.
9
Past. !^y JoZa or \yb ^y Z>oZa ^w,a, fem. boll or Z>oZJ
^y ioZ^e or ^^jJ^ ^^ly bolte . " ^w,e, fem. boltin or JoZ^J
Jy 5oZe or t^jjb Jy bole hUfC, " fem. JoZi/i or bolt hu,m.
Conjunctive (indeclinable). Jy bol, Jy 5oZe, iJ3jJ bolke,
^y bolkar, ^jt Jy &oZ kar-ke, or i^ i^ Jy bol-kar-kar, having spoken. "
Adverbial participle (indeclinable). ^ ^y bolte-hl, On
speaking, or on (the instant of) speaking.
48 Formation of Tenses.
^ a. We may here briefly notice how the various portions of the verb are formed. The aorist, it will be seen, is the only part worthy of the name i^f tense, and it proceeds directly from the root by adding the terminations uri, e, e, for the singular, and en o, en, for the plural. The future is formed directly from the aorist by adding gd to the singular and ge to the plural for mascuhnes, or by adding gl and giydn (generally contracted into gJn) when the nominative to the verb is feminine. The imperative differs from the aorist merely in the second person singular, by using the bare root without the addition of the ter- mination e. Hence, the future and imperative are mere modi- fications of the aorist, which we have placed first, as the tense par excellence. It is needless to offer any remark on the tenses formed from the present participle, as the reader will easily learn them by inspection. The three tenses from the past participle are equally simple in all neuter or intransitive verbs ; but in transitive verbs they are subject to a peculiarity of con- struction, which will be noticed further on. The proper use and application of the various tenses and other parts of the verb will be fully treated of in the Syntax.
b. As the aorist holds the most prominent rank in the Hin- dustani verb, it will be proper to notice in this place a few euphonic peculiarities to which it is subject. 1. When the root ends in a, the letter w is optionally inserted in the aorist between the root and those terminations that begin with e ; thus UiJ land, to bring, root ^ Id, aorist ^jjl Idwe or i^'i ld,e. 2. When the aorist ends in o, the letter w is optionally inserted, or the general rule may be observed, or the initial vowels of the ter- mination may all vanish, as will be seen in the verb hond, which we are about to subjoin. Lastly, when the root ends in e, the letter w may be inserted between the root and those termina- tions which begin with e, or the w being omitted, the final e of the root is absorbed in the terminations throughout. Thus li-O dend, to give, root ^/J de, aorist -deun, dewe, dewe ; dewen de,o, dewen; or, contracted, dun, de, de ; den, do, den. It is needless to add that the future and imperative of. all such verbs are sub- ject to the same modification.
The Verb ' To Be: 4-9
39. We now come to the verb Uyu hona, ' to be, or become,' which, being of frequent occurrence, is worthy of the reader's attention. It is perfectly regular in the formation of all its tenses, &c., and conjugated precisely like bolna, already given. The past partici- ple changes the o of the root into w, instead of retaining the 0 and inserting the euphonic y (No. 36), thus T^i. hu,a, ' been or become,' not byb hoya; so the respectful imperative is hujiye, &c. ; but these slight peculiari- ties do not in the least affect the regularity of its con- jugation, as will be seen in the paradigm.
Infinitive iJyb hona, To be, or become. Root jJb ho, present participle IjfjJi hotd, past participle \^ihu,a.
Aorist. I may or shall be, or become.
c>y^ - UJ^^ uJ^ waiw hOfUn or hon *^ - lS ^ - lJ^^ y tu howe, hOfC, or ho . ^ - ^ ^ ' hf^^ ^3 ^^^ howe, ho,e, or ho.
«J>^ " ^J^.'^ ' t^'33^ f*^ ^^^ howen, ho,en, or hon
yb - j^b aj turn ho,o or ho i:)^ ~ U^'^ ~ ij^'^y^ 4^ ^^ ^^owen, ho, en, or hon.
Future. I shall or will be, or become.
IS^ - iSj^b ^j^ main ho,unga or hungd Uyb - l^J.a> - ^,33^ y tu howegd, ho^ega, or hogd \^ - ifjijjb - &J yb if^ i^mA howegd, ho,egd, or Aoga.
c o o
fiyb - ^^V.j^ " ^H33^ (^ hamhowenge, ho,enge, or ^ow^e ^^yb - i^y!* (W ^wm ho,oge or /^oge
jii^Jb - ^X^,^y^ - Xui^^y^ uf; ?i?e howenge, ho,enge, or honge.
H
50 The Verb ' To BeS
Imperative. Let me be, be thou, &c.
(j^ - ^^^ ^jf:^ main hOyUn or hon ^ tji tu ho ^ ' ^ )^ ' lJj^ ^ wuh howef Ao,e, or ho,
U^ " e^.^^ " ^:}i3^ (^ ^^^ howen ho,en, or hon
yb- j^b jj turn hoyO or ^o U^^ * tiTt'.J^ " i:;i^J^ ^3 ^^ howen, ho yen, or hon. Indefinite, I am, I might be, I used to be, or become.
' ^J
Present. I am, or I become, &c.
byb,
^j;-^ mam |
*ib ham |
||
y tu |
hota |
^j*' |
^ tum |
iSj wuh |
^^we |
hote.
jj^ \jjSb ^j^ main hota hun ^ \i^ y tu hota hai ^Jb l7^ «^ m?mA hota hai
^^Jb i^y^ (^ ^^W2 Ao^g Aaiw jJb ,^yb iJ ^««W2 Ao^e ho
If^lJyb
Imperfect. |
|||||
I |
was becoming, &c. |
||||
^^^ main |
^ ham |
||||
^ tu \ho |
ta tha |
^^^' |
AJ tum |
'he |
|
2fj i^jmA , |
.sft «>« , |
||||
Past. |
|||||
I became, &c. |
|||||
^^^ main 9 |
s. f |
jjb ham |
|||
yi tu 9 |
1 hu,d |
^^' |
e '"■" 1 |
||
Hy wuh |
^} «>« |
) |
hote the.
) hu,e.
The Verb ' To Be:
Perfect,
I have become, &c. Singular.
jj^b \^ ^j^ main huyO, hun
y 9 9
^ ly> y tu huyOL hai
" y 9 9
jJb \^ Sj wuh hu,a hai
51
Plural.
y 9
^^ ^fjJb ^ ham hu,e hain
" 9 9
yib ^^^ aj turn hu,e ho
y " 9 *
ii}^ ijrj-ife lJj we hu,e hain.
V* ^^
( " ^ ^^ main |
|
y tu |
hUjOL tha |
9 i^ wuh |
Pluperfect, I had become, &c.
ham
*j tum
hu,e the.
<^3 M7C
Respectful Imperative, &c. ^^^>;^hujiyey y^ ^ hujiyo, or \Ci>.yb hujiegd, be pleased to be,
or to become.
Infinitive, or Verbal Noun.
\3yb hona, being, hone ka, &c., of being.
Noun of Agency or Condition,
^\^yb honewala, that which is, or becomes.
Participles.
Pres. iJjJb hota, or !yb Ij^ ^o^a hu,a, being, becoming.
9
Past. Ijjb Aii,a, been, or become.
Conjunctive Participle,
&c. ^^ S^ ^ ho, hokar, hokcy &c., having been, or become.
Adverbial Participle,
^ <JjJb hote hi, on being, or becoming.
a. We may here observe that the aorist, future, and indefinite of Uyh hona, ' to be,' are sometimes used as auxiUaries with the present and past participles of other verbs, so as to give us three additional tenses. These from their nature are not of very fre- quent occurrence, and some forms of them we confess we have
52 Additional Tenses.
never met with in any work, printed or manuscript, except in grammars. They are however considered as distinct paits of the verb by native grammarians, therefore it is but right that they should find a place here. We therefore subjoin them, to- gether with their native appellations, reserving the account of their use and application till we come to the Syntax.
1. Hal I mutashakkiy literally, ' present dubious.'
English — ' I may or shall be speaking.'
^3 V* ~ (jj y^ ^^ (i^r* main holta hojun or houngd
Uj^yb - c/^yi> ^^ y tu holta howe or howega
/ " ^ /
Uj jyb - ^J}^ ^^ ^ wuh holta howe or howega
jijjjjA - ^jl)^ ^^, ^ ham holte howen or howenge
L^ yi> - J y^ L5^y (*^ ^^^ ^olte hoyO or ho^oge
^^$jjjy& - jj:>j^^ L5^y *-^-/ ^^ ^o/^e howen or howenge.
2. ifefafl mutashakki or Mashkuk, ' past dubious.'
Enghsh — I may or shall have spoken.'
l&j^yb ~ c:;^ y^ ^^ tiT^ warn 5oZa hOfUn or hounga Ujjyb - j^jy> iJy y ^M Z>oZa howe or howega \x>jyi) - fc^M^ IV a^ wuh hold howe or howega ^ijj^ - (j^,^j^ ijy, (*>^ ^flwi Z»oZe howeri or howenge ff/y> - j*y ;J^ (W ^^»i ^o^« /'0,o or hOjOge ij^.^^ " tird^J^ J^ "^^ ^^ ^^^^ howen or howenge. 3. ilfaf i shartiya or wiazi mutamannt. Past Conditional, English — * Had I been speaking,' or ' had I spoken.'
\jyi> ^y - Uy^ Uy
yj tu
9
i% wuh
' holta hotdf or Z»oZa hotd.
Transitive Verbs, 53
Sl^ Jj^-sl^^Li^^'
holte hote, or hole liote.
Jb ham *j turn
5. Of these three tenses, the first is of rare occurrence ; the second is more common, and the future form of the auxihary is more usual than the aorist in both tenses. The third tense, or past conditional, is of very rare occurrence under the above form,
its place being generally supplied by the simpler form liJ^ ^^^ main boltd, the first of the tenses from the present participle, vv^hich on account of its various significations we have given under the appellation of the Indefinite Tense. In the ' Father of Grammars," that of Dr. Gilchrist, 4to. Calcutta, 1796, and also in two native treatises in our possession, the various forms * main boltd,' * main boltd hotd/ ' main boltd hu,d hotd,' and main bold hotd,' are all included under the appellation of mdzl shartl, or mdzl mutamanni, that is, Past Conditional. It is true, the form *main boltd ' has occasionally a present signification, but to call it a present tense, as is done in some of our grammars, is leading the student into a gross error, as we shall shew hereafter.
40. We shall now give an example of a transitive verb, which as we have already hinted is liable to a peculiarity in those tenses which are formed from the past participle. The full explanation of this anomaly belongs to the Syntax. Suffice it here to say that the construction resembles to a certain extent the passive voice of the corresponding tenses in Latin. Thus for example, the sentence ** He has written one letter," may in Latin, and in most European tongues, be expressed in two different ways, by which the assertion amounts to exactly the same thing, viz., ** Ilk unam epistolam scripsit,'' or ** Ab illo una epistola scripta est,'' Now these two modes of expression convey the same idea to the mind, but in Hindustani the latter form only is allowed; thus "us ne ek chithi likhi hai,'' or **by him one letter has been written." Hence, in
54 Conjugation of a Transitive Verb.
Hindustani those tenses of a transitive verb which are formed from the past participle, will have their nomi- native cases changed into that form of the ablative expressive of the agent. What ought to be the accu- sative of the sentence will become the real nominative, with which the verb agrees accordingly, except in some instances when it is requisite that the accusative should have the particle ko affixed, in which case the verb is used in its simplest form of the masculine sin- gular, as we have given it below.
a. It is needless to say that in all verbs the tenses from the root and present participle are formed after the same manner, and the peculiarity above alluded to is limited to transitive verbs only, — and to only four tenses of these, — v^'hich it is particularly to be wished that the student should well remember. In the follow- ing verb, l3jU mama, to beat or strike,' we have given all the tenses in ordinary use, together with their various oriental appel- lations, as given in a Treatise on Hindustani Grammar, compiled by a munshi in the service of Mr. Chicheley Plowden. It is a folio volume, written in Hindustani, but without author's name, date, or title.
Infinitive (masdar), \3jU mama, To beat.
J to mar, beat thou ; \jjVo mdrtd, beating ; \jVit mar a, beaten.
1 . Tenses of the root :
Aorist (muzdri'j. Singular. Plural.
fc^U y thou mayst beat
9
k^J^ *j he may beat
^jto tjb we may beat ^jU J you may beat c^.J^ c^ they may beat.
> 9
Future {mustakhit).
K)^j\^ (jr* I shall or will beat j^^j^ ^ we shall or will
beat UojU y thou shalt or wilt \^)J^ (^ y^" ^^^H ^** will
^ beat ' '\ beat
l^^U a^ he shall or will ^^J^j^ uO they shall or will beat I " beat.
Conjugation, 8^c. Imperative {amr).
55
Singular.
(jjjjU ^^^ let me beat
jU y beat thou c£;U a^ \Qt him beat
Plural. ^jU) aJJj let us beat
jjU -J beat ye or you {jij^ sO ^*^* them beat.
2. Tenses of the present participle :
Indefinite, or Past Conditional (mazi shartj or mdzi mutamannt).
\jj\^ ^j^ I beat, &c. &c.
'^jU jj thou beatest
J' lj}to *j he beats
tJ^U -»jb we beat iJ^U AJ* ye beat (JjU ^cj they beat.
Present {hat).
jjyb Ij^U ^j^ I am beating ^ bjto y thou art beating ^ l/jU )i^ he is beating
^-jb li)^ *^ we are beating Ji> vJ^U ^' you are beating ^^ ci)U t^^ they are beating.
Imperfect (istimrart).
^ (djla jf^b we were beating ^ (J^U ^ you were beating L5^ ii^U ^^ they were beating.
l^ \jjVi> ^^ I was beating Iff bjU y thou wast beating lf» bjU Hj he was beating
Present Dubious (jial i mutashakki), English — ' I may, shall, or will be beating.'
3. Tenses of the past participle :
Peculiarity. — All the nominatives assume the case of the agent, characterized by the post-position (J w^> the verb agrees
56
Peculiarities of a Transitive Verb,
with the object of the sentence in gender and number, or is used impersonally in the masculine singular form.
Past Absolute (mazi mutlak). English — I beat or did beat,' &c. Literally, ' It is or was beaten by me, thee, him, us, you, or them.' Singular.
V,U^
<3 ^^ main ne
9
(J, y tu ne (J (j^ us ne
mara
l^u
1.
Plural. (J AJb ham ne (J aj turn ne
un ne
T mara.
Perfect, or Past Proximate (mazi karlb).
English — * I have beaten.' Literally, ' It has been (is) beaten
by me, thee, him,' &c.
ij ^j^ mam ne
^ I mara
ij y tu ne
hai
^ (j^\ us ne
l,U
4 (^
ham ne turn ne \ un ne
mara hai.
Pluperfect, or Past Remote (mazi ba'id).
English — ' I had beaten.' Literally, ' It was beaten by me,
thee, him,' &c.
1>
V1
3 ^-^ main ne
9
(J y tune
9
ci ^ us ne
mara tha
1>
ham ne
' 9
(J ^j turn ne
mara tha.
4 J
un ne
Past Dubious (mazi mashkuk).
English — ' I shall have beaten,' i. e. ' It shall have been beaten
by me, thee,' &c.
J j^ ham ne
\Ju |
(J ^^^ main ne |
mara |
1> |
\t^- |
(J y tu ne 9 vJ (jJ\ us ne |
hoga |
l^ |
turn ne
un ne
mara hoga.
Respectful Imperative (amri ta^zlmi), ^^^to mariye, &c. &c. All the other parts formed as in the verb bolna.
Ariomalous Past Participles. 57
41. We have now, we trust, thoroughly explained the mode of conjugating a Hindustani verb. There is no such thing as an irregular verb in the language ; and six words only are slightly anomalous in the formation of the past participle, which last being known, the various tenses unerringly follow according to rule. We here subjoin the words to which we allude, together with their past participles.
Infinitives.
\j\s>^ jana, To go Vji karndf — do l/j^ marna — die iJyb hona — be lx)J dena — give liJ lena — a ke
Past Participles,
Singular. Mas. Fern.
\J> kiya S ^i
9 - -
yo mu,a c/>« i/^u^i ? _ >
Lfc hUyCL i^J^ ^M,«
l> J diya i^J di U liya ^ li
Plural. Mas. Fem.
J^ ga,e ^tga^in ^sJ> ktje ^ km i^ yo mu,e ^^^ ^^ mu^tn 1^ ^Jb /iu,e ^j yb nUftn ^1> J dl^e ^ J din ^^-J tt,e ^ lin.
a. Of these, ^'awa and mama are neuter or intransitive, and conjugated like holna. The conjugation of hona we have already given in full, and that of karna, dena, and lena, is like marna, ' to beat.' It vi^ould be utterly ridiculous then to call any of these an irregular verb, for at the very utmost the deviation from the general rule is not so great as in the Latin verbs do, dedi, datum, or cerno,crevi, 8cc., which no grammarian would on that account consider as irregular.
b. The peculiarities in the past participles of hona, dena,* and lena, are merely on the score of euphony. The verb j5wa takes its infinitive and present participle evidently from the Sanskrit root "?f J ya, the y being convertible into j, as is well known, in
* The verb dena makes dijiye^ and lena^ Hjiy^y i" the respectful imperative ; so do all those whose roots end in 1; 'dSfplna, to drink, pyiye, &c. ^
I
58 Passive Voice.
the modern tongues of Sanskrit origin. Again, the past parti- ciple gay a, seems to have arisen from the root "T^, which also denotes ' to go.' In the case of karna, to do, make,' it springs
naturally enough from the modified form kar, of the root ^ kri, and at the same time there would appear to have been another infinitive, kind, directly from the Sanskrit root, by changing the rl into z ; hence the respectful imperative of this verb has two forms, kariye and kijiye, while the past participle kiyd comes from kind, the same as piyd from plnd, to drink.' Lastly,
marnd is from mar, the modified form of ^ mri ; at the same time the form mund, whence mUjd, may have been in use ; for we know that in the Prakrit, which is a connecting link between the Sanskrit and the present spoken tongues of Northern India, the Sanskrit vowel ri began to be generally discarded, and fre- quently changed into w, and the Prakrit participle is mudo, for the Sanskrit mrito; just as from the Sanskrit verbal woxxn prichh- ama, we have the Hindustani puchhnd, 'to ask,' through the Prakrit puchhana,
42. Passive Voice, — In Hindustani the use of the passive voice is not nearly so general as it is in English and other European languages. It is regularly formed by employing the past (or passive) participle of an active or transitive verb along with the neuter verb UU. jdna, * to go,' or * to be/ The participle thus employed is subject to the same inflection or varia- tions as an adjective purely Indian (v. page 33), ending in \ a. Of the verb jana itself, we have just shewn that its past participle is gai/a, which of course will run through all the tenses of the past participle, as will be seen in the following paradigm.
Infinitive, l3U^ \jl< marajand, To be beaten. Imperative, \>- J^U mdrd jd, be thou beaten
Present Participle, \i\>- |^U mdrd jdtd, being beaten Past Participle, Lf Ur« mdrd gayd, beaten.
Passive Voice.
Tenses of the root,
Aorist,
59
Singular. jjJW ^vo ^-^ I may be beaten
o^U> Ijto y thou mayst be beaten
ijj\^ I^U ^ he may be beaten
Plural.
^jW ljJ^ (>^ we may be beaten
jU- Li;^ >J' you may be beaten
^jW tj^^lo t^^ they may be beaten.
Future.
ISJU. Ijto ^^^ I shall or will be beaten
l&jU- IjU y thou shalt or wilt be beaten
. 9
UjjIsj- l^to )fj he shall or will be beaten
^^jjjU. v^U >Jfe we shall or will be beaten
^U. ^^jlo jj you shall or will be beaten
will be beaten.
Imperative,
uJV" b^ iiT^* ^^^ ^^ ^^ beaten
U- 5^U jj be thou beaten
tjr^ls*- ^jU ^ let him be beaten
^^U- ^5jU AJb let us be beaten
jU- t^U *7 be ye beaten c^.jV «jL>^ s^^ ^^* them be
beaten.
Tenses of the present participle ConditionaL
bU- l^to ^^;-^ r^ if I he, or had been, beaten
bU^ l^U ^ J\ if thou be, or hadst been, beaten
IfU. !jU ^j jS \ if he be, or had been, beaten
had been, beaten
^jU- uf;U *J ^! if you be, or had been, beaten
^'U- tj^U uO^^ if they be, or had been, beaten.
60
Passive Voice.
Present,
Singular.
^,yb IjUw ^jU ^^ I am being
beaten ^ UU- IjU y thou art being
^ beaten 1^ IjIs*- I^U i^ he is being beaten
Plural.
^ ing beaten yb ^^" c/j^ /»^ you are be- ing beaten
[Jl?^ i^ W" fcsL>^ SrL? *^^y ^^® ^6" ing beaten.
Imperfect.
\^ \i\>- l^U .^jJo I was beaten or being beaten
\^ tfU- l^U y thou wast
beaten l^* IjU- l^to ^ he was beaten
^ ^^ SrJ^ (^ w^ were beaten
beaten
L5^ l5^^ ^J^ ^3 *^^y w^^^
beaten.
Tenses of the past participle. Past.
Lf IjU ^^^ I was beaten L? ]^U y thou wast beaten L^ \j\^ Hj he was beaten
^t^ ijjVo AJb we were beaten ^tl^ ijj^ fi you were beaten ^ sjj^ ufj they were beaten.
Perfect,
jj^i Lf Ijto ^-^ I have been beaten
jfe LT \j\^ y thou hast been beaten
jJb Lf \jVc 2fj he has been beaten
^Jb ^^^ c/;U) Ub we have been beaten
yb ^^Is ^5;^ (^ you have been beaten
tiTf^ i<^ ^J^ ^i ^^y ^^^^
been beaten.
Pluperfect,
\^ \^\j\^ ^j^ I had been beaten
\^* Uf );l< y thou hadst been beaten
\^ L? l^U i^ he had been beaten
L5^ L5^ c^^ f*^ w® ^^^ been beaten
\j^ L5^ 4t>^ r' y^^ ^^^ ^®^" beaten
beaten.
Passive Voice. 61
a, Muhammad Ibrahim Munshi, the author of an excellent Hindustani grammar entitled Tuhfae Elphinstone, printed at Bombay, 1823, would seem to conclude that the Hindustani has no passive voice at all. He says, p. 44, " Dr. Gilchrist and Mr. Shakespear are of opinion that there is a passive voice in Hindustani, formed by compounding the past participle of active verbs with the verb l3U-. But the primitive signification of this verb to go, seems so irreconcilable with the simple state of being, as to render it improbable that it could ever be used in the same manner as the substantive verbs of other languages." Now, the fact is, that the worthy Munshi is carried too far, principally from a strong propensity to have a slap at his brother grammarians, Messrs. Gilchrist and Shakespear, whom he hits hard on every reasonable occasion ; add to this that the passive voice in his native language is of rare occurrence. But there is undoubtedly such a thing as a regular passive voice occasionally to be met with, and it is formed with the verb \i\p^ jdna^ to go,' as an auxiliary. Nor is the connection of jana, ' to go,' with the passive voice so very irreconcilable as the Munshi imagines. In Gaehc, the very same verb, viz. ' to go,' is used to form the passive voice, though in a different manner, the verbal noun denoting the action being used as a nominative to the verb ' to go ;' thus the phrase, " He was beaten," is in Gaelic literally
The beating of him went," i.e. took place, which is not very remote from the Hindustani expression. Again, in Latin, the phrase, ' I know that letters will be written," is expressed by
Scio liter as scriptum iri,'' in which the verb 'to go,' enters as an auxiliary ; to say nothing of the verb veneo {yen + eo), ' to he sold.'
h. We have seen in the conjugation of mama, ' to beat,' that those tenses which spring from the past participle, have a con- struction similar to the Latin passive voice. This construction is always used when the agent is known and expressed ; as,
^ l^U J^ 4^-^J <3 LS^V** U^^ ^* sipahi ne eh mard mara hai,
that soldier has beaten a man,' or (more literally) ' by that soldier a man has been beaten.' Again, if the agent is unknown
62 Derivative Verbs.
or the assertion merely made in general terms, the regular form of the passive is used ; as, ek mard mara gaya, ' a man has been beaten,' and even this might be more idiomatically expressed by saying ek mard ne mar kha,i half ' a man has suffered a beating.'
c. One cogent reason why the passive voice does not frequently occur in Hindustani is, that the language abounds with primitive simple verbs of a passive or neuter signification, which are ren- dered active by certain modifications which we are about to state.
Thus Uj palna signifies ' to be fed or reared,' which again becomes an active or transitive verb by lengthening the vowel
of the root; as, UJb pdlnd, to * feed or rear,' as will be more fully explained immediately.
Derivative Verbs.
43. In Hindustani a primitive verb, if neuter, is rendered active, as v^e have just hinted, by certain modifications of, or additions to, its root. In like manner, an active verb may, by a process somewhat similar, be rendered causal or doubly transitive. The principal modes in M^hich this may be effected are comprised under the following
Rules.
1. By inserting the long vowel 1 a between the root and the
\j nd of the infinitive of the primitive verb ; thus, from \:Sj pakna^ a neuter verb, ' to grow ripe,' ' to be got ready ' (as food), comes l3lL pakdnd (active), * to ripen, or make* ready,' ' to cook.' Again, this active verb may be rendered causal or doubly tran- sitive Jftr inserting the letter j w between the root and the mo- difi^im|rmination \j\ and; thus, from \3\ij pakdnd, 'to make
ready,^e insert the letter j w, and get the causal form lilj^ pakwdnd, ' to cause (another) to make (any thing) ready.' To shew the use of the three forms of the verb, we will add a few
plain examples. I. ^ l::^ l3l^ khdnd paktd hai, 'the dinner
is cooking ' (or ' being cooked ') ; 2. ^ UIO l3\^ jSs^S>-.
Derivative Verbs. 63
khidmatgar khana pakdtd hai, ' the servant is (himself) cooking
^ C Co
dinner or food*;' 3. ^in Ij^^o lil^ j^jJU^ mihmdnddr khdnd
pakwdtd haij 'the host is causing dinner to be cooked/ These examples shew the copiousness of the Hindustani verb as compared with the Enghsh. For whereas we are obliged to employ the same verb both as neuter and active, like the word cooking ' in the first and second examples, the Hindustani has
a distinct expression for each. And the Ul^ pakxodnd in the last example is much more neat and concise than the English * is having,' * is getting,' or *is causing ' the dinner (to be) ' cooked/
In like manner, the neuter lilj>- ja/wa, to burn, JaZawa, to kindle, BXidjahvdnd, to cause to be kindled ; for example, hattt jalti hai, ' the candle burns ;' a man will say to his servant, hattl ko jaldo, ' light the candle ' (yourself), but he may say to his munshi, battt kojalwdo, ' cause the candle to be lit' (by others).
2. When the root of the primitive verb is a monosyllable with any of the long vowels \ a, j o or u, and ^^ e or ?, the latter are shortened in the active and causal forms, that is, the \ of the toot is displaced hy fat ha, the ^ by zamma, and the ,^ by kasra ;
as, ^\^ jdgnd, to be awake, l3Ui»- jagdnd, to awaken; Uy
holndj to speak, IjL buld-nd, to call, UI^Ij bulwdnd, to cause to
be called, to send for ; so Ul^ bhulnd, to forget, \j\i bhuldnd,
to mislead, \j\y^i bhulwdnd, to cause to be misled ; L5J letnd,
o
to lie down, lilSj litdnd, to lay down, Ijl^Sl litwdnd, to cause to
be laid down ; \-^ bhlgnd, to be wet, Ul% bhigdnd, to wet,
l3ly^ bhigwdndj to cause to be made wet. When the vowel
sound of the root consists of the strong diphthongs j — au, and u? — «^, these undergo no change, and consequently such
words fall under Rule 1 ; as, IJTjJ daurnd, to run, W^J daurdnd ;
\ij^^ pairnd, to swim, IjLo pairdnd. The verb U^ baithndy
to sit, makes Ijl^ib bithdnd or ^3l^ baiihdnd.
64 Derivative Vei^bs.
3. A numerous class of neuter verbs, having a short vowel in the last syllable of the root, form the active by changing the short vowel into its corresponding long ; that is, fatha becomes \a; zamma becomes j o^ (or u) ; and kasra becomes ^ e (or i) ; as,
lib palna, to thrive or be nourished, Ul) palna, to nourish;
Ui^ khulna, to open (of itself), IJ^ kholnd, to open (any thing).
These form their causal s regularly, according to Rule 1 ; as, lil^l/ khiilwana, to cause (another) to open (any thing).
4. A few verbs add liiJ Idna to the root, modified as in
o o o
Rule 2; thus, I^C-j sikhnd, to learn, l3l^ sikhand, and 13)1^
^ '' ^
sikhldnd, to teach ; li l^^ khdnd, to eat, 1)^1^ khildnd, to feed ; l3^ sowa, to sleep, ULj suldnd, to lull (asleep) ; li^-j baithnd, to sit, to be placed, has a variety of forms, viz. bithdnd, haith- and, bithldnd, and baithldnd ; also baithdlnd and baithdrnd, to cause to sit, to set.
5. The following are formed in a way peculiar to themselves :
O O O
l:.^ biknd, to be sold, \:jsaj bechnd, to sell ; Lib; rahnd, to stay, U^^ rakhnd, to keep, or place; li5y tutnd, to burst, to be broken, l3,y tornd, to break; 1^%^ chhutnd, to cease, to go off, ^;^^ chhornd, to let off, to let go ; li%^ phatnd, to be rent, \jj\^ phdrnd, to rend, U5^ phutnd, to crack, or split,
b
bj^ phornd, to burst open (actively).
6. Verbs are formed from substantives or adjectives by adding \i\ and or \j nd ; as from J U pawl, water, ULy paniydnd, to
irrigate; so from |;^.^, wide, chaurdnd^ to widen. A few in- finitives spring, as Hindustani verbs, regularly from Arabic and Persian roots, by merely adding l3 nd. If the primitive word be a monosyllable ending with two consonants, di fatha is inserted
* The forms e and o are by far the most common ; the t and U comparatively rare.
Compound Verbs. Q5
between the latter, on adding the l3 wa ; as from (j^Ji tars, fear, pity, comes b^^' taras-na, to fear ; so from J^ larz, trembUng,
l^i^ laraz-na; and from c-i-^ssT 5a^s, argument, hahas-na, to dispute, &c. &c.
General Rule, — Primitive words consisting of two short syllables, the last of which is formed by the \owe\ fatha, on the accession of an additional syllable beginning with a vowel, whether for the purpose of declension, conjugation, or derivation, reject the fatha of the second syllable. Conversely, primitive words ending in two consecutive consonants, on add- ing a verbal termination beginning with a consonant, generally insert di fatha between the two consonants, as we have just seen in Rule 6.
Compound Verbs,
44. The Hindustani is peculiarly rich in compound verbs, though it must be admitted that our grammarians ^
have needlessly enlarged the number. We shall, how- ever, enumerate them all in the following list, and, at y the same time, point out those which have no title to 1 the appellation. Compound verbs are formed in various ways, as follows : —
I. Fi'om the Root.
1. Intensives, so called from being more energetic in sig-
nification than the simple verb. Ex. Lllj jU mar ddlna, to y\(H
** '' «
kill outright, from lijU mama, to strike, and U'i ddlna, to
throw down ; \uid ^j rakh-dend, to set down, from U^j Mkhnd, to place, and liJJ dend, to give; Ijl^j-l^ khd-jdnd, to fat up, from \j\^ khdnd, to eat, and UU- jdnd, to go, &;c. Th^ main peculiarity of an intensive verb is, that the second member of it has, practically speaking, laid aside its own primary stgnifica- tion, while at the same time the sense of the first member is rendered more emphatic, as in our own verbs ' to run off,' to march on,' to rush away,' &c. ; thus, wuh hdthl par se gir-
K
66 Compound Verbs.
para, ^ he fell down from off (or, as the Hindustani has it, more logically, from upon) the elephant.'
2. PoTEJS TiALs, formed with UC- sakiid, to be able; as \iC-j J^
bol'Sakndy to be able to speak, I^Lj lc»- jd-sakndy to be able to go, &c. The root of a verb in composition with saknd in all its tenses may be viewed as a potential mood ; thus, main hol-saktd hun, ' I am able to speak,' or ' I can speak ;' so main hol-sakdy ' I could speak.' ^ ^
3. CoMPLETivES, formed with lii>- chuknd, to have done ; as
U^ l^ khd-chukndf to have done eating, li^ ^ likh-chuknd,
to have finished writing. The root of a verb with the future of chuknd, is considered, very properly, as the future perfect of such root ; thus, jab main Ukh-chukungd, ' when I shall have done writing,' that is, ' when I shall have written,' postquam scripsero. So, agar main likh-chukun, *if I may have written,' si scripserim.
II. From the Present Participle,
O CO
1. CoNTiNUATivEs, as \j\>- liC baktd-jdnd or liJbj li^ baktd-rahnd, to continue chatting. This is not a legitimate compound verb ; it is merely a sentence, the present participle always agreeing with the nominative in gender and number, as, wuh mard baktdjdtd hai, ' that man goes on chatting;' tt-e mard bakte jdte hain, * these men go on chatting ;' wuh randi baktt
jdti hai, that woman goes on chatting.'
2. Statisticals: liT ^^ gdte-dnd, to come (in the state of
one) singing ; Ijjj J Jjj rote-daurnd, to run crying. Here the present participle always remains in the inflected state, like a sub- stantive of the third class, having some postposition understood.
III. From the Past Participle.
1. Frequentatives : l3^ UU mard karnd, to make a prac- tice of beating; \j'^ KAs*- jdyd-karnd, to make a practice of going.
2. Desideratives, as L^l>- ^.j bold-chdhnd, to wish, or to be about, or like to speak.
IV. From Substantives or Adjectives, hence termed Nominals. From Substantives, as from ^^s^-jam', collection, l3^ t^
Compound Verbs, 67
c
jarn' karna, to collect or bring together, and UjJb t^ ja7w* hona, to be collected or come together ; also from i^^i ghota, a plunge, IjJU ^^ ghoja mama, to dive, l3l^ ^d?^ ghota khdnd, to be dipped. From adjectives, as from 15^^^ chhotd, small, l/j^ ^^f^> chhotd karnd, to diminish ; jl^ /caZa, black, l3^^ % kdld karnd, to blacken.
a. There is a very doubtful kind of compound called a re- iterative verb, said to be formed by using together two verbs
regularly conjugated, &c., as IJI>- Uy bolnd chdlnd, ' to con- verse ;' but the use of these is generally confined to tenses of the present participle, or the conj unctive participle, and they are not regularly conjugated, for the auxiliary is added to the last only, as we holte chalte hain, not holte ham chalte ham, they con- verse (chit-chat) together;' so hol-chdl-kar, not hol-kar chal- kar, 'having conversed.' Those which are called Inceptives, Permissives, Acquisitives, &c., given in most grammars, are not properly compound verbs, since they consist regularly of two verbs, the one governed by the other, in the inflected form of the
Infinitive, according to a special rule of Syntax -, as, 1^3 ^jJ a^
^ 9 "
wuh holne lagd, ' he began to say ;' ^ l:i> J ^J^- a^ wuh jane
detd hai, * he gives (permission) to go ;' ^ b'b ^jl^*- ^ wuh jane paid hai, * he gets (permission) to go ; ' all of which ex- pressions are mere sentences, and not compound verbs.
h. Hence the compound verbs in the Hindustani language are really seven in number, viz. : the Intensive, Potential, Comple- tive, Statistical, Frequentative, Desiderative, and Nominal. In these, the first part of the compound remains unchanged through- out, while the second part is always conjugated in the usual way. But among such of the nominals as are formed of an adjective with a verb, the adjective will agree in gender with the object of the verb, unless the concord be cut off by ^ ko. Thus : ^ ^j4 l/j^ gdfi khari kar, or ^ \j^ ^ t-^'lf gdri ko
khard-kar, ' stop the carriage.' In the latter case only can the verb Ij^ \j^ khard-karnd be regarded as belonging to the class of compounds.
68
SECTION IV.
On the Indeclinable parts of Speech — Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers — Derivation and Composition of Words,
I. Adverbs.
45. The adverbs in Hindustani, like the substan- tives, adjectives, and verbs, are to be acquired mainly by practice. Hence it would be a mere waste of space to swell our volume with a dry detached list of such words, which in all probability no learner would ever peruse. We shall therefore notice only those which have any peculiarity in their character or forma- tion. As a general rule, most adjectives may be used adverbially when requisite, as is the case in German, and often in English. A series of pure Hin- dustani adverbs of frequent use ig derived from five of the pronouns, bearing to each other a similar relation, as will be seen in the following table. Dr. Gilchrist's pupils will no doubt recollect with what pains the learned Doctor used to impress upon them the neces- sity of learning this "' quintuple series," or, as he called it, ** The philological harp."
a. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, w^hen used adverbially, remain uninflectedin the simplest form, viz., that of the nomina-
tive singular masculine ; as, ^ li^ l^>-^ "-^^-^ ^ ^"^* bahut achchha likhta hai, 'he writes very well.' This is exactly the rule in German, ' er schreibt sehr gut/ In the following series, accordingly, numbers 5, 6, and 7, are merely the adjective or indefinite pronouns, formerly enumerated, employed as adverbs.
Quintuple Series.
69
J*.
S
a
o -^ en '^
IS .2
153
c a
S
o
to 8
^'Vl > ^^^
1 |
13 a |
a |
||
CO |
^ |
$ |
||
03 |
/ '^ — \ |
|||
IS |
.« |
''"7 |
•v |
|
.s |
I5S |
to |
s s |
|
«s^ |
?:< |
<M |
•so ^ |
|
•^ |
•^ |
•^ |
1 |
'^ -^ |
A;^^|j-.i-^>#|
•5
la
8
•eo S3
"&>
o
?, |
% |
J |
|||
^ |
-4J |
||||
hi) C3 |
i |
'S |
1 |
||
J -M |
^ |
•sT |
5^ |
.s |
IS |
>v |
l!S |
^ |
|||
>« |
^_x |
XS |
•s |
'^ |
|
eS |
»^ |
■s |
« |
||
S |
^ |
;s |
§ |
SJ |
•>. ,r<
S"-^ 3 \
^§J
o
s
l«
•♦o 0
i^
a
a
153
^5
T -3.
r£3
l<S
it
y
n ^
•-^ c^ 00
70 Adverbs,
a. From the first class we have other adverbs rendered more emphatic by the addition of ^ Jily &c. Thus : ^\ ahhiy just now, yj^ kabhl, ^ kahhu, or ^di kadhl, ever, &c. From the second class, by changing ^^ an into ^^^ in ; thus, ^-uJ yahmy exactly here, ^^^ kahin, whereabouts, somewhere, &c. From the fourth, by adding ^^ km ; ^j^^^ yunhmj in this very way, ^^p^^j wunhln, thereupon, at that
very time, exactly, the same as before, &c.
b. From among these may also be formed, by means of post-positions, &;c., a number of useful compounds ; as, lL^' c-j\ ah-tak, or (Jj3j ^-^l ah-talak, till now ; lL6 l-^ kah-tak, till when, &c. ; ^^ ^j^ kabhi kahhl, sometimes ; ^j^ <0 ^^^
kabhl na kabhl, some time or other ; ^l^* ^jl^ jahdn tahan,
here and there; ^^^ ^jL^jahan kahln, wherever ; ^^jytf j^ aur
kahiriy somewhere else ; ^j^ i,..^^>>'jab kabhi, whenever ; ^ ^^
kyun kar, how ?
c. A few adverbs of time have a twofold signification, past or future, according to circumstances ; thus, J^ kal, to-morrow,
or yesterday ; jj^-y parson, the day after to-morrow, or the
day before yesterday; {jy^Ji tarson, the third day from this
past, or to come ; ij^j> narson, the fourth day from this. The time is restricted to past or future by the tenses of the verb and the context of the sentences in which such words are found.
d. Many adverbs occur from the Arabic and Persian lan- guages; as, \j\^ kazara (orjl^laJi kazakar), by chance, from l^ kaza, fate, &;c., and \j ra, the sign of the objective case ;
^y^ chiguna, how ; ^^^ chunanchi, so that, like as ; ^J^b
bare, once, at last ; Ifc^b barhd (pl.)> often (times) ; Jl>U> shayad, perhaps (Hindustani jJby ^ ho to ho, it may be) ; *\j>. ^ i\^
kh,dh na ldi,dh, volens nolens, positively, at all events ; ^^ ^ wa ghaira, et cetera, &c. ; Liii fakat, merely, finis.
