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Tilling tlif sawalis iiiceiielils).

iTumdatiii" the .sawahs before tilliiif'.

JHE QREAT QULTURES

OF THE ISLE OF JAVA

BY

F. FOKKENS,

RESIDENT OF MADURA.

30 Photographs.

WITH A PREFACE 1^- PROF. DR. TREUB, DIRECTOR OF
THE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT AND OF THE BOTANIC
GARDEN IN THE DUTCH EAST INDIES. -:- -:- -:- -:"

Leiden

E. J. BRILL Ltd.

1910

Preface.

Being ajiisidcml soitieivl/af le(j(:ii(hini (iml nn/aferioiis, tlir
reinoff Irupiral colonics irere vcnj little kiioioi for a Ioikj time.
Altlioinjii repittctl sources of coiisidcrdtj/e riches, rcrij ViKjue notions
<f tlieui, niosllji far from correct, irere (jenerollij l.iioirn.

At the present (toij alt this lias mncli clnuKji'd. The coJo)iies
and jiarticid(n-lii those sdnotcd in the intertropical zone are at
present everij-where the snlijcct of serions and tlioronf/h studies. Inte-
rest is taken in their liistori/, organization and ad ministration.
Researches and in vest it/at ions are Ijcin;/ made in rej/ard to their
-jlora and fann<i, as n-i-ll as into the nnmerons problems irhich tliey
present from an cthnohxjic and antlrropologic point of view.

Larijc associations hare heeti formed with the purpose of
enconraiiinij and directinij these studies, and nninij a periodical, in
several lani/nages, is devoted cxclnsiveli/ to colonial (luestio)is.

Jn these ijnestions the interest hij jireference relates to the
jxdHical econonuj of tin' colonies and to their commercial inijinr-
lancc. In this respect the minin;/ resonrces are modioned lai sono.

VI

huf if is principaUi/ to thrir agrtciilfiirc fhaf wosf of the aflmfion
is paid.

The heacij aitd freijueiif tropical ruins, a temperature in point
of fdcf the same during the whole near, a loose and fertile soil,
the conditions verij often experienced in the erpiatorial region, are
essentially favorable to the development of agriculture.

Provided the latter i,s carried on in a not too irrational irag,
diversified and large crops are ijielded, which the soil of the tem-
per-ate countries can fiij no means produce.

Among those favoured countries, the Dutch East Indies
hold a first place. Their insular cVnnate is a warrant against
the excesses of temperature and drought, and on the other hand,
the generalhj volcanic nature of the rocks gives rise to an easg, and
therefore rapid, disaggregation.

To these happg natural conditions, the isle of Java, espe-
cialhj, add another, not less important, to wit : the ahumlauce of
laliourers.

With its thirfg millions inhabitants, Java constitutes one of
the most densely populated countries in the world. In fact, although
still far from haviog attained to the pitch of agricultural perfec-
tion which it undoubtedly wdl do in time, the wliole of its agri-
cultural development surpasses already all that is seen in other
tropical colonies.

It is for the purpose of giving an idea of this remarkable
development that the author has made the present work.

A long administrative carreer has led him to the highest
functions of the Government of the Interior. Better than anybody

VII

else, Mr. Fo/.-Lens /k/s hrcn tih!e fo ascerlaiii the prcponderatiiiii
ecoiiouiicdl iiiiporfiiiiiT (i/ijifrfdituju/ to the (ifjrlei/ltior of Jura.
His liooli speaks for it ! The niiinerous data /r/iirli lie lias taken the
trviililr til (jatJier /rill coiitrihute to make the most ailnnieed ami
hij far the most imjiortaiit of the Dutch jiossessiniis in the Far
East still lictter kiioini.

TREVB.

Rice.

§ 1 . Rice ') is cultivated in two ways : I. after
the so-called dry method ; IT. in fields whicli are almost
constantly kept under water. As regards the production,
the latter method afford.s the best results.

The first-named method is generally only applied
in places where there is not enough spring-water and whei'e
sufficiently abundant rains cannot be relied upon.

The grounds where rice is cultivated after the last-
named method, are called „sawahs" or rice-fields, i. e. :
plots surrounded by small dikes between which water can
be retained or stream away at discretion. Where the
ground slopes, a succession of terraces is constructed, fi'om
which the water passes from one into the other.

Rice is cultivated at a height of 0 to 4000 feet
on the most varied grounds, on vegetable-mould as well
as on clay and sand-soil, in marshes and on a soil mixed
with lime, and even on salt-grounds near the sea.

1) The plant which produces rice is called in Malay : „padi".

§ 2. Generally the „sawahs" are tilled in the begin-
ning of the rain-season after being inundated as much
as possible; the small dikes are kept in good condition
and care is taken to weed the wild grass in order to
rid it of the vermin; then the water-ways are prepared.
While tilling the grounds, the seed-plots are prepared; to
this end a small surface (surrounded bj- small dikes en-
closed by a hedge) that has been thoroughly tilled is in-
undated until it becomes a soft muddy mass, an operation
which takes from 3 to 4 weeks ; afterwards whole rice-ears
are deposited in the mud or the grain is sown by hand.
The latter method is the better and entails less expenses
many grains being sa\ed. However, it is not yet applied
everywhere, because the population in many places, atta-
ched to the old customs, prefer the former method, viz :
sowing whole ears.

§ 3. The seed-plot is alternately inundated and
drained (first inundating during 8 to 10 days, then inun-
dating by day and draining by night) until, after IV2 to 2
months, (according to the kind and the disposition of the
ground) the seed has grown to plants of from 1 to 1 'A feet
high, after which the}- are transported into the „sawahs",
which generally takes place in the months of November,
December or, at latest, in January. In places where, even
in the fair season, sufficient springwater can be had, rice
may be planted at any time of the year; the natives^
however, pretend that rice reaped after the month of June

T 3 If ^ii.-t IW

„,»»».■'->***-'"

r^if^p

-- V"

t^'. ■

Planting the paJl (rice).

^e rii'i-liolds .alter planting the pad!.

is usually subject to attacks of insects, diseases and other
calamities.

In some regions seed-plots are not made, but the
seed is immediately deposited in the „sawahs"; in that
case it is necessary for the upper surface to be very level
and everywhere equally muddy, otherwise many grains
would be lost and would not germinate. Because this way
of cultivating the plots involves much labour, it is but
seldom adopted.

There are also regions where rice is sown in well
tilled plots, but in a dry condition. Moreover, in certain
reo-ions, deprived of spring water, where the ,,sawahs"' arc
only watered by rain, rice is cultivated as follows:

The seed is sown without repairing the dikes before-
hand over their entire length. The water, if too abundant,
can then escape; when, on the contrary, there is no rain-
fall or it is very slight, the dikes are repaired over a more
or less considerable length and shut completely if there
is a scarcity of water. If later on the rain .should fall more
abundantly, the dikes are partly destroyed to let the su-
perfluous water escape.

§ 4. When the young plants have to be transported,
they are plucked out of the seed-plots, then they are bound
up in little bundles, the tops are cut, and they are
conveyed to the „sawahs". There they are laid — one,
two or three at a time — in the muddy soil, the number
depending on the size of the young plants, as much as

possible in rows, wliicli are one to two decimetres apart.

