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'29 '65

GARDENER'S MONTHLY VOLUME.

EDITED BY GEORGE W. JOHNSON, ESQ.
Author of " The Dictionary of Modern Gardening," " The
Gardener's Almanack," 8fc.
AIDED BY SOME OF THE BEST PRACTICAL GARDENERS.
No work on Gardening exists containing within its pages ail
the information relative to each object of the art that the mo-
dern progress of knowledge has elicited. This is no fault of
the authors, who have gathered together masses of horticultural
knowledge.

To remedy this admitted deficiency, the series of" The Gar-
dener's Monthly Volume" has been undertaken. Each
volume will be devoted to one or more plants cultivated by the
gardener ; and will combine all that is useful to be known of
each connected with its history, chemical and botanical quali-
ties, modes of culture, uses, diseases, parasitical marauders, and
any other relative information ; richly illustrated wherever illus-
trations will be of utility.

Each volume being of itself a book, purchasers may select
only such as may suit their wants ; whilst those who take the
entire series will possess the most ample store of horticultural
knowledge that has ever appeared in a collected form.

A volume, bound in cloth, price half- a- crown, will appear
on the 1st of every month ; and, at the same time, to suit the
convenience of purchasers, in half-volumes, with stitched
covers, price one shilling each.

The volumes already published are —

Jan. 1.— THE POTATO; ITS CULTURE, USES, AND HISTORY.

By the Editor.
Feb. 1.— THE CUCUMBER AND THE GOOSEBERRY; THEIR

CULTURE, USES, AND HISTORY. By the Editor.
March 1.— THE VINE (Out-door Culture, &c.) By the Editor

and R. Errington, Gardener to Sir P. Egerton, Bart.
April l. THE VINE (In-door Culture, &c.) By the same.

May 1st, will be published —
THE AURICULA; Its Culture, &c. By the Editor, and J. Slater,

Florist, Manchester.
THE ASPARAGUS; Its Culture, &c. By the Editor and R. Er-
rington, Gardener to Sir P. Egerton, Bart.

Each complete in Half a Volume.

LONDON: R. BALDWIN, Paternoster Row. DUBLIN:
W. and G. ROBERTSON. WINCHESTER : H.
WOOLDRIDGE.

GARDENER'S
MONTHLY VOLUME.

THE GRAPE VINE:

ITS CULTURE, USES, AND HISTORY.

BY GEORGE W.JOHNSON,

Author of " The Dictionary of Modern Gardening,"
" Gardener's Almanack," &c.

AND

ROBERT ERRINGTON,
Gardener to Sir P. Egerton, Bart., Oulton Park, Cheshire.

VOL. II.

LONDON:

R. BALDWIN, PATERNOSTER ROW.

WINCHESTER:

H. WOOLDRIDGE, HIGH-STREET.

DUBLIN :

W. AND G. ROBERTSON.

1847.

T*3 f

H. WOOLDR1DGE, PRINTER, HIGH-STRBET, WINCHESTER.

CONTENTS.

Greenhouse. Objects to be specially regarded, 1. Craw-
shay's system, 2. "Pitting," its cause, 4. Aims at mo-
derate-sized bunches, 5. Thinning, 6. Little fire-heat, 7.
Abundance of air, 8. Keeping grapes, 9. Plants under
the vines, 10.
Stove Culture. Angles of the roof, 11, 14. Atmospheric
moisture, 12. Glass, 13. Vinery for late grapes, 16.
Effect of deficient light, 17. Glazing, 18. Lapping to
be avoided, 20. Roof and heating, 21. Flues, 22. Hot-
water tanks, 23. Hot water in gutters, 25. Heating by
steam, 26. Surface of pipe necessary, 28. Boiler, 30.
Heating by hot ah-— Polmaise, 31. Ventilation, 34, 72.
Size of ventilators, 37. Borders, 40. Their tempera-
ture, 41. Draining, 42. Covering borders, 46. Pro-
tecting stems, 49. Planting, 50. Mearn's mode, 51.
Summer pruning, 53. Stopping, 54. Appleby's spur
system, 55. Produce, 58. Training, 59. Trellises, 60.
Time to commence forcing, 63. Temperature, 64.
Syringing, 67. Moisture in air, 68. Ammoniacal va-
pour, 71. Hygrometer, 72. Setting the fruit, 75.
Thinning the berries, 78. Vines in frames, 79. Ripen-
ing, 80. Rest, 81.
Calendar. I. Preparatory steps, 82. II. Breaking period.
84. III. Blossoming period, 86. IV. Thinning the
berry, 88. V. First swelling of berry, 89. VI. Stoning
period, 91. VII. Second swelling period, 92. VIII. Ri-

iv CONTENTS.

pening 92. IX. Preservation of fruit, 93. X. Ripen-
ing the wood, 94. XI. Rest period, 95. XII. Border
management, 96. Renovation of old borders, 97.
Pot-Culture. Coiling system, 100. Bottom heat, 101.
Drainage, 103. Soil, 104. Liquid manure, 105. Rais-
ing from eyes, 106. By coiling, 108. By layers, 109.
After-culture, 110. Varieties thus grown by Mr. Spen-
cer, 116. Mr. Burn's practice, 117. Preparing for
forcing, 119. Size of pots, 120.
Diseases. Shrivelling, 121. Shanking, 124. Rust, 26.

Spot, 128. Want of colour, 129. Leaf blisters, 131.

Bleeding, 132. Erineum vitis, 133.
I.SEcts. Red Spider, 133. Aphis, 136. Coccus vitis, 36

Mealy Bug, 137. Orange Scale, 138. Weevils, 39

Curculio sulcatus, 140. C picipes, 142. Thnps.143.

Insects which attack the continental vines, 145. Field

Mouse, 146.
Usks. Of its unripe juice, leaves, *c, 146. Of its seeds, as
a preserve, &c, 147. Keeping grapes, 143. Wme, 150.

THE GRAPE VINE.

GREENHOUSE.

Under this head may be considered not only the
modes of cultivating the grape vine in the same house
with flowering plants, hut also its cultivation in a
vinery by itself, with a similar employment of heat
only sufficient to exclude frost and other low tempe-
ratures at certain periods of the vine's growth. These
periods are chiefly in early spring, when the occur-
rence of night frosts and easterly winds endanger the
opening buds — and late in autumn, when cold damp
weather may render a little artificial heat desirable,
either to promote the ripening of the wood, or pre-
serve from mouldiness the ripened fruit.

With regard to training, pruning, and thinning, in
the greenhouse, they are fundamentally the same as
in the stove (see next section), but with especial care
on these points : 1 . . To train the vines to the rafters
or otherwise, so that they shall not overshadow the
interior before the end of May. 2. To empty the
greenhouse of all greenhouse plants after that period,

and to take every possible pains to get the wood ripe.
Yon cannot have grapes without well-ripened wood.
If grapes are very late in growing, they will require
fire-heat in autumn, in many seasons, in order to ripen
their wood. Vines and greenhouse plants do not
agree very well ; but under such a system they may
be kept from quarrelling much. (Joh?isoris Diet.
Mod. Gardening, 286.)

The most successful cultivator of the grape under
glass, without the employment of heat, is Mr. Craw-
shay, of Colney Hatch ; and the outline of his practice
is thus traced by Dr. Lindley : —

The grapes are grown without the aid of fire-heat,
so that the expense incurred is trifling ; and, instead
of having rich borders of several yards in width facing
the vineries, and lying in a comparatively useless
state, or looking unsightly with straw, the walks are
allowed to run close up to the houses, with no prepa-
ration beneath of the ordinary soil, which is of a
strong loamy texture. A border properly prepared
would be better, but we merely state what Mr. Craw-
shay has effected without that powerful auxiliary.
But what is yet more at variance with the opinion of
many writers is, that the laps between the squares of
glass, instead of being either close to each other, or
filled with putty, are so far apart that in many places
the finger can be inserted between the panes. This
free ventilation, and having the floor of the vinery

paved with common red flags or tiles, Mr. Crawshay
considers to be most essential in growing grapes to
perfection without the assistance of fire-heat. And
there is no doubt that the excellence of the ventilation
is most important. On entering one of his vineries
with a south-west aspect, when the sun is shining full
upon it, a refreshing air meets you, with the thermo-
meter indicating a temperature of only 75 degs. The
use of the paved floor is this : in the early stage of
the vine's growth water is liberally thrown upon it to
create vapour ; and this treatment is continued until
the berries are supposed to be stoned ; after which it
is gradually withheld ; and when the colouring pro-
cess commences, it is altogether discontinued ; so
that, by the time the grapes approach maturity, the
floor becomes dry, and during the cool nights of au-
tumn continues to give off slowly to the interior of
the house the heat which it absorbs during the day.
But there are other points in which Mr. Crawshay' s
treatment is peculiar. The stems of the vines are
trained up the rafters about a yard apart. Every
season the young wood is pruned back nearly close to
the original stem, so that, even upon minute inspec-
tion, scarcely a bud is visible. This may be one rea-
son why the wood is of such uniform size, not a
single watery shoot being observable in any of the
houses. After the pruning is completed, a free cir-
culation of air is allowed, by means of the front sashes
b 2

and top lights, and thus the breaking of the vines is
considerably retarded; in fact, it is rendered later
than upon the open walls. In general the vines do
not begin to push until the latter part of April, and
it is only in the first week of May that the houses
are closed at night. Air is then admitted less freely
during the day ; the vines are frequently syringed,
and abundance of water is thrown down upon the
floors, to keep up a constant supply of moisture in
the atmosphere. When the vines are in bloom, the
houses are closed earlier in the afternoon, and the
syringe is of course dispensed with, but is again
made use of a few times after the grapes are thinned,
to wash off the remains of dead flowers and dust, as
well as to assist in restoring the leaves to their proper
position. Air is then given more freely during the
day, in wet as well as in dry weather ; for, it is the
opinion of Mr. Crawshay that the spots upon the
grapes, commonly called " pitting," are caused by
the stagnation of the atmosphere, which is consequent
upon keeping a vinery closed for several days during
wet weather. As we before stated, no water is ad-
mitted into the house after the colouring process has
commenced, but abundance of air is left on through
the night as well as during the day. Through the
whole period of their growth no fire-heat is applied ;
but when the grapes are perfectly ripe, and the au-
tumn frosts commence, an Arnott's stove is used to

preserve the temperature of the house above the
freezing point. Thus but a trifling expense is incur-
red beyond the bare attention necessary to ensure
success ; and the fruit so produced may, with care,
be kept in perfection until February. It is fruit, too,
of which every gardener might be proud. When the
grapes are ripe air is admitted to the houses every
morning between eight and nine o'clock : in iine
weather, both in front and at the top ; in rainy days,
by means of the front sashes only. When a frost
occurs of sufficient intensity to render the fire-heat
necessary, just so much is applied as will keep the
temperature of the house at 35 degs. (Gard. Chron.
1842, 603-739.)

Having been eye-witnesses of the great success of
Mr. Crawshay's mode of vine-culture, which is of a
very superior character, we may add our testimony to
its complete success. One of the most striking fea-
tures connected with Mr. Crawshay's system is the
preference he gives to moderate-sized bunches over
those of an overgrown character. This seems to be
founded on the fact that small bunches, well thinned,
will keep longer than very large ones. It must not,
however, be inferred from this, that Mr. C.'s vines
are not allowed to carry a good crop, for the reverse
is the truth. At the time we saw them (1844), they
were thoroughly cropped, from the bottom of the
rafters to the top, scarcely a blank spot being to be

found. Instead of a large bunch from a single spur,
at a given point, there were in many cases two, or
even three, shoots encouraged, each carrying a bunch
of from half a pound to a pound in weight ; so that,
instead of one spur shoot, with a branch of 1^ lbs.,
Mr. C. had two or three shoots with this amount of
produce divided between them. Now this we consi-
der a very excellent system for late grapes, as it will
be found, we believe, that large branches do not pos-
sess such good keeping properties as those of mode-
rate size ; they are, moreover, more liable to shrink-
ing or shrivelling. Another singular practice was
related by Mr. Goodbrand (the gardener at that pe-
riod), as being adopted by Mr. Crawhsay, viz., that
when the bunches were what is technically termed
" too large a show," in consequence of large shoul-
ders, that such shoulders were systematically cut off :
in fact, several of the shoulders had been recently cut
away, and were lying on the floor. It must be borne
in mind that Mr. C.'s aim is to produce well-ripened,
late, autumn grapes, and to encourage keeping pro-
perties. To accomplish this, it is necessary to thin
the berries more than usual.

Having grown very late grapes for many years,
and with much success, Mr. Errington would offer
as the results of his experience, that with regard to
thinning the berries, it should be carried so far as
that no two should touch when full swelled. Some

who have not had experience in this matter may urge
that the bunches will not "dish well" — and perhaps
it is true that the Hamburghs may not lay quite so
full on the dish — but this is amply compensated for
by the superior character and keeping properties of
the berries. He wishes also to lay the utmost stress
on another and important object, viz., ripening the
wood. Unless tbis principle is duly carried out, all
appliances will be vain. This brings us to the sub-
ject of fire-heat, as connected with greenhouse cul-
ture. In offering advice on this head, we must leave
out of the question the use of fire-heat applied for
the sake of pot plants, which are frequently cultivated
under the vines. In such cases a compromise of
course takes place ; and, we need scarcely add, some
sacrifice must be endured.

It was stated, at the time Mr. Crawshay's mode of
culture so much occupied the public attention, that
Mr. C. never used fire-heat. At that period, we
have been informed, he indeed used very little.
From subsequent information, we are led to think
that Mr. C. has somewhat increased the use of artifi-
cial heat ; in fact, to do justice to the keeping of late
grapes, it cannot be entirely dispensed with : it may
in spring and summer, but when the damp autumn
months arrive it must be had recourse to. In a bad
summer, artificial heat will, moreover, become neces-
sary at the end of September, for awhile, to complete

8

the ripening process ; for, in all cases, grapes to hang
well, should be perfectly ripe by the end of Septem-
ber. It is a complete fallacy to imagine that retard-
ing their ripening after that period will conduce to
their long keeping.

We have already stated that Mr. Crawshay is a
great advocate for thorough ventilation : his houses
are the very reverse of a " Ward's case." There has,
in our opinion, rather too much stress been laid upon
having a draught in hothouses. Certainly no man
in his senses would invite a cold or frosty wind ; and
here arises the question, as to whether motion is
really necessary in the air of hothouses ? We are of
opinion that it is by far more essential to the health
of plants in general — more especially fruits — than
people commonly imagine. We anticipate the time
when it will be deemed necessary to keep up a venti-
lation, or rather circulation, night and day ; indeed,'
this is Mr. Errington's practice at the present time.
The scalding in the berry, as it is termed, most com-
monly proceeds from the neglect of early ventilation.
If the atmosphere is charged abundantly with mois-
ture, and the sun breaks out rather suddenly in a
May or June morning, this will speedily occur.
Some of the best vine-growers we know have made a
point of giving air, if only in the most trifling degree,
by six o'clock in the morning, during the months be-
fore alluded to : that is to say, they allowed the con-

fined damp and stagnant air to escape at the back,
and promote an ingress of fresh air from the front of
the house.

With regard to keeping grapes long on the tree,
much depends on the selection of the kinds. The
two best for this purpose are, undoubtedly, the true
Black Hambro' and the true West's St. Peter's. We
imagine the latter to be synonymous with the Black
Lombardy, or Raisin des Carmes, of the Horticultu-
ral Society's catalogue. Of this, however, we are not
perfectly assured, as there are two or three grapes
called St. Peter's. The kind we mean has rather
slender wood ; the lobes of the leaf are rather obtuse,
or not well defined ; and one peculiarity is, that the
leaf turns as red as the old Virginian Creeper, in the
month of November. This is an invaluable grape,
and should be in every collection ; it is, moreover,
exceedingly prolific, and particularly adapted for the
" close spur" system recommended by Mr. Crawshay.

The Black Hambro' is too well known to need a
description here : this, for general utility, may be
placed at the head of useful grapes, and is equally
adapted for late or early purposes. The Muscat of
Alexandria is also a fine late grape, but will not sub-
mit to the low temperature and degree of atmospheric
moisture which the Hambro' and West's St. Peter's
will endure. It should by all means have a smal
house to itself, and would require a good deal of fire-

10

heat, with a free ventilation, in November and De-
cember.

In cultivating plants in pots under vines, two or
three points deserve consideration. In the first
place, the pots should be at all times placed very
thinly ; any attempt at crowding them will assuredly
defeat the end in view. Those tribes also should be
encouraged, chiefly, which require very little water in
October and November. The Cape Bulbs, the Achi-
menes, the Cacti, &c. are somewhat eligible for this
purpose. Particular attention should be paid to an
almost constant ventilation, as before urged.

STOVE CULTURE

The vinery is very variously constructed, both as re-
gards form and material. It is built round, square,
and parallelogram, with wood or iron for the rafters,
and with flues, steam, hot water, and warmed air, as
the sources of artificial heat. It will enable us to be
more explicit if we consider each part of the struc-
ture separately.

But before proceeding to discuss the merits or de-
merits of the various structures, we would offer a few
remarks on the vast importance of the greatest pos-
sible amount of light. The great improvement that
has taken place in the manufacture of glass, together

11

with much improved and more natural mode of man-
agement in regard to the atmosphere of hothouses, as
now practised by our best gardeners, augurs well for
vine forcing in future years. Indeed, we see no rea-
son why good grapes may not be obtained the whole
year round : for, as before stated, the imperfect admis-
sion of light through bad glass, the frequency of
laps, together with clumsy and heavy structures,
constituted the main obstacle under the old system,
more especially with regard to early forcing.

With all deference to the opinion of the late
T. A. Knight, who recommends 34 clegs, for the angle
of the forcing-house, we are inclined to think that
what is termed by workmen the " mitre angle," or
4a deg., will be found quite as eligible for general
purposes. It will be found, we think, that the inter-
nal arrangements will in general be carried out with
greater ease.

The next great point to secure is a permanency of
atmospheric moisture under a perfect control. So
many plans for this purpose are adopted that it is
somewhat difficult to recommend any particular mode
as superior to the rest. One mode, however, we
would protest against, which is, the producing a sud-
den cloud of steam by pouring water on hot flues or
pipes. This is by no means so congenial to vegetation
as is commonly supposed. Atmospheric moisture
thus produced, certainly cannot be considered a pro-

12

per imitation of the ground vapour in tropical climates,
inasmuch as the soil under those circumstances will
not in general be much above 90 or 100 degs.

And here it is that we fear the Polmaise system
may prove in part a failure, for with the great increase
of heat will be required a corresponding increase of
atmospheric moisture, otherwise vegetation will be
plundered. It remains to be seen, therefore, whether
this amount of moisture will not prove too great for
general purposes, and whether it be of a healthy cha-
racter.

The best and most simple mode with which we are
acquainted is to provide a cemented gutter in front of
the house ; at least, where hot-water pipes are used.
We have had this mode in use for three years, and
find it perfectly satisfactory. The bottom or return
pipe rests on the bottom of this trench or gutter, and
by having a tap with a short leaden pipe fixed at the
furthest end of the house, together with a reservoir
which feeds the boiler at a higher level than the tap, the
bottom or return pipe, whenever necessary, can be co-
vered with water in less than half an hour. Now the re-
turn pipe, as is well known, is of a lower temperature
than the flow or advance pipe, and the amount of at-
mospheric moisture thus produced, is sufficient for
any tribe in cultivation. In fact, it is seldom the full
powers of this mode of producing moisture are put
in requisition. By admitting the cold or fresh air at

13

the lowest level, in fact immediately over the piping,
the moist air becomes condensed, and instead of pro-
ceeding to the roof to form drip, passes at a low
level through the body of the house.

One caution is necessary here, at least with regard
to vines, and that is to empty the gutter the first
thing every morning, for fear of scorching or blis-
tering the vines. This may be easily effected by
having a tap or plug at one end, and communicating
immediately with the main vine-border drain ; and
by pulling out the plug the gutter will be emptied in
a few minutes. This mode is far preferable to the
open gutter, inasmuch as it is under the most perfect
control, without the trouble of moving covers.

Glass. — This should be of the best manufacture,
for just in proportion to its goodness of quality is the
freedom with which the rays of light pass through,
and a plant performs its digestive and assimilating
processes the nearer to the vigour with which it ef-
fects them in a state of nature, just in proportion as
the light it basks in is similar to that of its native
habitat. But this is not the only reason why good
glass should be employed in our garden structures ;
for whilst panes of common crown glass readily break
from frost or the slightest twist of the wood-work,
good sheet glass will remain uninjured by much
greater violence and by the fiercest hailstorms. Some
injury from the last, however, will always arise, and

14

this leads me to observe, that no one having green-
houses or stoves should fail to have them insured by
the " Hailstorm Insurance Company." Good glass
is of little value unless kept clean, and for this pur-
pose it should be cleansed on both sides twice anuu-
ally, early in February and October, and on the out-
side only in June.

The angle formed by the glass roof of the hothouse
is of very considerable importance, because rays of
light are reflected in proportion to the obliquity with
which they fall upon any given surface ; those which
fall upon it perpendicularly from the source of light
pass through with very slight diminution, but those
falling upon it in a slanting or oblique direction are
reduced in number in proportion to the obliquity of
that direction. To ascertain how a glass roof may
be constructed, so as to receive the greatest number
of rays of light from the sun perpendicularly, or near
to perpendicularity at any given time of the year, it
is necessary to know the latitude of the place where
the hothouse is erected, and the sun's declination at
the period when most light is required. The latter
information may be obtained from most almanacks,
and if it be subtracted from the latitude, the remain-
der will be the angle desired. If London be the
place, and May the 6th the time about when the most
light is desired, the latitude being 51 degs. 31 min.,
and the suu's declension then 16 degs. 36 min. north,

15

therefore the roof ought to slope at an angle of 34
(legs. 55 min.

In latitude 52 degs., Mr. Knight found from length-
ened experiments, that the hest angle is about 34
degs., considering the services of a hothouse through
the year ; and to illustrate this, he gave the preceding
diagram. About the middle of May, the elevation
of the sun at noon corresponds nearly with the
asterisk, a ; in the begining of June, and early in
July, it will be vertical at b, and at midsummer at c,
only six degrees from being vertical. The asterisk,
d, points out its position at the equinoxes, and e its
position at midwinter. If the best glass be em-
ployed, it is an excellent plan to have it put double
in each sash, an interval of half an inch being left
between the two panes, and a small hole at the corner
of the inner one to prevent the glass being broken

16

by the expansion or contraction of the air between.
This confined air is one of the worst possible conduc-
tors of heat, keeping the house from being rapidly
cooled during even the coldest weather. (Johnson's
Princ. of Gardening.)