Prepositions. 71
e. Adverbs purely Arabic occur chiefly as follows : 1. Simply a noun with the article; thus, i^\ alkissa (literally 'the story'); (jo/!i\ algharaz (literally, ' the end, purport,' &c.) in short ; Jls)l alhal (the present), at this time ; <J:U1 alhatta, certainly; &c. 2. The Arabic noun in the accusative case, marked with the termination \ — an (p. 20) ; thus, \i\sj\ ittifakan, by chance (from jUj1 ittifdk, fortune, accident, &c.) ; \>a\ aslan (or L?l asla), by no means ; 5b^ mislan, for example (from Jl< masal, or misl, parable, similitude) ; \^ya>- Idiususan, especially, &c. Lastly, a noun with a preposition ; as, Jxilb i^Hfih in fact ; Jls-l J jilhal (in the present), j^l J ^'Z/awr (in the heat), all signifying, instantly, immediately ; c^-XJlsIl^^ jVl hakikat (in truth), really ; j^i^j ydyifii, that is to say, to wit, viz.
/. Many adverbial expressions occur consisting of a pronoun and substantive governed by a simple postposition understood ; as, ^Jd (j^\ is tarah, in this manner ; ^Jo j^ Ms tarah, how ?
&c. ; jJa-jlj ^j^ kis waste J why? i. e. for what reason? and so on, with many other words of which the adverbial use is indi- cated by the inflection of the accompanying pronoun.
g. The pluperfect participle may also very often be elegantly applied adverbially; as, ^^CjJfe hanskar, laughingly, X>-^ soch-
o o
kaVj deliberately, from li— iJi> hansna, to laugh, l^^ sochnd,
to think, as l^^^L-:ji> ^C^^ M5we hanskar kaha, 'he laughing (or having laughed) said.'
' II. Prepositions.
46. The prepositions in Hindustani are mere sub- stantives in the locative case, having .;ei postposition understood and sometimes expressed. %Iost of them are expressive of situation with regard ta^ place, and thence figuratively applied to time, an^ even to
#
72 Prepositions.
abstract ideas. Hence as substantives, they all govern the genitive case, those of them which are masculine (forming the majority) require the word which they govern to have the postposition ^ ke after it ; as,
^\ ^ ^j< mard ke age, ' before the man,' literally, ' in front of the man;' while those that are feminine require the word they govern to have ^ ki; as,
t_J^ ^ j^ shahr ki taraf, ' towards the city,' lite- rally, 'in the direction of the city.' It is optional to put the preposition before or after the noun which it governs; thus in the foregoing example we might have said age mard ke, or mard ke age, with equal propriety.
The following is an alphabetical list of masculine prepositions requiring the nouns which they govern to have the genitive with ke, for reasons explained in the beginning of the Syntax.
^^ \ age, before, in front - ^J*^J^ pas, by, near
jJJl andar, within, inside v-5^f^ plchhe, behind, in the
ji^^ upar, above, on the top ^
^ tale, under, beneath
^-Ij tayhi, to
—jU^ khdrij, without, outside
j^LVjt) dar-miyan, between, among
^L sath, with (in company)
i^i^L) samhne, before H
C;-*,^ sahah, by reason
\y^ siwa or siwde, except
jfi^ ^iwaz, instead, for
JJ kahl, before
i«^ i karib, near
-b ha^is, by reason of
^^ l=< ha-jde, instead
jjjj hadle,ox ^)sihadal,\r\^ie.'aA
(j^Jj hidun, without, except
ji\ji bardbar, equal to, oppo- site to
*
ij\ji barde, for, on account of Jk«j ba^d, after (as to time) jJo baghaiVf without, except ^ bin, lij bind, without ^•J hick, in or among jb pdr, over (other side)
Prepositions
^jS kane, near, with
S^ gird, round, around
j<3 liye, for, on account of
i^jVo mare, through (in con- sequence of)
j;jlki mutabik, conformable (J^^yc muafik, according to
73
mujib, or ^^>.j^ ba- mujih, by means of
(JJj Jp nazdik, near
^ftt^ niche, under, beneath
jJa-alj waste, for, on account of
^\sb hath, in the power of, by means of.
The following prepositions being feminine, require the words they govern to have the genitive with ki,
c!^b babat, respecting, con- cerning
c:^^ JO ba-daulat, by means of
JJk^ bamadad, by aid of l::^^=>- jihat, on account of
Jb\^ khdtir, for the sake of -Jb tar ah, after the manner
of
uJ^ tarafy towards \j:^Jtyc ma' r if at, hy or through
«j:^--JJ nisbat, relative to.
Some of the feminine prepositions, when they come before the word they govern, require such word to have the genitive in ke, instead of kl. This is a point well worthy of examination, and we reserve the investigation of it till we come to the Syntax.
a. We have applied the term preposition to the above words .with a view to define their use and meaningy not their mere situation. In most grammars they are absurdly called Com- pound Post-positions, on the same principle, we believe, that lucus, ' a dark grove,' . is said to come from lucere, to shine.' But in sober truth, what we have called prepositions here, are neither compounds nor necessarily post-positive ; and we make it a rule never to countenance a new term unless it be more explicit than those already established and familiar. In Greek, Latin, and Old English, the prepositions frequently follow the word which they govern, but this does no£ ia the least alter their nature and use.
b. Besides the above prepositions, the following Arabic and
L
74
Conjunctions.
Persian prefixes are occasionally employed with words from those languages.
J\ az, from, by ill ilia, except, besides b ha, with (possessed of)
<U or J 5a (or hi), in, by
^^ he, without (deprived of) jl har, on, in, at
,^\ji harde, for (on account of) 5b hild, without (^sine)
J^Lc 'a/a, upon, above ^JS■ 'an, from tXiii 'ind, near, with
(jj ka, according to, like
J la or li, to, for wo wa', with ^ min, from.
jJ 6far, in, within
III. Conjunctions.
47. The conjunctions have no peculiarity about them ; we shall therefore add a list of the more useful of them in alphabetical order.
jf-jo, if, when
<^ ! Jl>. hdl-dnki, whereas, not- withstanding
iL^j\ az has'ki, since, for as much as
J\ agar, ^ gar, if
^^y\ agarchi, although
Ul ammd, but, moreover
j^\ dur, and, also
d^^ halki, but, on the con- trary
,<4J hhi, also, indeed
ji par, but, yet
^ pas, thence, therefore
jj to, then
uL^-'f 7" jahtak, until, while
2fl^ ]dh,dh, either, or ii ki, that, because, than iSXi tdki, that, in order that iiJyS kyunki, because ^ V.^ goya, as if ^^ go-ki, although j^^ lekin, but Xo magar, except, unless y jj-^y nahm-to, otherwise jj wic^, also, likewise
^ o,j wttf and
j^ waVy for, ji^ lua-gar, and if
JDjj war-na, and if not, unless
Interjections, — Numerals, 75
aJJ) /^am, also, likewise
Ju^yib harchandf although,
Jyjj) hanoZy yet
l> y«, or, either.
IV. Interjections,
' 48. These scarcely deserve the appellation of a ' part of speech ;' we shall therefore content ourselves by enumerating a few of common occurrence.
^jibLl shdbash (i. e. fj^^i t)li) shad bash, happiness or good luck to you !), ^,y\ afrin (blessings on you), }i\^ A^ wah wah
(admirable !), <-->^ l*^ hya khub (how excellent !), ^J ^J
dhan-i dhan (how fortunate !), ^j>^ ii\^ wah ji, ^ Li^b \S kya
bat hai (what an affair !), all express joy, admiration, and en- couragement, like ' bravo ! well done !' &c. But ^j L->b bap re (O father), ' astonishing ! dreadful !' ^J^ cS^ hae hde, or
^ ^ hai hai, l? |^ u/ Ij w?ae wde, l>j ^f'ij wd'e waild, ' alas, alas i alackaday ! woes rae !' liu^ju hat, ^^^ ^^ chhl chhl,
' tush, pshaw, pish, fie fie !' jJ dur, ' avaunt !' express sorrow,
contempt, and aversion. ^ ai,^\ o, Oh !' ^ re or ^^1 are, ' holla you !' are used in calling attention : the two last in a disrespectful way. ,^j re (m.) or ^j ri (f.) agrees in gender
with the object of address ; as, (^ c/J^^ launde re/ you boy !' •rrL> t/'^J"^ laundt rif ' you girl !'
Numerals, 49. In page 42 we gave the first ten numerals, and we now add the remainder up to a hundred. Prac- tically speaking, they are all irregular in their forma- tion, though it would not be very difficult to account for the seeming irregularity on sound etymological principles. This however would not greatly benefit the student, who must in the meantime learn them by heart as soon as he can.
^. ^ 3 h
76
Numerals.
FIGURES. |
NAMES. |
FIGURES. |
NAMES. |
||||
Arab. |
Ind. |
Arab. |
Ind. |
||||
11 |
II |
11 |
y,l^l igarak |
31 |
r\ |
^l |
|
12 |
ir |
^^ |
ajo harah |
32 |
rr |
^^ |
fj.^ bails |
13 |
\r |
^^ |
Hj^ terah |
33 |
rr |
^^ |
WiP^ ^e^is |
14 |
IP |
X\i |
2^J^ chaudah |
34 |
rr |
^« |
j^^-«J^ ckautis |
15 |
U |
VK |
GO ^JCJ pandrah |
35 |
re |
^^ |
^^r«^^^ paintis |
16 |
n |
X\ |
. ^*-» 5o/a/^ |
36 |
n |
^^ |
{j'rP'^ chhattis |
17 |
IV |
\^ |
y/x-j satrah |
37 |
rv |
^^ |
^r?"*^^ saintls |
18 |
|A |
X^ |
Sj\^\ atharah |
38 |
rA |
^^ |
|
19 |
n |
XL. |
9 |
39 |
n |
^^ |
^^liil untalls |
20 |
r* |
V |
U-t^J ^2s |
40 |
r* |
«<». |
^;*JU- c/^a/7s ^, |
21 |
n |
\\ |
^;--^l ikk'is |
41 |
PI |
n |
^li^l i/c^aZw |
22 |
rr |
w |
^^ b Ja,i5 |
42 |
fr |
8^ |
(^;-JLj hljalis |
23 |
rr |
\\ |
Lrrrs-' ^^^^ |
43 |
fr |
n |
\j^^ tttalis |
24 |
rp |
\\i |
(j^^ chauhis |
44 |
ff- |
88 |
^jJjS^ chaUyaUs |
25 |
re |
w |
^j-'fPf, pachls |
45 |
Pe |
n |
^;-Jl:u-J paintaUs |
26 |
n |
\\ |
46 |
PI |
8^ |
j^^Lfs^ chhlydlls |
|
27 |
rv |
^vO |
>, |
47 |
Pv |
8Na |
jj-Jlii-^ saintdlis |
28 |
TA |
'^'^^ |
fj^^ \^\ athdyis |
48 |
PA |
8^:: |
^^;^l:i^l athtdUs |
29 |
n |
«^^ |
j_^;«^l untts |
49 |
P3 |
8£- |
op ^^\sf^ unchds |
30 |
r» |
^" |
{j^ tis |
50 |
0* |
V |
^^•l:^ pachas |
j.yuini |
,1 uvo. |
/ / |
|||||
FIGURES. |
NAMES. |
FIGURES. |
NAMES. |
||||
Arab. |
Ind. |
A.rab. |
Ind. |
w O |
|||
51 |
ci |
n |
^j^\ ikawan |
71 |
V! |
vO^ |
^;:x.^i ikhattar |
52 |
cr |
^^ |
fj}\j bdwan |
72 |
vr |
vos^ |
ju^ hahattar |
53 |
cr |
H.^ |
^jyirpan |
73 |
vr |
^^ |
jX^ tihattar |
54 |
If |
Vi |
■6 -' j^^^ chauwan |
74 |
vp |
^8 |
^J5>^ chauhattar |
55 |
tc |
VK |
75 |
vc |
^yi. |
^r.^ pachhattar |
|
56 |
Cl |
^^ |
c:;?^ chhappan |
76 |
VI |
^4 |
Ji^-^^ chhihattar |
57 |
cv |
^>Q |
1^^^ sattawan |
77 |
vv |
NO NO |
jx^ sathattar |
58 |
CA |
^^ |
jjjl^ji athawan |
78 |
VA |
not:: |
y:s^1 athhattar |
59 |
Cl |
y^^ |
OP -^X-J1 unsath |
79 |
v1 |
NOiL |
^^\ unasi |
60 |
.V |
A' |
^5L 5af^ |
80 |
A* |
r:© |
^\ assi |
61 |
11 |
i\ |
,^-il ite.^/i |
81 |
Ai |
^^ |
j^Ki ikasi |
62 |
ir |
^\ |
-^1*sIj hasath |
82 |
Af |
^^ |
i^U he,asi |
63 |
ir |
A\ |
o .^il^j tirsath |
83 |
Ar |
^^ |
^^\P tirasi |
64 |
IP |
48 |
-^iLdj^ chausath |
84 |
AP |
^8 |
\^^J^ c/^awm^i |
65 |
1c |
^y. |
-^*-i-j painsath |
85 |
AO |
^^ |
^\=f^\pachasi |
66 |
n |
44 |
,^U^ chhVasath |
S6 |
A1 |
^4 |
^W?" chhi,asl |
61 |
IV |
4^ |
^i-iL-j satsath |
87 |
AV |
t:v^> |
|
68 |
1A |
4^ |
c ^iL-^1 athsatk |
88 |
AA |
■cr: |
•*1jmjI^^ af^a57 |
69 |
11 |
4f- |
^^1 unhattar |
89 |
Al |
-c^i^ |
^Jy naUyCLsi |
70 |
V» |
vQO |
j^ sattar |
90 |
V |
£_0 |
^y waime |
78
Numerals.
FIGURES. |
NAMES. |
FIGURES. |
NAMES. |
||||
Arab. |
Ind. |
Arab. |
Ind. |
||||
91 |
11 |
^l |
t^ylil ikanawe |
96 |
11 |
^^ |
^yLp- chhlydnawe |
92 |
1r |
^^ |
^5j3b hanawe |
97 |
IV |
£^>0 |
tiryli<yj sa^awar^e |
93 |
ir |
^^ |
sjyi\p tirdnawe |
98 |
1A |
£^^ |
o^l^\ athdnawe |
94 |
IP |
£^8 |
•^yb^ chauranawe |
99 |
11 |
£-.£^ |
|
95 |
1c |
^^ |
ujy\sf, pachdnawe |
100 |
!♦♦ |
^oo |
y*i sau or ,^ sai |
a. Some of these have names slightly differing from the preceding, which we here subjoin :
11
sjui gydrah
taintis ^^ chauntis
^1 \^^} ^kdwan 54 i»}^ ^ chaupan
hdst
18 \j\^\ athdrd
19 \j^\ unriis 21 ^J^\ ekts
31 i^r^.^ '^^i^s
33
34 ^
38 ^J\artts 71
39 ^^\ unchdlis 73
O b
41 j^^li^l ektdlis 76 /J^-^ chha-hattar 96 43
Jl:i:wJ taintaUs 46 ^^^li^ chhatdlis 48 (j^^j\ ar talis
85 ^Irsb panchds ig«olfs»- chhdsi Jy nauwad
91 c/y^J ekdnawe or
92 ti^yV hdnauwe or jjrjl^ hirdnauwe
93 iJ>^|/ tirdnauwe ^;Uby tirkattar 95 ^^yl^u panchdnawt
j^y^ nauydnawe. or u^yliJ
55 uj^ pachdwan 90 61 -^^-^.^ eksath 66 lIU^I^ chhdchhat or -^.^ chha-sath 68 -^jl arsath
^^i.yi>! ekhattar
81 ic-*^.^ cfcas?
82 ^Ij 5asl or
99
Fractional Numbers.
79
a. The numbers above one hundred proceed somewhat hke our own, only the conjunction is generally suppressed ; as,
^\j y^ tlX>3 ek sau panch, one hundred (and) five ; ^J^^ ^ ^ J do sau das, two hundred (and) ten, &c. The present year, 1846, may be expressed as with us, ^^JL^ ^Ils ^\ j\yb CSA
ek hazar dth sau chhi^aUs, or j^^L^ y^ ^j\^\ atharah sau
chhiydUs; that is, one thousand eight hundred, &c., or eighteen hundred, &c.
h. The following are used as collective numbers :
\^^ saikrd, a hundred j\yb hazar J a thousand ^ Idkk, a hundred thousand
« -^
!«X^ gandd, a four j^l^ gdhi, a five ^^^ kori, a score LJU- chdlisdy a forty
c. The ordinals proceed as follows :
?jj? karor, one hundred lakhs, or ten millions.
1^ pahld or pahild,^
)L^ paihld, I^J dusrd, 2nd tlsrd, 3rd
/
1st
l^^>- chauthd, 4th ^!ysrb pdnchwdn, 5th jjt^%&- chhatwan,
\^^ chhathd,
6th, &c.
The seventh ' and upwards are regularly formed from the Cardinals by the addition of j^\j wan. The Ordinals are all subject to inflection like adjectives in i a or an, that is, a becomes e for the obHque masculine, and 1 for the feminine. In like manner, an becomes en and In.
d. Fractional Numbers.
j^, P^yO, |
uH /^«^^> 1 |
|
'^y>- chauth. |
'i |
l3^ paund, J |
^ lf>^ chauthdjtf t/ V tihd,J, 3 |
\^ sawa, li, quarter ay J derh, li |
|
Uj>T ddhd, i |
c^^libj^ arAa,7, 2i |
i
with
80 Derivation, S^c, of Words,
In the use of the fractional numbers, a few pecuUarities occur, which it will be well to notice ; thus, ^iy paune, when prefixed to a number, signifies ' a quarter less ' than that number ; \^ sawd, ' a quarter more;' j<Jb"l«*j sdrhe, 'one hajf more,' &c. To the collective numbers for a hundred, a thousand!^ &c., they are
similarly applied ; thus, y^ ci^J 'paune sau, =: 75 ; ^ 1^ sawd sau, =125. The words derh and arhd,i denote multiplication;
as, jljJi) ijyji derh hazdr, = 1500, j. e. |N^0 x .1^); j]}ib_^ M arhd,i hazdr, = 2500, or (lOOOJj^S^).
e. It will be seen then, that altogether the management of the numerals, whole and fractional, is no easy matter. The sure plan is to commit them carefully to mea^pry up to 100. As a check upon this the learner should Dje^tl^e first ten,j|.and the multiples of 10, aa.i,^^5f^?0, 40, &c. /'then, it he is not quite certain of any ni^my^r (not an ,uijlj^y occurrence), for ex- ample 35, hyg^^jWy say ^b j ^^ tls par pdnch, ' five
^er thirtyi^K^uy, let him get the first, twenty thoroughly, and then COTmt iDjf 'scores, ,^j^ kori ; thus> ^5 is ek kori pan-
dra^ ; but the ^jc^e scientific mode is, or^ourse, to carry the hundred numerals in his head, and be quite independent, y
^> ' Derimdon^of Words, 50. The HindustH^piInc^ \vith derivative words both of native ormmB^mf foreign importation. Those Blre^nerally single v^ords modified Tral root^^ ^according to tlje grammatical that \^n^\j(^^. From the Persian, on the ofll^pi^n^,*.not c^fily aerivative words are freely bor- rowed, but also a Multitude of compounds, for the formation of which the Persian language has a peculiar aptitude, and to the number of which there is no limit. In like manner, compositions in the Hindi dialect abound in Sanskrit words, both derivative and com- pounded according to the genius of that highly culti- vated language. Hence, in order to know Hindustani
Derivatives. 81
on sound etymological principles, a slight knowledge of Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit is absolutely reqiiisite. , To the majority of students in this country, however, this is impracticable, their time being necessarily occupied in the acquisition of those essential branches of knowledge usually taught at school. As a general rule, then, we may take it for , granted that an ac- quaintance with the words of the Hindustani language, whether native or foreign, primitive or derivative, must be ultimately acquired by practice in reading, with the aid of a vocabulary or dictionary, together with exercises in composition. This being the case, it will not be necessary for us to enter deeply into the subject of derivation or composition ; the reader, if inclined, may consult Dr. Gilchrist's quarto Gram- mar, edit. 1796, where he will find twenty-nine goodly pages devoted to this department.
Nouns denoting Agency or Possession, 51. We have already seen that the agent of a verb is denoted by adding the termination ^^j wala (some- times \j\sb hara) to the inflected form of the infinitive, as bolne-wala or bolne-hara, a speaker. The same ter- minations added to a substantive denote in general the possessor of such substantive, real or temporary ;
^.^'W^ j$ gliar wala, the master of the house; ^\j J-j hail wala, the owner of the bullock; or, simply, the man with the bullock. A noun of the third class is inflected on the addition of "W^ wala, as illj ^^ gadhe wala, the owner of the ass ; or, the man* with the donkey. Various nouns of agency, &c. are also formed by adding the following terminations, thus : —
^b to j^b a garden j^^r^b haghhan, a gardener
jb — l^ a jest jb ^^* thatthe-haz, a jester
ji — ii\j ?i road yiii\j rahhar, a guide
j^i^ji — <Ui£*. a pipe jIj^j <^iir>- hukkah-bardary a pipe-bearer
*>- |
j^^J land |
J "~ |
Ifc^ iron |
J^- |
JO bad |
/- |
j) gold |
>"- |
2^Ui crime |
J.- |
Ju^l hope |
^^J- |
jd door |
4? — |
2^L*j army |
82 Derivatives,
*^iJ to Jjtj a horse-shoe 4\iJj^ naHhand, a farrier j^^ — J«l^ a torch ,^^^* mash'alchiy o. torch-bearer jlj ^j^j zamln-darj a landholder jU^ lohaVy a blacksmith jl^jj badkar, an evil-doer fjj zargar, a goldsmith J^ ^lif gunah-gdr, a sinner j^^Ju^l ummedwar, an expectant jjljijj darwan, a porter ^L-j sipaht, a soldier.
Nouns denoting the Means or Instrument.
52. These signify the thing by which the action may be performed, and are derived from verbal roots by affixing
^J as J-J roUing ^Jlj helan, a rolling-pin
l3 — A,j playing \u!^j ramncLj a park
^ — j:^ clipping ^J^ katarrii, a pair of scissars
J — J^^ sweeping j "l^ jharuy a broom.
Others are formed from nouns, by affixing Jl as 4^5^ an hour i}Vj^ S^^^f^I/^^f ^^ hour-bell Ail — Lii^JiJ the hand <Glil:J dastana, a glove l1/ — JLj^ the eye 4.1X4*1^ chashmak, spectacles
» — <j:^-sJ the hand <te--Jt3 dasta, a handle.
Nouns denotintr Place or Situation,
o
53. These are formed partly by uniting two nouns together, and also by adding certain terminations ; as.
* The terminations dar^ haz^ and perhaps a few more, require the noun to be inflected, if of the third class ; as, mazeddr, tasteful, tkatjke'bdzy a jester.
J^j multitude |
i^^i a tulip |
JLorilL a place |
IJ^^ a horse |
jjLrf a place |
j^ a grave |
^^-i> a place |
jf a rose |
^ a place |
a|JT rest |
^ city |
^^^.^ Kishn |
Derivatives, 83
jl>T a city j^^ Haidar jbtjJus^ haidar-dbdd, the
city of Haidar
Sr'Jl? sdV ^ garden J^^ a flower c/J^j^i phul-wdrt, a flower
garden
j4j a city c5;^ Ghazi j^ «-i)^ Ghdzlpur, the city
of GhazT
jlj aJi! /aZa-2:a7',a tulip bed
JUj^ ghur-sal, a stable
(^\::u.4^ kahr-istdn, a bury- ing-ground
j^^.li^ gul-shan, a rose- bower
2(1x^5;^ drdm-gdh^ a rest- ing-place
^j^jL^ Kishn-nagar, the ^ town of Krishna.
^ Abstracts,
54. Abstract nouns are formed chiefly from adjec- tives, by aflfixing some termination, of which the fol- lowing are of common occurrence :
\ to ^^ warm \^J> garmd, warm weather
\j ^Jfc — *^ little 1^5^ kamti, deficiency \> , ^^ , or lij — l^ a child ^^ larak-pan, childhood (j^ — l^i*^ sweet ^l^ mithds, sweetness ^ — ^b* firesh ^jG tdzagl, freshness ^ — Wjl high (j^^j^ unchdn, height ^ — 1^ bad ^.j\y hurdjlj badness
l1^ — \y^ bitter (JUjbljJ^ karwdhatf bitterness. To Arabic nouns CJ is generally added to form abstracts ; as,
O? 9 9
Ss>- hukm^ a command, l:^^^C>- hukumatj dominion ; so /♦Isr*" hajjdnij a barber, hajjdmat, shaving. A few abstracts are
84 Derivatives.
formed by a repetition of the word, with a slight alteration in
the last ; as ^y< -^^^ jhuth-muth, falsehood.
Verbals,
55. The verbal noun denoting the action (in pro- gress) is generally expressed by the Infinitive. The action, in the abstract, is frequently expressed by the mere root ; as, J^ bol, speech, A^ chah, desire, &c. Others are formed from the root by adding certain terminations; as,
\ to ^ speak l^i^ kaha, a saying
i*?l — ^ sow t_$l^ bo,a,iy a sowing
L^\ — J^ mix <— '^ mildpf a mixing or union
^JJi — ^ drink ^^-U piyas, desire to drink, thirst
fjL — jj^j know(Pers.)^:iJlj danish, knowledge
^^ — J^ burn ^A>' jalan, a burning
Ij — iL^ deceive \^^ bhuldwa, a deception
(Jj^ — IjEr* prepare ti^jLsr* sajdwat, preparation
^Jl — J^ feed iJ^ khildfi, a feeding
C-^ — ^ call fS-^h buldhat, a calling.
Diminutives, 66. These are formed from other nouns, by adding to them various terminations ; as,
\ to j^^ a daughter L5j hitiyd, a little daugh-
/ ter
^'"^~ |
v.^.^ J a cauldron |
^^^.J rfegcAI, a kettle |
^}- |
tS.^i)j a bedstead |
tjFjxL palangfi, a small bedstead |
c/- |
L->y a cannon |
tl^y? ^opaA:, a musket |
1j- |
Jy« a man |
\^dj^ mardujd, a little contemptible man |
Derivatives. 85
li|^ or li> to ^^ a deer ^V^ hiranota, a fawn
^. <^r Jrl — J^ ^ peacock ^j^ morela, a pea-chicken
iLsrl — f^ a garden ''^^V ^cLghicha^ a kitchen
garden.
Feminines formed from Masculines,
57. Names of males ending m \ a or ^. a, of the third class, have the corresponding females in ^^ 7; as IfU te5, a son ; ^^-j ^efl, a daughter ; |J^ ghora, a horse ;
c9j^ ghon, a mare. In a similar manner names of
lifeless objects of the third class have sometimes a feminine form, generally significant of diminution, as "i/gola, a bullet; ^/gol'i, a pill. Substantives of the
first and second classes form the corresponding femi- nine by adding either ^j t, jJ n'l, or ^-^ in, as follows : —
SU mulla, a teacher i^^ mullani
o
jJii sher, a lion \^'jii'^ sherrii
^^x^ mihtar, a sweeper Lylrir* ''^^hto.fO'ni ^^^1^ hrahman, a Brahman ^-i^kto^ brahmam
' ^ 9
(j^L-j sunarin, or jjjli-j sunarrii. a, A few are irregular in their formation ; thus, from ^ l^ &Aa7, brother, ^^ bahin, sister ; ;^.^ ^eg or j^U- Maw, lord, mL) begam or JU khdnam, lady ; \^\j raja, king, ^^\j ram, queen ; ,<f'^ hathl, m. an elephant, ,A^ hathni, f. In other cases, as ^->b 5ap, father, U ma, mother, the words are totally different, as in our own language, and often taken from different
tongues, as J~« mard, man (Persian), <^^ ^aurat, woman (Arabic).
86 Derivatives.
Adjectives.
58. Adjectives are formed from substantives by the addition of certain terminations, most of which will be found in the following alphabetical list : their ordinary meaning will be obvious from the various examples ; thus, by adding
<to |
^^ hunger |
\^^ hhukha, hungry |
a\- |
Jil? a child |
ijis^ tiflana, childish |
J- |
jjy strength |
j^TjjjJ zor-awar, strong |
JCJ — |
jLfjb arms |
JcjjLfJb hathyar-hand, armed |
>- |
Uj fidelity |
jIjUj wafd-ddr, faithful |
'J- |
ci-o)l^ foreign country Ijij^j wilayat-za, foreign |
|
born |
||
>- |
}if a mountain |
jLjb^ koh-sdr, mountainous |
^- |
J J the heart |
jS]<-> dil'gir, grieved |
^- |
♦c sorrow |
[jt^f^ gham-giny sorrowful |
"iovj — A |
IfSiri behind |
il^ pichhld, hindermost |
\ |
(ji^ljJ wealth |
c o ^ x^j^ daulat-mand, wealthy |
13 — |
jJ two |
l3jJ dund, double |
Ciri3 ^ |
J^ terror |
CJ\^^ haul-ndky terrible |
J "" |
j^jjJ view |
•J^X^j^ diddru, sightly |
^- |
CS^-* grief |
j\ji^ sog-wdr, grievous |
J J "" |
^l3 name |
jyo\j ndm-war, renowned |
i — |
JL^J two years |
<OLjJ do-sdla, biennial |
^ — |
j!jb a market |
(^Jjl^ hdzdriy of the market |
Jiorh — |
tJ^b tooth |
J-aJj dantel, tusked |
^^, <^> , or <0l> to ^->^ wood ^J1^.y^ chobtn, wooden.
f^ifdm and ^^ gun are added to words to denote colour ; as,
Derivatives, 87
mXs ^^jA&j za^faran-farriy safFron-coloured, ^f J-3 nil-gun, blue- coloured. \iS kond and ^J^^'^ goshd are added to numerals to express the figure of things; as, ^^^^ chau-kond, quadrangular, <lJj^ *^ shash'gosha, hexagonal, &;c. ^J:^ wash and j\^ war
are added to express likeness ; as, yji^ ^ji bark-wash, like light- ning, j^^ aJlcyo marddna-wdr, like a brave man.
a. Many adjectives are formed by prefixing certain words ; as follows :
^ to l^J seen ^.'^^ andekhd, unseen
b — Uj trust Ujb bd-wafd, trusty
J — j^ patience jr^. he-sahr, impatient Jj — aI) a name j*l3JJ Z>arf-wa?w, infamous
«»i — ^^^{s*- present ^l>-^ ghair-hazir, absent uJiU- — Jilc wisdom JiU uJ^ khildf-akl, foolish j^ — jji^iS:? fortune u:-^^ ^^ kam-hakht, unfortunate ^ — i[;^^ help i>V"^ Id-chdra, helpless
l3 — cr^^ pleased (ji^lj nd-khush, displeased
c ;> o / o
aJ& — y<*^ age j4,xA^ ham-umr, coeval.
59. In concluding our remarks on the derivation of words, we would particularly direct the student's attention to the various uses of the termination ^s. ^• ]. It may be added to almost every adjective of the language, simple or compound, which then becomes the corresponding abstract substantive. 2. It may be added to all substantives denoting country, city, sect, tribe, physical substances, &c., which then become adjectives, signifying, of or belonging to, or formed /ro;w, &c., the primary substantive. Lastly. It is used in forming feminines from masculines ; and it is the characteristic of the feminine gender in all present and past participles, as well as in all adjectives purely Indian ending in \ a.
88 Compounds,
Compound Worlds. 60. In all works written in the Urdu or mixed dia- lect of Hindustani, a vast number of compound words from the Persian may be met with in almost every page. These are generally formed by the union of two substantives, or of an adjective with a substantive. Many of them are given in dictionaries, but as there is no limit to their number, the student must not place much reliance on that source. A few weeks' study of Persian will make the matter clearer than any body of rules we could lay down on the subject ; we shall therefore notice here only the more import- ant compounds, referring the student for further in- formation to our Persian Grammar, edit. 1844.
Substantives.
a. A Persian or Arabic substantive with its regimen is of frequent occurrence in Hindustani; as, CJf\^(^\ ab-ihaiyat, ' water of immortality ;' ^Jij\i^ xSij^ didaji-ddnish, the eye of
9 '' ^
discernment;' ^*^j*^ij ru-e-zaminj ' the face, of the earth.' In a similar form a Persian substantive with its adjective occa- sionally occurs ; as, ^o J^ mard-i-niku, * a good man ;' ^Is JU
'dlam-i-fdnl, 'the perishable world.' These, when introduced into Hindustani, are viewed as single words, and form their various cases by adding the post-positions like nouns of the first or second classes ; as, db-i-haiydt kdj db-i-haiydt se, &c.
b, A numerous class of Compound Substantives is formed by the mere juxta-position of two nouns; as, <0l>. ^j^j^^ bdwar-
chi-khdnaj ' cook-house, or kitchen,' from ^^j^, * cook,' and
ij\>' a house ;' so, ^^(*jj razm-gdh, the battle-field,' from ajj
* contest,' and s\^ ' a place ;' in like manner, s\:j ^^f- jahdn- pandh, 'the asylum of the world,' i. e. 'the royal personage,' from (^^f- ' the world,' and 2fbj ' refuge ;' so, ^^j^j roz-ndmay
* a day-book,' fUl3 Jp. khirad-ndma, ' the book of wisdom,' &c.
Compounds. 89
In compounds of this kind, the two words are generally written separate, though they may also be united into one. These are upon the whole like our own compounds, hook-stall, coffee- liousey newspaper, &c., of which it is customary to write some with a hyphen between, others quite separate, and a few united into one word.
c. There is a class of verbal Nouns, not very numerous, con- sisting, 1st. Of two contracted infinitives, connected with the
conjunction J, • as, J^ j ob guft o shanud, 'conversation,'
literally, 'speaking and hearing; ' ^-^^j 3 <^ amad o raft or amad o shud, ' coming and going,' ' intercourse.' 2ndly. A
contracted infinitive, with the corresponding root ; as ^ j c:^--^
just ojUf ' searching ; ' ^Sj i^ii^sf guft 0 gu, ' conversation.' The
9 ^ conjunction ^ in such cases is occasionally omitted ; as, J^^ Jl*!,
j^c:^-ii', the same as Jui> j d^\, &c.
d. There are a few compounds similar to the preceding, con- sisting of two substantives, sometimes of the same, and some-
9 t, O o
times of different signification ; as, ^^ j j^ or j^-^ j j^ marz 0
bum or marz o kishwar, ' an empire ' or ' kingdom,' literally,
boundary and region ;' so, Lfc^ LJ\db 0 hawa^ 'climate,' literally,
water and air ; ' U3 j yj nashv 0 namd, rearing or bringing up * (a plant or animal). In these, also, the conjunction j may
C 9 <-•
be omitted ; as, Uj yj, *4J Jy«, &c.
e. Compounds purely Hindustani or Hind! are not nearly so numerous as those borrowed from the Persian ; the following are occasionally met with : 1st. A masculine and feminine past participle, generally the same verb, though sometimes different ; as, ^^ \^ ' altercation,' ^L ^ ' disputation.' 2nd. Two
nouns of the same, or nearly the same signification ; as,^l:»- iy
' servants,' ^j '^i^lj a custom or mode,' &c. Such expressions
are very common in the Bagh 0 Bahar, which is the standard
N
90 Adjectives.
work of the language. 3rd. Two words having something of
* p
alliteration about them, or a similarity of rhyme ; as, /^JbJ > jbJ
' hurly-burly,' j^j j^J^ ' uproar,' J^ jLo ' trickery,* &c., all of which we should of course vote to be vulgarisms, only that they occur in the very best writers. Lastly, the Hindustani is parti- cularly rich in imitative sounds, such as ^^^ ^j^ 'jingling,' .«j --J simmering.' /. Arabic phrases, such as we described in p. 19 (No. 18), are
occasionally met with, such as L->L-jiJ\ c«^- — « the Causer of causes,' ' God,' &c. ; but v^re believe that all such are explained in good dictionaries.
Adjectives.
a. A very numerous class of epithets is formed by the union of two substantives ; as, ^^ <^ ^ lala rukhf ' having cheeks like the tulip ; * ijjj sJJ^ pcLTi ru,e or pari ru, having the face of a
fairy ; ' J J cfi^ sang dil, * having a heart like stone ; ' ^^Jj^
shakar lah^ ' having lips (sweet) as sugar.' In English we have many instances, in the more familiar style, of this kind of com- pound ; as, ' iron-hearted,' * bull-headed,' ' lynx-eyed,' &c.
b. Another numerous class, similar to the preceding, is formed
by prefixing an adjective to a substantive ; as, u^jjj Cg-^j.^ khub riiye, ' having a fair face ',' i^\) CS\i pdk rd,e, ' of pure inten-
tion ; ' Jt3 {^ScJ tang dil, ' distressed in heart.' We make use
of many such compounds in familiar conversation and newspaper style, such as ' clear-sighted,' * long-headed,' ' sharp-witted,' * hard-hearted,' &c.
c. Perhaps the most numerous class of the epithets is that composed of verbal roots, joined to substantives or adjectives;
as, j^ JU *dlam gir, ' world-subduing ; * jJj\ ^^ fitna angez,
' strife-exciting ; ' Ll ^^l:*- jdn dsd, ' giving rest to the soul ; '
jjL-j J J dil sitdnj ' ravishing the heart ; ' jj tlX»-j subuk rav.
Compounds. 91
' moving lightly.' Our best English poets frequently indulge in compounds of this class ; thus, ' the night-tripping fairy/ the ' temple-haunting martlet/ ' the cloud-compelling Jove/ &c.
d. A knowledge of these Persian compounds will be absolutely necessary, in order to peruse with any advantage the finest pro- ductions of the Hindustani language. The poets in general freely use such terms ; nor are they of less frequent occurrence in the best prose works, such as the Bagh o Bahar, the Ikh- wan uSjSafa, the Khirad Afroz^ &c., for the thorough under- standing of which, a slight knowledge of Persian is absolutely requisite. In proof of this we could point out many compounds which occur in our own selections from the Khirad Afroz, not to be found in any dictionary, the meaning at the same time being quite obvious to any one who knows Persian. Such,
o
for example, are l^ ^^^ mar ham bahd, ' medicine money ; ' ^Jii fjjij nafas kushl, ' mortifying of the passions ; ' ^^J.< v^y^ sufimizaj^ of philosophic disposition,' vide story 14th, p. 51.
e. We may reckon among the compounds such expressions
as c->\j U ma hap, ' parents/ j^ J il lar-kapur — Lar and Kapur, names of two brother minstrels who lived at the court of Akbar. It is barely possible that this may be an imitation of the San- skrit compound called dwandwa ; though the probabihty is in
favour of its being an idiomatic omission of the conjunction i^l ' and/ between two such words as are usually considered to be associated together. In works purely Hindi, originally trans- lated from the Sanskrit, such as the Prem Sagar, it is most
likely that such phrases as bj--.j^ Ja3 nanda-jasoda, ' Nanda
and Jasoda ; ' a^j Jit^ krishna-balaram, * Krishna and Bala-
ram,' are bond fide dwandwas ; but it would savour of pedantry
to apply the term to such homely expressions as ^^^ ^^j
bread and butter/ or the very un-classical beverage commonly
called j^b cS^j^. > videlicet, ' brandy and water.'
92
SECTION V.
Syntax, or Construction of Sentences,
61. In all languages a simple sentence must neces- sarily consist of three parts: 1st, a nominative or subject; 2nd, a verb ; and 3rd, a predicate or attri- bute ; as, ' fire is hot,' *ice is cold.' In many instances the verb and attribute are included in one word ; as, * the man sleeps,' *the horse runs,' * the snowfalls,' in which case the verb is said to be neuter or intransitive. When the verb is expressive of an action, and at the same time the sense is incomplete without stating the object acted upon, it is called an active or transitive verb, as, * the carpenter made a table/ ' the masons built a church.' In each of these sentences it is evi- dent that something is required beyond the verb to complete the sense, for if we merely said * the car- penter made,' * the masons built,' the hearer would instantly ask 'made what?' * built w^hat?' In Hin- dustani and several of its kindred dialects, it is of the utmost importance that the learner should discriminate the active or transitive from the neuter or intransitive verb, in order that he may adopt that mode of con- struction peculiar to each. In a sentence whose verb is active or transitive, we shall designate the three parts as agent, verb, and object ; thus the carpenter is the agent, made the verb ; and a table the object.
a. In the arrangement of the three parts of a sentence, different languages follow rules peculiar to themselves; for instance, in the sentence, 'the elephant killed the tiger/ the Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit languages have the option of arrang- ing the words in any order. The Arabic and the Gaelic put the verb first, then the nominative, and lastly the object. The English and French follow the logical order as we have just given it, and the Hindustani and Persian have also an arrange-
Arrangement of Words. 93
ment of their own, which we shall now proceed to explain, as our first rule of Syntax or construction.
