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GUIDE TO THE STUDY

OF

ANIMAL ECOLOGY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

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O I v

n

GUIDE TO THE STUDY

OF

ANIMAL ECOLOGY

BY

CHARLES C. ADAMS, PH.D.

ASSOCIATE IN ANIMAL ECOLOGY, DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

Nefa If orfe

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1913

All rights reserved

COPYRIGHT, 1913,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 19x3.

/ 0 0 2-

J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

PREFACE

DURING the past ten years the writer has been try-
ing to find some consistent and satisfactory working
plan for handling the almost bewildering number of
facts, of ecological significance, which have been ac-
cumulating in the literature of zoology, biology, and
the allied sciences. This book is the outgrowth of
the effort as it has developed in the study and teach-
ing of animal ecology. I have not attempted to
make this an exhaustive treatment of the subject,
but rather to indicate briefly some of its general
bearings and a method of approach. I have tried
to keep in mind the needs of the beginner in ecology.

An ecological point of view is described more fully
than the other subjects discussed, so that the stu-
dent may see the need of familiarity with those tests
or criteria by means of which he may be able to
determine for himself ecological relations and the
validity of ecological studies. The other phases are
treated less fully in the discussions and with more
detail bibliographically so that this may be a useful
source book. The geographical (in the ordinary
sense of the word) aspect has been deliberately
omitted. The references should be looked upon
from the standpoint presented in the general por-
tions of this book, and if the facts and inferences
aid in the interpretation of the relations which exist

vi PREFACE

4

between animals and the sum total of their environ-
ments, one may fairly consider that they are of
ecological worth.

In the arrangement of the references I have tried
to group related papers, but many defy any single
system. Some of the publications deserve to be in
several lists, but little duplication has been made,
as this would unduly prolong the lists. The anno-
tations will supplement the titles and their grouping
in indicating the contents and importance of the
papers for our purpose. It has often been difficult
to select from several almost equally valuable and
useful papers. Others with different interests, aims,
and experience would doubtless make a different
choice. It will therefore be a favor, if those who
use this handbook and feel that important papers
have been excluded, will communicate this fact to
the author.

This book is not intended as a treatise on the sci-
ence of ecology ; its aim is primarily educational.
This is the justification, if any were necessary, for
placing emphasis upon the point of view and the
importance of an understanding of explanatory pro-
cesses and of the methods of scientific investigation.
Any adequate treatment of this subject would ex-
ceed the space of this volume and it is reserved for
future elaboration.

At present ecology is a science with its facts out
of all proportion to their organization or integration.
There is thus an immediate need of integration, and
this above all requires a clear conception of the sci-

PREFACE vii

entific method as a tool, and independent thinking
as well. The fact that scientific work progresses
more rapidly when consciously pursued than other-
wise should serve as ample justification for this
emphasis.

A word of explanation is desirable to explain cer-
tain features of this volume. It is the outcome of
cooperative work on the part of the Illinois State
Laboratory of Natural History and certain members
of the Ecological Survey Committee of the Illinois
Academy of Science, Professors E. N. Transeau and
T. L. Hankinson. A local ecological study was
made, as a piece of cooperative work, and directions
for study were to be an introductory section of my
part of this report. But as this part grew on my
hands, with the permission of Professor S. A. Forbes,
Director of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural
History, I decided to publish it separately. This
part was written two years and a half ago, and when
separate publication was decided upon, additional
references to the literature were added to bring it
to date. These circumstances explain the emphasis
placed upon ecological surveying and also the brevity
of treatment of other aspects.

Further, I am indebted to Professor Forbes for
reading the manuscript and for valuable criticisms,
and likewise, for similar assistance, to my wife, Alice
Norton Adams. Skillful help on the proof and index
has been given by Miss Marion E. Sparks.

CHAELES C. ADAMS.
URBANA, ILL., U.S.A.,
June 9, 1913.

CONTENTS

PAOK

PREFACE v

CHAPTER

I. AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW .... 1
II. THE VALUE AND METHOD OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS . 23

III. FIELD STUDY 36

IV. THE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, AND DETERMINATION

OF SPECIMENS 49

V. REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE .... 55

1. The Scientific Method 55

2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens,

Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases

of Technique 57

3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and

on Proof Reading 65

VL REFERENCES TO IMPORTANT SOURCES OF INFORMATION
ON THE LIFE HISTORIES AND HABITS OF
INSECTS AND ALLIED INVERTEBRATES . . 70

VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, OR THE "OR-
DERLY SEQUENCE OF EXTERNAL NATURE."
(THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF
THE ENVIRONMENT) 79

VIII. THE LAWS OF ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF METABOLISM,
GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, PHYSIOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS, AND BEHAVIOR, OR "THE Lrv-
iz

x CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ING ORGANISM AND THE CHANGES WHICH
TAKE PLACE IN IT." (THE DYNAMIC OR
PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ANIMAL) . . 92

1. General Physiology and Development ... 95

2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers 100

3. Animal Behavior as a Process .... 102

4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies . 107

5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and

Behavior 108

IX. THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT BETWEEN
THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE ANIMAL, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO OTHER ORGANISMS.
(THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF
ANIMAL ASSOCIATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS) . 122

1. The Struggle for Existence 123

2. The Dynamic Relations of Associations and Aggre-

gations, with Special Reference to Animal
Associations 130

a. The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to

Plant Galls 141

b. Subterranean and Cave Associations . . 143

c. Selected References on Aggregations and Asso-

ciations 145

INDEX 151

INDEX TO NAMES 179

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG.

1. An Oyster Habitat on the South Carolina Coast Frontispiece

2. Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Over-

crowded Condition facing page 7

3. Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. De-

struction of Clams by Predaceous Annuals " " 8

4. A Small Mountain Stream as an Animal En-

vironment ...... "86

5. A Small River as an Animal Environment . " "87

6. An Illinois Prairie Remnant as an Animal

Environment " " 139

7. An Illinois Deciduous Forest as an Animal

Environment . " " 146

RELATION OF ECOLOGY TO BIOLOGY

" I shall try to show that life is response to the
order of nature. . . . But if it be admitted, it fol-
lows that biology is the study of response, and that
the study of that order of nature to which response
is made is as well within its province as the study
of the living organism which responds, for all the
knowledge we can get of both these aspects of na-
ture is needed as a preparation for the study of that
relation between them which constitutes life."
"To study life we must consider three things:
first, the orderly sequence of external nature ;
second, the living organism and the changes

which take place in it ; and,
third, that continuous adjustment between the
two sets of phenomena which constitutes
life."

"The physical sciences deal with the external
world, and in the laboratory we study the structure
and activities of organisms by very similar methods;
but if we stop there, neglecting the relation of the
living being to its environment, our study is not

biology or the science of life."

W. K. BROOKS.

ANIMAL ECOLOGY

I. AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW

ECOLOGY has no aim, but ecologists have. The
problems of the ecologist are not fundamentally
different from those of any other kind of naturalist.
The superficial differences in aim are due to the
different points of view, or methods of approach,
rather than to any essential difference in the char-
acter of the problems.

The essentially biological core of ecology may be
best shown by considering the relation which this
science bears to other branches of biology, a relation
which has been admirably expressed by the eminent
physiologist, Burdon-Sanderson ('94, pp. 438-439),
as follows :

"Now the first thing that strikes us in beginning
to think about the activities of an organism is that
they are naturally distinguishable into two kinds,
according as we consider the action of the whole
organism in its relation to the external world or to
other organisms, or the action of the parts or organs
in their relation to each other. The distinction to
which we are thus led between the internal and
external relation of plants and animals has of course
always existed, but has only lately come into such

2 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

prominence that it divides biologists more or less
completely into two camps — on the one hand those
who make it their aim to investigate the actions of the
organism and its parts by the accepted methods of
physics and chemistry, carrying this investigation as
far as the conditions under which each process mani-
fests itself will permit ; on the other, those who in-
terest themselves rather in considering the place which
each organism occupies, and the part which it plays
in the economy of nature. It is apparent that the
two lines of inquiry, although they equally relate
to what the organism does, rather than to what it
is, and therefore both have equal right to be included
in the one great science of life, or biology, yet lead
in directions which are scarcely even parallel. So
marked, indeed, is the distinction, that Professor
Haeckel some twenty years ago proposed to separate
the study of organisms with reference to their place
in nature under the designation of 'cecology,' defining
it as comprising 'the relations of the animal to its
organic as well as to its inorganic environment,
particularly its friendly or hostile relations to those
animals or plants with which it comes into direct
contact.' 1 Whether this term expresses it or not,
the distinction is a fundamental one. Whether with
the oecologist we regard the organism in relation to
the world, or with the physiologist as a wonderful

1 These he identifies with " those complicated mutual relations which
Darwin designates as conditions of the struggle for existence." Along
with chorology — the distribution of animals — cecology constitutes what
he calls Relations-physiologic. Haeckel, " Entwickelungsgang u. Auf-
gaben der Zoologie," Jenaische Zeitschr., 1869, Vol. V, p. 353.

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 3

complex of vital energies, the two branches have this
in common, that both studies fix their attention,
not on stuffed animals, butterflies in cases, or even
microscopical sections of the animal or plant body —
all of which relate to the framework of life — but on
life itself."

The quotations from Brooks, on a preceding page,
show even more explicitly the intimate relation which
exists between biology and ecology. At first glance
they may seem to prove almost too much — that
biology and ecology are synonymous. They show at
least that ecology is concerned with fundamental
biological problems — the responses of organisms
to their complete environments.

The relations which different branches of ecology
bear to one another may be discussed under three
headings, individual, aggregate, and associational
ecology. These phases are superficially so distinct
that students of one branch may be almost unaware
of the existence of the coordinate branches and may
not realize that each is a part of the larger unit.

Individual Ecology. — The study of individual
ecology is the investigation of the development
(process of formation) of the structure, function,
and behavior of a given individual or kind of animal
from the standpoint of its relations and responses
to the complete environment. All ecologically sig-
nificant facts should be considered. Such a study
may be devoted to an animal, as, for example, a
bumblebee, a crawfish, or a garter snake, and may
be limited to a single habitat or locality, or extended

4 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

throughout the entire geographic range of an animal.
From this standpoint the individual studied becomes
the hub of the microcosm, from which all relations
and responses radiate. Most of the physiological
studies of ecological bearing and many investigations
of animal behavior have been made from this view-
point. The organism is thus considered as an agent
which, transforming and utilizing substance and
energy, produces a varied number of physiological
conditions and forms of activity, which in turn furnish
the basis for the constant process of response between
the organism and its environment.

Aggregate Ecology. — The study of aggregate ecol-
ogy is the investigation of the ecological develop-
ment, relations, and responses of animals based upon
hereditary or taxonomic units, as in a family com-
munity, or in genera, families, orders, etc. These
groups or aggregates are made the basis for the
ecologic study, as a hive of bees, birds, dragon flies
(Odonata), the genus Bombus. From this approach
the activities and responses of the group are traced
throughout all environments and associations within
the area studied, or throughout the world, and itJs
responses and adjustments to the whole environment
receive primary attention. The hereditary or taxo-
nomic unit is here the hub of the microcosm. Perhaps
most of the contributions to ecology by the taxono-
mists are made from this standpoint. Here also
the aggregate is considered as an agent or entity
which produces many kinds of activities and adjust-
ments to the environment.

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 5

Associational Ecology. — Associational ecology is
devoted to the investigation of the development,
interrelations, and responses of animals which are
grouped or associated in the same habitats and
environments. In this case the associates in a
given association and habitat are considered as a
unit, whose activities and interrelations and re-
sponses are investigated in the same manner as if
it were a single animal. The interactions among
members of an association are to be compared to
the similar relations existing between the different
cells, organs, or activities of a single individual.
Such groupings have a composition which has
developed into an arrangement, or "spacing,"
of individuals within it, and which produces a par-
ticular plan or* pattern, as a result of the innumerable
responsive activities on the part of the individuals
which live together. For example, when the animals
living in a small brook, the littoral zone of a lake,
in a colony of breeding gulls, or on the floor of a
forest, are treated as a unit, the entire history of the
animals in the habitat is considered as a response to
the conditions of life.

In this form of study the association becomes
the center of all radiating relations and responses.
Such an association is an agent which transforms
substance and energy, producing varied physiological
conditions and responses in the continuous pro-
cess of adjustment " which constitutes life." The
physiological needs and states of an association
have as real existence in individual animals as have

6 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

similar needs in the cell or cells which compose
the animal body. The mere statement of the facts
of such relations is enough to make valid such a
comparison.

For the associational aspect of ecology the German
naturalist, Mobius, proposed in 1877 the term "bio-
coenosis." The meaning of this he expressed very
clearly and concisely, and on account of its relatively
obscure publication, in a paper devoted to oyster
culture, it has not gained the circulation among
zoologists which its importance merits. His state-
ment (Mobius, '83, p. 723) is as follows :

"Every oyster-bed is thus, to a certain degree, a
community of living beings, a collection of species,
and a massing of individuals, which find here every-
thing necessary for their growth and continuance,
such as suitable soil, sufficient food, the requisite
percentage of salt, and a temperature favorable to
their development. Each species which lives here
is represented by the greatest number of individuals
which can grow to maturity subject to the conditions
which surround them, for among all species the
number of individuals which arrive at maturity
at each breeding period is much smaller than the
number of germs produced at that time. The total
number of mature individuals of all the species living
together in any region is the sum of the survivors of
all the germs which have been produced at all past
breeding or brood periods ; and this sum of matured
germs represents a certain quantum of life which
enters into a certain number of individuals, and which,

t,4|i'^V, %£V
/^^»., > .-* « •% *

;5 .2

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 7

as does all life, gains permanence by means of trans-
mission. Science possesses, as yet, no word by
which such a community of living beings may be des-
ignated ; no word for a community where the sum
of species and individuals, beings mutually limited
and selected under the average external conditions
of life, have, by means of transmission, continued
in possession of a certain definite territory. I
propose the word Bioccenosis l for such a community.
Any change in any of the relative factors of a bioco-
nose produces changes in other factors of the same.
If, at any time, one of the external conditions of life
should deviate for a long time from its ordinary
mean, the entire bioconose, or community, would be
transformed. It would also be transformed, if the
number of individuals of a particular species increased
or diminished through the instrumentality of man, or
if one species entirely disappeared from, or a new spe-
cies entered into, the community." (See Figure 1).
The three methods of approach to ecological
study are not so distinct as they appear at first
thought. With perfecting knowledge the network of
interrelations increases and the paths converge. Then
also the study of the individual behavior of "social"
animals, as ants, white ants, bees, or birds which
live and breed in colonies, shows transitional stages
from the individual unit to that of the family, the
colony, and on to the association. Yet the advantage
of each point of view should be recognized as an aid
in the analysis and synthesis of any problem.

1From /3fos, life, and icoiv6eiv, to have something in common.

8 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

Some students feel that the study of individual
ecology should precede that of the associational.
Within certain limits this is true, but if our general
knowledge of biology had waited for the perfection
of our knowledge of the individual cells of animals,
the results would have been disastrous to all con-
cerned. Even now our knowledge of these subjects
is very incomplete. For similar reasons there
should be no delay in studying animal aggregates
and associations.

A combination of ecological and taxonomic study
generally appeals most strongly to those students
who have made a specialty of some group of animals.
They are familiar with certain forms, have some
confidence in taxonomic methods, and frequently
have given some attention to habits, life histories,
and to collecting. To those who like the descriptive
aspect of taxonomy, ecological studies also offer a
new field for further description and classification.
At present perhaps the majority of ecological students
have entered the subject through taxonomy. It is
the almost universal verdict of such students that it
has required much effort on their part to make the
change in the point of view. Such a change cannot
be made by a simple resolve, but requires a modifica-
tion of the habits of the mind, which will be attended
by a distinct consciousness of effort. As in other
habits, reversion to the older attitude of mind is very
easy. This change in point of view is a problem in
habit formation, a study of the mental behavior of
the ecologist, which is in reality the main topic

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 9

thus far discussed. One may attempt to make
such a change and find that he does not have suffi-
cient modifiability to make it permanent, so that it is
only for the moment, during actual collision with
some stubborn fact, that he is able to realize ecologi-
cal relations and an ecological point of view.

To the physiologist, however, individual ecology
tends to appeal most strongly, and he, perhaps on
account of the preponderance of analytical methods
in his work, feels that this is the safest and most
important aspect. This statement is perhaps also
true of most students of animal behavior. This
is largely due to the great present need of analytical
methods in these lines, and perhaps indicates a stage
in the development of their science rather than a
permanent condition. Later a synthetic develop-
ment will probably become more prominent, and
with it will come a change in estimating relative
values. Generally physiologists allow for a greater
influence of the environment than do many other
students. They are impressed with the dependence
of organisms upon their environment, and the study
of their reactions only reinforces this conception.

The ecologist who studies the responses of animals
cannot help being impressed with the processes of
adjustment, and with adaptation as a process. It
is adaptation as a process, rather than as a product,
which perhaps interests him most, and emphasis
needs to be placed upon this distinction. The
problem of adaptation as a process may be a different
and separate one from that of evolution, but indi-

10 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

vidual animals must have shown adjustive adapta-
tion, or there could have been no perpetuation to
continue the struggle of adjustment. Ecological
problems are likely to raise a question as to the rela-
tive importance of adaptation and evolution — if
they are separate problems. The present generation
has perhaps been more deeply impressed by evolution
as a process, than by adaptation as a process.

The ecology of living animals is only the latest
chapter in the volume on this subject ; the preceding
chapters will contain a history of the indefinitely
long series of ecological responses which have taken
place in the geologic past. Here is where the ecolo-
gist and paleontologist and geologist find common
ground. The ecology of living animals must furnish
us with whatever firm basis we have for the inter-
pretation of the conditions of life in the past, upon
which the paleontologist, stratigrapher, or paleo-
geographer must depend, at least in part, for his
interpretations.

With still another training and interest, as in the
case of those especially interested in human affairs,
such as the sociologist, the physician, the sanitary
expert, and the agriculturist, we may ultimately
expect a greater appreciation for the associational
aspect because of the social or associational character
of human society. The associational is the phase
of animal activity which may be considered as the
form of animal behavior which has developed into
the human social relations. It is a response to the
complete organic and inorganic environment.

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 11

It is rather natural that in a relatively newly
recognized subject like ecology this human aspect
has not been very fully discussed. For practical
reasons the ecology of man has been developed
largely independent of that of animals ; just as human
physiology and psychology have been developed
relatively independent of comparative or general
physiological psychology. To the mutual advantage
of these subjects they are now rapidly converging,
and we may anticipate a similar relation between
general animal ecology and the ecology of man. In
a general treatise on animal ecology the human
phase should not receive undue emphasis any more
than it should in a general physiology of animals
or in a comparative psychology. But, nevertheless,
the relationships of man and his animal associates
(slaves, domestic animals, rats, mice, parasites, etc.)
form as truly an animal association as do those of
the animals which live associated in some forest
glade ; and in all probability, before any approxi-
mately complete understanding can be had of the
human associations, their roots and principles of
activity must be known and understood in the less
aristocratic portion of his animal relatives.

The recognition of the associational aspect of
ecology, as well as that human ecology is a part of
general animal ecology, is of recent origin. This is
very well shown in the following quotation from
Huxley (1854. On the Educational Value of the
Natural History Sciences) :

"Biology deals only with living beings as isolated

12 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

things — treats only of the life of the individual :
but there is a higher division of science still, which
considers living beings as aggregates — which deals
with the relation of living beings one to another —
the science which observes men — whose experiments
are made by nations one upon another, in battlefields
— whose general propositions are embodied in history,
morality, and religion — whose deductions lead to
our happiness or our misery — and whose verifica-
tions so often come too late, and serve only
' To point a moral, or adorn a tale ' —

I mean the science of Society or Sociology."

At a later date (1876. On the Study of Biology)
Huxley says : "For whatever view we may entertain
about the nature of man, one thing is perfectly
certain, that he is a living creature. Hence, if
our definition is to be interpreted strictly, we must
include man and all his ways and works under the
head of Biology ; in which case, we should find that
psychology, politics, and political economy would
be absorbed into the province of Biology. In
strict logic no one can object to this course. . . . The
real fact is that we biologists are a self-sacrificing
people ... [so that] we feel that we have more than
sufficient territory. . . . But I should like you to re-
collect that that is a sacrifice, and that you should not
be surprised if it occasionally happens that you
see a biologist apparently trespassing in the region
of philosophy or politics; or meddling with human
education ; because, after all, that is a part of his
kingdom which he has only voluntarily forsaken."

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 13

Whether sociology is regarded as a response of
man to his fellows or to the whole of his environment
is inconsequential in its bearing upon whether or not
it is ecological. The response of man, as an animal,
to a part or the whole of his environment is strictly
ecological. Huxley recognized one relation very
clearly, and that is that the ecological relations of
individuals do not currently include the higher syn-
thesis which deals with them as associations, or
" aggregates " as he terms them. So far as known to
the writer, human activities in general have never
been fully and comprehensively oriented from the
ecological standpoint, even by the humanitarians
themselves, although some important preliminary
steps have been taken. It looks as if such a view-
point might give a new unity to all studies of human
relations.

There is still another class of persons, particularly
teachers and isolated students, who desire first of
all to understand and interpret their own vicinity,
and who will inquire which of the three plans their
work best fits. If such a one begins with the detailed
study of each species, the general survey will not be
completed during his lifetime. If he uses the larger
taxonomic units, he may survey the field by going
over the same ground again and again, with each of
the different groups successively in mind, until the
entire field has been surveyed. Or, lastly, he may
divide the area into associations and study the animals
which are found living together, and by studying one
association after another he may cover the entire field.

14 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

A teacher will find certain important advantages in
this plan, and certain disadvantages. One of the most
important considerations in its favor is that such a
study results in a familiarity with the kinds of animals
one actually finds in natural groups, as when his
class is on an excursion. The natural history which
a farmer, a fisherman, a summer vacationist, or a
sportsman acquires is grouped in this same manner.
Thus to a large number of people this is the natural
method of approach, and is generally of most perma-
nent value, except possibly to some professional
teachers or zoologists. One of its greatest disadvan-
tages is that in most of the literature which one must
use, the animals are not grouped in this way, but
taxinomically.

The individual, aggregate, and associational
methods of study are in themselves subject to diverse
angles of approach, and each has its particular ad-
vantages and disadvantages. Of the methods of
approach mention will be made of three only, the
descriptive, the comparative, and the genetic or
method of processes. The descriptive method must
develop to some degree before the genetic problems
can be adequately stated, and the mature develop-
ment of the genetic may, and generally does, lag
far behind that of the descriptive. The reason
for this is simple, for it is evident that it is much easier
to describe what we see than it is to explain how it
originated or its process of development. At present
biology as a science is mainly in the descriptive stage,
though it is slowly but surely becoming explanatory

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 15

and genetic. The developmental or explanatory
method is so difficult that every possible expedient —
observation, comparison, reflection, experiment, etc.
— must be used to secure the proper development
of the main phases of ecology. There is a marked
tendency in the naturalist to master one system of
work, as observation or experiment, and to use it as
a tool almost exclusively, turning from one phase
of the subject to another, and continuing the use
of the same method. This way of working is favor-
able to a good technique, but its weakness is that it
often tends to give its user a feeling of the great
superiority and reliability of the result reached by
his method, and a correspondingly less appreciative
recognition of results secured by other methods.
To observe, to experiment, to reflect, to dissect,
to stain, and to collect are only partial methods of
investigation, and this fact should be realized and
be kept in mind when estimating values and planning
work.

The aim of the ecologist is professedly genetic
or explanatory because it is the study of responses to
all conditions of the complete environment. But
these responses must be described, and the conditions
influencing them as well, so that a descriptive aspect
is an essential part in all phases of ecology. In the
study of the responses of an individual, an order,
or an association, pure description of the responses is
necessary; but a description which will at once
describe and show the working of the processes by
which the results were produced, is of quite a different

16 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

order. This phase of explanation has been most
concisely expressed and applied by the students of
the physical sciences, and biologists may profit
much from a study of their methods.

When, however, we turn to the viewpoint of the
development of the science of ecology as a whole,
a symmetrical development of the subject is most
desirable. The preponderating influence of any
special point of view tends, like dominance in
general, to smother or suppress other germinating
and competing ideas. The different special interests
each have their advantages and disadvantages,
as does a general interest. Diversity in students
leads to diversity in the development of the subject,
and a variety of emotional appeals to the student
has its advantages. And just as the special student
should devote some attention to the general bearing
of his work, so also should the student of the general
aspects cultivate some special field of interest.

The preceding discussion of the aims and methods
in ecological study has been intended to indicate
some of its general bearings, and to give the student
some idea of the tests or criteria which may be used
to aid in steering his course through the maze of
observations which he may make and the opinions
which he encounters. It is of equal importance
for the student to be able to perceive ecological
relations as recorded by others, because one person's
experience is so limited compared with the general
body of recorded fact and inference. Further-
more, there are also so many degrees and kinds of

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 17

work that go by the name ecological, which may or
may not be, and so many also which are truly ecologi-
cal but which do not pass under that name, that it is
necessary that the student shall be able to see through
its diverse guises and recognize its essential character.
Whenever the question arises as to the ecological
character of a fact, inference, or conclusion, its
ecological validity may be tested in the following
way:

Do the facts, inferences, or conclusions show a
response to the inorganic or organic environment :

1. As an individual of a species or kind of animal ?

2. As a group of taxonomically related animals ?

3. As an association of interacting animals ?

REFERENCES ON THE ECOLOGICAL STANDPOINT

In this I have listed only those papers which have seemed to
me particularly significant because of their point of view, regard-
less of whether or not they are primarily zoological or spe-
cifically mention ecology.

BBOOKS, W. K.

1899. The Foundations of Zoology, pp. 339. New York.
Introductory, pp. 1-29 ; Huxley, and the Problem of
the Naturalist, pp. 33-46 ; Nature and Nurture,
pp. 49-79.

1906. Heredity and Variation ; Logical and Biological.

Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. XLV, pp. 70-76.
An extremely suggestive paper which should be read

by every ecological student.
GANONG, W. F.

1907. The Organization of the Ecological Investigation of the

Physiological Life-Histories of Plants. Bot. Gaz.,
Vol. XLIII, pp. 341-344.
C

18 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

1904. The Cardinal Principles of Ecology. Science, N. S.,
Vol. XIX, pp. 493-498.

} BURDON-SANDERSON, J. S.

1894. Biology in Relation to Other Natural Sciences.
Smithsonian Report for 1893, pp. 435-463.

MO'BIUS, K.

1877. Die Auster und die Austernwirthschaft. pp. 126.

Berlin.

On page 72 he proposes the term "biocosnose" for the
group of animals which live together in the same habi-
tat. Not seen by writer.
1883. The Oyster and Oyster-Culture. Rep. TJ. S. Fish

Comm., 1880, Part VIII, pp. 683-751.
Translation of preceding paper. On pp. 721-729 he
discusses "An Oyster-Bank as a Bioconose, or a Social
Community"; on page 723 he proposes the word
"biocoanosis." An illuminating paper.

DAHL, F.

1902. Die Ziele der vergleichenden " Ethologie " (d. i. Biologic

im alteren engeren Sinne). Verh. V. Inter. Zool.-

Cong. 1901, pp. 296-300.
1908. Grundsatze und Grundbegriffe der bioconotischen

Forschung. Zool. Anz., Bd. XXXIII, pp. 349-353.
1898. Experimentell-statistische Ethologie. Verh. der

Deutsch. Zool. Gesell. Bd., 1898, pp. 121-131.
1901. Was ist ein Experiment, was Statistik in der Ethologie ?

Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 675-681.

WASMANN, E.

1901. Biologie oder Ethologie ? Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI,

pp. 391-400.

WHEELER, W. M.

1 902. ' Natural History,' ' (Ecology ' or ' Ethology ' ? Science,

N. S., Vol. XV, pp. 971-976.
Advocates the use of the term ethology.

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 19

ST. HILAIRE, I. GEOFFBAT.

1859. Histoire Generate des Regnes Organiques, Vol. II.
Not seen by writer. Dr. W. M. Wheeler, of Harvard
University, has kindly sent me the following note
from p. 285. ' 'It is to ethology therefore that the
fourth part of this work is devoted, to which belongs
the study of the relations of organisms within the
family and the society in the aggregate and in the
community.' In a volume of the same work, page
xx, St. Hilaire gives his program and speaks of the
general facts belonging to ethological laws. These are
defined as ' relating to the instincts, habits and more
generally to the external vital manifestations of or-
ganisms.' ' About the preceding Dr. Wheeler re-
marks : " You see this covers precisely the field which
was a few years later called 'ecology' by Haeckel.
Apparently the part of the work in which St. Hilaire
wished to give a detailed account of the ethological
phenomena of animals was not published. Only
three volumes of the work exist. He died November
10, 1861, without having completed the work."
Thus ethology has priority over ecology, but to my
mind this fact carries no special weight, particularly
since the word has become current in botany. To
use a different name for the same subject or process
in botany and zoology is as undesirable as to use a
different term for heredity in plants and in animals.

LANKESTER, E. R.

1889. Article "Zoology." Ency. Britannica, 9th ed. Amer.

Reprint. Vol. XXIV, pp. 842, 856.
Lankester defines " Bionomics. — The lore of the farmer,
gardener, sportsman, fancier, and field naturalist,
including thremmatology, or the science of breeding,
and the allied teleology, or science of organic adap-
tations : exemplified by the patriarch Jacob, the poet
Vergil, Sprengel, Kir by and Spence, Wallace, and

20 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

Darwin. . . . Buffon (1707-1788) alone among the
greater writers of the three past centuries empha-
sized that view of living things which we call 'bio-
nomics.' Buffon deliberately opposed himself to the
mere exposition of the structural resemblances and
differences of animals, and, disregarding classifica-
tion, devoted his treatise on natural history to a
consideration of the habits of animals and their
adaptations to their surroundings, whilst a special
volume was devoted by him to the subject of repro-
duction. . . . Buffon is the only prominent writer
who can be accorded historic rank in this study."
As I have access to but few of Buffon's writings, I
quote the above. Bionomics is seen not to be syn-
onymous with ecology, as defined by most students,
although it includes much that is ecological. The
chaotic and unorganized "lore of the farmer" has
no unifying or guiding principles, and although it
contains many facts, from which a science may be
built, to call it science seems undesirable.
It is of course advantageous in some ways to have
agreement as to the limitations of ecology, or any
science, but even the more exact sciences seem to fare
little better, as is shown by the following statement :
"It is not long since I heard a university professor
begin a lecture on physics somewhat in this way :
'Physics is the science of matter and energy. This
field is so large that it is customary at present to
break off the physics of the molecule and its reactions
and call it chemistry. Also to put to one side the
physics of the heavenly bodies and call this a part
of astronomy,' etc." (Strong, Science, N. S., Vol.
XXXIV, p. 409, 1911.)
FORBES, S. A.

1895. On Contagious Disease in the Chinch-Bug (Elissus
leucopterus Say). 19th Rep. State Ent. 111. (8th
Rep. of S. A. Forbes), pp. 16-176.

AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 21

In this paper Forbes defines (pp. 16-18) ecology and
points out, I believe for the first time, that economic
entomology is simply applied ecology. He says,
"The study of cecology is thus to the economic en-
tomologist what the study of physiology is to the
physician."

1909. Aspects of Progress in Economic Entomology. Journ.
Econ. Ent., Vol. II, pp. 25-35.

Especially pp. 28-32 on the relation of ecology to
economic entomology.

vHERDMANN, W. A.

1896. Oceanography, Bionomics, and Aquiculture. Smith-
sonian Report for 1895, pp. 433-454.

EMERY, C.

1905. Ethologie, Phylogenie et Classification. C. R. 6me
Cong, inter, de Zool. Berne, 1904, pp. 160-174.

CLEMENTS, F. E.

1905. The Foundations of Ecology, pp. 1-17.

Research Methods in Ecology, pp. 334. Lincoln,
Nebraska.

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1906. Introductory Note. An Ecological Survey in Northern

Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1905,
pp. 11-12.

1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich.
Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 121-154.

SHELFORD, V. E.

1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological
Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.
The standpoint of this paper is very much in harmony
with that advanced in this book.

CASE, E. C.

1905. (Ecological Features of Evolution. Bull. Wis. Nat.
Hist. Soc., Vol. m, pp. 169-180.

22 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

WHEELER, W. M.

1905. Ethology and the Mutation Theory. Science, N. S.,

Vol. XXI, pp. 535-540.
FLAHAULT, C., and SCHROTER, C.

1910. Phytogeographical Nomenclature. Reports and Prop-
ositions. Ill6 Cong. Inter, de Botanique. Brux-
elles, 1910. pp. 28 + x. Zurich.
WHITE, C. A.
> 1893. The Relation of Biology to Geological Investigation.

Ann. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1892, pp. 245-368.
This paper and the two following references illustrate
the intimate relation of ecology to phases of geology.
GRABAU, A. W.

1899. The Relation of Marine Bionomy to Stratigraphy.
Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., Vol. VI, pp. 319-367.

WALTHER, J.

1893-94. Einleitung in die Geologic als historische Wissen-
schaft. I. Bionomie des Meeres. II. Die Lebens-
weise der Meeresthiere. HE. Lithogcnesis der
Gegenwart. Jena.

Shows the close relation between ecology and geology.
The process standpoint is emphasized and the past
is interpreted in terms of processes now in operation.

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1908. Some of the Advantages of an Ecological Organization
of a Natural History Museum. Proc. Amer. As-
socia. Museums, Vol. I, pp. 170-178.

II.

"I cannot too strongly emphasize the fact . . . that a com-
prehensive survey of our entire natural history is absolutely es-
sential to a good working knowledge of those parts of it which
chiefly attract popular attention, — that is, its edible fishes, its
injurious and beneficial insects, and its parasitic plants. Such a
survey, however, should not stop with a study of the dead forms
of nature, ending in mere lists and descriptions. To have an
applicable value, it must treat the life of the region as an organic
unit, must study it in action, and direct principal attention to
the laws of its activity." — S. A. FORBES. 1883.

NATURAL history surveys have come down to us
from the early days of zoology. These surveys have
been of many kinds and have ranged from the
adventurous accounts of early and daring explorers
to those of such naturalists as Belt, Bates, Wallace,
and Darwin, onward to the voluminous accounts of
the "Biologia Centrali-Americana," and in the Chal-
lenger reports. These surveys have contributed
greatly to our knowledge of the fundamental facts
of zoology and to the training of naturalists.

