CLEMENTS
Unversity Studies

QH

83
C55

o

VOL. III. DECEMBER, 1902 No. 1

UNIVERSITY STUDIES

Pubhshed by the University of .Nebraska

COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION

L. A. SHERMAN C. E. BESSEY

H. B. WARD W. G. L. TAYLOR

F. M. FLING, EDITOR

CONTENTS

GREEK AND LATIN IN BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
Frederic E. Clements 1

LINCOLN, NEBRASKA

Entered at the post-office in Lincoln, Nebraska, as second-class matter, as University
Bulletin, Series 7, No. 13

CONTENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY STUDIES, VOL. I

No. 1
/. On the Transparency of the Ether

BY DEWITT B. BRACE

2. On the Propriety of Retaining the Eighth Verb-Class in Sanscrit

BY A. H. EDGREN

j. On the Auxiliary Verbs in the Romance Languages
BY JOSEPH A. FONTAINE

No. 2

On the Conversion of Some of the Homologues of Benzol Phenol into
Primary and Secondary Amines

BY RACHEL LLOYD
Some Observations on the Sentence-Length in English Prose

BY L. A. SHERMAN
On the Sounds and Inflections of the Cyprian Dialect

BY C. E. BENNETT

No. 3

/. On the Determination of Specific Heat and of Latent Heat of Vapori-
zation with the Vapor Calorimeter

BY HAROLD N. ALLEN
2. On the Color Vocabulary of Children

BY HARRY K. WOLFE

j. On the Development of the King^s Peace and the English Local Peace
Magistracy

BY GEORGE E. HOWARD

No. 4

On a New Order of Gigantic Fossils

BY E. H. B ARBOUR

On Certain Facts and Principles in the Development of Form in
Literature

BY L. A. SHERMAN
On the DIKANIKOS LOGOS in Euripides

BY JAMES T. LEES

3

UNIVERSITY STUDIES

VOL. Ill DECEMBER, 1902 No. i

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature

FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS

"Nomina Veterum Graecorum et Romanorum plantis imposita
laudo, ad conspectum vero Recentiorum plurium horreo. Nee
mirum facttim ! quis enim Tyro de nominibus fuit unquam in-
structus? quis unquam dedit circa denominationem plantarum
praecepta, demonstrationes, exempla?" Linnaeus Critica Botan-
ica i 1737.

The following treatise is intended to serve as a compendium
of the principles of word-formation in Greek and Latin of suf-
ficient thoroughness to enable the biologist to construct in proper
manner any derivative desired. Further than this, various un-
fortunate usages which have obtained in nomenclature and the
many types of malformations will be considered in detail, and
suggestions will be made for their correction or. elimination.
The treatment throughout is based upon the conviction that no
biologist should be content with a nomenclature that is doubtful
or crude in its philology. On the other hand, ultra-purism, to-
gether with the mooted questions pertaining solely to the classi-
cal philologist, will be avoided, since nomenclature for the sake
of uniformity and stability must rest upon the assured. For
these reasons, also, it is felt that, while he must conform to the
best usage of the language, the nomenclator must go a step fur-
ther, and, in the case of uncertain or various usage, establish a
definiteness which the language itself did not know. Further
warrant is found for this in the fact that the careless hand of

Vol. Ill, No. 1, December, 1902.
32I

2 Frederic E. Clements

analogy is always busy throughout the life of a language, and,
also, in the fact that the lexicon must take account of all usage,
with the result that the cruder derivatives of formative and de-
cadent periods of the language are found alongside of the purer,
or at least more refined forms of the classical period.

While Kuntze's important contributions and the Rochester Code
have been notable ^achievements on the way toward nomen-
clatural reform, it has been evident from the first that botanists
had merely reached a temporary resting place, from which they
must sooner or later go forward to the ultimate goal — a uniform
and stable nomenclature and terminology of international recog-
nition. The failure to deal with the matter of generic types and
word-formation, both only less important than the cardinal prin-
ciple of priority, made a reopening of the question inevitable,
an event which is rapidly being brought about by the increasing
frequency of papers upon nomenclature. The zoologists, while
they have not gone so far in certain lines as the botanists, have
greatly anticipated them by their action at the Zoological Con-
gress of 1901, when they agreed to place zoological nomen-
clature upon a classical basis. Sooner or later, botanists must
take the same action. When this time comes, biological nomen-
clature will be in a fair way to become a symmetrical, stable
structure, based upon the two cardinal principles, priority and
classicity. There can be little difference of opinion in regard
to the repeated statement that nomenclature is merely an in-
strument in the hands of the biologist, and there should be just
as little question that the instrument should be a worthy and
ready one.

I.

Classical Greek and Latin are the basis of scientific nomenclature.

"Idiotae imposuere nomina absurda." Linnaeus Philosophia
Botanica 158 1751.

There has never been any serious question concerning the
necessity of a universal language for the natural sciences. The
ancient and medieval development of biology, carried on first

322

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 3

by Greek and Roman philosophers, and then perforce by men
who had at least some knowledge of Greek and Latin, deter-
mined irrevocably that this scientific language should be Latin,
immeasurably enriched by Greek derivatives. So natural and
complete, indeed, was this linguistic heritage from the ancients
and the herbalists that Linnaeus merely simplified the syntax,
definitised the vocabulary, and modified the use of Latin, with
its incorporated Greek, to obtain a great binomial system, with-
out which taxonomy as it is to-day would have been impossible.
Since Linnaeus, no botanist has questioned the right of Greek
and Latin to constitute the language of science. DeCandolle
did indeed point out the many advantages English would possess
as an international means of communication between scientists,
but it was hardly his thought that English would supplant Latin
as the language of taxonomy. The realization of the sugges-
tion, in view of the fact that biological publication is made in
sixteen languages, among them Russian, Magyar, and Japanese,
is anything but imminent. Yet, while biologists are agreed that
Greek and Latin shall furnish the materials for nomenclature
and terminology, their practice, unfortunately, is still very far
from uniform. Personal and vernacular terms from all possible
sources have increased to such an extent that nearly a sixth of
our present generic and specific names are derived from ver-
nacular tongues. The economy of time and intellectual effort
obtained by the use of such names is so considerable that they
will always appeal to the poorly prepared or indifferent descrip-
tive biologist. But they offend all the canons of uniformity and
taste, and the real taxonomist, whose -work is thorough and pains-
taking from the first glimpse of a new organism to the final pub-
lication of its name and diagnosis, will avoid them.

The best Greek and the best Latin available are alone good
enough for biological nomenclature. The Greek and Latin of
Linnaeus were the work of no very certain hand, and should
not constitute the standard, when a better standard is obtain-
able. Linne's knowledge of word-formation in Greek was often
elusive, though his names are far superior as a rule to those of
more recent coinage. Similarly, the formations of Byzantine

323

4 Frederic E. Clements

Greek and Late Latin, as well as those of many preclassic au-
thors in both languages, have little value for the nomenclator.
Classic Greek and Latin only can be fully satisfactory, since
they are not merely the best Greek and Latin obtainable, but,
also, because they present the best conditions for securing es-
sential uniformity. Again, it should be clearly understood that
classic Greek and Latin are not necessarily the Greek and Latin
of the extreme purist.

II.

A name or term is invalid unless constructed according to the principles of
word formation in classic Greek or Latin ; alternatives are to be reduced to a
uniform basis. Retroactively, all terms improperly constructed shall be cor-
rected, except in the case of words of uncertain or unknown etymology, when
no correction shall be made if any proper Greek or Latin construction will give
such a word, with a possible meaning.

"Nomina generica ab uno vocabulo . ''.,..' fracto altera in-
tegra composita Botanicis indigna sunt." Critica Botanica 29

1737-

"Nomina generica ex duobus latinis vocabulis integris et con-
junctis vix toleranda sunt." Ibid., 26.

This rule finds its warrant in the fact that uniformity is a
first requisite of nomenclature as purity is of linguistics. A
malformation is not only unpleasant as well as incorrect philo-
logically, but it is also extremely unfortunate by reason of the
complications which it introduces into nomenclature. The philol-
ogist is satisfied only with most skilful handling of derivatives
that is possible. He will no more be guilty of a malformation
or a hybrid than the true scientist will be capable of a bit of
superficial or bungling work. The latter must then learn to
look upon linguistic matters with the same conscientiousness that
he uses in scientific investigation. Ultimately, however, he must
be prepared to go farther than the philologist even, for the sake
of uniformity. The latter is chiefly concerned with the devel-
opment of a language, or group of languages, and with him
slightly different or alternative forms are of advantage rather
than a source of difficulty. In science, where the form and ap-

324

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 5

plication of each name or term should be absolutely fixed, alter-
native forms of words and alternative methods of composition
lead inevitably to grave confusion. The nomenclator must in
consequence outdo the philologist in his own field. When it is
possible to obtain essentially the same derivative in several
slightly different forms by varying the stem of the first term,
the connecting vowel, or the form of the last term, or by pro-
ceeding from alternative forms of the same word or stem, then
the nomenclator must make the most intelligent choice possible
in the selection of the best form to use, or the best principle to
govern. In so doing, he will often strengthen the hands of the
philologist, since it is a well-known fact that many alternative
forms are merely the bungling creations of the decadent period
of a language.

In choosing a principle for guidance in dealing with alterna-
tive forms and methods of derivation, several courses have been
considered. The first plan was to follow the usage in the case
of each particular word, but it soon became evident that no one
but a specialist in philology would be able to make derivatives
at all, since the usage varied repeatedly in words of the same
group. A similar attempt was made with regard to the best
usage, but, while this led to somewhat greater uniformity, the
results were not much more satisfactory, and the labor involved
was enormous. From the first it was seen that, while an occa-
sional word would deviate more or less regularly from the for-
mation typical for its group, as in the case of the imparisyllabic
neuter, o-ro/Aa, o-TOjuaros (mouth), which regularly enters into compo-
sition in its shortened stem form, the philologically correct stem,
or the correct connective, was overwhelmingly predominant.
Furthermore, since such usage includes the best usage in all
cases, it was concluded that uniformity and purity could best be
obtained by making this the invariable usage for all the stems
of any group, as well as for all combinations of each stem.

The justification of such a rule may be readily found in a con-
sideration of imparisyllabic steins, which have constituted the
most fertile source of alternatives. The Greek neuters in -/wt,
gen. -ftaro?, furnish a large number of examples in which the

325

6 Frederic E. Clements

shortened form of the nominative and the stem proper of the
oblique cases alternate in word-formation. The Greek lexicon
exhibits 1,782 neuters of this class, of which 231 appear in 969
derivatives as the first term. In the latter the proper stem ap-
pears in 781 words, while the shortened form appears in 188
words. The alternation of these stems in Greek has of neces-
sity given rise to corresponding alternatives in nomenclature.
Thus, there are found Grammonema Ag. 1832 and Grammato-
nema Kuetz. 1845, Lomaspora DC. 1821 and Lomatospora
Reichenb. 1828, Spermodermia Tode 1790 and Spermatodermia
Wallr. 1833, Stomotechium Lehm. 1818 and Stomatotechium
Spach 1843. Unfortunate and confusing as the variants of the
same generic name are, the case is very much worse when the
variations of one stem furnish two otherwise valid generic names,
as in the case of Dermatocarpus Eschw. 1823 and Dermocarpa
Crouan 1858, Grammocarpus Seringe 1825 and Grammatocarpus
Presl 1831, Haemospermum Reinw. 1825 and Haematospermum
(Wallich) Lindl. 1836. In the former, we are concerned merely
with uniformity, desirable as that may be, while in the latter
the validity of a generic name is destroyed because of its essen-
tial identity with an earlier name, an identity of which the later
author was probably unaware. Such fatal duplication of generic
names can only be avoided by stringent rules for securing uni-
formity in methods of derivation. Myosurus L. 1737 (Myo-
suros Dill. 1719) and Myurus Endl. 1837 are again alternative
forms of the same compound word, which have been applied to
different genera. The former illustrates the rare and archaic
type of syntactic composition, the latter follows the usual method
of composition by stems. In the case of Coleosanthus Cassini
April 1817 and Coleanthus Seidl July 1817, the latter, though
correctly formed, falls by the working of priority before the
former, which is a blander, equally indefensible from the stand-
point of syntactic or non-syntactic composition. Callitriche L.
1751 and Calothrix Ag. 1824 illustrate the confusion that arises
from using alternative Greek words (/caXAi-, icaXo?, beautiful) and
from the variation of the termination of the last member of the
compound. Either first term is correct, but their compounds are

326

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 7

identical in meaning and essentially so in derivation. They are
to be regarded merely as different forms of the same compound,
and Calothrix becomes a homonym. The confusion wrought by
alternative forms and blundering construction is nowhere better
shown than in the following series of names, belonging to five
different genera: Asterothrix Cassini 1827 (Asterotrix Brogn.
1843, Asterothria Gren. 1850), Asterotrichion Link 1840 (As-
terostrichion "Klotsch" 1840, Asterotrichium Witts.), Astero-
trichia Zanard. 1843 Astrotricha DC. 1829 (Astrotrichia Rchb.
1837), and Asterotrichum Bonord. 1851.

The retroactive application of this rule is imperative for the
sake of uniformity and purity. By far the greater number of
plant genera have already been recognized and named. The new
names to be proposed for years to come will be relatively few,
and a reform which affected even all of these would be barely
worth while. Further than this, most new names are made after
the pattern of names already in use, whether correctly or incor-
rectly formed, a practice certain to perpetuate the blunders of
the past. Arguments from the standpoint of purity are equally
cogent, but, as they would perhaps appeal to the philologist alone,
they will not be insisted upon here. A rule of this sort to be at
all worth while must be retroactive, for by retroaction alone can
confusion be avoided and uniformity secured. The retroactive
operation of the rule must be so safeguarded, however, that
changes for reasons of uniformity or purity will be made upon
real and not upon supposititious grounds. Framers of generic
names have been extremely careless in the matter of indicating
etymologies, but this is not sufficient warrant for reconstruct-
ing names upon the basis of supposed meanings. Many a genus
has received a name of known or evident etymology, but of
meaningless or mistaken application, a fact which should re-
strain us from correcting words of unknown derivation on the
basis of an assumed etymology. In making changes to secure
a more uniform and stable nomenclature, the greatest care must
be taken to minimize the error arising from personal judgment.
In many words of uncertain etymology, several derivations are
equally plausible, or at least possible, and the exercise of per-

327

g Frederic E. Clements

sonal choice would simply lead to greater confusion. For these
reasons, changes in words where the etymology is not expressly
indicated or clearly evident should not be made, unless the proper
formation of such a word in Greek or Latin fails to give a name
of any possible meaning. The correction of such words as fall
under this rule can only be made upon the basis of greatest
probability, which, unsatisfactory as it may be, will conduce to
the ends sought.

WORD FORMATION IN GREEK

Greek words arise by derivation or by composition. In deri-
vation, roots or stems acquire a new meaning through the addi-
tion of a suffix, a termination having no separate existence in
the language, except in the rare case of certain words which
have lost their real significance and are now found only as suf-
fixes. In composition, two, rarely more, words are united ac-
cording to certain rules to form a new term, or compound, in
which the meaning of each may be traced. Formation by pre-
fixes is really a sort of composition, except in the case of a few
inseparable particles, which properly belong under the head of
derivation. For the sake of convenience, however, all formation
by prefixes will be considered under composition.

Greek has obtained its stems by derivation, i. e., by adding
suffixes to roots, a process to which the origin of all simple words
may be traced. Derivation belongs chiefly to the earlier devel-
opment of the language, and, indeed, is very largely prehistoric,
especially in the case of primary derivation. Composition, on
the other hand, is a much later development, and must have at-
tained its maximum in the classical period of Greek literature.
Both derivation and composition afford the biologist the means
of coining new words. For various reasons, among them con-
venience and usage, scientific terms have been taken directly
from the Greek lexicon (sometimes, of course, they have been
found already borrowed in Latin), or new words have been
formed by composition. Formation by derivation is equally
valid, and the fact that it almost invariably gives shorter words
leads one to wonder that it should not have come into general
use. The reason may be found in the fact that word-formation

328

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 9

in biological nomenclature has been far from scholarly, and that
derivation requires much greater care and knowledge than com-
position does. It is also true that the possibilities of derivation
in Greek, though large, are necessarily limited by the relatively
small number of suffixes, while the sources of composition are
practically inexhaustible.

DERIVATION

Derivation consists in the addition of one or more suffixes
to the primitive, irreducible portion of a word, which is termed a
root. It may be distinguished as primary when one suffix is
added to the root, making a stem, secondary when a second
suffix is added to the stem, tertiary when a third suffix is at-
tached, and so forth. For convenience, however, we may follow
Henry,1 and term those derivatives primary in which the root
carries a single suffix, and secondary, all those in which the stem
thus formed has been modified by one or more accretions. Fur-
thermore, derivatives are classed as verbal when the suffix added
permits of conjugation, and nominal when it permits of inflec-
tion. It is important that this be kept distinct from the fact that
certain suffixes can be added only to verbal stems, while others
can be attached only to nominal (denominative) ones. Nomen-
clature is not concerned with the construction of verbal stems,
and the suffixes which follow are those which form nominal
stems, i. e., nouns and adjectives.

Primary derivatives are formed by attaching the suffix imme-
diately to the root, though rarely an adventicious -a- intervenes.
Secondary derivatives are made in similar manner by adding
the suffix directly to the stem. In both cases, the groups of let-
ters thus brought into contact conform to certain general pho-
netic principles of the language. For convenience in making the
changes, which arise in this way in derivation and composition,
a short summary of the phonetic mutations in Greek is given.
Mutations peculiar to verbal stems are omitted. A more com-
plete account of these phonetic laws may be found in any of the
more comprehensive grammars.

1 Henry, Victor. A Short Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, 1O2.
1890.

329

io Frederic E. Clements

GENERAL PHONETIC PRINCIPLES

Aspirates

In composition, aspirates (x (kh), $ (ph), 6 (th) ) arise when a
surd (K, v, T), usually by elision of the final vowel of the
stem of the first term, comes in contact with an initial as-
pirated vowel of the second term.
8eK(a)-i/ju,£/3a. = Sex»//Aepo?, ten-day
«r(O -e8pa = t<f>e?>pos, seated upon
dvT(i)-opos = av0o/>os, an opposite limit
Very rarely, this influence is exerted through an interposing

consonant.
TcVp(a)-r7riros = T£^/ot7r7ros, with four horses abreast

Accumulation of Consonants

As a rule, groups of consonants are modified to prevent harsh-
ness. Generally, three successive consonants, or a con-
sonant and a double consonant, are avoided, or one letter
is dropped, unless the first or last is a liquid (A., p., v, p),
or y before a palatal (K, y, x, £)•
TTC/ATTTOS, fifth; (TKA^ds, hard; o-a\7riy£, trumpet
In composition, final K or o- of the first term may stand before tw.o

other consonants.

eK<TTpo<f>y, dislocation; eK<}>0€ip<o, to destroy utterly
The concurrence of two consonants, when it produces harsh-
ness, is avoided in several ways.

(i) When, by the transposition or loss of a letter, p. or v
stands immediately before A or p, the corresponding son-
ant (/3, 8) is inserted..

/H£s(o?)-i7/>iepa — /x£o-T7/z(c)pa = fico-^/A/Jpui, midday
avrfp, genitive, *av(«)pos = d^pds, -=dv8/)os, man
(2) A consonant is sometimes transposed to a more con-
venient position.
irvKi/ds, genitive, 7rvu£, nominative, meeting place

Assimilation.

Two explosives can occur together only when the latter is a
dental (T, 8, 0). In such a group a palatal or labial must
be of the same order, and another dental is changed to <r;

330

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature n

K and TT can alone stand before T, y and ft before 8, and x

and <j> before 0, while o- may occur before all three.
</>ACKTIKOS, burning, from ^Ae'yw, to burn; rpnrTijp, rubber,

from Tpi(3<a, to rub
rXeySi/r, entwined, from TrAeVw, to twist; ypdflBrjv, grazing,

from ypd(f><j), to grave
ax<.ords, cloven, from o"xl'^w, to cleave; TretorreW, persuaded,

from 7m0o>, to persuade

€/c, from, always retains its final palatal in composition.
CKS^/AOS, foreign; €/c0v/xa, pustule
Before a-, /3 and <£ become TT, y and x become K, while T, 8, and 0

are dropped; xcr is then written £ and THT is written \j/.
XaAu/3os gen. , x°^/3-s nom- — X^Ws a Chalybean*
ypd<f>u>} yptufi-cro) = ypd(j/u>
/jtao-rtyos gen. , /xaoriy-s = fj-da-rt.^, whip
gen. , ^ptx-s = ^P'S, hair
gen. , xa/3tT-s = X^/3'5) grace
A.a/A7raSos gen. , AajU.7ra8-s = Aa/ATras, torch.
Kopvdos gen. , Kopv0-s = Kopvs, helmet
This rule applies to such groups as -KT-, in which the r is fiist

dropped and the K then passes into £.
WKTOS gen., VUKT-S = VI>^, night
Before /x, labials (TT, /8, <£) become /*, palatals (K, x) become y,

and dentals (T, 8, 0, £) become o-.
/3\€TT-fJ.a. (ySAeVoj) => f3\ffj.fj-a., glance; rpLft-p.a(Tpi(3(a) —

anything rubbed; <rre<£ -/to. (or <•'<£&>) = VT^IM., garland;

p.a ^7r\€K(i)~) = TrAe'y/xa, anything plaited; TCVX-/AOI (T£v

reSy/xa, a work; a8-fia (a8co) •= ao-/xa, song;

— o'xto'/xa, cleft; TTf.L6-p.a, (Tret^o)) = Treur/xa, cable.
«K remains unchanged; l/c/xay/xa, a wax impression
The dentals (T, 8, 0, £) are retained only before A, v, /o. Before

/x, they become o- (see above), as also before each other;

before cr they are dropped.
7r«0-TiKos (TTCI'&O) — • TTCto-rtKos, persuasive;

f}a6r)[J.a, delight; o-Trep/AaT-tri, dat. (oT

•Txi8cr-crts (o-x^w) =• crxtVts, cleaving.
Before another liquid (A, /*, p), v is assimilated to the liquid; be-

12 Frederic E. Clements

fore a labial (IT, /?, <£, «//), it becomes /*; before a palatal
(*> y> X> Oi it changes to y; before <r, it is elided and the
preceding vowel usually lengthens; before another v, it is
usually retained.

