Bt R K E L E Y\

LIBRARY j

UNIVERSITY OF / A/

URDU (OR HINDUSTANI)

GRAMMAR.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

Anglo -Urdu Medical Handbook for Northern India. 1895.

Laskari Dictionary, or Anglo-Indian Vocabulary of Nautical Terms and Phrases. 1882.

Tota Kahani ; or Tales of a Parrot.

Translated from the Hindustani. 1874.

A Handbook of Sanskrit Literature ; with descriptions of the Mythology, Castes, and Religious Sects of the Hindus. 1866.

Versions in Verse— Biblical, Classical, and Oriental. 1882.

A

GRAMMAR

OF THE

URDU OR HINDUSTANI

LANGUAGE

IN ITS EOMANIZED CHARACTER

GEORGE SMALL, M.A.

FORMERLY MISSIONARY IN NORTHERN INDIA ; SUBSEQUENTLY TEACHER

OF ORIENTAL LANGUAGES, MISSIONARY TO ASIATICS IN LONDON,

EDITOR OF EASTWICK'S HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR, ETC.

CALCUTTA :

THACKEE, SPINK AND Co.

BOMBAY: THACKER AND CO. LIM.

LONDON: W. THACKER AND CO., 87, NEWGATE STREET. 1895.

HERTFORD PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS

654

PREFACE.

THE compilation of this Grammar was first com- menced by me in connection with my 'Anglo-Urdu Medical Manual/ my object being to give such an Epitome of the Urdu (or Hindustani) Grammar as would probably be sufficient to enable students of the Manual — without much further instruction — to make intelligent and practical use of it. But the work grew insensibly in my hands, and I soon found myself involved in a much fuller exposition of the language than I had contemplated.

The fact is, it is more difficult — though not, perhaps, so laborious — to write a really serviceable and satisfactory Epitome of a foreign Grammar than an exhaustive one. The very things you omit to

VI PREFACE.

notice in the Compendium may be just the things the student wants to know and which puzzle him. And, after all, if a person really intends to master a language — or even merely to converse in it intelligibly — he is always glad to have a good Grammar at hand to consult when needful, even if he has not time or inclination to go studiously through it at once. With this conviction I was induced to abandon my first intention, and to finish and bring out, in a separate volume, a fuller Grammar.

Feeling myself thus unfettered, I have been enabled to ventilate certain theories on some grammatical points which I could not well have introduced — because I could not discuss — in a mere Epitome.

The use of the Roman i zed-system of writing the Indian languages generally — but especially the Urdu — is fast spreading throughout that vast continent, ami a large proportion of the modern literature intended for natives — particularly Christians — is now printed in that character. It is taught in almost all

PEEFACE. Til

the Schools — whether. European or native, Govern- ment or Missionary — and I think it probable that,

/ within the next fifty years, it^ will to a large extent

have superseded most of the indigenous alphabets. The necessity, therefore, for Europeans engaged in Missionary or Medical work to acquire the various native characters before they can be of much use, is largely removed. They may make great progress in any of the Indian languages without knowing their original characters — not only so as to converse, but to correspond therein, and to read much vernacular literature.

Still, it is desirable for all those whose sphere of labour is in India that they should become acquainted with at least one (or two) of the Native Alphabets — so as to be able to read printed books at least, if not manuscript. And on this account I have given in this work, as a starting-point, the Persian and Hindi characters for which the several Romanized letters stand.

Till PEEFACE.

A considerable portion of this Grammar was written without consulting any other work ; but, after awhile, I thought it well to compare notes with the latest and best Urdu Grammarian — Mr. J. T. Platts, of Oxford University. The result was that I felt persuaded that I could not do better than take his admirable and exhaustive Grammar as my model, and to appropriate (with thankful acknowledgment) a good deal of its erudite teaching. To those students who do not want at present to go in for the vernacular character, this appropriation of Rules and Examples will be most valuable and economical ; while those who aim at the " highest standard " cannot do better than procure and master that comprehensive but costly work, Platts's Hindustani Grammar.

G. S.

NOVEMBER, 1894.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

ETYMOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.— THE ALPHABETS.

PARA. PAGE

Origin of the Urdu Language .... 1 1

Its Constituents, threefold .... 1 1

Indian Alphabets ,, .... 2 1

Roman Alphabets, three Systems ... 3 1

Persi- Arabic, and Romanized Alphabets ... 4 2

Devanagari Alphabet ..... 5 5

Pronunciation of the Letters .... 6 6

On the Aspirated Letters ..... 7 6

The Persi -Arabic Vowel -system .... 8 7

The three weak letters Alif (!), Waw (,), Ye (J) . . 9 8

The three Vowel-signs ..... 10 8

Long, short, and diphthongal Vowels . . . 11 9

Three Vowel and three Consonantal diacritic signs . 12 9

CHAPTER II.— THE NOUN.

The three Parts of Speech of Arabic Grammar . . 13 10

(1) The Noun (ism). Three Classes or Declensions . 14 10

Three Genders of Nouns . . . . .15 11

Three Numbers (originally) . . . .16 11

Three Cases (properly) . . . . . 17 11

X CONTENTS.

PARA. PAGE

Cases— (1) The Subjective (Nominative, or Agent) . 18 11

„ (2) The Genitive 19 12

„ (3) The Objective . . . . 20 12

,, The eight Cases of ordinary Grammar . . 21 12

Declension I. Paradigm of Noun . . . . 22 12

„ Adjective . . . 23 13

„ II. „ Noun, etc. . . . 24 14

„ III. „ Noun . . 25 14

Eemarks on the Genitive Case-endings . . .26 16

Genders of Substantives . . . . .27 17

Rules for knowing Genders of Nouns . . .28 17

,, the formation of Fern, from Masc. words . 29 20

ADJECTIVES — Inflectional and not . . .30

,, Their position in sentences . . .31 22

„ Paradigm of Declensions . . .32 22

Persian Adjectives — Idiom and Plurals of » .33 23

,, ,, Optional position . . 34 23

Adjectives ending with nasals . . . 35 24

Comparison of Adjectives . . . 36 24

NUMERALS — Cardinal numbers . . . .37 25

Native Characters for Cardinals . . . 38 26

Indefinite numbers . . . . .39 26

The Ordinal numbers . . . 40 27

Collective numbers . . . . .41 27

Intensive forms of Collectives . . 42 28

Distributives . . . . 43 28

Multiplicatives . . . . 44 28

Numerical Adverbs . . . . .45 28

Fractional numbers . . . . .46 29

PRONOUNS — Personal . . . . . 47 29

Paradigm of Declension . . . 48 29

Demonstratives declined . . . 49 30

Additional Case-forms . . .50 31

CONTENTS. XI

PARA. PAGE

Remarks on the Pronominal Cases . . .51 31

Relative and Correlative Pronouns . . .52 32

Interrogatives . . . . . 53 33

Idiomatic use of Jcyd . . . . 54 33

Indefinite Pronouns . . • . . .55 34

The Pronouns Ap : (1) Reflexive . . .56 34

(2) Respectful . . . 57 35

Reciprocal Pronouns . . . . .58 36

Possessive ,, . . . .59 36

Pronominal Adjectives . . •. . 60 36

Compound Pronominal Adjectives . . .61 37

CHAPTER III.— THE VERB.

The three Classes, three Moods, three Tenses . . 62 38

The Gerund or Infinitive . . . . . 63 39

Three Verbal Nouns . . . . 64 39

Three Simple Participles . . . . 65 40

Three Compound Participles . . . .66 40

The Verh hond conjugated . . . . 67 41

The Verb jdnd conjugated . . . . 68 47

The Transitive Verb mdrnd . . . 69 51

The idiom of Transitive Past Tenses . . . 70 55

The Verb karnd conjugated . . . . 71 55

The Passive Voice ; its idioms . . . .72 61

Passive and Active Verbs contrasted . . .73 61

Hard jdnd conjugated . . ' . . .74 62

Causal Verbs . . . . . . 75 66

Different ways of forming Causals . . .76 66

List of Causal and doubly Causal Verbs . . . 77 70

Denominatives and other Derivative Verbs . . 78 77

Examples of different classes of such . . . 79 77

Xll CONTENTS.

PARA. PAGE

Nominal Compound Verbs preferred . . . 80 78

Compound Verbs . . . . . 81 79

Different ways of forming Compound Verbs . . 82 79

(1) Intensives . . . . . 83 80

(2) Potentials . . . . 84 80

(3) Completives . . . . 85 80 The first words in these Compounds — Root or

Participle?. . . . 86 81

(4) Continuatives . . . . . 87 82

(5) Staticals . . . . 88 83 (6), (7) Frequentatives and Desideratives . 89 84

(8) Inceptives . . . . 90 85

(9), (10) Permissives and Acquisitives '. . .91 85

(11) Reiteratives . . . . 92 85

(12) Nominals, etc 93 86

CHAPTER IV.— PARTICLES.

Adverbs ....... 94 88

The Philological Harp . . . . .95 88

Adverbs of Time, Place, and Number . . .96 90

Arabic and Persian Adverbs . . . .97 92

Compound Adverbs . . . . .98 93

Prepositions and Postpositions . . . . 99 93

List of Persian and Arabic ditto . . . .100 95

Lists of those governing the Masc. and Fern. Genitive . 101 96

Genuine Prepositions . . . . .102 97

CONJUNCTIONS.

List of Classified Conjunctions . . . .103 97

INTERJECTIONS.

Classified List 104 98

CONTENTS. Xlll

SYNTAX.

CHAPTER V.— CONCORD AND GOVERNMENT.

PARA. PAGE

1. Idiomatic order of words in Sentences . . .105 100 The Predicate— how divided . . . .106 101 Special Rules as to order of words .' . . 107 102 Cases of exceptional order .... 108 102 The Place of Demonstrative Pronouns . . 109 103

Adverbs . . . .110 103

,, Conjunctions . . . .111 103

2. Concord— (1) Of Adjectives and Nouns . .112 104

(2) Of Verbs and their Subject . .113 105

Special cases — (a) Classes differing . 114 105

(b) Arabic broken Plurals . .115 106

(c) Two or more Subjects to one Verb . 116 106

3. Government . . . . . .117 107

The Article— Substitutes for . . . 118 108

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.

(1) The NOMINATIVE CASE . . . .119 109

Used as a Predicative . . . 120 109

Used absolutely . . •. .121 109

(2) The AGENT — with object in Nominative . . 122 110

With object in Dat. Accus. form . . 123 111

Constructed with Active and Neuter Verbs . 124 111

Verbs, Neuter in English, Active in Urdu, and vice versa 125 112 Construction with Neuter and Active Verbs in same

sentence . . . . . 126 112

(3) The GENITIVE CASE— The three forms . .127 113

Generally precedes governing words . 128 113

Used to express dependence on other words . 129 113

Used to express a variety of relationship . 130 113

Used partitively . . . .131 114

XIV CONTENTS.

PARA. PAGE

Used for other Cases . . 132 114

Used to express intensity . . . 133 115

Used with weights and measures . . 134 115

Used as an Adjective . . .135 115

Used in certain Adjectives governing Gen. . 136 116

The case of Genitives in Predicate clauses . 137 116

Used with Verbs signifying < to hear ' . 138 117

or 'to fill,' etc. . 139 118

(4) The DATIVE CASE— Primary use . . .140 118

Used with Verhs of buying and selling . 141 118

Used with the Gerund or Infinitive . 142 119

Used with chahiye and the like . . 143 119

Used with hond, parna, etc. . . 144 120

Used to express possession . . . 145 120

Used to express time indefinitely . . 146 120

Used to express the English ' at,' < on ' . 147 121

(5) The ACCUSATIVE CASE— Two forms . . 148 121

When the Nominative form should be used . 149 121

When the Dative form should be used . 150 121

With Nominal Compound Verbs, etc. . 151 122

With Verbs governing two Accusatives . 152 122

May sometimes stand first in Sentences . 153 122

The Factitive Accusative . . .154 123

Construction, when Verb is in the Passive . 155 123

(6) The ABLATIVE CASE— so-called . . .156 123

Used in comparisons . . .157 124

Used with Verbs signifying distance, etc. . 158 124

Signifying asking, telling, etc. . • . 159 124

Signifying abandoning, denying, etc. . 160 124

Signifying attraction to, meeting, etc. . 161 125

Generally expresses ' from ' or ' with ' . 162 125

Sometimes ' for ' (a time or cause) . .163 125

Often denotes the instrument or means . 164 126

CONTENTS. XV

PARA. PAGE

Earely the Agent . . . .165 126

Used in the difference or resemblance between . 166 126

Used in mode or manner of doing . . 167 126

Idiomatic use and omission of se . . .168 127

(7) The LOCATIVE CASE ..... 169 128

Formed by men, par, or tab . . .170 128

Men, when and how used . . . 171 128

Par, when and how used . . .172 130

Tak or talaJc, when and how used . . 173 131

(8) The VOCATIVE CASE . . . . . 174 132

Its place and qualifying words . . . 175 132

CHAPTER VI.— SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 176 133

Their place in sentences . . . . .177 133

Used as Substantives and idiomatically . . .178 133

The Adjectival termination so, . . .179 134

The Adverbial Affix sa, different (?) . . .180 135

Degrees of Comparison (Arabic) . . . .181 135

Syntax of Numerals— Cardinals .... 182 136

Rules of Concord in case of Numerals . . 183 136

CHAPTER VII.— SYNTAX or PRONOUNS.

(1) PERSONAL PRONOUNS . . .184 138 Their place in a sentence and verbal concord . .185 138 Two forms for one case utilized . . . .186 138 Pronouns in apposition with other words . . . 187 139

,, with enclitic Particles . . . .188 139

Remarks on Colloquial uses of Pronouns . . 189 140

(2) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS . . . 190 141 "When the Nom. and Dat. forms of Objective Case to be used 191 141

(3) The RELATIVE PRONOUN . . .192 142

XVI CONTENTS.

PARA. PAGE

Syntactical Rules for Relative and Corrective . . 193 142

Agreement of Relative and Antecedent . . .194 142

An Adverb sometimes used as a Relative . . .195 144

(4) The INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS . . 145 Used either as Substantives or Adjectives . . 196 145 Used in indirect as well as direct questions . . 197 146

(5) The INDEFINITE PRONOUNS . . .198 146 _ZT0yt used sometimes with Plural Nouns . . . 199 147

(6) The REFLEXIVE PRONOUN — dp.

Used in a variety of ways .... 200 148

CHAPTER VIII.— SYNTAX OF THE VERB.

The INFINITIVE or GERUND. . 201 150

In the Genitive Absolute— how used . . .202 151

In the Dative- Accusative — how used . . . 203 151

The uninflected Infinitive used for Imperative . . 204 151

„ as a Gerundive .... 205 152

The NOUN OF AGENCY

A cross between Noun and Verb . . . .206 153

Variously constructed ..... 207 153

Persian Nouns of Agency and Verbal- Adjectives . . 208 154

PARTICIPLES.

Past and Present Participle . . . . 209 154

The Adverbial Participle . . . . .210 156

New Theory on the Subject . . . . 211 156

Tested and illustrated by examples . . .212 157

Past Participles of Transitive Verbs not always Passive . 213 159

Hua added to Participles variously construed . . 214 161

The repetition of Participles . . . .215 161

Participles used descriptively . . 216 162

Past Participles either Active or Passive . . .217 163

CONTENTS. XV11

PARA. PAGE

The Perfect Participle used for Infinitive . . 218 163

,, ,, used as an Abstract Substantive . 219 163

The Subject of the Adverbial Participle . . 220 163

The Object of those Participles . . . 221 164

The PAST CONJUNCTIVE PARTICIPLE.

Its uses in a Sentence ..... 222 164

Rules and Remarks as to its use .... 223 1 65

Compared with the idiom of Western tongues . . 224 167

The INDICATIVE MOOD.

I.— PAST TENSES . . . . .225 167

Peculiar construction of Urdu Past Tenses . . 226 167

(1) The PLUPERFECT.

Ordinary meaning of the Tense . . . .227 169

Sometimes used for Past Indefinite, and vice versd . 228 169

„ the Past Conditional . . .229 169

(2) The PAST INDEFINITE.

Its ordinary meaning and construction . . . 230 1 70

Sometimes used conditionally . . . . 231 170

(3) The PAST IMPERFECT.

Its usual meaning and form . . . .232 171

Another way of forming it . . . .233 171

The Auxiliary sometimes omitted or redundant . . 234 171

II. — PRESENT TENSES.

(1) The PROXIMATE or PRESENT PERFECT.

What it denotes, and how formed . . .235 172

How idiomatically used occasionally . . . 236 172

(2) The PRESENT INDEFINITE or AORIST.

How and when used, in general .... 237 173

Peculiar forms and uses . . 238 174

XV111 CONTENTS.

PARA. PAGE (3) The PRESENT IMPERFECT or CONTINUOUS.

Its meaning and formation . . . .239 174

The change of form or omission of Auxiliary . . 240 175

The Historical Present and Proximate Future . .241 175

III.— FUTURE TENSES.

(1) The FUTURE PERFECT.

What it is used to denote, etc. . . . 242 176

(2) The FUTURE INDEFINITE.

How formed and how used, etc. .... 243 177

(3) The FUTURE IMPERFECT.

What this Tense generally denotes . . .244 178

The IMPERATIVE MOOD.

(1) Ordinary Present, (2) Precative, (3) Respectful Future 245 178

The Imperative in prohibition . . . .246 179

Used for the Aorist, and vice versd . . . 247 179

The SUBJUNCTIVE or CONDITIONAL MOOD.

The PLUPERFECT TENSE— How formed and used . . 248 180

The PAST INDEFINITE— ,, ,, . . 249 181

The PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE — ,, ,, . . 250 181

The PASSIVE VOICE.

Not much used in Urdu . . . . .251 183

The Agent — How expressed with Passives . . 252 183

Used impersonally ..... 253 184

CAUSAL VERBS.

Illustration of their use and construction . . 254 1 84

CONTENTS. XIX

PARA. PAGE COMPOUND VERBS.

The various sorts recapitulated .... 255 185

Syntactical construction of (1) Intensives . . . 256 186

Ditto of (2) Potentials, and (3) Completives . . 257 186

,, (4) Frequentatives, and (5) Desideratives . 258 187

,, (6) Inceptives, (7) Permissives, and (8) Acquisitives 259 188

,, (9) Another form of Desideratives . . 260 189

„ (10) Staticals . . . . .261 189

,, (11) Continuatives, and (12) Reiteratives . . 262 189

Nominal Verbs — Syntax of . . . .263 190

Irregular order and questionable nomenclature . . 264 191

Construction in Past Participle Tenses . . . 265 192

PARTICLES.

1. Adverbs ...... 266 192

2. Prepositions and Postpositions . . . .267 194

3. Conjunctions ...... 268 196

IDIOMS.

The ' Oratio Recta ' . . . .. 269 197

Idiomatic uses of certain Verbs .... 270 198

APPENDIX.

The Mohammedan Calendar . . . . 201

The Hindu Calendar . . . 204

EEEATA.

The following misprints were, from unavoidable circumstances, not discovered till the work had passed through the Press. (The Student is

advised to correct them at once before commencing the Grammar ;

and

any other palpable misprints he may meet with as he goes through it

)

Page 7, line 22, for digg read diqq.

„ 9 „ 9, „ uy, „ cs»,'

? ?

,, 10 ts-j ti^.

17 ,, 16 euphony

euphemism.

19 ,, 11 letter*

syllable ta.

23 „ 16 mar dan

mar dan.

23 ,, 17 zanan

zanan.

23 „ 19 an

an.

24 ,, 8 right hand

left hand.

28 ,, 32 awwal

should precede ' firstly.'

31 „ 15 tughkd

tujhkd.

31 „ 18 gharlk

gharlb.

33 ,, 10 han?

hai?

34 „ 11 kise

kisl.

35 ,, 15 we dp

we khud.

35 ,, 22 hain?

hai.

40 ,, 5 'added to it'

transpose to after karke.

51 „ 19 'a writer'

to be deleted.

56 ,, 16 (or hard)

should come after karne wdld.

71 ,, 5 for chhutna (first)

chhutnd.

78 ,, 3 before bahasnd

delete 'and.'

78 ,, 9 for third

second.

80 „ 7,8 „ 'eaten'

drunk.

80 ,, ,, 'to drink up'

move to bine 8.

81 „ 24 for kat

kdt.

87 ,, 9 after 'breath'

add ' or deceit.'

91 ,, 5 for nah

na.

92 ,, 10 lazu

bdzu.

98 ,, 14 lihu-za

lihdzd.

99 ,, 5 bush

bash.

99 „ 9 kheif

haif.

111 ,, 1 kih

kih.

128 „ 17 gjiutnl

a hutne.

131 ,, 7, 8 after ' guzra? and 'me,' delete ?

135 ,, 24 for t fiord sd read tfoore se.

149 ,, 10 ,, 'and' read 'etc.' ; delete 'etc.' after 'property.'

151 note * after and hai read ' you must come here.'

152 line 12 for Gerundive read Gerund.

155 ,, 32 delete period (.) after 'designate.'

158 footnote, after pltfi insert dikhdi.

160 line 15 for dekha,e read dekhdl.

160 ,, 20 ,, 'Masculine' ,, Number.

177 „ 12 ,, 'them' „ 'thee.'

190 ,, 13 after 'but' insert 'they.'

GEAMMAE OF THE UEDU LANGUAGE,

CHAPTER I.— ALPHABETS.

1. URDU is perhaps the easiest, as well as the most widely spoken, of all the Indian languages. It is often called Hindustani, but this term might include both the Urdu and the Hindi, as spoken by the natives of Northern India, and also the DakhanI, a patois of the Southern Peninsula, much in use among the Mohammedan population.

The Persian word Urdu, signifies ' a camp,' and was originally applied to the dialect which took its rise in the camp and court of the renowned Emperor Akbar Khan, in the sixteenth century, from a mixture of Hindi (the chief element) with Persian and, to a minor extent, Arabic. Thus it had a threefold origin, and it is remarkable how the number three pervades the grammatical divisions and structure of the language.

2. The Urdu Alphabet is founded primarily on the Arabic, which consists of twenty-eight letters. To this the Persians, who adopted it, added three letters, in order to represent certain consonantal sounds not included in the Arabic ; and for a similar reason three more were finally added to re- present certain Indian consonants (in the Deva-nagarl or Sanskrit Alphabet), the exact equivalents of which were not found in either the Arabic or Persian Alphabet. Thus the total number of letters forming the Urdu Alphabet is thirty -four. These are all either Arabic letters or modifica- tions of them. But, besides the Persi-Arabic characters,

* 1

2 URDU GRAMMAR.

there is another native alphabet, the Deva-nagari, in which Urdu is sometimes written.

3. Finally, when the English became sovereign rulers of India, which includes such a number of nationalities and languages, and such a diversity of alphabetical characters, the desirability of representing all of these last by one common alphabetical system very soon and naturally occurred to Western linguists. And what character so suitable for the purpose as that invented, or at least perfected, by the old Romans, and which is now in use throughout three-fourths at least of the civilized world? Hence arose the Romanized system of phonography — or rather we should say systems, for three have been elaborated and advocated by their various partizans during the last 100 years. The one we have adopted in this Grammar is chiefly that invented by Sir William Jones, but modified somewhat in favour of that of Sir Charles Trevellian. The third and earliest formed system of Romanizing — though last mentioned — was that of Dr. John Gilchrist, which is still held to by many, but long abandoned by most, Oriental linguists. Thus there are three entirely different characters in which the Urdu lan- guage is now written, viz. the Persi- Arabic, the Deva-nagari or Sanskrit,1 and the Roman; whilst of this last there are three different systems in vogue.

4. Before making any further remarks on the letters we shall give the Urdu Alphabet in the three different characters in which it is printed.

1 In this character, slightly modified in certain letters to make them express purely Semitic sounds, many works are printed for the use especially of Hindus not familiar with either the Persian or Roman characters.

HINDUSTANI (URDU) ALPHABET 3

THE PERSI-ARABIC AND ROMAN CHARACTERS.

Name.

Detached Form .

||

Attached.

Examples.

Is

'3

Medial.

1

E

d.lij\

1

a

. .

. .

I

L 1\ t ** j 1 \ \J f

Be

<^

3

J

-,

^

Jo, ^^, s_.

o

Pe

U-?

V

J?

y

V

±r

A

Te

cy

te

J

-

^^

LJ L> c^x> .

*^ "V V

Ta

<i

t

5

«

L:U

lil^.lSj,^.

Se

c^

s

J

A

.t

^fJ4j,C~^.

Jim

^.

j

T

JS.

t

^-U,^,^.

Che

ch

^

.s

^

J^, IsT, -tf-0.

^-.

V

'•'

(2.

v V • ^

He

r

J

-

-

t

J-- ^-*?,t^.

Khe

c

M

*

-

jf

yt,^,^..

Dal

J

^

• •

. .

A

tt V

^JliJ7 iJ«X<*| iXtf*

..

K

it 8 .*:. ;:

Da

J

c?

• '

• •

Zal

j

2

. .

. .

A

^, (.JJ, i*K.

Re

J

f

• -.

• •

j

w.&J.jf*.

Ra

J

r

- •

• •

J

%]' !>•>•

Ze

J

•

• '

. .

J

•jy&jij-

Zhe

A

J

,A

• •

. .

».

J

L _ 1 . ? ^ ^ ''^ tj W .

HINDUSTANI (UEDIJ) ALPHABET— continued.

Name.

tached orm.

Attached.

Examples.

Sfn

Sad

Zad

Tote

Zo,

'Am

GJiain

Fe

Qaf

Kaf

Gaf

Lam

Mlm

Nun

He Ye

u*

L

sh

'«&c.

f

o,u,w

h *, *, y

la

J

r

U,

5. DEVA-KAGARI ALPHABET.

Vowels.

a a i I u u ri

rl e ai d au

Nasal Symbol * (w or w). Final Aspirate J (/*)•

Consonants.

Gutturals . . . . ^j T$f 3f ^

k kh g gh

Palatals

ch

<* chh

^•i j

«5 /I

s . . . . "2

-&

^

¥

t

th

^

I*

u

—

— ,

„

*

th

d

^

n

is

—

^

^

^1

t?A

b

bh

Semi-Vowels . . . ^ ^ ^f ^f

^ r I v,w

Sibilants . . . . ^ ^ ^f ^

sh sh s h

^ (h) is regarded as the Guttural Sibilant.

6 TJEDU GRAMMAR.

6. The proper sound of the two letters zhe (j) — represented in Eoman characters by zh — and n (^) as a final nasal, may be learned best from our Gallic neighbours, the former being the French J in 'jamais,' i toujours ' ; and the latter a very weak nasal as in ' Ion? * monj before initial consonants, as in ' Ion jour ! ' ' mon Dieu \ '

N is also sometimes quiescent, or very feebly pro- nounced, in the middle of words when immediately preceded by a long vowel, or immediately followed by a quiescent letter, e.g. dndhi, phansna, munh. And before b or p it is sounded as m: as sdnp (L-^jUs)? 'aribar (,-J^), pronounced samp and 'ambar.

7. A few remarks must be made regarding the aspirated letters, or consonants conjoined with, or immediately followed by, an h. They are of two kinds: (1) Those in which, by the arbitrary junction of an h to another con- sonant, an additional letter or simple sound is inserted in the alphabet which it did not previously possess. These are, in the Urdu alphabet, the letters clie (^-), khe (^), zhe (J), and shin (^); and similarly in the Arabic alphabet the letter tha (v±J) — sounded like th in 'thing,' but which in Persian and Hindustani is always pronounced as «, and called se. The want of distinct forms to represent each of these sounds is a great defect in our own or any language. (2) The Deva-nagari (Hindi) alphabet contains a number of single letters representing aspirated consonants; in these cases the h is pronounced quite distinctly from the letter it aspirates; but no vowel-sound must intervene. Thus the single Hindi letters H (represented by the two Roman letters lh\ Tfi (by ph\ and ^T (by th) must be pronounced like those letters in 'HoJAouse,'

ALPHABETS. 7

1 hojt?Aouse,' and * ligh^ouse.' And when they occur at the end of a word the aspirate must be added on to the preceding b, p, or t, but pronounced simultaneously with it. Thus the word hath (^TO) 'a hand,' is to be pronounced in one syllable — not like the English word 'hath,' but like ' hat ' — with a blowing or aspiration added to the t.1

So with the aspirated cerebrals (three in number), viz. th te J), dh te a j), and rha (? *J), which should be pronounced like these letters in ' courMouse,' ' woorfAouse,' and 'furAouse.' In the Romanized compound chh (t-^> ^5)> the tyro must not imagine that he sees a doubly aspirated letter ; ~> or ^ (ch) not being itself an aspirated letter, this is the only way its aspiration can be expressed in Roman characters. Thus the common Urdu word achchhd, i.e. * good,' could not be accurately Romanized in any other way. Achu would not give the proper sound, nor represent the native word correctly.

When a letter is repeated in the middle of a word both must be distinctly and separately sounded, e.g. lattu (32) should be pronounced lat-tls • muddat ('a space') mud-ctat, zarra ('a little') zar-ra. A double letter at the end of a word merely intensifies the sound — as in digg, radd, bilkull

8. Though not necessary for the reading of Urdu in the Roman character, a brief explanation of the Persi- Arabic vowel-system may be useful and acceptable to our readers — especially in further illustration of the threefold division already referred to as pervading Semitic Grammars, from

1 That the student may not forget this remark, we have generally, in this work, distinguished these conjunctions by a diacritical tick between the letters, as hatji, ldbthy bthlr, pjiir.

8 TJEDU GRAMMAR.

the Hebrew, with its triliteral roots, three numbers, etc., downwards.

9. The three < weak ' or 'changeable' letters, Alif (1), Wao ( j ), and Ye (tJ), of the Arabic Alphabet maybe either consonants or vowels, according to their position in a word. The first, when initial in an Urdu word (and in Arabic sometimes in the middle and even end, if initial in a syllable) is represented by short a in the Romanized system, unless it has over it the diacritical sign Madd (*") meaning 'lengthening,' which in Roman is marked by a long accent, thus, a. Without this sign it is generally, in Arabic and sometimes in Urdu, accompanied by the sign Hamza (z.\ denoting short a. In either of these cases •Alif (I) is regarded in Eastern Grammars as a very weak consonant, compared sometimes to the Greek spiritus lenis, or slight breathing. So Waw (j) and Ye (<*j) if initial in a word or syllable are consonants answering to initial w and y in our own language.

10. In all other cases these three letters are vowels. But their power and pronunciation depend on certain vowel- signs with which they are accompanied in the Persi-Arabic characters, viz. Fatfia (') = short #, Kasra (x) = short *, and Dhamma or Zamma (') = short w,1 placed respectively above, under, and before consonants to signify short a, «', and u, as <— J (ba), i i (bi], L_'* (bu). But to represent the long sounds of these letters the short vowel-signs are prefixed to their corresponding vowel letters, as \

1 These are the Arabic names of the Vowels; in Persian Grammars they are called, respectively. Zabar ('over'), Zer ('under'), and Pash ('before').

ALPHABETS.

9

11. Thus we see that the Urdu native Alphabet (the Persian) contains three semi-vowel letters that may be either consonants, vowels, or diphthongs ; and that there are three vowel-signs to mark either a short or a long vowel or a diphthong, as J (ra), \j (rd), ^ (rat) ; j (ri),

' "' ™ ™ ""- The

tenues (soft letters) ^/ (1), Waw (.), and F* are consonants if initial, as cul (at], *£J>\ (it), CU\ (ut) ;

12. Besides these expedients for distinguishing the vowels, diphthongs and semi-vowels, the Arabs invented certain diacritical signs for notifying the proper pronunciation of letters, viz. three applicable to consonants and three to vowels. The consonantal are (1) the Tashdld (*) to show that the letter is to be doubled ; (2) the Jazm or Sukun (°) to show that the letter ends a syllable without a vowel after it, (as ^f harm — not karam) ; and (3) the Wasl (~°) placed over the initial Jl (al) to show that the J (/) is to be joined (in sound) to the previous word, e.g. Jls^' J

(fi-l-hdl) 'instantly.' The vowel signs are Hamza (*) to

£ show the vowel is initial in a syllable, as CJUs>- (jutf/it)

* valour'; Maddha (^) that it is long, as ^T^j (qur/ln) ; and Tanwln (* ^ or J) that to a final vowel n should be added in pronunciation, e.g. [s\Ju\ ^ittifdqan 'by chance,' Y<ji (fauran) i at once.'

1 (-$ (ya), medial or final, if not preceded by its homogeneous vowel , (i), is regarded as a diphthong, and = ai as in French, e.g. ' les ' =' lait.'

CHAPTER II.— THE NOUN.

13. Though the Urdu language is mainly founded on the Hindi, which, as well as Persian, belongs to the Aryan family, yet both these languages are closely related to the Semitic family in their grammar and in their vocabularies. The Arabic element which pervaded the Persian passed thereby into the Urdu. Indian grammarians have conse- quently preferred to adopt the Arabic rather than the Sanskrit terminology and divisions in their works. Thus they acknowledge only three grammatical ' Parts of Speech ' — at least all others are considered as included under them. These are— (1) the Verb (fll J*j) ; (2) the Noun (im *i>!) ; and (3) the Particle (harf t-Jj^). Under the first are included Conjugational Verbs, Participles, and Verbal Nouns ; under the second, Substantives, Adjectives, and Pronouns ; and under the last, Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. In Arabic the Article (al j!) is also in- cluded in the second class ; but in Urdu there is properly none, though some words are made partially to supply their place. Other sub-divisions we shall consider under the re- spective general heads; but adopting the natural and most rational order of Western Grammars, we proceed first of all to treat of the Noun.

14. This, whether Substantive or Adjective, may be divided into three Classes or Declensions, viz. (1) Masculine Nouns, whose final letter is unchangeable ; (2) Those which are subject to inflectional changes; and (3) All Feminine Nouns ending either in Consonants or in Vowels.

THE NOUN. 11

15. As to GENDER: Nouns may also be divided into three classes, viz. Masculine, Feminine, and of Common or Optional Gender.

The Semitic Grammarians acknowledge no * Neuter ' (i.e. 'neither') Gender, but there are many Urdu Nouns belonging to the third class,1 namely, 'either.'

16. Then as to NUMBER: though the Dual is recognised and provided for both in Arabic and Persian, and also in Sanskrit (the Mother of Hindi), and though many of such Dual forms are in constant use in Urdu literature and parlance,2 we must admit that the Urdu Grammar ac- knowledges, or at least makes provision for, as indigenous, but two Numbers — the Singular and the Plural.

17. And lastly, as to CASES: there are, properly speaking (in our opinion), but three original Cases in Urdu, as in the Arabic and Persian Grammars, and also in our own language, viz. (1) the Subjective, (2) the Genitive, and (3) the Objective; as illustrated in the English Pronouns, 'He,' 'his,' 'him,' 'Who,' 'whose,' 'whom,' etc.

18. In Urdu, however, the SUBJECTIVE is expressed by two different forms, viz. (a) the Nominative (corresponding to ours), the primary uninflected form of the word; and (b) the Agent,3 which is marked by the addition of the

1 The Greek and Latin (Aryan) languages derive their ' Neuter ' from their parent Sanskrit, which is also the mother of Hindi and Persian.

2 As instances of Dual words in meaning or in form, or hoth, in constant use in Urdu and English, we may give : a ' pair ' joru ; ' both ' donon ; 4 parents ' wdlidain, md-bdp ; ' man and wife ' joru-khasam ; ' twins ' tatiamdn ; ' nostrils,' minkharain ; ' eyes ' ' 'ainain.

3 We are pleased to find, since writing the above, that Mr. Platts agrees with us (as do most native Grammarians) in regarding the Agent as simply another form of the Nominative or Subject.

12 T7RDTJ GRAMMAR.

syllable ne to the word, either in its primary or its in- flected form. Its use, in connection with certain Yerbs and Tenses, will be explained when we come to treat of Verbs.

19. (2) The GENITIVE, or Possessive Case, is distinguished by the addition of the syllable kd, changeable to Tee or kl, to agree with the governing or qualified Noun. For this Case was originally (and still resembles) an Adjective like our own old Possessive ' his ' contracted into '«, or the Latin Domini and Dominions, both meaning ' of a lord.'

20. (3) The OBJECTIVE Case, which in Urdu may corre- spond either to the Latin Dative or its Accusative. In the former case it is marked by the affix ko (or optionally, in certain Pronouns, e or en) ; in the latter either in this way or else by the same form as the Nominative.

21. Thus there are but three original or indigenous Cases with inflectional endings, the so-called Locative, Yocative, and Ablative Cases of Anglo-Urdu Grammars being merely classical imitations (as in English) by prefixing or adding certain words.

22. We append paradigms of the three Declensions.

FIRST DECLENSION.

Including Masculine Nouns and Adjectives ending with an unchangeable letter.

Mard 'a man.'

p f SINGULAR. PLURAL.

'•% I Nom. Mard, a man. Mard, men.

'^j Agent Mard-ne. Mardoh-ne.

?v

*>(

Genitive Mard-kdt -Ice, -ki, Mardon-kd, -ke, -ki, of men. of a man.

THE

13

(Accus. Mard-ko, a man. Mardoh-ko, men. Dat. Jf«r^-£0,toaman. Mardoh-ko, to men. Abl. & } Mard-se or -men, Mardoh-se or -men, from or in Loc. ) from or in a man. men.

Yoc. (Ai) Mard, (0)

man ! (Ai) Mardo, (0) men !

If the Noun denotes an inanimate object, or even, some- times, a mere animal, the Accusative may optionally be the same as the Nominative both in the Singular and the Plural ; but if, as above, it means a rational being, the form used must always be like the Dative.. The Yocative is almost always preceded by some Interjection, as ai ! lie! ohe / at least in the Singular. In the Plural the terminal o marks the case sufficiently without anything else.

23. If the Masculine word (Noun or Adjective) end in an unchangeable vowel (a, I, or u), it is declined in the same way. But Adjectives, if they precede the Noun qualified, as they generally do, drop the Case-endings; otherwise they may retain them. Accordingly, ddna ' a sage ' or ' wise,' is declined thus :

Sing. Nom. Dana, Agent ddnd-ne. Dat. ddna-ko. Plur. Nom. Ddna, Agent ddndon-ne. Dat. ddndoh-ko.1

There are a few other Masculine Nouns ending in long vowels belonging to this Declension, such as chachd i an uncle ' (paternal), laid ' a teacher,' raja. t a king,' sahrd 'a desert,' daryd 'a river,' motl 'a pearl,' lichchhu ' a scorpion,' dfiobi ' a washerman,' pdnl l water,' jl 1 life,' dahl ' curdled milk,' ghl ' clarified butter,' hatfhl 1 an elephant,' khamhchl ' a treasurer.'

1 The student will remember the proper pronunciation of the nasal n, as given in Chap. I.

14 URDU GRAMMAR.

SECOND DECLENSION".

24. This consists of all Masculine Nouns (Substantive or Adjective) that end in a changeable final letter. This includes a large number ending in long a, some in short a, and a few in an-, as ghord 'a horse,' beta 'a son,' larkd 1 a boy,' kuttd 'a dog,' achchha 'good,' lard 'great,' chJiotd 'little,' zarrti or zarra 'a little,' rupiya ' a, rupee,' puya l a foot ' or ' leg ' (of a thing), parda l a curtain,' kirtiya 'rent,' baniydh 'a merchant,' rodh 'hair.'

These are thus inflected: Euttd 'a dog.'

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Norn. Euttd. Eutte.

Agent. Eutte-ne. Euttonne.

Gen. Eutte-kd (-ke, -Jtf). Kutton-kd (-ke, -kl).

Ace. Kuttd, kutte-ko. Xutte, kutton-ko.

Dat. Kutte-ko. Kutton-ko.

Abl. Kutte-se. Eutton-se.

Loc. Kutte-men, etc. Eutton-par.

Yoc. (Ai)Kutte. (Ai) Eutto.

THIRD DECLENSION.

25. In this Declension are included all Feminine Nouns and Adjectives, whether ending in a consonant or a long vowel. These retain the final letter unchanged throughout, only adding the Case terminations. Words ending in con- sonants form the Nominative Plural by adding en. A few words ending in long a and o do so also; but all ending in long I (a numerous class) add an or change z into iydn to form the Nominative Plural ; and in all Nouns on is inserted before the Case-affixes in the Plural.

THIRD DECLENSION. 15

'Aurat 'a woman.'

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

'Aurat. ^Auraten.

Agent. ' 'Aurat-ne. 'Auratoii-ne.

Gen. 'Aurat-ku, etc. 'Aurat&n-kd, etc.

CG' | 'Aurat-ko. 'Auraton-ko.

Dat. )

Yoc. 'Aurat. 'Aurato.

KB.— This word begins with the guttural letter 'ain (^), represented by the apostrophe ('), and should be pronounced accordingly.

Larkl ' a girl.'

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

yom. Larkl. Larkiyah.

Agent. Larkl-ne. Larkiyon-ne.

Gen. Larki-ka, etc. Larkiyon-ku.

Ace. Larki-ko. Larkiyon-ko.

Yoc. Larkl. Larkiyo.

Ndw or Nao c a boat.' SINGULAR. PLURAL.

!Xoni. Nao or Naw. Naweh.

Agent. Nao-ne. Nuwon (or Naon}-ne.