The most frequent form of survey is that carried
on along the lines which most nearly approach
individual and aggregate ecology. Most of such
surveys give only slight attention to the responsive
relation, or only to its most general aspects. Surveys

23

24 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

of the usual character are of great importance, and
with students of taxonomic training and interests
only, this form of survey occurs very naturally.
Most of the governmental and state surveys and
museum expeditions are developed along these
lines. The frequency with which such methods are
used in surveys, which are expected to produce
economic results, indicates that these methods are
generally considered the most satisfactory. The
exceptions to this rule are mainly surveys of fresh
and salt waters, and are related in some way to
aquatic resources. Except when detailed individual
studies of certain species or some special subject
has been made, the usual form of the reports of such
surveys is the annotated list. It is rarely that even
brief chapters discuss the groupings of the animals
as they are found associated in nature. These
statements show that, judging from the past, the
methods currently used cannot be depended upon
for a rapid and symmetrical development of
ecology, or for the best development of ecological
surveys. These must be developed in a more direct
and deliberate manner, by carefully planned and
executed ecological investigations. It is desirable
also that ecological surveys should be conducted
along some one of the three main avenues of ap-
proach, individual, aggregate, and associational, in
order that the science may develop symmetrically.
The following are some of the reasons which may
be mentioned in favor of such surveys :

As a record of the associations, their interrelations

THE VALUE OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS 25

and responses to their environment — before they
have become too much changed or exterminated.
This is a duty to future naturalists and to future
science. The animal remains in themselves are only
a very incomplete record ; their activities and en-
vironments are an essential part of the animals and
should also be preserved.

The study of original conditions is a simpler prob-
lem than after interference by man, but excessive
modifications result in the simplicity due to an-
nihilation and a corresponding imperfection of
knowledge. The value of a knowledge of original
conditions tends to increase with time, and will aid
much in future interpretations when there is still
more disturbance. Thus an important perspective
may be developed which will aid in estimating
relative values. At the present time the loss of
records of original conditions is only beginning to be
felt. The possibility of making certain records will
vanish with each generation. It is not even desirable
to preserve all, but it is evident that many ecological
records should be preserved.

As the importance of ecological studies, in natural
environments, comes to be more generally recognized
the serious encroachments of civilization upon habitats
and associations is enforced upon us. Not only
are the descriptions of these associations very few
in number, but the interrelations of the animals in
them are even less known, and the chances of pre-
serving adequate records before their complete ex-
tinction are becoming fewer every year. Without

26 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

the least disparagement of other lines of work, one
can but wonder if the naturalists of the future will
commend our foresight in studying with such great
diligence certain aspects of biology which might
be very well delayed, while ephemeral and vanishing
records are allowed to be obliterated without the
least concern. These changes are generally greatest
where civilized man is most dominant, and in pro-
gressive attenuations, zones, or strips, the degree of
change produced by him radiates. Ecology has
developed only at a late stage in civilization, after
much of the environment has undergone great
changes, so that in order to study the original condi-
tions, which are of such great historic and genetic
significance, he must make long journeys, or invade
the swamps or sterile uplands which man has
not yet been able to reduce to the average con-
ditions best suited to his needs. This state of
affairs is one which, at times, makes him thankful
that there are conditions which, for the present at
least, man cannot cultivate and utterly change and
mutilate. Some appear to think that an interest in
such original conditions is of no particular scientific
value, or is largely one of sentiment ; still others, that
such studies have no practical value. But if we
come to consider that the original primeval condi-
tions give us our best conception of the normal pro-
cesses of nature and are comparable to the normal
health of an organism, it puts the subject in another
light. A pathological condition is, of course, a
state in a natural process, as is also any disturbance

THE VALUE OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS 27

of the normal order of nature by man, and each
should be studied scientifically. But the science
of pathology has developed best as a study of the
disturbances of normal processes and is interpreted
primarily in terms of the normal ; and the artificial
should be similarly interpreted — the natural being
the basis to which all standards must be referred.
A comparison may also profitably be made be-
tween natural conditions and the physiological and
vital optima of organisms and to the responses which
are made with departures from such conditions.
Similar comparisons should be made in the study
of the responses of aggregations and associations
in natural environments and departures from them.
No matter how much we learn, the normal must
remain as the ideal, and all departures from and dis-
turbances of such conditions must be interpreted in
terms of this fundamental unit.

To study disturbed, artificial, and " pathological "
conditions, without an adequate knowledge of the
normal and original conditions of both the organ-
isms and the environment, is an attempt to interpret
the abnormal and artificial in terms of itself, rather
than in terms of the normal. If, however, the normal
is no longer preserved, then its nearest approach
should be studied, but with all the more care and
caution. With a proper understanding of the
normal, the disturbances made by man will be capa-
ble of interpretation in an orderly sequence strictly
comparable to that found in the original and natural
conditions. The cutting down and washing of the

28 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

lands, the draining and filling of depressions, the
flooding of the lands, the destruction (or succession)
of plant and animal associations (including crop rota-
tion), are processes brought about or practiced by
other organisms or animal agencies. An ecological
standpoint gives us a consistent, comprehensive
orientation of all these natural and " artificial " ac-
tivities and processes, and shows the unity in all
organic responses to the environment. Man's in-
fluence in the main consists of hastening or retarding
"natural processes."

Naturalists have for a long time spoken of the
" balance of nature " and of the all-pervading in-
fluence of any serious disturbance of it. This
balance is, of course, only a relative condition, and
not absolutely fixed. It swings from one side, then
back, sometimes showing considerable amplitude
in its swing, then again its moves are very slight,
mere tremblings, as it were. But now and then
some local catastrophic event occurs which overturns
everything, as when a volcano becomes active, or
some dominant association takes possession of the field,
— as in the case of man, — and a new order is initiated
and a new balance is developed. The mongoose
in Jamaica, our English sparrow, and rabbits in
Australia are the classic examples of the overturning
of the local order of nature by the agency of other
organisms. Obviously this balance is not a con-
dition limited to any particular locality or group
of organisms. Balance is very generally conceded
to be of fundamental importance in the study of any

THE VALUE OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS 29

species or group of organisms, if its place in the econ-
omy of nature is understood. A vast number of the
problems of the economic zoologist are thus problems,
not so much of individual or aggregate ecology, but
ones in which the balance of the whole local biotic
association is concerned.

This was the fact pointed out by Mobius when he
studied the oyster and came to see that it must be
studied not in isolation but as a member of a com-
munity, association of animals, or a bioccenosis,
as he called these interrelated organisms. These
facts are mentioned, as examples from a vast number
that are recorded, to show that our applied or
economic zoology and entomology are fundamentally
more closely related to associational ecology than to
any other phase of zoology, and to suggest that it
would be to the great advantage of the students
of such problems if they clearly understood this
relation. This is also an argument for the ecological
organization of a vast number of natural history
surveys, because the associational grouping of
observations and responses gives the most intimate
knowledge of the life of animals in the network of
their environmental relations.

In addition to the balance of nature which is
found within the small associational units there are
the larger ones of considerable geographic extent,
which the students of faunal or floral problems fre-
quently call zones or distinct regions. Some of these
are distinct ecological units, whose dynamic status
should be determined, so that we may know and

30 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

understand whether it is in a condition of stress, a
process of adjustment, or one of relative equilibrium
or balance. Under present conditions in what
direction does it tend to move ? At what rate ?
The non-ecological surveys have not put these ques-
tions or worked deliberately toward a goal which
will answer them. For any comprehensive study of
this character we need to have determined what may
be considered as a biotic base, optimum, or balance,
toward which relations under given conditions tend,
and at which an equilibrium will become established
(The Auk, 1908, Vol. XXV, p. 125). Such facts
underlie all of the problems involved in the interpre-
tation of climax biotic associations, and their applica-
tion by man. Cook (1909, Bull. 145, Bur. Plant
Industry, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, pp. 7, 8) has
expressed similar relations as follows: " Unless we
can form a definite idea of the original conditions
we cannot expect to judge of their influence on
primitive man, nor can we determine what effects
man has had upon the vegetation and other natural
conditions. We need what might be called a
bionomic base line, an idea of the conditions which
existed before man came upon the scene, the con-
ditions which would again supervene if the human
inhabitants were withdrawn."

It is perhaps significant that the genetic or succes-
sional relations of habitats and associations, as con-
trasted with their descriptive classification, both in
plants and animals, have in the past been developed,
not by the ecological students who live and work among

THE VALUE OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS 31

conditions greatly modified by man, as in parts of
Europe, but in the newer, less modified America. In
this respect a parallel exists to the development of
our knowledge and the process and genetic interpreta-
tion of topography, which has also developed more
rapidly in America than elsewhere. The process and
genetic method which has developed in this physical
science has now spread to the biological sciences and
has found a fertile soil there for development on
account of the relatively undisturbed biotic conditions
which still persist in certain areas.

In this connection it may be worth while to indicate
some of the ecological disadvantages under which the
non-ecological surveys are carried on. As a rule,
such surveys feel no strong obligation to record fully
the conditions of the environment, or its develop-
mental processes. The environment is considered as
static, and not as a changing medium ; it has no past
or future, it has merely horizontal extension. The
problem as to its dynamic status, whether in a condi-
tion of stress, in the process of adjustment, or in
relative equilibrium, is not raised, or if it should be,
it could not be handled. The student eager for
new and little-known species is not the one to study
such relations, at least, as a rule, this has not been
his practice. So long as the success of a day's work
is measured by the length of the list of novelties
secured, rather than by the quality and quantity
of ecological relations discovered, such students and
surveys will not contribute greatly to our knowledge
of the economy of nature in the regions surveyed.

32 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

At the present time it is very difficult to secure
trained men to do ecological surveying. Even a
superficial examination of this paper should show
that familiarity with ecologic methods and results
is not one to be acquired offhand, but a knowledge
which requires considerable special training; not
only as much as is usually required for other kinds
of zoological work, but generally more, because of
its synthetic relational tendency which requires a
broad knowledge as well as some special knowledge
in several lines of biology and the allied sciences.
Conventionally considered, a properly equipped
physiologist must have a working knowledge of
certain phases of modern physics and chemistry in
addition to his grounding in biology. A properly
trained anatomist should have a knowledge of physio-
logical and developmental processes, or his anatomy
is purely descriptive and static. A student of general
zoology should be grounded not only in physiological
and developmental processes, but also in the relations
of the organisms to their complete environment.
The ecologist requires also the grounding in physio-
logical, developmental, and ecological processes
of adjustment, but as well he must understand the
processes by which the vegetation and the physical
environment have been and are being developed
and their method of mutual interrelations and adjust-
ment. It is difficult for some students to develop
the ecological phases in the field. There are many
disadvantages to be overcome. The difficulties are
similar, in some respects, to those of the ethnologist

THE VALUE OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS 33

who is sent on some museum expedition. The
wealthy donor of the funds may wish to see a room
filled with specimens on the return of the ethnologist,
so that materials which have bulk and make a show-
ing take precedence over detailed studies of the
habits, traditions, languages, and descriptions of
the people, because such studies require appreciation
rather than inspection for evaluation. The zoolog-
ical student may meet with just the same kind of
difficulty. His institutional authorities often judge
values by the cubic foot and pound, rather than
by the quality of relations discovered. The student
himself who has had an extensive collecting ex-
perience, in which quantity and variety have been
the ideal, finds it difficult to return from a day's
work with only a few pages of notes on the responses
of the animals, and with perhaps only a few specimens.
With such an understanding of the general rules
of the game we may turn to the application or art
of ecology, to indicate its relation to general problems.
With a grounding hi the general principles of organic
response to the total environment, one is able to see
that the disturbances due to man are a problem in
the adjustment of the highest type of animal, as a
member of an animal association, to its complete
environment. The "control of nature" for which
men strive is the process of making the environments
and associations to order. The disturbances in the
natural order may be looked upon as so many huge
experiments or trial activities in this process of
adjustment.

34 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

If natural preserves are not made, how will the
next generation be best grounded in the general
principles of the science ? Are these complex modi-
fied conditions the natural place to start the student,
or should such problems be reserved for the maturely
trained one ? These disturbed fragmentary condi-
tions may be likened to fragmentary fossils whose
interpretation is attempted. A paleontologist whose
only knowledge of animals was derived from such
fragments, and who had never known a perfect living
animal, would certainly be at a great disadvantage
in such an investigation. The natural starting point
therefore seems to be in as nearly natural normal en-
vironments and associations as is possible, and with
such experience one is prepared for the more complex
problems resulting from man's activity.

By way of conclusion, some of the main advan-
tages of ecological surveys are :

1. The record of natural environments and their
associations for future generations.

2. The study of natural biotic conditions giving
a perspective not derived in any other way.

3. The clearer conception of the dynamic rela-
tions of the balance of nature, biotic base, and
climax associations.

4. Emphasis of the process and interpretative
phase of scientific investigation over that of purely
descriptive study.

5. Facilitating the invention of multiple working
hypotheses which bear upon animal responses in
nature.

THE VALUE OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS 35

6. Furnishing important conceptions to the study
of the processes of adaptation and the struggle for
existence.

7. Furnishing important general principles of
great value in applied ecology.

8. Furnishing one of the best methods of learning
how to get acquainted with the living aspect of the
animals of any region.

III. FIELD STUDY

" Is not the biological laboratory which leaves out the ocean
and the mountains and meadows a monstrous absurdity ? Was
not the greatest scientific generalization of your times reached
independently by two men who were eminent in their familiarity
with living things in their homes ? " — BROOKS, 1899, p. 41.

IN taking up field work, or any other kind of com-
plex study, a definite working plan is of much value.
For this reason this subject deserves more than a
mere mention. Such a plan greatly aids in keeping
in mind the general aim of the study, and particularly
the lesser aims which develop with the analysis of
the subject. It further aids in the proper orientation
and subordination of allied subjects which crowd in
from all directions.

For many students it is a good plan to make out a
general outline of any proposed study as soon as
possible after the work has been started. In th« be-
ginning it is difficult to realize the radiating relations
of a subject, and the attempt at such plans aids
in the perception of these relationships and becomes
an important guide. Such an outline will need
several revisions, but these changes will come with
a broadening and deepening grasp of the subject.
Perhaps the greatest value of such a plan is that
it facilitates the conscious effort to -seek a defi-

36

FIELD STUDY 37

nite goal by maintaining a standard of measure-
ment.

In addition to a comprehensive analytical plan
others are useful. Particularly is this true when
several lines of work are being done simultaneously
or when the work must be interrupted frequently.
Under such circumstances even a daily program may
aid in utilizing many of the fragments of time which
are so easily lost. In this way incomplete observa-
tions, verifications, and similar small items which
are time-consuming may be made. These plans
apply with particular force to field study when
several lines of observation are being driven abreast.
I have found it profitable to keep memoranda on
note slips which will recall items needing further
attention, at certain places in the field or on certain
subjects. Thus, for example, if plans are suddenly
changed and another locality is visited, the proper
note slips indicating the points for special study at
such a place are quickly secured, and one can
hasten to the field prepared for the work of the day.
Of course, similar plans are applicable to many
kinds of work.

To learn how to study in the field, and not simply
to collect, is one of the most important habits which
a field naturalist and the ecologist has to acquire.
This is one which he must, to a large degree, master
alone, without the ready access to assistance, as is
usually the case in the laboratory study. It is also a
subject about which it is difficult to give useful sug-
gestions, other than those of the most general nature.

38 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

Directions for collecting are, on the other hand, simpler
and more accessible in the form of numerous manuals
filled with practical suggestions.

Field study is not confined to observations alone,
but to the securing of all kinds of evidence from the
field which will aid in the interpretation of the
field relations of animals. Thorough intimacy with
the animals can only be acquired through repeated
and prolonged excursions in the field. This may
mean excursions at any hour of the day or night. Part
of this familiarity is best acquired by an intensive
study of some limited area or association, and by
thus establishing a unit for comparison so that the
differences in other places are more readily perceived
and described.

Before selecting a limited area for study one should
make a general examination of a much larger tract, so
that one may be sure that the area selected is a fair
sample and worthy of the special study. There are
also many advantages in selecting areas little modi-
fied by man. Such modified areas may, to better
advantage, be considered later; just as pathology
should be studied after one is grounded in normal
histology. Undoubtedly the normal, or its approxi-
mation, is the best foundation upon which to build,
and here we have the educational argument for
natural preserves for animals and their superiority
over highly modified "parks" for the same purpose.

Having selected a locality, repeated and prolonged
visits, careful observation, and description of the
place and animals will enable one to acquire the de-

FIELD STUDY 39

sired familiarity. For the study of the behavior
of the animals concerned many observations can
be made by remaining quiet, carefully concealed,
and recording all observations. This method is
particularly applicable to animals which live in
exposed places, such as many insects, birds, and
mammals. For other kinds, only indirect methods
of observation are possible, or only when under
controlled conditions. For the indirect methods of
observation many forms of traps have been devised,
traps not intended merely to receive the dead animal,
but those also which will secure the animal and
reveal something of its behavior. For the study of
the habits and behavior of such animals as live in
the soil or under bark, etc., both extensive collecting
and examination of the animals in vivaria will also
be necessary.

Fortunately for the student of mammals, birds, and
fishes we have excellent guides for the technique of
study and photographing of individual and associated
kinds in the works of Kearton (1907), Chapman
(1900), Herrick (1905), and Reighard (1908). It
is very desirable that these methods be applied to
the interrelations among the animals of an associa-
tion. The student of behavior in nature has much
to learn from many excellent studies of animal
behavior which have been carried on in recent years
by laboratory students. Fortunately the line be-
tween these two methods of study is breaking down to
the mutual advantage of each. The border line
between these two methods will give excellent re-

40 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

turns to any student well prepared in each line of
work.

Another essential for good field work is a clear
understanding of what ecological studies attempt
to do. This implies some general conception of
what is worth while ecologically ; it assumes a point of
view or other criterion which may be applied to
test the trueness of one's aim. The ecologist will
meet with much more than ecological facts, but it is
to these that he should give primary attention.
These accessory facts, no matter how interesting in
themselves, should not divert him from the main
course. The ecologist must select from this mass of
experience those facts, inferences, and conclusions
which help in the interpretation of the responses of
animals to their complete environment. It is thus
evident why the ecologist must have a clearly
defined aim, with criteria for estimating values,
or he will be at the risk of dissipating his energies.
This phase of our problem as applied to the studies
of a geologist, but applying with equal force to the
ecologist, has been concisely expressed by Van
Hise (1904, pp. 611-612) as follows : "I have heard a
man say : ' I observe the facts as I find them, un-
prejudiced by any theory.' I regard this statement
as not only condemning the work of the man, but
the position is an impossible one. No man has
ever stated more than a small part of the facts with
reference to any area. The geologist must select
the facts which he regards of sufficient note to record
and describe. But such selection implies theories of

FIELD STUDY 41

their importance and significance. In a given case
the problem is therefore reduced to selecting the facts
for record, with a broad and deep comprehension
of the principles involved, a definite understanding
of the rules of the game, an appreciation of what is
probable and what is not probable ; or else making
mere random observations. All agree that the
latter alternative is worse than useless, and therefore
the only training which can make a geologist safe,
even in his observations, is to equip him with such a
knowledge of the principles concerned as will make
his observations of value."

Early in field work one should learn that the
collection of specimens is not the primary aim of
excursions, that specimens are only one kind of
facts, but that field study should be devoted to the
accumulation of specimens, and to observations on
the habits, activities, interrelations, and responses
of animals, as well as to all facts, inferences, and
suggestions which are likely to be of use in the inter-
pretation of the problems studied.

We sometimes hear that reflections upon the work
should be reserved for the return to the laboratory
or study. This advice seems to be based upon the
assumption that study in the field is not particularly
stimulating and suggestive. On the other hand de-
liberating interpretatively in the midst of the prob-
lems under consideration is one of the most favorable
conditions possible for the improvement of the quality
and quantity of one's work. It should be recalled in
this connection that Darwin and Wallace's evolu-

42 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

tionary theory did not originate in the laboratory, but
while in the field in the midst of their studies, while
working reflectively upon their observations and
collections, as Brooks indicates in the quotation
at the beginning of this chapter. The classic case
of Bates discovering mimicry in his London study
instead of in the forests of Brazil is to some minds
not an argument for laboratory study, but one for
field study. There are but few subjects which have
suffered more from the preponderating influence of
the laboratory.

To be sure, it may require more time to study in
the field than if one collects specimens only, but it is
economical in the long run. There are, of course,
'certain phases of more indirect observation which
can be done best in the study or laboratory, but at
present, field study, as contrasted with collecting,
is a phase of effort urgently needing emphasis.

The processes of observation and field study and
note taking are so intimately related that taking
notes becomes one of the essential parts of careful
observation. This is also one of the most difficult
habits to acquire. The beginner is inclined to write
them up, especially field notes, in the evening after
his return from the field. Such notes are generally
brief, lack details, and are usually of little value.
Therefore the safest course to pursue is to describe
fully whatever seems of value, then to go over these
facts again and by further observations increase the
number of items noted several times. These obser-
vations should be recorded as soon as made, for

FIELD STUDY 43

generally the lack of notes means a lack of detailed
observation. Some observations can be made only
at long intervals, even of many years, others only
with the return of another cycle of behavior, or of
another season, and still others cannot be repeated.
It is such considerations as these which emphasize
the need of pursuing the safest course and recording
instantly and fully all observations when made. An
excess of notes is of very rare occurrence. In the
effort to write carefully worded notes one has a very
important check upon the tendency toward hasty
observation, because such a description requires
one to think over the observation before it can be
expressed. This deliberation is thus made at the
time when reobservation can be made to the best
advantage, and calls attention to the weak points
to which special consideration may perhaps be given
a moment later, and thus affords a chance to com-
plete the observation. Comstock (Insect Life, 1897,
p. 323) has well summed up the taking of notes as
follows: "Fill your notebook with descriptions, but
digest them carefully, sifting out for publication only
those that exhaustive study and repeated observa-
tion prove to be valuable. In making observa-
tions be sure you are right and then look again."
And again as Van Hise (Science, N. S., Vol. XVT, p.
326) has said, "The difference between bad obser-
vation and good observation is that the former is
erroneous; the latter is incomplete."

Notes are generally taken in one of two forms,
in a book or on loose slips of paper or cards (Hop-

44 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

kins, 1893; Sanderson, 1904). It seems to be very
generally agreed that if a book is used it should be
of small size, of about 4x6 inches, so that it may be
conveniently carried in the pocket. For a permanent
record such books are a great convenience when
once indexed. But when using such notes, while
preparing a report, they are not so convenient as
the note slips, unless one limits such a report to the
form of a narrative. About ten years ago the writer
began using a form of notebook in which an aluminum
cover held the loose note slips. Thus while in the
field one has the advantage of a book with a firm
writing surface, and also that of the loose-leaf plan.
This form of cover is now used by a number of field
naturalists. The disadvantage of the slips not being
bound might be remedied in part by using some
form of punched slips which are convenient for
binding.

Each one must decide for himself which form of
recording notes answers his needs most satisfactorily.
There are advantages in uniformity, but with the
variable nature of work, it is sometimes very con-
venient to use both methods of recording.

Some students have no method of recording their
observations or reflections upon their lines of interest.
This seems to be unwise and suggests a method of
business without bookkeeping. The efficiency of
some students is greater than that of others, not so
much because they possess superior mental ability,
but because they have superior methods of preserving
whatever useful ideas occur to them, while the others,

FIELD STUDY 45

from their lack of records, have no cumulative store
upon which to draw. This is an important form of
capital. Note keeping is readily seen to consist not
only of observations, but also of suggestions, infer-
ences, conclusions, and reflections of any kind which
will facilitate methods of work and the interpretation
of the facts.

In describing environments, it is desirable to
use the same general method for different localities
so that the descriptions may be comparable and show
some degree of standardization. This method has
been found very useful in taxonomic studies and has
similar advantages here. A brief general statement
of the most conspicuous features may precede, and
be followed by detailed descriptions. The order
may well vary with individual workers, but a uni-
form method is desirable throughout any single
piece of work and has obvious advantages. Thus one
practical plan applied to a forest habitat is, to describe
the substratum, the soil, rock, etc., then the forest
litter of organic debris, then the boles of the trees
and the forest crown and its character, and finally
the operation of those agencies which are causing
changes in the forest and which will perpetuate
or change it in the future. No practical forester
would be content to shut his eyes to the future crop
of wood, and in the study of animal habitats we must
not be content to rest below such a commercial stand-
ard. To some this seems very theoretical, and yet
a farmer who counts upon a crop in five months,
or a forester, in fifty years, is not so branded, and

46 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

the ecologist need have no fear in using such practical
methods. In other words, we should consider the
future stages of the developing habitat and learn
to perceive the evidences which show in which direc-
tion development or change is taking place ; or to
determine the "orderly sequence of external nature."
Not only should the future be considered, but we
should strive also to read the record backward and
interpret the past in terms of processes now in
operation. In this respect the point of view of the
geologist who interprets the past in terms of present
processes may well merit our attention. To under-
stand our habitats they must be studied not only
in their length and breadth, but also in depth —
past and future — as they have all three dimen-
sions.

The preceding remarks bear equally well upon
observations of the activities of animals in nature,
on account of the absence of controlled conditions,
for these methods have almost as much significance
as the study of the environments themselves ; and
equally careful observations and descriptions are
essential, if the detailed processes of animal activities
and their transformations are to be recorded.

An experienced naturalist finds that from year to
year the amount of notes which he takes increases rap-
idly, and in a very direct ratio to the progress which
he makes in his study. Good note taking is not a
passive process, but one which calls for an alert mind.
The prolonged interest which is necessary to secure
detailed observations implies such a frame of mind.

FIELD STUDY 47

Every one soon tires of any subject unless new
features are constantly being discovered.

In the description of the associations in any given
habitat, the problem is much simplified if one has a
clear idea of dominance, knows how to recognize
it, and understands some of its main implications.
The dominant forms are the most common and power-
ful individuals in the association. They may or
may not be the most conspicuous, from a super-
ficial view. Conspicuousness may depend upon
size, but dominance refers to large absolute numbers
and to influence exerted. We may profitably com-
pare an association of animals in a given habitat to a
play upon the stage. The environment corresponds
to the stage. The dominant members of the asso-
ciation correspond to the leading characters, the
secondary species, always present, to the essential
but subordinate characters. The individual animals
adjust themselves to one another, especially to the
dominant forms, and to the environment, as the
personalities in the play adjust themselves to the
dominant characters, to one another, and to the en-
vironment. In both groups some individuals are
dominant, some used and useful, some are tolerated,
others pick up the crumbs, still others are predatory
or parasitic, and all must be mutually adjusted to
one another and to the environment.

The number of dominant species within an asso-
ciation is relatively limited, a fact which holds for
both plants and animals. A knowledge of per-
haps 200 or 300 species of animals (and 150 plants)

48 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

will enable one to work advantageously in many
localities (as in the state of Illinois). Of this num-
ber perhaps not more than about one half or one third
can be considered dominant. Every one who has
tried to make extensive local lists of species knows
that it requires many years of collecting to secure a
large number of species. These rare species are
generally of quite minor importance ecologically.
Considerations of this character should be encourag-
ing to those who may be intimidated by the idea of
large numbers of species. Then, of course, it should
be remembered that there are many aspects of eco-
logical work which do not meet with this variety of
animals.

IV. THE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION
AND DETERMINATION OF SPECIMENS

ECOLOGICAL study does not end with collecting
specimens, and it may not begin there. The impor-
tance of collecting and preserving specimens will vary
with the phase of ecological study considered. In
the field study of behavior of a single species there
may be almost no collecting of animals but much
collecting of notes; but if one is devoted primarily
to the recognition and study of the composition of
associations and their interrelations, much collecting
will have to be done. Also, when studying the
ecological relations of some taxonomic unit, as in
aggregate ecology, the number of associates is so large
that one must do rather extensive collecting. But
even the exhaustive study of the behavior of any
single species will necessitate considerable collecting.
The necessity for this has been shown by Forbes
(1880, The Food of Fishes, p. 20) as follows: "If
one wishes to become acquainted with the black bass,
for example, he will learn but little if he limits him-
self to that species. He must evidently study also
the species upon which it depends for its existence,
and the various conditions upon which these de-
pend. He must likewise study the species with
which it comes in competition, and the entire system
E 49

50 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

of conditions affecting their prosperity. Leaving out
any of these, he is like one who undertakes to make
out the construction of a watch, but overlooks one
wheel; and by the time he has studied all these
sufficiently, he will find that he has run through the
whole complicated mechanism of the aquatic life
of the locality, both animal and vegetable, of which
his species forms but a single element."

Collecting is an important means of ecological
study. This is particularly true in the early stages
of such study, but as the student becomes familiar
with species and comes to know many of them at
sight, less collecting will be necessary, except in the
case of very small species and in those studies which
depend upon the total catch as a means of securing
data, as, for example, the case of plankton organisms.
On account of the large number of species, very few
students will be able to determine them at sight,
but this does not disqualify a student for beginning
ecological study. The greatest aid in handling such
a varied population is a numbering of the individ-
uals, or lots of specimens, consecutively and recording
the full data for them in the notebook. The ques-
tion arises at once as to how many specimens are
to be assigned to one number. No rigid rule can
be followed, but in general it is safe to assign a single
number to all specimens which agree in all the funda-
mental data, as date, place of capture, and exact
habitat. And for my own part I number all indi-
viduals taken, upon which any special observations
are made, as when a Phymatid is taken with a dy-

THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS 51

ing or dead honeybee, or a dragon fly is taken from
the web of an Argiope. In this way the confusion
which is particularly liable to creep into one's work,
where he deals with a large number of species, and
before familiarity with them is acquired, may be
reduced to the minimum. For small animals I
have found useful a very liberal use of vials, into
which field numbers, corresponding to numbers
in the field notes, are placed immediately upon cap-
ture of the specimens, and not minutes or hours
later when the vials have become mixed, and recollec-
tion is less sharp. Specimens which have been
thoroughly numbered may thus be sent to specialists
for determination. This method uses up many
numbers, but, fortunately, the supply is unlimited,
and it gives greater precision to one's notes, and en-
courages detailed observations on individual animals.
In the eyes of many the determination of specimens
is such a formidable task that they are at once re-
pelled from any subject which involves numerous
species. But as we have previously remarked, there
are phases of ecological study which involve only
a minimum amount of such work. On the other
hand, one may readily have an undue fear of numer-
ous species, but no one can doubt that the smaller
number of species found upon mountains or in the far
north gives to a beginner certain advantages for
study. But if one's studies are confined to the more
restricted habitats, the number of species involved
is comparable to the more favored localities men-
tioned.

52 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

An accurately determined series of specimens,
conveniently arranged, will be an important aid
in one's studies. Two forms of arrangement of
such determined series are very helpful ; one being
synoptic or systematically arranged, and the other
ecologically, by associations or by a topical arrange-
ment in harmony with the subjects being investi-
gated. With the use of such series and proper
caution, aided by the best keys in the literature,
one may hope to make many of his own determina-
tions and thus economize his time.

There are many ways to secure the initial series
of determined specimens, and some of these are
the following : Our governmental departments, both
national and state, and many of our large museums,
universities, and academies, have numerous experts
who are quite willing and even eager to aid earnest
students who wish to have specimens determined.
Then, in addition, there are many expert amateurs
who are equally liberal, so that when all the sources
of aid are considered, the list becomes a surprisingly
long one. This is the fact that should be called
to mind when considering large numbers of species.
A student therefore does not need to work alone,
but may have the cooperation of a large number of
able and willing collaborators. Naturally we turn
for aid to our United States National Museum as
one of the first sources of assistance, to the Smith-
sonian Institution, and to the various scientific
departments of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
particularly to the Bureaus of Plant Industry,

THE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS 53

Biological Survey, and Entomology. These sources
alone are able to determine almost any reasonable
series of specimens, particularly if they are well
preserved. Arrangements for such determinations
can probably be made by addressing the proper
authorities.

The museums of our larger cities, as the American
Museum of Natural History of New York, the Carne-
gie Museum at Pittsburgh, the Field Museum of
Chicago, and many smaller state and local museums
are able to give very efficient aid in this line. Other
local institutions are the State Universities and
Experiment Stations, and the local natural history
surveys, which often exist under the guise of a geo-
logical or agricultural organization. Frequently
they are qualified and willing to do this work.

In very difficult cases it may be necessary to
have recourse to Cassell's Naturalist's Universal
Directory (Boston, 1905), in order to find the
address of some specialist in a foreign land, who
can help, but generally Americans are the best
informed upon their own fauna.

Supplementary to, and in some cases a necessary
substitute for, a reference series of authentically
determined specimens, is one which the student is
able to name for himself, by the study of the litera-
ture. Without some special training this may
become dangerous ground to tread upon, but every
now and then some young student begins in this
way and develops such care in determining his
own collections, that the method cannot be wholly

54 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

condemned. Such work in itself has fascinations,
and one may easily occupy all one's time with it.
From the ecological standpoint to stop with deter-
minations only would be like acquiring a certain
vocabulary, and stopping before learning how to
use the language. Ecological work aims to use
the names of species as the most concise method of
referring to kinds of animals whose interrelations
are to be described and interpreted. Taxonomy is
the tool.

V. REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC
TECHNIQUE

1. The Scientific Method.

2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photo-

graphing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique.

3. The Preparation of. Papers for Publication and Proof

Reading.

1. The Scientific Method

CHAMBEBLIN, T. C.

1897. The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses. Jour.

Geol., Vol. V, pp. 837-848.

1906. The Method of the Earth Sciences. Pop. Sci. Mo.,
Vol. LXVT, pp. 66-75. Inter. Cong, of Arts and
Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp. 477-487.
Very important papers and worthy of careful study.

GILBERT, G. K.

1886. The Inculcation of Scientific Method by Example,

with an Illustration drawn from the Quaternary
Geology of Utah. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XXXI,
pp. 284-299.

1887. Special Processes of Research. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3),

Vol. XXXIII, pp. 452-473.

MELDOLA, R.

1895. The Speculative Method in Entomology. Trans. Ent.
Soc., London, 1895, pp. XLVni-LXXHI.

VAN HISE, C. R.

1902. The Training and Work of a Geologist. Science, N. S.,
Vol. XVI, pp. 321-334.
55

56 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

KEYES, C. R.