(TraAiv), very long; TraAt'AAvro?, loosed again;
, back water; TroAi/xTrAavi??, wandering to and fro;
o-vfjL/3Xfp.a. (o-w), seam; <™/*<£wis, a growing together;
<rvfJi\l/a\fJM, harmony; TraAtyKV/jros, fishing net; o-v'yyovos,
congenital; o-iry^poos, of like color; o-vy^ew, to smooth by
scraping; /xeAavos, //,eAav-s = ju.€'Aas; &xi)u.ovo9, 8at/to7'-crt = 8atjU.o<ri;
yiyarros, yiyavr-s — yiyas.

drops its final before o- and a consonant, or before £, but the
v is simply assimilated before o- and a vowel.
, system; trv^w/xa, girdle

o's, earthquake; <nxr<rw/xos, united in one body
IlaAiv assimilates its v before o- and a vowel, and usually retains
it before <r and a consonant; before another v, it is either
dropped or retained.
TraAiWuTos, rushing back; TraAtW/ao? or TraAtcr/aos, deeply

shaded

iraAi'v£a>os, living again; TraAiWosros or TraAtvosros, returning
Ayav always drops v, except where doubling or assimilation takes

place.

<zyawt<£os, dyappoos
Ei/ does not change its final before p, <r, or C

evpt^os, rooted; evorao-is, plan; ev^eVvu/xt, to boil in

Doubling of Consonants

(1) In word-formation, initial p is generally doubled when it

follows a vowel, but remains single after a diphthong.
StappwyT?, gap; yXvKvpp<£a, sweet root; evpvpwv, broad-flowing;
eupi£os, well-rooted

(2) An aspirate is never doubled, but the corresponding surd

takes the place of the first. 2a^«^w for 2a<£<£w, etc.

(3) Doubling is a frequent phenomenon (mostly in verbs and

comparatives) when the suffix ya (i) follows the final con-
sonant of root or stem; final K, y, x, and, rarely, other
explosives, absorbing t, becoming <r<r, 8 becomes £, and A
becomes AA.

332

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 13

(</>vAaK-i-w), /u.£i£a>v (jney i-«i>v), dAAo? (aA-i-os).
Metathesis, or transposition of this t takes place when it follows
final v or p.

6f.pa.Tra.wa. = * 6f.pa.TT-a.v-ya. — depa.7ra.vija.

Syncope or elision of a vowel often occurs in the middle of a
word.

Trarpos for Trarepo?

Contraction of vowels should be ignored, when an occasion
for it might arise in forming scientific terms.

NOUN SUFFIXES

General

-/JLO- (-ftos, m.) primary or secondary verbal oxytone: 0v-/*os,

heart; CP-WT-/AOS, strife
-pa.- (-7*77, f. ), primary (or secondary?) verbal paroxytone: Ofp-firj,

heat
-o- (-os, -ov, m. or n.) chiefly primary: VO/A-OS, pasture; AVK-OS,

wolf
-a- (-17, f.) chiefly primary: <pvy-i!j, flight; po-rj, stream; XevK-rj,

white poplar

-i- (-ts, m. or f. ) chiefly primary, paroxytone: 7rdA-is, city
-ev-, -ov- (-rjv, -<ov, m. or f . ) primary or secondary, mostly verbal:

apcr-yv, male; eiK-u>v, image, al-a>v, age
-fj*v- (-p-rjv, m.) primary oxytone: AI-/AT/V, harbor
-p.ov- (-p.wv, m. ) primary paroxytone: rep-fjuav, boundary
-p.vo- (-p-vov, n., -ftviy, f. ) primary, usually oxytone: o-rpw-/^, bed
-po- (-pos, m., -pa, f. , -pov, n.) primary, mostly oxytone: c8-pa,

seat, 8w-pov, gift
-Ao- (-Aos, m. , -\r), f. , -Aov, n.) primary, mostly oxytone: <pv-\rj,

tribe; <pv-Xov, class. -lAos, -r]X.r), -wAov, -<a\rjt are widely ex-

tended false suffixes used after a consonant: they show

the accretion of certain stem vowels.
-vo- (-vos-, m., -vrj, f. , -vov, n. ) primary, often oxytone: VTT-VOS,

s'eep; TTOI vrj, penalty; TC'K-VOV, child. An adventicious a

has given the suffix -avo- (-avos, -an/, -avov, seen in: O-T€<^-

avos, crown; //.^x-avij, device; Spor-avov, scythe.

333

Frederic E. Clements

-n- (-vis, f.,) primary: p}-ns, wrath

-TO- (-TOS, m., -rrj, f.) primary, usually paroxytone : x°p-TO*> vard;

Koi-rr), bed

-ar- (-ap, -w/), n.) primary: rpr-ap, liver; ZS-iap, water
-aK-(-o£, m.) primary paroxytone: pv-o£, torrent; ap7r-o£, robber
-aS- (-as, f.) primary or secondary, verbal or denominative, oxy-

' tone: Aa/A7r-as, torch; e/38-o/t-as, week
-18-, -i0- (-19, f., rarely m.) primary or secondary, mostly oxytone

when feminine, and paroxytone when masculine: opv-ts,

bird; xXe-ts, key; ira is, child; ^p-^, oak with edible

acorns; /SacrtX-t's, queen
-IT- (-is, f., -i, n.) primary paroxytone: x<*P'ts> grace; (*&-<-,

honey

-<OT- (-(os, m. ) primary paroxytone; ye'A-ws, laughter
-w- (-<o, -o)s, m. or f.) primary, feminine oxytone, masculine par-

oxytone: T7X~") sound; ^/o-<os, warrior

-cp- (-r)p, m.) primary oxytone: a-rjp, atmosphere; alO-^p, ether
-op- (-op, -wp, n.) primary paroxytone: a-op, sword; ireX-wp,

prodigy

-1JV- (-evs, m.) primary, verbal or denominative, oxytone: yp«</>-
eus, writer

-cv- (-eus, m.) secondary denominative oxytone: ypa/A/xar-evs,
scribe

-rep- (-TJ7p, m., -T«pa, f.) primary or secondary verbal oxytone:
A.V-TJ;P, deliverer; viK-y-Ti/jp, conqueror

-rop- (-Twp, m.,) primary or secondary verbal paroxytone: p^-roip,
orator; voc-a-rop, conqueror

, m.) primary oxytone or paroxytone: KPI-TTJS, judge
Secondary (i) verbal, usually oxytone, with short primary
vowel or sigma, vai-e-ri/s, inhabitant, €pa-o--Tiys, lover, or
with long primary vowel, VIK-TJ-T^S, conqueror, or with long
primary vowel and sigma, opx-i?-o--T77s, dancer; (2) denom-
inative, generally paroxytone, OUC-C-TTJS, servant, 8eo--ju,a)-TT/s,
prisoner. From these words, the stem vowel has come to
remain attached to the suffix, giving the agent suffixes,

-ITI^, -CIT7/S, -(OT1JS, IWT1JS.

334

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 15

Means or Instrument
rpo- (-rpos, m., -rpa, f. , -rpov, n. ) primary or secondary verbal,

feminine and neuter usually paroxytone: Sai-rpdj, knife;

prj-rpa, agreement; fiaK-rpov, staff; ap-o-rpov, plough
-rXo- (-rXos, m. , -rXov, n. ) primary, usually paroxytone: av-rXos,

bucket; x^-rXov, liquid

(-TX?;, f. ) secondary verbal, usually paroxytone: e'^e'-rXr/,

handle
-Opo- (-Opov, n. ) primary, usually paroxytone: ap-Opov, joint

(-0pa, f . ) secondary verbal, usually paroxytone: Koi-/x7/-0pa,

chamber
-0A.O- (-0X?;, f. , -0\ov, n. ) primary (or secondary?) paroxytone:

0vs-6Xov, sacred implement; yeve-OXrj, race
-KO- (-KT), f. ) primary paroxytone: Orj-Kri, box
-ev- (cus, m. ) secondary verbal or denominative oxytone:

eus, milkpail

-yiiaT- (-/ML, n. ) primary or secondary, verbal (secondary rarely de-
nominative) accent recessive: <£/aay-/ta, palisade; o-w-^ta,
body; 8^-Xrj-fjM, bane

-es- (-os, n. ) primary, mostly paroxytone: /?e'X-os, dart; IX-o?,
marsh

-r-rjpvo- (-T-rjpiov, n. ) primary or secondary verbal proparoxytone :

SiKacr-T^/Dtov, court house
-««>- (-etov, n. ) primary or secondary denominative paroxytone:

t/aX-etov, prairie
-wv- (-wv, m.) primary or secondary denominative oxytone:

d/xTreX-civ, vineyard
-rpa- (-rpa, f. ) primary or secondary verbal paroxytone: TraXcu'-o--

rpa, place for wrestling
Action

-TI- (-TIS, f. ) primary verbal, usually paroxytone: <^a-T«, speech
-<rt- (-(TO, f. ) primary or secondary verbal, usually paroxytone:

<£v-0-is, nature; d<£av-i-cr«, disappearance
-ata- (-<ria, f. ) usually secondary verbal paroxytone: 8o»a/ua-<rta,

testing.

335

1 6 Frederic E. Clements

Quality
-M- (-ia, f. ) primary or secondary denominative, mostly paroxy-

tone: ap/j-ov-ia, harmony
-05-, -es- (-*»?, m. or f. ) primary oxytone: ^-ws, dawn

(-os, n.) primary recessive: /?ap-os, weight, Ipevfl-os,
redness

-Trjr- (-TI/S, f.) secondary denominative paroxytone: ACTTT-O-TT/S,
thinness; whence -OT-TJT- (-oVr/s, f. ) Travr-or^, universality
-0-wa- (-a-wrj, f . ) secondary denominative paroxytone: O-W^O-O-WT/,
prudence

State or Object

-Sov- (-Son/, f. ) secondary verbal oxytone: aXy-y-Sw, suffering
-IJLOVO- (-povrj, f. ) primary verbal oxytone: -^ap-^ovri, joy
-TV- (-TVS, f. , -TV, n. ) primary: ftpa-Tv?, meat; OUT-TV, town
-vS, -v0- (-vs, f.) primary, often oxytone: x^P-W) cloak

Diminutives

-to- (-iov, n.) primary or secondary denominative paroxytone:.
arrop-iov, little spore. Various suffixes of stems haye be-
come attached to this diminutive, giving the common di-
minutive suffixes, -apiov, -tSioi/, -vSpiov, -vAAiov, -v<£iov, all
forming neuter proparoxytones.

-UTKO- (-IO-KOS, m., -uTKYf, f . ) primary or secondary denominative
paroxytone: vcav-tb-Kos, youth; muS-i"™?/, little girl. This
suffix sometimes combines with -iov to form a suffix -UTKIOV,
neuter proparoxytone; do-7riS-io-/aov, small shield.

Patronymics

-8a- (-8>;s, m.) secondary denominative paroxytone
-8- (-s (8s) f. ) secondary denominative oxytone

Stems of the first declension add the suffix directly: Bopea-Sijs,

son of Boreas; Bopea-s, daughter of Boreas.
Stems of the second declension replace o of the stem with
i: npia/A-ufys, son of Priam; n/ata/x-is, daughter of Priam.
Those in -to, however, change o to a, giving the suffixes
-u£8»ys and -ias.

Stems of the third declension insert t before the suffix, ev drop-
ping the v before i: KeKporr-t'Siys, a son of Cecrops;
ts, daughter of Cecrops.

336

Greek and Lathi in Biological Nomenclature 17

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES

General

-es- (-T7?, m., f. , -es, n.) primary, rarely secondary denominative
oxy tones: ^evS-rys, false; eiyev-T/s, well-born; Anr-ap-T^s,
persistent

-o-, -a- (-os, m., -?;, -a, -os, f. , -ov, n. ) primary or secondary (de-
nominative when secondary) always oxytone, except in
compounds: i/aA-ds, rj, ov, bare; £77/5-0?, d, 6v, dry; /3ov-i/o/ios,
ov, grazed by cattle

-aS- (-as, m. , f. ) primary oxytone: o-Trop-as, scattered; Aoy-as,
selected

-iS- (-is, f. ) secondary denominative oxytone, feminities of nouns
or adjectives, most having become substanives: AeA<£-«,
Delphian

Ownership or Relation

-10- (-tos, -ta, -tov) primary denominative proparoxytone: o-rvy-tos,
hateful: secondary denominative; (i) the stem vowel may
be elided before i, as #aAao-tr-tos, marine, from #aA.a<T<ra, or
(2) it may be retained, as Suca-ios, just, o/xo-ios, similar,
whence arise new forms of the same suffix, i.e., -aios, -otos,
-aos, wos, etc.
-o-to- (-o-tos) arose from adding -to- to stems in -TI, but is now

regularly used as a suffix; ^au/ta-crios, wonderful.
-tSto- (-iStos) arose from attaching -10- to stems in -18-, but has
become a regular suffix (especially frequent in the neuter
to form diminutives): $aAao-o--i'8tos, marine.

-KO- (-/cos, 77, ov) secondary denominative oxytone: <£VO-I-KOS, natu-
ral: whence has probably come -i/co- (-IKOS), TroAc/A-tKos,
warlike, Sep-fuxr-i/cds, cutaneous; whence -TLKO- (-TIKO'S), espe-
cially applied to nouns of agent in -T?IS. The addition of
-KOS to stems in -ta has given the suffixes -taxos, and -a«os;
to stems in -v, -VKOS.

Material

-tvo- (-vo-) (-tvos, 77, ov) primary or secondary denominative pro-
paroxytone: Spu-ivos, oaken; £v-A-ivos, wooden
The modification of the initial vowel of the suffix has pro-

i8 Frederic E. Clements

duced the suffix -rjvo- (-rjvos), which is a secondary verbal
oxytone, TTCT-C-^VO'S, winged.

-to- (-cos, -ea, -cov) secondary denominative proparoxytone: the
nominative form arose from primary stems in -e, and the
intervocalic i was then elided, dpyupe-to-s = dpyupcos, silver;
/ioXv/38-eos, leaden.

-tv£o- (-tveo;) secondary denominative paroxytone: formed by add-
ing -10 to -ivo; ^y-iveos, oaken.
Quality

-p.o- (-/AOS) primary oxytone: 0cp-/zds, hot. The addition of this
suffix to stems in -n, Spa-crt-p-ds, active, has produced a
secondary denominative suffix -t/xos, e8 wS-tjuos, eatable, and
this, by further combination, has given -aXt/xos, aS dXt/xos,
beautiful.

-00- (-pos) primary, nearly always oxytone: Xa/i7r-pds, bright; Ipvd-
pos, red : secondary, mostly denominative, usually oxytone :
<t>av-e-p6s, plain, whence the suffix -T?pos; /cv/tar- 77/30;, billowy.

-Xo- (-Xos) primary, nearly always oxytone: Sct-Xds, timid.

Secondary denominative oxytone: o-iy-^-Ao's, silent, whence
the suffixes -77X05, -wXds, etc. ; obraTr-T/Xos, deceitful ; d/xapr-
wXds, used to sin.
Fulness

-tvr- (-«s, -eo-o-a, -ev) secondary denominative, usually paroxytone,
the feminine proparoxytone: x01/31'-"?. graceful; Trrepd-cis,
winged, whence the suffixes, -dcis, -i?€is; o-/ct-det?, shady,
8cv8p-r;«s, woody.

-vo- (-vos) primary oxytone: ae/x-vds, holy

-tvo- (-tvos) primary and secondary oxytone: TreS-tvos, quite level;
op-c-tvos, mountainous, whence -«i/os; cvSt-etvos, quite
cheerful.

-pt- (-pis) primary paroxytone, tS-pts, skilful

-oXeo- (-aXeos) secondary paroxytone : po/A-aXros, strong; »//a>p-aXebs.
itchy

-P.OV- (-/iwv, -/xov) primary, usually paroxytone: t8-/xwv, skilful
Ability or Fitness

-IKO- (-IKOS) secondary verbal oxytone: ypa^-t/co's, able to write;
apX"tK<»> fit to rule

333

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 19

- (-TI/COS) secondary verbal oxytone: Trpa/c-riKos, practical
(-i/zos) primary or secondary, mostly verbal, proparoxytone:
TTOT-I/XOS, drinkable; 0ava-o--i/*os, deadly, hence -eri/xos?
(-i/xatos), v7ro/3oX-i/iato5, spurious

-ivo- (-tvos) usually secondary, denominative oxytone: ^/ic/j-ivo?, of

day; 6Vo)p -tvos of late summer; x#ccr-ivos, of yesterday
Likeness

-o>8e- (-0)817$, m-> f-> -£Ses, n. ) secondary denominative paroxytone,
arising from cISos, TO, form, in composition as the last term,
whence the form -oeiS^s, and, by contraction, -(08175; Xt/xv
-0)8775, like a marsh, marshy. This suffix is often used to
indicate fulness, also.

Verbal: Capability or Obligation
-TO- (-TOS) primary or secondary verbal oxytone: a^ur-ros, split;

xAv-Tos, renowned; <£iX-?7-Tos, loved
-TCO- (-TCOS) seconc'ay verbal paroxytone: ^iX-^-Wo?, lovable

COMPOSITION

Greek exhibits two types of composition, syntactic and non-
syntactic. Syntactic composition is the union under a single ac-
cent of two words, one being merely a modifier of the other and
in the case demanded by this relation. Such forms arise often
from juxtaposition, for reasons of convenience, and are not,
properly speaking, compounds, e. g., KwoV/2aTos, dog thorn (KVO>V,
KWOS, dog), /tAvos-ams, mouse ear (/AVO-, /tvos, mouse). The subor-
dinate word is usually in the genitive, though, rarely, it may
occur in practically any case. In non-syntactic composition, the
two terms of the compound are morphologically coordinate,
though the one is usually subordinated to the other in meaning.
The second word is attached to the stem of the first in the same
way that secondary suffixes are added to stems, with the very
important exception that the final vowel of the first member has
become a universal thematic vowel, or connective, e.g., /^a/cpo-o-Tropa,
Kopvvr]-(f)opa. Non-syntactic composition is the only real compo-
sition. It is so overwhelmingly predominant in Greek that it

339

20

Frederic E. Clements

alone needs to be taken into account. Indeed, syntactic compo-
sition must be sedulously avoided by biologists, if confusion is
to be prevented, and the few syntactic compounds already in
existence in nomenclature should be made to conform to the
rules for non-syntactic composition.

Compound words consist of three elements, the first term, the
connecting vowel, and the last term. For reasons of conven-
ience, the last term will be considered first, then the connective,
and, finally, under the first term, will be given a detailed exposi-
tion of composition in the different classes of words.

THE LAST TERM

The last term is always a nominal stem, i. e., noun, adjective,
or verbal adjective. The form of the last term is necessarily
determined by its character, as follows :

I. If the last term is a noun, it may (i) stand without
change, and the resulting compound is properly a substantive,
though Greek often employs such words as adjectives, or (2)
it may take adjectival endings, according to its declension, and
the resulting compound is an adjective. Again, in Greek, prac-
tically all compound adjectives may be used as substantives.

II. If the last term is an adjective or verbal adjective, it
may stand without change in the resulting compound, but usu-
ally it becomes an adjective of two terminations (-os, m.,f. , -ov, n.,
rarely, -775, m., f. , -es, n.). The adjective may take substantive
suffixes, in which case the compound will, of course, be a noun.

The following examples will illustrate the form of the last
term and the character of the resulting compound.

I.I. The last term is a noun, undergoing no change.1

TToSo-a-n-opa, rf (TTOUS, iroSos, 6, foot, cnropd, 17, seed) foot-spore
aifjuaro-KOKKOs, 6 (at/no., ai/xaros, TO, blood, KOKKOS, 6, berry) blood-

berry
o<£io-ora<£i>A.>7, y (o<£is, o<^tos, o0e<os, 6, snake, ora^vX^, 17, bunch

of grapes) briony

1 For accent of compounds, see Buttmann, 292.
34°

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 21

-OrjKf], 17 (£tV>os, £i<£eos, TO, sword, 017*07, ^, box) scabbard

pXrjfJa., TO (Vcpi', around, ftXfjfJua, fiXr/p-aTO?, TO, throw)

covering

Xu/3?7, 17 (fUKpos, small, KaXvfir), i), hut) small hut.

1.2. The last term is a noun, changed to an adjective, usually
by a suffix. The various changes of the noun depend
upon its declension to a large extent.1

a. If the final term is a noun of the first or second declension

(stem in -a or -o, nominative, -775, -as, -os, masculine, -17,
-a, -os, fern. , -ov, neut. ) the compound adjective will termi-
nate in -os, masc. and fern. , -ov, neut.

CV-TO£OT-OS, -ov (ev, good, To£oTi7s, 6, archer) with good archers
KaXAt-veavt-os (xaXXi-, beautiful, veavias, 6, youth) beautifully

youthful

7roXv-Xoy-os (TroXvs, much, Xoyos, 6, word) talkative
XeuKo-Ko/x-os (XCDKOS, white, KO/U.T/, i/, hair) white-haired
evpv-^wp-os (evpvs, broad, x^P^t *7» space) roomy
T^a^v-oS-os (T/aa^us, rough, 68os, r), road) with rough roads
y8a0v-<£vXA-os (/Sa^v's, thick, <£vXXov, TO, leaf) thick-leaved, leafy

b. If the final term is a noun of the third declension with the

stem in any consonant except v, p, 8, or -es, the compound

adjective ends in -os, -ov.
/j.f.Xavo-(f>X{.p-o<i (//.e'Xas, /xeXavos, black, $A*^, </>Xt/8os, 17, vein)

black-veined
(j,iKpo-/MKTTi,y-o<; (/jLiKpos, short, poarifc, /xao-Ttyos, 17, whip) short-

ciliate
7roXv-o/3vi0-os (TroXvs, many, o/avis, o/ovt^os, 6, 17, bird) abounding

in birds
Tru/cvo-o-a/3/c-os (TTVKVOS, thick, (rdp£, o-ap/cos, 17, flesh) with firm

flesh

a-creo/naT-os (d-, without, <T(I>/JM, o-w/taTos, TO, body) incorporeal
^pucro-o-TO/x,-os (;^/>weos, golden, (TTOfjui, o-TO/maTOS, TO, mouth)

golden-mouthed

1 This account has been largely based upon Miller, Scientific Names of
Latin and Greek Derivation, 134.

341

22 Frederic E. Clements

c. If the final term is a noun of the third declension with the

stem in v, p, or 8 (nom. o-), the compound retains this
form, i. e., it is properly a noun used adjectively. Some-
times the noun is inflected in two genders, e. g. , -<*>v, -ov,
or -up, -op, or, more rarely, it takes the adjective termina-
tion, -OS, -OV.