Gen. Nao-ka, etc. Nuwon (or Nuon}-ka, etc.

Ace. JVao or Nao-ko. Nawen (or Naon)-ko.

Joru ' a wife,' has in the Plural — Nom. Joriifh or Joruwen, Jorufih or Joruwan. Gen. Joruoii-kd (-ke, -ki) or Joruwon-ka, etc.

The alternative spellings in the Plurals of words ending in 2 and it represent one and the same spellings in the

16 URDU GRAMMAR.

Urdu > characters. But the letter c_£ is == either e, t, or y and j = either 0, w, or w, according to the letters or vowel- signs that precede or follow them.

In the case of Feminine words ending in long a, the Komi- native Plural is formed (like those ending with consonants) by adding en. Thus, dawd ' medicine.' Nominative Plural dawd-en. Genitive dawdon-kd, etc.

Persian and Arabic forms of Nouns in the Plural are not unfrequently used in Urdu parlance. In the former language Plurals are formed by adding the syllables dn for animate beings and hd for inanimate, or sometimes by adding tit as in Arabic. In Arabic there are many other ways of forming Plurals.

26. The Genitive Case, it will be observed, has three different forms, as kutte-kd, kutte-ke, kutte-kl. "Which is to be used depends on the Gender and Case of the governing Noun. If this be Masculine and in the Nominative Singular, then the affix kd must be used. If Masculine, and in any other Case, Singular or Plural, then ke • if Feminine, in any Case or Number, then kl. The fact is, as before remarked, that the Genitive Case is really an Adjective, or, at least, is formed by means of an adjectival affix (derived from the Sanskrit, and resembling the Latin affixes cus, ca, cum), which must agree with the Substantive it qualifies. Similarly, in Persian, the sign of the Genitive and the connecting link between an Adjective and the Noun it qualifies, are one and the same, viz. a short i or e. Thug}, pisar-e-bddshdh ' the king's son'; and Mard-i-khul l a good man.' This Persian construction is of frequent occurrence in Urdu writing and conversation.

GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 17

GENDERS or SUBSTANTIVES.

27. As the terminations not only of Adjectives but of Nouns under government in the Genitive Case, and also Participles and certain Tenses of the Yerb, are affected by the Gender of the governing or qualified Substantives, it is evidently of great consequence, in order to speak or write Urdu correctly, that the Genders of the Nouns should be known.

28. A few rules and hints on the subject will, therefore, be useful to the learner.

(1) It need hardly be said that proper names, titles, and professions peculiar to males, are Masculine; and those peculiar to females, are Feminine ; though even to this obvious rule, there are one or two exceptions. For instance, the word kabila, meaning properly 'a tribe,' 'a family,' is often by a delicate euphony applied to ' a wife ' in conversation, though it is a Masculine Noun. And several other Masculine words (such as khandan 'a family') are similarly used instead of joru ' a wife.'

(2) The Gender of a large number of Nouns depends on their termination and linguistic origin. Thus Hindi, or purely Indian, words ending in a are nearly all Masculine in Urdu, though there are numerous exceptions in the Hindi dialect itself.

In Urdu, as well as Hindi, Indian Diminutives ending in iya are Feminine, as chiriya 'a bird,' dibiya 'a small box,' and pfiuriya ' a small boil.'

(3) Nouns ending in u or o, and especially those in «<?, are mostly Masculine. To this there are some half-dozen exceptions, as nuo 'a boat,' daru 'liquor,' lulu 'sand,' and rohu ' a sort of fish.' Also about a dozen Persian

18 URDU GRAMMAR.

words, as abru ' an eyebrow,' ubru ' honour,' arzil 1 wish,' bo (or bu") ( smell,' tardzu ' a pair of scales,' Jo l a stream,' and Mo 'habit,' which are all Feminine.

(4) Most Nouns ending in short a (i.e. in the Persian silent h y) are Masculine, as banda ' a slave,' par da ' a curtain.' But tauba 'repentance,' Idxha 'a corpse,' sat fa 'expenditure,' da/a* 'a time,' and some others are Feminine.

(5) All Nouns ending in pan (generally answering to the English ' ness ') are Masculine, as larakpan ' childish- ness,' ' childhood,' kamlnapan ' meanness,' darpan ' a mirror.'

(6) Feminine terminations are —

(0) Arabic Nouns with final a (with a few exceptions), as laid 'a calamity,' baqu 'duration.' Also Diminutives in iya, as mentioned under No. 2.

(b) Arabic Nouns ending in t, as tzzat 'honour,' ilddat ' worship,' ulfat ' affection. ' Also Persian Abstract Nouns ending in t, formed by dropping the final n of the Infinitive, as guft ' speech, ' ' conversation, ' raft ' going ' (from guftan 'to speak,' raftan 'to go'). There are only a few words ending in t that are Masculine, as sharbat 'a drink,' waqt ' time,' ydqut ' a ruby,' and a few others. KhiVat ' a robe of honour,' is either Masculine or Feminine.

(c) Persian Nouns ending in isk, e.g. ddnish ' know- ledge,' sozish ' inflammation.' Perhaps the only exception to this rule is balish ' a pillow.' The termination sh simply is not generally Feminine in Urdu Nouns.

(d) Nouns ending in I are nearly all Feminine, though to this, too, there are a few exceptions, viz. pdnl 'water,' jl ' life,' ghl l clarified butter,' ddhl ' curdled milk,'

hdtfil ' an elephant,' moil ' a pearl,' and a few others.

GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 19

Some, too, though ending in z, are Masculine, of course, from, signification, e.g. mistrl ' a carpenter,' dfioll ' a washer- man,' khazanchi 'a treasurer,' mull 'a gardener.' The Feminine of such words is usually formed by changing the final i into in, rii or dnl, as dfiobin ' a washerwoman ' (or ' dfioli's wife '), malm ' a gardener's wife.' A female elephant is hatfini, and the wife or daughter of a Kfiatri, by caste, is called a Kfiatranl ; the wife of a mulld (' a doctor ' or * schoolmaster ') is mulldni.

(e) Original Arabic Nouns formed after the type or model of the word tafll (i.e. by prefixing the letter t to the first letter of the verbal root, and I to the final) are almost always Feminine, e.g. tamsll 'a parable or proverb,' taqdls 'holi- ness.' Perhaps the only exception to this rule is the word tcfwlz ' an amulet,' which is Masculine.

(/) Almost all Nouns terminating in the syllables hat, wat, and mat, are Feminine, as sakhdwat l liberality,' gliabrahat 1 confusion,' dandawat ' obeisance,' khalwat ( retirement,' 'aldmat 'a sign,' 'symptom.' Even to this, however, there are a few exceptions, as Iffawat 'a caste of boatmen,' Masculine.

(g) Arabic Nouns signifying instruments, of the type mifal (i.e. with mi prefixed to the root and a inserted in last syllable), are generally Feminine, as miqraz ' scissors,' mizdn 'a balance,' minJcur 'a bird's beak'; but minshdr ' a hand- saw,' mismdr ' a peg ' or ' nail,' and miytir f a touchstone,' are Masculine.

(h) Nouns with I in the last syllable are mostly Feminine, as injil ' the Gospel,' rasid ' a receipt.'

(7) A good many words are of Common or optional Gender, as jdn ' life,' and fikr ' thought.' This is the case with the word bulbul, too, meaning ' a species of nightingale ' ;

20 URDU GRAMMAR.

but generic terms usually are either of one or other Gender ; haran (or hiran] ' a stag ' is always Masculine, and chil ' a kite ' always Feminine. Sometimes the terminations a for the male, and I for the female, are added, as harnd ' a buck,' harnl ' a doe.' Adml ' a human being,' ' descendant of Adam,' applies to either sex; and a Hindu would say, achchhd udmi for ' a good man,' achchhl ddnii for ' a good woman.' But Musulmans prefer to use a different word for the female, as 'aurat or zan.

(8) In the case of compound words the Gender is generally determined by the final ingredient. Thus ]&ilwatkhana ' a private apartment,' is Masculine ; jaw fin-mar dl * manliness,' Feminine.

It will be observed that by far the greater number of the above Rules refer to Nouns which are Feminine, and we think it needless to add more. The student who has mastered and who bears in mind these Rules need only remember that, generally speaking, Substantives of all other ' measures ' and terminations are Masculine. As natives of India themselves — even well-educated gentlemen — are not ashamed to make occasional mistakes as to the Gender of Nouns, the Rules above given will, we trust, suffice. In cases of uncertainty on the part of the speaker it is generally better to regard the doubtful word as Masculine, than to risk making a Feminine of what is really a Masculine Noun.

29. A few more words, however, may be added here, before quitting the subject, on the formation of Feminine from Masculine Substantives. The most usual way of doing this is by the addition of long i to the Masculine word, if ending in a consonant; or if in a or a, by the change of that into I : as, from JSrdhman, Fern. Brahmam ;

GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 21

from landa l a slave,' Fern, landi ; from glioru ' a horse,' Fern, ghorl. The rule in the case of Masculines ending in I has already been given. Those also ending in a con- sonant or in d form the Feminine sometimes in the same way as those in z, viz. by adding n, m, or dm (the vowel before n if long — d or i — being shortened or cut off), as from dulkd 'a bridegroom,' dulhan 'a bride'; kunjra 'a greengrocer,' Fern, kunjran; barethd 'a washerman,' larethan] mulld 'a doctor' or 'teacher,' mulldnl 'his wife ' ; taffy, ' a pony,' Fern, tattwanl ; lanyd l a corn- seller,' Fern, lanydrii or lanayan\ ndtl 'a barber,' ndyan or ndtin ; mihtar ' a sweeper,' Fern, mihtardnl ; «A0r ' a tiger,' sherrii ; ww£ ' a camel,' untni, etc.

There are other ways in which the name of the female is formed from that of the male, as Ihdji 'brother,' lahin 'sister'; leg 'a lord,' legam 'a lady,' 'princess'; klidh 'a lord,' 'prince,' kkanarn 'lady'; rdjd 'a king,' rum 'a queen'; nay ok 'a young^ man,' ndyikd 'a damsel'; lug ft ' a tiger,' lag f ml ' a tigress.' Sometimes the words used are quite different, as lap 'father,' man 'mother'; pita ' father,' mdtd ' mother ' ; sand (stinr or stir) ' a bull,' gdte 'a cow.' Or by adding nar (male) or mdda (female) to the words, as sher-i-nar ' a lion ' or ' tiger, ' sher-i- mdda ' a lioness ' or ' tigress.' This is a Persian con- struction, used only with Persian words. The Feminines of Arabic words are generally formed by adding a to the Masculine, as malika ' a queen,' from malik ' a king ' ; tvdlida ' mother,' from wulid ' father ' ; mtfallima ' a school- mistress,' from mtfallim ' a teacher.'

22 URDU GRAMMAR.

ADJECTIVES.

30. Some Adjectives are subject to inflection and some not, the same rules applying to them, in this respect, as to Substantives. Those ending in consonants, of course, belong to the latter category, as do also most Persian Adjectives ending in short a (i.e. the light X = h of the Persian character), though there are a few exceptions to this last remark. Those ending in d (not Persian or Arabic) are inflected, and also one Persian Adjective, judd ' separate,' and one Arabic, fuldna ' certain.' A few Persian Adjectives ending in a are also inflected, e.g. diivana 'insane,' ganda 'fetid,' tdza 'fresh,' mdnda 'tired,' 'unwell,' ndkdra 'useless,' lechdra ' helpless,' and a few others.

31. In Urdu Adjectives are almost always put before the Noun qualified, with which they agree in Gender and Case ; and the Case-affixes or signs are then attached only to the latter word. But when the Adjective is placed last (as sometimes) both words may be inflected, as 'auraten Idiulsu- raten ' handsome women.'

In Persian the Adjective generally follows the Noun, a short i or e (called the izdfat or ' connecting link ') being interposed. This construction is often used with Persian words in Urdu and thought elegant.

32. We give a few examples —

1. Adjectives with unchangeable final.

Sing. Nom. Khilbsurat larkl ' a handsome girl.'

Gen. lOiulsurat larklkd ' of a handsome girl.'

Plur. Nom. JTkubsurat larkiydn ' handsome girls.'

Gen. Khulsurat larkiyonkd ' of handsome girls.'

ADJECTIVES.

23

Sing. Nom. Dana larla * a wise boy.'

Gen. Dana larkekd * of a wise boy.'

Plur. JN"om. Dana larke * wise boys.'

Dat. -Z>a/m larkonko ' to wise boys.'

2. Adjectives with changeable final.

Sing. Nom. Tfa^a ghord ' a black horse.'

Dat. Kale ghoreko ' to a black horse.'

Plur. Nom. Kale ghore ' black horses.'

Dat. Kale ghorohko ' to black horses.'

Sing. Nom. Shall 'aurat ' a good woman.' Accus. Shall 'auratko ' a good woman.'

Plur. N~om. j^Aa/z 'auraten l helpless women.'

Dat. Shall 'auratonko ' to helpless women.'

33. 3. Persian Idiom.

Sing. Kom. Mard-i-nek l a good man.' Plur. j^om. Mardan-i-nek t good men.' Sing. Kom. Zan-e-hasm ' a beautiful woman.' Plur. Nom. Zauan-e-hasln ' beautiful women.'

The Plurals of Persian words are thus formed, if names of animate beings (viz. by adding an to the Singular form); but if of inanimate objects, then generally by the termination ha. Thus, sal 'a year,' Plur. sdlhd ' years' ; sang 'a stone,' Plur. sanghd ' stones.' ' Many years ' would be sdlhd-e- bisydr ; ' heavy stones ' sanghd-e-girdn. There are a few exceptions, however, to these rules. Thus, the Plur. of chiragh is chiraghdn ('lamps'); and of asp ('a horse') axphd.

34. Even in Persian, the Adjective often precedes its Substantive, as, nek mard ' a good man,' bad hawd ' a bad

24 URDU GBAMMAE.

wind,' and in composite Urdu sentences this is often prefer- able ; e.g. nek mard kd beta sounds better than mard-e-nek ha beta — the alternative phraseology.

35. Some Urdu Adjectives end with a slight nasal after a, as baydh ' left.' These are inflected as if they ended in a, without dropping the n. Thus the Fern. Sing, buym ' left ' has for its construct form btiyln or bd-m, e.g. ' Towards the left side ' is bdtm taraf; ' to the right hand ' baten hdtfi.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

36. Persian Adjectives have different forms for the three degrees of comparison, as, bih ' good,' bihtar ' better,' bihtarm ' best ' ; but in Urdu there is no variety of termination to express Positive, Comparative, and Super- lative. The second of these degrees is denoted by putting the object compared with in what is called the Ablative Case, that is, by appending to it the particle se ' from ' or 'with,' but in this case meaning 'than': e.g. J9dtthl ghore se bard hai 'the elephant is larger than the horse,' (lit. 'from' — or 'beyond' — or [compared] 'with — the horse is large'). To express the Superlative some such expletive as sab (' all ') or tamdm (' the whole ') is used. Thus, Hdtfd sab jdnwaronse bard hai ' the elephant is the largest of all animals ' ; Raja tamdm jamu'at se 'izzatddr hai ' the king is the most distinguished (person) in the assemblage.' There are other ways of intensifying Adjectives (or Adverbs), such as by repetition, as achchhd achchhd ' very good,' dhire dhire ' very slowly ' ; or by an Adjective and Adverb combined, as bahut unchd ' very high ' ; or by an Ablative, as bare se bard or baron se bar a * the greatest.'

NUMERALS.

25

NUMERALS.

37. The Cardinal Numbers, in Urdu, which are derived from the Sanskrit, through the Prakrit and Hindi, are all indeclinable, and are prefixed to the Substantives they refer to. They are as follows:

l.Ek.

28. Athdfs.

(Ekdwan.

77. Sathattar.

2. Do.

29. Untls.

\Ikdivan.

78. Athattar.

3. Tin.

30. Tfs.

52. Bdwdn.

79. C/wa*t.

4. Char.

(Ektls.

53. Tirpan.

80. ^i**?.

5. Pdnch.

\Iktls.

54. Chauwan.

81. ^A-asi.

6. Chha.

32. Batfls.

55. Pachpan.

82. Befisl.

7. Sdt.

j TWts.

56. Chfiappan.

83. Tirdsl.

8. J?A.

33' lTat»«*.

57. Sat taw an.

84. Chaurdst.

9. Nau.

34. Chautls.

58. Athdwan.

85. Pachdsl.

10. Das.

35. Palntls.

59. Unsatfi.

86. Chheasl.

(Igdrah.

36. ChhatjKs.

60. Sdtth.

87. Sat dsl.

\Gydrah.

37. Salntis.

61. {^-'A'

88. Athdsi.

12. Bar ah.

(Athiis.

89. Nau dsl.

13. TferaA.

38 ' Ur«f.

62. Bdsath.

90. Nauwe.

14. Chattdah.

| TTntdlis.

63. Tirsath.

91. Ekanaice.

15. Pandrah.

39' 1 Unchalis.

64. Chamath.

no /

16. tfofoA.

40. C^fts.

65. Painsath.

(Birdnauwe.

17. Satrah.

lEktdlls.

66. Chhiydsath.

(Tirdnawe.

18. Atfidrah.

\Iktdlls.

67. Satsatfi.

\Tirdnauwe.

. | U'riis.

42. Be alls.

(Athsath.

94. Chaurdnawe.

19. ] Tr

I Urims.

43. Tentdlis.

68. j "

(Pachdnawe.

20. .Bts.

44. Chaufllls.

69. Unhattar.

95. i „ . \Jrancnanawe.

21. Eklsjkkls.

45. Paintdlis.

70. Sattar.

1 Chhiydnawe.

22. .5«,fs.

46. ChheflUs.

71. Ekhattar.

\Chhdnawe.

23. 2fe,t*.

47. Saintdlls.

72. Bahattar.

97. Satdnaice.

24. Chaubls.

Urtdlls,

73. Tihattar.

98. Athdnaice.

25. Pachis.

\At h tails

74. Chauhattar.

(Nindnawe.

26. Chhabbls.

49. Unchds.

75. Pachhattar.

99. ] __ . iJVawwaw.

27. Satdtls.

50. Pachas.

76. Chhihattdr.

100. £aw or sai.

26

URDU GRAMMAR.

The Compounds of sau ('100') are expressed as in English — only omitting the word wa ('and'); thus '110' would be ek sau das, '120' ek sau bis, etc. A 'thousand' is expressed either by the Persian word hazdr, or by das sau — 'ten hundred.'

38. We think it well to append the Native characters for the Cardinal Numbers — both Arabic and Indian — as it is of great use to be familiar with them.

Roman

1234567890

10

14

37

50

134

Arabic

t rrfoivAi-

1 •

if

rv

o«

I If

Indian

S ^$ 8 M 5^^ <jo

qo

<tt

3^

MO

^8

The student is advised to make himself familiar with the Native figures (especially the Arabic) by copying them out repeatedly, and to get the table of Cardinal Numbers by heart till he knows it as well as his ABC.

39. By adding the word ek (' one ') to any of the Cardinal Numbers (single or compound) the idea of indefiniteness is expressed. Thus do-ekt means 'about 2,' das-ek 'about ten' ('9 or 10,' '10 or 11'), sau-ek 'about a hundred.' 'About one ' is expressed by ek-ddy signifying either ' % ' or ' one ' (dd being either for ardhd 'a half/ or as some think for the Sanskrit adi ' beginning ' — i.e. ' beginning with one ' or ' one, etc.' (' one or two '). The like idea is conveyed by two Numbers (not generally consecutive) — as, do-tin or do- char = our ' 2 or 3 ' ; uth-das=our ' 8 or 9,' etc.

COLLECTIVE NUMBERS. 27

40. THE ORDINAL NUMBERS are as follows :

1st. Pahla 9th. Nauwuh

2nd. Dusru 10th. Daswah

3rd. Tlsra llth. lyarahwuii

4.th. Chautfia 12th. Barahwan

5th. Pdnchwdn 21st. JE/dstcan

6th. Chfiatwan 100th. Sauwan, and so on,

7th. Sutwdh adding «0aw £0 the

8th. Atjiwan Cardinal Numbers.

In the case of compound Numbers the affix -wan is added to the last number only of the compound, as ek-sau- buwdh 'the 120th.' The Ordinal Numbers are all inflexible Adjectives, as pahld, pahle (Fern, pahll}} punchwdn, punch- wen, panchwin ; ikkiswah, ikklsweh, ikkuwln, etc.

41. COLLECTIVE NUMBERS

are formed by adding the letter a or I to the Cardinal, e.g. lisa or lui ' a score,' pachdsd (or ddhd-saikrd) ' a half-hundred,' battisi ' an aggregate of 32.' But some have peculiar forms, as jord (Fern, jori) ' a pair,' c a couple,' gandd ' a quaternion,' gain 'an aggregate of five,' Icorl 'a score,' sailer d 'a hundred ' ; the other (regular) forms being also used, as panchd l a collection of five ' — "whence panchuyat ' a jury or court of investigation,' etc. These words take the Genitive

28 URDU GRAMMAR.

of the things enumerated, as ek saikrd sipuhiyohhd ' 100 soldiers,' ek korl ruplyohla ' a score of Rupees.' The word saikrd (not sau} is always used when speaking of Interest, as punch rupafe saikru ' 5 Rs. per cent.' But instead of this, the Persian phrase for 'per cent.' — fl-sad or fl-sadl — is often substituted.

42. The Intensive form of Collective Numerals is formed by adding to the Cardinals the syllable on— thus, donon ' the two,' 'both,' tlnoh 'all three,' bison 'the whole twenty,' etc. ; and sometimes by adding to this the original simple Cardinal, e.g. dthon-dth, ' the whole 8 ' (the very 8 of the 8). Ek ' one ' is made intensive by adding the syllables eld or hi, e.g. akela or ekhl 'just (or only) one.' The syllable oh is added to the larger aggregate terms to express indefinite numerousness, as saikron ddmi 'hundreds of men,' hazuron gliar 'thousands of houses/ etc.

43. Cardinal Numbers are made to act as Distributives by simple repetition, as, ek ek ' one by one ' or ' one each,' char char 'by fours,' 'four to each,' or 'four a-piece.'

44. Multiplicatives are formed by adding either gund ('time' or 'fold') — Fern, gum — or hard or ahra — to the Cardinals, as doguna (or -nl\ often contracted into dund or duhrd 'twofold'; tiyuna, or tihara, or tihrd 'threefold,' ' triple ' ; ekahrd ' single.'

45. Numeral Adverbs are formed by changing the final a of the Ordinal Adjectives into 0, as from pahld 'first,' paJile 'firstly'; tlsre 'thirdly,' etc. They are also formed by adding to the Cardinals the word bur 'time,' or dafa, or martaba, as ekbdr 'once,' dodafa 'twice,' tin martala 'tbrice,' etc.

Sometimes the Persian Ordinals are used, as ' firstly ' duwum, ' secondly ' awwal.

PRONOUNS. 29

FRACTIONAL NUMBERS.

46. These are expressed, some by certain Substantives, and some by Adjectives. The former are — pap and chautfiufi 'a quarter,' tihuti 'a third,' ddhd 'a half (for which the Persian word mm, or the Arabic nisf, is also much used), and sawai ' 1^.' The Adjectives are — -paun or paune 'one quarter less,' adha, ddh, or adh 'half,' sawa 'a quarter more,' sdrhe 'one-half more,' derh 'one and a half,' and arhap or dhaji ' 2£.'

These fractional terms always precede the Noun or Cardinal Numbers. And up to 100 (exclusive) the unit employed is 1. Thus sawdfi do=2%; paune chdr=3%. But from 100 to 999 — inclusive — it is K)0. Thus paune sau=. 100—^ of 100=75. Sawa do s#w=200+i of 100=200+ 25=225. Sawa te«r=1000-}-i of 1000=1250. These fractions are used not only with numbers but with measuresy and quantities, as derh man ' 1^ maunds,' arhdtl gaj="2% yards.' /

PRONOUNS.

47. The Personal Pronouns are in Urdu, as in most other languages, three in number, with their respective Plurals — viz. Main 'I,' tu ' thou,' and ' wuh ' 'he,' 'she,' or 'it'; "ham ' we,' turn ' ye ' or ' you,' we ' they.' The third is (as in Latin, etc.) the same as the remote Demonstrative Pronoun, but it has not, as in Latin, English, etc., three different forms to express the different Genders.

48. The Pronoun, like the Noun, has three Case-forms for each of the two Numbers — viz. for the Nominative or Agent, the Genitive, and the Objective. "We shall, however, give them here as set forth in most Hindustani Grammars.

30 URDU GRAMMAR.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

1st Pers. Main 'I.'

Sing. Plur.

TsTom. Main, I Sam, we

Agent Main-ne Hamne, hamon ne

Gen. Merd, -re, -rl Hamdrd, -re, -rl

Accus. 1 Mujhe or Hamko, hameh

Dat. ) Mujhko Hamohko

Abl. Mujhse Ham (or hamon'] se

J-JUV^.

M-LW/I/v Illvfv* v-tiV->»

2nd Pers. Tu

< Thou.'

Sing.

Plur.

Nom.

Tu, Thou

Turn, ye or you

Agt.

Tune

Tumne, tumhohne

Gen.

Terd, -re, -rl

Tumhdrd, -re, -t I

Ace.

\ Tajhe or

Tam-ko, tumheh

Dat.

) Tujhko

Tumhohko

Abl.

Tujhse

Tumse, tumhohse

Loc.

Ttijh men, par, etc.

Tumpar, -tak, etc.

Voc.

Aitu

Ai turn

49.

DEMONSTRATIVE

PRONOUNS

(Used for third Personal Pronoun).

Proximate— Yih1 'This.'

Sing.

Plur.

Kom.

Yih, this

Ye, these

Agt.

Isne

Inne, inhohne

Gen.

Iskd, -ke, -kl

Inkd, hohkd

Dat.

Isko, ise

Inko, inheh

Ace.

Yih, isko, ise

Ye, inko, inhen

Abl.

Isse

Ime, inhonse

Loc.

Ismeh, par, etc.

Inmeh, inhoiimeh

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 31

Remote— Wuh1 'He,' 'that.' Sing. Plur.

Norn. Wuh, that, he We, those, they

Agt. Usne Unne, unhohne

Gen. Uskd, -ke, -kl Vnkd (uhhoti), -ke, -kl

Dat. Usko, use Unko, unheh

Ace. Wuh, usko, use We, unheh, unko

Abl. Usse Unse, unhohse

Loc. Uspar, etc. Unmeh, par, etc.

50. The addition of the syllable '.oh to the inflected Case- forms in the Plurals of these Pronouns is intensive ; thus, tumhdrd means simply ' of you,' ' your,' but tumhohkd means 'of you yourselves,' 'your very own,' 'just yours.' The words merd, terd, hamara, tumhard are properly Pronominal Adjectives. The true Gen. forms mujhkd, tughkd, hamkd, tumkti are also used, but only when an Adjective is inter- posed between the crude Case-form and the Genitival led, as mujh gharlh Jed 'of poor me,' mujh kam-bakht kl kitdb 'the book of unfortunate me.'

A similar construction is also used sometimes with the Agent, and likewise before the Particle of Similitude sd (se, si) — e.g. Kyd tujh badbakht ne aisd kiyd? — or, Kyd tujhse kam-bakht ne aisd kiyd ? ' Have you, you scoundrel, (or, has such a rascal as you) acted thus ? '

51. When the Pronouns yih and wuh are used as Demon- stratives, they do not take the Case-sign immediately after them, but, as in the case of Adjectives generally, this is affixed to the Substantive described, e.g. uskd g fiord (Per-

1 Mr. Platts romanizes these two words yvh and woh, as often sounded.

32 URDU GRAMMAR.

sonal) 'his horse,' but us adrilka g fiord (Demonstrative) ' that man's horse.'

(a) The Nominative forms of the Accus. Case of these two Pronouns are only used when they are Demonstratives preceding a Substantive, expressed or understood. Thus, to express 'having seen him,' one must say usko deklikar (not yih or wuh). But for ' having heard this ' (i.e. ' remark ' or 'news') we must say yih sunkar, or yih bat (or kJialar) sunkar.

(b) The forms inne and unne are sometimes used instead of isne and usne, as mere contractions for the latter; but they may also be the Plur. form of the Agent used respect- fully, instead of the Sing., though the fuller forms inhoh-ne and un-honne would he more generally employed.

(c) Yih and wuh are often used instead of ye and we, especially in Northern India, in a Plural sense, both as Demonstrative and as Personal Pronouns, as ivuh Jcahte ham ' they say.' The long vowel z, or hi, is often added to the Singular of Pronouns to give emphasis, and to the Plurals, w, and hm or hon, as maih-hl 'I myself,' tujhise 'from your very self,' wuhi ' he himself,' wehlh ( they themselves.'

52. THE RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE

Pronouns are jo or jaun ' who,' ' which,' ' what,' ' he who,' etc., and so or taun 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' 'that same,' which are declined much like the Demonstrative, viz. : Nom. Sing, and Plur. jo or jaun. Gen. Sing, jiska (ke or Jti). Dat. jisko or jise, etc. Gen. Plur. jinka, etc. Dat. Accus. jinko orjinhen. Norn. Sing, and Plur. so or taun. Gen. Sing, tiska, etc. Dat. Accus. tiskoj Use. Gen. Plur. tinkd, etc. Dat. Accus. tinhth. So also are the

INTEEEOGATIVES. 33

INTEBEOGATIVES,

53. Viz.—kaun? 'who?' 'what?' ' which ?,' and Icy a ? ' what ? ' ' which ? ' ; e.g. Sing, and Plur. Norn. £«MW. Gen. Sing. kiska. Plur. £w £a, kinhkd, kinhonkd. Dat. and Ace. Sing, kisko, kise. Plur. kinko, kinhen or kinhko. Sing, and Plur. !S"om. %a. Gen. kdhekd. Dat. kdheko. It has no Plural. JBfattft is applicable either to persons or things, but, in the latter case, only when used adjectively along with Substantives ; as, Kaun ay a hai ? ' Who has come ? ' Wuh kaun hai ? ' Who is he ? ' Yih kaun ghar hah ? 'What house is this?' Wuh kishd ghar hai'? 'Whose house is that ? ' Wuh kis ghar men hai ? ' What house is he in ?'

JEya? is 'used for things only — either with or without a Substantive. Thus Wuh kija hai? 'What is that?' or Wak kya chlz hai ? ' What thing is that ? ' The inflected form kdhe is scarcely ever used except in the Gen. and Dat. ; as Kaheko (or kdhe waste) mujhe mdrte ho ? ' Wherefore (or, for what) do you beat me ? ' — the more usual Urdu for which would be kis waste (or kyuti) mujhe mdrte ho ? For the other cases, the different forms of kaun are used, as Yih ghar kisse land hai ? ' What is this house built of ? ' or Kisne bandy d ? 'Who built it?'

54. The word kyd (though in that case it might be called an Interrogative Adverb) is often used at the beginning of an interrogative sentence, as Kya turn pdgal ho gaye ho ? ' Have you gone mad ? ' — literally, ' What ? have you gone mad ? ' Sometimes, also, it is used as a sort of Inter- jection, like our English 'what!' or 'how!' as kyd badmdsh ! ' what a rascal ! ' kyd khul \ ' how fine ! ' When

3

34 URDU GEAMMAB.

repeated, it becomes a sort of Distributive Pronoun, as Kyd kyd chlz tumhdre pas ham ? ' What different things have you got ? ' Kis kis chlz se ban gay a hai? ' Of what materials is it made ? '

55. INDEFINITE PEONOUNS

are either simple or compound. Under the former category are such words as kol ' anyone,' ' someone,' kuchh l any- thing,' 'something,' 'some.' Kol has a Nom. Plural, katl, but it is only declined in the Singular, the inflective form being kisl or kisu ; thus, Gen. kisl (or kisu\ kd, ke, kl ; Agent, kise ne, etc. JTol, so declined, applies to things as well as persons. With these several useful compounds are formed, as kol-ek or ka,l-ek ' some,' ' several,' kuchh-ek ' some little,' * somewhat,' kuchh-aur ' some more.' Koi^ltoi means ' some few,' kuchh-kuchh ' somewhat,' kol-na-kol ' some one or other,' kuchh-na-kuchh 'something or other,' kuchh-kd- kuchh 'something quite different.' These might be regarded as compound phrases, but there are also several compound Indefinite Pronouns, properly so called ; such are jo-kol ' who- soever,' aur-koi ' someone else,' har-kol ' everyone,' etc. These are declinable, as Gen. jis-Jcisl-kd ' of whomsoever,' etc., but the compounds of kuchh are not so. These are such as sal -kuchh 'whatsoever,' aur-kuchh 'something else,' bahut-kuchh 'a great deal,' etc.

THE PEONOUN Ap.

56. This is used in two different ways or senses, and called, accordingly, either a Reflexive or a Respectful Pronoun. As the former it means 'self ('myself,' 'yourself/ 'himself,'

THE PEONOUN IP. 35

etc.), and is then thus declined : Gen. Sing, apnd (-ne, -ril) 'of self,' 'own' (my own, his own, etc.). Accus. Dat. ap&o, apne ko, apne tajin ' myself,' ' yourself,' ' to myself,' etc. Abl. apse 'from one's self (myself, himself, etc.).

There is another inflective form — upas, used as a Plural, but only in the Gen. and Loc. Cases — as upas kd, upas men, 'of (or among) ourselves,' 'yourselves,' etc.

As a Reflexive Pronoun it is used generally along with a Personal Pronoun (expressed or understood), as Main up jdungd ' I myself will go,' Wuh apne ghar ko gayd hai ' He has gone to his (own) house (or home),' We dpasmen larte tfa, ' They were fighting with one another,' We up bole ' They themselves said.'

The Persian word khud is often used instead of dp, re- flexively, as main khud ' I myself,' we dp ' they them- selves.' The word apnd 'own' (like iskd 'his,' and other Genitives) is a sort of Possessive Pronoun.

57. As a Eespectful (or reverential) Pronoun, meaning ' you, sir,' ' your honour,' it is regularly declined, but only in the Singular, though constructed as a Plural and requiring the Yerb to which it is a Nominative to be in the 3rd Person Plural. Thus, Apkd ghar kahdn hajn ? ' Where is your honour's house ? ' Ap kal dwenge ? ' Will your honour (or 'you, sir') come to-morrow?' (instead of Turn leal doge?}, Ap mu'af kyiye 'Please, sir, forgive (me),' for simple Mu'df karo, sahib.

There are other words besides dp, — chiefly titles of honour or of office, which also require the Yerb to be in the Respect- ful-Plural, such as sdhil 'master,' hazrat and huzur 'your Highness' (lit. 'presence'), Wmddwand 'lord,' etc.; as sdhib dekhte ham ' you see, sir' (lit. 'master sees'), huzur farmdte Jiain ' your Highness (or ' his Highness ') ' says ' (or 'orders ').

36 URDU GRAMMAR.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

58. There are no Reciprocal Pronouns in Urdu. The idea of reciprocity is expressed by the two words ek ' one,' and dusrd ' another,' as We ek dusre ko piydr karte ham ' They love one another.'

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

59. For these the Genitives are used of the Personal, Relative, and other Pronouns, e.g. merd 'my,' uskd 'his,' terd ' thine,' tumhdrd 'yours,' etc. These are all declined like other Adjectives ending in a, and agree in Gender and Case with the Substantives qualified. The word apnd ( ' own ' ), however, is commonly used rather as a substitute for merd, terd, and askd, and their Plurals, than as a distinct Genitive of the Reflexive Pronoun dp ; and then it always refers to the principal Subject of the sentence, whether expressed or understood, as Apnd (for terd) hdth dekhd-do * show your hand,' Usne apni betiko dekhd l He saw his daughter.'

60. There are certain words which partake of the nature partly of Adjectives and partly of Pronouns, and which may therefore be called

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

Some of these are primitive and some derivative. Amongst the former are such words as ek 'one,' dusrd 'another,' 'other,' donon 'both,' 'the two,' sal ' all,' fuldna ' a certain one,' 'such a one,' aur 'other,' chand 'several,' ka,l 'some,' 'several,' kai 'how many?' har 'each,' 'every,' la'ze 'some,' ghair 'other' (different), etc. These are generally indeclinable (though dusrd and fuldna are exceptions) as

COMPOUND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 37

Adjectives, but as Substantives they are declined in the Plural (except ek, dorion, kaji, and kai) — e.g. dusre ' others,' aur * others ' (Gen. Plur. auronkd), and sab (Agent sabhohne, Accus. sabhonko, etc., with euphonic h introduced), etc.

61. THE DERIVATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES

are such words as are formed from primitives by the addition of the syllables -ttd, -tnd, and sd ; the first two terminations denoting measure or quantity, the last similitude. Those expressive of Quality are — itnd, or ittd ' this much,' ' so much,' uttd, or utnd ' that much,' jitna, or jittd ' as much,' tetnd, or tettd ' so much,' ketnd, or kettd 'how much.' Adjectives of kind (quality or similitude) are — aisd ' like this,' 'such,' waisd 'like that,' jaisd 'like which,' taisa ' like that,' kaisd ' like what ? ' ' of what kind ? '

CHAPTER III.— THE VERB.

62. The Urdu Verb may be divided into three general Classes, viz., I. The Intransitive, II. The Transitive, and III. The Causal, or doubly-Transitive.

The first of these has but one Voice, the Active ; the second and third have two each, the Active and Passive. There are three Moods in each of the three Classes (which may be said to belong all to one Conjugation), viz. the Indicative, the Imperative, and the Subjunctive or Con- ditional. The first and third of these comprise three leading Tenses, or Times: the Past, the Present, and the Future; but in the Indicative Mood each of these is sub-divided into minor Tenses, viz.: The Past into (1) the Past- (or Plu-) Perfect, (2) the Past-Indefinite (or -Absolute), (3) the Past-Imperfect (or -Progressive). The Present into (1) the Present-Perfect, (2) the Present-Indefinite, and (3) the Present-Progressive, or -Continuous. The Future into (1) the Future-Perfect, (2) the Future-Indefinite, and (3) the Future-Imperfect.

It will be observed that we arrange the order of the

THE VERB. 39

Tenses a little differently from that usually adopted. "We think it more philosophical and proper to place the Present between the Past and the Future. This is the order generally followed in Semitic Grammars. The Imperative Mood is divided into (1) the Present, (2) the Precative, and (3) the Respectful-Future Tenses. The Subjunctive or Conditional Mood comprises three Tenses, viz.: (1) the Pluperfect, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Aorist (i.e. Present or Future).

63. The Root- word of the Urdu Yerb (as in most lan- guages) is the 2nd Person Sing, of the Present Imperative. From this is formed the Infinitive by the addition of the inflectional syllable na. This, however, is not regarded in Eastern Grammars as a Mood, but, more properly, as a Gerund or Verbal Noun. It is the part of the Verb which is given in Hindustani Dictionaries generally as the representative word, instead of the Root as in Hebrew, Arabic, and Sanskrit Lexicons — a much more rational usage, which it would have been well if "Western Lexicographers, ancient and modern, had adopted.

64. Besides this Gerund, there are two (and in many Verbs three) other Verbal Nouns in Urdu, the first being in most cases the simple Root, expressing the crude idea, and the second an Abstract Noun formed from the Gerund by merely dropping the final a of the uninflected word, and inserting short a before the preceding n, as from karnd ' to do ' or ' the doing,' karan ' a doing,' ' a making,' or ' cause ' ; from chalna 'to go,' chalan 'gait,' 'conduct.' The third Verbal Noun is formed by adding the termination wdld, or hard, or Mr (meaning 'doer' or 'agent') to the inflected form of the Gerund, or to the Abstract Noun, as karnewdla, karnehdrd, or Icaranhdr ' a doer.'

40 URDU GRAMMAR.

65. From the Root are formed also three simple Participles, viz.: (1) the Past (or Perfect) by adding the letter a; (2) the Present (or Imperfect) by adding ta\ (3) the Con- junctive Participle, which is either the simple Root, or the Root added to it, with the letter e or the syllables ke, Tear, or karke-, and (4) the Adverbial Past and Present Participles, being the inflected forms thereof.

66. From these again are formed four Compound Par- ticiples, viz. : (1) the Present-Continuative, being the Present Participle, with hud added, as loltd hud ' in the act ( of speaking ' ; (2) the Past-Perfect or Passive, as chald hud 'gone,' likhd hud 'written'; (3) the Progressive-Adverbial, which is the Past or the Present form repeated, to, be attached adverbially to another Verb, as larhl hanste hahste boll 'the girl, continuing to laugh, said'; main laithe laitlie Jcitdb parhtd huh 1 1, keeping seated, am reading a book ' ; and lastly, the Intensive or Emphatic Adverbial, formed by adding to its Present form the particle hi, as usko dehhte-hl main daur gayd ' immediately on seeing him I ran away.'

Having thus described the different parts of an Urdu Verb, we shall now give a practical illustration, by taking the Student through the Substantive Yerb, hond — 'to be,' or 'become.' We select this Yerb as our first exemplar, not only because few sentences can be composed without its help, but also because no other Yerbs can be conjugated without its assistance, two of its Tenses especially — the Present and Past-indefinite—being indispensable auxiliaries.

VERBAL NOUNS. 41

67. Hond ' to be ' or ' become.' Boot, ho. VERBAL

Gerund (or Infinitive), hond ' being ' or ' to be.' Agent (present or future), honewdld, honelidrd 'one who is,' or ' who is to become ' ; honhdr ' what may (or will) be.'