In conformity with the foregoing principles, Mr.
Saul, of Castle Hill, Lancaster, has given the accom-
panying section of a viner}r, as the form best suited
for keeping late grapes. The great superiority which
a house of this construction has over the old form is,
first, that by the nearly upright position of the glass,
scarcely any of the rays of the sun are lost ; while,
for the same reason, scarcely a drop of wet can find
its way into the house. Another recommendation
for this plan is, the small space to be heated ; conse-
quently the temperature can the more readily be
raised to any degree required. This kind of house
will also be the very best for early forcing, as, from
the small space to be heated, one boiler placed in
the centre would be quite sufficient for heating a
house of 150 feet in length. This kind of structure
differs very little from that recommended by the late
Mr Atkinson, except in the more upright position of
the sashes ; and probably the method of ventilation
adopted by Mr. Atkinson would be found the best.
The upper sashes could, however, be made to slide up
and down, if necessary.

a, back wall ; b, rafters ; c, trellis upon which the
vines are trained which are planted inside; d, parapet
wall upon which the sashes rest at bottom; e, ground
level. (Gard. Chron. 1842, 22.)

How important is the provision of the greatest pos-
sible amount of light to our forced plants is known
to every gardener, from the fact that in proportion to
the deficiency of light does the plant under glass be-
come, in the gardener's phraseology, drawn. That
is, its surface of leaves becomes unnaturally extended,
in the vain effort to have a sufficient elaboration of the
sap effected by means of a large surface exposed to a
diminished light, for which a less surface would have
been sufficient if the light were more intense. The
plant with this enlarged surface of leaves becomes
unfruitful, the sap being expended in their produc-
tion, which should have been appropriated to the for-
mation of fruit.

Mr. Williams made some experiments intended to
c

illustrate this point, and he found that varieties of
the vine, when grown under white, or crown glass,
under green glass, and in the open air, had the dia-
meters of their leaves, in inches, altered as in the

following table

Name.

White.

Green.

Open
Air.

White Muscat

| Malmsey Muscadine . .

j Syrian

| White Sweet Water. . . .

Black Hamburgh

j White Frontignac ....
(White Muscadine

8

8
6
8
6
6

12
12
141

9

ii
n

7
6

6

6

6

Glazing, or the mode in which the glass is inserted
in the frames, is a very important consideration ; for
if done imperfectly, moisture from rain, dew, or va-
pour condensed within the house, penetrates between
the rebate of the framework and the glass, or between
the laps of the panes themselves, and, expanding in
the act of freezing, unfailingly cracks them. Again,
if the panes fit tightly into the rebates, any sudden
expansion causes a similar fracture.

We are of opinion that panes of glass seven inches
wide and twelve inches long are the best practical
size for hothouses. The glass should be clear, stout,
and selected as flat as possible, so that the panes
may lie perfectly level one upon the other, and so
cut that they may not fit too tightly against the ribs

19

(which is frequently practised by some glaziers), but
room should be left for the ribs to swell and expand.
Before a light is glazed, all the panes should be
laid in loose, to see that they fit easy and are quite
level, as well as range one with the other ; when that
is done, the panes must be taken out, and some well
worked putty laid in the rebate ; the panes must then
be replaced and pressed firmly down, and the bottom
frame bedded in the putty, so as not to leave a
vacancy. When the glass is bedded in the putty
along the astragals, the usual way is to ' front putty'
the whole at once ; but at Kew, the lights are put by
after the glass is bedded till the bedding putty is dry.
The astragal then gets a coat of paint, and also a
strip of the glass, the depth of the bedding on the
astragal, and when this is dry the front putty is put
on. The coat of paint on the glass will cause the
front putty to adhere to the glass, and it will remain
sound many years longer than when it is put on
without this precaution. This is a capital contri-
vance for lights that slide up and down ; but for
lights that are fixed, the best way is to have no front
putty at all. Instead of overlapping the panes, as is
done in the ordinary way, cause the glazier to cut
each with a perfectly straight edge, and then to place
them one before the other, so that they shall all fit
exactly. When the light is completed, the surface of
the glass is perfectly level, and there are no interstices
c 2

20

in which the dust, &c, can accumulate, or for the
deposit of moisture. By this means one cause of
considerahle breakage in frosty weather is entirely
avoided ; and if a pane of glass is accidentally broken,
as each pane is independent of the others, the frac-
ture does not extend beyond the single pane. The
whole is very firm and compact, and the glass is not
liable to shake out, as frequently occurs in opening
and shutting sashes. (Gard. Chron.)

If lapping be permitted, its width should not ex-
ceed one-eighth of an inch, and the panes
should be acutely rhomboid, to throw the
condensed vapour down to the lower cor-
ner, and induce it to trickle down the bars
instead of dropping. It is very doubtful
whether it reduces the amount of mois-
ture taken between the laps by capillary
attraction. {Johnson's Mod. Gard. Diet.
617.)

Instead of lapping, as glass is fractured during
frost, owing to moisture freezing between the laps of
the panes themselves, or between metal laps and the
glass, it is advisable, as before recommended, to do away
with all laps. The edges of the panes may be cut ac-
curately rectangular, and wetted with liquid putty
before being placed in contact, and the join resting
upon flat narrow bars of iron passing the whole
length of the house. The bars across the breadth of

21

the roof need be very few, being only required to ren-
der the others firm.

Roof. — The framework of this may be of iron or
of wood, and the comparative merits of the two mate-
rials are thus fairly stated by Dr. Lindley. The ad-
vantage of iron roofs for hothouses are, that they are
more durable than wood, and allow a far greater
quantity of light to pass through them than wooden
roofs, the difference being as 7 to 28, or even 30, in
favour of iron, and this is a most important property,
when we consider that the healthy action of plants is
in proportion to the quantity of light which reaches
them. The disadvantages of such roofs are, that
they rapidly heat, and as quickly cool down. They
are therefore liable to sudden changes of temperature,
which can only be guarded against by great attention,
which is expensive, and by a large consumption of
fuel. We should say use iron, if you prefer success
and beautiful form, to cost, and can rely upon the
attention of your people ; but employ wood, if you
are obliged to study economy. (Gard. Chron.)

Heating. — Flues, for imparting heat to hothouses,
are for the most part superseded by either tanks or
hot-water pipes ; but where retained, the top should
be formed of iron plates, these admitting the heat
most readily into the house, and consequently requir-
ing a less consumption of fuel. If it be desirable to
have a covering for the flues that will retain the heat

•

22

longer, as when the fires are made up at night, this
may be readily accomplished by putting a row of the
thick square paving tiles on the top of the whole
length of the flue, an hour or two before the houses
are finally closed.

Flues are best built of bricks set on
their edges, and the top formed of a
shallow iron trough for the purpose of
holding water, and thus keeping the air
moist as required. At night, for retain-
ing heat, pantiles may be placed along
within the trough. The best form is the annexed.

Hot Water in Tanks. — It is a law of fluids that
their hottest portions rise to the surface of the con-
taining vessel, and the coldest portions as invariably
subside to the lowest surface, because heat makes
them expand, and consequently diminishes their spe-
cific gravity ; and the abstraction of heat makes them
contract, and as consequently increase that gravity.
"When the boiler and tank are filled with water, as
well as their connecting pipes, and a fire is lighted,
the hottest portions rise to the top, flow along the
surface, and getting cool, sink to its bottom, and
passing downward enter again at the lower part, to
he once more heated, and pass through the same cir-
culatory system. A very small boiler will speedily
raise the heat of the water, in a very large tank, to
180 degs. ; and if this heat be imparted late in the

23

evening, it will retain its heat but little diminished
until the morning. The smoke, by means of a flue,
may be made to impart heat to the house, by passing
through it, or may at once enter the chimney or pipe
attached to the summit of the boiler.

Hot water in a tank is superior to the same source
of heat in pipes, because it is not liable to freeze ; and
it is preferable to steam, because its heating power
continues until the whole mass of water is cooled
down to the temperature of the house, whereas steam
ceases to be generated as a source of heat the mo-
ment the temperature falls below 212 degs.

Mr. Rendle, nurseryman, Plymouth, the first suc-
cessful suggester of the tank system of heating, has
furnished us with the following particulars : — A tank
of iron or wood, twenty feet long, five feet broad,
and six inches deep, is constructed in the centre of
the house, and surrounded by a walk, except at the
end, where the boiler is fixed for heating it. The top
of the tank is covered with large slabs of slate,
cemented together, to prevent the excessive escape of
steam. Around this is a frame sufficiently high to
retain the bark, in which the pots are plunged. The
boiler and tank are filled with water, and this circu-
lates, when the fire is lighted under the former, by
means of two pipes, one from the top of the boiler,
and the other returning nearer to its bottom. The
expense of piping, and danger of their freezing, is

24

avoided ; the fire only requires to be kept lighted for
two hours at night, and again for the same period in
the morning ; the water, when once heated, retaining
its temperature for a long time. In a small house the
apparatus can be constructed for £5 ; and in all, for
less than half the cost of hot-water pipes. The
saving in tan and labour is also very great ; in some
places tan costs 19s. per cart load, and where it is
cheaper, the trouble and litter incident to its employ-
ment, and the dangers of loss from fungi and insects,
of which it is the peculiarly fertile foster-parent, ren-
der it objectionable as a source of heat. And when-
ever the tan has to be renewed, the trouble and de-
struction of plants is always great.

In the following sketch, for which, as well as for
the next, we are indebted to Mr. Rendle : — A is a
transverse section of Roger's conical boiler ; B is the
fireplace ; g, the tank ; c, the flow-pipe ; d, the pipe
by which the water returns to the boiler ; e, is the
hole for the smoke, which, joined to a flue, /, can be
made either to ascend the chimney at once, or to pass
round the house.

sr ||fc>

;:...^:..:.;;;

25

Hot-water in open Gutters. — Mr. Griffin, gardener
to Mrs. Wells, of Cowley, near Exeter, has published
the following remarks upon this mode of circulating
hot-water.

The open trough, or gutter, may be applied to a
boiler of any construction. The water flows from
the top of the boiler, through a four-inch pipe, into
troughs made of cast iron, of the following dimen-
sions : inside measure six inches wide at the top,
three inches and a half at the bottom, and seven
inches deep ; the trough is constructed in lengths
three feet long, neatly fitted together by a rivet in
the bottom, and one on each side near the top. The
water returns in a cast iron pipe, three inches in dia-
meter. There are thin iron lids or covers, of the
same length at each portion of the trough, to fit
upon the whole length of the apparatus, so that the
degree of humidity may be regulated by making up
some portions of the covers, without disturbing the
others. The troughs or gutters might be made of
various materials, but Mr. Griffin prefers iron. The
heat is diffused from the surface of the trough or pipes,
nearly as quickly as it would be from copper or zinc,
and retains the heat much longer. The width and
depth of the troughs should be varied according to
the plants intended to be grown in the house. An
orchidaceous house requires a wider surface on the
top than those intended for the growth of ericse and

26

greenhouse plants generally. During the resting
season of orchidaceous plants, the atmosphere of the
house is easily kept less humid, by not removing the
whole or any part of the lids.

For vineries and peach-houses, it would answer
exceedingly well, and entirely eradicate the red spi-
der ; for the trough can be covered when the trees
are in flower, and when the fruit is approaching
towards maturity. On the other hand, during the
growing season you may maintain a regularly humid
atmosphere with less trouble than by any other
means. In a pine-stove, forty feet long, with a walk
between the back wall and bark bed, the trough being
two feet from the level of the walk, Mr. Griffin says,
' I can command any degree of heat with much less
attention than is required for some houses with a
boiler of the same description and equal power as re-
gards pipe.' (Gard. Chron.)

Heating by Steam. — If this be employed, Mr.
Tredgold has given the following rules for calculating
the surface of pipe, the size of the boiler, the quantity
of fuel, and the quantity of ventilation, required for a
house thirty feet long, twelve feet wide, with the
glass roof eight feet, length of the rafters fourteen
feet, height of the back wall fifteen feet. The surface
of glass in this house will be seven hundred and
twenty feet superficial, viz., five hundred and forty
feet in the front and roof, and one hundred and eighty

27

feet in the ends. Now, half the vertical height, seven
feet six inches, multiplied by the length in feet, and
added to one and a half time the area of glass in feet,
is equal to the cubic feet of air to be warmed in each
minute when there are no double doors.

That is, 7.5 multiplied by 30 added to H, multi-
plied by 720=1305 cubic feet. But in a house with
wooden bars and rafters, about one tenth of this
space will be occupied with woodwork, which is so
slow a conductor of heat, that it will not suffer a sen-
sible quantity to escape, therefore 130 feet may be
deducted, leaving the quantity to be warmed per
mimite== 11 75 cubic feet.

To ascertain the surface of pipe required to warm
any given quantity of air, multiply the cubic feet of
air to be heated per minute by the difference between
the temperature the house is to be kept at, and that
of the external air in degrees of Fahrenheit's thermo-
meter, and divide the product by 2.1, the difference
between 200, which is the temperature of the steam
pipes, and the temperature of the house ; the quotient
will be the surface of cast-iron pipe required.

Now, in the house, the dimensions of which are
above given, if the lowest temperature in the night be
fixed at 50 degs., and 10 degs. are allowed for winds,
and the external air is supposed to be at zero or 0 of
Fahrenheit, then 1175 multiplied by 60 degs. and
the product divided by 2.1, the difference between

28

200 and 60, will give us the quotient 236 = to the
surface of pipe required. Now the house being thirty
feet long, five pipes of that length, and five inches in
diameter, will be about the proper quantity.

If hot water be employed instead of steam, the
following proportions and information, obtained from
Mr. Rendle, may be adopted confidently as guides..
In a span roof propagating house, forty feet long,
thirteen feet broad, seven feet high in the centre,
and four feet high at the two fronts, having a super-
ficial surface of glass amounting to 538 square feet,
Mr. Rendle has a tank of eighty-three feet long,
running round three sides of the house, four feet wide
and about eight inches deep, and consequently capable
of containing nearly 300 cubic feet of hot water,
though only half that quantity is used. This is
closely approaching to the size pointed out, according
to Mr. Tredgold's formula. The mean temperature
of a hot- water tank will never be much above 100
degs., so that for the sized house mentioned by that
skilful engineer, the divisor must be 2.1 times the
difference between 100 and 60 degs., which gives as
the quotient 335 cubic feet.

The tank in Mr. Rendle' s propagating house is
lined with Roman cement, and if the temperature
at the time of lighting the fire be 90 degrees, the
temperature of the atmosphere of the house Q7 de-
grees, and the temperature out of doors 50 degs., the

29

quantity of small coal or breeze required to raise the
temperature of the water to 125 degs. is 28 pounds.
In twelve hours the water cools, after the fire has
been extinguished, from 125 to 93 degs.

When steam is employed, the space for steam in
the boiler is easily found by multiplying the length
of the pipe in feet, by the quantity of steam in a foot
in length of the pipe.

Interior diameter Decimal parts

of pipe of a cubic foot of steam

in inches. in each foot of pipe.

1 0.0545
H . 0.1225

2 0.2185
2\ . 0.34

3 0.49

4 0.873

5 1.063

6 1.964

7 2.67

8 3.49

9 4.42

10 ... 5.45

In the above noticed house, the length of pipe five
inches in diameter is 150 feet ; and these multiplied
by 1 .363=20.5 cubic feet of steam, and as the pipe
will condense the steam of about one cubic foot and
one third of water per hour, therefore the boiler
should be capable of evaporating 1^ cubic feet of
water per hour, to allow for unavoidable loss. In the
extreme case of the thermometer being at zero, the
consumption of coals to keep up this evaporation will
be 1 2f pounds per hour.

30

These calculations are all founded upon the suppo-
sition that the condensed water is returned to the
boiler whilst hot ; but if this cannot be effected, then
one twelfth more fuel will be required. The boiler
for the supply either of steam or hot water, should
be covered with the best available non-conductor of
heat ; and this is either charcoal or sand.

A case of brickwork, with pulverized charcoal, be-
tween this and the boiler, is to be preferred to any-
other. A boiler having a surface of seventy feet ex-
posed to the air, in a temperature of 32 degs., requires
an extra bushel of coals to be consumed per day, to
compensate for the heat radiated and conducted from
that surface ; and the smaller the boiler, the greater is
the proportionate waste. The surface of the pipes
should be painted black, because a surface of this
colour gives out more heat in a given time than any
other. {Johnson's Principles of Gardening^)

In heating by hot water there are some practical
questions which gardeners require to have answered,
but to do which neither the country ironmonger nor
country builder is usually qualified. One of these
questions very usually is, " How large ought the boiler
to be to keep these pipes hot?" Now, the total size
of the boiler really has nothing to do with the ques-
tion ; indeed, the smaller it is, the better, provided a
sufficient surface of it can be exposed to the fire.

Mr. Hood furnishes the following useful table,

31

showing the amount of boiler surface which must be
exposed to the fire to heat given lengths of pipe, res-
pectively 4 inches, 3 inches, and 2 inches in diameter.

Surface of Boiler exposed

4 in.

3 in.

2 in.

to the fire.

pipe.

pipe.

pipe.

ft.

ft.

ft.

3i sq. feet will heat

. 200

or 266 or 400

H •

. 300

. 400.

. 600

7 .

. 400

. 533.

. 800

8| .

. 500

. 666.

.1000

12 .

. 700

. 933.

.1400

17 .

1000

.1333.

.2000

— (Johnson's Mod. Gard. Diet.)

Heating by Hot Air. — Every system of heating is
more or less founded upon the fact that, if a hot body
be introduced into an enclosed room, the air in contact
with that body becomes lighter, and rises as it is
heated, is cooled and becomes heavier when it reaches
the upper part of the room, and consequently sinks
down to be again heated by coming in contact with
the hot body, and thus is kept in perpetual circula-
tion. This is the principle upon which all heating is
founded; yet no one, that we are aware of, ever
thought of making the air circulate at once over, and
be heated by the furnace direct, as suggested by Mr.
Murray, head gardener at Polmaise, and thence de-
signated the Polmaise system. Other persons have
always employed flues, or pipes, or tanks, heated by
a distant fire, to communicate the desired warmth.

Mr. Murray deserves great thanks from horticul-
turists for the publication of his cheap mode of heat-

32

ing hothouses. His system is an adaptation of long
known scientific facts to a useful purpose ; and its
success, like that of Mr. Rendle's system, depends
upon the constant circulation of a heated fluid, rising
as it is heated, and sinking down as it cools to be
heated again. The difference is, that Mr. Murray's
fluid is the atmospheric air of the house, and Mr.
Rendle's is water. The great merit of using air is,
that it does not require an expensive tank or arrange-
ment of pipes.

In the above sketch of a lean-to house, b is the
drain or underground flue, conducting the cooled air
to the heating stove, d ; e is the warm air chamber ;
f, a woollen cloth or blanket fastened over the orifice
admitting the warmed air into the house. This
blanket is kept moist by means of skeins of worsted,
having one of their ends dipping in water, and the

33

other end touching the blanket. The arrows show
the currents of rising and descending air. But this
structure has since been much improved upon, and
the following, erected by Mr. Meeks, is the most
perfect hitherto promulged. The furnace, bricks, &c.
cost less than £ 1 9, and there is no doubt that no ex-
pense was spared in this model erection. We are in-
debted to the Gardener's Chronicle for the following
plans and details.

Fig. 1 . Plan of house, showing cold air entrances,
cold air drains, hot air chamber, and entrances for air
into the house, with furnace, chimney, and direction
of currents ; a, a, cold air entrances, covered at plea-
sure with a horizontal lid outside the house ; b, b,
cold air drains, covered at pleasure with sliding covers
made of slate ; c, c, entrances for hot air into the
house, which may likewise be covered at pleasure with
doors sliding along the face of the pit ; d, the fur-
nace.

34

Fig. 2. Section of house, showing bottom heat
chamber, cold air drains, and direction of the cur-
rents ; a, entrance for cold air ; b, cold air drains ; e,
bottom heat chamber.

l£4.Feet.

Fig. 3. Longitudinal section of house, showing hot
air chamber, furnace built of Stourbridge brick, and
surrounded with two inches of sand, and covered over
with a half-inch iron plate in three widths ; the cis-
tern is made of iron, four inches deep, in two divi-
sions, and fed through a pipe from above ; the roof
has a cavity to be filled with sawdust, to prevent the
escape of heat ; c, entrance for hot air ; d, furnace.

Ventilation. — The accumulation of gaseous mat-

35

ters, such as sulphurous acid and ammonia, and the
consumption of carbonic acid, render ventilation essen-
tial to the health of vines, and of all plants in hot-
houses. They cannot inhale air overloaded with these
contaminations without being speedily injured, and
the proportions of those gases which rapidly cause
disease or even death, are much less than the gardener
usually suspects ; for if the sulphurous acid amounts
to no more than one cubic foot in ten thousand of
the air in a hothouse, it will destroy most of its in-
habitants in two days. To avoid such destruction,
for the comfort of visitors, and above all for the sake
of the plants' vigour, air should be admited as freely
as the temperature will permit. The foul warm air
can be easily allowed to escape through ventilators in
the most elevated parts of the roof, and fresh warm
air can be as readily supplied through pipes made to
enter near the flooring of the house after passing
through hot water, or other source of heat.

We are quite aware that Mr. Knight has stated
that he paid little attention to ventilation, and that
plants will be vigorous for a time in Wardian cases ;
but this does not prove that their Creator made a
mistake when he placed vegetables in the open air.