1898. The Genetic Classification of Geological Phenomena.

Jour. GeoL, Vol. VI, pp. 809-815.
Valuable for its discussion of the criteria used in genetic

studies.
VAN HISE, C. R.

1904. The Problems of Geology. Jour. GeoL, Vol. XII, pp.
589-616 ; Inter. Cong. Arts and Sciences, St. Louis,
Vol. IV, pp. 525-548. 1906.

An excellent discussion of the energy, agent, and process
method of investigation. I have seen no similar dis-
cussion applied to biological or zoological subjects.
BOAS, F.

1896. The Limitations of the Comparative Method of An-
thropology. Science, N. S., Vol. IV, pp. 901-908.
A suggestive paper for the student of ecology who uses

the comparative method in his own work.
1904. The History of Anthropology. Science, N. S., Vol. XX,

pp. 513-524.
Application of the genetic and historical method to

the study of man.
MILL, J. S.

1881. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive :
Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evi-
dence and the Methods of Scientific Investigation.
Eighth Edition, pp. 659. New York.

PEARSON, K.

1900. The Grammar of Science. Second Edition, pp. 548.
London.

JEVONS, S.

1879. Principles of Science. Third Edition, pp. 786.

London.

Certain chapters are of special interest.
CRAMER, F.

1896. The Method of Darwin. A Study in Scientific Method,
pp. 232. Chicago.

REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 57

MACDOUGAL, ROBT.

1905. On the Discrimination of Critical and Creative Atti-
tudes. Jour. Philos. Psy. and Sci. Methods, Vol.
II, pp. 287-293.

LEBON, G.

1898. The Life History of Scientific Ideas. Pop. Sci. Mo.,
Vol. LH, pp. 251-254.

2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photo-
graphing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique

There is such an abundance of literature on the
technique of collecting and preserving specimens,
and so much of it can easily be secured by any earnest
student, that space will not be taken to discuss
these subjects in detail. Reference will simply
be made to the main convenient sources of informa-
tion. It should perhaps be mentioned that very
few of these papers have been especially prepared
from the standpoint of the animal ecologist. The
student must select and devise his methods from all
available sources.

I have included in this list a few references on
the subject of camping, photography, and the use
of instruments needed in the determination of the
physical features of the environment. A few mis-
cellaneous papers which are suggestive on methods
of technique are also added.

MANY AUTHORS.

1891-1899. Bulletin 39, U. S. National Museum. Parts

A to 0.

Contain directions for collecting and preserving a
great variety of animals, including marine animals,

58 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

mollusks, insects, spiders, myriapods, reptiles, am-
phibians, birds, birds' eggs and nests, mammals,
etc.

ANONYMOUS.

9 1896. Manual for Army Cooks, pp. 306. Washington.

The Manual used by the cooks in the U. S. Army. It
includes chapters on camp cooking, a subject of
much importance in certain ecological surveys.
> 1905. Terms used in Forestry and Logging. Bull. 61, Bureau

of Forestry, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 53.
Useful in the descriptions of forest conditions.
1904. Instructions to Field Parties and Descriptions of Soil
Types. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 198.
Useful in the description of soils in the study of sub-
terranean animals.

BANKS, N.

1907. A "Census of Four Square Feet." Science, N. S.,

Vol. XXVI, p. 637.
A criticism of McAtee (1907).
1909. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects. Bull.

67, U. S. Nat. Mus. pp. 135.

An excellent manual. Should be in the hands of every
student of insects.

BRETSCHER, K.

1902. Beobachtung liber die Oligochaeten der Schweiz,

VI. Folge. Rev. Suisse de Zool., Ann. Soc. Zool.

Suisse et du Mus. d'His. Nat. de Geneve, Tome

10, pp. (1-29).

1904. Die xerophilen Enchytraeiden der Schweiz. Biol,

Centralbl., Bd. XXIV, pp. 501-513.
Quantitative studies of earthworms in the soil.

J.

'• 1912. Tracks and Tracking, pp. 219. New York. Outing

Publishing Co.
An illustrated guide for the identification of mammal

REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 59

and bird tracks or foot prints. Devoted mainly to
game and fur-bearing animals. Very valuable to
the student of live animals in nature. Many of
our smaller species are worthy of similar treatment.

BtTRNS, F. L.

1901. A Sectional Bird Census. Wilson Bulletin, N. S.,

Vol. VHI, pp. 84-103.

A quantitative study of the birds found breeding on
an area of one square mile. Other similar studies
should be made.

CHAPMAN, F. M.

1900. Bird Studies with a Camera. With Introductory

Chapters on the Outfit and Methods of the Bird
Photographer, pp. 218. New York.
The title clearly indicates the character of this book.

COMSTOCK, J. H.

1897. Insect Life. pp. 349. New York.
Directions for the study of insects.

CLEMENTS, F. E.

1905. Research Methods in Ecology, pp. 334. Lincoln,

Nebraska.

Important for methods of study in plant ecology,
partly also applicable to animals ; photography, and
instruments for the study of environments.
DAHL, F.

1901. Was ist ein Experiment, was Statistik in der Ethologie ?

Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 675-681.
1903. Winke flir ein wissenschaftlicher Sammeln von Thieren.
Sitzungs-Ber. der Gesell. naturfor. Freunde zu
Berlin. Jahrg. 1903, pp. 444-475.
This contains, in addition to its suggestions on collect-
ing, an interesting outline or classification of animal
habitats (Cf. also Enderlein, 1908, pp. 72-77).
This is not a genetic classification. Dahl's list of
habitats will prove very suggestive to the student

60 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

who wishes to develop the genetic system of classi-
fication. Ultimately we must, of course, develop
the latter system.
1904. Kurze Anleitung zum wissenschaftlichen Sammeln und

zum Conservieren von Thieren. pp. 59. Jena.
An enlarged edition of the preceding paper.

DAVENPORT, C. B.

1904. Statistical Variation with Special Reference to Bio-

logical Variation. Second, Revised Edition, pp. 223.
New York.

FORBES, S. A.

1907. An Ornithological Cross-Section of Illinois in Autumn.

Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat. His., Vol. VII, pp. 305-
335.

1908. The Mid-Summer Bird Life of Illinois : A Statistical

Study. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLII, pp. 505-519.

GIBSON, W. H.

1905. Camp Life in the Woods and the Tricks of Trapping

and Trap Making, pp. 300. New York.
A book for boys, but not without value to the older
student of live animals.

FLAHAULT, C., and SCHROTER, C.

1910. Phytogeographical Nomenclature. Reports and Prop-
ositions, IIP Cong. Inter, de Bot. 1910. Bru-
xelles. pp. 28. Zurich.

A very valuable discussion of ecological nomenclature
for plants. Defines the use of such terms as biology,
ecology, habitat, association, formation, etc. It is
very desirable that the plant and animal ecologists
cooperate as much as possible in this subject.

HENSEN, V.

1887. Ueber die Bestimmung des Plankton's oder des in
Meere treibenden Materials an Pflanzen und Thieren ;
nebst Anhang. Fiinfter Ber. der Komm. zur
wissensch. Untersuch. d. deutschen Meere in Kiel

REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 61

fUr die Jahre 1882 bis 1886, pp. 1-107, III-XVIII,
Berlin.

This appears to be the original account of quantitative
studies as applied to plants and animals of an as-
sociation. These methods have been extended to
the sea bottom by Petersen, to fresh water by many
students, to land animals mainly by Dahl, and in
recent years to plants by Clements and others.

HERRICK, C. L.

1905. Home Life of Wild Birds. Revised Edition, pp. 255.

New York.

Very valuable for suggestions on the study of live
birds and how to photograph them.

^HOPKINS, A. D.

1893. Note and Record Keeping for the Economic Ento-
mologist. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life,
Vol. VI, pp. 103-108.

JOB, H. K

1910. How to Study Birds. A Practical Guide for Amateur
Bird-Lovers and Camera-Hunters, pp. 272. New
York. Outing Publishing Co.

Intended primarily for beginners in bird study, but
contains valuable practical advice on methods of
studying and photographing live birds which will
aid the ecologist. Consult also Kearton (1907),
Chapman (1900), and Herrick (1905).

KEARTON, R.

1907. Wild Life at Home : How to Study and Photograph It.
New and Revised Edition, pp. 204. London.

KEPHART, H.
1912. The Book of Camping and Woodcraft, pp. 331. Fifth

Edition. Outing Publishing Co.

This is the best all-round book on the technique of
camping and living in the wilderness which I have
seen. It includes direction for selecting outfits,

62 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

making camps, cookery, pests in the woods, blazes
and survey lines, rations, emergency foods, getting
lost, accidents, etc.

KNATJTHE, K.

1907. Das Siisswasser, chemische, biologische, und bakter-
iologische Untersuchungsmethoden unter besonderer
Berucksichtigung der Biologie und der fischerei-
wirtschaftlichen Praxis, pp. 663. Neudamm.
A very important work on the technique of fresh water
biology.

LEE, A. B.

1900. The Microscopist's Vade Mecum. A Handbook on
the Methods of Microscopic Anatomy. Fifth Edi-
tion, pp. 532. Phila.

Very useful for methods of preserving delicate animals,
and those in which the detailed structure of the ani-
mal must be studied.

LIVINGSTON, B. E.

1906. The Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to

Evaporation. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 50. pp. 78.
Methods of determination of moisture content of the
soil and the air.

McAxEE, W. L.

1907. Census of Four Square Feet. Science, N. S., Vol.

XXVI, pp. 447-449.

A quantitative study of the species of invertebrates

and seeds found on the forest floor and on a meadow.

1912. Methods of Estimating the Contents of Bird Stomachs.

The Auk, Vol. XXIX, pp. 449-464.

1912. The Experimental Method of Testing the Efficiency
of Warning and Cryptic Coloration in Protecting
Animals from their Enemies. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Phila., 1912, pp. 281-364.

An important critical study of the value of feeding experi-
ments, conducted in captivity, as a method of deter-

REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 63

mining normal food habits. The method is strongly
condemned. Valuable series of references.

NEUMAYER, G. VON.

1906. Anleitung zu Wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf
Reisen. Dritte Auflage, Bd. 1, pp. 842; Bd. 2,
pp. 880. Hanover.

A very important work, particularly for the traveling
naturalist. Chapters by specialists, valuable ref-
erences on collecting natural history specimens, and
other phases of scientific exploration.

PEARL, R.

1911. Biometric Ideas and Methods in Biology; their Sig-
nificance and Limitations. Scientia, Vol. X, pp.
101-119.

PETERSEN, C. G. JOH., and JENSEN, P. B.

1911. Valuation of the Sea. 1. Animal Life of the Sea-
Bottom, its Food and Quantity. Rep. of the Danish
Biol. Sta. to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. XX.
pp. 76. Translated from Fiskeri-Beretning for
1910. Copenhagen.

Methods and results of a quantitative study of animals
on the sea-bottom. A very important paper. De-
scriptions and figures of the apparatus used.

REIGHARD, J.

1908. Methods of Studying the Habits of Fishes, with an

Account of the Breeding Habits of the Horned

Dace. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries Bull., Vol. XXVHI,

pp. 1111-1136.

^1908. The Photography of Aquatic Animals in their Natural
* Environment. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol.

XXVm, pp. 41-68.
These papers also contain references to others on the

habits of fishes.

KING, L. A. L., and RUSSELL, E. S.

1909. A Method for the Study of the Animal Ecology of the

64 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

Shore. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol.
XVH, No. 6, pp. 225-253.

^SANDERSON, E. D.

* 1904. A Card-Index System for Entomological Records.

U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. 46, pp. 26-34.
Contains references to other methods of recording

notes.

SIMPSON, C. B.

1903. Photographing Nets of Hydropsyche. Proc. Ent.

Soc. Wash., Vol. V, pp. 93-95.
F. B.

^

' 1910. An Intensive Study of the Fauna and Flora of a Re-
stricted Area of the Sea Bottom. Bull. U. S. Bur. of
Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1225-1263.
A study on our coast along lines similar to those of
C. G. J. Petersen's "Det Videnskabelige Udbytte
af Kanonbaaden ' Hauchs ' Togter I de Danske Have
Indenfor Skagen I Aarene" 1883-1886. 1893. pp.
464. Atlas. Copenhagen.

TRANSEAU, E. N.

1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot.

Gaz., Vol. XLV, pp. 217-231.

Methods of studying the relative humidity of the air
in various plant associations, also applicable to
certain studies of animals.

^WAINWRIGHT, D. B.

' 1905. A Plane Table Manual. Department of Commerce
and Labor, Report U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
for 1905. Appendix No. 7, pp. 295-341.
In making local studies the plane table may be very
helpful.

WRIGHT, A. H.

1907. A Graphic Method of Correlating Fish Environment
and Distribution. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLI, pp.
351-354.

REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 65

WIUSON, H. M.

1905. Topographical Surveying. Second Edition. New

York.

Directions for camping, emergency surgery, photog-
raphy, etc., pp. 811-884.

In concluding this list of references I would suggest to the
student the desirability of securing the following catalogues or
lists of publications. A glance at the lists in this volume will
show that a surprisingly large number of the papers or works are
governmental publications, many of which have long been out
of print, but many may still be secured from the different de-
partments or from the Superintendent of Documents at Wash-
ington, D.C.
>1. TJ. S. Geological Survey. List of Publications, including

maps. Washington, D.C.
«2. Superintendent of Documents. Lists of publications of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.
~3. Smithsonian Institution. List of publications. Wash-
ington, D.C.

~4. U. S. National Museum. List of publications. Wash-
ington, D.C.
j5. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (formerly U. S. Fish Commission).

List of publications. Washington, D.C.

?6. For list of dealers in second-hand books see Banks' Bull.
81, U. S. National Museum, pp. 117-118. This is one of
the best methods of securing many publications which
are out of print.

3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and on Proof
Reading

The preparation of papers for publication is a
practical phase of study and an art, or form of
technique, about which the zoological student is
liable to hear but little. There may be a great
economy of effort, and much time saved, if early in

66 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

his work the student realizes the need of cultivating
the habit of preparing all manuscripts in a form
suitable for publication. While there is much vari-
ation in details, yet within certain limits there is a
certain amount of standardization which should be-
come habitual. Departures from such a standard
necessitate much loss of time which must be devoted
to revisions and corrections. One may work for
years and fail to realize this fact, until he attempts
to adjust his habits of writing to the requirements
of the editors of scientific publications. The fol-
lowing references are intended to cover the main
aspects of the preparation of manuscripts and the
reading of proof.

LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (Edited by F. N. Scott).

1891. The Principles of Success in Literature, pp. 163. Bos-
ton. Allyn and Bacon.

A very sane little book on writing, a subject on which
it is difficult to receive and apply advice.

WENDELL, B.

1899. English Composition, pp. 316. New York.

FERNALD, J. C.

1896, English Synonyms and Antonyms with Notes on the
Correct Use of Prepositions. Tenth Edition, pp.
564. New York.

1904. Connectives of English Speech. The Correct Usage of

Prepositions, Conjunctions, Relative Pronouns and
Adverbs Explained and Illustrated, pp. 324. New
York.

ALLBTTTT, T. C.

1905. Notes on the Composition of Scientific Papers, pp.

164. London. Macmillan Company.

REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 67

This book is by an experienced medical editor and
contains many practical suggestions.

RlCKARD, T. A.

1910. A Guide to Technical Writing. Second Edition, pp.

172. San Francisco. Mining and Scientific Press.
Intended primarily for writers on mining, and yet it
contains much that is useful and suggestive to zo-
ologists particularly the chapters on the need of sim-
plicity in the language of science, and on the value
of standardization.

WARMAN, P. C.

1903. A Plea for Better English in Science. Science, N. S.,
Vol. XVIII, pp. 563-568. Reprinted with revision,
1910. Washington.

DAVIS, W. M.

1911. The Disciplinary Value of Geography. Pop. Sci. Mo.,

Vol. LXXVIH, pp. 105-119, 223-240.
An illuminating paper on the "art of presentation"

of scientific results in oral and written form.
1909. The Systematic Description of Land Forms. Geogr.
Jour., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 300-318.

1909. Glacial Erosion in North Wales. Quart. Jour. Geol.

Soc., Vol. LXV, pp. 281-350.

1910. Experiments in Geographical Description. Bull.

Amer. Geogr. Soc., Vol. XLH, pp. 401-435.

1911. The Colorado Front Range. A Study in Physio-

graphic Presentation. Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr.,
Vol. I, pp. 21-83.

The four preceding papers are in many respects models
of presentation. They exemplify the process method
applied to regions, a phase of much importance in
certain ecologic studies, particularly ecological sur-
veys. The last two papers are rather detailed ap-
plications of the same ideas. A very profitable
study may be made of the method of presentation
in these papers.

68 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

DEVlNNE, T. L.

1902. The Practice of Typography. Correct Composition.
A Treatise on Spelling, Abbreviations, the Com-
pounding and Division of Words, the Proper Use
of Figures and Numerals, Italic and Capital Letters,
Notes, etc., with Observations on Punctuation and
Proof-reading. Second Edition, pp. 476. New
York.

Perhaps the highest American authority on all the
subjects discussed.

,Wooo, G. M.

* 1909. Suggestions to Authors of Papers Submitted for Pub-
lication by the United States Geological Survey
with Directions to Typewriters. U. S. Geol. Sur-
vey, pp. 50. Washington.
Can be secured gratis from the Survey.

^ANONYMOUS.

*• 1903. Government Printing Office Manual of Style for Use
in Composition and Proof Reading, pp. 191. Wash-
ington, D.C.

VAUX, C. B.

1910. How to Prepare a Paper for Publication. Bull. No. 4.
Wistar Inst. Anat. and Biology, pp. 20. Phila.

1910. Style Brief. A Guide for Authors in Preparing Copy
and Correcting Proof of Professional Papers and for
the Use of Editors and Printer, adopted as the
Standard of the Journals Published by the Wistar
Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia,
pp. 32. First Edition. Baltimore.
The Wistar Institute publishes the "Journal of Ex-
perimental Zoology," which is devoted to "original
researches of an experimental or analytical nature "
on many branches of zoology, including ecology and
general physiology. The "Style Brief" can be
secured from the Institute.

REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 69

ORCUTT, W. D.

1912. The Writer's Desk Book. pp. 184. New York. F. A.

Stokes Co.

A useful handbook on punctuation, capitalization,
spelling, abbreviations, numerals, etc., and with
an appendix on weights and measures.

WOOLLEY, E. C.

1907. Handbook of Composition. A Compendium of Rules
Regarding Good English, Grammar, Sentence Struc-
ture, Paragraphing, Manuscript Arrangement, Punc-
tuation, Spelling, Essay Writing and Letter Writing,
pp. 239. Boston.

VI. IMPORTANT SOURCES OF INFORMA-
TION ON THE LIFE HISTORIES OF IN-
SECTS AND ALLIED INVERTEBRATES

INSECTS are to-day one of the dominant forms of
life and are present in almost every large animal
association or habitat. They therefore form an
important element in a large number of ecological
studies. And although facts of ecological signifi-
cance have been accumulating for many years they
are so widely scattered that to find them when
needed is quite a serious problem. To aid in such
a search the following references are given. It
should be remembered that spiders, mites, and
myriapods are commonly included in entomological
literature and are therefore included in this list.
The list is not intended as a substitute for the more
elaborate sources such as the Zoological Record
and similar standard works to be found in large libra-
ries, but it includes publications that are more likely
to be within the grasp of teachers and students not
located at library centers. Many of these are public
documents, and even if out of print, can easily be
secured from second-hand dealers.

A student who has access to large libraries will
find the following paper very valuable in suggestions
as to the methods of finding the literature on many
general zoological subjects.

70

SOURCES OF INFORMATION 71

MlNOT, C. S.

1896. Bibliography. A Study of Resources, pp. 149-168.
Biol. Lectures, Wood's Holl, 1895. Boston.

(Alphabetically arranged.)

ALDRICH, J. M.

1905. A Catalogue of North American Diptera. Smith-

sonian Misc. Coll., Vol. XLVI, No. 1444. pp. 680.
Contains an extensive bibliography on flies.

ANONYMOUS.

1906. Catalogue of Publications Relating to Entomology in

the Library of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Library Bulletin 55. pp. 562. Washington.
BANKS, N.

1892. A Synopsis, Catalogue, and Bibliography of the Neur-
opteroid Insects of Temperate North America.
Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. XIX, pp. 327-373.
J898-1905. Bibliography of the More Important Contribu-
tions to American Economic Entomology, Parts
VI, VH, and VHL U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Bureau of Entomology.
A continuation of the work begun by Henshaw (1889-

1896).

^1900. A List of Works on North American Entomology.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 24 (N. S.).
pp. 95.

J902. An Index to Bulletins Nos. 1-30 (N. S.), (1896-
1901), of the Division of Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent., Bull. No. 36 (N.S.). pp. 64.
1910. A List of Works on North American Entomology.

U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. 81. pp. 120.
This and the preceding edition (1900) form a very use-
ful index to the systematic literature of insects,
spiders, myriapods, etc.

1910. Catalogue of the Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera.
Amer. Ent. Soc. pp. 103. Philadelphia.

72 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

> 1910. Catalogue of Nearctic Spiders. U. S. Nat. Mus.,

Bull. 72. pp. 80.

In the absence of special bibliographies these cata-
logues are the most convenient avenue to the liter-
ature.

BETHUNE, C. J. S.

1900. General Index to the Thirty Annual Reports of the
Entomological Society of Ontario, 1870-1899. pp.
76. Ontario Dept. Agr.

BEUTENMULLER, W.

1891. Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transfor-
mations of North American Coleoptera. Jour. N. Y.
Micros. Soc., Vol. VII, pp. 1-52.

1890. Preliminary Catalogue of the Described Transforma-
tions of the Odonata of the World, pp. 165-179.
In Lamborn, R. H., Dragonflies vs. Mosquitoes.
New York.

1893. On the Food Habits of the North American Rhyn-
chophora. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. I, pp. 36-43,
80-88.

1896. Food-Habits of North American Cerambycidae. Jour.
N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. IV, pp. 73-81.

CHITTENDEN, F. H.

1893. Note on the Food Habits of Some Species of Chry-

somelidse. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. II, pp.

261-267.
^1897. General Index to the Seven Volumes of Insect Life,

1888-1895. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.

^COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

1876. The General Index of the Agricultural Reports of the
Patent Office for 1837-1861, and of the Department
of Agriculture for 1862-1876. Washington.

^COMSTOCK, J. H.

' 1879. Report upon Cotton Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr. pp.511.
This report, like those of the U. S. Entomological Com-

SOURCES OF INFORMATION 73

mission, gives very full accounts of the habits and
life histories of certain species and gives particular
attention to their predaceous and parasitic enemies.
The predaceous insects are seldom given as detailed
study as the vegetable-feeding kinds.

COQOTLLETT, D. W.

1881. Larvae of Lepidoptera. Tenth Ann. Rep. State Ent.

HI., pp. 145-186.

Descriptions, figures, and keys to many common
larvse.

CBESSON, E. T.

1887. Synopsis of the Hymenoptera of America, North of

Mexico. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Supplem. Vol.,
1887, Pt. 2. Catalogue of Species and Bibliog-
raphy, pp. 155-350. Philadelphia.

CURRIE, R. P., and CAUDELL, A. N.

1911. An Index to Circulars 1 to 100 (Second Series) of the
Bureau of Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur.
Ent., Circular No. 100. pp. 49.

The circulars contain a large amount of information
on life histories of insects.

DIMMOCK, G., and KNAB, F.

1904. Early Stages of Carabidae. Bull. No. 1, Springfield

Mus. Nat. Hist. pp. 55. Springfield, Mass.
DODGE, C. R.

1888. The Life and Entomological Work of the Late Town-

end Glover. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Ent., Bull.
No. 18 (O. S.). pp. 68.

DYAB, H. G.

1894. A Classification of Lepidopterous Larvae. Ann. N. Y.

Acad. of ScL, Vol. VHI, pp. 194-232.
EDWARDS, H.

1889. Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transfor-

mations of North American Lepidoptera. U. S.
Nat. Mus., Bull. 35. pp. 147.

74 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

FELT, E. P.

1905-06. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. Mem.
8, N. Y. State Mus., Vol. I, pp. 1-332, a435-a459,
1905; Vol. II, pp. 333-877, 1906.
Excellently illustrated, and with numerous references.
This report and Packard's Forest Insects form
an excellent guide to the life histories and literature
of forest insects.

s!899. Memorial of Life and Entomologic Work of Joseph
Albert Lintner, Ph. D. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. 24,
Vol. V, pp. 303-611.

Contains an index to Lintner's thirteen reports as State
Entomologist of New York. These reports contain
rather full references and good summaries of life
histories.
FOLSOM, J. W.

1906. Entomology with Special Reference to its Biological

and Economic Aspects, pp. 485. Philadelphia.
A very useful bibliography is given on pp. 409-

466.
FORBES, S. A.

1885. General Indexes to the First Twelve Reports of the
State Entomologists of Illinois. App. to Fourteenth
Rep. State Ent. HI. pp. 120. Springfield.

1909. Contents and Index of the Reports of the State En-

tomologist of Illinois, Xni-XXTV. 1884-1908.
pp. 157. Office of State Entomologist.

FORBES, W. T. M.

1906. Field Tables of Lepidoptera. pp.141. Worcester, Mass.
Keys for the determination of larvae.

1910. A Structural Study of Some Caterpillars. Ann. Ent.

Soc. Amer., Vol. HI, pp. 94-132.
Contains a very useful bibliography (pp. 125-127).
FORBUSH, E. H., and FERNALD, C. H.

1896. The Gypsy Moth. Mass. Board Agr. pp. 495.
Boston.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION 75

Also discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which

prey upon the Gypsy Moth.
HART, C. A.

1895. On the Entomology of the Illinois River and Adjacent
Waters. Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV,
pp. 149-284.
Keys to immature stages of aquatic insects and many

biological observations.
^HENSHAW, S.

1887. The Entomological Writings of Dr. Alpheus Spring
Packard. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. Ent., Bull.
No. 16. pp. 49.
Biological observations.

>1 889-96. Bibliography of the More Important Contributions
to American Economic Entomology, Parts I-V,
and index. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. Ent.
HTTBBARD, H. G.

' 1885. Insects Affecting the Orange. U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent. pp. 227.

JOHANNSEN, O. A.

' 1903, 1905. Aquatic Nematocerous Diptera. N. Y. State
Mus., Bull. No. 68, pp. 328-448; Bull. No. 86,
pp. 76-327.

Immature stages of several families are rather fully
treated and valuable references on life histories given.

MAcGlLLIVRAY, A. D.

1903. Aquatic Chrysomelidse and a Table of the Families of
Coleopterous Larvae. Bull. No. 68, N. Y. State
Mus., pp. 288-331.
Gives references to the most important papers on the

immature stages of beetles.
NEEDHAM, J. G., and BETTEN, C.
r 1901. Aquatic Insects in the Adirondacks. Bull. No. 47,

N. Y. State Mus., pp. 383-612.
Keys to orders to immature aquatic insects; keys to
Mayfly and dragon-fly nymphs.

76 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

NEEDHAM, J. G.
7 1903. Life Histories of Odonata, Suborder Zygoptera. Bull.

No. 68, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 218-276.
Keys to nymphs.
1905. Ephemeridse. Bull. No. 86, N. Y. State Mus., pp.

17-59.

Keys to genera of adults and to nymphs.
1908. Report on the Entomologic Field Station Conducted
at Old Forge, N. Y., in the Summer of 1905. Bull.
No. 124, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 156-248.
Life histories of crane flies, Tipulidae ; table of larval
habits, p. 239, and fish food.

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, U. S. DEPT. AGBIC.
,>1889. Experiment Station Record, Vol. I to date.
1903. General Index to Experiment Station Record, Vols. 1-
12, 1889-1901, and to Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 2.

pp. 671.

Useful for references to current literature on economic
species, before they have appeared in the more
slowly published bibliographies.
PACKARD, A. S.
-,1890. Forest Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr., Fifth Rep. U. S.

Ent. Comm. pp. 957.
Almost an encyclopedia on forest insects, insects listed

by food plants. Very useful.
PIERCE, W. D.

1907. On the Biologies of the Rhynchophora of North

America. Ann. Rep. Neb. St. Bd. Agr., 1906-07,
pp. 247-319.

This is an annotated list of breeding and food habits
of the snout and bark beetles. References to the
literature, index of plants and beetles. Very useful.

1908. A List of Parasites Known to Attack American Rhyn-

chophora. Jour. Econ. Ent., Vol. I, pp. 380-396.
yRiLEY, C. V., PACKARD, A. S., and THOMAS, C.

1878. First Annual Report of the U. S. Entomological Com-

SOURCES OF INFORMATION 77

mission for the Year 1877, Relating to the Rocky
Mountain Locust, etc. U. S. Geol. Surv. (Hayden).
pp. 477.

Discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey

upon the locust.

pl880. Second Report of the U. S. Entomological Commis-
sion for the Years 1878 and 1879, Relating to the
Rocky Mountain Locust, and the Western Cricket,
etc. U. S. Dept. Interior, pp. 322.

Discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which
prey upon the locust.

RlLEY, C. V.

1880. Food Habits of the Longicorn Beetles or Wood Borers.

Amer. Ent., Vol. HI, pp. 237-239, 270-271.
»1881. General Index and Supplement to the Nine Reports
on the Insects of Missouri. U. S. Dept. of Interior.
U. S. Ent. Comm., Bull. No. 6. pp. 178.

^1885. Fourth Report of the U. S. Entomological Commis-
sion, etc. (On the Cotton and Boll Worm.) U. S.
Dept. Agr. pp. 399.
SCHWABZ, E. A.

1890. Food-Plants and Food-Habits of Some North American
Coleoptera. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. Vol. I, pp.
231-233.

SCUDDER, S. H.

1889. Classified List of Food Plants of American Butterflies,
drawn from Scudder's Butterflies of the Eastern
United States. Psyche, Vol. V, pp. 274-278.

1901. Index to North American Orthoptera. Occasional

Papers of the Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VI. pp. 436.
This is a complete alphabetical index to the literature
of the species of North American Orthoptera — a
unique and very useful work.

THOMAS, C., MIDDLE-TON, N., and MARTIN, J.

1881. Descriptive Catalogue of Larvae. Tenth Rep. State

Ent. 111., pp. 60-140.

78 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

Description and keys to saw-fly and Lepidopterous

larvae.
TOWNSEND, C. H. T.

1893. A General Summary of the Known Larval Food-
habits of the Acalyptrate Muscidse. Can. Ent.,
Vol. XXV, pp. 10-16.
WARD, H. B., WHIFFLE, G. C., and others.

Fresh Water Biology. (In press.) New York.
This work consists of chapters by numerous special-
ists on the various groups of fresh-water animals
including insects, gives keys for the determination
of specimens, short chapters on their general bio-
logical relations, and references to the literature.

VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CHANGE, OR THE "ORDERLY SE-
QUENCE OF EXTERNAL NATURE"

THE DYNAMIC AND PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

"Of all the truths relating to phenomena, the most valuable to
us are those which relate to the order of succession. On a knowl-
edge of these is founded every reasonable anticipation of future
facts, and whatever power we possess of influencing those facts
to our advantage." — JOHN STUART MILL.

"To study life we must consider three things: first, the or-
derly sequence of external nature ; second, the living organism and
the changes which take place in it ; and, third, the continuous
adjustment between the two sets of phenomena which constitutes
life."— W. K BROOKS.

"The truth, indeed, is, that in physical inquiries, the work of
theory and observation must go hand in hand, and ought to be
carried on at the same time, more especially if the matter is very
complicated, for there the clue of theory is necessary to direct
the observer. Though a man may begin to observe without any
hypothesis, he cannot continue long without seeing some general
conclusion arise ; and to this nascent theory it is his business to
attend, because, by seeking either to verify or to disprove it,
he is led to new experiments, or new observations. He is led
also to the very experiments and observations that are of the
greatest importance, namely to those instantiae crucis, which are
the criteria that naturally present themselves for the trial of

79

80 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

every hypothesis. He is conducted to the places where the trans-
itions of nature are most perceptible, and where the absence of
former, or the presence of new circumstances, excludes the ac-
tion of imaginary causes. By this correction of his first opinion,
a new approximation is made to the truth ; and by the repetition
of the same process, certainty is finally obtained. Thus theory
and observation mutually assist one another; and the spirit
of system, against which there are so many and such just com-
plaints, appears, nevertheless, as the animating principle of
inductive investigation. The business of sound philosophy is
not to extinguish this spirit, but to restrain and direct its efforts."
— J. PLAYFAIR, "Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of
the Earth," Edinburgh, 1802, pp. 524-525.

THE facts and ideas with which the animal ecolo-
gist needs to become acquainted are so widely scat-
tered that a large amount of selective reading is
necessary. The ecologist must read, select, and
become an organizing center of things ecological.
All of the facts and conceptions which he needs are
not even confined to zoological or biological literature.
In seeking an understanding of any problem, conven-
tional groupings of the sciences and their arbitrary
boundaries must not bar one from fertile fields.
Many of the conceptions of the physical sciences,
due to their more advanced stage of development,
anticipate the future development of biology. This
is particularly true of their dynamic conceptions.
For this reason we should not hesitate to utilize and
deliberately strive to secure development along
similar lines in animal ecology. Elsewhere I have
stated (An Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan,
1906, pp. 11, 12) that: "It is thus very apparent

LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 81

that as soon as ecological phenomena are investigated
dynamically and expressed in terms of processes,
this science will of necessity become more closely
correlated with those allied sciences which have al-
ready availed themselves of such methods. ... It
seems a very simple matter to give assent to the idea
of the law of change, yet in its practical application
this simplicity often vanishes at once when it is
seen that it involves the relation of cause and effect.
... As this method of thinking is not generally
understood, it is occasionally applied in such a crude
and general sense that its bearing cannot be grasped
when applied to special or concrete problems. There
can be no question as to the general validity of this
method, but what is now needed is to know how these
processes are combined and related to produce
particular environmental conditions or situations.
That these difficulties are not confined to the ecolo-
gist alone, but are obstacles which arise in any
attempt at scientific interpretation, is worthy of
special notice. We are thus able to see why certain
naturalists, apparently not recognizing or understand-
ing the developmental processes which scientific ideas
undergo, nor being acquainted with the tendencies
of interpretation, dynamically considered, now making
such rapid headway in ecological botany, geography,
physiography, geology, and psychology, are inclined
to look upon such attempts in biology as merely a
fad or personal peculiarity of the student, and not of
any particular consequence. Such ideas confuse
the incidental with the essential and suggest a com-

82 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

plete failure to grasp the situation or to realize the
fundamental importance of stating explanations
in terms of processes. Furthermore, in several of
the allied sciences, the methods of dynamical inter-
pretation have already made considerable advance.
Here, then, is a resource, at present largely unworked
by many biologists, where a wealth of ideas and
explanations lies strewn over the surface and only
need to be picked up in order to be utilized by those
acquainted with this method of interpretation. . . .
If the signs of the times are now read correctly, the
most striking advance in scientific methods of
thinking during the present century will be in the
direction of interpretation from the standpoint of
processes — dynamically."

