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WASHINGTON HIGH SCHOOL.

GUIDE

TO THE STUDENT IN

BOTANY.

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JAN 14 1883 3
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- By EDWARD S. BURGESS, A. M.,

INSTRUCTOR IN CHARGE, .

COPYRIGHT, 1887, BY EDWARD S. BURGESS.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

-~<i >, oo

PHILADELPHIA ;
DounuaPe & CLARKE, PRINTERS,
819-821 Filbert Street.

PAGE

NEE ATI Y =. Soke cecesecanveceenscsnnse, 5
Mummmeeudired WOrk?:).2...2...0... 200. 0unws-- PS IE oe Ni A 8
Bee eer! Objects Attained..............c.cc000 casssseseeeces )
Pe etm Isnoks Required ............s.cccccceseeedevessecneees 10
We moranveal Facilities Offered......:..........22...0.. 00000. 10
ees EIMOTALOTY® 01 5220 Sa ede ke es ole 10

B. The Propagating-Room........... beck aes sees: EL

DEERE ERG: LAP AEY bia. ei cens nts doainmnoneee sas it
mreeveniie Periodicals,.2..2.02...0-.12<yeeeeas coves 13
Pemermeeee or LeChUTes......002.. 1. .cccecceceneeaecsceeesoescs 13
Series I. Flowers and their Families.......... 14

peeres) 42(General “Vopies, 2.0 36000..05.5. edit 16
memteenties thetPlant Gell, . citi. s2i55. nd ibe seals 19

eres LV. Flowerless Plants...........3.0....0: 00 20

Wear Gaitme of Laboratory Work..................2-..000cc000 21
RR A ANG goo Sane cas Shinn as ponies onnadene es 21

B. Topics of Histological Study................... 21

C, Directions for using the Microscope.......... 23
Peet@ecer fora Plant m Detail_..-...0.05:.....2.... 23 .

E. Order for a Single Part in Detail.............. 24
mPhirections im Drawing Plants...) ..220.....4... 25

ett Outhne for Description Papers...............c.ccccsesees 25
IX. Outline for Observation Papers................ceecseseees 26
Pe MIUNINAL DCPICS. .....6s5 sane es 2odity soe tcedas nesses 26

BRN IEE? ETICS. .. 02. ...2s00lcskoieaenee «oye a eee ese 31

Bee PLING DETICS......... 0.5.05 cesar detacedeniescectse 36

X. Howto make an Excursion Profitable.................. 40
XI. Outline for the Year’s Work............ a cop uae 42

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS.

—__—___-»-@ <______—

3

26 : oe

The present work is intended for the use of students in the
Washington High School, to supply them with the outlines
of their course in Botany, and to furnish directions for
modes of procedure in laboratory work and in original in-
vestigation. It is also intended to include such information
regarding the methods followed as will answer the inquiries
of parents and others interested. A portion of the matter’
contained is entirely new; another portion has been for
four years in use in the school as a Syllabus of the Botanical
Course, and is now entirely rewritten, with such adaptations

as have been suggested by experience.

a
x

Bee at A Fi)

OF THE

eee IN UCBOTANY,

Rees I NGEON: HIGH SCHOOL,
1887-1888.

_ I. Mreruop oF Stupy.

Botany in the Washington High School is made a study of
the third year. The student’s previous scientific work has
been in his first year a General Elementary Course, includ-
ing Physiology, Physical Geography and Geology, and in
his second year a course in Physics, or, if he chooses, in
Chemistry. Botany follows as the new science of the third
year; its study is made elective.

The method pursued in the study of ae is primarily
objective, and based upon the actual examination of the
appropriate material. The aim of the course is double—to
promote habits of close olservation and to secure knowledge
of the life of plants. It is intended not merely nor princi-
pally to impart instruction, but rather to lead the student on
to learn from Nature direct. Use of text-books as a sum-
mary and for reference is considered the appropriate supple-
ment. Lectures are added as a further supplement, accom-
panied by examination of specimens and illustrated by dia-
grams. Field-work is esteemed of vital importance, especially
in promoting familiarity with habitats and associations of

~

oO

6

plants. This is at times continued during the winter by
studies at the Botanical wardens. There, by kindness of the
Superintendent, Mr. W. R. Smith, the Botanical Lecture-
room, built for this purpose with the advice of Professor Asa
Gray, of Cambridge, has been placed at the disposal of the
Department of Botany for inspection of plants and delivery
of lectures. In this way the student’s: knowledge is extended
to some prominent features of tropical vegetation.

Especial emphasis is laid on the requirement of original
work. Each student studies successively the development of
seeds, buds, leaves and flowers; preparing description and
drawings. Besides this, each student is also given a succession
of more generalized topics for investigation. Attention is
directed to the breadth of this field of exploration and the
littleness of that already known. The results of the criginal
work done are presented in a series of “ Observation Papers,”
prepared from notes and figures taken at the time of obser-
vation. Each paper is read before the class and is retained
by the laboratory.

Ordinary sessions of the various classes are opened by
reports from the class of objects seen or work done, exhibition
of specimens brought in, questions from the class in regard to
work, and questions to the class in review. In order to keep
in mind the relation of flowers to thought, an extract from
literature regarding plants is daily placed on the blackboard
and copied by the class. The main part of the hour is then
devoted either to examination of specimens, or to lecture,
recitation (from text-book or lecture) or reading of papers.
For the foregoing purposes each class meets four days in the
week, with sessions of fifty minutes. Each student devotes
also at least one hour to laboratory work every week.

The classes are formed in September, and are then given
leaves from which to study venation. Flowers are used from

7

the first, or nearly the first; the first flowers ordinarily selec-
ted being the Soapwort, Morning Glory and Pokeberry. From
careful examination of the parts of these flowers the leading
characters of Polypetalous, Monopetalous and Apetalous Ex-
ogens are learned, with daily explanation of terms as needed.
Other flowers follow, and acquaintance with a number of fam-
ilies is at once secured, among them the Composite, which is
usually taken up the third or fourth week. Excursions to
the woods and riversides near the city are taken as opportunity
offers. Each student hands in a description of each plant
studied. As specimens for analysis become fewer, text-book
study is increased, and is nearly finished by the end of Decem-
ber. Material for the illustration of this study. has been col-
lected continually throughout the preceding weeks, forming
an important object in fall excursions. Students have mean-
time completed the first or autumn series of observation
papers, and their reading follows, while excursions in small
companies to the Botanical Gardens now replace those taken
to outlying districts. Specimens illustrating fruits, buds,
grasses, ferns, mosses, fungi, lichens, alge, and minor subjects
have been collected in quantity during the fall, and are now
to be brought in succession into study, with accompanying
lectures. These subjects occupy the remaining sessions till
early spring. With them there is joined a winter series of
observation papers, mainly concerned with buds and branches ;
and a series of exercises follows by which the student is taught
how to make the best use of botanical works and _ periodicals.