For the rice-culture the .,sawahs" are scarcely ever
manured. It seems that the water of the rice-fields and
conducts, which is kept on the „sawahs" for some time,
is sufficiently fertilyzing to maintain its production at
the same rate.

After the planting the soil is di-ained during 2 or
3 days in order to allow the plants to recover; next it is
inundated again and then the quantity of water is little
by little diminished until the soil is drained completely,
just before the gathering of shortly before the harvest; for
the rest nothing but the removal of the wild grass two or
three times is necessary — an operation which must take
place before the florescence — afterwards the plantation
has to be protected as much as possible against birds and
wild boars, which are always on the watch about harvest
time. The latter usually takes place at the end of the fourth
or fifth month, according to the sort of rice, but in the
higher regions a longer time is wanted, sometimes 6 or
7 months.

§ 5. For the so-called ,,dry"' cultivation method,
the planting is done in two ways, viz : tilling the dry soil
by means of the plough or by the „patjor' (a kind of spade)
leaving no clods, the surface being made very even in order
to sow the grain afterwards, or, the soil is not worked at
all and is only cleaned, after which holes are made, 2 deci-
metres apart, for the reception of some grains. This method

Ciupping the padi.

]-;iiiiiiliiig and stacking the paiii.

is only adopted on original ground and only „Oriza mon-
tana" and not „Oriza sativa" is used in this case.

V? 6. E,ice is highly susceptible to diseases and has
much to suffer from vermin. Sometimes the plant seems
sound and fresh, whilst the ears remain empty.

During heavy rains, when the water cannot run away,
a kind of caterpillar makes its way through the stalk and
kills the plant.

An insect, the „walang sangif (Leptocorisa acuta)
abstracts the sap from the newly-budded ear and so
prevents the fruit from forming. In a short time the whole
crop is entirely destroyed in this way.

Of late years a disease has been made a subject of
study, which the natives call : matfd-, inendek, dedet, onto
merah, etc. The parasite, which causes this disease, is a ne-
matode, known under the name of ,,Tvleachus Oryzea"; it
attacks the root. The more or less bad quality of the soil
has a great influence on the development of this disease.

Mice are not less destructive for in a single night
they can destroy a whole rice-field.

§ 7. The off-shoots are not lopped by means of a
scythe, but one by one cut with a small crooked knife,
that is held between the lingers. Knife and offshoot are
held in the same hand and tlien the latter is cut: with the
other hand, the ears are gathered. The cut-off rice is made
into bundles in the Held and then stacked. Tf the weather
is favourable, it is dried in the field.

In order to remove the grain from the stalk, the
rice is put into a Ivind of trough in which it is beaten
with a j)estle.

To remove the husk from the grain, these troughs are
also used; moreover mills of very simple construction: a
trough in which disks of wood, iron or stone, are propelled
by buffalos or b}' water. There are but very few mills in
Java after the model used in Europe.

§ 8. After the rice-crop • — if the soil be light
enough — the „sawahs"" are used for the cultivation
of different kinds of vegetables which do not require
more than 2 or 3 months to fructify, such as : batates,
viqua sinensis. Soya Hispida, Capsicum, Solanum, Cucumis,
Arachis, Voandzeia subterrana, &c. — In the Preanger,
in Bantam and in some other regions, where there is suffi-
cient springwater during the wole j^ear, the „sawahs" are
also used for cultivating a kind of fish, which requires only
2 to 3 months to be fit for food.

§ 9. The production amounts on an average to 25
or 30 picols (62Vi K°^) dry „padi" per baoe of 1500 square
metres (IV2 H.A.), yielding, after being husked, 15 picols
rice. The total production of the isle of Java was in

1895 3(3.702.450

1896 33.354.200

1897 35.194.600

1898 35.935.550

1899 37.500.000

1900

39.887.200

1901

35.481.150

1902

36.962.300

1903

37.057.140

1904

38.257.090

1905

37.288.080

1906

39.442.662

1907

38.864.812

Coifee.

§ 1. Kiml of soil.

The coffee-tree flourishes in the isle of Java at auv
height under 4000 feet, although the elevation, best suitable
for it, varies between 1500 to 3000 feet. This regards the
ordinary Java coffee-tree, the Liberia coffee-tree, on the
contrary, grows best in level grounds.

Too heavy clay-grounds are not at all suited for
the coffee-culture, neither is sandy soil generally; however,
very tine plantations are found on the sand-grounds of
the Kloet. Mixed grounds, not too firm, of a dark colour
and full of vegetable-mould are the best. Stony ground
must not always be rejected and certainly not when the
stones are so mixed with the ground as to form a natural
drainage, which generally assures good vegetation.

§ 2. Reclainti)ir/ awl anyniginr/ the phntaiion^.
The reclaiming of the grounds takes place in the
beginning of the dry season and is done in several wavs.

10

In places where there are forests, these are completely
cleared, avoiding, however, the destruction the wood by fire
so as to prevent burning the vegetable-mould at the same
time. Some people burn the wood as much as possible and
mix the ash with the soil; others again — although
rarely — leave part of the forest, pull down the rest, clean
the ground and then set the plants, so securing them a
little shade.

Those who destroy the forest entirely do not negleet
to leave some rows of trees on the windward side, in order
to protect the young trees.

The level grounds are cleared of all sorts of wild
ffrass, and sometimes thev are then tilled bv means of the
^patjol", seldom with the plough.

On the slopes, clearing is only done by the hand or
by means of the „arit" (a kind of bent knife), as the patjol
makes the mould too loose, so that, in the time of heavy
rains, it would be washed down to tlie plains. To prevent
the latter inconvenience terraces are formed; these can
be tilled with the patjol without harm.

In no lands whatever is „alang-alang" (a kind of
long grass) allowed to remain; this injurious weed must
be uprooted, dried and destroyed by fire.

Generally, in Java, holes are made before putting the
plants into the ground. To this eud, in the cleaned ground
holes are made of 2 feet diametre and 2 feet depth, which
are left open to the air for two months, after which period

11

they are tilled with good soil, or soil mixed with manure.
It is however scarcely ever possible to obtain manure in
sufficient quantity. Besides in fallow grounds this would
mean a superfluous expense.

The young plant, thus placed in good ground, grows
rapidly and soon bears fruit, but as soon as the root touches
the harder and less fertile soil at the bottom and at the
sides of the hole, the tree commences to languish and often
dies shortly afterwards. To avoid this evil the hole is en-
larged by means of the patjol before filling.

When the grounds are prepared in the above-men-
tioned way, jDaths are traced in tliem and, in the plains ditches
are made for draining purpose; next, trees are planted to
obtain the shade required, whenever the trees which have
been left intact are not sufficient.

§ 3. Trees for (jii'liitj sJiaiJe.

The „dadap" (hypophorus subumbrans) and the
,Albizzia molucana" are commonly used in order to en-
sure shade.

Of late very successful experiments luvve been made
with the ,,Pithe colobium saman". This tree, being of a
ver\' vigorous growth and affording dense shade the
trimming thereof is very expensive, consequently the
tree is rarely used. For some years past the „Deguelia
microphyha" has been used: it soon shoots, does not
become too tall and does not give too much shade. Tlic

12

„dadap" however is to be preferred above all other shel-
tering-trees ; unfortunately during the last twelve years the
tree is subject to all kinds of diseases, so that it had ne-
cessarily to be replaced by another kind.