/ta»cpo-x«p (fMKpof, long, xeiP> X"/™5' 7> nancO long-armed
auTo-x0«v, ov (euros, self, \0w, x&^o's, •%, ground) native
avTo-x#ov-os, ov, country and all

o-K\r)po-TTov<i (o-KArjpos, hard, TTOUS, TroSos, m. , foot) hard-footed
KdKo-Trovs, -TTOW (/caKos, bad, Trows, TToSos, m. , foot) with bad feet

d. If the final term is a noun of the third declension with the

stem in -es (gen. -cos, nom. -^s, m. f. -os, n. ), the com-
pound adjective will terminate in -775, masc. and fern. , -es,
neut.

, es (0eos, 6, God, yevos, ye'veos, TO, race) born of God
retxos, ret'xeos, TO, wall, /ie'Aos, /AcAeos, TO, music)
walling by music

oXv-av^s (TroXus, much, avOos, av^cos, TO, flower) blossoming
If the final term is a neuter noun of the third declension with
the stem in -ar, nom. -as, the compound adjective as a
rule ends in -<os (contraction of -aos for -OTOS) masc. and
fern. , -wv neut. , or, rarely, in -os, -ov.

, o>v (/neyas, /wyaAou, large, xepas, /cepaTOs, TO, horn)
large-horned

(TroAvs, much, Tcpas, TepaTos, TO, wonder) full of
wonder

ftovo-KcpaT-os (/novos, single, /cepas, TO, horn) with one horn
6p0o-Kep-os, ov (op^ds, upright, Kepas, TO, horn) with upright

horns
yAuKu-icpe-os (yAu/cus, sweet, /cpeas, Kp«os (KpeaTos) TO, meat)

sweet-meated

/. If the final term is a noun of the third declension with the
stem in the vowel i, or v (-is, -vs, nom. m., f. , -i, -v, neut.),
it retains this form ; rarely it terminates in -os, -ov.
iroAu-tx0us (TroAv's, many, t'x^us, ix^/os. °> nsh) abounding in
fish \ also TroAv-i^v-os ov

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 23

Spvj (TTUKVOS, thick, Spvs, Spvds, 17, oak) beset with oaks

-os, ov (//.e'Aas, /xe'Aavos, black, Spus, oak) dark with oak
leaves
Xpvo--oi//ts (xpwreos, golden, oi^is, oi/^ews, 17, appearance) looking

like gold

<£vyo-7roAi? (<£uyos , fleeing, TrdAi?, 7rdAeo)9, ij, city) fleeing from a
city

1 1. 1. If the last term is an adjective, the compound usually be-
comes an adjective of two terminations, -09, -ov; rarely,
there is no change. In case it is used substantively,
it may appear in any gender at the coiner's pleasure.
The compound may, moreover, pass into a noun by the
addition of a substantive suffix.

o-Tevo-/AaKpo9, ov ((TTevos, narrow, /juiKpos, long) long and narrow
|U,eAavo-</>aio9, ov (/ne'Aas, p;eAavo9, black, Raid's, dusky) dark gray
Aev/<o-ept;0po9, ov (Aevxds, white, epvOpos, red) whitish red
erepo-yAauKo?, ov (erepos, different, yAawds, gray) with one eye

gray

Aewo-/>ieAas, atva, av (Aeu/cds, white, /AcAas, black) whitish black
6£u-yAv/<us, eia, v (o^us, sour, yAu/cvs, sweet) sourish sweet
erepo-^wv-ia (erepd-^covos, of different voice) difference of tone
£rj\r)iJio-o-vvi] (C^A^wv, jealous) jealousy

II. 2. If the last term is a verbal adjective (in -os, -TOS, or -reos), it
may retain the active ending, -09, -ov, or the passive end-
ing, -ros, or -77?, -cs, may be substituted for either.
Sia-o-Tpo<£-os, ov (6WTp«£a>, to twist about) twisted
Trepi-rpoTT-o? (TrepiTpoVo), to turn round) turned round
•n-epi-<f>ep-r}<;, e? (Trept^epw, to carry round) revolving
ovo--[j.a6-r)<; (ovo-/j.aOc<D, to be slow in learning) hard to learn
oW-TaK-Tos, ov (rao-o-w, to arrange) disordered, irregular
«x-A£7ri8w-Tos (AcTuSdo/Aai, to be scaly) not covered with scales

THE CONNECTIVE (THEMATIC VOWEL)

The connective in Greek compounds was originally the final
vowel of the stem, or, in imparisyllabics, the vowel of the geni-
tive. The connective -o- was originally, then, characteristic of

343

24 Frederic E. Clements

nouns of the second declension, and of many stems of the third.
By analogy, it spread to steins of the first declension, and the
remaining stems of the third, .and, finally, even to verbal stems.
The overwhelming predominance of the connective -o- makes it
advisable to disregard the use of the thematic vowel of each
declension as a connective in making new compounds, and may
be considered sufficient warrant for its insertion in compounds
already constructed upon the basis of another thematic con-
nective. Such duplicates as Corynephorus and Corynophorus
should be avoided for the sake of uniformity in spelling, if for
no other reason, but when they are the names of different genera,
as in the present case, they are altogether unfortunate. More-
over, alternative connectives of this sort will always furnish oc-
casion for similar blunders on the part of those not thoroughly
conversant with the principles of Greek word-formation. The con-
nectives which may be properly used with the different classes
of first terms of compound words are shown in the following-
list of examples. The diversity of classical usage in this matter
is a cogent argument for the use of -o-as a connective in all cases
where the first term is a nominal stem, if not, indeed, every-
where that a connective is required.

1. First declension: stem in -a, nom. ; -a, -77, fern. ; -as, -77?, masc.
0aXao-o-(a)-o-<£t>XXov (0aXao-(ra, 77, sea, <£v'XXov, TO, leaf) Thalas-

sophyllum
K£<£aX(77)-o-o-Tiy/xa (^aXr/, 77, head, oriy/ua, TO, mark) Cephal-

ostigma

<TK(.a-<l>i\r) (o-/aa, 77, shadow, <£iXo?, loved) Sciaphile
&r)\r)-<f>opa (#77X77, T/, nipple, <f>opa, 77, carrying) Thelephora

KX«TT(77)-0-4>VTOV OXcTT^S, O, thief, <£wTOV, TO, plant) CleptO-

phytum

2. Second declension: stem in -o, nom., -os, masc. and fern., -ov,

neut.

(doxds, 6, leathern bag, XCTTIS, 77, scale) Ascolepis
v (pa/SSos, r), rod, «pivov, TO, lily) Rhabdocrinum
/3aXav(o)-,7-4>opos (/3aXavos, 77, acorn, ^opds, carrying) Balano-
phorus

po-Sw, TO", rose, oVvSpov, r6, tree) Rhododendrum
344

(.ircek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 25

3. Third declension:

(a~) Stem extending in an explosive, i.e., any consonant except

(T, //., v, A, p, or -/u,ar.
pu8iKo-<£uAAov ( pd8i£, pdSiKos, 17, branch, <£uAAov, TO, leaf) Rhad-

icophyllum
Krj\i8(o}-av6o<; ( /c^Ai's, K^AtSos, 77, spot, dv$os, TO, flower) Celi-

danthus.
Kepu.To-o-To//,a (/<epas, KepaTos, TO, horn, erTo/Aa, TO, mouth) Cerato-

s torn a
do-7ri8(o)-77-<£opos ( ao-7ris, do-7rt8os, ?}, round shield, Dope's, bearing)

shield bearing

Kepu<j-c£opos (Kt/aas, TO, horn, <£o/>os, bearing) bearing horns
/u,eAt-KOKKos (/AE'AI, /xe'AiTos, TO, honey, KOKKOS, 6, berry) Melicoccus
at-7roAos (atf, atyos, 6,77, goat, -TroAos (-/coAe'w, dwell) goat-herd
(^).Stem ending in a nasal or a liquid (v, A, p).

a«Ttvo-o-rpo/3o? ( d/cri's, d/cTivos, 17, ray, (TTpofios, 6, whirling) Ac-

tinostrobus
8aifj.ovo-p(aifj (oW/Aw, Sat/xovos, 6, divinity, p^'/', 17, bush) Dae-

monorops
Oiv(o}-avQr] (0i's, ^ti/o's, 6, 17, heap, dune, d^, 17, bloom) Thin-

anthe

&Kfj.o-8eTov (a.Kfj.o)v, d/c/xovos, 6, anvil, 0eTos, placed) anvil-block
dAo-o-Ta^us (aAs, dAc's, ?}, sea, o-Ta^us, 6, spike) Halostachys
(aAs, r), sea, Opi8a.£, r/, lettuce) Halithridax
(Orjp, Orjpos, 6, beast, <£ovos, slaying) Therophonum

(ya.<TTrjp, yao"Tpds (-epos), 77, belly, ^etAos, TO, lip)
( iastrochilus

yuo-Tep(o)-av#o? (yaaTr/p, i}, belly, dv^os, TO, flower) Gasteranthus
Trvp-(f>opov (-n-vp, ?n;pos, TO, fire, ^>opd;, bearing) Pyrphorum
Trupt-^Aoyo? (irvp, TO, fire, <£Aoyos, blazing) flaming with fire
(c) Stem ending in -/MT-, nom., -p.a, neuters

ypa/j.fj.aTO-@r]Kr) (ypd/A/xa, ypdyit/xaTOS, TO, line, ^17x17, 77, box) Gram-

matothece
SeppvaTo-^Aao-TOS (Sep/Aa, 8ep/xaTOs, TO, skin, /3Aao-Tos 6, sprout)

Dermatol^lastus
^>VfJUJ.TO-o-Tpw/j,a ( (f)vfj.a, <£v/xaTOS, To, tumor, o-T/aoi/xa, TO, bed)

Phymatostroma

345

26 Frederic E. Clements

a-TOfj,(o)-appr}va (oro/Aa, oro/AaTos, TO, mouth, apprjv, appev, male)
Stomarrhena

<TTOfjM-\ifjLvr) (oTo/Aa, TO, mouth, At/Any, ?;, lake) salt water lake
(d) Stem ending in -es; nom., -os, -175, gen., -eos, mostly neuters.

/JeAo-0Tc/A/Aa (/St'Aos, /Se'Aeos, TO, dart, o-Te/A/Aa, TO, wreath) Belos-
temma

cAo-<£uTov (lAos, eAeos, TO, marsh, <£VTOV, TO, plant) Helophytum

6po-ff>aKrj (opos, opeos, TO, mountain, ^ax^, 17, lentil) Orophace

opco-8o|a (opos, TO, mountain, So^a, ?;, glory) Oreodoxa

6pcs-;8ios (opos, TO, mountain, /Jtos, living) living in the moun-
tains

opeo-t-Tpo^os (opos, TO, mountain, Tpo<£os, nurtured) mountain-
nurtured

ope-ovaos (opo?, TO, mountain, o-/«os, shadowed) over-shadowed
by mountains

£i<f>-r)-<f>opo<; (£M£OS, ^t'^eos, TO, sword, ^>opos, bearing) armed with
the sword

/8eAe-?7-<£opo? (^SeXos, /Se'Aeos, TO, arrow, <£opo?, bearing) bearing

arrows
(^) Stem ending in-ior-v; nom., -ts, -vs, masc. , fern., -i, -v, neut.

(TToAlS, TToAlOS, TToActOS, -q, City, SevSpOV, TO, tree)

Poliodendrum

oAt?, •%, city, VO/AOS, dealing out) civic magistrate
7roAi-7Top0os (TroAts, 1?, city, Trop^o's, destroying) destroyer of cities
Tiypo-etS?;? (Wypos, Ttypios, >J, tiger, eiSos, TO', form) spotted

0</KO-0-KOpo8ov (0^)15, O</HOS, O^>CWS, 6, Snake, Q-KOpoScV, TO, garlic,

Ophioscorodum

oto-TToAos (o'is, o'ios, 6, ^, sheep, -?roAos (-KoAe'w, dwell) shepherd
tx^'s, tx0"°«, o, fish, /aefty, T), strong drink) Ichthyo-
methe

(ve'icvs, vtKvos, 6, dead body, o-ToAos, ferrying) ferry-
ing the dead

ve/cu-ij-n-oAos (VC'KVS, 6, dead body, -TroAds, dwelling among) hav-
ing to do with the dead

/3oTpu-<£opos (/Jorpvs, ^oTpvos, 6, cluster of grapes, <£opos, bear-
ing) bearing grapes

/3ou-7rAcupov ()8ovs, /3oos, 6, 17, ox, rrAevpov, TO, rib) Bupleurum

346

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 27

4. Verbal stems. When the first term is a verbal stem, it enters
into composition with a thematic -e (the form of the second
person singular present imperative of -« verbs), or with a
sigmatic stem, -<n, resembling the sigmatic stem of aorists.
The influence of analogy has been felt here also, in that
both connectives occasionally yield to the -o- of noun stems,
and, more rarely, e and 4 of the verbal stems interchange or
assimilate.
<f>cpe-fioTpvs ((f>epu), bear, ySoVpv;, florpvos, 6, bunch of grapes)

bearing bunches of grapes

\vo-i-6ptg (Ava), loose, Opi£, rpt^d?, 77, hair) with loose hair
<£e/Dco--/3ios (<£e/oto, bear, /3ios, 6, life) bearing life
neper e-(f>ovr) ($epo>, bear, (£01/77, *7» death) Persephone, bringer of
death

(7repOu>, destroy, TroAts, rj, city) sacker of cities
rule, 0aAaoxra, 77, sea) ruling the sea
), leave, <r/aa, T), shade) shadowless
TO), throw, KtvSwos, 6, risk) venturesome

THE FIRST TERM

The first term of a compound may be a nominal stem (noun,
pronoun, or adjective), an indeclinable particle (adverb, prepo-
sition, or inseparable particle), or a verbal stem. The form of
the first term will be that of its stem if this ends in -o; if the
stem ends in -a, -o- will be substituted as the connective, and if it
ends in -t, -v, or a consonant, -o- will be added as a connective.
The connective is omitted in the case of an indeclinable particle,
and it is regularly elided before an initial vowel of the last term.
In the following examples intended to show the form in which
first terms of various categories should enter into composition,
the effect of analogy is extended over all first terms of compound
words which take a connective, with the exception of adjectives
in -vs, -«a, -v, and verbal stems. Its use might well be extended
to verbals upon the analogy of AetVo), which regularly enters into
composition in the form, \nro-, but verbal first terms are rare in
scientific compounds, and are rather to be discouraged on ac-
count of the alternatives to which they are certain to give rise.

347

28 Frederic E. Clements

From the standpoint of the biologist, the application of the con-
nective -o- might well have been made universal, but in the case
of adjectives in -u?, the use of the thematic -v as connective is so
invariable that the addition of an -o, as it is found in noun sterns
of the same sort, was felt to be unwarranted.

I. Nouns.

i. First declension; nominative singular feminine, -a, -rj; mas-
culine, -as, -775. The stems of this declension are all orig-
inally in -a, which is often modified into -77. In feminines,
the stem is identical with the nominative singular; in mas-
culines, the stem is obtained by dropping the termination,
-o-, of the nominative.1

TreTp(a)-o-(f>i\r} (irerpa, r), rock, <£i'Aos, loved, loving) Petrophile
^te/o(a)-(o)-av0os (jpfpa, 17, day, av#os, TO, flower) hemeranthus,
-urn 25

°)-ai/0W)a (p-^X^P0-' *i> dagger, 'di/flr/pos, flowery)
Machaeranthera 8
?7)-o-0/H£ (£<avr), rj, girdle, Op%, f/, hair) Zonothrix 2

>vTov (/3op«fas, 6, north wind, <f>vr6v, TO, plant) Boreo-
phytum

<£i;AAov (tTTTroVr;;, 6, horseman, <f>v\\ov, TO, leaf) Hip-
potophyllum
ycw-Trv^s (y^, yea, 17, earth, TT^I'S, •>?, box) Geopyxis 38:-x£o-, i;

. 9 ill yT

Second declension. The stems of this declension terminate
in -o, rarely in -w, and are obtained for composition by
dropping o- of the nom. sing, of masc. and fern, and v of
the neuter.

fiio-<t>vTov (/3tos, 6, life, (J>VTOV, TO, plant) Biophytum 43
£e<£t;p(o)-av0os (Je'^wpos, o, west wind, aV0os, TO', flower) Zephyr-

anthus

TTOTa/io-yetTwi/ (TroTa/Aos, o, river, yetVwv, o, 17, neighbor) Potamo-
giton 1 8
<£opos (S^dtros, >/, dew, ^>opos, bearing) Drosophorus 8

1 The first number after a compound indicates the number *of times the
proper stem is found m composition in the Greek lexicon as the first term
Other numbers indicate the frequency of alternatives.

348

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 29

vaAo-creipa, (vaAos, 77, glass, (reipa, 77, band) Hyalosira 7
<t>r)yo-tTTepi<; (^rjyds, 77, beech, Trrepi?, 77, fern) Phegopteris i
f/:ATi(o)-av0os (t/xanov, TO, outer garment, a^os, TO, flower)

Himatianthus 1 2

lo-8pa/3r] (iov, TO, violet, 8pdftrj, T), sort of mustard) lodrabe 4
o-vKo-/xo/3<£?7 (OT)KOV, TO, fig, fjLopcftr), 7), form) Syconiorphe 1 8
6a-To-Or]Kr] (do-Tt'ov, oVrow, TO, bone, ^>/Kr/, T), box) place for bones

2O; ocrreo-, 6

Aayw-x«Aos (Xayws, 6, hare, xe^05) T°> ^P) Lagochilus 20;

Aayo-, 6

Ta(<a~)-ovpa (Taws, 6, peacock, ovpd, 77, tail) Taiira
3. Third declension. These may be either consonant or vowel

stems. The stern is derived most readily by dropping

the ending,. -os, of the genitive singular.
A. Consonant stems.

(i) Stem ending in an explosive, i.e., any consonant except

o-, /A, v, A, p, and T in -/ACIT, nom. -/xa; nominative singular

ending in a double consonant, $ or £, or in o-.

(a) Stem in a labial, TT, ft, <j>; nominative in ^ (labial+o-).
piTr-o-yovcmov (pity, piTros, T/, rush, yovcmov, TO, small joint) Rhi-

pogonatium
</>Ae/3-o-xtTwv (^Aety, <£AejSo'?, 77, vein, x17"^". o, frock) Phlebochi-

ton 1 3
Ko.Tri\i<$>-o-t*,op<l>-t] (KarfjXuf/, KaTT^At^os, T;, ladder, /Aop^n;, 77, form)

Cateliphomorphe

(*) Stem in a palatal, K, y, x; nominative in I (palatal +0-).
dAo>7reK-(o)-ovpos (dAwTre^, aXwrrcKOS, r), fox, oupa, 77, tail) AlopCT

curus i
<j>\oy-(o)-aitavOos (<f>\6£, <£Aoyos, 77, flame, aKav^os, 6, spiny plant) '

Phlogacanthus 14
6wx-o-7r€TaAov (ow£, ov^xos, 6, claw, TreVaAov, TO, leaf) Onycho-

petalum 2

(c) Stem in a dental, T, 8, 9, or VT, v0, KT; nominative in o-,

rarely in p
<£WT-O <£o0°« (^ws, ^WTC'S, TO, light, ^o^os, fearing) Photophobus

27:1
IIMVT-O xat-rr; (i/Aas, i,udvTos, 6, thong, x^Tr)> *)> lonS liair)

tochaete 10

349

30 Frederic E. Clements

(o8ovs, oSovTos, 6, tooth, KwAos, 6, ring) Odonto-

cyclus 1 8
wKT-0-fj.vKr}? (vv£, VVKTOS, T/, night, ftvKTjs, 6, mushroom) Nycto-

myces 28:33 m VVKTI-
Kc/oar- o-<TTuAis (/cepas, KtpaTos, TO, horn, o-TvAi's, ?;, pillar) Cerato-

stylis 16:3
o-T£aT-(o)-07n<x (crreap, orearos, TO, tallow, OTTOS, 6, juice) Steatopia

3

v8ar-o-<f)opa (v8a>p, vScrros, TO, water, <f>opd, 77, a carrying) Hyda-
tophora 22

ets, xXeiSos, 77, key, hook, vfjfJM, TO, thread)
Clidonema 6

^Aa/tus, ^Aa/iuSos, T), mantle, /u,oi/as, T), unit)
Chlamydomonas 8

Aoi' (KO/QVS, /copv^os, ?), helm, aioAos, nimble) Coryth-
aeolum

lA/^ivs, lAftiv^os, 77, worm, <rrax"s, o, spike) Hel-
minthostachys 2

(2) Stem ending in a liquid, v, A, p; nominative in the same
consonant, or o-.
(a) Stem in v, nominative in v, or o-.

wv, x'wos, 77, snow, <£iAos, loving) Chionophile 17
xAwv-o ora^us (xAwv, KAtovds, 6, shoot, CTTCIXUS, 6, spike) Clono-

stachys
X^v-o-7ro8tov (XT?V, x1?"0'?, o, »7) goose, TroSiov, TO, small foot) Cheno-

podium 13
8£A^>tv-(o)-ao-r/oov (8eA<£i?, 8eA^>ivos, 6, dolphin, ao-Tpov, TO, star)

Delphinastrum 3
KT£v-(o).-o8ous (KTCIS, KTCVOS, 6, comb, oSov?, o, tooth) Ctenodus 2

(^) Stem in A, nominative in A, or o*.

oA-o-SiKTwv (5As, dAos, 77, sea, SIKTVOV, TO, net) Halodictyum
4:79 in d\i-

(>) Stem in p, nominative in p.

dvop-o-TTwywv (avr)p, avSpos, 6, man, Trwywv, 6, beard) Andropo-
gon 119

a<rrep-(o)-o/t^aAos (ao-T^p, aOTepos, o, Star, o/i^aAo?, o, navel)
Asteromphalus 19

350

Greek and Latin in Biological Xoinenclature 31

yao-rp o-Kap<j>7] (y^or^p, yaorpos, 17, belly, Kap<^>7/, 77, dry scale)

Gastrocarphe 1:16 in -yao-Tpo-
6t]p-o-fjiop<^rj ($i7p, 0r]p6s, o, beast, popOrj, j, form) Theromorphe

44
7rvp-o-A«piov (irvp, Trvpo?, TO, fire, Aeipiov, TO, lily) Pyrolirium

49:64 in -i-; II in p-; 4 in -17-
(3) Stem in -/WIT, nominative in -/oa.