Participles.

Simple.3 Compound.

Past or Perfect, hud 'been' Present Continuative,3 hotd

or ' become.' hud ' while being.'

Past Conjunctive, ho, hote, Adverbial Progressive, liote

hoke, hokar 'having been' hote 'whilst being.'

or ' become.' Adverbial Emphatic or Inten-

Present or Imperfect, hotd sive, hote-hl 'on being,'

' being.' ' at the instant of being

Adverbial Past, hue 'having or becoming.'

been.' Adverbial Present, hote

'being,'

1 There seems to be no Verbal Noun, in use, synonymous with the Root of hona. The nearest to it is the word bhav (*{^) 'being5 or 'the world,' a derivative, like hona, from the Sanskrit bhavana ("JJcfSf J ( to be.' Bhavan is also used for ' a house' or 'temple.'

2 The word hua, is a mere euphonic spelling and pronunciation of the Urdu Ijjb, which might as well be transliterated hop, and so better show its conformity with the Eule for the formation of the Perfect Participle, viz. by adding the vowel a to the root of the Verb.

3 Hona cannot well have a Past-Perfect (or a Passive) Compound Participle, e.g. hua hud.

42

URDU GRAMMAR.

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TJKDU GRAMMAR.

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URDU GRAMMAR.

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VEBBAL NOUNS. 47

68. We will now go through the principal parts of the Neuter Yerb/awa 'to go,' which is also used as an Auxiliary Verb in forming the Passive Voices of Transitive and Causal Verbs. It is (like hond) slightly irregular in the Past Participle, the common form of which is gay a ; but the original and regular form, jdyd, is also used (as a sort of Verbal Noun in the sense of ' a going ') in certain phrases, as jaya karna ' to make a going,' i.e. l a practice of going.'

Jdnd l to go.' Root, jd. VERBAL NOUNS.

The first, answering to the root, is wanting, unless the word jao, meaning * a going,' may be taken to represent it. The other two are jdnd ( going ' or 'to go ' (the Gerund), and jdnewdld or jdnehdrd 'a goer,' 'one who goes' (the Noun of Agency). There is no Abstract Noun in use.

THE PAETICTPLES AXE

(1) The Simple — viz. (1) The Past or Perfect, gay a (for jay a) ' gone ' ; (2) The Present, jata ' going ' ; (3) The

Conjunctive, /a, jap, jdTce orjdkar ' going' or 'having gone' ; and (4) The Adverbial gap and jdte.

(2) The Compound— viz. (1) The Past Perfect, gay a hud * being gone ' ; (2) The Present Continuative, jata hud 1 whilst going ' ; (3) The Adverbial-Progressive, jdte-jdte 'whilst going,' and Adverbial-Emphatic, jatehl 'just on going.'

48

URDU GRAMMAR.

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URDU GRAMMAR.

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VEEBAL NOUNS. 51

69. Having thus given examples of the Conjugation of Intransitive Verbs — in the case of the two Auxiliary Verbs hond and juna — we shall now give a Paradigm of the Con- jugation of a Transitive Verb. Almost the only difference between these two classes of Verbs is, that in the latter all the Tenses formed by the Past (or Passive) Participle require the Subject or Agent to be, not in the form of the uninflected Nominative, but in that of the Agent, i.e. in the inflected form (or, in the case of the 1st and 2nd Personal Pronouns, the uninflected), with the particle ne added. We shall take the regular Verb

Marna ' to beat ' or ' kill.' Boot, mar.1 VEBBAL NOUNS.

(1) Mar— (the root)— 'a beating' or 'blow. (2) The Gerund or Infinitive, mdrnd (-ne, -ni) 'beating,' or 'to beat,' or 'kill.' (3) The Abstract Noun, maran 'killing' or 'beating,' and (4) The Agent, marnewala (or -Mra) or mdranhdr 'a beater,' 'one who beats,' or 'kills,' 'a writer.'

1 To save room we shall, in the Paradigm of the Tenses of this Verb, give only the Singular Number. Instead of usne, the Plural form unne is often used for the 3rd Singular Agent, and therefore, for a Plural Agent, the form unhonne is generally used.

52

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URDU GRAMMAR.

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TERBAL NOUNS. 55

70. Before proceeding to the Conjugation of a second Transitive Verb, we would call the attention of the student to the syntactical construction of those Tenses of such Verbs which are formed from the Past Participle.

As the Nominative Case in English is then to be expressed in Urdu by the 'Agent* Case, so the Object of the Verb in English is often to be treated in Urdu as the Subject, as if it were a Verb in the Passive Voice — which, however, it is not. In that case the Verb must agree in Gender and Number with the word or words thus changed from Object to Subject. Thus, 'He struck the (or a) boy' would commonly, in Urdu, be Usne larkd mam ('by him boy struck'). 'He struck a (or the) girl' would be Usne larkl marl (lit. 'by him girl struck'). But these sentences might also be translated into Urdu thus — usne larke ko (or larkl ko) mdrd, lit. « by him (or, taking the ' Agent ' as simply another form for the Subject or Nominative, 'he') the boy (or the girl) struck.' This latter construction would generally be preferred if it were intended to express definitely some particular boy or girl; the want of the Article in Hindu- stani being a frequent cause of ambiguity. Neither of these Hindustani sentences is regarded as being in the Passive Voice. In that Voice, they would require to be expressed somewhat in this way : Usse (or uskl mtfrifat) larkd mard gayd — or larkl marl ga,l — i.e. ' By him (the) boy (or girl) beaten became ' (or 'was beaten'). "We have thought it desirable to notice and explain this peculiar construction thus early — although belonging properly to the Syntax — as we know it is often a stumbling-block to tyros in the language, though by practice in reading and conversation they soon become familiar with it.

71. We shall now give a second illustration of the

56 IJBDU GRAMMAR.

Conjugation of a Transitive Yerb. The one we select is, like hond and jand, of very frequent occurrence, and, like them also, slightly irregular in the Past (or Perfect) Participle. It is the Verb

Kama ( to do or make.' Boot, kar. VERBAL NOUNS.

The Eoot of this Verb — though doubtless originally signifying ' doing ' or ' making,' and retaining this meaning as a Conjunctive Participle — has come, as a Noun, to signify generally the great ' factor ' — the * human hand.' l As a Verbal Root, of course, it is also the 2nd Pers. Sing, of the Imperative, meaning ' do.' The second Verbal Noun — the Gerund or Infinitive — is karnd ' doing 'or 'to do,' 'making' or 'to make'; the third is the Abstract Noun karan 'making,' 'doing,' 'acting'; and the fourth — or Agent — is karnewdld, or karanhar (or -hard) ' a doer,' ' a maker,' or ' one about to do or make ' ; kartd being also used for ' an Agent ' or ' doer.' As kar is used for ' the hand,' so karan (or barn) is used also for 'the ear,' or 'a cause,' or ' instrument,' the ear being the great cause or instrument of the sense of hearing, as the hand is of touch and feeling.2

1 It also means 'tribute,' or 'tax' ; and, as a Persian word, 'purpose,' 'power,' or 'felicity.'

2 Karan signifies also ' the helm of a boat,' and the hypotenuse of a triangle.

THE PARTICIPLES.

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URDU GKAMMAK.

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URDU GRAMMAR.

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THE PASSIVE VOICE. 61

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

72. Before going on to the consideration of the third class of Yerbs — viz. the Causal — we will initiate the student into the Conjugation of the Passive Voice, which is applicable to Transitive Verbs generally — whether of the second or third class — though, of course, not to Neuter Verbs. As the chief auxiliary used in the Active Voice of all the three classes is the Substantive Verb hond ' to be or become,' so in the Passive Voice the principal auxiliary is jdnd ' to go/ 'to pass' (on or off). Thus, while, in the Present Tense of the Active Voice, we have wuh mdrtd hai, for ' he strikes ' (lit. 'he is — or becomes — striking') — in the same Tense of the Passive Voice, we have wuh mdrdjdtd hai (lit. 'he goes — or passes — stricken '), for ' he is struck.'

73. In the Active Voice of Transitive Verbs we have seen that in all the Tenses in which the Past Participle is used, the Agentive form (with ne) is substituted for the uninflected Nominative form of the Subject. But this, though some- what resembling a Passive construction, is really — as already remarked — not so. By taking the same Verb — mdrnd — to illustrate the Passive Conjugation, the student will more readily observe the distinction between the Voices.

62

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CAUSAL YEEBS.

75. These we have mentioned as the last of the three general classes of Simple (i.e. non-compound) Yerbs; and, though some modern grammarians prefer giving them a place under the head of Derivative Yerbs, we think them im- portant and distinctive enough to be considered as a class by themselves — in accordance with earlier grammarians.

76. The three principal ways in which Causal Yerbs are formed are as follows: —

1st. From Intransitive Yerbs including a short vowel, by lengthening that vowel or changing it into its corresponding diphthong,1 thus :

a becomes a, as from katnd 'to be cut,' Tcdtna 'to cut.'

i,, I ,, pisna 'to be ground,' puna 'to grind.' ,, ore ,, chhidna 'to be pierced,' chhednd 'to

pierce.' , u ,, gutfind 'to be plaited,' gutfind 'to

plait.'

} ,, or o ,, kfiulna 'to become open,' kfiolna ' to open.'

In most ca^fsT the roots coming under the first class are monosyllabic, but a few are dissyllabic — as from nikalnd ' to come forth,' 'to issue,' comes the Causal, nikdlnd 'to put

1 The sounds represented in the Roman character by e and o are theoretically, and in the Devanagarl (Sanskrit) Alphahet, regarded as diphthongs, i.e. e = ai (as in the French les and lait] and o = au (as in French mode and maudif). The grammatical theory is that the short vowel fatfoa (') = a is introduced before the vowel of the Intransitive root. Hence a+a=a; a+i = e; a-fu=o.

.1

CAUSAL VERBS. 67

forth/ 'to expel.' If the Intransitive root ends in cerebral t, this in the Causal (or Transitive) is generally changed into r, as from pfiutnd ' to burst or break ' (v. n.) cornes pjiornd ' to burst or break' (v. a.). And k may be changed into ch — as from bikna 'to be sold/ lechna 'to sell' (like ' Charles' from ' Carolus,' the Latin c—k becoming the Italian c=ch).

2nd. Causal Verbs may be formed by the addition of « or Id to the root of the primitive Verb, whether Transitive or Intransitive, as —

From parhna 'to read7 we have parhdna 'to teach to read.' ,, Jcahnd 'to tell,' ' to say,' kahdnd and kahldnd 'to cause to tell or say.'

(a) Should the original root be dissyllabic, with short a in the latter syllable, this is generally dropped in the Causal formed by a, as from tarasnd ' to long,' ' to pity,' we have tarsdnd l to cause to long,' ' to tantalize.'

(b) If the root be a monosyllable with a long vowel, this vowel is shortened in the Causal, thus —

From lolnd ' to speak,' we have Inland ' to call.' ,, lujhnd ' to understand ' — bujhdnd ' to explain.' ,, Ifidgnd ' to flee ' — Ifiagdnd ' to cause to flee.'

(c) When the root of the primitive A^|b ends in a long yowel, euphony generally requires that the Causal increment be /a, instead of d, and the long vowel is also shortened as in the previous case, thus —

From kfldna 'to eat,' we have kjiildnd 'to cause to eat,'

' to feed.'

,, slnd 'to sew' — sildnd 'to cause to sew.' ,, sond ' to sleep ' — suldnd ' to cause to sleep,' ' to kill.' ,, dend 'to give' — dildnd 'to cause to give.' „ chfiund 'to touch' — chfiuldnd 'to cause to touch.'

68 URDU GRAMMAR.

(d) Some primitive roots ending in consonants — especially £, kfi, and tfo — optionally take Id or d in the Causal, as — From kahnd 'to say' — Causal, kahldnd or kafidnd 'to cause

to say.'

,, sikfind ' to learn ' — sikfildnd or sikfand ' to teach.' ,, bait find 'to sit' — litthldnd or bit,hdnd 'to seat.' 3rd. By the addition of wd to the primitive root, or some- times to the root of the Causal, double Causals are formed. Thus, from parhnd ' to read ' (Caus. parhdnd ' to teach to read ' ) — double-Causal, parhwdnd ' to have one taught to read.' From kfiulnd 'to become open' — Causal, kfiolnd 'to open' (v.a.); double-Causal, kfiulwdnd 'to have (something) opened.' From dend 'to give' — Causal, dildnd 'to cause (one) to give' ; double -Causal, dilwdnd ' to cause (a thing) to be given.' In general, the wd is added to the primitive root :

(a) When that root is a dissyllable with two short vowels, the latter of which is dropped in the singly-Causal Verb, e.g. samajhnd ' to understand,' samjfidnd ' to explain,' samnjhwdnd 'to cause to be explained,' 'to have (a thing) explained.'

(b) Also, when the Transitive or Causal Verb is formed by lengthening the vowel (or final vowel of an Intransitive Primitive Yerb), as — marnd 'to die,' mdrnd 'to kill,' marwdnd 'to cause to be killed'; nikalnd 'to issue,' nikdlnd 'to put forth,' nikalwdnd 'to cause to be put forth.'

(c) It is, however, formed from the root of the Transitive or singly-Causal Yerb by changing the d or Id into wd, if that root has been formed by shortening (not dropping) the vowel of the primitive Yerb and adding d or Id ; as, from bolnd l to speak,' Inland 'to call,' lulwdnd ' to cause to be called'; pmd 'to drink,' pildnd 'to cause to drink,' pilwdnd 'to cause to be given drink to,' ' to have suckled.'

. CAUSAL VERBS. 69

(d) Some Causal Yerbs have two, or even more, different forms in common use, and perhaps one regular form not in common use. Sometimes the different forms have quite different meanings, as from pfiatnd ' to break or split ' (v.n.) we have pfiurnd * to break ' (v.a.) and also pfiutanu. * to cause to boil or to froth.' Some, again, have the same meanings to several different forms, as — from bait find 'to sit,' Causals — baitfidnd, bitfildnd, bitfiwdnd, baitfidlnd, and bai- thdrnd, all signifying ' to seat ' or ' cause to sit down.'

(e) Lastly, a good many Verbs have only one Causal form, and many none at all, so the tyro must beware of inventing unintelligible words.

We have already given examples of a number of Causal Verbs as illustrations of the different ways in which they are formed ; but we think it will be useful to add a further selection of them, along with the other two classes of Verbs, showing their mutual relationship.

70

URDU GRAMMAR.

£

3

f 3 1

i

•<;

o •* ,&

I

•3" a "£

Sw HT"! • "*"*

o o « .o

3 - i

.S ~

•3- -3 ^ '1

S ^ £ '3

I § | I s s r

5* ^ -^

5 ^ S

K * ** 2

**\l

**?xl

C 1 'i " % 1 '§ 1 S ?

^-1

^

w

„

155 O »•*

r—T'

o 1

J -*

-12 ^ V §>

ft

1

g

"2 "^ v^ CJD ^ S ^"^ -*tS* "°

-* l^ ^2 0 rd

CD

03

q

- l, 3

| 1^ f

r 1 / 1

,S~ '3 03 ^

.1 S. ^

3 3

% o •*

I?J-

3^3-2

'I I 1 t

- 1

S 'S

tS PH

'HI

*.i -S

f -2

'S" 13"

J «

3 3

'

1- S

1

CAUSAL VEKBS.

71

3d -

[.^ •§

^ "S-1^-

* 0

^

^

§ 3

£

^

o» •*

03

t3

o ^

•S l|

T3

d

2

•a

!l!

« ^M 3

'&

3

J

3

r*<i

^

•-3

^

72

TJKDU GRAMMAR.

05

tf-Ti

'« ^ IQ r-J

,5 cS .§ pQ

3

1 "

bQ

f

;— ' f* **

02 g T

P 8 •!

II

I I

O r^

-^» 03

2 f

•g 3

f ^T I &

hS ^ ^

*, O>

•all

- 3 ^

.SP J -S

^ o _ J

'

03 O

III

V, X f*> f— ^

0)

1 2 'C

, 3

•!f S

CAUSAL VERBS.

73

& * ~ 03 r^ ^

SJ ,u

03 O

O

JS

"

, ' to cause to have fed '

ll

1

3

«2

0

1

a

•-H &

! !i i

+a *• ^s r; O

^ ^ ^ S ^M

03 03 >•

^ 5 -

•I

3 g

4 ^

0 -S

% S

co d k>

-S •§ »

PH ^ O

*T «

1 I

«

74

URDU GRAMMAR.

1*

£

g^

|i

-*j -*j

*i

2|

B 'C

§ *

§ g

0 c3

s I1

P v

3.2

s s

"* o

-2 ~

r- •*->

- TJ

, ~ ^

IN (>4

'1 53

Cl. O

,S ns

.2

o "

fi s

3 S

g -

if

| a

o ^

S §

.s>

ve Verbs or Transitive.

I --g

i

&•& ^ *g o

s ^ .a v ^ -** g

•^ as a a o g T3

o ^ ^ ^ o

^ -S o o _ o ^

H S S

Si

'CAUSAL VERBS.

75

X

O rfl O 00 CD -*J

03 > ®

:;I

—

-2

I f i

£ -3 3

o "

« 0

§3

S 0

§r

o

S " 1!

•r> ^ o ~

5 •* +* | § ^ £ 1

o -2 S B

-*J ^H 3 O

O 3 O ^

I § 31 •j - .°

^-s 11 fl 1 §

.1 o 2 P

cause to be

3 -,

'il

i-

- 1

s £

2 o §

d r

cS ^i

<U S3

•~ rO

« <

i

C3

•s §

1

fcO

!

ft ~

^s

il

l!i

fl

l> .1

I

^

:-.&r-

l?S t7 i^

.

5-

1

•is

76

URDU GEAMMAE.

t£ -

,2 2

£|

CO CQ

11

3 3

I S

5.

^ a

13 o

I"

r g

0 „

- d

1*1

<s> r*5t

5^. ^ ^

<3

a o

-4--

O

•a

O O -*J CO

rj O

1. 1

1

s

'3

^ 'S

*^^

?

^ S

IS! i .S &

•a

4

o <•

i k :i

a? c5

1

'I

DERIVATIVE VERBS. 77

DENOMINATIVE AND OTHER DERIVATIVE YERBS.

78. Though we have divided the Urdu Verb into three general or leading Classes, viz. Intransitive (or Neuter), Transitive (or Active), and Causal (or Doubly Transitive) Yerbs, our readers will have observed that, in the ex- amples given above, the connection between the three Classes is so evident, that they might be regarded as simply different forms of the same Primitive Yerb, from which the two latter might be designated simply Derivatives. We have thought it best, however, to retain, in this respect, the classification of old-fashioned Grammars. But there are many other Yerbs in the language whose original form and meaning cannot be thus modified, and which have no direct connection with other Yerbs, which may be more properly termed Derivatives. These are derived from either (1) Yerbal Nouns or roots; or (2) other Nouns or Adjectives; by simply appending the nd of the Infinitive and the other Participial- and Tense-affixes of the Urdu Yerb. Yery often the original root-word of the Yerb is either Arabic or Persian, though more commonly an offshoot from Sanskrit or Hindi.

79. A few examples of each Class may be sufficient. (1) From Yerbal Nouns or roots : —

Prom the Arabic badal, we have badalnd' to change.'

» ,t qabul „ qabulnd Ho accept.'

„ Persian battish, „ baMshna ' to present '

or 'forgive.'

» ,1 leharld „ Miarldna ' to buy.'

,, Sanskrit krl ,, ^rwa'todo.'

» » P" ,, pina l to drink.'

„ Hindi dar (Sans, drl) „ darna ' to fear.'

78 URDU GRAMMAR.

(2) From other Nouns or Adjectives : —

There are very few Yerhs formed from purely Arabic Nouns, (as from bahs 'controversy,' and bahasnd 'to dispute'), and not many from purely Persian Nouns, though from farmdn 'an order' we have farmdnd 'to order,' 'to assert,' and from tardsh 'a cutting' or 'cut' we have tardshnd 'to cut,' and also (the word being Indianised) tarashnd ' to be cut,' and tarashwdnd 'to cause to be cut.' Most Verbs belonging to this third class of Denominatives are formed from Hindi Nouns and Adjectives; as from pdm ' water,' paniydnd ' to water' ; from sharm ' shame,' sharmdnd 'to feel shame' ; from chaurd 'broad,' chaurdnd 'to widen.' Monosyllabic roots ending with two consonants, either insert short a between those consonants on adding nd of the Infinitive, as in bahs, bahasnd', tars 'compassion' or 'fear,' tarasnd 'to pity,' ' to fear ' — there are some exceptions to this rule, as bakhsh, bakhshnd — or add d to the root, as from garm ' hot,' 'passionate,' garmdnd 'to become warm or angry.' If the Noun or Adjective end in z, as inpdni, that vowel is changed into iy before and, and, if a dissyllable with long vowel in the first syllable, that vowel is then shortened, as in pani- ydnd ' to water.' If the primary word end in a, of course only nd is added, as in chaurd 'wide,' chaurdnd- or in langrdnd 'to go lame,' from langrd 'lame.'

80. The number of such Denominative Verbs in Urdu is not large, a preference being given to compound forms ; i.e. when Indians have recourse to foreign Nouns they prefer using indigenous Verbs with them to coining new Verbs by the mere addition of Verbal affixes to the borrowed words. Thus, instead of bakhshnd (' to present or forgive ') and paniydnd ('to supply water') the Nominal compounds bakhsh

COMPOUND VERBS. 79

dend and parii dend are generally used. And chaurd Tcarnd and mukkl mdrnd are preferred to chaurdnd ('to widen') and mukjkiyana ('to hit with the fists'). So we have the phrases jama' Tcarnd 'to collect,' dam pfiulpd 'to breathe softly,' dam mdrnd 'to waste breath in speaking/ 'to boast/ etc.

These Compound forms, however, may be regarded as a third way of forming Denominative Verbs, and therefore we classify them together.

81. COMPOUND VERBS

are, indeed, very numerous in Hindustani, and of such variety that they have very properly been classified under different heads and nomenclatures. No fewer than twelve classes have been enumerated by some grammarians ; but some of these ought not properly to be included in the list of Compound Verbs, being merely phrases, resembling such English expressions as ' to catch a cold/ ' to get (or grow) hungry/ ' to go mad/ etc. "We shall describe, first of all, those that we think worthy of the name of ' Com- pound Verbs/ and mention the others afterwards.

82. Generally speaking these Compounds are formed by adding a second Verb, regularly conjugated, either to the root (or Conjunctive Participle), to the Past Participle, or to the Adverbial Participle of another Verb, one or other Verb, generally the second, dropping its usual, or primary signifi- cation. Such is the case with the first class we would mention, viz. : —

80 URDU GRAMMAR.

1. INTENSIVES.

83. In these the latter Verb merely intensifies or strengthens the meaning of the root or Conjunctive Participle prefixed ; thus: —

lol-uthnd (lit. 'speaking to rise') 'to speak loud' or 'call

out.'

(fir-par nu ( ,, ' tumbling to fall or lie ') ' to tumble down.' kfla-jana ( ,, ' eating to go ') ' to eat up,' ' to drink up.' pl-jund ( ,, 'having eaten to go'). kat-dulna ( „ ' cutting to throw ') ' to cut off.'

2. POTENTIALS.

84. These are formed by adding the Yerb saknd to the root of another Yerb, thus answering exactly to our English 'can,' e.g. dekh-saknd 'to be able to see,' wuh dekh-saktd hat ' he can see,' jd-saknd ' to be able to go,' main jd saktd huh 1 1 can go.'

3. COMPLETIVES,

85. which are formed by adding the Yerb chukna ('to finish' or 'be finished') to a Yerbal root. Thus, pl-chukna ' to have done drinking,' main pi-chukd ' I have already drunk,' we kar chukehge 'they will have finished doing (it).' Thus a kind of Past and Future Perfect may be expressed by means of this Compound, the Yerbs saknd and chuknd in these two Compounds serving as sorts of auxiliaries.

COMPOUND VERBS. 81

86. The first word in the above three Compounds we have termed either the root or Conjunctive Participle (in its simplest form) of the primary Verb, because it is a moot question (though generally designated the ' root ') which it should be considered to be. There is another conjunction of Verbs, hardly numerous enough to be called a separate class of Compounds, in which the word le, the simplest form of lend 'to take,' is prefixed to an Intransitive Verb of Motion, as le-dnd (often contracted into land) 'to come with,' 'to bring,' le-jdnd f to go away with,' ' to take away,' le-bMgnd 1 to run away with,' etc. In such Compounds "Western Grammarians have almost all asserted that the former word is the root of lend ; but Mr. Platts (whose admirable grammar we have often consulted in this work) considers that it is the Conjunctive Participle. Thus le-jdnd is literally ' having taken to go,' le-urnd 'having taken to fly,' i.e 'to fly away with ' ; and in this we agree with him. But may not the first word in Intensive and Completive Compounds be also re- garded as Conjunctive Participles? Take any of the examples given above. Bol-uthnd ' to speak up or loud/ is literally ' having spoken to rise,' gir-parnd ' to fall down,' lit. ' having fallen to lie,' khd (or pi) jdnd ' to eat (or drink) up,' lit. 'having eaten (or drunk) to go (or be off),' 'to drink off,' kat-ddlnd 'to cut off,' lit. ' cutting' or 'having cut to throw away.' So with the Completive Compounds : bol-chuknd is 'having spoken to be done,' 'to be done speaking,' main pl-chukd 'I, having drunk, am done,' i.e. 'I have done drinking,' etc. As regards Potentials, we consider the first word in the Compound to be the root of the Verb, used for the Infinitive (or Gerund), the terminal signs thereof being dropped. Thus dekh saknd ' to be able to see,' is for dekhne saknd \ wuh dekh saktd hai ('he can see') for dekhne saktd

82 TJRDTJ GRAMMAR.

hait just as in English * he can see' is 'he is able to see,' and ' I will do ' is « I will to do,' etc. But, as in both languages, the dropping of the distinctive sign of the Infinitive brings us back to the root, or simplest form of the Verb (which is also the shortest form of the Conjunctive Participle), all these three classes of Compound Verbs -may be said * to be formed with the Root.'

The next class of Compound Yerbs we notice is called

4. CONTINTJATIVES.

87. These express the continuous action or habit of the subject referred to, and the combination is said to be formed by prefixing a Present (alias 'Imperfect') Participle to one of the Verbs jdnd ('to go') and rahnd ('to remain'), used as synonymous with hond ('to be '), the Participle always taking the form of the inflected Masculine. Our own theory, however, is that this is rather the Adverbial Participle, and not 'the Imperfect Participle in the Locative Case used adverbially,' as commonly explained. Examples are : bolte

jdnd * to continue (or go on) speaking,' pdrhte jdnd (or rahnd} ' to go on (or continue) reading.'

Continuatives are also formed by prefixing to the Yerb jdnd a Past Participle invariably in the inflected form (i.e. a Past-Adverbial Participial), as chale jdnd 'to keep moving (or going) on,' Jciye jdnd 'to continue doing.' Some- times Continuatives and Staticals are formed by adding rahnd to a .root or Past uninflected Participle, as lag rahnd ' to continue uninterruptedly,' lagd rahnd ' to be occupied or engrossed in.'

88. Another class of so-called Compound Yerbs, according to the Grammarians, is

DERIVATIVE VERBS. 83

5. STATICALS,

which differ from Continuatives in denoting a temporary or accidental state, instead of a continuous act. We again agree with Mr. Platts, however, in thinking that " there is, in this case, nothing approaching to a (properly called) Compound Verh," the first Verb, as a Present Participle, agreeing in Gender and Number with the Subject or Object of which it forms the attribute, e.g. Mohan hanstd (or hahstd hud) jutd hai ' Mohan is going along laughing ' ; or wuh larkl jo gdtl (or gdtl hul] dti hai ' the girl who is coming along singing.' When, however, the Object of an Active Yerb, whose state or action is expressed by a Present Participle, is in the Dative form, that Participle (the concord being interrupted by the particle ko) should be in its uninflected form, as shown in the following example, viz. mainne usko sotd dekhd ('I saw him sleeping, or asleep' ). In the sentence, mainne usko daurte pakrd 1 1 caught it (while I was) running ' (an example taken, like the few preceding, from Platts's Grammar), daurte is the Adverbial Participle expressing the temporary state of the catcher, as in the examples, given above, of ' Con- tinuatives,' between which and Staticals there is often little or no difference. Thus, according to our theory, there are no Compound Verbs (properly so-called) formed with the Present Participle, since in those combinations in which the Participle agrees in Gender and Number with the Subject or Object in a sentence, it is that Participle used adjectively ; and in those in which the form ending in te is used, it is invariably the Adverbial Participle.

84 T7RDU GEAMMAR.

6. FREQUENTATIVES. 7. DESIBERATIYES.

89. In both of these Compound forms a Past Participle tminflected is used as a Noun under government (direct or indirect) of one or other of the two Verbs, karnd 'to do ' and chdhnd ' to wish.' The Compounds thus formed are regarded as Intransitive Verbs ; and in both classes the Regular (and original) forms of the Past Participles of the Verbs jdna and mama are used, viz. jdya and mard, instead of the ordinary gay a and mud (' gone ' and ' dead ').

Frequentatives denote the frequent or habitual performance of an act ; Desideratives the desire or intention to do (or to become) something. Thus :

bold karnd ' to be constantly saying or speaking.' jdya karnd ' to keep on going,' * to be habitually going.' lechd kurnd ' to be in the habit of selling.' jdya chdhnd ' to wish to go ' or ' to be about to go.' parhd chdhnd ' to intend (wish or be about) to read.' mard chdhnd l to wish (or to be about) to die.'

These Desiderative Compounds are often used, not to express a desire or even an intention, but merely that some act or state is imminent or near at hand, as shown in the alternative meanings given above, chdhnd in these cases having much the same meaning as our 'will,' in such expressions as with mard chdhtd hai 'he will die,' wuh para chdhtl hai 'she will fall,' we kal dyd chdhte ham l they will come to-morrow.' Desideratives are also said to be formed by adding chdhnd or mdngnd ('to ask ' or ' want ') or any other Verb of like meaning to another Verb in the inflected Infinitive (or Gerund), as wuh jane mdngtd hai ' he wants to go,' wuh kuclifi pfial hthdne chdhtl hai 'she wishes to eat some fruit.' But such phrases have no

DERIVATIVE VERBS. 85

right to be called Compound Verbs. And it is questionable whether the three other classes of Compounds (according to some Grammars), viz. Inceptives, Permissives and Acquisitives, have, any of them, any better right to the name, for the same reason, viz. that they are simply one Verb governing another in the inflected Infinitive. We give a few examples of these so-called Classes of Compounds.

8. INCEPTIVES

90. are formed by appending the Verb lagna ('to be in touch with,' 'to set to' or 'begin'), regularly conjugated, to the inflected Infinitive of another Verb — as wuh jane lagd 'he set to going,' i.e. 'he began to go' (which is merely an abbreviation for j'dneko lagd), we daurne lage ' they began to

9. PERMISSIVES AND 10. ACQUISITIVES

91. are formed by adding the Verbs dend and puna respec- tively to other Verbs in the inflected Infinitive, in the senses of ' giving ' and ' obtaining ' (permission) — as, usne usko jane diyd * he allowed him to go ' ; unhohne usse due pdyd ' they got permission from him to come' — which are merely idioms.

92. One more Verbal combination remains to be mentioned, usually, and more legitimately, classed among Compound Verbs, viz. :

11. REITERATIVES.

These are formed by prefixing to an Auxiliary Verb (like karnd, rahnd, or hond) the roots, or Conjunctive Participles, of two other Verbs, resembling each other in sound — or one

86' URDU GRAM MAE.

intelligible root with a senseless jingling syllable after it — to express reiteration, variety, etc. They resemble our English words 'nick-nack,' 'pit-pat,' 'tip-top,' ' willie-nillie,' etc. The following are examples : lol-chdl karnd ' to converse ' ; chup-chdp rahna ' to remain perfectly silent ' ; lak-lak karnd ' to prattle ' ; chur-chdr karnd ' to beat into pieces,' etc.

Sometimes Reiterative or reduplicative Yerbs are similarly formed without the assistance of an Auxiliary, and therefore should not be called Compound Yerbs — as, tfiaktfiakdnd * to tap, knock' (at a door), dagdagdnd 'to shake,' or 'burn brightly,' tfiartfiardnd 'to tremble, shiver,' marmardnd 'to crack ' (v.n.). Most of such Yerbs, however, might rather be termed ' imitatives,' or * onomatopoeias.1 Generally the Reiterative Compounds occur as Conjunctive Participles, forming only part of a sentence — as, we bol-chdl karke chale gaye ' they having conversed went away,' samjhd-hvjhd karke laitfi rahe ' they sat reasoning ' or ' making explanations.' But sometimes they are used even without the accompani- ment of an additional Yerb — as, wuh apnd ghar dekhe-lhdle ' let him look after his own house.'

12.

93. This is a class of Yerbs so numerous and important that we cannot omit taking notice of them, though it is doubtful if they have any right to be called Compound Yerbs. Mr. Platt says "it is clear they are not" so; but we are not so sure of this.

They are formed by prefixing to a Yerb either a Substantive or Adjective to express a sense which in English and other languages would be expressed by one word. In many cases one or other — or even both words, the Noun and the Yerb —

NOMINALS. 87

have their original or literal meaning changed, or modified, in the combination ; as from jama1 ' collection ' we have both jama1 karnd 'to collect together' (v.a.) and jama1 kond 'to collect ' (v.n.), i.e. ' to make a collection,' or * to become a collection.' Prom tarblyat 'instruction,' we have tarblyat karnd 'to instruct,' and tarblyat hond l to be instructed.' From gham 'grief,' gham hfidnd (or karnd or utthdnd] 'to grieve' (v.n.); dam mdrnd 'to breathe,' 'to speak,' or 'to boast,' and dam dend 'to wheedle' or 'deceive' (from dam 'breath'); sock Jcarnd 'to think,' uchchhd (or unchd) Jcarnd 'to raise,' etc.

From the above examples it will be observed (1) that sometimes by the use of an Active Verb compounded with a Substantive, a Neuter Verb is formed, e.g. gham-kftandt dam mdrnd, and soch Jcarnd. But (2) more generally Transitive Compounds are formed by Transitive Simple Verbs, and Intransitive by Intransitive Simple Verbs, such as hond, jdnd, bannd, e.g. jama1 karnd, tarblyat Jcarnd, dam dend, Transitives ; and jama1 hond, tarblyat hond, dar jdnd ('to be afraid'), dard and 'to feel compassion,' chaunJc utjmd 'to start up,' Intransitives ; and so also we have darndgh charhnd ' to be proud ' (of wealth especially), damdah hond ' to be vain,' dimdgh tdza Jcarnd 'to be pleased' (dimdgh meaning 'the brain,' and damagfi 'pride'). We have also dekhdl (or dekhldl] dend ' to appear ' — this being a peculiar sort of Verbal-Noun form answering nearly to that ending in an, like dekhan ' seeing,' chalan ' going.' Eut this form of Verbal Noun (ending in di) is derived from Causal Verbs only, as from sundnd ('to cause to hear,' 'to inform'), sundi 'information,' 'report'; from sikhdnd 'to cause to learn/ 'to teach,' sikhdl 'teaching,' 'instruc- tion,'— a Masc. form of it, sikhdya, being also used. Some- times Causal Verbal Nouns end also in do, as charhdo, as well

88 URDU GRAMMAR.

as charhdi ' ascent,' baithd^o and baithdi t seating,' ' allocation/ Some end in wa, as chaldwd 'custom,' 'movement,' and some- times even in n, as in chalan ' clearance,' ' remittance,' though this termination generally is affixed to Intransitive, or simply Transitive, Verbs, as melan, chalan, karan, etc.

All these forms of Verbal Nouns are much used in the formation of Nominal Compound Verbs.

A similar class of Compounds is formed by Persian Prepositions or Adverbs and Hindi Verbs, as bar-land ' to bring up or forth'; Idz-dnd 'to come back or decline'; dar-dnd 'to enter,' 'to come in'; pesh-dnd 'to come before,' 'to happen,' ' to treat,' etc.

CHAPTER IV.— PARTICLES.

94. The third and last class of words, according to Arabic and Persian Grammars, is Particles, which are all inde- clinable. Under this term are included Adverbs, Prepositions (or Postpositions), Conjunctions, and Interjections.

ADVERBS.

These are very numerous in Urdu. It will be sufficient here to give a list of some of the most common and useful, arranged under different classes.

95. We will begin with what Dr. Gilchrist, ' the father of Anglo-Hindustani Grammarians,' used to call his Philological Harp — the strings of which start from certain pronominal sockets.

ADVERBS.

89

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UBDU GKAMMAR.

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URDU GRAMMAE.

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PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS. 93

Many words in Urdu, as in English, may be used either as Adjectives or as Adverbs, as achchhd and Jdtib ' good ' or 'well,' dhista 'slow' or 'slowly.' English Adverbs may also often be expressed in Urdu by such phrases as is taraf 'in this direction,' 'hither,' us taraf 'in that direction,' ' thither ' ; or by adding the Postposition se ' from,' or tak 'to,' 'up to,' to a Noun or Adverb, as chdldkl se 'cleverly,' khushl se ' gladly, abhl se 'from just now,' ' henceforth,' abtak ' hitherto,' jab tak ' as long as,' kab tak ? ' how long ?' They may also be rendered in Urdu by some of the Compound Yerbs, as already noticed ; thus, wuh bol utftd ' he called out,' ' he spoke loudly ' ; or by Conjunctive Participles, as usne sabr-karke gham khdyld ' he suffered grief patiently ' ; wuh hanske bold ' he said laughingly.'

98. Ordinary Adverbs are also very common, such as gharl-gharl 'hourly,' jhatpat 'immediately,' din-ba-din or roz-roz ' daily,' jahdh kdhih ' wheresoever,' dj-kal ' now-a- days' or ' some day,' ' soon.'

PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS.

99. Generally speaking, the words corresponding to English Prepositions are, in Urdu, Postpositions. The greater part of them were originally Nouns in the (so-called) Locative or Ablative Case, and hence they require the governed Noun to be in the inflected Masculine Genitive, or in the Feminine Genitive Case, according to their Gender as Nouns — as uske

94 URDU GRAMMAR.

Mtfi (i.e. hatfi w) 'by him' (lit. 'by his hand'), uskl taraf (i.e. taraf men] 'towards him' (lit. 'to, or at, his side'). Many such words may occasionally precede the word they govern — though usually not. But there are also many which are only Postpositions, including those used to form the Cases. Such are men 'in,' par 'on,' liye 'for the sake of,' se 'from,' samet 'along with,' tain 'to,' 'up to,' tak 'up to,' ko 'to,' ' for.' Some Postpositions may optionally drop the sign of the Genitive. Thus we can say either darya Ice par or darya par for ' on the other side of the river ' ; either uske pas or us pas for 'beside him.' The other Particles with this option are laghair ' without ' (with Pronouns and Verbal Nouns Tee always omitted), bdhir or Idhar ' outside,' pichhe 'behind,' tale 'beneath,' and muwafiq 'according to.' With the Pronouns these take either mujh or mere, tujh or tere, us or uske, etc. ; thus, mujh pas or mere pas ' beside me.' Should any of these be placed before the Noun or Pronoun (as they may be) then the full regular Genitive must be used, as baghair uske ' without him,' par nadl ke ' across the river.'

The genuine Prepositions are all borrowed from the Arabic or Persian. The latter are az 'from,' la or la 'with,' be ' without,' bar or dar (contracted for andar) ' in ' or 'on,' and ta 'to,' 'up to,' or 'till.'

The following Hindi Postpositions govern the Masculine inflected Genitive :

PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS.

95

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URDU GRAMMAR.

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CONJUNCTIONS. 97

Also the two Hindi words or ' towards,' and jagaJi { in place of.' When any of these words, however, precede the Nouns they govern they require the latter to be in the Masculine inflected Genitive (ke) instead of the Feminine (kl). The Prepositions mdnind and misl, both meaning 'like,' though Feminine as Nouns, follow the same rule.

102. Genuine Prepositions (not Nouns used as such) are nearly all borrowed from the Arabic and Persian.

The latter are as follows :

Az ' from,' ' by ' Be ' without ' Ta ' till,' ' up to '

£u ' with,' ' along with ' Dor l in ' Zabar ' over '

Bar 'on,' 'upon' Pesh 'before' Zer 'below*

The Arabic are either (1) Inseparable, viz. li 'in,' 'at,' 'by,' lila 'without,' li 'to,' 'for' (before pronominal suffixes la), and ka 'like,' 'as'; or (2) Separable, viz. 'ala 'over,' 'upon,' an 'from,' 'after,' hattd 'till,' 'up to,' fl 'in,' 'into,' 'ind 'beside,' 'near,' ma1 'with,' and min 'from.'

CONJTJNCTIONS.

103. The Urdu Conjunctions have been well divided by Mr. Platts into the following Classes : —

(1) Connective, viz. :

Aur ' and ' Khwah- j ' either- Niz ' also '

Bhl 'also,' 'even' Khwah] or' JPaoro'ancT

Chdho- \ 'either- Ki ' that,' ' or ' Fa 'or'

^7.7 , -r . 7 - { 'whether- ^. . ( ' either-

Chaho ) or ' Kya-kya \ ^ , Ya-ya \ ,

98 URDU GRAMMAR.

(2) Adversative, viz.:

Ammd 'but,' ' as for ' Lekin 'but,' ' yet ' Ya-ham 'yet,' ' still.' Bal-li ' but rather ' Par ' but ' Tau-bhl ' nevertheless.'