The more elevated the ground, the less shade it
requires, so that, consequently, the distance between the
trees varies according to the elevation. In plantations under
3000 feet high, the „dadap" is planted at a distance of
12 by 12 feet (1 feet = 3 decimetres), at an elevation of
upwards of 3000 feet it is planted at a distance of 18 by
12 feet ; provided the coffee be planted at a distance of
6 by 6 feet ; in case this distance is 6 by 8 feet, the dis-
tance of the ,,dadap" must be respective^ 12 b}' 16 and
18 b}" 16 feet, and when the coffee is planted at a distance
of 10 by 10 the „dadap" must be respectively 12 by 20 and
18 by 20 feet apart. 0 The „Albizzia molucana" should
not be planted less than from 24 by 30 feet in grounds
respectively under and above 3000 feet.

Although the „dadap'" is inferior to the „Albizzia",
with respect to the sliade produced, the former tree is
preferred, however, because it has not, like the „Albizzia",
the drawback of being vei y frail and often losing branches,
which in their fall break the coffeetrees down.

To plant the dadap, young off-shoots of 2V2 feet in

1) The distance between the sheltering-trees depend not onl}' on the eleva-
tion, but ali^o on the climate. In a rainy climate the plants are not set so thickly
as in a drv climate.

Seed-plots for tlie coll'ee-tree.

riaiitation of Liberia cotl'ee.

length are used, which, at a slight incline, are put into
the ground. The „Albizzia", on the contrary, is sown. The
seed is left in lukc-warm water for one night and then
sown in seed-plots. The sheltering-trees are planted at
the same time or some months before the young coffee-
trees, as the latter want light and a certain quantity of
sunshine during the first year. If there is too much shade,
the young coffee-tree grows to too great a height.

§ 4. The plKHtitiij of the coffee-tree.

The coffee-tree is sown. The ripe berry, after having
been freed from its husk and washed with water mixed
with ash, to take off the sHmv substance surrounding the
grain, leaves a bean composed of two parts (the so-called
masculine coffee-bean forms one whole) in a husk. These
parts are sown separately In the beginning of the year,
from January to April, according to the height in question
(in high grounds earlier), the grains, so prepared, are planted
a little under the surface, at a distance of 15 em. ajjart,
in well (artificially) shaded sced-jDlots.

Twice as many grains are sown as the number

of trees required, because the grains do not all thrive !

equally well and also to reserve plants for replacing the

i
dead ones. I

As the plant develops the cover of the seed-plots

i
is parth' removed, and this is done entirely, as soon as \

the i^lant has reached a height of "'U feet (20 to 25 cM.)

14

Care should be taken that the young plants are always
watered, the ground cleared of the wild grass and loosen-
ed from time to time.

In the beginning of the rain-season, in the month
of December, the plants are transferred from the seed-plot
to the plantations, the roots covered with a layer of earth.
Many people neglect this last precaution and transport the
plants in bundles.

In the plantation grown-up plants are not alwa3'S
used; oftentimes young off-shoots which have grown up
from fallen grains, are taken from under the old trees.

§ 5. Transjjorf uf the ijokikj plants.

On the spot, destined for the plant, a hole is made
by means of a stick, or also a „patjor'; the plant is put
in it, care being taken not to bend the root; then the
hole is filled and the soil around stamped. The distance
between the plants must be from 6 to 8 feet for trees of
say 10 years old; from 8 to 8 feet for trees of from 11 to
15 years, and of from 6 to 10 feet for trees of more than
15 3'ears of age.

§ 6. MaiiitetiaHce of the Plantation.

When the plants are in the soil, the plantation
should be cared for, i. e.: it must be kept clean. The
grass which is not harmful, can be left, but that which
multiplies at the roots must be plucked out and then

s|iit'nil our ovti' till' l;i-i iii;!'l. In l>'vr-l m"in;'l- ai:'l r>-v-
rai'cs thr si.iil is m;ulf lnusi'. I.\ irioaiH "f ilii- ..jiarj'.i .
(iiicc licfufr ami lUii-r at'tt'i' the iaiii--<_'a-i ai. until thi- i"Mrr;>
\'<'ai': rlic'U this ii|M'rai I'.ni is (•iri'ctr''l (>ni'-' a \i_-ai nc m!]..'
cvt'iA' two x'cais. < hi sluix's. rl;is ini'tliO'l i'aiin"t Ix- i' lilnwi !.
It'sf ti'ii murii vcuTtalili'-Mii niM --liiiiilil \,o lost i:i tl.t- i.i-av\-
rain-^. Next, tlu' \-omi^- olt'-slii lots wliidi i'iiMrii;ii;ili\- -jv w
u\) at till' foot iif the plants must In' cari-fullv" ici;.; iv.-l
an>l thr „ila(hqi" or tliL' ..Albizzia" Ir.ipjiO'l, ^o tliat it 2'i' 'W-
moro lapidK ainl ijncs imt jirM.lucr. tno mui-h -iia-lf.

1 lurini;' the lirst two Ncars laimui-liim;' a:. 'I 'l>-a'l
plants (.r troi's arc tn lie i'i'i;'ulail\ r(:'}ila<-iM_l.

Man\" |ioo])lc rt'iiiovr the xuunu; oiI-sim nit- at tin- r^p
of the tree, as sonn as this has re arho'l a iii'iu'ht <ii .'i t'l •;
fcot (tht.' Lihoria ^ r^ Id foot), in (T'Lt to f. .rcc tin- tivc to
U'vow in wiilth. In this way tlio (-(iitV-r-tri-.- can h" hifo:'
niaiutainci.t aiii] al-<o the fruit i- i'a-\" ■>! arct--.

F<ir the u'rowil: of tlio tivM-- riiis pi-o.-. -- :- :.,- :,• -
ccssarx': cofffc-trcos arc fnuml >>[ troiu H' t" la' \'cars .1'. 1.
which have ncxci iimlcit;' luc it. iuit it is vdw 'iiflicult Ik>
H'athcr tlic fruit when rho trees liavc rca^'hcl a hc:c-:.r .■!
fi'oni 1 "1 to Jii feet. In sueh case li'Mir- are reo;;:re 1 . iV ::.c
hrariches are lieut 'lowu h\ means >■{ cramp-ii. 'i,^ ias!c:.i i
to sticks, oltcu tu the urcat iletrim.cnt C't t':ie tree-. I'.cca.;-.'
of the disease wliich has ]>rcvaile'.l f>'i some \cars :;
coffee-trees, the mctluMl I'f joppinu' liie to'.> i:a< ;nu. ';. ;•-
nhrii--hed fur fear "f wcakenini;' tiie treo t'"' iViUi :.. wh. '..

16

lose many leaves and off-shoots through the disease. It is also
very difficult to remove continually the young off-shoots,
which unceasingly shoot out at tlie foot of the trees if
the tops are lopped. Nevertheless, here and there this
method is still followed.

Manure is onl}' used in barren grounds and then
most often around languishing trees. Stable-manure or dry
leaves are placed with care so as not to touch tlie roots. A
trench of a foot deep is dug, the manure is put in and
covered with soil.