For these reasons I have begun the list of literature
with certain references which deal with the dynamic
relations of the environment. These publications
are particularly valuable not only for this method
of treatment, but also for their content. These
papers clearly emphasize the "orderly sequence of
external nature," a conception which must be grasped
much more than superficially, if one is to interpret
the development or evolution of environments.
Although this is an essential part of our problem,
as has been so well expressed by Brooks, yet this
phase is probably one of the least understood by
zoologists. And as long as zoological students lack
the proper training this condition will continue.
To neglect this aspect in the training of an ecologist
is like neglect of chemical training in a physiologist

LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 83

or of a physiological training in a psychologist.
For one who is ignorant of the principles of "orderly
sequence," or successions of changes occurring in the
physical, vegetational, and animal environments,
it is manifestly impossible to realize their develop-
ment ; and the application of such principles to the
interpretation of practical problems is utterly beyond
his grasp. We are thus able to see that although the
phrase "orderly sequence of external nature" is
fundamentally a simple conception, it is not grasped
without effort, training, and careful investiga-
tion.

Obviously it is impossible to arrange the series of
references with perfect satisfaction. The arrange-
ment which will serve one purpose will not another,
and for this reason it has been necessary to arrange
the lists in more than one order. Certain general
references, or some intended to facilitate the acquire-
ment of the general point of view, are given first, and
others are arranged alphabetically. For example,
the papers listed on the processes of change in the
physical and vegetational environment are approxi-
mately in an order in which they may profitably be
studied to make the view as concrete as possible.
It is primarily not the abstract idea of the principle
of change, which is relatively easy to grasp, but to
be able to apply it to any condition or location and
to make it a guiding principle is very difficult. And
judging from my own observation upon others and
my own experience this method is very rarely mas-
tered, if at all, unless it is actually worked out in

84 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

some concrete case, and later expanded to its logical
consequences.

Only a few references are given on general physi-
ology, metabolism, and allied subjects, but those
given furnish a valuable index to further literature.
Only the most arbitrary line can be drawn between
papers dealing with habits, behavior, and individual
ecology, and for this reason most of the references
selected are arranged alphabetically.

Particular attention should be called to the fact
that it is not to be assumed that the various authors
strive to make the points to which attention is here
called ; they may or may not do so. My aim is to
call attention to the utility of the publications from
the standpoint advocated throughout the book.

From this point onward in this book the references
form its main feature. For th^s reason it is important
that one should not get an exaggerated idea of the
value of the literature. It is perhaps true that a
large part of the best ecological work has been done
with little knowledge of other ecological writings.
This was of course particularly true of the early
workers, and the best work of to-day does not come
from the largest library centers. A student looking
over these lists, and finding that he has access to
relatively few papers, may conclude that all effort
is of no avail. The greatest need is not all or even
a majority of the publications on the general field,
but the relatively limited number which bear
directly upon the problem at hand and enough of
the general papers to aid him in a general orientation.

LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 85

It may be of some comfort to the isolated student,
with his small shelf of books, to realize that there
are perhaps not a half-dozen libraries in America
which contain all the references given in this book.
The nearer one reaches the boundaries of our knowl-
edge, the smaller the amount, and often the smaller
the value of the literature, and the greater the value
of a proper orientation, which comes only with a
grasp of general principles.

(The laws of physical and vegetational changes and their in-
fluence upon animals. The dynamic or process relation of the
environment.)

BANCROFT, W. D.

1911. A Universal Law. Science, N. S., Vol. XXX, pp.

159-179.

The law of adjustment or response to strain. A very
important paper viewed from the dynamic and pro-
cess standpoint.

HENDERSON, L. J.

1913. The Fitness of the Environment. An Enquiry into
the Biological Significance of the Properties of
Matter, pp. 317. New York. The Macmillan
Company.

Valuable ecologically because of its exposition of the
orderly sequence and regulatory character of physico-
chemical and physiological processes, and the ap-
plication of chemical equilibria and the Phase Rule
to metabolic changes. He says, "Now there can
be no doubt that, when feasible, the ideal method —
from the physico-chemical point of view — to de-
scribe a material system is in terms of the phase
rule." p. 260.

86 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

CHAMBERLIN, T. C., and SALISBURY, R. D.

1904. Geology. Geologic Processes and their Results, Vol.

I. pp. 654. New York.

To be considered from the standpoint of the agents
and processes which change animal habitats and
result in their "orderly sequence."

.VAN HISE, C. R.

1904. A Treatise on Metamorphism. U. S. Geol. Survey,

Monog., Vol. XLVH, pp. 1-1286.
A formidable-looking volume on account of its size,
but one which will abundantly repay a careful study
of its method, aside from the value of the content, for
problems related to animals of the soils, etc. Par-
ticular attention should be given to the formulation
of dynamic principles, and the application of the
process method.

DAVIS, W. M.

1909. Geographical Essays, pp. 777. New York.

Essays on the orderly sequence of changing land forms,
or to the ecologist, the development of inland habi-
tats, in so far as they are dependent upon the
physiographic conditions.

WOODWORTH, J. B.

1894. The Relation between Baseleveling and Organic Evolu-
tion. Amer. Geol., Vol. XIV, pp. 209-235.
The influence of baseleveling factors in the develop-
ment of the gross environment and upon evolu-
tion.

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1901. Baseleveling and its Faunal Significance, with Illustra-
tions from Southeastern United States. Amer.
Nat., Vol. XXXV, pp. 839-852.
The influence of baseleveling upon the sequence of
changes in fresh-water and land habitats. (See
Figures 4 and 5.)

LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 87

BRANDT, K.

1899. Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. Wissen. Meer-

untersuchungen, heraus. v. d. Komm. zur wissen.

Unters. deutschen Meere in Kiel. N. F. Abth.

Kiel, Bd. IV, pp. 213-230.

J901. Life in the Ocean. Smithsonian Report for 1900,

pp. 493-506.

A translation of the preceding paper on the transfor-
mation of substance or "cycle of matter" in the sea.
The extensive footnotes are omitted.

1902. Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. 2 Abhand. Wiss.
Meeresunt. heraus. v. d. Komm. zur wissen.
Unters. deutschen Meere in Kiel, N. F. Bd. VI,
Abth. Kiel, pp. 23-79.

1905. On the Production and Conditions of Production in

the Sea. Rapports et Proces-Verbaux, Inter.

Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Vol. HI,

Appendix D. Copenhagen.

Not seen by the writer. Johnstone states that it is

a summary of the papers of 1899 and 1902.
JOHNSTONE, J.

1908. Metabolism in the Sea. pp. 206-298. In "Con-
ditions of Life in the Sea." Cambridge, Eng-
land.
BIRGE, E. A.

1907. The Respiration of an Inland Lake. Trans. Amer.

Fisheries Soc., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 223-241.
1904. The Thermocline and its Biological Significance.

Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc., Vol. XXV, pp. 5-33.
Two studies in the sequential changes in the lake

habitat.
BIRGE, E. A., and JUDAY, C.

1911. The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. The Dissolved Gases
of the Water and their Biological Significance.
Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. No. 22.
pp. 259.

88 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

PETERS, A. W.

1907. Chemical Studies on the Cell and its Medium. Part

II, Some Chemico-Biological Relations in Liquid

Culture Media. Amer. Jour. PhysioL, Vol. XVHI,

pp. 321-346.

A study of changes in media and their biotic succession.

COWLES, H. C.

1911. The Causes of Vegetative Cycles. Bot. Gaz., Vol.
LI, pp. 161-183. Also Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr.,
Vol. I, pp. 1-20. 1912.

An important statement of the general principles and
causes of vegetational changes. Includes a history
of the subject.

1901. The Physiographic Ecology of Chicago and Vicinity;
A Study of the Origin, Development, and Classi-
fication of Plant Societies. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XXXI,
pp. 73-108, 145-182.

A study of changes in the vegetation from the process
and genetic standpoint.

CLEMENTS, F. E.

1904. The Development and Structure of Vegetation. Bot.

Surv. Nebraska, VII. pp. 175. Lincoln.

Deals with vegetative changes from the process

standpoint.

1905. Research Methods in Ecology, pp. 334. Lincoln,

Neb.

CRAMPTON, C. B.

1911. The Vegetation of Caithness Considered in Relation

to the Geology, pp. 132. Comm. for the Survey
and Study of British Vegetation.

1912. The Geological Relations of Stable and Migratory

Plant Formations. Scottish Bot. Rev., Vol. I, pp.
1-61.

Good examples of the process standpoint as applied
to the vegetation.

LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 89

WARMING, E. (Trans, by P. GROOM and I. B. BALFOTJR.)
1909. (Ecology of Plants, pp. 422. Oxford.

A treatise on the general principles of plant ecology,

and an index to the literature.
ZON, RAPHAEL.

1906. Principles Involved in Determining Forest Types.

Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, Vol. I, pp. 179-189.
Discusses the sequence of change in the forest.

OSTENFELD, C. H.

1908. On the Ecology and Distribution of the Grass-Wrack
(Zostera marina) in Danish Waters. Rep. Danish
Biol. Sta. to Board of Agriculture, Vol. XVI, 1908.
Trans, from the Fiskeri-Beretning for 1907, pp. 1-62.
An important paper showing the controlling relation
of marine vegetation upon animal associations and
particularly the fish of the coast. References to
related zoological papers.
MOORE, J. E. S.

1903. The Tanganyika Problem, pp. 371. London.

On pp. 107-119 Moore describes the invasion and
succession of vegetation upon alluvial flats, recently
drained. A graphic account of forest invasion.
Apparently a little known study.
ERNST, A. (Trans, by A. C. SEWARD.)

1908. The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of Krakatau.

pp. 74. Cambridge.

A study of the invasion of vegetation upon a new land
surface formed by volcanic activity. Such studies
as this aid one in breaking away from the older
static view of vegetation and in seeing its more vital
aspect.
VAUGHAN, T. W.

1911. The Geological Work of Mangroves in Southern
* Florida. Smithsonian Miscell. Coll. (Quart. Issue),

Vol. LII, pp. 461-464.
Plants as agents in the formation of animal habitats.

90 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

WEISS, F. E.

1909. A Preliminary Account of the Submerged Vegetation

of Lake Windermere as Affecting the Feeding Ground

of Fish. Mem. and Pro. Manchester Lit. and Phil.

Soc., Manchester Memoirs, 1908-1909, Vol. LETT,

Mem. 11, pp. 1-9.
TRANSEAU, E. N.

1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot.

Gaz., Vol. XLV, pp. 217-231.
Shows vegetational control upon the relative humidity

of the air.
FULLER, G. D.

1911. Evaporation and Plant Succession. Bot. Gaz., Vol.

LII, pp. 193-208.
Further studies of the vegetational control of the

relative evaporating power of the air.
SHELFORD, V. E.

1907. Preliminary Note on the Distribution of the Tiger
Beetles (Cicindela) and its Relation to Plant Suc-
cession. Biol. Bull., Vol. XIV, pp. 9-14.
The sequence of vegetational changes which determine
the habitats of a predaceous insect.

1912. Ecological Succession. IV. Vegetation and the Con-

trol of Land Animal Communities. Biol. Bull.,
Vol. XXin, pp. 59-99.

An important paper correlating the development of
the vegetation and the changing animal associations.
COOK, O. F.

1909. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America.

U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. No. 145.
pp. 30.
Vegetational change in the tropics as affected by

man and its relation to plant succession.
FERNOW, B. E., and HARRINGTON, M. W., and others.

1893. Forest Influences. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forestry Div.,
Bull. No. 7. pp. 197.

LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 91

Very valuable discussion of the atmospheric con-
ditions in and about woodlands ; temperature,
evaporation, etc., in open and wooded areas. Not
written from the process standpoint, but capable of
such an interpretation. (See Figures 6 and 7.)

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1905. The Postglacial Dispersal of the North American

Biota. Biol. Bull., Vol. IX, pp. 53-71.
Climatic sequences applied to inland habitats and the

succession of their associations.
1909. Isle Royale as a Biotic Environment. Ann. Rep.

Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 1-56.
An attempt is made to treat the environment and

biota from both the dynamic or process standpoint —

so far as the present processes are concerned — and

genetically with regard to the development of the

present conditions.

RUTHVEN, A. G. <

1906. An Ecological Survey in the Porcupine Mountains and

Isle Royale, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol.
Surv. for 1905, pp. 17-55.

The environment and biotic associations are treated
from the dynamic and genetic standpoint.

VIII. THE LAWS OF ORDERLY SEQUENCE
OF METABOLISM, GROWTH, DEVELOP-
MENT, PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS,
AND BEHAVIOR, OR "THE LIVING OR-
GANISM AND THE CHANGES WHICH
TAKE PLACE IN IT"

THE DYNAMIC OB PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ANIMAL

1. General Physiology and Development.

2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers.

3. Animal Behavior as a Process.

4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies.

5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior.

"Seeing, then, that in all cases we may consider the external
phenomena as simply in relation, and the internal phenomena also
as simply in relation ; the broadest and most complete definition
of Life will be — The continuous adjustment of internal rela-
tions to external relations." — HERBERT SPENCER.

"It is of the utmost importance, if we are to understand the
behavior of organisms, that we think of them as dynamic — as
processes, rather than as structures. The animal is something
happening." — H. S. JENNINGS (1907).

NOT only is the environment subject to an orderly
sequence of changes, but this same law applies with
equal thoroughness to the living animal itself.
The animal is an agent which transforms, in "an

92

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 93

orderly sequence," by its processes of metabolism,
both energy and substance, resulting in growth,
differentiation, multiplication, and behavior. These
activities take place in an orderly manner and are
dependent upon both energy and substance derived
from the environment. For these reasons the
processes or changes in metabolism, growth, develop-
ment, and behavior, in so far as they are responses
to the orderly sequence of environmental changes, are
ecological problems. The changes in behavior during
the life of the animal or the development of its
behavior give one of the main clues to the physio-
logical conditions which determine some of the most
characteristic forms of responses, and finally as a
result of all these activities and processes of adjust-
ment to the conditions of life, a relatively mature and
adjusted condition of the struggle for existence in
animals and associations may be reached, the cul-
mination of animal harmonies. For this reason
studies in modifications of behavior are of fundamen-
tal ecological importance, because they consider
behavior not only as ready-made, but also in the
process of making. Such considerations as these
make it desirable to include some of the most valuable
and suggestive books and papers which deal with those
general physiological processes influencing growth,
development, multiplication, and behavior, and
particularly those which aid one in realizing their
order or successive changes, or f( orderly sequence."

In studying the activities of the individual animal,
the normal environment to which it is attuned

94 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

forms the natural unit or basis for study. All
processes which modify or change such an optimum
will stimulate the animal, cause responses and
adjustments. There are many degrees or stages in
the development of these optima which change with
the functional rhythms and with the development of
the animal. There are those conditions which in-
fluence the activity of certain functions or organs ;
those which influence the general vital processes in
general, the vital optimum; those which appear to
condition the best development of certain families,
genera, etc. ; and finally those of animal associations.
Of course these grade imperceptibly into one
another, and a single animal may in its develop-
ment, traverse all of these stages in the development
of its associational optimum. Optima thus have
histories, and their development and laws of trans-
formation are of the most fundamental ecological
importance (Adams, 1904, 1909 ; Blackman, 1905,
1906; Shelford, 1911, 1912).

In the selection of these papers I have been guided
by several considerations. Studies of common
animals are given preference, also those papers
which by their method of treatment and point of
view are especially suggestive and may act
as models for further study, and particularly those
papers which treat of the activities from the stand-
point of their changes, cycles, modifiability, and
development. It is to such papers that we must look
for suggestions regarding the methods or processes
of adjustment between the animal and the environ-

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 95

ment. All of these papers are not equally ecolog-
ical, but all will be of much utility in ecological
work.

(General works are listed first, followed by special papers
arranged alphabetically.)

1. General Physiology and Development

VERWORN, M.

1899. General Physiology, pp. 615. New York.

A very good general summary, but somewhat out of
date. There is a German edition of 1909 (fifth).

ROSENTHAL, J.

1901. Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Physiologic, pp. 616.

Leipzig.
FURTH, O. VON.

1903. Vergleichende chemische Physiologic der niederen

Tiere. pp. 670. Jena.

An excellent general work. Indispensable. Full ref-
erences.

PUTTER, A.

1911. Vergleichende Physiologic, pp. 721. Jena.

WINTERSTEIN, H. (Editor).

1910. Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologic. (To be

completed in four volumes.) Jena.

HAMMARSTEN, O. (Trans, by J. A. MANDEL.)

1911. A Text-Book of Physiological Chemistry. Sixth

Edition, pp. 964. New York.

DAVENPORT, C. B.

1908. Experimental Morphology, pp. 509. New York.
Excellent summaries and full references to the in-
fluence of various stimuli upon growth and upon
protoplasm.

96 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

LOEB, J.

1906. The Dynamics of Living Matter, pp.233. New York.

PRZIBRAM, H.

1910. Experimental-Zoologie. 3. Phylogenese. pp. 315.
Leipzig and Vienna.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New

York.
The general chapters are particularly helpful.

MORGAN, T. H.

1907. Experimental Zoology, pp. 454. New York.
Summaries of a variety of experimental studies.

SEMPER, K.

1881. Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of

Existence, pp. 472. New York.

" ' The Physiology of Organisms,' in contradistinction
to the Physiology of Organs, . . . [is] that branch
of animal biology which regards the species of ani-
mals as actualities and investigates the reciprocal
relations which adjust the balance between the exist-
ence of any species and the natural, external condi-
tions of its existence, in the widest sense of the term."
p. 33.

JENSEN* P.

1907. Organische Zweckmassigkeit, Entwicklung und Verer-
bung vom Standpunkt der Physiologie. Jena,
pp. 251.
VERNON, H. M.

1903. Variation in Animals and Plants, pp. 415. London.

VARIGNY, H. DE.

1892. Experimental Evolution, pp. 271. New York.

BACHMETJEW, P.

1901-1907. Experimentelle entomologische Studien vom
physikalisch-chemischen Standpunkt aus. Bd.
I. Temperaturverhaltnisse bei Insekten. pp. 160.

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 97

Leipzig. 1901. Bd. II. Einfluss der Ausseren
Faktoren auf Insekten. pp. 944. Sophia. 1907.
An extremely valuable index to environmental in-
fluences upon insects. Numerous summaries.
HERKICK, C. L.

1906. Applications of Dynamic Theory to Physiological
Problems. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol.
XVI, pp. 362-375.
RICHARDS, H. M.

1910. On the Nature of Response to Chemical Stimulation.
Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 52-62.

SCHAFER, E. A.

1912. The Nature, Origin and Maintenance of Life.

Science, N. S., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 289-312.
BASKERVILLE, C.

1905. Life and Chemistry. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp.
641-648.

MORGAN, T. H.

1910. Chance or Purpose in the Origin and Evolution of
Adaptation. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 201-
210.
MATHEWS, A. P.

1905. A Theory of the Nature of Protoplasmic Respiration

and Growth. Biol. Bull., Vol. VIH, pp. 331-346.
JENNINGS, H. S.

1912. Age, Death and Conjugation in the Light of Work on
Lower Organisms. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXX, pp.
563-577.
Death is due to differentiation and not to a "running

down" of the organism.
LILLIE, F. R.

1909. The Theory of Individual Development. Pop. Sci.

Mo., Vol. LXXV, pp. 239-252.
HOLMES, S. J.

1904. The Problem of Form Regulation. Archiv fur Ent-

98 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

wickelungsmechanik der Organismen (Roux), Bd.
XVII, pp. 265-305.
1907. Regeneration as Functional Adjustment. Jour. Exp.

Zool., Vol. IV, pp. 419-430.
WILSON, E. B.

1905. The Problem of Development. Science, N. S., Vol.

XXI, pp. 281-294.
SHERRINGTON, C. S.

1906. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, pp.

411. New York.

The activity of the nervous system is viewed as a
regulatory process.

The similar responses to diverse stimuli or the
similar results produced by diverse causes are the
conditions which make an analysis and the isolation
of causes necessary. With departures from the nor-
mal and optimum into zones of stimulation and of
unfavorable conditions many similar effects or results
are produced. The similar results of extremes of
high and low temperature as shown in Fischer's
experiments on Lepidoptera, and the effects of high
temperatures, aridity, and the lack of oxygen may
be cited as examples. Such effects have an im-
portant bearing upon the subject of physical and
chemical limiting factors which influence individuals,
* aggregations, and associations.

BLACKMAN, F. F.

1905. Optima and Limiting Factors. Ann. of Bot., Vol.

XIX, pp. 281-295.

"When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a
number of separate factors, the rate of the process
is limited by the pace of the 'slowest' factor." p. 289.

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 99

1908. The Manifestations of the Principles of Chemical
Mechanics in the Living Plant. British Assoc.
Adv. Sci., 1908, pp. 1-18.
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1904. On the Analogy Between the Departure from Optimum

Vital Conditions and Departure from Geographic
Life Centers. Science, N. S., Vol. XIX, pp. 210-
211.
GREELEY, A. W.

1901. On the Analogy Between the Effects of Loss of Water

and Lowering of Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol.,
Vol. VI, pp. 122-128.

ZOETHOUT, W. D.

1899. On Some Analogies Between the Physiological Effects
of High Temperature, Lack of Oxygen, and Certain
Poisons. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. II, pp. 220-242.
LYON, E. P.

1902. Effects of Potassium Cyanide and of Lack of Oxygen

upon the Fertilized Eggs and the Embryos of the
Sea-TJrchin (Arbacia punctulata). Amer. Jour.
Physiol., Vol. VII, pp. 56-75.
PACKARD, W. H.

1905. On Resistance to Lack of Oxygen and on a Method of

Increasing this Resistance. Amer. Jour. Physiol.,
Vol. XV, pp. 30-41.

1907. The Effect of Carbohydrates on Resistance to Lack of
Oxygen. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XVIII, pp.
164-180.

FISCHER, E.

1903. Lepidopterologische Experimental-Forschungen. III.

Allgem. Zeit. fur Entomologie, Bd. VIII, pp. 221-
228.

These experiments illustrate in a very striking manner
how abnormally high and low temperatures produce
the same kind of effect or response.

100 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers

(Alphabetically arranged)
CLESSIN, S.

1897. Tiber den Einfluss der Umgebung auf die Gehause der

Schnecken. Wurttemberg naturw. Jahreshefte 53,
pp. 68-86.

COLTON, H. S.

1908. Some Effects of Environment on the Growth of Lym-

naea columella Say. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.,
1908, pp. 410-448.
KELLER, C.

1887. Humusbildung und Bodenkultur unter dem Einfluss

tierischer Thatigkeit.
Not seen.
KNAUTHE, K.

1898. Zur Kenntnis des Stoffwechsels der Fische. Archiv

f. d. gesammte Physiol. (Pfluger), Bd. LXXIH,
pp. 490-500.
LANG, A.

1888. Uber den Einfluss der festsitzenden Lebensweise auf

die Thiere und liber den Ursprung der unge-
schlichtlichen Fortpflanzung durch Theilung und
Knuspuug. pp. 166. Jena.

LOCARD, A.

1892. L'Influence des Milieux sur le Developpement des Mol-

lusques. pp. 140. Lyon.
MARSHALL, F. H.

1910. The Physiology of Reproduction, pp. 706. London.
MILLER, N.

1909. The American Toad (Bufo lentiginosus americanus

Le Conte). Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIII, pp. 641-668,
730-745.

A study of the natural history of a single species.
RIDDLE, O.

1909. The Rate of Digestion in Cold-Blooded Vertebrates,

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 101

— The Influence of Season and Temperature. Amer.
Jour. Physiol., Vol. XXIV, pp. 447-458.

RUSSELL, E. S.

1908. Environmental Studies on the Limpet. Proc. Zool.
Soc., London, 1907, pp. 856-870.

SCHIEMENZ, P.

1911. Vergleichung der Fruchtbarkeit von Seen und Flussen.
Aus deutscher Fischerei. pp. 75-82. Neudamm.
A comparison of the relative productivity of fish in
standing and running water environments.

SHELFORD, V. E.

1911. Physiological Animal Geography. Jour. Morph., Vol

XXII, pp. 551-618.

An important paper. Explains the habitats and
distribution of animals as due to physiological
responses and characters. The dynamic and genetic
standpoint of the present writer (p. 555) is er-
roneously contrasted with a physiological process.
The dynamic includes all processes, the physiologic
process is a species of this genus. The genetic is
the application of processes to explain origins. The
responsive and functional processes are dynamic in
character.

1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological

Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.
Further studies along the lines of the preceding paper.

VIBE, A.

1896. Modifications Produced in the Organs of Sense and
of Nutrition in Certain Arthropods by Confinement
in Caves. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), Vol. XVII, pp.
407-408.

VOSSELEB, J.

1902. liber Anpassung und chemische Vertheidigungs mittel
bei nordafrikanischen Orthopteren. Verh. Deutsch.
Zool. Gesell. 1902, pp. 108-120.

102 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

1902-1903. Beitrage zur Faunistik und Biologic der Orthop-
teren Algeriens und Tunesiens. Zool. Jahrb. Ab-
teilung f. Syst. Geog. u. Biol. der Tiere, Bd. XVI,
pp. 337-404 ; Bd. XVII, pp. 1-98.

3. Animal Behavior as a Process

"The actual method of work is to first watch the organism
under its natural environment, until one finds out all things it
does. Then the environment is changed a little, to see what
difference this makes in the behavior. We thus try all sorts of
different ways of getting the animal to change its behavior, —
including the application of definite chemical and physical
reagents of most varied character. . . . We thus try to find the
organism's system of behavior and the things that influence it, —
becoming acquainted with the creature as we might get acquainted
with a person with whom we are thrown much in contact."

— H. S. JENNINGS (1910).

"My object being the study of the correlative instincts
of the young and adult in relation to all that could be learned
about them in a natural environment, I have followed my usual
custom of going out to the birds, instead of taking them into the
laboratory. The facts which the laboratory can be made to
yield are invaluable, but they belong to a different class from
those for which we are now mainly in search, behavior under the
usual or normal conditions." — F. H. HERRICK (1910).

"As will be seen, these studies include both field and labora-
tory work, especially of the American species, and I have made
the field work emphatic wherever at all practicable. I have
elsewhere (1909, p. 157) [Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. VII] emphasized
the crying need for larger attention to this phase of experimental
work, believing that in many cases it is all but impossible to
secure trustworthy results as to behavior of animals where the
work has been done under such unusual, unnatural and artificial
conditions as most laboratory provisions afford. What right

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 103

has one to assume that the actions of an animal taken rudely
from its natural habitat and as rudely imprisoned in some im-
provised cage are in any scientific sense an expression of its
normal behavior, either physical or psychical ? Is it within
the range of the calculus of probability that conclusions drawn
from observations made upon an animal in the shallow confines
of a finger-bowl, but whose habitat has been the open sea, are
wholly trustworthy ? It is no part of my purpose to discredit
the laboratory or laboratory appliances as related to such in-
vestigations. They are indispensable. But at the same time
let it be recognized that they are at best but artificial make-
shifts whose values, unless checked up by constant appeal to
nature, must be taken at something of discount. ... It
seems to the writer that until one has been able to place his
specimens under conditions approximating the natural, or
has at least brought them to a state of semi-domestication,
where in food-taking, evidence of health, etc., they are at ease,
he has small right to dogmatize as to conclusions, or presume
to make such conclusions the basis of so-called laws of behavior.
Not a little of recent investigation along the lines of behavior has
been vitiated at just this point, and must be repeated to be made
trustworthy. The amazing mass of contradictory results which
has loaded the literature of recent years is attributable to some
extent to this misfortune." — C. W. HARGITT (1912).

"We are apt to contrast the extremes of instinct and in-
telligence, to emphasize the blindness and inflexibility of the one
and the consciousness and freedom of the other. It is like con-
trasting the extremes of light and dark and forgetting all the
transitional degrees of twilight. . . . Instinct is blind; so
is the highest human wisdom blind. The distinction is one of
degree. There is no absolute blindness on the one side, and no
absolute wisdom on the other." — C. O. WHITMAN (1899).

The precedence here given to changes in behavior
is in harmony with the emphasis which is put upon

104 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

processes and genetic phases or sequences throughout
this book. As Holmes (1905, p. 108) has well pointed
out, behavior consists of relatively fixed and relatively
changeable responses, with intergradations. There are
thus two avenues of approach which he sums up as
follows (p. 112) : "In the trial and error method the
random character of the movement impresses us
most; in the tropisms, the element of direct deter-
mination by the environment. Both of these factors
run through the behavior of all animals, but they are
mingled in various proportions in different forms.
In the lives of most, if not all animals both are essen-
tial elements in the adjustment of the organism to
its conditions of existence." And in regard to those
responses which do not change in form with experience,
he says (p. 106) : "The element of spontaneous
undirected activity is one of vast if not essential
importance in the life of nearly all animals. The
simpler animals profit by their varied experience,
although they may not learn, and thus secure some
of the advantages which it is generally considered
the special function of intelligence to confer." Thus
to the ecologist studying the sequences of changes
in the environment, and changes in the organism, it is
but natural and consistent for him to apply the same
methods to behavior, in order to facilitate their
mutual relations and aid in their interpretation. In
a study of the environment we also have the relatively
stable elements and the relatively rapidly changing
ones, and any adequate understanding of animals
must correlate these four variables : two relatively

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 105

changing, one in the organism and one in the en-
vironment ; and two others relatively stable, one in
the organism and the other in the environment.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1905. The Method of Regulation in Behavior and in Other

Fields. Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. H, pp. 473-494.
HOLMES, S. J.

1905. The Selection of Random Movements as a Factor in
Photo taxis. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol.,
Vol. XV, pp. 98-112.
JENNINGS, H. S.

1905. Modifiability in Behavior. I. Behavior of Sea Anem-

ones. Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. II, pp. 447-472.

1906. Modifiability in Behavior, II. Factors Determining

Direction and Character of Movement in the Earth-
worm. Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. Ill, pp. 435-455.

1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.

1907. Behavior of the Starfish (Asterias Forreri De Loriol).

Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool., Vol. IV, pp. 53-185.
WALTER, H. E.

1907. The Reactions of Planarians to Light. Jour. Exp.

Zool., Vol. V, pp. 35-162.
YERKES, R. M.

1901 . The Formation of Habits in the Turtle. Pop. Sci. Mo.,

Vol. LVni, pp. 519-525.
PEARL, R.

1904. On the Behavior and Reactions of Limulus in Early
Stages of its Development. Jour. Comp. Neurol.
and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 138-164.
HADLEY, P. B.

1908. The Behavior of the Larval and Adolescent Stages of

the American Lobster (Homarus Americanus). Jour.
Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp.
199-301.

106 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

MATER, A. G., and SOULE, C. G.

1906. Some Reactions of Caterpillars and Moths. Jour.

Exp. Zool., Vol. m, pp. 415-433.
CKAIG, W.

1908. The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social
Control. Amer. Jour. Sociol., Vol. XIV, pp. 86-100.

HEKBICK, F. H.

1912. Organization of the Gull Community. Proc. Seventh
Inter. Zool. Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 156-158.

YERKES, A. W.

1906. Modifiability of Behavior in Hydroides Dianthus V.
Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp.
441-449.

YERKES, R. M., and HUGGINS, G. E.

1903. Habit Formation in the Crawfish, Cambarus af&nis.
Psychol. Rev. ; Series of Monog. Suppl., Vol. IV,
No. I; Harvard Psychol. Studies, Vol. I, pp.
565-577.
YERKES, R. M.

1905. Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic.
Jour. Phil., Psychol., and Sci. Methods, Vol. II,
pp. 141-149.

1905. Concerning the Genetic Relations of Types of Action.
Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp.
132-137.
ALLEE, W. C.

1912. An Experimental Analysis of the Relation between
Physiological States and Rheotaxis in Isopoda.
Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. XIII, pp. 269-344.
A study of the responses of pond and stream Isopods
to natural and experimental conditions.

WASHBURN, M. F.

1908. The Animal Mind. pp. 333. New York.

For modifications of behavior by experience see pp.
205-269. Also many references on behavior.

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 107

4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies

1911. [Reviews of papers on animal behavior for 1910.]

Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 393-455, 465-470.

Reviews by Holmes, Turner, Wheeler, Watson, and

Bohn.
JENNINGS, H. S.

1909. The Work of J. von Uexkuell on the Physiology of

Movements and Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol.
and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 313-336.

CONGDON, E. D.

1908. Recent Studies upon the Locomotor Responses of
Animals to White Light. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and
Psychol., Vol. XVHI, pp. 309-328.

MAST, S. O.

1910. Literature of the Past Year on the Behavior of Lower

Organisms. Psychol. Bull., Vol. VII, pp. 267-280.

1911. Recent Literature on the Behavior of the Lower In-

vertebrates. Psychol. Bull., Vol. VHI, pp. 263-277.

YERKES, R. M.

1906. George Bohn's Studies in Animal Behavior. Jour.
Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 231-238.

WASHBUBN, M. F.

1908. French Work in Comparative Psychology for the Past

Two Years. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol.,

Vol. XVm, pp. 511-520.
WASHBUBN, M. F. (Editor).

1912. Comparative Psychology Number. Psychol. Bull.,

Vol. IX, No. 8, pp. 281-313.
Reviews by Pearse, Turner, and Washburn.
COUES, E.

1877. Monograph of North American Rodentia. Rep. U. S.

Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden), VoL XL
Contains on pp. 255-264 and 951-1081 an extensive
bibliography of North American mammals, and in-
cludes much on their habits.

108 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior
(Alphabetically arranged)

ANDREWS, E. A.