With the coming of spring the analysis and study of the phe-
nogams again engrosses attention. Excursions to the woods
are renewed, the spring series of observation papers, mainly
concerned with flowers, is begun, and the class is actively en-
gaged in enlarging the High School Herbarium. Work is
finished about the first week of June, closing with lectures

8

upon some of the leading generalizations of the science. A
tabulated synopsis of the work of the year is given page 42.

Or

li. REQUIRED WoRK.

. Practical Exercises in the Examination and Analysis of

Plants. forty hours.
To include, besides analysis, General Objective
Work, or the study of specimens with a view to
deduction of the general principles of Botany.

. Gray’s Lessons and Manual. Forty hours.

A number of copies of Ward’s “Flora of the Dis-
trict of Columbia” will be loaned to students as
further aids to study.

. Lectures (supplementary to the text-book, and upon Iinter-

nal Structure and Cryptogams). Forty hours.
See Outlines of Lecture Topics, page 13.

. Laboratory Work (devoted to exercises in drawing and de-

scribing the details of plant structure, with and with-
out the microscope). Twenty hours.
-See Outlines for Laboratory Work, page 21. —

. Studies at the U.S. Botanical Gardens and in Excursions.

Ten hours.
See page 40.

. Preparation of 100 Description Papers, (each stating the

characteristic external features of some plant analyzed).
To be entered in a blank book according to Outline,
page 20. ; |

. Preparation of 3 Observation Papers, (stating results of

original observation on some general topic assigned).
See Outlines for Observation Papers, page 26.

. Preparation of a Condensed Summary of Structural Botany.
. Development Studies; one each on Seeds, Buds, Leaves,

9

Flowers; report to describe, 1st, the object and its
parts (with drawings); 2d, its successive stages of de-
velopment.

Ill. SprctALt OBJECTS OBTAINED BY THE FOREGOING
REQUIRED WORK.

Object of Observation Papers.
To cultivate independent and intelligent observation of
general facts regarding plants.
Object of Description Papers.
To cultivate close observation of particular kinds of
plants.
Object of Laboratory Work.
1. To secure knowledge of Methods of Work.
2. To secure thorough acquaintance with the structure
of the component parts of a plant.
Object of Analysis of Plants.
To secure acquaintance with plants which are—

1. Most common, |
Dee eeeeorant, | Characteristios of the District.
3. Most peculiar, ;
4. Types of Orders.
Object of Summaries of Work Done.
To condense the leading facts of Botany ina a most
easily read and remembered.
Object of Text-book Work.
To secure proper correlation of subjects studied, and
familiarity with accepted modes of stating results.
Object of Excursions.
To secure knowledge of tere and the growing ap-
pearance of plants; and to extend the range of col-
lection and observation.

10

ITV. BuianKx Booxs REQUIRED.

I. For Notes, should contain at least four quires, with
stiff cover bearing the student’s name and section. Jt should
be arranged as follows:

a. Pages 1-14. Summary of Work Done.
b6. “ 15-40. Drawings and other Laboratory Work.

ec. ‘ 40-end. Notes on Lectures.

II. For Descriptions, should be as above described, having
one description only upon a page, with the common name of
the plant conspicuously placed at the top; all the descriptions
to be numbered, and an index placed at the end of the book.
See page 25. |

V. BorTranicaL FACILITIES OFFERED.

A. The Laboratory, in which classes assemble, seats forty
students, and is provided, besides usual furnishings for a
school-room, with four long tables for class-work, a prees and
drying-frame, sink in several compartments, shelving, &e.
Among others are the following special appliances :

a. Chest of twenty drawers containing collections of fruits,
capsules, dried flowers and leaves, examples of stems, roots,
buds, mosses, fungi, lichens, &c.

6. Microscope-table, seating five for work with instruments,
and provided with twelve drawers for accessories.

c. Glass Case of Specimens of Ferns, &c., of the Coal Period.

d. Glass Case containing Laboratory Herbarium (beg:in
March, 1883, and intended to represent the District Flora,
with the plan of showing all principal stages and forms of
each plant).

e. Glass Case containing Wood Sections presented by kind-
ness of Dr. Geo. Vasey, through favor of the Agricultural
Department.

a

f. Glass Case containing Zoological Specimens in Jars, col-
lected by students.

g. Collection of Marine Invertebrates, by favor of the
Smithsonian Institution. In jars.

h. Collection of Lepidoptera and other Insects of the
District of Columbia, in cases, collected by students.

zt. 100 Charts placed upon the walls or hung from wires,
illustrating the Structure of Plants; the work of students.

j. Charts placed upon the walls to iliustrate forms of leaves ;
other sets to illustrate the Maples and other Ornamental
Trees of Washington; another set of 40 varieties of Palms;
(all the above consisting of leaves pasted upon manilla
paper).

k, Crayon picture of Joseph Henry (by kindness of the
artist, Henry Ulke), and framed engravings of Darwin and
Humboldt (by kindness of Dr. Wm. Bernhardt).

l. Index to Scientific Papers contained in the Sinithsonian
Annual Reports, 1863 to 1881, arranged by authors; made by
students.

m. Duplicate of the above index, arranged by subjects, and
extended to other scientific publications of the Government
contained in tlre Library.

B. Propagating Room.

A room in the basement, having south and east windows,
has been used for this purpose, and furnished with shelving
for pots and with growing-boxes. The plan followed is to
secure here a supply of plants of different stages of growth
for use in illustration, especially in the winter, and to be trans-
ferred to the Laboratory as desired.

C. Scientific Library.

Besides works on general science in the main Library, the
Branch Library, in the Botanical Laboratory, contains many

12
Government Reports on scientific subjects, and many works
upon Botany and Zoology, the property of the High
School. These can be drawn by the student on leaving his
receipt. The following works on Botanical subjects are espe-
cially recommended to the notice of classes:

Botanies by Sachs, Bessey ( Larger), Macloskie, Koehler,
McNab, Miss Youmans, Gray (Structural), Goodale
(Physiological), Chapman, (Southern).

Lindley’s Vegetable Kingdom.

Rhind’s Vegetable Kingdom.

Sargent’s Woods of the United States.

Hervey’s Sea Mosses.

Underwood’s Native Ferns.

- Bailey’s Talks A field.

Figuier’s Vegetable World.

‘fwining’s Plant World.

Darwin’s Works; and Life, by Grant Allen.

Darwiniana, by Professor Asa Gray.

Also, Beale’s How to Work with the Microscope.

Carpenter’s The Microscope.

Lankester’s The Microscope.

Also, among books loaned to the laboratory by the in-
structor in charge, to be drawn by students in the previous
manner:

Bower and Vines’ Practical Botany.

Vines’ Physiology of Plants.

De Bary’s Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and
Ferns.

Gray’s Synoptical Flora of North America.’

De Candolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants.

Gray’s Botanical Text-book.

Gray’s School and Field Book (containing Garden Plants).

Gray’s Manual (containing Mosses and Hepatice).

13

Lesquereux and James’ Mosses.
Underwood’s Hepatice.

Farlow’s Alge of New England C ane
Wood’s Algze, Fresh-water.

Wolle’s Desmids; and Alge.