§ 7. TJic crop and the jjrrjKirafidH.

At the end of 2 to 3 years already the tree com-
mences to bear fruit. However, only after 5 to 6 years
are abundant crops gathered, wliich on an average continue
until the IS^li year. Plantations of 40 years old and more are
found, but this is an exception. The coffee-tree blossoms
in the beginning of the rain-season; the crop-gathering takes
place about six or seven months after the blossoming.

Tlie fruit is prepared in the ordinar}^ way or in that
known as „the West Indian way". The latter method is
at present mostly adopted, because the coffee prepared in
this wa}' is most sought on the European markets.

The first method consists of letting the fruit dry in
the sun and taking off the covering by beating them with
a pestle, or by letting them pass between wooden or iron
disks. After this the coffee is cleared bv means of a fan

17

and sorted, either by the hand oi* by means of a cyHnder
provided of wire gauze with meshes of different sizes.

The method, known as the West Indian, consists of
husking the fruit directly after harvest. To this end, c}'-
linders are used propelled by steam or water. Next the
grain, thus discharged from the pulp, is washed in order
to remove the slimy matter, and is then dried in a drying
apparatus or thrashed and fanned to remove the last
husk.

The ordinary Java-coffee can be prepared in both
ways. The latter makes the bean shiny and ensures higher
prices on the European markets. For the Liberia-coffee the
last-named method is the only good one; without this tlie
coffee would have a bitter and disagreeable taste.

§ 8. Sorfi^ of Coffee.

Several sorts of coffee are cultivated in the isle of
Java, such as : ordinar}^ Java, Liberia, Mocca, Margogj-pe
and for 3 or 4 years past Robusta. The last 3 sorts are
only found in some small plantations : ordinary Java-coffee
is best represented. However, of late years, Liberia is
planted more and more as it is stronger and can resist
disease better than the ordinaiy Java which has been so
popular here for a long time.

It has been tried to graft the Java-coffee on the
„Liberia", up till now however there is but one plantation
where this operation is carried out on a large scale.

18

The so-called „ masculine" coffee is not a special sort,
but a casuality, the fiuit containing only one grain instead
of two.

§ 9. The disease of the cofi'ee-tree.

It is a known fact that for 17 years past, the coffee-
culture has much to suffer from a disease, called the „He-
mileia vastatrix', a mildew which attacks first the leaves.

This mildew is to be recognized bv an orang-e-coloured
matter that appears itself at the baek side of the leaves
and can be removed by the hand. When the disease con-
tinues, the attacked leaf falls, the branches and the fruit
grow black and the fruit decay's. Large plantations have
hereby been completely destroyed in a few months; no
disease has ever caused such disaster to the culture.

Numerous eHorts have been made to prevent the disease.

First it was believed that it was better to make
the soil loose and manure it more. The trees grew
stronger and could better resist the disease, but .... the
evil continued to pro})agate.

Then antiseptic remedies were aj)plied to combat it
and preservatives to prevent the disease. Trials have been
made on a large scale in watering the plants with an in-
fusion of tobacco or with Bouillon Bordelaise. The attacked
parts of the young leaves have been pricked with sulphuric
acid, or the plantations have been protected on the wind-
side by growing hedges to prevent the germs in the air.

19

from penetrating into the plantations. For a long time it
was believed that the best results were obtained by water-
ing the seed-plots and the young plants with an infusion
of tobacco and by the growing hedges around the plan-
tations in the plains (on slopes it is difficult to protect
the plants b\ hedges), but this method has been abandoned
and strongly manuring the coffee-trees has been tried.

However, none of those remedies has been of much
avail; the disease continues to destroy plantations and
many a planter has been ruined, especially those who
have their plantations in poorer grounds and in the
plains. Trees in the mountains, and planted in plots full
of vegetable-mould, resist the disease, and if they are at-
tacked, they do not suffer so much.

Coffee-trees have also much to endure from a louse
which causes leaves and branches to turn black, this
being the origin of the name of ,, black rust'' given to this
disease.

A disease caused by miscroscopic insects which
attack the roots of the coffee-trees, and in a short time
do considerable damage is called the ,,Aaltjesziekte." The
„konuk" and the „Ooret ", a kind of scaraboes that attacks
the roots of the coffee-trees, is another insect, called the
,,koffieborer"\ which destroys the trunk.

§ 10. Prorhirfio)ifi.

The coffee-culture in the isle of Java is practised

20

both by Government and by private persons ; the former is
a forced, the latter a free culture.

The

Government-culture yielded during the last

dozen vears, as follows:

The private culture

in 1895

319839

picols

378801 picols

„ 1896

263739

,.

451735

„ 1897

474368

540403 „

„ 1898

91731

227710 „

„ 1899

198708

552040

„ 1900

222110

414384 „

„ 1901

134315

253305

„ 1902

238347

517395

„ 1903

305071

460469 „

„ 1904

87343

284817- „

„ 1905

87415

362671 „

„ 1906

168343

318185

„ 1907

30702

195116 „

21

Sugar.

§ 1. lu the isle of Java different sorts of sugar-cane
are cultivated, especially one, known as the black Cheribon-
cane which is of a red or brown colour. The natives, however,
cultivate preferentially a kind of white cane for the inte-
rior market because it develops more amply. At one time
the white cane was also used by manufacturers, because
it was believed that it was less subject to the prevailing
disease, viz. : the ,,sei-eh", which proved, nevertheless, to
be an error.

With a view to this disease several sorts of sugar-
cane have been tried, such as the Madagascar, the Mauritia,
the Sandwich, Borneo and New-Zealand, but none of them
could resist it. The Fidji-cane is very hardy, but it con-
tains but little sugar and therefore is rarely cultivated.

§ 2. In Java the sugar-cane is cultivated according to
two methods, called the ,,broedjoelan" and the ,,Reynoso"
system. For the first-named method the soil is completely
tilled and trenches are dug at an equal distance of from
three feet (1 ft. = 31 cM.); in these trenches at a distance

22

of one or two feet apart oblong holes are made, in which
after some time the pieces of sugar-cane are deposited.
For the second method the soil is not tilled, but trenches
of 16 by 25 ft. in width and 12 ft. in depth are dug at from
3 to 5 ft. apart. The soil is thrown between the trenches,
then holes, as mentioned above, are made.

§ 3. For the slioots, both systems use the tops of the
cane, cut at a length of 1 feet, after having taken off the
green extremities. They are held for some time in streaming
water and then are placed horizontally or slightly inclined
in the holes. Sometimes the shoots are also first placed
in seed-plots.

Because of the disease, called „sereh", some people
dissuaded the constant use of the upper, and therefore
the younger part, of the cane for shoots. The}' thought
that hereby the plant was weakened and rendered more
liable to the disease and thej' advised the use of a stronger
part. This advice has been conformed to, but without result.

Afterwards they went farther still; instead of taking
cane-shoots, cane seed has been sown. Doctor Saltwedel
was successful in this process with the j'ellow cane, imported
from Hawai. This method has yielded good results. At
present several kinds of cane are cultivated with success
by the seed-sowing method.

§ 4. In Java the sugar-cane is cultivated in ,,sawahs"
(rice-fields) and on grounds serving for diyer cultures such
as rice (this very seldom occurs). Clay-, as well as sand3'-soil

Plaiil;ili(in ol sui;ai'aiif.