Plants confined in houses or other close structures,
may be made to grow in spite of such confinement ;
but all experience proves that other favourable cir-
cumstances, such as heat, light, and moisture, being-
equal, those plants are most vigorous and healthy

36

which have the most liberal supply of air. —
Those who doubt the propriety of an almost con-
stant ventilation will, by referring to the description
of Mr. Crawshay's houses, as described by Dr.
Lindley, find that very much of Mr. C.'s success is im-
puted to the circumstance of open laps. It has been
said that, shut up a house how we will, there is still a
circulation, and undoubtedly there is ; but is it suffi-
cient? For, after all, how different the sensation
between breathing in a shut -up house and in the open
air. So important do we consider ventilation that
we use it night and day on all possible occasions.
It must be remembered, however, that a very small in-
gress and egress is sufficient where there is so great a
disparity of temperature between the outer and inner
atmospheres. One great desideratum remains to be
accomplished in this respect, and that is to circulate
and promote motion in the atmosphere, and avoid
unnecessary extremes of heat, without dissipating the
atmospheric moisture. All new modes of heating
should, in combination with the question of economy,
combine this most important consideration.

There have been many modes suggested for self-
acting ventilators, descriptions of which may be
found in Loudon's Encyclopedia of Gardening, and
the Transactions of the London Horticultural Society;
but there are none that can supersede the gardener's
personal care, directed by the thermometer and ex-
perience.

37

The practice of all ventilation is founded on the
principle that the hottest air rises to the highest
part of the house, and if there allowed to escape,
colder air will come in below to supply its place. To
prevent the hot air escaping too rapidly, the ven-
tilators should be fitted with doors or caps, capable
of regulating the size of the orifice ; and the openings
admitting fresh and colder from without, should have
similar regulators, and be made by means of pipes
passing through the bark-bed, tank of hot water, or
other source of heat, so that the reduction of tem-
perature be not too rapid.

Some guide in constructing ventilators proportioned
to the size of the house to be ventilated, will be found
in Mr. Hood's following table of the quantity of air,
in cubic feet, discharged per minute through a ven-
tilator, of which the area is one square foot.

li

Difference between temperature of room and

external air.

4J S_

^5 O

5

10

15

20

25

30

S3 -^

deg.

deg.

deg.

deg.

deg.

deg.

10

116

164

200

235

260

284

15

142

202

245

284

318

348

20

164

232

285

330

368

404

25

184

260

318

368

410

450

30

201

284

347

403

450

493

35

218

306

376

436

486

521

40

235

329

403

465

518

570

45

248

348

427

493

551

605

50

260

367 450

518

579

635

38

The foregoing table shows the discharge, through
a ventilator of any height, and for any difference of
temperature. Thus, suppose the height of the ven-
tilator from the floor of the room to the extreme
point of discharge to be thirty feet, and the difference
between the temperature of the room and of the ex-
ternal air to be 15 degs., then the discharge through
a ventilator one foot square will be 347 cubic feet per
minute. If the height be forty feet, and the differ-
ence of temperature 20 degs., then the discharge will
be 465 cubic feet per minute.

The best form of a ventilator would be a zinc tube
about 9 inches in diameter, placed along withinsicle at
the highest point of the house, with openings beneath,
and the tube elongated and continued up within the
chimney of the fire heating the stove, or any other
chimney in its vicinity, as in the following sketch.

The law which regulates the operation of such a
tube is this : When equal bulks of two fluids are put
into the opposite limbs of a syphon, the lighter fluid
is forced upwards with a velocity equal to the velocity
which a solid body would acquire in falling, by its
own gravity, through a space equal to the additional
height which the lighter body would occupy in the
syphon, supposing a similar weight of each fluid had
been used. This velocity is easily calculated : a gravi-
tating body falls 1 6 feet in the first second of time of
its descent: 64 feet in two seconds, and so on, the

39

velocity increasing as the square of the time ; there-
fore, the relative velocities are, as the square roots
of the heights. — (Hood on Ventilation, p. 31.)

i •
I i

Now, in the pipe sketched above, the total height
from the floor of the stove to the point of final escape
of the heated air, is the height of the syphon. The
force of motion is the difference of weight between
the column of heated air and that of a column of the
external air of the same height. Now air expands
when heated 1 -480th of its bulk for each degree of
Fahrenheit's thermometer, and the velocity of motion
is equal to the additional height which a given weight
of heated air must have in order to balance the same
weight of cold air ; therefore, the higher the tube in
the chimney, and the hotter the air is kept in it, the
greater the velocity of ventilation.

The passage of air may be regulated by a slide to
pass through a cut in the pipe just within the house,

40

and close to the end next the chimney. (Johnson s
Gardener's Almanack, 1847.)

Borders. — These should be formed inside the house
and eight or ten feet wide. They should be of the
same materials recommended for vines upon the open
walls, and with quite as much attention to their
drainage ; and the walls being built upon arches, a
similar breadth of border made in every respect similar
should be on the outside.

Loam, of a somewhat more tenacious character,
however, should be used for inside borders, than
for outside ones, as there is no fear of their becoming
" soured" unless through injudicious watering.

In making borders inside the building, which are
far more preferable to the outside for early forcing,
care should be taken not to bring the roots in con-
tact with very hot flues or pipes ; when the border is
of necessity brought close to them, some non-conduct-
ing body, as wood, should be interposed. An en-
closed body of new and dry sawdust would be found,
perhaps, superior to anything else, provided it could
be kept dry.

When the borders must of necessity be outside, it
is of the utmost importance to endeavour to preserve
the accumulated warmth of summer. To this end,
the top-dressings necessary should be laid on betimes.
For a house to ripen grapes in May, it might be ap-
plied as early as September. The top-dressing should

;11

be composed of coarse and open materials, and should
be placed a considerable depth, finishing at top with
clean straw or fern of some thickness ; and if this
could be so disposed as to carry off the moisture, it
would be a great advantage, as there is little doubt
that the border will have moisture enough : the main
business is to avoid excess. Such a covering as a
tarpaulin would be of great service in this case : it
might be supported on spars, to avoid close con-
tact. Some of our best gardeners increase this
covering just before they commence forcing; and,
by the addition of fermenting materials, endeavour
to produce a temperature in the mass of 80 or 90
degrees.

This amount of heat has startled some persons,
who do not sufficiently consider that, through the
tendency of heat to ascend, the volume of the border
in the vicinity of the roots is perhaps not above 60
or 65 degrees. This cannot be too much, if it be
admitted that warmth of root is necessary to excite
the vital forces, and that without such action the vine
will have to exist entirely on the accumulated stores
of former years. Care must be taken to remove such
covering in due time — not, however, entirely. Mr.
Roberts' directions are excellent on this head, and
may be implicitly followed.

Although we join with our best practical gardeners
in recommending the roots of early-forcing vines to

42

be kept in the house ; yet, when circumstances are
favourable, there can be no possible harm in throwing
the front wall on arches, and allowing a portion of
the roots to go outside. When such is the case,
however, a protecting process ought to be carefully
pursued, or some derangement in the reciprocal ba-
lance which ought to exist between root and branch
may ensue. It is, at least, well to provide against it.

There scarcely needs more to be said on the con-
struction of the borders than has been already, but,
as is truly said by Mr. T. Appleby, gardener at the
Fence, near Macclesfield —

Unless this is properly done, however excellent the
internal management, however good the construction
of the house, and however well it may be heated, if
the vine is not right at the root, all the expense, la-
bour, and attention, will end in disappointment. We
shall, therefore, give this gentleman's directions, as
well as those of Mr. Roberts, and of some other mo-
dern and first authorities. The site of the vinery
should, if possible, be neither too high nor too low ;
though, of the two, an elevated situation is to be pre-
ferred. But whatever the situation is, the border
must be well and effectually drained. If the situation
of the vinery is in a flat country, the front wall ought
to be as high as the border is deep. In this case
take off only the surface spit of the soil, that is about
nine inches : but should the situation be elevated,

43

take out as much more, the object being to raise the
border above the natural level of the surrounding soil ;
but this is not so requisite in a high situation as in a
low one. The width of the border need not be more
than 20 feet, and should not be less than 15 feet. It
is a good general rule to have the border the same
width as the houses. The width of the border being
determined, and the soil removed, the top spit, if it
be good, may be mixed with the compost ; then slope
the bottom with a gentle descent from the houses,
making it pretty firm. This is the floor of the bor-
der. At the extreme edge build an open drain, ex-
tending six inches below the level of the floor and six
inches above it, by one foot wide. The sides to be
built in the pigeon-hole manner, to allow a ready pas-
sage for the superfluous water. Have this floor paved
with strong slates or thin flags, and then covered all
over with broken stones or brick ends, about the size
of a man's fist. When these are levelled, cover them
either with small twigs, bean-straw, or thin turf, laid
with the grassy side downward. This is to prevent
the soil from falling amongst the stones below. It is
now ready for the compost. The best compost for
the vine is the thin top spit from an old pasture,
chopped, and thoroughly mixed with one-fourth rotten
horse-dung and one-fourth rotten leaves, or one-third
dung when leaves cannot be had. Bones are excel-
lent, broken small, and mixed in the compost ; but

44

not indispensable. The border should be two feet
deep in a low damp situation, or three feet in a high
dry one. To provide for the compost settling below
the wall plate, place boards or thin slates against the
houses, and keep the border at least six inches above
its intended level. This should be done early in au-
tumn, to allow the earth to settle before the planting
time. There ought not to be a foot placed on the
border ; whenever it is needful to walk upon it, boards
should be laid on in the places where the person must
tread. A border made in this manner will last many
years, with the help of a covering of dung every au-
tumn, to be pointed in with a three-pronged fork
when the winter is over. The vines intended to
plant place in a forcing-house early in spring, in bas-
kets lined with thin turf, and filled up round the balls
with leaf-mould. The two top buds only are to be
allowed to push. Keep two for fear of accidents, re-
moving one after the vines are planted and quite safe.
As soon as the warm weather of May or June sets in
is the best time for planting. Holes sufficiently large
are to be opened ; the vines are brought out one at a
time, the baskets sunk, and left to rot, only just co-
vering them ; then give a good watering, and secure
the vines to the rafters, which finishes the operation
of planting. (Gard. Chron. 1841, 627.)

Mr. J. Roberts, gardener at Eshton Hall, in York-
shire, gives the following directions upon the same

45

subject, in his excellent work on " The Vine under
Glass."

The width of the borders outside the house ou«;ht
to be 24 feet, cleared out to the depth of three feet
six inches, upon a bottom of retentive clay, well pre-
pared, with one foot of fall from back to front. A
main drain ought to run along the extremity of the
border, one foot six inches deep, with cross-drains in
an oblique direction, leading into it, so as to have
perfect command in draining off superfluous water, in
order to keep them dry. Place upon the bottom thus
formed, broken stones and lime rubbish to the depth
of one foot, leaving a depth for compost of two feet
six inches. Upon the broken stones, every six or
eight feet square, place limestones, of the same nature
as the far-famed Skipton rock, which contributes to
retain moisture in a dry season, and facilitates the
drainage in a wet one. In autumn, when all is
ready and the weather favourable, proceed at one end
of your border, wheeling in and mixing the materials
in proportion as they stand to each other, on no
account breaking the materials in mixing, but turn
them in as rough as possible, adding one good-sized
horse or cow carcase to every ten or twelve square
yards ; using caution, and not bringing to the surface
of the border within one foot, as its assistance is
not wanted the first year. (Roberts's Vine under
Glass, 6.)

46

As it is natural to have the roots vegetating in a
soil of which the heat bears a relative proportion to
that in which the foliage is expanding, means should
be taken to effect this very essential object. To ne-
glect it is to invite disease and imperfection in the
crop ; and so convinced of this are the majority of
first-rate gardeners, that expensive structures, hot-
water pipes, &c. have been proposed for the sole
purpose of warming the soil ; but we entirely agree
with Dr. Lindley, when he observes that there are two
reasons why it is not advisable to bury hot-water pipes
in a vine border. In the first place, that plant does
not require so much bottom heat as the pipes would
give ; and, secondly, they would dry the earth, and
in that way do more harm than they would do service
in warming it. If a border is to be heated by hot-
water pipes, they must be enclosed in a hollow cham-
ber, so that their drying action may be prevented.
It is desirable to guard the roots of vines from frost ;
but that should be done by a covering to the border
which keeps off cold rain and snow, and prevents the
escape of heat. (Gard. Chron. 1842,561.)

The best covering for outside vine borders is one
of horse-dung and leaves. Of these, Mr. Clarke, gar-
dener at Shirley Park, near Croydon, recommends, in
December, eighteen inches in thickness to be laid, and
thatched with any material to carry off the water ;
green broom looks very neat, and will carry off all

47

superfluous water. The covering is to be removed
in March, and the border slightly forked up ; it is
much better to remove it than to allow it to remain
one day longer than required as a protection, the sun
and air being of the greatest advantage. (Gard.
Journ. 1845. 219.)

This removal of the fermenting dung in March is not
objectionable, but we certainly think that it is much
better to continue a covering of dried fern or other
similar material until the spring months of cold dry
winds are passed. In this our experience coincides
with that of Mr. H. Bowers, of Busbridge, who ob-
serves that —

The practice of protecting the vine border with
straw is particularly beneficial in March, April, and
May, when the days are clear and warm, and the
nights cold and frosty ; the staw is drawn to one side
during the hours of strong sunshine, exposing the
soil to its genial influence ; towards sunset the straw is
again spread over the border, and being a good non-
conductor it retains in the border much of the solar
heat. Always cover after an application of liquid
manure, as it in some measure prevents the ammonia
from escaping and the heat of the border from being
lost ; for, with the escape of watery vapour, more or
less heat is abstracted from the earth. This should
be guarded against where forcing is going forward ;
for though the fluids may be always in motion, yet

48

the absorbing powers of the plant become less active
when the roots are exposed to a low temperature.
(Gard. Chron. 1845, 52.)

Mr. J. Roberts, gardener at Rabey Castle, is en-
tirely of the same opinion. He says, when the fer-
menting material is applied a week or two previously
to the starting of the vines (which it ought to be, to put
the roots in motion), the border is surcharged with
moisture, which will be sufficient during the forcing
season. When the fruit has changed colour, remove
the fermenting material by degrees ; but should the
season prove dry or hot, leave an inch or two of leaf-
mould or rotten dung, to prevent too excessive eva-
poration. By the heat of July, August, and Septem-
ber, the roots, having been stimulated to give a gener-
ous support to the top in time of need, as well as
induced to keep near the surface, will, by the powerful
influence of the sun and dews during those three
months, have become perfectly ripened.^; (Ibid.
1846, 613.)

Mr. G. Fleming, gardener at Trentham Hall, says
that when the heat has once reached 80 degs., it con-
tinues so without any material deviation, by merely
keeping a covering of strawy litter, in which the heat
never exceeds 70 or 75 degs. once a fortnight,
when it is to be turned and a little fresh litter added,
which causes it to heat briskly for a short time.
(Ibid. 1845, 115.)

49

If vines are planted outside the house, which we
consider a most objectionable practice, their stems
ought to be protected during the winter and early
spring months ; and at the same time, not to give them
an unsightly appearance, you may have square wooden
boxes, about 6 inches in diameter, with one side want-
ing, made to fit over each stem, and secured to the
front of the house by hooks and staples. The inter-
vening space between the vine and the sides of the
box may be filled with hay and dry moss. In sum-
mer, these boxes may be removed without injury to
the stems of the vine. (Ibid. 1843.)

There ought not to be any kind of crop grown upon
a vine border : but it should be kept frequently hoed
during the summer and autumn. To turf it over is
one of the worst possible plans ; firstly, because the
turf prevents the reflection of heat from the border
to the vines ; and secondly, because it exhausts the
border ; and thirdly, because it prevents the free pe-
netration of the air and solar warmth at such times as
the border is uncovered.

Planting and Pruning. — No other directions for
planting are necessary in addition to those given in a
previous section, for the same care is requsite in doing
this for those vines which are to be grown out of
doors as for those under glass. Yet, as this is by no
means an unimportant operation, whether in doors or
out, more especially in the latter case, we give a few

50

additional directions. Avery fine loose soil should be
provided, containing a considerable portion of lively
sand, which is well known to facilitate quick rooting.
Beneath each vine should be placed a barrowful of
chopped turf and of sandy loam, which have been
lying together for several months : this being in
lumpy masses, not disintegrated, will at once facilitate
the escape of moisture and promote a rapid extension
of root. To prevent sudden droughts owing to ex-
treme porosity, the looser compost may be strewn
through and over the fibres. The best time to plant
is when the plants are about emerging from their tor-
pidity, whether naturally or induced. The ball of
earth should be carefully separated, and the roots
trained as carefully out as an exhibition flower on a
trellis. When merely covered with a fine compost, a
layer of the same turfy matter may be placed over it,
and over that a mulching of such fermented drop-
pings and litter as gardeners prefer for making a
mushroom bed. If in doors, they require skilful ap-
plications of water for the first four months : after
which they may have it more frequently in the heat
of summer, especially if they have made much pro-
gress. Those planted outside are liable to suffer in
the first four months through drenching rains. If
such occur, it is a good practice to place old hotbed
lights over them : if such are not to spare, oil-cloth,
tarpaulin, &c. will readily suggest themselves. If,

51

however, the summer is hot and dry, frequent sprin-
kling will be necessary : let little and often be the
maxim.

With respect to summer pruning, we say let the
young vines ramble freely, training the wood so as to
expose every available surface of leaf to the light.
The complete elaboration of a few select buds is as
nothing compared with the ultimate advantage arising
from a border well filled with roots. For, rest assured,
the volume of roots will be in direct proportion to
that of the top, although unseen.

The system adopted by Mr. Mearns is as follows :
The vines are planted inside the house at two feet
and a half apart, nearly close to the front wall, and
are headed down to within a foot of the soil. One
shoot only is allowed to proceed from each plant,
which at the end of the first season is cut down to
the second or third eye. Next year two leading
shoots are encouraged, the strongest of which is stop-
ped when it has grown three or four joints beyond the
middle of the roof, and the weaker, after having
grown three or four feet, for the purpose of strength-
ening the eyes. At the fall of the leaf the leading
shoots are reduced, the main one to the length of the
middle of the roof, and the lower one to the third
eye. In the third season, one leading shoot is trained
in from each shoot, and from the leading shoot fruit-
bearing side shoots are produced. One bunch is left
e2

52

on each, and the shoot stopped at one or two joints
above it. No sides shoots are allowed to proceed
from the spur, the leading shoot from which is to be-
come the bearing wood for the next year. Thus, in
the autumn of the third season the lower part of the
house is furnished with a crop of grapes from shoots
proceeding from wood of the preceding year, and
parallel to this bearing shoot on each vine is the young
shoot for the next year's crop.

In winter, the shoot from the extremity of the
bearing branch is cut off at the top of the roof, or
within twelve or fifteen inches of it, and the shoot
from the spur is cut down to the middle of the roof,
and all the spurs which had borne the grapes are now
cut out. Each vine is now furnished with two shoots
of bearing wood, a part of eld barren wood, and a
spur for producing a young shoot the following year.
In the fourth summer a full crop is produced, both in
the upper and lower half of the house. The longer
shoots bearing on the upper half of its length, and
the shorter on its whole length ; a leading shoot is
produced from the short shoot, and another from the
spur. In the pruning season of the fourth year, the
centre shoot is entirely removed, and replaced by the
side shoot, now the whole length of the roof, and this
side shoot is in its turn supplanted by the shoot from
the spur, while a spur is prepared to succeed it.

It is sometimes necessary, observes Mr. Main, to
lay in shoots of great length, as is the general practice

53

in pine stoves, or to fill the trellis in common vineries.
In such cases much care is required that a regular
and sufficient number of the fruit buds should break
from top to bottom, and prevent the lower part of
such shoots from being quite naked and barren. To
avoid this let the pruner, after cutting the shoot to
the required length, and finding, from the firm texture
of the wood, that it is sufficiently ripened, proceed
to thin the buds as follows : viz. leave the uppermost
bud, which may be called 1, cut out 2 and 3, leave
4, and cut out 5 and 6, leaving 7, and displacing 8
and 9, and so on to the bottom of the shoot. This
thinning of the eyes will cause all those which are
left to break regularly, and so alternating with each
other, that the disposition, whether for the sake of
superior fruit or facilitating the future management
of the tree, will be found exactly what the manager
would wish ; he taking care to stop all the young
shoots in their progress, immediately beyond the
fruit, except the lowest, which must be trained to its
full length for similar management the following year.
(Gard. Mag. ii. 413.)

Summer Pruning consists in rubbing off ill-placed
and superfluous shoots as soon as they appear, and in
shortening or stopping those destined for bearing.

Stopping, it has been well observed, has its limits,
the passing of which will lead to weakness in the
constitution of the vine. Two reasons seem to exist

54

ia favour of the process ; the one, concentration of
the powers of the vine for a period in the immediate
neighbourhood of the fruit, thereby increasing its
size ; and the other, the prevention of the secondary
shoots of the vine from overlapping and smothering
the principal leaves. After these points are duly ac-
complished, vines, especially young ones, may be
allowed to ramble freely, more especially in the period
between the first and last swelling, or during what is
termed the stoning process. It is by no means un-
common to see young vines nearly destroyed by over-
bearing, especially the Muscats. These "show" in
an extraordinary way, on strong young canes in
newly-made borders ; but if the fruit be allowed to
remain, and close stopping resorted to, the constitu-
tion of the Muscat will be completely broken up.
Let such make as much wood as they please. (Gard.
Chron. 1846, 359.)

We prefer stopping at one joint beyond the fruit,
as is the general practice, but some stop close to the
bunch. In either case the leaf accompanying the
bunch must be carefully preserved, otherwise the fruit
will not attain perfection. In case of accident to this
leaf, it is better to have one at the joint beyond the
fruit, to elaborate, as is absolutely necessary, the sap.
Mr. Mearns, however, is of a contrary opinion, and
says, "Stop the bearing branches at the bunch instead
of the next joint above it, which is the usual prac-

bb

tice ; for the fruit does equally well, aud it allows a
much larger portion of light to come into the house,
together with a more free circulation of air among the
fruit and young wood. Blind all the eyes on each
fruit spur as soon as they push above a joint or two,
before pinching them back, always cautiously retain-
ing one eye; and be particularly cautious that nothing
should happen to injure the leaf that accompanies the
bunch, for, if that is lost, the fruit comes to nothing."
(Hart. Soc. Trans.)

When vines will not break at the lower buds, de-
press the shoots and shade the upper extremity until
the lower buds have started. If the bend is at the
place where the buds are dormant, the operation ex-
pedites their appearance. {Gard. Chron. 1841, 169.)
Another good suggestion made by Mr. Power, of
Raynham, is that, in forcing vines pruned on the spur
system, besides the one eye left upon each spur, a
number of eyes will be formed about and between the
spurs and the main stem. In looking over these,
after they have made their appearance, care should be
taken to rub off all, with the exception of one or two
to a spur, and those should be left in the most favour-
able situation, on the upper side, or front of the spur.