62. The general rule for the arrangement of the parts of a sentence in Hindustani is, first, the nomina- tive or agent ; secondly, the predicate or object ; and last of all, the verb ; thus, ^ ^"^ t^T ag garni hai,
* fire is hot,' ^ \^d ^>\ j^jj^ parhez achchi dawa hai,
** * ^ ' » *
' abstinence is good physic,' ^Jb ilbjU ^ jJi> J ^U
hat/ii ne sher ko mardala hai, * the elephant has killed the tiger.'
a. Though the above rule holds in short sentences, such as those we have just given, yet it is by no means of stringent appli- cation. In the first place, poets are freely allowed the proverbial hcense of the genus; that is, to adopt that arrangement of the words which best pleases the ear, or suits the metre. In prose, also, it may sometimes be more emphatic to put the object
9 9 P 9
first; as, \i} \j:>- y ^ ^^i ^\ * thou hast stolen those images.' Sometimes the object is, for the sake of contrast or emphasis, put last, in the place usually occupied by the verb ; as follows,
/ JU^ cP'l^ j^\ - /JU ^ib I;/ »«J]? JjbW ' the fool seeks
for wealth, and the sage for excellence,' where mdl-ko and ka- mal-ko are put last.
h. The Hindustani makes no difference in the arrangement of a sentence, whether it be interrogative or affirmative. In con- versation, the tone of the voice, or the look, syflSces to indicate whether or not a question is asked, and in reading it must be
^ 9
inferred from the context ; thus, ^S^^ (^ ^ay signify ' you will go,' or will you go?' There are, however, several words which are used only in asking a question, such as those given in the middle column of p. 69. These, when used, come imme-
- 9
diately before the verb ; as, ,^W- u^X (J ' where will you go ?' The word L^ is sometimes employed at the beginning of a sen- tence to denote interrogation like the Latin num or an; as,
9 . '
L5^ \J^ J^* V. S^ (*^ ^ 'have you not heard this proverb?'
94 Concord of Adjectives.
Concord of Adjectives with Substantives.
63. The adjective, as in English, generally precedes its substantive ; if the adjective be capable of inflec- tion, that is, if it be a purely Indian word ending in \ a, the following rule holds: The termination \ a is used before all masculine nouns in the nominative (or first accusative) case singular ; before masculine nouns in any other case singular, or in the plural number, the termination t/ e is used; and before all feminine nouns, in any case, singular or plural, the termination ^~ ~i
is used ; thus, ^ Oj^l^^ a^ wuh bhala mard hai, * he is
a good man,' ^ J^ ^J^^ bhale mard se, * from a good
man,' j^ ^^ bhale mard, *good men,' ^ ^3^/* ^Jx^.
bhale mardon se, ' from good men,' cl:)j^ ^J^, bhal'i 'aurat,
* a good woman,' l^ ^^jf- ,J^ bhali 'auraton ka, &c., * of good women.'
a. The same rule applies to such adjectives in ^ an and ^ a, as admit of inflection ; as, S^ \^y^^ 'the tenth man,'l^ cL< ^ji,y^
* of the tenth man/t::^^; i^.^*^ '*^^ tenth night;' so,yL^ ^J^J. 'the helpless traveller/ ^ yL-^ '^J^. '*^ the helpless traveller,* v^b «-t>^^ '*^® helpless queen.'
b. If adjectives, capable of inflection, be separated by means of the particle ^ from the noun which they qualify, and united
with the verb, they undergo no change ;'as, j.^ "t^ ^ *y:^ v-5^^ 'blacken his face;' but in this sentence kala karna is to be reckoned a compound verb (p. 67, b). Adjectives, ending with any letter except \, s, and ^\, restricted as above, do not under- go any change ; as, j<^fcM cS\j ' a pure man,' f^j^ <-^^ ' a pure woman,' J-^- cJ\j \j ' an unclean thing.'
c. As a general rule, adjectives, when followed by their sub-
Genitive Case, 95
stantives, never receive the nasal terminations {an, en, or on) of the plural ; and the same rule applies to such tenses as are formed of participles with or without an auxiliary verb, it being deemed sufficient to add the nasal n to the last word only ; as,
^^\i^ g^\ achchhi (not achchhTmi) kitdben, ' good books ;'
c
si ijjji^'^ i_^ hhale (not hhalon) admiyon ne, ' by good men ;' ^^ ^J^j ^J^ i5^ '^3 ^^ ^^^^^ j^^^ raA^I thin, they (females) continued going along.' Sometimes, however, the participle takes the plural termination ; as, ^^ o^^ ^^^ .^jb ^J^f extr. p. 28. When the adjective comes last (which may happen in verse), it sometimes receives the plural termina- tion ; as, jjVj^ ^'^J '^^^vy (tedious) nights.' (Yates's Gr.)
d. If an adjective qualifies two or more nouns, some mascu- line, some feminine, the adjective is used in the masculine form, and the same rule applies to the participles and future tenses of
verbs ; as, ^Ji> ^^ y^ l-^Ij U ,X-^ ' his mother and father are
dead ;' \^ J^^t} \^ ^ ^-!Lj ^^^^ ^i\ ^j^ ' he seeing his son
and daughter dead, said,' 8ic. If, however, the substantives be names of inanimate things, the adjective generally agrees with that to which it stands nearest ; as in the following sentence,
-^ w ^ ^ c
y^ ^^ **^^ iiT?^^ j^ (iT'V ^j^ ^^^ clothes, plates, and
books are very good.'
Concord of the Genitive, with its regimen, S^c.
64. We have seen (p. 27, &c.) that the genitive case has three distinct terminations, ka, ke, and ki, and the rule which determines the choice of these is exactly similar to that which regulates the termination of the adjective ; in fact, all genitives in Hindustani are possessive adjectives, subject to inflection, and, like adjectives, they are generally placed before the sub- stantive which governs them. If the governing word
96 Genitive Case.
be masculine and in the nominative case (or first form of the accusative) singular, l^ ka is used, as, j^ \S j^^ mard ka ghar, 'the man's house,' or * the house of the
man,' ^ jblij '^ ^ J>% mard ka kutta wafa-dar hat, ' the man's dog is faithful,' jjio ci^-^; \^ \i S^o mard ka kutta mat maro, 'do not beat the man's dog,' If the govern- ing word be masculine and in an oblique case singular, or in any case plural, ^ ke is used, as, ^ jp ^ ^% mard ke ghar se, ' from the mean's house,' ^ u^^^^/ *^ mard ke gharon ko, * to the man's houses.' Lastly, if the governing word be feminine, in whatever case or number, ^ ki is used ; as, ^-j i Syo mard k'l befi, ' the
man's daughter,' ^^l^i ^ S^ mard k'l kitaben, ' the man's books.'
a. Although the general rule is to put the genitive case before its regimen, yet the reverse is of frequent occurrence, par ticularly in such works as have been translated or imitated from
the Persian ; as, ^ jjJJ Jui ' the thraldom of the body/ \^ JJii i^tXsr' ' the worsli p of thanksgiving.* We may here state that the Persian genitive is formed by placing the governing word first, having its last letter marked with the vowel kasra; as, ,jt}\ti ^ ganj'i-ddnish, the. treasury of wisdom/ where the
short vowel i is the sign of the genitive, similar in its use to our particle of in English. Persian words ending with ^ and ^^
take ; and those ending with \ or j take ^5 for the sign of tlie
genitive ; as, \jS^ 2f Jcj * a servant of God,' ja^.^\^Si> ' air of the sea.'
b. The genitive sign is employed idiomatically in such expres- sions as u^^^-j \f c-^^-j sab ka sab, ' one and all,' l::.-^ ^ '^-^^-^ khet ka khet, ' the whole (field) of the field,' cljU i cub bat
ki bat, * mere talk / and adjectively to convert a substantive
Genitive Case. 97
into an attributive ; thus, <t^ l^ (J^ sone kd takhta, ' a golden plate/ or * plate of gold ;' ^/^i^ l^ lJ}! ' a boy with a large head.'
c. In some cases it is idiomatically omitted ; as, i^J^ V.j^ daryd kanare, 'on the river bank,' for ^^ ^J^ iS V.J^ daryd ke kandre men, 'on the bank of the river.' It is also omitted in many expressions in which the governing words denote weight or measure; as, c:^^^^ ^-^-^J 'one pound of flesh,' ^-^j l^ CS>'>\ ' a bigha of ground,' where the words are used merely in apposition, the same as in German.
d. The genitive is also used to signify possession, value, &c. ; as, l^* l2-j Llioj ^ i^^-i>jlj pddshah ke \j)ds or yahdn under- stood] ek beta thd, ' the king had a son ;' in like manner, ^ 1^^ C^\ ^^ i_c^^ usKE [pas, &c.] bhi ek heti thi, ' he had also a daughter ;' Jyls^ l^ oV^j ^-^.^ ^^ ruplje kd chdn- wal^ ' one rupee's (worth of) rice.'
e. Compounds formed of two common substantives in English will in Hindustani be expressed by the genitive case ; as,
J-^ ^ ^j:^ likhne ki mez, ' a writing-table ;' <.::-^j ^ ci^ khdne kd wakt, ' dinner time ;' and sometimes the genitive sign is used in Hindustani when in English it is inadmissible, as iail ^ J3 jikr kd lafz, ' the word fikr.'
/. Instances sometimes occur in which a genitive case is used in consequence of a noun or preposition understood ; such as ^i-j ^^1 J ' hear ye him,' i. e. ci^b ^LJ\ ' his word ;' so in the tale of the first darwesh (Bdgh o Bahdr, p. 34), we have \jS ^^ ^'c^ "^Lf^^^ 4^V^ L^^ ^-'^ (where the word ^j or j^\j»^J is understood), ' between you and me there has arisen a
o
98 Prepositions,
sincere friendship.* The editors of a recent Calcutta edition have made an amendment here, by using harnari tumhari !
Government of Prepositions, 8^c.
Qb, The list of prepositions, page 72, beginning
with /T age, &c., govern the genitive with ^ ke ; as,
^T ^j^ghar ke age, ' before (in front of) the house ;'
jL ^ bjj darya ke par, * over (on the other side of) the
river,' &c. The less numerous list, beginning with lii^jU bdbat, &c., page 73, govern the genitive with i k'l; as,
uJ^ ^jY^ shahr k'l taraf, * towards (in the direction of)
the city.' All the prepositions may be optionally put before or after the word which they govern, their effect on the substantive, with few exceptions, remaining the same.
a. The prepositions being all substantives in an oblique case whose termination is (No. 64, c) idiomatically omitted, it is easy to see from what we have just stated why they should govern the genitive in ke or kl, but never in ka. There is however one peculiarity attending some of the feminme prepositions which custom seems to have established ; though the rationale of it be not at all evident. We have excellent authority for saying that
the words J j^w , ^.<?^^ , uJ^, and jcJU, when they precede
the substantive, require the genitive in -^ ke ; and when they
follow, they require ^ kl. In the second volume of the Khirad
Afroz, p. 277, we have ^ Jib Jj^^ hamadad *akl ke, * by
aid of the understanding.' In the Bagh o Bahar,* p. 40, we
have S jyii>- if^j^ (fiJ be-marzi huzur ke, ' without consent of
* Whenever reference is made to the Bagh o Bahdr, it is under- stood to be the edition recently edited by me, at the desire and expense of the Honourable tHe East-India Compeiny. It is not only the cheapest, but in every respect the best work that the student can peruse, after he has gone through the Selections appended to this Grammar. — D.F.
Prepositions, 99
her highness the princess ;' and in page 188 of the same work,
we have ^ j*A <— ^ <^-^^ ^^ tfl'^'^f shahr ke, ' on one side of the city ;* all of them with ke in every edition and copy, printed or manuscript. The wonder is, how it escaped the critical amendments of the Calcutta editors already alluded to ; but so it has, for even they have here followed the established reading.
b. The preposition JcJU manand or manind has been amply discussed by Dr. Gilchrist in several of his works, but it must be confessed that the learned doctor does not in this instance appear as a sound and fair critic. He assumes that one of the munshis used ke instead of kl by mistake, and that he had sufficient influence with all the other learned natives of the country to make them take his part, and sanction the error. This argument is so very ridiculous that refutation is super- fluous. Use is every thing in language, and if in Hindustani custom has ordained that several of the prepositions when they precede the word which they govern, require the genitive with ke, and when they follow require kl, then it is the duty of the grammarian fairly to state the fact. It is quite probable that many instances of this mode of construction, in addition to those which we have shewn above, may yet be detected.
c. The adverbs ^J^i ' here,' and jjl&j * there,' govern the genitive with ke, like nouns or prepositions. When thus used, they convey idiomatically the signification of at, to, or in the house of,' or ' in the possession of.' J^"vJ V- lj^ t-.^i»-^*tf go to the gentleman's house,' which is not unlike the use of the French particle chez. The prepositions ^\j and klX>fc)p are used in the same general sense as (^\j ^•^\ ' near or with him,' and more generally ' in his possession,' chez lui. The word tJ-^,t^ denotes idiomatically ' in the opinion of,' as
C ^ O <'
CS^j^y yS j^j Jc^-^lilc ' in the opinion of the wise ;' ' apud sa- pientes.'
d. Several of the prepositions, when they follow their sub-
100 Dative and Accusative,
stantives, may dispense entirely with the genitive signs ke and kl, thus shewing a tendency to become real postpositions ; as, (^>Ai ^\i ' near or before the judge.' If the word they govern
be a noun of the third class, or a pronoun, the inflected form remains the same as if ke or ki had been expressed ; as,
(j^\j L5^ ' ^^^^ *^^ ^^y ' ' W cr^ ' without him or her ; ' and if the word governed be the first or second personal pronoun, when the genitive is thus dispensed with, the oblique forms mw^V^and tujh are used ; as, jj-b .^ * near me ;' ^^b .^ ' near thee.'
Dative Case,
66, The use and application of this case is very nearly the same as in most European languages. As a general rule, an English noun, governed by the pre- positions to or for, v^ill be expressed in Hindustani by means of the dative case.
a. The Hindustani dative sometimes corresponds with the Latin accusative, expressive of motion to a place ; for instance, \(j^^ ^ j^ ^j^ ' I will go home,' ' ibo domura.' In this last sense also, the sign ko is often omitted, which brings it still nearer the Latin ; as, ^^ Ij^- j^ ,-^ ' I am going home,' ' eo domum.' The dative case is also used to express time when ; asj^^jj ' by day ;' ^ cl:>\j ' by night j' ^ /♦ll * at evening.' In such expressions the post-position ko is frequently and even ele- gantly omitted ; as, ^^ uJoJ ' one day ;' and if the word expres- sive of time be accompanied by an adjective or pronoun subject to inflection, the inflected form of the latter remains the same,
as '\{ko had been expressed ; as, ^J ^ * on that day;* ci^j ^
* at what time ? '
Accusative Case, 61. The accusative in Hindustani, as in English, is generally like the nominative, but when it is desir-
Accusative Case. 101
able to render the object of an active verb very defi- nite or specific, then the termination ko (of the dative) is added to the object.
a. We believe this rule to be quite sound as a general prin- ciple, though by no means of rigid application. Many words are sufficiently definite from accompanying circumstances, such as an adjective, a genitive case, a pronoun, &c., so as not to require any discriminative mark. Others again, though suffi- ciently definite in themselves, generally require th-s particle ko; such are proper names, names of offices, prpfetsSidnd, &c. ; as,
^L / tlioU 'call Manik;' ji / j^jj-: ' carl! :th4iSard§."rV:
In these instances, however, the Hindustani assimilates with the Greek, which would employ the definite article in like cases.
h. The use of the particle ko to denote the object of an active verb forms one of the niceties of the Hindustani, which can only be arrived at by practice. A well-educated native and many Europeans who have studied the language and associated much with natives, will without effi^rt supply the particle ko in its proper place, and nowhere else. It follows then that there must be some principle to regulate all this, though it may be difficult to lay hold of, or to express within a short compass. The rule given by Muhammad Ibrahim of Bombay, and we assuredly know of no better authority, is in substance the same as we have just stated. — Vide Tuhfae Elphinstone, page 80.
c. When a verb governs an accusative and also a dative, both being substantives, the first or nominative form of the accusa- tive is generally used, as the repetition of ko in both cases would not only sound ill, but in many instances lead to am- biguity; thus, jJ ^j^ ^ ^ 'give the horse to the man.' If, however, it be deemed essential to add ko to the accusative, even this rule must give way ; as in the following sentence :
brother's share to his (brother's) wife.' When the dative is a pronoun, the repetition of ko is easily avoided by using the ter-
102 A blative ' and Locative .
mination e or en for the latter ; as, \J Jj^ ^\ f ^J^l ^J ^15 the judge gave up to her the child/
Ablative and Locative,
68. The ablative denotes the source from which any thing proceeds ; the locative, as its name imports, denotes situatioii. In their use and application they generally correspond with the Latin ablative.
' a, 'nie ablativ6 sign ^ se signifies ' from ' and * with.' It is iij/pliecVio the instrument with which^hut very seldom to the agent br/ whom, any act is done, unless in connection with a neuter
verb. Example : \j\^ ^ j\^ S u/*xJ vj Si^ ' the executioner smote the prisoner with a sword/ In Dr. Gilchrist's Story- Teller (No. 97), we have an instance of se denoting the agent, the only one we have ever met with in our reading;
l5^ l5-^ ^)SJ^y^ ^3 J ^jfv ^ -^ '^ow is it that stale bread was eaten by thee ? ' With a neuter verb se may be used to denote the source or origin of the event described ; as follows,
9 9 9^
lyb Sjj^ jyoi ^ ^^ y:li> ^^S ' by some poet (or through some poet) a fault took place.'
b. With the verb li.^ kahna, * to say ' or ' tell,' the particle ^ se seems to be used idiomatically, and must often be trans-
9 i. 9 ^
lated in English by ' to ; ' as, ^^ li^ ^ ^ fjJ\ ^^^ ' I am saying to him,' or ' teUing him, truth ;' because the sentence
9 (^ 9 ^
jjl^b \z^ ^ ^ fjj\ ^^ will mean, * I declare him (her or it) to be true,' or ' I call that truth ; ' so, ^j^ ^^ S^o tL^ ^Lol means, ' people do not call him a man.' The use of ^ se with U^ therefore, is obvious.
c. The locative sign ^j^ men generally denotes in, sometimes to or into ; as, ^ ^^ j^ ^ he is in the city ; ' UT ^^ ^,-i» s^
The Agent with ne. 103
' he is gone to (into) the city.' The locative signs ^^^ and ji^ have frequently the post-position ^ joined to them; as, biJj^^ j^ ^^^ jY^ * he brought a sword from in the city;' \y ^ -J y k-rf^ if*-'^ *J * ^^^ ^"^^^ down from on his horse.'
Case of the Agent,'*
69. The case of the agent, characterized by the particle iJ we, is never used except with transitive verbs, and when used it is confined to those tenses only which are formed of the past participle (page 93, No. 40). The verb then agrees with the object in gender and number, unless it be deemed requisite to render the object definite by the addition of the par- ticle ^i ho (No. 67), in which case the verb remains in the simple form of the third person singular mas- culine.
a. In further illustration of this very simple rule, we here sub- join a sufficient number of examples ; l^ J \£ ^^Jj\ (J fj^\ ' he saw a dog,' or, literally, ' by him a dog (was) seen ; ' likewise, Li^''^ ^h^ iiP"^ ^ ur^ ' ^^ ^^^ three horses,' or, by him,' &c. ; u5^*^ c5j^^ l!JoJ ci c^^ ' be saw a fox ; ' ^^Jtt^;,^ cjVj^^ **-^'^ S^ U^^ he saw many foxes ; ' in all which phrases the construction agrees precisely with the Latin passive voice. Again, if it be deemed necessary or elegant to add ko to the object, then the verb will be always the same, that is, the masculine singular form ; thus, l^.t>j^ ^:i^ vi *i& * we have seen the dog;' l^.^/ O^J^Sd ^ * have you seen the horses ? ' l^,J ^ *^r*^ d 'V' u^^ ^-r^^
o
' when that man saw the fox ; ' l^ J ^ tj^.j^y^ «J ♦i) * we have seen the foxes.' The same rule applies to all the tenses into which l^ J enters (p. 56) ; as, ^ l^ j l::^ uliCl ^ ^^.1 ' he has seen a dog ; ' so, j^f> ^_c^:^ ^j^ ^ d U^^ ' ^^ ^^^ ^^^" *^*'^^
w^
104 The Agent with ne.
horses.' As this is a subject of great importance in the lan- guage, we would advise the student to repeat each of the above phrases in all the tenses given in page 56.
h. It must be remembered that the case denoting the agent in the personal pronouns I and thou, are vJ ^ji;^ main ne and (J J tu ne or jj ^j^ tain ne ; as, l^ J ^\ J, ^^^ ' I saw him (her or it) ; ' ^^^ ^^J Jl^ ^ ^J y ' hast thou not heard this pro- verb ? ' If, however, the pronouns be followed by a qualifying word (substantive or adjective), the inflected forms ^s^ mujh
and ,^ tujh are used ; thus, in the Bagh o Bahar, page 20,
J, p
wretched) obtained nourishment under the shelter of my parents.'
c. The student should endeavour to remember the limited and restricted use of this case of the ao:ent. 1st. It is never used before a neuter or intransitive verb. 2nd. It is never used before any of the tenses formed from the root or from the present par- ticiple of any verb whatever. 3rd. It is never used before the
verbs Uy holna, 'to speak or say,' nor before bilZawa, 'to bring,' although they both seem according to our notion to be intransi- tive. Bolna appears to differ very little from \u^ kahnd, which last requires the use of the agent with ne. The verb land is a compound of le-dnd, the last member of which is neuter or in- transitive, and this leads us to a general rule, which is, that " compound verbs, such as Intensives, of which the last member is neuter, though really transitive in signification, do not require
the agent with ne;" thus, ^J^ ^ \^ f ^^jl^ ^L-^ ^^ 'those
travellers have eaten up the dinner.'
d. When two sentences having the same nominative or agent
are coupled by the conjunction j^^ awr, and,' the first of which having a neuter verb, and the following a verb transitive, it is not necessary to express the agent with ne in the second sentence, but the construction goes on the same as if ne had been ex-
The Agent with ne. 105^
pressed ; thus, \^^ j^\ t/ ^ j^{ <«^^-^^ ^ '^^h jhat phir aji aur
(ns-ne) kahoij ' she quickly returned and said.'
e. This very peculiar use of the particle ne to denote the agent prevails with slight modifications throughout an extensive group of dialects spoken in Hindustan Proper. It is found in the MarathT^ the GuzeratT, and the Panjabi, on the west. In the Nepalese it assumes the form jj le ; and it may be inferred that it pre- vails in most of the intermediate dialects of Hindi origin, amount- ing to nearly twenty in number. It does not exist in the group of dialects connected with the Bengali, nor in those of the Deccan. In the grammars of the Marathi language, it is called the In- strumental case, a term inappHcable in Hindi, as it never is used with the instrument, but solely with the agent. What is called the instrumental case in Sanskrit, is applied indiiFerently fo the agent or instrument ; but in the modern dialects above alluded to, particularly the Hindustani, 7ie is restricted to the agent only.
/. Our great grammarians have succeeded wonderfully well in mystifying the very simple (though singular) use and application of this particle ne. Dr. Gilchrist, in the first edition of his grammar, seems to have felt greatly embarrassed by it, without exactly knowing what to make of it. Those who have merely followed the learned doctor, with very few ideas of their own, have contented themselves by calling it an expletive, which lu- minous explanation has stood for years in one of the books hitherto read by beginners. Now, the term ' expletive ' in philo- logy is as convenient in its way, as that of the humours in the jargon of quack doctors ; it solves every difficulty, and forms a ready answer to all questions ; it may mean any thing or nothing. To account philosophically for the mode in which this particle is applied does not fall under our province, even if we had the power to do so satisfactorily. With regard, however, to its use and application, we trust that all difficulty is removed. The fact is, that any real cause of hesitation likely to arrest the learner consists, not in the use of ne to express the agent, but in that of ko to define the object of a transitive verb.
P
106 Numerals,
Numerals.
70. When a noun is accompanied by a numeral adjective, the plural termination on of the oblique cases is generally dispensed with. If the noun be of the third class, the inflected form in e is generally used.
a. Thus, \j\^ ^ ^yjA) jU- cJ ^^ ^j^ * three soldiers beat four men/ We have reason to believe that the addition of the termination ori would render the substantives more pointed or definite ; thus fin sipahiyon ne would signify ' the three soldiers (aforesaid).' In the grammar prefixed to Dr. Gilchrist's Dic- tionary (London ed.), we have l^* ^l^^ ^ ^->^y ^j^ y^ ' a hundred horses were at the Nawwab's,' which ought to be trans- lated ' a hundred horse,' i. e. 'a troop or collective body of one hundred,' whereas, ' a hundred horses,' or ^ a hundred boys,'
will be i^j^ y^ and Sj^ y^ sau larke.
b. Collective numbers add on to denote multiplication or re-
petition ; as, ^b \ji ^^J^ ' hundreds of battles ;* j^^ c)v\}^
' thousands of cities.' Any numeral by adding on becomes more
emphatic or definite ; as, ^^tAs-**^ UV^ s/^ ' those four persons.' Words expressive of time, as year, month, day, &c., add on
in the nominative plural ; as, kJj^ ^^t^' y^ars have passed away,'
c. In Hindustani the conjunction, &c. is idiomatically omitted in such phrases as ^-j .J ' two (or) three,* ijm^^ ^^- J ' (from) ten (to) twenty.' A doubtful number is expressed by adding CS^S to the numeral ; as, CJ^} (j^^ if**^^ ' about ten men ;' (jmji CSi\ y^ ' about a hundred years.' To signify * fold,' j^ or \:ri8 added to numerals ; as jco- jJ ' two-fold ; ' lif ^/-J ' ten-fold.' Distributives are formed by doubling the number ;
Comparison of Adjectives, 107
as, jO J J ' two by two/ or ' two apiece.' Thus, suppose we wish to say, ' give these men three rupees each/ or three rupees
apiece/ the Hindustani will be jJ j^j (^ i^;-^ ^ LJ(^*^' <j^ * to these men, three three rupees give.'
Comparison of Adjectives,
71. We have already observed that adjectives in Hindustani do not admit of comparison by any regular and systematic terminations. The comparative de- gree is indicated by merely putting the standard of comparison in the ablative, and the superlative by prefixing to that the word sab, ' all.'
«. The comparative and superlative are to be inferred in general from the context, as the adjective has only one form, that of the positive or simple word, thus ^\^ ^^ CLJy y>. l^j (♦^-'l<-' 15^*** 'the miser is better than the liberal man if he (the miser) give an answer quickly.* It is obvious that if the standard of comparison should include the whole class spoken of, the adjective will express
the superlative degree. Ex. ^^ <-t^^ ^<^ ^ ^^e< jjvr^ S^*^ ' of all accomplishments two are best ' (viz. learning and the art of war).
&. To express the comparative degree, the particles j^ aur, and id\j ziyada, ^ more,' may also be employed exactly as in French and English ; as, ^^ <vl/^ ^-^V. J lS-* LJ(r^ <^^ c/j ' those people are worse than dogs.' The adjective is sometimes doubled to express the superlative degree ; as, \>^[ \^>~\ ' very good / but the words most commonly used and prefixed for this purpose are \ji ' great, very ; ' l:u^^ ' much ; ' j^s^ ' beyond
c
bounds ; ' c:-^.l^3 ' extremely ;' ci^sr* * very ' (generally in a bad or disagreeable sense) ; and L ' most, very,' which last is added. It is to be further observed that Vji , though thus used apparently
108 Personal Pronouns.
as an adverb, agrees in gender and number with the substantive ; as, ^ l^j) ^-'\;>- ^y. ^ he is a very wicked boy ; ' and again, ^ Sj^ <— ^1/*- cSiy. ^j ^ s^e is a very wicked girl.*
c. The particle L sa (se, si), when added to a substantive, converts such substantive into an adjective denoting similitude ; as, j*3l^ lL/IjI} Ls li^ ' a dog-like unclean animal.' When added to an adjective, it seems to render the same more intensive, though frequently it is difficult to find for it an equivalent English expression ; as jT jj i^ V^ ^J^ ' bring a httle water ;' ls^ U^3 jW^^ l5^ "^^^-V^ there were many weapons there.' When the comparison made by L alludes to one thing out of many, it governs the genitive case ; as in the sentence
^ >--j»- L l^ ^.^jl ^ 1;W * yo^ ^^so ^^ve a body exactly Uke theirs ; ' '-^j^ ^j^ ^ jt^ * a form like that of a tiger.'
Use of the Personal Pronouns.
72. The personal pronouns, as in Latin, are very often merely understood, particularly before such tenses of the verb as possess distinct personal termi- nations ; and as a general rule, the pronouns need not be expressed when the sense is quite clear without them, except it be by way of contrast or emphasis.
a. When the third personal pronouns become the object of an active verb, they are generally used in the second (or dative)
form of the accusative ; as, ^jU ^^\ ' beat him ; ' j L ^\ ' call them ; ' ^l^ ,^-ol ' take this away.' If, however, they are em-
ployed as adjectives, along with their substantives, they may be used in the nominative form ; as, ^ ^^'-^ <-^V -V. ^ * y^^^ hear this word.' With the conjunctive participle, they are ele- gantly used in the nominative form ; as, J^^ -^ ' having said this.' Sometimes, though rarely, the nominative form may be
Personal Pronouns. 109
y 9 9^
used when a dative follows ; as, ^jJ \^^t^ ^3 e;:r* ^ ^^^^ g^v® that to thee.' When the first or second personal pronouns are governed by an active verb, the dative form is always used ; as,
^ O 9 P ^ <^ 9 ?
Jb Ijjto ^-^ ^^ or t^ IjjU ^fsr^ ^3 ' he is beating me ; '
" y o o y i "
j^jjb l^.^ G^^) ^5^ cJ^-* ' I s^^ thee/
h. It may be observed that the personal, relative, and interro- gative pronouns have two distinct terminations for the dative and accusative cases, viz. ko or e for the singular, and ko or en for the plural. Hence, when an active verb governs an accusative (second form) and dative at the same time, it will be
easy to avoid a repetition of the termination ko by employing
999^ e or en in the one case, and ko in the other ; thus, iS^ J^Uj ^J\ ^^
i.9 9 ? C
' I will give it to you ; ' L^ c>^-«3 ^\ f ^-j ^ ^^^ ' the judge gave up the child to her.' In sentences of this kind, the accu- sative is generally put before the dative, but not always; thus
in the Baital PacKisi, a very sagacious young lady says to
9 9 i^ 9,
her father, <f^Ci ^^ iji^ ^ ^^ ^^ S^"-» ^ ^ ' ^ father,
whosoever may be acquainted with all the sciences, give me to
him,' or ' bestow me upon him in marriage,' but then, in another
part of the same work, we have a similar expression differently
9 p arranged, as UjJ ^j^ ^\ ^ where the dative is placed first.
c. When the first and second personal pronouns are accom- panied by a qualifying word, the genitive of the whole expression is made by ka, ke, ki, not ra, re, rl, and the pronouns are used in the inflected forms rmijh and tvjh ; as, l^ -Jii .^^ ' of me wretched ; ' l^ IjIj .^ ' of thee wise.' This obhque form is also used when the particle sa, se, si is added to denote similitude ;
CO 9^
as, Jki^^ Lj .^tsT ^ a sensible man like thee.'
d. In Hindustani, as in English, it is customary to address an individual generally in the second person plural, the singular being used in prayer to a deity, or to express familiarity or con-
110 Personal Pronouns.
tempt; but in the vulgar tongue they go a step further, and the speaker uses the plural t^ ' we/ when it really refers to no more than himself. This abuse has led to the necessity of adding the word (^J^ ' people/ to denote a genuine plural, as ham logy ' we (people),' turn logy * you (people).' Thus, ^^ l/^W" c^ ' I know ' (literally ' we know ' ) ; and if a real plural is meant, then they say ham log j ante hain; so,jJ^ aA c-^li^ ' give me (us) the book.' To testify great respect, the third person must also be used in the plural when speaking of a king, saint, or any illustrious or respected man in general ; as, ^^ l/WI^ 1^ «-^J ' he is speaking truth ' (literally * they, &c.'). When the plural is thus used for the singular, it is generally uninflected ; but when a still higher degree of respect, or a more decided plural is
intended, it receives the inflection ; as, l^ <J ^^\ ' they or he (his honour, majesty, &c.) said.'
e. This confusion of numbers may have given rise to the fol-
loiwing idioms: -f>bb tjij^ ^J^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ y^^^ hands,' that is, ' into the hands of us two ; ' ^^cA>^ Ji ^Jb ham turn
chalenge, ' we and you (i. e. / and thou) will go,' meaning, ' we shall go.' The speaker politely assumes precedence to himself; and when two different persons thus occur in a sentence, the verb agrees with the first person in preference to the second,
and with the second in preference to the third ; as, ^^^jl^ J *jfe
' we and you will go ; ' j^j^- t/j ^ ' yoii and they will go.'
/. We here subjoin the rules laid down by Muhammad Ibra- him of Bombay respecting the etiquette of the pronouns. 1. When the speaker and the person whom he addresses are of the same rank, each should speak of himself in the singular number, and address the other in the second person plural. 2. A person of superior rank may speak of himself in the plural number, but this is not considered to be polite, nor is it thought correct to address even the lowest rank in the singular number.
Personal Pronouns. Ill
3. The pronouns of the third person may be used in the singular when speaking of any person in their presence, unless they be of superior rank, when they ought to be spoken of in the plural.
4. When one person of rank addresses another of the same or superior rank, or speaks of him in his presence, it is most correct to make use of the respectful pronoun c-;l , or the great
man's title, or some respectful phrase, as dj^d^ ^ your honour,'
Li:ij^2>' ' honour, highness, &c.,' and the like, with the third person plural (of the pronouns and verbs) ; and when an inferior addresses a superior, he ought at all times to use similar expres- sions of respect, suitable to the rank of the person addressed." We may further add, that an inferior at the same time speaks of himself in the third person singular, under the appellation of
? CO
A Ic. ' your servant ' or ' slave ;' c/^^J ' your devoted ;' irJcj ' your bondsman ; ' ^^Is,-* ' your sincere friend,' &c.
g. In a nan-ative of what has been said, the same words are given which are supposed to have been used by the person whose speech is reported. Ex. * he said he should go next day,'
iSj U- J^ ^j^ ^\^ iS c/-^ lit. ' he said, I will go to-morrow.'
So in the sentence, 'he told me to go home,' ^ \>- ^ ciKj^ ^j, fjj\
lit. ' he said, go home.' This idiomatic use of the pronouns, and consequently of the persons and tenses of the verb, is well worthy of the student's attention. It is perhaps that point in which the Hindustani differs most widely from the English, as will be seen in the following sentence, which to save room we shall give in the Roman character. Kal main ne dp ke bete ko shahr men dekhd, wuh yahan aya chdhta thd turn se milne ko, par kaJid ki ghord merd mar-gayd, aur hamen ishdra kiyd ki dp se zdhir karnd ki apni pdlkl mere waste hhej-dend; Jijl,hdl jo tumhdri palki maujud na ho, to muMilis apni pdlkl uske waste bhej-degd, ' I saw your son yesterday in the city, he wished to come here to see you, but mentioned that his horse was dead, and desired me to tell you to send your palkT for him ; if your
112 The Possessive apna.
palki be not now at hand, I shall despatch mine for him.' From the preceding sentence it will appear that considerable attention and experience will be necessary before the student can readily apply the pronouns agreeably to the rules of grammar, idiom, and etiquette y which last is a point of great importance among the Orientals.
Use of the Possessive apna. 73. When there occurs in the complement of a sen- tence a possessive pronoun belonging to the nominative or agent, such possessive is expressed in Hindustani by lijl apna (-we or -ni).
a. We may define the complement of a sentence in general, as that portion of it which in English follows the verb ; thus, in the sentences, ' he returned to his house,' * he was doing his business,' the phrases ' to his house,' and ' his business,' form the complement. Again, in each of these, the possessive pro- noun his, if it refers solely to the nominative he, will be ex- pressed by apna in Hindustani ; as, \j\ ^j ^^ ^\ ifj and l^ W aI^ ^cj\ Ht ; but if the pronoun his refers to another person, then it will be expressed by ICj\ uska {-ke, -kf) ; for instance, \i\ j^ ^J^\ i^ ' he came to his house,' meaning not his own house, but the house of some other third person.
b. When the nominative of a sentence consists of the first or second personal pronoun, and its possessive occurs in the com- plement, the matter admits of no hesitation ; as, 'I am going to see my father;' ' we have seen our new house;' 'you are destroying your health ;' in all of which apna would be used for
my,' ' our,' and your,' respectively. In the use of the third person, however, the English language is hable to an ambiguity, for example, the sentence ' he was beating his slave ' has two meanings; it might be his own slave, or another man's. The Hindustani is much more explicit ; ' his own slave ' would be expressed by apne ghulam ko, and ' another man's slave ' by
Demonstrative Pronouns. ]13
uske ghulam ko ; hence, as a practical rule, if the possessive in the complement of a sentence denotes owrij it will be expressed in Hindustani by apnd {ne, rii). Sometimes, apna is elegantly repeated, to denote separation or distinction ; as follows,
^-^ j4 \^'*^} xj^) ii?y^^ t/j ' ^^®y ^^^ went, each to his own house,' whereas apne ghar would merely denote ' their own house,' as common to both.
c. It is needless to add, that if a possessive pronoun occurs in the nominative part of a sentence, the use of apna is inadmissible ;
as, j^^U- ^^ CJ^ ^^i^ L->b \j^ j^\ ^-^ ' I and my father
will go to our own country.' Here mam aur merd bap is the nominative of the sentence, and apne mulk men is the comple- ment ; in the former, the regular possessive merd is used, and in the latter, apndj according to our rule above stated.
d. When in the first clause of a sentence there occurs the conjunctive participle, the possessive in it will be apnd ; as,
l5jj\:>- ^^ CJL^ ^:j\ J^ ^'L ^ i^\) ^\ ^^^ 'I, having taken
my father with me, will go to my own country.' Here, the use of apnd is strictly according to rule, for the sentence is equivalent to * I will take my father with me ; and I will go to my own country.'
e. We occasionally meet with apnd used irregularly instead of
the other possessives ; as, U^ u^ -jrlr* l5^ ^} ^ "^7 ^^^ disposition even was led astray.' (Bagh o Bahdr, p. 21.) In ordinary discourse, according to Dr. Gilchrist, we may hear
\jj L-j\ lij lij^ ^p- ' if my son had done so.' Lastly, apnd is used substantively in the general sense of one's people, friends, &c.,' like the Latin expression ' apud suos;' thus,
\S ^ JjJ ^\ J ^^\ jj - oT (jJo^ ^ ^yJ\ a^ ' he came to
his own, but his own received him not.'
Demonstrative Pronouns,
9
74. The demonstratives ,^^ yih, 'this,* and ;^j wuh^
114 Interrogatives,
* that,' together with their plurals, are sometimes used in the same sense as our definite article * the.' They are applicable to both genders, and agree with their substantives in case, and generally in number.
a. We have seen it stated in some grammar, that a de- monstrative pronoun in the singular may be used with an Arabic plural,* &c., from which the reader is left to infer that it is not used with any other plural. Now the fact is, that yih and wuh are frequently used with any plural, and represent the plural
even without the substantive; as, ^1^ ^jJo ^ S\s^ ^ l^ ^yj*^ ^^'
these two brothers went to the magistrate ; ' and again,
[^ (JjJc) ^^ ^ '^^/j^ (ji.)^ ^ ^3 *' they by way of alms give
something.'* It would be needless to multiply examples, as they may be met with in any author. We have reason to believe, how- ever, that when the singular is thus used, it is either to denote a collective group, or in a disrespectful sense ; on the same principle that the plural is applied to one person to denote respect or reverence. '
Interrogatives,
75. The interrogative ^f kaun, when used by it- self, generally applies to persons, and L^ kya to irra- tional or lifeless beings ; but if the substantive be expressed, kaun will agree with it adjectively in case and number, whereas the inflection of kya is never used adjectively.
a. For example, in the phrase ^ ^^ * who is there ? ' the
inference is, ' what person ? ' so, ^jd L^ signifies * what (thing)
* Here is another instance of a feminine preposition requiring the genitive in ke, agreeably to what we stated page 98, a. The example is from the Bagh o Bahar^ p. 144. It is the reading of half-a-dozen different copies (two of them manuscript), as well as of the Calcutta edition, 1836, printed in the Roman character. — D.F.