A special study of this class of imparisyllabics has been
made for the sake of determining just what warrant ex-
isted in Greek for making the stem of the oblique cases
the invariable form for composition, These were thought
to constitute a very fair criterion on account of their wide
extension, and for the further reason that they furnish a
large number of alternatives, since the nominative might
readily be supposed to represent a first declensional stem
in -a. The Greek lexicon contains 1,782 neuters in -/ML,
largely secondary si ems, though there are also many pri-
mary ones, these being by far the most frequent in compo-
sition. Of these 1,782 neuters, 231 are found in compo-
sition or derivation as the first term, occurring altogether
in 969 derivatives. Of the 231, 208 occur in derivatives
only in the proper stem form in -purr, being used 555
times. Eleven words, ayaApux, glory (13:1), apfia, chariot

(24:1), Sepp,a, skin (9:1), 8avp.a, marvel (14:13), $ewp77/mtt,

theory (2:1), Kep/xa, small change (3:1), xu/xa, wave
(19:11), KWfjui, coma (2:1), ovofjM, name (20:12), o-w/xa,
body (48:5) and <£Aeyp:a, flame (12:4), show the alterna-
tive stems, dyaApiar- and dyaA/x-, though the former is pre-
ponderant, occurring in 166 derivatives, while the latter is
found in only 51. Six words of this class, alfta, blood
(32:72), 2p/xa, prop, (2:3), TTw/ia, drink (3:4), o-Wp/Aa,
seed (16:22), o-To/xa, mouth (3:24), and x^f"*- c°ld (I:4)>
occur more frequently in the shortened form, al/x-, the fre-
quency being 129 to 57. Three only, 8^\t)fjM, bane (i),
o-raAaypt, drop (i), and <£/>ay/xa, fence (3), are found in-
variably in the shortened form, while three, iirurvpa,
, and aiy/x.a occur once in each form. To sum-

32 Frederic E. Clements

marize the foregoing: of 231 neuters in -/xa, which furnish
stems for compounds or derivatives, 208 always appear in
the proper stem form, -/XOT, 1 1 occur more frequently in this
form, 6 more frequently in the shortened form, -/x, 3 always
in this short form, while 3 occur once in either form. Of
969 words derived from these neuters, 781 show the proper
stem in -par, while 188 have the shortened stem in -//..
Again, it must be borne in mind that, while these alterna-
tive stems are a source of growth rather than a misfortune
to the language, in nomenclature they must always lead
to confusion, as analogy will sooner or later produce doub-
lets, such as CLtf*.aTt<nrep/jja. and ai/xco-Trep/xa, in the case of
every stem which enters into composition. The marked
preponderance of the proper stem in compounds of this
group has been considered ample warrant for extending
this stem to all compounds formed from neuters in -fj.a.
If further warrant were needed, it is found in the fact that
every neuter of this class shows the proper stem in the
oblique cases, its disappearance in certain compounds be-
ing due to the use of the shortened nominative form, a
use arising to a large extent out of ignorance.

ai/xaT-o-xapis (ui/xa, af/xaTos, TO, blood, x°Vts> ^ grace) Haema-
tocharis

StpfJMT-o-Kvfiri (Sep/xa, Sep/xaTos, TO, skill, xvftr), 17, head) Derma-
tocybe

TTw/xaT-o-Seppis (irw^a, TTW/ACITOS, TO, drink, Seppis, rj, leather coat)
Pomatoderris

Bav/j.aT-o-TTTfpi's (OavfjM, 0a.vp.aTos, TO, wonder, Trrepis, 17, tern)
Thaumatopteris

a-irfp/M.T-0-xyoos (<nrepfj.a, (nrepfJuiTos, TO, seed, ^voos, 6, foam)
Spermatochnous

<rrop,3.T-o-0r)Kiov (o-TO/xa, aro/xaTOs, TO, mouth, OrjKiov, TO, little box)
Stomatothecium

o-w/AaT-(o)-ayy«ov (o-w/xa, o-w/xaTos, TO', body, dyyeiov, TO, vessel)

Somatangium

(4) Stem in -es, genitive -eos (- -ecros), nominative usually in
-os, mostly neuters. The form for composition is obtained
by dropping -cos of the genitive, or -os of the nominative.

352

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 33

Kcp8-(o)-oupa (ice'pSos, KepScos, TO, trick, ovpd, 17, tail) Cerdura 4
(3t\-o-Trepovrj (/3e'Ao;, ySe'Aeos, TO, dart, Trepo'ny, 17, point) Beloperone

7:1 in -e^
dyy-o-<£opa ( ayyos, ayyeos, TO, vase, <j>opd, a carrying) Ango-

phora i
X«A-o-o-/<v<£oj ()(£iAos, ^etXeo?, TO, lip, a-KV<f>o<;, TO, CUp) Chilo-

scyphus 2
av6-o-<j>vKo<; (ai/0os, af#£os, TO, flower, <£VKO?, TO, seaweed) Antho-

phycus 46 : 2
<f>vK-o-(f>vTov (<£v*os, <£VK£OS, TO, seaweed, tfrvTov, TO, plant) Phyco-

phytum 3
.#. Vowel stems (in -i or -u).

(1) Stem in -i, nominative in -is, masc. and fern., -t, neut.
The stem is obtained by dropping -os of the genitive, or -s
of masc. or fern, nominative.

oi/a-(o)-av0os (oi/'is, O^LO<S, ctyecos, r} look, av^os, TO, flower) Opsi-

anthus
6ff>L-o-Kapvov (o<^>t?, o^>ios, o^>ecos, 6, snake, Kapvov, TO, nut)

Ophiocaryum 20
7r£7rept-o-</)i;AXoi/ (Trorfpi, irfTreptos, TO, pepper, <^>uAAov, TO, leaf)

Peperiophyllum i in -o

Tpo7ri-o-A£7rts (TPOTTI?, T^OTTIOS, 17, keel, ACTTI'S, ^, scale) Tropiolepis
</>uo-i-o-yAti>xis (^>wo-is, <^>uo-ios, ^>wo-£o)s, 17, nature, yAw^i's, ^, point)

Physioglochis 14

(2) Stem in -v, nominative in -vs, (-avs, -evs, -ovs) masc. and
fern., -v, neut. The stem is obtained by dropping -o? of
the genitive, or -s of the nominative.

Spv-o-TTTcpis (opvs, Spuos, 17, oak, TTTcpts, ^, fern) Dryopteris 11:4

in -v
/xu-(o)-ovpa (/xvs, /u-vds, 6, mouse, oipa, if, tail) Myura 18:2 in

p.V(T-

mTa-(o)-o\l/L<i (TTITVS, TTITUOS, 17, pine tree, oi/'ts, 17, look) Pityopsis
o-Ta^u-o-j8oTpus (o-Ta^u?, o-Ta^uos, 6, spike, /Sorpus, 6, bunch of

grapes) Stachyobotrys 10:7 in -vy; i in -v
Here are usually placed /?o£s, ypavs, vaCs. These originally
had the stem in a consonant, digamma, as pof-, but the
digamma was lost, leaving third declension stems in -o and

353

34 Frederic E. Clements

-a. The proper stem is obtained by dropping -os of the
genitive, though these stems are quite irregular in the mat-
ter of composition.

/So-o-yXijvos (/Sou's, £oo's, 6, ox, yXi^, ^ eyeball) ox-eyed 17:
96 in /Sou- ; 3 in )8o-

ypa-o-Xoyio. (ypaus, ypads, 17, old woman, Xoyta, 17, speech) gossip

6

Anomalous nouns. A few nouns are included here, in which
the stem has been more than usually reduced in the nom-
inative, e. g. , ya\a, ydvu, yvvrj, Sopv, /teXi.

yaXaKT-(o)-av0os (yaXa, yaXa/cTos, TO, milk, av#os, TO, flower)
Galactanthus 19

yovaT-o-£uyov (yow, yovaTos, TO, knee, £vyov, TO, yoke) Gonatozy-
gum 2:8 in yow-

ywatK-o-Tpoxa.<: (yw^, ywaixos, 17, wife, Tpo^as, ^, shoe) Gynae-
cotrochas 35 : i in ywo-

SopaT-o-Xw/ia (8dpv, SdpaTos, TO, stem, spear, XG/m, TO, fringe)
Doratoloma 6:21 in So/at-; 17 in Sopv-

/xeXiT-o-£vXov (/xeXi, /xeXiTos, TO, honey, ^uXov, TO, wood) Meli-
toxylum 10:46 in /tteXi-

II. Adjectives

i. First and second declension: stems in -a, or -o, nom. sing.,
-os, masc., -os, -17, -a, fern., -ov, neut. The stem (ending
in its proper thematic vowel, -o, which is also the connect-
ive) is readily obtained by dropping -o- of the nominative
singular masculine.
fMKpo-^XaLVj. (/xaKpos, a, cv, long, large, x^-a-'-vai $> cloak) Ma-

crochlaena 99

6pdo-fj.€pi<i (6p66<i> 17, ov, straight, yu-epts, ^, part) Orthomeris 92
irepo-paxi's (cTepos, a, ov, different, pax1?, r/, back) Heteror-

rhachis 125
XCVKO /3puov (XeuKos, 17, ov, clear, white, ftpvov, TO, alga, moss)

Leucobryum 114

orevo-Xo<£os (O-TCVOS, T/, ov, narrow, Xo<£os, 6, crest) Stenolophus
46

iov (^pvo-eos, rj, ov, golden, vi/piov, TO, oleander) Chrys-
onerium

354

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 35

/«cr-(o)-av0£fu>i/ (/u,e'<ros, 77, ov, middle, avOffiov, TO, flower) Mesan-
themum 125

d7rAo-Ta£« (aTrAoos, 77, ov, simple, ra&s, 77, array) Haplotaxis 9
2. First and third declension. The feminines of this group fol-
low the first declension, the masculines and neuters the
third. According to the termination of the stem of the
latter, there are two groups, the one with the stem in a
consonant, the other with vowel-stem.

a. Stem in a consonant, usually -v or -T, masc. in -v or -s, neut.

in -v. The stem is readily derived by dropping -os of the

genitive singular masculine.
/ieAav-0-OTi/CTOs (/xe'Aas, aiva, av, ju,e'Xavos, black, OTUCTOS, pricked)

Melanostictus 44: ficAav-, 70
7ravT-o-<£<Aos (Vas, Trasa, TTO.V, Travros, all, <j!>i'Aos, loving) PantO-

philus 114: irav-, 483
repev-o-xpcos (rep^v, etva, ev, repevos, smooth, XP0^5? °i skin) with

smooth skin i

b. Stem in the vowel -v; nom. sing. masc. in -vs, neut. in -v.

The stem is obtained by dropping -s of the nominative sin-
gular masculine. Adjectives in -v, unlike nouns of this
class, do not take the connective -o-. The use of the stem
vowel, -v, as connective is so nearly absolute that it has
seemed unwise to extend the connective -o- to this class.
d/x/3Av-voTo? (d/i/3A.vs, cTa, v, blunt, VOTOS, 6, south wind) Ambly-

notus 3
(3a6v-(f>vTov (fiaOvs, deep, low, <f>vrov, TO, plant) bathyphytum

86

(3apv-£v\ov (/fopvs, heavy, £v\ov, TO, wood) Baryxylum 115
/3pa8v-mirTov (/J/oaSws, slow, TrnrTcs, fallen) Bradypiptum 25
/fyuxu-oSovs (/Jpaxvs, short, small, oSov?, 6, tooth) Brachyodus

52
y\vKv-pi£a (yAuKv's, sweet, p%a, 77, root) Glycyrrhiza 30:2 in

yXvKO-

&PifjLv-(j>vXXov (8/Dt^vs, sharp, <^vXAov, TO, leaf) Drimyphyllum 3
evpv-^ao-ts (ev/svs, wide, broad, /3ao-is, 77, step, base) Eurybasis
66

r^Sus, sweet, 007x77, r), smell) Hedyosmus 58

355

36 Frederic E. Clements

rjXvs, female, tender, x1™*', «, frock) Thely chiton

40

I0v-0pi£ (I6vs, straight, Qpt£, 77, hair) Ithythrix 32
6£v-aKavOa (6£us, sharp, axavOa., T}, thorn) Oxyacantha 137
TraXv-ovpa. (iraXv<;, thick, stout, ovpd, »}, tail) Pachyura 30
TrXaTv-KwoW (TrXerrvs, wide, broad, KwSwv, 6, 77, bell) Platycodon

5i

Tj-oXv-yaXo. (TroXvs, much, many, yoXa, TO, milk) Polygala 960
Tpaxv-arrifjuav (rpaxvs, rough, rugged, o-rrifjuav, -ff, thread) Tra-

chystemon 16:3 in rpa^-
3. Third declension : stem endings various ; nominative in -T^, -cs,

-wv, -ov, -vs, -w, -is, -i, -<op, -op; in one ending, -as, -^s,

-is, -us, or in the form of all nouns from which adjectives

are derived without change (see last term). The form for

composition is best obtained by dropping -os of the geni-

tive singular (-ovs of contracts, nom. -775, -es).
7rA77/9-(o)-ao-Kos (VX^s, es, full, filled, daKos, o, leathern bag)

Plerascus 3
\f/€v&-o-Xtvov (^erS^s, es, false, \tvov, r6, flax, thread) Pseudo-

linum 178:2 in -17
TreTrov-o-o-iKvos (WTTwv, ov, 7r€7rovos, ripe, o*i»cvos, 6, gourd) a kind

of gourd
Tpo<£i-(o)-av0os (Tp6<f>i<;, rpo^>ios, well-fed, av^os, TO, flower)

Trophianthus i
a/)pev-(o)-a^v77 (apprjv (apo-rjv), ev, a/opevos, male, oc^yr), ^, down)

Arrhenachne 22
vo/xa8-o-Kuo-Tis (vo/Aas, vo/u,a8os, roaming, Ku'o-Tts, r), bladder)

Nomadocystis i
o~vyK\v8 o-o-TTO/Kx (o-vy/cXvs, o-uyKXv8cs, brought together, cnropd, 17,

seed) Synclydospora i
Irregular Adjectives
//.eyaX-o-x\o?7 (/xe'yas, t^yoXfj, /«'ya> /u.eyaXou, great, x^-0'7?- ^ grass)

181:16 in ^eya-

III. Numerals

i. Cardinals, els, 8w>, TpeTs, TeWapes are declined; the numbers
from TrevTc through exaTc'v are indeclinable. The first four
numerals rarely appear in the normal form in composition:

356

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 37

etsis represented by /ncVos, 17, ov, alone, one, Suo, by Si-, Tp«s
by Tpi-, and Wo-o-ape? by rerpa-. The last three very rarely
elide, and only before i or a. The numerals from trivrf. to
SwSe/ca should terminate in -a when compounded.
Hovo-0pi£ (/U.GVOS, 77, ov, one, #pt£, 17, hair) Monothrix
St-wov (81-, two- wcV, TO, egg) Dioum

Tpi-KcpaTiov (Tpi-, three-, KepdViov, TO, little horn) Triceratium
TeTp(a)-a*Tis (TeTpa-, four-, cum's, 17, ray) Tetractis
Trevra-TreA/n? (TTC'VTC, five, Trc\Tr), %, small shield) Pentapelte
o/cra-/8Ae<£apis (OKTW, eight, /?Ae<£apis, 17, eyelash) Octablepharis
Sexa- patf)-r) (SeKa, ten, pd(f)rj, fj, seam) Decarraphe
2. Ordinals, and the higher cardinals in -ot, enter into composi-
tion in the same manner as adjectives in -os.
TrpwTo-KOKKos (TrpojTos, r), ov, first, KOKKos, 6, berry) Protococcus
p.vpi.o-(j>v<Ta (/u.vpios, a, ov, numberless, <£vo-a, ^, bubble) Myrio-

physa

^tXio-^vXAov (x&i0i, <", a, thousand, <f>v\Xov, TO, leaf) Chilio-
phyllum

IV. Indeclinables

1. Adverbs. These are rare in nominal compounds. They

are attached immediately to the second member,
(ay/a, near, o-jropa, T), seed) near of kin
(dei, ever, xpuo-£°s, golden) Aichrysum
(aVa^, once, once only, av^os, flowering) hapaxanthus
apn OaXys (apn, just, exactly, 0uAAds (*0aAos) 6, shoot) just

blooming

tu-pap.vos (ev, right, true, pa/tvos, 77, thorn) Eurhamnus
Xap-at-vr/ptov (xa-ljia^ on the ground, vypiov, TO, oleander) Cha-
maenenum

2. Prepositions. These are attached directly to the second mem-.

ber. The final vowel is elided before an initial vowel (ex-
cept in irepi', and Trpo), and if the latter be aspirated, a
preceding smooth explosive is roughened. E/c becomes e£
before a vowel.

^t, on both sides of, 8c'va£, o, reed) Amphidonax
a, on, upward, x*/3'5* ^ grace) Anacharis
(Sia, through, <£avos, bright) Diaphane

357

38 Frederic E. Clements

naO-eopa (Kara, down, down from, ISpa, 17, seat) Cathedra
-irfpi-avOos (irepi, around, oV0os, TO, flower) Perianthus
vn-ep-avdrjpa (vircp, over, avOrjpo^, blooming) Hyperanthera
VTTO-TTITVS (wo, from under, TTI'TUS, rj, pine) Hypopitys
3. Inseparable particles. These are attached directly to the sec-

ond member.
d-<£v\Aov(dv- (d-, before a consonant) without, <£vAXov, TO, leaf)

Aphyllum

av-ei\r)fjua (dv-, without, u\r)fjja, TO, veil) Anilema
api-av&ripa. (dpi-, very, quite, dvfljypds, flowering) Arianthera
Sa-o-/ao? (oa-, intensitive, o-/aa, ^, shade) thickly shaded, bushy
(Svs-, hard, bad, p.op<pia, %, form) badness of form
(epi, very, much, Tpi'xiov, TO, little hair) Eritrichium
(^a-, very, KaAAos, TO, beauty) very beautiful
(^t-, half, ypa^is, 17, style, needle) Hemigraphis
vrj-TrevOris (vrj-, without, irwOos, TO, sorrow) Nepenthes

V. Verbal Stems

Xeul/i-6pi£ (XetVo) (Xeu/'-) lose, ^t^, 17, hair) having lost the hair
\Liro-Opi£ (A«Vo) (XITT-), lose, ^/3t^, 17, hair) wanting hair

px40 C^X60"") begin, poX-jr-fi, 17, song and dance)
beginning the strain

(apxw ("^X")' begin, /ca/cd?, bad) beginning mischief

WORD FORMATION IN LATIN

DERIVATION

Latin has developed derivation enormously, while composition
has had a relatively feeble development. This is explained by
the fact that derivation must have maintained the lead which it
doubtless acquired during the formative period of the language,
and, also, by the fact that the need for compound words during
the classic and post-classic periods was supplied by repeated and
extensive borrowing from Greek. Derivation has, in conse-
quence, a much greater importance for the nomenclator than
composition, a condition quite contrary to that which prevails in
Greek. As in the latter language, nominal derivatives are formed
by adding noun or adjective suffixes to roots or stems.
358

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 39

NOUN SUFFIXES

Agent

-TOR (-SOR), m., -TRIX, f., primary or secondary verbal; rarely
denominative: da-tor, giver; ora-tor, speaker; ton-sor,
barber; via-tor, traveler; impera-tor, commander;
pise a- tor, fisherman

-ES (stem -T, -IT, -ET), m. or f., primary: ped-es, walker; com-
es, companion ; tram-es, pathway

-o (stem -ON) m., primary: combib-o, pot-companion; ger-o,
porter

-ARIUS, m., primary or secondary, verbal or denominative:
ferr-arius, smith ; pisc-arius, fishmonger

Means or Instrument

-BULUM, n., primary or secondary, usually verbal : pa-bulum,
fodder; vesti-bulum, court

-CULUM (-CLUM), -CRUM, n., primary or secondary, usually
verbal : sar-culum, hoe ; vin-clum, fetter ; ful-crum, sup-
port

-BRUM, n., -BRA, f., primary or secondary, verbal: cri-brum,
sieve; fla-brwn, blast; tere-bra, borer

-TRUM_. n., -TRA, f., -TER, m., primary or secondary: plaus-trum,
wagon ; mulc-tra, milk-pail ; cul-ter, knife

-MEN, -MENTUM, n., primary or secondary, usually verbal:
teg-men, cover; funda-mentum, foundation

Action or Result

-OR, -is, m., -ES, f., -us, n. (stem -OR, -ER), primary: cal-or,

heat ; lab-or, toil ; cin-is, ashes ; pulv-is, dust ; caed-es,

a setting-down ; nub-es, cloud ; fun-us, burial ; on-us,

burden
-TUS (-sus), mostly masculine, primary: fruc-tus, fruit; pas-

tus, food; vic-tns, food; sen-sus, perception
-10 (stem -ION), f., secondary verbal, rarely primary: obsid-io,

siege; reg-io, district
-TIO (-sio), (stem -TION), primary or secondary verbal: auc-

tio, increase; huma-tio, burial; conver-sio, alteration
•TURA (-SURA), primary or secondary verbal: tex-tura, web;

commis-siira, joint

359

40 Frederic E. Clements

-MEN, -MENTUM, n., primary or secondarj' verbal : f rag-men,
piece; arma-mentum, equipment

-MONIUM, n., -MONIA, f., primary or secondary, verbal or de-
nominative: testi-monium, testimony; all-mania, sup-
port; sancti-monia, sanctity
Quality

-i A, -TIA, f., secondary denominative: andac-ia, boldness; pa-
tient-ia, patience; nigri-tia, blackness

-IES, -TIES, f., secondary denominative: pernic-ies, ruin; segni-
ties, laziness

-DO, f., secondary denominative or verbal: arun-do, reed; hiru-
do, leech ; dnlce-do, sweetness

-GO, f., secondary denominative or verbal : albu-go, whiteness ;
lanu-go, down ; rubi-go, redness, rust

-TAS, -TUS, f., secondary denominative: cavi-tas, hollow; celeri-
tas, swiftness; plcni-tas, fulness; senec-tus, old age

-TUDO, f., secondary denominative: ampli-tudo, width; crassi-
tudo, thickness

-IUM, -TIUM, secondary denominative or verbal : auspic-ium,
omen ; hospit-ium, inn ; servi-tiwn, slavery

-ASTER, m., secondary denominative : cle-aster, wild olive

Place

-ARIUM, n., primary or secondary denominative: avi-arium,

poultry-yard; herb-arium, place for plants; virid-arium,

garden
-ETUM, -TUM, n., primary or secondary denominative: caric-

ctum, field of sedges ; fruti-cetum, thicket ; ros-etum,

rose-garden ; arbus-tum, grove ; salic-tum, willow grove
-ILE, n., primary denominative: bov-ile, cattle yard; ov-ile,

sheepfold
-TORIUM , n., secondary denominative : audi-torium, lecture

room ; ora-torium, oratory

Diminutives

-ULUS (-OLUS after a vowel), primary or secondary denomi-
native: glob-ulns, little globe; herb-ula, little herb; capit-
ulum, little head; atri-olum, little hall; osti-olum, little
mouth

360

Creek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 41

-CULUS, -UNCULUS, primary or secondary denominative; -mns-
culns, little mouse; nubc-cula, little cloud; oper-culnm,
little lid; cent-unculus, cloth of many colors; orati-un-
cula, little speech

-ELLUS, -ILLUS, primary or secondary denominative: mis-ellus,
wretch; lam-clla, small leaf ; pat-clla, small dish; pcnic-
illus, hair pencil,; osc-illum, little face

-UNCIO, secondary denominative: hom-wicio, manikin

The gender of diminutives is regularly that of the stem to
which they are attached.