1906. Egg-laying of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XL, pp.

343-356.

1904. Breeding Habits of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol.
^XVHI, pp. 165-206.

BAKER, F. C.

1911. Ecology of Lymnseas. pp. 19-51. Lymnseidse of North
and Middle America Recent and Fossil. Special
Pub. No. 3, Chicago Acad. Sciences.

BANTA, A. M.

1910. A Comparison of the Reactions of a Species of Surface
Isopod with those of a Subterranean Species. Jour.
Exp. Zool., Vol. VIII, Part I, Experiments with
Light, pp. 243-310 ; Part II, pp. 439-488.

BELDING, D. L., and LANE, F. C.

1909. The Shellfisheries of Massachusetts: their Present

Condition and Extent. Report upon the Mollusk
Fisheries of Massachusetts, pp. 16-233. Boston.
Contains some excellent photographs of the habitat.

1910. A Report upon the Scallop Fishery of Massachusetts,

including the Habits, Life History of Pecten irradians,
its Rate of Growth, and Other Facts of Economic
Value, pp. 150. Boston.

1911. The Life History and Growth of the Quahaug (Venus

mercenaria). Rep. Mass. Comm. Fisheries and
Game for 1910, pp. 18-128. Boston.
These papers are examples of applied ecology, and
contain much on the life histories and habits of these
mollusks.

BENDIRE, C.

1892. Life Histories of North American Birds with Special
7 Reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs, with

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 109

Twelve Lithographic Plates. Smithsonian Inst.,
Special Bull. No. 1. pp. 414.

1895. Life Histories of North American Birds, from the
' Parrots to the Grackles, with Special Reference to

their Breeding Habits and Eggs. Smithsonian
Inst., Special Bull. pp. 508.

BLACKWALL, J.

1873. Researches in Zoology. London.
Not seen by writer.

BOVING, A. G.

1910. Natural History of the Larvae of Donaciinse. Inter.
Revue der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Bd.
Ill, Biol. Suppl., Heft I, pp. 1-108.

BUTTEL-REEPEN, H. VON. (Trans, by M. H. GEISLER.)

1907. Are Bees Reflex Machines ? Experimental Contri-

bution to the Natural History of the Honey-bee,
pp. 48. Medina, Ohio.
CALKINS, M. W.

1905. The Limits of Genetic and of Comparative Psychology.
Jour, of Psychol., Vol. I, pp. 261-285 ; Inter. Cong,
of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. V, pp. 712-734.

CARPENTER, F. W.

1908. Some Reactions of Drosophila, with Special Reference

to Convulsive Reflexes. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and
Psych., Vol. XVIII, pp. 483-491.

1910. Feeding Reactions of the Rose Coral (Isophyllia).

Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XL VI,
pp. 149-162.
CASTEEL, D. B.

1911. The Discriminative Ability of the Painted Turtle.

Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 1-28.
CLARKE, W. E.

1912. Studies in Bird Migration. Vol. I, pp. 323 ; Vol. II,

pp. 346. London.
Bird migration may be studied as a response of the

110 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

animals to the conditions of their life, and the above
work is a good example of the best kind of work being
done along this line.
COLE, L. J.

1907. An Experimental Study of the Image-Forming Powers
of Various Types of Eyes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts
and Sci., Vol XLH, pp. 335-417.
A study of worms, insects, sow bug, snail, slug, and

frogs.
1913. Direction of Locomotion of the Starfish (Asterias

Forbesi). Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. XIV, pp. 1-32.
COLE, L. W.

1907. Concerning the Intelligence of Raccoons. Jour. Comp.

Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 211-261.
1912. Observations on the Senses and Instincts of the Rac-
coon. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. II, -pp. 299-309.

COLE, L. W., and LONG, F. M.

1909. Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. Jour. Comp.
Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 657-683.

COLTON, H. S.

1908. How Fulgur and Sycotypus Eat Oysters, Mussels and

Clams. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp.
3-10.

COKER, R. E.

1906. The Natural History and Cultivation of the Diamond-
Back Terrapin with Notes on other Forms of Turtles.
Bull. No. 14, N. Carolina Geol. Survey, pp. 1-67.

CRAIG, W.

1909. The Expressions of Emotion in the Pigeons. I. The

Blond Ring-Dove (Turtor risorius). Jour. Comp.
Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 30-80.

DAWSON, J.

1911. The Biology of Physa. Behavior Monographs, Vol.

I, No. 4, pp. 1-120.
Behavior is related to the natural environment.

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 111

DAVIS, H. B.

1907. The Raccoon : A Study in Animal Intelligence. Amer.

Jour. PsychoL, Vol. XVIH, pp. 447-489.
DEAN, B.

1892. The Physical and Biological Characteristics of the
f Natural Oyster Grounds of South Carolina. Bull.

U. S. Fish Comm. for 1890, Vol. X, pp. 335-361.
Contains good illustrations of the oyster habitat.
DIMON, A. C.

1905. The Mud Snail : Nassa obsoleta. Cold Spring Har-
bor, Monogr. V. pp. 48.
A behavior study of a marine snail.
EMBODY, G. C.

1912. A Preliminary Study of the Distribution, Food, and
Reproductive Capacity of Some Fresh-water Am-
phipods. Inter. Revue, der gesamten Hydrobiol.
u. Hydrog., Biol. Suppl. HI. Serie, Heft 2, pp.
1-33.
ENTEMAN, M. M.

1902. Some Observations on the Behavior of Social Wasps.

Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. XLI, pp. 339-351.
FABRE, J. H. (Translated.)

1901. Insect Life. Souvenirs of a Naturalist, pp. 320.

London.
FABRE, J. H. (Trans, by MIALL, B.)

1912. Social Life in the Insect World, pp. 327. London.
FLORENTIN, R.

1899. Etudes sur la Faune des Mares Salees de Lorraine.
Ann. des Sci. Nat. Zool. (8e S.), Tome X, pp. 209-
350.

FOREL, A. (Trans, by WHEELER, W. M.)

1904. Ants and Some Other Insects. Religion of Sci. Lib-
rary No. 56. pp. 49. Chicago.
FOREL, A. (Trans, by YEARSLEY, M.)

1908. The Senses of Insects, pp. 324. London.

112 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

GILL, T.

1909. Contributions to the Life Histories of Fishes. Vol. I,

1904-1907. Smithsonian Institution, No. 1858.
A collection of reprints on the natural history of fishes,

including much on their habits.
GRAVE, C.

1904. Investigations for the Promotion of the Oyster Indus-
' try of North Carolina. Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. for

1903, pp. 247-341.

On pp. 261-264 the growth or development of an oyster
reef is described. This illustrates ecological suc-
cession on a reef. The food and the influence of
storms are described.

GROOS, K. (Trans, by BALDWIN, E. L.)

1898. The Play of Animals, pp. 341. New York.

GURLEY, R. R.

1902. The Habits of Fishes. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol.

XHI, pp. 408-425.

An important and apparently little known paper which
explains the spawning habits of fish and their dis-
tribution in terms of their physiological responses.
Compare with Shelford's Physiological Animal
Geography. 1911.

HAHN, W.

1908. Some Habits and Sensory Adaptations of Cave-

inhabiting Bats. Biol. Bull., Vol. XV, pp. 135-193.

HARGITT, C. W.

1906. Experiments on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids.
Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. m, pp. 295-320.

1909. Further Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous

Annelids. Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. VII, pp. 157-187.
1912. Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids,

HI. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXII, pp. 67-94.
1912. Behavior and Color Changes of Tree Frogs. Jour.

Animal Behavior, Vol. II, pp. 51-78.

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 113

HABRIS, J. A.

1903. An Ecological Catalogue of the Crayfishes belonging
to the Genus Cambarus. Kan. Univ. Sci. Bull.,
Vol. II, pp. 51-187.

Habits and distribution of crawfish. Very useful
references to the stream environment and to craw-
fish.
HARTMAN, C.

1905. Observations on the Habits of Some Solitary Wasps

of Texas. Univ. of Texas Bull. No. 65, Sci. Ser.
No. 6, pp. 1-72.

HERRICK, C. J.

1903. The Organ and Sense of Taste in Fishes. Bull. U. S.
* Fish Comm. for 1902, Vol. XXII, pp. 237-272.

HERRICK, F. H.

1910. Instinct and Intelligence in Birds. Pop. Sci. Mo.,
Vol. LXXVI, pp. 532-556; Vol. LXXVH, pp.
82-97, 122-141.

1910. Life and Behavior of the Cuckoo. Jour. Exp. Zool.,

Vol. IX, pp. 169-233.
Illustrates the orderly sequence of forms of behavior.

1911. Natural History of the American Lobster. Bull.

U. S. Bur. Fisheries, Vol. XXIX, pp. 149-408.
Doc. No. 747.

HODGE, C. F.

1894. The Methods of Homing Pigeons. Pop. Sci. Mo.,
Vol. XIV, pp. 758-775.

HOLMES, S. J.

1901. Observations on the Habits and Natural History of
Amphithoe longimana Smith. Biol. Bull., Vol. II,
pp. 165-193.

1906. Death-Feigning in Ranatra. Jour. Comp. Neurol.

and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 200-216.
1908. The Instinct of Feigning Death. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol.

LXXn, pp. 179-185.
i

114 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

1911. The Evolution of Animal Intelligence, pp. 296.

New York.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1910. Diverse Ideals and Divergent Conclusions in the Study
of Behavior in Lower Organisms. Amer. Jour.
Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp. 349-370.
Valuable for its discussion of points of view in the
study of behavior.

KELLOGG, J. L.

1900. Observations on the Life-History of the Common Clam,
Mya Arenaria. Bull. U. S. Fish and Fisheries
Comm. for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 193-202.

1903. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus Mercenaria.

Bull. 71, N. Y. State Museum, pp. 27. Albany.

1904. Conditions Governing Existence and Growth of the
' Soft Clam (Mya Arenaria). Rep. U. S. Comm.

Fish and Fisheries for 1903, pp. 195-224.
A suggestive paper.

1905. Notes on Marine Food Mollusks of Louisiana. Bull.

No. 3, Gulf Biologic Station, pp. 43. Baton
Rouge.

All of these papers by Kellogg are careful studies of
the relation of animals to their environment. They
also show the intimate relation of ecology to economic
problems. Biological surveys intended for economic
results should be ecological in their method.
1910. Shell-Fish Industries, pp. 361. New York, Henry
Holt and Co.

A popular summary of the marine shell-fish industries
of the American coast, from the standpoint of their
biology, culture, and utilization. The oyster, hard
and soft clams, and scallops are considered. The
following subjects deserve mention : ciliary action,
feeding reflexes, function of mucus, and food.

LEFEVRE, G., and CURTIS, W. C.

1912. Studies on the Reproduction and Artificial Propaga-

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 115

tion of Fresh-water Mussels. U. S. Bur. Fisheries
for 1910, Bull. Vol. XXX, pp. 105-201.
LYON, E. P.

1904. On Rheotropism. I. Rheotropism in Fishes. Amer.

Jour. Physiol., Vol. XII, pp. 149-161.
MAST, S. O.

1911. Light and the Behavior of Organisms, pp.410. New

York.

An elaborate treatise on reactions to light.
MEAD, A. D.

1900. The Natural History of the Star-fish. U. S. Fish

Comm. Bull, for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 203-224.
MICHAEL, E.

1911. Classification and Vertical Distribution of the Chsetog-
natha of the San Diego Region. Univ. of Calif.
Pub. Zool., Vol. VIII, pp. 21-186.
The distribution is studied as a response to the condi-
tions of life, and the optima are determined.
MILLS, W.

1898. The Nature and Development of Animal Intelligence.

pp. 307. New York.

Valuable account of the habits of squirrels. Obser-
vations on hibernation, and on the psychic develop-
ment of the young of some of the domestic animals.
MONTGOMERY, T. H.

1903. Studies on the Habits of Spiders, particularly those of
the Mating Period. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.,
1903, pp. 59-149.
Contains a valuable bibliography.
1908. Further Studies on the Activities of Araneads. Amer.

Nat., Vol. XLH, pp. 697-709.
1910. Further Studies on the Activities of Araneads, II.

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1909, pp. 548-569.
1910. The Significance of the Courtship and Secondary Sexual
Characters of Araneads. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIV,
pp. 151-177.

116 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

NEWMAN, H. H.

1906. The Habits of Certain Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neurol.

and PsychoL, Vol. XVI, pp. 126-152.
NEWMAN, H. H., and PATTERSON, J. T.

1909. Field Studies of the Behavior of the Lizard, Sceloporus

Spinosus Floridanus. Bull. Univ. of Texas, No. 137,

pp. 1-24.
ORTMANN, A. E.

1905. The Crawfishes of the State of Pennsylvania. Mem.

Carnegie Mus., Vol. II, pp. 343-523.
Habits and habitats of crawfish.
PARKER, G. H.

1903. The Phototropism of the Mourning-cloak Butterfly,

Vanessa Antiopa Linn. Mark Anniversary Volume,

pp. 453-469. New York.
1903. The Sense of Hearing in Fishes. Amer. Nat., Vol.

XXXVII, pp. 185-204.
1905. The Functions of the Lateral-Line Organs of Fishes.

U. S. Bur. Fisheries, Bull. Vol. XXIV, pp. 185-207.
1908. The Sensory Reactions of Amphioxus. Proc. Amer.

Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLHI, pp. 415-455.

1910. The Reactions of Sponges, with a Consideration of the

Origin of the Nervous System. Jour. Exp. Zool.,
Vol. VIII, pp. 1-41.
PEARL, R.

1903. The Movements and Reactions of Fresh Water Plan-
arians. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., Vol. XLVI, pp.
509-714.
A good example of a very detailed study of behavior

of a lower animal.
PEARSE, A. S.

1910. The Reactions of Amphibians to Light. Proc. Amer.

Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLV, pp. 161-208.
PECKHAM, G. W. and E. G.

1898. On the Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps.
Bull. No. 2, Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. pp. 245.

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 117

1905. Wasps, Social and Solitary, pp. 311. Boston and

New York.

A revised and enlarged edition of the preceding ref-
erence.

PlEBSOL, W. H.

1909. The Habits and Larval State of Plethodon cinereua

erythronotus. Trans. Canadian Inst., Vol. VIII,
pp. 469-493.
Contains a useful list of references on Amphibians.

PORTER, J. P.

1904. A Preliminary Study of the Psychology of the English
Sparrow. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 313-
346.

1906. The Habits, Instincts and Mental Powers of Spiders,

Genera Argiope and Epeira. Amer. Jour. Psychol.,
Vol. XVII, pp. 306-357.

1906. Further Study of the English Sparrow and Other
Birds. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp.
248-271.

Includes the Vesper Sparrow, Cowbird, Common
Pigeon, Passenger Pigeon, and Red-headed Wood-
pecker.

1910. Intelligence and Imitation in Birds, a Criterion of

Imitation. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp.
1-71.

Studies of English Sparrow, Cowbird, Snowbird, White-
throated Sparrow, Field Sparrow, Bluebird, White-
crowned Sparrow, Fox, Song and Tree Sparrows,
Blue Jay, Baltimore Oriole, and Crows.

POULTON, E. B.

1896. On the Courtship of Certain Acridiidse. Trans. Ent.
Soc. London, pp. 233-252.

REIGHARD, J.

1903. The Natural History of Amia calva Linnaeus. Mark
Anniversary Volume, pp. 57-109.

118 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

REYNAUD, G.

1900. The Laws of Orientation Among Animals. Smith-
sonian Report for 1898, pp. 481-498.

RILEY, C. F. C.

1912. Observations on the Ecology of the Dragon-Fly

Nymphs: Reactions to Light and Contact. Ann.
Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. V, pp. 273-292.

SCHEFFEB, T. H.

1905. The Cocooning Habits of Spiders. Kans. Univ. Sci.

Bull., Vol. Ill, pp. 85-114.
SEITZ, A.

1891. Allgemeine Biologie der Schmetterlinge. Zool. Jahrb.,

Abth. Syst. Geog. Biol. der Thiere, Bd. V, pp. 281-

343.

SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON.

1909. Life Histories of Northern Animals. Vol. I, pp. 673,

and Vol. H, pp. 677-1267. New York.
Valuable for life histories and habits. Extensive
bibliography.

SEVEBIN, H. H. P. and H. C.

1911. An Experimental Study on the Death-Feigning of

Belostoma (= Zaitha Aucct.) flumineum Say and

Nepa apiculata Uhler. Behavior Monographs, Vol.

I, No. 3, pp. 1-44.
SHELFOBD, V. E.

1908. Life-Histories and Larval Habits of the Tiger Beetles

(Cicindelidoe}. Jour. Linn. Soc. Zool., Vol. XXX,

pp. 157-184.
SHELFOBD, V. E., and ALLEE, W. C.

1913. The Reactions of Fishes to Gradients of Dissolved

Atmospheric Gases. Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. XIV,
pp. 207-266.

The reaction of fish to oxygen and carbonic acid;
the latter is considered the best single index to the
environment.

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 119

SIMPSON, C. T.

1899. The Pearly Fresh-water Mussels of the United States ;
' their Habits, Enemies, and Diseases ; with Sugges-

tions for their Protection. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull,
for 1898, Vol. XVIH, pp. 279-288.

SLADEN, F. W. L.

1912. The Humble-Bee, its Life-History and how to Domesti-
cate it. pp. 283. London.

A very valuable account of the British species, with
numerous suggestions on methods of studying them.

SMALLWOOD, M. E.

1903. The Beach Flea : Talorchestia longicornis. Cold

Spring Harbor Monogr. I. pp. 27.

1905. The Salt-Marsh Amphipod : Orchestia palustris. Cold

Spring Harbor Monogr. III. pp. 21.
Both of these papers discuss habits and life histories.
SMITH, B. G.

1907. The Life History and Habits of Cryptobranchus Alle-

gheniensis. Biol. Bull., Vol. XIII, pp. 5-39.
Contains references to other salamanders.
STOCKARD, C. R.

1908. Habits, Reactions, and Mating Instincts of the "Walk-

ing Stick," Aplopus Mayeri. Carnegie Inst. Pub.
No. 103, pp. 43-59.
TOWER, W. L.

1906. Habits and Instincts in Leptinotarsa. pp. 229-257.

In An Investigation of Evolution in Chrysomelid
Beetles of the Genus Leptinotarsa, Carnegie Inst.
Pub. No. 8. Washington, D.C.

TUTT, J. W.

1897. The Drinking Habits of Butterflies and Moths. Proc.
South London Ent. and Nat. Hist. Soc., 1897, pp.
[1-9].

VOIGT, W.

1904. tJber die Wanderungen der Strudelwiirmer in unseren

120 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

Gebirgsbachen. Verhand. naturhis. Ver. der preuss.
Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Regiersungsbezirks
Osnabriick, Jahrg. 61, pp. 103-178.
Shows the relation of behavior to the local distribu-
tions of Planarians.
WAGNER, W.

1907. Psycho-biologische Untersuchungen an Hummeln mit

Bezugnahme auf die Frage der Geselligkeit im Tier-
reich. Zoologica (Chun), Bd. XIX, Heft 46, pp.
1-239.

An important study of the behavior of Bombus.
WALTER, H. E.

1906. The Behavior of the Pond Snail, Lymrwus Eleodes

Say. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. VI. pp. 35.
WASMANN, E. (Trans.)

1903. Instinct and Intelligence in the Animal Kingdom. A
Critical Contribution to Modern Animal Psychology,
pp. 171. St. Louis, Mo. From the second and
enlarged German edition.

1905. Comparative Studies in the Psychology of Ants and of
Higher Animals, pp. 200. St. Louis, Mo. Trans-
lated from the revised and enlarged second German
edition.
WATSON, J. B.

1908. The Behavior of Noddy and Sooty Terns. Pub. 103,

Carnegie Inst. pp. 187-255.

An excellent account of bird behavior in colonial species.
WHEELER, W. M.

1903. Ethological Observations on an American Ant (Lepto-
thorax Emersoni Wheeler). Jour, fur Psychol. und
Neurol., Bd. II, pp. (1-31).
1910. Ants, their Structure, Development and Behavior, pp.

663. New York.

The most useful single work on ants, ant behavior,
slaves, commensals, etc. ; a very important work.
Extensive references.

LAWS OF INTERNAL CHANGE 121

WHITMAN, C. O.

1899. Animal Behavior. Biol. Lectures, Marine Biol. Lab.,

Wood's Holl, 1898, pp. 285-338.
Behavior of leech, Necturus, birds, etc.

WlCKHAM, H. F.

1899. The Habits of American Cicindelidse. Proc. Daven-
port Acad. Sci., Vol. VII, pp. 206-228.

YERKES, R. M.

1904. Space Perception of Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neurol.
and Psychol., Vol. XTV, pp. 17-26.

YOAKUM, C. S.

1909. Some Experiments upon the Behavior of Squirrels.
Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp.
541-568.

IX. THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUST-
MENT BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENT
AND THE ANIMAL, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO OTHER ORGANISMS

THE DYNAMIC OK PROCESS RELATION OF ANIMAL ASSOCIA-
TIONS AND AGGREGATIONS

1. The Struggle for Existence.

2. The Dynamic Relations of Aggregations and Associations,

with Special Reference to Animal Associations.

a. The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to Plant

Galls.

b. Subterranean and Cave Associations.

c. Selected References on Aggregations and Associations.

"Nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the
universal struggle for life, or more difficult — at least I have
found it so — than constantly to bear this conclusion in mind.
Yet unless it be thoroughly engrained in the mind, the whole
economy of nature, with every fact on distribution, rarity, abun-
dance, extinction, and variation, will be dimly seen or quite
misunderstood." — DARWIN.

"Every reflective biologist must know that no living being is
self-sufficient, or would be what it is, or be at all, if it were not
part of the natural world, although no truth is easier to lose sight
of. Living things are real things, . . . but their reality is in
their interrelations with the rest of nature, and not in them-
selves."—W. K. BROOKS. (1906.)

122

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 123

1. The Struggle for Existence

DARWIN, CHAS.

1876. Struggle for Existence, pp. 43-61. In On the Origin
of Species, 6th ed. New York. (See Figures 2 and
3.)
BROOKS, W. K.

1893. Salpa in its Relation to the Evolution of Life. Studies
Biol. Lab., Johns Hopkins Univ., Vol. V, pp. 129-
211. See particularly pp. 129-170.
A remarkable and little known paper on the struggle

for existence in the sea.
FORBES, S. A.

1887. The Lake as a Microcosm. Bull. Sci. Assoc. of Peoria,

Illinois, 1887, pp. 77-87. Reprinted, with revisions,
as from the Bull. Peoria Sci. Association, 1887,
pp. 1-15.

An excellent picture of the struggle for existence in a
lake, where the life is considered as a microcosm or
social community.

1880. On Some Interactions of Organisms. Bull. HI. State
Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 1-18. Second
Edition. 1903.

1882. The Ornithological Balance- Wheel. Trans. HI. State

Hort. Soc. for 1881, N. S., Vol. XV, pp. 120-131.

1883. The Regulative Action of Birds upon Insect Oscilla-

tions. Bull. HI. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 6,
pp. 3-32.

These three papers are very important for their dis-
cussion of the dynamic character of the struggle
among organisms, and how the balance of nature is
maintained.

1888. On the Food Relations of Fresh- Water Fishes: a

Summary and Discussion. Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat.
Hist., Vol. H, pp. 475-538.

A summary of the food of fishes, based upon a detailed
study of the contents of their stomachs.

124 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

RODWAY, J.

1911. In the Guiana Forest, Studies of Nature in Relation
to the Struggle for Life. Second Edition, pp. 326.
London.

A graphic account of the biotic competition in the
tropics.

JOHNSTONE, J.

1908. Conditions of Life in the Sea. pp. 332. Cambridge,

England.

An excellent study of the recent quantitative investi-
gations of marine life.

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich.

Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 121-154.
Ecological succession is discussed from the process
standpoint. References to literature on birds.

FORBUSH, E. H.

1899. Nature's Foresters. Forty-sixth Ann. Rep. Sec.

Mass. State Board Agr. for 1898, pp. 279-294.
1901. Birds as Protectors of Woodlands. Forty-eighth Ann.

Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board Agr. for 1900, pp.

300-321.

1904. The Destruction of Birds by the Elements in 1903-

1904. Fifty-first Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board
Agr. for 1903, pp. 457-503.

1905. Special Report on the Decrease of Certain Birds, and

its Causes, with Suggestions for Bird Protection.
Fifty-Second Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board
Agr. for 1904, pp. 429-543.

PALMER, T. S.

1898. The Danger of Introducing Noxious Animals and
/ Birds. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. for 1898, pp.

87-110.

RYDER, J. A.

1892. A Geometrical Representation of the Relative Inten-

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 125

sity of the Conflict between Organisms. Amer.
Nat., Vol. XXVI, pp. 923-929.

McATEE, W. L.

1912. The Experimental Method of Testing the Efficiency
of Warning and Cryptic Coloration in Protecting
Animals from their Enemies. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Phila., 1912, pp. 281-364.
JTTDD, S. D.

1899. The Efficiency of Some Protective Adaptations in
Securing Insects from Birds. Amer. Nat., Vol.
XXXIII, pp. 461-484.
1902. The Birds of a Maryland Farm. U. S. Dept. Agr.,

Div. Biol. Surv., Bull. No. 17. pp. 116.
A study in applied ecology. One of the best detailed
studies of the birds of a small tract of land and their
ecological relations.
STAHL, E.

1888. Pflanzen und Schnecken. Biologische Studie liber die
Schutzmittel der Pflanzen gegen Schneckenfrass.
Jena. Zeitschr. fur Naturwiss. herausgegeben von
der med.-naturwiss. Gesell. zu Jena, Bd. XXII,
pp. 557-684.

A study of the means by which plants are protected ( ?)
from snails and slugs. Numerous feeding experi-
ments.
DAHL, F.

1908. Die Lycosiden oder Wolfspinnen Deutschlands und
ihre Stellung im Haushalte der Natur. Nova
Acta der Ksl. Leop.-Carol.-Deutschen Akad. der
Naturf., Bd. LXXXVII, pp. 175-678. Halle.
Not seen by writer. Mr. J. H. Emerton writes that
this paper "gives tables of comparative collecting
in all kinds of country."
PIERCE, W. D., CUSHMAN, R. A., and HOOD, C. E.

1912. The Insect Enemies of the Cotton Boll Weevil. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bull. No. 100. pp. 99.

126 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

An excellent example of the character of the competi-
tion with which an animal meets when extending
its range into new territory. See diagram, p. 44.

WHEELER, W. M.

1906. An Ethological Study of Certain Maladjustments in

the Relations of Ants to Plants. Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist., Vol. XXH, pp. 403-418.
Competition between plants and ants.

MASSART, J., and VANDERVELDE, E. (Trans. W. MACDONALD.)

1907. Parasitism Organic and Social. Second Edition. Re-

vised by J. Arthur Thompson, pp. 124. London.
Contains many examples of responses to a parasitic
environment.

Selected References on the Struggle for Existence
(Alphabetically arranged)

BEAL, F. E. L.

1911. Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Surv., Bull. 37. pp. 64.

CHAPMAN, F. M.

1902. The Economic Value of Birds to the State. Seventh

Rep. N. Y. Forest, Fish, and Game Comm., 1901,
pp. 115-176. Reprint, pp. 66, 1903. Albany.
Contains an extensive list of papers on the food of birds.

ElCHELBAUM, E.

1910. Uber Nahrung und Ernahrungsorgane von Echinoder-

men. Wiss. Meeruntersuch, heraus. von der Komm.

zur wiss. Unter. der deutsch. Meere in Kiel. N. F.

Bd. XI, Abth. Kiel, pp. 187-275.
FORBES, S. A.

1883. The Food Relations of Predaceous Beetles. Twelfth

Rep. State Ent. 111., pp. 105-120.

1903. The Food of Birds. Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist.,

Second Edition, Vol. I, pp. 86-161.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 127

1903. Notes on Insectivorous Coleoptera. Bull. 111. State
Lab. Nat. Hist., Second Edition, Vol. I, pp. 167-176.

1883. The Food Relations of the Carabidae and Coccinellidse.
Bull. HI. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 6, pp.
33-64.

FORBUSH, E. H.

1907. Useful Birds and their Protection. Mass. State Board
Agr. pp. 437. Boston.

FOREL, A.

1896. Ants' Nests. Smithsonian Report for 1894, pp.

479-505.
Ants' nests, and symbiosis between plants and ants.

GAMBLE, F. W., and KEEBLE, F.

1903. The Bionomics of Convoluta roscoffensis with Special
Reference to its Green Cells. Quart. Jour. Micros.
Sci., Vol. XLVII, pp. 363-431.
A study of the ecology of a Turbellarian worm, its
food, habitat, and behavior.

HEIM.

1898. The Biologic Relations Between Plants and Ants.
Smithsonian Report for 1896, pp. 411-455.

HOPKINS, A. D.

1909. Insect Depredations in North American Forests
and Practical Methods of Prevention and Control.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bull. No. 58, pp.
57-101.

Contains many facts of much ecological value showing
the interrelations existing between forests and in-
sects. Good examples of insects as initiators of
successions and changes in insect associations.

HUBBARD, H. G.

1897. The Ambrosia Beetles of the United States. U. S.

Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 7, N. S., pp. 9-80.
The relations of bark beetles to fungi.

128 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

HUBER, J.

1907. The Founding of Colonies by Atta Sexdens. Smith-

sonian Report for 1906, pp. 355-372.
Ants and fungi.

JUDD, S. D.

1901. The Food of Nestling Birds. Yearbook U. S. Dept.

Agr. for 1900, pp. 411-436.

KEEBLE, F.

1910. Plant Animals, A Study of Symbiosis, pp.163. Cam-
bridge, England.

KIRBY, W., and SPENCE, W.

1859. An Introduction to Entomology ; or, Elements of the
Natural History of Insects : Comprising an Account
of Noxious and Useful Insects, of their Metamor-
phoses, Food, Stratagems, Habitations, Societies,
Motions, Noises, Hybernation, Instinct, Etc., Etc.
pp. 607. Seventh edition, London.

MARSHALL, G. A. K., and others.

1902. Five Years' Observations and Experiments (1896-

1901) on the Bionomics of South African Insects,
chiefly directed to the Investigation of Mimicry
and Warning Colours. Trans. Ent. Soc., London,
1902, pp. 287-584.
McAiEE, W. L.

1908. Food Habits of the Grosbeaks. U. S. Dept. Agr.,

Bur. Biol. Surv., Bull. 32. pp. 92.

1913. Index to Papers Relating to the Food of Birds by
Members of the Biological Survey in Publications
of the United States Department of Agriculture,
1885-1911. U. S. Dept. Agr., Biol. Surv., Bull.
No. 43. pp. 69.

The Bureau of Biological Survey, and its predecessor,
the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, have
published in the Annual Reports and in numerous
bulletins elaborate studies of the foods and habits
of birds and mammals.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 129

RAUSCHENPLAT, E.

1901. Ueber die Nahrung von Thieren aus der Kieler Bucht.
Wiss. Meeruntersuch. heraus. von der Komm. zur
wiss. Unter. der deutsch. Meere in Kiel. N. F. Bd.
V, Abth. Kiel, pp. 85-151.

RlLEY, C. V.

1893. Parasitism in Insects. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. II,

pp. 397^-31.
STILES, C. W.

1893. Parasitism. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. HI, pp. 1-7.
STILES, C. W., and HASSALL, A.

1902 . Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zool-
ogy. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Animal Industry, Bull.
No. 39, Parts 1-36 (1912).

1908, 1912. Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary
Zoology. Subjects : Trematoda and trematode
diseases, Bull. No. 37, pp. 401, 1908. — Subjects :
Cestoda and Cestodaria, Bull. No. 85. pp. 467, 1912.
Hyg. Lab., U. S. Pub. Health and Mar.-Hosp.
Serv., Washington.

These extensive bibliographies are very useful.
SURFACE, H. A.

1906. The Serpents of Pennsylvania. Penn. Dept. Agr.,

Monthly Bull., Vol. IV, pp. 113-208.
Observations on food of serpents.
1908. First Report on the Lizards of Pennsylvania. Penn.

Dept. Agr., Zool. Bull., Vol. V, pp. 233-264.
Food of lizards.

1908. First Report on the Economy of Pennsylvania Turtles.
Penn. Dept. Agr., Zool. Bull., Vol. VI, pp. 107-195.
Many observations on food.
WARD, H. B.

1910. Internal Parasites of the Sebago Salmon. U. S. Bur.

Fisheries, Bull., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1151-1194.
"The parasitic fauna of any animal is primarily a

function of its habitat." p. 1191.
K

130 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

1912. The Influence of Hibernation and Migration on Animal
Parasites. Proc. Seventh Inter. Zool. Cong., Boston,
1907, pp. 673-684.

WASMANN, E.

1894. Kritisches Verzeichniss der Myrmekophilen und Termi-

tophilen Arthropoden. pp. 231. Berlin.
A list of Arthropods found living with ants and termites.

WEBSTER, F. M.

1903. Notes upon the Food of Predaceous Beetles. Bull. 111.
State Lab. Nat. Hist., Second Edition, Vol. I, pp.
162-166.

WEED, C. M., and DEARBORN, N.

1903. Birds in their Relations to Man. pp. 380. Phila.
Extensive bibliography on the food of birds.

WHEELER, W. M.

1911. Insect Parasitism and its Peculiarities. Pop. Sci.

Mo., Vol. LXXIX, pp. 431-449.
1910. The Effects of Parasitic and Other Kinds of Castration

in Insects. Jour. Exp. Zool., Vol. VIH, pp. 377-

438.

ZACHARIAS, O., and others.

1891. Die Tier- und Pflanzenwelt des Siisswassers. Bd. I,

pp. 380 ; Bd. II, pp. 369. Leipzig.
Contains several valuable and suggestive papers on
the general biological relations of fresh-water plants
and animals.

2. The Dynamic Relations of Aggregations and Associations, with
Special Reference to Animal Associations

"A group or association of animals or plants is like a single
organism in the fact that it brings to bear upon the outer world
only the surplus of forces remaining after all conflicts interior
to itself have been adjusted. Whatever expenditure of energy
is necessary to maintain the existing internal balance amounts

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 131

to so much power locked up, and rendered unavailable for
external use. In many groups this latent energy is so considerable
and is liable to such fluctuations, that a knowledge of its amounts
and kinds, and of the laws governing its distribution, is extremely
important to one interested in measuring or foreseeing the sum
and character of the outward-tending activities of the class."