Van Heurck’s Diatoms.
Tuckerman’s Lichens.

Cooke’s Ponds and Ditches.

Arthur, Barnes and Coulter’s Plant Dissection.
Goodale’s Vegetable Histology.
Quekett’s The Microscope.

D. Scientific Periodicals.

Bound yolumes of the “American Naturalist” and two of
“Nature” are to be found by the student in the Laboratory
Library. Files of current scientific publications are kept
upon a special table in the laboratory, and may be drawn out
by receipt. They include, the property of the school,

The Popular Science Monthly and The American Me-
teorological Journal.

Also, loaned by the instructor, for use of students,

The American Naturalist,

Science.

Botanical Gazette.

Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club.
American Monthly Microscopical Journal.
Circulars of the Johns Hopkins University.
Publications of Washington Scientific Societies,

VI. OUTLINES oF LECTURES.

The lectures outlined below. are intended to secure the
student’s attention to some important subjects not otherwise
sufficiently noticed. The lectures are from thirty to fifty

14

minutes each; illustrated by diagrams; each important state-
ment and each diagram to be contained in the student’s note-
books, which are frequently examined, and for which credits
are given based on clear and faithful arrangement.

SERIES I.—FLOWERS AND THEIR FAMILIES.

1. The Typical Flower.

a. Types; 6, formula and diagram; c, type of calyx;
d, of corolla; e, fragrance; jf, color; g, morpho-
logical transitions.

2. Uses of Flowers.

a. Uses protective; 6, uses attractive; c, in production
of perfumes; d, as food; e, for medicines; f, as
dye-stufis; g, other commercial uses; artificial
flowers; /, effect of flowers upon the mind.

8. Influence of Flowers upon Literature.

a. Their place in prose; the Essayists; 6, their place
among the Novelists; c, their place in prose in
general; d, in poetry; e, as sources ef imagery; f,
as typesof beauty ; g, as affecting different nations;
h, associations connected with flowers; i, favorite
flowers of the poets.

4, Palms.

a. Structure of stem; 6, leaves; c¢, flowering; d, fruit;

e, habits; f, uses.
5. Grasses.

a. Characters; b, comparison of rushes and sedges in
stem; c, in leaf; d, in fruit; e, characters of each
compared ; /, uses of each. ;

6. Lilies.

a. Types of Endogens; 0, distinctions from related

families; c, importance; d, prominent species,

7. Roses.

S&S < Co si Sci

13.

14.

15

a. Types of Exogens; 6, distinctions from related fami-
lies; c, importance of the Rose family; d, promi-
nent species.

. Leguminous Plants.

a. Characteristics; 6, related families; c, importance ;
d, prominent species.

. The Buttercup Family. (Headings as in 8.)
. The Composite Family. do.
. The Heath Family. do.
. Aroids. do.
. Water-lilies. do.
. Pines. do.

. Catkin-bearing Trees.

a. Catkins; 6, families producing them ; ¢, upon shrubs,

. Cacti and Fleshy Plants.

a. Cactus stems; ), fleshy stems of Agave and Aloes;
c, of Impatiens and other local plants; d, of sea- -
shore plants; e, other fleshy parts of plants;
f, value of succulence.

Water Plants.

a. Submerged stems; 6, leaves; c, roots in water; d,
flowers and fruit; e, families of water-plants ; Fe
water-plants in other families; g, general structure
of water-plants.

Orchids. 2

a. Structure in general; 0, roots; ¢, flowers; d, fertili-
zation; e, invitation of insects; f, position among -
plants.

5. Trees and Shrubbery of Washington.

a. Native trees along the Potomac; }, upon the hills;
c, Shade-trees of the streets; d, trees in the parks;
e, in conservatories; j/, shrubbery, cultivated; g,
native.

16.

Wis

18

Loh

16

SERIES [].—GENERAL TOopPIcs.
Buds.

a. Development; 6, conditions of bud formation; ¢, ad-
ventitious buds; d, budding; e, grafting; f, bulb-
lets; g, propagation by buds versus seeds.

Adventitious Roots.

a. To supply air; 6, to start cuttings; c, replacing true

root ; d, from injured stem.
Plant Hairs.

a. Unicellular; 6, jointed; c, feathery; d, stellate;

e, glandular; f, stinging; g, prickles; h, sensitive.
Fruit.

a. From calyx; 0b, receptacle; c, peduncle; d,-com-
pound; e, time of ripening; f, chemical changes;
g, germination of indehiscent fruits.

. Seeds.

a. Selfsowing; 6, self-covering; c, wind-borne; d, ani-
mal-borne; e, rolling; f, sculpture; g, develop-
ment, density, germinating power; h, productive-
ness.

Vitality of Seeds.

Cases alleged from tertiary beds; from Egypt, mum-
mies, tombs, Athens; cases within modern times ;
experiments ; conditions required; conclusion.

. Plant Galls.

a Characters in common; 8, gall makers; ¢, inhabit-
ants; d, alternation of generations; e, unlimited
growth; f, internal galls; g, compound; h, hy-
pertrophy; 2, swelling of petioles; 4, bedeguar ;
k, double galls ; /, comparison of leaf-miners, leaf-
rollers, and “jumping seeds.” |

22. Distribution of Plants.

a. Influence of temperature, soil, light, climate; 6, rem-

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

17

nants of different distribution; c, man’s agency in
distribution; “plants cultivated against man’s
will;”’ d, distribution by currents, birds; e, an-
cient and modern migrations; jf, cosmopolitan
plants; g, acclimation.

Germs and Dust.

a. Dust as carrier of germs; 0, their characters; ¢, bac-
teria; d, in decay; e, in disease; antiseptics; f,
Bacillus, characters ; g, beer-yeast ; h, permanence.

Growth.

a. Effect of heat on chlorophyll; 6, on annular growth ;

c, of light; d, blanching; ¢, sensitive leaves.
Plant Chemistry. .

a. Components of plant; 6, sources; ¢, réspiration; d,
chlorophyll action; e, starch; f, sugar ; g, albu-
men; h, tea, coffee, &e.

Plant Mathematics.

a. Decussate leaves ; 6, cycles ; c, angular divergence ; d,
phyllotaxy, systems; e, fundamental and secondary
spirals; f, deviations; g, flower in 8’s, 3’s, 4’s, &e.

Fertilization.

a, Exhausting energy; 0, heat; c, rest required; d,
time fixed, influences; e, pollen, characters; f/f
changes on the stigma; g, tubes developed ; h, em-
bryo and sac.

. Cross Fertilization.

a. Fertilization of Primula; 6, Clerodendron ; ¢, Bar-
berry; d, Kalmia; e, Aristolochia; f, Leguminose ;
g, Yucca; h, Pansy; 2, action of thrips; 7, bees;
k, butterflies and moths; J, proterogyny ; proter-
andry; homogonous, heterogonous, dimorphous,
trimorphous, moneecious, dicecious, flowers; m,
wind-fertilized flowers ; n, flowers alluring insects.

29.

30.

30.