Patronymics. These are formed by the regular Greek suf-
fixes, which have given rise in Greek to adjectives that
have become nouns in Latin.

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES

Ownership or Relation
-ANUS, -ENUS, -INUS, primary or secondary denominative : pag-

anus, rustic; ser-enus, calm; mar-inus, of the sea
-ACUS, -icus, primary or secondary denominative: pausi-acus,

olive-colored; hepat-icus, liver-colored
-ALIS, -ELIS, -ILIS, -ULUS, primary or secondary denominative:

litor-alis, of the shore ; hum-ills, lowly ; ed-ulis, edible
-ARTS, -ARIUS, -TORI us, primary or secondary denominative:

milit-aris, martial ; larnin-arius, blade-like ; dcsul-torins,

of a vaulter
-ATUS. -ITUS, -UTUS, primary or secondary denominative: ped-

atiis, having a foot ; turr-itus, turreted ; hirs-utns, rough
-EUS, -EIUS, -icius, primary or secondary denominative : frond-

cus, leafy ; plcb-eins, of the commons ; advent-icius, for-
eign

Material

-ACEUS, -icius, primary or secondary denominative: ochr-
aceus, of ochre ; viol-aceus, violet-colored ; later-iciiis,
brick red

-EUS, -lus, -EIUS, primary or secondary denominative : lign-cns,
of wood ; ros-eus, rosy ; aur-eus, golden ; limon-ius,
lemon yellow ; chalyb-eius, of steel

361

42 Frederic E. Clements

-INUS, -INEUS, -GNUS, primary or secondary denominative:
lilac-inns, lilac-colored; querc-inus, oaken; frax-ineus,
ashen ; fulig-ineus, soot-black ; abie-gnus, of fir-wood ;
sail- gnus, of willow

Quality or Fitness

-AX, primary: ten-ax, tenacious; rap-ax, furious; vor-ax, con-
suming

-IDUS, -ULUS, primary: flor-idus, blooming; morb-idus, dis-
eased ; cred-ulus, trustful ; pend-ulus, hanging

-vus (-uus), -ivus, -TIVUS, primary or secondary verbal or de-
nominative : decid-uus, apt to fall ; aest-ivus, of summer ;
fugi-tivus, fleeing

-lus, primary or secondary denominative or verbal: patr-ius,
paternal; exim-ius, choice

-ILIS, -BILIS, -TILIS (-SILIS), secondary verbal: Hex-ills, flex-
ible; fac-ilis, easy; nota-bilis, noteworthy; plica-tilis,
twisted; fos-silis, dug up

Fulness
--osus, secondary denominative : form-osus, beautiful ; silv-osus,

forested; lim-osus, muddy

-(O)LENS, -(O)LENTUS, primary or secondary denominative:
grave-olens, of heavy odor; snccu-lentits, fresh, full of
juice; lutu-lentus, muddy

-BUNDUS, -CUNDUS, primary or secondary verbal, rarely denom-
.inative: erra-bundus, vagrant; fe-cundus, fruitful; rubi-
cundus, ruddy

Place or Origin

-ANUS, -ANEUS, -ENUS, primary or secondary denominative :
mont-anus', of the mountains ; subterr-aneits, under-
ground; terr-enns, earthy

-ENSIS, primary or secondary denominative : for-ensis, of the
market place; padov-ensis, of Padua

-ESTER, (-ESTRIS), -TER (-TRIS), primary or secondary denom-
inative: camp-ester, of the fields; silv-estris, forest;
lacus-ter, of a lake; palus-tris, marshy

362

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 43

-TIMUS, secondary denominative: mari-timus, of the sea; fini-
tiunts, bordering

Time

-ANUS, primary or secondary denominative: anteluc-anus, be-
fore daybreak; meridi-anus, of midday; cotidi-anns,
daily

-ERNUS, (-TERNUS), -URNUS (-TURNUS), primary or secondary
denominative : hib-ernus, wintry ; sempi-ternus, everlast-
ing; di-urnus, by day; noct-urnus, nocturnal

-NUS, secondary denominative: autum-nus, of autumn; ver-
nus, vernal

Diminutives

-ULUS (-OLUS), secondary denominative: frigid-ulus, chilly;

lute-olus, yellowish

-CULUS, secondary denominative, especially common with the
neuter of the comparative: minus-culus, somewhat
smaller; crassius-culus , somewhat thick

COMPOSITION

Latin, like Greek, exhibits two methods of composition, syn-
tactic and non-syntactic. The former, found in such compounds
as aquaeductus, nomenclator, respublica, and paterfamilias, is rare
and archaic, and needs to be noticed only to call attention to its
use in specific names, such as urticaefolia, mcnthacflora, etc.,
which should be treated as non-syntactic and written urticifolia,
menthiflora, etc. Non-syntactic composition has been developed
to a certain extent in Latin, but the language is far inferior to
Greek in this regard. Latin has largely obviated the need of
composition by a wide extension of derivation, with the result
that composition always seems awkward and foreign to the lan-
guage. Notwithstanding this, Latin has a large number of
compounds, mostly adjectives, which have been used by biolo-
gists, and new compounds will doubtless be made upon the model
afforded by these. It should be borne in mind that derivation
by suffixes is the easy and natural method of word 'formation in
Latin, as composition is the natural way in Greek, and a desir-

363

44 Frederic E. Clements

able working rule might be formulated to the effect that deriva-
tives be taken from Latin and compounds from Greek. Linne1
has written as follows upon this point: "Nomina generica ex
duobus vocabulis latinis integris & conjunctis composita, vix tol-
eranda sunt. Ejusmodi vocabula, graeca lingua pulcherrima
sunt; at Latina non facile eadem admittit. Adrnissimus
nonnulla vocabula latina, sed non ideo in posterum imitancla
sunt."

THE LAST TERM

The last term is a noun, adjective, or verbal stem. Accord-
ing to the nature of the last term, its form is as follows :

I. If the last term is a noun, the compound ( I ) will be a noun :
angi-portus (*angus, strait, portits, harbor) a narrow street
ante-cursor (ante, before, cursor, runner) forerunner, van-
guard

tri-dens (tri, three, dens, tooth) trident
nemori-cultrix (nemus, nemoris, forest, cultrix, cultivator)

forest-lover

mani-pretium (mamts, hand, prctium, price) workman's pay
albo-galerus (albus, white, galerus, hat) white hat of a fla-

men

(2) or the compound will be an adjective, appearing in one of
three forms: (i) us, a, um; (2) is, e; (3) the form of
the noun.

(a) If the last term belong to the first, second, or fourth
declension (stem in -a, -o, and -u, respectively), the
compound adjective will regularly take the terminations
of the first and second declensions (us, m., a, f., um, n.),
or it may take the endings of the third declension (is..
m., f., e, n.)

in-formis (in, not, forma, form) formless
igni-comus (ignis, fire, coma, hair) fiery-haired
magni-sonus (magnus, great, sonus, sound) loud-sounding
iniilti-znus (multus, many, via, way) having many ways
albi-cerus, albi-ceris (albus, white, cera, wax) wax- white

Philosophia Botanica, 160. 1751.
364

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 45

uni-cornis, uni-cornus (wins, one, cornu, horn) with one

horn
angui-manus (anguis, snake, manus, hand) with serpent

hand
magn-animus , magn-animis (magnus, great, animus, soul)

great-souled

long-acvus (longus, long, aevum, age) of great age
multi-jugus, -jugis (multus, many, jugum, yoke) yoked

many together

multi-meter (multus, many, metrum, measure) of many feet
(&) If the last term belong to the third declension (stem in
a consonant or in -i) the compound adjective will have
the form and inflection of a noun, or its stem may take
the endings us, a, um, or, more rarely, is, e.
aequi-lanx (acquits, equal, lanx, scale) with equal scale
in-frons (in, without, frons, leaf) without foliage
nigri-color (niger, black, color, color) of a black color
multi-pes (multus, many, pes, foot) many-footed
multi-radix (multus, many, radix, root) many-rooted
itni-finis (units, one, finis, limit) possessing the same ter-
mination

semi-bos (semi, half, bos, ox) half-ox
bi-dens (bi, two, dens, tooth) two-toothed
aequi-pes, aequi-pedis (aequus, equal, pcs, foot) isosceles
in-orus (in, not, os, oris, mouth) without a mouth
multi-colorus (multus, many, color, coloris, color) many-
colored
multi-nominis (multus, many, nomcn, nominis, name) many-

. named
multi-genus, -generus, -generis, (multus, genus, generis,

kind) of many kinds

multi-laudus (multus, laus, laudis, praise) much-praised
aequi-latus, aequi-laterus (aequus, equal, lotus, lateris, side)

equilateral

(c) If the last term belong to the fifth declension, the com-
pound adjectives will appear in us, a, um, or, rarely, in
the form of a noun.

365

• 46 Frederic E. Clements

levi-fidus (Urns, light, fides, faith) of little faith
per-dius (per, through, dies, day) throughout the day
ex-spes (ex, out of, spes, hope) hopeless

II. If the last term is an adjective, it will not be changed, though

noun suffixes may be added to it, thus making a sub-
stantive.

igni-potens (ignis, fire, potcus, powerful) potent in fire
aequi-par (aequus, even, par, equal) perfectly equal
semi-sepultus (semi, half, sepultus, buried) half buried
anim-aequus (animus, mind, aequus, even) not easily moved
albo-gilvus (albus, white, gilvus, pale-yellow) whitish yellow
longi-vivax (longus, long, vivax, tenacious of life) long-
lived

III. If the last term is a verbal stem, the compound may be a

noun of the first or third declension, or an adjective of

three terminations or one termination.
limi-cola (limus, mud, colo, dwell) a mud-dweller
lapi-cida (lapis, lapidis, stone, caedo, cut) a stone-cutter
tubi-cen (tuba, trumpet, cano, sing) a trumpeter
man-ceps (manus, hand, capio, take) purchaser
frugi-legus (frux, frugis, fruit, lego, collect) fruit-gathering
herbi-gradus (herba, grass, gradior, go) going in the grass
multi-fidus (multus, many, findo, cleave) many-cleft
gemmi-fer (gemma, bud, fero, bear) bearing buds
spini-ger (spina, thorn, gero, bear) thorn-bearing

THE CONNECTIVE

The connecting vowel, -«'-, has been so extended in Latin that
the language practically knows no other connective. An -o- has
found its way into some words after the analogy of Greek com-
pounds, but these, as well as those in which the connecting vowel
is -M-, are so rare that all connectives other than -i- may be
entirely disregarded.

THE FIRST TERM

The first term of the compound in Latin may be a nominal
stem (noun or adjective), an indeclinable (adverb, preposition,

366

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 47

or inseparable particle), or more rarely a verbal stem. Nouns
are extremely rare as the first term of Latin compounds, except
where the last term is a verbal stem. Adjectives likewise, with
the exception of numerals and a few common words such as
acquits, longus, multus, etc., are rarely found in composition. In
consequence, the first terms of Latin compounds are very largely
made up of numerals and indeclinables, the latter taking, of
course, no connective. In Latin, inflected stems appear almost
invariably in the proper stem form. The infrequency of such
stems in composition doubtless accounts in a large measure for
this uniformity.

NOUNS

lani-pes (lana, wool, pes, foot) with wool on the feet
limi- genus (limits t mud, gigno, bring forth) mud-born
grant- fer (granum, grain, fero, bear) grain-bearing
funi-repus (funis, rope, repo, creep) rope-dancer
frugi-ferens (fru.v, frugis, fruit, ferens, bearing) fruitful
corpori-cida (corpus, corporis, body, caedo, cut) butcher
ori-putidus (os, oris, mouth, putidus, fetid) with vile mouth
corni-frons (cornu, horn, frons, forehead) with horned fore-
head

lacu-turris (lacus, lake, turris, tower) a kind of cabbage
fidei-commisswn (fides, trust, committo, commit) a bequest
in trust

ADJECTIVES

laeti-ficns (laetus, glad, facto, make) gladdening
soli-vagus (solus, alone, vagor, wander) wandering alone
tardi-gradus (tardus, slow, gradior, walk) slow-paced
atri-capillus (ater, black, capillus, hair of the head) black-
haired
grandi-scapius (grandis, great, scapus, stem) having a large

stem

lein-caulis (levis, smooth, caulis, stem) smooth-stemmed
pleuri-laterus (plus, pluris, more, latus, lateris, side) with

several sides
serpenti-pes (scrpens, creeping, pes, foot) serpent-footed

367

48 Frederic E. Clements

NUMERALS. Vnus, centum, the higher cardinals and all ordinals
appear in the stem form with -i- as the connective, the
remaining cardinals are unchanged: duo, two, is re-
placed by bi-, tres, three, by tri-, and quattuor, four, by
quadri-.

uni-folius (un-us, one, folium, leaf) one-leaved
bi-fidns (bi, two, Undo, cleave) cleft into two parts
tri-furcus (tri, three, furca, prong) three-pronged
quadri- jugis (quadri, four, jugum, yoke) yoked in fours
quinquc-partitus (quinque, five, partio, divide) five-parted
septem-ner-uus (septem, seven, nervus, nerve) seven-nerved
decem-remis (decent, ten, remits, oar) ten-oared
centi-ceps (centum, hundred, caput, head) hundred-headed
primi-formis (primus, first, forma, form) original
quinti-ceps (quintus, fifth, caput, head) having five peaks

INDECLINABLES

Adverbs and adverbial prefixes :

semper-fiorium (semper, always, fios, flower) evergreen
paen-ultimus (paene, nearly, ultimus, last) last but one
per-magnus (per, very, magnus, large) very large
prae-longus (prae, very, longus, long) very long
in-divisus (in, not, divido, divide) undivided
sub-globosus (sub, rather, somewhat, globosus, spherical)
nearly spherical

Prepositions :

ab-normis (ab, away from, norma, rule) irregular
ac-clivus (ad, to, clivus, slope) steep
ante-pes (ante, before, pes, foot) forefoot
circum-scissus (circum, around, scindo, split) split around
com-mutabilis (cum, together with, mutabilis, changeful)

subject to change

de- jugis (de, from, jugum, yoke) sloping
ex-aridus (ex, out, aridus, dry) dried out
in-fuscus (in, in, fuscus, dark) dark-brown
inter-nodium (inter, between, nodus, knot) internode
ob-stipus (ob, towards, stipes, stalk) bent to one side
super-nans (super, above, no, swim) swimming at the top

368

Creek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 49

Inseparables :

ainbi-formis (ambi, around, forma, form) of doubtful form
dis-calccatis (dis, without, calceo, put on shoes) barefooted
re-fonnatns (re, back, again, firmo, fix) re-establish
sc-jitgis (si', apart, jugnm, yoke) disjoined
vc-grandis (ye} out, not, grandis, large) not very large, small

ALTERNATIVES

Duplicate names or terms may arise in nomenclature from
alternative words, stems, connectives, or terminations, or from
the alternative use of nouns, adjectives, and verbal stems from
the same root to form the last term of a compound. In Latin, al-
'ternatives cause little trouble because of the slight development
of composition, and for the reason that Latin derivatives are
largely specific. In Greek, the confusion arising from alterna-
tives is great, and it is imperative that composition be made to
conform to certain definite rules. An observance of the follow-
ing rules in making compounds will aid greatly in preventing
the occurrence of real duplicates, as well as the occurrence of
extremely similar, though perfectly distinct compounds, which
are a source of vexation to many biologists.

1 i ) When the language shows two or more alternative words,

such as xaa[j.a. and ^acr/x,?;, ypd/j.fj.0. and ypafjifjLTJ, ypa<f>is and ypa<f>rj, the

more primitive word should be chosen. As this involves a con-
siderable knowledge of Greek, the only safe plan is for the
coiner to make sure that his proposed compound does not appear
in an alternative form. This may be readily done at the same
time that he assures himself that the word does not already exist
in his science in the form in which he proposes it.

(2) Duplicates arising from alternative stems and connectives
are readily avoided by observing the rule already suggested, viz.,
that the proper connective is always -o- in Greek and that words
always enter into composition in the full stem form.

(3) Since a root may often appear in the first term of the
compound as a noun, adjective, or verbal stem, it is advisable
that the coiner of a name should avoid using a root already
found in either of its other forms in composition with the same
last term.

369

50 Frederic E. Clements

(4) The last term of a generic name should be a noun. Al-
though such compounds usually become adjectives in Greek, the
confusion which thus arises from alternative endings or gender
terminations can only be avoided by restricting such compounds
to the form and gender of the noun of the last term, i. e., the last
term of a compound should always remain unchanged.

(5) Verbals should be invariably avoided in compounding
nouns and adjectives, i. e., in all the composition found in nomen-
clature. A compound of identical or similar meaning can al-
ways be secured by employing a noun or adjective, and the use
of verbal stems, in many ways peculiar, should be left to the
philologist.

(6) The repeated use of different suffixes in connection with
the same generic compound, or indeed with the same last term,
should be carefully avoided.

(7) The alternative termination of Latin compound adjectives
in -us and -is, though hardly productive of any real difficult)',
might well be avoided for the sake of the biologist who does not
understand that these are merely alternative endings. Saint-
Lager1 has suggested that terminations in -us be assimilated to
-is, and this suggestion might well be carried out, although the
-us termination has the slight advantage of indicating gender
somewhat more definitely.

ACCENT

The accent of all Greek and Latin derivatives in science is
determined by the accentuation of Latin, since all Greek words
after transliteration are governed, of course, by the usual rules
of accent for Latin words. These are as follows :

(1) The ultimate is never accented.

(2) In words of two or more syllables the accent is on the
penult when this is long ; when the penult is short, the antepenult
is accented.

GENDER

The gender of a name is the gender of the last term in its
proper language, whether the termination conform or not. The

1 Saint-Lager. Chapitre de Grammaire a 1'usage des botanistes. 1892.
370

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 51

gender of the primitive may be changed at any time, of course,
by the addition of a proper suffix of a different gender. The
most frequent mistakes in the matter of gender occur in con-
nection with Greek neuters in -a, -as, and -os; thus, yd\a, milk,
and K/aaxs, meat, are usually regarded as feminines, when found
as the last term of a compound, and dV0os, flower, as masculine.

CORRECTION LIST

In this list are included a number of the more common generic
names which show improper formation. No attempt has been
made to make the list exhaustive, as this would be an idle ex-
penditure of time until there is a wider appreciation of the neces-
sity of placing nomenclature upon a classical basis. The names
given here serve simply as examples of the malformations which
abound throughout biological nomenclature. The duplicate
names which arise from malformations or from alternatives are
discussed under section IV.

I. Compound with improper stem, often also with faulty con-
nective.

Acianthus = Acidanthus (d»as, d»a'8os, 17, point)
Acilepis = Acidolepis

Acispermum = Acidosperma (a-n-fpfii, oW^/wiTo;, TO, seed)
Acleisanthus = Acleanthus (dKAofc, inglorious)
Acrosanthus = Acranthus (0*00?, a, ov, at the point, highest)
Agrostistachys = Agrostidostachys (aypooris, 180?, 17, grass)
Amblirion = Amblylirium (d/x/8A.v;, blunt, dull)
Amianthium = Amiantanthium (d/u,iavTo;, ov, pure)
Chimophila = Chimatophiln (x"/*a» x*1'/*011"05- ™, cold, frost)
Chiococca = Chionococcus (x1^. x""'05' 7» snow)
Chiogenes = Chionogenes

Chroococcus = Chrotococcus (XP^?, XP*07"^5- °- skin, color)
Coleosanthus — Coleanthus (xoAcos, o, sheath)
Cybianthus = Cybanthus Ov/fy, 17, head)
Cynosurus = Cynura (KVWV, KWOS, 6, dog)
Dasanthera = Dasyanthera (oWu'j, shaggy, cfr. Sdo-os, shagginess)

Frederic E. Clements

Dermosporium = Dermatosporium (8lpp.a, 8«p/xaTos, TO', skin)

Dermocybe = Dermatocybe

Eilemanthus = Ilematanthus (eJ^/xa, eiXr^/xaTos, TO, veil)

Epigynanthus = Epigynaecanthus (ywi7, ywaucos, 77, woman)

Galanthus = Galactanthus (yoXa, yaXaKTos, TO, milk) -

Galarhoeus = Galactorrheus

Gasteranthus •= Gastranthus (yao-T77p, ycurrpos, T), belly)

Geropogon - Gerontopogon (yepwv, yepovros, 6, old man)

Gigandra = Gigantandra (ytyas, yiyavros, 6, giant)

Gynopogon = Gynaecopogon (yw77, ywaiKos, 77, woman)

Haemocarpus =• Haematocarpus (at/xa, af/xa.™?, TO, blood)

Hedysarum = Hedyarum (rjSus, sweet, but r)8ixrapov, Diosc. !)