Mr. T. Appleby, gardener at the Fence, Maccles-
field, also considers the best mode of pruning the vine
to produce certain crops of fine well flavoured fruit,
is undoubtedly the "spur system," but as he offers

56

some fresh hints, we give the detail of his practice.
The first season after planting, he says, train one shoot
to each rafter, stopping at the first joint all the
laterals, and nipping off every tendril. When the
shoot has reached three-fourths of the length of the
rafter, cut off the bottom laterals, and continue from
time to time to remove them all the way up as the
wood hardens. This season do not stop the shoot at
all, but continue to tie it in across the top of the
house, to obtain as long and strong a shoot as possible.
The second season prune down to three eyes from the
bottom of each rafter, and allow one bunch of fruit
to each vine, to prove the kind. Train the uppermost
shoot to the rafter, managing in the same way as the
first season, excepting stop it by pinching off the end
near the top of the rafter, to strengthen the lower
buds. The two bottom shoots stop at the third or
fourth joint to make spurs. If the vines are strong,
they will push again, when stop them at the first
joint, repeating this as often as they shoot again.
Tie them in at nearly right angles, to give the leading
shoot all the benefit of the sun and air. In the third
season the vines should be very strong, with short
joints and plump buds. If the wood is sound, firm,
and of a good brown colour, cut out one third the
length of the rafter, which will mostly be six or seven
feet. Train the top shoot up the rafter again, repeat-
ing the same operations of removing tendrils, stop-

57

ping laterals, &c, stopping it at the top. The side
shoot or spurs stop at the joint which shows fruit,
and only leave one bunch on each spur. This is a
general rule for every year afterwards. Tie each spur
at right angles from the centre, so that there are two
rows of bunches, one on each side of the rafter.
The fourth season bring up the spurs to two-thirds of
the intended length of the vine, following the system
as during the third season, with this difference, that
if any of the spurs are weak and show poor bunches
of fruit, nip off the bunch to strengthen the spur.
The fifth season the shoot extends the length of the
rafter, so that in four years you have all the rafter
clothed with fruit-bearing spurs ; after which all they
require is to cut through the second bud every prun-
ing season. Only leave one bud to each spur, though
some cultivators leave two ; but in that case the spurs
will too soon become long and unsightly; and the
farther the bud is from the main stem, the weaker it
will be. Even with one bud each year the spur will
in time require renewal. To effect this, train up a
young shoot from the bottom, and" the year after cut
off the old shoot with all its spurs, and manage the
young one exactly in the same way as a young vine.
Do this to every other vine, as the house would be
without fruit one or two years were they all cut down
at once. Suffer those that are cut down to get into a
bearing state again, and then cut down the remainder.

58

The question may be asked, when is the proper time
to prune the vine ? This entirely depends upon cir-
cumstances. If they are to be forced early, they
must be pruned early. It may serve as a general
rule, to prune at least six weeks before it is intended
to begin to force : if it can be done two months pre-
viously it will be better; the pores of the wood, when
it is cut, will then be stopped so as not to bleed when
brought into a higher temperature. (Gard. Chron.
1841, 659.)

As a general rule, spurred vines confined to the
rafter, and established on the principle of border-
making before detailed, will, under good management,
produce from fifteen to twenty pounds weight each,
everjr year, for many years. Vines spread over the
whole house will yield a third more. It is, however,
a better plan, where very superior fruit is the object,
to keep below this mark. The leading shoot, if there
be one, is a pretty good criterion of the energies of
the vine ; this, if it is honestly cropped, should always
be disposed, and also allowed, if possible, to ramble
freely. (Hort. Soc. Journ. 51.)

Training. The simplest mode of providing for the
training of a vine up the rafters of a house, is to drive
long shanked nails with eyes at the head every two
or three feet, so that a wire can be strained through
these eyes the whole length of the rafter; "and if other
plants are to be grown in the house, one branch along

59

each rafter to bear fruit, and one growing for the
following year's bearing, are all that need or should
be grown ; indeed at the ordinary distance of rafters,
it is advanced to the contrary, the extent of, and the
injury sustained from these is innumerable, as much
work as a vine ought to do for many years. Any
other fastening injures the rafter itself, whereas the
wire being a fixture, the vine branch needs only
to be tied to the wire with good twisted bass mat-
ting, which will last the season ; at the end of
which the old branch is cut away, and the new one
may be fastened in its place. {Gard. and Florist.
hi. 431.)

Another mode is by having wires extending lon-
gitudinally the whole length of the house, through
eyes fastened about twelve inches apart into the raf-
ters.

A third plan, is to have the vines planted in a bor-
der at the back of the house inside, and to train them
down the rafters. This plan was suggested by Mr.
W. Smith, of the Chiswick Gardens, and is thus
recommended by him.

The common practice in vineries, he observes, of
training the trees from the front to the back, upon
laths or wires fixed to the rafters under the whole of
the glass roof, forms so impervious a shade to the
floor and back wall of the house, as to render both
these places almost useless for any other purpose

60

To get rid of this inconvenience, it occurred to Mr.
Archibald Read, gardener at Balcarras, to confine the
vines to the space immediately beneath each rafter ;
and in order to retain the same or any additional num-
ber of fruit-bearing shoots, he formed a kind of drop,
or hanging trellis, by wires fixed to each side of the
rafter, descending vertically, and attached to a slight
wooden frame of the same width as the rafter, fixed
from the front to the back wall, and depending from
two feet at the front of the house, to five feet at the
back part. Each rafter having such a frame, the
vines are trained on each side of them, by which con-
trivance a greater surface of fruitful vines is obtained,
and also a far greater share of light.

Different modifications of this plan have been
adopted ; one of the simplest is, a single surface of
wires suspended by iron rods {a) The judicious gar-

dener will adopt wires or wood, a double or single
trellis, and greater or less depth, as may best suit the

61

particular circumstances of his case ; he will not for-
get to allow himself head-room over the path, and
that it can never be desirable to have such trellises
very deep, on account of the distance to which the
lower part of the foliage would be removed from the
glass. These circumstances taken into consideration
and acted on, hanging trellises may be an improve-
ment in the construction of the vinery, and applicable
also to the peachhouse, but we consider it very doubt-
fid. (Hort. Soc. Trans, vi.)

Mr. J. Aeon, gardener to the Earl of Surrey, at
Worksop Manor, has suggested another mode of trel-
lis training, which is superior to the usual mode by
not rendering the house dark, by preserving the grapes
from the consequences of sudden violent depressions
of temperature, and by enabling other trees to be culti-
vated against the back wall. Mr. Aeon adopts a wide
flat-roofed house, plants the vines within the house at

/5-Feet

the back and front, trains them on an arched trellis
with horizontal wires one foot apart (see above plan),

62

and on the back wall. He commences forcing on the
1 st of September ; and the fruit begins to be ripened
about the first week in March, and continues to be
gathered till the middle of May. About six weeks
after the forcing has commenced, vines are introduced
from the front, and trained under the rafters, which
yield a succession crop, from the early part of May
till late in June, when the vines in the pine-stoves
produce their crops. By the form of the trellis,
which admits of the use of the whole of the back
wall, and of at least one shoot on each rafter, this
house presents the greatest possible surface for the
growth of the vines, consistent with sufficient light.
Mr. Aeon has proved by experiment that vines will
ripen their fruit a fortnight sooner on the trellis than
on the rafters. (Hort. Soc. Trans, vii.)

The late vinery under Mr. Aeon's care is narrower
and has a steeper roof, like that of Mr. Saul's, deli-
neated in a previous page. Its flues are on arches, as
in the preceding, and the vines are planted within the
house ; and trained on a trellis near the glass. The
house is shut up about the middle or end of May, as
soon as the bunches make their appearance ; and till
they are out of blossom the air is kept very warm.
This is of more importance than is generally imagined ;
the wood which has to bring the future crop will be
all made during this period. In a good heat it will be
found to grow more compact, and to receive a form

63

better calculated to produce and ripen fruit under the
cold atmosphere to which it is afterwards exposed.
If the house be kept too cool at the beginning, the
wood will be soft and long jointed, and therefore sub-
sequently barren. Those who attempt to grow late
grapes must pay serious attention to this circum-
stance : the failures of many may be attributed to
the neglect of it. {Trans. Hort. Soc. vii.)

Forcing. — Mr. Beaton, gardener to Sir "W. Middle-
ton, at Shrubland Park, near Ipswich ; Mr. G. Flem-
ing, gardener at Trentham Hall, and some other first
authorities in horticulture, are of opinion that Sep-
tember is a better time to begin to force vines than
any time between that and the middle of December,
as the fruit is set before the middle of November,
and has more assistance from the sun than it would
have in January, at which time it would be setting if
started in November, the usual time for beginning to
force for an early crop of grapes. {Gard. Chron.
1845, 115.) Notwithstanding these reasons and
authorities, the majority of gardeners do not begin
forcing until the end of October, or early in Novem-
ber, considering that to begin earlier does not allow
the vines a sufficient period of rest.

Mr. Appleby, already quoted, says that in places
where there are a number of houses devoted to the
vine, it is possible to have ripe grapes all the year f
round. To accomplish this completely, six houses^

64

are necessary, though it may in some degree be done
with three. In the former case, the first house ought
to be started at the end of October, the second on the
first of December, and so on, the first day of every
month till April. Where there are but three houses,
it will be early enough to commence the first house
in November, the second in February, and the third
in April. To cause the vines to break equally all the
length of the shoots, tie them down to the front win-
dows, until the buds are all expanded, that one part
may not be more excited than another. When every
bud has pushed, carefully separate the vines one by
one ; regulate the shoots, stop them, and thin the
number of branches, and do all that is required. Then
tie them up loosely to the rafter ; and should they
hang down a foot from the glass, it is an advantage,
especially during the early part of the season.* (Gard.
Chron.)

Temperature. — We quite agree with Dr. Lindley
in thinking that there can be no doubt that 48 degs.
is quite high enough at night for grapes in the first
month of their growth, and 54 degs. in the second.
The reason why a low temperature at night is
desirable, seems to be that if much heat and moisture
are applied to a plant in vegetation, it must grow in
proportion to the amount of those agents. Now, it is
in daylight only that plants can digest their food and
harden their texture ; and the amount of digestion,

65

and consequent hardening, will be in proportion to
the intensity of the light they receive. If, then, they
are compelled to grow in the dark, they are filled with
undigested sap, and their wood becomes watery and
soft. Even where they can be excited each day by
very powerful light, it would seem that nature exposes
them to no such risks, although one might suppose
that beneath a southern sun the mischief caused at
night might be repaired during the day. How much
more, then, in these dull, northern regions, where we
never behold the sun in all his brightness, and for
weeks together in the spring, only as he struggles
through clouds, how much more ought we to avoid
that nightly growth for which our daylight can bring
no help ! (Gard. Chron. 1844. 35)

Quite coincident with this reasoning is the con-
firmed practice of our best vine forcers, as is thus
detailed by Mr J. Roberts, gardener at Eshton Hall,
in Yorkshire. He says the temperature must not
exceed 55 by day, and may be allowed to fall to 45
in the night, until the buds are in motion. They
will then require a little more heat, raising the tem-
perature gradually until it attains 53 by night by the
time the first leaves are fully expanded; always allow-
ing them 10 or 15 degs. more by day, or sun heat,
keeping a moist temperature, syringing and shutting
up early in the afternoon. As they advance raise the
temperature by day to 80, 85, or 90 degs. by sun

F

66

heat ; if by fire, 72 or 75 degs., syringing and shutting
close up, early in the afternoon, allowing the tem-
perature in the night to fall back to 58 or 60 degs.
{Roberts s Cult, of the Vine, 22.)

Mr. G. Fulton, gardener to Lord Northwick, also
concurs in the importance of a low night temperature,
though, like the late Mr. Knight, he finds that in
lighter days the vine will bear a very high tempera-
ture, occasionally, with advantage.

He says, to have an attentive eye to the young
shoots at an early period of their growth is of great
importance; and, to procure round short-jointed wood,
his practice is to keep a low temperature in the night,
and a very high one in the day. Vines by such a
mode of treatment are not excited in an unnatural
degree, and nature is more imitated than exactly
followed, which may be said to be the main principle
in the art of forcing. He has frequently, in the spring
months, had the mercury in the thermometer stand at
110 degs. in a pinery early in a day, when, with
abundance of moisture, vines have grown very rapidly
with round short-jointed, instead of flat long-jointed
shoots, caused by an extreme of fire heat in the night.
The observations already made he wished to be un-
derstood as applicable to pines as well as vines, where
they are necessarily grown together. (Gard. Mag.
vi. 707.)

Mr. Appleby agrees in the propriety of commenc-

67

ing forcing at a low temperature, adding— The first
week keep up the heat to 50 degs., the second to 60,
the third to 65, and the fourth to 70 degs. Night
temperature about 10 degs. lower. A good rule is
60 degs. for vines in leaf, and 70 when blooming and
ripening fruit ; the night temperature may then be
20 degs. lower.

Syringing. — Some excellent gardeners practice this
less or more through most of the forcing period :
some equally good gardeners entirely dispense with
it. If sufficient atmospheric moisture is provided by
means of a permanent character, little syringing will
be needed. It may be practised with benefit during
the time the buds are swelling, two or three times a
day. When blossoming commences it must be alto-
gether omitted. It may be resumed again until the
berries are as large as peas, when it will be better, in
our opinion, entirely dispensed with ; taking care to
provide plenty of atmospheric moisture in lieu of it.

The desirable amount of moisture in the air of the
vinery is by no means arbitrary, but ought to be
regulated according to the rule pointed out by nature.
Her law is that the moisture of atmospheric air, un-
affected by accidental causes, is proportional to its
temperature, the moisture increasing with the heat.
The exceptions offered by the sirocco and other hot
dry winds, have their accidental origin from passing
over arid torrid plains incapable of affording moisture

C8

to the passing air. The consequences such winds
bring upon vegetation is well known to be destruction
of its foliage, and, in many instances, death. Air at
rest, as in a hothouse, does not absorb moisture so
rapidly as air in motion ; therefore if the whole area
of its floor was a tank of water, the air confined within
the house would never be so saturated with moisture
as air at the same temperature passing over water,
moist earth, and vegetation, as in the ordinary course
of nature. To obviate this, gardeners promote the
diffusion of watery vapour through the air of their hot-
houses, by placing pans of water upon the flues, by
having open gutters of hot water within them, and by
even admitting jets of steam. The difficulty attend-
ing all these processes is to have the amount of vapour
in a natural proportion to the temperature of the
house. A little inequality is not of much consequence,
but, other treatment being correct, the nearer to the
dictate of nature, so much nearer will the plants be
to a state of best vigour.

A consequence of air being duly impregnated with
moisture is, that evaporation of water from a given
surface exposed to that air proceeds slowly, shown by
its causing but little cold. This is demonstrated by
the following registries of thermometers, kept at Cal-
cutta, during some of the months of 1841 and 1842.
In June, August, and September, the air there is
saturated with moisture. In December, January,
and February, it is driest.

69

Average

Temp, of Air.

at Noon.

Average Temp.

of Evaporating Sur

face at Noon.

1841.

June

91.6 cleg.

85.4 deg.

Aug.

86.8

83.0

Sept.
Dec.

90.2
81.6

84.3
72.5

1842.

Jan.

84.5

73.8

Feb.

90.4

77.4

The easiest mode of ascertaining the difference,
between the temperature of the air and an evaporat-
ing surface is by having two equally graduated ther-
mometers hanging in the hothouse, with the bulb of
one inclosed in a piece of thin muslin. Upon moisten-
ing this with water of the house's temperature — made
so by keeping it in the house — the number of degrees
this causes the mercury to sink will be the difference
between the air's temperature and that of an evapo-
rating surface. In the winter months the gardener
may be satisfied that the air has the desirable moist-
ness if that difference be not more than 6 degs. and
during the summer months 3 degs. This is much
less than the difference found by observation in a
tropical climate, but there the evaporation was pro-
moted by exposure to a free circulation of the air.

Connected with this important portion of the prac-
tice of forcing is the following table, shewing the
number of grains of water at the temperatures
named, contained by a cubic foot of air saturated
with moisture.

70

Temp, of

Grains of

Temp, of

Grains of

air.

Water.

Air.

Water.

20 deg.

1.52

62 deg.

6.21

22

1.64

64

6,60

24

1.76

66

7.0

26

1.90

68

7.43

28

2.03

70

7.90

30

2.25

72

8.40

32

2.32

74

8.95

34

2,48

76

9.53

36

2.64

78

10.16

38

2.82

80

10.78

40

3.02

82

11.49

42

3.24

84

12.20

44

3.48

86

12.91

46

3.73

88

13.61

48

3.98

90

14.42

50

4.24

92

15.22

52

4.52

94

16.11

54

4.82

96

17.11

56

5.13

98

18.20

58

5.51

100

19.39

60

5.83

Although syringing and steaming, duly regulated,
are unexceptionable practices occasionally ; yet, as
before observed, they are not to be depended upon
solely as the means of keeping the air of the hothouse
in a proper state of moisture, in conformity with the
natural laws already pointed out. Gardeners know
this from their experience, and have adopted, conse-
quently, several modes of keeping the moisture of the
air always accordant with its temperature. The most
efficient plan we have previously described, but
another is as follows :

71

Mr. Milne supplies a compound vapour to his
vines by sprinkling his vinery every afternoon, when
first shut up, with water, and then throwing down
about a quart of gas ammoniacal liquor on the front
pathway. When thrown on the soil, he has found
that the liquor did not smell so much as when sprin-
kled on the stones or hard-burnt bricks. He has no
doubt but this method would be sufficient without
placing it in cans, if it could be applied in the morn-
ing without offence to the family. It has a bad' ap-
pearance on the pathway, and no lady or gentleman
would like to walk over it ; its smell being bad enough,
without the sight of it. He had three tin cans, hold-
ing about a quart each, in a house 42 feet long ; and
he found that in two days the liquor wasted to one-
third of its usual bulk, and changed from a clear
small-beer colour to a thick substance like coal-tar.
It was never applied to the roots of the vines.
(Gard. Chron. 1842, 761.)

Closely connected with the regulation of the vinery's
atmospheric moisture, is the due admission of air,
(see Ventilation) ; indeed, it will be found that
every writer has found himself more or less obliged
to amalgamate the two when considering ventilation,
as in the following comprehensive and sound remarks
of " A Practical Observer." He says —

A hygrometer is just as necessary in a vinery as a
thermometer, and probably the time will soon come

72

when we shall as seldom see a house without the one
as the other ; and wherever one is used, it will be
found that it is not a sprinkling of water on the flues
or pipes, once or twice a day, that will keep a suffi-
ciency of moisture in the air, but that water should
be almost constantly on the pipes ; and that the bor-
ders, footpaths, &c. should be sprinkled frequently
besides. But, as much judgment is required in ma-
naging this, let the hygrometer be your guide. The
admission of fresh air is intimately connected with
the preceding ; yet almost invariably do we see air
admitted without the slightest regard to its eifects on
the internal atmosphere, further than keeping down
the heat. In long-continued dull, cold weather, the
houses are usually kept nearly closed ; consequently
more moisture is retained than usual, and the shoots
and leaves are tender, and very susceptible of injury
from sudden change ; but as soon as a strong, clear
sunshine occurs, the houses are opened, and air let in
unsparingly to keep down the heat. The vines are
thus checked ; and if this happen just when the
grapes are colouring, they do no more good, but as-
sume a dull brown colour, viz., the dingy hue so well
known and so much dreaded b}^ gardeners ; and when
this happens, nothing will recover them. The too
frequent practice of keeping on strong fires, with the
view of remedying the evil, only aggravates it. From
the time the vines are started, the strictest attention

73

ought to be paid to admitting air, and to its effects
on the hygrometer. In cloudy, wet weather, short
fires are to be put on in the morning, so as to raise
the heat nearly 10 degs. above the night temperature,
and a little air admitted both at front and back of the
house, taking care to keep plenty of water on the
pipes ; for a strong fire-heat, accompanied by a brisk
circulation, will be found very injurious, if not coun-
teracted hj moisture. In bright weather, equal at-
tention is necessary ; for, if a great deal of air is ad-
mitted to keep down the heat, it is impossible to keep
the atmosphere sufficiently moist, consequently the
vines suffer. Air ought to be admitted not so much
to keep down the heat as to keep a current of fresh
air in the houses ; and small openings at front and
back are quite sufficient for that purpose. Vines will
seldom be hurt by sun-heat, if surrounded by a pro-
perly moistened atmosphere ; but to retain this in
dry, hot weather, the utmost vigilance is necessary.
As, then, there is but little heat in the pipes, they
ought to be kept deluged with water ; indeed, the re-
turn-pipes should always be laid in gutters, so that
they can be kept covered with water when required.
Now, although strict attention must be paid to the
admission of air, it is not intended that the ventilators
are to be opened and shut always as a cloud passes
over the sun ; for, although the thermometer may be
kept pretty steady, it is impossible to keep the hygro-

74 -

meter so too. A little air ought to be admitted as soon
as the sun raises the heat a few degrees ; and in an
hour or two a little more, or as much as you think will
cause a sufficient circulation, without putting it out of
your power to keep up a sufficiency of moisture. If
there is absence of sunlight at the time of colouring,
fires ought to be applied to the house, raising the
temperature to 72 degs. at night, and maintaining a dry
atmosphere. If you have flowers in the vinery, take
them out. Should your grapes begin to colour in
March or April—the most precarious months in the
year — when the sun begins to shine, and there is
every prospect of a fine day, put out the fire imme-
diately ; and as the sun raises the temperature in the
house to 76' degs., give about half an inch of air to
every sash at top, but none in front upon any account;
and when the heat rises to 78 degs. give as much air
again, and so on until the thermometer stands at 85
degs. Be sure not to allow the heat to decline with-
out taking the air away by degrees, as it was given ;
ultimately, when closing the sashes, the house is at
76 degs. At the last movement of the sashes, half
an inch of air only should be shut off; for, if you
have a foot or six inches of air on each light when
the heat is at 85 degs., and you suffer the tempera-
ture to become colder without reducing the air a little,
then the berry shanks. In March and April, a day's
sunshine is very acceptable, and the gardeners throw

/o

open their houses, and allow them to be open until
the heat is only 70 or 76 degrees ; they then close
the house, and the heat rises again, and does more
harm than the sun has done good. (Ibid. 1845,
722.)