(3) Exceptive. Magar 'but,' 'except,' and Ilia 'save,' 'except.'

(4) Conditional.

Agar, jo 'if,' Nahih-to, 'if not then,' Wagarna 'otherwise.'

(5) Concessive.

Agarchi 'although,' Go-ki 'although,' Pas 'then,' To 'then.'

(6) Causal. Azbaski 'inasmuch as,' Chunke 'whereas,' Kyunki 'because.'

(7) Conclusive.

Banabar-an 'on that account,' Pas 'hence,' Pfiir 'then,' Lihu-za 'for this reason,' Achchhd-to 'well then.'

(8) Final.

Td, td-ki ' to the end that,' ' in order that, Maldda ' lest ' (lit. ' may it not be ? '), Na-ho-ki ' lest.'

104. INTERJECTIONS.

These may be divided into the following Classes : — (1) Of Invitation, or calling attention.

Ail are\ 01 ohl lei lol=< there!' JZb*=«ho!' (after object of address).

Ayd 'whether,' 'is it so?' used at beginning of an interro- gation.

INTEBJECTIONS. 99

(2) Assent.

Hun or huh l yes,' Achchd \ ' very good ! ' Jl, jl-hdn l yes ' (respectful).

(3) Approval.

Shd-lushl (=shdd-lush, Pers. 'be glad') 'bravo!' Wdh-wdhl ( well done ! ' Afrin \ ' bravo ! '

(4) Sorrow or Pain.

Ah\ hd,e\ 'ah!' 'alas!' Are ! re\ 'oh!' Wa-waila\ 'woe!' 'alas!' Afsosl Meifl 'alas!'

(5) Surprise.

Aha ! oho ! ' oh ! ' < strange ! ' Subhdn Allah ! ' good God ! ' Kya khub \ ' how fine ! '

(6) Aversion, Contempt.

Chhl ! chhi-chhl ! ' fie ! ' ' oh fie ! ' Dur ! durho ! ' avaunt ! '

' be off ! ' Are \ or abe \ ' hallo ! ' 'you fellow ! '

(7) Longing, or Desire. Kashki \ ' would that ! ' ' oh that ! '

CHAPTEE V.— SYNTAX. 1. IDIOMATIC OKDEE OF WOEDS IN SENTENCES.

105. Syntax may be defined as that department of Grammar which teaches rules for the correct and idiomatic formation of sentences.

Every sentence must consist of a Subject and a Predicate — the former being the person or thing spoken of, and the latter what is affirmed regarding him or it. One or other may not be verbally expressed ; but, if so, it must be understood. Thus, one word may comprise both Subject and Predicate, and so constitute a sentence, e.g, 'go.' The Subject here (understood) is ' thou ' or ' you ' ; and the Predicate ' art ' or l are to ' — or ' must ' (also understood) ' go.' The Urdu word hai ('is') means either 'he,' 'she,' or 'it' (understood and implied in the verbal expression hai) ' is.' But, generally speaking, sentences consist of more than one word, as turn jdo ('you go' or 'go you'); wuh hai 'he (she, or it) is'; and seldom of less than three words, as turn ghar jdo ' you go home ' — or more fully, turn apne ghar men jdo ; wuh-llmdr hai f he is sick,' though in either of these instances the Subject (at least in Urdu) need not be expressed, but be implied in the Verb.

Now, in Urdu, ghar jdtd hai would be quite idiomatic and intelligible — though a contraction for wuh apne ghar men (or ko) jdtd hai; but ' house ' (or ' home ') ' goes,' would not be so in English. The Subject must be expressed, i.e. ' He goes (or 'is going') home' — 'to his' (home or house) being understood, but not necessarily expressed. Then, the

SYNTAX. 101

order of the words — even in this short sentence — is different in the two languages. ' He house going is ' — or * House (he) goes,' would not be good (hardly intelligible) English. Here we see the difference of idiom between the two languages ; and to point out or explain this is the special object of Syntax in the grammar of a foreign language.

106. The Predicate may be divided (as in Logic) into the Postulate (i.e. the quality, state, or action affirmed relative to the Subject) and the Copula, or Connecting Verb. This, in general, is the Substantive Verb 'to be,' which is often understood, though not verbally expressed, in the Predicate. Thus in * He is sick,' the Copula is the second word and the Postulate the third — these two forming the Predicate, asserting something regarding the Subject ('he7). Now in English prose the Copula always comes (or is understood) before the Postulate — in questions before the Subject too — but in Hindustani and most Indian languages, it is placed (or understood) at the end of the sentence, both in affirma- tions and in questions. Thus, the Urdu idiom is Wuh blmdr hai ('he is sick'). So in the sentence 'He wishes to go to Calcutta,' the Subject is ' he,' the Copula ' is,' and the Postulate 'wishing to go to Calcutta' (' wishes' = 'is wishing '). But the Urdu order is Wuh Calcatte ko jane chdhtd hai, i.e. (1) He (2) to Calcutta to go wishing (3) is. In other words the Copula must come last in the sentence, and next to it the Verb, Participle, or Adjective with which it is most intimately associated, and, before that, every Adverb, or adverbial sentence, the Subject coming first, as in English, e.g. :

He has been very ill for many days

Wuh anek roz se bahut bimur hud hai (or, more idiomatically, ho gayd hai or pard hai).

102 URDU GEAMMAE.

107. So far as to the order of the words or parts of a sentence generally. "We now proceed to give a few special rules nnder the same head.

(1) The Attribute, or qualifying word— whether it be an Adjective, or a Noun, or Pronoun in the Genitive Case — may either precede or follow the word qualified ; but, ordinarily, the word qualified comes last (as in English), being immediately preceded by the qualifying word or words. Thus, the Urdu for l John's son ' is, usually, Yuhannd kd beta ; for ' his brother ' uskd bhdz ; for ' GopaTs pretty daughter' Gopdl kl khubsurat betl. But sometimes emphasis is expressed by placing the Attributes last ; as, for ' Bring some very good and clean grain,' JZuchh ddnd bahut Tchub aur sdf la.fi. If the Attribute forms part of a Predicate, or affir- mation, then it almost always comes last ; as, ' This rice is very good ' Yih chdnwal bahut achchhd hai, l John is a very strong man ' Yuhannd bahut zordivar mard hai. The Persian construction, however — which is often used, with Persian words, in Urdu parlance — is, to put the Attribute last, preceded by the letter *, or e, called the imfat, or connecting link; thus, pisar-i-khtib 'a good boy,' Pisar-i-Khudd 'the Son of God,' Wuh mard-i-wrdwar o diler tfid ' He was a strong and brave man.'

108. Sometimes the Noun or Pronoun in the Genitive Case is put after the governing or qualified Noun, which gives greater emphasis to the latter word; as, Pita ushd kahdn gay ii hai ? ' Where has his father gone ? ' Larkl Rdjd ~kl mar gatl hai ( The King's daughter is dead,' Ghar tumhurd Jcahdn hai? ' Where is your house (or home) ? ' The governing, or qualified, Noun may even be separated from the Genitive or Adjective by other words (Adverbs, Nouns, etc.,) so long as the meaning of the sentence is not obscured thereby j as,

SYNTAX. 103

Uskd kyd ndm hai? 'What is his name,' Tumhdrd is muqad- dame men kyd saldh hai ? * What is your advice in this affair ? '

Uskd merl taraf suluk bahut achchhd tthd ' His conduct towards me was very good,' Kyd tune achchhd merl taraf se Buluk kiyd ? ' Did you behave rightly towards me ? '

109. Demonstrative Pronouns almost always precede the Noun they are attached to ; as, Wuh ddml j hut fid hai ' That man is a liar.' They may, however, sometimes come second ; as, Tablb wuh achchhd hai jo, etc. ' He is a good physician who,' etc.

110. Adverbs usually precede the Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or Adverbial Clause they modify; as, Jald jdo 'Go quickly.' Bahut hoshydr ddml hai ' He is a very intelligent man.' Bahut achchhl tarahse boltd hai ' He speaks very well.'

The Negative Particles (na and nahm) generally also pre- cede the Verb, Adjective, or Adverb, but often not. When joined to Compound Tenses they are frequently placed between the Participle and the Auxiliary, e.g. Wuh nahm jdegd l He will not go.' Wuh achchhd nahm (hai) ' It is not good.' Wuh mar nahm gay a, hai * He is not dead.' Wuh dekh nahm saktd hai ' He cannot see.'

Mat ' not ' or ' do not,' used only in the Imperative, may either precede or follow the Verb connected with it, but more often the latter ; as, jdo mat or mat jdo l do not go.'

111. Conjunctions generally come immediately between the words or sentences they connect ; as, wuh aur main * he and I.' Wuh rah gayd, lekin main chald gayd ' He stayed, but I went away.' There are two exceptions, how- ever : Bhl (' also,' * even '), never — and to (' then,' * indeed ') seldom — begin a sentence, but generally form the second word in it ; as, Main bhl chalungd ' I too will go,' Tab Ihl nahm dyd ' Still he did not come,' Main to baith rahdt lekin

104 URD.U GRAMMAR.

.wuh lahir gaya 1 1 indeed remained sitting, but he went out,' Agar main jdun, to turn kyd karoge ? * If I go, then what will you do ? '

2. CONCORD.

112. The next department of Syntax we shall consider is that of the Concord of words with one another.

(1) Of Adjectives and Nouns.

The rules for this in Urdu are, generally speaking, veiy like those of English, Latin, and other Western languages; e.g. "An Adjective should agree with the Noun or Nouns it qualifies in Gender, Number, and Case;" though the former, in Urdu, drops its Case-affix or sign, both in the Singular and Plural, as, achchhd larkd ' a good boy,' achchle larke kd 'of a good boy,' achchhl larkiydn * good girls,' achchhl larkiyoh se ' from good girls.'

In the case of one Adjective qualifying two or more Nouns of different Genders or Numbers, the Adjective is put in the Masc. Plural ; as, Uske mdbtip burhe ham ' His parents are old,' Kalldas aur uskl bahm donon chfiote hain i Kalldas and his sister are both little.' The Genitive Case being a sort of Adjective, its peculiar affix must agree with the governing or qualified Noun, as mard kd ghord 'the man's horse,' mkl beti l his daughter,' etc. Adjectives ending in consonants undergo no change, as khulsurat 'aur at ' a handsome woman,' khubsurat 'auraten i handsome women.' All Adjectives ending in z, and a good many ending in a and a, are also uninflected, such as ranjlda i vexed,' ddnd ' wise,' etc.

CONCORD. 105

(2) Concord of Verbs and their Subject.

113. As a general rule (with some exceptions) the Urdu Verb should agree with its Nominative or Subject in Gender, Number, and Person. Certain Yerbal Tenses admit of no changes to notify Gender, such as the Imperative, Aorist, and Conditional of the Active Yoice, and the Present Tense of the Substantive Yerb, hand ' to be.' In the Tenses formed with the Present Participle, both in the Active and Passive Yoices, the Yerb (including the Auxiliaries) agrees with its Nominative in Gender, Number, and Person. But in Tenses of the Active Yoice formed with the Past Participle there is an optional construction, as previously noticed (pp. 51, 55) ; either an apparently (though not really) Passive one, in which the Yerb agrees with the Object, while the Subject is put in what is called the Agent Case (as, Mainne lilll marl ' I struck a she-cat'), or the Yerb is treated as an Impersonal one, and the Object is put in the Dative (or Objective) Case, as, Mainne billlko mar a ' I struck the cat ' — lit. l By me, as to the cat, it was struck,' or ' I the cat struck.'

114. Sometimes the Yerb is put in the Plural — and the Pronoun too (expressed or understood) — though the Subject is in reality Singular. Thus, in conversation or address, when the person spoken to is a servant, or decided inferior, the speaker will use the 1st Person Plural for himself, and generally the 2nd Person Singular for the party addressed, who will observe the corresponding etiquette in replying, i.e. using the Singular for himself and the Plural for his superior. Equals, in ordinary conversation, commonly use the Plural for both parties, though (to be very polite) the speaker may use main (' I ') for himself and turn (' you ') for

106 TJEDU GEAMMAE.

his friend; and always should do so when addressing a superior, unless, for still greater politeness, he uses dp or huzur ('your honor') — with the 3rd Person Plural of the Verb — for the party addressed ; or, still better, with the Precative or Respectful Future, as, Ap jdenge or jdiyo? ' Will you be pleased to go ? '

115. In Arabic what are called 'broken Plurals,' i.e. those which are formed from the Singular Noun, not by affixes, but by letters prefixed or inserted in the word, are treated syntactically as Singulars and connected with Adjectives and Verbs accordingly. In Urdu this is the case also, with such Arabic plurals generally, but with some words this is optional — just as in English with Collectives, as * a number,' 'a company,' 'a score,' etc. Among these latter are the words aktibir ' great men,' auliyd ' saints,' and mushdpkh ' elders ' or ' chiefs.' Among the former we may mention asbdb 'goods,' 'property,' ahwdl 'circumstances'; and also a few regular Arabic Feminine Plurals, as wdriddt ' a casualty ' and tahqlqdt ' investigation.' Asbdb, when meaning ' causes ' or ' means,' is also occasionally constructed with a Plural Verb.

116. In the case of the Subject consisting of two or more persons, including a 1st and 2nd Personal Pronoun, the rule and practice in Urdu are much the same as in English, the Verb, in the Plural, agreeing with the 1st Person rather than the 2nd, and with either rather than the 3rd; as, Turn aur main jdenge 'You and I will go.' Turn aur wuh haroge 'You and he will do.' Wuh aur we lolenge ' He and they will speak.' If of different Genders the Masculine covers all ; as, UsJce beta aur betl ghar gaye ham ' His son and daughter have gone home.' Such is the con- struction when living beings are the Subject ; but if this

CONCOBD. 107

be things or ideas, then the Pronoun, Adjective, and Verb generally agree in Gender with the nearest word — as Etnl ta^rlf o ishtiyaq mko shefta karegd or karenge f So much praise and strong desire will turn his brain.' In such a case, when the Subject of the Verb is two or more words, all Singular, the latter may be put (as in the last example) either in the Singular or Plural, but the Singular is preferable. If, however, any one of the words be Plural, then the Verb should be in the Plural — as, Uskd mdl o asldl be-hadd tthe * His wealth and property were immense.' Uske Idgh men ek Tiauz aur bahut f aware tfie * In his garden were a pond and many fountains.'

Sometimes a Verb is used in the 3rd Person Plural without any expressed Nominative to it to express a proverb or common saying — an ' on dit ' — or the general use of a term or general opinion; as, kahte hain 'they say,' isko khdnsamuh kahte hain i they call him a khdnsamdh (a butler),' yih tatajjub samajhte hain 'they think this wonderful.' At the beginning of a fable or story the phrase kahne-wdle kahte hain is often used, answering to our English 'they say,' lit. 'the tellers say.'

3. GOVEKNMENT.

117. In Latin and other European Grammars the rules of Syntactical Concord are generally followed by rules for the Government of Words by one another. But in modern Oriental Grammars it has been found more convenient to enunciate the other Rules of Syntax under the headings of the various Parts of Speech, their Cases, Tenses, etc.

This practice, we think, we cannot do better than adopt, beginning with

108 TJEDtf GEAMMAE.

The Article.

118. It has already been stated that there is nothing exactly corresponding to our Article in Urdu. The want of it is supplied to some extent in various ways. Thus, the Definite Article may sometimes be expressed by the Demonstrative Pronouns yih and wuh, as wuh ddmi, for ' the man ' ; but this is as stiff and awkward as the Yulgate ille Christus, for 'the Christ,' 'the Messiah,' which our Authorized Yersion translates 'that Christ,' and ilia Lux 'that Light,' instead of 'the Light' (John i. 8, 25). More usually and idiomatically definiteness is expressed by, or may be gathered from, the nature, or connection, of the word, e.g. of tab ' the sun,' dunyd ' the world,' Bandras Jed rdjd ' the king of Benares,' Kalkatte Jed shahr or Shahr-i-Kalkatta ' the city of Calcutta,' Mohan Ted larJcd 'the son' (not 'a son') ' of Mohan ' ; in all of which the Definite Article must be used in English. The Indefinite Article may be expressed by ek ' one,' or by the Indefinite Pronouns, koji and kuchh, though often this is unnecessary, the context alone showing which article — if any — is required in English. Sometimes the Indefinite Pronoun may stand alone, as, instead of hisl ddmme hahd 'a certain man said,' kisme kahd will do quite as well — ' someone said ' (i.e. either man, woman, or child) being even more indefinite. Adml by itself may mean either 'a man' or 'the man,' but the prefixing of ek, kofo yih or wuh fixes the sense in which it is used. To express ' man ' in the sense of mankind generally, the word insan should be used. Indefiniteness (as previously said) may also be expressed by using a Plural Verb impersonally — without any Nominative expressed — as, kahte ham ' they say.'

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 109

"WTien some indefinite portion of a thing or things is meant then the word kuchh is placed before the Noun in the Singular or Plural; as, Kuchh dlu do ' Give me some potatoes,' Tumhdre pus kuchh asbdb ham (or hai)? 'Have you any luggage (or goods) ? ' Kuchh derl mat karo ' Make no delay.'

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 1. The Nominative Case.

119. The Nominative is generally used to denote the Subject of a Yerb, and usually, though not always, stands before it ; as, Wuh ad mi kahtd hai f That man says 'or 'is saying,' Bahut log dte hain ' Many people have come,' Jdo turn

jhatpat 'You be off instantly,' Rdzl ho turn? 'Do you consent ? '

120. (2) It is also used as a Predicative with Intransitive Verbs signifying 'to be,' 'become,' 'turn out' and the like; or those denoting a state or mode of existence, such as hond, ho-jdnd, nikalnd, ho-saknd, bannd, rahnd, thaharnd, etc. ; as, Krishna-dds dchchhd larkd hai; wuh bahut hoshydr chela Ian paregd 'Krishnadas is a good boy; he will turn out an intelligent scholar.' Also with Passive Verbs of calling, naming, etc. ; as, Wuh shahr Dilhl kahldtd hai ' That city is called Dehli,' Uskd ndm Sddhu rakhd gay a ' He was called Sadhu.'

121. Sometimes (at the beginning of a sentence especially) a Nominative is used absolutely, to avoid the recurrence of two or three consecutive Nouns in an Oblique Case ; as, Malik-i-Sddiq, jo bddshdh jlnnon kd hai, tumhdrd bdpne uske

110 TTRDU GBAMMAE.

satfi dostl paidd hi tfil ' Malik-i-Sadiq, who is king of the Jinns — your father had formed a friendship with him.'

Similarly Khudd aur daulat, donoh kl khidmat nahm bar sakte ho ' You cannot serve both God and Mammon.'

In such cases, it will he observed that the Nom. Absolute is followed by a Pronoun or other word which takes the place of the independent Subject and connects itself gram- matically with the Verb.

. Sometimes the Formative Plural is used as a Nominative to give emphasis, like the enclitic termination hi ; as, Barson guzr gate ' Years passed away,' Donoh dte * Both (the two) came,' hazdroh bar as ' thousands of years,' etc.

2. The Agent.

122. This (as previously remarked) is another form which the Subject assumes (instead of the Nominative) when con- nected with a Transitive Verb in any Tense formed by the Past Participle — which latter then agrees in Gender and Number with the Object of the Verb ; as, Maihne ghord dekhd 'I saw a horse,' Usne kuchh pfial It fid p 'He ate some fruit,' Tumne kahd tthd, hi, ham jdld laut dwenge * You said you would return soon,' lit. 'By you it was (or had been) said, that we (for I) will quickly come back.' Here kahd tjid may be taken impersonally, or the rest of the sentence may be regarded as the Object, with which as a Masculine Singular Noun the Verb agrees.

The second part of the sentence illustrates the preference — not only in Urdu, but in other Oriental languages — for the direct instead of the indirect form of speech. The Particle hi ' that ' might be translated ' saying ' (and, indeed, may be regarded as the root form of the Conjunctive Participle of

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. Ill

kahnd, kah t£ being corrupted into klh and then into Jci) ; and what follows expresses the very words used by the person addressed, i.e. ' By you it was said that (or saying) I will return quickly.'

123. "When, however, a particular emphasis is meant to be put on the Object of the Yerb, where in English we should use the Definite Article or Pronoun, that Object is put in the Dative-Accusative form with ko, and then, their concord with the Yerb being broken, the latter is used impersonally, as in the preceding case ; e.g. Mainne ghoreko dekhd ' 1 saw the horse,' or Us ghoreko dekhd ' I saw that horse,' lit. * As to the (or that) horse, by me it was seen.' This emphasis might sometimes be equally well expressed by the use of the enclitive hi, as Wuhl to mainne kahd ' That is just what I said,' Mainne wuhi ddml dekhd ' I saw that very man,' though uslko or ushl ddrnlko would be more usual and still more emphatic.

Some Urdu Yerbs — as in English — may be used either as Transitive or Intransitive, and constructed accordingly. Thus, sochnd 'to consider' or * think,' may, in either language, be used either actively, as Mainne usko diwdna sochd ' I thought him mad ' ; or intransitively, as Main apne dil men sochd ' I considered (or thought) within in my mind.' So with Ihulnd 'to err,' 'to stray,' 'to forget,' we can say Main Ihuld t,hd 'I had forgotten' or 'made a mistake,' or Mainne usko Ihuld tfid ' I had forgotten him (or it) ' ; and even khelnd ' to play ' may be used tran- sitively, as Usne khel kheld ' He played a game.'

124. Then, again, Active Yerbs when compounded with Neuter Yerbs (and preceding them) become Neuter, and so take the Nom. and not the Agent in all Tenses; just as Neuter Yerbs compounded with following Active Yerbs are

112 UBDTJ GEAMMAE.

constructed as Active. Thus, from khd-jdnd ' to eat up,' we have We khd-gaye ' They ate up,' while from khdnd simply we have Unhonne khdyd 'They ate ; so land ' to bring,' being a contraction for le-tind, is constructed as a Neuter Yerb, so that we have Sam ldte for ' We brought.' Again, from and 'to come' (v.n.), we have dyd-karnd 'to make a practice of coming,' whence in the Past Tense we have Unhonne dyd-kiyd ' They came habitually ' — the second member of the compound (kiyd] requiring the Agent.

125. Some Verbs which from their English renderings might be regarded as Active are Neuter in Urdu, and others which we would consider Neuter are, in Hindustani, Active. Of the former the following are examples: bolnd 'to speak,' Ihulnd 'to forget,' 'to err,' chuknd 'to mistake,' darnd 'to fear,' 'to be afraid,' lagnd 'to begin,' 'to touch,' land (for le-dna] ' to bring,' larnd 'to fight,' le-jdnd and le-chalnd 'to take away,' 'to convey,' tarasnd 'to pity,' 'to desire,' tarnd 'to cross,' ' to pass over.'

Of the second class (the Active) are the following : chdhnd 'to wish,' 'to love,' gdnd 'to sing,' kahnd 'to say,' jdnnd 'to know,' likhnd 'to write,' milnd 'to join,' 'to agree,' puchhnd 'to ask,' slkhnd 'to learn,' sunnd 'to hear.'

126. In two or more co-ordinate sentences, with a common Subject, the last of which requires construction with the Agent (in ne) and the other (or others) with the Nom. Case, or vice versa, the Agent or the Nominative (as the case may be) of the last sentence is not expressed; as, Us andhe ne mujhe luldyd. aur us makdn men legayd ' The blind man called me and took me to that place' — where wuli is understood before le-gayd ; and again, Wuh ghore par sawar hud aur jangal kl rah ll ' He mounted the horse and took the road

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 113

3. The Genitive Case.

127. This Case in Urdu corresponds generally with the Possessive in English; but not always. Thus, in Asmdn kd roj nazdlk hai 'The kingdom of Heaven is at hand,' asman ha is in the Genitive and governed by ruj (i.e. dependent upon it and agreeing with it as regards Gender, Number, and Case-form), whereas * the kingdom ' is in the Nom. Case and 1 Heaven' in the Objective, governed by the Preposition ' of.' Raj being Nominative (to the Verb hai) and Singular, kd is used, instead of he (which would have been required had raj been Masc. Plur. and in any other case but Nom. Sing.), and instead of hi — which should have been used had raj been Fern, in any Case or Number. This short sentence thus illustrates the proper uses of the three forms of the Urdu Genitive Case as previously explained under the Etymological portion of this Grammar (see 26, p. 16). The fact is (as before said) it is of the nature of an Adjective, agreeing with the Noun it qualifies in Gender, Number, and Case, as in Latin.

128. The Genitive may either precede or follow the word by which it is governed, but much more commonly the former, as uska beta l his son,' bete rajdohke ' the sons of kings.'

129. "When used with Substantives, it generally denotes the dependence of one substance on another, or on certain Postpositions which were originally Nouns, as gJiar kd darwdza ' the door of the house,' larkon Ice waste ' for the sake of (or for) children,' waste being originally the Locative or Objective Case of the Masculine Noun wdsta ' cause,' ' sake.'

130. The Genitive in Urdu is used to express a variety of relationships, some of which could not be expressed by a

8

114 TTEDU GEAMMAE.

Possessive Case in English. Thus, besides the relationship of Birth or Affinity (as Mohan Jed beta, Kail la ma, Chandar kljoru), we have that of Possession (as Brahman kd ghar, kutte kl dum] ; of Description (as sone kd tuj ' a crown of gold,' sandal kl sanduq ' a sandal-wood box,' resham kl kurtl ' a silk jacket ') ; of Direction (as shahr kl rdh l the road to the city,' Kdshl kl tar of « towards, or in the direction of,' Baxdras} • Subjective (as Isdl la muhahlat 'the Christian's love'); Objective (as Khudd ka khauf ' the fear of God') ; Partitive (as kitdb kl shuru1 yd intihd i the beginning or end of the book,' rotl kd tukrd 'a piece of bread'); of Quantity or Space (as sipdhlyon kl fauj ' an army of Sepoys,' char dm kd 'arsa i the space of four days,' das baras kd larkd l a boy ten years old'); of Quality (as tatajub kl but 'a wonderful affair,' Yih chlz kuchh kdm kl nahln l This thing is of no use'); of Price or Yalue (as Is kapre kl qlmat kitnl (or kyd) hai ? ' What is the price of this cloth ? ' Uskd ddm das ruplya hai 'Its price is ten rupees'); of Contents (as ek ghar a tel kd 'a pot of oil,' tin roz kl khordk 'three days' provisions').

131. The Genitive Case in Urdu is often used in an in- definite manner to express relations more properly belonging, it might be supposed, to other Cases, as shahr kd rasta ' the way to the city,' Khudd kd shukr ' Thanks be to God,' chithl (or suwdl] kd jawdb 'the answer to a letter (or question),'

jane kd hukm i an order to go,' but kd sachchd * true to his word,' daryd kd safar ' a journey by river ' or ' voyage by sea,' tumhdre lap kl dostl 'friendship for your father,' dhone kd pdnl 'water for washing,' Uskd kuchh bharosd nahln 'There is no dependence on him.'

132. The terminational sign of the Genitive Case may often be dropped under the government of Prepositions or

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 115

Postpositions; as, us pas (for mice pas) 'near him,' 'with him,' mujh pus 'with me' (for mere pas), zer jharokhe (for jharokhe ke) l under the lattice,' us baghair (for uske baahair) 4 without him,' baghair murabbl (for murabbl ke) l without a patron,' is (for iske) waste ' on this account,' kis (for kiske) lit/e? 'for what?' 'wherefore?' kistarah? 'in what manner?' 'how?'

Sometimes, on the other hand, the sign of the Case is retained, but the governing word omitted ; as, Uske kol larkd nahln (for uske pas) ' He had no son,' Bddshdh ke (for ke pas or ke yahdn] ek beti paidd hul ' In the king's family (or house) a daughter was born,' Unke larkd larkl nahln l They had neither son nor daughter' (i.e. no children).

133. The sign of the Genitive is often used to express intensity or emphasis, the word to be emphasized being doubled and the signs kd, ke, or kl (as concord requires) being placed between them. Thus, sab kd sab 'the whole,' naukar chdkar sab ke sab ' the whole of the domestics,' kuchh kd kuchh 'something quite different,' pit kl pit 'true affection,' tore kd tord ' a number of trays.'

134. After words expressive of weights or measures, the sign of the Genitive may be either used or omitted, as Id* I ivazn men sat misqdl kd ' a ruby of the weight of 7 mtsgrdls,' ser bhar gosht ' a ser (2 Ibs.) of meat,' shahr kos bhar dur hai ' the city is a good kos (2 miles) distant.' The Genitive may be also used, like the English word ' worth,' to express value or amount, as ek ruplyekl lakrl ' one rupee' s-worth of wood,' das dne kd tamdku ' 10 anna's worth of tobacco,' sau rupate kd ghord ' a horse worth 100 rupees.'

135. The Genitive is also very often used in its original sense as an Adjective; as barl bahdr kd bdgh 'a very beautiful garden,' bahut zor kd bail ' a very powerful ox,' roz kd kdm

116 URDU GRAMMAR.

* daily work,' khdne Tel mez 'a dining-table,' ab kd sal 'the present year,' khushdmad kl bdten 'flattering words,' leal kl rat ' last night,' pipal ka darakht ' a plpal tree.' The phrase tin din kd khordk 'three days' provisions,' previously quoted, is also an illustration of this remark, as well as darya kd pdrii, which may either signify ' the water of (i.e. contained in) a river ' or ' river- water,' as opposed to hauz kd ('pond') or chashme kd ' (spring) water.'

136. Many Adjectives (as in English) are usually con- structed with the Genitive — such as mushtdq 'desirous,' hand ' envious,' haris ' covetous,' etc. They are chiefly Arabic and Persian Participles, or Nouns of Agency, ex- pressive of desire, loathing, following, hope, fear, and other affections of the heart, and mental emotions ; as, We 'ibrat kl muhtaj ham ' They are in need of warning,' Main mdl kd bhukhd nahln ' I am not hungering for wealth.'

There are a number of Adjectives that are idiomatically constructed with the inflected form of the Genitive (ke} — such as qdbil 'capable,' bardbar 'equal,' 'parallel,' ld,iq 'fit,' mutdbiq 'conformable,' mudfiq 'like,' and some others. These words are mostly used as Postpositions, governing the inflected Genitive ; and hence, probably, the usage of making them do so even when employed as genuine Adjectives. Examples are : uske mutdbiq ' in conformity to that,' 'accordingly,' Wuh us 'uhde ke qdbil nahln 'He is not fit for that office,' Wuh qarlb shahr ke rahtd hai 'He lives near the city.'

Adjectives denoting ' fitness ' are sometimes (though rarely) constructed with a Dative (or Accusative) ; as, jo kuchh bddshdhon ko ldtiq Tiai ' whatever is suitable for kings.'

137. When a Genitive happens to be governed by two or more connected Nouns, denoting living beings, of different

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 117

Genders, it is then usually put in the Masculine Plural ; but if they denote things or ideas, it then in general agrees in Gender with the nearest Noun. Thus, Uske lete letl sab mar gate ham ' His children (boys and girls) have all died,' Hamdre ma-lap dwenge ' My parents are coming,' TJnkl hjcaslat o atwdr makhsus hain 'Their dispositions and manners are peculiar,' 'Asl o nafa? uskd 'azlm haih 'His capital and profit are very great.'

In sentences where the Subject (Nominative) is Plural, or requiring a Verb in the Honorific Plural, if they contain a Predicate including a Genitive Case, that Predicate must be constructed as a Plural, even if its governing Noun has no distinctive Plural form, as Kyd turn Kalkatte ke rahne- wdle ho? 'Are you a resident of Calcutta?' Turn Smith sdhib ke naukar ho ' You are Mr. Smith's servant,' Wuh us mulk he Iddshdh t(he t He was king of that country.'

138. The Genitive Case is used in connection with the Yerb sunnd 'to hear,' ' to listen to,' as is the case with the corresponding word (a/cove**/) in Greek (though that may also be sometimes constructed with an Accusative). But in both these cases the direct governing word is not the Yerb, but a Fern. Noun, Idt 'word,' or dwdz 'voice' (in Greek prjfia) understood. Hence the Feminine form of the Genitive is required; as Uskl suno 'Hear him,' 'Listen to his (word, voice, or speech),' Mainne uskl sum (the Yerb being Active) ' I heard (or listened) to him.' So in the case of intelligent beings (human or divine) ; but when applied to inanimate things or voices of animals, the governing word is generally expressed ; thus, ' He heard the barking of the dog ' Usne kutte kl dwdz sum, 'Did you hear the thunder?' Kyd turn garj kl dwdz suni ? ' Listen to the cock-crow ' Hurgh kl Idng suno.

118 TJfiDU GRAMMAR.

139. In connection with Verbs signifying ' to fill ' (either Simple or Compound), the Genitive is also sometimes used, optionally with the Ablative ; as Ek tasht dudh kd (or dudh se) bharkar lao ' Fill a bowl of milk (or with milk) and bring it here.' So, likewise, Verbs of informing, of trusting, and of delivering over, may sometimes be constructed with a Genitive ; as Apne ahwdl kl ittila1 dyiye * Acquaint me with your circumstances,' Mainneunkl dostl kd bharosd rakhd ' I relied on their friendship,' Yih khatt uske supurd (or hawdle) kar do ' Deliver this letter to him.'

Of the other Cases very little need be said.

4. The Dative.

140. Words in this Case — denoting 'to' or 'for' — are generally the Indirect Object of a Verb, the Direct or immediate Object being in the Accusative (or Objective) Case, which, however, is sometimes not expressed but merely implied. But occasionally the Dative Case seems to be used as the Direct Object, as in the sentence : M&rl tdmdm 'umr ko hu.fi hai ' It is sufficient for my whole lifetime ' — or this : Shahzdda sair ko nikla l The Prince went out for a stroll.'

141. It is also used with Verbs for buying and selling, in reference to the price ; as, Yih kitneko bechd ? ' For how much did you sell this ? ' Mainne yih asbdb bis rupafe ko mol liyd 1 1 bought these articles for 20 rupees.' But sometimes the Genitive may be used, as already remarked, as Usne das rupa,e kd kaprd hkaridd 'He bought 10 rupees-worth of cloth.' In such examples as the above the &o, expressive of purpose, object, or price, is tantamount to the Genitive with such Postpositions as waste, liye, 'iwaz, etc., i.e. 'for,' 'for the sake

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 119

of,' 'instead of,' 'to' ; as, Sair Ice waste nikld 'He went out for (or for the purpose of) a walk (or to walk),' Das rupate ke watte (or ^iwaz] kaprd mol liyd ' He bought cloth for (instead of) 10 rupees.'

142. The Objective Dative is very often used with the Gerund or Infinitive ; as, Wuh khel karneko gay a, hai ' He has gone to play ' (i.e. l for the purpose of playing '). The ho is most frequently omitted, but the Gerund is none the less in the Dative, or Accusative, Case ; as, Wuh hawd khdne (or kfidneko] gay a hai ' He has gone for an airing' (i.e. 'for a walk or drive') — the Objective Dative. Wuh slkhne (or s~ikhneko] chdhtd hai 'He wishes to learn'— the immediate Objective or Accusative Case. As a general rule the Dative is used in connection with Yerbs of Motion, as in the above examples, or as in Usko pakarneko dauro ' Run to catch him,' Wuh ghar ko (or ghar} gayd hai ' He has gone home.'

It is also idiomatically used with the Yerb milnd 'to meet,' 'join,' or 'attain to'; as, Kyd tumko rasta mild? 'Did you find the road, (lit. ' did the road meet you ') ? Hamko jane kl farsat nahm mild ' I could not find time to go ' (lit. ' the leisure of going did not find (or reach) us.' Sometimes the Dative governed by milnd is implied but not expressed; as, Jdte jdte ek daryd rdh men mild ' As we went along we came to (or met with) a river' ('a river met us'), hamko being understood.

143. The Dative is also used in connection with the phrases chdhiye, munusib hai, Idzini hai, etc., meaning 'it is right,' 'proper,' 'necessary,' etc., as Sarnko jdne chdhiye 'I must go,' Tumko mundsib hai ki kabhi jhutfi na kaho ' You ought never to tell a falsehood' (lit. 'it is proper for you,' etc.), Unko Angrezl slkhd chdhiye ' They ought to learn English.'

120 URDU GRAMMAR.

144. When the Substantitive Yerb hond 'to be,' or the Neuter Yerb parnd ' to happen,' is used impersonally in the sense of ' it is right,' ' necessary,' or ' certain,' the Dative Case is likewise used (like the Latin 'est mihi, tibi accidit,' etc.). Thus, Mvjhko bdhar jdnd hai ' I must go out,' Tujhko bahut ranj ut found tthd ' It was your lot to suffer much grief,' Tumko kal mufassal men jdnd hogd (or parega] 'You will have to go to the country to-morrow.'

145. Sometimes the Dative (like the Genitive) is used to express the possession of some quality or condition, as Ap ko bahut kdm aur tfiorl fursat hain 'You, sir, have much work to do and little leisure.' Here the Genitive might be used, but Mm being Masculine, and fursat Feminine, and the two words making a Plural, the use of ko removes the difficulty of deciding whether kd, ke, or ki would be most grammatical. The Yerbs used in this connection are generally either hond or and ('to come'), but both these Yerbs most commonly imply new and incipient, rather than habitual possession ; as, Usko in bdtohse kuchh tasalli hul 'He derived some comfort from these words,' Mujhko yaqin dyd 'I became certain' (lit. 'assurance came to me'), Kuchh usko sabr dyd 'He became somewhat patient.'

146. The same Case is employed to express time in- definitely ; as, Wuh rdtko dyd ' He came at night, ' Turn fajr ko dp ' Come in the morning.' The sign of the Dative is often omitted, but in such cases the Noun always takes the inflected form if it has one ; as, Wuh ghar (or gharko) gayd hai ' He has gone home,' We hdziri khdne (for khdneko} sawere gate ' They went early in the morning to eat their breakfast,' Bddshdh! (for Iddshdh ko) saldmat 'Hail, 0 king!' (lit. ' safety, or health, to the king! ').

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 121

147. Sometimes this Case is used to express the English * at,' or 'on,' or 'towards'; as, Ddhine ko pfiiro 'Turn to (or towards) the right,' Uskd ghar bd^n hdtth ko hai 'His house is at (or on) the left side ' (lit. ' hand ').

5. The Accusative.

148. This Case is the same in form either as the Nominative or as the Dative. As to when each form should be used a few hints may here he given.

149. (1) When there can be no ambiguity as to what Case the Noun, or Pronoun, is in, if it denotes an inanimate object, it is then. generally put in the Nominative form; as, Wuh pdm pita hai 'He is drinking water,' Main yih kitdb tumko deungd ' I will give you this book,' Usko das rupiye do 'Give him 10 rupees,' Yihl hamne kahd 'This is just what I said' (lit. 'just this I said'), Us/co chaukl do 'Give him a chair.'

(2) But if the object denotes an animate thing or rational being, then, in the former case generally, and in the latter always, it should have the Dative form, to prevent any mistake ; as, Usne apne bhdl ko gharse nikdl diyd ' He turned his brother out of the house,' Hamne bahut kuttonko wahdfi dekhd ' I saw many dogs there.'

150. (3) When a particular thing (or animal) is meant (as expressed by the Definite Article in English) then the Dative form should be used ; as, Chaukl ko usko do * Give him the chair,' Kutte ko mdro ' Beat the dog.'

The Accusative (and sometimes the Dative Case too) may be expressed by the Postposition tatm added to a Genitive, which generally makes definiteness still more emphatic ; as,

122 TJBDtJ GRAMMAR.

Mainne mardke tajin dekhd * I saw the man himself,' or ' the very man,' Usne apne tajih mdrd ' He struck (or killed) him- self,' Kitdb ko uske ta^n do l Give the book to the person himself.'

151. In the case of ' Nominal- Compound ' Verbs, the Predicative Noun is always in its Primary or Nominative form ; as, qatl karnd l to kill/ mol lend * to purchase/ dam mdrnd 'to breathe/ 'to speak.' In such compounds the Noun is often a cognate word with the Verb, but in like manner must always be in the Nominative form ; as, Wuh khdnd khdtd hai * He eats his dinner/ Mainne usko lari mar marl ' I gave him a good beating.' Intransitive Verbs, us well as Transitive, may be constructed with a Noun in the Nominative form of the Accusative, when that Noun is of cognate derivation, or from a root of similar meaning, with the Verbs ; as, Ham bhl saikroh lardiydn larl * I, too, have fought hundreds of battles/ Wuh itnl Idf auzdf bakd ' He prated so much boastful nonsense.'

152. Many Verbs (especially Causatives derived from Transitives) govern two Accusatives — generally one of a person, the other of a thing — the former in the Dative and the latter in the Nominative form ; as, Usne tifl ko dudh pildyd ' She gave the infant milk to drink/ Hamko rdh dekhd-do ' Show me the road/ Usne usko qaidi chhor diyd 1 He left him a prisoner.'