— S. A. FORBES (1883).

MOBIUS, K.

1883. The Oyster and Oyster-Culture. U. S. Comm. of
Fish and Fisheries, Report of Comm. for 1880,
Part VIII, pp. 683-751.

On pp. 721-729 the oyster is discussed as a member
of a social community or "bioconosis." He de-
scribes the succession of animals due to the overfishing
of the oyster beds and the invasion of cockles and
edible mussels which close up the available space
and prevent the return of the oyster. One of the
earliest papers to recognize clearly a social com-
munity in animals. A very important paper, which
also shows the method of applying the science of
ecology.

FORBES, S. A.

1887. The Lake as a Microcosm. Reprint from Bull. Sci.

Associa. of Peoria, Illinois, 1887, pp. 1-15.
Perhaps the first paper by an American naturalist rec-
ognizing the interrelations of the social community.

WHEELER, W. M.

1911. The Ant-Colony as an Organism. Jour. Morphology,

Vol. XXII, pp. 307-325.

The ant colony is considered as a unit. This paper
furnishes an excellent example showing how "indi-
vidual ecology" may become transformed into an
"associational" unit.

MOBIUS, K.

1893. Ueber die Thiere der Schleswig-Holsteinischen Aus-

132 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

terbanke, ihre physikalischen und biologischen
Lebensvershaltnisse. Sitzungsber. d. Kgl. preuss.
Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, Jhrg. 1893, I, pp. 67-92.
The physical and biological relations of the Schleswig-
Holstein oyster bank as a social community are
carefully described. The animals associated are
listed (in all about 100 kinds, p. 80) and their relation
to the oyster is shown.

FORBES, S. A.

1909. The General Entomological Ecology of the Indian
Corn Plant. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLHI, pp. 286-301.

ESPINAS, ALFRED.

1878. Des Societes Animales. Second Edition, pp. 588.

Paris.

Discusses associations of different species — parasites,
commensals, mutuals, domestic animals; asso-
ciations of the same species and related through
nutrition — the colonial forms, as corals ; associa-
tions based upon reproduction — the family ; and
associations based upon relation — as in a horde.
Contains an extensive historical introduction.
Valuable, although somewhat old.

PETRUCCI, R.

1906. Origine Polyphyletique, Homotypie, et Non Com-
parabilite directe des Societes Animales. LTnst.
de Sociologie (Solvay). Notes et Memoires, Fasci-
cule 7. pp. 126. Bruxelles.

The multiple or independent origin of "social" life
in diverse lines of descent is emphasized and viewed
from the comparative and phylogenetic standpoint.

WAXWEILER, E.

1906. Esquisse d'une Sociologie. L'Inst. de Sociologie
(Solvay). Notes et Memoires, Fascicule 2. pp.306.
Bruxelles.
A very important survey of sociology as a branch of

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 133

ethology or ecology. The history of ecology, and
animal societies are parts which deserve special
mention. A diagram, on p. 63, gives the subdivisions
of ethology.

KBOPOTKIN, P.

1903. Mutual Aid a Factor of Evolution, pp. 348. New
York.

PARMELEE, M.

1913. The Science of Human Behavior. Biological and
Psychological Foundations, pp. 443. New York.
The Macmillan Company.

An important discussion of certain phases of animal
and human responses. Communities are considered
mainly from the standpoint of "aggregate ecology"
and phylogeny. Little recognition is made of the
" ecological association " as a fundamental unit in the
study of human relations.

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich.

Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 121-154.
A study of changes in bird associations.

SHELFORD, V. E.

1911. Ecological Succession.

I. Stream Fishes and the Method of Physiographic
Analysis. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXI, pp. 9-34

1911a. II. Pond Fishes. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXI, pp. 127-151.

19116. HE. A Reconnaissance of its Causes in Ponds with
Particular Reference to Fish. Biol. Bull., Vol.
XXH, pp. 1-38.

1912. IV. Vegetation and the Control of Land Animal

Communities. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp.
59-99.
1912a. V. Aspects of Physiological Classification. Biol.

Bull, Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.
A series of detailed studies on successions in standing

134 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

and running water, and upon land. Intimately re-
lated to the following.

1913. Animal Communities in Temperate America as Illustrated
in the Chicago Region ; A Study in Animal Ecology.
Bull. Geogr. Soc. of Chicago, No. 5. pp. (In press.)
This is the most comprehensive and detailed local
study of animal ecology thus far published from a
distinctly modern standpoint.

CRAIG, W.

1908. The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social
Control. Amer. Jour. Sociol., Vol. XIV, pp. 86-100.

HERRICK, C. L.

1904. The Beginnings of Social Reaction in Man and Lower
Animals. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol.
XTV, pp. 118-123.

HERRICK, F. H.

1912. Organization of the Gull Community. Proc. Seventh

Inter. Zool. Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 156-158.
WESENBERG-LUND, C.

1908. Die littoralen Tiergesellschaften unserer grosseren
Seen. a. Die Tiergesellschaften des Brandungsufers.
Inter. Revue der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog.,
Bd. I, pp. 574-609.
Animal associations of a lake shore.
JAGER, G.

1874. Deutschlands Thierwelt nach ihren Standorten einge-
theilt. Bd. I, pp. 400 ; Bd. II, pp. 367 + XXIV.
Stuttgart.

A popular account of the fauna of Germany arranged
according to habitat. A suggestive book to the
student of local associations. Worthy of imitation.
MELANDER, A. L., and BRUES, C. T.

1903. Guests and Parasites of the Burrowing Bee Halictus.

Biol. Bull., Vol. V, pp. 1-27.
Gives a diagram of the Halictus biocb'nose on p. 27.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 135

HUBBARD, H. G.

1894. The Insect Guests of the Florida Land Tortoise. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, Vol. VI, pp. 302-315.

HUBBARD, H. G. (Appendix by SCHWARZ, E. A.)

1899. Insect Fauna of the Giant Cactus of Arizona : Letters
from the Southwest. Psyche, Vol. VIII, Suppl.,
pp. 1-8, Appendix, pp. 8-14.

HUNTER, W. D., PRATT, F. C., and MITCHELL, J. D.

1912. The Principal Cactus Insects of the United States.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bull. No. 113. pp. 71.
In addition to the insects feeding upon cacti, their
enemies or parasites are listed and also the scaven-
gers, flower visitors, and incidentally associated
species. This is a social community composed of
324 species of insects, and it forms an excellent
foundation for a study of their interrelations. This
is more ecological than is usually the case in eco-
nomic reports.

MOLLER, L.

1867. Die Abhangigkeit der Insecten von ihrer Umgebung.

pp. 107. Leipzig. W. Englemann.
A very interesting and suggestive work. An excellent
local habitat study from the standpoint of insects.
Apparently not known to Dahl ('98, '03) in his brief
outline of the history of ecology. Mb'ller discusses
the influence of climate, soil, plants, animal sub-
stances and man upon insects, and the influence of
insects in the economy of nature.

LORENZ, J. R.

1863. Physicalische Verhaltnisse und Vertheilung der Or-
ganismen im Quarnerischen Golfe. pp. 379. Wien.
An early and important study of the habitat and the
plants and animals associated in the marine habitats.
Apparently but little known. Also not mentioned
by Dahl ('98, '03).

136 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

VERRILL, A. E.

1873. Report upon the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard
Sound and the Adjacent Waters, with an Account
of the Physical Characters of the Region. U. S.
Comm. Fish and Fisheries. Rep. on the Condition
of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New Eng-
land in 1871 and 1872. Part I. Senate Misc. Doc.
No. 61, 42d Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 295-778.
An early descriptive associational and habitat study
of the marine animals of our coast. A kind of work,
in its standpoint, far in advance of the times. It is
remarkable that this well-known work has not been
a model for other similar studies on our coast.

DAVENPORT, C. B.

1903. The Collembola of Cold Spring Beach, with Special

Reference to the Movements of the Poduridae. Cold
Spring Harbor Monogr. II. pp. 32.

An excellent study of a single group in a habitat, and

its relation to behavior.

1903a. The Animal Ecology of the Cold Spring Sand Spit,
with Remarks on the Theory of Adaptation. De-
cennial Pub. Univ. Chicago, Vol. X, pp. 157-176.

An associational study of a sea beach.

PETERSEN, C. G. JOH., and JENSEN, P. B.

1911. Valuation of the Sea. I. Animal Life of the Sea-
Bottom, its Food and Quantity. Rep. of Danish
Biol. Sta. to Board of Agriculture, Vol. XX, pp.
1-76. Transl. from Fiskeri-Beretning for 1910.
Copenhagen.

The sea-bottom animals are studied as a community.
The most important study of the kind known to the
writer. Similar work should be done in American
waters.

WARMING, E., WESENBERG-LUND, C., and others.

1904. Sur les ' vads' et les sables maritimes de la mer du nord.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 137

Kon. Danske Vid. Selsk. Skrift., Bd. VII, R. II, pp.
48-56.

The sandy flats of the sea coast of Jutland and Holland
are treated as a biotic association, and from a modern
ecological standpoint.
BAKER, F. C.

1910. The Ecology of the Skokie Marsh Area, with Special

Reference to the Mollusca. Bull. HI. State Lab.
Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, pp. 441-499.
A descriptive account of local molluscan associations
near Chicago.

1911. The Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, Vol.
XVH, pp. 200-246.
An associational study of molluscan succession. One

of the very few of its kind.
HANCOCK, J. L.

1911. Nature Sketches in Temperate America, pp. 451.

Chicago.

A discussion of the habitats of Orthoptera is given on
pp. 317-418, and a classification of them on pp.
419-433, based upon the egg-laying sites.
DAHL, F.

1899. Das Leben der Vogel auf den Bismarckinseln nach
eigenen Beobachtungen vergleichend dargestellt.
Mitt, aus der Zool. Sammlung des Mus. fiir Naturk.
in Berlin, Bd. I, Heft 3, pp. 107-222.
The bird habitats of the Bismarck Archipelago are
discussed. This is the earliest detailed study of
bird habitats known to the writer.

1901. Das Leben der Ameisen im Bismarck- Archipel, nach
eigenen Beobachtungen vergleichend dargestellt.
Mitt. aus. d. Zool. Mus. in Berlin, Bd. LT, Heft 1, pp.
1-69.

An ecological study of ants, their nesting habitats, keys
to their ecological relations, and quantitative data.

138 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

1902. Stufenfange echter Spinnen am Riesengebirge. (Eine

vergleichend ethologische Studie.) Sitz.-Ber. Ges.
naturf. Freunde zu Berlin, 1902, pp. 185-203.
A comparative study of the habitats of spiders.

1903. Winke fur ein wissenschaftliches Sammeln von Thieren.

Sitzungs-Ber. der Gesell. naturf or. Freunde zu Berlin,

1903, pp. 444-475.
Gives a classification of animal habitats, associations,

and a brief history of their recognition by zoologists.

Compare the habitats with those given by Shelf ord,

Physiological Animal Geography, 1911.
1893. Untersuchungen liber die Thierwelt der Unterelbe.

Sechster Ber. Komm. zur Wissenschaft. Untersuch.

der deutschen Meere in Kiel, Jahrg. XVH-XXI,

Heft III, pp. 151-185. Berlin.
Lists the fauna of the brackish waters of the lower

Elbe River, discusses their relation to the environment

(salinity, etc.) and gives quantitative determinations

of its frequency per square meter, as determined by

digging at low tide.

MEYER, H. A., and MOBIUS, K.

1865. Fauna der Kieler Bucht. Bd. I. Leipzig.

Not seen by writer.
LOCARD, A.

1881. De L'Habitat des Mollusques. pp. 88-128. Etudes
sur les Variations Malacologiques d'apres la Faune
Vivante et Fossile de la Partie Centrale du Bassin
du Rhone. Tome II, Paris et Lyon.
This is the most detailed study and classification of
the habitats of mollusks of land and fresh-water which
the writer has seen. It seems to be little known to
students. The volume contains many ecological ob-
servations. The classification of habitats is often
very artificial. See Von Marten's comment (Zob'l.
Record for 1881, Vol. XVIII, p. 18, Moll.), which
refers to English and German works along similar

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 139

lines, but these have not been found by the
writer.
KING, L. A. L., and RUSSELL, E. S.

1909. A Method for the Study of the Animal Ecology of the
Shore. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol.
XVH, pp. 225-253.

An associational study of shore animals.
ORTMANN, A. E.

1896. Grundziige der marinen Tiergeographie. pp. 96.

Jena.
Contains much of ecological value.

ENDERLEIN, G.

1908. Biologisch-faunistische Moor- und Diinen-Studien. Ein
Beitrag zur Kenntnis-biosynb'cischer Regionen in
Westprussen. 30 Ber. des Westpreussischen Bot.-
Zool. Vereins Danzig, pp. 54-238.
Adopts Dahl's (1903) classification of habitats.

HOPPNER, H.

1901. Die Bienenfauna der Dlinen und Weserabhange
zwischen Uesen und Baden. Beitr. nordwest-
deutsch. Volks- und Landesk. her. vom Natur-
wissen. Ver. zu Bremen, Bd. XV, pp. 231-255.
PIERCE, W. D.

1904. Some Hypermetamorphic Beetles and Their Hymenop-
terous Hosts. Univ. of Nebraska Studies, Vol. IV,
No. 2, pp. 153-190.

This gives a description of the bee community of
Epinomia triangulifera Vachal, a list of insects in
it and valuable data on their parasitic interrela-
tions.
VESTAL, A. G.

1913. An Associational Study of Illinois Sand Prairies.
Bull. HI. State Lab. Nat. His., Vol. X, pp.

STENROOS, K. E.

1898. Das Thierleben im Nurmijarvi-See. Eine Faunis-

140 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

tisch-Biologische Studie. Acta Soc. Pro Fauna
et Flora Fennica, Vol. XVII, pp. 1-259.
A descriptive associational study of a lake fauna, cor-
relating the fauna and the vegetation.
FORBES, S. A., and RICHARDSON, R. E.

1909. The Fishes of Illinois. 111. State Nat. Hist. Surv.,

Vol. III. pp. 357.

Contains numerous observations on the habitats and
associations of fish ; a subject hitherto greatly neg-
lected.
WESENBERG-LUND, C.

1908. Plankton Investigations of the Danish Lakes. Danish
Freshwater Biol. Lab., Op. 5, Part I, pp. 389.
Part II, Copenhagen.

The only fresh-water plankton study known to the
writer, which takes up the plankton from a distinctly
modern ecological standpoint. An excellent sum-
mary of the problems of the fresh-water lake plank-
ton. Abundant references to the literature.
ALLEE, W. C.

1912. Seasonal Succession in Old Forest Ponds. Trans.

El. Acad. Sci., 1911, Vol. IV, pp. 126-131.
To determine the complete composition of an animal
association observations must cover all seasons of
the year. This paper and the following ones will
indicate the general character of the seasonal
changes.
WOOD, J. G. and T.

1886. The Field Naturalist's Handbook, pp. 167. Fourth

Edition. London.

This is a British work. It gives by months the seasonal
succession of moths, butterflies, birds, flowering of
plants, notes on habitat, etc.
FRITSCH, C.

1850. Resultate dreijahriger Beobachtungen liber die jahr-
liche Vertheilung der Papilioniden. Sitzungsber.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 141

der math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wissensch.
zu Wien, Jahresganges 1850, Bd. V, pp. 426-433.
1851. Ueberdiejahrliche)VertheilungderKafer. Sitzungsber.
der math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wiss-
sensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges 1851, Bd. VI, pp. 3-42.

1851. Resultate zweijahriger Beobachtungen liber die jahr-

liche Vertheilung der Kafer. Sitzungsber. der
math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wissensch.
zu Wien, Jahresganges 1851, Bd. VII, pp. 689-710.

1852. Jahrliche Vertheilung der Hemipteren. Sitzungsber.

der math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wis-
sensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges 1852, Bd. IX, pp.
554-555.

A series of papers showing the seasonal succession in
insects at Prague, Bohemia.

a. The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to Plant Galls

The relation of animals to the pollination of plants and to
plant galls is a phase of the associational relation of organisms*
but it has rarely been considered (if at all) from the standpoint
of a biotic community. The following list will probably aid one
but little in gaining this general conception, but once the student
has it he will find the list of much assistance. Undoubtedly a
relatively new and fertile field for investigation would be to study
the interrelations of plants and their pollinators as an ecological
community, the association being taken as a unit rather than the
individual species of plants or animals.

BOUVIER, E. L.

1905. Bees and Flowers. Smithsonian Report for 1904, pp.
469-484. No. 1627.

KNUTH, P. (APPEL, O., and LOEW, E.)

1898-1899. Handbuch der Blutenbiologie. Unter Zugrundele-
gung von Hermann Mliller's Werk : "Die Befrucht-
ung der Blumen durch Insekten." Bd. I. Einleitung

142 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

und Litteratur. 1898. Leipzig. Bd. II. Die
bisher in Europa und im Arktischen Gebiet gemach-
ten Bltitenbiologischen Beobachtungen. Theil 1 und
2. 1899. Leipzig.

APPEL, O., and LOEW, E.

1904-1905. (Continues Knuth.) Bd. HI. Die bisher in
Aussereuropaischen Gebieten gemachten Bliiten-
biologischen Beobachtungen. Thiel 1, 1904-1905,
Leipzig; Thiel 2, 1905, Leipzig.

This is an encyclopedia on the relation of animals to
the pollination of flowers. Plants are arranged sys-
tematically and the visitors are listed. In Bd. II,
Th. 2, pp. 559-672, and Bd. Ill, Th. 2, pp. 259-470,
are given systematic-alphabetic lists of animal
visitors to flowers. Full references.

MULLER, H. (Trans, by D. W. THOMPSON.)

1883. The Fertilization of Flowers, pp. 669. London.

NEEDHAM, J. G.

1900. The Fruiting of the Blue Flag (Iris versicolor L.).
Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 361-386.

RILEY, C. V.

1892. The Yucca Moth and Yucca Pollination. Third Ann.

Rep. Mo. Bot. Garden, pp. 99-158.

ROBERTSON, C.

1897. Flowers and Insects. Contributions to an Account
of the Ecological Relations of the Entomophilous
Flora and the Anthophilous Insect Fauna of the
Neighborhood of Carlinville, Illinois. Trans. Acad.
Sci. St. Louis, Vol. VII, pp. 151-179.
This is only one of a very extensive series of papers
published in the Transactions of the St. Louis Acad-
emy, Vols. V, VI, VII, and in the Botanical Gazette
— beginning with Vol. XIV, 1889, and extending
to Vol. XXVHI, 1899.

TRELEASE, W.

1893. Further Studies of Yuccas and their Pollination.

Fourth Annual Rep. Mo. Bot. Garden, pp. 181-
226.

BEUTENMttLLER, W.

1904. The Insect-Galls of the Vicinity of N. Y. City. Am.

Mus. Jour., Vol. IV, pp. 89-124.

A descriptive illustrated catalogue. Beutenmuller
has published several important papers on galls in
the Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. History.
ADLEE, H. (Trans, by C. R. STRATON.)

1894. Alternating Generations. A Bibliogical Study of Oak

Galls and Gall Flies, pp. 198. Oxford.
COOK, M. T.

1905. The Insect Galls of Indiana. Twenty -ninth Ann.

Rep. Dept. Geol. and Natural Resources of Indiana,
1904, pp. 801-867.
Descriptive illustrated catalogue.
HOUARD, C.

1908-1909. Les Zoocecidies des Plantes d'Europe et du
Bassin de la Mediterranee. Tome I, pp. 569 ; II,
pp. 573-1247. Paris.

KlRCHNER, O. VON.

1911. Blumen und Insekten, ihre Anpassungen aneinander

und ihre Gegenseitige Abhangigkeit. pp. 436.

Leipzig.
KUSTER, E.

1911. Die Gallen der Pflanzen. Ein Lehrbuch fur Botaniker

und Entomologen. pp. 437. Leipzig.
Ross, H.

1911. Die Pflanzengallen (Cecidien) Mittel- und Nord Europas

ihre Erreger und Biologic und Bestimmungstabellen.

pp. 350. Jena.

6. Subterranean and Cave Associations

BANTA, A. M.

1907. The Fauna of Mayfield's Cave. Carnegie Inst. Pub.
No. 67. pp. 114.

144 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

The cave environment, the vital optimum, and the
food relations are discussed. A valuable paper.

BLATCHLEY, W. S.

1896. Indiana Caves and their Fauna. Twenty-first Ann.
Rep. Geol. and Natural Resources of Indiana, pp.
121-212.
DENDY, A.

1896. The Cryptozoic Fauna of Australasia. Austr. Assoc.

Adv. Sci., 1895, pp. [1-21].

On animals living under stones, logs, and bark of trees.
DIEM, K.

1903. Untersuchungen iiber die Bodenfauna in den Alpen.
Jahrb. d. St. Gallischen Naturwiss. Gesellsch. f.
1901-1902, pp. 234-414.
HAMANN, O.

1896. Europaische Hb'hlenfauna. Eine Darstellung der in
den Hohlen Europas lebenden Tierwelt mit be-
sonderer Beriicksichtigung der Hohlenfauna Krains.
pp. 296. Jena.

HOTTER, M. G.

1898. A Contribution to the Study of the Fauna of the Grave.
A Study of One Hundred and Fifty Disinterments,
with Some Additional Experimental Observations.
Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. VI, pp. 201-231.
A list of invertebrates, snails, Crustacea, insects, etc.,
found in graves. Table compiled from Megnin
shows the kinds of animals which invade bodies at
the different stages of decay. This is a form of
succession comparable to the changes in the animals
living in a log at different stages of decay.

PACKARD, A. S.

1888. The Cave Fauna of North America, with Remarks on
the Anatomy of the Brain and Origin of the Blind
Species. Memoirs Nat. Acad. Sci., Vol. IV, pp.
1-156.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 145

Monographic treatment ; extensive references to lit-
erature.
SCOTT, W.

1909. An Ecological Study of the Plankton of Shawnee Cave.
With Notes on the Cave Environment. Biol. Bull.,
Vol. XVH, pp. 386-406.

c. Selected References on Aggregations and Associations

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1909. The Coleoptera of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, and their

Relation to the North American Centers of Dispersal.

Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 157-215.

On pp. 159-163 the habitats and succession of beetles

are briefly discussed.
1909. Notes on Isle Royale Mammals and their Ecological

Relations. Ibid., pp. 389-422.
Brief mention of mammal associations and successions,

pp. 390-393.
ANTIPA, G.

1912. Die Biologic des Inundationsgebietes der unteren

Donau und des Donaudeltas. Verhand. VIII.

Inter. Zool.-Kongresses zu Graz, 1910, pp.163-208.

Description of the biological conditions on the flooded

lower Danube and its delta.

BAKER, H. B.

1911. Mollusca. pp. 121-176. In A Biological Survey of
the Sand Dune Region on the South Shore of Sag-
inaw Bay, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Board of
Geol. and Biol. Survey for 1910. Lansing.
Rather full notes on mollusca, grouped by habitats.

CHAPMAN, F. M.

1909. The Habitat Groups of North American Birds in
the American Museum of Natural History. Am.
Mus. Nat. His., Guide Leaflet No. 28. pp. 48.
A descriptive illustrated account of the remarkable

146 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

habitat exhibits in the museum. The most remark-
able series of its kind in existence. An excellent
example of the educational value of ecological
ideas.

DAHL, F.

1896. Vergleichende Untersuchungeri liber die Lebensweise
wirbelloser Aasfresser. Sitzungsber. d. K. Akad.
Wissen. Berlin, 1896. I, pp. 17-30.
A study of carrion-feeding insects by the trapping
method. The kinds of insects attracted change
with the stage of decay. There is thus a succession.
Compare with Moffat's studies (1898).

GATES, F. C.

1911. Summer-bird Life in the Vicinity of Havana, Illinois,
in its Relation to the Prominent Plant Associations.
Wilson Bulletin, Vol. XXHI, No. 74, pp. 1-27.
One of the relatively few associational studies of birds.

GIROD, P.

1891. Les Societes chez les Animaux. pp. 342. Paris.

GLEASON, H. A.

1909. The Ecological Relations of the Invertebrate Fauna of
Isle Royale, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geo.
Surv. for 1908, pp. 57-78.

GRABAU, A. U.

1898. Zoology : Marine Invertebrates, pp. 67-96. Grabau,
A. W., and Woodman, J. E. (editors). Guide to
Localities Illustrating the Geology, Marine Zoology,
and Botany of the Vicinity of Boston. Salem,
Mass.

HART, C. A., and GLEASON, H. A.

1907. On the Biology of the Sand Areas of Illinois. Bull.

111. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, pp. 137-272.
Insect associations are discussed on pp. 220-227.

Habitats are figured, and associated plants and

animals are listed.

B

cS

•a

s

—

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 147

HANKINSON, T. L.

1910. Ecological Notes on the Fishes of Walnut Lake, Mich-
igan. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc., 1910, pp. 195-
206.
One of the few papers dealing with the fish associations

in a lake.

1910. An Ecological Study of the Fish of a Small Stream.
Trans. 111. State Acad. Sci., Vol. Ill, pp. 23-31.

HERMS, W. B.

1907. An Ecological and Experimental Study of Sarco-
phagidse with Relation to Lake Beach Debris. Jour.
Exper. Zool., Vol. IV, pp. 45-83.

JORDAN, H.

1883. Die Binnenmollusken der nordlich gemassigten Lander
von Europa und Asien und der Arktischen Lander.
Nova Acta der Ksl. Leop. -Carol. -Deutschen Akad.
der Naturf., Bd. XLV, Nr. 4, pp. 181-402. Halle.
On pp. 201-253 there are many observations on mol-
luskan ecology, including habitats, table of habitats
of freshwater mollusks, and important observations
on habitat variations or forms. Most of the paper
is devoted to geographic problems.

KOFOID, C. A.

1903. The Plankton of the Illinois River, 1894-1899, with
Introduptory Notes upon the Hydrography of the
Illinois River and its Basin. Part I, Bull. 111. State
Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, pp. 95-629.
The results of a prolonged, detailed study of the
Illinois River plankton ; capable of an associational
interpretation.

LlNTNER, J. A.

1878. Report on the Insects and Other Animal Forms of
Caledonia Creek, New York. Tenth Ann. Rep.
N. Y. Fishery Comm. for 1877, pp. 12-36.
One of the relatively few studies of the animals of a

148 ANIMAL ECOLOGY

small stream ; a census rather than an ecological
study.

McCEEABY, O.

1909. The Ecological Distribution of the Birds of Isle Royale,

Lake Superior. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for
1908, pp. 81-95.
Habitat preferences of birds.
MORSE, A. P.

1904. Researches on North American Acridiidae. Carnegie

Inst., Pub. 18. pp. 55.

Associational groupings of the short-horned grass-
hoppers, with figures of habitats.

RUTHVEN, A. G.

1907. A Collection of Reptiles and Amphibians from Southern
New Mexico and Arizona. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., Vol. XXin, pp. 483-603.

Discusses the associations, habitats, and food of the
desert species.

SCOTT, W.

1910. The Fauna of a Solution Pond. Proc. Ind. Acad.

Science for 1910, pp. 395-442.
Includes a discussion of their interrelations.

SlMROTH, H.

1891. Die Entstehung der Landtiere. Ein Biologische
Versuch. pp. 492. Leipzig.

STEUER, A.

1910. Planktonkunde. pp. 723. Leipzig.

A general treatise on plankton.

WATSON, J. R.

1911. A Contribution to the Study of the Ecological Distri-

bution of the Animal Life of North Central New
Mexico with Especial Attention to the Insects. First
Ann. Rep. New Mexico Nat. Resource and Conserv.
Comm., pp. 67-117.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT 149

Description, lists, and observations on the animal and
plant associations of the arid region.

WHEELER, W. M.

1905. An Annotated List of the Ants of New Jersey. Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXI, pp. 371-403.
Ants grouped in the following associations : woodland,

glade, field, meadow, heath, and sand.

1908. Comparative Ethology of the European and North
American Ants. Jour, fur Psychol. und Neurol.,
Bd. XIII, pp. 404-435. (Festschrift Forel.)

WICKHAM, H. F.

1903. The Beetles of an Oregon Beach. Ottawa Naturalist,
Vol. XVII, pp. 49-52.

INDEX

Abbreviations, 69

Acalyptrate Muscidse, larval food-
habits, 78
Accidents, 62
Acridiidse,

courtship, 117
habitats, 148
Adaptation,
adjustive, 10
and evolution, 97
as a process, 9
as a product, 9
theory, 136

Adirondacks, aquatic insects, 75
Adjustment of organisms, process of,

122
Adjustment, process of, 5, 30, 31,

33, 122

Age of lower organisms, 97
Aggregate, 8

as agent or entity, 4
ecology, 4, 23, 24, 133
Aggregations, 27, 145

dynamic relations of, 130
Agricultural reports of the U. S.

patent office, index, 72
Air, vegetational control of relative

evaporating power of, 90
vegetational control of relative

humidity, 90
Alluvial flats, vegetational invasion,

89

Alps, soil fauna, 144
Alternating generations of oak gall

flies, 143

Ambrosia beetles, 127
American lobster, natural history,

113

Amia calva, natural history, 117
Amphibians,

associations of desert species, 148

collecting, 58

desert species, 148

food of desert species, 148

Amphibians,

reactions to light, 116
Amphioxus,

behavior, 116

sensory reactions, 116
Amphipods,

distribution of fresh-water, 111

food of fresh-water, 111

reproductive capacity of fresh-
water, 111

salt-marsh, habits and life his-
tory, 119
Amphithoe longimana Smith, habits

and natural history, 113
Animal and plant associations of

arid region, 148, 149
Animal associations,

and marine vegetation, 89

and vegetation, 90

of a lake shore, 134
Animal behavior, 107, 121

as a process, 102

Bohn's studies in, 107

limits of study, 103
Animal communities, 133, 134
Animal ecology,

of Chicago region, 134

of Cold Spring sand spit, 136

of seashore, 63, 64

of shore, 139
Animal galls, 143
Animal geography, physiological,

101
Animal intelligence,

development, 115

evolution, 114

nature, 115

raccoon, 111
Animal life,

ecological distribution in New
Mexico, 148

of sea-bottom, 63, 136

of sea-bottom, food, 136

of sea-bottom, quantity, 136

151

152

INDEX

Animal,

mind, 106

psychology, 106, 120

societies, 132, 133, 146

substances, influence upon in-
sects, 135

visitors to flowers, systematic

alphabetic list, 142
Animals,

adjustment between environment
and, 122

and plant galls, 141

and pollination, 141, 142

collecting, directions, 57

competing in new territory, 126

distribution, physiological, 101

fresh-water, 78

of Lower Elbe, 138

of seashore, 146

of small stream, 147, 148

of soils, 86

orientation, 118

play, 112

responses (locomotor) to white
light, 107

seasonal succession, 140

subterranean, 58

variation, 96
Annelids, behavior of tubicolous,

112
Ant, ethological observations on an

American, 120
Ant-colony,

as organism, 131

as unit, 131

Anthophilous insect fauna, ecologi-
cal relations to entomophilous
flora, 142
Ants, 111

and fungi, 128

and plants, 126, 127

Arthropods living with, 130

associations, 149

associations by habitats, 149

behavior, 120

bibliography, 120

development, 120

ecological study, 137

European, comparative ethology,
149

habitat associations, 149

habitats, 120

keys to ecological relations of, in
Bismarck Archipelago, 137

nesting habits of, in Bismarck
Archipelago, 137

nests, 127

North American, comparative
ethology, 149

quantitative data on, 137

psychology, 120

slaves, 120

structure, 120
Aplopus Mayeri, habits, reactions,

and mating instincts, 119
Applied ecology, 125, 131
Application of the process method,

86

Aquatic animals, photography, 63
Aquatic Chrysomelidae, 75
Aquatic insects, 75

immature, keys, 75

in Adirondacks, 75
Aquatic nematocerous Diptera,

75

Aquatic resources, 24
Aquiculture, 21
Araneads,

activities, 115

courtship of, significance, 115

secondary sexual characters, 115
Arbacia punctulata, 99
Argiope, habits and instincts, 117
Arid region,

animal and plant associations,
148, 149

associations, 149

habitats, 149
Arizona,

Amphibians, 148

cactus and insect fauna, 135

reptiles, 148

Army cooks' manual, 58
Art,

of ecology, 33

of presentation, 67
Arthropods,

effect of caves on, 101

living with ants, 130

living with termites, 130

INDEX

153

Artificial and "pathological" con-
ditions, 27
Association, 4, 5, 6, 8, 27, 60, 132,

139, 145

Associational ecology, 5, 24, 29
Associational optimum, 94
Associational relation, of pollina-
tion, 141, 142
Associational study,

of birds, Illinois, 146

of lake fauna, 140

of sand prairies of Illinois, 139

of sea beach, 136

of shore animals, 139
Associational unit, and individual

ecology, 131
Associations,

amphibian, 148

animal, 137, 138

animal, local, 134

ants, 149

as agent, 5

biotic, 29

biotic, of sand areas, 146

cave, 143

climax biotic, 30

dynamic relations of, 130

fish, of Illinois, 140

fish, in lake, 147

human, 10, 11

lake fish, 147

making to order, 33

mammal, 145

marine animals, 135, 136

methods of studying local, 14

mollusks, 137, 138

natural or normal, 34

reptiles, 148

resemble plays, 47

sand flats, 136, 137

short-horned grasshoppers, 148

succession, 91

Asterias Forbesi, direction of loco-
motion, 110
Asterias Forreri De Loriol, behavior,

105
Atmospheric conditions about

woodlands, 91

Atta sexdens, colonies founded by,
128

Authors,

guide, 68

suggestions to, 68
Australasia, cryptozoic fauna, 144

Balance of nature, 28, 29, 123
Bark beetles, 76

and fungi, 127

Bark of trees, fauna under, 144
Baseleveling, 86

faunal significance, 86
Bass, black, as a microcosmic

center, 49

Bats, habits and sensory adapta-
tions of cave-inhabiting, 112
Beach,

associational study of a sea, 136

beetles of an Oregon, 149
Beach flea,

habits, 119

life history, 119
Beach, sea, as animal habitat,

136
Bee,

burrowing, 134.