Setting the Grape, says Dr. Lindley, like that of
all other plants, is accomplished by bringing the
pollen in contact with the stigma. The stigma is a
viscid space, often extremely small, upon the
upper end of the young fruit ; the pollen is a
fine powder, contained in the anther, which is a bag
that must be split open in order to permit the pollen
to escape. To insure the setting of a fruit, it is,
therefore, indispensable that the anther should be
placed in a situation favourable to its opening. Na-
ture rarely provides mechanical means for effecting
this important operation, but, by a simple and beau-
tiful contrivance, insures its taking place spontane-
ously. The anther is formed of a membrane whose
lining consists of an infinite multitude of delicate
springs, so arranged, that by their contraction in
opposite directions they pull open the sides of the
anther along a line which is thinner than any other
part. In wet weather, or in a green state of the
anther, these springs are relaxed, and are incapable
of action ; but when the anther ripens, and the air is
dry, they contract, and pulling against each other,
their combined action is sufficient to rend asunder

75

the sides of the anther and to permit the pollen to
escape. If any one wishes to behold — not the phe-
nomenon itself, for that is microscopic, but its effect —
let him station himself near a Red Cedar, or a
Chinese Juniper tree, in a warm, dry, spring morning,
and he will see the air filled with myriads of little
glittering particles ; these are the grains of pollen
discharged into the air by the natural elasticity of
the anther-springs : let him observe the same tree in
a wet morning, as windy as he pleases, or with the
rain pattering upon the flowers, and he will not find a
symptom of the dispersion of pollen. And why is
this ? Nature never chooses her seasons of action in
vain. It is because the natural glue upon the stigma
enables the pollen to adhere, and it is necessary that
the adhesion should be complete if setting is to take
place ; but an atmosphere charged with moisture
dilutes the natural glue, and renders the attachment
of the pollen to the stigma precarious. Moreover, if
the anther could open in wet weather, the pollen
would not quit it ; for although the latter is often
dispersed by its own buoyancy, yet if the particles
hold together in masses, as happens when damp,
they are then incapable of floating, {Ibid. 1841,
259.)

These facts demonstrate why the gardener finds it
necessary to have the air of his hothouse drier during
the blooming time than at any other. Yet, with all

his care and science-directed art, impregnation of the
grape in a vinery very often fails. The Tokay is one
that sets with difficulty, but Mr. D. Wright of
Greenland, near Paisley, says the difficulty is over-
come if, before the vines come into flower, they are
kept in a temperature of from 70 to 75 degrees ; and
on the first opening of the flower, gradually lowering
the temperature to 60 or 65 degrees, the air is then
less moist, and they set freely, and as well as the
Hamburgh and Other free-setting kinds. (Gard.
Mag. vi. 602.)

A more mechanical mode of effecting the impreg-
nation, however, is often necessary ; for, to quote the
words of Mr. J. Craig, gardener at Howsham, near
York—

On close inspection, when the blossoms are fully
expanded, it will be obvious to every observer who is
acquainted with the parts of fructification, that the
main cause of their abortiveness is a defect in the
filament and not in the anther, as supposed by many.
It will be found that the filaments are very small and
jecurved, so as to render it almost impossible for the
anthers to come into contact with the stigma of the
•same blossom. There is a sufficient quantity of
pollen on the anther for the fecundation of the
stigma ; but so awkwardly is the anther situated,
that in very few instances can the pollen perform its
function on the stigma without the assistance of art.

78

Hold a sheet of white paper under the bunches from
which it is intended to gather the pollen (selecting
those which are fullest in flower), and then apply the
pencil gently to various parts of them ; and when the
pencil is charged with yellow powder, apply it to the
bunches to be fecundated, and touch lightly with the
pencil the female parts of the flowers, holding the
paper as when gathering the pollen. The pollen
may be obtained from the same vine, or any other in
blossom at the time. {Ibid. vi. 688.)

Thinning the Berries. — As soon as the berries are
set, and swollen to the size of a small pea, it is time
to thin them. For this operation there are proper
scissars, with long handles and short blades. Pro-
vided with these, some good soft matting, and with
something to catch the berries in (which make ex-
cellent vinegar, or tarts, &c), commence the opera-
tion by tying up the shoulders of such bunches as re-
quire it, to the wires on each side of the rafter ; or, if
the bunches are very large, fasten some thin narrow
lath to the rafter, to tie the shoulders to.

Some persons use a thin piece of lath notched at
each end, to prop the shoulders oif from the main
body of the bunch ; but we do not like this plan so
well as the matting, the props being apt to drop out.

In order to have large berries, thin very freely ; so
much so, that the bunches look like skeletons. Of
course thin according to the kind. Some sorts, under

79

the best management, do not swell to such a size as
others ; hence it is necessary to know the medium
size to which every variety will swell, and thin accord-
ingly.

Vines in Frames. — The following system of grow-
ing the vine in frames, which is well adapted for gar-
dens where the quantity of glass is limited, is prac-
tised by Mr. Dawson, gardener to Lord Ducie, at the
Hoo, Hertfordshire. About the first week in April,
a bed of partly-decayed dung, to which a small quan-
tity of raw material is added, so as to produce a slight
heat, is made at about 18 inches from the wall in
front of the selected vines. This bed is built suffi-
ciently deep to admit of its being about 3 feet high
after settling. The frame used by Mr. Dawson sepa-
rates into two portions, so that the lower part can be
first placed upon the bed. It contains a trellis upon
which the vines are trained, fixed about a foot above
the surface of the dung. The upper portion of the
frame can be afterwards put on, and secured to the
lower by small brackets. The advantage of having
the frames constructed in this way, is the ease and
safety with which the vine can be taken in ; since, in
introducing the shoots of a vine through a hole cut
in the back of a frame of ordinary construction, the
buds would be liable to be rubbed off. No more care
is required, except in stopping, thinning, &c. Air is
given freely, but no linings to the bed are required.

80

In severe weather a covering is put on, but this is not
generally resorted to. By pursuing the above method,
fruit of good quality has been cut by the latter end
of August; for which, Mr. Dawson has obtained
several prizes at local horticultural exhibitions.
(Gard. Chron. 1843, 54.)

The Rev. B. Cooper, for many years, forced vines
trained under glass cases, resembling melon frames,
with the aid of stable dung only. The border

on which the vines were planted (a) was within the
frame, and raised by means of cast-iron joists, and
Welsh states, over a cavity which, from time to time,
was filled with hot dung, through openings in front
(b). By these simple means he raised abundant and
early crops. {Trans. Hort. Soc. vi.)

Ripening Process. — A dry atmosphere and a most
free ventilation are the requisites, in order to obtain
high flavour with perfect berries. Too much air can

81

scarcely be indulged in, providing the thermometer
can be kept from descending below 60 degrees.

Slow ripening, if not carried too far, conduces to
high flavour, and with vines inclined to shrivel or
shank, slow ripening will be found the safest plan.
This seems to point to defective elaboration, and that
the tree, or rather the leaves, cannot provide matter
sufficiently quick to feed the produce, much less to
return a surplus to the root to meet the exigencies of
the coming year.

Rest. — There is no real necessity for turning vines
out during the resting season, providing they are kept
in a somewhat low temperature in doors, and where
they will be occasionally moistened in the bark and
receive a little air. The thermometer, during this
period, need not be much above 32 degrees, and
should not be allowed to range above 55 degrees.

If they are turned out, let them, by all means, re-
ceive protection from frost. They will bear a mode-
rate amount, but will be found much better laid flat
on the ground and covered with ordinary litter.

CALENDAR.

The following succinct calendar of in-door vine-
culture combines the chief principles of cultivation,
applicable conjointly to stove forcing and ordinary
greenhouse culture. Instead of arranging the sub-
ject in monthly divisions, it has been deemed expe-

82

dient to divide it into the following heads, founded on
the habits of the vine : —

1. Preparatory steps to the commencement of
forcing.

2. " Breaking " or budding period.

3. Blossoming period.

4. Thinning the berry.

5. First swelling of ditto.

6. Stoning period.

7. Second swelling.

8. Ripening period.

9. Preservation of fruit on the tree.

10. Ripening the wood.

1 1 . Rest period.

12. Border management, including renovation of
bad borders, &c.

Before proceeding with the discussion of these
heads in the order in which they stand, it is necessary
to remark, that the period selected for the commence-
ment of forcing is the first week of February.

By assuming this period, the principle of both
vine forcing, in the ordinary acceptation of the term,
and greenhouse culture may be combined. The great
and general utility of such a calendar will, we think,
be obvious.

1. Preparatory Steps.— In the first place,
the flues (if any) should be thoroughly cleaned, and
the house painted within, if requisite. At all events

83

it is a most prudent step, and by no means expensive,
to apply a wash to the walls. Ordinary lime or
whitewash is generally used ; this, however, may be
coloured to any desirable tint. The most important
point is, to take care that abundance of sulphur is
mixed with the wash : it is scarcely possible to add
too much, remembering that a profusion of sulphur
gives a very yellow tint to the wash, which may
readily be subdued by a mixture of umber or tan
water, made by straining a limited quantity of water
through a good deal of tan. A wash of this kind will
destroy the eggs of numberless insects, and is one of
the best safeguards against the depredations of the
red spider, the great enemy to successful grape cul-
ture. These things being accomplished, and the
heating apparatus in order, the vine stems should re-
ceive a wash. Work some clay in warm water to a
thin paint ; add to a gallon of this, a pound of sul-
phur, half-a-gallon of strong tobacco water, half-a-
gallon of fresh slaked lime, and beat up a lump of
soft soap, as large as a walnut. This will be found
a destroyer of any eggs which may lurk in the old
bark of the vine, and a valuable assistance in prevent-
ing the ravages of the red spider. When the old
bark has become loose and rough, it should be
stripped off previous to the operation. As vines of
luxuriant growth are liable to bleed under the appli-
cation of artificial heat, it is our practice to daub a

G 2

84

patch of white lead or thick paint on every wound of
the knife ; this, however, should be applied the mo-
ment the vines are pruned in the end of autumn.

2. Breaking Period. — The house being now
closed, some little advance in temperature will, of
course, take place, independent of fires. We may as
well state, however, at the commencement of this di-
vision of the subject, that slow "breaking" tends to
equalize the sap, or in other words, the aggregate
strength of the vine; whilst hurried "breaking"
tends to give an undue preponderance to the upper
parts already gorged, it may be, at the expense of
the inferior or weaker parts. The chief point, in ad-
dition, is to secure plenty of atmospheric moisture :
in fact, the stems, from the commencement of forcing
until the leaf begins to expand, should be seldom
quite dry. The old plan of introducing fermenting
matter in some parts of the house, during this period
of breaking, has ever been found an excellent prac-
tice. However, in the modern and improved mode
of producing atmospheric moisture, such may be in
the main dispensed with. Until the buds are actually
developing, little alteration of either heat or cold,
moisture or dryness, is necessary : a temperature,
ranging from 45 to 55 degs. will be found sufficient
until the buds begin to unfold. When such takes
place, a gradual rise must commence in the ther-
mometer, of a steadily progressive character : such

85

advance, for the most part, taking place in the day,
more especially in the afternoons of those bright and
sunny. By the time the blossom is fairly developed,
a day temperature of 70 degs. ought to be insured, if
possible, sinking at night to 60 degrees. On sunny
days the thermometer may be allowed to rise to 85
degs., from two o'clock until four, provided a slight
circulation or motion in the air be provided : this
latter is of much importance under high tempera-
tures, for it will prevent scorching, which sometimes
takes place if much atmospheric moisture is present
under a high temperature without motion. As the
leaf is being developed, some alternations of moisture
and comparative dryness must be allowed to take
place. As a general maxim, we would say, ventilate
rather freely, and allow the atmospheric moisture to
be dispersed, from nine o'clock a.m. until two
o'clock p.m., after which, close and encourage at-
mospheric humidity — not, however, all at once, if
sunny — reduce the air in part at two o'clock, and
close for the evening at three. During the "break-
ing period " the syringe may be freely applied when-
ever necessary, in order to keep the wood in a some-
what moist state ; for ordinary purposes, twice a-day
will suffice : for instance, very early in the morning,
and again about three o'clock p.m. One of the most
important points to be practised, during the " break-
ing period," is disbudding the vine. By this, prac-
tical men mean, as a general principle, removing all

86

the barren shoots. This is, however, too sweeping
advice for the inexperienced, as there are sometimes
ulterior objects in view besides the crop of the pre-
sent year. Blanks may have to be supplied, or a
peculiar course of training carried out, to effect which,
shoots must, of course, be reserved where necessary.
Beyond such provision, however, all other shoots may
he deemed superfluous, and may be rubbed away the
moment it is determined what ought to be reserved.
3. Blossoming Period. — "Stopping," as it is
termed technically, is a very important affair iu
vine-culture, more especially in-doors ; without this,
all would be confusion. This process might, per-
haps, have been discussed under the head "break-
ing." It will, perhaps, be as well, however, to
connect it with the "blossoming period." " Stop-
ping," like "slow breaking," tends to equalise the
sap, providing the strongest shoots are first operated
on, and the others in succession. It, moreover,
tends to concentrate the energies of the vine to
a given point ; thereby enlarging the character
of the branch. A distinction must, however, be
drawn here, between the "long rod" system and the
"close spur," each of which are respectively eligible
in certain situations. The chief difference, as before
observed, does not consist in the aggregate amount
of produce, but in the size of the individual bunches
or berries, conjointly with their keeping properties,
and the ultimate end in view. If long rods be re-

87

quired in given situations, in order to carry out a pe-
culiar system of training, it is obvious that " close
stopping" must give way. If, on the other hand,
the " close spur " system is pursued, then the " close
stopping" must be resorted to in the great majority
of cases. The general principles of "stopping" are,
to pinch oif with the thumb and finger the terminal
point of the growing shoots, one or two joints beyond
the bunch, as soon as the leaves connected with such
joints are somewhat developed. As soon as the blos-
soms begin to expand, which may readily be known
by the delightful fragrance which will pervade the
house, some nicety of atmospheric management must
take place. In former days it was deemed necessary
to provide an unusual amount of atmospheric mois-
ture during the blooming period, accompanied by an
increase of heat. It has, however, been proved sub-
sequently, that too much stress had been laid on a
great amount of humidity in the air. Mr. Paxton
was one of the first to show that such practice was
somewhat erroneous, and that the vine, whilst blos-
soming, was amenable to those general laws which
are known to be conducive to "setting," as it is tech-
nically termed, in the great majority of fruit trees.
The more extended cultivation of what are termed
the " shy setting kinds," such as the Tokays, the
Damascus, and the West's St. Peters, doubtless,
throw some light on this matter. There can be
little doubt, that some increase of heat should be al-

88

lowed at this period, not, however, for the sake of
heat alone, but that through increase of temperature
a livelier state of atmosphere may be maintained.
Now, by a lively atmosphere, we mean one in which
there is a constant motion, or a continual ingress
and egress of air. Atmospheric moisture must not,
however, be left out of the question, for that constant
egress which promotes circulation or motion some-
what disperses the moist air, and an adequate replace-
ment must be provided. Let it be also remembered
that the stamens and pistillum of the vine are en-
closed in a sort of Macintosh envelope, and that at-
mospheric moisture, as well as heat, is necessary to
burst their bonds. The best advice we can give, is
to apply atmospheric humidity in profusion from
three or four o'clock p.m. until sunrise ; then, by a
liberal circulation of air, to disperse the accumulated
moisture, providing thereby for the free dispersion of
the pollen ; and keeping during the time a thermo-
meter at 70 degs. artificial heat, or as much as 80
degs. maximum solar heat.

4. Thinning the Berry. — This is a process
requiring a nice hand, especially in forced grapes.
Thinning cannot be commenced too early, providing
a real berry can be distinguished. It is well, how-
ever, in shy setting kinds, to wait until they are of
the size of very small peas. All the interior berries
should be cut away, taking care to leave the extreme
points if beauty of bunch be desired. The distance of

89

the berries apart must be regulated in the main by
their size, as also whether they are required to hang
long on the tree. If for the latter purpose, they
should be thinned so that no two berries could be
said to touch in a general way when full swelled.
We are perfectly aware that it may be urged that the
bunches will not " dish" so well. There is some
truth in this ; but such a trifling point should give
way to keeping principles, which are sometimes of
much greater importance. The Hambro' is one of
the worst to " dish" when over-thinned ; the Tokays
will always lay firm, as will also the Frontignacs.
As a general maxim, we would say thin liberally but
progressively : it may be done at three distinct pe-
riods : first, thin away the crowded berries in the in-
terior of the bunch ; secondly, "set them out," as it
is termed, that is, form the character of the bunch ;
and thirdly, go over the bunches when the berries
are as large as pease, when superfluous berries will
be readily seen. Take care that a fine- pointed pair
of scissars is provided, and that they work easily in
the joint. Some persons steady the bunch while
thinning by holding a condemned berry in the left
hand ; others use a smooth aud pointed stick to se-
parate the shoulders. Whatever mode is adopted,
much care is necessary, and neither head, hand, nor
scissars, should be allowed to gall or chafe the berries.
If such accident occur, cut the berries away at once.
5. First Swelling of the Berry. — We come

90

now to a period when much care should be exer-
cised in controlling atmospheric irregularities. It
is well known that sudden depressions of tempera-
ture are not favourable to either size, colour or flavour
in the berry. Now although, the vine in Syria, or any
other country where it flourishes, may have to endure
a temperature of from 86 to 90 degs. during the swel-
ling period, it is obvious that the same amount ought
not to be allowed in Britain, under a somewhat arti-
ficial course of treatment. Light is the great desi-
deratum, and if there be one axiom of greater import
than another, in gardening, it is this : regulate your
heat by the amount of light. In this stage of the
vine we would advise an artificial dry heat of 65
degs. in February, 70 degs. in March, and 75 degs.
in April and May, maximum. As night heat during
the same period, we would say, 55 degs. in February,
60 degs. in March, and 65 degs. in April and May,
minimum. Let it be understood that we here advise
three temperatures on the assumption that, during
the day, at least, a circulation or lively motion in the
air is maintained, especially until the latter part of the
afternoon.

Atmospheric moisture must be well looked to,
and nicely balanced ; not sudden guests of steam, but
a permanent supply from an unfailing source ; and
here it must be confessed, that our hothouses are in
general lamentably deficient. And here it is that a

91

source of bottom heat from tan, or other fermenting
matter within the house, is found so very congenial to
the swelling of grapes. It is, however, of much im-
portance to gain air very early in the morning,
especially if much moisture has been confined during
the night ; we have no doubt that rust and other
evils are frequently engendered by the morning sun,
acting on a stagnant atmosphere. Syringing has
many advocates during the first swelling. We, how-
ever, say, if all other appliances are right, there is
no real necessity for it, and it certainly damages the
" bloom," as it is termed. A somewhat close system
of stopping should be pursued during the first swel-
ling ; always, however, allowing some of the uniform
shoots to ramble occasionally a joint or two in order
to prevent the back or main buds from bursting ; as
also to encourage action of root.

6. Stoning Period. — As soon as the berries have
completed their first swelling, which may always be
known by their size and by their becoming stationary,
the "stoning process" (as it is called by gardeners)
commences. During this period a little more ram-
bling may be allowed to take place, more especially
in parts of the house where there is room for more
healthy foliage without shading the principal leaves.
The same atmospheric management may be pursued
as in the former period ; if any difference, let a still
freer circulation of air take place. The season will

92

be now somewhat advanced, and every opportunity
should be seized of shutting up much solar heat in
the afternoons of sunny days. The thermometer may
be allowed to reach 90 degs. by these means, from
three or four o'clock p.m. until six or seven in the
evening, on such days taking care to apply much
atmospheric moisture with it. Still, however, persist
in an early ventilation the next morning, giving a
little air as early as six or seven o'clock. Dispense
with fire heat whenever solar heat can be thus
enclosed, and resume it as soon as the glass descends
below 70 degs.

7. Second Swelling. — Little can be added pe-
culiar to this stage, excepting that the atmosphere in
general must be of a drier character ; not so dry,
however, as to cause undue perspiration in the leaf.
A somewhat closer system of stopping must be again
had recourse to, in order to concentrate the energies
of the vine in the neighbourhood of the fruit. Give
very free ventilation, avoiding, however, wind. Do
not remove any laterals with the idea of throwing
sunlight on the berry : this is one of the most erro-
neous ideas in vine culture. The berries will always
swell much finer under shade than in sunlight ; the
colouring, and, of course, flavouring, process being
accomplished through the medium of healthy and
abundant, yet uncrowded, leaves.

8. Ripening. — As the grapes acquire full matu-

93

rity, and are completing their colouring process, they
require abundance of air, with a dry atmosphere.
No water need be thrown about at this period, unless
much artificial heat is used, and then in moderation.
Let it be borne in mind that slow, or rather steady,
ripening conduces to flavour and colour, whilst the
converse holds good of hurried ripening. We are
persuaded that the latter, more especially great night
heat, has been much concerned in the shanking and
shrivelling of grapes ; and that much lower tempera-
tures, accompanied with a free circulation of air,
ought to be allowed at this period. When the grapes
have attained their full colour, or nearly so, then we
advise a partial removal of laterals and superfluous
shoots, This should, however, be accomplished pro-
gressively. When grapes are intended to hang long
on the tree, the latter process is sometimes better
omitted ; at least, enough should be left to shade the
berries, as sunlight will, of course, hasten their matu-
rity.