Relative and Correlative, 115
is itr At the same time we may not only say Jj^ ^^ ' what man ? * ^ d^c ^ ' to what man ? ' but also j^ ^^ ' what thing ? ' ^ J-^ (j-^ ' of what thing ? ' We can also say, J-^ L? ' what thing ? ' but we cannot say l^ J^ ,^1? to denote ' of what thing/ The oblique form kahe is used only as a sub- stantive ; as, ij^ ^ ^in^ ' a watch of what (substance, &c.) ? ' the answer to which may be ^ J^^ 'of gold/ &c. Some- times, kya is applied to a person or thing by way of exclama- tion ; as, ^j1|^L». L^ ' what a rogue ! ' c:^b \S ^ what an affair ! ' When kya is repeated, it seems to convey the idea of ' what various ? ' as, c-^'ls-^ L^ L^ ' what various wonders ? ' Some- times, kya is used as a conjunction, meaning ' whether,' 'or;' like the Latin sive ; as, ^< <*i^^t^ ^ ? V ^ ' whether in the garden or in the field.'
b. The interrogative is used for the relative in such sentences as ^J^ ^^ d^ ^^ \zj\=>. ^*aj ' I know who it is.' Also adverbs
derived from the interrogative (vide page 69) are in a similar manner substituted for those from the relative; for instance, l5j ls»- c^ 2fj i^ ^^ l^Jl:?- ^j^ ^^ ' I do not know when he will go.'
c. Sometimes a question is used to denote negation or sur- prise; as, Ujj! a»^ jj-i ^c^' U »>■ lLA^ Lj\ 'all the territory which thou hast taken will be of no use to thee ; ' and again, ^j\^ •^, ij"^ ^ ^ ^b uW^ ' where is the king's son, and where this report?' meaning the king's son has nothing to do with this report.
Relative and Correlative. 76. Strictly speaking, the Hindustani does not pos- sess a relative pronoun corresponding with our * who,'
116 Relative and Correlative.
' which,' and 'that,' and as this want is a source of much perplexity to the learner, we shall endeavour in the following paragraphs to explain fully how the place of the relative is supplied.
a. In page 29 we have given the declension of ^ and y^ which from want of a better term we called relative and corre- lative, respectively. The word ^ signifies ' he who,' ^ she who,' or ' that which,' and refers, not to an antecedent, like our relative
* who,' but to a noun following, like our words * whosoever,' ' whatsoever,' ' whoso.' Hence ^ usually begins the sentence, and is followed in a second clause by y^ and the use of the two together generally forms a substitute for our relative pronouns
* who,' ' which,' and ' that,' as will be seen by the following
examples ; ^^ ^:^ l::^.;^^ d Vb r* "* l5^' l5^^ ^ f ^J^ f^
* the king much approved of the horses which you sent,' literally, what horses you sent, the king much approved of the same ;'
^ ^ v^,^ ^-^ " L<^ ^-V^ S^ (*^\?f' * ^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ which you have said,' literally, 'whatever you have said, that is all true.' In like manner, the relative and correlative adverbs usually ac-
company each other ; jU- ^J^ J^ ^^ " J^ u^ '^^ Ci) V^ ' Where the treasure is, there is the snake ; and where there is a flower there is a thorn.'
h. Sometimes, the remote demonstrative may be used instead of the correlative, both pronominally and adverbially ; as follows,
9 O
^' ^^^1 j-^J ,^^^1-^ ' he who has the pot has the sword ' (he who pays best, is best served) ; y$^^{ Wj (^'^ Wf- * as you shall give, so shall you get' In the following sentence, the demonstrative adverb ^^Ifcj is used ; whereas in a few sentences before, the author uses the correlative ^ly for the same expres- sion (vide Selections in Devanagarl, page 8, lines 3 and 10) ;
ISU- ' where there shall be ninety-nine pitchers of milk, how will
Indefinite, 117
a single pitcher of water be there discovered ?' We may here at the same time see the negative effect of the question, as the speaker means that 'there is no chance of detecting one pitcher full of water among ninety-nine of milk.'
c. The conjunction 6^ frequently accompanies the relative,
and sometimes occupies its place entirely ; as in the phrases, j^j j d.) ^j^ Jd\^ ^ i<T^'> ^^ ^ ^ 0:>t3l ^ * let us not bring into mind the trouble which has come upon us ; ' so also,
CO y 9
^y^ ^ J^ A^\ ^^,^ ^ f^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^^ ' he is a wise man, who before the commencement thinks of the end of his work ;M^ k^ ^ ^j,^ ii (>is:-» 5j ' the man who wrote the letter.' Sometimes, the demonstrative is substituted, in imitation of the Persian ; thus, ^^Jb ^ tij-j lh^j ^1^ ^^^ (jJ\ ^ ^H) <OLklj
' there is a temple in which there are several idols of gold.'
d. In many instances the relative y>- corresponds with our ' who,' ' which,' or ' that,' but the student must be careful not to consider this as a rule, for it is only the exception ; as follows,
^-jb ijl^ 3^^ y>- jjliij jc> ' the two loaves which my children eat.'
Here the word y>- is not put first, because there is another word
J J already used to define roti ; but suppose the sentence were
the bread which I ate was very good,' we should have to say
in Hindustani, jo roti main ne kha,i, so (or wuh) hahut achchlii
thi:
Indejinites* 11 , The indefinite J^ ko,i, 'somebody' or 'anybody,'
"^ 9
when used alone, refers to a person, whereas ^ kuchhy ' something,' * any thing,' refers to matter in general. As an adjective, however, ko,t may agree with any
substantive, as, ^^^j>T ^''^ ' any or some man,' }^^ J"^
* any or some thing.' ^ is seldom applied to persons
1 18 Concord of Verbs.
in the nominative, but in the oblique cases ; kisi or kisu seems to be equally applicable to persons or things.
a. The indefinites ko,i and kuchh, as well as the numeral CJ^\ eky ' one/ frequently supply the place of our articles ' a/ ' an/
? t GO
or *a certain;' as, \^ J;)^ ^^-^ ^^ ^^-^ jcmkIjIj lL^I 'a sage arrived in a certain city ; * IJj jU-j ^^ uJol l::^j |V-*^ ' on a
certain time a tiger fell sick/ The indefinite article frequently occurs more than once at the beginning of a story, and it is a point of good taste to use koi and ek alternately, as in the preceding examples, so as to avoid the clumsy repetition of the same word. The emphatic particle ^^ i or Jb hi may be afl[ixed to many of the pronouns ; as, ^ c- ?T * my (your, &c.) own self ; ' ^^^ ' this same ; ' ^^ that same.' Also in the oblique cases -«j1, .^J\ &c., as in ^ ^\ ff ^^1 'to this or that self-same person or thing.' Sometimes ^^-Jb is added with the same effect.
Concord of the Verb with the Nominative,
78. As a general rule, the Hindustani verb agrees with its nominative in number, person, and gender, subject, however, to the following exceptions: 1. To mark respect, a singular nominative has a verb in the plural; 2. If the nominative consist of different irra- tional objects in the singular number, they may take a singular verb ; 3. If the nominatives be of various genders, the verb takes the masculine form, or agrees with that next to it ; Lastly. If the verb be transitive, and in any tense formed of the past participle, the nominative assumes the case of the agent, and the verb follows a special rule already illustrated, p. 103, No. 69, &c.
a. We shall here add a few examples in illustration of the preceding rule, embracing as it does the whole subject of verbal
Government of Verbs, 119
concord, which differs in some respects from that of the European
^ C ^ ^ (^ p
languages. Thus, ^ ln^ n^ ' he is writing ; ' ^Jb if-^^ ^3
' she is dancing ; ' ^^ ^^J t/^ ' they (males) are talking ; ' and ^^ jJ^ t^j ' they {females) are singing/ The following examples refer to the exceptions : 1. ,^^ ^^.'^^ J^l^ Ai»C)\i 'the king having seen (this), became tearful,' or 'wept;' where the verb (j:yb is plural, expressive of respect to ' the king,' which is in the singular nominative. In like manner we have
9
c^:/ ^y^^ *W ^J^^ ^ c^ ^-r^'-^ '^* ^^ ^^* proper that your majesty should submit.' 2. In the following sentences we have two nouns in the singular number, coupled by a conjunc- tion, whilst the verb is in the singular, agreeing with the nearest
noun ; as, ^ ^^ ^j^ j^ J^ i^€^^ ' ^^ bullock and horse
have just now arrived;' ^ ^^y^J J^ LiiJt) l^ ^^JiJij:>A 'the end of deceit is contempt and infamy.' 3. Several nouns of different genders occur in the next two sentences, but the verb takes the mascuhne plural in preference to the feminine; as,
'^ e;!^*/f l/ ^^^ Lsf^^ ^!r^, J}^- VV ^ ^^ ' her father, mother, and brother were all three meditating the accomplish- ment of her marriage ; ' ^^ l^ V ^'^ ^J^ <JU3jl ^^ ^.5^^ ' his elephant, camel, and carriage are being loaded.'
Government of Verbs, 79. In this department the Hindustani differs very little from the English. Actives or transitives na- turally govern the accusative case, which, as v^e have shewn, is generally like the nominative, and some- times like the dative (vide p. 100, No. 67).
a. Causal verbs, verbs of clothing, giving, &c., may be consi- dered as governing two accusative cases, or the accusative and
120 Government of Verbs.
the dative ; as, jU-^^il^ ^\4 ^ ^^ ' having given the child food, go home ;' J^J }j^ -tV. i_f^^ ' P^^^ ^^ ^i™ these clothes ; ' and J J <Ujjij CSi\ yLit ' give him a rupee.'
^. Some neuter verbs, as Ijl ' to come,' liiJ to become,' l3l^ * to suit,' bjj ' to fall,' U^^ ' to arrive,' L-^ ' to become,' l:J^l»- ' to be desirable,' Lto; ' to remain,' l:^^^ ' to appear,' U^) ' to unite,' LLo ' to meet, to occur,' and l3yb ' to be,' govern the dative case, and are frequently used impersonally ; as follows, ^^jT*>^j^_^« 'I feel compassion ;'^JJ) -^^^C-Jb fjJ\ ^^^^ I have some doubt in this matter ; ' ^,.^ ^J^'^^ ^ l5^ V" ^^ it is desirable that we should go there.' We may here observe that the form 15^^ from chahna, is frequently used imperson- ally in the sense of ' it is proper,' ' it is fit ; ' like the Latin decety oportet. When thus employed, it governs the dative of the person, and either the past participle or the aorist of the accom- panying verb, as in the preceding example, which might also be expressed ^J^^ V.^^ (^ ' ^^ "^"^* S^*' Sometimes, it may be used personally ; as, ^^^ \J ^ J which may mean ' what is proper for you,' or * what do you require,' &c. We could in this way say ,^^^ tU- ^U^ ^Uj 'you must go there,' or ' to go there behoveth thee.'
c. Verbs meaning ' to sell,' or implying ' gain,' have ^U ' hand,' connected with them ; as, ^ \ss^j ^lib ^J^ ^J^ ' to whom have you sold it ? ' l>i ^\jb ^ jji-o.^^ <*-^^ z*^ *j * t^^^t business was accomplished with great difficulty ; ' in like manner, \j\ ^U <U:^ J^ tlX>l ILj\ ' he gained a flower as his prize.*
d. Verbs which in English require ' with,' * from,' or by ' after them, govern the ablative, and those which require in,'
Tenses of the Root. 121
' within/ ' into,' the locative case ; as in the following sentence :
- f " " ..-'....-' .. ^ ., ^ ^
j^y^p- ' this is better, that by means of his friendship I
should escape from the hand of my enemies ; ' in like manner,
1^5 ^c^%^ (j^-^ J^ ^'^ j^ ^} *^ ' Z^^'^Z ^"^^^ ^^^ house, he beiran to think within himself Verbs of fear and caution re- quire the ablative case ; as, ^ lij J ^ J s^ Jali ' perhaps he is afraid of you ;' Jb ^j j^^j^ ^ c^J^^IhIt" J^^ ' ^^^ ^^g® keeps on his guard against reprobates.'
Tenses of the Root.
80. We have already given the general signification of each tense, in the various paradigms of the verb, pp, 45 to 60. We shall now, following the same order, briefly notice such peculiarities as some of them present. The reader will recollect that they are three in number,— the aorist, future, and imperative, of which the aorist is the most important, on account of its extensive use and application.
a. The Aorist generally corresponds with the present subjunc- tive of the Latin, or what in English grammar goes under the name of present potential; hence the conjunctions ^ and ^^ ' that,' /\ and ^ ' if/ a^/^ ' although,' CJj <^^ ' until/ and ^ j'-.^ lest,' generally require the use of this tense after them ;
as, SL^ d^ 9 ^J^ *v' iS^ cT^ "^^ "-r^^ 'f c'^^V ^jr^ ^^ ' if I desire that he should stay till I come, what is it to thee ? ' It further imphes possibility or oWigation; as in the sentences,
^Ji i^j ^_5^ y* T-f ^ z"^ ' whatever it may be possible to do
to-day, that do ; ' t^^J^ ^IsT^ *^ ^ c^ $> s^\ ^^^ ' our
hope is that this business may be brought to a conclusion ; '
R
122 Tenses of the Root.
cT!^ C^ d^^ *-? 'f ^;5^^ " ^r*^^ ^ lT^ ^^T*^ *^^^ ^
y^J^ uVj JJ^ ^^^ iT-r-' ' i^ ^ ^^"S sends an ambassador to any place, it is desirable that he should be the wisest and the most elo- quent man of his tribe/ When the power of doing a thing is designed to be expressed, the verb liC-j * to be able,* is used in all its parts, with the root (or sometimes the inflected infinitive) of the principal verb ; as, ^ 'uCj ^^^^ l^ i[j or less frequently, ^ IiLj ^-y ^^U- iTj * he cannot go/
h. The aorist is very frequently employed to denote present time when general and unrestricted, hence it is used much in proverbial expressions, with which the language abounds ; as, ijU- ^^\ JU li j\i^ ' the wealth of the wicked goes for
nought.' It also expresses time future or past, conditionally ; as,
}^ j^li— L J-J-J y ^j^ ^X> v/j 'i ^ ' if the nightingale find
thy abode, then will the rose-garden be forgotten ; ' or, ' if the nightingale found thy abode, then would the rose-garden be for- gotten.' On the subject of this tense, Muhammad Ibrahim has given several sound remarks in his grammar, already alluded to p. 61, &c. He gives it the name of * future of the subjunctive or potential mood.' We have discarded the term mood altogether, as utterly inapplicable to the Hindustani language, and infinitely more perplexing than useful. Lastly, the aorist is sometimes
accompanied by the present auxiliary tense ^j^, &c., page 44, the precise eflPect of which it is difficult to determine ; as,
9 9^ ^
^yfc ^y^ i^.« ' I may speak;' ^ ^^ \^y.^ ' Jasoda is or may be saying.*
c. The Future presents few peculiarities, save that in respect- ful language it is often employed for the imperative, and occasion- ally for the aorist ; as, ^^J^^,^ L-->lii CS^\ ^^^ ^S^ oy.^ c--^»-L have the kindness. Sir, to give me a book ; ' so likewise,
Tenses of the Present Participle. 1 23
am thinking that whatever they say may be from envy.' Our
Second Future or Future Perfect is formed by the future of
(.? i. fi p ^
li^ ' to finish/ to the root of the verb ; as, ^^^ ^^ ^rr^
' I shall have eaten,' iCi^^ \^ ^j ' he will have eaten/ &c.
d. The Imperative is confined in its application, strictly speak- ing, to the second person, singular and plural. The honorific form addresses itself as to a third person by way of respect ; as,
4J^. y »^ * be silent ; ' j i yb jl ' come hither ; ' ^^^f^ uJU^ ^C^JX)
* pardon me,' or 'may he pardon me.' It is not considered polite to use the second person singular of the imperative to any one, however low his condition. The adverb l:^^< is applicable
to the imperative mood alone, <0 is applied to it in common with
p the other modes, ^j^ is never used with it ; as, ^^ c:--vw» or
f ^ ^ ^
l::^v< ^J^ ' don't forget ; ^ JtJ LjI ' don't do so.' The impera- tive mood is sometimes used idiomatically, as in the following expressions : ^ ^'J ^ ' perhaps it is,' or ' it must be / ^1 y JT ' come, if you mean to come.'
Tenses of the Present Participle.
81. Of these, the Indefinite claims most attention. The name and signification given to it in most gram- mars, is * Present Indefinite Tense.' The epithet of present is misapplied, as the tense generally refers to the past.
a. Among the tenses of the present participle, the Indefinite holds the same rank that the aorist does in those derived from the root. Its most ordinary significations are, first, to denote conditional past time, in which case it is generally preceded by /\ OY ^ ' if,' and followed by y ' then ; ' as in the sentences,
l3y> ij jjLaaJ -^y ^^^ ^^^^ * if ^^6 had come, then there would have been no loss ; ' l^:^ ^ cjlj ^^« J \-x^^ ^^^ ^:?- * if I had
124 Tenses of the Present Participle.
spoken, he would not have regarded what I said,' or ' if I should speak, he would not regard.' So in the Bagh o Bahar, p. 71 ;
r 'f\ ^i y ■ ^^ ^\ ^/ ^y /j^ A*^ jj^ ■ s^V ^"^
iS^ If our days were at all lucky, then we should have some- where found Hatim, and having seized him, we should have carried him to Naufal, then he would have given five hundred ashrafis,' &c. The conjunction is frequently omitted in the former or latter part of the sentence, and sometimes in both ; as,
I gone, I should have beaten him soundly ; ' in like manner,
op
IjU ^ ^^^^ U^ ^^^ u;.r* ' ^^^ I ^^^'^ present, the horse should not have been allowed to escape.'
b. In the second place, the indefinite is employed to denote continuative past time, or to express an act or event that was habitual ; as the reader may observe in the following passage :
Ij^ l*^-* ^ L5^^ <^y M * When the gamester used to win (jitta) he used to become ijio-jata) so careless, that any one might take o^{utar leta) his clothes; then even it would not be (na hota) known to him.' In hke manner, Bagh o Bahar, p. 9 :
li^^ <G ^J^ - ciU- * All night the doors of the house used not to be fastened, and the shops of the market used to remain open ; the travellers used to go along,' &c.
c. The indefinite is occasionally used for the present by omitting
Tenses of the Present Participle. 125
the auxiliary ; as, Ij^ li" 2^j ' what is he doing ? * The student must be careful, however, not to fancy that this tense corre- sponds with our present indefinite, as some of our grammars incul- cate. Its use as a present tense is the exception, not the rule.
d* The Present Tense is used to express both the precise point of time when the action takes place, and also to denote a continuous or habitual state or action ; hence it corresponds with
both our forms of the present tense ; as, Jb b'lrj- j^ s^ ' he is (now) going home ;'but in the sentence ^ \i\:>- j^ iJL.^^ f ciJ^j a^ it must be translated * he always goes home at night.* The present is frequently used for the future, when it is meant that
the action will be done quickly ; as, ^^Jb \ji Ul^ jis*- ^^^ ' I am bringing (shall bring) the dinner quickly.'
e. In vivid descriptions, when the narrator represents a past occurrence in the same manner as he or the person of whom he speaks originally saw it, and as if it were still apparent to the view, the present is frequently used ; as in the following passage :
^Jt^ Jb CSi\ j^ ^ ^^,^ ^^\fi U^V- o^ ^-^^--^jiJ u^^ •-r^ "^'^ ^^ lP^ J^^ - ^ J^ J ^rf" Tt ^i'f^ L5^^
^ IfU- 1&- ^\s ' When he arrived at the tree, he saw that on every branch of it are hanging hundreds of human heads ; and under it is a beautiful tank full of water, and the stream of it is flowing towards the desert.' In such instances the past tense may be used, but it is less animated and impressive ; as,
jj) ^jjb^ ^S ycj^ i^S^^ J-s ' he went near the tree, and what does he see but a marble slab was placed at the bottom of it.'
1 26 Tenses of (he Past Participle.
/. The Imperfect denotes a past action in progress, and cor- responds with our own compound tense formed in a similar manner; as, l^ li^ a^ 'he was writing.' In most of our
English grammars, the indefinite past tense is very improperly called the imperfect, as ' he wrote,' ' he spoke.' It is needless to state that these expressions in Hindustani must be rendered
by l^ ^j»*^ and l,^ ^^i-*! that is, the simple past, of which we shall say more immediately.
g. The tense called the Present Dubious (page 52) is gene- rally employed to denote a future action of uncertain occurrence ; as, lSj*yi> or ^/yb Ij)^ ^j^^ * (perhaps) I may beat,' or ' be
Co/
beating;' so in Bagh o Bahar, p. 38 : l?y& li^<^ L^ ^j^ ^o- ^\ s^ ' What will he (or may he) be saying in his own mind ? '
Tenses of the Past Participle.
82. The main peculiarity in the use of these is, that when the verb is transitive, the nominative must be put in the case of the agent, as explained p. 103, &c.
a. The Past Tense corresponds with what is improperly called the imperfect in most English grammars ; as, l-^^^ t^ ' he went £LVf2Ly ;* \^ ^j J ' you wrote ; ' which expressions, though inde- finite as to time, convey the idea of a complete or perfect action ; hence the absurdity of calling it the imperfect tense. In addition to its common acceptation, it is sometimes used with a present, and sometimes with a future meaning; as in the following: ^^i y j^-y Jbj j^U. c^jUa y> ^J^ ^^ fr 'if she is found, then my life remains ; if not, it is gone ; ' bl^ ^ by ^>- ' what he sows, that he reaps.' We have already stated thai the present is some- times used for the future to denote speed ; the past is employed for the same purpose. Thus a man says to his servant, p ^b
* bring water,' and the answer will probably be J<j^\s^ \jJ
Tenses of the Past Participle, 127
' I have brought it, Sh*,' meaning, ' I will bring it immediately.'
It is sometimes applied in an idiomatical manner ; as, \^ y \^ ' if it be so, why be it so.*
b. The verb ' to be ' has, in Hindustani, two tenses expressive of
the past, viz. l^' ' was,* and \i^ * was * (or ' became * ), which may often be translated by the same word into English. In many cases these appear to be synonymous in their application ; the student, however, must pay particular attention to the following rule. If* is used in reference to simple existence at a distant
time or particular place, while ^yb is applied to time or circum- stances less remote, in the sense of ' became ; ' as follows : \^ ^Li>jb CS^\ ^j^ tliXo {jJ\ there was a king in that country;* IjJb \J^j^ ^j ' he was (became) confounded.* In short, \^ de- notes permanent existence, and tyb that which waSy or became existing, through circumstances generally stated in, or easily in- ferred from the context.
c. The Perfect answers to the perfect tense in English, being used to denote an action newly past and finished ; as follows, ^ l^i^ ^ \^ \j^ * my brother has arrived ;' ^ \X^ J^ ^ ^^^
' I have eaten fruit.* Sometimes it is used with adverbs of time, in a manner that cannot literally be rendered in English ; as,
^,yb L^ j^l&j J^ ^*^ ' I have gone there yesterday,* for ' I went there yesterday.' In this case, the usage of the French je suis alle,' would have come nearer the Hindustani.
d. The Pluperfect in English will generally be expressed by the pluperfect in Hindustani, representing a thing not only as past, but as prior to some other event ; as in the sentence. If? l^ ia:^ ^J ^j^ ^rf ^ ^^^^ 1^5^^ 'I had written the letter previous to his arrival.' But the converse of this rule does not hold, the pluperfect being frequently used in Hindu- stani where in English we employ the simple past ; thus in Story
128 Infinitive.
17, a learned Kayath orders his slave to get up during the night, and see if it rains. The slave, feeling himself very com- fortable where he was, concludes, without getting up, that it does rain ; and gives the following ingenious process of reasoning :
^^ ^-^ - Iff iJjSj yLl J ^-^ - ^ ^ ^ ^. ' ^^^ cat came
in, I put my hand upon her, she was wet' {ergo, it rains); but the literal meaning is, * the cat had come in, I had put my hand upon her, she had got wet/ The general rule is, that when one definite past event precedes another past event in point of time, the former is expressed m the pluperfect. It may happen that the latter of the two events is not expressed, but merely passing in the mind ; as in the above example, where the slave might have added, as he no doubt meant, ^ thence, 1 ascertained that it was pouring,* which would have completed the chain of reasoning.
e. The tense called the Past Dubious (p. 52), formed of the past participle and the aorist or future of Ijyb is used to express remote probabihty past or future ; as in the following examples :
Uyb Uf ^y^ !fj d^ ^^Jti \zj\>- ^ ^j^ ' I know not where he may
(or will) have gone ; ' lij^ l>l> l!U^ '^■^^-^ »J ^ ijir^ -t^ ' on the way, you must have met with much difficulty.' The Past Conditional (pp. 52, 53) is of very rare occurrence, and is under^ stood to express the event in a more remote manner than the
Indefinite (p. 46) ; thus, Ij'U- j\ i^ y b'yb "i^ Jjrsaj vJ \jfr*^^ ' if I had opened the cage, then it would have flown.* A kind of expression hke the Paulo post futurum^ is expressed by liJbU- to desire,' with the past participle of another verb; as, ^ IiaU- \j^ i^ 'he is about to die,' ' is dying,' or ' will soon die.' There are also other ways of expressing the same idea :
sJ^A sir* b or J^ ^^^ 4j^ b^^ ^^ 4j^ b-
Infinitive,
83. The infinitive is used as a substantive to denote the state or action of the verb ; it is frequently used
Infinitive. 129
for the imperative, and occasionally it is employed adjectively in connection with a substantive.
a. All Infinitives used as substantives or adjectives are subject to inflection like nouns of the third class ; thus, ^ c^.^«jL< UIp- IC-jI 'his departure is proper;' ^ (*;:^ij ^^ l^ ^iJ ^libji 'this is the very time for taking revenge ; ' VJ ^^ lS^.*^ ^^ ^ ^^ bT ^ia-'l^ l/ iJ^J^j^ ^ ' ^^ ^^^ come to see the house.' The infinitive is often used as an imperative, and as such it may even have the negative mat before it ; as, b\^ >*J> J^ ' swear
not at all ;' bU- e:^^ ^Jjb^ ' don't go there,' or ' you must not go there.' Sometimes it is used with the verb byb, instead of the regular tenses of the verb which .it represents ; as follows,
\^ UT ,c**» lLA^ {j*^ ' from what country are you come ? '
instead of yi> ^^ T ^ CJL<, ^^ . It is also used with the verb
' to be,' like the Latin gerund, to denote necessity or obligation ;
p as, l^ I3U- ^jliij ^ -J ' you must go there ; ' so, likewise,
^ bU. J^^ ^ c-.'wj ji^ - ^Jb b^ J^j Llioly^t %ne must
die (moriendum est) some day at last, and must give up every thing.'
b. Sometimes the infinitive, together with its complement (that is, the noun which it governs, along with its circumstances), may form the subject or predicate of a proposition; as follows,
X- o c o p P c
Ut^ y^V ^.^^ t^^j^ ^^''^^ ^-r^ ^5^ e;:^* j^^ ^ ^^^<^^, ' to laugh (ht. to display the teeth) in the presence of kings is unmannerly.' In the following sentence from the Khirad Afroz, both the subject and the predicate are of this description :
children in the society of the vile, is to effect their ruin.' When an infinitive thus used has a feminine noun for its complement, it generally agrees adjectively with the substantive (like the
130 ^ * Infinitive.
■■ > >
Latin participle in dus) by changing l3 into ^ or ^^ ; thus, ,^j^^ ^j^ ^^ fjjj ljJ^ (J ^^j^ ' I have not learned to speak your language ;' ^ Jiw^ lT^ l5^^ ji>'^^ ' ^* ^^ ^^^^ *^ put one's finger on a lancet.' So, in the Bagh o Bdhdr, p. 32 :
"^ L^f ^V ^ L5ii^ ^r- Lf^ L5^"^^ ^57'J'^ ' C), Sir, if it was your intention thus to act the stranger, then where was the necessity of previously tendering your friendship with such ardour?' Here the infinitive harm agrees with nd-dshnd^ and dosti in the feminine
gender ; so, p. 35, ^^ ^f^ ^."^ f lijW* *— ^J-^* ' to give trouble to one's guest is not proper.' Sometimes (though rarely) the infinitive does not agree with the feminine noun which it governs ; as may be seen in the following sentence :
Aj^^ ^ ^h^ ^^v.j e'V^ L5^ V ^^^^; '-^•v^ ^^i J ^^
to do much for this world is in fact much-ado about nothing.' If the infinitive, with the feminine noun which it governs, be not the subject or predicate of a sentence, this concord does not hold between the infinitive and the word which it governs ; as,
^^\ ^^ ' an old man and his wife came to cut wood (sticks),
and began to gather sticks.' Here the infinitives torna and chunnd do not agree with lakriydn, because they are neither subject nor predicate to a sentence. We have been rather diffuse in explaining this pecuharity of the infinitive, because the rule respecting it, as given in most grammars, is, to say the least of it, unsound. It runs thus: "The termination ^ is used with certain verbs or with post-positions ; ^J (nt), ^
(nln), or ^Lj (niydn), when a feminine noun singular or plural is the object of the verb ; and U in all other cases ! " We have just shewn from the best authority, that ne is used when there is
Participles, 131
neither " a certain verb " nor " post-position " in the case, and that ni is not necessarily used at all times when a feminine noun is the object of the verb."
c. The inflected infinitive with ka {ke or ki) is also used ad- jectively in a sense somewhat like the Latin participle in turns ; as, ^jf^ l^ ^iy& ^^ ' this cannot be ; ' l^ J^:>- ^^^^ ^sP- ^^^ l^\ ' now I do not mean to go to Persia ' {non sum iturus) ; so, \^ ^JU ^-^ j^^ ' I am not the man to believe.' Lastly, the inflected infinitive is used with LO when it means to begin ;' with liJJ 'to grant leave;* and with l3b 'to get leave;' as, l^J ^jU^ ^j ' he began to say ; ' j J J\:>. f ^ ' allow us to go ; '
j^-S> iJb «JT t^j ' they are allowed to come.' The verb l3l^ ' to go,' may also govern the inflected infinitive of another verb {ko being understood) ; as, .^^ ^^4 ^^ ' ^^®y went to play.' The verb 1:.Cj ' to be able,' generally governs the root of another verb, but it is often used with the inflected infinitive, particu- larly when accompanied by a negative particle; as, I^^Cj J^ ^^^ ' I shall be able to move ; ' lf> liC> dj ^d^ Hj ' he was not able to move ; ' liCo ^J^ l^^. ^^r^^ ^ ^ cannot say.' Lastly, the verb honcij denoting obligation, may govern the inflected infinitive ; as, li^i (JU- ^C«J ' you must go ; ' ^J^ ^^^ ;f^ ' you must write.'
Participles,
84. The present and past participles, when used participially and not forming a tense, generally add
\ ^ (p. 47), and agree like adjectives with the noun which they qualify. In many instances they are used adverbially in the masculine inflection, or, more strictly speaking, they are verbal nouns in an oblique case.
a. The following examples will illustrate what we have just
132 Participles,
stated regarding the participles when accompanied by hu,a;
kJ^J 'f J^v/^^V ltV- ^ crJ^ ^j^ J'/ L^ 'is there any one in Braj who will stop the departing Gopal ? ' So likewise, j^bfcXfc ^ jJ^ kjyi> (^ yo 'the bones of a dead tiger;' and,
l^J lyi> l^ ^^^ t::^c>.jj j<-^ ^ «-^^ '-^J ^J^^ ' ^® s^w a kettledrum suspended in a tree.' Sometimes the past participle is used like a mere adjective ; as, lf> 4b ^ ili^ tlX>J ' there was a flowery and fruitful garden ' (not ' flowered and fructified ') ; but the words phula and phald here may be real adjectives (not participles), derived from phul, 'a flower,' and phal, fruit,' by adding a, which is agreeable to analogy. In expres- sions like the following, they are used adverbially ; as, tiyb .<*iW ' when it was morning ; ' Jyb /»lS» ' when it was evening ; '
L5^ ^£;^* ' while I remain ; ' ^j^,*^ l/^ ' ^* ^^^ ^^S^* ^^ whom ; ' ^c^si^ U ' without understanding ; ' (j:.-oj ^j J * at the time of giving.' The present participle is doubled, to express the
continuation or frequency of the act ; as, lyb <JJ (J^ »Jji> ^l^ J^Ujfe oar work being and being, was not,' i.e. ' continuing to be done, was not completed.'
b. From the present participle is formed the compound verb called statistical (p. 66), by using the masculine inflection of the
participle together with some verb of motion; as, ^ ^Jl cjb 2^j
she comes singing.' The present participle in this case is employed precisely like the ablative of the Latin gerund. Dr. Gilchrist suggested that ki halat men is understood (and of course the Doctor's pilferers copied the same), but a moment's consi- deration will shew that this theory is more ingenious than sound.
For instance, ^ UT (^^ ^^\^ ^) ^^ Hj ' he comes (in the
state of) one singing,' is all very well, but on the other hand,
^ ^^ ^^"'^ cJls*- 1^) ^^ ^^^ she comes (in the state of)
Participles, 133
•
one singing/ is absurd ; because she is a female, and the one singing is a male ; and we leave the authors of the theory to account for the curious fact oi her coming in the state of a male singing, at that particular juncture. We believe that in these instances the present participle is a verbal noun in the locative case, similar to those Sanskrit verbals in ti, &c. (corresponding to the tio of the Latin) which denote the abstract action or con- dition of the verb. In fact we could add many instances where the participle is clearly used in this sense, as ^^ {J^ 'from sleep,' evidently the same as ^^ \^y^ •
c. From the past participle are formed the compound verbs called frequentative and desiderative, by adding karna and chdhnd respectively to the simple masculine form of the parti- ciple. The only peculiarity about these is that the verbs l3t« * to die,' and bU- ' to go,' employ the regular forms of the par- ticiple mard andjaya, in preference to the usual forms mud and gayd; as, wuh mard chdhtd hai, 'he is about to die,' or 'will die,' or ' wishes to die ;' so, wuh jdyd kartd thd^ ' he was in the habit of going.' The past participle with hu,d in the inflected state is sometimes used hke the conj unctive participle, or, indeed, it may be a compound form of the latter, for ought we can say ;
thus, .Jb l^ij c5 ^ ^i\^ ^i^^ L^y^ *--^3 * ^ J^o^ having ap- plied the smoke (by way of penance), is seated ; ' so likewise,
having put on various coloured garments, were dancing.' Some- times the past participle of a neuter verb is used adjectively (that is, agreeing with the nominative), along with another verb ; as Ulsj- ^ ; thus, ^^^ ^JU- i>- ^j ' they go along ; ' so,
Lf^ L<5^ *-^5i '^J^^ *^"^ ' ^ ^^^ ^^^ roaming about.'
d. The conjunctive participle, by connecting the similar numbers of a sentence, saves the use of verbs and conjunctions; it commonly refers to the agent, sometimes to the object of the verb; as, jT^.^^^^ ^-^1:^^ hfj^^^^ l;^ 't} 'having gone
134 Participles,
there to-day, and having taken my book, return ; ' and again,
regret has come upon me (through) making haste in this business/ The student will recollect that this participle has several forms, the first of them the same as the root; the second, the same as the masculine inflection of the past parti- ciple, or the second and third persons singular of the aorist ; but the context generally suffices to prevent any ambiguity.
e. The masculine inflection of the present participle with the addition of the particle ^ hi, forms what may be called the
adverbial participle. Its signification is very nearly the same as that of the conjunctive participle above described ; the adverbial form conveying perhaps the idea of more speed or precision ; as, ^ (^_5^2Jm-j c:jb ^^ ' (immediately) on hearing this statement.' This participle may be applied in three ways, all of them tending to prove what we stated above, that it is merely a verbal noun.
Thus we may say, ^ ^j::^*^ CL^*b ^^ where yih hat is the first form of the accusative ; we may also say, ^ i^J^^^^ ^ <^*V u-^ where is bat ko is the second form of the accusative ; lastly, we may say, ^ rjM^ ^ d^b (^\ ' on the hearing of this statement.'
Here, we see sunte in the first two expressions acting the part of a transitive verb, and in the last that of a substantive.
85. We have little more now to add on the syntax of the Hindustani language, which, we believe, we have discussed more fully, and we would fain hope, more intelligibly, than has yet been done. The follow- ing few remarks may be still added, as belonging to no particular department of the subject.
a. Sometimes a verb plural is used without a nominative case, some such word as ' they ' or ' people ' being understood ; as
in the following examples : ,Jb ^i^ ^^^ ' thus they say ; ' and {jn^ ^J^ ^ UV^ lS^J^)^ '—^^ * "^^" ^^^^ thousands with one
, Conclusion, 135
sword.' In negative sentences, the verb 'to be' is generally understood ; as, ^^^ ^j^ ^ ^l-i» u^* ^ ' cruelty (is) not becoming your dignity.' The particle d^ ki is frequently used after verbs of speaking, asking, &c., in the sense of thus,' as follows,' &c. ; as, \J ^ J, ^J^ ^^ \^ ^ (jj 'he said he had not done itj' lit. 'he said thus, I have not done it.' This is very like the use of the particle on as it frequently occurs in the Greek of the New Testament. In a sentence consisting of two or more clauses, it is not necessary to repeat the auxiliary verb
in each ; as, ^ ^j s^ *i J3^ ' \J^ \^ (i)'^ 'V 4i>W^ ' ^^c^"
ness is the thraldom of the body, and sorrow that of the spirit.'
h. We may here state in conclusion, that throughout this long section on Syntax, it has been our principal aim to illustrate those peculiarities in which the Hindustani language differs from our own. Such rules and principles as completely accord with those of the languages supposed to be familiar to the reader, we have either passed over unnoticed, or handled very briefly. It may further be stated that there remains a difficult department of the language which must be overcome by prac- tice, viz. the use of idiomatical expressions. These do not con- stitute the subject of grammar, and a knowledge of them is to be acquired by reading the best authors, and by free intercourse with the natives of the country.
136
SECTION VI.
The Devanagari Alphabet,
86. This is the character generally used by the Hindus. It is read and written from left to right, like our own. The alphabet, as used for the Hindu- stani, consists of eleven vowels and thirty-three con- sonants, all arranged as follows :
Vowels, a a I I u u ri t ai o au
Consonants. |
||||||||||
^ |
^ |
T |
^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
3? |
^ |
k |
kh |
g |
gh^ |
n |
ch |
chh |
j |
jh |
ri |
t |
? |
^ |
^ |
W |
7T |
^ |
T |
V |
^ |
^ |
^ |
th |
4 |
dh |
n |
i |
th |
d |
dh |
w |
i' |
ph |
^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
T |
^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
¥ |
^ |
h |
bh |
m |
y |
r |
/ |
W . V |
5/^ |
sh |
s |
/i |
«. To the above letters may be added the symbol , called anuswdra, which represents the nasal n (page 6), and the visarga : , which corresponds with the final weak if (p. 6) of the Persian character. We would at the same time draw the student's attention to two compound characters, of which the elements are so disguised as to have the semblance of single
letters ; viz. ^ ksh, compounded of ^fe.nd ^^ounded like our
4 '
X in fluxion, or ct in faction ; and "^ jn, sounded Hke our gn in bagnio, or the French gn in ligne, champagne, &c. The mark I is used in poetry to indicate the first member of a sloka or couplet ; and at the end of the sloka it is generally
THE dev:ajvu±gari alphabet
"Vo^v^els . JniticLl Secondary
a. a- a. -
I f ft
I t z z '
3 3^^
ri rz rz Tz
Consonants
z 3 3 "s* in
q IT, 5|:^ q
H ^ ^ ^ g
?r 'ksJ?
c OM.P o zrjvn l e tter s
A-/c /rf
^w^^ ^^\^ ^^^
fy /w ^r7 ^7r7}t r7-m dy dw r>J nth J'yl rtdk
7?,n j^Tn ry nJi pt -pn. py ps hd hliy II
^ht sJith shr sf stk sn sttl sjy ss hm hy
Sir C Wilkins serif' ;
/}. Barclay sculp*^
JfAILn ir C London
t.