18

Self Fertilization.
a. Accidental; 6, subsidiary ; ¢, cleistogamous. _
Adaptations to Environment.
a. To water; b, wind; c, soil; d, sand; e, shortened
seasons; f, changed climate; g, crowding; h, com-
petition ; 2, leaf-structure, form, &c.

. Flowers Repelling Insects.

a. Why injurious; 6, means of defence; c, downward

hairs; d, other visitors.
Flowers Capturing Insects.

a. Utricularia, characters, habits; 0, Dionza; ¢, Sar-
racenia; d, Darlingtonia.

e. Flowers Digesting Insects; Nepenthes, characters;
habits; f, Drosera; g, Pinguicula; h, others.

Relations of Animals to Plants.

a. Interdependence; 6, resemblances, breathing ; ¢, di-
gestion; d, reproduction; e, protoplasmic and
chemical composition; /, starch and sugar; g,
flexor cords; h, motion; t~, dependence on oxy-
gen; j, ability to take animal food; &, differences.

. Motion in Plants.

a. In growth; 6, sweep of tendrils; c, due to light; d, to
heat; e, hygroscopic motions; f, sudden bloom-
ing; g, sensitive stamens, leaves, &e.

. Nature in Literature.

a. Trees and other objects deified ; 6, general influences
of nature; c, upon different peoples; d, nature to
the Greek; e, tothe English; 4 attitude of mo-
dern literature toward nature ; g, Wordsworth; A,
Emerson ; 2, nature to other poets.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

19

Series II].—THe PuAant CEut.

Protoplasm.

a. Compared in monera, in alge; 6, characters; c,

history.
Cell Walls.

a. Form; 6, layers; c, sculpturing: d, chemical changes ;

e, growth of spirals; f, cellulose.
Cell Development.

a. Terminal and uniform; 6, terminal and attenuated ;
c, radiating; d, branching; e, intercalary ; /f, intus-
susception ; g, unicellular plants; ccenobia; h, cell-
rows; 2, cell-surfaces, membranes.

Cell Contents. :

a. Protoplasm ; 6, nucleus: ¢, nucleolus, d, primordial ;
utricle; e, sap; f, starch; g, chlorophyll; endo-
chrome; h, miscellanea.

Cell Movements.

a. Movements of naked protoplasm ; amceboid (myxo-
mycetes) ; 6, streaming (myxomycetes) : ¢, gliding
(diatoms, Oscillaria); d, movements of enclosed
protoplasm; circulation, (Tradescantia, Gourds) ;
e, rotation (Chara); f, cyclosis (Desmids, closte-
rium): g, Brownian movement; A, movement by

cilia ; 1, hygroscopic movements.
Cell Production.

a. Multiplication by buds; 0, by fission; ¢, segmental
division; d, free cell formation; e, rejuvenescence ;
f, reproduction by conjugation; g, by fertilization,
(with antheridia) ; h, by pollination.
Cell Tissues. |
a. Union of cells; 6, bordered pits, sieve and ladder
cells; c, kinds of tissues, parenchyma, palisade, &c.

20

SERIES IV.—FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

43. Ferns.

a. Characters; b, geological history ; ¢, association with
coal; d, fruit-dots, sporangia, spores; e, prothal-
lium, antheridia, archegonia.

44, The Fern Allies.

a. Equisetum ; b, Calamites; c, Water-ferns ; d, Grape-
ferns; e, Lycopodium: Selaginella; Lepidoden-
dron; Sigillaria.

45. Mosses.

a. Characters, root; b, stem; ¢, leaves; d, pedicel; ¢,
capsule; f, calyptra (cap), operculum (lid), peris-
tome (teeth); g, the “flowers of mosses; para-
physes.

46. Hepatice.

47.

48.

49.

a. Frondose Hepatice; b, Foliaceous Hepatice ; ¢, ela-
ters; d, gemme.
Lichens.
a. Form; b, habitat; c, prominent species; d, apothe-
cla; e, gonidia; their origin.
Fungi. |
a. Parasitism; 6, its consequences; c, influence upon
higher plants; d, mushrooms, gills, mycelium;
e, rust, smut, mildéw, mould; f, bacteria.
Algee.
a. General character; forms; }, colors; ¢, habits; d,
development; e, marine alge ; f, fresh-water alge ;
g, diatoms ; h, desmids ; 7, volvox and allies.

. Cryptogams.

a. General character; reproduction ; 5, development ;
c, other comparisons with phanerogams; d, rela-
tions to higher plants; classifications.

21

VII. OvTLINE oF LABORATORY WoRK.

A. General Plan.

By the laboratory work here outlined, it is intended to se-
cure acquaintance with methods of work, and with the struc-
ture of the component parts of plants. It affords opportunity,

1. To learn the preparation of plant specimens and
appliances.
2. To learn the use of the microscope.
3. To study external structure in detail (Morphology)
examining
Germination,
The Root, Stem, Leaf, Flower and Fruit,
Fertilization.
4. To study internal structure eae. see topics
following.

B. Topics of Histological Study.

The laboratory has recently been well provided with mi-
croscopes of its own, and the study of these topics had been
made possible before by borrowing from gentlemen friendly
to the cause of public instruction. The topics following are
not offered as a complete series, but as a thoroughly practica-
ble course, and one which has been tested by trial. The plan
has been to select such subjects as combine importance with
ease of manipulation. The material is supplied by the in-
structor, who is present to direct and explain.

* Cell-Formation.

Colorless Unicellular Plant,

(See “ Practical Biology’), Yeast.
Green Unicellular Plant,(See

“Practical Biology” and

‘Plant Dissection ”’), Protococcus,

22

Red Unicellular Plant, in

Stratum, Palmella.
Green Unicellular Plant,

showing motion, internal, Desmids.
Yellow-Brown Unicellular

Plant, showing motion,

external, Diatoms.
Blue-Green Filamentous

Plant, showing motion,

external, Oscillaria.
Green Filamentous Plant,

(See ‘“‘ Plant-Dissection.”) Spirogyra.
Cell-Membrane, Porphyra; or, Moss-leaf.
Cell-Substance, Tetraspora.

* * Spore-Formation.

Conjugation, of Simple Cells, Desmids.
Conjugation, of Filaments, Spirogyra.

In Special Cells, (Edogonium.

In Cystocarps, Red Sea-mosses (floridez).
In Apothecia, Lichens.

In Capsules, Mosses.

In Spore-cases, Ferns.

= oe issues,

Parenchyma, colorless, Pith of Sunflower and of Ruslies.
Parenchyma, with nucleus
and protoplasm, Pondweed.
Parenchyma, with starch-
grains, Potato-tuber.
Parenchyma, with chloro-
phyll grains, Leaf of Moss (Fontinalis).

Parenchyma, Epidermal
Tissue and Stomaita, Mignonette, Selaginella.

23

Parenchyma, section of leaf, Hyacinth.

Wood-cells, Red Cedar.
Bast-cells, Linden.
Spiral Ducts, Narcissus.

C. Directions for Using the Microscope.

im Remove all dust with a handkerchief.

IL. Put Eye-piece and Objective in place.

Iff. Obtain convenient position of tube.