9. Preservation of Fruit. — The preservation
of the fruit for a long time on the tree is one of the
nicest parts of vine culture. This, however, in July
or August, and November and December, becomes a
very different process. In the summer months it is
merely keeping a free circulation of air and as low a
temperature as possible. Some gardeners, for special
purposes, shade their vines when the fruit is quite

94

ripe : this is, however, a serious matter, and can only
be justified in very special cases. All such shading
is at the expense of the ripening of the wood and the
energies of the tree in the ensuing year. With re-
gard to ripe grapes in November and December, fire
heat must be had recourse to, in order to carry away
all accumulating damps, and to prevent the tempera-
ture from descending too low. Too great a depres-
sion of heat will induce a state of rest ; too much
heat will hurry them through this stage. We have
found, by experience, that an average of 45 to oo
degs. will suit better than either a higher or a lower
temperature ; unless, indeed, as sometimes happens,
that the leaves have ripened and are shed ; then, in-
deed, 35 degs. will suffice, providing damp can be ex-
pelled by such a temperature. Fires should be kept
going early in the morning, accompanied with a
free circulation of air, more especially if somewhat
dry, and free from fogs. The house may be closed
towards two or three o'clock p.m., with the exception
of a very little back air to permit the egress of steam
during the night. The West's St. Peter's and Ham-
bro's are by far the best for any late purposes ; and
the fruit should be thinned, as before observed, so
that no two berries touch. They should be examined
with the scissars at least once a week, and berries re-
moved the moment that the slightest decay is visible.
10. Ripening the Wood. — This is, of necessitv,

95

almost entirely involved in the preceding section ; a
few features may, however, he presented in relief with
advantage. In the first place, the importance of this
part of the subject is, we are sorry to say, much un-
derrated. When we take into consideration the cha-
racter of atmosphere that prevails in some of the vine-
growing countries, together with the enormous tem-
perature that at times prevails, it will appear evident
that this process is seldom overdone in Britain. The
vast difference between unripe wood and wood which
is thoroughly ripened is more than people commonly
imagine. Those who have been much accustomed to
pruning, however, are perfectly aware of the much
superior hardness, as well as much less amount of
pith in the wood of the latter. An experienced
vine-pruner may, by these points alone, guess at the
amount and character of the produce for the ensuing
year. He can also discover, if the wood is particu-
larly firm, of a round character, and possessing a very
small proportion of pith, that the border is pretty
safe, and that there has been a permanent action of
root through the previous season. It need scarcely
be urged here, that this process cannot be carried out
without much heat, and this of rather a dryish cha-
racter.

11. Rest Period. — Not long since, practical
men insisted that vines must be frozen to ensure a
proper rest. Such ideas are now completely repu-

96

diated. That a small amount of frost will not be
prejudicial, providing the wood is thoroughly ripe,
and is cooled down by degrees, we do not doubt ; a
temperature of 32 to 40 degs., however, as a general
maxim, will be found everything that is requisite,
providing the root is right, and the top management
in the preceding summer as here detailed. Above all
things, let no tyro in vine-culture expose the stems
of his vines suddenly to a thermometer indicating 1 0
degs. of frost ; more especially if just in the com-
mencement of the rest period, or at the termination
of it. Vines in doors, even without fires, can scarcely
suffer without a very severe frost. Those, however,
recently removed from the hothouse, or pine-stove,
should always, when placed outside, during the
months of December or January, be covered immedi-
ately with mats or litter.

12. Border Management, Renovation of
Bad Borders, &c. — The first maxim we would
here lay down is, providing the borders are rightly
constructed, never allow any garden tool, whether
spade or fork, to be used in them. There are excep-
tions in all matters, we know, but, in the present state
of garden affairs, when so much meddling of this
kind is in practice, we would rather content ourselves
with giving prominence to the rule. Our maxim is,
as soon as the leaves are falling or crumbling from
the vine, to apply what manure is necessary as a top-

97

dressing. How often have we seen stable and other
manures lying in badly constructed stables or fold
yards, during November and December, with their
properties washing away with drenching rains, and
which might as well have lain over the vine-roots
during the same period. If a border is well drained,
of a good texture, and more than a foot in depth, all
the rest may be accomplished by top-dressing for
very many years. Top-dressing, in the rest season,
may be laid on any thickness, according to the wants
of the vines, from six inches to two feet ; the latter
depth, however, is seldom requisite. One point of
caution is here necessary, viz., that the chief body of
this top-dressing be removed when the roots are in
action. Admitting this to be in April or May, its
place may be supplied by a little rotten manure, or
half-rotten vegetable soil, about two inches thick ;
this will ward off extreme drought, and encourage a
new layer of surface roots.

In old borders the chief fault is stagnation. This
may be caused in two different ways. First, by the
inefficiency of the drains, either improperly disposed
at the first or choked up by age in some portion or
other. Secondly, by derangement of texture in the
soil ; and this undoubtedly constitutes the great ma-
jority of the complaints. Now, even a border made
of loam, unless what is termed sandy loam, if 2 or 3
feet in depth, would become in time too much closed

H

98

up to suit the natural habits of the vine : how much
more, then, a 3 feet-deep border, in which decompos-
ing organic matter constitutes nearly one-half its
volume. Every body knows that this black and fatty
humus — for such it becomes by age — does not, in its
own nature, contain sand sufficient to ensure, at all
times, a speedy transmission of moisture, and to secure
permeability to the atmosphere, especially if buried
nearly a yard in depth. Now, although it is impos-
sible to correct the texture of the whole body of the
soil thoroughly without breaking it up, it is quite in
our power so to ameliorate its character as to ward of
the necessity of the latter expensive measures for
several years. The first thing to be done is to exa-
mine the whole course of the main drain, if there be
one ; if not, to establish one without delay. The
next is to take advantage if any gaps may exist in the
border, through the decay of old vines, and where, it
may be, one is about to be planted, and to introduce
in all such places cross drains, reaching from the
house frontage to the main, which we are supposing
runs parallel to the frontage, at the extremity of the
border. These cross drains should be well secured,
and filled, to within 9 inches or a foot of the surface
of the border, with open rubbly matter. If such
chances of introducing cross drains are not sufficiently
frequent, the next best plan is to open deep holes or
"pots" in every possible situation, without offering

99

much damage to the roots, fairly clown to the drain-
age or subsoil, and to fill these "pots" with the same
rubbly materials as the drains. After these things
are accomplished, it would be well to fork in a dress-
ing composed of lime rubbish, charcoal, coarse sand,
and bones, &c, on the surface, not going deeper than
G inches, unless there are no roots in the way. Fi-
nally the border may be coated over with 3 inches of
manure from the stable door, if to spare. This, how-
ever, should only lie from November until Midsum-
mer; it might then be removed and dug into the
celery beds, and an inch or two of old vegetable soili
or decayed linings, be substituted in its room.

POT-CULTURE.

Where there is no early vinery, the culture of grapes
in pots is a most valuable system, though, from the
facilities it offers to the gardener of making good de-
ficiencies apprehended at any time in his produce of
forced grapes, it is desirably practised in many esta-
blishments where both early and late vineries are
maintained.

The first impulse given to fruiting vines in pots was
by a paper in the Horticultural Register for 1 H3 1 ,
by Mr. G. Stafford, then gardener at Wiilersley Cas-
tle, in Derbyshire, and which at the time elicited
h 3

100

much surprise. It has since been most successfully
practised by Mr. Mearns, Mr. Spencer, gardener to
the Marquis of Lansdown, at Bowood ; Mr. Elliott,
gardener at Rudding Park, near Gainsborough ; and
other eminent horticulturists, whose combined infor-
mation we will here arrange, previously observing, for
the sake of those who are inexperienced in pot cul-
ture, that the cultivation of vines under the " coiling
system," and of those established in pots, differs in
some respects worth notice. The " coiling" system
proceeds on the assumption that the buds on the
ripened cane are already formed for fruit, and that
they only await a development under favourable cir-
cumstances. With regard to those established in
pots, the difference is that they possess already a
good root, equivalent to the demands of the branches
the moment they are in action : the latter, therefore,
do not require precisely the same management as the
former.

Now, it is obvious that until roots can be formed
by the coiled canes, any undue excitement in the at-
mosphere must be at the expense of the concentrated
energies of the cane above the soil ; at least, in our
ordinary atmospheres. This points at once to the
necessity of a bottom heat much in advance of the
atmosphere. This is found to be the case in practice,
and much of the success with coilers must ever de-
pend on this circumstance ; in fact, by taking care

101

that no undue excitement or perspiration take place,
as to the portion of the coil above the surface of the
pot. It may be urged by some that such treatment
is immaterial : let it be remembered that the average
amount of ground heat is well known to be several
degrees in advance of that of the atmosphere in most
parts of the globe. The average, however, does not
alone suffice to establish the fact that such a power
exists in nature ; what we want to know chiefly is the
greatest disparity — at what ratio it advances, and,
when at its height, the condition of vegetation. As
bearing on this point, we would make a quotation
from the United Gardeners' Journal of January 1 6,
1 847. The subject (p. 40) is the " Potato disease at
the Cape of Good Hope." The writer, Mr. R.
Smith, of The Oaks, South Africa, affirms, from ex-
perience, that the soil there, at the hottest period in
the year, frequently reaches 130 to 140 degs. at two
or three inches in depth. Mr. Smith does not state
the temperature of the atmosphere at that period — a
circumstance rather to be lamented. However, there
can be little doubt that the thermometer would
scarcely advance beyond 100 degs., and would per-
haps be somewhat between 90 and 1 00 degs.

And here we would direct attention to the amount
of atmospheric moisture necessary. This, with re-
gard to the coilers, can scarcely be exceeded by ordi-
nary means. Let it, however, be remembered, in

102

these tank-heating clays, that a confined tank does
not produce the amount of atmospheric moisture
which the old tan beds did ; unless some provision
be made for the escape of atmospheric moisture in
the sides of the chamber containing the tanks, and
which must, to produce an equivalent to the tan bed,
be permanently supplied with water.

When the coiled canes are well rooted, it may per-
haps be necessary to remove them from the bottom
heat, as few can afford to appropriate a pit or house
entirely to them. Now this, if rendered imperative,
is a serious matter. The only advice that can be
offered under these circumstances is, to do it by in-
stalments ; that is to say, begin by raising the pots
an inch or two out of the plunging medium. In an-
other week they may be placed on the surface, and in
a few days after removed to any house which will
carry out their forcing process. In such a case, it
would be well to let them get rather dry previously to
removal from the bottom heat, and to apply liquid
manure the moment they are placed in their fresh
quarters. Mr. Burns, whose practice is here quoted,
sets his pots on moss ; and where atmospheric moisture
is somewhat deficient the plan is undoubtedly good.

We come now to the consideration of those
established in pots ; and here the process is rather
more simple. These can dispense with the bottom
heat if thev have a good volume of root ; although,

103

be it understood, that an advance in bottom heat of
5 to 10 degs. in the earlier stages would undoubtedly
be beneficial. The same process of stopping during
growth, &c. apply here as in the treatment of vines
trained in hothouses. Little need be added, there-
fore, on this head.

We must here be permitted to observe that, after
all, much — very much — of the success in all these
cases must ever depend on the way in which the vines
are potted. Drainage is the first essential ; secondly,
texture of soil ; thirdly, quality. In regard of drain-
age, nothing can exceed a mixture of broken crocks,
small lumps of bone (boiled), and lumpy charcoal.
There is no real necessity for having the pots so large
as Mr. Burns recommends ; in fact it would be ex-
tremely inconvenient to many persons. There is,
however, little doubt that a bushel pot will excel a
half-bushel one in amount of produce — all other mat-
ters being equal. It may, nevertheless, be safely
affirmed, that a pot of about 14 inches diameter, and
the same in depth, is, under good cultivation, capable
of perfecting of from four to six pounds of Hambro'
grapes. More than this, undoubtedly, may be pro-
duced ; we speak, however, of high-flavoured and
well swelled berries.

Next in order comes texture and quality of soil, or
in other words, compost. If a system of applying li-
quid manure is to be pursued — and it ought to be —

104

there is no necessity to add so many enriching ma-
terials to the compost, in the shape of manures. For,
be it understood, that these, in decomposing, are
more liable to fitful and pernicious extremes than
mere soils. Manures, therefore, are not to be relied
on as to their texture in this affair, and the preserva-
tion of a proper texture is a question of paramount
importance. We would here urge a reliance, for the
most part, on chopped turf, which, combined with a
system of liquid manuring, will be found equal to
any complicated compost. However, if manure be
used, let it be a mixture of horse and cow droppings,
in a half decomposed state, adding thereto half rotten
leaves; these, when blended, may form about a
fourth of the mass. Let not, however, boiled bone
and charcoal be forgotten. The charcoal made by
some gardeners is probably superior, for this purpose,
to the best charcoal, being, for the most part, of an
intermediate character, between charcoal and mere
wood ashes.

We must here be permitted to revert to the cha-
racter of the loamy turf. If this be procured in
March, when dry, and piled up in an outhouse or
shed, it will be what gardeners term "mellow" in
the October following, and chopped down small with
the spade, without riddling, will be in excellent order
for this purpose.

We now come to the last consideration, viz.,

105

quality. This, as we have stated beforehand, can be
supplied to any extent necessary, by the judicious ap-
plication of liquid manures, properly prepared and
applied. And here some caution is necessary, for it
must be admitted that the character, as well as mode
of application, of such powerful stimulants, are not so
well understood as they will be hereafter. Enough is
known, however, to build successful practice on, and
we will here describe the kind and mode of applica-
tion, which we have found to answer. It may be
stated, in the first place, that no application of this
kind will answer long, if applied in a turbid state, for
it will defeat, after a few applications, the funda-
mental principle of all good potting, viz., so to pre-
pare, or compound, the ingredients of any compost,
as to ensure, for a great length of time, the free per-
colation of fluids through the mass, and by conse-
quence a free admission of atmospheric influences.
This being premised, a good liquid manure may be
made, by mixing guano with water, after the rate of
two ounces to a gallon of water. To this, add stale
urine of any kind, and clarified soot water. The two
latter articles we apply indefinitely. Let it, how-
ever, be remembered that this forms a most powerful
manure, and if applied without dilution will destroy
vegetation. Our present practice is to merely colour
the tepid water with it, adding about half-a-pint to a
large water-pot. This we have found to answer well,

106

and is probably within the bounds. However, if an
error, it is one on the safe side, and it will yet require
much more experience to say how much farther it
may be carried, but we know, from long practice,
that nothing is gained by over-strong doses ; they
occasion a sort of vegetable dyspepsia, which shows
plainly that nature's bounds have been exceeded.

Mr. Spencer, of Bowood, however, a clever and
most experienced gardener, goes a much greater
length in the liquid manure way. Mr. Spencer re-
commends the Black Hamborough, and the Muscadine
and Sweetwater, for early work. We quite agree
with him. Those who are not in a hurry, however,
will do well to try the Muscat of Alexandria ; this,
although much later, will be found to succeed admi-
rably. The Muscat is a vine that will not bear such
a close " stopping" system ; and many of the failures
in the cultivation of this prince of grapes are to be
attributed to this close stopping, or, in other words,
to the want of more foliage.

Having made these preliminary observations, we
will now proceed to a further detail of the various
stages in this mode of culture.

Raising Plants. — This is done either from eyes, or
from shoots coiled within the pots, or from layers.

By Eyes. — Procure eyes (or buds) of the required
kinds, from some known good bearing vines, taking
care to have the wood perfectly hard and ripe, with

107

the eyes prominent and round ; leave about an inch 01
wood attached to each bud, and longest at its base.
If the vines are intended to be fruited the next season,
the eyes should be potted in 32-pots, placing them one
inch below the surface, and using loam of a light turfy
nature, or if stiff, adding a portion of half-decayed
leaves ; only one eye must be planted in each pot.
This should be done early in February, and when
finished the pots containing the eyes may be plunged
in any pit or frame that may be at work, where a
bottom-heat can be maintained of 90 degs. or there-
abouts. They may remain there until growth has
commenced, when sun-light being indispensable to
the welfare of the young plants, they should be placed
(if they were not previously) as near the glass as pos-
sible, sinking the pots as the plants reach the glass,
but still keeping a steady bottom-heat, and supplying
them with air every day if possible ; the heat of the
frame or pit varying from 60 to 90 degs. in sunshine.
When the pots are filled with roots, which will be
sometime in April, they may be transferred at once
into their fruiting-pots, which should be twos or fours,
according to the strength you wish your vines to
attain, bearing in mind that those in the smaller size
will ripen their wood earlier, and consequently be
available for forcing at an earlier period than the
others. For compost, use two-thirds turfy loam, from
a down having a chalky bottom, and one-third de-

108

composed night-soil. Should the loam be strong, use
the same proportion of half-rotten horse-droppings.
The turves in the loam should only be half-decayed,
and used as rOugh as possible. (Gard. Chron. 1844,
195.)

By Coiling. — This system, we believe, was first
suggested by Mr. Mearns, and the practice is thus
particularized by Mr. Elliott —

Take a shoot of sufficient length, with good bear-
ing wood at the extremity ; all buds to be carefully
removed from that part to be coiled into the pot, say
seven or eight feet in length, leaving about three feet
of bearing wood; in size, the pot from 12 to 14 inches
in diameter, and well drained ; the soil, fresh turfy
loam direct from an old sheep-walk close upon the
lime-stone, with a little of a more sandy nature added,
well chopped up and mixed together ; some of the
roughest turfs put over the drainage, and the rod
coiled in ; when filling up the pot the soil to be well
pressed down, especially against the coil ; when
finished, and the stem tied to a stake, the pot to be
sunk into a dry border, and protected from the extremes
of the weather, until introduced to the forcing-house,
when the pot must be plunged up to the rim in a bark
bed ranging from 87 to 97 degs. while the atmospheric
temperature must be kept from 40 to 50 degs. to pre-
vent evaporation ; the stem to be covered loosely with
moss, and kept always moist by syringing with cool

109

water ; by this process a little assistance to the stem
may be derived by absorption. From the high tem-
perature of the^medium into which the coil is plunged
the vital energy is strongly excited, and the speedy
emission of vigorous roots is the natural consequence;
the more slow and gradual the evolution of the buds
the better : and here is rather a critical point, viz., the
proper time for disbudding ; if delayed too long, too
great a surface for respiration and transpiration is ex-
posed for the yet limited absorbing powers of the
young roots, and if performed too soon the action of
the system is paralysed. Upon examining the pots,
should abundance of rootlets be found, the atmos-
pheric temperature must be raised by degrees, as with
established vines. The moss must not be removed
until the fruit is set, and then all is safe. {Ibid.
1841, 749.)

Bij Layers. — Mr. "W. Stothard, gardener at Chan-
trey House, in 1841, gives these directions : — When
the vines that are let into the house have reached the
top of the rafters, instead of stopping the leading
shoot, as is commonly done, and often too soon, which
causes the eyes to burst, and renders them useless for
the succeeding year, turn the shoot back, and having
ready a pot of suitable size, well drained and filled
with fresh turfy loam and rotted dung, in equal
parts ; place it upon the back shelf or wall of the pit,
and as soon as the young shoot has attained a suffi-

110

cient length to be laid into the pot, cut out two or
three eyes, and as many of its leaves, and scrape off a
little of the bark the whole length of tlft part intended
for roots, which is bent into the pot, and covered
with mould six or seven inches. No attention is re-
quired, excepting to train the shoot as it advances in
growth, and to keep the mould in the pot a little moist,
to encourage the emission of roots, which will appear
in a fortnight or three weeks, and soon fill the pot.
When the shoot is laid in the pot, allow it to grow
from four to eight feet long, according to the strength
of the parent vine, to which leave it attached until it
has done growing, and perfectly ripened its wood.
Should there not be a sufficient quantity of leaders,
place pots under the rafters at most convenient situa-
tions, and likewise on the front flue ; but the shoots
that are laid in these pots never suffer to exceed five
feet in length. When the plants are severed from
the parent vines, put them out under a wall where
they are protected from frosts, and take into the house
as required for forcing ; at that time shift into pots
about a foot over and fourteen inches deep, to remain
until the fruit is cut, after which they may be thrown
away, sure of a fresh supply of plants every year by
the same process. {Johnson's Diet. Mod. Gard.)

After-culture. — The fullest information on this
head is the following, furnished by Mr. Spencer —

After potting, the plants should be placed in some

Ill

house or pit where a temperature from 60 to 80,
or 85 degs. is maintained ; they should also be so
arranged that the shoots, as they advance, can be
trained immediately under the glass, and be exposed
as much as possible to the light. The front kerbs
and back shelves of pine-pits are suitable places, and
the partial shade that the vines afford benefit the
pines during three or four of the summer mouths.
Where there is only a vinery, they may be trained
between the permanent vines, or in any other place
where the cultivator can make room for them. As
the shoots advance, train them carefully, and stop the
laterals as they appear. When first potted, the
plants will want but little water ; but it must be gra-
dually increased as the pots become filled with roots ;
they will then require it regularly during their
growth, and manure-water may occasionally be given,
although the quantity they demand the first season is
small in comparison to what they require afterwards.
The most suitable length of cane for pots is from four
to six feet ; but if, from any peculiarity in the house,
in which they are to be fruited, a longer length may
be required, they should be left accordingly, as the
vine will grow strong enough for fruiting, eight, or
even ten feet long. After it has grown a foot more
than the length required the next season, it should be
stopped ; three or four of the upper laterals, how-
ever, may be allowed to grow at a few joints, to pre-

112

vent the topmost eyes breaking. Manure-water may
now be applied to cause the buds to swell, and care
must be taken to preserve the principal leaves, as they
are now performing a most important part in regard
to the crop next season. When the wood appears to
be turning brown (or ripening), water should only be
applied to prevent the vines nagging; the laterals
should be taken off, and every means employed to
ripen the wood perfectly. Indeed, if it is not con-
venient to allow a large admission of air when they
are growing, it would benefit them much by removing
them to a cool house, where they would have the
benefit of more, and a lower temperature at night.
By the beginning of September, if the former direc-
tions have been followed, the vines will be ripe enough
to place out of doors. The north side of a wall is
the best place, and the pots should be laid on their
sides, and every means taken to throw the plants
into a state of rest ; the cultivator will thus find him-
self in possession of vines which, for strength and
vigorous habits, may justly be mistaken for older
plants. If the above mode of obtaining fruiting
vines for one year should be thought too troublesome,
from the plants requiring bottom-heat during their
first stage, the eyes may be planted singly, as before,
in 48-pots, and set in any house or pit where there is
a little heat ; they will be longer, however, by this
method, in developing their roots, and may not want

113

shifting into larger pots before May or Juue, when
the plants may be moved into 24' s, in which they
may remain through the season, in any house or pit
in which room can be found for them, paying atten-
tion to watering, tying up, &c. They may be stop-
ped when two or three feet high ; and when the wood
is fully ripened, removed out of the house, and
plunged in any material out of doors that is a non-
conductor of heat. In February, or March, cut these
plants down to two or three eyes, shake them entirely
out of the pots, and place them in similar sized pots
to fruit in as the former ones, taking care to spread
their roots (in potting) regularly through the soil,
that when the growth commences, each spongelet
may be in immediate contact with food; this is a
much better practice than placing them in a pot with-
out disturbing the ball, as is often done. The same
routine of management must be followed with these
through the- season, as recommended for the others.
From the larger amount of organisible matter the
vine possesses by this mode of treatment, they will
generally be found stronger than those raised the
same year, and they possess the advantage of ripening
their wood earlier in the summer. (Gard. Chron.
1844, 212.)