153. The Nominative form of the Accusative may some- times stand first in a sentence ; as, Yih ghar kachahre ko kahte hain 'They call this house the Kachahri.' Or, both words may have the ko ; as, Usko laut dneko farmdyd ' He told him to come back.' Or, neither word may have a Case- ending ; as, Yih chiz, sanduq yd Idkkas kahte hain ' They call this thing a sanduq or box.'

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 123

154. Similar to this is what is called the Factitive Accusative, which is a second Accusative — either Noun, or Adjective — appended to the primary objective word, as a descriptive complement or predicative, this second Accu- sative being always in the Nominative form. The Verbs used in this case are such as 'to make,' 'call,' 'regard,' 'esteem,' 'appoint,' and the like. For instance, Usne us/to

jliutfia jana ' He thought him (or made him out) a liar ' ; Mainne uslco nangd pdyd ' I found him naked ' ; Yih kMnd tumko bimdr karegd ' This food will make you sick ' ; Main, unko baJiut achchhi larhiydh junta huh ' I think them very good girls,'

155. In such sentences, if expressed passively, either the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and assumes the Nomina- tive form, or it is retained in the Dative form of the Accusative, the Indirect Object remaining in the Nominative form in either case ; as, for the English, ' He was thought a liar ' Wuh jhutthd jdnd gayd, or, usJco jhutfrd jdnd gayti ; in the latter the literal meaning being * as to him, he was,' etc. So, Mundsib Jiai hi usko (or wuh^ band-e-kdr kahd jdwe ' It is right that he should be called (or, that, as to him, it should be called) the builder of the work.'

6. The Ablative Case.

156. As we said at the early part of this Grammar, there is really no separate form for an Ablative Case in Urdu (any more than in English), but what is so called is simply the appending of the Postposition se to the original or the inflected forms of Nouns and Pronouns. It is ex- pressed by various Prepositions in English, as 'from,' 'by,' ' with,' 'than,' etc.

124

URDU GRAMMAR.

157. It corresponds generally to that of the Latin, and, like it, is used in connection with Adjectives in forming the Comparative and Superlative Degrees; as, Yih usse achchhd hdi * This is better than that,' Wuh sabse Inland Mi ' That (or, he) is higher than all,' i.e. 'the highest.'

158. But the Ablative is chiefly used in Urdu in con- nection with Nouns, Adjectives, and Yerbs that signify : —

(1) Distance or departure, difference or separation, from one place, person, or thing; as, Kalltatta Agre se dur hai 1 Calcutta is far from Agra,' Wuh apne gharse jdtd hai 'He is going from home,' Yih chlz usse nydrd hai 'This thing is different from that,' Inse unse barl tafriq hul ' There was a great rupture between the two.'

159. (2) Asking, telling, informing, knowing, and the like, the corresponding terms to which in English require 'of,' 'to,' 'with,' or 'about,' e.g. 'He asked of him' Usne usse puchhd, ' He told (or said to) him ' Usne usse Ma,1 ' He made him acquainted with all the circumstances ' Usne usko sab ahwdl se muttali> kiyd ' I informed him of my departure ' Mainne usko apne rawdna hone se dydh kiyd, 'He did not know of it before ' Wuh age usse wdqif na hud, ' Has he yet got word of it ? ' Kyd usne abtah isse ittilu? pdyd hai ?

160. (3) Abandoning, neglecting, denying, despair, disgust, and others implying the idea of turning away from, con- nected generally in English with the Prepositions 'with,' ' at,' ' of.' Thus, 'He was disgusted with (or at) it' Wuh usse mutanaffir hud, ' I will have nothing to do with it ' Main

1 The Yerbs lolnd 'to speak,' and kahna 'to say,' also govern the Dative- Accusative in ko. The former Verb more generally does so, and the latter when it signifies ' to call ' or ' name,' as, Isko kya kahte ham ? ' What do they call this (or him) ? '

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 125

usse liatji utfidungd, 'We turn from it with loathing' Ham usse nafrat karte ham, ' Such conduct I detest ' Aisl chdl se main 'addwat rakhtd hun.

161. (4) Yerbs, etc., signifying attraction to, meeting, agreeing, uniting, or coming in contact with — as, Usne usse muhablat rakhl ' He had an affection for him (or her),' Usko us fann se shauq hud l He had a fondness for that science,' Kal mujse yahdn muldqdt karo ' Meet me here to-morrow,' Main kal usse milne ke waste wahdh gayd 'I went there yesterday on purpose to meet him,' Mainne usse ab mildp kl hai ' I am now reconciled to him,' Usne hamdrl bahmse shddl kl l He married my sister,' Wuh is bandobastse ram hai 'He is satisfied with this agreement,' Ghoreko mekhse Idndh rakhd ' He tied the horse to a peg.'

162. As the word se — in Urdu the sign of the Ablative — means generally 'from,' so that Case is almost always used to express the place, the time, the cause or motive, the argument, the source or origin, the funds or resources, etc., from which anything results or takes place ; as, ghar se ghar tak 'from house to house,' das bajhe se do pahar tak 'from ten o'clock till noon,' Is subabse wuh chup rahd ' From (for) this reason he was silent,' Apnl marzl se gayd * He went of his own will or accord,' Dar (or dahshat) se bhdg gayd ' He fled from fear,' Usne apnl punjl se us zamm ko mol liyd ' He bought that ground with (from) his own capital.'

163. Sometimes the se answers rather to (or may he better translated by) our 'for,' expressing duration of specified time ; as, Wuh char din se gayd hai ' He has been gone for four days ' ; or, instead of * from ' (expressive of motion, etc., as in preceding examples), e.g. : Bugh ke dar se 'For (or from) fear of the tiger,' Wuh khdne kl kamtlse mar gayd 'He died for (from) want of food,' Is sabab se

126 . URDIJ GRAMMAR.

tcuh chald gay d ' For (from) this cause (or reason) lie went away.'

164. The instrument with which, or the means by which, something is done, is also denoted by the Ablative; as,

Usne usko talwdr se mdrd ' He killed (or struck) him with a sword,' JShuk se mar gaya ' He died of (or from) hunger,'

Wuh darzl Tee Mm Jcarne se zindagum kamdtd hai * He earns his livelihood by (means of) tailoring.'

165. Or, in the case of persons, the agent (instead of the instrument) may be thereby expressed ; as, Yih dfat mujhse hul ' This misfortune was by my fault ' (lit. ' from me '), Us 3funshi se (or Tee waslle se) merd larkd liJchme parhne slkhd 'My boy learned to read and write under (by means of) that Munshi,' Uske lahkdne se main khardb khasta ban gaya ' By means of his deception I was ruined.'

166. The difference, or resemblance, between two or more things is expressed by means of the Ablative; as, JTahne se aur Jcarne se bahut faraq hai ' There is a great difference between saying and doing,' Isse aur usse kyd musMbahat hai ? ' What resemblance is there between this and that?'

167. The mode or manner of doing anything may also be expressed by the Ablative, answering often to an Adverb ; as, khalarddri se age chalo ' go on with care,' i.e. l care- fully,' Easratse paidd hotd hai 'It is produced in abund- ance,' i.e. l abundantly.' So, khafagl se ' angrily,' fardghat se 'leisurely,' khushi se 'gladly,' 'readily,' dilerl se 'boldly,' Ms tarahse ' how,' Jcis tarafse, or kahdiise ' whence,' etc. But mode, manner, as also way, or medium, though ex- pressed by the Ablative, cannot always be rendered by an English Adverb, e.g.: kisu bahdne se 'by some trick or pretence,' tartlb se 'in order,' kis rdhse? 'by what way?'

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 127

darwdze se Idhar gayd 'he went out by the door,' daryd se dyd 'he came by water' (sea or river). The same ideas may also be expressed by other Prepositions (or Postpositions) as well as se (such as the Persian ba, bar, fi, dar) ; as, la Icasrat 'abundantly,' bar'aks 'in spite,' fi-l-faur 'instantly,' dar miydn ' in the midst,' dar pai ' on foot ' ; and by men ' in,' though this is generally considered as peculiar to the Locative Case. But when this Postposition is used, option- ally with se, it is commonly connected with an Adjective ; as, badan se (or badan men) nangd 'naked-bodied,' harJcat men jald 'quick of (or in) motion,' aise Jcaproh se (men) 'in such clothes,' tfiore 'arse men (or jaldlse) l soon,' ' quickly,' hdtfi pdoii men (or se] durust ' sound in (or of) limb.' Par (another Locative sign) is also used interchangeably with se, as in the sentence, Wuh shahrke sal sauddgaroh se (or par) sabqat le gayd ' He took precedence of (lit. ' from ' or ' over ') all the merchants of the city,' is sal Ice guzarne se (or par) ' from (' on ' or ' after ') the passing of this year.'

168. Se is sometimes used as equivalent to satth ('with,' 'along with') governing a Genitive. Thus, 'He ate bread with his curry' Usne roil sdlan se (=sdlan Ice sdtfi) kfidi, ' You are come with much luggage ' Turn ba?ze sdmdn se (=:ke sdtfi) dte ho.

The enclitic sign of the Ablative is often omitted (like the Dative Ico) in idiomatic phrases; as, is tar ah 'in this way,' har tarah 'in every way,' hdtfioh hdtth 'from hand to hand.' Sometimes it is affixed to other Postpositions ; as, us tthaile men se ' from out of that bag,' Wuh ghore par se gir pard ' He fell off (lit. from on) the horse.' The se of the Ablative must not be confounded with the inflected formatives of the sign of similitude (sd, se, si), as, larlcl-se larke se 'from a girl-like boy.'

128 UBDU GBAMM1E.

7. The Locative Case.

169. Just as the Ablative Case is used to express ideas that have sometimes no connection with ' taking away ' (its literal meaning), so the Locative covers verbal relationships that have little or nothing to do with ' placing ' or ' locality.' The names, however, of both Cases express the primary senses in which they are used. Neither of them is embodied among the * Cases ' by Native Urdu Grammarians, and properly so, having neither of them special Case-endings ; but they are distinguished respectively by certain Post- positions attached to them. Those which are appended distinctively to form the Locative Case (so called) are men 1 in,' par ' on,' and tdk i up to.'

170. "We shall describe the occasions in which each of these Postpositions is idiomatically used ; premising that all three are primarily employed in reference to place ; as, gliar men 'in a (or the) house,' ghore par 'on a horse,' gfiutnl tdk ' up to the knee.'

171. (a) Men may express either rest in or motion towards (or into); as, Shahr men rahtd hai 'He stays in the city,' Shdh/r men jdtd hai ' He is going into the city,' Mere badan men bahut du/ch hai ' There is much pain in my body.'

(i) From place the idea is transferred to time ; as, tin din Jce 'arse men ' in the space of three days,' tin roz men i in three days,' tine men 'meanwhile,' lit. 'in so much (time).'

(0) Then it passes on to other applications in which we would use the term in or into in English ; as, ' He thought in his mind ' Apne dil men sochd, ' He was in this hope ' Is ummed men rahd, ' He was in a rage ' Wuh ghusse men hud, " He fell into a passion ' Wuh josh men pard, ' They fall into

SYNTAX- OF SUBSTANTIVES. 129

(lit. become entangled in) deceit ' We makdrl men mubtald ho jute ham, ' Mix it in (with) water ' Isko pdni men mildo.

(d) Sometimes the men is idiomatically omitted ; as, Wuh ghusse (men) hud l He became angry,' Wuh ghazab (men} hud 'He got into a rage,' us (sal) men 'in that year,' Wuh ghar (men) gayd ' He went home.'

(e) Men is often used instead (or in the sense) of bich (or darmiydri) 'in the midst of,' 'among,' 'between'; as, Un donoh men dostl hul 'Between those two there was friend- ship,' Bddshdhoh men yih dastur hai 'Among kings there is this custom,' in hddison men 'in the midst of these calamities,' haqq o butil men 'between truth and falsehood.'

(/) It is sometimes used in the sense of 'about,' 'concern- ing,' 'in the case of ; as, Wuh apne hul men likhtd hai ' He writes about his own case' (or 'about himself), Is muqad- dame men mashwarat karnl chdhiye ' You ought to consult (someone) concerning this affair ' (or ' in this case '), Is men maihne bahut fikr kl ' I thought much (or, was much con- cerned) about this.'

Hence it is often used in the titles of books, as, Ilm-i- Akhldq men ' On Morality,' Haiwdnon ki mashwarat men ' On the consultation of (among) the animals.'

(g) It is sometimes used in stating the cost of a thing ; as, Yih kitub kitne men para ' How much did this book cost ? ' But more frequently the price is expressed by the Genitive or Dative (see under these headings).

(h) Men is idiomatically used with Yerbs signifying 'to fasten,' 'attach,' 'connect,' etc. (instead of, or optionally with, the Ablative in se), e.g. : I)ol Jco rassl men bdndho ' Fasten the bucket to the string ' {i.e. the string on the bucket), Gosht men hire ke tukre lag gate ' The pieces of diamond stuck to the flesh' (lit. in the flesh).

130 URDU GRAMMAR.

172. Par, 'on,' 'upon,' is probably a contraction for upar, 'up,' 'upon,' 'above'; but the latter is an Adverb, or a Postposition governing the Genitive Case ; as, Wuh upar gayd hai ' He has gone up,' darwdze ke upar ' over the door.'

(a) The primary and most usual meaning of par is ' on,' or * upon ' ; as, Wuh kursl par baithd hai ' He is sitting on a chair,' Dlwar par khard hai ' He is standing upon the wall.' But it is also applicable in these senses to other things than locality; as, Is but par kyd kahte ho? 'On this subject what do you say?' Dhydn karne par aisd na karunyd 1 Upon reflection I will not do so.' Par has, besides, many other modifications of meaning; as, Wuh daryd kindre par khard tfm 'He was standing by the side of the river,' We darwdze par baithe tthe ' They were seated at (or by) the door,' mu'aiyan waqt par ' at the appointed time,' Wuh uspar 'dshiq hud * He was enamoured of her ' — or ' in love with her,' Wuh mujh par ghusse hai 'He is angry with (or at) me.'

(b) It is used in connection with incumbency, debt, or duty ; as, Unpar farz hai ' It is incumbent on them,' Mujh par qarz hat ' I am in debt,' Unpar wdjib hai ' It is obligatory on them.' It also denotes distinction or superiority of one thing over another; as, Tabiyat sand'at par muqaddam hai ' Nature precedes (or is superior to) art,' Raja rd'aiyat par 'did hai ' The king is higher than (superior to) the subject.'

(c) Sometimes it means 'because of,' 'for'; as, mere is kahne par ' on account of this saying of mine ' ; Wuh kis qusur par sam pdyd hai? 'For (because of) what offence is he punished?'

(d) Sometimes ' after,' or ' according to ' ; as, mundsib taur par 'after a proper manner,' uske ma'tnul par 'according to his custom.'

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 131

(e) Sometimes it means ' in spite of,' l notwithstanding ' ; as, etnl ddndl par ' notwithstanding so much wisdom,' uske is khalarddrl par ' in spite of this carefulness of his.'

(/) It is often translatable by 'to,' or 'for,' as in such phrases as these : Mere jane par rdzl hud ' He assented to my going,' Kisu par hargiz na khuld 'It was never revealed to anyone,' Ham par jo kuchh bitd (or guzra] ? ' Whatever happened to me ? ' Jis mewe par jl chale khdiyo ' Eat whatever fruits you have a liking for.' Ek kos par means * at the distance of (or about) a fcos.1

(g) Par (like men) is sometimes idiomatically omitted ; as, isl wagt (par) ' at this very time,' dusre din (par) ' on the second day.'

173. Talc, and talak— 'to,' 'up to,' 'as far as'— have generally been considered among the appendages to the Locative Case, though some recent grammarians would prefer to connect them with the Dative-Accusative. We think they are more properly Locative Postpositions ; though, like the other two, not always or necessarily confined to ideas of place or space. To time, especially, they are also applicable. They are generally connected with measure- ment either of matter, distance, or time. When it is intended to describe the limits mentioned as actually included in the measurement, the initial limit is put in the Ablative with the word le or leke (the Conjunctive Participle of lend 'to take') appended, and tak (or talak) attached to the further limit. Thus pdon se leke sir tak, or sir se le pdon tak ' from head to foot ' (including both, as expressed by le, or leke l taking.') But if this be not exactly or necessarily intended, then the le (or leke] is omitted; as, Dilll se Kalkatta tak ; yahdn se nadi talak ' from here to the river.' Or one limit only may be described ; as, Pdnl mere

132 URDU GEAMMAK.

kamar talc hud ' The water was up to my waist.' Or in reference to time, as dunyd Id paiddish se dj tak (or ab tak) 'from the Creation till now'; marne (or maut) tak 'till death ' : or to other ideas, as, tnaqdur tak ( as far as possible,' which is often expressed by the Persian td maqdur, or td la maqdur.

8. The Vocative.

174. This also is not regarded as a separate Case by native Grammarians of the Arabic, Persian, and Urdu languages, but classed either with the Nominative or the Objective. Generally words in the Vocative (so called) are the same in form as the Nominative, but many ending in a and d are changed to e ; as, larkd f a boy,' larke /, banda 'a slave,' bandef. To account for this change native Gram- marians say that such words are really the Indirect Object of a suppressed Verb — the ko of the Accusative being also omitted. Thus, ai larke !=ai / (pukdrtd hun) larke(ko). But this theory, we must admit, is more ingenious than satisfactory.

175. Though usually preceded by an Interjection, this is not always needful.

The word or phrase in the Vocative generally comes at, or near, the beginning of the sentence, unless a very short one ; as, ai larke, hamdri bat suno ! or, suno, larke ! A qualifying word (Adjective or Pronoun) must also take the Vocative or inflected form ; as, ai aclichhe larke ! ai Khudd ke bande ! Some Nouns occur chiefly in the Vocative Case, as lhaiya ! ' brother ! ' bhaind ! (or bud /) ' sister ! ' mdl / 'mother!' bdbd '0 father!' miyan '0 friend!' '0 master!'

CHAPTER VI. SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.

176. Under this heading a few additional remarks may here be made supplementary to what has already been said on the subject of Adjectives in the Etymological part of this Grammar, and under the Cases in this, the Syntactical.

177. The usual position of Adjectives in English and in Urdu — and the uses to which they are put — are very similar. For instance: (1) They almost always precede the Sub- stantive qualified by them ; as, 'a good boy ' achchhd larkd. (2) Though agreeing in Gender with the Noun, they do not (as in Latin) take the Case-terminations as well as the Noun ; as, 'of good girls' achchhl larkiyonkd (ke or ki) — in Latin, puellarum lonarum. (3) When two or more Adjectives qualify the same Substantive, the insertion of Conjunctions is not often needful ; as, 'ragged old clothes ' purdne chifihariye kapre, 'a poor old sick man' gharlb budhd bimdr ddmi; though a Conjunction is occasionally desirable, as, ' a wise and just ruler' 'dqil wa 'ddil hakim, * He is a wise but merciful king ' With zordwar lekin mihrbdn rdjd liai.

178. (4) In both languages Adjectives are often used as Substantives ; as, ddnd ' wise,' ' a sage,' ludhd ' old,' ' an old man,' kamdl 'perfect,' 'perfection.' (5) The Adjective lhar 1 full,' is (as in English) added on to a Noun in the sense of 'full of; as, chain-bhar 'peaceful,' dukh-lJiar 'sorrow- ful,' khdif-bhar 'fearful,' piydla-bhar 'a cupful,' maqdur-

134 URDU GRAMMAR.

ITiar (or, Ihar-maqdur') 'to one's full (or utmost) power,' pet-bhar 'a bellyful,' 'umr-bhar 'for one's full life,' 'life-long.' As in English, however, this affix has sometimes modifica- tions of meaning. Thus, kos-bhar (like kos-par] means * about a kos ' (two miles), ' as far as a kos ' ; but bhar-kos means ' a full kos? Topl-bhar kaprd means ' a sufficient quantity of cloth to make a cap.' So, in English, 'fearful,' 'restful,' 'sorrowful,' may be either 'full of,' or 'imparting fear/ 'rest,' or 'sorrow,' etc. Bhar-piir means 'quite full,' ' brimful ' — bhar -pal ' a receipt in full,' bam - bhar ' the length (or height) of a bamboo,' ' a fathom,' ser-bhar ' a seer's weight' (about 2 Ibs.). The phrase kauri-bhar 'a small shell's weight,' means the smallest piece or degree, ' an atom or particle ' ; as, mmeh kaurl-bhar jhutjh nahm 'there is not an atom (or particle) of falsehood in it.'

179. (6) The affix sd answers exactly to the English 'like' — as in such words as 'manlike,' 'kinglike,' 'soldier- like ' — and its contraction ly (as in ' manly,' ' kingly,' 'soldierly') the equivalents for which in Urdu would be mardsd, rdjdsd, sipdhisd. The Adjectives thus formed from Nouns are inflected, like most others ending in a, to agree with the qualified Substantive; as, hdtfii-sl chdl 'an elephant- like gait ' (highly admired in Indian women), bheriye-se kutte ' wolf -like dogs ' — the affix agreeing not with the object but with the subject of comparison, e.g. not with hdtfa (in the former example), which is Masculine, but with chdl, which is Feminine. When affixed to a Pronoun, the latter is put in the inflective (or formative) form — as mujhsd, ussd, kaisd (i.e. kis-sd}. So in English, 'like me,' 'like him,' 'what like' ('like to what'), 'like' governing the Dative or Accusative — as the sd in Urdu. In this case an Adjective or Noun intervening makes no difference, e.g. mujh gharib-sd

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 135

'like poor me,' us faqlr-sd Mike that beggar,' kis jdnwar-sd? ' like what animal ? '

(7) As 'like' in English, so in Urdu sd is often attached to a Genitive ; as, hdtftl kl si chdl * a gait like an elephant's ' or 'that of an elephant,' Tiamdrl si ddndl 'wisdom like ours.' Adverbial and Substantive Compounds may also be made with it ; as, sab ddml ekse nahm soclite ' all men do not think alike,' ek shu'ala sd nazar ay a ' something like a flame appeared.'

180. (8) The Adverbial affix sd, when appended to Adjec- tives (especially of quantity and quality) is, according to Mr. Platts, of different origin from the sd of similitude. They both closely correspond to the English affix ish. In both cases the affix, when added to Adjectives or Adverbs, gives the meaning of ' somewhat ' ; as, sufedsd ' whitish,' kdldsd 'blackish,' 'nearly black.' But sd may also mean 'very'; as, Motdsd 'smallish' or 'very small,' kdlasd 'very black' or 'blackish,' bahutsd 'very (or 'rather') much.' When added to Nouns both sd and ish generally signify ' like ' — as, bdnkdsd ' foppish,' chorsd ' thievish,' ' roguish.' When, however, sd is connected with an Adjective of Quantity, it is almost invariably the Adverb of Degree ; as, zarra si Idt 'a very little matter,' tfiorata. tel 'a very little oil' (or 'lard'), t flora, sd t fiord ' exceedingly little.'

DEGREES OF COMPARISON.

181. As to the modes in which Degrees of Comparison are formed, we have already spoken in a previous page.1 But we would here add that, in the case of Arabic Comparatives

1 § 36, p. 24.

136 URDU GRAMMAR.

or Superlatives (the forms are alike) — which are often used in Urdu writing and conversation — it makes no difference what the Gender of the word qualified may be, the Adjective being always put in the Masculine ; as, Wuh (ddmi} ahsanu- n-ndsi hai 'He (or that man) is the best of men,' Wuh ('aurat} ahsanu-n-nisdi hai ' She (or that woman) is the best (or loveliest) of women,' Wuh apnl lahinse ahsan hai ' She is better (or more beautiful) than her sister.' The Arabic Comparative and Superlative are both formed by prefixing a to the root word; as, kabir 'great,' aHar 'greater' or 'greatest,' from the root Jcabara; hasln 'good,' 'lovely'; ahsan 'better' or 'best' (or 'more and most lovely'), from hnsana. N.B. : The roots consist of only three letters in Arabic—-^ (k, b, r] and ^*uo- (h, «, n) respectively in these examples — the vowels being added to pronounce them by.

SYNTAX or NUMERALS.

182. The Cardinal Numbers, as before stated, almost always precede the Noun they refer to. That Noun may be either in the Singular or the Plural Number, according to circumstances, or optionally ; but the Yerb of which the Noun forms the Subject is almost always in the Plural, unless neither the Cardinal nor any word it is attached to implies more than unity; as, ek ddml did hai\ ek sau ddml

jute hain.

183. The following rules will be useful : —

(1) The Noun to which the Cardinal number is attached should generally be put in the Singular, if it denotes money, measures, quantity, time, distance, direction, or manner ; also, if it means a collective number (as ' a score,' ' a

SYNTAX OF NUMERALS. 137

hundred,' <a brace,' 'a pair,' etc.); but the Verb forming its Predicate is usually put in the Plural. Thus, ek hazdr rupiya, do gaz M kaprd, tin man kd tel, char llghe kd Met, char punch roz men, pachas baras (hi 'umr) iak, sdtfi kos dur, do jamb se, do tarahse, pandra sai zanjlr-i-fll, tin kauri, etc. Some- times, however, a Noun denoting money is put in the Plural ; as, pachas ashrefiydn '50 ashrafu1 ; and when the Singular is used the Verb, too, is occasionally made to agree with it ; as, chdlis ashrafz tjii, ' there were (lit. was) 40 ashrafis.'

(2) In all other cases the Noun is usually put in the Plural — though not always — and the Verb also in the Plural, with rare exceptions; e.g.: Usne do chdr bdten kahih 'He spoke a few ('two or four') words,' Ek sau ek mard tthe 'There were 101 men,' Char pdnch kishtiydn Tidtfi dl hain ' Four or five trays (of sweetmeats) have come to hand.'

(3) When the Collective Nouns (especially of the higher numbers) are used indefinitely with the Intensive affix on, the Nouns with which they are connected may be either in the Singular or the Plural, according to the above rules ; as, Maihne saikron lardydh larm ' I fought hundreds of battles,' Hazdroh hdtfil t)ie * There were thousands of elephants,' Idkfion rupa^e ke tuhfe ' curiosities of (the value of) lacs of rupees.'

So when the affix on is used intensively to denote every one of a collective number, the accompanying Substantives may be either in the Singular or the Plural; as, donon rdjd (or rdjdon) men ' between both the kings,' chdllsoh bandar ' the whole (every one of the) forty monkeys,' mere donon dnkfion men ' in both my eyes,' chdron tarafse ' from all the four quarters' (i.e. cardinal points), pdnchon waqt kl namdz 'all the five times of prayer' (lit. 'prayer of all the five times').

CHAPTER VII.

SYNTAX OP THE PBONOUNS.

THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

184. These are very often omitted when they are obviously implied in the Verb; but for the sake of perspicuity or contrast their expression may sometimes be needful. In this case they almost always precede the Verb ; but occasion- ally they are put last, especially in the Imperative and in Poetry.

185. When two or more Pronouns form the Nominative to a Verb, they usually follow the order of the Persons, the Verb in the Plural agreeing in Person with the first in order of the Pronouns; as, main aur wuh dwenge ; jab turn our wuh doge.

The same order is observed generally (not always) when the Pronouns are in an inflected Case; as, jab merl terl muldqdt pfiir hogl ' when you and I shall again meet.'

The Genitives of Personal Pronouns (though properly Possessive Adjectives) are sometimes used as Objective Genitives; e.g., uskl tdldsJi men 'in search of him,' mere dekhne se ' at the sight of me,' hamdre pakarne ko ' for the catching of us.'

186. When Pronouns in the Accusative and Dative occur in the same sentence, advantage is taken of the two forms of the Pronominal Dative, and two or three of the Accusative, and the affix ko is generally (not always) attached to the word in the Accusative, the second form of the Pronoun being reserved for the Dative ; as, mko fuldne sdhibne mujhe

SYNTAX OP THE PRONOUNS. 139

diyd ' a certain gentleman gave it (or that) to me,' (yih) mujTiko do ' give (it) to me.' But, vice versa, we would say — Use Raja ko somp diyd l He made him over to the king,' and mujhe gharko le jdo 'take me home' (or 'to the house ').

187. When a Pronoun is qualified by an accompanying Noun or Adjective, it is then put before the latter in the inflective form (if in any case but the Nominative or Vocative) and the Case-ending attached to the latter word ; as, Main faqlr waJidh gayd 'I, the faqlr, went there,' Yih mujh faqlr (or gharlb'] kd ghar hai ' This is the house of poor me,' us hardmzdde kd nahlh ' not of that rascal.'

188. The inflective form of the Pronoun is also used before the Emphatic Particle hi (or z, Plural hm, m) and the enclitic sd ('like') — except, in the former case, in the Nominative, Genitive, and Agent of the 1st and 2nd Personal Pronouns — as, Maihhl jdungd ' I myself will go,' Yih merlhl kitdb hai ' This is my own book,' Main tujhlko duhgd ' I will give to your own self,' Main ushl se pdyd 'I got it from himself,' Maihhlne use pdyd 'I myself got it,' I} shine diyd 'He himself gave it,' Ushl kd qusur hai 'It is his own fault,' Unhihko do ' Give it to themselves.' Observe that in all the Cases, except the Genitive Singular and Plural of the 1st and 2nd Personal Pronouns, the hi is inserted between the formative root and the sign of the Case. Sd can only be added to the inflective form of a Pronoun, as, mujhsd, tujhsd, uasd. When sd (se, or si) is added to an Adjective it modifies its meaning in one way or other ; thus bardsd may either mean ' very large ' or ' largish.' When appended to Nouns or Adjectives sd does not necessarily require the inflected form. In these Adjectives (as they are) the sd is changeable to si and se to agree with Feminine

140 URDU GRAMMAR.

and Masculine Nouns and Pronouns in inflected Cases; as, tujhsl 'aurat ' a woman like thee,' Iheriye se kutte ' wolf-like dogs.' In the compounds aisd (for ma) and waisd (for ussd), which are either Adjectives or Adverbs, the Pronouns are not Personal but Demonstrative, i.e. not ' like him ' (or it), but 'like this,' or 'like that.' Sa is rarely used with Pronouns of the 3rd Person.

Before the Postposition pas, either the full form of the Genitive may be used or merely the inflective form of the Pronoun, i.e. either uxpds or ushepds, merepds or mujhpds.

189. Though not exactly coming under the head of Syntax, a few remarks may here be made as to the colloquial uses of the Personal Pronouns. In Urdu, as in other languages, both Western and Eastern, the Plural Pronoun is often used instead of the Singular. Thus, in familiar conversation with equals ham and turn commonly take the place of math and tu,1 the latter being seldom used, except when a sense of difference in status is designed to be expressed, or else either affection, or reverence, or contempt. Thus, in addressing children (especially one's own) or near relations, or in prayer to God, or addressing a person of low caste, or an object of hatred or disgust, tu would properly be used, and (except in the last case) main also. When conversing with persons of rank, whether equals or superiors, neither tu nor turn should be used, but dp (='Sir,' 'Monsieur') with Verbs in the Plural 3rd Person; as, Ap jdnte hdm, or, Apko mo'lum hai < You, Sir, know,' or 'Your Honour knows ' ; and then the speaker frequently uses

1 To avoid the ambiguity which this custom might sometimes occasion, real plurality is sometimes expressed by the addition of the word log ('people'), as, ham log samajhte hain 'we (not I) think.'

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 141

main, though in ordinary parlance ham, with equals, is more common. And, when referring to a third party, whether present or absent, if respect be designed, then unkd, or unko, etc., or even unhonkd (or -ko] would be proper; or when the Agent Case is syntactically required — then unhohne is preferable to unke ; as, unkd kdm hai, unko darkdr hai, unhohne kahd 'it is his business,' 'he must' (or 'he needs'), * he said.'

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

190. The Pronouns yih and wuh are used both as Personals and Demonstratives. As the latter (which they more properly are) they are sometimes used with the JS~oun they relate to understood ; as, Ye (chzz) kyd ham ? ' What are these (things) ? ' We (shakhs) kaun hain ? ' Who are those (persons) ? ' As Personal Pronouns the Case-signs are added on to the inflective forms directly, but as Demonstratives these are appended to the accompanying Noun ; as, Uskd ndm kyd hai ? ' What is his name ? ' Us chlz kd ndm kyd (or kyd ndni) ? ' What is the name of that thing ? '

191. Demonstratives may take the Nominative forms, yih and wuh, in the Accusative when no particular stress is intended to be laid upon the thing defined; as, Yih chlz tumko duhgd * I will give you this thing,' Kyd turn wuh khabar usko sundoge ? ' Will you tell him that news ? ' yih dekhke bold ' seeing this he said.' But when the Demon- strative refers to a person or animate object, or to some- thing specially notified, then the inflected form with ko should be used ; as, Yih us ddmlko do ' Give this to that man/ Is ghoreko le jdo ' Take this horse away,' In kitdlohko tumko parhne chdhiye 'You should read these books.'

142 - UEDTJ GEAMMAE.

THE RELATIVE PEONOUN.

192. The Relative Pronoun jo means properly only ' who,' ' which,' ' what ' ; and is generally followed by a Personal or Demonstrative Pronoun (answering to our Antecedent) or by a Correlative. But not unfrequently it stands alone in a sentence, one or other of the latter being understood, as in English, e.ff., 'Who steals my purse steals trash '= in Urdu, Jo klsa merd churdtd (so or wuh) ndchtz churdtd. Sometimes it stands for jo koti ' whosoever ' ; thus, jo dyd might mean either ' he who came ' or * whosoever came.'

It answers equally for Neuters; as, Jo karne chdhte ho (so) jald karo * What you wish to do (that) do quickly,' where, as in English, but less idiomatically, the Correlative may be omitted.

193. The Relative and Correlative may be repeated, by way of emphasis ; as, Jo jo kiyd cMhiye, so (or so so) jaldl kiyd chahiye 'Whatsoever has to be done, should be done quickly.' In such sentences the Correlative might be omitted altogether, but not so well; and the Demonstrative wuh (instead of it) would not be so idiomatic.

The Indefinite Pronouns jo koji and jo kuchh (for which, as in the above examples, the Relatives are sometimes used) are constructed in the same way, as regards order ; but in the Correlative clause the Indefinites (kofi and kuchh) are not to be repeated; as, Jo kuchh kiyd cJui.hte ho, so (or sohl, or wuhl) jald kiyd chdhiye * Whatsoever you wish to do, that should be done quickly.'

194. But the Antecedent may be, not a Pronoun, but a Noun or descriptive phrase. In that case (as in English) the Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Person and Number ;

THE RELATIVE PEONOT7N. 143

and, as the Pronoun has no distinct form for Gender, agree- ment in this, too, will be observed (if possible) in the words forming the complement of the clause. Thus, Raja, jo lashkar jama? karne chdhe, rawdna hue ' The king, who wished to assemble an army, set out.' Here the Person and Gender are shown by the words chdhe and hue (the Plural being used respectfully). So in Rani bhi uske satfi jane chdhtl tfil (' The queen also wished to go with him ') — where the Gender, Number, and Person are expressed by the Verb.

Again, Tumjo itne roz Kalkatte men rah gap ho,kyd karoge? 'You who have been staying so long in Calcutta — what will you do?' Here the complementive clause shows (by grammatical concord) the Number, Gender, and Person of the Antecedent (turn) and of the Relative (jo), which neither of the Pronouns could themselves express. In the sentence Wuh das kos do ghante he 'arse men paidal gayd, jo ta'ajjub kl bat tthl ('he went 10 kos on foot in two hours, which was a wonderful thing') the Antecedent to the Relative jo is the whole preceding clause. In the following sentence we have a good example of the respective positions of the Relative and what we would, in English, make and call the. Antecedent; the first word, in idiomatic Urdu, being the Relative : Jo log wahdn hdzir tfie, unmense koti us khatt ko park nahin saktd tfid, lit. ' What people there present were, out of them any one that letter to read was not able.' It would be good Urdu — though not so idiomatic — to say un log men se jo wahdn hdzir tfoe koti, etc. Here is another good sample of the use and place of a Relative, which the learner should study to imitate : Jis ddrakht ke niche tu kfiard hai, yahdn ek dftdba ashrafiyon se lharti hud gard hai ' Beneath the tree under which you are standing

144 URDU GRAMMAR.

there is buried a pot full of ashrafls (or, gold mohars)? Here observe that the Pronominal Adverb yahdh takes the place of the Correlative phrase, tiske tale ' under that.'

The Relative may be used both as Subject and Object in one and the same sentence, which then becomes doubly correlative. Thus, for the English ' They carried off what- ever each man could lay his hands on,' the Urdu would be Jo jiske hdtfi para le gate ; lit. l whatsoever into whosoever's hand fell, they took away/ In such cases the Correlative Pronoun is generally omitted.

195. Sometimes a Pronominal Adverb takes the place of a Relative Pronoun, as in Jo jaisd karegd ivaisd pdwegd l As any one shall do (or, act) so will he receive (or get).'

Relative Adjectives, too, as well as Adverbs are often used correlatively ; as, Jitnd chdhiye itnd (or utnd] le lo ' Take as much as you want,' jahdn gul wahdn Ididr 'where the rose there the thorn.'

The Conjunctive Particle ki ('that,' 'that is,' 'viz.') is often used, apparently, instead of the Relative jo — as in wuh ddml ki tune dekJid 'the man whom you saw,' or in liar chiz hi tumhdre pas hai ' everything that you have.' But in reality it is neither a Pronoun at all, nor a represen- tative of, or substitute for, the Relative; but in all cases a simple Particle, heading or introducing a clause which contains a Pronoun either expressed or understood. Thus, in the above phrases the full syntactical construction is — wuh ddmi hi (usko or jisko) tumne deklid and hdr chlz hi (wuh or jo) tumhdre pas hai. So in the clause wazlr ki mard-i-ddnd t/<d, wuh or Jo is understood after the ki. The truth of this theory is made the more evident from phrases (not rare) in which the full construction is presented, as in wuh ghuldm ki jisne usse parwarish pdti tjil ' the slave who had been

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 145

fostered by her,' itnd mdl lei jiskd hisdb nahln ' so much wealth that there was no reckoning it.' In either of these clauses either the ki or the Pronoun might have been omitted without obscuring or altering the sense. The Particle and the construction are properly Persian.

INTERROGATIVE PEONOUNS.

196. The Interrogatives, Tcaun and kyd, are used either Substantively or as Adjectives — kaun in the former case meaning * who ? ' in the latter ' what ? ' ; kyd in either case meaning generally 'what?' as, wuli kaun hai? 'who is he ? ' wuh kaun jdnwar hai ? ' what is that animal ? ' wuh Tcaun chlz (or kyd chlz} hai? 'what thing is that?' Kyd is sometimes a mere Adverbial Interjection, applicable to persons or things; as, kyd khubl 'how fine! ' kyd ta'ajjub hi Idt \ ' what a wonderful word (or thing)!' kyd hardmzdda hail ' what a rascal he is ! ' "When reduplicated they express either variety, distribution, or superlativeness ; as, kyd kyd chlz ? ' what different things ? ' kis kis tarahse ? ' in what various ways?' ye kitubeh kis kis kl ham? 'to whom (respectively) do these books belong ? ' kydhl kydhl mazbut \ 1 how wondrous strong ! '

By adding sd (Feminine «z) to the uninflected Pronoun a question may be put as to which of two or more persons or things something may be predicated; as, Yih kauml kitdb men likhd hai ' In what book (out of many) is this written ? '

Like the Relative, the Interrogative may be used in the same sentence as both the Subject and the Object ; as, Solo ki kaun kis chlz kd mdlik hai ' Tell me who is the owner of each thing,' i.e. ' to whom each article belongs.'

Kdheko (the Dative of kyd} is often used in the sense of

10

146 URDU GRAMMAR.

' for what ? ' ' why ? ' instead of kis liye ? or kis waste ? as, turn kdheko dte ho ? ' why have you come ? ' But the two latter are now more generally preferred.

Kyd (as well as the Interrogative Particles dyd and kyuhkar'} is often put at the beginning of a question (like an, num, or nonne in Latin, or y a-t-il or est-ce-que in French) simply to show that it is a question ; as, I£yd turn Kalkatta, jdoge ? ' Are you going to Calcutta ? '

Kyd repeated in a sentence sometimes answers to our * whether — or,' ' either — or ' ; as, kyd lure kyd bhale f whether bad or good,' kyd chaloge Tcyd rahoge ' whether you go or stay,' kyd chalo kyd raJio ' either go or stay.'

197. Interrogative Pronouns are used (idiomatically) in indirect as well as direct questions ; as in the sentence Main Tcyd jdnuh ki wuh kaun hai? ' What do I know (i.e. I do not at all know) who he is ? ' lit. ' Who is he ? ' — kaun not being a Relative Pronoun nor a substitute for one, but simply used idiomatically; the Interrogative clause in such cases standing as the Object of the preceding Verb jdnuii and con- nected with it by the Particle ki, as is usual. The governing clause in such sentences, according to Mr. Platts, " must always be either directly or indirectly negative, otherwise the interrogative cannot be employed," as it would not be idiomatic to say Main junta huh ki wuh kaun hai, though Main junta nahlh, etc., or Majhe md'lum nahih, etc., would be so.