/
Of the Vowels. 137
doubled, II . In prose the same marks serve to denote stops. In many books lately published in India, in the Devanagari character, the English stops are very properly and successfully introduced.
b. In naming the consonants, the short vowel a (the fatha of the Persi-Arabic alphabet, p. 8) is inherent in each ; thus ka, khd, ga, &c. : and in reading, this vowel is to be supplied after every letter (except the final letter of a word), provided it be not
accompanied by any other symbol ; thus, ^fcfir kdnak, ' gold,'
•I^"^ ndgdr, ' a city.* If a word terminates with a compound consonant, the short a may be frequently supplied at the end, as in Vr^ putra, * a son.' Whenever a consonant in the middle of
a word is not to be uttered with the short d, the consonant is marked underneath with the symbol (s) called virdma or ' rest '
(the same as the jazm of the Persi-Arabic, p. lO), as ^^•fT
LL * to speak ; ' or the In may be combined into one com- pound character, as "^«f ; but in works circulated among the
natives this nicety is not attended to. Hence the first of the vowels, "^ a, is never written except it begin a word or syllable.
c. With regard to the remaining vowels, they have each two forms : that given above, which may be called their primary form, is used only when they begin a word or syllable ; but when they follow a consonant, they assume a totally different shape, which may be called secondary forms ; thus, j «, |^ z,
^ 2, Uy w, rif*^ Cf ^ ctz, *Y Of *V au, as may be seen in the following exemplification of them with the letter 11 ga : thus,
gd, gi gi gu gu gri ge gai go gau. And the same rule applies to the rest of the consonants.
d. It will be seen that the secondary form of T , viz. « , is written before its consonant 1\ , though sounded after it : and
T
138 Compound Letters .
the student will do well to bear in mind this apparent anomaly. The T and*^ take their place after the consonant; the and are fixed to the letter beneath ; the "^ and above ; and the
'V and T are merely the T surmounted by the and . The vowels and , in combination with the letter t r, are written
^ rUf and ^ ox "^ ru ; and the vowel joined to "% h, is written "^ hri.
Of Compound Letters.
87. The strict rule in Devanagari writing is, that when two or more consonants come together, without the intervention of a vowel, such consonants unite into one compound group ; thus, in the word ^c^ matsya,
' a fish,' the rf ^ and ^ are blended as it were into
one character. For the formation of the compound letters no general rule holds, except that the last of the group remains entire, and the rest are more or less contracted by omitting the perpendicular stroke, and sometimes by changing their primitive form.
a. The letter "^ being of frequent occurrence in compounds, is written over the group in the form of a crescent (^) when it is to be sounded first, as in the words rf^ tarka, ' reasoning,'
and m*"^ pdrshva, * a side : ' and when the "^ follows another letter, it is represented by an oblique stroke ( x) underneath, as in "W^ sutra, ' rule,' and -q^-ji chandra, ' the moon.'
b. In books recently printed at Calcutta, such as the Prem Sugar, the Baital PachJsi, the Adventures of Hathn Ta^, &c., all in the Devanagari character, very few compound letters occur ; and as a general rule they are very little used in any of the spoken languages of India, being chiefly confined to manuscripts and printed works in the Sanskrit language. The
Corresponding Nagari and Persian Letters. 139
following, however, occur in our Selections, and a perusal of these will suggest the method by which others may be formed. Compounds of which the letter "^ forms the first or last element,
are purposely omitted, as that letter follows a special rule, which we have just given.
w |
^ |
m |
IT |
f^ |
^ |
W |
tT |
r^ |
|
kk |
kt |
ky |
gn |
gh |
chchh |
i; |
it |
«A |
|
^ |
-m |
m |
-^ |
\ |
¥ |
^ |
^ |
% |
'rr |
tn |
tm |
ty |
tw |
dd |
ddh |
dm |
^y |
dw |
nt |
^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
IT |
^ |
^ |
TT |
TT |
^ |
nth |
nd |
ndh |
nn |
nm |
ny |
nh |
pt |
;?7i |
i?2^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
¥ |
¥ |
^ |
151^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
ps |
hd |
hhy |
11 |
sht |
shth \ 1 |
shn I 1 |
5« IT |
5^^ |
5n |
sm sy ss Jim hy
c. Compounds of three letters are very rare, and when they do occur, it will be found that they generally consist of one of the semi-vowels "^ "^^ ^ or ^ combined with a compound of
two letters, thus : j^j ktw, •W ntVy ^ pty^ ^ sty. As for compounds of four letters, they are merely matters of curiosity, as <ri^ Ipsm, ri:«*| tsny,
88. The best dictionaries of the Hindustani language are printed in the Persian character ; hence it will be useful for the student to know exactly how he may convert the Devanagari into the former. This he will be able to do efficiently by a reference to the following table :
I. Initial Vowels, ^ T \ ^ d ^ J^ J d^ i^ 3^ }^
140 |
Corresponding Letters, |
|||||
> ' |
?. |
II. Consonants. |
||||
^ |
^ |
^ |
^ ^ ^ W ^ |
^ |
s? |
^ |
^ |
^ |
r |
/ li) ^ -^ ^ |
-«^ |
li> |
<3 |
7 |
^ |
^ |
W fT ^ T ^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
« |
^ CJ ^- J JfeJ |
<J |
V |
« |
||
^ |
^ |
iT ^ |
r T ^ ^ ^ |
^ |
^ |
^ |
<— ? |
^ |
C ^ J J ^c/^upor^ |
u- |
Jb |
||
III. |
Vowels following a Consonant, |
|||||
WT |
clK |
fwT ^ |
^ |
^ |
||
jj |
Jb |
JJ JmJ |
Si |
■^i |
||
15 |
^T |
%T ^ |
^^ |
^: |
||
•^J |
JuJ |
<xj Jy |
-V |
ij |
a. In the preceding table it will be observed that the ten aspirated letters of the Devanagari alphabet are uniformly repre- sented by the corresponding unaspirated letter, together with the round or butterfly form of the letter i>, ^ h ; thus, "^^ g^cir^ ' a
house/ j^ ; ^T dhar, ^ place,' jSb^. The real A ^ of the Devanagari is represented in the middle of a word by ^ ; as, W%X ' he said,' \^ : if, however, the letter preceding the Jb be J, J, or J, then the form Jb must be used, and the preceding letter marked with the appropriate vowel ; as, ^ -^ ( «i dahdn,
'the mouth,' ^IjbJ. The cerebral letters ^ and ^ are repre- sented by ilj and J, or ciJ and J . Sometimes the ^ and ^
have the sound of a cerebral r and rh respectively ; in which case they are generally marked with a dot beneath, thus ^ and ^
and with Jf orj in the Persian character ; as, «|>5| hard, * great,' ijj. The various nasals of the Devanagari are represented by
Persian and Arabic Letters, 141-
the Persian ^, which will be found sufficient for all useful purposes.
h. The letter ^ is sometimes represented by -^ : the letter
K( generally by ^C.^ sometimes by ^^ ; and the letter ^ is more
frequently ^ than JL. The compound ^ is generally repre-
sented by ^>- or ^, seldom by ,^^, its proper sound. The compound "^ is represented by ^; as, ^tjI agya (djna),
LiT: its real sound, as already stated, is that of gw in the French words champagney ligne, &c.
89. It appears, then, that the Devanagari alphabet may be represented with tolerable exactness in the Persian character ; but the converse does not hold, as the Persi- Arabic alphabet has fourteen letters which have no exact counterpart in the Devanagari. The plan adopted in this case is to represent the letters in question with such Nagari letters as approximate them in sound, which in some printed books are dis- tinguished with a dot underneath ; thus,
u^ |
^ |
J |
J |
t |
|
m |
^ |
^ |
^ |
? |
^ |
o |
uJ |
t |
t |
1^ |
|
^ |
^ |
^ |
^&c. |
^ |
a. In a few printed books an attempt has been made to invent distinct letters for the various forms of the Persian and Arabic z^ which, it will be observed, are all represented by ^ ; but in reality the subject is not worth the labour. In the
first place, the Hindiis, who alone use the Devanagari character, are sparing in the use of Persian or Arabic words, to one or other of which the various forms of the letter z belong ; and, secondly, such words as they have in the course of centuries adopted have become naturaUzed, or, if the critic will have it,
142 Persian and Arabic Letters,
corrupted, so as to suit the elements of the NagarT; thus, ^j*£>\=>.
is written and sounded "^fsf"^ hajiri. In a new edition, in
the Devanagari character, of the Adventures of Hatim JS,?, which we have just received from India, almost all dots and double letters are discarded, as a useless incumbrance.
h. The letter c is generally represented in Nagari by employ- ing the vowel with which it is connected, in the initial form, with a dot under it ; as, Jco W^^^ ba^d ; Ac T^ 'Hm ; J^ v^^
'umr. This method is sufficient for practical use ; but it is by no means satisfactory, as may be seen in the monosyllable W^^ J which in Persian and Arabic is sounded ba'd (the a
uttered from the bottom of the throat) ; but according to the rules of the Devanagari alphabet it makes ha'ddy unless we use the virama (n) under the ^ , as ^^T^,
c. When in a word two vowels follow each other, the rule is, to write the second vowel in the initial form ; for though not at the beginning of a word, it is the beginning of a syllable ; thus, l^^^l hu,d ; ^^ ho^o ; ^^d ha,ite. This is precisely the
same in principle as the use of the mark hamza (p. 17) in the Persi-Arabic alphabet.
d. The best mode of learning the Devanagari character is to write out several times the whole of the single letters in Plate II. The various elements of each letter will be found in Plate I. fronting the title page ; the small dot accompanying each shews where the pen starts from in their formation. When the student has made himself tolerably familiar with the letters, he may commence with the first story, which is the same as the third story of the Extracts in the Persian character. In like manner he will find that the Devanagari stories, from 2 to 7 inclusive, are old acquaintances. Stories 8, 9, and 10 also occur in the other Extracts, but some of the words differ, viz. those of Persian or Arabic origin are displaced in the Devanagari for words purely Indian and Sanskrit. The rest of the Extracts in this character are taken from the scarce
Of Manuscripts. 143
and valuable Hindustani and Hindi Selections, edited by Tarini Charan Mitr, head munshi in the College of Fort William, Calcutta, 1827, in two vols. 4to. In their style and grammatical construction they offer no peculiarity differing from those of the Hindustani Extracts.
Of Manuscripts, 90. In Arabia, Persia, and India, the art of printing till very recently has been little cultivated, and even now it is in no great favour among the natives. Hence the great body of their literature is still in manu- script, as was the case in Europe before the invention of printing.
a. Among the Musalmans the principal handwritings are, 1st,
o
the NasMUy ^J=^, of which our type employed in the printing
of this volume is a very fair imitation. Most Arabic Manuscripts, and particularly those of the Koran, are in this hand ; and from its compact form, it is generally used in Europe for printing books in the Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Hindustani languages. 2ndly, The Ta'lik, juliy, a beautiful hand, used chiefly by the
Persians and Musalmans of India, in disseminating copies of their more esteemed authors. In India, the Ta'lik has been extensively employed for printing both Persian and Hindustani works, and within the last twenty years, a few Persian works, in the same hand, have issued from the Pasha of Egypt's press at Biilak, near Cairo. 3rdly, The Shikasta as,lLS», or broken hand,
which is used in correspondence. It is quite irregular, and unadapted for printing, but not inelegant in appearance, when properly written.
b. The NaskMy being like our type, requires no explanation, and the Shikasta from its irregularity scarcely admits of any. We shall therefore confine ourselves at present to the description of the Ta'Tik, of which we have given fourteen plates of engraved specimens at the beginning of this work. Plate I. Division 1st, presents all the simple elements of this character, the small cross mark shewing the commencement of each. The 2nd ele-
144 Explanation of the Plates.
mentary form here marked c-^, with one dot subscribed, so as to be equivalent to hey may, by a mere change of its dots, become c_-> , ci? , d^ (p, tj s). The 3rd form, now a -. J, becomes in the same manner ^, i, ^ (cA, M, h). The 4th makes two letters, J, J. The 5th, j, J? j, and J. The 6th is repre- sented as consisting of two forms; one an indented, the other a protracted Une, may in either shape form the sin and shhi {s and sh), as the only distinction between them is that the sin (s) wants, and the shin (sh) has, three dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The 7th form, ^ and ^ . The 8th, L and ^ {tj z). The 9th, c and 4 . The next letters are uJ , j , d/, J , ^^ ^y J , and a. Then follow the initial, medial, and final forms of the n j^^ov he linked together. Lastly, the "i i^ {id, hamza, and ye), the latter under two varieties of form, the last of which is now conventionally used by the natives to denote the yde majhul (p. 13).
Division 2nd exhibits the second elementary form (viz. that of t_^, L^, CL^, cS), and likewise that of ^ and ^, as they appear initially, when combined with each of the others following them. Division 3rd shews the «-- (i. e. «--, >t^, «-, or ^), prefixed in the same manner to each of the others. Division 4th (PL II.), the (j^, fj: . Division 5th, the ^, ^jo . Division 6th, the 1? , ^. Division 7th (PL III.), the ^ , 9^. Division 8th, uJ and j . Di- vision 9th, the CS, (^, and by leaving off the top part we shall in most instances have the initial J. Division 10th (PL IV.), the A . Division 1 1th, the Jb combined initially with the rest of the elementary forms. The tail of the he is given only in hd, hd, hk, hi, and hid, but omitted in all the rest, according to the practice of Oriental writers. Hence the initial form of this letter is often too apt to be mistaken for the ntlm. The 12th Division contains the combination of the characters as arranged in alpha- betical notation, noticed in p. 20, forming the fanciful words, Ahjad, hawaz, hutti, kaliman, sa'fas, karashat, sakhaz, zazagh,' and the last line may be read thus, indicating the name of the chirographer : AVahd ul muznih, al fakir 'ubaid iillahi husainl shirin rakam ghaffara zunubahu.
Muhammadan Calendar, 145
c. Plates V. to XIV. inclusive, consist of a series of words in alphabetical order containing combinations of three or more letters. The student should endeavour to transcribe these into the Roman character, and after some time restore them, as an exercise, into their original state. Thus, the first line of Plate V. forms the combinations hldit, hhjt, hhsht, pnj, blkh, and bind, and so on with regard to the rest. Coming now to complete words, we may premise, as a general remark, that when these contain any of the letters c--?, c->, ci^, lLj, ^, ^j, in the middle of a combination, it is usual to give the middle one a bold dash upwards, terminating in a sharp point vertically, like the n in ^ tnbw (PI. V. line 8), or like the yin ^^- syb (PL VII. line l).
d. Concluding remarks, — In manuscripts the short vowels and other marks seldom make their appearance ; and even the diacritical dots are often either altogether omitted or irregularly placed. It may be useful to observe, then, that when from the ambiguous position of a dot, it may apply to more letters than one, it should of course be assigned rather to the letter, which is not complete without a point, than to one which may dispense with it. Thus the third combination Plate I. No. 2, should be read b/i^ and the eighth ns, though the dot be over the last letter as if intended to be a j^ . But in many cases the sense alone can determine the point. Thus the last word of No. 2 may be either be or pe ; and the dot over the ninth word of No. 3 is so equivo- cally placed between that and the word above it, that it may be read either j^,^, ^:^, or lS^ , according as the dot is con- ceived to belong to one or the other, above or below. The grand key, however, to the reading of manuscripts, is to know the lan- guage ; at the same time many useful hints may be gleaned from Ousely's Persian Miscellanies, 4to. London, 1795 ; Stewart's Persian Letters, 4to. London, 1825 ; and Essai de Calligraphie Orientale, in the Appendix to Herbin's Developpements des Principes de la Langue Arabe, 4to. Paris, 1803.
Muhammadan Calendar.
91. The Musalmans reckon by lunar time, their sera called the Hijra, commencing from the day on which
u
146 Muhammadan Calendar.
Muhammad departed, or rather retreated, from Mecca to Medina; which, according to the best accounts, took place on Friday, the 16th of July (18th, new- style), A.D. 622. Their year consists of 12 lunations, amounting to 354 days and 9 hours, very nearly ; and hence their New-year's Day will happen every year about eleven days earlier than in the preceding year.
a. To find the Christian year corresponding to that of the Hijra, apply the following rule. From the given number of Musalman years, deduct three per cent., and to the remainder add the number 621.54, the sum is the period of the Christian aera at which the given current Musalman year ends. For example, we mentioned, p. 21, that the death of the poet AhlT happened A.H. 942; from this number deduct three percent, or 28.26, and the remainder is 913.74. To this last add 621.54, and the sum= 1535.28, which shews that the Musalman year 942 ended in the spring of 1536. This very simple rule is founded on the fact that 100 lunar years are very nearly equal to 97 solar years, there being only about eight days of difference. A more accurate proportion would be 101 lunar to 98 solar years, but this would lead to a less convenient rule for practical use.
b. When great accuracy is required, and when the year, month, and day of the Muhammadan sera are given, the precise period of the Christian aera may be found as follows : Hule. Express the Musalman date in years and decimals of a year ; multiply by .970225; to the product add 621.54, and the sum will be the precise period of the Christian aera. This rule is exact to a day, and if in the Musalman date the day of the week be given, as is generally the case, the verr/ day is easily determined.
c. The Muhammadan or lunar months are made to consist of 30 and 29 days alternately, but in a period of thirty years, it is found necessary to intercalate the last month eleven times so as to be reckoned 30 days instead of 29. The months retain their Arabic names in all Muhammadan countries, as follows :
m 9
"^ muharram
J^ safar 29
f^^^i] '^^jjrabVul-awiual 30
Muhammadan Calendar, Lunar Months.
<^~^^j rajab ^L*-2> sha'bdn
DAYS.
30
^\^\
rabVuS'sdnl
Jj^l ii\As^jamad-al-awwal30
jli]\ Ju^ jumad-as-sani ^ j:>~ "i \ Sl^ jumad-al-akhir ]
29
j^ldX; ramzdn ji^-i> shawwal
iiSxj ^3 zz ka'da J
1.
147
DAYS.
30 29 30 29
30 29
d. We here subjoin the days of the week ; on the left hand, the names in use among the Musalmans of India, next those of the Hindus, and on the right, the Persian names, much used in the dates of letters, &c.
Days of the Week. |
|||
Musalman. |
Hindu. |
Eng. |
Persian. |
J\^^ itwdr |
jLjjj rabl-bdr |
Su. |
|
^-jorjl^-*^-: somwdr or plr |
O jL^^ som-bdr |
Mo. |
> |
(Jx^ mangal |
jLlx:,^ mangnl-bdr |
Tu. |
|
iSi budh |
jL&iX.' budh-bdr |
We. |
a-1^^,1.^ |
djU ^jt^^jum'a rat |
j[^^:bj: brihaspati- bar |
Th. |
1^ c c |
O 9 |
jb^^ sukra-bdr |
Fri. |
^'^S\ |
isa-M! samchar |
,U^--o sani-bdr |
Sat. |
<<.ui& or A-i-w |
148
Hindu Calendar,
92. The Hindus reckon by solar years, and luni- solar months. Their principal sera is that of the Kali Vug, of which the year 4947 expired about the 11th of April, A.D. 1846, at which period their new year generally commences.
a. The Hindu year is divided into twelve equal portions, which may be called solar months ; but all festivals and dates are reckoned, not by these simple months, but by the duration of the moon which terminates in each. Hence, although the month baisakh begins de jure about the 11th of April, it may have commenced de facto from one day to twenty-eight days sooner. When two new moons occur during one solar month, which happens once in three years, there is an intercalary month, and the month so intercalated receives the name of the one which preceded it, that is, of the solar month within which the two new moons may happen.
b. Besides the aera of the Kali Yug, the Hindus in the northern half of India reckon from the time of a renowned prince by name Vikramaditya who lived (or died) about 57 years before the commencement of our sera. Another common aera is that of a prince named Salavahana, which commences 78 years after the birth of Christ. Several other aeras are in use in certain parts of the country, for a full account of which the reader may consult a profound work devoted entirely to the subject, entitled Kdla Sankalita, 4to. Madras, 1825.
^LmJ April
The Hindu Solar Months, jj^jl^ August ^T ovj^^ September
or
CSi\%\
October
<&
^
\ November
^/-jj December ^ U January
^ c > February
l::^-^
March.
♦ •
^^ % ^Tl, ^^T'T tTcTT-l! ^TT^ ^^T^ ^fTT Tl" ^fw, fft" T^^TT ^T WtT f^^ ^T^ ^T^ ?
^^ ^ ^t:RT t"^^ ^^T. ^fil^T^ TT^ i "q;^ ^^
ij^if^T ^ ^Tm ^. ^T^r5 % ^rfT» ^t ^ f^
^TPrrT %? % ffT W^ ^T %. ^TTT f^'it ^ ^, ^?^ ^^ ^ ^?T^ wnrT T^ W^. "^ ^ff^, ^T^ T^
^fiTTTT ^^^ ^^^tT: ^. f^T ^IT^, f^ Wr ^5^ ^
^ wsT rpftr ^T^^ ^»T^T m miim ? ^f^, ^Tf%w!
^Tf%T ''l^t^'T iRT ^T ^ %; ^T ^W ^ W fR
^ ^ »R^ ^nff ^ f%^ f^^^TfTT ^t; h^ i?f^
^^tHC f^5 ^TWT, Wr ?p? ^ W t%WT ^^ irff
t^n- ^T, T^ ^ ^t 'NtT ^ ^^ ^T IZT, ^T ^HTT
^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ "^ ^^- "^ ^ TV^ T^ ^^ % ^^T f% f^ ^t ^Jl ^^^ 5^^ % Wr T^f T
^
^TTT ^^T ^^ WTTT ^^r^T ^^T^ ^T^T, f% ^^ ^ rT^ ^^ ^ ^ T^ ^TtfT ^Tft t%^rft ^, T^ f%^ Ir fVfTT
^ T^ wrf^ f%wr^; ^r^ ^?^ ^ f^ ^TT tt, <rr ^T
TTWr ^ ^^^ TRI ^ "^i^ ^[^ ^ ^^T ^WT, ^TTl"
%CT ! ^f^mr ^T^ if wr % ? ^^^ ^ ^rrr, "^ ^ri^ ^w ^ ij^ ^ ^T <TT^ ^nrr. Tff 3^ ^^ ^^ ^T
^VWT, ^TfTW^ ! ^'f ^ ^^ <fV^ ^, f^"^ '^ ^
^ ^T, ^T 11^ ^^^ ^ ^^|m ^^rr ; f^^r^ ti^ ^
^"RTT ^TT, f% ^^ T^ ^ ^ %^ % ^ft ^^W ^ ^ftft "Hft "^t ^^ ^. ^^^ ^ ^TTT, f% f^^^ %^ ^ W^t % f^^ ^ ^T$ W>"- ^T^ 5^, Tf ^^ ^ TR ^T, ^^ ^,^7 "qr TT^ T^, ^T% f% ^1? ^, ^^ ^^ ^
t^T TT^ f^^ ^T ^^^T %^T ^^^T ^ ^T%. T<5'rT ^^
W ^% ^^ ^ fftT ^T ^%. fTW 1^^ ^ ^^ i ^r^y ^. T^ % ^^T ^-^fT ^^T. "^Tf ^'T Tf ^ ^^ T^
% f%^^, ^^i W^^, Wi^ '^1^. ^^ Wt^T, ^W ^T
^^ f^T "TT^- '^^ ^ ^ "Q:^ ^ ^M^<=(l5 ^ ^FTT, t%
^51^ ! mf wi^ %9 ^^ f^ f%^ ^r€t ^ ^ ?
«^-
^?rR T ^?l^ TTTt^ ^ ^ ^"RT ^^ ^TO ; ^f^ ^^?^ ^
e\
TTt" (5^ ^ fr^j ^^ T^ ^ '^ ^^fTT ; ^V^, 11^
^Vfft ^T ^ ?", ^ ^^ Ty T^ err ^ ifi^m. t^
f% ^rft ^TfT ^T ^ ^ ^ ^ %. ^^^ ^f^^ f% ^^TT^ ! ^Tf Tft ^TfT %^ wr ^ f%^T^ Tf^ ^fm. 'arr?
% ^miT f% ^Tf ^r^T^ ^ Wfiz \ ^ f%T f%T ^^ ^T
f%f^7rf ^ "q;^ ^t tj^ t^^ WSJ ^ ^T *r^T T^
f%^ ^ TRI ^TO ^^ ^T ^TfT^ f% ^rCTTT^ ! ^'^TTl'
wft t%TRw ^ ^^ ^ ^5^^ w^ ^^ '^^T ^"pft ^ wr
^^^ ^ ^TTTj Wt ^TRt 5^ ^ ^ ^JWi tw, f^^ ^^W ^T ^If W^TT^T ^tf ^T^T, TW 5^ ^ ft<ft %^
^T. ^i|^ WWl^ ^TT ^T^ "^ft #r V^ %5 ^ fft^
^. ^Tf ^^ T^ % ^ ^^^ f^^^. fqiT ^^TT, f% "q:^ ^ ^^?^T f%^^ ^ %it ^t|* mT 'TTT fV^ %.
^^^ ^ W^^ ^ ^'^ ^^ ^-^ ^^ ^^^^, ^"^ ^^^'^ ^^ ^^, ^^ ^^ f^ TT^nif^T ^ %'Sj ^"^^ ^
^T^mi ^ ^^ ^^ -^m ^T ^^T, t rrr T^ ^T ^cf^ ^^, ^k: f%ff ws ^Tt wr^ ; ^T^^ ^ i ^^
rT^ -q;^ ?:^T ^^m f^T m, %t ^w tt ^3:Tf%^f
f%^ f% ^T ^it ^T^ ^t"^^ ir ^^ Tl^ ^T W^5
^^f^. ^?^ ^ it^ f^T 'it, <T^ ^ ^Tf ^^ ^R ^T^ "H^ ^ TT $T^f WT^t i ^ ^ "^T^T f% '^IT^
"ff^T WTfTT % ? f%^^ '^rrfTT ^ ^^n^i ^t f%^ f%wr
^ f%¥t ^T ^ ^^; ^T ^^ ^t fr^ ^Tf TTT^ ^ T^^
^T^RT. Tri^j ^^, ^^ ^^^ ^^ng, ir^^ <t^tt ^^^
ITT^ ^ ^TTT, ^T f%^ ^T ^T^ % ? f%^ ^ ^T ^n^,
f%^T%. T^ "T^ ^ 5^^ "ft ^^^ %T ^T^^rr^ ^ ^sr^nfTT
^ ^ ^T- ^^^ ^ ^T ^^T ^Tf ^TtTT T^T^ ^TWT
^T^T ! T^ ^T <5^ "^ii, ^^ T^*. ii: % ^ ^srfr ^tt.
ir^T, %T Vt ^ ^t% ^^TrfT ^gWT. T^ ^ ^ "^^
^z^T Y^T, %T %T ^ T^ *t wr ^Tt ^t ; ^T
^ZT ^ ^rft TT^r^TrfT ^^TTrTT %, %T ^T^ ^li ^T "^ ^TfTT .%. ^r^ ^^ ^^ ^:^T ^^T, %TT i^ ^T ^^TT, ^m ^ft% ^^ T^^RTT '^WT. ftfT ^ ^T^ T^ ^T%, f%
^m ^T ^w ^ tr^fTfTT %. ^^ 5^, ^t5t ^, % ^r^
^ f%^. fT^ ^Tt ^^ ^?T, f% ^ ^T f^^W % m ^T ^7T^ WT Wmr %, %T f^^ ^ ^ra ^^ ^riTTT.
\£- ftr^ ItT ^T ^t ^IT %7T WW ^^TffT m,
^%T, ^^cT^ ifT^ft ^ ^T^ ^^ ^^fTT f^TfTT %, %T W ^f^T ^Tf TJT^fTT. TfT^ ^TrT ^ ^^^ ^ fTT^f ^
%T f5^ ^ ^STf ^TrT ^^, ^^ ^ fJiT ^ ^W ^ "qi^ ^TrT ^ra W ^^ ^T^ ^^ ^, T% ^ ^ fJ^TT ^^ ^T
5^Ti? ^T ^^f%fT "^-q:, %t ^^ ^r?^T ^t^? f^ f'nit
^TR ft^ %, T^ % ^^ Wi" ^^ %fTT ? ^^ ^f^y T^ ^^^ ^ ^^T, ¥^^ ^Tq^ ^T, %rT 'm ^T ^t^ ^T^T.
-q:^ ^T^ ^ti fq>T ^"R ^^f%^ ^TJ. ^^^ $ ^^ ^ f^^ ^ ^ ^^T, f% ^T fir^ 1?^^ ^T^ ^T ^% ^^ ;
f% ^^ ^fi? ^ ^t^T trf^ ? fr?^ ^ % wwi, f% ^T?
^?W ^ ^f^ ^ T^ %T TTTT ^sTR ^T 'f^I^l ^ WT^
5^, <T^ ?PT f% w ^ ^ ^^ frrfrr ^fw, ^xrifr
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3 ^j^j^ V. uf'^^ »^*^^>re c/-^ L5t^ j^ jj^ * ^ 4^ ^.M^^
o c^ ^ o -^ ^
O ^C^ 9 f 00 c
O X' / O
n
C O O 0«,y/ CO
CO <^oc»^ ^^
Extract from the Araish-i-MahfiU
* ^ "
j^ ji^ 3 Jj^ *Li>jb - jcJj ^^ ^^^ ci^^ljj ji - c-^1 cr^^
j^ - ^U Jjj ^J^ - c^jV ^ lT* ci^W cr?^ S-^ * ^
• CO - <> P P
o c ^ IjP y o ^
-ff^ (^ -f?^ J^ ' ^J^ ^'^ criV C^-^ v,£;S^ ^ ' L^^^ ^^ ^ # \^ ij ^ j^ \ihb j>^ \jd J> jcmCJ! J # \su^ ^^ JU- b\
" */ u<^J- ^«^,^ Ls«^ ^r^" «^rf -f - V i/- '^^'^ J
- CO 9 y^ 9
9 S- /CO
CO y
P 9 , y c c c^ o
CO o / c ^
^" '4>. f J^ J', ^'■j 'S / wj4i ^?4' us4' J^ ^^
op c>> C^ O C C »X-
^( J^5 ^;---l uJic i(J^4^ vJiol ^J JOJ ^^ ^B^n^ ^ S^/
O <' o
^y y Lrr* ^ "^ /^ " V (^ L55-^. ^ ^. * ^'"^
• o ^ ^
*= L5^>V^ .r-rJ^ ^,,^ 9 LTf^ ^>r=^ L^ J^ CT^* ^^ JjJ ^
^ 7*-» ;^^^ ^S--' f J^ CSA l5-^J j!;^ Jki/i-U^J CJii\ Cl
j^lac # ^^l-* ^^ jlkc i^j j^l „ 1)1 ^ ^ ^^ LUd.^ lSA # Lf
9 o9 o o? o c^ c
^*'^'- ? ^ ^ 9. 9 y
ISJT uJ^ ^1 ^^^-^ ^.^ ^^^-^ # ^ ^ ^^ ^ 4^1 - ^Lj ^^b
rr « iCjj ^ ^-'^>^ -ef- ^ ^y^ Lf* V ^^r^ \j. lt^-^ V^ i^ - V
x- „ C ^ <' ^ O
J - Iv^^.^ J^ J *Ujb # ^^ ^IJ;^\ ^^ ^ ^ \i3U
# ^^ .^ ^1 C->b -|^« - ^Jj^ ^j4j^ ^ ^
f ^ ox- o c
O 9 Ij O C C "
y 9 ^ y I. C J»0
c ^ c ^ c o
L^y J^> S--^ *f^Jrr^ - ^:r^V^ l;^*^ -^ > l5>^ '^ ^^ ^^
c o o
o c c ^
u^l?> ^^ - ^P?C•;^ ^j«l> 'H^ iJ^ cT^ c;^!;^ <^J '^ ' ^^
rr
^ ^ U^J^ Jy:^^ ^}/\ # ^5^ i)^y^ ^ \i J\ ^^ f,\i Ci;^l^ jjl Lii^rs^^ ^;>-l IxJ^^ ujy^ ^ Cj\i ^\ ^j^ c->\ # l3^
# ^5^ J l^ ^CjI ^ Ls ^j^b ^J^\ # \^ J l^ Jy ILil ^ ^ ,j^
9 ^ 9 9 ■^ 9 I-
O C. C C ' C ^ 9
JL{/ vJU J ^U;il ^ ^j^ d^\i CXi} J '\^ J ,:^ ufj^
n
j^ - l> J ^;^ ICoi JU d^ « Ji ^^ <U?iU # bj Jb ^^fss* Cl^l; ^^^ ^T ^ bUy ^ ^U # Uf c/-b ^ ^\i lT' t^ U5? ^^4
bbji ^-0^ ^J-w«i ^ St^ ^ \^ C^^aTclXy ^^\ **^^^ ^ i-l^J ^<-' \j^jj # b^ li" bb«j ^^^ ^ ^^\ t-->bi ^\ j^\^ bJ ^ jb ^ bjJ
^,^\ - V ^1^ ^-^y, «^^ e^>^r^ LTi^ -^ - W''^> ^j^ J^^
^ o ^ o o c
^^*^ i^< l;;^^ ciX^f' ' jV <^ ^ b^ bj L-;l^rj. -^^ ^^ ^1 i^ l/ ^^^ Lc«^^. -^if^/ J^^ (^^ ^5^ Jj ^^^** l^i ^c3^. cr?^
• i^ 9 ^ /Off t. o
^\ . \fl ^^\0 ^^1 - \j^e L^V sT^-^*^ lT' |V^ cr^* <-^^^/
^ Ij j d-i-w^ ^ ^ I) to;i (^ j^l-^ji! S ^Jb IjjJb LjI ^^-^ S ^
^ y P t CC CO
^ ^9 i^ 9
oC/ 9 (^ 9 ^ ^ 9
9 v.^ / OG/
J • "
Ci» * c o c
i** o o • o o
9 9 9 jj ^
. -IjV (ir^* U^^ s^*^ 4?*^ yL^ c^J*^ S^ ''^ V ^^'^ j^ J^ ;^ f^^
^ O Oi» 9 ^9
J> J\^} s^\ J^ - 1/i ^i;:?«3l J ^y^p^ ^\ ^^' ^ ^l J
^)^ 4 Lr=r ^ ^5^ (•^ ^ J^. bW ^' <J^ lt^^ ^ ^3
oy y y y o
lt' J^J <J. dt c^r^^ H/f 4 LT^ ?y^ Ir*^^ J^^ * l^
^9 jt" ^ Off 'y
# ill J t3l^ ICly-) ^ ,^Js^ f^ J, ^^\\ (^\ - bJ <— >t^ " V v/^^ L^ ^-r^^ l/ iJ^ LS^lr* ^d^ ^ tiT^ LsV ^^
9 op y '
* ^^ W^ er^ ^ir?:<j u-^ ^y e.'^ * y >r cT* ^^^ l/^ '^ ^^ ^Uft) ^j ,^/-^ «-//> j3^ ^ (^rr" VV c/-^ L!i3tc \^ ^jUiiJ
c O • 9 y
y ^9 y Lf 9
^-^ JL jU i^ ^ ^ ^j£. ^^^_^\ # \S jl-i:^-^ c-.'v-j ^3 i^\-J» jIj # l-i
P o o o
• O •CO
v..:^>«sjt> i*:^ ^ jbl «-iy/^ tij^^.^'^ ^jllaLj a^ ^jb ,<*:^ l^l^
p ^ p t^ J' ^
j^ ifU jb <! j^ a\^ li IC»1 ^^ ^U-yb^^ jj ^^^ — ^ ^\^
^ P P 9 O o
p(. ^ ^ ^^ <.p
us-jy - ^ j-^^ J J^ ^^-^^V * ^5^ Vv 1)?^ V^ ^l-i J
^ t, t^P (^ p C ^ P
^^ i.,^ ^ - ^ ^_^y ^1 s ^j^^ ^^ ^j^ .^\ ^ le-ji
«->> OO^ ^C PP
Jjj^^ L->^ ^ V~ l:;:^^ ^^ ^\ \^ ^ ^^ ^<XJ J. jya>^
p ^ «. ^ ^ '•
Jb <U\5>- l3|^ 1^ ^ « ^ j,^^^ CL/Li»^j U~-^ L5**» '^^^rl^ l/
# bUjj JuJ^ \C^ j^ ^ bKl ^^
Iv
^ f ? 9
L5^ L5t^' U^yy LiH^ lT-V^ LS^; <» ^ S/Jy lirnf ^^" LiH ^ ^ - ^^ i:^^ LT; v/i' S^ U^ - -«^.*^ S^*^ ^/^^-^*^ ^! * ^' ^
# IS^uj <u ^^^^ ^^^ cjb i* cjUjj 4j^! <iL^ - L^ f^^.
i. 9 ^ ^ S-9' \^ <f - C
^ <- 9 K. 9 ^ O
♦^ • O OOy« C-
9 9 iy ^ C y
o/ o
11
/ o o c ^
iij>v/ j^ - ^^ J^^ / ^^^j V * lA' ^Ir^ -p:^ ^ u^j^ '^^'
S ^A eJjJ ^5^y, u5^^1^ ^\^ J^,, ^j\^ 1 e^jJ c^^ - ^^
G GJ? ^ G
9 O • ^^ ^ y GG ' G
- li^A^ LS^i, tir?^ " j V j^'^ (^' ^^ * ^y^ ^ cry c;^* c/^
. ^ G
u
*;:;n^lj:'
^ ^5 ;^ liJ^^<'^''^ '^^ LS^ cT^* y^ L5~^ ^1^ *— ^'^ ^^
/ ^ o •
^ ^ c^*^ L^; ^ u-^c*- «^- IT jV. !/^ b^ V ^r* W^ vj«^ S-*- cT' -i^i * u;"^ ^jj cT* vj^ c^-] - ^5f L^ J^)^^ tJ" ^\
CO ^ 9
# U, 1/ At) ^ ^jo^ ^1^ jj^ - ^^ VJ^ j%!x ^\ «s^ » L3^ ^ Ax^ tlCl jjjy b! ^ ^U,jb j-^-f P*
9 9 C^ >>
* i^ c^ J^y^ lS^^ y "■ y* L5'^^ v:;^'**^^ S'^ - j^^ (♦^f^
o 9 o c '' /
c ;> c
fc >» y /» <>
C u (, (^9 ^9
IP.*
s£r^' u-i *(4^jV^ Lr>J L5i^ l/t ^#^-f4' '^^>^ ^-^^" *^^
wj)jV - Ji «^T s£5^ ^ / J ^3 ^> tl^J f"A
C^^ JJ^ - L5^ Lr6 CirV ^-^^ L5^ Lf^ ^^ - <-^ <-^V
CO ^ o
c c c , p ' ^
/ vV ^5^ ^3 ^/^ '^V •^, * ^jS JKj jCi ^ «^
V
u,.o^ # W^ l3l^ 1>^ j^\ 11^^ ^U ^\ -. ^ ^; ^ c^" # \S v//j ^i^^* 4gJ^ ur^J lS^ .Xi^b .1^ y^ l;^^>-^
(*j^ ^T # lie crv r^ i>^ - V \»T ^y> ^^ yj^ j\j^
^ o /
PC? o •
/ CO c o ^ o
O? f ^ i. p
> ^ji^, J^' ^^^^ V^,* ^5^ 1^^ L^ V^ ?;ir< ^ jl-» l/
^y LS^y^ C:-*^ iJ?>^ # 1/ l^ / JUj ,^1 4^^ j^ .- };U
,^ cUjj * IT ^b c-^ ^ ^joJs'^ uiol ^ ^ Jiu rv
^ p o ^ o «-
ir
^»}J^ Jijf J Jl-^^ cr^v^. *^.^ J3^ - \l^ cr^* -f^^ l/ <J^>^ * j! L^b jjy^j jj ^T ^T ^5T y - ^^ i«jLyl W^> ' <^ - 1^
>> u >> o o
oib- #^jU ^J;i jj^jj ^^^ - V.4r^;j^ - ^ 1^ ^ ti;^ ^'^ t/
^ O O CO c oi'
j^l - \^ ll^ <!G JUiC^ J^ ^ \J ^U> Jb J;^ ,Jt3-»1j ^^1 - Ij^ ^j1
^ ^ ^ c / *>-
- LjJb jtiri-l ^ 2(lljb # (jj^.^ «^^r*c;W ^ji? J3^ U^^ i:^?^
* ^jjojJ j^ ^u5 1^ C/"' JJ'
9 s-9 o CO
L5f ^M'^ ^i^l * >/^ J^V ^, 'A* J!;f ^J^ 'j^S
9 t f
^.t'/ 9 P f c
" J^J^^ '^r'^'^ ^ ^t ^^ * ^/^ ^^ *^^ "J"^ sT^-'^
y ^ o c ^ o
o c ^ o ^
^ S- P 9 9 b ^ c
a^ ^ UT/ tJT ^^ l3^ ^^ (^:>-U ^ - l^ / ^^^Ak^ ^
c/- oy c^ c y
^5-»^ ci J^y^ * J^ ^}^ ^5-» Ji^ ^^ * vj^ >.>r; t/-*^
t, 9 C / •
G ^ t~\ (^ 9 t. 9 ^ o
jt^iL. # ^/'i-s^ ^5«^'* tl^ uiol y - ^c* ^^jjT ^^ ^^ j^ j ^/
O ^ O O S- 9 9
r
J ^\ ij€^ cSf\ . [^ \c!^i^ ^ ^ ^^ j^ r'
la^. ti (jJ\ e^J # l^ i^j^.*^ ^ iarS- ^^ j^l j^! - l^J T lI^.4^3
G 9
^ l:r^V^ r* " erf l5^ cT' V v/ jb v/^ '^^ ^ ¥i - i:r?^
^ f ^ ^ G G -^
G C 9 y t, ^ y^
g;*- G^ ^ G G
• / • 9 (^ -
^ c^b ^^j s ^^ l«^ ^^. d ^jf^ ^^\^^ f^^ ^^ j^ y ^ .