Sugarcane, altaoked by the disease, calKi .sereh".

•23

are made use of to a height of 2000 feet. In the irrigation
and drainage great care must be taken. As a rule, the
ground is tilled about the months of March and April
and planting is commenced in the month of July. This
month falling in the middle of the dry-season the young
plants are watered. Before and after the planting, the soil
is manured with ammonia** sulphate and carvi cakes. The
cane ripens within ten to fourteen months in the plains;
in higher grounds it takes not less than 18 months. The
crop is gathered from .Tune till October.

§ 0. When the cane is ripe, it must be cut as soon
as possible, as otherwise the sap diminishes in quantity
and also diminishes in quality. It is cut off level with the
ground or plucked out by the roots. In the fields the leaves
are taken off and the tops are cut to serve for the new
planting.

§ R. After the crop the cane is transported to the
mill to be crushed. The wood, dry leaves and ground cane
are used as fuel. The average production of cane of one baoe
(0^700(i49 Hectare) amounts to 900 picols (= 56000 K"-^);
sometimes double this quantity is reached.

As soon as the cane has been cut and transported
to the mill, it is pressed between cylinders, two of which
are placed horizontally and another above them. By this
simple oj^eration about Of) to TO per cent of the weight
of the cane is reduced to sap. Much sugar is .><till left in
the remainders (called the ,,ampas'") and. for this reason

24

manufacturers endeavour to extract still more from it by
submitting the cane to a double, triple and even quad-
ruple pressure with imbibition of warm water, with the
result that they obtain as high a percentage as 80 per cent.
With the same purpose, in some mills the diffusion-method
was applied by which up to 90 % of sap was extracted.
This method did not consist of pressing the cane, but in
cutting it in slices, which were then washed. This method
is no longer applied.

The sap obtained by jDressure subsequent to its
transfer from the press to the weighing tanks, is filtered
and purified. The purification in many mills is obtained
by warming the sap, after mixing it with lime, boiling it
in pans, while taking off the scum, and b}- jDrecipitating
it. Then the sap is submitted to a pressure in filter-
presses, until only dry cakes are left, which, however, still
contain much sugar.

There is another method which is more expensive,
but on the other hand better. It is the saturation- or car-
bonisation-method. The sap is saturated with lime and is
then precipitated with carbonic acid, after which operation
it is pressed in filters.

The purified sap is then transferred to an engine
of triple or four-fold power, where it is evaporated under
a gradually decreasing atmospheric pressure and condensed
to 30" Beaume. This sap undergoes another purification in
ehmination-pans or in filters and is then boiled in the

Transporting the .sugarrane to llio. fabric.

Intorior of a siigarfaliric (engines of triple or four fold power and vaeuunisV

'>.->

vacuum. The sugar thus obtained — after having been
cooled — is then put into centrifugal machines to eliminate
the molasses. In order to remove the last trace and so
to get ver}- white sugar, the pi'oduct is finally exposed to
a fine spray of water or steam.

The sugar, on leaving these machines, is dried in the
sun or artificially and then packed in ,,krand,jangs" (kind
of basket) of about 2 picols.

The molasses obtained by the centrifugal machine
still contain sugar. Therefore, they are once more boiled in
the vacuum to pass for the second time through the cen-
trifugal machine after having been cooled. However, even
then they still contain sugar, but it is very difficult to extract
it. For this reason, the manufacturers let the molasses run
into the rivers or distil, like the Tjomal-mill. alcohol (arrack)
from them.

As said above, dry leaves or the „ampas" which leaves
the mills is used as fuel for the machines ; sometimes also
wood (seldom coal). In the ovens, specially constructed for
this purpose, the wet ampas is used, but mostly it is dried
in advance in the sun.

§ 7. The sugar-manufacturers in .lava have two
experimental stations where trials are continually made
upon the culture and production of sugar by specialists and
learned men in the sphere of tropical agriculture.

§ 8. On an average 115 picols of sugar are produced

26

per baoe (0,709649 Ha); there are mills which j-ield 160
picols.

The total sugar production iu the isle of Java was :

in 1895:

„ 1896

„ 1897

„ 1898

„ 1899

„ 1900

„ 1901

„ 1902

„ 1903

„ 1904

„ 1905

„ 1906

„ 1907

9454441
8697000
9471249
11175280
12301689
12031987
13091388
14435138'
14921096
17037313
16834180
16041195
18138304

(195 fabrics

(190 „

(191

(178 „

(175 „

(186

(185

(188 „

(183 „

(184 „

(183 „

(176

(1" «

iSeed-plols lor tlie Peruvian liaik.

Preparing tiie grouiiila for planting the Peruvian bark.

•J,l

Peruvian bark.

§ 1. The sorts of Peruvian bark mostly planted in
the isle of Java are the Ledgeriana, the Officinales, and
the Succirubra; especially the Ledgeriana, because of its
great intrinsic value. This value is inferior in other sorts,
which are however greatly appreciated for their pharma-
ceutic bark. The demand for this bark being limited and
the planters fearing to keep an article without value in
case of overproduction, these trees are only planted in
small numbers. The same is true of the Officinales, as it
grows slowly and best in high regions, which are avoided,
however, being less appropriate for the Ledgeriana.

§ 2. The favourite sort is consequently the Ledge-
riana. However, as this tree does not grow so quickh" as
the Succirubra, because of its being more susceptible to
disease, many planters have been endeavouring of late years
to graft the Ledgeriana on the Succiiaibra and with success,
for experience has proved that the trunk below the graft
effects but very little the value of the Ledgeriana.

The grafting is done in the open air, generally after

•2S

0

tlie sticking-mothod. similar tn that applidl in Europ
to tine plants like the Azalias. The wax is made by mixing
^ parts of re-in witli "2 parts "i fat. which are melted and
then poured into i-uld water.

ij :;. Many other planters however, still follow the
old method iif eultuiing hy sowing. This is done in beds
whicli are then entirely eovured. In 20 days to a month
the grains begin to slinut.

If moss (11- mould find their way among tlie plants
and prevent their growth, th^- little shotjts are removed and
replanted in similar lieds. but at etpial distances of ') cM.
and this uprratiim is repeated as soon as the plants have
reached a height of frcm 10 to I ."i centimetres: the dis-
tance is tlicu 15 cM.

If moss nr mould d<i nut hamper the growth and
sowing has n^t lieen done too densel\. the original planting
ma\- be left ti:) grow. The >econd planting is often done
under ferns, which have lieen placed in the suil between the
\(Hmg plants so as to shade them. When the young plants
are sufiicientK' devclopcil the shade is supertluous. Plants
of more than half a foot lugh hai'dly need this shade.

i; 4. Nine or thirteen months after the grains have
been sown. })lants of 1 foot high, are obtained which can
be trans])lanted to the prepared grounds, where they are
planted, the Succirubra in .", and the Ledgeriana in 4
s([uarc feet of groun^l each; it is better, however, to wait
until tlie plants have reached a height of 1 metre.

Seed-plots for the Peruvian bark.

Jounc Peruvian barks.