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

198. These are kofi 'any,' 'anyone,' 'some,' 'some one,' ' a certain one,' etc., and kuchh ' some,' ' something,' * a few,' 'any,' etc. As Substantives the one applies to persons, the

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 147

other to things; but as Adjectives, either may be attached to any Noun; as, Kofi hai? (for kofi huzir hai or wahuh ktol hai?) 'Who is there'? lit. 'Is anyone there?' being tantamount to kaun (wahah huzir} hai ? or to kyu kofi huzir hai?; Kisl darakht par charhu hai 'He has climbed a tree/ Kuchh punl luo ' Bring some water.' Kofi sometimes supplies the place of an Indefinite Article ; as, koti lomrl kue ke pus ek roz uya ' A fox came one day to a well.' Kofi nahm and kuchh nahm mean ' no one,' ' none,' or simply ' no ' ; as, kofi chlz nahm l nothing,' kuchh darkur nahm ' there is no need,' kuchh parwu nahm 'don't mind' (lit. 'no concern'). Neither Pronoun has any Plural form.

Kisu — the inflected form of kofi as well as of kuchh — is not so much used now as kisl.

199. Kofi (or else kal\ though also Singular, is sometimes used with a Plural Substantive ; as, Kofi din wahuh rahu ' He stayed there some days.' But kuchh and chand are more generally used in the sense of ' some,' ' several ' ; while with Plural Substantives the Pronominal Adjectives ba'z (or ba'ze) are more commonly used; as, Chand roz ke la'd wuh ayd ' After a few days he came,' JBa'ze larke aur Inrkiyah wahun jama' hue tthe l Some boys and girls were there assembled.'

An Indefinite Pronoun followed by a Negative may often be best translated by ' no,' ' none ' ; as, Usse kuchh fuida nahm niklegu ' no profit will result from that ' ; kisl se na lolnd ' tell no one.'

Sometimes kuchh in combination with Pronouns or Pro- nominal Adjectives answers to our 'all,' 'at all,' 'ever so much,' etc. ; as, Mainne yih kuchh dukh uthuyu ' I suffered all this affliction,' ayar ketni kuchh koshish karo ' if you try ever so much,' or ' take ever so much pains.' Kofi — kofi or

148 URDU GRAMMAR.

kuchh—kuchh are equivalent to our ' one — another ' ; as, JTo,? kuchh boltd hai, hop kuchh ' One says one thing, another another,' Eanj ko,i detd, koti orhta * One occasions, another endures grief (lit. 'puts it on').

THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN.

200. Ap is used to give emphasis to a Noun or Personal Pronoun — the latter being sometimes not expressed — as main dp jduhgd, or simply dp (or aphT) jdungti 'I will go my- self ' ; kya Sdhib dp dwenge ? « Will Sahib come himself ? ' It may be made still more emphatic by the addition of the particle hi — as (turn) dphl doge l Will you come — your very self?'

As a Reflexive Pronoun dp sometimes is added em- phatically to its own inflected form (apne), but this latter is generally omitted ; as, Tu apne dpko (or simply dpko) maldmat karo ' Blame your own self,7 Kya tu dpko le-aib jdntd hai ? ' Do you think yourself faultless ? '

In such cases apne tain is generally preferred to apkot as the Objective form; as, apne tain kahd (rather than apse Jcahd) 'he said to himself (usne being understood). But apne ko (or apne dpko} is also common in modern parlance.

Apnd, the Genitive of the Reflexive Pronoun, is always used where suus ('own') would be in Latin, i.e. when it refers to the Pronominal Subject of a sentence (and not merd, terd, etc.), even though the Pronoun be not expressed ; as, Main apnd sabaq parhtd huh (or apnd sabaq parhtd hun) 'I am reading my lesson,' Wuh apne ghar ko jdtd hai 'He is going to his house (or home),' Apne ghar j die ho? 'Are you going home ? '

THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. 149

But if the Possessive Adjectives occur in a sentence which has a distinct Subject, or if they stand in the Nominative, the regular forms merd, terd, etc., are used ; as, Uhhonne mujhe aur mere bcteko mdrd 'They beat me and my son,' Merd bhi jl lakhdyd ' My mind also coveted.' Apnd (as also merd, etc.) is often omitted where no ambiguity can arise therefrom; as, Zabdn ko jhuth bolnese roko 'Restrain (thy) tongue from speaking falsehood.'

The word apnd may be used Substantively to express * my,' ' thy,' and property, etc. ; as, Kya yih kitdb apnl samajhte ho? 'Do you think this book yours ? ' Wuh apnon ke pus dyd ' He came to his own.'

The phrase apse (or emphatically dp se dp] is generally employed as an Adverb ; as, Wuh apse udhar gayd ' He went there of his own accord,' Wuh gdch apse dp ugd hai 'That tree grew spontaneously.'

Instead of apse dp the Persian equivalent, Uiud-ba-kJmd (or khud #2 khud), is sometimes used; as, Usne khud-la-ldmd apnd ghord bddshdh ko nazr hi ' He of his own accord presented his horse to the king.'

CHAPTER VIII.— THE YEBB. 1. THE INFINITIVE OR GERUND.

201. That part of the Urdu Yerb which, by English grammarians, is commonly called the Infinitive, is more properly a Gerund or Verbal Noun. It corresponds to the Arabic masdar, a Noun of place or action, and, like it, may be either the Subject or Object of a Verb, and, be indeed, in any Case Singular (except the Vocative), under the government of some other word. It has no Plural. It may also, if an Active Transitive Verb, govern another word objectively in any Case. Thus, Mujhko jdnd zarur hai ' I must go,' lit. ' for me to go is necessary ' ; Tujhko jane dungd ' I will give to you (permission) to go.' Here the Case sign ko is omitted after the Gerund, the preceding word (tujhko} — the secondary Object (in the Dative Case) — having already got it. But one might say, Mujhe jdneko do 'Allow me to go.' The Dative form of the Objective, however, in such a sentence, is not often used with the Gerund. Again, for ' One ought to teach boys to read,' we might either say, larko'nkd parhdnd ( ' the teaching of boys') or larkohko parhdnd ('to teach boys') Idzim hai, i.e. making the Gerund govern either the Genitive or Objective Case. So in ghar se nikalnd ' to go out of the house ' (or, 'one's leaving the house' or 'home'), we have it governing the Ablative, as it may any Case.

THE INFINITIVE OR GERUND. 151

202. The Genitive Absolute of the Gerund is sometimes used (adjectively) to express a purpose or likelihood ; as, Wuh wildyat jdnekd Tiai ' He intends (or, is) going abroad ' (or, 'to Europe,' or 'to England'). And so (still more often) with a Negative Particle ; as, Wuh nahm jdnekd hai ' He is not going,' Wuh nahm karne Jed hai ' He is not going to do it ' — the word mard (or shakhs) being understood — lit. ' he is not the doing (of it)'s man,' or 'person.'

203. But when purpose, or intention, is to be expressed the Gerund (alias Infinitive) is more generally put in the Dative- Accusative Case ; as, Wuh guru ke yahdh (or pus] kitdb parhne ko (or ke waste) gayd hai ' He has gone to the Guru's house to read (or, for the purpose of reading) his book.' The Gerund in such a case is in general connected either with the Substantive Verb hond — as, main bolneko tfid 'I was going (or about) to speak' — or with some other Transitive or Intransitive Verb, generally implying motion or purpose ; as, wuh dekhneko dyd 'he came to see,' main rahneko tthd 'I was (intending) to remain,' mai'nne wahdh rahneko irdda kiyd 1 1 had a desire to stay there.' But in the latter sentence the Genitive, rahne kd} would be equally (or even more) idiomatic.

204. The uninflected Infinitive is sometimes used for the Imperative, generally in a stronger or more stringent sense ; as, Turn yahdh kal and 'You (must) come here to-morrow,' Turn wahdh mat jdnd ' Do not go there,' ' on no account go there,' Jo kuchh kaheh usko sach jdnnd ' Whatever they say take it as true.1 The Negative Particles used in such cases

1 The idiom is perhaps really a contraction for the fuller form with the Verb hai, used impersonally; as, tumko yahan ana hai, tumko khiyal na karna hai ' you must not suppose.'

152 URDU GRAMMAR.

are either na or mat, but the latter more frequently, as stronger, and it generally (na always) precedes the Yerb. With the Begular Imperative mat more usually follows it; as, wahdn jdo mat 'do not go there,' though mat jdo would also do.

The happening of something just when something else had occurred is often expressed by an Infinitive along with tfia (' it was ') ; as, Jawdn kd darwdze par ana tfhd, ki wahdn sdhib-i-khdna bhi pahunchd ' The coming of the young man to the door was (i.e. 'he had just come to the door') when, just then, the master of the house arrived.'

205. It is very often used, like the Latin Gerundive, with a Dative (either as Subject or Object in a sentence) in the sense of something requiring to be done ; as, Mujhko daurrid hai (mihi currendum est) ' I must run,' Tumko chitthl likhnd hood ' You will have to write a note.'

This construction of the Infinitives is very common in connection with theYerbs hond and parnd ('to fall,' 'befall,' 'happen,') and such phrases as chahiye, Idzitn hai, munasib hai ('it is fit or proper'), e.g. Hamko jdnd hai (or chdhiye) ' I must go ' ; Tumko dukh sahnd paregd ' You will have to suffer grief (lit. ' it will fall to you to suffer grief) ; Likhne- parhne kl 'ilm sikhnd munasib hai ' It is proper to learn the art of writing and reading ' ; Sabr se (or sabr karke) ghani khdnd chdhiye ' We ought to endure grief patiently.'

When constructed with parnd, Idzim, or munasib hai, the Yerb in the Infinitive may be regarded as the simple Nominative to the following Yerb, and governing its Com- plementive Object.

But sometimes the Infinitive is made to agree with its Object (like a Gerundive) if the Yerb be Transitive ; or with the Predicative Noun if the Yerb be hond, e.g. Hamko

THE NOIH* OF AGENCY. 153

fiqr harm chdhiye ' "We ought to consider ' ; TTsko sazd deni luzim hai ' It would be right to punish him ' ; Ranj o muslbat men khashl horn mushkil hai ' It is difficult to be happy (lit. 'for happiness to be ') in pain and misfortune.'

Whether to use the Infinitive as a Gerund or as a Gerundive (i.e. to make it agree or not with its Object in Gender and Number) is a matter of choice left to the author or speaker to determine, which euphony may often decide, e.g. whether to say Tumko Fdrsl slkhnd — or slkhrii chdhiye for * You ought to learn Persian.'

2. THE NOUN OF AGENCY.

206. This partakes of the character partly of a Noun and partly of a Verb — following the government of the one or of the other or of both — according to circumstances. If derived from a Transitive Verb, and having the meaning of a Present or a Future Participle, it usually governs either a Genitive or an Accusative. But if it have the meaning of a Perfect, its Substantive character then preponderates, and it will govern the Genitive only ; as, ddml-khdnewdld slier 'a man-eating tiger' (Past, Present, and Future, pro- bably) ; is kitdb kd likhnewdld l the writer of this book ' (i.e. he who has written it) ; daurnewdld * the man who is running ' ; chitthl-likhnewdld * the letter- writer ' — ' one who is in the habit of writing letters.' It often also expresses a proximate Future ; as, JTalkattd jdnewdld ' he who is (soon) going to Calcutta ' ; marnewdld (or marnehdrd) ' one who is about to die.'

207. Nouns of Agency may be constructed either with an Adjective ; as, achchhd bolnewdld * a good speaker,' or

154 URDU GRAMMAR.

an Adverb ; as, jald likhnewdld ' one who writes quickly,' 1 a quick writer,' or a Substantive ; as, rdj-karnewdll nasl 'the reigning family.' In the last case, the Noun governed by it may either be in the Genitive or the Accusative. Generally speaking, if the Noun of Agency, belonging to a Transitive Yerb, have a Present or Future meaning, the Objective Complement may be in either case ; as, shor karnewdle ' those who are making a noise ' ; kitdb (or kitdbkd'} parhnewdld ' he who is reading a book,' * the reader of a book.' But if it have the meaning of a Perfect-Past, it then more resembles a Noun, and will generally govern the Genitive ; as, khatt kd likhnewdld kaun hai ' who is the writer of the letter ? ' (i.e. ' who wrote or has written the letter?'), ghar da landnewdld wuhl hai 'he is the builder of the house ' (i.e. ' he built the house ').

208. The above remarks are applicable also to Arabic and Persian Nouns of Agency and Verbal- Adjectives, so frequently occurring in Urdu ; but with this diiference, that, when they govern the Accusative, they generally stand as the Predicate of a preceding subject; as, Wuh sab kdmon men hamko man? hogd ' It will be an obstruction in all our works,' Wuh uskd madadgdr hud * He was his assistant.' In these languages, however, the Genitive construction is most usual, and in Hindi also.

PARTICIPLES — PAST, PRESENT, AND ADVERBIAL.

209. The Past and Present Participles, form a sort of connecting link between Adjectives and Verbs. As the former they agree in Number and Gender with the Noun

PABTICIPLES. 155

or Pronoun which they qualify ; as the latter, they agree in meaning and in government with the Verbs to which they belong ; as, Wuh chaltd hud chiriyd ko dekhtd hai l He going along sees a bird.' We git gdtl aur bdjd lajdtl hum sJiahr kl taraf jdtl ham 'They are going towards the city singing songs and playing instruments.' When used adjectively they are generally prefixed to the Perfect Participle hud ('been'), as in the last example, where hum is understood after gdti, but only expressed (once for both Participles) after lajatl ; or as, We larks rote hue ghar jdte ham ' These boys are going home weeping.' Sometimes the Participle qualifies and agrees with, not the Subject, but the Object of the finite Yerb ; as, Mainne usko ghore par sawdr hote dekhd ' I saw him mounted on a horse,' where hote may be regarded as the inflected form of the Present Participle — agreeing with usko (' him ') — or otherwise as the Adverbial form of the (present) Participle, alias, the Adverbial Participle. The Past Participle is also used adjectively (though more seldom) ; as, Wuh baithd (or laithd hud) deMtd hai ' He seated (or sitting) looks on,' Dastar-khwdn lichhd hud tthd * The table-cloth was spread.'

Generally speaking, when the Subject of the Participle is the same with that of the accompanying Yerb, both are made to agree in Gender and Number therewith; as, Yih kahte hue we chale gate ' Saying this they went away.'

Eut when the subject of the Participle and of the finite Yerb are different, and also, sometimes, when they are the same, the Participle (whether Present or Past) is put in what is called the Adverbial form, and we have then ex- amples of what we have ventured to designate.

156 URDU GRAMMAR.

THE ADVERBIAL-PARTICIPLE.

210. This is formed by changing the final a of the Past and Present Parts into e ; as in Main sir niche ktye khard tfid

* I was standing with my head bowed down.' Where mam is the Subject of /chard tfid, and sir the Subject (or Object) of niche kiye.1 But in the following example the Subject of the Adverbial-Participle and of the affirmative Verb is indubitably the same, viz. Maihne rote bisorte (or bisurte) kahd ' I, weeping and sobbing, said.'

The rule given by Mr. Platts — adopting the theory of previous Grammarians — is as follows: "If the Subject of the Participles is not the same as that of the finite Verb, both Participles (i.e. both the Imperfect and the Perfect) are constructed absolutely in the Locative Singular, the Postposition being suppressed, and the Subject of the Imperfect Participle is often omitted."

211. On this point, however, we venture to propound another theory, and to consider and designate this form of the Participle (whether Past or Present) as ' Adverbial,' under which denomination we have included it among the 'Participles' in the Paradigms of the Conjugation of Verbs (§§ 66, 67).

The ordinary, and only form of the ' Adverbial Participle ' given in previous Grammars, is that of the inflected Present Participle with the Particle hi attached to it; as, Dekhtehl 'Immediately on seeing,' Hotehl 'Just on becoming,' Jdtehl

* While in the very act of going.'

1 That is, according as Jciye is taken in a Past Active or in a Passive sense, viz. as, ' having lowered (bowed) my head,' or ' my head being made low' (or 'bowed'), etc. See subsequent paragraphs.

THE ADVERB-PARTICIPLE. 157

But our doctrine is that this is only the intensive or emphatic form of the ' Present Adverbial-Participle ' that and the Past Adverbial being formed by changing the final a of either Participle into e\ as, karte 'doing,' 'while 'doing,' laithe 'seated,' 'being seated,' 'sitting,' kiye 'made,' 'being made,' or sometimes 'having made,' dekhe 'seen,' 'being seen,' or 'having seen.' Should the Past-Participle end in yd (as dihhdyd, gay a] then the yd is optionally changed to e (as dihhde, lithdp, gate, lip], or to ye (as dihhdye lithdye, liye, gaye].

The Emphatic Particle is seldom, if ever, added to the Past Adverbial, perhaps because the very idea of ' just as,' 'immediately upon,' implies present action or change of state.

The theory of the Past or Present Participle in the Locative will hardly ' hold water ' as such phrases as karte men, chalte men, chale men, dekhe men (or par] never are used and would not be idiomatic.

Sometimes a sort of continuous present sense is given to an Adverbial Participle (Past or Present) by the addition of such words as hue, ~hoie\ or the repetition of the Adverbial Participle itself, or a formative of it; as, laithe hue, laithe laithe or laithe lithde l ' While continuing to sit — or seated.'

212. It may be well to test or illustrate our theory by applying it to some of the examples adduced by Mr. Platts in elucidation of the above quoted rule given by him.

1 Prof. Monier Williams in his Grammar (R. 567) paraphrases the bait he bithde in this sentence (tune mujhe bait he bithde ndhaqq badnam kiya) , thus, ' sitting still or forced to sit still, and therefore giving no cause for it.' Platts renders it 'seated quietly' (i.e. 'inoffensively'). But it seems needless to strain this meaning out of the Causal bithde in this connection, baithe bithde being simply idiomatic like band bandyd 'ready made,' pakd pakdyd 'ready cooked.'

158 URDU GRAMMAR.

The first (a rather stiff one we admit), is this : Sari rat talapte kail 'The whole night passed in restlessness' (lit. 'I being agitated, or rather, 'all in a flutter'). The two Subjects here are sari rat, Nominative to kati ('was spent ' Or 'passed'), and mam 'I' (understood) in the Nominative- Absolute, which with talapte, forms the * Participial- Adverb ' qualifying kati ' it (was) spent, I fluttering,' i.e. ' while I was fluttering.' (2) Again, Mainne rote bisorte kahd 'I said weeping and sobbing the while.' Had the Subject here been in the Nominative Case (main] the Participle (present) might have agreed with it (as, Main rota lisortd bold or kahtd t,hd), but being in the (inflected) Agent-Case, the Adverbial form is used instead. (3) Kuttti unse lartd pfartd rotl ho lachdte us chtih par dyd ' The dog, fighting and struggling with them, came to the dungeon (? ' well ' or 'pit') with the bread saved,' says Mr. Platts — but rather ' having saved the bread.' Here is a good example of the Past Adverbial-Participle (backup) governing (as an Active Past Participle) rotlko in the Accusative — the two previous Participles (lartd pfiirta} being Present in the Nominative and agreeing with kuttd. (4) In Turn pith dikhde jdte ho 'You are going — showing your back,'1 we have another Active Past- Adverbial. (5) Gharaz, plr-zanko llte hue ghur he munh par dyd 'In short, taking the old woman with him, he came to the mouth of the pit.' Here again the Accusative plr-zanlco necessitates lip hue being taken actively, not passively, as Mr. Platts translates, as the literal sense. (6) Malika maile kapre pahine Idhar nikll 'The queen

1 'Your back shown' (as Mr. Platts gives the 'literal') would be pltfi or dikhal gatl.

THE ADVEEB-PAKTICIPLE. 159

having put on ' (i.e. ' wearing or dressed in ') ' dirty clothes came out.' (7) Main us jawdn ke gale men bank dale hute laithl tfil ' I was sitting (or seated) with my arm thrown round the young man's neck.' Here is another example of the Nona. Absolute, in the Adverbial form, lit. ' I was sitting (my) arm being thrown round/ etc. ; as is the next (8) Agar ek hdtfil zanjlr turde hue dtd ho ' If an elephant (with his) chain broken were coming.' (9) Ek mendak ko sump pakre hai ' There is a snake that has caught a frog ' (lit. l a snake one frog having caught is (there).' (10) Uzhdhd mu'nh pasdre hai 'A python (with its) mouth distended (or wide open) is (there) ' or ' having opened wide its mouth,' etc.

Mr. Platts, in a footnote, ridicules the doctrine put forth by a modern grammarian, that sometimes such forms as liye, kiye, etc., are not to be regarded as Perfect (or Passive) Participles, but as "Irregular forms of the Conjunctive Participle," and that in the last two examples given pakre hai and pasdre hai are " forms of the Perfect" signifying * has caught,' and ' has opened.' While not defending this theory, we feel strongly inclined to think that the words and sentences quoted afford good examples of our own theory of a Past as well as a Present Active Adverbial Participle. In short, the meaning, in general, in all such cases as quoted above is more simply expressed by regarding and translating the said Participles Adverbially, and sometimes Actively, even though formed from the Past (or Perfect) Participle.

213. The Past-Perfect Participle of Transitive Verbs in Urdu (as in English and other languages) has not always and necessarily a Passive sense, requiring the Subject of the Yerb to be in the form of the Agent. In the case of

160 URDU GRAMMAR.

the " Continuative Compound Yerbs," for instance, as Mr. Platts remarks (Gram. p. 174, footnote), " these Yerbs are never constructed passively with the Agent Case in the Tenses formed with the Perfect Participles, e.g. Wuh chupke lut-kl tarah baithe sund kl ' She, seated silent, like a statue, continued to listen' ( Wuh sund kl ' she made a listening '=: 'she listened' — the Adjective chupke, as well as the Participle laithe, assuming the Adverbial form) ; We ek muddat talak us gham-men royd kiye ' For a long time they continued to mourn in that affliction' (we royd kiye 'they made a weeping ' =. l mourned') ; Main pdril men hdth-pdon mdrd kiyd ' I kept striking my hands and feet in the water.' * Similarly, if any Yerbal Noun be combined with a Tran- sitive Yerb in the same way, the like construction is observed ; as, do ddml dekhdfi diye « two men appeared ' ('gave an appearance'); ddml kl dwdz 8undtl dl 'a man's voice was heard' ('made itself heard')." In each of the last two sentences diye and dl are treated as Active Participles governing their Objects and agreeing with their Subjects in Masculine and Gender. Neither in construction nor in any sense are they Passive.

And why may not such be the case with Past Adverbial Participles ? so that rotl ko lachde may be construed and translated, ' having saved the bread (or loaf) ' ; sir niche kiye as ' bowing ' or ' stooping the head ' ; pith dikhdte, as

1 Eef erring to two examples given, viz. ddl sdtth llte mere makdn men dl 'having taken the nurse with her she came to my apartment,' and gate dtl hai 'she comes singing,' Sir Monier "Williams remarks: "In such cases the Past Participle seems to be employed in the manner of a Conjunctive Participle, and to be hardly distinguishable from it. Both Participles are usually expressed in English by 'having,' or by such Particles as, 'whilst,' 'when,' 'as,' etc."

THE ADVERBIAL-PARTICIPLE. 161

' showing the back ' ; pir zan ko liye hue, as ' having taken (or 'brought') the old woman' ; kapre pahine 'having put on clothes ' ; Main uske gale men bank dale hue bdlthi tthi, as 'I was sitting (either) with my arms thrown (or 'having thrown my arms') round his neck' — and so with the other above examples.

214. Hud, the Past Participle of hond, is added to the Past Participle of a Transitive or Intransitive Verb when used Adjectively ; as, wuh mdra hud ddml l that beaten man.' JZud may also be attached to a Present Participle used as an Adjective ; as, ek sold hud bacha ' a sleeping child ' ; sijda karte hufe faqir * the faqirs who are engaged in worship.' But the addition of hud to a Past or Present Participle is not restricted to occasions on which they are used adjectively. It sometimes gives a Continuous and sometimes a Past or Perfect sense of the Participle ; as, Wuh rota hud chald gayd 'He went away weeping (or 'in tears')' ; Wuh baithi (or baithti) hui kaprd si rahi ' She sitting (or ' seated 'j went on sewing clothes'; Wuh rah men chale hue gird ' He going along the road fell'; Us dare ko main apnd qabr samjhe hue tfid ' I was thinking that that valley would prove my grave' — the Participle in this last being the Past Adverbial. The hud is sometimes (optionally) omitted, whether the Participle be used adjectively or adverbially; as, mud (or mud hud) kuttd 'a dead dog.'

215. The Participle, in either form, that of the Past or that of the Present, and either inflected (i.e. used adverbially) or otherwise, is sometimes repeated, either to give emphasis or to denote continuance or repetition of action ; as, Da/rtd dartd (or darte darte) main pds dyd ' I approached in great fear'; Ham gate gate sltl haih '"We keep singing while we stitch ' ; £e kdr baithe baithe uktd gayd

11

162 TJRDU GRAMMAR.

* I became wearied of sitting idle.' Occasionally, instead of the same word being repeated, a formative from the first is used idiomatically (generally a Causal derivative), either with or without its lateral sense being included ; as in such phrases as laithe lithde * sitting still,' pakd pakde (or pakdya] 1 ready cooked,' lana-banaya 'ready-made,' kahd-kahl ' alter- cation,' mdrd-mdri ' scuffling,' etc.

When some emphasis or continuousness is merely implied in the word, without repetition, the Adverbial Participle may still be used, even though its Subject be the same as that of the Finite Verb; as, Wuh chupke laithe sun rain 1 She sat listening in silence.'

216. When a Participle is required to express the state or condition of the Object of a Transitive Verb, that Object is generally put in the Dative form of the Accusative, and the Descriptive Participle, whether Past or Present, either in the form of the Nominative (Absolute) or as the Adverbial ; as, Mainne usko rota (or rote] dekhd ' I saw him weeping ' ; apne bete ho mud dekhkar * seeing his son dead ' ; use hatfiydr lundhe hue aur mahal men ate hue dekhkar 1 having seen him armed and entering the palace ' (i.e. 'entering the palace armed'); Mainne ek ghar jaltd hud (or hota] dekhd 'I saw a house on fire'; Kya tune do lomrl Ihdgtl (or lhagti hum) dekhl ? ' Did you see two foxes running away ? ' Mainne ek kitdb men likhd dekhd ki ' I saw it written in a book that,' etc. — where the Object is the sentence introduced by the Particle ki.

Either the Past or the Present (alias Imperfect) Participle may be used (1) as an Adjective, (2) as a Gerund or Sub- stantive (concrete or abstract); as — (1) Ek boltl hul maiitd

* a talking maina,' chaltl chakkl dekhkdr ' having seen a revolving millstone,' kol mud (or mud hud) jdnwar * some

THE ADVEEBIAL-PAETICIPLE. 163

dead animal.' (2) Mujhe sotese jagdyd ' He awoke me from sleeping (=sleep),' Dubteko tiiike kd asm bahut hai ' To a drowning man the help of a straw is much,' Uskd bhejd hud dyd hun i I am come as his emissary,' Apne kiye se jpachhtdtd hun * I repent of what I have done.'

217. The inflected Past Participle, when preceded and governed by Prepositions, like be, bidun, lac/hair, etc., haa sometimes an Active and sometimes a Passive sense, dependent on the context; as, Be kahe (or be mere kahe) kyd tu mere sat ft khdnd khdtd hai? '"Without my telling you do you eat food with me ? ' Baghair khde kyunkar jltd rahegd ' Without eating how will he keep alive?' baghair puchhe 'without being asked' (or 'asking'), be samajhe 'without being understood' (or 'understanding'), be bulde, or be bulde jane ' without being called.'

218. The Perfect Participle is used instead of the Infinitive sometimes, especially with the Impersonal Yerb chdhiye, ' it is proper ' or ' needful ' ; as, Tumko wahdh juyd chdhiye ' You ought to go there,' ' You must go there.' Also with the Yerb chahnd, as a Personal (Transitive) Yerb, in the sense of 'to wish,' or 'intend' ; as, jdyd chdhnd 'to wish to go,' main jdyd chdhta hun 'I will (or 'intend to') go' (in which Desiderative Compound the form jdyd is used instead of the ordinary form of the Past Participle of jdnd 'to go,' viz. gay a}. The phrase mard (instead of mud) chdhnd may mean either ' to wish to die,' or merely ' to be about to die,' ' to be at the point of death.' (See page 84.)

219. The Perfect Participle is also used as an Abstract (Yerbal) Substantive, along with the Yerb jdnd, in the sense of ho saknd ; as, Main dubd na gayd ' I could not drown myself.'

220. The Subject of the Adverbial Participle, whether

164 URDU GRAMMAR.

Past or Present, may either be (a) the same as that of the affirmative (or leading) Verb of the sentence, or (A) different from it, whether the Participle be in its simple or intensive form ; as, (a) Larkiydn gate atlh ham ' The girls come singing,' Tajir yih deklite hi Jchush hud 'The merchant, on seeing this, was glad.' (b) Subh hote with rawdna Jiud 'At early dawn he set out,' Pahar din char he wuh ghore se utard ' He dismounted from his horse at the end of the first watch of the day.'

221. "When the Participles have an Objective complement they generally govern it in the same Case as the Verbs they belong to are wont to govern; as, unhen dekhke (or dekhte M) 'on seeing them,' Wuh dud detd chald gayd 'Giving them his blessing he went away.'

But sometimes the Objective complement is put in the" Genitive, in which case the Participle participates somewhat of the character of a Noun ; thus, Jawdn uske dekhte hi dar gayd ' The young man, on seeing him (lit. ' on the seeing of him '), was afraid.' So (with a Neuter Verb) in hat ft pdhoh Tee hote ' in the possession of hands and feet.'

THE PAST CONJUNCTIVE PARTICIPLE.

222. This most useful Participle often supplies the place of an Active Past Participle; but the principal use of the Conjunctive is to avoid the necessity for and supply the place of a Conjunction in a complex sentence.1 Thus, for

1 Dowson, in his Grammar, gives gap^ lite, and Jclte as irregular forms of the Conjunctive Participle (for the regular joe, le, and fcare), as in the phrase pahar rat gap ' a watch of the night having gone.' But all three (as already said) we consider to be Adverbial Participles.

THE PAST CONJUNCTIVE PARTICIPLE. 165

' I called a palanquin and went to the bazaar, and after making many purchases I came home again,' the Indian would say, Main pdlkl mangdkar bdzdr gay d, aur bahut asbdb kharzd karke pthir ghar par dyd ; ' he rose and said ' usne uthkar kahd (or wuh uthkar bold}, instead of wuh uthd aur bold.

223. This Participle almost always refers to the Subject of the Finite Verb in the sentence. But if this be in the 'Agent '-form, and the Participle be hokar ('being') attached to a Predicative Adjective or Participle, that, if inflectible, should be put in the inflected Masculine Singular; as, wuh Mara hokar bold, 'he standing up said,' but, Usne khare hokar motiyoh ko buldyd ' He stood up and called for coolies.'

The Conjunctive Participle, with or without an Objective complement, may sometimes refer to the Object (in the Dative-Accusative Case) of the Finite Verb in the sentence ; as, Yih but sunkar mujhe bhl ghairat dl l Having heard this, jealousy possessed me also,' lit. 'To me also, having heard this word, jealousy came.'

In the same sentence there are sometimes two Conjunctive Participles — one referring to the Subject or Agent, the other to the Object of the Finite Yerb ; as in the sentence Akhir (usne) wa'da un chlzon ko pahunchdkar mere pthir dnekd (mujli&e] lekar aur qasm khildkar (niujhko} rukhsat kiyd 'At last, having obtained from me a promise that I, having conveyed those things (home), would come back again (lit. of my, having conveyed, etc. — coming back), and made me take an oath (to this effect), he dismissed me.' Here the lekar refers to usne (understood), the Subject of the Verb rukhsat kiyd (in the Agent form), while pahunchdkar refers to the Object of the Finite Verb, viz. mujhko (also under-

166 URDU GRAMMAR.

stood but implied from the word mere in the subsidiary part of the sentence).

In the very awkward sentence Wuh khodkar jita nikdld gay a 'He was dug out alive,' khodkar may be said to be used absolutely or hypothetically for unke Mod karne se * by their digging.' But such a construction very rarely occurs in books, nor even in conversation.

When the Conjunctive Participle of a Neuter Yerb occurs in a sentence the Finite (or leading) Yerb is generally active, while an Active Conjunctive Participle is usually conjoined to a Neuter Yerb ; as, Kisi ne ek ddndse jdkar puchhd ' A person went to a wise man and asked him,' Turn yahdn laith jdkar kitdb parho ' You sit down here and read your book,' J3dzdr jdo aur kuchh dlu kharld karke jaldl laut do ' Go to the market and buy some potatoes, and come quick back ' (here laut 'returning' is a Conjunctive Participle); Ghoreko bench kar uski qimat le dyd ' Having sold the horse he brought the price ' (here the Conjunctive Participle le governs qimat).

The Conjunctive is sometimes repeated, either to em- phasize or to express distribution, repetition, or continued action ; as, Usko pit-pit kar sam do ' Punish him with a sound beating,' Paisd de deke salko rukhsat karo ' Having distributed coppers among them, dismiss them all,' Lakrl tor tor karke jald diyd ' He went on breaking sticks and burning them.' Or sometimes Participles, similar in sound or meaning, are conjoined ; as, Patthar chlr-chur karke sanduq men rakh diyd l Having split up and reduced to powder the stones, he put them in a box.'

Occasionally Conjunctive Participles serve the part of Adverbs ; as, Usne jdn lujh kar yih kdm kiyd ' He did this wittingly,' Wuli khilkhild kar hahsd l He laughed aloud,' or 'heartily,' Wuh lahgru kar chaltd hai 'He walks lame,' etc.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 167

224. The similarity between the Urdu and the classical (but especially the N. T.) Greek in this idiomatic use of the Participle (conjunctively) in narrative, is very striking. In Latin, French, and other Romanic languages the idiom is very different, Conjunctive Participles being rarely used.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD. I. PAST TENSES.

225. Keeping to the order of the Tenses observed in the Paradigms of the Verbs in the first part of the Grammar, we commence with the Syntax of the Past Tenses, viz. the Pluperfect, the Past Indefinite, and the Past Imperfect. But first of all we would make a few preliminary remarks on the general subject of Urdu Tenses formed by the Past Participle.

226. The construction of Urdu Transitive Verbs in Tenses formed by the Past Participle is peculiar and deserving of special consideration. In Intransitive Verbs, as well as Transitive, the Past Indefinite and some other Tenses are formed with the Past Participle; but in the former the Verb agrees with its Subject in the Nominative Case, while in the latter an apparently Passive construction is followed. The actor is put in the Agent Case, and the Object of the action is either constructed as the Subject with which the Participle agrees in Number and Gender, or in the Dative - Accusative Case, and the Participle remains unchanged in its original (Nominative-Masculine- Singular) form. Thus the Urdu for ' I wrote a letter ' is Hainne chitthl likhl, i.e. ' by

168 URDU GBAMMAE.

me a letter (was) written,' 'I wrote the letter' Mainne chitthi ko likhd, i.e. ( as to the letter (it was) written by me.' Thus, as in English Regular Verbs, so in Urdu, the Past Participle is used to form the Past Indefinite Tense (in Intransitive as well as Transitive Urdu Verbs), and in both languages the Perfect Participle of Transitive Verbs has always a Passive sense. But, whereas in English the same word is also used in an Active sense in the Past Indefinite Tense, this not being the case in Urdu, some device was necessary in Urdu to express an Active Past Tense by means of a Perfect Participle. This doubtless led to the use of the Agent in such connections. Thus, we have in the two languages: Root, * kill '= war; Past Participle 'killed' (or 'being killed ')=mdrd (mdrd hud), Past Tense 'I killed '=mamne mdrd. Still, it must never be forgotten that though the construction of Past Tenses in Urdu, formed with the Perfect Participle, is apparently (to us) Passive, the meaning in Urdu never is, and they must always be translated Actively. All the Tenses of the Passive Voice are formed with the Auxiliary Verb jdnd ' to go ' ; the Compound Tenses of the Active Voice of Transitive Verbs, and of all Intransitives, with the help of hond 'to be ' or ' become.' Thus, ' I struck ' is maihne mdrd, ' I was struck ' main mdrd gayd.

It is different in the case of Urdu Intransitive Verbs, which more nearly resemble Regular English Verbs — Active and Neuter — in that the same word is generally used for the Past Participle and for the Past Indefinite Tense ; as, Past Part, gayd 'gone,' Past Tense, main gayd 'I went'; Past Part, hud 'been,' Past Tense, wuh hud 'he was'; Past Part, jala (Jala hud) ' burned (burnt),' lattl jail ' the candle burned.'

THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 169

1. THE PLUPERFECT OR PAST PERFECT.

227. This Tense — called by Mr. Platts the "Past Perfect or Past Remote " — expresses some action, feeling, sentiment, or event as having been done, or entertained, or taken place at a time preceding some other time or event also referred to by the writer or speaker in the same sentence ; as, Uske dnese peshtar main khdnd khd chukd tfid ' I had finished dinner before he came ' ; Jab ham ghar men pahunche ma'lum hud ki we ab chale gap tfie ' When we reached the house we found they had already gone.'

228. This Tense is often used in Urdu where in English one would use the Past Indefinite, especially where another action or event is supposed to have also occurred, somehow connected with it, since that first mentioned in the sentence. Thus, Billl al tfii; maihne usko tatold tfid; Ihlgl tfii; ma'lum hud hi larastd hai ' A cat had come ; I had felt her ; she was wet, (hence) I knew it was raining.' Here the two ' hads ' are superfluous in English. We would say * A cat came and, feeling her to be wet, I knew it rained.' On the other hand, sometimes tfiu, the characteristic of the Pluper- fect, is omitted in Urdu, where the context shows evidently that it has to be understood and supplied in English ; as in Maihne Zatidko lahut samjhdyd (tfia) l 1 had reasoned much with Zaid/ par usne na mdnd ' but he did not mind me.

229. In Urdu, as in English, the Pluperfect (in form) is sometimes used for (or as similar to) the Past Conditional ; as in this sentence, Us dostne mujJie haldk hiyd tfid ; agdr yih ddnd dushman na hotd, to kdm merd Jidtfi se jd chukd tfid aur jdn marl is khiydl men tamdm hut ifil ' That friend had (nearly) destroyed me ; if it had not been for this wise enemy, my work had (== would have) gone from my hands and my life had (=would have) been brought to a close in this vain idea.'

170 URDU GRAMMAR.

2. THE PAST INDEFINITE.

230. This Tense is used to express an action or event that took place at some past time, without reference to its duration, or its relation to any other time or event. It is generally (as in English) the same in form as the Past Participle. In the case of Intransitive Verbs it agrees in Number and Gender with its Subject in the Nominative form; but in the case of Transitive Verbs, the Subject is put in the Agent form, and the Participial Verb either agrees in Gender and Number with its Object, or if that be in the Objective (Dative) form then it remains uninflected, whatever the Gender or Number of the Object may be ; as, Wuk apne ghar (ko or men} gay a ' He went home ' ; Unhonne ek shahr bandyd l They built a city ' ; Us mardne apnl betl ho sazd diyd ' That man punished his daughter ' ; Kyd tune hdzirl khd,i ? * Did you take your breakfast ? '

231. Like the Pluperfect, the Past Indefinite is sometimes used in a Conditional sense — after such Particles as agar or jo 'if — or it may be translated as a Future or even a Present Tense ; as, Agar Shahzddi nd-khush hul * If the Princess is (or ' should the Princess be ' ) displeased,' Agar us he sadqe hud to hud ' If I (or * should I ') become a sacrifice for him, so be it,' Agar yih rdz fash hud, to tere haqq men bahut burd hai ' If this secret be (or ' should it be ') divulged, it will be (lit. ' is ') very bad for you.'

Again, agar ek sal ke 'arse men uskd sukhan rdst hud ' if in the course of one year his statement becomes (or * should become,' or ' prove ') true ' — the Past form of the Urdu Verb, arising from the idea that the time specified would then have passed when the thing was proved — * if after a year it should have proved true.' So in this sentence : Agar

THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 171

bddshdh aise logon kijhuth-sach Idten sunne lagd to tarah tarah ki khardbiydn paidd hum 'If the king begins (lit. 'began') to listen to the misrepresentations of such persons, then evils of various kinds will result' (lit. 'have resulted'). Here, the occurrence of the result (of the hypothesis) seems to the speaker so certain that it may be regarded as an already accomplished fact. Again, Jo wuh mill, to hamdrl jdn rahl ; nahlh to gap ' If she is found, then my life remains ; if not, then it is gone.' It is so used often in Proverbs; as, Jo boyd, so kdtd ' What he sows, that he reaps.' One says to a servant pdnl Ido] he replies lay a sahib ('brought, sir'), meaning he will bring it immediately.

3. THE PAST IMPERFECT.

232. This Tense indicates an action or event that was taking place at some past time referred to; as, Wuh safar kartd tthd jab main uske ghar men pahunchd ' He was on a journey when I reached his house ' ; Us waqt ek barl lardl ho jdtl tfil ' A great battle was then going on.'

233. Instead of the Present Participle with the Past Tense of the Auxiliary hond, the root of any Yerb may be used along with certain Tenses of the Verb rahnd ' to remain ' — to express the idea of a Past Imperfect ; as, Wuh gd rahl tfii (for gdtl tfii] ' She was singing ' ; Main chitthl likh rahd tfid (or likhtd tfid] ' I was writing a letter.' Indians often use this Tense where we would, in English, use a Past Indefinite, and would so render it ; as, Jo kuchh ushd sdhib kahte tfie so wuh hartd tthd ' He did whatever his master told him.'