• x> *y G o 9 9
G - C ^ ^ y f
y^O • GG • » ^
C w V It
* ^^-vi / j^ - ^^^ vi>^j^ ^/r^ <J L5^^ JjJ ^-r-y * jy
• «^ ~ mm
s^J^J'^ l/ l/J tr|. «{- Ii4> ^jf lb / '^V ij^ i^^ * ^^^
O G i» P f t, O/
/ ^r^^J -\^^^^ M^* J' ^5V> J l/} ^^ !^^
cr?^ L5^.^ J^^ ^J - ^5^ ^y L/-^ c/^ ^jlj i^J * W^^ ^¥
P P 9 i. ^
♦ uj^ W*^ uV ^j - er^ ^^'V ^5^ ;^ Jv 3^ * ^ t/V «» 000
u5^ ^ - V err* uV* ^5^J ^5^ j^ c;*^ <^.^ f ^
* 1,5;^ c-^ L-J cgr* ^^
* L5-^ CT!^ ^-^^ L5T? ^-^ ^^ "-^^ >^ <-^^ ^''' ^'^ ^ ^
J^ Ir-j^ Jj' - ^ LsJ^Je l/J r* - W~ ^^ -^. Ljs-* c;;?^ i:>^ ^3
^ «. o c o /
o ^ -» • >>
y^ L^^ l/^^v -^'^ L5^ r^ ^^ j^^ - V ^^ ^5e ^J^ l5^
k^ JJ^ - J, J'j* J S— v^l;^ ttrr« J> sig^ ^^J ^hl -
^jf^ ^5«^, LT^" - ^}^ -^y. j£i tiio^ u?j^ l/j^ ^
C • U 9 ^^ '
♦ V ^0 erV 4fOJ^ l/ ^J^ ^^ ^^^ ^^"^^ ^^ ^ ^
C O^ U 9 ^ ^ 9 . P
^U. ^^^-^ JJa-tft ^ U.^*^^ S^ - llJ iXAJ ^ \jas^ ^j * ^fi
i^9 9 ^ >» O c •
lA^ b * ^^ '^ -er Ls-" (T;^ ^-;«i Ls-* l5^.^ L^i^^ * ^-"^
^,f u^ ^ m j^ j\^ ^j-.i - 1^
<-> 9 r^'' C^ y 9
* ^^ V.^/ s^^
9 *j S. f
9 (^ ^9 *^
* ^ij^ Iny ^*^ ^"^Vj ifi; <— ^J L<*» ji^ t^j >?" guilty ^^^^^^ ^i^jb ^^^ n
w C >> C CO
^ o c ^ 099
O * >'o 9 9^9
/ i» O ^ 9 9
CO
o y o
^9 9 U 9 9
"' ^99 c 00^
J>0^^>» ^ ^9
^j^ ^ - ^ ^S^ j^ ^y> ^g:^g^J^ <-i:^iV *-^»>r^ ^ S yb ^^jT ^^^
*< ^ ^O ij9 y OC y
j^^l <^ l^ Lrf ^ j^yb un^v^ijj j^^*x5 \j\^ ^j^ Syb ^^U-■vi ^^ |J
# jj^ \\ f jt^ S^W L5^ C^^ " y^ L5^y^
9 y o
* l&jj^ jl) /f?^ ^j^^*^ /-'^ ^-^ * u}^j LT^y v/i^ e;^* y^
• ^^O P 9 y ij
- V » Lsf L57f/ - W' ^r^ si CiTJ^ / U-^ - Lif S^7 L^ " ^
O C b ^
>> o ^ I* ^
# iSyU ^ ^^^ y -if ^ ^^ ,^^'' * CL^U (j:^^ -^^ ^^^^
9 9 S.9 • O
^ ^ 4^ l::^ # IjJb jU-J j»-^ uiol ^ ^ Ja3 IP
^00 j> 5-99
O -^ ^ ^9
i.9 f i* f
^ ^^^IsW Sj^^J H-^V^ ^ ^ eri^ Vj*^ * ^ j^ ^ Vj^ / ^^J^^ L5^ Vj^ ^:r^* 4 - V^.^ *V>?^ urVtl, ^ - V.*^ mW
9 c
^ ^V Ai L^V ^r>^ * V" cr*> c/J^ '^'♦^ ^J * LrtL5i^.
- iU^ LT^^ JJ>^ - l:r^^ L5l^ JJ^ Lr^^ t^''' '^ ^5^ L?^ ^
«,>> ' >«• CO ^ ^ ' ^ • I y
y 9 " <^ 9 y .
S - O O 90
z' O 9 y O
y /«. 9 9 O C y ' C
* 1^ ^V V.W J^y " ur^ ur'V ^ L5^1 '^H; u^ -H
<-^>^ LsVv * U^ c^^ ^3 J ^b liW^ * '> LTtiJ^J^^f
• jV. s^' - ^ ^j^ * Ijjb Jb Llii' (J^^ ^^\ - l^ ^^^ Jb
Llii' Xi» t^^* - L5^ -^ - ^y ^'^ * ^J^ 5;^ 4^ " J ''' J^'^^
y 9 i^ C /^ ^
- l^jb uJo- ^-j^ i^^ ^ - ^ by> j»^ l^y ^^^ - ^
^¥^ O ^ 9^ ^
~ - ^ .«
/
f
I
o ^ y - ^
>' o o ^
*V (^ JJ^ - V^ V^ U*^ •V S^^? ^ <-^ L5iV=r L5^ L5^
C • O CO *
* (•-» t^ ^5^^ U^ U-^ JJ^ - V^ ^ (^ c;r» LS^jf
^J # l2 ^^ utr* (^r° l/ ^j^ /^ ^5f■^• ^57^ f"
VOCABULARY.
N.B. — The letter m. signifies masculine, f. feminine, a. active, n. neuter. It has not been deemed necessary to give the names of the different parts of speech, except when a word belongs to more than one division. In the Hindustani words and phrases, k stands for karna, h for hona, d for dena, j for jana, and I for Una, The letters a, p, s, and h, at the end of each definition, denote respectively the Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, or Indian origin of the word explained.
1 L^\ ah J now, presently ; ah tak,
till now ; ah-ka, of now, of the
present time, s L^\ ah, m. water, lustre, p IjcjI ihtidd, f. beginning, a ^\^\ahhagij ill-starred, wicked, s ^^la5^7, just now, immediately, s j^\ aher, m. time, delay, k L-?l ap, selfj selves ; your honour, s CS/ij\ aputrak, childless, s -^^^y) aparadh, m. fault, trans- gression, s ^j^\ dpas, our, your, themselves,
one another; dpas-meuj among
themselves, &c. s (ji^fw-jl upasthityOXYiwedjipTesent. s \:>j\ op wa, belonging to self, own. s li.^^ 1 a pahunchnd, n. to arrive
at. h [strip oiF. s
\jj\j\ utdrnd, a. to cause to descend,
J)\uttar,m.Qxi answer; the north, s
\jji\ utarna, n. to descend, to
alight. 6
IjIwI ittifakarif accidentally, a Lj1 Una, so much, so many, s
dth, eight, s
l3\^i uthdnd, n. to lift or raise up,
to take away, s lif>\ uthnd, n. to rise up, to be abohshed, togoaway; uth-jdnd, n. to depart, s 4^li3l asnae, in the midst, in the
course of a Ji\ asar, m. impression, effect, a ,J\ dj, to-day. s [ders. a
l:l:j\>-\ ijdzat, f. permission, or- ^^\ ajlj an interjection, to call or bespeak attention, as. Sir, hark you! h [well, s
1^1 achchhd, good, excellent, Jb \ Jk/*M&-1 Ahmad'dhdd, the capital
of Gujerat. p (j^^>»-\ ahmak, very foohsh, a fool, a J]je>-1 ahwdlj m. condition, circum- stances, events, a c|y;>.\ ikhtird% m. contrivance, invention, a
A a
i' ( 2 )
jL:x£*-^ ikhtiyar, m. choice,power. a js^\ akhiry last, at last, the end. a CJy>-l akhiraty f. futurity, a fu- ture state, a [tor. p jj^ci-l akhun, m. teacher, precep- IjI at?a, f. performance, payment,
blandishment, a (jJ^d\ udaSy grieved, dejected, s L^^\ adahj m. institute, politeness, manners; plur. adahy ceremo- nies, &c. a ^^jT adrrii, m. f. a descendant of Adam, a human being (man or woman), people, a I&jT adhoLy half, s ^J^ udhaVy thither, h jibS\ idhaVy hither, h CS^>^\ adhiky more, exceeding, s UL&jI adhyana or adhya-lena, a.
to halve, h iCi\j\ iradtty m. desire, purpose, a a\j\ ararriy m. comfort, health, re- pose, p ^j\ arthy m. substance, purport, s ^jj\ arzuy f. wish, desire, want, p ij^j\ drurhy mounted, riding, s \j\j\ urandy a. to dissipate, squan- der ; to cause to fly, s \j^\ urndy n. to fly, to soar up. s j]ji dzndy free, solitary, a hermit, p ^^jj\ dzurdagly f. affliction, dis- pleasure, vexation, p ijtA>ej\ s. f. azmdlshy trial, p fjJ^ uSy that ; isy this ; inflections of the pronouns wuh and ijih ; is-men, during this, in the mean time, h
w
fj^\ dsy f. hope, desire, rehance. s jjLl dsdny easy ; dsdnJ, facility, p L^LJi ashdh, m. causes, goods
and chattels, a jI:i«:1 ustddy m. a teacher, master, p jL-a:;-j1 istifsdvy m. searching for
information, inquiry, a i^\jJ\isrdfy m. prodigality, mn. a r)^ is-tarahy in this manner ;
us-tarahy in that manner, h a f^j^-^^ is-Uye, on this account, h i^\a,^\ dsmduy m. the sky, the fir- mament, heaven, p J^yJ\ aswdvy riding, mounted ;
aswdriy act of riding, s ^JssLJ\yJ\ iswdsUy for this reason ;
uswdste, for that reason. I^r^^ asis (or dsls) f. a benedic- tion, s bjiti\ ishdrtty m. a hint, a signal, a j\jJ^\ ashrdr, miscreants, scoun- drels, a uJl^l ashrdfy nobles, grandees ; ashrdf-zddiy daughter of a gran- dee, a (i^l ashrafiy f. a gold coin so called. The Calcutta ashrafl is worth a guinea and a half, p li-2»l dshndy an acquaintance, lover,
friend, p J-kitfl istahaly m. a stable, a J-tfl asl, f. root, origin, founda- tion, capital, a J-*tfl afily noble (as to blood or
origin), a ^\s\ iUild'y f. manifesting, declar- ing; investigation, knowledge, a
( 3 )
Jj
jLiil i'tibdr, m. confidence, credit, respect; i'tibar-k, to believe or confide in. a jUi^I i'^i/wa6?,ra. reliance, trust, a ^Ic! a'ld, higher, highest, a JU^I a'mdl (plur. of 'amal) ac- tions, conduct, a CLi\i\ afaty f. calamities, misfor- tunes, evils, a ci^i! afat^ f. calamity, a t^\ii\ dftdh, m. the sun, sun- shine, p (j^y^\ afsoSy m. sorrow, regret, vexation, interj. ah ! alas ! afsoS'k or afsos-khdndf to la- ment, p [tion. a (jJii\ iflas^ m. poverty, destitu- i^yoij)\ Aflat un, m. Plato, a jJ\ Akhar, name of the best and . greatest of the Mogul empe- rors, a \^\ ikatthdj united, together, h Ji^\ aksar, most, many, much ;
for the most part, a \^ \ dkhd, m. a bag, sack, h W akeld, a. alone, s i^\ dgy f. fire ; dg-d or -lagdnd, to set on fire ; dg-lagndy to take fire, s kJ^\ agdriy f. the fore part. 5 ^\ agar, if, when. p. ^^\ agarchi, although, p o^\ agldj prior, past, ancient. 5 ^Jj \ dgSy before, in front, former- ly, forwards ; in future, s Li 1 dgydf f. an order, command, s iuJ\ alhatta, certainly, indeed, a
c^t alp, small, few ; alp-hayask,
of a tender age. s Li:)\jc\\ iltifdt, f. courtesy, re- spect, notice, a (j*.\^\ iltimds, m. f. beseeching,
petitioning, a [quarrel, h
L^l ulajhnd, to be entangled, to Ij^jsll uljhdnd, a. to entangle, h {^S^\ alag, separate, apart. 5 *U^ imam, m. a leader in rehgion,
a prelate, priest, a jjLsL^i imtihdn, m. proof, trial,
examination, a Ju«! dmad, f. arrival, coming, p 1^1 MTTzara, (pi.) nobles, grandees, a i^^\ umed or ummed, f. hope, p j^\ amir, m. a commander, a
nobleman, a grandee, a lord ;
amir-zdda, son of a grandee ;
amir-zddi, daughter of a
grandee, a p ^\ in, inflection, plur. of yih,
this ; un, plur. of wuh, that ;
vide Gram, h \j\ dnd, n. to come; s. m. the
sixteenth part of a rupee, s }iyj\ amhoh, m. a crowd, multi- tude, mob, concourse, p ^^\ anuhhav, m. imagination,
idea, s (^Irsrl dnjdn, strange, unknown ;
anjdn-k, to act the stranger, s jdj\ andar, within, inside ; Indar,
the god of Swarga or the higher
regions, p -
Ujol andhd, blind, dark. 5 ' \^-jbA3\ andherd, dark, a*
JJ\
( 4 ■)
uV
,^j^Sj\ andherlj f. darkness, s <JL1jJj1 andesha, m. thought, sus- picion, anxiety, p jjLj! iwsaw, m. man, a human
being, mankind, a yJA misu^ m. a tear, s «^Ltf3\ 2W5a/, m. equity, justice, a aUj! in' am, m. a present, a gift, a j\^\ inkdr, m. refusal, denial, a ^T flw/cA, f. the eye. s ^}^\ ungaly m. a finger's breadth, s ^^J^\ ungli, f. a finger. 5 j^yil anguthl, f. a ring worn
on the finger, s. j^\ angur, m. a grape, "^ JcoT anand, m. joy, happiness, s >^\ and jjj^l iw^ and inhon, same as jjl in ; unh^ and unhortf same as WW, q. V. h jljT aitJasr, f. noise, sound, voice, j) ^jibjl aubashf dissolute, depraved. p y^^\ upar, up, upwards, upon, s j^ or, f. direction, side, h j^ aur, conj. and, but; adj. more, other; aur kuchh, any thing else, h [of mind, h
jjLjl ausdn, m. courage, presence lL-*)^ unt, m. a camel, h \=f^unchd, high, height. ^ jUl flAar, m. food, subsistence, s Jjb\ a^/, m. people, a ,js\ ai, O, Oh. p h jM Ayydz, a man's name, a L-j\ azsa, such as this, so. h tlX>3 ekf one ; art. a or a/?, fre- quently joined to its substantive, as jjJ^.^ ek'din, one day. s
jjUjJ Imdn, m. faith, belief, reli- gion, conscience, a
j\Sj\y^\ imdn-dar, faithful, honest ; imdn land, to beheve. p
\i\i bdbd, father, son, sir. a
L~j\i bap, m. father, a
CLih bat, f. a word, affair; bat
kahte hi, on the speaking of a
word, immediately ; bdt-chtty f.
conversation, chit-chat, h t>U bad, f. wind, p 2(ll jb bddshdh, m. a king ; bdd-
shdhi, royal, p t^jb Z>ac?7, m. a complainant,
speaker, s li^b bdjnd, n. to sound, to ring, s j\j bar, m. load, fruit; time,
door, water, p !ij\i bdrah, twelve, h j\i Ja^r, back; 5a2r-awa, to decline,
reject ; s. m. a hawk, p j\j\i bdzdr, m. a market ; bdzdrt,
one who attends a market, p ijj\j bdzl, f.play, sport, a game, p ^jAi bdsan, m. a basin, plate,
dish, goblet, pot, &c. h Jb bdl, m. hair. s. ear of corn,
h. wing, p % bald, above, up, high, p Cj^\i bdlak, m. a boy. s ^\i bdlu, f. sand, s (j\j\i bdndtl, made of broad cloth,
woollen, h
uv
( •
liiib hantnoLy a. to share, to distri- bute, to divide ; hant-l to divide and take, s liJbJjb bdndhnd, a. to bind, to
shut up ; to frame, s ICU bdnkdj foppish, impudent, s cy>-jb bd-wujud, notwithstand- ing, p j^b bdwar, m. credit, faith ; bd- war-ky to beheve. p [side, s jJtXj bdhir or bdhar, without, out- *ab bdhaniy together, p jLj bibdd, m. quarrel, fight, s fji^^ bipaty f. misfortune, cala- mity, s [teach, h 13 li^ batdndy a. to point out, to ^i battiy f. a candle, lamp, s lil^ib bithdndy a. to cause to sit,
to seat, h b^Uc: ba-jd-ldndy a. to perform,
carry into effect, h UW: bajdndy a. to sound, to play
on, a musical instrument, s ^\:^.,ha-jde or ba-jdy in place, in- \ stead oi. p ,
(las:: ^y7^, f. lightning, h lirf? bajnd, n. to be sounded, to
sound, s \j\^ bujhdndy a. to explain, extin- guish (a candle), h \J^.bichdrdy helpless, wretched, p iJlssr? bachdjidy a. to save,protect. k lics^ bachndy n. to be saved, to
escape, k <^ bachcha, m. an infant, a child,
the young of any creature, p l3l^£< bichhdndy a. to spread, s
5 ) c>
jj*-l^ bakhsMshy f. gift, grant,
forgiveness. ^ lv,.l^ bakhashndy or bakhsh-d, or bakhsMsh-ky a. to give, to be- stow. ^
*^fV: baMishiy m. a general, a " commander in chief, p J:aC bukhly m. avarice, stinginess,
parsimony, a J-.rs:: baTdfil, a. a miser, niggard, a Ja 5cf<i, evil, bad ; used in com- pounds, as bad-zdty a rascal ; badkho, ill-disposed ; bdd-suraty ugly, ill-favoured, p Ln^sTjj bad-bakht, unfortunate,
wicked, p jjJo badauy m. the body, p jjlybjj buddhiwduy wise, intelli- gent, s CS^, badly f. badness, evil, p b Jo bidydy f. science, knowledge. 5 ^ 5ar, f. bosom, produce ; prep.
upon. p \ji burdy bad, wicked, h ji\j bardbary equal, like, level, p ijiy}j> bardbariy f. equality ; com- petition, p \i^d\iji bar-bdd-k or bar-bdd-dy a. to cast upon the wind ; to de- stroy or waste, p s b^ b^ bar-pd'ky to excite, p ui-^U^ britdnty m. affair, circum- stance, s ^^ji bar tan y Ifi. a dish, plate,
vessel, utensil, h ^ji Brajy name of a district, h
u (
j^^j^y, bar-khurddr, happy ; a term applied to a son (p. 22). p (j^ji haras, m. a year, s ci^Ly barsat, rain, the rainy sea- son, s li-y barasnd, n. to fall (as rain),
to shower, s jjyj ^araw,m. colour, complexion, s *JbJ barham, offended, confused,
angry, p ii>hj^ biriym, f. time, h \y bardf large, great; adv. very, s t^\jj bard,l, greatness, s bl&Jj barhdna, a. to increase, to
promote, s Ujfejj barhndf n. to increase. 5 j_^.-J basy enough, abundantly, p jli-j bistdr, m. extent, latitude, s jc2u-j bastiy f. an abode, a village, s ^ ^^^ bisan-padf a song in praise
of Vishnu, s l)^^ bisurndy n. to weep, to sob. A c:.?;L2j basdraty f. sight, vision, a tX*J ba'dy after, afterwards, at the
end. a j_/ixj Ja'^, some, certain ones, a ^-^ Ja'^e or ba'zly some, certain.a iX-^ ba'ldy remote, far off. a J-i^ haghaly s. f. the armpit, p j^^ baghair, ad- without, besides,
except, a Jlw hakkdly m. a grain-merchant,
a shopkeeper, a \Jj bakrdy a he-goat. [goat, s i^Jj bakriy f. a goat, a female j^^G bakhdn, m. explanation. 5 ^ ia/a, f. calamity, a
6 )
k>
l3 ilj buldndj a. to call for, to sum- mon, h ; billdndy to cry. ^ balkiy yea, on the contrary, p J^ bulandy high, lofty, p j^ iiZ/e, f. a cat. s <tJ^ ba-martahay in a degree,
considerably, p ^_^o-^ bumujiby by reason, on
account, a ^^ Jzw, without. 5 l3liJ bandndy a. to make. j9 -^ banajy m. trade, traffic. .^ v^:.^ band-ky to shut up, to make
fast, p %0
^^ bandagiy f. slaveiy, service, " devotion, p l3l^t\ij bandhwdndy a. to cause to
be fastened, h Ia:j banndy n. to be made. A \j\yj banwdnd, a., to cause to be
made, h ^jij bariiy pi. sons, children ; barii
Isrdyil, the Israelites, a UiJ banydy m. a shopkeeper,
merchant, s •i'^^. bojhy m. a load, weight, k -p-^ 5m;A, understanding, idea, s Up-y bujhnd, a. to understand,
comprehend. 5 Uy Z»oZ«a, to speak, say. h \jy bondy a. to sow, plant, s <0 Ja, by, with, in ; ba-nisbat, with
regard to. p l^» bahdy m. price, value. 7? l-i»l^ bhdshdf see bhdkhd. s l^l^ bkdkhdyf. language, dialect, /f U-i»l^ bhdshnd, to speak, say. 5
w., (
t^l^» bhag,m. good luck, destiny. 5 Lil^ hhagna, n. to flee, to run
away ; bhag-jj to run off. k <0l^ hahana, m. pretence, evasion,
contrivance, p j^jl^ 5Aa,2, m. brother, friend, s c:^.^ hahutf much, many, very, s jx^^ hihtar, good, well, better, p \j^i hahuteroLy much, s \i\ys.^, bhijwana, a. to cause to
be sent, h j^ hhar, full; ^umr-hhar, during
life ; din-bhar, all day ; bhar-d,
a. to pay, to filH bhar-pana, to
be satisfied. 5 \jj^^ bahra, dea£ h ; bhara, full. ^^^ bhramariy a walk, s Lj^^^ bharosa, m. hope, faith, s ^A^^i bhisti or bhishtt, m. a
water-carrier, p l3l^,j bahkand, a. to delude, to
mislead, h ^ bhald, good, worthy ; bhald
ddmi, a gentleman, s j^ji^i baham, together, one with
another, one against another, p J^ bhuly f. forgetfulness. s U)^ bhulndf n. to forget, to mis- take, s liC^^ bhaunkndjii. to bark, s j^j SAi, even, also. ^ C^ bhaiydy m. friend, brother. 5 l::^-^ Z>A2#, f. a wall, s j^^ bliitar, within, inside, h l:^^j bhejndy a. to send, convey, h Ju^j bhedy m. separation, secrecy^ 5 ^^ 5Aer, f. a sheep, an ewe. s
7 ) ^
^JfJ^^ bhefijf. an ewe. 5 bj-^ bherhjdj m.. a wolf. 5 j^^^^ 6Ae5^ or Z>Aes, m . garb, habit, s Ul^ bhigd, wet, moist (past part, of liC^ to be wet). ^J be (also a6e), an interjection of reproach,as sirrah ! you rascal, h 1^ be, prep, without ; much used in forming negative adjectives, as be-adab, unmannerly, and these again become substantives by adding 7, as be-adab-t, rude- ness, p [tion. a \ ,^1-j bay an, m. explanation, rela- ^^ blbt, f. a lady ; (vulgarly)
a wife, h l::^ Z>az7, f. a couplet, poetry. « L-->l:i-j be-tdb, powerless, without endurance ; be-tabi, helpless- ness, p lf:-.j beta, m. a son, a child, h
l3l^ baithdnd, a. to set down, to
place, h U^ baithnd, n.to sit, to be placed . ^ ^j) by, m. seed. 5 [proper, p Irs^j 5e;a, ill-timed, ill-placed, im- jCsn.j, be-jigar, cowardly ; be-
jigar-1, cowardliness, want of
pluck, p ^ blch, prep, among, between,
during, h ; the middle, s ; bich-
bichdw, mediation, intermediate
means, h J^i beshtar, generally, for the
most part, p i>yf^J, bechdra, helpless, p
J^.
( 8
^.
Jj^ Birhal, name of one of Ak-
bar's ministers, h (^^ his, twenty, h jUwl-j he-shumar, incalculable, p jl^j^ be-kardr, uneasy, restless.aj9 <01Cj hegana, strange, undomestic,
foreign, p
-.J hegam (fem. of heg) a lady, p Juj hail, m. a bullock. A jU-^ himar, sick, a patient, p «^U-j himari, f. sickness. j9 IjcwJ henda, crooked, absurd, h \j^ hyaura, m. account, history, s
(J^^}i P^posh, f. a slipper. ^
«-l>b pflf, m. a millstone. ^
i^li) jI> padshah, m. a king (same
as hadshah). p jU ^ar, m. the opposite bank ;
adv. over, beyond ;jpar sal, last
year, s ^^-b pas, near, before, h ^J-^b pakiza, clean, fine, elegant.^ Jb j9a/, m. a shade, shelter, h ^^b palki, f. a sedan chair,
common in India, h [accept. 5 bb pana, a. to get, find, reach, <«tfMj panch, five, s IjJb panda, a master, a priest. 5 yb panw, m. leg, foot. 5 jy ^ parii, m. water ; lustre, s cj patta, m. a leaf, s jfjpatthar, m. a stone. 5 ^^::j pa^^J, f. a leaf ; hemp, s (j^\^ jiachas, fifty* h
S^JW^ pichhan, f. the rear ; the
hind quarter of an animal, s \sf,pichhla, latter, last, modem, s ^j"^^ pachis, twenty-five, s
J Jo padar, m.(pidar, h), a father, p
ji^ par, conj. but; postp. on or upon, at. h
ji^ par, m. a wing, p bl^ pur ana, old, ancient. 5 ^bj^^ prithwi-nath. Lord of
earth, your majesty, s ci-^-J^ pratit, f. trust, confidence, s ^'i^ pf^i'da, m. a curtain, a screen, j:; Li^.'iri pardeshi ' {oT pardesf), a
stranger. 5 >^ parisram, m. care, labour. 5 ^^ji^ prasanna, pleased, content, s L-A-j^ prasansa, f. praise. 5 ^jLji^ purush, man, a person, s
J^ji P'^o.kdr, m. mode, manner, s jJU^j^ragaf, current, well known. 8 aSJji paranda, m. a bird, p
UZ^Vi P^"^^^"^^^} f' breeding,
nourishment, p J-^ parhez, m. temperance, con- tinence, control of the passions.p ^ji P^^^f f- a fairy, p ^-^ji J9r7^, f. love, friendship, s ^ji pf^T^^f ^' to fall, to happen, h ^ \S^^ji P^T^^'f ™* ^ neighbour, s bUj^ par hand, a. to teach to read,
to instruct, s bjbjj parhnd, a. to read, to repeat,
to say, to speak, s ^ pas, hence, therefore, p
jmsand, f. choice, approba- tion, p
.1 I
yL)pashu (or pasu\ m. an animal,
beast. 5 IJ^IG pukarna, a. to call aloud, to
bawl, to cry out. h Ijjf^^ pakarndf a. to catch or seize h Jl^^ pakhal, f. a leathern bag for
carrying water, s
1/^v P'^^j'^'^i ^' ^ cage, s CUAijpaw</z7,aleanied brahman, s li^j^ puchhnciy a. to ask. 5 j*^^ paur, f. a door, gate. 5 \)^i P^ra, full, accomplished, s c5j^ p?/rl, f. a kind of cake, s c:-^^ posty m. poppy ; pos^7, one who intoxicates himself with in- fusion of poppy, p C^ U»^ poshaky f. vestments, dress,
habits, garments, p ^\^fi pahar, m. a mountain, h l5f> phatciy rent, torn (from phatnd, 4 n. to be rent). 5 UUl-V^ pahchdnndy a. to know, to
recognize. 5 ^v pahavy m. a space of about three hours, a watch (of the day or night), p j^^phivy again, back, h \jj^^ phirndy n. to turn back,
return, h J.^j phaly m. fruit, effect, advan- tage, progeny, s 1^ pahld oi\ pahild, first, before, rather; pahhy at first, previous to. h lilf) phalndy n. to bear fruit, to be
produced, s l:^.^,^ pakunchndy n. to arrive. //-
9 )
ri
lii.^jj pahanndy a. to put on, to
wear, h L.^j pahiydy m. a wheel (of a
chariot, Sec), h j^ pheVy back, again, k \jj^l phernd or pher-dend^ a., to
circulate, to give back, h \j ^^jL) piydda-pdy on foot, as a
pedestrian. /? jL) pydvy m. affection. 5 IjLj piydrdy dear, beloved. 5 LL> piydsdy thirsty, s c^^ pef, m. the belly, stomach,
womb, s ^2-j pithy f. the back, s L^5-j paithndy n. to rush in, to
enter, s [ing. ^
Ifsaj pichhdy m. pursuit, follow- ^^Jl^saJ pichhdriy f. the hinder
part. ^ i^f^ pichhey after, in the rear,
in pursuit of. h li^tjuj paidd-ky a. to produce, to
procure ; paidd-hy to be born,
to be found, h p dJi»j^jfj pir murshidy your ma- jesty, sire. J) CS\jfJ pairdky m. a swimmer, h \ij^i pairndy n. to swim, h L-^ paisd, m. a copper coin,
money, cash, h >j plsndy a. to grind, triturate, s peshtty m. trade, profession, p /♦l/Lj paighdniy m. a message. j9 ^^^/♦»-^ paimdriy m. a promise, an
oath, a compact. ^
y^-*>>-»4j3
^ /Z<3 <C^
( 10 )
<— >lj tah, power, endurance, p
^b* tabVj m. subject, a
UjIj tdpjia, a. to warm one's self
before a fire, s yb* taza, fresh, new, fat, green,
young, happy, p ^j<j taz'iy Arab, Arabian, a ^\j takncLy a. to look, stare at. 5 ^ t' ta-kij so that, to the end
that, p J-<lj ta^ammuly m. meditation, re- flection, purpose, a [cian. s ^^-JIJ Tan-sen, name of a musi- cs ^flJ, then, at that time, after- wards ; tahhl se, from that very time, s ilJ tabdk, ruined, lost ; tabah-h,
to be in misery, p ^ssT tvjh, inflection of tu^ thou . h (\*'a'<' tahsilj f. acquisition, a (^ii^rsr tajditj m. a throne, p Sj tadj conj. or adv. then, h jf^d3 tadhiTy f. deliberation, coun- sel, management, a Ji tar, moist ; j:jy tar ha tar, all
wet or weltering, p \:»^\j tarashndj a. to cut or clip, to shave, to shape out. p h
«-> Jk*^' tasdVjf. trouble, privation, a J^JiX^' tasdlk, f. verifying, attest- ing, a [image, a ^j*flj' tasivlr, f. a picture, an (Jrt-s^ tazhlk, f. ridicule, sport, a uJj^* ta'rif, f. praise,description.a ^Jax: ta'zim, f. reverence, honour- ing, a LU^\Ju tafdwut, m. distance, dis- tinction, difference, a ^jusu tafannun, m. recreating, re- freshing, a Ulij* takazd, m. demanding, ex- acting, urgency, a jfi^asu taksir, f. fault, crime,blame. a CS'j tak, postp. up to, as far as. h 4— flKJ takalluf, m. ceremony, pomp, a [ance. a <— flJ^* takUf, f trouble, annoy- ^jiiL' taldsh, f. search, seeking, a CS^j talak, up to (same as tak). h jljb" talwdr, f. a sword, s i^]y^'J^ talawwun-mizaji, f.
fickleness of disposition, a aj turn, you {tumh and tumJion
in the inflection). /^ l-ijUlf tamdshd, m. an entertain- ment, show, spectacle, sight ; tamdshd^, a spectator, a j^'jji;Uj' tamdsh-bin, a spectator. ^
^^i^ Turkl, of or belonging to j A^ tarndm, entire, perfect, com
Turkomania. p [quiver, h
*■•*' ta:rq,plindy n. to tremble, ^ tis (inflect, of so), which ; tis-
par, whereupon, h jtfL-J tasalti, f. consolation,
soothing, a
plete. a [drum, a
\jy»^ tamhurd, m. a kind of JufiJ tamhld, f. subterfuge, shift, a i^l^icif tan-jdiydh, f. wages, salary, p y /o or tau, adv. then ; tu, pron.
thou. A
( H )
l;^
ijfy ^om, m. a purse containing
1000 rupees, h \j^y torna, a. to break, to change,
(as coin), s lily tolncLy a. t,o weigh, s ^•J ton or taun, then, in that
manner, h If*' ^^a, was (verb auxil.). h \j^ thora, little, scarce, seldom,
less, few. h ^Lff thaili, f. a purse tied round
the waist, a bag. h jl-J7ai2/ar,ready,prepared,finished,
complete, a u5/*J titriy f. a butterfly, h j^} tlvy m. the bank of a river. 5 j^ fir, m. an arrow, p ^j^ tiSj thirty, s \j^ tisra, f. tlsrij the third, s ^ tin, three ; tain, thou ; ten,
from.
^v tall, f. a sort of musical in- strument, h i^fj^ tang, f. the leg, foot, h lil^uj tatolna, a. to feel, to handle, h \^ tukrd, m. a piece, a bit, a
morsel, s J^jy toral-inal, a man's name. 7i 1^2^* {hatha, ra. a joke, a jest. ^ J^^^ thathol, m. a jester, a
buffoon, h ijj€^' thatholl, f. fun, humour, sport, joking, h [to deem, h wjy^^i thahrana, a. to determine.
L^5 thassa, m. vanity, ostenta- tion. ^ j^' thaur, f. place, spot. A i^^* Jlj;, m. a note of hand, h
cJlj .^aw2, second, equal, a <Uj si/ca, trusty, confidential, a 4— >^jj sawab, m. the future reward of virtue, a
l^U- ^flfa, m. cold, winter, s li^ljj- jdgnd, n. to awake, to be
awake, s [vest, p
<^^U-^'ama, m. a garment, robe, ^j^jdn, f. m. life, soul, spirit ;
dear, beloved ; jdn-pahchdn, an
intimate friend, p ^\^ jdnd, n. to go, to be, to pass,
to reach, to continue, s \^\p^ jdnchnd, a. to test, to try,
prove, s \jj\^jdnnd, a. to know, to under- stand, to consider. 5 [bird, p jyU- jdnwar, m. an animal, a JjbW jahil, ignorant, barbarous,
brutal, a L^^^^jab, when, at the time when ;
jah-na tab, now and^hen. s \^>-jubd, young, youthful, s CS'J<^^^ jabtak or jab-talak, so
long as, till when. 5 h \':^jittd, as much (as), whatever
much, h
l:::^
Iju:>- jatana, a. to point out, to teach, s
\xx>- jitnd, as many (as), how many soever, h
\s^ judd, separate, apart, p
fj^ jis, the inflection of the re-' lat. j*o, who, which, h
lilxi?- jagdnd, a. to waken, to rouse up. s
,j,^jagah, f. place, quarter, room, vacancy, stead, k
Sk^ jalldd, m. an executioner, cruel, hard-hearted, a
jisj- jaldj expeditious, quick, quickly, p [ness. p
^^^ jaldi, f. quickness, rash-
\:l>-jalndf n. to burn, to be kin- dled ; to get into a passion. 5
i^jalwa, m. light ; jalwa-gar, brilliant, beautiful, p
y^s>-jalevy f. retinue, attendance, a
'^>- jam\ f a congregation, col- lection, sum total, number ; jam-k or rakhnd or -kar-rakh- 7id, to collect ; -hondy to be collected, a
^^jany ra. a person, individual, s
{j^'-"^ jinsj f. genus, goods, com- modity, a [wood, s
<-K*^ j'awgaZ, m. a forest, a
f^joy (rel. pron.) he who;^*o-/:o7, whosoever ; jo-kuchh, what- soever, h
y>-jauy m. barley ;j*o, if, when ;jm, searching, p s [bling. s
\y>' juydy m. a yoke; dice, gaui-
i^\j>-jawdhf m. an answer, a
( 12 )
^f>- jawduy young, a young per- son ;jawdn-mardt, valour, p ^\^jaicdni, f. youth, or rather that period of hfe to which the Romans applied the i^xm ju- ventus. p jiA^p;- jawdhir, f. (plu. of ^^), gems, jewels; jawdhir-khdna, a jewel-house or treasury, a ^j!by>-jauhar'iy m. a jeweller, a \j^jutd, m. a shoe, h CS^^ jotiky m. astrology, s ^Jj^p^jotakly an astrologer, s i/yr J^i^I, a shpper, a small
shoe, h Ij^ jotndy a. to yoke, h \jjy>-jornd, a. to join, clasp, h c!^ Jon or jaun^ when, as ; jon- hln or jaufl'hlny the instant when, h j^J^^ JaunpuTy name of a city. ** Jl^ J^«r> ^^- bushes ; continued
rain, h jyp^j\^j]idrjhury f. a thicket. A j\^jahdZy m. a ship, a ci^ll^^JaAaZa^, f. ignorance, a ^J^ji^jahdUy m. the world ; jaAaw?, of or belonging to the world, mankind, p jjl^ jahdn, where, in whatever place, h
iliJ ^Ju^ jahdnpandhy m. refuge of the world, your majesty ! p
.^[^ jhdnchhy f a cymbal, s
U^l^ jhdnknd^ a. to peep, to spy. h ^
LiUfs- jhat, quickly, h
\^jji>- jhc^rokha, m. a lattice, a
window, s ^y-^jhagrcij m. wrangling, quar- relling, h l3j^§5^ jhagarndy n. to quarrel, h UU^.sr*^^ jhamjhamatcij glitter- ing, h [beauty, h hLi^ jhamakra, m. splendour, ^^^jhariy m. a clashing sound of
metals, &c. h ^t^jhuth, false, a lie. s \^^i>' jhuthcty a liar, false, s ^^ }iy ni. life, soul, mind: added to names, professions, &c., it signifies sir, master, s u--^-^ jeJ, f. a pocket, t li;C>- jita, alive, living, s \:>2^^j'itnd, a. to win (at play), to
conquer, s ^irrfi'^^y II- to live, or be alive. 5 l*«.;*5>- jaisd, in the manner which, as, such as. 5
cIJoU- chabukyxn. a horsewhip, p Jl^ c^aZ, f. way, practice, s (.L/iH^ chdldk, active, fleet, p (J^^3l^ chdndrii, f. a kind of cloth ;
moonlight, s liJblsw chdhnd, a. to love, to like,
to desire, to choose; chdJiiye f (in Braj chdhiyatv), it is fit,
proper, necessary, &c. s
L^ chihilldj stupid, impudent, h
t^.>- chupj 1
"'•' " , . - >silent, speechless, h c/iupka,j ^
( 13 ) <^^
^^ chatur, clever ; chaturd,i, ex-
pertness. s Ij 1^2^ chatkdndy a. to rend, split. ^ ^^i=^ chithiy f. a letter, an
epistle. ^ ^1^ chirdghy m. a lamp, a light, p
^lii^ chardgdh^ f. a pasture, a
meadow. ^ Ijl^ chardnd^ a. to graze ; chu- rdndf a. to steal; dnkhen chu- rdnd, to withdraw the eyes, s Liy^ charhnd, n. to ascend, to ^
come up. h l3l&J&- charhdnd, a. to raise up. ^ Lj^ chiriyd, f. a bird. ^ jUjJ^ chirimdr, a bird-catcher, a fowler. ^ [tain. />
<UJL>- chashma, m. a well, a foun- |JA>- chughli, slandering, back- " biting, p
c:-^ chakit, astonished, s j^5>- chakkl, f. a mill, a mill- ~ stone, s
\jL>- chilldndj n. to scream out. h [:!:>■ chalnd, n. to move, to go, proceed, go off, pass (as coin), to be discharged (as a gun) ; chald-j, to go ; chald-dnd, to come, s CS^s>- chamakj f. brilliancy, glit- ter, beauty, h [dingly. p t^r^Ls^ chundnchij thus, accor- lii>- chintdf f. care, anxiety, s JIl^ changul, m. a claw ; c^ctw- gwZ mdrndj to grasp with the
claw. 2?
ocJi^a-r7
ac^c
«=t^di-t-^
M^
( 14 )
l^
^^ chau-be, one who has read
the four vedas, s <^j^ chop J f. desire, selfishness, h '^"'v^?" c^az^paya, four-footed, a
quadruped, s l^^^ chauthd, the fourth. 5 j^^ chor, m. a thief, a robber. 5 ^b^?" f^horana, a. to steal, s lJj)^ chorlj f. theft, robbery, s lL^^ chuk, f. defect, error; chauk,
an open place in a city, h LT^^f^ chaukaSy expert. 5 l:oj>- chaugund, a. fourfold, s ^^^ c/ionch, f. beak, bill. 5 J^Ju^ chaundol, m. a kind of
sedan or palkl. s -f>- chhahj six. ^ «jl^ chhdti, f. the breast; chhdtt
se lagdnd, to embrace. /* li-^^ chhipnd, n. to be concealed,
hidden, absent, h L^J^f- chhatriy f. a covering or
hood ; chhatrl'ddr, covered,
hooded. 5 Ul5^ chhutdpdf m. smallness. k if^^ chihra, m. the face, p ljjf>- chhotdy little, small. /^ j^f&- chhoTj m. end, extremity, yi IjJ*^ chhornd,a.. to release, leave,
let go. A 1^^2^ chhokardy m. a boy. A
chhedy m. a hole, an open- ing, s chiZy f. a thing, p l;.^ chaind, m. a kind of corn, s ;
chena, millet. /^
c::-^:s-U- hdjat, need, want, a
J-tfU- ^a5i/, m. produce, result, profit, revenue ; hdsili-kaldm, in fine, in short ; hdsil-h, to be obtained, a
jc\:>' fidzir, a. present, willing; hdzir-jdwdhiy ready wit. a
A^U- hdkimy m. a ruler, a
JW- ,^aZ, m. state, condition, busi- ness, affair, present time, a
LiuJU. hdlat, f. state, condition, a
^j^^*^ habshiy ra. Abyssinian, Caffre. a
^S"^ f^W^^^> cavilling, arguing the point, a
s»- haddy extreme, extremely, a
L^js»^ harakaty f. proceeding, conduct, a
uJj^ harify an opponent (in playj, a rival, an associate, a
Ju-.^ hasady f. envy, malice, emu- lation, ambition, a j.a>> hazr, m. rest, repose, a
LUj»a£»^ hazrat, your or his ma- jesty, your, his excellency, &c. a
i^^2^ hisstty m. share, lot, portion,
division, a jya>- kuzur, m. presence, appear- ance, court ; his majesty, a
(j:>- hakky j ust, true ; the Deity ; justice, lot. a ^^/£.i^^>-^
d^U^ hakdrat, f. contempt, dis- ^ grace, baseness, a ^
ui^jl^ hikdyatj f. a liistory, tale, narration, a
fu (
*^ huhrriy m. order, decree, a ^^i^.A^ hikmatf f. wisdom, know- ledge, skill, contrivance, a ft^^^^ hakim, m. a sage, a philoso- pher, a physician, a (j**^^ hawass (pl.)> senses, a ^\^ hawale-ky to give in charge.