^ .">. The in;iinrfiianri' nf ;i Pi'nivi.ni l';irl<-]il;nitati"i;
is VfiA similar in tliai uf a cMlic-jilatitatii .n. A - tin' jiiai.r-
i^Tiiw iliisi'i' tog't'thcr, tiif w'rnN il<) iiiit u'l'iiw- SI 1 aliiin-
(laiitK. ^'iviiiL'; risi' tu Ics- lalMnir. \v -i-cn al)i)vc. \v!ii-i.
ilt^iliiisj; with tlu' cMl't'cc-ciiltiirc, tlu'ic aii' piM .jjIi- wiio niaki-
holt's ill tlir ii'l'Munil til put till' jilatits iu, ainl i ithf-rs rir-ni-h
the s,,il.

^ •;. TIk.' Pi'i'iiviaii liark is siilijiTt to <ht'ti"iciit kin 1-
ni ilisi'asc ;

1. Tlif di^ra'^i- nf the I'lMits. wliidi ruts thcni fiif till'
UTi'attT part. I'lic miK" mctluHl ri> rx[)(;'l ihc f'uni;i whirh
attack the idots. i^ fn pnll mit tlu' iiifn-fcd ]il;i!ir-~ aii-l
ilisinfrct thf soil. The u]ii-iiiiti'il plants iiiii>t lie iiurnt ^n
the spot.

■2. The iiist. a mikk'w wliicli attacks thi' lirau'-in'-
anil kills tlionn The iliscascil litanchis arc cut nil. the
liaik is c(.(llc(-tcil anil the .at'tcctcil parts aic hurnt.

:'. The .Jlclnpcltis" is the wm-c disease (it tlie Pcr;-
vian liarks. It is cau-ei] li\ injects, called Ijclnpclti- I'.indii.
The\ pi'ick their wa\ actnss the surface ni tiie leave- m
the \iiun,e- l)ranches and siu-k nut ilic su]i. Tiie priclvci
spnt lilackens, the nther pait t>i the leaf and th.».' vounu'
hraiinhes curl up. .\s \-et there i> nn an\" ntliei- reniedv kti' 'wr.
against the disease hut tn Inp ntl the attacked 'part- ar. i
liurn thoni. whili' the iirsccts arc laue'ht and destrnxcd.

>; 7. When (I tn > \,.ars nld, tiie l'<ruviati i\irk-
are lit tn he leathered. .\t lirst tliis i- m'.K" a tiiinr.;!..;

30

operation. When 4 years old a small crop is already ob-
tained by lopping the trees. The lopping of the trees is
regularly continued until the tree has attained to matu-
rity and is fit to be cut down.

The crop is gathered in four different ways, viz. :

1. The whole tree is dug out;

2. It is chopped off at the root;

3. The bark is cut in bands and the tree is wrapped
up in moss, that the bark may recover;

i. The bark is scraped off by means of a small
plane up to the cambium. Generally, onty half of the
bark is taken off and the other half is not touched till
the first is sufficiently restored. The bark is peeled off
with knives of bamboo or horn. Iron knives wound the
bark or discolour it.

In Java all four ways have been tried, but gradually
the greater part of the planters have broken with the
methods mentioned under 2, 3 and 4 above, and keep ex-
clusively to the first mentioned, i. e. digging out the
whole tree.

§ 8. The gathered bark is dried in the sun, on
drying-apparatus or over the fire on iron-plates. On one side
of the plates, which rest on little walls, there is the oven and
at the other side the chimney so as to permit the fire
and smoke to pass under the plates. More expensive
drying-apparatus is the Jackson's siroccos in which the
fire itself causes the air-circulation.

Pt-nivian barks sliU young.

^^

J :''.*[. .lit" I' •y^

Cropping the Peruvian bark.

-^ <^:s-..>«: .-n^, .*■ -^

An ostaiilishment on a Peruvian bark planUitiou.

31

• § 9. The sorting and packing-

of the Peruvian bark

must be carefully carried out.

In commerce the Peruvian barks are distinguished |

1

in two principal classes, viz. I. those destined for manu-

facturing sulfate of quinine, and 2.

those for the use of i

pharmacy for extracts, colours, wines, &c. In sorting the

barks for the manafacturing of sulfate of quinine care

must be paid to have barks of an equally intrinsic value

of quinine; while in the sorting for the use of pharmac}' a

good appearance should especially be

considered.

§ 10. The production of Peruvian bark in the isle

of Java was in :

1895 3950667

K'^^

1896 3826085

ji

1897 3403102

n

1898 4513815

n

1899 5092608

n

1900 5668795

n

1901 6316090

Kos

1902 6433421

:;

1903 7122589

n

1904 8652954

»

1905 8052648

n

1906 5972550

r>

1907 8985816

•D

Drving-appuratus lor I'l/iiivian Ijarlc.

33

Tobacco.

ij 1. Tobacco nourishes ti-om the sea-shore to a
height of tiOOO Metres up the mountains: nevertheless,
the lower regions must be preferred, as the manufacturing
can be done with less trouble on account of great damp-
ness or heavy winds.

The crops from the higher grounds dry but slowly
and sometimes onl}^ on the outside, so that the product
gets mouldy and often becomes quite valueless.

Soil composed of a mixture of clay with sand (es-
pecially when it contains vegetable-moiild) is most adap-
ted to the tobacco-culture : the situation and tiic climate
arc also of great importance. It must be possible to draiu
the plots and the plants must from time to time be wat-
ered by rain.

§ 2. To obtain good tabacco. it is necessary to use
good seed. This is taken from the best developed plants,
and only those grains the development of which can be
relied upon are plucked.

34

Towards the time that the tobacco-plants are top-
ped, the planter selects on his field those parts where the
plants are best developed and are likely to produce
good seed.

These parts are then surrounded by hedges and
are very carefully tended until the tiny fruit is ripe. When
the ripe fruit has been plucked, they are dried in the
sun ; the husks burst and the grains fall. The}' are pre-
served in hermetically closed bottles.

§ 3. Formerly sorts of tobacco, originally from Java,
were planted. The leaves were too small and not broad
enough, they were not in demand in Europe, so that
other sorts were used. At first Dutch tobacco was taken,
it grew very well, but soon degenerated. Then Havanna-
and Manilla-tobacco were tried. The trials with Havanna-
tobacco did not answer. The quality changed entirely
and consequently became unfit for commercial use. Trials
made with Manilla-tobacco had a better result. This sort
also degenerated, but this was the very cause of its
yielding qualities which made it ..par excellence" fit for
treatment. It lost its taste and perfume, but preserved
its original flexibility, so that it could be used for treating
all kinds of tobacco.

Plants of Deli-tobacco have also been tried with
good results.

4? 4. The grains are directly sown in the plots,
mixed with wood-ash. Also, but more rarely, the grains

Piantalion of labacco.

Pressing tobacco to bales

■JO

before being sown, are germinated on moistened sheets,
which became necessary to protect the grains in the plots
from injury caused by ants.

When the grains have germinated, which is to be
seen by their changing of colour, they are removed from
the sheets, mixed with ash and then sown on the plots.

The seed-plots are similar to those used for the
cultivation of coffee, only instead of fixed coverings,
they are adjustable to permit the regulating of the
light.