IV. Obtain light from mirror.

i: £ Clean a slide thoroughly.

VI. —Place the object to be examined on the centre of the
slide in a minute drop of water

VII. Clean a cover-glass carefully, and place it on the
object (to hold it in place and to flatten the water).

VIII. Put the slide so arranged, on the stage, centering it
over the aperture.

IX. Fasten the slide with spring-clips (unless the stage is
horizontal).

X. Focus the objective; use, Ist, the Coarse Adjustment
(draw tube or rach and pinion); 2d, inspect; 3d,
use the Fine Adjustment. ,

XI. Practice changing focus.

XII. Practice changing light.

XIII. Practice finding object.

XIV. Practice moving object while in view.

XV. Practice changing focus while in view.

XVI. Practice changing diaphragm.

XVII. Practice drawing object.

D. Order of Parts in Examining a Plant in detail.

A. Root.
B. Stem.

24

C. Leaf.
Petiole, Stipules, Bud, Spines, Tendrils, Haustoria.
D, Flower. ) |
Sepals, Petals, Stamens (Filaments, Anthers), Pistils
(Style, Stigma, Ovary [Ovules, Placenta.]).
EK. Fruit.
Cells, Pericarp (Exocarp, Mesocarp, Endocarp) Seeds,
Outer Coat, Inner Coat, Rhaphe, Hilum, Chalaza,
Embryo (Cotyledons, Plumule, Radicle), Albumen.

FE. Order for Examining a Single Plant in detail.

Color, as in petal of a single rose, rose-color.
Outline, 5 “ obovate.
Division, pea . undivided.
Margin, : ey entire.

Base, Aire a narrowed, sessile.
Apex, 2 : rounded.

Surface, “ a smooth.
Substance, s re delicate.
Venation, i . free, fine, obscure.
Direction, 5: horizontal.
Insertion, ce " on a disk on the calyx.
Adhesion, = 2 0

Cohesion, . 5 into a disk below.

Mutual Relation—
In the Bud, as in petal of a single rose, imbricated.

In Maturity, % . wheel-shaped.

In Age, “i “4 deciduous.
Figures:

View from Above, flower, , petal,

View from Side, flower, ———, petal,

Formula, in single rose, S, P, St-- P+
Diagram (showing all parts as by a cross-section through bud),

25

F. Directions in Drawing Plants.

A. Draw,
Ist, a View from Above, ) In case of leaf, flower or part
2d, a Side View, fof flower.

3d, a diagram of arrangement (if a flower).
B. Drawing the object as seen under the Microscope, draw a
View—
Ist. Of Surface, with naked eye or low power; 2d, with
Compound Microscope.

3d, Of Cross-Section, with naked eye or low power; 4th,

with Compound Microscope. |

Sth, Of Section lengthwise, with naked eye or low power;

- 6th, with Compound Microscope.
C. Details:

1. Write under the drawing natural size, reduced or magni-
fied, according to fact, in the last case naming Micro-
scope and Objective used.

2. With the microscope make all drawings (within uniform
circles 34 inches broad) the same proportion of the
circle as of the field of view.

3. Write at the side of the drawing any description neces-
sary to indicate characters not expressed by the
drawing.

4, The note-book in which these drawings are entered
should be brought whenever coming to laboratory-
work, and should have each page headed with date
and subject.

VIII. OUTLINE FOR DESCRIPTION PAPERS.

The following is a sample of the 100 Descriptions to be
entered in the Description Book (not considered a part of
Laboratory Work, but done in part in regular class exercises
and in part out of school) :

26

Name—Soapwort.

Date—

Root—Fibrous.

Stem—Herhb, 13°, swollen at nodes, smooth, slightly branched.

Leaf—Opposite, sessile, oval-lanceolate, acute, entire, smooth,

3-nerved.

Flowers—In clusters, large, showy, pinkish.

Sepals—5, united in a tube nearly to the tips.

Petals—5, each with a slender claw and broad blade.

Stamens—10, white, anthers large.

Pistils—1, compound, styles two, stigma the inner surface.

Ovary—1, compound, 1-celled.

Seeds—Many, on an axial placenta.

Fruit—Pod, 1-celled, opening at tip by about four valves.

Order—Caryophyllacez.

Sci. Name—Saponaria officinalis. Remarks—Common in
sandy roadsides near Washington.

INDEX.

Four pages at the end of the Description Book should be
filled in as an index, of which a sample line may be:
Soapwort, Saponaria officinalis, Caryophyllacez, [page] 1.

=

TX. OUTLINES FOR OBSERVATION PAPERS.

Three papers, selected from the following lists, are required
from each student during the year, to contain results of original
observation only; and see page 6.

* Autumnal Series of Observation Papers.

1, Leaves, Asymmetrical.
a. Forms; 6, comparison with symmetrical leaves in
numbers, in development; c, causes.
2. Leaves, Different shapes on the same plant.

27

a. Differences enumerated; 06, their association with
groups, soil, moisture, season of year, age of plant,
cultivation ; c, their advantage ; d, their permanence.

3. Leaves, Anastomosing veins in.

a. Directions ; 6, association with special shapes, margins,

groups; ¢, veins of ferns.
4, Leaves, Midribs of.

a. Number present; 6, length; ¢, form; d, surface; e
color ; f, interior.

5. Leaves, Relation of veins to outline of.

a. Examples of similarity; 6, exceptions noted and ex-
plained ; ¢, free veins but entire outlines; d, anasto-
mosing exterior veins, but margin not entire; e,
palmate veins in leaf not lobed; /, irregularities of
venation not accompanied by corresponding irregu-
larity of leaf.

6. Leaves, Skeleton leaf compared with skeleton plant.

a. Comparison of augle of veins and branches; ), of vein-
lets and twigs; ¢, apices; d, sessile ‘eaves compared
with low-branching trees; e, with acaulescent plants ;
f, does the leaf repeat the skeleton of the tree?

7. Leaves; Color of veins in its relation to color of leaves.

a. Difference from leaf; 6, difference of veins from each
other; c, on different surfaces; d, association with
special colors; e, with groups of plants.

8. Leaves, Lobes of.

a. Variations; 6, transitions to entire leaves; c, to com-

pound leaves.
9. Leaves, Bases of.

a, Association with venation ; 6, special forms; ¢, with

petiolate and sessile leaves.
10. Leaves, Apices of.
a. Differences accompanying venation, lobation, family

5]

Li:

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Ly.

28

grouping ; 6, possession of hair, spine, or tendril;
c, preference of leaf for special kind of apex; d,
advantages of it.

Leaves, Margins of.

a. Kinds; 0, their association with groups ; ¢, differences
on the same plant; d, association with particular
development of leaves; e, smooth margins; f, hairy
margins; g, margined petioles; h, decurrence upon
stem; 2, marginal colors.

Leaves, Compound.

a. Kinds found, most abundant; b, cases with fooled
petiole; c¢, subordinate fates d, stipules and
stipels ; e, termination of leaf-stalk ; f, associations.