15 )
to consign, a
haif, interj. ah ! alas! m. iniquity, a pity ; haif-k or khana, to sigh, to express one's sorrow, a \J^jt^ hairan, confounded, per- plexed, a
^^U- khass, select, peculiar, a Js\:>~ khdtir, f. the heart, mind ; Idiatir Tdi^ah, cheerfully, hearti- ly ; khatir jam\ with heart at ease, contented, a j^U^ khaltj bare, empty, a ^^\>■ khan, a lord, grandee ; khan-
»dauran (p. 29), a man's name ; Jdhan-Jdianan, a man's name, a ^\>- Mfl'i^, «!• house, place ; much used in composition, as hawar- chi-Tdiana, a cook-house, or kitchen, p
Miahar, f news, information, report, notice ; khabar-dar, careful, attentive ; Idiabr'-giri, taking care of. a jjsr^ khachchar, m. a mule, p ^ \>\»- khuddf m. God. p
tyjj\S:^ khuddicand, master, your majesty, your worship, &c. p
khidmat, f. presence, ser- vice, duty ; khidmat-gdr, an at- tendant, a servant, a
i~j\j>- khardb, bad, depraved, ruined, depopulated, a
Zj^ M«^c^» !»• expenditure, p
l3^*X> ,:^ kharid-k, a. to purchase, hp
y*^^ khas, m. grass, straw, p
ia^ khattjxn. a letter, a hne, mous- taches, beard, a
Ikri- khatd, defect, error ; missing, deficient, a
\sis>^ khafd, angry, p [anger, p khafagJ, f. displeasure, Miaflf, vilified ; khafif-h, to feel one's self affronted, a
<ttf^ khuldsa, essence, the upshot or finale ; the moral (of a tale, &c.). a
^jLs. khalk, m. people, the world, creation, a
^ kho, f. disposition, p
i~J^ Tdiub, good, excellent, well; khub-surat, a. beautiful, well- favoured, p
^,^ Jdmbl, f. beauty, comfort, virtue, p
ij^y>- khush, pleased, cheerful, ele- gant ; khush-uslub or khush- daul, well-proportioned, ele- gant, p
ijfj^ (J^y^ khush'khabrl, f. good news, pleasing tidings, p
^y^ U-*^^ Mkush'tah'1, f. plea- santry, mirth, p
<Li»^ Miosha, m. a cluster of grapes, &c. p
Ik •
( 16 )
Uc)
^y^ My^shly f. delight, plea- sure, p
uJp- Tdiaufy m. fear ; Mauf-k or 'khana, to fear, a
^^ khuni, a murderer, san- guinary, p
JLr>- khiyaU m. thought, consi- deration ; phantom, vision ; khi- yal-ky to fancy ; khiyal-rakhna, to keep in mind, a
«j:^Urk khiyanat, f. perfidy, trea- chery, embezzlement, a j^ khair, good, best, well ; m. goodness, health, a
ij^J^l J ddkhil'hj n. to enter, to
arrive, h a \j^i^ Dara-shukoh, a man's name,
the son of Shah-jahan. p jj^lj daru, f. medicine, p j^lt) dan, m. alms, charity. 5 lib dana, wise, learned, a sage. /> t^lib ddna,}, f. wisdom. j9 ^^DIj ddnish, f. knowledge,
science, p v\i*4»-ljb ddnishmand, wise, a
learned man. p ylj ddnw, m. time, /i ajlj 6/awa, m. grain, seed, speck, p Ubj dabdnd, a. to press down. ^ Lj dubldf thin, lean, poor, s LjJ dabnd, to be pressed. ^ Jl:S-J dakhl, m. entrance, intru- sion ; possibility, a
ji^ dar, prep, in ; used in compo- sition, as dar-gyzarnd, to pass away, p j\ij>^ darhdr, m. the court of a
king or prince, p ^J^.j'^ darbdrij m. a courtier, p UjJb j^ J J dar pesh hond, n. to
occur, to await, p ^ji^^ji^ darakht.vci' atree,astalk.^ ^.i^wj^^ri^j darkhwdsty f. applica- tion, request, wish, desire, p Jj J dard, m. pain, affliction, pity, p ^j^ji^ daridri, poor, miserable, s J^j^ darkdr, useful, requisite, p Aji^ diram, m. money; a coin
about sixpence in value, p jjL<^J dar-miyduy in the midst ;
between, p ijjjj daranda or darinda, m. a
beast of prey, p ^j^^j^ darwdza, m. door, p 4 jjj daroghy m. a lie. p ^^jfjJ darweshy m. a dervise, a
beggar, p bjj dar yd y m. the sea, a river, p U^ L::^bj J darydft-ky a. to con- ceive, understand. Ap ^^J c?fls (or dasJi)y ten. s Lii^wJ dasty m. the hand. j9 ^^j:^d dastar-khwdny m. the cloth on which orientals eat. p ^*4-i»J dushmariy m. an enemy, p ,UAJiiJ dushmamy f. enmity, p
>*U-S>J dushndniy f. abuse. 5/> IcJ /iw'a, f. benediction, prayer, wish, a
<^J
( 17 )
-c^J dukh) m. pain, labour ; dukhl, grieved, afflicted, s
Ul^j dikhana and dikkldndj a. to shew, to point out. s
Jj dil, m. heart, mind, soul, p
U il J diland, a. to cause to give, s :Jj du-latfiy f. a kick with the two hind legs, h [mind, -p
^^f-^^ J^ dil-jam'-if f. ease of
J.J J rfa/7/, f. argument, proof, a
/♦J (/«?w, m. breath, hfe. p
/♦J 6?Mm, f. tail, end. p
j^J c?iw, m. a day. s
l-j J dunyd, f. the world, people, a
J J (/o, a. two. p
\j J c?aif?a, f. medicine, a remedy, a j^jJ dwdr, m. a door, a gate, s
i^JjJ dudh, m. milk. 5 j^J JSr, f. distance ; distant, p
W^^l^ daurdnd, a. to cause to run, to drive, s
Ijj^J daurndf n. to run. s
c:i-««.jj dost, m. a friend, lover; dost-rakhndy to hold dear, to love, p [ship, p
j^^;^i.> dosti, f. affection, friend-
l^jJ dusrd, the second, other, next, s
^Ji^^^ doshy m. fault, defect, s
^l^J dukdn, f. a shop, p
ei-vh J daulaty f. riches, fortune, em- pire ; daulat-mandy a. wealthy, a
y^J or (^yj*^ c?owo or donouy the two, both. ^
j*ybJ dharniy m. virtue ; dharm- dvatdr, incarnation or personi-
virtue ; sire, your
fication of
majesty, s IjybJ dharndy a. to place, to lay. s l^J dhakkd, m. a push, jolt. /* i^J (iA«w, m. wealth ; dhanly
wealthy, s [trickery, h
li-l&JcJiJ dhandhalpandy m. fraud, ^^jybO dhohi, a washerman ; 6///o-
Z>i7i, a washerwoman, k ^ybJ dhurriy f. noise, tumult. ^ ^L&J dhydriy m. mind, thought, s c:-^IjJ diydnaty f. conscience,
honesty, piety ; diydnat-ddr^
honest, just, a ^^ J daihly f. fate, by chance, s j^JoJ diddvy viewing, seeing, j) jiJ deVy f. a long time, late, p (^J desy m. country, region. 5 li^J dekhndy a. to see, expe- rience. 5 lx> J cZewa, a. to give, grant, s jlijj dJndVy m. the name of a coin,
a ducat, a jL\i.o d'lnddvy faithful, true, p j\^}j^ dlwdr, f. a wall, p [ence. p j^l^J diwdny m. a hall of audi-
ij\^ ddrhy f. a tooth, h ^^fej' J ddrhly f. a beard. 5
U1^3 ddlndy a. to throw down, to pour out, to rush forth ; ddl-dy a. to throw away, h
Ju' J dandy m. retaliation ; an oar; a stick ; ddnd ly to take re- venge, s
c c
bJ
( 18 )
JV
lib 3 dubana, a. to cause to sink, h ^3 duhkij f. a dip, dive; duhkl-
mdrnd, to bathe, k J J dar, m. fear, s l3jj darndy n. to fear, s [bridle, h liJb J3 duriyd-l, a. to lead by the b^^i dalwdndy a. to cause to be
thrown, placed, h liJ^j dubnd, n. to sink, to be
drowned, h J^J dolly f." a plain kind of litter
or sedan. /* i^u\3jj dondi, f. a proclamation, h L-JUj dhdmpndy a. to cover up,
conceal. ^ IfisrUi dhdnchdy m. a frame,
framework, h e-^-JfeJ 6?Aa&, m. mode, manner, h J^Jbj G?^oZ, m. a drum ; dholak,
a Httle drum, h LfeA3yi»j dkundhnd, a. to seek,
to search for. 5 ]^o derd, m. a dwelling, a tent;
a. squint-eyed, h JjJ dllj m. stature; dtl-daul,
size and shape ; ^eZ, a clod, h
Hjj zdrra, m. an atom, a little ;
the least bit. a ^^zikvy m. remembrance; zikr-k,
to mention, to praise, a
\^\
J
>lj rdty f. night.
^^U /at, I. iiigiiL. d s>'\j rdjd or i^\) rdja, a king, s jX,,>^j rdj-mandirym. a palace, s
j[) rdz, m. a secret, a mystery, p ^^\j rdkhndy to keep, stop, s ]^-^/*j rdm-cherdy a name fre- quently given to slaves, s c:^-^-^^ rdhatj f quiet, ease, a ifj^ rdhy f road, way. j9 &Jj ruthay m. rank, dignity, a ^j rathy m. f. a chariot (four- wheeled), s ^j rati, f. a weight of about
eight barley-corns. 5 ci^v*^^ rukhsaty f. leave,discharge ;
ruldisat'hy to depart, a i:>^j rakhnay m. rent, hole, p L; rassdy m. a rope, h UL; risdndy a. to be enraged. ^ «J^ ra^Za, m. a road, way, mode, p ^>^j rassly f. a string, cord, p CSJ^j ras/iky m. envy,jealousy. p fj^ij raflky m. a friend, ally, a ^ ij6j ruJc'ay m. a letter, note, a U^ rakhndy a. to place, possess, save ; rakh-dy to put down, to place ; rakh-l, to establish, s Ijij^ rakhwdndy a. to cause to be
placed, or put. s ^^ij rnndl^ a woman, h i^J^j rangy m. colour, pleasure, p ^J3j ranglriy coloured, gaudy, p ^j ru, m. face, surface, p ^ji^j rubaruy in the presence ;
face to face, before, p ^ V ^P^y ™- silver, s <!Lj^j rupiydy m. a rupee, s ^^j rotly f. bread, a loaf s ^%j ruhy f. soul, spirit, a j^j roZy m. a day. p
LTV ( ^
(^jj rosj ni. anger ; ros-k, to feel
wroth. 5 ^^j roshaUy clear, illumined. J9 lijj ro/za, n. to weep ; m. lamenta- tion, grief, s tJJ^j rahzantff. robbery, plunder, p ^j^j rakas, m. witticism, s l:Ji; ruhna^ n. to stay, be, live, continue ; rahne-wald, an inha- bitant, h [road, p J^yibj rahwavy swift ; lit. fit for the <^^ij ret, f. sand, filings; rit,
custom, s ^^j rifi, f. custom, habit, s liff-; rtjhna, n. to be pleased, satisfied, s
J bi}!\j zada, m. a son, child ; used in composition, as shah-zada, a king's son, a prince, p ^J<ij zahan, f. the tongue, lan- guage, dialect ; zaban-i-rekhta, the Urdii or mixed Hindu- stani, p jj zar, m. gold, wealth, money, p ^^^j zamin, ground, a field, p (JUj za7za?i?, belonging to women, p jy^j zamhur, m. a bee. p ^^j zindagi, ^ f. life, exist- tjl^jjj zindagani, J ence.j> {^S^j zang, m. a small bell, p j^j zor, m. force, strength, p J^bv ^orawar, powerful, strong, p iid\ij ziyada, m. addition, addi- tional; adv. more ; ziyada-kj to increase, a
y ) ^«;
u;Vj ziyan, m. loss, damage, p jij zevj under, beneath, p
U sa (se, si), Q. termination added to substantives or adjectives to denote simiUtude or intensive- ness. h Jj\^ sabik, formerly, a .^*Lj sath, prep. with, s ^^*Lj sat hi, ra. a companion, s i^jL sada, plain, unadorned, p ^-s sara, all, the whole, s UjU sarha, with a half added, s jL saz^ m. furniture, harness, &c. p (jJLs sas, f. a mother-in-law. s jU sak, f. the leg, thigh. JLo sal, ra. a year, p jj^fv-L samhne, prep, in front of. s
j^jL sdfUngi, f. a support for
the pole of a chariot. A ^I^^Lj sdhukdr, ra. a great mer- chant, s jj-jLs 55,25, ra. a groora. p <oLj 5aya, ra. shadow, protection, p L--'*-: 5«&, all, every, the whole. 5 L^'^f^ sabab, m. cause, reason, motive ; prep, on account of. a jL»«j sabak, m. a task, lesson, a lLC.j subuk, light, not heavy ; subuk-bar, lightly burdened, p j\^ju*j subhdv, m. nature, disposi- tion, s \iji J^ supurd-k, a. to give in
charge, to consign, p ^f^ stri, a woman, s
( 20 )
Jr
\\\^^ sajwanUf a. to cause to be
fitted, prepared, s ^ sach^ m. truth, true. 5 ^1^:-%^'^ sakht, hard, severe, very. j9 ^.s.-* safdu, generous, Hberal. a 1.X-J sadUf always, s [ful. h
JyLj sudaul, well-shaped, grace- j-^ sir, m. the head, the top. s liJi>J^«s sardknd, a. to praise, extol, h o J^ 5arae,f. a caravansary, house.j9 ^jt^ sardi^ f. coldness, cold wea- ther, p [region, p ^*jr^j/^ sar-zamm^ f. empire, ]j-3 sazd^ f. punishment, p w::-^-— J sust^ lazy, idle, p ^Ji— **j susti^f. laziness,dilatoriness.j9
CL^iilx^sd'adat^ f. felicity; sa'ddat-
mand-i, gratitude, felicity, a ^;A«j 5a/«r, a journey, voyage, p *A-i-o siifed^ sufaidy white, p l:X-j sakndj n. to be able, s jd:S^ SikandaVf m. Alexander, p I^Cj ,9i/c/^a {siksha), a lecture. 5 l3l^-j sikhandy \j\^ sikhldndy Jl-^ sukh-pdl, m. a kind of
sedan. ^ lIJx^C..? sikhak (sikshak\ a
teacher, preacher. 5 /•)!-) saldniy salutation; hail! a »w^^Lj saldmat^ f. safety, safely, a jjUaLj sultan^ m. a sovereign ; Ar.
pi. saldtjn, sovereigns, a <ULL» sallka, m. skill, taste, a
a. to teach, s
^\a^ samdn, like, similar. 6- ^^«j samajh^ f. comprehension. 5 LfS"*^ samajhndy a. to compre- hend, understand, s (j^«j smaran^ m. remembrance,
recollection. ^ t^'*'**' samay^ m. time, season. 5 liL-s sundnd, a. to cause to hear, s ci-^-j sampaty f. wealth. 5 u-j;^i»<j sandesd, m. a message, s jL-i^ sansdvy m. the world. 5 ^^xx-: singautl, f. an ornament of gold, &c., on the horn of a bullock. 5 li:^ sunnd, a. to hear. 5 y^ 50, correlat. pron. that very, that same ; sau, a hundred, h 1^ si!/;fl, except, besides, a j^^«j sawdr, a rider, one mounted
or riding, embarked, p y^j^y^ smvdrlyf. riding, equipage, p . J|^«: sawdl, m. request, begging,
petition, a ^j^^^^ swdmly m. master, hus- band, a k^U-yc siwde, same as siwd. a li^^ sochnd^ to consider, reflect, s ljy-» sauddy m. a bargain, pur- chase. J9 ji Si^y^sauddgaVy m. a merchant, p ^^\dyM sauddgafiy f. merchan- dize, trade, p J^J ^ su-daul, elegant, well
shaped. 5 ^jy-^ surdkhy m. a hole, cavity, p
**rf samm, m. poison, a [ings. s 1 -r-j^ surajy m. the sun. s jU-Uw^ samdc/idr, m. news, tid- ' (^•^^Jjy^ Sardds, name of a poet, h
rr* (
li^<j«o saumpnd, a. to deliver over,
consign. Aho ^^saunpnd. s
U^-j sond, m. gold ; sund, void,
empty, s \j^ sond, n. to sleep, to die. 5 l2i^ sontd, m. a pestle, h ^^yf^y^ sonhm, in front, h ]^l^«:sa^fl7'a, m. aid, assistance, s j***Y*> sahasray a thousand, s ^.z^J^^^siydsaty f. punishment, a l)L-j siydnd, wise, intelligent. 5 ^L-j siydhy black, unfortunate. /> l&jk^ sidhdy straight, opposite. 5 j*^ sair^ f. a walk, perambulation, a j^ seVy a certain weight, nearly
two pounds, h lu^Cw) sikhndy a. to learn, s \Su^ senkndy a. to parch, to
warm one's self, h {^S^^ singy m. a horn, s
-l-2b shdkh, a branch, horn. j> :>l-l shdhf m. a king, prince ; shdh- zdda^ a royal son, a prince, p Ajl-ii shdyady possibly, probably, perhaps, p
i shahdy m. a voice, sound, s -wi> skabih, f. a picture, likeness. « ^jli-i> shitdbl, f. quickness, haste ;
quickly, p j:^ shntuvy m. a camel, j^ o^ls"*^ shnjd'aty f. bravery, a ^^ua^-^ shakhsy m. a person, indi- vidual. «
2i shiddaty f. violence, force, adversity, affliction, a
21 ) ^u
L^ 5/mr(, f. condition, stipulation,
wager, a ^jti sharniy f. bashfulness, mo- desty, shame ; sharm-dndy n. to feel ashamed, p ^su^jJit sharmandagiy f. bashful- ness, shame, p idc^jJii sharmanda, ashamed,
abashed, p ^jti shuru\ f. beginning, com- mencement, a jijJ^ sharivy vicious, wicked, a ei-^iiA-i) shafakaty f kindness,
affection, a jlLi shikdr, m. hunting, prey, p ijj^ shikdrl, relating to hunting ;
m. a fowler, hunter, p Jj^ shukr, m. thanks, gratitude, a J.C2) shakly f. shape, figure, a J.^ shikarriy m. the belly, p j^-i shoTy m. cry, noise, disturb- ance, p ^yti shauky m. desire, love, a ^^shankiuy desirous; amateur,
fanciers, a iX^Jb shahdy m. honey, p jY^ shahvy m. a city, p i^^\^Y^ shahzddtty a prince ; shah-
zddf, a princess, p jfJ^ sher, m. a tiger, a hon. p ^^jJa shlrinly f. sweetness, elo- quence, p y^ 5^7gra, quickly. 5
^o^U sdhiby m. a lord, master, companion, possessed of, as.
U-3<«0
( 22 )
saldh-ldiana, the master of the house ; sahih i ^ismat, pos- sessed of chastity, a uJU safj clean, clear, candid, a ^»tf suhhf f. morning, dawn, a j*ja sahr, f. patience, endurance, a c:-^-»^:f* suhhatj f. society, a \^\j^ sarraf^ m. a banker, a mo- ney-changer, a i^j^ sirf, merely, only, a t^U-tf safari J purity, beauty, a d-^ sifat, f. praise, quality, a J%>c salahj f. counsel, advice, a
U-Lp salahan, peaceably, advis- ably, by way of advice, a j^Ja*tf5aw6fM/:,m.f.abox,atrunk. a L->^^ sawabj m. rectitude, a vir- tuous action, success, a ci^^ surat, f. form, face, a fcX-^sai<Z,f. game, hunting, chase, a
j^j^ zarur or zurur, necessary, expedient, a
a za^if, frail, bedridden, a
jli? taky m. a shelf, a recess, a c:^li?/«A-a^,f. power, endurance, a «— »1? /aft', m. constitution, nature, a c,. '^.^ ^V* /a&I/^, m. a physician, doc- tor, a —Jb tarah^ f. manner, mode, a jjo tarZf m. make, shape, a uJ^ /«''«/> f» side, direction, ex- tremity, a l^lxl? tadm, m. food, victuals, a
^l&L? ,(i^, f. infancy, a
c-Ji? jf/z/aJ, f. search, demand, summoning, pay; talab-k, to seek for, to send for. a
*-^ tam% f. avarice, greediness, a
j^ taur^ m. mode, manner, a
^^ fufdn, m. a storm of wind and rain, a
fjyb tul, m. length, a
Ai^Jb tavnla, m. a tether, foot- band ; tawela, a stable, stall, a
\j^jib\]a zahir-k, a. to manifest, display, a h
t
^5j-U 'djizl, f. weakness, help- lessness, a
JiU dkil, wise, a sage, a U 'dlam, m. the world, universe ; ^dlam-pandh, the asylum of the universe, his majesty, a U 'dlirrif a. learned, knowing, a ^LsL^ 'ajdjibj m. wonders, cu- riosities, a
t-^js? 'fl/ai, m. wonder, admira- tion ; a. wonderful, rare, a
iOjjsf ^ajuha, a. wonderful,a strange
thing, a jjk£ 'wzr, m. excuse, a
y^jC 'arz, f. representation, a pe- tition, request, a Jljc- ^aziz, precious, dear; used substantively, like the French ' mon cher,' ' my dear friend.' a
aJijLs. 'ishrat, enjoyment, a
?
r>
/
IL:
( 23 )
jUafi 'attar, m. a perfumer, drug- gist, a Jii 'aklf f. wisdom, opinion, a ^^^ 'aklmand, a. wise. « «-.!£ 'I'Zfl/, m. cure, remedy, a
<blc 'aldka, {or ilaka), m. con- nection, a Jlc 'iZm, m. science, knowledge ;
'ilm-i-najunif astrology, a A)^ 'aid, upon, after; aZa hdz-al
kiydsj in like manner, a i^Asnls'aZaz^icZttjdistinctjpeculiar.a ^.Xix 'umda, noble, fine, a fAS. 'umr, f. age, lifetime, a ijAs- 'amal, m. action, practice,
conduct, a c:-.j>1:j; Hndyat, f. favour, gift, a ^^wUll >1^ 'awam-unnds, m. the
common people, a ci.>;^ 'aurat, f. a woman, a wife ;
Arab. plur. ^aurdt. a ^^ 'iwaZy m. return, substitute, a c:jjLc 'iyddat, f. visiting (the
sick), a jLfi 'aiydr, cunning ; a knave, a ^jLs. ^aish, m. pleasure, delight, a ^j^ ^ain, ra. the eye, essence, the
very (thing, &c.). a
jU ghdr, m. a pit, cavern, hole, a Jili ghdfiU careless, neghgent. a \jc. gharrtty impudence, a ^Jijh. gharaZy f. design, view ; ad,
in short, in fine, a ^-r^lj^ gharih, poor, a stranger, a
^'^y- ghaznavlf a. residing at
Ghazna. p uJlc ghildff m. a covering, p /♦Ic ghuldrrij m. a slave, a m£- gham, m. grief, sorrow, a j^ ghair, other, different, a Cl^^ ghairaty f. jealousy, a
s>\i\i fdjida, m. profit, gain, a JL>li fdfik, superior, excelling, a j^ f^J'^i ^' morning, dawn of day ;
early, a ^5^4>i jidwij devoted, loyal subject
or slave, a [sure, a
d^g^ fardghat^ f. comfort, lei- \j^ (J:.yo\j5 fardmosh-k, to for- get, p h ^jji far Zand, m. a son, boy. p f^ji farz-k, to grant, assume, a UUy farmdnd, a. to order, say,
speak, h i}\j.3farydd, f. complaint, p Lj'^^y faryadi, a. complainant,
plaintiff, p c-^,y farebj fraud, a trick, p jl^y«.s*«c?,m. depravity, violence, a J-^/a5Z,f. time, season, harvest, a IsJisfakatf merely, only, no more, a j^ fakir, m. a beggar, dervise,
poor, indigent, a J>ifikr, m. f. thought, reflection, a \'iii fuldnd, a certain one. a '^^ fauj, f. army, a multitude, a by fO'UTan, quickly, instantly, a |J fi, in, used in Ar. phrases, as,
fiylyWdki, in truth ; fijl,faur,
C^lS
instantly ; Ji,l,hakikat, of a verity, a
J
Jjli kahily fit, worthy, a ^\s kazi, m. a judge, a c:-v<l5 kamaty f. bulk, height,
size, a <UiJ kahza, m. grasp, possession, a ^^^ kahulf m. consent, kahul-k,
to agree, accept, a J::i ittt^/, ra. slaughter, killing, a Si kaddy m. stature, size, a jSs kadry f. worth, price, a ^Si kadaniy m. foot, footstep, a mjSs kadiniy ancient, old. a J^y karar, conlmiation, rest, a ^ji karzy m. a loan ; karz dena,
to lend, a >— i kasaniy f. an oath; kisrUy kind,
species, a jy^ kusur^ m. want, fault, a jLiJI kazzaky m. a robber; hence
Cossack. J^^ kazakary by chance, a p <Ud3 kazia, m. a quarrel, a <u)i itiZ'a, m. a fort, palace, a cu-ilii kina'aty f. contentment, a Jy AraMZ, m. a statement, a word, a K^L^^ kiyamaty f. the general re- surrection, calamity, a Ju5 kaidy f. fetter, imprisonment, a kimaty f. price, value, a
•l^ katiby m. a writer, a lijl^ katmiy a. to cut. 5 «
( 24 ) ^^
jl^ /:«r, m. use, business, service,
work, deed, p i^.^J^ kar-chohi, embroidered cloth, p
jkili kaghaZy m. paper, a scrap of paper, p
yl^/i:fl^r, m. infidel, a
f^^kaly m. time, s
/♦l^ kciniy m. business, use, de- sire; kam dndy to be useful, of service, s p
^^\^ kduy m. the ear. s
liJl^ kdmpndy n. to tremble, to shiver. 5
UjuI^ kdnd/idy m. the shoulder, s
^li kdnkJiy the armpit, h
^^l^ kdnhkubja, the city of Kanoj. 5
-fjl^ kdyathy m. name of a caste of Hindus, ascribe, a copyist. 5
c-.^ kahy when ? 5
j<-^ kaliiy m. a poet. 5
^ kahhuy ever, some time or other ; kahhu-kahhuy occasion- ally ; ^^ kabhl, same as kabku. s
h-^ kaprd, m. cloth, clothes, s
c:j>^ kaput y unfiHal. s
\i^ kuttdy m. a dog. s
4_-^li^ kitdby f. a book, writing, a
li::Li/:i^wa, how much? how many? s
^y\y^ kutwdly an officer of police, s
sjjy^ kaioriy f. a small metal cup. //
^ kuchhy any, some, something, a little; kachhuy any, the least. //
^^^ kachchhu'dy m. a tortoise, s
1/
uJ ^\^ kirae lena or kirae mang- wdna,togeton hire, to borrow, h ^^Jti^ Krishn, the god Krishna, s l^ karnuj a. to do, to place, s i^^Ji krodhy angry, wroth, s ^j^ kis, inflect, of kaun, who? frequently joined to the follow- ing word, as kis-tarah, how? kis-wastey or -%e, why ? h ^;»^A:a55J,aprostitute,courtesan.a l:^-i kasna^ a. to draw, cover, h ^^ or^^ kisl or kisu, inflection of ko7 or kuchhj some, certain, any. h <JL^Z^ kishty m. f. a sown field. ^ (^1^ kishtlj f. a boat, ship, p J^ /v«Z, to-morrow, yesterday, s <*K kalam, m. a word, speech, a ci^ijK kalawant, m. a minstrel,
musician. ^ <5^1^/ca/e;a,m.thehver, courage, h *^ /caw, deficient, less, httle, rarely; used in composition, as kam- hakhty ill-starred, a rascal, p JU^ kamaly m. perfection, excel- lence ; used adjectively, as, ex- treme, the utmost, &:c. a \i\^ kamana, a. to earn one's
living, h y^ kamara (camera), m. a room,
chamber. (Port.) <5;--^^ kamlna, base, mean fellow, p ij^ kindra, m. shore, side, limit, a j^sa^ kur/jly f. a key. s
M kund, m. a cistern, basin. 5 Jl^i^ kangdl, poor, wretched, k
( 25 ) J.^
^:^ kane, near, beside. A
1^ kauwd, m. a crow ; kuyd, a
well, a draw-well, h ^iti\j^ kotdhlj smallness, defi- ciency, p [of police, p J^y^ kotwdly m. the chief officer ufj^^^ kothrly f. a room, s ^^^ kuc/ta, m. a lane, a street, p Ijj^ kordy m. a whip, a lash, k ij^»^ komaly soft, weak, s ^S kauuy who? which? what? h lJ^^ kund'iy f. a mortar, h \Ji^ kaunsdy what-like ? of what
sort? h
^if kdiy any, some one ; artic. a or an, a certain (person, &c.). s
^ ki, that, thus, as follows ; some- times a relative, who ? which ? p
l^ kahdy m. bidding, order; kahd- sunly f. altercation, s
(J^^ khdly f. skin, hide, s
^\^^ kahdriy where ? whither ? h
\i\^ khdndy a. to eat, suffer; m. food, dinner, s
c^ily^ kahawaty f. a byword, a saying, s [rub. s
\A^4 khvjldndy a. to' tickle, to l&^^ kharahdy m. a hare. 5 \j4 khardy erect, standing. ^ ^'j4 khirkt, f. a window, h lil^i khulndy n. to be opened, to
clear up after rain. 5 ^\^ khildndy a. to give to eat, to,
feed, s ^^i^ i}i^ khil-khildndyn. tolaugh. h
D d
^ ( 26 )
L^^ kahna, a. to tell, say, bid,
call, affirm, s U^ khohia, a. to open, untie, let
loose, s \j^ khond, a. to lose, to waste, s l::^^ khet, m. a field, s ^J^ khetlj f. husbandry, crop, s
J^ khel, m. play, game, sport, s Ul-^ khelna, n. to play, to sport, s ^jj^kahiUf somewhere, anywhere,
somewhat, s lisd-^ khenchna or khainchnd, a.
to delineate, draw. ^ ^^ti ka,i or Atz,^, some, a few. h
L^ A:ya, pro. what? how? why?
whether (or not) ; kyd khub,
how glorious ! what fun ! s L? kiydj done, a deed, past part.
of karnd, to do, make, s L--^ kaisd, how ? in what manner ?
of what sort ? what like ? 5 cu^j^ii^ kaifiyatf f. nature, state, a jj»^^ /cy w/i, kyauriy why ? how ?
well ? what ? A:?/w/i A;i, because ;
kyun-kar, how ? A
kJj^ gcifij f. a chariot, cart, /i ^^ gall, f. abuse. 5
Uli gdnd, a. to sing. 5
.^li' gctnthj a knot ; oran/^ /ca
joSra, very rich, h y\^ gdnw, m.a village, s jU gai^, f. a cow. p L.,^ j.«^ gap shap, chit-chat,
conversation, h
^/
jJLs^ gujardfi, belonging to Gujerat. h [a fool, s
\iti^ gadhd, m. an ass, (metaph.) \i^d^ gudarya, a shepherd. A \J^^ gvzardy m. passing. ^ lijj^jki guzardnna, a. to forward, p l3j jk> guzarnd, n. to pass, p ^ gnr, m. a preceptor, s i}^ gar d,f. dust, Scottice, 'stour/jy dj^ gird, prep, around. j> L^\^^ girddh, m. a gulph, whirl- pool, p f^dj> gar dan, f. the neck, p Atj^ garm, hot ; garml, f. heat, hot
season, j) i^ garh, m. a fortress, palace. //
y^ g^flg^i conversation, p (Ji gul, m. a rose; gul karnd, to extinguish, j;; h gait, f. a lane, h
Ai gM?W, lost, p
U^ (j;^'^*^ gumdn karnd, a. to
imagine, fancy, opine, j^ ^* j^S gMW, m. skill ; gunl, skilful, s il:o> gundh, m. fault, crime, sin. p \j\tf,:^ gunthivdnd, a. to cause to
be fixed (as a string), s j\y^ gaiiwdr, m. a villager, a
peasant, h i\f gawdh, a witness ; gawdhl,
evidence, testimony. /; JIj^ Gopdl, one of the names of
Krishna, s jf gor, m. the grave, tomb, p ^-^^^^fgosht, m. flesh, p »^fgokh, m. a portico, h
J/
f^S gol, or golsaf round, s
lx);i> gungRf mute, dumb, h ^.jfgoyoLy as if, as one would say. p t-Sl^ ghat, m. a landing place, s Ij^i ghahrana, n. to be confused,
perplexed, h i-rr^y l5^i ghata-top, m. a canopy,
covering. ^ jf ghaVy m. house, dwelling. 5 ]jf^g^ara, m. ajar, pitcher, s ^'jf ghafij f. an hour, a watch, s \:^^^ghisna, n. to be worn ; ghusna,
to enter, h ^l2i^ ghantdlJj f. a small bell. 5 •J^^ ghungru, m. a small bell, s ^j^ ghora, m. a horse, s l^^i gholnuy a. to dissolve, to
pound. 5 [jdna). h
Li g«y«, gone (past part, of (J-i ^ai7, f. a road, h \:^i gaind, m. a small bullock, h ^^j^ gairiiy f. a small chariot, h ^y^ gehun, m. wheat, s
J
tJL;il /af, f. trunk of a tree, h
j^jli^ Id-mnly unequalled, un- rivalled, a
^ Idj, m. shame. 5
t-->^^5s-iJ/a-;«ii;a J, silent, silenced, a jU^l' Idchdr, helpless, destitute, p
J-^l>-^ Id'hasil, useless, without result, a
\jSilddnd, a. to load, to embark, h
j^p Lar-Kapur, two celebrated
minstrels at the court of Akbar. h
( 27 ) /I
/»jy Idzim, necessary, urgent, a -tf^^ lakh, one hundred thousand, h B /a/a, m. master, sir. h ^^ Idlach, m. avarice, desire. 5 l3j /awa, a. to bring, to breed,
produce, make, s J^J Idik, worthy, perfect, a li5j lipatnd, n. to cling, to stick
to. h L5^ lapetnd, a. to wrap up. h l3l^ latkdnd, a. to suspend. ^ Ijl^ lajdnd, n. to be ashamed. 5 c:-^' lajjit, ashamed, s l3 jJ ladnd, n. to be loaded, to ride, h jkj jJ /a§7^, delicate, delicious, a ^^■^ lard,t, f. battle, quarrel, war. h l^ larkd, m. a boy, child, babe, s l3j) larnd, a. to fight, to quarrel, s Ulfcjl lurhdnd, a. to spill, upset. 5 li^^y] lurhakndf n. to be spilt,
upset, s jiJL!i lashkar, m. an army, p cjy /wj?y*, m. pleasure, enjoy- ment, a j^Uii! Lukmdn, m. name of a fa- mous Eastern fabuhst. a <Ui) /w^?wa,m. a morsel, mouthful, a i^€] lakrl, f. wood, a staff, stick, h Ix^ likhnd, a. to write, s \)\^ likhwdnd, a. to cause to be
written. 5 /♦u.l lagdm, bridle, bit. s U?J lagnd, n. to touch, to begin,
to reach or come up to. s \j\^ lagwdnd, a. to cause to be applied, s
.-^
(
Lil lamhu, long, tall, s hxJ langrd, lame, p h l:^^ Z/ifwa, a. to rob, plunder ;
lotnd, to roll on the ground, s ^ luka, m. spark, flame, s vL^ /og, m. people, s i^yc^ lomfi, f. a fox. s ^^Jujl laund'iy f. a slave. A ys»^ Zo^M, blood. liSJ /ef?2a, n. to repose, to lie
down, h [carry, s
Ulsn.! lejdndy a. to take away, to ^^^/e/c2W,conj.but,yet, however, a ^Cj lekkd,m. account, reckoning, s CS^ lekhaky m. a writer, one
who is writing, s Lj L] Ula-plld, blue and yellow ;
applied to the appearance of the
eyes of a person enraged, s UJ lencij a. to take, accept, set,
buy. s jj liyCy for the sake of. h
U mdy f. a mother ; md hap,
parents, s \j^^ mdjardy m. state, circum- stance, incident, a [kill, s li!l JjU mdr-ddlnd, a. to smite, to <,^U Twarg, m. a road, path, s IjjU mdrnd, a. to smite, strike. « t_>^l<) mare, by reason of, in con- sequence of. s [goods, a JU mal, m. property, wealth, lLn5U) mdlik, m. master, lord, possessor, a [distressed. ^^ i^jjU mdnda, left behind, tired,
28 ) 1^
li^to mdngnd, a. to ask for, to
beg. s [agree to. s
LjU manna, a. to believe, obey, ^?U ?wa,7, f. mother, s cL^L< muhdrak, good, auspicious;
mubdrak-hddi, congratulation, a and I::-* mat and wa^a, f.
mind, judgment, s
mat, don't (used with im-
perat.). h cli^ matd\ m. goods, property, a ^^ TwzVr, a friend, s t^Jko^n,* inutasaddt,Rn accountants e-^os*--* muta'ajjih, astonished, a J^.« Mathurd, name of a province
and town near Agra, s ^cf^ muthl, f. the fist, a handful. 5 ^5^ »2z/{7, f. earth, dust, s
Ji^ masal, f. a fable, simile, pro- verb, a [vention. a jyjjs* majlis, f an assembly, con- Ijls^ machdnd, a. to make, stir
up, commit, h ir^^lsr*mw^az/;ara,m.idiom,usage. a Ai^** mahrum, disappointed, ex-
cluded, a i}yi^^ Mahmud, a man's name, a \^^'.>^-^ mihnat, f. labour, misfor- tune, a [rious. a cJlair* mukhtalif, different, va- OJ^ muddat, f. a space of time,
a long time, a Ujt« mudd'd, m. desire, wish, a j^Jc« mudda'l, m. a plaintiff, " claimant, a [degrees, a
\^j\^ mardtib, m. (pi.) steps,
Lr-
( 29 )
^j.J»^
t)L« muradj f. desire, meaning,
inference, a <tJ^ martaba, m. a step, dignity,
office, time ; ek martahe, once
upon a time, a Ajrs-^^Twar^iimjdeceasedjthelate. a
dye mar d, m. a male, a man, a hero;
mardana-icar, like a man. p ^j-o 7narzij f. wish, inclination, p
^j^ murghj m. a fowl, bird, p
\ij< marnuj n. to die, to expire ;
also mar-jancbj the same, s iL^o musajir, m. a traveller, a J^riw-^ mustuly m. a mast, a *Xs— ^ masjidy f. a mosque, a ^-s.*-^ maskhara, a jester, a \}\^^^.^ muskurancLj n. to smile, h j^UL-K< Musalman, a Muhamma- dan,ofthe faith of Muhammad, a CSz^ mashk, f. a leathern bag for water, p [known, a
j^^t^ mashfhury noted, well- ^^:5-l*a^ mnsahihy m. a compa- nion, fnend, aide-de-camp, a j}"^^ musamoir^ m. a painter, a s.::^^*^z^mufihaty f calamity, afflic- tion, a [to. a jplk« mutabik, prep, conformable ...^IL^ mat lab, m. a question, pur- pose, meaning. « F^U ^^ Muzaffir-khan (p. 29), a man's name, a c-JU^ mu'afy absolved, forgiven, excused; mu'af karnd, to for- give, a ^»Sx^<ma'zii7'j excused, excusable, a
J.VO mu'allim fin. ateacher,doctor. a
-♦^U^ ma'lum, known, apparent ;
ma'lum-h, to seem, to appear, a
U*^ mu^ammcij m. an enigma, an
acrostic, a L^y^jf^ ma'yuby blaraeable, dis- reputable, a j*Jf^ maghruvj a. proud, fasti- dious, a ^.Ji^A^ muft, free, gratis, p ^jSiLc mufliSf poor, wretched, a ^^^AsL< mvflisl, f. poverty, a
sJu) mufidy profitable, useful, a /♦liU makam, m. place, occasion, a jji^ mukarrar, assuredly, a j^lC<wa/:fl7i, m. a place,d welling, a
-^C< mukkj m. mouth, s ^Cc makkhlj a fly. h
^ magaVj but, except, s cuU^ mulakaty f. meeting, in- terview, a tlil^ TWwZA;, m. a country, king- dom ; maliky a king ; (pi. Ar.) muluky kings, a LLo malna, a. to rub, to tread on,
to anoint, h LL: milna, n. to be found, to meet. 5 ^man, m.the mind, soul.s; name of a certain weight, a maund. p o jLa: manadi, f proclamation, a ci>U^n[i^ muntakhabat, selections,
extracts, a t jc*^ munda, open, exposed, h J^^jsx* manjhoUy f. a small chariot. ^
manishy f. dignity, rank, p
A.