Much care must be taken of the grains in tlie
plots. At first they should be watered at least twice a
day ; the sun is only allowed to penetrate in the morning.
After some time one watering suffices, and only the after-
noon-sun sliould be avoided.

§ 5. When the plants are about 40 or 50 days old,
they may be transplanted in the prepared grounds. It is
necessary also to protect them during the early days
against the sun, which is done by covering each plant
with a bent leaf fixed in the soil, or the plants are cov-
ered with a little rice-straw. At the very first they also
need to be watered.

After two weeks the covering is taken away and
the ground around the phmts nuide loose. Later on this
process is repeated by means of the patjol (a kind of
spade).

Genei'ally the plants are set at a distance of from

36

IV2 to 3 feet. As soon as the plants have reached a
height of one foot, the lower leaves are taken off and the
trunks covered with clods. The latter manipulation is
repeated once or twice. When the plants have nearly
reached their complete development, they are topped in
order to prevent the blossoming and to accelerate hereby
the development of the leaves.

This topping demands much care. If too many
leaves are removed, the remaining ones become thick and
heav}' : if, on the other hand, not enough are lopped, the
leaves remain small.

After the topping the tobacco is left to develop
for two weeks more until complete maturity, so that it
may benefit, if possible, from some showers which take
away a kind of fat fronr the leaves, increasing hereby their
inflammability.

>? 6. Within 65 to 00 days the tobacco is ripe,
which is evident from the fact that tlie leaves begin to
droop. The leaves are then plucked one by one, strung
and tlien liung up in the drying-shed, oi- the plant is cut
off a little above the ground and in that way many leaves
are hung up at a time, the lower leaves have the greatest
value, these are alwa3's plucked first one by one.

In the drying-sheds, which are constructed of wood
and bamboo and covered with straw, and which as a rule
are 100' to 400' long and 30' to 60' wide, the tobacco is
strung on laths of bamboo and kept from the light. The

;}7

tobacco remains in tliis condition for BO to 40 days. Then
the leaves are taken off the laths and are sorted accord-
ing to tlieir length, their colour and their fineness : next,
they are bound in bundles of 40 to 50 leaves, wliicli are
transported to the fermentation-shed. In tliese sheds, most
of which are constructed of stone and covered with zinc,
the tobacco undergoes the last mani])ulation consisting
of fermenting, selection and in-essing of the bales.

The fermentation is done by putting tlie tobacco
in piles on a wooden floor. In the beginning the fermen-
tation-process is very quick, and therefore the piles are very
small and contain only from 5 to 10 lbs. of tobacco.
After a few days the piles are made loose and increased
until b}- the end of the fermentation time they contain
60 or 80 thousand lbs. In making the piles, perforated cases
of bamboo are laid in them to hold thermometers, so that
at any moment the increase of temperature inside the
piles ma}- be ascertained and thus the piles can lie made
loose at the proper time. And this is very necessarv. as
the temperature of tobacco may increase in a single dav
to such a pitch as to cause tire.

If the temperature remains the same as that of out-
side the fermentation is finished. The tobacco is taken
off the piles and is once more sorted.

When the tobacco lias been pressed to bales of
150 to 200 lbs. and sewn into mats, it is read\- tor ship-
ment.

38

§ 7. The production of tobacco destined for Eui'ope
in the isle of Java was

1895 9807222 kilogr.

1896 13286012 „

1897 16354371 „

1898 18618375 „

1899 24329570 „

1900 22277198 „

1901 12372592 „

1902 26289534 „

1903 26886370 „

1904 30407491 „

1905 29934558 „

1906 29238596 ,.

1907 37892449

/

39

Tea.

i? 1. The tea-plant is a shrub cultivated in the isle
of Java at a height of from 500 to 3000 feet, in different
soils, generally clay -grounds mixed witli vegetable-mould
and drained as much as possible.

§ 2. Tea is propagated by seed which must be fresh,
to ensure its prompt growth. The seed is ripe when the
seed-coat bursts and drops the grains which have a dark-
brown colour and are picked up from the ground.

Each husk contains 1 to 3 grains. It is estimated
that of a quantity of fresh seed -/s take, whilst, when
using seed of one or two months old, this will be the
case with onl}' Vi to Vio.

§ 3. The culture of grains is done on beds or the
grains are carried to tlie plot and sown at a depth of
from 3 to 5 centimetres in the soil, whicli has been thor-
oughly tilled beforehand, or thc}^ are laid in furrows of
9 cM. width and 12 cM. depth. These furrows have all

40

been open for a month already- and are iilled again a short
time before the sowing.

At every place where a tea-plant is desired. 2 or 3
grains are deposited at a distance of 2 to 3 feet from
each other, not too densely, so that, if more than one
grain should grow, there is a possibility of removing the
superfluous plants without doing harm to the i-est. Some
planters first germinate the grains by spreading them
over a shady spot and covering them with vegetable-
mould. When the grains commence swelling and bursting,
it is sufficient to plant one grain instead of three.

Sowing in beds is preferred, which is especiallv
necessary to obtain plants for filling in purposes, the
grains are set at distances of from 10 to 20 cM. after having
been laid in water for 24 hours. Those which float are
bad, those which sink to the bottom are good. From time
to time the grains require to be watered, as well as to
be shaded in the outset, if a good develojiment shoukl be
wished for.

§ 4. After the planting, care must be taken that
the plant develops regularly, this ensui-es a regular crop.

With this aim the languishing and dj-ing plants
should be replaced at once.

Two or three times a year each garden must be
turned over, and once everj^ month weeded in all parts,
while the soil round the plants must be kept liglit.

In the second or third year furrows are often dug

Assam tea-planls.

Harveslins diiai.^.' Ua.

41

between the plants of 3 to 12 feet long, 1 foot wide and
IV2 foot deep to ensure them more liglit.

Manure also is used, mostly oxen-manure mixed
with vegetable substances.

§ 5. As regards diseases, the tea-plant suffers mostly
from rust caused by an insect called ,,Heliopeltis theivora"
the same insect that attacks the Peruvian bark.

All kinds of measures have been adopted to stamp
out this disease, but in vain. The most effective measure
is killing the insects, lopping the shrubs and embedding
the whole cut-off mass, so as to annihilate the eggs which
the insect lays in the as yet tender and green shoots. The
surviving insects, finding no young leaves left, are con-
demned to death by want of food.

§ G. Tea-plants can be harvested in their third or
fourth year. The first harvest is but insignificant, and is
followed by a light lopping : afterwards the production
of leaves steadily inci'eases. If the tea-shrubs have been
planted well and thorougli care has been taken of them,
the harvest may continue, so to say. ad infinitum. The two
leaves at the oxtremity of the tree yield the finest tea,
viz: the „pecco", both the green tea as well as the black ;
the following leaf produces the ..souchon"' and the other
leaves the „conggo".

From time to time the shrubs must be forced to
form shoots and prevented from blossoming and so pro-
ducing seed. This is effected by a more or less thorough

42

lopping, not more than once a 3-ear. In plantations on
higher grounds it is often sufficient to lop the shrubs
once every two or three years. Tho best moment for lopping
is at the oncl of the dry soason. Forty days after the
lopping the plucking of the young leaves may be continued
again.

A productive garden yields from 1000 to 1200 lbs.
per baoe (7096,5 square metres) and per annum.