The next consideration is the time when you wish
your grapes to ripen ; this being ascertained, it is
easily known when forcing ought to commence. It
i

114

may be stated, that vines under the above-mentioned
treatment will be ready for forcing early in Novem-
ber, and consequently will ripen their crop by the
end of March. The precise mode in which the vines
are to be fruited depends on the kind of houses the
cultivator has at his command ; a flued pit answers
well ; but the best description of house is that
which admits the rays of the sun to pass through it
in the winter, at as near right angles as can be.
Such a house, admitting considerably more light
during the winter months, is much more suitable for
such a plant as the vine than low flat houses. What-
ever the house is, if not perfectly ready for the vines
when you wish to begin forcing, get them placed in
a dung frame, where you can give them a moist heat
of 55 degs.; this will cause their buds to swell regu-
larly, and prepare them for their removal to the
fruiting-house, when ready, without losing time.
Previously to losing their leaves in the autumn, they
may be disbudded on Roberts' system, leaving a few
more buds than you want bunches ; but one objec-
tion to this system is, that if by any accident,
through the winter, the bud should get injured, it
leaves a blank which, had the next buds remained,
might easily have been supplied. The number of
bunches that may be left on each vine will depend on
the soil, size of the pot, &c. When the vines are
strong, and No. 2 pots are used, leave six or seven

115

bunches on the Hamburgh, the same on the Sweet-
water, and one or two more on the Muscadine. If
the vines are not so strong, four or five bunches on
the Hamburgh will be sufficient. It is much better
to have rather fewer bunches, and the berries fine
and well coloured, than ill-coloured puny bunches,
which always is the case when too many are left on
the vine. The vines, when placed in the house,
presuming their buds to be swelled, must have their
temperature raised from 55 degs., fire-heat, to 65
degs. when in bloom, and it will be better if this de-
gree of heat, by night, is never exceeded ; of course,
on all days when there is no likelihood of sun-heat,
the heat of the house should be raised 5 or 10 degs.
by artificial means. Air should be admitted every
day early ; this is of consequence, or the leaves are
apt to get damp, and their texture being so extremely
thin, when the hot sun and drying winds of Marc It
act on the foliage, they often burn and shrivel, and
consequently are unable to swell off the fruit or give-
it colour. During all the time the vines are in a
fruiting state, manure-water, in some shape or other,
must be frequently given. Dung-water is made of
various ingredients, but in whatever way it is made,
it ought to ferment before using, and should be ap-
plied in a pure state, and at a temperature equal, at
least, to that of the house. The draining from farm-
yards is always good and safe. So is manure- water,
made by pouring nearly boiling water on equal parts

116

of sheep's or deer's dung, and fresh horse-droppings,
rlned by a lump of fresh lime, drawn off clear, and
when used diluted with equal parts of rain water. A
very weak solution of guano is beneficial, but great
caution is required in using it. It is astonishing,
during the period of active growth, what an immense
quantity of dung-water vines will take. If the dung-
water is properly cleared and diluted, it may be given
twice for fresh water once ; when the grapes are fully
swelled and beginning to colour, water must be more
sparingly applied, using clean water only. The
flavour of grapes is often spoiled by being over-
watered when ripening their fruit, by the proportion
of carbon and water, which constitutes the saccharine
matter in grapes, being destroyed, and water formed
in excess. When the fruit is ripe, if the house is
wanted for other purposes, the plants may be re-
moved to any dry house or room, where the grapes
will keep until wanted. The varieties Mr. Spencer
finds best for early forcing in pots are, the Ham-
burgh, Dutch Sweet-water, and Muscadine. The
small-berried varieties, as the Esperione and others,
are hardly worth growing, compared with the above.
Muscats, and all the delicate sorts, as the Frontignan,
answer admirably later in the season, and thus the
amateur, and those who possess but a small extent of
glass, may cultivate all the varieties of grapes pro-
curable in British nurseries, at but a trifling addi-
tional expense. Where the cultivator prefers boxes

117

to pots, they may be used, from 14 to 16 inches
square, which will be quite large enough ; they can
be packed on shelves more closely together than pots,
and are more handy to move about. By the above-
process, grapes may be procured by the end of March
and April, without interfering with those planted out-
side. {Ibid. 1844, 228.)

As the practice of Mr. H. Burns, gardener, at
Tottenham-park, differs somewhat from that of Mr.
Spencer, and affords, besides, some useful details of
practice, we subjoin the particulars he furnishes,
though by no means approving of his system of fre-
quent shifting. He says —

Set the eyes in thumb pots on the first of Febuary,
putting moss about two and a half inches deep on tho
flue at the back of the pine pits, and place the pot
upon it, keeping the moss always moist. As soon as
the bud or eye has become well furnished with roots,
repot into sixty-sized pots, and continue afterwards to
shift as fast as the pots become filled with roots ; from
sixties to forty-eights, thirty-twos, twenty-fours, six-
teens, and twelve-sized pots successively ; and lastly,
into bushel-pots, or tubs. Encourage rapidity of
growth as much as possible, by feeding with liquid
manure made from cows' and deer's dung; and during
the whole time keep a good drainage at the bottom of
the pots. The soil, three-fourths strong turfy loam
and one-fourth horsedung ; from the linings of tin-
pine pits select the most decayed parts of the manure.

118

Allow the shoots to run to the extent of thirteen eyes,
and then stop them. By the middle of September
the wood becomes ripened, and then prune them back
to the ninth eye, and remove them from the pinery
to the open air, setting them under a south wall, on
bricks placed edgeways, so as to admit free drainage.
On the first of November take in the required pots
for forcing ; after they are washed with soft soap and
sulphur. After all the eyes have shown fruit, select
from six to eight of the best bunches to remain, and
pluck off the others, never allowing one eye to bear
more than one bunch. Syringe the vines gently with
warm water three times a week, and water them with
the liquid manure. Should they, however, occasionally
require more moisture, give them nothing more than
soft water about milk warm. Mr. Burns fruits an-
nually from 100 to 120 vines, taking in after the first
fifty the rest in succession.

119

The preceding sketch represents a transverse section
of the vinery, with bed for tree leaves to decay and
heat ; framework for the support of front trough,
sixteen inches wide at top, and ten inches deep, and
the wire under the rafters on which the vines are
trained. (United Gard. and Land Steward's Jonrn.)

Preparation for Forcing. — Mr. Arkwright proved
that vines, of which the wood and fruit have ripened
late in one season, will vegetate late in the following
season, under any given degree of temperature ; and
Mr. Knight has shewn the converse of this proposi-
tion to be equally true ; the plants under each differ-
ent mode of treatment requiring a period of rest,
during which they regain their expended excitability.
A Verdelho vine, growing in a pot, was placed in the
stove early in the spring, where its wood became per-
fectly mature in August. It was then taken from the
stove, and placed under a north wall, where it re-
mained till the end of November, when it was re-
placed in the stove ; and it ripened its fruit early in
the following spring. In May it was again trans-
ferred to a north wall, where it remained in a quies-
cent state till the end of August. It then vegetated
strongly, and shewed abundant blossom, which, upon
being transferred to the stove, set very freely ; and
the fruit, having been subjected to the influence of a
very high temperature, ripened early in February.
The plant retained its foliage till April, and would not

120

be prepared to vegetate again till late in the spring.
This experiment will probably succeed well with those
varieties of the vine only which produce blossoms
somewhat freely, and are of hardy habits ; but abun-
dant crops of fruit of these may be obtained at any
period of the winter or spring by proper previous
arrangement of the plants, and by the application of
a higher or lower degree of temperature. {Knight's
Papers, 288.)

Size of Pots. — The smaller the pot, consistent with
healthful vegetation, the better, not only because less
room is thus occupied, but because the smaller deve-
lopment of root required, the earlier will be the pro-
duction of ripe fruit. In using bushel pots or tubs
there is no doubt that Mr. Burns used a size need-
lessly large, and we have no doubt that the largest
size required are those nine inches in diameter by nine
inches deep. We know this from having seen it suc-
cessfully practised, and vines grown in them bearing
five noble bunches, commencing from within eight
inches of the soil. Our opinion is further sustained
by the authority of the late Mr. Knight, who has
stated that —

A pot containing a quantity of mould, equal to a
cube of 14 inches has been found large enough for a
vine whose foliage occupied a space of 20 square feet ;
water holding manure in solution being abundantly
given. And Mr. Knight states, he saw grapes ac-

121

quire a larger size, and other fruits a higher flavour,
under such management than under any other.
(Knighfs Papers, 255.)

DISEASES.

The diseases afflicting our grape vines are chiefly
confined to their fruit, and we conclude that they are
caused by the vines being over-stimulated to produc-
tion at an unnatural season, without there being
secured to them either a due supply of sap, or a
favourable atmosphere to ripen in. The probability
is, that a chief source of the maladies is the absence
of an accordant temperature of the soil and the at-
mosphere ; for grapes grown in the open air are liable
to none of the diseases which afflict them under glass.

Shrivelling of the berries of the grape in stoves
appears to arise from the roots of the vine not supply-
ing a sufficiency of sap, as well as from its not being
duly elaborated in the leaves. This occurs if the roots
are in a cold soil, or are vegetating in an outside bor-
der, the temperature of which is too low compared
with that of the stove. In the first case, thorough
draining and the incorporation of calcareous rubbish ;
and in the second case, protection to the border and
stem, will remove the evil. If the sap be not duly
elaborated, it must arise, either separately or con-

122

jointly, from the leaves vegetating in an ungenial
atmosphere, or from their heing too reduced in num-
ber. In either case, we consider with Dr. Lindley,
that a deficiency of organizable matter is the conse-
quence ; and such deficiency is a satisfactory explana-
tion why the disease occurs. It must never be for-
gotten (says the authority just quoted) that plants,
like animals, consist of two essentially distinct parts ;
the one the organised material of their structure, the
other the organizable matter out of which additions
are to be made to that structure ; and that under no
circumstances whatsoever can growth take place, ex-
cept in the presence of the latter. This law is not
only one of the foundations of vegetable physiology,
but one of the most important of all facts for the
gardener to bear in mind, explaining as it does the
sources of success or failure in multitudes of the
operations in which he is engaged. {Gardener 's
Chronicle, 1843, 709.)

Shrivelling, or rather the withering of grapes pro-
duced from weakness, is a very different disease from
shanking. Shanking takes place almost as quickly
as a tree withers when struck by lightning, but shri-
velling is much more gradual in its advance, and oc-
curs, at first, without any disease appearing in the
footstalks of the berries. The other symptoms are,
that after the berries are formed they advance pretty
rapidly in size until the period when the seeds are

123

forming ; for a time their increase then seems sus-
pended. Immediately after this, the footstalks,
sometimes, suddenly turn brown and shrink, and the
berries, ceasing to increase in size, shrivel, acquire an
unpleasant taste, and ultimately fall off. {Trans.
Hort. Soc. vi. 25.)

If the roots of the vines are found to have pene-
trated the soil deeply, they should be lifted very care-
fully, brickbats placed beneath the roots, and these
trained about nine inches beneath the surface. If
drainage of the border has been neglected, let it be
effected at the same time. If the loss of the crop
which would be occasioned by the lifting of the whole
of the vines would be inconvenient, only one or two
can be so treated in successive autumns. The most
injurious time for an unnatural disparity of tempera-
ture in the air and soil to occur is at night ; for, as
was justly observed by the late Mr. Knight, an ill
effect of high temperature during the night is, that it
exhausts the excitability of the tree much more ra-
pidly than it promotes the growth, or accelerates the
maturity of the fruit, which is in consequence ill sup-
plied with nutriment at the period of its ripening,
when most nutriment is probably wanted. The
Muscat of Alexandria, and other late grapes, are,
owing to this cause, often seen to wither upon the
bunch in a very imperfect state of maturity ; and
the want of richness and flavour in other forced fruit

124

is often attributable to the same cause. (Knight's
Papers, 216.)

The Frontignaus are among the varieties apt to
shrivel under great disparity of temperature between
the roots and branches. This disparity will be les-
sened by not commencing forcing this grape so early
as usual. (Gard. Chron. 1841, 73.) But the legi-
timate mode of obviating the evil is by taking care
that the soil of the border is preserved in a due tem-
perature.

Somewhat allied in its causes to shrivelling is that
unsightly imperfection where the berries do not come
to maturity at the apex of the bunches, leaving from
five to ten quite colourless and sour, though others
on the same bunch are fine and large. In such case
the remedies are to give more heat and air, keeping
the border warmer than before, and to avoid cold
damps in the house ; leave as much foliage as can be
exposed fully to light. The leaves removed must be
by little at a time. In thinning, clip off a few berries
at the lower extremity of the bunch ; the rest will
swell better.

Shanking is an ulceration, or gangrene, attacking
the footstalks of the bunches, and appears to be
occasioned, like shrivelling, by the temperature of the
soil being too much below that in which the branches
are vegetating ; and, consequently, the supply of sap
to the grapes is too much diminished, and the parts

125

which thus fail of support immediately begin to decay,
this is an effect always the consequence of a dimi-
nished supply of sap, apparent either in the leaves,
flower, or fruit. The disease, like every other putre-
faction, does not advance rapidly unless there be
much moisture in the atmosphere.

The coldness of the soil causes this torpidity in
the action of the root ; and this, perhaps, at the very
period when the greatest demand is made upon it to
sustain the excessive perspiration which is going on
in the leaf, and to furnish fresh matter for elaboration;
to both which ends it is frequently quite inadequate,
owing to drenching rains. If the young fibre be
examined at such inclement periods, it will be found
somewhat discoloured ; and, in some cases, quite
rotten. This is not to be wondered at when the
habits of the plant are duly considered, and the dif-
ference estimated between a vine on the slope of a
rocky surface in the south of Europe or Asia, with
six inches of soil, and one in the cold northern clime
of Britain, in four or five feet of rich soil, every
breathing pore closed with a kind of alluvium. If
shanking were caused by sudden depressions of tem-
perature, why should it not occur more frequently on
walls out of doors, where the thermometrical changes
are at least as great as in doors ? Yet here it seldom
occurs, and here again the border is seldom so deep,
so rich, or so far below the surface level, as some of

126

our hothouse borders, many of which contain mate-
rial sufficient for thrice their extent. (Hort. Soc.
Joarn. i. 52.)

We cannot but think, in re-examining this subject,
that shrivelling is chiefly caused by an insufficient
supply of the pabulum necessary to sustain uninter-
rupted progress in the berry. It does not follow,
however, that it must, of necessity, be a case of non-
elaboration. It more frequently arises, in our opinion,
from torpidity of root, brought on by various causes ;
amongst which, as chief, may be named the cold and
continuous rains of wet periods during the growing sea-
son. Such, acting on borders already become too
close, and " sour" through age, and imperfect tex-
ture, produce utter stagnation, if not destruction
of fibre, at the very period when the greatest demand
is made on the root. How can such end otherwise
than in debility ?

Shanking, we conceive, is generally caused by the
unnatural disagreement of temperature between the
root and top, independent, in the main, of the ques-
tion of moisture. It generally occurs with vines
which have been somewhat forced ; seldom on open
walls — seldom with vines forced in pots or tubs.
The obvious prevention of shanking is securing a
congenial relative temperature to the roots and foliage.

Rust. — This disease, affecting the berries of the
grape, comes in the form of a rough, rusty appear-

127

ance of their skins, which have, in fact, become thick
and indurated. Some think it arises from their being
handled, or the hair of the head touching them ; but
the disease is often too general to admit of this topical
explanation. We believe it to arise from an over-
heating of the vinery, however unintentional, whilst
the grapes were young, and thus tending to force
them to a premature rapidity of growth. Any ex-
cessive pressure upon the cuticle, whether from within
or from without, causes its thickening. This consi-
derable elevation being succeeded by as sudden re-
duction of temperature, will almost certainly induce
the disease.

One writer thinks that this, or whatever causes
the rust, occurs whilst very young, for he states that
he never saw grapes with this disease, but dark spots
were to be observed on the bunches before they were
in bloom. He adds, that if the diseased berries ap-
pear to have a more oily appearance, until nearly the
size of a pea, and the pollen adheres to them as dust
does to anything fresh painted, whether syringed,
thinned, or not, there is nothing will prevent them
from having the rust that season. (Gard. Chron.
1842, 805.) We can only say, that we have not ob-
served these phenomena, and that we are convinced,
if the temperature to which the bunches are exposed
is not subjected to sudden vicissitudes, the rust will
not appear upon their berries.

128

The Spot affecting the berries seems to be the
same disease as shanking, only affecting a different
part. Like this disease, it is a gangrene, and is
probably occasioned by an irregularity in the supply
of moisture and vicissitudes of temperature, but es-
pecially if one of the extremes is much below the de-
gree of heat most favourable to the healthy growth
of that plant. The reason of this is very obvious. If
any plant be placed in a highly stimulating heat, and
is abundantly supplied with root moisture, it imme-
diately increases its surface of leaf and fruit. If this
amount of sap is subsequently suddenly reduced, by
lowering the temperature, and adding water to the
soil less freely, the increased surfaces are no longer
required, and it is a law pervading all the vegetable
creation, that the moment any of the parts of a plant
are unnecessary to it, that moment they begin to de-
cay. "We placed a plant of the Marvel of Peru, or
Heliotrope, in a high temperature and abundant
moisture; these were then much reduced, and the
leaves in a few days were completely decayed round
their edges, and in spots upon their surfaces. The
extent of leaf was accommodated to the amount of
sap to be elaborated. (Princ. of Gard.)

Muscats are particularly liable to the spot. Our
opinion that sudden vicissitudes of temperature are
the causes of this disease, seems to be well sustained
by the fact, that the parts nearest the glass, that is,

129

the upper portions of the bunches, and those parts
most exposed to the sun's influence, are the first
to suffer ; and this, also, goes far towards substan-
tiating the assertion, that the shade of the foliage is
necessary to the well-doing of grapes. (Gard. Chron.
1843, 505.)

Want of Colour is often a defect of the Black
Grape, but not at all necessarily arising from deficient
light. The green colour of leaves depends entirely
upon the presence either of light or of uncombined
hydrogen gas, but vegetable reds, purples, and other
colouring matters of fruits, are formed, though less
intense, even in a total absence from light. So far
from full exposure to light being requisite for the full
colouring and ripening of grapes, they never attain
these desired qualities so well as when shaded by one
thickness of leaf. The colouring matter of all fruit
is dependent partly upon the leaves immediately
above it, and partly upon the fruit itself ; the neces-
sary digestion of the sap being commenced in the
one, and perfected in the other. If this digestion or
elaboration of the sap is checked by ungenial tem-
perature, but more particularly if the crop is too
heavy for the vine, or if the leaves, especially above
the bunches, are too much thinned, defect of colour
will be the very usual consequence to the berries.

Let it not, therefore, be assumed at any time, that
want of colour is caused by the want of sunlight to

K

130

the berry. We have seen the blackest of berries in
situations where the sun had never shone on them
since they blossomed : indeed, it only requires a little
close observation for one season to dispel such a fal-
lacy. It sometimes, however, happens, that the
principal leaves on the same shoot with the bunch
are shaded by other main leaves, or by laterals ; such
shading is sure to be prejudicial to the colouring of
the berry, as well as to the maturation of the buds
connected with the shaded leaves. And here we
have one of the reasons for such close stopping as the
vine is subjected to»

Over-cropping, alone, will lead to bad colouring;
indeed, is one of the most fruitful sources of it. It
exhausts the tree of every particle of prepared sap,
and produces a kind of debility in the root, which
renders it readily susceptible to the stagnating rains
of an unpropitious season.

In order to promote good colouring, the ripening
process should not be hurried. It is evident, that
very high temperatures are not required for this pur-
pose, for the Black Hamborough, on common walls,
is not deficient in colour, in a good season. Now the
colouring process, in the latter case, occurs in the
end of September, when the temperature at night
must sometimes be near the freezing point. It is a
common observation of practical men, that the cold
nights of autumn hasten maturity in many crops ;

131

and this is undoubtedly a fact, and traceable, we pre-
sume, to a cessation of the growing principle ; caus-
ing, thereby, a concentration of the energies of the
plant. We would say, therefore, beware of too high
a temperature during the colouring process, unless
accompanied with much solar light, and even then
avoid extremes. We would more especially avoid
night heat at this period, and would promote a circu-
lation of air night and day.

Warts, or Blisters, on the leaves, occur to the
cells of the under surface, immediately beneath the
cuticle, which become much elongated and multiplied,
with a vertical arrangement, the cuticle being some-
times wholly, sometimes only partially, obliterated.
The leaf is discoloured and withered in consequence
of the absorption of the neighbouring chlorophyll
by the diseased and multiplied cells. It is very diffi-
cult, in the present state of our knowledge of the dis-
eases of plants, to say what is the cause, and conse-
quently to assign a remedy. Though so strongly
resembling one of the epiphyllous fungi outwardly, it
is of an entirely different nature. (Gard. Chron.
1844, 320.)

The probable cause seems to be excessive mois-
ture to the root, which induces a large supply of
sap to the leaves faster than they can dispose of
its moisture by transpiration ; ruptures of the ves-
sels, and contortions of the parenchyma, are the con-
k 2

132

sequence. Good drainage, and an atmosphere not too
moist, would remove, probably, the evil.

Bleeding. — This only occurs to the vine, from the
unhealed surfaces of cuts made after the sap has
commenced its motion, and before the leaves are well
expanded. A red-hot iron, applied to the bleeding
surface until it be charred, will stop the effusion of
sap for a time, if not permanently, and to effect a
complete stoppage at once, coat the charred surface,
and rub well into it, a paste made of lime newly
burnt and grease. This hardens and forms an effec-
tual plaister.