community of Epinomia triangu-
lifera Vachal, 139

community, parasitic interre-
lations, 139

fauna of dunes, 139

humble, 119
Bees,

and flowers, 141

as reflex machines, 109
Beetles,

Ambrosia, 127

bark, 76

evolution in Chrysomelid, 119

food of predaceous, 126, 130

habitats, 145

hymonopterous hosts, 139

hypermetamorphic, 139

immature stages, 75

longicorn, food habits, 77

of an Oregon beach, 149

predaceous, food, 126, 130

seasonal succession of, 140

snout, 76

succession of, 145
Behavior, 92, 93

154

INDEX

Behavior,

Amphioxus, 116

and natural environment, 110

animal, 167

animal. See also Animal behavior

animal, as a process, 102

ants, 120

birds, 121

Bombus, 120

Collembola, 136

cuckoo, 113

fixed and changeable responses,
104

human, 133

Hydroides Dianthus V., modi-
fiability, 106

ideals and conclusions, 114

Isopods, surface and subterra-
nean, 108

laws, 103

leech, 121

Leptinotarsa, 119

Limulus, 105

lizard, 116

lobster, immature stages, 105

lower organisms, 96, 105, 107

method of regulation, 105

modifiability, 93, 105, 106

mud snail, 111

nature, study of in, 39

Necturus, 121

orderly sequence, 113

organisms, 115

physiology, 107

Planarians, fresh-water, 116, 120

pond snail, 120

social wasps, 111

sponges, 116

squirrels, 121

terns, noddy and sooty, 120

tree frogs, 112

tubicolous annelids, 112

Turbellarian, marine, 127

"walking stick," 119
Belostoma ( = Zaithd) fiumineum Say,

death-feigning, 118
Bibliography, 71

animals and pollination, 141, 142

ants, 120

bark beetles, 76

caterpillars, 74

ecological succession of birds, 124

economic entomology (American) ,
71, 75

environmental influences upon
insects, 96, 97

flowers and insects, 141, 142

food of birds, 130

forest insects, 74

fresh-water biology, 78

Hymenoptera of N. America, 73

insects, 74, 75

mammals, North American, 107

medical zoology, 129

plant ecology, 89

snout beetles, 76

veterinary zoology, 129
Bioccenose, 18

or community, 7
Bioccenosis, 6, 7, 29
Bioconose, 18

Halictus, 134
Bioconosis, 131
Bioconotic, 18

Biologia Centrali-Americana, 23
Biologic relations of plants and ants,

126, 127
Biological significance,

of dissolved gases of water, 87

of thermocline, 87
Biological survey,

of U. S., index to papers on,
128

ecological in methods, 114
Biology, 1, 2, 18, 60

butterflies, 118

lower Danube delta, 145

Orthoptera, 101

Physa, 110

relation to geological investiga-
tion, 22

relation to man, 11, 12

sand areas of Illinois, 146
Biometric ideas, 63
Biometric methods, 63
Bionomic base line, 30
Bionomics, 19, 21

green cells of Conwluta roscof-
fensis, 127

insects, 128

INDEX

155

Bionomy, marine, and stratigraphy,

22

Biota, postglacial dispersal, 91
Biotic associations, 29, 91

sand areas, 146

sandy flats of seacoast, 136, 137
Biotic base, 30
Biotic community, 141
Biotic competition in tropics, 124
Biotic succession in media, 88
Bird census, sectional, 59
Bird habitats of Bismarck Archi-
pelago, 137
Birds,

adaptations by insects to, 125

and man, 130

associational studies, 146

behavior, 121

breeding habits of North Ameri-
can, 109

collecting, 58

colonies, 120

decrease, 124

destruction by elements, 124

ecological succession, 21, 124, 133

economic value, 123, 126

eggs of North American, 109

food, 126, 128, 130

food of nestling, 128

habitat groups, 145, 146

habitat preferences, 148

habitats in summer, 146

instinct, 113

intelligence, 113

life histories of North American,
109

methods of study, 39, 60, 61

migration, 109

migration as a response, 109

noxious, introduction, 124

of a Maryland farm, 125

of Isle Royale, ecological distri-
bution of, 148

photographing, 59, 61

protecting woodlands, 124

protection, 124

protection of useful, 127

quantitative study, 59, 60

regulative action upon insect
oscillations, 123

statistical study, 59, 60

stomach contents, estimating, 62

study 39, 60, 61
Birds' eggs, collecting, 58
Birds' nests, collecting, 58
Bismarck Archipelago, bird habi-
tats, 137
Black bass as a microcosmic center,

49
Blind species of cave fauna, origin,

144

Blissus leucopterus Say, 20
Blond ring-dove, 110
Blue flag, fruiting, 142
Bluebird, 117
Bluejay, 117
Bohn's studies in animal behavior,

107

Boll worm, report on, 77
Bombus,

behavior, 120

see also Humble-bee
Borers, wood, 77
Brackish waters of Lower Elbe,

fauna, 138
Breeding habits,

bark beetles, 76

birds, of North America, 109

crawfish, 108

horned dace, 63

snout beetles, 76
Bufo lentiginosus americanus Le

Conte, 100
Bumble-bee,

see Bombus

see also Humble-bee
Burrowing bee, 134
Butterflies,

biology, 118

drinking habits, 119

food plants, 77

Cactus, Arizona, insect fauna, 135
Cactus,

giant, and its insect fauna, 135

insects, 135

Caithness, vegetation, 88
Caledonia Creek, N. Y., insects and

animal forms, 147, 148
Cambarus, 113

156

INDEX

Cambarus affinis, habit formation,

106

Camp cooking, 62
Camping, 57, 60, 61, 65
Capitalization, 69
Carabidae,

early stages, 73

food relations, 127
Carbohydrates, effect on resistance

to lack of oxygen, 99
Carbonic acid, reaction of fish to,

118

Card-index system for records, 64
Carrion-feeding insects, 146
Castration, parasitic, in insects, 130
Catalogues of governmental publi-
cations, 65
Caterpillars, 74

reactions, 106
Cave associations, 143
Cave environment, 144, 145
Cave fauna,

European, 144

origin of blind species, 144
Cave habitats, 112, 144
Cave-inhabiting bats, habits and

sensory adaptations, 112
Cave life,

effect on Arthropods, 101

effect on nutrition, 101

effect on sense organs, 101
Cell and its medium, chemical

studies, 88
Census,

bird, 59

invertebrates, 62

of four square feet, 58, 62
Centers of dispersal for beetles of

North America, 145
Cerambycidae, food habits, 72
Cestoda and Cestodaria, index to

literature of , 129
Chaetognatha,

classification, 115

distribution vertically, 115

San Diego region, 115
Challenger, 23
Change, laws of, 79
Changes, in fresh-water habitats,
sequence, 86

Changes, in land habitats, sequence,

86
Chemical stimulations, responses

to, 97
Chemical studies on the cell and its

medium, 88

Chicago, physiographic ecology, 88
Chicago region, animal communi-
ties, 134
Chinch-bug, 20
Chorology, 2

Chrysomelid beetles, evolution, 119
Chrysomelidse,

aquatic, 75

food habits, 72
Cicindela, 90
Cicindelidae,

habits, 121

life histories and larval habits,

118

Ciliary action of shell-fish, 114
Circulars of U. S. Bureau of

Entomology, Index to, 73
Clams,

eaten by Fulgur, 110

eaten by Sycotypus, 110

growth of the soft, 114

hard, 114

life history of the common, 114

soft, 114
Classification, 21

animal habitats, 138

genetic, 56

habitats, 139

mollusks' habitats, 138

physiological, 21, 101, 133, 134
Climate, influence upon insects, 135
Climatic sequences, 91
Climax biotic associations, 30
Coccinellidse, food relations, 127
Cocooning habits of spiders, 118
Cold-blooded vertebrates, digestion
influenced by season and tem-
perature, 100

Cold Spring Beach, Collembola, 136
Cold Spring sand spit, animal

ecology, 136
Coleoptera,

centers of dispersal, North Ameri-
can, 145

INDEX

157

Coleoptera,

food, 76, 77

insectivorous, 127

of Isle Royale, 145

transformations described, 72
Collecting, 49, 50, 59, 61

directions for, 39

natural history specimens, 63

of specimens, 49, 50
Collembola, Cold Spring Beach, 136
Colonial forms, 132
Colonies founded by Atta sexdens,

128

Color changes of tree frogs, 112
Colors of insects, warning, 128
Commensals, 132

of ants, 120
Community,

biotic, 141

Epinomia, 139

gulls, 106

gulls, organization, 134

living beings, 6

social, 18, 123, 131

See also Associations
Communities of land animals, 91,
124

vegetational control, 90, 133
Comparative method, 14, 15

limits, 56

Comparative physiology, 95
Comparative psychology 120

French work in, 107

limits, 109
Competition of animals, in new

territory, 126
Competition,

ants and plants, 126

cotton boll weevil, 125
Composition,

correct, 68

handbook of, 69

scientific papers, 66
Condition,

of stress, 30, 31

pathological, 26
Conditions,

artificial and "pathological," 27

of existence, natural, 96

of production in the sea, 87

Conflict between organisms, geo-
metrical representation, 125
Conjugation, lower organisms, 97
Contact, reactions of dragon-fly

nymphs to, 118
Control of nature, 33
Convoluta roscoffensis, bionomics of

green cells, 127
Cooking, manual, 58
Cooperation in study, 52
Coral, rose, feeding reactions, 109
Corn, 132

entomological ecology of Indian,

132
Corn plant, entomological ecology

of Indian, 132
Correct composition, 68
Cotton boll weevil, insect enemies,

125
Cotton insects, 72

enemies, 72

Cotton worm, report on, 77
Courtship, Acridiidce, 117
Cowbirds, 117
Crane flies, 76

larval habits, 76

life histories, 76
Crawfish,

breeding habits, 108

ecological catalogue, 113

egg-laying, 108

habit formation, 106

habitats, 116

Pennsylvania, 116

stream environment, references,

113

Cricket, western, 77
Criteria,

ecological, 16

in genetic studies, 56

of the psychic, 106
Criterion of imitation, 117
Crop rotation, 28
Crows, 117

Crustacea, in grave, 144
Cryptic coloration, 62

testing by experiment, 125
Cryptobranchus Allegheniensis,

habits, 119

life history, 119

158

INDEX

Cryptozoic fauna of Australasia,

144
Cuckoo,

behavior, 113

life, 113

Cultivation of turtles, 110
Cycle of matter, in the sea, 87
Cycles, vegetative, causes, 88

Dace, horned, 63

Danish lakes, plankton investiga-
tions, 140

Danish waters, ecology of grass-
wrack in, 89

Danube and its delta, biology af-
fected by floods, 145
Death feigning,

Belostoma ( — Zaitha) flumineum

Say, 118
instinct, 113
Nepa apiculata Say, 118
Ranatra, 113

Death of lower organisms, 97
Decrease of birds, 124
Describing environments, 45
Descriptive method, 14
Desert species,

of Amphibians, 148
of reptiles, 148
Determination,

of specimens, 49, 51
of specimens at museums, 52
Determined specimens, series of,

62

Development, 92, 93
ants, 120
effect of environment on mol-

lusks, 100

environment, 45, 46
individual, 97
oysters, 112
optima, 94
problem, 98
Developmental or explanatory

method, 14, 15

Digestion in cold-blooded verte-
brates, influence of season and
temperature, 100
Diptera,

aquatic nematocerous, 75

catalogue of North American, 71

North American, catalogue, 71
Directions for collection, 39, 57
Directory, Naturalist's, 53
Disadvantages of non-ecological

surveys, 31

Diseases, mussels, 119
Distribution,

fish, 64

Planarians, local, 119

vertically of Chsetognatha, San

Diego region, 115
Domestic animals, 132

psychic development of young,

115

Dominance, 47
Dominant animals, 47, 48
Donaciinae, natural history of larvae,

109

Dragon flies, vs. mosquitoes, 72
Dragon-fly nymphs,

ecology, 118

keys, 75

reactions to contact and light,

118
Drinking habits,

butterflies, 119

moths, 119
Drosophila,

convulsive reflexes, 109

reactions, 109
Dunes, bee fauna, 139
Dynamic conceptions, 80
Dynamic principles, 86
Dynamic relation, 85
Dynamic relations,

of aggregations, 130

of associations, 130

of environment, 82
Dynamic standpoint, 91, 101
Dynamic status, 29, 31
Dynamic theory and physiological

problems, 97

Dynamical interpretation, 82
Dynamics of living matter, 96

Earthworm,

behavior modifiable, 105
movements, 105
quantitative studies, 58

INDEX

159

Echinoderms, food, 126
Ecological catalogue of crawfish,

113

Ecological criteria, 16
Ecological distribution of birds of

Isle Royale, 148

Ecological features of evolution, 21
Ecological ideas, educational value,

146
Ecological organization of museums,

22
Ecological relations,

of entomophilous flora and an-
thophilous insect fauna of Illi-
nois, 142
of invertebrate fauna of Isle

Royale, 146
Ecological study,

of cave plankton, Shawnee Cave,

145

of lake plankton, 140
Ecological succession, 21, 90, 101,

124

birds, 124, 133
causes in ponds, 133
fish in ponds and streams, 133
land animals, 133
mammals of Isle Royale, 145
on an oyster reef, 1 12
Ecological surveys, 23, 24, 67
Ecological training for surveys, 32
Ecology, 1, 2, 18, 19, 20, 60
and economic problems, 114
and geology, 22
art of, 33
associational, 24
fish of Walnut Lake, 147
history, 133, 138
point of view, 8
relation to economic entomology,

21

relation to geology and paleon-
tology, 10

relation to man, 10, 11
relation to physiology, 8
relation to sociology, 10
relation to teaching, 13, 14
research methods, 88
Economic entomology, 29, 71, 74, 75
bibliography, 74, 75

bibliography of American, 71, 75
relation to ecology, 21
Economic problems and ecology, 114
Economic value,
of birds, 126
of Pecten irradians, 108
Economic zoologist, 29
Economic zoology, 29
Educational value of ecological

ideas, 146
Effects, similar, of diverse stimuli,

98

Egg-laying crawfish, 108
Egg-laying sites, Orthoptera, 137
Eggs,

collecting birds', 58
of birds of North America, 109
Elbe River, fauna of lower, 138
Emergency surgery, 65
Emotion in pigeons, 110
Enchytrseidae, 58
Encroachments of civilization, 26
Enemies, protection of animals

from, 125

English in science, better, 67
English sparrow, 28, 117

psychology, 117
Entomological Commission,

of U. S., report on cotton and boll

worm, 77

of U. S., report on Rocky Moun-
tain locust, 76
of U. S., report on western

cricket, 77
Entomological ecology of Indian

corn plant, 132
Entomological work of Townend

Glover, 73
Entomological writings of A. S.

Packard, 74
Entomologists' reports,
Illinois, index, 74
Missouri, 77
New York, 74
Entomology,

bibliography of American eco-
nomic, 71, 75

catalogue of publications on, 71
economic, see Economic ento-
mology

160

INDEX

Entomophilous flora, ecological re-
lations to anthophilous insect
fauna, 142
Environment, 5

and the animal, adjustment be-
tween, 122

describing, 45

development, 45, 46

effect on development of mol-
lusks, 100

effect on insects, 96, 97

effect on limpet, 101

effect on snails, 100

fish, 64, 118

fitness, 85

great changes, 26

gross evolution, 86

making to order, 33

natural, and behavior, 110

natural or normal, 34

orderly sequence, 79

original conditions, 25, 26

parasites, 126

sequence of changes, 104
Epeira, habits, instincts, 117
Ephemeridse, 76
Epinomia triangulifera Vachal, bee

community, 139
Equilibrium, relative, 30, 31
Ethological maladjustments of

ants, 126
Ethological observations on an ant,

120
Ethological study, comparative, of

spiders, 138
Ethology, 18, 19, 21, 59

and mutation theory, 22

ants, comparative, 149

diagram of subdivisions, 133

history, 133

subdivisions, in diagrams, 133
Europe,

cave fauna, 144

plant galls, 143

Evaporating power of air, vegeta-
tional control of, relative,
90
Evaporation,

and plant societies, 90

and soil moisture, 62

open and wooded areas, 91

plant societies and, 64
Evolution, 9

and adaptation, 97

as a process, 10

ecological features of, 21

experimental, 96

mutual aid a factor of, 133

of life and Salpa, 123

organic, and baseleveling, 86
Existence,

natural conditions, 96

struggle for, 2, 122, 123
Experiment Station Record, 76
Experimental evolution, 96
Experimental morphology, 95
Experimental study, limits, 103
Experimental zoology, 96
Explanatory or developmental

method, 14, 15
Exploration, scientific, 63
External relations, 1
Extremes, influence, 98
Eyes,

frog, 110

insects, 110

slug, 110

snail, 110

sow bug, 110

various types and image-forming
powers, 110

worms, 110

Factor of evolution, mutual aid a,

133
Factors,

influence of the slowest, 98

limiting, 98
Family, 132
Fauna,

and flora of the sea bottom, 64

cave, 101, 112, 143, 144, 145

cryptozoic of Australasia, 144

Germany, classified by habitat,
134

grave, 144

Indiana caves, 144

Mayfield's Cave, 143

of brackish waters of Lower Elbe,
138

INDEX

161

Fauna,

of Kiel Bay, 138

pond, 148

quantitative determination in
brackish waters, 137

salt water, 111
Fanual significance of baseleveling,

86
Feeding habits,

slugs, 125

snails, 125

Venus mercenaria, 114
Feeding reactions of rose coral,

109

Feeding reflexes of shell-fish, 114
Fertilization of flowers, 142
Field ants, 149
Field naturalist, 37
Field notes, 42

numbers in, 50, 51

recording, 42
Field study, 36, 37, 38

plan, 36

Field work, primary aim, 41
Fish,

associations of a lake, 147

associations of Illinois, 140

distribution, 64

ecological succession, 133

environment and distribution,
64

environment, index to, 118

feeding grounds, affected by vege-
tation, 90

food, 76, 123

food relations of fresh-water, 123

habitats of Illinois, 140

habits, 63, 112

Illinois, 140

lateral-line organs of, functions,
116

life histories, 112

marine vegetation, 89

metabolism, 100

methods of study, 39

of a small stream, 147

organ of sense, 113

organ of taste, 113

physiological responses of, 112

pond, 133

productivity in standing and run-
ning water, 101

reaction to atmospheric gases
in water, 118

reaction to carbonic acid, 118

reaction to oxygen, 118

rheotropism in, 115

sense of hearing, 116

spawning habits of, 112

stream, 133

submerged vegetation affecting

feeding ground, 90
Fitness of environment, 85
Floods of lower Danube affecting

biological conditions, 145
Florida mangroves forming ani-
mal habitats, 89
Flowers,

and insects, 142, 143

animal visitors, 141, 142

bees and, 141

fertilization, 142

pollination of, in relation to ani-
mals, 141, 142
Food,

beetles, 126

birds, 126, 128, 130

butterflies, 77

Coleoptera, 77

Echinoderms, 126

fish, 123

insects, 128

lizards, 129

nestling birds, 128

oysters, 112

predaceous beetles, 130

serpents, 129

snails, 125

Turbellarian, 127

woodpeckers, 126
Food habits,

back beetles, 76

Cerambycidse, 72

Chrysomelidse, 72

Coleoptera, 77

grosbeaks, 128

larval Acalyptrate Muscidse, 78

longicorn beetles, 77

Rhynchophora, 72

snout beetles, 76

162

INDEX

Food of animals,

in Kiel Bay, 129

of sea-bottom, 63, 136
Food plants,

of Coleoptera, 77

of forest insects, 76
Food relations,

Carabidse, 127

cave animals, 144

Coccinellidse, 127
Forest influences, 90
Forest insects,

classified by food plants, 76

life histories, 74

literature, 74
Forest invasion on alluvial flats,

89

Forest types, determining, 89
Foresters, nature's, 124
Forestry, 58

Forests, insect depredations in, 127
Form regulation, 97
Formation, 60

French work in comparative psy-
chology, 107

Fresh-water Amphipods, 111
Fresh-water animals and plants,

biological relations, 130
Fresh-water biology, keys to organ-
isms, 78
Fresh-water biology, technique,

62

Fresh-water fish, food relations, 123
Fresh-water habitats, changes, 86
Fresh-water mollusks, habitats,

147

Fresh-water mussels, pearly, 119
Fresh-water Planarians, reactions,

116
Fresh-water plants and animals,

biological relations, 130
Fruiting of blue flag, 142
Fulgur eating oysters, mussels, and

clams, 110
Function,

of lateral-line organs of fish, 116

of mucus of shell-fish, 114
Fungi,

and ants, 128

and bark beetles, 127

Galls,

animals in relation to plant, 141

insect, 143

on European plants, 143
Gases,

dissolved in water, biological
significance, 87

reaction of fish to atmospheric,

118

General physiology, 95
General principles, value of, 41
Genetic classification, 56
Genetic method, 15
Genetic psychology, limits, 109
Genetic relation of types of action,

106

Genetic standpoint, 91, 101
Genetic studies, criteria in, 56
Geographic life centers, 99
Geologic processes, 86
Geological investigation, relation

to biology, 22
Geology and ecology, 22
Glade,

ants, 149

associations of ants, 149
Glover, Townend, entomological

work, 73

Governmental publications, cata-
logues, 65
Crackles, 109
Grasshoppers,

short-horned, associations! group-
ings, 148

short-horned, habitats, 148
Grass-wrack, ecology of, in Danish

waters, 89

Grave, fauna of the, 144
Green cells of Convoluta roscoffensis,

bionomics, 127
Grosbeaks, food habits, 128
Gross environment, evolution, 86
Growth, 92, 93, 97

affected by environment, 100

influence of stimuli upon, 95

quahaug, 108

soft clam, 114

Venus mercenaria, 114
Guiana forest, struggle for life in,
124

INDEX

163

Gull community, organization, 106,

134

Gypsy moth, 74
enemies of, 74

Habitats, 5, 60

affected by baseleveling, 86

amphibians, 148

animal, formed by plants, 89, 91

animals classified by, 134

ants, 137, 149

beetles, 145

bird preferences, 148

birds, 137

birds in summer, 146

cave, 112, 143, 144

classification, 59, 138, 139

Collembola, 136

crawfish, 116

dune, 139

fish of Illinois, 140

formed by river floods, 145

fresh-water, 86

grasshoppers, 148

history of their recognition, 138

inland, 91

insects, 128, 135

invertebrate, 146

lake, 87

lake beach, 147

lake fauna, 140

lake, for fish, 147

land, 86

mammals, 145

marine animals, 135, 136, 146

marsh for mollusks, 137

mollusks, 138, 145, 147

mollusks, classification, 138

mollusks of land and fresh water,

classification, 138
moor, 139

Oregon sea beach, 149
Orthoptera, 137
oyster, 111, 112, 131, 132
parasitic fauna, 129
pond, 148

preferences of birds, 148
reptiles, 148
sand areas, 146
sand prairie, 139

sandy sea flats, 136, 137

sea bottom, 136

shore animals, 139

spiders, 125, 138

stream, 147, 148

three dimensions, 46

Turbellarian, 127
Habits,

Amphipods, 119

Amphithoe longimana Smith, 113

cave-inhabiting bats, 112

Cicindelidse, 121

fish, 63, 112

formation in crawfish, 106

formation in the turtle, 105

Humble-bee, 118

Leptinotarsa, 119

mammals, 118

mammals of North America, 107

mating period of spiders, 115

Plethodon, 117

salamanders, 119

solitary wasps of Texas, 113

spiders, 117, 118

squirrels, 115

tortoises, 116

Venus mercenaria, 114
Halictus,

bioconose, 134

guests and parasites, 134
Hearing in fish, sense of, 116
Heath ants, 149
Hemiptera, seasonal succession,

141
Hemiptera-Heteroptera, catalogue

of Nearctic, 71
Hibernation, 115

influence on animal parasites,
130

insects, 128
Holland, sandy flats of, animals,

136, 137
Homarus Americanus, behavior of

immature stages, 105
Homing pigeons, methods, 113
Honey-bee, natural history, 109
Horde, 132

Human associations, 11
Human behavior, biological and
psychological foundations, 133

164

INDEX

Humble-bee,

domestication, 119
habits, 119
life history, 119

Humidity of air, vegetations! con-
trol of relative, 90
Humus, effect on animal life of

soil, 100

Huttonian theory, 80
Hydr aides Dianthus V., behavior

modifiable, 106
Hydropsyche, photographing nets

of, 64

Hymenoptera of N. America,
bibliography, 73
catalogue of species, 73
Hypermetamorphic beetles, 139
Hypotheses, multiple working, 55

Ideas,

biometric, 63

life history of scientific, 57
Illinois,

ecological relations of entomophi-
lous flora and anthomophilous
insect fauna, 142

fish, 140

sand areas, biology, 146

sand prairies, associations! study,
139

State Entomologist's reports,

74
Illinois River, entomology, 74

plankton, 147
Image-forming powers of eyes of

various types, 110
Imitation,

and intelligence in birds, 117

criterion, 117
Index,

Agricultural reports of the U. S.
patent office, 72

circulars, U. S. Entomology
Bureau, 73

Experiment Station Record, 76

Illinois State entomologist's re-
ports, 74

Insect Life, 72

Lintner's New York State en-
tomologist's reports, 74

Missouri reports on insects, 77
Ontario entomological society

reports, 72
Orthoptera of North America,

77
papers on biological survey of

U. S., 128
Riley's Missouri entomological

reports, 77
Index catalogue of medical and

veterinary zoology, 129
Indian corn, see Corn
Indiana,

caves and their fauna, 144
insect galls, 143
Individual development, 97
Individual ecology, 3, 8, 23, 24

and the associational unit, 131
Influence,

of sessile habit, 100
of slowest factors, 98
Inland habitats, 91
Insect associations, changes in,

127

Insect depredations in forests, 127
Insect enemies of cotton boll weevil,

125
Insect fauna of the giant cactus of

Arizona, 135
Insect galls,
Europe, 143
Indiana, 143
New York, 143

Insect guests of Florida land tor-
toise, 135
Insect Life, 111

index, 72
Insect oscillations regulated by

birds, 123

Insectivorous Coleoptera, 127
Insects,

affecting park trees, 74
affecting the orange, 75
affecting woodland trees, 74
and animal forms of Caledonia

Creek, N. Y., 147, 148
aquatic, 74

aquatic in Adirondacks, 75
bibliography, 74, 75
bionomics of, 128

INDEX

1G5

Insects,

cactus, 135

carrion-feeding, 146

collecting, 58

environmental influences upon,
96, 97

eyes, 110

flowers and, 142, 143

food, 128

habitats, 128, 135

hibernation, 128

Illinois, 74

in grave, 144

influence in economy of nature,
135

influenced by animal substances,
135

influenced by climate, 135

influenced by environment, 135

influenced by man, 135

influenced by plants, 135

influenced by soil, 135

initiating successions, 127

instinct, 128

life histories, 70, 73

life histories in Lintner's New
York State entomologist's re-
ports, 74

mimicry of South African, 128

Missouri, 77

motions, 128

Neuropteroid, synopsis, cata-
logue, and bibliography, 71

New Mexico, 148

New York, 74

noises, 128

parasitic and other kinds of
castration in, 130

parasitism, 129, 130

preserving, 58

protective adaptations against
birds by, 125

seasonal succession, 141

senses, 111

social community, 135

social life, 111

societies, 128

stratagems, 128

study, 59

systematic literature, 71

warning colors of South African,

128
Instinct,

and intelligence, 120

birds, 113

blindness of, 103

death-feigning, 113

insects, 128

Leptinotarsa, 119

raccoons, 110

spiders, 117
Instruments, 57, 59
Integrative action of nervous sys-
tem, 98
Intelligence,

and imitation in birds, 117

and instinct, 120

animal, of the raccoon, 111

birds, 113

evolution of animal, 114

nature and development of ani-
mal, 115

raccoons, 110, 111
Interactions of organisms, 49, 123
Internal relations, 1
Interpretation, dynamical, 82
Interrelations, 5

between forests and insects,
127

of the social community, 131

parasitic, of the bee community,

139

Introducing noxious animals, 124
Invertebrate animals of Vineyard

Sound, 136
Invertebrate fauna of Isle Royale,

ecological relations, 146
Invertebrates,

census, 62

life histories, 70, 136

marine, 136, 146
Investigation, methods of scientific,

56

Iris versicolor L., fruiting, 142
Isle Royale,

as biotic environment, 91

birds, ecological succession, 124,
133

birds' habitats, 148

ecology of Coleoptera, 145

166

INDEX

Isle Royale,

ecological relations of inverte-
brate fauna, 146

mammals of, ecological succes-
sion, 145

Isophyllia, feeding reactions, 109
Isopods,

of ponds and streams, responses,

106
physiological states and rheo-

taxis, 106

reactions of surface and sub-
terranean, 108
reactions to light, 108

Jutland, sandy flats of, animals,
136, 137

Kiel Bay,

fauna, 138

food of animals in, 129
Krakatau, new flora, 89

Lack of oxygen, resistance affected

by carbohydrates, 99
Lake as a microcosm, 123, 131
Lake beach,

habitat, 147

debris, Sarcophagidse with rela-
tion to, 147
Lake fauna,

associational study, 140

correlated with vegetation, 140

habitats, 140

Lake, fish associations of a, 147
Lake habitat,

changes in, 87

fish, 147

Lake, respiration of an inland, 87
Lake shore, animal associations, 134
Lakes,

gases dissolved in waters, 87

plankton investigations of Danish,

140
Land animal communities,

controlled by vegetation, 90

vegetation and control, 124, 133
Land animals,

ecological succession, 133

origin, 148

Land forms, changing, 86

Land habitats, changes, 86

Land tortoise of Florida, insect

guests, 135

Larval habits of tiger beetles, 118
Larvae,

catalogue, 77

classification of Lepidopterous, 73

Coleopterous, table of families,
75

Donaciinse, natural history, 109

Lepidopterous, 73, 78

saw-fly, 78

Lateral-line organs of fish, func-
tions, 116

Law of response to strain, 85
Laws of change, orderly sequence,

79
Laws of regulation,

in behavior, 105

in insect oscillations, 123

in metabolism, 85
Laws of sequence,

in adjustment between animal
and environment, 122

in animals, 92, 93

in environment, 79

within the animal, 92
Leech, behavior, 121
Lepidoptera,

and temperature extremes, 99

field tables, 74

larvse, 73, 78

larvae, classification, 73

transformations of described, 73
Leptinotarsa,

behavior, 119

habits, 119

instincts, 119
Leptothorax Emersoni Wheeler,

ethological observations, 120
Life and chemistry, 97
Life centers, geographic, 99
Life histories,

aquatic Nematocerous Diptera,
75

fish, 112

insects, 73

insects and allied invertebrates,
70

INDEX

167

Life histories,

insects, in Lintner's New York
State entomologist's reports,
74

mammals, 118

Odonata, 76

physiological, 17

salamanders, 119

tiger beetles, 118
Life history,

common clam, 114

humble-bee, 119

quahaug, 108

scientific ideas, 57
Life,

maintenance, 97

nature, 97

origin, 97
Light,

and behavior of organisms, 115

locomotor responses of animals
to white, 107

reactions of Amphibians, 116

reactions of dragon-fly nymphs
to, 118

reactions of Isopods to, 108

reactions of Planarians to, 105

white, locomotor responses of

animals to, 107
Limiting factors, 98
Limpet, environmental studies, 101
Limulus, behavior of early stages,

105

Lists, local, 48
Literature, limitations and value,

82, 83, 84

Living matter, dynamics, 96
Lizards,

behavior, 116

food, 129

Pennsylvania, 129
Lobster,

behavior, 105, 113

natural history of the American,

113

Local lists, 48
Locomotion of starfish, direction,

110

Locomotor responses to white light,
107

Locust, Rocky Mountain, 77

Logs, fauna under, 144

Louisiana, marine food mollusks,

114
Lower organisms,

age, 97

behavior, 96, 105, 107

conjugation, 97

death, 97
Lycosidae,

ecology, 125

habitats, 125
Lymncea ColumeUa Say, effects of

environment on growth, 100
Lymnseas, ecology, 108
Lymnaeidse, ecology, 108
Lymnceus Eleodes Say, behavior, 120

Maize, see Indian Corn
Maladjustments of plants and ants,

126

Mammal associations, 145
Mammal successions, 145
Mammals,

bibliography of North American,
107

collecting, 58

habits, 118

habits of North American, 107

Isle Royale, ecological succession,
145

life histories, 118

methods of study, 39
Man, influence upon insects, 135
Mangroves, Florida, 89
Manual of style, 68
Manuscript arrangement, 69
Marine animals,

and vegetation, 89

associations! study, 136

associations, 135

collecting, 57

distribution, 139

food of, in Kiel Bay, 129

habitat study, 136
Marine food mollusks of Louisiana,

114

Marine habitats of animals, 135
Marine invertebrates, 146
Marine life, quantitative study, 124

168

INDEX

Marine vegetation and animal

associations, 89
Marsh habitats, mollusks, 137
Maryland farm, birds of a, 125
Massachusetts shell-fisheries, 108
Mating instincts, of walking-stick,

119
Mating period of spiders, habits,

115

Mayfield Cave fauna, 143
Mayfly nymphs, keys, 75, 76
Meadow ants, 149
Media, changes in, 88
Medical zoology, bibliography, 129
Metabolism, 92, 93

fish, 100

in the sea, 87
Method,

comparative, limitations, 56

genetic, 56

historical, 56

scientific, 55, 56, 57
Methods,

biometric, 63

of homing pigeons, 113

of investigation, energy, agent
and process, 56

of microscopic anatomy, 62

of study, 14, 39

of studying birds, fish, mammals,

39
Microcosm, 4

lake as a, 123, 131
Microscopic anatomy, methods, 62
Migration,

influence on ajiimal parasites,
130

of birds, 109

of birds, as a response, 109, 110
Migratory plant formations, 88
Mimicry, 42

of insects of South Africa, 128
Missouri,

insects, 77

insects, index of reports on, 77
Modifiability of behavior of Hy-

droides Dianthus V., 106
Modifications,

of behavior, 93

of behavior by experience, 106

Molluscan associations, local, 137
Molluscan succession, associations!