Leaves, Permanence of.

a. Examined in pine and other evergreens; why perma-
nent? 6, replacement due to what? c¢, in grasses; d,
in tropical plants; e, assuciations.

Leaves, Scars.

a. Shape; 6, variations; c, cause; d, elevation; e, date;
f, color; g, numbers; h, surface; i, dotted scars;
j, scars of sessile leaves.

Leaves, Permanence of color after fall.

a. Cases of permanence ; 6, changes how, where, to what ?
c, effect of moisture.

Leaves, Variation in their color.

a. Change uniform, through different leaves, different
parts of the same leaf; 6, gradual or sudden; «,
complete, variegated or shaded; d, development of
changed color, whence, where greatest; e, relation
to succulence.

Leaves, Change of color in Maples.

a. Stages of color in the same leaf; 5, comparison with
other American trees, with European maples; «,

29

variations of color in the different species; d, in
different leaves; e, same leaf.
18. Leaves, Falling of.

a. Time; 6, changes, external and internal ; c, experiment

with petioles; d, permanence of leaf.
19. Leaves of Poplars.

a. Comparison of shape, venation, surface, &c., of Abele,

Carolina P., Balsam P.; 6, contrasts.
20. Leaves, Horizontality of.

a. Object of direction of leaf; 6, non-horizontal leaves

in America; in Australia; c¢, effect produced.
21. Leaves, Reversion to.

a. Examples of complete and partial reversions of petals,
of whole flower; 5, reversions in Alder; ¢, contrast
with viviparous Junci and Scirpi; d, morphology.

22. Leaf Climbers.
a. Distinctions ; 6, mode; ¢, effect on petiole; d, kind of
coil.
23. Climbing Plants.

a. Distinguished from twiners; 6, modes; c, examples ;

d, development.
24, Morphology of Tendrils.

a. Forms; 6, morphological value, and accompanying

differences ; c, coils and process of coiling.
25. Twining Plants.

a. Examples; 06, characters; c, development of stem.
compared with climbers; d, sweep of stem, com-
pared with tendrils; e¢, irritation of stem; f, com-
parison with coil of leaf-climber.

26. Hairs on Plants.

a. Degree of development; 6, distribution of hairs and
position ; c, characters; d, association with groups;
e, use; f, jointed hairs.

ol.

o2,

Oo.

34.

30

Viscid Hairs.

a. Where found; 3, characters; c, advantages to plant;
d, development ; e, duration of viscidity ; f, source.

Stems, Creeping and Prostrate.

a. Contrast; 6, cause; c, examples; d, experiments to

exchange.
Flowers, Labiate.
a, Stages of development; b, forms assumed; ¢, associa-
_ tion with families, with labiate calyces, with other
irregularities; d, efficiency, association with un-
equal stamens, causes.
Late Apetalous Flowers. |
a. Examples; 5, differences from complete flowers ; ¢,
difference in peduncle; d, association with com-
plete flowers ; e, efficiency.
Seeds, Distribution by the Wind.

a. Adaptation in shape; 6, appendages; «¢, association
with groups; d, effects, comparison with others in
holding ground.

Milky Juice of Plants.

a. Examples; 6, special vessels; c, characters; d, use;
e, associations.

Rhizomes.

a. Description; 6, uses; ¢, conditions favoring; d, effi-
clency ; €, associations.

Bulbs.

a. Characters; }, sections; ¢, object and uses; d, asso-
ciation with special groups, soils; e, development,
changes; f, duration.

Galls.

a. Cause and purpose; b, character; c, examples; d,
double, hairy, simple and compound; e, shapes,
colors, substance.

36.

ov.

38.

39.

40.

4,

31

Protection of Buds by Position.

a. Position under bark; 6, in axil; c, under petiole; d,
in wood; e, comparison with related species; /,
comparative development.

Seedling Plants.

a. Change of growth, in time, direction, form, color,

characters; 6, comparative rapidity.
Seedlings and Cuttings. _

a. Cuttings in development, production of roots, of
buds; 6, comparison with seedlings; ¢, growth in
ground, in water.

Growth of Plants over Water.

a. Different growths, rapidity; 06. effect of changes of
position, of sunlight; c, form, color; d, comparison
with the same started in earth.

Relation of Coleoptera to Vegetation.

a. Examination of vegetable-feeding coleoptera by
families; b, depredations on stem, root, leaf. fruit,
flower ; c, summary.

* * Winter Series of Observation Papers.

. Buds, Vernation of.

a. Kinds, single and collective, with examples.

. Buds, Supernumerary.

a. Examples; 6, association with groups; ¢, compari-
son of members of a bud-cluster in position, form,
size, function, development, structure; d, compari-
son of bud-clusters with solitary buds, on same
plant, different plants.

. Buds, Terminal.

a. Examples; 6, form; c, size; d, function; e, struc-
ture; f, protection.
Buds, Adventitious.

~

10.

tt:

12.

32

a. In nature; 6, developed in layering, cuttings, slips,
pollarding; ¢, developed artificially from peach,
beech maple, poplar; d, from leaves, in nature, in
propagation, in begonia, in peperoma; compare.
Primula Chinensis, Echeveria. |

. Buds, Naked.

a. Examples, their relationship; 6, characters; c, why
no scales ?

. Buds, Dormant.

a. Comparison of branches as to extent of simultaneous
development of buds; 6, proportionate extent; c,
development of dormant buds systematic? d, traces
left by dormant buds; e, probabilities of a bud be-
coming dormant; /, can such be made to grow?

. Buds, Color of.

a. Colors found; 6, relation of colors within and with-
out; ¢, compared with color of bark, wood, leaf,
autumn leaf; d, change of color.

. Buds, Scales of.

a. Characters; 6, gradations between outer and inner;
c, any scales within the leaves; d, number of outer
scales enclosing bud.

. Buds, Form of.

a. General form; 6, apex; c, base; d, divergence; e,
varying on same plant.
Buds, Varnishes of.
a, Characters; 6, extent; c, efficiency; d, consistency ;
e, source.
Buds, Protection by hairs.
a. Characters ; b, difference from other hairs on same
plant; c, efficiency.
Buds, Protection by position.
a. By covering; 6, by angle taken; ¢, by simple posi-

33

tion in axil; d, development at time axillary position
ceases to protect; at time coverings cease to protect.
13. Buds, Phyllotaxy of.
a. Examples; 6, exceptions.
14. Stems, Creeping and prostrate.

a. Examination repeated from Series I, No. 28; 6, why
should one be produced and not the other ? ¢, white
clover, Mitchella.

15. Spines, Morphology of.

a Examples, their relationship; stages of development ;
6, morphological value; ¢, compound thorns; d, cir-
cumstances favoring development.

16. Prickles, Morphology of.

a. Examples, their relationship; 0, characters; c, use;
d, morphological value; e, circumstances favoring or
retarding.

17. Tubers, Morphology of. :

a. Examples; 6, characters; c, use; d, morphological

value; e, circumstances influencing; f, phyllotaxy,
| scales, eyes.
18. Bark.

a. Comparison of trees; 6, shaggy and smooth bark; «¢,
Jines of cleavage; d, how ruptured; e, bark of peren-
nial plants; f, of annuals; g, corky layer, in gum, in
ordinary trees; other layers.