234. Sometimes the Auxiliary is omitted, and so the Tense might be mistaken for the Past Conditional, but the context

172 URDU GEAMMAE.

will generally determine which it is ; as, Jo koji meri nazar (men] partd (tfid] mana* Tcartd (t,hd) 'Everyone that I saw (lit. 'fell within my sight') forbade me.' In two Co-ordinate sentences, in both of which the Verbs are in the Past Imperfect, the Auxiliary is often attached only to the latter. Thus, Wuli shukr Khudd ha kartd aur kuch dor kuch cJiald jdtd t}id ' He was thanking God, and going on stage by stage.'

The Past Imperfect is often used to express wont or habit, and then, too, the Auxiliary is sometimes omitted ; as, Un dinonmeh Hindu log dpnl larkl bdbdonko mar ddlte tfie 1 In these days the Hindus used to kill their female infants ' ; Us Me Jed ndm zinddn-i- Sulaimdn kahte t]ie ' They used to call that pit Solomon's Prison.'

II. THE PEESENT TENSES. 1. THE PEOXIMATE (OE PEESENT) PEEFECT.

235. This Tense (called also the "Past Proximate") is formed in Urdu, as in English, of a Past (or Perfect) Participle and the Present Tense of an Auxiliary Verb. It denotes an act which at the moment of speaking has been already completed and remains in that state ; as, Wuh Kalkdtta gayd hai 'He is (or 'has') gone to Calcutta'; Mainne chittJu likhi hai ' I have written a letter.'

236. Sometimes this Tense is used, idiomatically, with Past Adverbs of Time, where, in English we would use the Past Indefinite ; as, Main walidn kal gayd hiin ' I went there yesterday.'

On the other hand, the Auxiliary is often omitted, or in other words, the Past Indefinite is used instead of (or where we would use) the Present Perfect ; as, Yih khatt jo maihne

THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 173

likhl (hai) dak se bhej do ' Send this letter that I have written by post,' and also for the Present, in the sense of the Proximate Future, as in the common reply of a servant to an order (referred to under the Past Indefinite) — Han sahib lay a (for lay a huh] 'Yes, sir, I have brought it,' meaning ' I will do so immediately.'

2. THE PRESENT INDEFINITE OB AOBIST.

237. This Tense is all that its name denotes. In form it is the same as the Present Subjunctive. But in this case it is preceded by some Particle (expressed or implied) signifying doubt, or supposition, or condition ; as agar ' if, ' shay ad 'perhaps,' ki 'in order that,' etc. As a Present Indicative, it expresses positive facts, whether actual or assumed for the purpose of argument. It may set forth eternal fact ; as, Khudd jane ' God knows,' Allah jo chdhe so hare ( God does what He pleases,' Gundh hare jo jhutfi bole * He sins who lies,' etc. Or it may state a general rule or order ; as, Jo kuchh main kahun so karo ' Whatever I tell you, do.' Or an uncertain event; as, Jab mar-jduh tab mujhe gar-do 'When I die, then bury me.' It is often used in Proverbs ; as, Gundh koji kare, sazd ko^ pdwe ; ' One commits a fault, some one else is punished for it ' ; Andhi pise, kuttd khde ' A blind woman grinds and a dog eats ' ; Pdpl kd mdl akdratfi jde ' The wealth of the wicked goes for nought.' Like the Present in English, it often has a future significa- tion; as, Dil men dyd ki pthir safar karun 'It came into my mind that I should travel again ' ; Eaho, to main sunuh ' Speak ; then I will listen ' ; Main kal ghar jdun ' I go (i.e. ' will go ') home to-morrow.'

174 URDU GRAMMAR.

238. Sometimes to render the idea of Present time more clear, the Auxiliary Verb (hud or hai) is added to the Aorist ; as, Atish-i-1 ishq se jale hai dil ' My heart is burning with love's fire ' — though here jale may be taken as the Adverbial Participle ; dnkheh malkar jo dekhuh huh ' when I rub my eyes and look.' But this form of the Aorist is now rarely used in Urdu.

The Aorist is occasionally used as a sort of Historical Present ; as, Age jdkar jo dekhuh (=dekhd) to Malika hai 'When I went forward and looked, lo ! it was the Princess'; Ji men awe (for dyd) ki, yd Ildhi yih dam-i-jdn nikal jdwe, to lihtar hai (for hoga\ lit. ' It comes (for ' it came ') into my mind that, 0 God! if this breath of life depart, it is (i.e. 'will be') better.'

3. THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE OR CONTINUOUS.

239. This Tense (which may also be called the Present Definite) represents an act as now taking place, or an habitual, continuous, or enduring act; as, Wuh abhl kitdb parhtd hai ' He is now reading a book ' ; Turn kyd bolte ho ? ' What are you saying ' ? ; Wuh lohe kd kdm kartd hai ' He does iron work,' i.e. 'He is a smith.'

The Tense is generally formed by adding the Auxiliary Present of hond to the Present Participle of another Yerb,1 but it may also be formed by adding the Yerb rahnd in the Present Tense to the root of another Yerb ; as, Ham parh rahte haih ' I am ' (or 'we are ') reading ; Wuh so

1 To say mainjanta for < I think,' wuh kahta for ' he says,' wejdte for 'they go' (as some Europeans do), leaving out the Auxiliary, is quite unidiomatic and incorrect.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 175

rahtd hai ' He is sleeping.' Or the Past Participle of rahnd may be used, instead of the Present, without altering the sense or Tense ; as Sahib so rahd hai (=sotd Jiai or so rahtd hai) ' Master is asleep ' ; Larkiydh nahd rahl hain (=.nahdtl or nahd rahtl hain} l The girls are bathing.'

240. The Auxiliary, both in this Tense and the Perfect, sometimes takes the form of haigd, which is generally more emphatic than hai] as, Wuh joruko mdrtd haigd 'He is (certainly) beating his wife ' ; Aha ! yih kaun haihge ? 1 Alas ! who are these ? ' — where we have the Substantive Yerb used independently and not as an Auxiliary.

In negative sentences particularly, and occasionally in affirmative, the Auxiliary is omitted, but though they resemble the Past Conditional in form it must not be con- founded with it ; as, ^Kotl dpse kute men nahlh girtd ' No one falls into a well of himself (i.e. 'willingly'). In this example (quoted from Platts) the omission of the Auxiliary may be accounted for in this way ; viz. that girtd hai means literally 'is falling,' while the meaning intended is 'would fall,' or 'falls at anytime' 'voluntarily,' and so in similar proverbial sentences.

241. This Tense, like the last-mentioned, is often used as a Historical Present to give greater vividness to the narrative ; as, Ankheh khol-kar jo dekhtd huh to us makdn men na wuh burhd hai na ko,l aur bhl 'When I rubbed my eyes and looked, lo ! neither that old man was there or anyone else.'

It is also frequently used for the Proximate Future, to indicate that an action will take place forthwith, or shortly after the time of speaking — less indefinitely than the English Present for the Future ; e.g. Turn chalo main Ihl chaltd huh ' You go ; I also am coming (forthwith) ' ; Jald pthir-dtd huh ' I will return quickly,'

176 URDU GRAMMAR.

The Present Tense (Indicative) is occasionally employed in Conditional sentences as a Present or Future Subjunctive ; e.g. Agar main pfiir mana* kartd hun, to abhi maind kl tarahse mdrd jdtd huh 'If I, 'again, forbid her, I shall be instantly killed, as the maind has been' (lit. 'after the manner of the maind1).

III. FUTURE TENSES. 242. 1. TEE FUTURE PERFECT.1

This Tense denotes something about to happen or to be done previously to some other occurrence or action — also Future ; and it is formed by adding the Future of the Auxiliary hond to the Past Participle of another Verb. If this Verb be Intransitive, then the Subject is in the Nominative form ; but if Transitive it takes that of the Agent; as, Main gayd hungd (or ho-uiigd) 'I shall have gone,' Usne Iriya hogd, or (Fern.) kl hogl 'He will have done.' In the former case, if the Nom. Subject be Feminine, the Yerb will be changed to gaji liungi ; in the latter, if the

1 Mr. Platts calls this Tense also the "Past Potential," and says it is employed (as such) when it is indicated that a thing may, might, or must have happened. Instead of the future of the Auxiliary (hoga,} the Aorist (ho) is sometimes used, no distinction, he says, being made between them generally. The first example he gives is Apne yih bait sanl hogl 'Your Majesty may (or 'must') have heard this couplet.' But 'will (doubtless) have heard,' we think, would answer quite as well, taking it as a Future Perfect, and so in the case of the other examples he gives. The Aorist may often be rendered as a Future.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 177

Object be Fern, the Verb agreeing with it will be kl hogl, unless that Object be put in Dative-Accusative form, with ho — when the Masculine form (kiyd hogd) should be used ; as, Men joru gal hogl ' My wife will have gone,' Sdhibne khdnd khdyd hogd ' Master will have dined ' ; Maihne ek taswlr khainchl hogl ' I shall have painted a picture ' ; Larke (or larkl) ne april man ko dekhd hogd 'The boy (or 'girl') will have seen his (or 'her') mother.' Sometimes the Auxiliary is omitted, and the Verb may then assume the form of a Past Indefinite ; as, Agar yih rdz fash hud (hogd) to terl haqq men burd hogd ' If this secret shall have been revealed, then it will be bad for them.' 1

243. 2. THE FUTURE INDEFINITE.

This Tense is the same in form as the Aorist and the Present Subjunctive, except that it adds gd (Fern, gl) to the end of it, to give it a more decided Future sense ; for these other two Tenses have inherent in them (at least optionally) a Future sense, so that main chaluh is either ' I go/ or 'I may go,' or ' I will go ' — but chalungd is only 1 1 shall or will, or intend to go.' Though we may translate it by a Present (Indicative or Subjunctive) in English, still there is a decided Future sense implied ; as, ' I go (or ' am going ') to-morrow ' is = ' I will go.' * If I go to-morrow then I return next day' is ^'if I shall (or ' should go ') then I shall return next day ' ; and in Urdu would be Agar kal chalungd (or agar kal chaluh) to parsu pfiir duhgd.

Cf. § 231.

12

178 "URDU GRAMMAR.

244. 3. THE FUTURE IMPERFECT l

is formed by a Present Active Participle conjoined with the Future of the Auxiliary hond, and expresses a continuous or uncompleted future action or condition; as, Main marta Jiouhga (or by contraction hungup f I shall or will be beating'; Wuh sotd howega (or hoga] 'He will be sleeping.' It is a useful Tense, though seldom used. It generally implies somewhat of doubt ; as, Main marta, huhga ' Perhaps I may beat.'

245. IMPERATIYE MOOD.

(1) Ordinary Present. (2) Precative. (3) Kespectful Future.

The 1st Person (Singular and Plural) is wanting in all three forms of the Imperative, and the 2nd also in the Respectful Future.

Strictly speaking, the Imperative Mood has only a 2nd Person Singular and Plural, the other Persons, as given in some Grammars, both English and Urdu, being really the Present Subjunctive or forms of the Future; as, Main houii

1 This Tense Mr. Platts denominates the Present Potential, indicating that a thing may, might, or must be happening, and so corresponding to tlie English Present Imperfect Subjunctive. "It stands to the Aorist in the same relation as the Present Imperfect Indicative to the Present Indefinite, and hence the Aorist is often used in its place. ... It may occasionally be rendered in English by the Future Imperfect Indicative," e.g. Wuh apne jl men kyd kahtd hoga? 'What must he (or 'will he') be saying to himself?' Shayad tit jdutd hoga 'Perhaps you will be thinking.'

IMPEEATIYE MOOD. 179

'let me be,' wuJi howe 'let him be,' ham ho wen 'let us be,' we ho wen 'let them be,' kotl mere pas na awe 'let no one come near me.' Even Ap (or Huzur} hujiye ' May your Honour please to be ' (or 'become'), mdriye ' please to strike,' or hujiyegd and mdriyegd ' will your Honour be pleased to be,' or 'to strike,' are but forms of the Present Subjunctive or the Future Indicative, though of sufficient distinctiveness to claim a place in our Paradigms of the Yerb. The 2nd Person Singular of the ordinary Present Imperative is always the root of the Yerb (Transitive or Intransitive), and this, along with the Precative ending in iye^ refers (in sense) either to an immediate Present or to no definite time, while the ending in iyo, as well as that in iyegd, refers generally to the Future.

The Precative in iyo is also employed in benedictions and imprecations ; as, JTfiush rahiyo \ ' May you be happy ! ' Ehudd la Ictnat kdfiroh par hujiyo \ ' May the curse of God be upon infidels ! '

246. The Negatives na and (more rarely) nahm are used to express, with the ordinary Imperative, a strict prohibition ; but the former is more generally used in connection with the Precative in iyo. The negative mat is only employed in a prohibitive sense, either with the ordinary or the Pre- cative Imperative ; as, Akkirat Jce sdmdn karne men ghaflat na kar ' Neglect not to make preparation for the world to come ' ; Tu dar nahln ' Be not afraid ' ; Aj ghar mat jdo 1 Don't go home to-day ' ; Bhuliyo mat ' Don't forget ' ('you won't forget'); Is darakht ke pus na jdiyo 'Don't (or ' you are not to ') go near this tree.'

247. As the Aorist (or Present Subjunctive) is sometimes used as a sort of 1st and 2nd Person Imperative, so the Imperative is occasionally used for the 2nd Person Singular

180 TJRDIJ GBAMMAB.

of the Aorist; as, Jo mundsib jdn (for jane) so Tear 'Do whatever you think proper.'

Z0, the 2nd Person Singular Imperative of lend ' to take/ is often used as an Interjection ; as, Le ! apne kdm bar ! ' Come ! go on with your work ! '

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OE CONDITIONAL MOOD. 248. (1) THE PLUPEEFECT CONDITIONAL TENSE.

This Tense is formed with the Past (or Perfect) Participle of the Principal Yerb (Active or Neuter) and the Past Con- ditional of the Auxiliary hond. In the case of Intransitive Verbs they agree (in Gender and Number) with the Subject in the Nom. Case. But> if Transitive, then the Participle and Auxiliary must agree with the Object of the Yerb, unless this be in the Dative-Accusative Case, when both are put in the Masculine Singular form.

The Tense expresses a conditional past act or state, being preceded generally by a Conjunction meaning 'if (ex- pressed or understood), and followed by another Yerb in either the Past or Pluperfect Conditional, preceded by some Conjunction meaning 'then,' or 'in that case' (expressed or understood) ; as, Agar mainne yih Mm kiyd hotd to (main} mdrd jdtd 'If I had done this thing, then I should have been killed' ; or, without the Conjunction expressed, in Urdu or English, it might be translated, ' Had I done this thing I should,' etc. Again, Agar wuh Mumbai ko gayd hotd (to) usne apne Idpho delchd hotd ' If he had gone to Bombay (then) he would have seen his father,' or ' Had he gone/ etc.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE OE CONDITIONAL MOOD. 181

(2) THE PAST (OE PEEFECT) CONDITIONAL.

249. The Conditional Past Indefinite Tense, or, as it is commonly called, the Past (or Perfect) Conditional, corre- sponds to the English Past Perfect Subjunctive.

In form it coincides with the Present Participle of the Verb, and like the last (the Pluperfect) Tense is preceded by a Conditional Conjunction, such as agar 'if,' generally expressed, but sometimes only implied, or by a corresponding Particle like to 'then,' which is often, however, omitted; as, Agar tu wall dekhtd jo mainne dekhd hai, (to) Jiargiz unke pus na jdtd t Had you seen what I have seen, you would (then) never have gone near them' — the dvkhta and the jdtd being both Past Conditionals ; Andhd beta tumhdrd kis kdm did ? c Of what use to you would a blind son be?' — where not only agar is understood before andhd, but also Jiotd after beta.

The Past Conditional is sometimes used to express the wish for something deemed unattainable, and is then usually preceded by the Interjection kdsh-ki\ as, ^Kdsh-ki (harn) unko wahdh na chor ate ' "Would that I (lit. we) had not left them behind there.' But sometimes kdsh-ki is only understood (not expressed) in such sentences.

(3) THE PEESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

250. The Aorist, by which name this Tense is generally designated by European Grammarians, has a place both in the Indicative and the Subjunctive Mood. In either Mood it may refer either to the Present or the Future time ; and to which Tense, as well as which Mood, it should be relegated in different sentences depends on the context

182 URDU GEAMMAR.

and obvious meaning in the sentence. As a Subjunctive it generally is preceded by some such Conditional or Objective Particle as agar 'if,' agarchi 'although,' U 'that,' tdki 'in order that,' jo 'if,' shay ad lei 'perhaps,' ba-sharte-ki 'on condition that,' chdhiye hi 'it is proper that,' etc.

The Conditional clause commonly precedes the Principal clause (but it may follow it), and is generally separated from it by the Particle to ' then,' which, however, may be omitted and, anyway, need seldom be translated; e.g. Agar wuli d-jdwe to kyd karun? 'If he come (or 'should come') suddenly, what am I to do?' Agar ijdzat ho to unkd hdl tumhdre ru-ba-ru baydn karun ' If permission be given, I will state their case in your presence.' All the Aorists (or Present Subjunctives) in these sentences have a future significance.

An Imperative sometimes takes the place of an Aorist in the Conditional clause; as, T fiord pdnl garm kar-de (=.agar tjiord pdnl garm hare] to ghml 'karun ' Warm a little water (i.e. 'if you do so'), then I will bathe.'

Sometimes the Future Indicative is used in the Con- ditional clause instead of the Aorist ; as, Agar jald doge to mujhe jitd pdoge ' If you come soon, you will find me alive.' But, in such a case, it is implied that there is little doubt as to the fulfilment of the condition — ' You will be sure to come.'

In sentences signifying purpose or wish, the Aorist Sub- junctive may often be translated in English by the Gerund with to ; as, Main ne qasd kiyd ki us rah se chalun ' I determined to go by that road.' The ' Oratio directa' is often used in subordinate clauses expressive of purpose or desire ; as, Main ne qasd kiyd ki bahin ke pas chaliye ' I resolved to go to my sister' (lit. 'that, let me go,' etc.).

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

The Aorist is much used in expressing good wishes or benedictions, answering to the Latin Infinitive ; as, ' Utnr terl bark jdwe \ ' May your life be prolonged ! ' Also in questions implying doubt or perplexity ; as, Ittdhi \ db main kyd karun ? ' 0 God ! now what shall I do ? ' Kya kahuh ? 1 What shall 1 say?'

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

25 1 . The Passive Voice is notjaanch used by good writers and speakers of Urdu. One reason may be that there are in the language so many Intransitive Verbs with a sort of Passive or Middle sense; as, bandhnd 'to be bound,' dabnd 'to be pressed,' bifaid 'to be sold,' katnd 'to be cut/ etc.; and also some Nominal and other Compound Verbs, as jama1 hond 'to be collected/ mdrd parnd 'to be killed/

mar parnd ' to be beaten/ pfiahsl parnd ' to be hanged/ etc. Still, a Passive Voice is a necessity provided for in the language. It is formed by attaching the Verb /awa (' to go '), in all its parts and Tenses, to the Past (Passive) Participles of Transitive Verbs. If added to Intransitive Past Parti- ciples or to the roots of Transitive Verbs, jdnd forms various compounds, modifying the root or Participle but never giving a Passive sense ; as, cnald (or chale) jdnd ' to go away/ khd jdnd 'to eat up/ so jdnd 'to go to sleep/ etc.

The Subject of a Passive Verb must always be in the Nominative Case, never in the Agent form, which is restricted to Tenses of the Active Voice, in which the Past (Perfect) Participle is used.

252. The Agent, as well as the Instrument, used in connection with a Verb in the Passive Voice is notified by some Postposition such as se ' by ' or ' from/ waslle se ' by

184 URDU GRAMMAR.

means of,' hat fee 'by the hand,' added to the Genitive or inflected form of a Noun or Pronoun ; as, Wuh mm -d sipdJil ke hdtfise landdq se mdrd gayd ' That man was killed by a soldier with a gun'; Yih tdldb Sarkdr ke March se kjiodd aur pattthar se landyd gayd hai ' This tank has been dug out and built with stone at the Government's expense.'

253. Sometimes the Passive Yoice is used impersonally ; as, Dekhd jdegd ki yih kdm acJichhl tarahse kiyd jde ' It will be seen to that this work is properly done.' Maihne usko dekhd nahlh is, ' I did not see him.' The Passive is, Wuh mujh se dekhd nahlh gayd. Thus the Direct Object, or Ac- cusative of the Active Yoice, becomes the Subject of the Active Voice. The phrase mujh se dekhd nahlh jdtd, how- ever, may mean ' I cannot bear to see (it)' lit. * seeing (or 'seeing of it') by me is impossible.'

If the Verb in the Active Voice governs two Accusatives, that which has the Nominative form, or which is next to the Verb, becomes the Nominative to the Passive ; as, agar donoh ko muqdlala kiyd jdwe 'if the two be compared,' lit. ' if as to the two, comparison be made.'

CAUSAL VERBS.

254. The construction and uses of Causal Verbs have already been explained in the Etymological part of the Grammar (§ 76). With regard to their Syntax very little need be said. When the Primitive Verb is Intransitive the Causal is simply a Transitive Verb, and, like other Transitives, takes a single Objective complement in the Accusative, except in those Tenses which are formed by the Past Participle, when the Object may either be put in the Dative-Accusative form or in that of the Nominative,

COMPOUND VERBS. 185

in which case the Participle agrees with it, and the actor takes the form of the Agent; as, Usne ek ghar bandy d 'He built a house,' or, gliar ko bandyd ' built the house ' ; Usne gdrl banal ' He made a cart,' or, gdrl banwaji ' had a cart made ' ; Usko muro * Beat (or kill) him,' usko marwdo * have him beaten (or killed).' If the Primitive Verb be Transitive, the Causal often takes two Objective complements in the Accusative; as, Usko pdnl pildo 'Give him water to drink'; Us faqlr ko khildo ' Give the beggar (something) to eat.'

COMPOUND VERBS.

255. The various sorts of Compound Verbs in Urdu have been enumerated and their structure explained in the former part of the Grammar (§ 81), viz.: (1) Intensives, (2) Potentials, and (3) Completives, formed from the root, or Conjunctive Participles of one Verb prefixed to another; (4) Frequentatives and (5) Desideratives, by prefixing un- inflected Past Participles to karnd or chdhnd ; (6) Inceptives, (7) Permissives, (8) Acquisitives, and (9) another form of Desideratives, by prefixing inflected Infinitives to the Verbs lagnd, dend, pdnd, and chdhnd or mdngnd respectively ; (10) Staticals, by prefixing a Present Participle, Adjectively (and agreeing with the Subject in Gender and Number), to another Verb; (11) Continuatives, by prefixing a Past or Present Participle to the inflected form (or, rather, the Past or Present Adverbial Participle) to the Verbs jQ.no. or rahnd; and (12) Reiteratives, which are formed by putting the Roots or Participles of two Verbs together, which agree with one another either in sense or sound — one of them even having no meaning by itself but only forming a jingle. The right of some of these, however, viz. the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th,

186 URDU GEAMMAE.

and 10th, to be designated properly " Compound Yerbs " is questioned by some Grammarians.

256. "We proceed now to make a few remarks regarding the syntactical construction of such Yerbs : —

(1) Intensives. If the second, or intensifying, Verb of the compound is Transitive, then in all Tenses composed of the Perfect Participle the same rules must be followed as with simple Transitive Verbs ; thus, Usne dlwdr ko tor ddld 1 He broke down the wall ' ; Main ne kitdb mez par raJch dl ' I put down the book on the table.' But if the intensifying Verb be Intransitive, this construction is impossible, and the Subject, expressed or understood, must always be in the Nominative ; as, Wuh roil ~ko kfid gay a ' He ate up the bread ' ; Main ghore par se gir pard ' I fell off the horse/ In such a case, however, the compound is not to be regarded as Neuter, for in Urdu a Verb (simple or com- pound) is Transitive if it takes an Objective complement in the Accusative as kfid jdnd does. Another sort of In- tensitives is said by some Grammarians to be formed by prefixing a Perfect Participle (agreeing with the Subject) to another Verb ; as, We chale jdte ham l They are going along ' ; Lomrl pari pthirtl tfil ' The fox was prowling about.' But in such cases there is no intensive signification whatever ; chale Jdnd is rather a Continuative Compound.

In some Intensive Compounds the Verb which indicates the act comes last and is conjugated, the intensifying word remaining unchanged ; as, Maihne usko de mdrd ' I laid on to him'; Usne mujhko de patkd 'He threw (or 'chucked') me down.'

257. (2) Potentials and (3) Completives must always be constructed Actively in the Tenses composed of the Perfect Participle, as well as in the other Tenses, since the Verbs

COMPOUND VEEBS. 187

saknd and chuknd are Intransitive ; as, Ham jd sakte ham ' We can go,' we utfid sake ' they could raise,' Kya turn Jehu chuke ho ? ' Are you (or ' have you ') done eating ? ? Wuh kab pi chukegd ? l "When will he be done drinking ? '

Chuknd, expressing a completed action, seems rarely, if ever, to be used in the Present Participle or Tenses formed with it : Math bol chukd, or kar chukd, is used to express ' I have just (or ' already ') said, or done (* it ' or ' so '),' as well as main bol (or kar} chukd hun. The Past Indefinite Tense is also often used, idiomatically, to express the utter improbability of the speaker's performing an act, or of some one else doing it ; as, Main kar chukd * It is not likely I should do it ' ; Wuh ja chukd ! ' Gone, indeed ! is he ? not likely ! '

Present and Past Potential Tenses may be formed by saknd, and a Future Perfect by chuknd ; as, Wuh jd saktd hai 1 He can go ' ; Main jd sakd ' I could go ' ; We Jd chukeiige ' They will have gone.' The two Verbs only occur in Compounds. A sort of Potential is sometimes formed by adding the Verb jdnd to the uninflected Perfect Participle of another Verb with the signification of ho saknd. The Participle is then used as a Verbal Noun, and forms the Subject (or Nominative) of the Verb ; e.g. Mujhse dj khdnd khdyd aayd, lit. l By me eating food to-day was possible,' i.e. i I could eat my food to-day ' ; Taqdlr se lard nahin jdtd 1 There is no fighting against fate ! ' — in vulgar parlance, * It is no go to attempt it.'

258. (4) Frequentatives and (5) Desideratives are always Actively constructed in the Tenses composed of the Perfect Participle, i.e. their Subject must be in the Nominative, not the Agent Case, notwithstanding that karnd and chdhnd, the final parts of the Compounds, are Transitive Verbs, the

188 TTRBTJ GRAMMAR.

Participles forming the first part being used as abstract (Yerbal) Substantives in the Accusative governed by the final Verb. These Compounds may also take an Objective com- plement in the Accusative when the first member is the Participle of a Transitive Verb (not otherwise), that comple- ment being the Object of the governing Participle ; as, Main din Wiar pdnl men hdtft pdph mdrd kiyd ' 1 kept striking my hands and feet in the water the whole night.' Here h-dtfl pdph is in the Accusative Case, though ko is omitted, mar a being Transitive. Main tamdni rut jangal men pfiira kiyd 'I kept wandering about in the forest all night,' where pftird (the Intransitive Participle) alone is governed by kiyd. It must never be forgotten that whenever a Verbal Substantive, in any form, is compounded with a Transitive Verb, the compound must be Actively constructed in all the Tenses of the Active Voice ; e.g. Adml kl dwdz sund dl (not dwdzne] 1 A man's voice was heard' (lit. l gave a hearing'), Do ddml deklidl dit/e ' Two men appeared.' In Frequentative and Desiderative Compounds the old forms jdyd and mard are used instead of gayd and mud.

259. (6) Inceptives, (7) Permissives, and (8) Acquisitives.

The first of these is formed by adding the Verb lagnd ('to set to,' 'to begin') to the inflected Infinitive — or, rather, we should say, to the Gerund — of another Verb in the Dative Case, the Case-affix (ko) being suppressed. Lagnd, being Neuter, does not take the Agent in Tenses formed with the Perfect Participle; e.g. Wuh kahne lagd 'He began to say ' ; Tab wuh rone lagl ' Then she began to cry.' Permissives add dend 'to give' (permission), 'to allow,' to a Verb in the inflected Infinitive or Gerund, in the Dative or Accusative Case with ko suppressed ; as, Usko June do 'Let him go'; Hamko June nahm diyd 'He did not allow

COMPOUND VEEBS. 189

me to go.' Acquisitives take puna instead of denti, so that instead of saying Hamko jane diyd ndhlh gayd ( I was not allowed to go,' it is better to say Main jane nahln pdyd • Wuh him turn karne nahln pdoge ' You will not be allowed to do that work (or 'thing').'

260. (9) Desideratives may also be formed in this way with the inflected Gerund, or Infinitive, by adding the Verb mdngnd or chdhnd to it ; as, Wuh pine chdhtd hai ' He wants to drink ' ; Main wahdn jane mdngtd hun l 1 want to go there.'

261. (10) Staticals (so-called by previous Grammarians, though Mr. Platts thinks they have no right to the term of Compound Yerbs) are formed by a Present Participle, used adjectively, prefixed to a Finite or leading Yerb; as, Wuh ha'nstd hua did hai ' He is coming along laughing ' ; Wuh parhtl rahtl hai l She is engaged in reading.' Nothing further need be added here to what has already been said under this head in the former part of the Grammar (see § 88, p. 83).

262. (11) Continuatives, being formed with the Intran- sitive Yerbs jdna or rahnd, as their final constituents, can never take the Agent form of the Subject in any Tense, though the first member happens to be the Participle of a Transitive Yerb. This Participle may be either the Past or Present Adverbial ; e.g. Wuh isl tar ah se bahte rahtl hai f She goes on prating in this way ' ; Wuh chale jdtd hai * He keeps walking on.' 1

1 In the sentence Tumhdre hath se maljatd raha ' Your wealth has for ever gone from your hands ' (given in Dowson's Grammar as an example of a Continuative) there is no repeated or continuous act expressed. It is rather a Statical, jdtd raha being = gaya aur raha ' went and remained ' (' gone '), jdtd agreeing with mal.

190 URDU GRAMMAR.

In these Continuative Compounds, if the first member of them be Transitive, then they may take an Objective com- plement (with or without ko), that complement being the Object of the Adverbial Participle; e.g. WuK roz roz shardb plije jdtd hai 'He keeps drinking wine (or 'spirits') every day ' ; Wuh hamesha Injll ko parhte rdhtl hai ' She is con- stantly reading the New Testament.' Continuatives are sometimes met with in other connections than the Verbs jdnd and rahnd, as in these examples: Main chalte cJialte tfiak gay a 'I continuing to go on (or 'walking on continually') became wearied ' ; Ham gate gate sltl ham l We (girls) keep singing while we stitch.' Staticals much resemble Con- tinuatives, but must not be confounded. The student should compare them and mark wherein they differ.

(12) Eeiteratives. There is nothing in the Syntax of these Verbs requiring particular remark, in addition to what was said of them in the former part of the Grammar (§ 92, p. 85).

VERBS.

263. These are formed by a Verb and a Predicative Sub- stantive, or Adjective, which is in the Nominative Case if the Verb be Neuter, and in the Accusative (Nominative form) if the Verb be Transitive. In the former case the Verbs are generally either hona or and, in the latter karnd or lend. The Kules of Concord and Government, in regard to Nominals, are much the same as in the case of Verbs in general. Neuter Nominal Compounds with declinable Adjectives agree, in Gender and Number, with their Subject. But the Verb forming the second part of the Compound

NOMINAL VEKBS. 191

is not affected by the Gender of the Noun that forms its first part; as, Wuh rukhsat hud 'He took leave'; Yih mere ru-ba-ru tarblyat hogd ' He shall be educated in my presence,' where rukhsat and tarbiyat are both Feminine, but hud and hogd Masculine ; but the Compounds so formed agree with their Subjects wuh and yih in Gender and Number.

Again, in Ye bdteh pasand nahln dim ' These words do not please,' the Compound pasand-dtln, regarded as one Verb (though separated by nahin}, agrees with its Subject Idteh. These cases alone are sufficient, we think, to vindicate the right of Nominals to be termed Compounds. Then, in Ye sdtoh larkiydh kharl thin 'All these seven girls were standing,' we have an example of a declinable Adjective, forming part of the Compound, also agreeing with the Subject in Gender and its Yerb in Number too — khara hond together meaning ' to stand.'

264. Though the Predicative Noun generally comes im- mediately before the Verb, yet it may also follow it, and often does so in poetry ; as, Aise mihmdn kl to Idzim hai hi Tchatir ho 'aziz ' It is befitting that the heart of such a guest should be (esteemed) precious,' though in this example, given by Mr. Platts, we cannot quite agree with him in regarding 'amz hond as a Nominal Compound. It is simply a Yerb and Adjectival Predicate. But we do agree with him that such phrases as ydd and, yaqlh and, and the like, are not properly to be called " Nominal Compounds," any more than their equivalents in English 'to come to remem- brance ' and ' to feel certain ' should be called so. In such cases and governs the party affected in the Dative; as, Usko ydd dyd (lit. l memory came to him '), usko yaqln dyd (lit. 'certainty came to him'). Lagnd and parnd may take the place of and, in like phraseology; as, Pet men dg lugl

192 TJRDU GRAMMAR.

* The fire (of hunger) kindled in my stomach ' ; Earl afat mujhko parl ' A great calamity befel me.'

265. Nominals in which the Yerb is Transitive are con- structed with the Agent (not the Nominative) in Tenses formed with the Perfect Participle ; and, if the Objective complement in the sentence be in the Nominative form, agree with it in Gender and Number; if in the Dative form, the Participle keeps the Nominative Masculine type just as in the case of ordinary Transitive Verbs ; as, Mainne terl 'arzi ho qalul layd, or mainne terl 'arzl qabul kl * I have accepted your petition (or ' memorial ') ' ; Deo ho rukhsat kiyd * He dismissed the demon ' ; Garl khari la ' He stopped the cart.'

In general (as said above) the Verbal Past Participle in a Nominal Compound is not affected in Gender by the first member of it, but there are one or two exceptions to this rule ; e.g. if the latter be attached to a preceding Genitive this seems, syntactically, to detach it from the Participle as a compound factor, which then agrees with it in Gender ; as, JBddshdh ne ushl tdarlf kl * The king praised it' (lit. 'did the praising of it'). In such a case the Predicative Substantive may be separated from the Verb connected with it as a Compound by several words; as, Is quiff at kd izJiur cJiilldne aur rone waghaire se kartd hai 'It ('the child') manifests this faculty by screaming and crying,' etc.

PARTICLES — ADVERBS.

266. As to the nature, derivation, and idiomatic order in a sentence of Adverbs, we have already spoken at sufficient length (see §§ 94-98, 110). A very few additional remarks need be made on their syntactical construction. Though

PARTICIPLES ADVERBS. 193

Adverbs generally should precede the Verb or Adjective they qualify, yet in certain cases their proper place is at the end or middle of a sentence. The word nahlh, for instance, which is not only a Negative Adverb, but also sometimes a contraction for na hai, very often stands last; as, Main to ahmaq nahlh ! (huh being understood) ' Indeed, I am not a fool ! ' Kya main aisd karuhgd ? kabhl nahlh \ ' Would I do so ? never ! ' Is waqt darwdza kholne ha hukm nahlh (for na hai) * There is no order to open the gate at this time.'

The particle to is added to nahlh, either conditionally or by way of emphasis, giving the sense either of ' otherwise,' or 'no indeed!'; as, Turn jhatpat jdo, nahlh, to tumko mdruhgd ' You be off instantly, or else I will beat you ' ; Kyd turn mujhe mdroge ? nahm to ! * You beat me ? no indeed ! '

Sometimes to is an untranslatable enclitic ; as, dekko to \ 1 just look ! ' or ' see now ! ' yih to sach hai, or sahl to hai 1 it is quite true,' kar to sahl ' just you do it.'

Kahdh ? (' where ? ') is idiomatically joined to two different Subjects to intimate a very great difference or contrast ; as, Nahlh to main kahdh aur tu kahah, i.e. ' Otherwise where (wast) thou, and where I?' meaning 'how could we possibly meet?'

The Adverb hah ? (' when? ') is also used much in the same sense ; as, Main to kab gayd or kab jduhgd ' When did I go ? ' or ' When will I go ? ' — meaning ' I never would go.'

The enclitive hi may be added, for emphasis, to any part of speech ; as, Tuhl to kiyd ! ' It was you, indeed, who did it ! ' Merlhl kitdl hai l It is, indeed, my book ' ; Uske dam men wuh d-hl ga-l ' (After all) she did yield to his cajoling ' — dam men d-jdnd meaning ' to be cajoled.' Jab talak (or jab talc), meaning ' until,' * as long as,' is almost always followed by a Negative and a Yerb in the Aorist Tense ; as,

13

194 URDU GRAMMAR.

jab tak main na dun i till I come ' (lit. ' as long as I do not come ') ; jab talak main tujhe Jchabar na dun l till I inform you.' Without the Negative jab tak generally means * whilst ' ; as, jab tak tu pdm khaihche ' whilst thou art drawing water ' ; jab tak tu us jawdn ko &utfi lekar awe 1 whilst thou art bringing the young man.*

PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS.

267. Lists of these, and notes as to their Case-government, have been given in the Etymological portion of the Grammar (§§ 99, 100). But we may here add a few remarks as to special significations of some of them.

The purpose and use of these Particles is to show the relation of one Substantive to another, or to some other word in the sentence. Some of them govern a ISToun in the Form- ative only, some in the Genitive only, and some optionally in either the one or the other.

Age 'before,' and samhne 'in front' (both governing the Masculine Genitive), are much used for comparison; as, Uske age main nd-ddn huh, ' In comparison with him I am an ignorant man ' ; Uskd ghar bddshdh ke daulat-khdne ke sdmhne jhomprl hai ( His house, compared with the king's palace, is a mere hut.' But more ordinarily both signify ' in the presence of ; as, IChudd ke age (or samhne] sab tidml gunahgdr ham 'Before (or 'in the presence of) God, all men are sinners,' age meaning 'before' as regards position as well as time. Nazdlk 'near,' is often used in the sense of ' in the opinion of ' ; as, 'aqlmandoh ke nazdik ' in the opinion of wise men.' Pas and tara/sue not so used. Sdtfi,

PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS. 195

as a Postposition, generally means 'with,' 'along with,' but as a Proposition, followed by a Demonstrative Pronoun, it usually signifies 'although,' 'notwithstanding,' or 'in addition to ' (like the Persian bdwajud] ; as, Turn hamdre sdtth do ' You come with me ' ; Sdtth nske wuh bahut mihrbdn tthd ' Besides that he was very kind ' ; Sat ft iske ki wuh ndtawdn aur uskd dushman bahut qawl tfai, usne lardl karne thaharayd ' Not- withstanding that (or 'although') he was weak, and his enemy very powerful, (yet) he determined to fight him.' Taraf ' towards,' refers not only to local direction, but also, some- times, to feeling or conduct. Thus, Wuh bazar hi taraf gayd hai 'He has gone to (or 'in the direction of) the market' — more commonly bazar (or bdzdrko] gayd hai. But, Merl taraf se saldm hah do ' Present my compliments ' ; Uskl taraf - se wuh bad-gumdn ho gayd hai 'He has become suspicious of him.'

There are several words which, if used as Postpositions, govern a Feminine Genitive, but if as Prepositions, take a Masculine Genitive. The first of these constructions is Hindi, the second Persian, whence it is only in regard to Persian or Arabic Prepositions that the usage occurs. Thus, shahr kl taraf, or taraf shahr ke 'towards the city,' uskl mdnind, or mdnind uske 'like that,' uskl bdbat, or lab at uske ' concerning him'; and so with misl 'like,' ba-madad 'by aid of,' and ba-mujib 'in accordance with,' ba-nishat 'with respect to,' be-marzi 'without the consent of.' The Persian construction is accounted for in this way : that not only in the last four words, but in all the others (except bdbat] a Persian Preposition is understood (either ba ' with ' or be 'without') governing these words, which were originally Masculine Nouns. Be by itself, used as a Preposition, has sometimes a following Genitive in the Masculine where kl

196 URDU GRAMMAR.

would be expected ; as, le saldh o mashwarat Tee * without advice and counsel.' We meet with uskl bemarzl ' with his (or 'her') displeasure,' but here lemarzi is a Compound Sub- stantive, meaning * displeasure,' governed by se understood.

CONJUNCTIONS.

268. A list of Urdu Conjunctions, as judiciously classified by Mr. Platts, has been given in the Etymological Section of this Grammar (§ 103). We now subjoin a few Syntactical notes.

Conjunctions are useful in two sorts of combinations, viz. (1) Co-ordinate and (2) Subordinate.

Under the first of these are ranked Connectives, Adversa- tives, Exceptives, and Conclusives. Connective Conjunctions do not affect the structure of a sentence. They are often understood, but not expressed, as in English. The Negative na repeated answers to our ' neither,1 l nor* Sometimes aur is prefixed to the second ; as, Na yih na wuh durust hai 1 Neither this nor that is right ' ; Na main jdungd aur na turn (jdoge) ' Neither I nor you will go.'