Helixanthera = Helicanthera (eXi^, i/cos, twisted)

Homalobus — Homalolobus (6/xaXc's, even, equal), hardly Ho-

molobus (6/xos, one and the same)
Ilysanthus = Ilyanthus (iXvs, 77, mud)
londraba = lodrabe (tov, TO, violet)
lonactis — lactis

Isonanthus — Isanthus (icros, equal)
Kalosanthus - Calanthus (xaXc's, beautiful; better, Callianthus,

Korycarpus — Corythocarpus (/copvs, KopvOos, 77, helmet)
Lacistema = Lacidostema (Xa»a's, Xaxi'Sos, 77, rent)
Leontostomium — Leontostomatium (o-Tc/*a, o-To/xaTos, TO,

mouth)
Lepargyraea = Lepidargyraea (XcTrt's, XeTriSos, 77, scale, also XCTTOS,

TO, scale)

Lepicystis = Lepidocystis
Lepisanthus = Lepidanthus
Manisuris = Manura (tiuvo's, rare, porous)
Megacephalum = Megalocephalum (fteyas, /xeyaXou, great)
Megapterium = Megalopterium
Megasanthus => Megalanthus

Melasanthus = Melananthus (/xe'Xas, /xe'Xavos, black)
Melianthus = Melitanthus (tte'Xt, ^e'XtTos, TO, honey)
Melilotus = Melitolotus
Myosurus = Myura (/iBs, /xvo's, 6, mouse)

372

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 53

Namaspora = Namatospora (va/ua, va/iaro?, TO, stream)

Nemacladus = Nematocladus (v^/xa, VT^UITOS, TO, thread)

Nemastylis = Nematostylis

Onygena = Onychogenes (ow£, ow^os, 6, nail, claw)

Oonopsis = Oopsis (wov, TO, egg)

Ophispermum = Ophiosperma (o<f>i<>, o<£ios, 6, snake)

Pachysandra = Pachyandra (Tra^w, thick)

Pachysanthus = Pachyanthus

Peliosanthus = Pelianthus (TreAios, livid)

Pholistoma = Pholidostoma (<£o\is, <£oA.t'Sos, 17, horny scale,

spot

Pyxipoma = Pyxidopoma (TTV&S, 7rv#8os, 17, a box of boxwood)
Raphiolepis = Rhaphidolepis (pact's, pa<£i'8os, 77, needle) •
Regmandra = Rhegmatandra (p^yp-a, pjyy/taTos, TO, fracture)
Rhexantha = Rhexianthe (pi^is, pj/^ews, ?;, rending, rent)
Salpianthus = Salpinganthus (o-aA.7riy£, o-aA.7rtyyos, ?), war-trumpet)
Salpixanthus -= Salpinganthus
Schismoceras «= Schismatoceras (o-^i'o-/ia, o-^io-pxiTos, TO, cleft;

Cfr. crgta/M?, ij )
Scolosanthus — Scolanthus (a/cwXo?, 6, stake; better, Scolopan-

thus from o-KoXoif/, 6)

Spermacoce — Spermatococe (o-Wpp-a, o-Wp/naTos, TO, seed)
Spermolepis — Spermatolepis

Stachysanthes = Stachyanthus (ora^us, o-Ta^uos, 6, spike)
Stemastrum = Stematastrum (o-T^/ta, or^/xaTos, TO, stamen)
Stigmanthus = Stigmatanthus (<rrcypa, o-Tty/naTos, TO, point;

cfr. 0-Ttyp.i/, ij)

Thisantha = Thinanthe (0«, ^tvds, 6, »J, sand)
Thrixspermum = Trichosperma (^pt^j Tpi^os, ij, hair)
Toxylon = Toxoxylum (TO'£OV, TO, bow)
Tremanthus = Trematanthus (TP^P^X, Tp^fiaTo^, TO, hole)
Trichosanthes = Trichanthus (^ptf, rpixos, ^, hair)

II. Compounds with improper connective.

Acanthopphippium = Acanthephippium (a*av0a, y, thorn,

e^tTTTrtov, TO, saddle)

Actegiton = Actogiton (aKTrj, 17, headland, seacoast)
Actephila = Actophila

373

54 Frederic E. Clements,

Aloexylon = Alo(o)xylum (dXor/, ^, aloe)

Amaracarpus = Amarocarpus (d/*,apa, 77, trench)

Arnb yocarpum = Amblycarpum (d)u./3A.v?, blunt)

Amecarpus = Amocarpus (a/i?/, 77, mattock)

Ammodenia = Ammadenia (d/x/tos, 17, sand, aB-rjv, 6, gland)

Ampelygonum = Ampelogony (a/t7re\o?, 77, vine)

Amphiorhox = Amphirrhox (d/i<£i, around, on both sides)

Andripetalum = Andropetalum (avrjp, dvopo?, 6, man)

Andriopetalum = Andropetalum (cfr. av&piov, TO, manikin)

Anthephora = Anthophora (dvflos, TO, flower, cfr. wOy, T})

Artanema = Artonema (OJOTOS, 6, loaf of bread)

Batheogyne = Bathygyne (fiaOvs, deep, high)

Beloanthera — Belanthera (/3e'A.os, TO, dart)

Blephariglottis = Blepharidoglottis (/SAe^a/at?, tSos, 17, eyelash,

cfr. fiXtfapov, TO, eyelid)
Blepharispermum = Blepharidosperma

Botryceras = Botryoceras (ySorpv;, ySoTpuos, 6, cluster of grapes)
Brachyolobus = Brachylobus (/fyaxus, short)
Chorioactis = Choriactis (^opiov, TO, membrane)
Coreopsis — Coriopsis (KOOIS, KOOIOS, o, bug)
Corispermum = Coriosperma

Cypripedium = Cypridopedium (KuTr/ots, «.8os, 17, Aphrodite)
Dacrymyces = Dacryomyces (Sax/ovov, TO, tear, cfr. SaK/av, TO)
Dacrycarpos = Dacryocarpus
Dasiphora = Dasyphora
Dasyochloa = Dasychloe (8ao-w, shaggy)
Dictyderma = Dictyoderma (SUCTVOV, TO, fishing net)
Endespermum = Endosperma (IvSov, within)
Gaiadendron = Gaiodendrum (yata, 17, earth; better, Geoden-

drum from y»/)

Glyphyllaea = Glyphidophyllaea (yXw^is, yXw^t'Sos, 17, notch)
Graphephorum = Graphophorum (ypa<f)^, f/, drawing)
Halicoccus = Halococcus (a\s, d\ds, ^, sea)
Halyseris = Haloseris

Harpaecarpus = Harpocarpus (apirr], 17, bird of prey, sickle)
Harpechloa = Harpochloe
Hebeanthe = Hebanthus (T^I/, 17, youth)

374

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 55

Hebeloma = Heboloma

Heleocharis - Helocharis (lAo?, eAeos, ™, marsh)

Hcleochloa = Helochloe

Helichrysum = Heliochrysum (17X105, 6, sun)

Hyoscyamus = Hyocyamus (us, wds, 6, 17, swine)

Ixonanthes - Ixanthes (i£o's, o, mistletoe)

Lachnastoma = Lachnostoma (\dxyrj, r/, down)

Menispermum = Menosperma (p-^vr], 17, moon)

Napeanthus = Napanthus (vanr), rj, woody dell)

Nomaphila = Nomophila (vo/ids, o, pasture)

Opegrapha --=< Opographe (tVi/, y, opening)

Oreocarya = Orocarya (opos, o/aeos, TO, mountain)

Oreodoxa = Orodoxa

Pachyospora = Pachyspora (Tra^vs, thick)

Pellacalyx = Pellocalyx (irc'AAa, 17, leather)

Pentstemon = Pentastemon (Wrre, Trcvra-, five)

Phleboanthe = Phlebanthe (^Xc^, </>Ae£ds, 17, vein)

Phoradendron = Phorodendrum (<^>wp, <f><apo<;, 6, thief)

Retiniphyllum = Rhetinophyllum (farlvii, 77, resin of the pine)

Retinispora = Rhetinospora

Rhamphicarpa = Rhamphidocarpus (pa/i^i's, pa/u.<#)i8os, ^, hook)

Scaphespermum = Scaphosperma ( o-xa^o?, TO, hollow)

Sciaphila = Sciophile (o-Kia, 17, shade)

Stictyosiphon = Stictosiphon (o-TtKTo9, i/, w, pricked)

Stylipus = Stylopus (O-TV\O?, 6, pillar, cfr. oruXtc, fi

Telipogon = Telopogon (TC'XO?, TO, end)

Thallisphaera - Thallosphaera (A»XXo's, I, young shoot)

Thelebolus = Thelobolus (6r,\rj, ^ nipple)

Thelephora = Thelophora

Thelesperma — Thelosperma

Theleophytum - Thelophytum

Xyloaloe = Xylaloe (fiJAov,' TO, wood)

Zygnema — Zygonema (£vyoV, 6, yoke)

III. Compounds with improper ending.

For reasons already given, the following compounds are
corrected to conform to the primitive form of the last terms.
Since it may not be clearly understood that certain adjective

375

56 Frederic E. Clements

endings are incorrect, while others are correct but confus-
ing, a summary is given of the correct endings for com-
pound adjectives based upon nouns of the different declen-
sions :

First and second declension: -os, -ov
Third declension:

Stems in v, p, 8: no change, rarely -<av, or -wp, or -os, -ov

Stems in any other consonant, or in -cs: -os, -ov

Stems in -ar, nom. -as: -MS, -a>v, or -os, ov

Stems in -i or -v. no change, or -os, -ov

Acanthobotrya = Acanthobotrys (/36Vpus, 6, a cluster of grapes)
Acanthocarpa = Acanthocarpus (/LOTTOS, 6, fruit)
Acrodryon = Acrodrys (Spvs, •»), oak. Acrodryus, -um is per-
missible but rare)

Acrospermum = Acrosperma (<nrfpfia, TO, seed)
Acrotriche = Acrothrix (0pi£, TOGO'S, 17, hair)
Amphilophis = Amphilophus (A.c'<£os, 6, crest)
Botrytis = Botryites (/SOTOWTTJS, 6, like grapes)
Callistachya — Callistachys (o-raxws, 6, spike)
Calycera — Calliceras (xepas, TO, horn)
Ceratocaulis — Ceratocaulus (*avAos, 6, stalk)
Centrophyta — Centrophytum (<£UTOV, TO, plant)
Chamaemeles — Chamaemelum (/x^Xov, TO, apple)
Cheilococca — Chilococcus (KOKKOS, 6, berry)
Cyanotis — Cyanus or Cyanotus (ov>, WTOS, TO, ear)
Cyclopeltis — Cyclopelte (T^TT/, 77, small shield)
Cyrtorrhyncha - Cyrtorrhynchus (pv/x0?* T°» snout)
Dasytricha = Dasythrix (Op%, Tpixos, 77, hair)
Desmophlebis = Desmophleps (<£At'i/f, T), vein)
Didiplis = Didiplus (SwrAo's, StTrXoos, twofold)
Distichlis = Distichus (o-Tt'^os, o, row)
Epistemum = Epistemon (o-n^/uuv, o, warp) or Epistema (o-r^/xa,

TO, stamen)

Euchaetis = Euchaete (xa«r/, •»?, long hair)
Gigandra = Gigantaner or Gigantandrus (hyp, dv6>os, 6, man)
Glossocomia = Glossocome (KO^ i/, hair)
Glycyosmis = Glycyosme (OQ-/XJ/, 7), smell)

376

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 57

Grammitis = Grammatites (ypa/x/ia, aro?, TO, line, -m/s)
Gyrocerus = Gyroceras (*cepas, TO, horn) or Gyroceros (xeptis,

tav, horned)

Haplolepidea = Haplolepis (AfTri's, t'Sos, 17, scale) or Haplolepidus
Haplophlebia — Haplophleps (^Aety, r}, vein)
Hedycrea = Hedycreas (*peis, TO, meat)
Hippuris = Hippura (ovpd, 77, tail, but fn-Trupis, horse-tailed)
Hydrangea = Hydrangium (dyycibv, TO, vessel) -
Lagopoda = Lagopus (TTOVS, TroSds, 6, foot)
Lagotis = Lagus or Lagotus (ovs, wrd?, TO, ear)
Leptis = Leptus (XCTTTOS, fine, thin)
Leptostachya = Leptostachys (o-Taxus, o, spike)
Lycianthes — Lycianthus (ai/^os, TO, flower)
Macroscepis = Macroscepe (a-Kf-n-r}, 17, cover)
Melancranis = Melanocranus ( Kpavos, TO, helmet)
Monochila = Monochilus (xetAos, TO, lip)
Myagrum = Myagra (p.vdypa, T), mouse-trap)
Nemacaulis = Nematocaulus (KauAos, 6, stalk)
Neurada = Neuras (vcvpa?, aSos, >/, a plant)
Odontoptera = Odontopterum (trrtpov, TO', feather)
Oncogastra = Oncogaster (yao-TT/p, yao-Tpos, 17, belly)
Pachnolepia^Pachnolepis (A.«ris, t'So?, ^, scale)
Pentachaeta = Pentachaete (x«i"^. ^. long hair)
Phaenopoda = Phaenopus (TTOV?, TroSos, 6, foot)
Rhizobotrya = Rhizobotrys (/JoTpvs, 6, bunch of grapes)
Rhyncholopha = Rhyncholophus (Ao<#>os, 6, crest)
Sciuris = Sciurus (o-Kibvpos, 6, shadow-tail, squirrel)
Sclerostomum = Sclerostoma (o-To/ia, TO, mouth)
Scotophylla = Scotophyllum (<^>vAAov, TO, leaf)
Therofon = Therophonum (^po^Jvos, ov, killing wild beasts)
Xylostyla = Xylostylus (O-TVAOS, 6, pillar)
Zygopeltis — Zygopelte (iriXr-r), 17, shield)

A consideration of duplicates arising out of the above cases,
or from alternative words, will be found in section IV.

377

58 Frederic E. Clements

III

Terms are invalid unless properly transliterated; retroactively, all improper
transliterations are to be corrected.

' 'Nomina generica Graeca Latinis literis pingenda sunt. ' ' Critica
Botanica 127.

' 'The strict Latin orthography can not be too rigorously in-
sisted upon; consistency will in no other way be attainable."
Miller, Scientific Names 127.

The following table shows the proper transliteration of Greek
vowels, diphthongs, and consonants into Latin. For the sake
of uniformity, alternative transliterations (such as a for rj final,
e for «), are avoided.

a = a ai = ae ft = b p=r

e = e au = au

rj = e « = i

i = i fv = eu

0 = 0 T^U = eu

= u in final -os, 01 = oe
v = y [w ov = u

to = o ui = yi

a. = a

#=e

<w = o

Medial ' (K) arising from word-formation is to be transliterated,
thus preventing elision of a preceding vowel, unless its presence
is already shown by aspirating the preceding consonant, as in
f<t>rjp.ipa. Latin usage is variable in this particular, since words
already compounded in Greek, in which the aspirate was not
visible, were transliterated into Latin as they stood, while in
other words in which the presence of the aspirate was felt or
known, the latter was transliterated. In scientific words it is
important that the rough breathing be rendered by h, not only
in order that the terms of a compound may be readily recog-
373

y = g

T = t

= n before K,

<£ = ph

8=d [y, X

X-ch

£ = z

^ = ps

0 = th

yK = nc

K = C

yx = nch

A-l

yy = ng

/u = m

p = rh, p/> = rrh

v= n

' = h

=m in final -ov

Creek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 59

nized, but also to avoid the possible confusion of two compounds

otherwise exactly alike.1

The following list will serve to illustrate the more frequent

errors in transliteration, and their correction.

Adenocaulon = Adenocaulum (or, much better, Adenocaulus,

the last term being xaiAds, o, stalk) ; Lachnocaulum
Agropyron = Agropyrum (TTV/>OS, o, wheat)
Aerophy ton = Aerophy turn (<£im>V, TO, plant); Petrophytum
Ampelodesmos = Ampelodesmus (Seer/Ac's, o, band)
Amphicarpon = Amphicarpum (better, Amphicarpus from

Kayo's, o, fruit)

Acrospeira = Acrospira (o-ireipa, 17, knot, coil)

Amorpha = Amorphe (p,op<f>r), 77, form)

Arachnion = Arachnium (apdxviav, TO, spider's web)

Apios^Apius (ora-ios, i/, pear, pear-tree)

Aplopappus = Haplopappus (aTrAcos, simple)

Arctostaphylos = Arctostaphylus (better, Arctostaphyle from

ora^vAr/, 17, bunch of grapes)

Astrebla = Astreble (a-rpeftXr], y, roller, o-r/oe^Xos, 17, ov, twisted)
Batodendron = Batodendrum (SeVSpov, TO, tree); Linodendrum,

Phorodendrum, Rhododendrum, Toxicodendrum
Blepharoneuron = Blepharoneurum (vevpov, TO, fibre, nerve)
Brachychaeta = Brachychaete (xat/T?7, ^, hair)
Callirhoe = Callirrhoe; Glycyrrhiza, Coralliorrhiza, etc.
Chaetochloa = Chaetochloe (x^, ^, grass) ; Echinochloe, Erio-

chloe, Helochloe, Leptochloe, Scolochloe
Chamaecladon = Chamaecladus (KAaSos, o, shoot)
Chamaenerion = Chamaenerium (vypiov, TO, oleander)
Chamaerhodos = Chamaerhodus (better Chamaerhodum, pt'Sov,

TO, rose)

Chionyphe — Chionohyphe (y^-q, 17, web)
Cheiranthes^Chiranthus (x«>, V, hand); Chiromyces
Coilomyces = Coelomyces (/coiXos, hollow)

. Critica Botanica, 129. 1737.
Dall, W. H. Nomenclature in Zoology and Botany, 55. 1877.
Kuntze, Otto. Revisio Generum Plantarum, 3:354. 1893.
Miller, Walter. Scientific Names of Latin and Greek Derivation.
Proc. Cal. Acad. Set., 1:127. 1897.

379

60 Frederic E. Clements

Cyperus = Cypirus (Kvirupos, d, marsh plant)

Corypha = Coryphe (i<opv<}>y, y, head, top)

Dasylirion = Dasylirium (\etpiov, TO, lily)

Diospyros = Diopyrus (TTVOOS, 6, wheat)

Dolichos = Dolichus (SoAix°s, long)

Eleocharis = Helocharis (eAos, TO, marsh)

Elodea = Helodes (eAwSi/s, marshy)

Gyrotheca = Gyrothece (017*07, 17, box); Heterothece, Tetra-

gonothece

Haplymenium = Haplohymenium (fyuVtov, TO, little membrane)
Helicoon = Helicoum (woV, TO, egg)
Hemicarpha = Hemicarphe (i<dp<f>r), 17, scale, better Hemicar-

phus, Kap<£o», TO', scale)

Hydrocleis — Hydroclis (icXew, 17, hook, key)
Hydrodictyon = Hydrodictyum (SiicTuov, TO, net)
Kory carpus = Corythocarpus (/copvs, KopvOos, 17, helmet)
Lecanidion = Lecanidium (Ae/cawW, TO, dish, pan)
Lycopersicon = Lycopersicum (irepviKov, TO, peach)
Metroxylon = Metroxylum (£u'Aov, TO, wood) ; Stereoxylum
Microthyrion = Microthyrium (Ovpiov, TO, little door)
Opegrapha = Opographe (ypa^iy, 17, drawing)
Orophaca = Orophace (^>aK^, 17, lentil)
Potamageton = Potamogiton (yeiTtov, 6, neighbor)
Protalos = Protohalus (a\s, d\os, 17, sea)
Prinos = Prinus (vpivos, r/, evergreen oak)
Rhodospatha = Rhodospathe (a-irdOr), 17, broad blade)
Sicyos — Sicyus (o-iicvos, 6, common cucumber)
Spirodela = Spirodele (S^Aos, visible)

Steirochaete = Stirochaete (o-T€ipa, ^, beam of a keel) ; Stironema
Stenospermation = Stenospermatium (o-7repftaTiov, TO, little seed)
Symphoricarpos = Symphoricarpus (Kap^ros, 6, fruit)
Symplocos = Symplocus (o-u/i7rAoKos, entwined)
Syndesmion = Syndesmium (better, Syndesmus, o-wSeor/ios, o.

band)

380

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature G\

IV

Of two or more similar terms, the earliest alone is valid, unless they show
an essential difference in root, suffix, or prefix; differences of spelling, gen-
der, or alternative termination are insufficient. Retroactively, the earliest
name, if not already in the properform, is to be corrected, while all others fall-

"Nomina generica, simili sono exeuntia, ansam praebent con-
fusionis." Critica Botanica 43.

"Nomina generica ex aliis nominibus genericis, cum syllaba
quadam in fine addita, conflata, non placent." Ibid. 38.

Similar generic names have long constituted a grave source
of confusion in biology. Nearly every writer upon botanical
nomenclature has appreciated this fact, and has suggested some
method of obviating the difficulty. Linne1 pointed out clearly
the way by which all such duplicates and apparent duplicates
might be avoided, but in the subsequent rapid development of
taxonomy his precepts were lost sight of or ignored. The Paris
Code, though silent on this matter, unintentionally aggravated
the situation by the unfortunate reservations of Article 66. In
passing, it should be noted how signally the purpose of this
scholarly article has been defeated by the presence of an unim-
portant exception. The provision that "every botanist is au-
thorized to rectify the faulty names or terminations, unless it be
a question of a very ancient name current under its incorrect
form," obviously made exception only for names given by Aris-
totle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, and other Greek and
Roman writers upon plants. But this exception has since been
persistently misunderstood, or purposely extended to cover any
incorrect name of any degree of currency whatsoever, and lias
finally found expression in the absurd dictum that "the original
form of a name is to be retained no matter how incorrect it may
be." This feeling seems to have had some influence upon the
treatment of similar generic names in the Berlin Rules and in
the Rochester Code. Though the statement of the rule is dif-
ferent, the treatment is practically identical in both. According

1 Critica Botanica, 39, 43.

381

62 Frederic E. Clements

to the former1, "similar names are to be conserved, if they differ
ever so little in the last syllable; if they only differ in the mode
of spelling, the newer one must fall." Also, "there are to be
conserved Adcnia as well as Adenium, Apios as well as Apiiim,
Chloris as well as Chlorea and Chlora, Danae as well as Danais,
Hydrothrix as well as Hydrotriche, Silvaea as well as Silvia, etc. ;
we doubt that there is any scholar who will confound them. On
the contrary, Tetraclis .and Tetracleis, Oxythcce and Oxythcca,
Epidendrum and Epidendron, Oxycoccus and Oxycoccos, Aster-
ocarpus and Astrocarpus, Peltostema and Peltistema are only
different modes of spelling the same word, and the newer one is
to be rejected if they name different genera." The Rochester
Rules2 provide that "Similar generic names are not to be re-
jected on account of slight differences, except in the spelling of
the same word; for example, Apios and Apium are to be re-
tained, but of Epidendrum and Epidendron, Asterocarpus and
Astrocarpus, the latter is to be rejected." In both codes, it will
be noticed that similar names are to be rejected only when the
difference is merely one of transliteration of the ending, or, very
rarely, of connective. A difference of gender termination or of
alternative ending is considered sufficient to warrant retention,
even though this difference results from incorrect formation, as
in Hydrotriche.