19. Specks on Branches.

a. Characters; 6, symmetrical arrangement; c, change

with age; d, cause; e, branches without them.
20. Brittle Branches.

a. Comparison, leatherwood, oak, willow; examples?
6, compared with other parts of same branch; why
not brittle throughout? ¢, why not in related species ;
d, object; e, relation to bud.

34

21. Transverse Sections. a

a. Comparison of exogens and endogens in general ; }, of
medullary rays; c, of varying rings; d, of develop-
ment of bark layers; e, of development of heart-
wood and sap-wood.

22. Longitudinal Sections.

a. Comparison of exogens and endogens; 0, trace knois ;

causes; buried knots; c,examine medullary rays.
23. Heliotropism.

a. Positive; degree; 6, variations peculiar to different
plants; c, to different lights; d, cause; e, negative; -
examine tendrils of grape, Virginia creeper ; f, aerial
roots.

24. Winter Growth.
a. Examine buds, &c.; 6, note influence of warm days;
c, ascertain formation of buds for early spring flowers ;
d, development of mosses, hepatice, and alge.
25. Development of Buds.
a. Experiment with water, warmth, light; b, compare
- with natural action; ¢, artificial change of blossom-
ing-time, of leafage.
26. Hairs found in Winter.

a. Position; 6, use; c, characters; d, hairs developed
with the winter; e, hairs disappearing with winter ;
J, permanence.

27. Persistent Leaves.

a. Evergreens, trees, shrubs, vines, herbs; characters;
related species not evergreens; 5, dead leaves per-
sistent; cause; c, leaves late in dying.

28. Roots grown in Water.

a. Characters; b, differences from similar root grown in

earth ; ¢, fibrils; d, root-caps.
29. Scars. (See Series I, No. 14.)

30.
3l.

32.
33.

34.

35.

37.

38.

og.

AQ.

35

Growth of Plants in Water. (See Series I, No. 39.)

Growth of Seedling Acorns and Horse-Chestnut. (See
Series I, No. 37.)

Growth of Seedling Maples. (See Series I. No. 37.)

Winged Fruit.

a. Characters; examples with one wing; confluent wings;
two separate wings; 0, use; c, related fruit without
wings.

Permanence of Berries.

a. Examples found in winter ; 0, difference from summer
berries; c, structure; d, persistence; e, dissemination
of seed; value. |

Acorns.

a. Differences in form, structure, cup; 6, embryos; ¢, de-
velopment.

. Nuts and their growth.

a. Examples; 0, ripening; c, dissemination of seed; d,
development.

Seeds working into the ground.

a. Into sand; 0, through cavities in soil; ¢, by weight;
d, by shape; e, by boring; f, any other mode of self-
burial? g, awned seeds working to the ground.

Morphology of the Apple, Pear and Orange.

a. Development of ovary; 0, calyx; c, receptacles.

Morphology of Capsules in the Laboratory.

a. Examples; 6, classification; c, characters; d, structure.

Fertilization of Cultivated Flowers.

a. Examine position of organs; 6, what cultivated flowers
produce seed; how are their organs placed? how is
fertilization accomplished ? ¢, artificial means.

1. Runners.

a. Characters ; 6, variations in same species; in same in-

dividual ; c, trace develonment.
2. Twining of Stems.

a. Twining only one way; examples; exceptions; 6. de- -
gree of curve; where, when and how developed;
c, sweep of tip; when active, what radius, in how
many internodes? d, effect of irritation; e, action on
reaching object; f, reversing the sweep.

3. Twining of Tendrils.
a. Sweep examined ; radius, direction, continuation ;
b, effect of irritation; ¢& preference for support; d,
influence of warmth, cold, light, darkness.

4. Glaucous Surfaces.

a. Parts of plant so affected ; b, extent, color, depth, sub-
stance, permanence ; ¢, use; cause; d, associations.

5. Bulb and Stem of Addertongue.

a. Collect and rear; 6, trace development of bulb; «¢,
characters; d, permanence ; e, compare with other
bulbss >= \

6. Heliotropism in Nature.

a. Compare garden plants and wild plants ; shaded trees ;
b, plants in cellars and shade compared with same in
light; ¢, note sunflowers, &c., for diurnal heliotrop-
ism.

7. Comparison of Stipules.

a. Form, size, color; 6, confluent stipules; ¢, stipules of

Grasses, Polygonum.
8. Development of Stipules.

a. Trace from the beginning; 6, morphological value ;

c, replacements.

10.

it;

12.

13.
14.

15.

16.

Wie

18.

37

. Petiole Bases.

a. Forms; 6, enlargements affecting stem; c, decurrent
enlargements ; d, substance; e, uses ; f, development
of base.

Leaf Substance.

a. Variable thickness in the same plant; 36, in different
plants; c, different species: d, its cause; é, its use.

Leaf Forms, Design of.

a. Aquatic leaves, filiform, floating; 6, wind-beaten,
small, acicular ; c, variation with situation: d, vari-
ation in new circumstances.

Haustoria.

a. Where and how developed, from what substance, into
what substance of foster-plant ? 6, do internal tissues
enter foster plant? c¢, use.

Viscid Hairs. (See Series I, No. 27.)

Viscid Floral and Folial Organs.
a. Comparison of relative frequency; 6, difference of
structure ; of use.

Receptacles.

a. Adaptation to use; modifications; 6, proof of the
flower as a branch; c¢, characters, dry, fleshy, pro-
longed, with disks.

Flower——Buds. |

a. Aestivation; 6, folding of single piece; c, develop-
ment; d, form, color, compared with flower.

Flower— Development.

a, Successive stages; unfolding bud; 8, influence of heat,
light, moisture, irritation, applications to hasten or
retard; c, uniform, rapid, sudden developments, du-
ration, persistence.

Flowers, Double.

13.

20.

21.

22.

24.

26.

27.

38

a. Developed by culture; 6, otherwise; c, influences;
d, modifications; e, value.

Flowers, Dimorphous.

a. In stamens; 6, in pistils; c. compare sassafras, Mitch-
ella, Houstonia; examine Bouvardia, Polyanthus,
Auricula; investigate Sauguinaria.

Flowers, Repeated Opening of.

a. Examples; examine Dandelion, Oxalis, Evening
Primrose; 6, associated characters.

Flowers, Reversion in. (See Series I, No. 21, and inves-
tigate Virescence.)
Flowers, Nodding.
a, Examples; 6, degree; c, character of peduncle; d,
arrangement for fertilization; e, nodding of any ad-
vantage? /, transient nutation, in epilobium.

. Flowers, Spurred.

a. Examples; 6, number of spurs; c¢, character of spur
in form, size, surface, position, prominence; presence
of glands; honey; accessibility.

Flowers, Albinism in.

a. Examples; families destitute of; families predisposed ;

6, any attendant changes; c, examine Orchids, La-
biates, Composites, Epilobium, Pontederia.