Two other plaisters have been suggested ; the first
of which, by the late Mr. Knight, we know to be ef-
fectual, but of Sir John Sebright' s we have had no
experience.

One fourth of calcined oyster-shells, beaten to fine
powder in a mortar, and three-foruths of cheese,
worked together, until they will form a sort of paste ;
this mixture pressed into the pores of the wood, either
with the thumb or any other means, will effectually
stop the flow of the sap ; sometimes a repetition may
be necessary, if it is not well forced into the pores.
{Hort. Trans, i. 102.)

Sir John Sebright' s cement consists of four parts
rsein, one part bees-wax, and one part fine brick-dust,
melted and well mixed together. The mixture is to
be applied whilst hot and liquid. (Gard. Chron.
1844, 280.)

133

Erineum vitis is the name of a very minute fungus
making its appearance very often on the leaves of the
vine in places where, from wounds or other causes,
extravasated sap occurs. It is in the form of yellow,
woolly tufts. We are not aware of its occuring so
abundantly as to be injurious to the vine, and it would
be destroyed probably by the usual sulphur fumiga-
tion.

INSECTS.

The vine is subject, under bad cultivation, to be at-
tacked by every genus of insect that infects the hot-
house. In the open air no tree is less liable to insect
ravages.

Acarus tellarius, the Red Spider, is one of the
vine's in-door enemies. It generally resides and
breeds on the underside of the leaves, and the infested
leaves are very distinguishable as soon as they are
thus attacked ; for the insect wounds the fine capil-
lary vessels with its proboscis, and this causes the
upper surface of the leaf to appear full of very small
dots, or spots of a light colour. When the Acari are
very numerous, they work a fine web over the whole
under-side of the leaf, as also round its edges ; and
it is curious to observe, that they commonly carry this
web in a straight line, from one angular point of the
leaf to another, on which boundary line, in a warm

134

day, they pass and repass in very great numbers.
They do not confine themselves to the leaves only, but
attack the bunches of grapes also, especially at the
time when they are almost ripe ; and as they extract
the juices from them, the grapes soon become flabby,
and ill-flavoured. {Speechley, 171.) The Red Spider
connot thrive — scarcely exist — where a sufficiency of
water is regularly applied. As, however, syringing
cannot be persisted in at all times, something else is
requisite at those periods, when the syringe is laid by.
Sulphur, then, is the best thing at present known for
this purpose ; but as many persons are deterred from
the use of it, through a fear of its pernicious eifects,
we will here detail our mode of using it, by which
we have been kept (we might almost say entirely)
free of this pest for the last twelve years. We apply
it about three or four times in the course of the year,
to each house ; the houses are on the average about
thirty feet long, by some sixteen feet wide, and we
use about six ounces to each house each time ; applied
in the form of thick paint. The houses are heated
by hot water, and the sulphur paint is applied to the
under or return pipe alone. The best way is to beat
a lump of soft-soap, as large as a walnut, up in warm
water ; and to add some clay water, made by working
a lump of clay in warm water until the water becomes
a thin paint ; then to blend this with the soap water ;
and finally to mix the sulphur also. The soap and

135

the clay form a body, and prevent the sulphur wash-
ing or rubbing off. This application, then, with the
proper use of the syringe, as detailed in the calendar—
the regular washing of floors, twice a- day at least,
with the moistening of walls, shelves, or other bare
surfaces— keeps us entirely free from the Red Spider.
And, be it observed, that this is the greatest enemy of
the vine we have ; no one can get proper colour or
flavour, whilst this robber of the elaborated sap is
allowed to suck that life-blood of the* tree.

The occurrence of the Red Spider is greatly
checked by washing the stems and branches of the
vine at the end of the forcing season, aud again be-
fore forcing is commenced, with the following compo-
sition :— Put 4 lbs. of flowers of sulphur, 2 lbs. of to-
bacco, | lb. of soft soap, and 4 ozs. of powdered nux
vomica, into five gallons of boiling rain water ; stir
them until well incorporated, and apply with a brush
whilst warm.

Mr. Speechley's directions are these : — To 1 lb.
of flowers of sulphur put 2 oz. of common Scotch
snuff (very good tobacco dust will answer equally
well) ; let these be well mixed together ; then take
a small brush, such as is used for common painting,
dip it lightly in the sulphur, then lay one hand on
the upper surface of the leaf, t and with the other draw
the brush very gently backwards and forwards all
over the under side : by this means a little sulphur

136

will be left on the leaf. The Acarus being soft and
delicate in its nature, is destroyed with the most gen-
tle touch. The brush also most readily wipes off
the web, as well as the globular transparent eggs,
which are, by a fine membrane, fastened to the
leaves ; and thus we are secured from the danger of
a succeeding brood. This process may, to some,
have the appearance of a tedious operation ; and, in-
deed, when vines are injudiciously trained, it certainly
must be attended with great trouble ; but it is very
easily performed upon vines trained in the regular
method here set forth, and a single operation is gene-
rally sufficient for a whole season. (Speechley, 175.)
Aphis vitis, the Louse, Puceron, or Vine Fretter,
sometimes appears upon the young shoots of the vine,
but these grow so rapidly that we never observed any
injury caused to them by this insect. It is speedily
destroyed by tobacco fumigation.

Coccus vitis. — The vine scale preys upon the stems
and branches of the grape vine, both in the open air
and under glass. It seems to be the same species
which also attacks occasionally the peach, nectarine,
and plum. It is, says Mr. Curtis, a longish brown
insect, which in old age assumes a blackish brown
colour, and becomes hemispherical and wrinkled.
The females are shield-like, being convex above and
flat or concave below ; they are furnished with six
small legs, which, when the insect is old, become part

137

of the substance of the body. On the under side of
the insect is a sucker, with which it pierces the cuti-
cle of the plants, and extracts their juices. Soon
after impregnation the female dies, and her body be-
comes a protection for the eggs, which are covered
with long white wool, and sometimes completely en-
velope the shoots of the vines, or of plants, growing
underneath them. The males are furnished with
four wings, and are apterous. Their powers of pro-
pagation are immense ; and, where l^
they once become very numerous, they ||\\
are exceedingly difficult to eradicate.
This species belongs to the true genus
Coccus, characterized by the female
having a scale inseparable from her
body. While young, both sexes are
alike, but the male larvae produce
two-winged insects, with two tail
threads. The females have no wings,
and their dead bodies, beneath which
the young are sheltered, appear as in
the annexed wood-cut.

Coccus adonidum, the Mealy Bug, feeds on tropical
plants, with which it has been introduced into our
hothouses, especially Coffee, Cestrum, Justicia, Canna,
Musa, Renealmia, &c. ; but it also is very injurious
to the vine and pine-apple ; though it is of much
rarer occurrence than the C. vitis. The female is not

138

shield-like, as is the preceding, but more resembling
in form the woodlouse. Being reddish, though sprin-
kled over with a white dust, it has been mistaken for
the Crimson-tinged Pine Bug. The body of the fe-
male is divided into twelve segments, and these have
small tubercles at their sides. The male is gnat-like
and slender, with two broadish wings, and two long
brush-shaped tail filaments. This scai> usect may
be removed with a soft brush, and easily killed by
washing with soap-suds.

Coccus hesperidum, the Orange Scale Insect, some-
times, though still more rarely, appears upon the
vine. It attaches itself both to the branches and
leaves. The female appears like an oval, nut-brown
shield. Both the male and female are represented
magnified in the accompanying sketches.

"Whilst the leaves are on the vine, if any species of

139

scale appears on its stem and branches, the least offen-
sive remedy is to paint over the whole with a strong
solution of gum arabic or starch ; allow it to remain
on for a week, and then wash it off. But the most ef-
fectual remedy is to brush them over thoroughly twice,
after an interval of a day, with spirit of turpentine.
To prevent the recurrence of the plague, a very effec-
tive mode in autumn is, to scrape away and burn all
the rough bark, and then, with a rough brush, to
paint over the stem and branches with a creamy mix-
ture of clay, lime, soft-soap, flowers of sulphur and
urine.

Another formula, quite as effective and less disgust-
ing, is this : — \ lb. of soft-soap, 1 lb. of sulphur, and
\ oz. of black pepper, to 4 gallons of water, boil to-
gether for 20 minutes, and make it thick enough to
adhere to the wood like paint. If it does not, thicken
it with lime, adding sufficient soot to take off the
glaring white colour of the lime. The proportions
are of little consequence, the object of this and similar
washes being, by adhering to the wood, to prevent
the eggs or larvae of insects from coming to life.
{Gard. Chron. 1842, 840.)

Curculio (Otiorhynchus) sulcatus is by far the
most injurious vine weevil, and every means should
be used to prevent its increase in vineries. They eat
the margin of the leaves into all sorts of shapes. The
weevil always feeds in the night, hiding itself by day

140

under the leaves or loose bark of the vines, or in any
similar place, to avoid the light. Advantage may
be taken of this habit to destroy it, by placing a
handful of moss here and there among the branches
of the vines, by way of trap, and into this it
always retires at the approach of day. The moss
to be taken down and examined every morning, and
the insects found in it killed. Another species (pro-
bably C picipes) often causes the failure of grafts by
eating the buds just as they are bursting into shoots,
when, if the season be adverse, or the graft too weak
to develop an adventitious bud, it, of course, dies.
Both species suddenly drop to the ground if dis-
turbed, when, either from the instinct of self-preser-
vation, or from being stunned by the fall, they lie as
if dead, and being nearly the colour of the earth,
they are difficult to discover ; caution is therefore ne-
cessary in catching them. {Ibid. 1841, 325.)

Curculio sulcatus, as described by Mr. Curtis, is a
dull black weevil, with a stout proboscis, at the extre-
mity of which is the mouth ; the thorax is granu-
lated, and the elytra are rough, with several elevated
lines and minute ochre-coloured dots placed somewhat
transversely ; it has no wings. The period for the
appearance of these weevils depends upon tempera-
ture, for May is mentioned by some, and June by
others, as the months when they are mischievous in
gardens, and in hot-houses much earlier. Mr. E.

141

Edwards says that lie has seen them in an early
vinery at Studley Castle about the end of January,
when they make great havoc amongst the young
shoots and foliage ; and from that time until the end
of April they feed upon the buds and leaves, always
high up, and are never seen in the day. They will
also eat the leaves of the peach, and have been
known to attack the fruit. The eggs are deposited
a little beneath the surface of the earth, and produce
white maggots, and these live at the roots of the
vine, rendering the plants weak and sickly ; some say
that about June the maggots change to pupa, whilst
others state that they live through the winter, and
undergo their metamorphoses in the spring ; however
this may be, they remain in the chrysalis state only
14 days. The maggots also do great mischief to suc-
culent and other plants in pots, as well as in the bor-
der, such as Sedums, Saxifragas, the Trollius, Auri-
culas, and Primroses, eating round the tops of the
roots and detaching them from the crown.

1. The Weevil. 2, 3. Maggots. 4. The Pupa. The straight lines show
the natural length of the Weevil and Pupa.

142

Curculio picipes is a most destructive insect in the
vinery as well as in the garden. This beetle is very
similar in figure to C. sulcatus, but smaller, ana
forms, with about twenty other indigenous species, a
genus called Otiorhynchus ; they are also nearly alike
in sculpture, but vary in tint, C. picipes being of a
clay-colour, the wing cases more or less clouded with
darker-coloured spots, and altogether it so much
resembles in tone the clods and bark under and be-
tween which this insect secretes itself by day, that it
is with difficulty detected. In the night these weevils
sally forth to feed upon wall-fruit trees and the vines
in hot-houses, either attacking the stems of the new
wood in April, which soon becomes black, or feeding
near the tips of the shoots.

Every crevice in old garden-walls often swarms
with these weevils. Nothing would prove a greater
check to their increase than stopping all crevices, or
holes in walls, with mortar, plaster-of-Paris, or Ro-
man cement ; and the interior of hot-houses should
be annually washed with lime ; the old bark of the
vines under which they lurk should be stripped off
early in the spring, and the roots examined in Oc-
tober, where they exhibit any unhealthy symptoms

143

from the attacks of the maggots of C. sulcatus as
soon as the beetles appear ; sieves should be held at
night under the branches and leaves, when, by-
shaking them, the beetles will readily fall into the
sieves, but as they drop down when approached, this
operation must be proceeded with gently and quietly ;
multitudes may be thus collected, both in and out of
doors, and if the person who carries the light has a
pail or jug of water, the sieves can be emptied into
them, as occasion may require ; but when the beetles
are eventually destroyed, boiling, not warm water,
must be used, as the hardness of their horny cover-
ing will resist a considerable degree of heat. When
the larvse are ascertained to reside at the base of a
wall, salt might be freely sprinkled, which will kill
them as readily as it will the maggots in nuts ;
strong infusions of tobacco-water, aloes, and quassia,
are also recommended. Where the blood of animals
can be obtained, it might be beneficially applied, as
it would coagulate over the tender larvae and pupae,
and set them fast in the earth. [Gard. Chron.
1841, 292.)

Thrips. — This minute insect belongs to the same
genus as that {Thrips physapus) which tickles the
face so intolerably during the sultry weather of our
summers. The thrips sometimes attack the young
shoots of vines growing in the open air, especially
those of weak vines, or vines newly planted. If

144

young shoots chance to receive any injury by late
spring frost, the tender part of the leaf will imme-
diately curl up and change to a dark brown colour ;
and in this state the thrips generally attack them
with great greediness, especially the white Sweet-
water and white Muscadine kinds. The thrips, how-
ever, are seldom injurious to vines growing in the
open air, except in the spring ; and to those in the
hot-house, they are most hurtful when the grapes are
nearly ripe. They attack the bunches as well as the
leaves, and commonly prey upon the extremities of
the berries, but more particularly at the end next the
foot-stalk. In white grapes, the part of the berry
injured changes to a dark colour, the foot-stalk turns
black, and the berry withers. {Speechley, 172.)

Fumigation, with tobacco smoke, is the most effec-
tual mode of removing this marauder from the vine.
For a house, 43 feet long and 1 1 feet wide, 1 lb. of
tobacco is sufficient ; take an old wire basket, con-
taining a few hot cinders, put the tobacco on them
and hang the basket up in the house ; then blow it
with bellows until it is well lighted, then raise steam
in the house by any mode most convenient. The to-
bacco will keep burning until it is all consumed.
The steam keep on for about an hour, in which time
the plants are covered with dew, which is well mixed
with tobacco smoke. Repeat this on the following
day, using only half-a-pound of tobacco. Those who

145

have not got the means of steaming the house from
a boiler, will find a trough, with small holes pierced
in the bottom, fixed over the hot-water pipes or flues,
a very good substitute. Enough of steam will be ge-
nerated in this way in one hour to cause a fine dew
on the plants ; if the house or frame can be covered
during the operation, so much the better, as it will
prevent the steam from condensing on the glass, and
also keep the tobacco smoke from escaping through
the laps in the roof. (Gard. Chron. 1844.)

In other parts of the globe there are other insects
which are very serious depredators upon the vine.
There is a singular beetle, common in Hungary,
(Lethrus cephalotes) which gnaws off the young shoots
of the vine, and drags them backward into its bur-
row, where it feeds upon them ; on this account the
country people wage continual war with it, destroying
vast numbers. Three other beetles also attack this
noble plant : two of them mentioned by French
authors (Rynchites Bacchus and Eumolpus Vitis,)
devour the young shoots, the foliage and the footstalks
of the fruit, so that the latter is prevented from
coming to maturity ; and a third (C. Corrwptor, Host)
by a German, which seems closely allied to Otiorhyn-
chus picipes before mentioned, if it be not the same
insect. This destroys the young vines, often killing
them the first year ; and is accounted so terrible an
enemy to them, that not only the animals but even

146

their eggs are searched for and destroyed, and to for-
ward this work people often call in the assistance of
their neighbours. In the Crimea the small caterpillar
of a Procris or Ino (lepidopterous genera separated
from Sphinx, L.) related to i". Statices, is a still more
destructive enemy. As soon as the buds open in the
spring, it eats its way into them, especially the fruit
buds, and devours the germ of the grape. Two or
three of the caterpillars will soon so injure a vine, by
creeping from one germ to another, that it will bear
no fruit, nor produce a single regular shoot the suc-
ceeding year. Vine leaves in France are also fre-
quently destroyed by the larva of a moth (Tortrix
vi tana) ; in Germany another species does great injury
to the young bunches, preventing their expansion by
the webs in which it involves them, and a third (Tor-
trix fasciana) makes the grapes themselves its food :
a similar insect is alluded to in the threat contained
in Deuteronomy xxviii. 39. (Kirby and Spences
Entomology, i. 204.)

Field Mouse. Mr. Fleming, at Trentham Hall,
finds this little animal attacks the inner bark in severe
winters. Gardeners, therefore, should see that it is
not harboured by the dung on the borders.

147

USES.

All the products of the vine are of some service to
man, though their employment, in many instances,
has been superseded' by other preparations. Thus
verjuice, the juice of the unripe berries, has been
banished from our pharmacy by the introduction of
Citric Acid, the acid ingredient of the lemon. Vine-
gar, however, (Acetic acid) is still made from the fer-
mented juice of the grape, and Tartar (Tartrate of
Potass) a mild cathartic, is also obtained from its lees;
and the actual sap of the vine has been recommended
as beneficial in calculous disorders, and as a coryUium.
The leaves and tendrils have been administered in
hemorrhage and other cases requiring styptics; and the
wood grows to a size in more eastern countries, that
render it available in the constructive arts, and its
durability and toughness are very great.

The seeds of grapes have been discovered to be an
excellent substitute for coffee. When pressed, they
first produce a quantity of oil, and afterwards, when
boiled, furnish liquid very similar to that produced
from coffee. The practice has become very general
throughout Germany. (Mechanic's Magazine.)

The employment of grapes as a dessert fruit needs
no further particularizing ; and when dried they ap-
pear upon our tables in the form of currants and
raisins.

148

x\ very delicious preserve or jelly, also, may be made
from this fruit, and is prepared as follows : — Pick off
the grapes ; put them in a stewpan or saucepan ;
bruise them very slightly ; set the pan over a slow
lire ; and as the seeds rise to the top while simmering,
skim them off. "When dressed enough, pass the
whole through a coarse muslin or cloth ; sweeten it
to your taste ; return it again to the pan, and let it
simmer very gently till quite thick ; put it in a mould
or preserving-pot ; and, if properly made, the pot
mav be turned upside down without disturbing its
contents. Put thin paper, moistened with a small
quantity of salad oil, over the jelly, and cover with
paper or bladder. Keep it in an airy, light, and dry
place. It is impossible to state the proportion of
sugar required, for situation, season, &c. make so
great a difference in the saccharine juice of the grape,
that it is better to leave it to the taste of the maker.
Skim off as many of the seeds as possible before
pressing, as too many of them will give a bitter taste
to the jelly. (Gard. Chron. 1846, 645.)

To keep bunches of grapes in good condition for
dessert long after they have become ripe, several plans
have been devised, but of which the following are the
best.

Mr. Speechley recommends that, before the
autumnal frosts have killed tbe vine leaves, let the
bunch with the shoot be carefully cut off the vine.

149

Then put the lower end of the shoot into a bottle
filled with water. Hang up the bottle with the
shoot and bunch in a warm room. A green-house is
a very proper place. Only two or three joints of the
shoot above the bunch should be left, but a sufficient
length below to reach the bottom of a quart bottle,
will be required. The bottle should be filled with
fresh water every twelve or fourteen days ; and at the
same time a thin shaving should be cut off the bot-
tom of the shoot, whereby the pores will be made to
imbibe the water with greater facility. By this
method grapes have been kept fresh and good till the
middle of February. (Speechley, 27.)

A still better plan is that detailed by Mr. G. Wat-
son, gardener, at Newton Vicarage, near Stockton-
on-Tees. He directs, when, in the last week in De-
cember, or first week in January, the latest house of
grapes, which are ripe in September, is pruned, that
then the whole of the grapes remaining shall be cut
off, with a joint or two, or more, of wood below each
bunch. Make a clean cut, and apply sealing wax as
hot as can be used to it, and seal the wood closely, so
that no air can enter the tissues communicating with
the bunch. Then hang the bunches up on cords,
suspended across a closet in a cool airy room, taking
care that they do not touch each other, and after this
they are cut down as wanted. In this way the
White Muscat of Alexandria has been kept until the

150

latter part of May ; of course, the berries were
slightly shrivelled, yet not so much as they would
have been had they remained on the vines. To suc-
ceed, much depends on the situation where the
grapes are preserved ; they must not be exposed to a
current of warm air, nor yet be so damp as to cause
mould. {Ibid. 1841, 662.)

The best position in which to suspend the bunches,
is the reverse of that in which they hang upon the
tree ; that is, with the stalk-ends downwards, for the
berries are thus better kept from pressing against
each other, which is an unfailing cause of mouldi-
ness.

In all cases bagging, by checking evaporation,
and excluding insects, promotes the preservation of
grapes. It is true, that the preparation of the bags,
in the first instance, may be a little troublesome, but
when first made, and properly taken care of, they
will answer the same purpose for years. They should
be made of fine cotton, of various sizes, and prepared
in such a manner as to be easily taken off and put on
again, if necessary. When thus protected, the fruit
will retain its flavour and continue in good condition
for a considerable time, even on the open walls, pro-
vided the weather is dry and favourable.

Important as are many of the already enumerated
purposes to which the fruit of the vine is applied,
yet are they as nothing when compared to its value

151

for the wine press. We are no disciples of Dr.
Whitaker,* but we are equally far from being prose-
lytes of Father Matthew, and although the use of
wine, like that of all other good gifts, may be abused,
yet we never saw sufficient cause for concluding
David was wrong when he gave thanks to God for
" wine which maketh glad the heart of man," or that
St. Paul was erring when he bade his fellow workman
" to use a little wine" to strengthen him under his
infirmities.

* Dr. Whitaker published in 1638, " The Tree of Human
Life, or the Blood of the Grape," and there expresses his
opinion that the name, Vinum, is derived a vi from its strength,
or, perhaps, quasi divinum, because it is a species of the tree of
life in Paradise. The intention of this curious little book is to
prove that, by the judicious use of various wines, life may be
prolonged from infancy to old age without disease.

WOOLDRIDGE, PRINTER, WINCHESTER.