study, 137

Mollusk' fisheries of Massachu-
setts, 108
Mollusks,

associations, 138

collecting, 58

ecology, 147

effect of environment, 100

habitats, 138, 145, 147

habitats in fresh water, 147

of Louisiana, marine food, 114

of Skokie Marsh area, ecology,

137

Mongoose, 28

Morphology, experimental, 95
Mosquitoes, Dragonflies vs. 72
Moth, Yucca, 142
Moths,

drinking habits, 119

reactions, 106
Mourning-cloak butterfly, photo-

tropism, 116

Movements, physiology, 107
Mucus, function of, in shell-fish,

114

Mud snail, behavior, 111
Multiple working hypotheses, 55
Muscidae, Acalyptrate, 78
Museum exhibit of American birds,

ecological, 145, 146
Museums,

determination of specimens at, 52

relation to ecology, 22

use of ecological ideas, 145, 146
Mussels,

artificial propagation of fresh-
water, 114, 115

diseases, 119

eaten by Fidgur, 1 10

eaten by Sycotypus, 110

enemies, 119

pearly fresh-water, enemies and
diseases, 119

pearly fresh-water, habits, 119

pearly fresh-water, protection, 119

reproduction of fresh-water, 114,

115
Mutation theory and ethology, 22

INDEX

169

Mutual aid, a factor of evolution,

133
My a arenaria,

growth, 114

life history, 114
Myriapods,

collecting, 58

systematic literature, 71

Nassa obsolete, 110
Natural conditions of existence, 96
Natural environments, 26
Natural history, 18

American lobster, 113

Amia calva L., 117

Amphithoe, 113

honey-bee, 109

larvae of Donaciinje, 109

starfish, 115

surveys, 23, 30
Natural preserves, 34, 38
Naturalist's Directory, 53
Nature,

and nurture* 17

control, 33

Nature's foresters, 124
Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera,

catalogue, 71
Nearctic spiders, 72
Necturus, behavior, 121
Nematocerous Diptera,

aquatic, 75

aquatic, stages, 75
Nepa apiculata Uhler, death-feign-
ing, 118
Nervous system,

integrative action, 98

origin of, in sponges, 116

regulatory action, 98
Nestling birds, food, 128
Nests,

ants, 127

collecting birds', 58
New Mexico,

ecological distribution of animal
life in, 148

insects, 148

reptiles, 148
New York,

insect galls, 143

State entomologist's reports,

74
Nomenclature,

ecological, for plants, 60

phytogeographical, 22
Non-ecological surveys, 31
Normal,

as ideal, 27

conditions, 27

departure from, 98

processes of nature, 26
North Carolina, oyster industry,

112

Notebook, aluminum, 44
Note slips, 37, 44
Note taking, 42, 45, 61
Noxious animals, introducing, 124
Numbering specimens, 50, 51
Numerals, 69

Nurmijarvi Lake, fauna and vege-
tation, 139

Nurture and nature, 17
Nutrition of Arthropods, affected

by cave life, 101
Nymphs,

dragon-fly, 76

Mayfly, 76

Zygoptera, keys, 76

Oak gall flies, and oak galls, 143

Oceanography, 21

Odonata,

life histories, 76

transformations described, 72
(Ecology, see Ecology
Oligochaeta, 58

Ontario, Entomological Society of,
index to thirty annual reports,
72
Optima, 98

development, 94

of Chsetognatha, 115

physiological, 27

vital, 27, 94
Optimum, 30, 94

associations!, 94

departure from, 98

vital conditions, 99

vital, in caves, 144
Orange, insects affecting the, 75

170

INDEX

Orchestia palustris, habits and life

history, 119
Orderly sequence,

laws, 92, 93

of behavior, 113

of disturbances by man, 27

of environment, 79
Oregon beach, beetles of an, 149
Orientation among animals, 118
Origin of land animals, 148
Original conditions, 26, 27

of environment, 25, 26
Oriole, Baltimore, 117
Organ of taste, fish, 113
Organic parasitism, 126
Organism,

ant colony as an, 131

as agent, 4
Organisms,

behavior of lower, 96, 107

geometrical representations of
the conflict between, 125

interactions, 49, 123

lower, behavior, 96, 107

physiology, 96

responses to light, 115
Organization of gull community,

106, 134

Organs, physiology, 96
Ornithological balance-wheel, 123
Orthoptera,

biology, 101

classification of, by egg-laying
sites, 137

habitats, 137

index to North American, 77
Overfishing of oyster beds, 131
Oxygen,

effects of lack of, on sea-urchin,
99

physiological effects of lack, 99

reaction of fish to, 118

resistance to lack of, increased,

99

Oyster, 18, 114, 131
Oyster bank, 18

as social community, 132
Oyster bed, 6

overfishing, 131

succession of animals on, 131

Oyster culture, 6, 18, 131
Oyster,

development, 112
food, 112
Oyster grounds of South Carolina,

natural, 111
Oyster habitat, 111
Oyster industry of North Carolina,

112
Oyster reef affected by storms,

112
Oysters,

eaten by Fulgur, 110
eaten by Sycotypus, 110

Painted turtle, discriminative abil-
ity, 109
Papers, composition of scientific,

66

Papers, preparation for publica-
tion, 65, 68
Papilionidse, seasonal succession,

140

Paragraphing, 69
Parasites, 132

a function of habitat, 129
American Rhynchophora, 76
burrowing bee, 134
influence of hibernation on ani-
mal, 130
influence of migration on animal,

129

Sebago salmon, 129
Parasitic castration in insects, 130
Parasitic environment, 126
Parasitic fauna, relation to habitat,

129

Parasitic interrelations of bee com-
munity, 139
Parasitism, 129
insect, 129, 130
organic, 126
social, 126

Park trees, insects affecting, 74
Parks for ecological study, 38
Parrots, 109
Passenger pigeon, 117
Pathological condition, 26
Pathological conditions, artificial
and, 27

INDEX

171

Pecten irradians,

economic value, 108

growth, 108

habits, 108

life history, 108
Pennsylvania,

crawfish, 116

lizards, 129

serpents, 129

turtles, 129
Phase rule, 85
Photography, 57, 59, 61, 65

aquatic animals, 63, 64

birds, 39

fish, 39

mammals, 39

nets of Hydropsyche (aquatic),

64
Phototaxis and random movements,

105
Phototropism of Mourning-cloak

butterfly, 116
Phylogeny, 21, 96

of human behavior, 133
Physa, biology, 110
Physical change, influence upon

animals, 85
Physiographic ecology of Chicago,

88

Physiological chemistry, 95
Physiological classification,

and ecological succession, 21

in ecology, 101, 133, 134
Physiological conditions, 92, 93
Physiological life histories of plants,

17

Physiological problems and dy-
namic theory, 97
Physiological responses,

distribution due to, 101, 112,
136

of fish, 112
Physiological states and rheotaxis

in Isopoda, 106
Physiology,

comparative, 95

general, 95

of organisms, 96

of organs, 96

of reproduction, 100

Phytogeographical nomenclature,

22, 60
Pigeon,

common, 117

homing, 113

passenger, 117
Pigeons,

emotion in, 110

methods of homing, 113

voices as means of social control,

106, 134
Planarians,

behavior, 120

distribution locally, 120

reactions of fresh-water, 116

reactions to light, 105
Plane table manual, 64
Plankton, 60, 148

ecological study, 140

investigations of Danish lakes, 140

of Illinois river, 147

of Shawnee Cave, ecological
study, 145

organisms, 50
Plant animals, 128
Plant ecology, 59

bibliography, 89

general principles, 88, 89
Plant formations, stable and migra-
tory, 88
Plant galls, 143

animals in relation to, 141

biology and causes of European,

143
Plant societies,

relation to evaporation, 64, 90

relation to humidity, 90

study of Chicago, 88
Plant succession, 90

relation to distribution of tiger

beetles, 90
Plants,

and ants, 126, 127

and snails, 125

forming animal habitats, 89

influence upon insects, 135

life histories, physiological, 17

seasonal succession, 140

variation, 96
Play of animals, 112

172

INDEX

Plethodon cinereus erythronotus,
habits, 117

larval state, 117
Poduridse,

behavior and habitat, 136

movements, 136
Poisons, physiological effect of

certain, 99
Pollination, animals in relation to,

141
Pollination of flowers, animals in

relation, 141, 142
Pollination of Yucca, 142
Pond,

fauna, 148

fish, ecological succession, 133

habitat, 148

Isopods, 106

Pond snail, behavior, 120
Pond, solution, 148
Ponds, seasonal succession in old

forest, 140

Porcupine mountains, 91
Postglacial dispersal of biota, 91
Potassium cyanide, effects on sea-
urchin, 99

Potato beetles, see Leptinotarsa
Predaceous beetles, food, 126, 130
Preservation of specimens, 49, 50
Preserves, natural, 34, 38
Principles, value of general, 41
Process, animal behavior as a, 102
Process method,

application, 86

of investigation, 56
Process of adjustment, 30, 31

in organisms, 122
Process of response, 4
Process standpoint, 91, 101

applied to vegetation, 88
Processes,

geologic, 86

of behavior, 93

of development, 93

of growth, 93

of metabolism, 93

of research, 55

regulatory character of physico-
chemical and physiological, 85

standpoint, 80, 81, 82

Production, conditions of, in the

sea, 87

Proof, correction, 68
Proof-reading, 65, 68
Propagation, artificially, of fresh-
water mussels, 114, 115
Protection,
of birds, 124
of useful birds, 127
Protective coloration, 62
Protoplasm, influence of stimuli

upon, 95

Protoplasmic respiration, 97
Psychic,

criteria, 106

development of young domestic

animals, 115
Psychology,

comparative, 120

comparative, French work in, 107

English sparrow, 117

limits of comparative and genetic,

109

of ants, 120
Publication, preparation of papers

for, 65, 68
Punctuation, 68, 69

Quahaug,
growth, 108
life history, 108
Quantitative determination of fauna

of lower Elbe, 138
Quantitative study, 61

animal life of sea-bottom, 63, 124,

136

of birds, 59, 60
of life of sea-bottom, 63, 124,

136

Quarnerian Gulf, animals asso-
ciated in the, 135

Rabbits, 28

Raccoon, animal intelligence, 111

Raccoons,

instincts, 110

intelligence, 110

sense, 110

visual discrimination, 110
Ranatra, death-feigning, 113

INDEX

173

Random movements and photo-
taxis, 105
Rations, 62
Record keeping, 61
Recording notes, 64
Red-headed woodpecker, 117
Reef, ecological succession on an

oyster, 112

Regeneration as functional adjust-
ment, 98
Regulation,

in behavior, 105

of insect oscillations by birds,
123

regeneration as functional, 98
Regulative action of nervous sys-
tem, 98

Regulatory character of physico-
chemical and physiological
processes, 85

Relative equilibrium, 30, 31
Reproduction,

fresh-water mussels, 114, 115

physiology, 100
Reptiles,

Arizona, 148

associations of desert species,
148

collecting, 58

desert species, 148

food of desert species, 148

New Mexico, 148
Research methods,

in plant ecology, 59, 88
Research,

processes, 55

speculative method in, 55
Respiration,

of an inland lake, 87

protoplasmic, 97
Response,

bird migration as a, 109

to strain, 85
Responses,

Isopods of ponds and streams,
106

study, 15

to chemical stimulations, 97
Rheotaxis in Isopoda, 106
Rheotropism in fish, 115

Rhynchophora,

biologies, 76

food habits, 72

parasites, 76
Ring-dove, blond, 110
River entomology, Illinois, 75
River fauna,

Danube delta, 145

lower Elbe, 138

River habitat, flooded delta, 145
River plankton, Illinois, 147
Rocky Mountain locust, enemies, 77
Rodentia, 107

Rose coral, feeding reactions, 109
Running water, effect on produc-
tivity of fish, 101

Salamanders, habits, 119

Salmon, internal parasites of Se-
bago, 129

Salpa and evolution of life, 123

Salt-marsh Amphipod, habits and
life history, 119

Salt-water fauna, 111. See also Ma-
rine animals

San Diego region, Chsetognatha of,
115

Sand,
ants, 149

areas of Illinois, biology, 146
prairies of Illinois, associational
study, 139

Sandy flats of the sea coast as a
biotic association, 136, 137

Sarcophagidffi, relation to lake
beach debris, 147

Saw-fly, larva?, 78

Scallop fishery, 108

Scallops, 114

Sceloporus spinosus floridanus, be-
havior, 116

Schleswig-Holstein oyster bank de-
scribed, 132

Science, better English in, 67

Scientific exploration, 63

Scientific ideas, life history, 57

Scientific investigation, methods, 56

Scientific method, 55, 56, 57

Scientific papers, composition, 66

Scientific technique, 55

174

INDEX

Sea anemone, behavior modifiable,

105

Sea beach, associational study, 136
Sea-bottom,

animal life, 63, 136

fauna and flora, 64

quantitative study of animals, 63
Sea,

conditions of life in, 134

conditions of production in, 87

cycle of matter in, 87

metabolism in, 87

struggle for existence in, 123

valuation of the, 136
Seashore,

animal ecology, 63, 64

animals, 146

Season, influence on digestion of
cold-blooded vertebrates, 100
Seasonal succession,

animals, 140

beetles, 140

butterflies, 140

Hemiptera, 141

in old forest ponds, 140

plants, 140
Sea-urchin, 99

resistance to lack of oxygen, 99

resistance to potassium cyanide,

99
Sebago salmon, internal parasites,

129

Second-hand books, dealers in, 65
Sense organ,

Arthropods, effect of caves on,
101

offish, 113
Senses of insects, 111
Sensory adaptations of cave-inhabit-
ing bats, 112
Sensory reactions of Amphioxus,

116

Sequence of changes in environ-
ment, 104

Sessile habit, influence, 100
Serpents,

food, 129

Pennsylvania, 129
Sexual characters of Araneads,
secondary, 115

Shawnee Cave plankton, ecological

study, 145
Shell-fish,

ciliary action, 114

feeding reflexes, 114

food, 114

function of mucus, 1 14
Shell-fish industries,

biology, 114

culture, 114

utilization, 114

Shell-fisheries of Massachusetts, 108
Shore, animal ecology of the, 139
Shore animals, associational study,

139

Significance of courtship of Ara-
neads, 115
Skokie Marsh area, ecology of

mollusca, 137
Slaves of ants, 120
Slug,

eyes, 110

feeding habits, 125
Snail,

eyes, 110

mud, 111

pond, 120
Snails,

and plants, 125

feeding habits, 125

food, 125

in grave, 144

influence of environment on, 100
Snout-beetles, 76
Snowbird, 117
Social community, 18, 123

animals, 131

insects, 135

interrelations, 131

oyster bank, 132

sea-bottom, 136
Social control, by voices among

pigeons, 106, 134
Social life,

from comparative and phylo-
genetic standpoint, 132

insects, 111

multiple origin, 132

origin, 132
Social parasitism, 126

INDEX

175

Social reaction,

beginnings in lower animals, 134

beginnings in man, 134
Social wasps, 117

behavior, 111
Societies, insects, 128
Sociology,

a branch of ecology or ethology,
132

relation to ecology, 10, 11, 12
Soil,

animal life influenced by humus
and tillage, 100

animals of the, 86

fauna of Alps, 144

influence upon insects, 135
Soils,

moisture, 62

study, 58
Solitary wasps,

habits, 116, 117

habits in Texas, 113

instincts, 116
Solution pond, fauna, 148
South Africa, insects, 128
South Carolina, natural oyster

grounds, 111
Sow bug, eyes, 110
Space, perception by tortoises, 121
Sparrow,

field, 117

fox, 117

song, 117

tree, 117

vesper, 117

white-crowned, 117

white-throated, 117
Spawning habits of fish, 112
Specimens,

collecting natural history, 63

collection, 49, 50

determination, 49, 51

determined, 52

numbering, 50, 51

preservation, 49, 50
Spiders,

cocooning habits, 118

collecting, 58

habitats, 125, 138

habits, 117

instincts, 117

mating habits, 115

mental powers, 117

Nearctic, 72

systematic literature, 71
Sponges,

behavior, 116

reactions, 116
Squirrels,

behavior, 121

habits, 115

Stable plant formations, 88
Starfish,

behavior, 105

locomotion, 110

natural history, 115
Status, dynamic, 29, 31
Stimulations, responses to chemical,

97
Stimuli,

influence upon growth, 95

influence upon protoplasm, 95

similar effects of diverse, 98
Stones, fauna under, 144
Stratigraphy, relation of marine

bionomy to, 22
Stream,

animals of a small, 147, 148

environment, references to, 113

fish, ecological succession, 133

fish of a small, 147

habitat, 147, 148

Isopods, 106
Stress, condition, 30, 31
Struggle among organisms, 123
Struggle for existence, 2, 122, 123

in a lake, 123

in Guiana forests, 124

in the sea, 123

references, 126
Studies, quantitative, 61
Style brief, Wistar Institute, 68
Style manual, 68
Subterranean. See also Cave
Subterranean animals, 58, 86, 143,

144, 145

Subterranean Isopods, behavior, 108
Succession,

animals in oyster beds, 131

associations of inland habitats, 91

176

INDEX

Succession,

beetles, 145

ecological, 101

ecological, birds, 21, 124, 133

ecological, in the grave, 144

ecological, on oyster reef, 112

in stages of decay, 144, 146

mammal, 145

mollusks, 137

seasonal, 140

Successions, initiated by insects, 127
Suggestions to authors, 68
Summer-bird life near Havana,

Illinois, 146

Surgery, emergency, 65
Surveying, 65
Surveys,

ecological, 23, 67

ecological training for, 32

natural history, 23, 30

non-ecological, 31
Sycotypus eating oysters, mussels,

and clams, 110
Symbiosis, 127, 128, 130

Talorchestia longicornis, habits and

life history, 119
Tanganyika problem, 89
Taste, fish's organ of, 112
Taxonomy, 54

relation to ecology, 8
Teaching, relation to ecology, 13
Technique, 15, 57

of fresh-water biology, 62

scientific, 55
Temperature,

effect of extremes, 99

in open and wooded areas, 91

influence on digestion of cold-
blooded vertebrates, 100

lowering of, and loss of water, 99

physiological effects of high tem-
perature, 99
Termites, Arthropods living with,

130
Terns, noddy and sooty, behavior,

120
Terrapin, diamond-back,

cultivation, 110

natural history, 110

Texas,

habits of solitary wasps, 113

wasps, solitary, habits, 113
Theory, use, 40
Thermocline, biological significance,

87
Tiger beetles,

larval habits, 118

life histories, 118

relation of distribution to plant

succession, 90
Tipulidae, 76
Toad, American, 100
Tomahawk Lake, Wis., Mollusca of,

137
Tortoise,

Florida land, 135

habits, 116

perception of space, 121
Tracks and tracking, 58
Trapping, 39, 60
Tree frogs,

behavior, 112

color changes, 112
Trees,

insects affecting, 74
Trematoda and trematode diseases,

index to literature, 129
Trial and error, 104
Tubicolous Annelids, behavior, 112
Turbellarian,

behavior, 127

ecology, 127

food, 127

habitat, 127
Turtles,

cultivation, 110

discriminative ability of painted,
109

food, 129

formation of habits, 105

natural history, 110

Pennsylvania, 129
Turtur risorius, 110
Types of eyes, image-forming

powers of various, 110
Typography, 68

Use of theory, 40
Utah, 55

INDEX

177

Vanessa antiopa Linn., phototro-

pism, 116
Variation,

in animals, 96
in plants, 96
statistical, 60
Vegetation,

and animal associations, 90
and control of land animal com-
munities, 133
Caithness, 88
changes in, 88

controlling land animal communi-
ties, 90

correlated with lake fauna, 140
development and structure, 88
invading alluvial flats, 89
invading new land surface, 89
Vegetational change, influence upon

animals, 85
Vegetational control,

of relative evaporating power of

the air, 90
of relative humidity of air,

90

Vegetative cycles, causes, 88
Venus mercenaria,
growth, 108, 114
habits, 114
life history, 108
Veterinary zoology, bibliography,

129

Vineyard Sound, invertebrate ani-
mals of, 136
Visual discrimination in raccoons,

110

Vital conditions, optimum, 99
Vital optimum, 94
Voices of pigeons as means of social

control, 106, 134
Volcanic activity and new land

surface, 89
Volcanic islands, new flora, 89

"Walking stick,"
behavior, 119
habits, 119
mating instincts, 119
reactions, 119

Walnut Lake,

ecological relations of fish, 147

fish ecology, 147
Warning coloration, 62

testing by experiment, 125
Warning colors, insects of South

Africa, 128
Wasps, social, 117

behavior, 110
Wasps, solitary,

habits, 116, 117

habits, of Texas, 113

instincts, 116, 117
Water,

loss of and lowering of tempera-
ture, 99

running, effect on productivity of
fish, 101

standing, effect on productivity

of fish, 101

Weights and measures, 69
Wild life,

photography, 61

study, 61

Windermere, Lake, 90
Wisdom, blindness of, 103
Wistar Institute, style brief, 68
Wood borers, 77
Woodcraft, 61
Woodland,

ants, 149

associations of ants, 149

atmospheric conditions about, 91
. birds as protectors, 124
Woodland trees, insects affecting, 74
Woodpecker, red-headed, 117
Woodpeckers, food, 126
Worms, eyes, 110

Yucca,
moth, 142
pollination, 142

Zoological Record, 70
Zoologist, economic, 29
Zoology, experimental, 96
Zostera marina, ecology in Danish

waters, 89
Zygoptera, life histories, 76

INDEX TO NAMES

Adams, Chas. C., 21, 22, 86, 91

94, 99, 124, 133, 145
Adler, H., 143
Aldrich, J. M., 71
Allbutt, T. C., 66
Allee, W. C., 106, 118, 140
Andrews, E. A., 108
Antipa, G., 145
Appel, O., 141, 142

Bachmetjew, P., 96

Baker, F. C., 108, 137

Baker, H. B., 145

Baldwin, E. L., 112

Balfour, I. B., 89

Bancroft, W. D., 85

Banks, N., 58, 65, 71

Banta, A. M., 108, 143

Baskerville, C., 97

Bates, 23, 42

Beal, F. E. L., 126

fielding, D. L., 108

Belt, 23

Bendire, C., 109

Bethune, C. J. S., 72

Betten, C., 75

Beutenmilller, W., 72, 143

Birge, E. A., 87

Blackman, 94, 98

Blackwall, J., 108

Blatchley, W. S., 144

Boas, F., 56

Bohn, G., 107

Bouvier, E. L., 141

Boving, A. G., 109

Brandt, K., 87

Bretscher, K., 58

Brooks, W. K., 3, 17, 36, 42, 79, 82,

122, 123

Brues, C. T., 134
Brunner, J., 58
Buffon, 20

Burdon-Sanderson, J. K., 1, 18
Burns, F. L., 59
Buttel-Reepen, H. von, 109

Calkins, M. W., 109

Carpenter, F. W., 109

Case, E. C., 21

Cassell, 53

Casteel, D. B., 109

Caudell, A. N., 73

Chamberlin, T. C., 55, 86

Chapman, F. M., 39, 59, 61, 126,

145

Chittenden, F. H., 72
Clarke, W. E., 109
Clements, F. E., 21, 59, 61, 88
Clessin, S., 100
Coker, R. E., 110
Cole, L. J., 110
Cole, L. W., 110
Colton, H. S., 100, 110
Comstock, J. H., 43, 59, 72
Congdon, E. D., 107
Cook, M. T., 143
Cook, O. F., 30, 90
Coquillett, D. W., 73
Coues, E., 107
Cowles, H. C., 88
Craig, W., 106, 110, 134
Cramer, F., 56
Crampton, C. B., 88
Cresson, E. T., 73
Currie, R. P., 73
Curtis, W. C., 114
Cushman, R. A., 125

Dahl, F., 18, 59, 61, 125, 135, 137,

139, 146
Darwin, Charles, 2, 20, 23, 41, 56,

122, 123

Davenport, C. B., 60, 95, 136
Davis, H. B., Ill
179

180

INDEX TO NAMES

Davis, W. M., 67, 86
Dawson, J., 110
Dean, B., Ill
Dearborn, N., 130
Dendy, A., 144
De Vinne, T. L., 68
Diem, K., 144
Dimmock, G., 73
Dimon, A. C., Ill
Dodge, C. R., 73
Dyar, H. G., 73

Edwards, H., 73
Eichelbaum, E., 126
Embody, G. C., Ill
Emerton, J. H., 125
Emery, C., 21
Enderlein, G., 59, 139
Enteman, M. M., Ill
Ernst, A., 89
Espinas, Alfred, 132

Fabre, J. H., Ill

Felt, E. P., 74

Fernald, C. H., 74

Fernald, J. C., 66

Fernow, B. E., 90

Fischer, E., 98, 99

Flahault, C., 22, 60

Florentin, R., Ill

Folsom, J. W., 74

Forbes, S. A., 20, 21, 23, 49, 60, 74,

123, 126, 131, 132, 140
Forbes, W. T. M., 74
Forbush, E. H., 74, 124, 127
Forel, A., Ill, 127
Fritsch, C., 140
Fuller, G. D., 90
Filrth, O. von, 95

Gamble, F. W., 127
Ganong, W. F., 17
Gates, F. C., 146
Geisler, M. H., 109
Gibson, W. H., 60
Gilbert, G. K, 55
Gill, T., 112
Girod, P., 146
Gleason, H. A., 146
Glover, Townend, 73

Grabau, A. W., 22, 146
Grave, C., 112
Greeley, A. W., 99
Groom, P., 89
Groos, K., 112
Gurley, R. R., 112

Hadley, P. B., 105

Haeckel, E., 2, 19

Hahn, W., 112

Hamann, O., 144

Hammarsten, O., 95

Hancock, J. L., 137

Hankinson, T. L., 147

Hargitt, C. W., 103, 112

Harrington, M. W., 90

Harris, J. A., 113

Hart, C. A., 75, 146

Hartman, C., 113

Hassall, A., 129

Hayden, F. P., 77

Heim, 127

Henderson, L. J., 85

Hensen, V., 60

Henshaw, S., 71, 75

Herdmann, W. A., 21

Herms, W. B., 147

Herrick, C. J., 113

Herrick, C. L., 39, 61, 97, 134

Herrick, F. H., 102, 106, 113, 134

Hodge, C. F., 113

Holmes, S. J., 97, 104, 105, 107, 113

Hood, C. E., 125

Hopkins, A. D., 43, 61, 127

Hopprier, H., 139

Houard, C., 143

Hubbard, H. G., 75, 127, 135

Huber, J., 128

Huggins, G. E., 106

Hunter, W. D., 135

Huxley, T. H., 11, 12, 13, 17

Jacob, 19

Jager, G., 134

Jennings, H. S., 92, 96, 97, 102, 105,

107, 114

Jensen, P. B., 63, 96, 136
Jevons, S., 56
Job, H. K., 61
Johannsen, O. A., 75

INDEX TO NAMES

181

Johnstons, J., 87, 124
Jordan, H., 147
Juday, C., 87
Judd, S. D., 125, 128

Kearton, R., 39, 61
Keeble, F., 127, 128
Keller, C., 100
Kellogg, J. L., 114
Kephart, H., 61
Keyes, C. R., 56
King, L. A. L., 63, 139
Kirby, W., 19, 128
Kirchner, O. von, 143
Knab, F., 73
Knauthe, K., 62, 100
Knuth, P., 141, 142
Kofoid, C. A., 147
Kropotkin, P., 133
Kiister, E., 143

Lamborn, R. H., 72
Lane, E. C., 108
Lang, A., 100
Lankester, E. R., 19
LeBon, G., 57
Lee, A. B., 62
Lefevre, G., 114
Lewes, G. H., 66
Lillie, F. R., 97
Livingston, B. E., 62
Lintner, J. A., 74, 147
Locard, A., 100, 138
Loeb, J., 96
Loew, E., 141, 142
Long, F. M., 110
Lorenz, J. R., 135
Lyon, E. P., 99, 115

McAtee, W. L., 58, 62, 125, 128
McCreary, O., 148
Macdonald, W., 126
MacDougal, R., 57
MacGillivray, A.' D., 75
Mandel, J. A,, 95
Marshall, F. H., 100
Marshall^ G. A. K., 128
Martin, J., 77
Massart, J., 126
Mast, S. O., 107, 115

Mathews, A. P., 97

Mayer, A. G., 106

Mead, A. D., 115

Melander, A. L., 134

Meldola, R., 55

Meyer, H. A., 138

Mially B., Ill

Michael, E., 115

Middleton, N., 77

Mill, J. S., 56, 79

Miller, N., 100

Mills, W., H15

Minot, C. S., 71

Mitchell, J. D., 135

Mobius, K., 6, 18, 29, 131, 138

Moffat, 146

Moller, L., 135

Montgomery, T. H., 116

Moore, J. E. S., 89

Morgan, T. H., 96, 97

Morse, A. P., 148

Motter, M. G., 144

Miiller, H., 141, 142

Needham, J. G., 75, 76, 142
Neumayer, G. von, 63
Newman, H. H., 116

Orcutt, W. D.," 69
Ortmann, A. E., 116, 139
Ostenfeld, C. H., 89

Packard, A. S., 74, 76, 144

Packard, W. H., 99

Palmer, T. S., 124

Parker, G. H., 116

Pannelee, M., 133

Patterson, J. T., 116

Pearl, R., 63, 105, 116

Pearse, A. S., 107, 116

Pearson, K., 56

Peckham, E. G., 116

Peckham, G. W., 116

Peters, A. W., 88

Petersen, C. G. Joh., 61, 63, 64, 136

Petrucci, R., 132

Pierce, W. D., 76, 125, 139

Piersol, W. H., 117

Playfair, J., 80

Porter, J. P., 117

182

INDEX TO NAMES

Poulton, E. B., 117
Pratt, F. C., 135
Przibram, H., 96
Putter, A., 95

Rauschenplat, E., 129
Reighard, J., 39, 63, 117
Reynaud, G., 118
Richards, H. M., 97
Richardson, R. E., 140
Rickard, T. A., 67
Riddle, O., 100
Riley, C. F. Curtis, 118
Riley, C. V., 76, 77, 129, 142
Robertson, C., 142
Rodway, J., 124
Rosenthal, J., 95
Ross, H., 143
Russell, E. S., 63, 101, 139
Ruthven, A. G., 91, 148
Ryder, J. A., 124

St. Hilaire, I. Geoffray, 19

Salisbury, R. D., 86

Sanderson, E. D., 44, 64

Schiifer, E. A., 97

Scheffer, T. H., 118

Schiemenz, P., 101

Schroter, C., 22, 60

Schwarz, E. A., 77, 135

Scott, F. N., 66

Scott, W., 145, 148

Scudder, S. H., 77

Seitz, A., 118

Semper, K., 96

Seton, Ernest Thompson, 118

Severin, H. C., 118

Severin, H. H. P., 118

Seward, A. C., 89

Shelford, V. E., 21, 90, 94, 101, 112,

118, 133, 138
Sherrington, C. S., 98
Simpson, C. B., 64
Simpson, C. T., 119
Simroth, H., 148
Sladen, F. W. L., 119
Smallwood, M. E., 119
Smith, B. G., 119
Soule, C. G., 106
Spence, W., 19, 128

Spencer, Herbert, 92
Sprengel, 19
Stahl, E., 125
Stenroos, K. E., 139
Steuer, A., 148
Stiles, C. W., 129
Stockard, C. R., 119
Straton, C. R., 143
Strong, 20
Sumner, F. B., 64
Surface, H. A., 129

Thomas, C., 76, 77
Thompson, D. W., 142
Tower, W. L., 119
Townsend, C. H. T., 78
Transeau, E. N., 64, 90
Trelease, W., 142
Turner, 107
Tutt, J. W., 119

Uexkuell, J. von, 107

Vandervelde, E., 126

Van Hise, C. R., 40, 43, 55, 56,

86

Varigny, H. de, 96
Vaughan, T. W., 89
Va\ix, C. B., 68
Vergil, 19
Vernon, H. M., 96
Verrill, A. E., 136
Verworn, M., 95
Vestal, A. G., 139
Vire, A., 101
Voigt, W., 119
Von Marten, 138
Vosseler, J., 101

Wagner, W., 120
Wainwright, D. B., 64
Wallace, 19, 23, 41
Walter, H. E., 105, 120
Walther, J., 22
Ward, H. B., 78, 129
Warman, P. C., 67
Warming, E., 89, 136
Washburn, M. F., 106, 107
Wasmann, E., 18, 120, 130
Watson, J. B., 107, 120

INDEX TO NAMES

183

Watson, J. R., 148

Waxweiler, E., 132

Webster, F. M., 130

Weed, C. M., 130

Weiss, F. E., 90

Wendell, B., 66

Wesenberg-Lund, C., 134, 136,

140
Wheeler, W. M., 18, 19,22, 107, 111,

120, 126, 130, 131, 149
Whipple, G. C., 78
White, C. A., 22
Whitman, C. O., 103, 121
Wickham, H. F., 121, 149
Wilson, E. B., 98
Wilson, H. M., 65
Winterstein, H., 95

Wood, G. M., 68
Wood, J. G., 140
Wood, T., 140
Woodman, J. E., 146
Woodworth, J. B., 86
Woolley, E. C., 69
Wright, A. H., 64

Yearsley, M., Ill

Yerkes, A. W., 106

Yerkes, R. M., 105, 106, 107, 121

Yoakum, C. S., 121

Zacharias, O., 130
Zoethout, W. D., 99
Zon, Raphael, 89

'TPHE following pages contain advertisements of a
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects

Genetics. An Introduction to the Study of Heredity
BY HERBERT EUGENE WALTER

Assistant Professor of Biology, Brown University

Cloth, i2mo, $r.jO net; postpaid, $fj6j

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The Fitness of the Environment

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COLLEGE ZOOLOGY

By
ROBERT W. HEGNER, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Zoology in the University of Michigan

Illustrated, Cloth, 12mo, xxiv + 733pp., $2.60 net

This book is intended to serve as a text for beginning students in uni-
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An Introduction to Zoology

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Only a few animals belonging to the more important phyla, as viewed
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Household Bacteriology

ESTELLE D. BUCHANAN, M.S.
Recently Assistant Professor of Botany, Iowa State College

AND

ROBERT EARLE BUCHANAN, PH.D.

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Cloth, 8vo, xv +536 pp., index, $2.25 net

The word Household is used as an extension rather than a limitation of the
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A Laboratory Guide to the Study of
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BY W. B. HERMS

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PART I — MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY

PART II — HELMINTHOLOGY

PART III — LIFE HISTORY STUDIES ON LIVING PARASITES

With the rapid growth of parasitology there is also a
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