Both rules are equally far from any classical warrant, and, in
consequence, neither code can furnish a logical or accurate basis
for the treatment of similar terms. In formulating a rule for
these, however, it is impossible to give serious consideration to
the views of mere logophiles, who would make wholesale rejec-
tions on the basis of slight or fancied similarities. Thus, it has
been suggested that Micranthus and Micranthemum are so simi-
lar as to warrant the rejection of one, while of Macranthe and
Megalanthe, Glycyphila and Glycyphylla, one should be rejected
because the first two are practically identical in meaning, and
the last two in pronunciation! Between the two extremes there

1 Vorschlage zur Erganzung der " Lois de la Nomenclature Botanique."
Berlin, 1892.

zBull. Torr. Bot. Club, 19:290. 1892.
382

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 63

is but one logical position, namely, similar terms are identical in
nomenclature when as Greek and Latin words they exhibit no
essential differences. Thus, Cerastium, Ceratium, and Ceratia
are merely different forms of a Greek word Kipdnov, and are
homonyms, while Lecane, Lecanarium, and Lecanidium are dif-
ferent words, the last two being formed upon the first by the
use of suffixes. Frequent affixation of the same stem should be
carefully avoided, however, regardless of the validity of the re-
sulting derivatives.

Such Greek words as avOos, ypd<£i>, KefaX-r), and their relatives,
which are extremely frequent in nomenclature, will serve very well
to show the difference between homonyms and similar yet valid
terms. Besides many compounds, the lexicon shows twenty deriv-
atives of the root av6-: of these, the following seventeen are suffi-
ciently distinct to justify their use: dv#os, TO, flower; av^Ar/, 7', pan-
icle; avOefj.ov, TO, flower; dv0€/uov, TO, floweret; avOiov, TO, floweret;
o, flower of asphodel; avOewv (dv0o»v) , 6, flower bed;
;, flower-like; dv0£ju,o'«s, flowery; dv^wros, adorned with
flowers; avOrjouv, 77, bee; dvffypts, flowery; dv^pc^;, 77, bloom ; dV^T/o-ts,
77, full bloom; dv^Ti/cos, blossoming; avBivos, blooming; avdoo-vvrj, r),
bloom. A.v6rj, 77, full bloom, flower, should be avoided in composi-
tion, since it is identical with dV0os when used as a first term, and is
confusing as a last term ; dY0eiov is identical with avQlov, and dv0£/w.is too
near avO^ov to be fortunate. The root ypa<£- shows two series of de-
rivatives, one based upon the root, and the other upon the stem

ypafj.fJi.aT-. Of the latter, ypd/i/xa, TO, letter, picture, ypa/i/taTeibv, TO,

document, ypap.fj.a.TeioLov, TO, small tablets, ypo/i/«iTcus, o, scribe, and
ypafifiaTLKr), *}, written character, are different, while ypap.p.r), r],
stroke, line, is to be regarded as a mere alternative of ypd/t/i-t. In
the first series, ypa^r;, 77, drawing, y/aa^ecov, TO, pencil, ypafaiotov} TO,
pencil, and ypatfriKcs, graphic, are distinct, but y/>a<£i's, 77, stylus, and
ypd<£os, TO', letter, are alternatives. Of the derivatives of Kc<£a\77, T),
head, Ke^aAts, 77, little head, should be avoided, but the following
are distinct; Kt^dAtov, TO, little head; Ke<£aAi'8tov, TO, little head;
K£<£aAiv77, T;-, head of the tongue; Ke^aAtxo?, of the head; /cc^dXatos,
of the head; Kc^aAatuST/?, chief. Nomenclature would, however,
become very much involved for anyone but the philologist, if all

383

Frederic E. Clements

the proper derivatives of such roots as the above were to find a
place in it. Such a condition can be readily avoided if proposers
of terms will take the trouble to acquire a Greek vocabulary.

I. Homonyms.

These arise from alternative forms of the same root
or stem, from mere differences of spelling, translitera-
tion, gender or alternative ending, or from differences
produced by erroneous connectives or terminations.

Aceras Pers. 1807

Acerates Elliott 1817
Aceratium DC. 1824

Aceratia F. Mull. 1854
Acetabulum Tourn. 1700

Acetabula Fries 1822
Acetabularia Lamx. 1816

Acetabularium Endl. 1836
Achlys DC. 1821

Achlya Nees 1823
Adenia Forsk. 1775

Adenium Roem. & Schult.

1819
Adenogyne Klotzsch 1841

Adenogynum Rchb. & Zoll.

1856
Adenophorus Desvaux 1808

Adenophora Fisch. 1823
Apios Boerh. 1720

Apium Hoffm. 1814
Calanthe R. Br. 1821 (mel. Ca-
lanthus)

Kalosanthes Haworth 1821

Calanthea DC. 1824

Calosanthes Blume 1826
Callitriche L. 1751 (cor. Calli-
thrix)

Calythrix R. Br. 1819

Calothrix Ag. 1824
Cerastium L. 1737 (cor. Cc-

ratium) -

Ceratia Adans. 1763
Ceratium Alb. & Schwein.

1805
Chamaedrys Tourn. 1700

Chamaedryon Seringe 1825
Chamaemelum Tourn. 1700
Chamaemeles Lindl. 1822
Chamaemela DC. 1837
Chlora Adans. 1763
Chloraea Lindl. 1826
Chlorea Nyland. 1854
Coleosanthus Cassini 1817 (cor.

Coleanthus)
Coleanthus Seidl 1817
Dasanthera Raf. 1819 (cor.

Dasyanthera)
Dasianthera Presl 1831
Dermatocarpon Eschw. 1824

(cor. Dermatocarpum)
Dermatocarpus Miers 1852
Dermocarpa Crouan 1856
Desmanthus Willd. 1805

Desmosanthes Blume 1825
Dicera Forst. 1776 (cor. Di-
ceras)

384

Creek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 65

Diceras Endl. 1840
Dictyanthes Rchb. 1837 (mel.
Dictyanthus)

Dictyanthus Decaisne 1844
Drimys Forst. 1776

Drimia Jacq. 1786
Epiphegus Spreng. 1820

Epiphagus Rylands 1843
Eremanthis Cassini 1827 (cor.
Eremanthus)

Eremanthus Lessing 1829

Eremanthe Spach 1836
Erythranthus Hanstein 1853

Erythranthe Baillon 1858
Eurotia Adans. 1763

Eurotium Link 1809
Gamochilum Walpers 1839

Gamochilus Lestib. 1841
Glyciphylla Raf. 1819 (cor.
Glycyphylla)

Glycyphylla Steven 1834
Glyphia Cassini 1818

Glyphaea Hook. f. 1846
Gonatobdtrys Corda 1839

Gonatobotryum Sacc. 1879
Gonyanthes Blume 1823 (cor.
Gonatanthus)

Gonatanthus Klotzsch 1840
Grammocarpus Ser. 1825 (cor.
Grammatocarpus )

Grammatocarpus Presl 1831
Heterocladia Decaisne 1841

Heterocladium Schimp. 1852
i lippobroma G. Don 1834

Hippobromus Eck. & Zeyh.

1836
Holophyllum Lessing 1830

Holophylla G. Don 1837
Isomerium R. Br. 1830

Isomeria Presl 1837
Lecanium Presl 1843

Lecania Massalongo 1853
Lepidocarpus Adans. 1763

Lepidocarpa Blume 1855
Lepidotis Palis. 1805 (cor.
Lepidotus)

Lepidota Sterb. 1820

Lepidotus Fries 1836

Lepidotia Rchb. 1841

Lepidotum Dunal 1852
Lepisanthus Blume 1825 (cor.
Lepidanthus)

Lepidanthus Nees 1830
Macranthus Poir. 1813

Macranthea Boiss. 1840

Macrantha Bunge 1843
Macropodium R. Br. 1812

Macropodia Fuckel 1869
Marainophyllum Pobl. 1825
(cor. Marantophyllum)

Marantophyllum M i q u e 1

1855
Megalanthe Gaudin 1828 (mel.

Megalanthus)
Megasanthus G. Don 1834
Microglossa DC. 1836

Microglossum Sacc. 1884
Microtea Swartz 1788 (mel.

Microtes)

Microtis R. Br. 1810
Monochila G. Don 1834 (cor.

Monochilus)

Monochilus Fisch. & Meyer
1835 ,

66

Frederic E. Clements

Uliganthes Cassini 1817 (cor.

Oliganthus)

Oliganthos Barneoud 1845
Oligotrichum DC. 1805
Oligothrix DC. 1837
Pachypleurum Rchb. 1832
Pachypleuria Presl 1836
Pachypleura Jamb. & Spach

1842
Petrophile Knight & Salisb.

1809

Petrophila R. Br. 1800
Rytiphlaea Ag. 1817 (cor.

Rhytidophloeus )
Rhytidofloyos Corda 1845
Salpianthus Humb. & Bonp.
1808 (cor. Salpinganthus)
Salpixantha Hook. 1845
Schismus Palis. 1812 (mel.

Schisma)

Schisma DuMort. 1822
Schizanthus Ruiz & Pav. 1794
Schisanthus Haworth 1819
Scbistanthe Kunze 1841

Sphaerophorus Pers. 1794

Sphaerophora Blume 1850
Sphaeroplea Ag. 1824 (cor.
Sphaeropleum)'

Sphaeropleum Link 1826
Stilbe Berg. 1767

Stilbum Tode 1790
Tapinanthus Blume 1824

Tapeinanthus Herbert 1837
Tetrandra A. DC. 1845 (cor-
Tetraner)

Tessarandra Lindl. 1847
Thrixspermum 'Lour. 1790
(cor. Trichosperma)

Trichospermum Blume 1825
Trachysperma Raf. 1809

Trachyspermum Link 1821
Trichopteris Necker 1790

Trichipteris Presl 1822
Trichosanthus L. 1737 (cor.
Trichanthus)

Trichantha Hook. 1844

Trichanthus Philippi 1857
Xanthoglossa DC. 18*7

Xanthoglossum Lindl. 1852

II. Terms classically different, but so similar in form as to be
unfortunate. There is not sufficient warrant for the re-
jection of these, but their formation is to be avoided,
if not, indeed, invalidated, for the future.
Acarphaea Harvey & Gr. 1849 Galaxia Thunb. 1782
Acarpha Griseb. 1856 Gliocladium Corda 1840

Chlora Adans. 1763 Gloeocladia, J. Ag. 1842 (cor.

Chloris Swartz 1788 Gloeocladium)

Danae Medic. 1787 Glyphis Achar. 1814

Danais Vent. 1799 Glyphia Cassini 1818

Galax L. 1753 Hydrophila Ehrhart 1780 (cor.

Galactia P. Br. 1756 Hydrophile)

66

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature

67

Philydrum Gaertn. 1788 (mel.

Philohydrum)
Isomerium R. Br. 1830
Isomeris Torr. & Gr. 1838
Ixianthes Benth. 1836 (mel.

Txianthus)

Ixanthus Griseb. 1839
Lepanthes Swartz 1799 (mel.

Lcpanthus)
Lepisanthus Blume 1825 (cor.

Lcpidanthus)

III. Similar terms distinct classically and nomenclatu rally

Rhaphidospora Noes 1832
Rhaphiospora Korh. 1855
Syncephalum DC. 1837
Syncephalis Van Tieghem 1875
Theriophonum P.lume 1835
Therofon Raf. 1836 (cor.

Therophonum)
Xanthiopsis DC. 1836
Xanthopsis DC. 1837

Actinostemon Klotzsch 1841
Actinostemma Lindl. 1847
Alectra Thunb. 1784
Alectryon Gaertn. 1788
Brachylobos DC. 1821 (cor.

Brachylobus)

Brachylobium C. A. Meyer 1841
Calopogon R. Br. 1813
Calopogonium Desvaux 1826
Ceramianthemum Donati 1750
Ceramianthe Rchb. 1831 (mel.

Ceramianthus)
Cladodes Lour, 1790
Cladodium Bridel 1826
Diceratium Lagasca 1815

Diceras Endl. 1840
Eritrichium Gandin 1828
Eriothrix Rchb. 1828
Glechoma L. 1737 (cor. Gle-

chonoma)

Glechon Spreng. 1827
Haplocarpha Lessing 1831
Haplocarpaea Endl. 1838
Micranthus Wendland 1798
Micranthemum Michx. 1803
Stylidium Swartz 1807
Stylis Poir. 1817
Trachy podium Leman 1828
Trachypus Reinw. & Hornsch.

1829

Terms are invalid unless properly spelled ; retroactively, improper spellings
are to be corrected.

Apart from its application to improper formations, this thesis
is of secondary importance. It is given place here merely to em-
phasize again the fact that nomenclature in all its aspects must
rest upon a classical basis, a repetition rendered imperative for
the reason that many biologists and more than one code still re-

68 Frederic E. Clements

gard the Latin of Linne as the model. In Greek, a large num-
ber of incorrect spellings have arisen from the careless practice
of dropping one or more letters at the end of a word, or from
the arbitrary change of the termination. The names of The-
ophrastus and Dioscorides, especially, have suffered mutilation,
and should be restored to the original form, while the correction
of later misspellings should be made upon the basis of the classi-
cal form of the terms of the compound. In the rare cases in
which the spelling of a Greek word has been changed in Latin,
the Greek form should prevail.

VI

Terms are invalid If they exceed six syllables in length; retroactively, the
correction of sesquipedalian words must never take place by contraction or
mutilation.

"Nomina Generica Sesquipedalia, enunciatu dimcilia, vel naus-
eosa, fugienda sunt." Critica Botanica 133.

The practice of biologists with respect to the formation of ex-
tremely long terms has been so exemplary that the present rule
scarcely requires postulation. Its justification may be found in
the fact that inconveniently long words, more or less frequent a
century ago, still appear occasionally, and that such words, if
there were no definite sentiment or legislation against them,
might again become frequent as the supply of primitives and
short compounds becomes exhausted. It is more or less unsatis-
factory to limit the length of a word by the number of syllables,
since these vary greatly in length in different stems, but this is
undoubtedly better than limitation by the number of letters. It
is a question whether nomenclature would not gain more than it
would lose, if the maximum length of words were placed at five
syllables, though the number of changes necessitated would prob-
ably render such a rule inacceptable. Naturally, the present rule
should not be made operative in the case of names of groups
above the genus.

68

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 69

VII

Hybrid terms are invalid: retroactively, Greek-Latin hybrids are to be cor-
rected upon the basis of the Greek element, but all vernacular and personal
hybrids fall.

"Nomina generica ex vocabulo graeco & latino, similibusque,
Hybricla, non agnoscenda sunt." Critica Botanica 28.

"Everyone is bound to reject a name in the following cases:
. . . (4) When it is formed by the combination of two lan-
guages." Paris Code, Article 60. 1867.

"The possibilities of the field he has opened up for us are in-
deed great, witness : Smithia, Smithago, Johnsmithotoma, Ig-
smithia, Smithalga, Smithodendron. 1 dwell on this because it
seems to me that botanical Latin is impure enough already with-
out such gratuitous monstrosities." Pound. American Natur-
alist, 26:147. 1892.

"An unhappy feature of Dr. Kuntze's work, and one in vindi-
cation of which I can say nothing, is his method of constructing
new names for genera. Perhaps in some distant century, when
self-repeating history may have brought the return of times when
scientists were mostly men of clear ethics, solid learning, and re-
fined tastes, some such reform in plant nomenclature as that
which M. Saint-Lager in these times vainly advocates will be
carried into effect. If, before the advent of that good time, Dr.
Kuntze's Radlkofertoma and Schweinfurthafra shall have become
current for certain genera, they will be the first to be rejected."
Greene. Pittonia, 2:277. 1892.

The indifference of many biologists to a classical standard for
nomenclature reaches its logical culmination in the formation of
hybrid words. Botanists especially are practically unanimous in
condemning hybrids, but, in spite of this fact, carelessness and
ignorance are steadily increasing the number of illegitimate
words. It is unnecessary to prove that hybrids are as unfortu-
nate in nomenclature as in philology, but it is necessary that
particular attention be given to them in order that they may be
avoided, or at least corrected. No biologist of any real attain-

69

70 Frederic E. Clements

ment can afford to stand sponsor for a hybrid name, when a
trifling expenditure of time will yield a word of pure birth.

For the sake of clearness, hybrids may be divided into two
classes : ( I ) Greek-Latin hybrids, in which one element is Greek
and the other Latin; (2) vernacular hybrids, in which one ele-
ment is from a modern tongue, while the other is classical, usu-
ally Latin. Each class shows hybrids in which both terms are
independent words, and those in which one term is an affix.
There is no essential difference between these as hybrids, but
the distinction is an important one, because words of the second
group are rarely recognized as hybrids on account of the slight
familiarity of biologists with classical methods of derivation.
The matter presents indeed some difficulty for the philologist,
because of the similarity of cognate affixes in Greek and Latin,
and because of Greek affixes borrowed by Latin. On account of
the difficulty of detecting them, hybrids of this sort are becom-
ing more and more common. The raising of hybrid sectional
names in cv-, i/^vSo-, -(08775, -ella, -astrum, etc., to the rank of
generic names is contributing very largely to this result, as also
the endeavor to honor a biologist by attaching all the Latin suf-
fixes in turn to his name.

There has been considerable discussion regarding the treat-
ment of such hybrids as pseudorepens and Eucarex. The con
tention is made that these words are not hybrids, since these
affixes were regularly used by Latin writers, but, as a matter of
fact, they are not found in classical Latin outside of borrowed
Greek words in which they are a proper affix. It has further
been urged that such words are scarcely hybrids, for the reason
that pseudorepens does not mean "false creeping," but merely
refers to a species of Agropyrum, which is not A. repens. Such
argument is mere sophistry, since every compound or derivative
which contains a Greek and Latin element, whether independent
word or affix, is a hybrid. The only possible exception is found
in those rare Greek words which have become so completely
domiciled in Latin that their origin is no longer felt.

The correction of hybrids1 is possible only when the word

1 Since the above was written, three instances of a similar correction of
70

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 71

arises from the combination of Greek and Latin forms, in which
case the cognate or corresponding Greek form is used to replace
the Latin element. In the case of vernacular hybrids, such sub-
stitution is so rarely possible that it may be entirely disregarded,
and all vernacular hybrids, the majority of which are personals,
are to be summarily rejected. Such names fall not only be-
cause they are hybrids, but also on account of the operation of
rules I and VIII. Greek-Latin hybrids, which are current in
nomenclature, are to be corrected and followed by double cita-
tion of author and reviser, but hybrids proposed in the future,
being invalid under the present rule, may be corrected or ig-
nored at the will of the reviser, who alone is to be cited for the
new name in either event.

The following list will illustrate the various kinds of hybrids,
as well as the method of correction, when this is possible.

I. Greek-Latin hybrids in which both terms are independent

words.

Actiniceps = Actinocybe (O.KTIS, OKTIVOS, 17, ray, Kvftr), 17, head)
Aureobasidium = Chrysobasidium (xpwrcos, golden, /fco-ioW, TO,

pedicel)

Baculospora = Bactrospora (fidxTpov, TO, staff, viropd, 17, seed)
Botrypes = Botryopus (/ScVpu;, 6, cluster of grapes, TTOUS, 71-080'?,

6, foot)

Callosisperma = Sclematosperma (o-*cA^a, o-*c\7//xaT05, TO, hard-
ness, o-n-fpfjM, TO, seed)

Claudopus — Loxopus (Ao£os, slanting, crooked, irovs, 6, foot)
Clavogaster - Rhopalogaster (poTraAov, TO, club, yacrr^p, 77, belly)
Clypeosphaeria = Peltosphaeria (TT&TTJ, T), small shield, o-^uipa,

i ball)

Fagopyrum = Phegopyrus (^yos, 17, oak, TTV/X*, 6, wheat)
Fimbristylis = Lomatostylis (Aoi/xa, AayiaTo?, TO, fringe, o-TvAi?, v,

pillar)

Fusicolla = Chytocolla, (x^t's, poured out, xoAAa, ^, glue)
Geminispora = Dissospora (StWos, double, <riropd, y, seed)

hybrids have been found in Pfeiffar's Nomenclator Botanicus 1:624, 1050,
1(540. Catasetum Kunth is corrected to Catachaetum, Diastemella Oersted
to Diasteination, and Loroglossum Rich, to Himantoglossum.