As mentioned above, the very same leaves of the
same sln-ub may produce green-, as well as black tea.
The first and second plucking after every lopping are
most favourable to the former sort of tea, especially during
the rain-season. For the rest the colour depends on the
preparation.

§ 7. To make green tea (which is rarely done) in
Java the freshly -plucked leaves must be manipulated at
once; i. e.: roasted in well-warmed stoves; in this way.
the fermentation or oxydation is prevented, which is ne-
cessary for the preparation of black tea and which is pro-
duced by dispersing the fresh leaves and making them
fade. The leaves then assume a velvet-like aspect and on
joressing a small quantity in the hand they become some-
what like glutin. Then they are ground and rolled
incessantly for some time.

The grinding and the rolling is almost always done
by machinery, mostly by the „Excelsior" or the ,,Rapid"
machine of Jackson and others, consisting principally of

Machinery for grilling and rolling the tea.

Drying llio tea.

43

two polished wheels, horizontally placed at some distance
the one from the other, each having an opposed rota-
tory movement and so rolling the tea between them.
After having been rolled for 10 or 12 minutes, the tea
is put on small tanks to get its colour, to oxidate and
to ferment b}" the influence of the air. These tanks are
a kind of cube made of interlaced bamboos ; they are pro-
vided with little feet so that a quantity of them may be
placed one upon the other without preventing the air
from penetrating.

When the tea is of the required colour, it is con-
veyed to the drying-shed, where it is dried in warmed air
or roasted in stoves.

i^ 8. About fifteen years ago only China-tea was
planted in the isle of Java. Little by little this custom
altered and the China tea gave wa\- for the Assam-tea
and the different hybrids between Assam- and China-tea.
Now-a-days these sorts predominate and will entirely replace
the China tea, as they are much stronger.

In wild condition the Assam plant becomes a tree
with a ti'imk of from 15 to 20 feet thick, whilst the China-
tea shrub remains small and only reaches a height of from
6 to 7 feet. In cultivated eondition the former plant reaches
a height of from 3 to 5 feet, but develops in table-form
with a diameter of 4 to 10 feet, the latter reaching no
more than 2 or 8 feet. The leaves of Assam-tea grow to
a length of 9 — 15 cM.. those of Cliina-tea at most to 4 (M.

44

Besides, the production of leaves of Assam-tea is
more abvindant than of China tea.

§ 9. The production of tea in the isle of Java was

1895

4746588

Kos

1896

3916389

V

1897

4205576

Tl

1898

4757166

J1

1899

5452773

»

1900

6636571

■n

1901

7086301

»)

1902

7523442

»

1903

10725327

V

1904

10487037

71

1905

10228628

V

190G

11961709

V

1907

11494665

?1

45

Indigo.

§ 1. The kinds of indigo, generalh- cultivated in
the isle of Java, are the Guatemala, originating from
Central America, and the Natal. Indigo is a shrub with
reddish flowers and oval leaves, the latter containing the
colouring matter that is extracted from them by means
of fermentation.

The indigo-shrub is cultivated in plains, on light.
mixed grounds, which must have been deepl\- trenched
three or four times; as a rule, on plots that mav be irri-
gated (rice-fields) and it is propagated bv sowing or (sel-
dom, however) by shoots.

§ 2. In May and June the seed is planted in beds,
having a light roof to protect the small plants against
the great sun-warmth ; during the first few days the\- must be
watered. Often the seed is covered with straw, that is
removed after 3 or 5 days.

After a month the seeds are fit to be planted in
the soil.

§ 3. Generally, the plants are transplanted in the

46

prepared soil in tlie months of Maj^, June or July and
planted 1 to 2 feet apart, they are then about 20 cM.
high. They are planted in irrigated soil, if possible.

It also happens that the indigo is sown directly in
the prepared ground.

§ 4. During the first few weeks after the planting
nothing is done but to substitute the languishing and
dying plants by fresh plants, then the soil must be turned
over and weeded from time to time until the plants have
quite matured, which is after about 5 to fi months; they
are then about 3 or 3V-2 feet. The blossoming is the sign
of maturity.

The plants are also covered with clods of earth.

§ 5. This is the moment for the first crop which,
three months later, is followed by the second harvest,
general^ the largest. Three and sometimes four times the
cutting may be done. The cut-off leaves (or shoots) are tied
in bundles on the field and immediate!}' transported to
the manufactory where, as much as possible in standing
position_, the bundles are placed in fermentation-basins,
covering them with an horizontal layer of indigo-plants
of from G to 12 cM. thickness.

Next, the basins are filled with water to about
6 cM. above the plants, these being kept immerged by
hurdles formed of laths of bamboo 1 centimetre apart ;
these hurdles are pressed down by beams. The process of
fermentation soon commences and lasts from 4 to 5 hours,

Shrubs of Uuatainala indigo.

Basin;;, in winch the niiligo water is put in constant contact with te oxygen of the atmosphere bv
tnrning wheels proviileil with zinc pails till the indigo precipitates.

accordino- to the temperature and the nature of tlie plants.
It is always diflficult to tix the exact moment at which
the fermentation-process is completely finished : a long
experience alone teaches this.

After the fei'mentation, the water, which must
smell like beer and be coloured yellowish green, is allowed
to run avay from the fermentation-basin into another
basin placed below, where it is at once set in motion by
a wheel provided with zinc pails. The turning movement
of the wheel causes the water every time to be taken up
by the pails and to be ejected again from a certain
height. In this way 240 litres of water come into contact
with the oxvgen of the atmosphere and gradually the
colour changes from yellowish-green into green or dark-green
and the indigoprecipitates.

The turning of the wheel is stopped as soon
as the grains of indigo are distinctly noticeable and sep-
arate themselves from the water. Then all must be allowed
to clarify, whicli takes 2 oi- li hours: after that the water
is poured off and the paste resulting therefrom is collected
in filtering-basins from which the water oozes, this pro-
cess lasting 5 to ti hours. The paste is now taken otfthe
filtering-cloth and put in casks, which are conveved to the
kitchen where the paste is mixed witli a certain quantit\-
of water and then boiled, at the same time bcins .stirred
continually so as to avoid its burning.

When well boiled, the matter is poured on a filter-

48

ing-clotb where it is

left until the following day. Then

the substance is put

under the press (a kind of case, in

the sides of which holes are made covered with linen) in

order to extract all the water that it might yet contain.

The indigo is

now cut in tablets which are laid

on long wooden benches for 25 days in order to drv.

The last manipulation the tablets have to undergo

before being ready for

sale is their polishing after leaving

the mould. By this means they become of a brilliant pur-

ple colour. ^)

•

§ 6. The production of indigo in the isle of Java

was as follows, viz:

1895

600911 Kos.

1896

616678

1897

779738 „

1898

852663 „

1899

658301 „

1900

614347 .,

1901

613018 „

1902

601884

1903

721756 „

1904

522063

1905

331222

1906

289900 ,,

1907

144086 ,,

0 aome manufacturers work with warm water; they

1) For the Natal indig

than use whitewash, the exess ol

which they remove by acidified water.

300 J 3 F 6

University of British Columbia Library

_DATE DUE

FORM No 310

■:fl:'

:ii;Hi

mm.