W / Vi:^^ O^^AA^^ti^f^ ^^^^^hJ^^ i^,^ /Zi -rS^^tw^
u^
i 30 )
u^
(^^A^wo manush^ a person, s jiai^ mantiky ra. logic, a ^Jila:^ mantiki, m. logician, a ^^ Twaw', m. prohibition, a \i\S:^ mangwdna, a. to cause to
be brought, h -^ munh, m. the mouth, face;
7WM?iA-2ror,headstrong,obstinate.s ^x mu, a hair, p [mama), s
]^ mud, dead, (past part, of (j3\yo muwdfik, a. conformable, a ^y-o mofi, m. a pearl, s Lyo motdy gross, coarse. A ^^>.^?/zc>cA7,m.acobbler,saddler. h ijyo murhf m. a fool, s W4^ mausim or mausam, m. time,
season, a 4_J J^^ maukuf, depending on ;
maukuf'kj toconclude,tostop. a Jj>^ mom-dil^ soft-hearted, p WSjyomundhd, m. a footstool, h ^JjI^ mahdhally powerful, s ^^5^l^7waAa;flw, a rich merchant, s Jijl^ mahddoly a large sedan. A 'T^J^Y^ mahdrdj, great king ! sir !
sire ! 5 [skill, a
C-J^.^f* mahdrat, f. proficiency, ij^o muhra, m. the thigh bone
(Ex. 36). p iU*^^ mahlna^ m. a month, p j^L< miyduy a master, gentleman. ^ «0L< miydna, m. a palki. ^ ^^ w7r, ra. a chief, a leader, p \j^ mlrd, lord, heir, p ^JLsT^ j^ m'lr bakhshl, m. the
paymaster- general, p
\jj^ mlrzd, a noble, grandee, p
J^ mez, f. a table, p
^^— -.c muyassar, a. attained, attain- able, a
iLo maila, a. dirty, defiled ; meld, a fair ; meld theld, ra. a crowd of people. 6-
^^^A--<7we?zA,m.min, rainy season, s
j^^ nd-chlz, worthless, use- less. J) (J^f>-\i ndkhush, displeased, p jj^jlj ndddn, a. ignorant, simple, j) ^3l jli nddditi, f. ignorance, p
l^U wa/cfl, ra. a lane, avenue. ^ l^jiU ndgaurd, m. a kind of bul- lock (of the country Nagaur). k ,^1^13 nd-gahdn, suddenly, unex- pectedly, p [tation. p fj^\j ndlish, f. complaint, lamen- i-^lj ndlishi, complaining, a com- plainant, p . ^\j ndlkl, f. a sort of sedan for " princes, &c. h
4lj wa/a,m. weeping, lamentation.^ a\j ndm^ m. name, fame, reputa- tion. 5 A^lj nd-mahram, unprivileged, applied to such males as are not entitled to visit the harem, a t>^l3 namard, unmanly, a coward.jy Vj^J^U ndmardi, f. unmanliness. p (j^yc^ wa?n2/5,m.f. honour, dignity, the female part of a family, a yli ndnw, ra. name, s
^^ (
J I) naw, f. a ship, p u-^.l3 7ia,i&, m. a deputy, a jjjk-«J nibedan, m. representation,
statement. 5 jJUJ nipatj very, exceedingly. A ^^csT najum or nujum, astrology,
(lit. stars). « c-j-s^sr najihj noble ; najJb-zadaj noble born, a gentleman ; vtajib- zadij daughter of a noble, a Lii^^^jkj nadamatj f. repentance,
contrition, regret, a jj^jJ nidariy at length, at last, s ^>-jJ wac?I or naddiy f. a river. 5 ^j-.y niraSf hopeless, despair, s f^y niraldf apart, aside, s jjjj nir-uttnVj without an answer, s CSi'^ji nazdlky prep, near, used idiomatically like the Latin ajow^?, as (p. 22) dana,on ke nazdlk, apud sapientes,' in the opinion of the wise, p ^^J^ U^5 nisfd-nisflj by halves ; with karndy to divide into two equal shares, p LiL^sxSi nasl/iafj f. advice, admo- nition ; nasl/iat-d or -k, to coun- sel, instruct, reprove, a IjUiJ nazdrdj m. sight, looking, a jOJ nazar, f. sight ; nazar ana or pahu7ichndj to come in sight, a w:l-^^*3 ni'mat, f. favour, benefit,
delight, affluence, a ^j^Jj nafls, a. precious, delicate,
exquisite, a j^-2>liu nakkdshi, f. painting ;
31 )
U
nakkashi-ddr J painted, having
paintings, a JJD nakdy m. ready money, a ^'i) nakshf m. painting, picture,
map, portrait ; naksh i diwdvy
a painting on a wall, a fjcsij naks, m. defect, failure, a j^LsiiJ nuksarij m. loss, defect, de- triment, a Jiij nakly f. a history, tale, a U^Xi nikdlna, a. to extract, to
take out. s UKj nikalnd, to issue, to result, s (JU^ wi/[:«f, near, before, h UC wi/ra/W7wa, useless, worthless. 5 ^>^i nagar, m. a city, a town, s -iT-' nilajjy shameless. 5 jUJ namdZy f. prayer, p ^b^ namuddr, a. apparent. 7? ^jJoJ nandold, m. a trough, an
earthen vessel, s Kj nangdy naked, bare. A yi naUf new, fresh ; nau-jawan,
quite young. ^ c--^^y nauwdbj a viceroy. ^ cu-jy naubaty f. time, occasion, a ^y) ?zawA:dr,m. servant, attendant, p Ay Ay naum-taurrij sing-song,
stuff, h \:,iyynavayauband,qmieyo\iug. s ^ nay no, not. s Jly nihdly pleased, exalted, h <^^i}^ nihdyaty f. the extremity,
ad. very, much, excessive, a ^^-.|j naJiiriy no, not, nay. s >lj niydbaty f. deputyship. a
r'
( 32 )
J>
^^ w7c/ie, beneath, close under, h jjlJ nesh, m.sting(ofabee,&c.). j9 CS^ nek J good, virtuous ; nek* ^ bakht, of good disposition, p '^^i.^^-J neh, love, affection. 5
* wa or 0 conj. and, but. a p l3^ - L> J L^^^ wapas-d or -A:, a.
to return, give back, h p e-^f-|^ wajih, right, proper, a i^j\^ u'Arid, arrived; warid-h, to
arrive, a ^J^J waste J prep, on account of,
for the sake of, because, a lic^j ivaHZy m. a preacher, a ^^xvj wakij, verily, in truth, a
f^Jj^j wakifj aware, acquainted, a
^\^ waldf a termination added to the inflected infinitive denotes the agent; added to nouns it denotes the owner, wearer, &c. h
j)j^ wazir, a minister, counsellor; wazir-zadij the daughter of a wazir. a
iicj wd'Zy m. a discourse, sermon, a
Hj^^ wa-ghairaj et cetera, and so forth, a
\.Ju>% wasfj m. praise, encomium, virtue, worth, a
^^ watan, m. native country, home, abode, a
Uj wafd, f. performing a promise, sincerity, fidelity, a >u wakt, m. time, season, op- portunity, a
^^j wiuy inflect, plur. of wuhy he,
she, 8ic. ^ ^j^)^ wonhm, that instant, h ^j wuhj pro. he, she, that, it. h jjlfcj i6'a/«aw,there,thither,yonder. k ^j wahl or wuhlj pro. he himself,
that very (person or thing), h ^Jb^ wuhln, immediately, h ijj we J they, those; plu. of wuh. h Lj^ waisd, in that manner, so, like
that, such as that, h
-^'U liathy m. the hand, a cubit, s ^^'Ito hathly m. an elephant, s
<JL;lji> hdty f. a market, h ^UjU hdr-mduj despairing, help- less. ^Ife hduy yes, even so. h t^julft hmdly f. a pot. s [sigh, h ^.J^ lidye, alas ! hcLye-k, to groan, yjJb AzVii, a friend, s jU^ hathydry m. a weapon, offen- sive armour, s "^^J^ hachkoldy ra. jolt, jolting, h j^.xjj> liaddiy f. a bone. 5 ^ har, each, every, p J^ hardy a. green, fresh, verdant, s CS^l^Jb hareky pro. every one. p k X^J:^ harchand yhow much soever,
howsoever, although, p J3Jj^ J^o.'f'-'^oz, ad. everyday, p jij^ hargizy ad. ever, p j^j^ Mr any m. a stagj, a deer, s jUfe hazdrj a thousand. ^ Jjib Aa^r/, m. jest, joke, a
J^ (
jLlJb hushyar (same as hoshyar),
careful, p t^j^jin c:^,R» haft'hazari, a com- mander of seven thousand, p t::^ilj5 halakaty f. ruin, destruc- tion, a [tion. A l3^ hildna, a. to move, set in mo- IJjb /^iZwa, n. to move or be moved . h Klfc halka, light, not heavy, h ^ ham, we ; plu. of main, s j^!b ham, a particle denoting " to- gether," used in composition, as, ^)y>' (*^ ham-joti, a companion, p ^\jAJt> ham-rahi, m. a companion,
fellow-traveller, p jA£' Aib ham-umr, companion, of the same age. p [fellow, p
c---.iiCo AJb ham-maktaby class- <UL*/«Ji> hamesha, always, ever, per- petually, p JcJb Hindf India, p ^>x^ Hindu, a Hindu, one who fol- lows the faith of Brahma, p ^\::^^Su:b Hindustan, m. India, ap jUib hunar, m. art, skill, virtue ;
hunarmand, skilful, p L-.iJb hansna, n. to smile, s iU\^ hangama, m, an assembly,
tumult, assault, p fj:^ hosh, m. sense, perception, p lyb hawd, f. wind, air. a
33 ) ^<..
IjU-^ hajdnd, n. to become. A jLibyb hoshyar, intelligent, atten- tive, cautious, p l3y& Aowa, n. to be, become, grow, s ^ hi (an emphatic particle^L
even, indeed, very, h ^^'^
^^ hm, even, indeed, h ^JJb hln, void of, without, s Lib hiyd, m. mind, sense, s
l> i/a, conj . or, either, s jI> ydd, f. memory, recollection, p jl> yar, m. a friend, lover, p jjJb yakin, m. certainty, certain,
true, a l1X> yak, one, a, an. p <Olt> yagdnd, kindred, single, in- comparable, p [ner. h jjjj yw7z, or yon, thus, in this man- ^J^^, yunhln, thus, even so. h ^^^ yih, this ; he, she, &c. h jjl.|(j yahdn, here, used with the the genitive (inflec.) to denote possession, &c., as mere yahdn, in my possession ; apud me. h ^y^^ yihi, this same, h \j^l yahm^ here, in this very
place, h ^^ ye, they, these, h
y
E e
34
A FEW NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS,
On those parts of the Reading Lessons which may appear less obvious to a beginner ; with references to the Grammar.
The first number following the letter G. denotes the page of the Grammar to which the reader is referred; the second number or letter refers to the paragraph in that page.
Extracts in the Persian Character,
Extract 1 . — Jaldi kd phal, ' the fruit of rashness ; ' the geni- tive placed first, G. 95. 64. It will be observed that the sen- tences are arranged according to the rule, G. 93. 62, each sentence finishing with the verb hai, * is.' Gungi zabdn, &c., a speechless tongue is better than a lying tongue : ' in this sentence there are two clauses ; the verb hai is expressed at the end of the first clause, and consequently unnecessaiy at the end of the second. G. 135.
Ex. 2. — Thord khdnd, ' little eating ; ' the infinitive used sub- stantively, G. 129. a. ; talab kar 'ilm ko, ' seek for knowledge ; ' talab karnd, a nominal verb, G. 66, last line ; here the verb, con- trary to the general usage, comes first. There are in this Extract a few more exceptions to the general rule as to arrange- ment, agreeably to what we have stated, G. 93. a.
Ex. 3. — Jalne lagd, ' began to burn ; ' senkne lagd, began to warm himself,' G. 131. c. ; thathol ne kaha, 'a jester said,' or ' by a jester was said ; ' jalcj ' burns,' tape, 'warms himself,' the aorist for the present, G. 122. b.
Ex. 4. — The sentences in this Exti-act follow the general rule as to arrangement, which is, to commence with the nominative or agent, and end with the verb, the remainder or complement of the sentence being included in the middle, bar pa, literally, on foot ; ' ziydda khardb hain, ' are more wicked ; ' the com- parative degree, G, 71. b.
Notes, 8sc, 35
Ex. 5. — Bahut kam, ' many uses ; ' the nominative plural of masculine nouns of the second class (G. 29, 1st line), can be distinguished from the singular only by the context, such as a plural verb, &c. ; ba-jde, ' in place of,' preposition requiring the genitive in ke, G. 98 ; kam ate ham, ' become useful ; ' hanaya jdtd hat, passive voice of banana, G. 58. 42.
Ex. 6. — £Jk unt aur gadhe se, ' between a camel and an ass;' safar dar pesh hu,d, lit. ' a journey came in front,' i.e., they both had occasion to travel ; ' ma'lum hotd hai, ' it appears ; ' dub-jd,ungd, ' I shall be drowned,' intens. verb, G. 65, line 29.
Ex. 7. — Jo ddnd, &c., G. 116. a.-, be kahe, 'without being told,' G. 132; ddl-rakhtd hai, 'tosses away,' intensive verb; ki jis ke waste, on whose account,' G. 117. c. ; bar bad detd hai, ' gives upon the wind,' i. e. ' casts away.'
Ex. 8. — Ek kamine aur bhale ddml se, ' between a base man and a gentleman;' hote hi, on becoming,' adverbial particip. G. 134. e.
Ex. 9. — Ek shakhs ne, kc, 'by a certain person it was asked of Plato ; ' respecting the use of the postposition ne, read care- fully G. 102, &c. ; bahut bar son, ' many years,' G. 106. b, ; kya kyd 'ajdib, ' what various wonders,' G. 114. a. ; dekhe, ' were seen ' {tu ne, ' by thee,' understood) ; yihJ 'ajuba, ' this wonder merely.'
, Ex. 10. — Kyd kdm dtd hai, what quality is most useful ? ' ho-jdwe, ' should become.'
Ex. 11. — Chashme pds, ' to (or near) a fountain ' {ke under- stood), G. 99. d,; charh na sakd, * he was not able to ascend ; ' utarne se pahle, ' previous to descending ; ' dekh na liyd, ' you did not thoroughly look at,' intensive verb.
Ex. 12. — Sher se kahd, ' said to the tiger ; ' the verbs ' to say or speak' and 'to ask,' construed with the ablative, G. 102. b. ; agar sher musawwir hotd, 'if a tiger had been the painter,' G. 81. «.
Ex. 13. — Kuchh sawdl klyd, ' asked something in charity ; ' ek bdt meri, ' one request of mine ; ' mat mdng, ' ask not,' the negative particle mat, ' don't,' used with the imperat., G. 123. d. ; uske siwd, ' with the exception of that.'
36 Notes, 8sc.
Ex. 14. — Ek ne un men se, ' one of them ; ^ jaiye and haithiyey respectful forms of the imperative, G. 123. d,
Ex. 15. — PahUy ' in the first place ; ' larkon ke sikhlane ke liye, ' for the purpose of the instructing of boys ' (or children) ; ki jiske muwafik chalen, in conformity with which they may move * (or walk) ; the particle ki is frequently used before the relative ^*o, &c., in imitation of a Persian construction, G. 117. c.
Ex. 16. — Aprii anguthi^ ' thine own ring,' G. 112 ; yad karna {tujh ko understood), the infinitive used imperatively, like the Latin gerund, G. 129. a.
Ex. 17. — Billi a,i thi, pluperfect tense, G. 127. c?. ; bujkd de, extinguish,' intensive verb ; para para^ &c., all the time lying down, he continued giving answers.'
Ex. 18. — Agar main bazi na jltun, *if I do not win the game ; ' ser hhar gosht, ' an exact pound of flesh ; ' the ser is nearly two English pounds ; tar ash Ze, cut off*; ' usne namdna, ' he did not (or would not) agree ; ' kdzt pas (for kdzi ke pas), * near the judge ; ' ekser se ek rati ziydda, ' a single grain more than one ser.'
Ex. 19. — ^Ain kiVe ke niche ' close under the very palace ; ' lutd gayd, was plundered,' passive voice ; Jdiidmat men^ * in the presence ; ' ^arz ki, ' made representation,' ki, fem. of kiyd, agrees with 'ar^, but 'arz kiyd is also used as a nominal verb, G. QQ, IV. ; chirdgh, &c., 'under the lamp is darkness,' a pro- verb analogous to our own saying, * the nearer the church the farther from God.'
Ex. 20. — Anjdn hokar, ' as a stranger ; ' kyd mujhe, Sec, do you not recognize me ? ' kyd, here used as a sign of interrogation, G. 93. h,
Ex. 21. — Us'ke; yahdn is here understood ; mar-gayd and bdnt'li and urd di, all intensive verbs, G. 65, 44. 1.
Ex. 22. — Admiyon ko istabal men jane detd, ' he allowed the people to go into the stable,' G. 131. c. ; phirtd and kartd, continuative past tenses, G. 124. b.-, apnd kdm kar-liyd, gained his own object.'
Notes, 8sc. 37
Ex. 23. — Asnae rah men, ' in the midst of the way ; ' chiragh ghar ka, &c., * I did not put out the lamp of the house before I came away/ literally, ' I have not come (after) having put out,' &c. ; ae ga,e, ' you have come and gone ;' jutd na ghisa hogd, ' must not your shoes have been worn ? '
Ex. 24. — Is wakt, ' at present ;' ko, understood, G. 100. a, ; honge and na-den, &c., the plural used out of respect to the Doctor, G. 118. 78 ; Jo unhon ne, &c., 'even should his wor- ship have given the medicine;' bdndhd-karegd, frequentative verb, G. 66. III. 1 ; marnd bar hakk hai, ' death is destined.*
Ex.25. — Tahdh hokar, 'being in distress;' parhdne, 'to make read,' ' to teach ;' causal form of par hnd^ G. 62. 43 ; lete lete hi, even when lying down ;' the repetition of the conjunc- tive participle denotes a continuation of the state, or repetition of the action, denoted by the verb ; be hath pdnw ke hilde, ' without the moving of his hands and feet ; ' hildyd, the pre- terite participle, used as a substantive, G.
Ex. 26. — Sab ke hawdle kt, 'he gave into the charge of each;' kdt ddli, ' cut off ; ' the intensive of kdtnd.
Ex. 27. — Donon kdzi kepds ga,m, aur insdfchdhd, G. 104. d, ; ek ek, ' one to each,' G. 106. c. ; larkd usko supurd kiyd, G. 101. c. ; in a more recent edition of the work from which this extract is taken, the reading is larke ko use, &c., which is much better.
Ex. 28. — Chha roti se, ' with six loaves ;' the termination on denoting the plural omitted, G. 107. 70 ; wuh ddl-dene men ddkhil hai, ' that amounts to throwing it away.'
Ex. 29. — ^Arz kiyd (a nominal verb), ' he represented ; ' ^arz ki is also used in the same sense, vide Ex. 19 ; dar-Tdmdst karnd^ ' to make request ; ' do sawdl bejd (properly do sawdl-i- beja), ' two improper requests.'
Ex. 30. — Likhni thin, ' were to be written,' G. 83 ; dam kha rahd, an idiomatic expression, denoting ' he remained quite silent,' lit. 'continued devouring his breath.'
Ex. ^l.—Dekhne wale, 'the spectators,' G. 66', dusre ke
38 Notes, 8sc.
gkar {ko understood), ' to the house of the other ;' samjha, &c., ' he perceived that it was not a screen ; ' fareb khaya, ' were de- ceived/ ht. ' experienced deception/
Ex. 32. — Stkhne kd, &c., why then mention the learning of it?' itne men, in the meantime;* bar bad ki, ' have cast away/
Ex. 33. — Dushnam di thi, pluperfect tense, G. 127. d.-, ath dth due, &c., ' you share between you each eight anas ;' it mil be observed that sixteen anas make a rupl.
Ex.34. — Gar dan mdrnd, to decapitate;' mere ru ba ru, * in my presence ; ' marddna wdr, like a man or hero ; ' terd bard kalija hai, thou hast great courage ; ' jawdn-mardi, ' heroism ' or ' courage ;' dar guzrd, ' he passed over (or passed by) his fault.*
Ex. 35. — Ek bard sakhl, a very generous man, G. 107. b,
Ex. 36. — Khabr karnd, the infinitive used as an imperative.
Ex. 37. — Karte hue, vide G. 131, 84; wdjib tar, Persian comparative, by adding tar to the positive.
Ex. 38. — Bdithd diyd, intensive of baithdnd ; bard, in the last line means ' greater,' ' more important.'
Ex.37. — Bard mom-dil, 'very soft-hearted;' in miydn ki, ' of this reverend gentleman ; ' plural used out of respect ; apnd is here used for merd, G. 113. e.
Ex. 40. — Kuchh gol gol sa, ' something quite round.'
Ex.41. — Subh hote hi, 'immediately it was dawn of day;'
kaun SI jins, ' what sort of commodity,' G. ; itm ddndi par,
notwithstanding so much wisdom ; ' yihi fakat^ this only and
no more;' main bdz dyd. Sic, ' I will have nothing to do with
such wisdom ;' past used for the future, G. 126. a.
Ex. 42. — Jo wuh ber mile, ' if that (lost) sheep should be found ; ' khudd ki rdh par, 'in charity,' ' pour I'amour de Dieu ;' khudd ki kasam {khdtd hun) ' I swear by God.'
Ex. 43. — Adrni ke, &c., ' taller than a man's stature ; ' khalt pahunchne tak, &c., ' by (the time of) the letter's arrival, the (wheat) season had expired ; ' Htibdr kijdwe, ' can be credited.'
Notes, 8sc. 39
Ex. A4.—Mahmud of Ghazni died in A.D. 1030. Ayyaz was one of his favourite slaves. Mahmud is famous both for his patronage of learned men, and his success as a warrior. He made several expeditions into India, in the last of which, A.D. 1026, he is supposed to have carried away in triumph the gates of Somnath, of which we have heard so much of late. Jauhar^ Ididne meiij into the jewel-house or treasury.'
Ex. 45. — Judejude makanon men, in places quite apart,' or * each in a separate place ; ' saldmat, ' in safety.'
Ex. 46. — Sudani, ' well-shaped,' ' elegant ;' bad kho-wale ke, 'of the man of a bad disposition;' jo jaisd, &c., 'whatever sort (of seed) a man may sow, the same will he reap.'
Ex. 47. — Kasam khdl, ' swore an oath ;' Imdnddr, ' faithful ' or honest ; ' rutha-e-a'ld, ' very high rank ; ' is hahdne se, by this pretext.'
Ex. 48. — Nau jawdn, ' quite young ;' the same phrase occurs in the Devanagari Extracts under the Sanskrit form of nava- yauvand ; der kar, though late.'
Ex.49. — Likhd hud, written;' the participle with hud, agreeably to G. 131 ; likhd hai; here the agent kisi ne is understood.
Ex. 50. — Saldhan, ' by way of advice ; ' hdt kahte hi, ' im- mediately ; ' uske kahne ha mujih, in conformity with what he said.'
Ex. 51. — Diydnat-ddr, ' conscientious;' jiswakt, 'when,' or ' at the time when ;' hdsil-i-kaldm, ' in short.' N.B. In the last line but two of this Extract, for ddnismand read ddnishmand.
Ex. 52. — Shdh-jahdn^ one of the Mogul emperors of the house of Timur, reigned about two centuries ago, A.D. 1628 to 1658; Ddrd-shukoh, his eldest son, a young prince of great promise, murdered by his own brother, the crafty and unscru- pulous Aurangzeb. Jis ke yahdn, ' whoever has got,' G. 99. c. ; kisi kd urnd liyd, &:c., ' the flight,' or ' flying qualities of one has won,' or ' excelled,' 8ic.
40 Notes, S^c.
The extract from the Araish-i-Mahfil (p. 26) is here for the first time correctly printed. In the Calcutta edition, the printers misplaced the letter-press of two pages, so that, while the paging seems perfect, the text makes nonsense. Several years ago I discovered this when endeavouring to make sense of the passage as it has all along stood in Mr. Shakespear's Selections, vol. I. p. 105. Mr. S. has endeavoured to cement the matter by throw- ing in a few connecting words of his own, which do mend the matter. A strict critic would have stated the fact, so that the original author should not incur blame for the sins of the Bengal printers, or of the English editor.
The subject of the extract is a description of a kind of chariot drawn by bullocks common in the province of Gujerat, more especially in the city of Ahmedabad. An account of the same, accompanied by a beautiful engraving, will be found in the Travels of Albert Mandelslo, who visited the spot upwards of two hundred years ago. The edition of his travels to which I allude is the folio printed at Leyden, 1719, page 74.
Before the student attempt this extract, it would be well if he thoroughly revised what he has already done. He ought also to peruse the Grammar from the beginning up to the end of the Syntax. Lastly, he may, while so doing, greatly facilitate his future progress by bestowing a few weeks on the study of Persian.
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LATE EDITOR OF " THE CALCUTTA ENGLISHMAN."
Second Edition. Post 8vo. cloth lettered, 14s.
This publication embraces, in a condensed form, complete and accurate information respecting the Topography, Climate, Government, Commerce, Laws, Institutions, and Products of India; the Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants ; the method of travel- ling throughout the Empire and the expense attendant thereon ; the condition of the European (English) Society; the Rules and Regulations of the various branches of the Executive ; the cost and manner of proceeding to India; the Sports, Ceremonies, and Pageants common to the Country, &c. &c.
" There can be no hesitation in saying that the plan and execution of this Hand-Book are equally excellent ; that it is the most complete and accurate Vade-Mecum which has yet appeared, and cannot fail to be both interesting and useful to all those whom business or pleasure may send to India." — Friend of India; published at Serampore.
" We can safely recommend this ' Guide,' as one which will impart a correct notion of all those parts of the continent of British India which are the principal places of resort of Englishmen proceeding from this country to enter the service of Government, or embark in commercial, agricultural, or other pur- suits."— Atlas.
" This is truly an excellent hooV."— Literary Gazette.
THE
EAST INDIA GAZETTEER;
CONTAINING
PARTICULAR DESCRIPTIONS OF THE EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, PRINCIPA- LITIES, CITIES, TOWNS, DISTRICTS, &c-, OF HINDOSTAN, AND THE ADJACENT COUNTRIES, INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES, AND THE EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO ;
Together with Sketches of the Manners, Customs, Architecture, Commerce, Manufac- tures, Revenues, Population, Castes, Religion, History, &c., of their various inhabitants.
By WALTER HAMILTON.
2nd Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. cloth, £1 12*. " A valuable and excellent vtork."— Times, Dec. 1, 1842.
THE OYERLAND GUIDE-BOOK.
A COMPLETE
VADE-MECUM FOR THE OVERLAND TRAVELLER
TO INDIA VIA EGYPT. By CAPTAIN JAMES BARBER, H. C. S.
Illustrated by Maps and Cuts. 8vo. cloth, 7s, 6rf.
" The advice furnished is not only sound and honest, but also judicious and practicable. * * The individual whose pleasure or business leads him to traverse the route treated of, will find irreparable disappointment and irretrievable inconvenience if lacking the information contained in its pages ; for the author is not only well acquainted with his subject, but has carefully studied the wants and difficulties of the race of travellers of either sex." — Times, Jan. 20, 1845.
INDIAN LIFE.
THE MEMOIES OF A GEIFFIN;
Or, a CADET'S FIRST YEAR IN INDIA BY CAPTAIN BELLEW.
Illustrated from Designs by the Author. 2 Vols, post 8vo., cloth lettered, £1 !«.
" Our author deserves a favourable hearing-, not only for the spirit of hilarity and the invariable good humour with which he encounters his various difficulties, but because the recital presents us with an accu- rate and faithful account of the manners of the luxurious East. The minutiae of domestic life, all the various usages of the presidences, together with spicy military detail, supply us with a very welcome and agreeable view of the way in which our fellow-subjects contrive to make themselves happy under the warm sunbeams of the Orient. There is a constant succession of new scenes, a great diversity of actors, and much new matter in this work ; the whole enlivened by a bonhommie which gives it its most inte- resting aspect. "— Metropolitan- Mof^Kime.
" We speak the opinion of competent judges (waiving our own for the sake of impartiality), when we say that a more entertaining book of the kind has rarely appeared. Captain Bellew has succeeded in his difficult task of making his ' Griffin' the object of mirth without inspiring contempt, engaging him in adventures from which a brother griflf may extract lessons of prudence whilst he reads for fun."— Asiatic Journal.
" This talented and agreeable book."— Jnd/a« News.
" A remarkably amusing work. Captain Bellew, with a happy vein of light humour, and with consider- able eloquence as well as judgment, gives us vivid sketches of Indian personages. The work is remark- ably well illustrated with litliographs." — Dispatch.
THE WELLESLEY DESPATCHES.
THE
DESPATCHES, MINUTES, AND CORRESPONDENCE
OF THE
MARQUESS WELLESLEY, K. G.,
During his Administration in India.
Revised by his Lordship. Five large vols. 8vo. with Portrait, Maps, Plans, &c. cloth, £6 105.
" A publication of extraordinary interest." — Edinburgh Review.
" It is now generally admitted, that had not the splendid talents of the Marquess Wellesley been called into active exercise at the critical conjuncture of his Lordship's assuming the government, the necessity for discussing Indian affairs would long since have ceased. The issue of the contest with Tippoo Sultaun was a triumphant proof of the political sagacity, energy, and, above all, the moral courage, the peculiar characteristic of Lord Wellesley's highly-gifted mind." — Asiatic Journal.
THE PARSEES' JOURNAL.
JOUENAL OP A EESIDENCE
TWO YEARS AND A HALF IN GREAT BRITAIN. By Jehangeer Nowrojee and Hirjeebhoy Merwanjee, op Bombay.
Post 8vo. cloth, 12s. " An extraordinary production."— Z^rne*.
A HISTOEY OF INDIA,
FROM 1600 TO 1835. By PETER AUBER, Esq.,
Late Secretary to the Honourable East India Company. 2 large vols. 8vo. ^1 Is.
" This work cannot fail to present matter of interest to all, but especially to the Indian reader." — T^tmes.
EAMBLES IN CEYLON.
By LIEUTENANT DE BUTTS, H.M.»s 61st REGIMENT. Post 8vo. cloth, 10«.
" As pretty a volume for light reading as any intelligent person would wish to take up."— Naval and Military Gazette.
NARRATIVE OF A JOURNEY
FROM
HERAUT TO KHIVA, MOSCOW, AND ST. PETERS BURGH, DURING THE
LATE RUSSIAN INVASION OF KHIVA; WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF
THE COURT OF KHIVA, AND THE KINGDOM OF KHAURISM.
By CAPTAIN JAMES ABBOTT, Bengal Artillery.
With Map. 2 vols. 8vo. cloth, lettered, £1 4«
" Two highly interesting volumes."— ^sm^/c Journal.
" The details of his mission are so novel and interesting, that it is impossible for them to lose their interest with the British public." — Literary Gazette.
BENNETT^S CEYLON.
CEYLON AND ITS CAPABILITIES.
AN ACCOUNT OF ITS NATURAL RESOURCES, INDIGENOUS PRODUCTIONS,
AND COMMERCIAL FACILITIES, TO WHICH ARE ADDED,
DETAILS OF ITS STATISTICS, WITH MAP
AND COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS.
J. W. BENNETT, Esq., F.L.S., late Ceylon Civil Establishment.
Royal 4to. cloth lettered, £3 3«. " We are sure that our readers will derive much amusement and information from the perusal of this volume.''— r/OTCs.
MISS EMMA ROBERTS.
NOTES OF AN OVERLAND JOURNEY THROUGH FRANCE AND EGYPT TO BOMBAY,
WITH REMARKS UPON ADEN AMD BOMBAY.
By the late Miss Emma Roberts, with a Memoir of the Authoress. Post 8vo. cloth, 10s. 6d.
SCENES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HINDOSTAN,
WITH SKETCHES OF ANGLO-INDIAN SOCIETY. By Miss Emma Roberts Second Edition. 2 vols, post 8vo, cloth, 18s. ^*^ Few works in light literature have met with so grea^ a popularity, or have been so unanimously recommended by the press, as " The Scenes and Characteristics of HiNDosTAN." The sterling character of this book was fixed when a special thanks of the Royal Asiatic Society were voted to Miss Roberts for its publication.
" Miss Roberts' pictures are all drawn with great spirit and accuracy, and remarkable for the truth of their colouring." — Quarterly Review.
CUSTOMS OF THE MUSSULMANS OF INDIA.
By JAFFUR SHURREEF,
A NATIVE OF THE DECCAN,
Composed under the Direction of, and translated by C. A. Herklotts, M D., Surgeon on the Madras Establishment.
In one vol. 8vo., 16s. cloth boards, lettered.
WESTERN EMPIRE.
HISTORY OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE,
FROM ITS RESTORATION BY CHARLEMAGNE TO THE ACCESSION OF CHARLES V.
By the HON. SIR ROBERT COMYN, late Chief Justice, Madras. 2 vols. 8vo. cloth, ;£! 10.«.
ALLEN'S MAPS OF INDIA, &c.
A
NEWLY-CONSTRUCTED AND IMPROVED
MAP OF INDIA;
INCLUDING
THE PUNJAB AND SIKH STATES;
Compiled chiefly from Surveys executed by Order of the Honourable East India Company. 1845.
On six sheets, size 5ft. Sin. wide, by 5ft. 4in. high 21. 12s. 6d.
On cloth, in a case 3/. IS^-. 6d.
Or, with rollers and varnished 4Z. 4«. Od.
MAP OE INDIA,
FROM THE MOST RECENT AUTHORITIES. 1846.
On two sheets, size 2ft. lOin. wide, by 3ft. Sin. high 18*.
On cloth, in a case 25s.
Or, with rollers and varnished 295.
A SKETCH MAP
OF THE
PUNJAB AND SIKH TERRITOEY;
Shewing the Tract of Country annexed to the British Possessions by the late Pro- clamation of the Governor-General of India.
On one sheet ^^■
Or, on cloth, in a case 5*-
MAP OF APPGHANISTAN
AND
THE ADJACENT COUNTRIES.
Compiled from the latest Surveys of these Countries, by the Officers attached to the
Indian Army; and published by Authority of the Honourable
Court of Directors of the East India Company.
On one sheet, size 2ft. Sin. wide, by 2ft. Sin. high 9s. Od.
On cloth, in a case 12*'. Od.
Or, with roller and varnished 17s. 6d,
ALLEN'S MAPS OF INDIA, &c.
MAP OF THE
WESTERN PROVINCES OF HINDOOSTAN, THE PUNJAB, CABOOL, SINDE, &c.;
INCLUDING ALL THE STATES BETWEEN CANDAHAR AND ALLAHABAD.
1846.
On four sheets, size 4ft. 4in. wide, by 4ft. 2in. high . ... II. lis. 6d.
On cloth, in a case 21. 5s. Od.
Or, with rollers and varnished 21. lbs. 6d.
MAP OF THE OVERLAND ROUTES
BETWEEN
ENGLAND AND INDIA,
WITH THE OTHER LINES OF COMMUNICATION.
On one sheet, size 2ft. 9in. wide, by 2ft. 2in. high 9.?.
Or, on cloth, in a case I2s.
fl MAP OP THE
ROUTES IN INDIA;
With Tables of Distances between the Principal Towns and Military Stations. 1846.
On one sheet, size 2ft. Sin. wide, by 2ft. 9in. high 9s. Od.
On cloth, in a case 12s. Od.
Or, with rollers and varnished I7s. 6d.
MAP OF CHINA;
FROM THE MOST AUTHENTIC INFORMATION.
One large sheet, size 2ft. wide, by 2ft. 2in. high Ss.
On cloth, in a case , . . . lis.
Or, with rollers and varnished 14s.
MAP OF INDIA AND CHINA,
BURMAH, SIAM, THE MALAY PENINSULA, &c.
On two sheets, size 4ft. Sin. wide, by Sft. 4in. high IZ. Is.
On cloth, in a case II- 10s.
Or, with rollers and varnished 1/. 16s.
Published immediately on the arrival of the Marseilles portion of each Overland Despatch,
Thirty-two closely printed pages, price \s. stamped,
ALLEN'S INDIAN MAIL,
AND
REGISTER OF INTELLIGENCE
BRITISH AND FOREIGN INDIA, CHINA,
/^LL [P^P.Ti @F TUE E^im
This Paper contains the fullest and most authentic reports on all important occur- rences in the countries to which it is devoted, compiled chiefly from privatfe and exclusive sources ; it has been pronounced by the press, in general, to be indispensable to all those who have friends or relatives in the East, as affording the only correct information regarding the Services, Movements of Troops, Shipping, and all ^vents of domestic and individual interest.
A SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF EASTERN NEWS;
GoVteRNMENT General Orders, and Courts Martial;
Appointments, Furloughs, &c.. Civil, Military, and Ecclesiastical, under
the head of each presidency ; Domestic Intelligence — Births, Marriages, and Deaths; Arrivals and Departures of Ships and Passengb.rs ; State of the Markets, Indian Securities, &c., &c.
HOME INTELLIGENCE RELATING TO INDIA;
Original Articles ;
Appointments, Casualties, Arrivals, Departures, Extension ok Furloughs, and all Affairs connected with India and the Services.
Throughout the INDIAN MAIL an uniform system of arrangement prevails; the Appointments, &c., are placed alphabetically, and at the end of each year An Index is furnished (gratuitously), to enable Subscribers to bind up the volume, which forms a complete Asiatic Annual Register and Library of Reference.
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE.
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