~j2 Frederic E. Clements

Gorgdniceps = Gorgocybe (Topyu>, cos, 77, the Gorgon, Kvftr), '77,

head)

Hemicarex = Hemidonax (TJ/U-, half, 86va£, 6, reed)
Massospora = Mazospora (ju.S£a, 17, barley cake, <nropa, ?}, seed)
Muciporus — Myxoporus (p.v£a, 77, mucus, TTI'/OO;, 6, pore)
Nemacola = Nemocolus (ve/u-os, TO, wooded pasture, -KoAos,

dwelling)
Nitophyllum = Phaedrophyllum (<£cuopos, bright, <£uAAoi/, TO,

leaf)

Nothofagus = Nothophegus (voflos, spurious, ^yos, 17, oak)
Nucleophagus = Caryophagus (icapuov, TO, nut, <^ayos, eating)
Onychosepalum = Onychocalyx (ovu|, ovuxos, 6, claw, Ka\v^, ?',

cup of a flower)
Pachyfissidens = Pachyschizodon (TTO.;^?, thick, o-^oSwi/, 6,

split tooth)

Peltigera = Peltophora (TTCXT?;, 77, shield, ^>opa, 17, a carrying)
Phaioclavulina = Phaeocoryne (<£aios, dusky, Kopvvrj, 17, club)
Pseudopeziza = Pseudopezis (^evS^s, false, TT^I?, 17, stalkless

fungus)

Radulotypus = Psectrotypus (t/^/crpa, 77, scraper, TVTTOS, 6, form)
Retiporus = Dictyoporus (&YKTVOV, TO, net, Tropos, 6, pore)
Scirpodendron = Donacodendrum (SoVa^, SoVaxos, 6, reed,

8/vSpov, TO, tree)
Septosporium = Schizosporium (op(i'£a, >}, cleft, airopiov, TO.

spore)
Verticicladium = Helicocladium (eAi£, eXixos, /, whirl, xAaStoi/, TO,

branch)

[I. Greek-Latin hybrids in which one term is an affix.
Anthostomella = Anthostomatium
Bisporella = Dispor-yllium
Brizula = Brizyllium
Chlorosa — Chlorotes
Coryneliella = Corynisce
Cyphella -= Cypharium
Dolicholus = Dolichidium

Eucaprifolium — Euaegophyllum (ot|, aiyos, 6, 77, goat,
TO', leaf)

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 73

Eucarduus = Euacantha (a*av0a, 17, thistle)

Fusidium = Atractidium (arpaKros, o, spindle)

Gaurella = Gauryllium

Glossula = Glossidium

Graphiola = Micrographium (cfr. Graphis, Graphium, Graph-

idium, Graphyllium)
Hormiactella = Hormiactinium (6/3/u.ia, ?/, fishline, a/cn?, derives,

i ray)

Hypocrella = Hypocreatium
Ilicioides = Dryodes (3/ws, Spvos, 17, oak) .
Juncodes = Thryodes (Opvov, TO, rush)
Labridium = Chilidium (x«Aos, TO, lip)
Lachnella = Lachnium
Lachnellula - Microlachnium
Lithophragmella = Lithophragmatium
Lophiola = Microlophium
Myriactula = Myriactinium
Nasturtioides = Napyodes (vS™, TO, mustard)
Phaeodiscula = Phaeodiscium

Pholiotella= Pholidotium (^oAtSwTos, clad with horny scales)
Polystomella = Polystomatium
Pterula = Pteridium
Rhodiola = Rhodarium
Sphaerosporula = Sphaerosporyllium
Stigmatella == Stigmatium
Struthiola = Struthidium
Tiarella = Tiaryllium
Trichopeltulum = Trichopeltium
Typhula = Typhidium
Zomicarpella = Zomatocarpium (£w/ua, ^w/xaTo?, TO, girded

doublet)

III. Vernacular-classic hybrids in which one term is a personal
name.

Hybrids of this class lack even the excuse of ignor-
ance. Nomenclature can show but one greater mon-
strosity, namely, the mutilated vernacular compound.
Such personals can not be corrected and must fall ir-

73

74 Frederic E. Clements

revocably. Kuntze has been censured unjustly as the
originator of the personal hybrid, since the latter was
already found in numerous examples, as he himself
has shown. But he deserves to be severely censured
for greatly extending its use. Such atrocities as Pseu-
doleskia. Microschwenkia, Gerrardanthus, Pringleophy-
tum, etc., were in existence before the Revisio, but they
are lost sight of in the deluge of such foundlings pro-
posed in the latter. The magnitude of Kuntze's offense
against a classical nomenclature may be seen from the
fact that out of 109 generic names proposed by him,
67 are personal hybrids, and the remainder are almost
entirely mutilations, such as Watsonamra, Clarkeinda,
Schweinfurthafra, Itoasia, etc. In the first volume of
the Revisio,1 the author gives a variety of methods by
which the same botanist may be "honored" ad nauseam
without increasing homonymy. The whole treatment
manifests not only an entire absence of linguistic taste,
but also an abiding ignorance of classical philology.
Kuntze. elsewhere2 says apologetically, "Ich bin im
- Griechischen wenig erfahren." It is to be regretted
that this feeling did not restrain him from such mon-
strous treatment of classical stems.

The following lists, though by no means complete, will serve
to illustrate the various kinds of vernacular hybrids, all of which
are to be rejected.

I. Vernacular-Greek hybrids — personals.
Bakeropteris Beccariodendron

Balfourodendrum Beckeropsis

Barleriacanthus Benthamidium

Barlerianthus Blumeodendrum

Barleriopsis Buforrestia

Barleriosiphon Caloknightia

Barleriotes Chamaesaracha

Beccarianthus Chamissomneia

1 Kuntze, O. Revise Generum Plantarum, 1:51.
3 Ibid., 3:214. 1893.

74

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature

75

Christiastrum

Cordierites

Cyphokentia

Diserneston

Doellochloa

Doniophytum

Dyerophytum

Ellisiophyllum

Englerophoenix

Epizeimeria

Epibrissonia

Eugeniastrum

Eugenioides

Fritschiantha

Gayophytum

Gerrardanthus

Glaziostelma

Grayemma

Hackelochloa

Halterophora

Harveyastrum

Henningsocarputr

Henningsomyces

Huegeliroea

Kentiopsis

Kuhniastera

Kuntzeomyces

Leioclusia

Lenzites

Ludwigiantha

Lyonothamnus

Macounastrum

Macowanites

Mannoglottis

Marilaunidium

Melioschinzia

Microkentia

Microschwenkia

Microweissia

Montagnites

Neobrunia

Neocontarinia

Neograyia

Neohuttonia

Neopeckia

Neoskofitzia

Neowashingtonia

Nesogordonia

Oliverodoxa

Orchidofunkia

Osbeckiastrum

Palaeogrewia

Parabesleria

Parabouchetia

Parapottsia

Phaenohoff mann i a

Pleomassaria

Porteranthus

Preussiaster

Pringleophytum

Prockiopsis

Protohopea

Protoventuria

Pseudehretia

Pseudobarleria

Pseudogunnera

Pucciniopsis

Pycnoseynesia

Radlkofertoma

Rhabdoweissia

Roeperocharis

Sarcolippia

Schmitzomia

Schroeteriaster

75

76

Frederic E. Clements

Sibbaldiopsis
Silvianthus
Siphoneugenia
Smithantha
Stahlianthus
Stanhopeastrum
Sternhopeastrum
Thalianthus
2. Vernacular-Latin
Absolmsia
Agardhina
Algogrunowia
Algorichtera
Arcangelina
Balfourina
Bartramidula
Baumanniella
Beccariella
Benthamistella
Berkeleyna
Bisboeckelera
Brocchinia
Caruelina
Cohnidonum
Cookeina
Crepinula
Delpinoina
Detonina
Dillwynella
Drudeola
Eremicella
Errerana
Fabreola
Flueckigera
Forsteronia
Freynella
Friesula

Thileodoxa
Thouanidium
Tulasnodea
Urbanoden d rum
Uroskinnera
Weinmannodora
Wittmackanthus
Zieridium
hybrids — personals.

Fuckelina

Gerrardina

Gibberinula

Greeneina

Grisebachiella

Harziella

Hemsleyna

Hendersonula .

Hodgsoniola

Hofmeisterella

Hookerina

Hostana

Jacksonago

Julella

Karstenula

Kickxella

Koehneago

Knyaria

Kuetzingina

Latzinaea

Magnusina

Massariella

Massarina

Montagnula

Mohlana

Mortierella

Munkiella

Neilrichina

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 77

Nicholsoniella Scopulina

Nylanderaria Stephanina

Nymanina Thozetella

Octavianina ' Triumfettaria

Oliveriana Urbanisol

Oudemansiella Velloziella

Patouillardiella Vernonella

Peckiella Voglinoana

Peckifungus Warscewiczella

Penzigina Weddellina

Peyritschiella Wettsteiniella

Pfeifferago Wildpretina

Phillipimalva Wingina

Pringsheimina Winterella

Richterago Winterina

Saccardinula Zukalina
Saccardoella

IV. Vernacular-classic hybrids — impersonal.

Calamovilfa Sphaeropezia

Camphoromyrtus Tacsonia

Galedragon Talinastrum

Gelatinosporium Talinellum

Iguanura Tamarindus

Liquidambar Toluifera

Obaejacoides Vauanthes

VIII.

Vernacular names are invalid; this rule is retroactive.

"Nomina generica primitiva nemo sanus introducit." Critica
Botanica 22.

"Nomina generica, quae ex Graeca vel Latina lingua radicem
non habent, rejicienda sunt." Ibid. 48.

"Not to draw names from barbarous tongues, unless those
names be frequently quoted in books of travel, and have an
agreeable form that adapts itself readily to the Latin tongue, .
and to the tongues of civilized countries." Paris Code, Article
28.

77

78 Frederic E. Clements

The vernacular name has long been the refuge of the unlet-
tered or indifferent systematist, and will doubtless continue to
be while there are biologists of this kind. The arguments
against the use of vernacular terms are so obvious and cogent
that they would not be dwelt upon were it not for the contra-
dictory provisions of the Paris Code. As in so many other
questions of nomenclature, Linne's pronouncement should have
been regarded as final by the framer of the Code. But, as in
more than one place, the Code admits a fatal exception. It is
absurd to base biological nomenclature in any degree upon books
of travel, and it is futile to think that an author who speaks
any vernacular tongue whatever, no matter how crude and un-
couth, would find it either harsh or disagreeable. Some biolo-
gists have endeavored to improve vernacular names by shorten-
ing them or by adding a Latin suffix, but such a remedy is worse
than the original trouble. Correction by translation, as Chenan-
thus for Gansblum, is occasionally possible, and in such cases
might be more fortunate than the rejection of a name. The
fundamental fact still remains, however, that nomenclature is
already essentially classical, and should in the future be made
completely so. Vernacular names have no place in it. This
condition can be made to prevail only by rejecting all such names
whether past or future.

Anagrams, if they be considered words at all, are vernacular,
since they are neither Greek nor Latin. They are the ultimate
product of puerility or illiteracy in nomenclature. Such a series
as Filago, Gifola, Ifloga, Logfia, and Oglifa throws a clear light
upon the good sense and linguistic taste of the authors con-
cerned. One might better make names after the fashion of Car-
roll, or take names from the "hog-Latin" of childhood. All
other mutilations, like anagrams, are unpardonable offenses
against nomenclature, and are to be summarily rejected.
I. Anagrams.

Alibum (Liabum) Behuria (Hubera)

Amida (Madia) Beriesia (Siebera)

Anogra (Onagra) Blitrydium (Tryblidium)

Baziasa (Sabazia) Galpinsia (Salpingia)

78

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature

79

Gandriloa (Oligandra)
Gelfuga (Fluggea)
Gifola (Filago)
Gosela (Selago)
Ifloga (Filago)
Lagatea (Galatea )
Lebidiera (Briedelia)
Narthecium (Anthericum)
Neoceis (Senecio)

II. Vernacular mutilations.
Andreoskia
Beccarinda
Berkleasmium
Bolusafra
Brittonamra
Cavanilla
Clarkeinda
Cosimibuena
Dickneckera
Durandeeldea
Elidurandia
Fregirardia
Gomortega
Gonzalagunia
Hallomuellera
Hasskarlinda

Nepera (Spennera)'
Norysca (Ascyron)
Obaejaca (Jacobaea)
Oglifa (Filago)
Parosela (Psoralea)
Phledinium (Delphinium)
Ran ugia ( Angu r ia )
Trelotra (Rottlera)
Trilisa (Liatris)

Isidrogalvia

Itoasia

Kinginda

Kurzamra

Kurzinda

Lippomuellera

Maximowasia

Meyerafra

Muelleramra

Razumovia

Ridleyinda

Schinzafra

Sebschauera

Schweinfurthafra

Watsonamra

IX

A name is not valid unless its etymology and application are clearly indi-
cated : this rule is not retroactive.

"Nomina generica, quae Characterem essentialem, vel faciem
plantae exhibent, optimae sunt." Critica Botanica 97.

"Botanists who have generic names to publish show judgment
and taste by attending to the following recommendations : . .
. . (2) To give the etymology of each name." Paris Code,
Article 28.

8o Frederic E. Clements

The desirability of being able to know the etymology and ap-
plication of each generic and specific name is obvious, but the
rule given above will work advantageously in other matters also.
An author who cites accurately the derivation of a proposed
name will be much less apt to err in its construction, while the
necessity for indicating its application will bring about greater
accuracy in the choice of characters. Desirable as it might be,
it is futile to demand that names show a proper degree of rele-
vancy, or to reject them because they are more or less inap-
plicable. In matters of taste, it is both possible and highly de-
sirable to have a standard, but it is idle to expect that it will be
either appreciated or followed by the majority. Since names are
to be rejected if improperly constructed, it is imperative that the
exact etymology be given in each case, in order that their valid-
ity may be readily ascertained. A name then would stand or
fall by its given etymology. It is extremely unsatisfactory to
say of a name, for example, "from the Greek for flower;" the
exact form of the Greek or Latin stem employed should be
given.

The termination of family, ordinal, class, and branch names shall be uni-
form within each group: tribes shall terminate in -inae, families in -aceae, orders
in -ales, classes in -eae, and branches in -phyta.

"The names of divisions and subdivisions, of classes and sub-
classes, are drawn from their principal characters. They are
expressed by words of Greek and Latin origin, some similarity
of form and termination being given to those that designate
groups of the same nature." Paris Code, Article 18.

The designation of all groups of the same rank by means of a
common suffix is at present merely a convenience, but with the
increasing minuteness of systematic work and the growing ten-
dency toward segregation, it will soon become a necessity. Sub-
divisions and superdivisions will need to be set off from tribes, fami-
lies, orders, and classes, and the terminations for the latter must be
definitely fixed in order to secure a basis for distinguishing the next

80

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 81

group above and below. The number of possible divisions above the
genus is fifteen, which makes it impossible that each should re-
ceive a distinct suffix. The most satisfactory method, then, will
be to fix the designations for the five main groups, and to indi-
cate sub and super divisions by prefixes, or by slight variations
of the proper suffix. A further reason for this is found in the
fact that cognate suffixes can alone be used, since generic names
arc either Greek or Latin, and that proper cognate suffixes are
few. In fact, they are practically exhausted by the five principal
groups, -alis, -ales, being, indeed, very hard to justify as a ter-
mination for Greek stems. It should be noted that -phyta is
merely the neuter plural of the Greek word, <t>vr6v, TO, plant, and
can be attached only to Greek stems.

The following examples will illustrate the operation of the
above rule.
Protophyta : Schizophyceae : Nematogenales : Nostocaceae : Au-

losirinae
Phycophyta: Chlorophyceae : Conjugatales: Zygnemataceae : Me-

socarpinae
Carpcphyta : Ascomyceteae : Discomycetales : Pezizaceae : Sarco-

scyphinae
Bryophyta : Hepaticeae : Jungermanniales : Jungermanniaceae :

Aploziinae

Pteridophyta : Filiceae : Filicales : Polypodiaceae : Onocleinae
Spermatophyta : Angiospermateae: Glumales : Graminaceae : Fes-

tucinae

81

82 Frederic E. Clements

XI

In proposing generic names, the following rules are to be observed:

(1 ) The name shall be a Greek substantive, i. e., not a simple adjective.

(2) A single generic name may be founded upon the name of a botanist.
Such namss are only to tis formed by adding -la to cognomina ending in a con-
sonant and -a to cognomina in a vowel or -/-, except in the case of names al-
ready Latinised, in which case the termination is first dropped.

(3) Personal generic names shall be bestowed only in recognition of emi-
nent services in botany.

(4) Anagrams and geographical names are invalid.

(5) Double generic names are invalid.

Generic names should in the future be formed exclusively from
Greek, as simple Latin nouns suitable for plant names have been
practically exhausted, and the formation of compound terms in
Latin is awkward. Greek nominal stems of all sorts, simple or
compound, with the exception of simple adjectives, such as /Aa«pos,
fu'yas, etc., are readily available. The proposal of generic names
in honor of rulers, patrons, collectors, friends, and relatives
should be severely discountenanced. Furthermore, duplicates of
the same personal, as Saccardaea, Saccardia, Pasaccardoa, Sac-
cardoella, Saccardinula, and Beccaria, Beccariella, Beccarianthus,
Beccardinda, and Beccariodendron must be regarded as invalid,
because their terminations are no longer significant endings, but
mere variations, and also because they are hybrids. Anagrams,
as has been pointed out before, fall because they are vernacular,
or mutilated, or both. Geographical names are almost invariably
vernacular also. Double generic names, such as Dens-canis and
Bursa-pastoris are compounded syntactically and are hence in-
valid, while others, such as Genisto-Spartium and Lilio-Nareis-
sus are mere hybrids.

82

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 83

XII

In proposing specific names, the following rules are to be observed:

(1 ) The name shall be a Greek or Latin adjective, referring to a characteror
function of the plant, or to its habitat.

(2) Reduplicative specific names are to be avoided.

(3) Comparatives, superlatives, and geographical adjectives are invalid; not
retroactive.

(4) Personal adjectives and genitives are invalid; not retroactive. .

(5) The specific name is invalid if the same as the generic name; retroactive.

None of the above rules are of primary importance, but their
observance will materially improve the nomenclature of species.
They represent the best usage at the present time, but need to be
emphasized in order that they may be more generally followed.
A specific name should not only mean something, but should
also have a direct and evident application to some characteristic
of the plant or habitat. In this connection, the necessity for the
rules is obvious, though there will doubtless be dissent from the
treatment of geographical and personal names. In support of
the position taken on geographical names, it is sufficient to cite
the names "canadensis," "carolinianus," "pennsylvanicus, " "vir-
ginianus," etc., of Linnaeus, Gronovius, Elliott, and others, for
species found the country over, and the names "coloradensis,"
"ioensis," "missouriensis," etc., of more recent writers for spe-
cies which completely ignore the political limits of their native
states. Asclepias syriaca L. is a classical example of the value
of geographical names for species. The logical outcome of geo-
graphical names is seen in such absurdities as Crataegus
raleighensis and Panicum auburne, and, when combined with a
proper degree of illiteracy, in such nomenclatural atrocities as
Crataegus Colorado and C. shallotte. The genus Crataegus fur-
nishes convincing proof that nomenclatural and taxonomic in-
competence go hand in hand.

The practice of naming species after persons has absolutely
nothing to commend it. As a rule, personal specific names are
the result of a mistaken desire to honor some one, or of mere
laziness. The day is long past in which a biologist can be hon-
ored by attaching his name to a species, and the honoring of
other persons is not the province of nomenclature. It can not

84 Frederic E. Clements

be gainsaid that the use of personal names for species does ob-
viate the necessity of knowing the species of a genus sufficiently
well to avoid homonyms, but it is clear that such knowledge
might at least make for more thorough systematic work. With
respect to doublets, it is greatly to be regretted that the original
rule of the Rochester Code was not permitted to stand. The
Madison amendment has not only resulted in numerous absurd
one-word binomials, but has actually weakened the cause of
priority by making the latter override all considerations of ac-
curacy and taste.

84

Greek and Latin in Biological Nomenclature 85

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen and Greenough. Latin Grammar. 1893.

Andrews, Lewis, and Short. A new Latin Dictionary. 1882.

Barnhart, J. H. Family Nomenclature. Bull. Torr. Bot Club,
22:1. 1895.

Buttmann, Philip. A Greek Grammar. 1851.

Clements, F. E. A System of Nomenclature for Phytogeog-
raphy. Engler's Jahrb., 31 :b. 70. 1902.

Curtius, George. Principles of Greek Etymology. 1875.

Ball, A. H. Nomenclature in Zoology and Botany.

DeCandolle, Alphonse. Laws of Botanical Nomenclature.
1868.

Dieterich, Karl. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Griech-
ischen Sprache. 1898.

Gray, Asa. Some Points in Botanical Nomenclature. Am.
Jonrn. Sci.> 26:417. 1883.

Goodwin. A Greek Grammar.

Harms, H. Die Nomenclaturbewegung der le'tzten Jahre.
Eng. Bot. Jahrb., 23 :b. 56. 1897.

Henry, Victor. A Short Comparative Grammar of Greek and
Latin. 1890.

Kuntze, O. Revisio Generum Plantarum, I, II. 1891.
Ibid., Ill, i. 1893.
Ibid., Ill, 2. 1898.

Liddel and Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon.

Linne, Carl von. Critica Botanica. 1737.
Philosophia Botanica. 1751.

List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta. 1893-4.

Miller, Walter. Scientific Names of Greek and Latin Deriv-
ation. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 1:115. 1897.

Pfeiffer, Ludwig. Nomenclator Botanicus. 1873.

Proceedings of the Madison Botanical Congress. 1894

Smith and Hall. A Copious and Critical English-Latin Dic-
tionary. 1899.

Yonge, C. D. An English-Greek Lexicon. 1899.

ERRATUM

At foot of pages, numbers 321 to 384 inclusive, should be i to 64.

CONTENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY STUDIES, VOL. II

No. 1

/. Additional Notes on the New Fossil, Daemonelix

BY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR

2. On the Decrease of Predication and of Sentence Weight in English
Prose

BY G. W. GERWIG

j. Mirabeau, an Opponent of Absolutism

BY F. M. FLING

No. 2

1. History of the Discovery and Report of Progress in the Study of Dae-

monelix

BY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR

2. Notes on the Chemical Composition of the Silicious Tubes of the Devil's

Corkscrew, Daemonelix

BY THOMAS HERBERT MARSLAND
j. On the Continuity of Chance

BY ELLERY W. DAVIS

4. The Bacon-Shakespeare Controversy — A Contribution

BY CARSON HILDRETH

5. Generalization and Economic Standards

BY W. G. LANGWORTHY TAYLOR

No. 3 • ^

Topical Digest of the Rig- Veda

Spanish Verbs with Vowel Gradation in the Present System

BY A. H. EDGREN
The Oath of the Tennis Court

BY F. M. FLING

No. 4

/. Influence of the Breton Deputation and the Breton Ciub in the Revolu-
tion {April-October, 1789}

BY CHARLES KUHLMANN
2. The Mercantile Conditions of the Crisis of 1803

BY FRANK S. PHILBRICK

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