Yd — yd may mean either 'whether — or' (Latin vel) or ' either — or ' (Lat. aut) ; as, yd dost yd dushman ' either friend or foe ' ; Yd mujhko yd tumko jdnd hogd * Either you or I must go.'

The Conjunction ki is generally used to introduce a Sub- ordinate Clause ; as, Mujhe ma'lum hai ki wuh llmdr hai ' I think he is sick ' ; but it is also used as a Disjunctive Co-ordinate in the sense of ' or ' ; as, Wahuh turn jdoge ki main ? * Will you go there, or shall I ? '

IDIOMS. 197

Conjunctions used in Subordinate combinations are the Conditional, Concessive, Comparative, etc.; as, agar 'and,' jo ' if,' jab ' when,' and their correlatives to ' then,' tab 'then,' agarchi, goki, go ' although,' jaisa 'as,' goyd 'as if,' jo 'if,' 'as,' ki 'that,' 'for,' 'because/ 'or,' etc.; ta, take ' in order that,' malddd ' lest/ etc. These last (which are called 'finals') are generally constructed with the Aorist, or Present Subjunctive, as before-mentioned (§ 250) ; as, taki main sawere jdun 'that I may go early,' malddd we daur jdwen 'lest they run away.' Ki 'that/ in Subordinate Clauses very often does not need to be translated ; as, Usne puchhd ki, tumhdrd ndm kyd ? ' He asked me what was my name ' (lit. ' What is your name ? '). This (the direct oration) in Urdu is much preferred to the indirect.

IDIOMS.

269. This preference for the Oratio Recta should always be borne in mind in conversation, of which we may give one or two other examples (taken at random from " Forbes's Manual"): Usse kaho, ki tu sakht daghubdz hai, aur apne khdwind ke sdmhne hamesha jhuth ki paton ke pat kholtd hai ' Tell him he is a great rogue, and that he is always telling his master no end of lies' (lit. ' thou art opening bags on bags of lies'); Usne kahd ki mere hdtth men kdm hai, main hargiz rah na sakungd ' He said he had business and could not possibly remain ' ; Maihne puchhd ki wuh kdm kis tarah kd hai? par usne kahd ki wuh bhed kl bat hai, uskd main laydn na kar sakuhgd 'I asked him of what nature the business was ; but he said it was an affair of secrecy, which

198 URDU GRAMMAR.

he could not divulge.' But it is not always necessary to adhere to this direct idiom : the oblique style may sometimes do as well ; as, Sals ko bolo bagtghl taiyar hare, sahib bdhar jdtd liai * Tell the groom to get the buggy ready (lit. ' that he get ready'), master is going out'; Sarkdr se kaho hi lank- lot lekar hundl ke rupaite add kare ' Tell the sarkar to take bank-notes and pay the amount of the draft.'

270. Under the head of Idioms it may be well to notice the idiomatic use of various Verbs, most of them forming Nominal Compounds.

Thus, with khdnd ' to eat,' we have the following : zakhm khdnd 'to be wounded,' rahm khdnd 'to feel compassion,' hawd khdnd 'to take an airing,' qasm khdnu 'to take an oath,' chughll khdnd ' to backbite,' mdrplt khdnl ' to get a beating,' ghotd khdnd 'to be immersed.'

From uthdnd, we have ranj uthdnd 'to endure grief,' sadme uthdnd 'to receive blows,' hazz uthdnd 'to feel pleasure,' mihnat uthdnd 'to undergo great labour,' maza jdwdnl kd uthdnd ' to enjoy the pleasures of youth.'

From khaihchnd (or khenchnd^) 'to draw,' takllf khaihchnd 'to suffer annoyance,' tasdl Mainchnd, or uthdnd 'to feel vexation,' sakhtiydh uthdnd, or khenchnd 'to suffer hard- ships,' fdqa khenchnd 'to fast,' intizdr khainchnd 'to expect.'

With lagnd 'to touch,' 'be applied,' 'begin,' we have (besides the Inceptive Compounds) hdtth lagnd 'to come to hand' ('to be obtained'), dg lagnd 'to catch fire' (as ghar men dg lagl ' the house caught fire '), talkh lagnd ' to become bitter.'

The Active form lagdnd is also similarly used ; as, dg lagdnd 'to set on fire,' talwdr lagdnd 'to attack with a sword,' nashtar lagdnd ' to lance,' ' to bleed.' Milnd ' to meet,' 'to tally' (v. n.), generally takes the Dative of the

IDIOMS. 199

Person and the Nominative of the thing met, found, or obtained ; as, Mujhe apnl drzu mill ' 1 got my desire ' ; Tumko sazd milegl 'You will get your desert,' or 'be punished'; Hamko daryd rah men mild ' We came to a river on our way'; Tumko neki ke 'iwaz nekl milegl ' You will meet with kindness in return for it.' Sometimes, however, milnd is connected with the Nominative, and the person or thing met or obtained is put in the Ablative ; as, Mujhe rukhsat dljiye ki main apne ydr se milun ( Give me leave that I may meet my friend ' ; Wuh uthkar Mahmuda se mill ' She arose and met Mahmuda ' ; gale mil kar ' embracing,' or ' having embraced.'

Chuhnd ' to wish.' Besides the idiomatic uses of this Yerb in Desiderative Compounds, and in the form chdhiye, it is sometimes used as a Simple Yerb, signifying 'to wish,' generally followed by ki ('that'), and the Aorist ; as, usne chdhd kijdwe ' he wished to go,' or ' he was about to go.'

Rahnd ' to remain.' This Yerb is used (as already stated) in forming Continuative Compound Yerbs, by being appended to Past or Present Adverbial Participles. But, besides that, it is also added for the like purpose to Present Participles agreeing in Gender and Number with the common Subject ; as, Wuh rotl rahtl hai ' She continues crying ' ; Wuh jdtd rahd 'He continued going' — but also 'he went right away,' ' departed,' or ' died ' ; Hosh se jdtd rahd ' He departed from (i.e. ' lost ') his senses ' ; Yih kah rahd tfid ' He kept saying this ' ; Merd intizdr khaihch rahd tthd ' He kept waiting for me ' — in which two last examples observe that the Pluperfect form is translated as an Imperfect Tense ; Apnl man ke pds laithl rahl 'She remained seated (or 'sitting') near her mother.'

Mdrnd, 'to strike,' is much used in Nominal Compounds; as, talwdr mdrnd 'to strike (with) a sword,' kord mdrnd 'to

200 UKDIJ GRAMMAR.

strike (with) a whip ' ; Usne ek Tidtfid mdrd ' He struck a blow (with his) fist ' ; Mujhe ek lot mdrd l He kicked me ' ; Usne tlr mdrd ' He shot an arrow.'

Farmdnd, 'to command,' is often used in the sense of merely 'to speak' or 'say,' when the speaker is a king or some other authoritative personage ; as, bddshdhne farmdyti ' the king commanded,' but often meaning simply ' the king said.' It is also used in the formation of Nominal Verbs, instead of karnd and dend, etc., when applied to a king or eminent person; as, Insdf farmaya 'He did justice'; Shafaqat farmdl ' He showed kindness.'

£annd, 'to be made,' frequently means to assume the ap- pearance ; as, Brdhmanon kl surat lankar ' having assumed the appearance (or 'dress') of Brahmans ' ; gend kl surat ban/car ' having taken the shape of a ball.' The Intensive, ban jdnd, has a similar meaning.

Baithnd 'to sit,' parnd 'to fall,' or 'lie down,' and letnd ' to repose.' The Past Participles of these three Verbs are generally used where we would use the Present, and should be so translated ; as, Wuh darwdze par baithd tfia ' He was sitting at his door ' ; Hdr sump ke gale men para hai ' The necklace is lying on the snake's neck ' ; Ek kauwe ghonsle men para dekhd l He saw a crow lying in a nest ' ; Hiran uske age letd hai ' The stag was lying (lit. ' lain ') before him.'

APPENDIX— OF THE CALENDAR.

The following remarks on the Mohammedan and Hindu Calendars are taken mostly from Dr. Forbes's Hindustani Grammar.

THE MOHAMMEDAN CALENDAR.

The Mu salmans reckon by lunar time : their era, called the Hijra (i.e. 'flight'; vulgo 'Hegira'), commencing from the day on which Mohammed retreated from Mekka to Medina ; which, according to the best accounts, took place on Friday, the 16th of July (18th new style), A.D. 622. Their year consists of 12 lunations, amounting to 354 days and 9 hours, very nearly ; and hence their New Year's Day will happen every year about eleven days earlier than the preceding year. To find the Christian year corresponding to that of the Hijra, apply the following rule: — From the given number of Musalman years deduct three per-cent., and to the remainder add the number 621*54; the sum is the period of the Christian Era at which the given current Musalman year ends. This rule is founded on the fact that 100 lunar years are very nearly equal to 97 solar years, the difference being about 18 days only.

"When great accuracy is required, and when the year, month, and day of the Mohammedan Era are given, the precise period of the Christian Era may be found very

202

URDU GRAMMAR.

nearly as follows : — Express the Musalman date in years and decimals of a year; multiply by '97; to the product add 621-54 ; and the sum will be the period of the Christian Era.

The Mohammedan, or lunar, months are made to consist of 30 and 29 days alternately ; but, in a period of 30 years, it is found necessary to intercalate the last month eleven times, so as to reckon 30 days instead of 29 : that is, eleven times in every 30 years one day is added to the last month. So the year consists of 354 days, and in leap years of 355 days. Being thus about 11 days shorter than the solar year, it gains upon the latter at the rate of about one year in thirty-three.

The Months, which retain their names in all Mohammedan countries, are as follows : —

LUNAR MONTHS.

Moharram . . .

30 days.

Rajab

Safar ....

29 „

Sha'bdn

RaW -ul-awwal .

30 „

Ramazdn

Rabi1 -us-sdnl }

Shawwdl

Rail1 -ul-dkhir }

2y ,,

Zi-l-qa'da

Jumdda-l-awwal .

30 „

Zl-qa'da

Jnmdda-s-saril }

29

Zi-l-hijja

Jumdda-l-dkhir j

Zl-hijja

30 days.

29 „

30 „

29 „

30 „ 29

APPENDIX.

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204 URDU GEAHMAB.

The Hindus regard the day as commencing, as we do, at midnight ; but the Mohammedans regard it as beginning (as the Jews do1) with the evening of the preceding day; so that ' the night of a certain day' in the month of a Musalman signifies the night of the day before as we would say. For example, Jum'e ki rat, their Friday night, is really Thursday night according to our way of reckoning.

THE HINDU CALENDAE.

The Hindu year is divided into twelve equal portions, which nearly correspond to our solar months. The month, again, is divided into two parts, each called a pdkh or 1 lunar fortnight.' The first pakh extends from new to full moon, and is called sadl, ( the light fortnight ' ; the second extends from full to new moon, and is called ladi, ' the dark fortnight.' All festivals and dates are reckoned, not by the solar months, but by the duration of the moon which terminates in each. Hence, although the month Itaisdkh begins, de jure, about the middle of April, it may have commenced, de facto, from 1 to 28 days sooner.

When two new moons occur during one solar month, which happens once in three years, there is an intercalary month ; and the month so intercalated receives the name of the one which preceded it, that is of the solar month within which the two new moons may happen. The era, however, which is commonly used by the Hindus of the northern half of India is that called sambat (Sanskrit, samvat 'year'),

1 Gen. I. 5, etc.

APPENDIX. 205

•which dates from the month Katik of the year 57 B.C., when King Vekramaditya is supposed to have ascended the throne of II j jain.

Another common era, especially in Southern India, is that of Sdliv&hana. It is called tidka, and dates from the month Chait of the year 78 B.C.

The following are the names of the Hindu solar months : —

Baisakh=. April — May.

une.

A sdrh = June — July . Sdwan or Sriiwan £hddon=Aug. — Sept.

j =rJuly — Aug.

Kutdr or sm=:Sept. — Oct.

Katik or KdrtiJc

=0ct.— Nov.

=^Qv. — Dec. Pus=Dec. — Jan. =rJan. — Feb.

=l?eb. — March. Chait= March — April.

These names are in common use among both Hindus and Musalmans. But the names of the English months are also now used, especially in official correspondence.

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Indian Melodies. By GLYN BARLOW, M.A., Professor St. George's College, Mussooree. Es. 2.

A Catechism on the Rudiments of Music. For School

and Home Use. By A LADY. 12 mo. Ee. 1.

The Spoilt Child. A Tale of Hindu Domestic Life, Transla- tion of the Bengal Novel " Alaler Gharer Dulal," by Peary Chand Mitter (Tek Chani Thakur). By G. D. OSWELL, M.A. Crown 8vo, cbth gilt. Ks. 3; paper, Es. 2-8.

English Etiquette for Indian Gentlemen. By

W. TKEGO WEBB, Bengal Educational Department. Ecap. 8vo. Ee. 1. Cloth, Ee. 1-4.

Letters on Tactics and Organization. The Eela- tionship of British to Continental Systems. By Captain F. N. MAUDE, E.E. Crown 8vo. Es. 5.

Transport and Veterinary. Thirty Lectures for Transport Training Classes. A complete Epitome of Transport Duties and Veterinary for use in Classes and for Eeady Eeference in the Field, By a Deputy Assistant Commissary-General.

[In the press. o '2

24 Thacker, Spink $ Co., Calcutta.

The Captain's Daughter. A .Novel literally translated from the Eussian. By 8. H. GODFREY, Bombay S.C. Es. 2.

" Lit* rally translated, with a view of assisting Students to acquire a Master y of Russian Idioms, and to obt tin a grasp of the Language. This is certainly a very pleasant way of learning Russian." — Army and Navy Gazette.

Russian Conversation- Grammar (on the System of

Otto). With Exercises, Colloquial Phrases, and an English Eussian Vocabulary. By A. KIN LOCH, late Interpreter to H.B M. Consulate, St. Petersburgh. 9s.

Constructed on the excellent system of Otto, with Illustra- tions accompanying every rule in the form of usual phrases and idioms ; thus leading the Student by easy and rapid grada- tions to a colloquial knowledge of the language.

Thacker's Indian Directory. Embracing the whole

Empire governed by the Viceroy of India and also the Native States; with complete and detailed information of the Cities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. With Almanac, Army List, and general information. Published annually. Es. 20.

The Indian Medical Gazette- A Eecord of Medicine,

Surgery, and Public Health, and of General Medical In- telligence, Indian and European. Edited by Surg.-Lt. Col. A. CROMBIE, M.D., and W. J. SIMPSON, M.D. Published Monthly. Subscriptions, Es. 18 per annum, including postage.

Q he best representative medium for recording the work and experience of the Medical Profession in India, form- ing a storehouse of information on tropical diseases which would otherwise be lost to the world.

The Indigenous Drug's of India. By KAN YE LAL DEY,

Eai Bahadur, C.I.E., F.C.S.

W. Thacker $ Co., London. 25

LAW PUBLICATIONS.

A Digest of the Indian Law Reports and of the

Eeports of the cases heard in appeal by the Privy Council, 1887 to 1889. Edited by J. V. WOODMAN, ESQ., Barristcr- at-Law. Sup. .Royal 8vo, cloth, gilt, Ks. 12 ; quarter- bound, Es. 13-8.

Digest of Indian Law Cases: High Court and Privy

Council Appeals, 1890-93. With Index of Cases. By J. V. WOODMAN. Sup. Royal 8vo, cloth. Es. 16; half- bound, Es. 18.

The Indian Service Manual, or Guide to the several Depart- ments of the Government of India. Containing the Eules for Admi-sion, Notes on the Working of e ch Depart- ment, &c. By C. E. HARDLI-SS, Author of the " Clerk's

Manual."

The Digest of Indian Law Reports : A Compendium of the Eulings of the High Court of Calcutta, Vol. II. Second Edition, 1876 to 1889, and brought up to May, 1890. By D. SUTHERLAND, ESQ., Barrister-at-Law. Pp. 1020. Sup. Eoyal 8vo, cloth, gilt. Es. 24.

The Code of Criminal Procedure : being Act X. of 1882 (amended 1886 and 1887), with Notes of fll Judg- ments and Orders thereon. By H. T. PRINSEP, Judge of the Supreme Court, Calcutta. 8vo. Tenth Edition. Es. 12.

The Code of Criminal Procedure. Together with

Eulings, Circular Orders, Notifications, &c., of all the High Courts in India, and Notifications and Orders of the Government of India and the Local Governments. Edited, with Copious Notes and full Index, by W. F. Ac NEW and GILBERT S. HENDERSON, M.A., Barristers- at-Law. Third Edition. Es. 14.

Al Sirajiyyah: or the Mahommedan Law of Inheritance. Sir William Jones' Translation, with Notes and Appendix by ALMARIC EUMSEY, Professor of Indian Jurisprudence, King's College, London. Second Edition. Es. 4-8.

Manual of Revenue and Collectorate Law : with Important Eulings and Annotations. By H. A. D. PHILLIPS, Bengal Civil Service. Crown 8vo, cloth. Es. 10.

26 Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta.

The Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 : being an

Act to define and amend the Law relating to Promissory Notes, Bills of Exchange and Cheques. Edited by his Honour Judge CHALMERS. Second Edition Edited and brought up to date by A. CASPERSZ. 8vo, cloth.

A Commentary on Hindu Law of Inheritance,

Succession. Partition, Adoption, Marriage, Stridhan, and Testamentary Disposition. By Pundit JOGENDRO XATH BHATTACHARJI SMARTA SIROMANI, M.A., D.L. Demy 8vo. Second Edition.

A Chaukidari Manual ; being Act VI. (B.C.) of 1870, as amended by Acts 1. (B.C.) of 1871 and 1886. WithXotes, Eules, Government Orders, and Inspection Notes. By G. TOYNBEE, C.S., Magistrate of Hooghly. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. Ee. 1 .

Manual of the Revenue Sale Law and Certificate

Procedure of Lower Bengal, being Act XI. of 1859; .Act VII. (B.C.) of 1868; and Act VII. (B.C.) of 1880 : The Public Demands Recovery L ct, including Selections from the Rules and Circular Orders of the Board of Revenue. With Notes. By VV. H. GRIMLEY, B.A., C.S. 8vo. Rs. 5-8 ; interleaved, Es. 6.

The North-West Provinces' Rent Act, beirg Act XII. of

1881, as amended by subsequent Acts. Edited, with Intro- duction, Commentary and Appendices, by H. F. HOLSE, C.S. Demy 8vo. Rs. 10.

The North- Western Provinces' Rent Act, being Act XIF. of 1881, as amended by Act. XIV. cf 1886, With Notes, &c. By H, W. REYNOLDS, C.S. Demy 8vo, cloth, Rs. 7.

The Bengal Tenancy Act. Being Act VIII. of 1885.

With Xotes and Annotations, Judicial Rulings, and the Rules framed by the Local Government and the High Court under the Act. Eor the guidance of Revenue Officers and the Civil Courts. By R. E. RAMPINI, M.A., C.S., Barristcr- at-Law, District and Session Judge, and M. FINUCANE, M.A., C.S., Director of the Agricultural Department, Government of Bengal, Second Edition. Royal 8vo. Rs. 7.

The Law Of Estoppel in India. By A. CASPERSZ. (Tagore Law Lecture, 1893.) Es. 12.

W. Thacker $ Co., London. 27

The Inland Emigration Act, as amended by Act Vfl. of 1893; with' Orders by the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal ; Forms by Government of Bengal ; Resolution of the Government of India ; Resolution of the Government of Assam; Rules made by the Chief Commissioner of Assam, and Orders by the Lieutenant-Governor, N. W. P. ; the Health Act, and Rules framed under it ; Land Rules of Assam. Interpaged with blank pages for notes. Crown 8vo. Rs. 2-4.

An Income Tax Manual, being Act II. of 1886, The Rules, Rulings and Precedents, &c., and Notes, By W. H. GRIMLEY, B.A., C.S., Commissioner of Income Tax, Bengal. Royal 8vo. Rs. 3-8 ; interleaved, Rs. 4.

The Indian Penal Code and other Laws and Acts

of Parliament relating to the Criminal Courts of India. With Notes. By J. O'KINEALY, Judge of the High Court, Calcutta, Third" Edition. Royal 8vo. Rs. 12 (24s.)

Legislative Acts of the Governor-General of India in* Council.; published annually with Index. Royal 8vo,. cloth. 1872, Rs. 10; 1873, 1874, and 1875, Rs. 5 each ; 1876, Rs. 6; 1877, Rs. 10; 1878, Rs. 5 ; 1879, Rs. 5 ; 1880, Rs. 4 ; 1881, Rs. 8 ; 1882, Rs. 15-8 ; 1883, Rs. 5 ; 1884, Rs. 5j 1885, Rs. 5; 1886, Rs. 5; 1887, Rs. 5; 1888, Rs. 5; 1889, Rs. 7; 1890, Rs. 5; 1891, Rs. 6; 1892, Rs. 2.

Introduction to the Regulations of the Bengal

Code. By C. D. FIELD, M.A., LL.D. (specially reprinted for the use of students, etc ). In crown Svo, cloth. Rs. 3.

The Law of Evidence in British India. By C. D,

FIELD, M.A., LL.D., Judge of the High Court, Calcutta. Sixth Edition. Edited by R. F. RAMPINI.

The Central Provinces' Agricultural Tenancy Act IX.

of 1883, as amended by subsequent Acts, with Xotes, Rulings of the Courts, and Rules and Orders framed under the Acts. Compiled by A. S. GOUR, B.A., Barrister-at- Law. Royal Svo. Rs. 7-8.

Arms Act (Indian). With Notes, Rules, and Orders. By W. HAWKINS. Second Edition. Rs. 7-8. j

28 Thacker, Spink $ Co., Calcutta. f

The Practice of the Presidency Court of Small

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The Pocket Penal, Criminal Procedure and Police

Codes ; also the "Whipping Act and the Railway Servants' Act. With General Index. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. Rs. 4.

The Pocket Civil Procedure Code, with Court Fee,

Indian Evidence, Specific Relief, Indian Registration, Limitation, and Stamp Acts. With General Index. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. Rs. 4.

Mahommedan Law. By Hon. Syed AMEER ALT, C.I.E., Barrister-at-Law, Vol. I. Containing the Law relating to Gifts, Wafks, Wills, Pre-emption and Bailment. With an Introduction on Mahommedan Jurisprudence and Works on Law. (Being the Second Edition of the Tagore Law Lectures, 1881) Royal 8vo, cloth. Rs. 16.

The Student's Handbook of Mahommedan Law. By

the Hon. Syed AMEER ALT, C.I.E., Author of "The Law Relating to Gifts, Trusts, &c., among the Mahommedan?," " Personal Lawr of the Mahommedans," &c., &c. Crown 8vo, cloth. Rs. 3.

The Sea Customs Law of India (Act Vllf. of

1878), with Notes. And the Tariff Act of 1894. By W. II. GRIMLEY, I.C.S., late Secretary to the Board of Revenue, Calcutta. 8vo, cloth. Rs. 7-8.

Introduction to the Duties of Magistrates and

Justices of the Peace in India. By Sir P. BENSON MAX- WELL, Kt, Specially edited for India by the Hon. L. P. DELVES BROUGHTON, Barrister-at-Law. Royal 8vo, cloth, lettered. Rs. 12.

Land Acquisition Acts (I. of 1894 and XVIII. of 1885).

Annotated by H. Beverley, I.C.S. Third Edition. Rs. 6.

W. Thacker Co. London, 29

Manual of Indian Criminal Law : being the Penal Code, Criminal Procedure Code, Evidence, Whipping, General Clauses, Police, &c., Acts, with Penal Clauses of Legal Practitioners' Act, Registration, Arms, Stamp, <fcc., Acts. Fully Annotated, and containing all applicable Rulings of all High Courts arranged under the appropriate Sections up to date. By H. A. D. PHILLIPS. Thick crown 8vo. Xew Edition. Rs. 10.

The Law of Fraud, Misrepresentation and Mis- take in British India. By Sir FREDERICK POLLOCK, Bart., Barrister-at-Law, Prof, of Jurisprudence, Oxford. Royal 8vo, cloth. Rs. 10, (Tagore Lecture, 1894.)

Glossary of Medical and Medico-legal Terms,

including those most frequently met with in Courts. Compiled by R. F. HUTCHINSO.V, M.D., Surgeon-Major, Second Edition. ISnio, cloth. Rs. 2.

The Stamp Law of British India, as constituted by the Indian Stamp Act (I. of 1879). Edited, with Notes and Index, by WALTER R. DONOGH, M.A., of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. With Supplement. Demy 8vo. Rs. 8.

Code Of Civil Procedure (Act XIV. of 1882 as amended by subsequent Acts). With Notes, &c. By J. O'KINEALY, C.S., Judge of the High Court, Calcutta, Eourth Edition, Royal 8vo. Rs. 16.

The Indian Limitation Act: Act XV. of 1877. (As

amended by Act XVII. of 1877, and subsequent enact- ments). With Notes. By Hon. H. T. RIVAZ, Judge of the Chief Court, Punjab. Eoirth Edition. Rs. 10.

Hand-Book Of Indian Law: a Popular and Concise Statement of the Law, with full Index. By a BARRISTER- AT-LAW AND ADVOCATE OF THE HIGH COURT. Crown 8vo. Rs. 12.

The Indian Penal Code (Act XLV. of I860 as amended), with all the Indian Cases collected under each Section and with Cross-References when Reported under more than one Section. ByCHARLTON SWINHOE, Barrister-at-Law. Brought up to December, 1893. In Crown 8vo, cloth. Rs. 7.

30 Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta.

Law of Intestate and Testamentary Succession

in India, including the Indian Succession Act (x. of 1865), with a Commentary, and the Parsee Succession Act, Hindu Wills Act, Probate and Administration Act, Dis- trict Delegates Act, Acts xii. and xiii. of 1855, Regimental Debts Acts, Acts relating to the Administrator-General Certificate Act, and Oudh Estates Act, with Xotes and Cross References and a General Index. By GILBERT S. HENDERSON, M.A., Barrister-at-Law. Rs. 10.

Comparative Criminal Jurisprudence, being a synopsis of the law, procedure, and case law of other countries, arranged as far as possible under the correspond- ing sections of the Indian Codes. By H. A. D. PHILLIPB. Vol. I. Crimes and Punishments. Vol. 1L Procedure and Police. Rs. 12.

The Indian Law Examination Manual. By

FENDALL CURRIE, Esq., of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister-at-Law. Fourth Edition. Demy 8vo. Rs. 5.

The Bengal Municipal Manual, containing the Muni- cipal Act (B. C. Act III. of 1884) and other Laws relating to Municipalities in Bengal, with the Rules and Circulars issued by the Local Government, and 2sTotes. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. By F. R. STANLEY COLLIER, B.C.S. New Edition in preparation.

Possession in the Civil Law, abridged from the Treatise of YON SAYIGNY. To which is added .the Text of the Title on Possession from the Digest, with Xotes. Compiled by J. KELLEHER, Esq., Bengal Civil Service, Rs. 8.

Principles of Specific Performance and Mistake.

By J. KELLEHER, Esq., Bengal Civil Service. Rs. 8.

in the Civil Law: Outline of the Principles of the Law of Security, followed by the Text of Justinian, Books XX. and XIII. Tithe 7 with Translation and 2sTotes, and a Translation of the Corresponding Titles from the Italian Civil Code. By J. KELLEHER, B.C.S.

Indian Case Law on Torts. By the late R. D. ALEXANDER. Rewritten and enlarged by R. F. RAMPINI. Demy 8vo. Rs. 8.

W. Thacker $ Co., London. 31

The North western Provinces Land Revenue Act : being

Acts 1873-1891. With Notes, Government Orders, Board Circulars and Decisions, and Rulings of the Allahabad High Court. By AZTZUDDIN AHMED, Deputy Collector and Magistrate, KW.P. and Oudh. Demy 8vo, cl. Rs. 8.

Introduction to the Study of Anglo-Muhammadan

Law. By Sir R. K. WILSON, late Reader in Indian Law to the Cambridge University. Cloth 8vo. Rs. 6.

The Principles of Judicial Evidence. By Sir JAMES

FITZ- JAMES STEPHEN. Formerly legislative Member of the Supreme Council of India. A New Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. Rs. 3.

The Bengal Local Self-Government Act (B.C. Act IIT. of

1885), and the General Rules framed thereunder. With Notes, Hints regarding Procedure, and References to Leading Cases. By F. R. S. COLLIER. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Rs. 5.

A Commentary on Hindu Law of Inheritance,

Succession, Partition, Adoption, Marriage, Stridhan, and Testamentary Disposition. By PUNDIT JOGENDRO NATH SIROMANI BHATTACHARJE, M.A., B.L. Second Edition. 8vo. Rs. 16.

IN THE PRESS.

PKOVINCIAL SMALL CAUSE COUET MANUAL. By A. E. RYVES, B.A., Advocate of the High Court, N.W.P.

DIGEST OP ANGLO-MUHAMMADAN LAW, being an Attempt to set forth in the form of a Code the Rules now actually administered to Muhammadans only by the Civil Courts of British India. With Notes and References to Case Law and Ancient Authoiities. By Sir R. K. WILSON.

THE LAW OF EVIDENCE APPLICABLE TO BEITISH INDIA. By SYED AMEER ALI, M.A., C.I.E., Judge of the High Court of Judicature at Fort William, acd J. G. WOODEOFFE, M.A., B.C.L.

THE HINDU LAW OF ENDOWMENTS, being the Tagore Lecture, 1891. By PANDIT PEANNATH SAEASEVATI. Royal 8vo, c'o h.

ADVOCACY AND EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES. Treats of taking instructions, speech, argument-, examination-in-chief ard cross- examination, and includes a reL-umS of the duties and liabilitirs of Pleaders in India. The Legal Practitioners' Act, ^vith the Rules of the High Courts relating to the admission of Pleaders and Mookhtars, appears in the form of an Appendix. By H. N. MOEISON.

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

PAOE

English and Indian Life and Character.

Autobiography of a Spin. 4s. 6d.... ... ... ... ... 17

Barlow, Indian Melodies'. Us. 2 23

Behind the Bungalow. 6s 2

Be veridge, The Emperor Akbar. Rs. 8 9

„ Trial of Nanda Kumar. Rs. 5 20

Bose, The Hindoos as they are. Rs. 5 13

Busteed, Echoes from old Calcutta. 8<. 6d 9

Dutt, Civilization in Ancient India. R«. 5 ... ... ... 12

Elsie Ellerton, a Novelette of Arglo-Indian Life. 3s. 6d. ... 17

India in 1983. Re. 1. 10

Indian Idylls, Indian Stories, by an Idle Exile. Rs. 2-8. ... 22

Jihad, Exposition of the, by Ali. Rs. 6. 16

Keshub Chunder Sen, Life and Teaching. Rs. 2 17

Kipling, Departmental Ditties. 5s. ... ... ... ... 4

„ Plain Tales from the Hills. 6s 8

Lays of Ind, by Aliph Cheem. 10s. 6d 4

McCrindle, Ancient India. Rs. 4 -4 17

Memoir of Onoocool Chunder Mookerjee. Re. 1 14

Mitter, The Spoilt Child. Rs. 3 or Rs. 2-8 awd 23

Naturalist on the Prowl, by Eha 2

Regimental Rhymes. By Kentish Rag ... ... ... ... 4

Rhyming Legends of Ind, by H. K. Gracey. 6s. ... ... 4

Sen, Hinduism. R*. 2 15

Sherring, Hindu Tribes and Castes. Rs. 40. In 3 Vols. ... 21

Sterndale, Calcutta Collectorate. Rs. 2 20

Stray Straws, by Mignon. Re. 1-8 17

Tribes on my Frontier. 8s. 6 d 2

Underwood, Indian-English and Indian Character. Re. 1. ... 20

Webb, Indian Lyrics. Rs. 4 15

Wheeler, Tales from Indian History. 3d. 6d 12

Wilkins, Hindu Mythology. 1(K 6d 9

„ Modern Hinduism. Rs. 8. .. .. 21

Guide Books, Topography Directories, &c.

Anderson, Mandalay to Momien. Rs. 4 ... ... ... 16

Guide Books (Local) —

Agra. Al'ahabad. Burmah. Calcutta. Darjeeling. 1 1 7 0/»

Delhi. Kashmir. Kumaon. Masuri. Sim'a. f 1/""U

Bombay Sketches, Tagore. Rs. 8 " 12

Calcutta to Liverpool via Jap »n, Norman. 3s. 6d. ... ... 19

India, Thacker's Directory. Rs. 20 24

„ Map of Civil Divisions. Re. 1 16

Kashgaria, Kuropatkin. Rs. 6 8. 16

Industrial and Commercial.

Amateur Gardener in the Hills. Rs. 2 8. ... ... ... 9

Barker, Tea Planter's Life in Assam. 7s. 6d. ... ... ... 9

Deakin, Irrigated India. 8s. 6d.... ... ... ... ... 13

George, B >ok-Kef ping. 2s. 8d 10

Indian and Ceylon Tea Gardens, &c. 5s. 10

Indian Wages Tables 10

CLASSIFIED INDEX— continued.

PAGE IlTDUSTKIAL AND OOMMEKCUL — Continued.

Lee, Indigo Manufacture. 7s. 6d. 11

Reid, Indigo Culture and Manufacture. 7s. 6d. ... ... H

Reminiscences of Behar. Rs. 3-8. ... ... ... ... 21

Pogson, Agriculture for India. 7s. 6d. ... ... ... ... 16

King, Gold, Copper, Lead, in Chota Nagpore. Rs. 5. .., 18

Tweed, Cow- Keeping in India. 6s. ... ... ... ... 5

Tweed, Poultry Keeping 5

Law Books.

Advocacy and Examination of Witnesses Morrison ... 31

Agricultural Tenancy C. P. Rs. 7-s. ... Gaur 27

Al Sirajiyyah (Mahommedan Inheritance) Rumsey ... 25

Anglo-Muhammadan Law, Introduction S?r R. K. Wilson 31

Anglo-Muhammadan Law, Digest of ... Sir R. K. Wilson 31

Arms Act ... ... ... ... ... Hawkins ... 27

Bengal Code, Introduction to Regulations Field ... ... 27

Bengal Local Self-Government ... ... Collier... ... 31

Bengal Tenancy Act ... ... Rampini and Finu cane ... 26

Criminal Jurisprudence, Comparative ... Phillips... ... SO

Criminal Law do 29

Criminal Procedure ... ... ... Prinsep... ... 25

Criminal Procedure ... ... ... Agnew and Henderson 25

Civil Procedure, Evidence, &c. ("The Pocket") 28

Civil Procedure ... ... ... ... O'Kinealy ... 29

Chaukidari Manual .. Toynbee ... 26

Digest of Indian Law Repot ts Woodman ... 25

„ „ Casts Woodman ... 25

„ ,, Reports Sutherland ... 25

Emigration Act, Inland 27

Endowments (Hindu) ... ... Pandit Prannath Sarasevati 31

Estoppel .. ... ... ... ... Casperz... ... 26

Evidence in British India All 31

Evidence, Law in British India ... ... Field ... ... 27

Evidence, Principles ... ... ... Stephen ... 31

Fraud, Misrepresentation, and Mistake... Pollock... ... 29

Handbook of Indian Law 29

Income Tax Manual ... Grimley ... 27

Indian Service Manual Hardless ... 25

Inheritance, &c Bhattacharjte ... 31

Inheritance, &c., Hindu ... ... ... Siromani ... 26

Land Acquisition Beverley ... 28

Land Revenue, N.W.P », ... A. Ahmed ... 31

Law Examination Manual ... .,. Cuirie ... 30

Legislate Acts "Annual" ... 27

Limitation ... ... ... ... ... Rivaz ... ... 29

Magistrates, Duties of Maxwell ... 28

Mahommedan Law ... .„ ... Ameer AH ... 28

Mahommedan Law, Student's Ameer Ali ... 28

Medical andMedico-legal Ttrms... ... Hutcbinson ... 29

Municipal Manual, Bengal .« ... Collier ... ... 30

Mortgage in Civil Law ... ... ... Kelleher ... 30

Negotiable Instruments ... ... ... Chalmers ... 26

Penal Code (" The Pocket ") 25

CLASSIFIED INDEX— omtinwrf.

PAGE

LAW BOOKS— Continued.

Penal Code O'KineaJy ... 27

Penal Code, Case NVed Swinhoe ... 29

Possession in the Civil Law .. K?lleher 30

Provincial Small Cause Court Kent Act (N.W.P.) Eent Act (N.W.P.) Revenue and Collectorate Law- Revenue Sale and Certificate Sea Customs Law of India

Ryves 31

Reynolds ... 26

House 26

Phillips 25

Grimley ... 26

Grimley ... 28

Stamp Law Donogh 29

Small Cause Court Act, Presidency ... McEwen ... 28

Specific Performance and Mistake ... Ktlleher ... 30

Succession, Inttstate and Testamentary Henderson ... 30

Torts, Case Law Alexander and Rampini. ... 30

Linguistic and Educational.

Boutflower, Statics and Dynamics. Rs. 3-8 20

Calcutta University Exam. Papers. Re. 1-8 .. 23

Catechism on the Rudiments of Music. R •. 1. ... ... 23

Guvemment of India, Primer. As. 8 and Re 1 ... ... 12

Hindustani as Spoken, Tweedie. Rs. 4-8 15

„ Guide t", Ranking. Ru. 5. ... ... ... ... 14

„ Hidyat-al-Hutuma, Ranking. Re. 1-4 15

Indian Letter Writer. Re. 1 22

Phonography in Bengali. As. 12. ... ... .. ... 14

Ru bi. n,C ptain's Daughter Literally Translated, Godfrey. Rs.2. 24 „ The Inspector, Comedy Literally Translated, Hart- Davies 22

„ Conversation Grammar, Kinloch. 9s. 24

Rowe and Webb, Hints on the Study of English. Rs. 2-8. ... 14

Rowe and Webb, Companion Reader. Re. 1-4. 14

Rowe and Webb, English Grammar for India. Re. 1... ... 14

Sit all, Romanised Urdu Grammar ... ... ... ... 1

„ Anglo-Urd a Medical Manual and Vocabulary ... ... 14

Webb, Key to Entrance Course. Rs.2... 23

„ Entrance Test Examination. Re. 1 23

Wood, Wetkly Papers, Arithmetic. Re. 1-8 15

Biding, Sport and Natural History.

Beresford, Lord William. Rs. 2 18

C , Major, Indian Horse Notes. Rs.2

C , Major, Indian Notes about Dogs. Re. 1-8. ... ... 8

Calcutta Turf Club Calendar. Rs. 4 ." 12

Calcutta Turf Club Rules. Rs.2 12

Hayes, Riding on the Flat and Across Country. 10s. 6d. ... 6

Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners ... 6

Points of the Horse. ... ... ... ... ... Q

The Horsewoman.... ... 6

Indian Racing Reminiscences. 3s. 6d ... 7

Training and Horse Management. 9s. _ 7

Illustrated Horse Breaking. 21s. ... ... ... 7

Humfreys, Horse Breeding in India. Rs. 3-8. .. 8

CLASSIFIED INDEX -continued.

PAGE

RIDING, SPORT AND NATURAL HISTORY — Continued.

Kinloch, Large Game Shooting. £2 2s. 21

Kino, Training of Chargers. Re. 1-8 7

Le Messurier, Game, Birds of India. 15:?. ... ... ... 13

Moore, Guide to the Exams, of Horses for Soundness. Re. 1 7

O'Donoghue, Riding for Ladies. 10d. 6cL 3

Pig-Sticking in Bengal. Raoul ... ... ... ... ... 3

Polo Calendar. Re. 1-8 12

Polo Rules. Re. 1 12

Shaw & Hayes, Dcgs for Hot Climates. (In the press.) ... 8

Sh<%w, How to Choose a Dog anl Select a Puppy ... ... 8

Stern dale, Denizens of the Jungles. 16s. ... ... ... 5

„ Seonee. 8s. 6d.

,, Mammalia of India, Burmah, and Ceylon. 12s. 6d. 5

Tyack, Sportsman's Manual. Rs. 3-8 3

Useful Hints to Young Shikaris. R=>. 2-8 5

Scientific, Medical, and the Services.

Barrow, Sepoy Officers' Manual. Rs. 2-8 21

Battersby, Practical Hygiene. Rs. 2 18

Beddome, Ferns of India, 12s. 6d. Supplement, 3s. 6d. ... 8

Birch, Management of Children in India, 10s. 6d. ... ... 9

Bonavia, Date Palm in India. Rs. 2 8. ... .. .. 16

Carlsbad, Treatment Tropical Ailments. Young ... ... 20

Coldstream, Grass s of the Punjau'j. Rs. 17-12 ... .« 11

Dey, Indigenous Drugs of India... ... ... ... ... 24

Dufferin, National A-sociation Female Medical Aid. Re. 1 20

Duke, Banting in India. Re. 1-8. Queries. Rs, 2-4. ... 15

Ewing, Photography, Handbook for India ... ... ... 17

Firminger, Gardening for India. Rs. 10. ... 22

Gregg, Text-Book of Indian Botany, Rs. 5. Interleaved, Rs. 5-8 15

Hardies?, Indian Service Manual. Rs. 2. ... ... ... 22

Harris, Bengal Medical Service. Rs. 2 18

Hehir, Rudiments of Sanitation for Indian Schools. Re. 1-12 23

„ Hygiene of Water and Wa'er Supplies. Rs. 2 ... 22

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