. Flowers Imitated by Insects.

a. Examine all insects making homes in flowers ; thrips,
etc.; 5, similarity in color? ¢, other respects? d, in
any other insects; their habits.

Flowers of Mixed Inflorescence.

a. Variation at different times; 0, in different branches;
c, Variation constant; d, doubtful inflorescence.

Flowers Cleistogamous.

a. Compare open flowers of Ilysanthes, Epiphegus, Viola,

28.

29.

3l.

o2.

30.

39

Oxalis, Polygala, etc.; b, proportion ee c, how
fertilized ?

Flowers Changing Angle.

a. Examine Willow-herb; 6, any others changing angle;
mode; ¢, change of angle at fruiting; d, object; e
mode; examine Acer, Monotropa.

Flowers Changing Color. |

a. Examples; 6, order of changes; ¢, before and after
fading; examine Boraginacee, Trillium, Cobea,
Lantana, Virginia Stock.

. Flowers, Prolification in.

a. Bearing a new stalk and flowers or leaves; examine
Mitchella; 5, or new flower; examine Polyanthus;
c, how developed; why not made double by cultiva-
tion? d, examination of Narcissus, Scrophulariacee,
Erigeron strigosum ; ¢, contrasts of color and form.

Flowers; Indications of Nectar.

a. Relation to bright colors; to dull; 5, to fragrance; c,
to ill smell; d, union of color and fragrance with
nectar; without nectar.

Flowers; Position of Nectar.

a. Examine Buttercups, Peony, Caltha; 6, is position
always that of secretion ? ¢, compare Clovers, Honey-
suckles.

Flowers and Humming Birds.

a. Note all flowers so visited, examine after visits, com-
pare with the unvisited; 5, effect of visit, reason of
choice; c, examine Fuchsia, Impatiens fulva, Trum-
pet creeper.

. Flowers, Fertilization of Epigzea.

a. Position of organs; 5, probable fertilization ; ¢, visited
by what insects? d, what action of insects observed ?
influence.

40

35. Flowers, Fertilization of Rosacez.

a. General flower structure; b, adaptation to self-fertili-
zation, to insect fertilization; ¢, visits of what insects
noted ; action seen.

36. Flowers, Prithrendeaus
a. Coincidence of maturity of stamens and pistils in
same flower; 6, stamens first ripe; c. pistils first
ripe; d, ripeness partial or complete in head or
spike; compare Umbellifere.

37. Flowers; Escape of Pollen.

a. Dehiscent anthers, pores, rupturing; 6, what escape
from Composite, Lobelia? Orchids compared.

38. Flowers; Pollen dispersed by the wind. :
| a. Examine pines and other conifers; 6, any other ex-
amples? c, adaptations for this; d, efficiency.
39. Flowers, Manner of Insects when among.

a. How does the insect light, how get in, out ? b, where ?
where beginning and ending in a cluster; ¢, inju-
ries to flowers; accidental, by gnawing in (exam-
ine bumblebee in Pedicularis; Labiates), rup-
turing, displacing parts beyond abi recovery.

40. Flowers and Ants,

a. Examples of ants in flowers; on stems; 0, if not on
both, in same plant, or different, why not; ¢c, why
undesirable visitors? d, how repelled?

X. DIRECTIONS TO THE STUDENT.—How To MAKE AN
EXCURSION PROFITABLE.

1. Collect toward your Observation Paper. ,

Start out with the purpose of looking for some definite
class of objects. For instance, if your topic is “ Compound
Leaves,” notice every plant, shrub or tree, to see if in any
part it exhibits the form of leaf sought or an approach to it.

41

Look over the printed headings of your Observation Paper
topic before starting.

Be prepared to take specimens of the particular kind
sought.

2. Collect for the Herbarium.

The herbarium specimens of a small plant should exhibit
it entire, including the roots. |

For a shrub or tree, take a branch showing arrangement of
leaves, flowers and fruit, twelve to sixteen inches in length.

A complete series of specimens in the herbarium to repre-
sent any one of the plants of the District, should show the—

Root.

Stem (with prostrate or underground stem, if any).
Mode of branching.

Leaves, at the base, middle and top of the stem.
Under surface of the leaves.

Buds of the leaves and flowers.

Arrangement of the flowers.

Flowers, expanded, and by side view.

Fruit.

Sometimes a single specimen can be obtained which will
show several of these features at once.

Plants collected for the herbarium should be pressed in a
book or port-folio while in the field.

3. To collect flowers to be examined afterward or for the
class, do not press them, but wrap securely from the air in
several thicknesses of newspaper; not too tightly ; dampen-
ing the flowers a very little.

4, Count the different kinds of plants and trees you find in
blossom, and report the number.

5. Bring in any conspicuous or interesting fruits, buds, or
other plant specimens, as well as flowers, to be exhibited,
named, and preserved.

42

6. Notice the habits of the plants you see; the soil and
situation in which they grow; the neighbor plants with which
they are associated; and the way they are affected by shade,
moisture, and the contrary.

‘ond

7. Take with you a small note-book or a slip of paper on
which to record observations made. Preserve these for future
use and comparison.

8. Cultivate the habit of noticing and recording the day
each year when you first see each species in bloom, or with
expanded leaves, or with ripe fruit, or with leaves falling.

XI. OUTLINE OF THE YEAR’S WORK.

Showing succession and approximate duration of subjects.

FALL TERM—September to November.

Class Work ; Systematic Botany; comparison, description and

analysis of flowering plants

Z (including types of twenty
leading orders).

Laboratory Work ; Manipulation; Herbarium Work (collect-
ing, pressing and drying,
poisoning, mounting, la-
belling, classifying).
Outside Work; Excursions:
Development Studies; Seeds and their germ-
ination.
Observation Paper; involving conclusions
from observations on
a given topic.

43

Winter TERM—December to February.

Class Work; Structural Botany; from laboratory collections
and Gray’s Lessons, with
lectures and preparation
of a Summary of Organs.

Laboratory Work; Manipulation; Use of the Microscope. —

Outside Work; Studies at Botanic Gardens.

Development Studies; Buds.
Observation Paper.

SPRING TeRM—February to April.

Class Work; Histological Botany; protoplasm; the cell,
growth ; tissues (with
lectures).
Cryptogamic Botany; Yeast, Bacteria, Diatoms;
Alge; Fungi, Lichens;
Hepatics, Mosses; Ferns,
Club-mosses; Equiseta;
with Conifers and Cy-
cads; from the objects;
with lectures.
Laboratory Work; Histological Studies.
Outside Work; Studies at Botanic Gardens.

Development Studies; Leaves.

Botanical Literature; involving use of scien-
tific books and _peri-
odicals in the labor-
atory; with reports
on their character,
and on current bo-
tanical news.

44

SUMMER TERM—April to June.
Class Work; Systematic Botany.
Generalizations of Botany; lectures.

Laboratory Work; Drawings; to show flower-structure, es-
pecially adaptations to fer-
tilization.

Outside Work; Excursions.

Development Studies; Flowers.

Observation Paper.

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