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GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS.

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

That branch of the Animal Kingdom known as the Artic-
ULATA, is so called from having the body composed of rings
or segments, like short cylinders, which are placed successively
one behind the other. Cuvier selected this term because he
saw that the plan of their entire organization, the essential
features which separate them from all other animals, lay in the
idea of articulation, the apparent joining together of distinct
segments along the line of the body. If we observe carefully
the body of a "Worm, we shall see that it consists of a long
cylindrical sac, which at regular intervals is folded in upon
itself, thus giving a ringed (annulated, or articulated) appear-
ance to the body. In Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, etc.)
and in Insects, from the deposition of a peculiar chemical
substance called cMtine, the walls of the body become so
hardened, that when the animal is dead and dry, it
readily breaks into numerous very perfect rings.

Though this branch contains a far gi-eater number of
species than any other of the animal kingdom, its myr-
iad fonns can all be reduced to a simple, ideal, typical
figure ; that of a long slender cylinder divided into
numerous segments, as in Fig. 1, representing the larva
of a Fly. It is by the unequal development and the
various modes of grouping them, as well as the differ-
ences, in the number of the rings themselves, and also in ^'s- !•
the changes of form of their appendages, i. e. the feet, jaws,
antennae, and wings, that the various forms of Articulates are
produced.

Fig. 1. Worm-like larva of a Fly, Scenopinus. — Original.
1

THE CLASS or INSECTS.

Fig. 2 *

Articulated animals are also very distinctly bilateral, i. e. the
body is symmetrically divided into two lateral halves, and
not only the trunk but the limbs also
show this bilateral symmetry. In a less
marked degree there is also an antero-
posterior symmetry, i.e. each end of
the body is opposed, just as each
side of the body is, to the other.*
The line separating the two ends is,
however, imaginary and vague. The
antennas, on the anterior pole, or head,
are represented by the caudal, or anal,
stylets (Fig. 2), and the single parts
on the median line of the body corre-
spond. Thus the labrum aud clypeus
are represented by the tergite of the
eleventh segment of the abdomen.
In all Articulates (Fig. 3) the long,
tubular, alimentary canal occupies the centre of the body ; above
it lies the "heart," or dorsal vessel, and below, upon the under
side, rests the nervous system.
The breathing apparatus, or
"lungs," in Worms consists of /|
simple filaments, placed on the
front of the head ; or of gill-like
processes, as in the Crustaceans,
Avhich are formed by membran-
ous expansions of the legs ; or, " j-ig. 3.
as in the Inp-cts (Fi'g. 4), of delicate tubes (ti'acheae), which

* Professor Wyman (On Symmetry and Homology in Limbs, Proceedings of tlie
Boston Society of Natural History, 1S67) has sliown that antero-posterior s}-mmetry
is very marked in Articulates. In the adjoining figure of Jceni (Fig. 3) tlie longi-
tudinal lines illustrate what is meant by bilateral symmetry, and the transverse
lines "fore and aft" symmetry. Tlie two antero-posterior halves of the body are
very symmetrical in the Crustacean genera Jcera. Oniscus, Porcellio, and other
Crustacea, and also among the Myriapods, Scutic/era, Polydesmus, " in -which the
limbs are repeated oppositely, though with different degrees of inequality, from the
centre of the body backwards and forwards." "Leuckart and Van Beneden have
shown that Mysis has an ear in the last segment, and Schmidt has described an eye
in the same part in a worm, AmjJhicora." — From Wyman.

Fig. 3 represents an ideal section of a Worm. / indicates the skin, or mus-
cular body-wall, which on each side is produced into one or more fleshy tubercles,
usually tipped with bristles or hairs, which serve as organs of locomotion, and

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

ramify throughout the whole interior of the animal, and con-
nect with breathing pores (stigmata) in the sides of the body.
They do not breathe through the mouth as do the higher ani-
mals. The tracheae and blood-vessels follow closely the same

Fig. 4.

com'se, so that the aeration of the blood goes on, apparently,
over the whole interior of the body, not being confined to a
single region, as in the lungs of the vertebrate animals.

Thus it is by observing the general form of the body-walls,
and the situation of the different anatomical systems, both in
relation to themselves and the walls of the body, or crust,
which surrounds and protects the more delicate organs within,
that we are able to find satisfactory characters for isolating, in
our definitions, the articulates from all other animals.

We shall perceive more clearly the differences between the
three classes of Articulates, or jointed animals, namely,
the Worms, Crustaceans, and Insects, by examining

often as lungs. The nervous cord (a) rests on the floor of the cylinder, sending a
filament into the oar-like feet (/), and also around the intestine or stomach (6), to a
supplementary cord (d), which is situated just over the intestine, and under the
heart or dorsal vessel (c). The circle c and e is a diagram of the circulatory sys-
tem ; c is the dorsal vessel, or heart, from the side of which, in each ring, a small
vessel is sent do\\Tiwards and around to e, the ventral vessel. — Original.

Fig. 4. An ideal section of a Bee. Here the crust is dense and thick, to which
strong muscles are attached. On the upper side of the ring the wings grow out,
while the legs are inserted near the imder side. The tracheas (d) enter through the
stigma, or breathing pore, situated just under the wing, and their branches sub-
divide and are distributed to the wings, witb their five principal veins as indicated

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

their young stages, from the time of their exclusion from the egg,
until they pass into mature life. A more careful study of this
period than we are now able to enter upon would show us how
much alike the young of all articulates are at first, and how
soon they begin to differ, and assume the shape characteristic
of their class.

Most Worms, after leaving the egg, are at first like some
infusoria, being little sac-like animalcules, often ciliated over
nearly the entire surface of the infinitesimal body.
Soon this sac-like body grows longer, and con-
tracts at intervals ; the intervening parts become
unequally enlarged, some segments, or rings,
formed b}^ the contraction of the body- walls,
greatly exceeding in size those next to them ; and it thus
assumes the appearance of being more or less equally ringed,
^ as in the young Terebella (Fig. 5), where the

cilise are restricted to a single circle surrounding
the body. Gradually (Fig. 6) the cilise disap-
pear and regular locomotive organs, consisting
of minute paddles, grow out from each side ;
feelers (antennae), jaws, and eyes (simple rudi-
mentary eyes) appear on the few front rings
of the body, which are grouped b}^ themselves
: into a sort of head, though it is difficult, in a
large proportion of the lower worms, for un-
skilled observers to distinguish the head from
the tail.

Thus Ave see tln-oughout the growth of the

worm, no attempt at subdividing the body

into regions, each endowed with its peculiar

(^functions ; but only a more perfect system of

j,j^ y ' rings, each relatively very equally developed.

in the figure, also to the dorsal vessel (c), the intestine (6), and the nervous cord («).
The ti'acheffi and a nervous filament are also sent into the legs and to the wings.
The tracheae are also distributed to the dorsal vessel and intestine by numei'ous
branches which serve to hold them in place. — Original.

Fig. 5. Young Terebella, soon after leaving the &gg. — From A. Agassiz.

Fig. 6 represents the embryo of a worm (Autolytus cornutus) at a later stage
of growth, a is the middle tentacle of the head ; e, one of the posterior tentacles;
b, the two ey-e-spots at the base of the hinder pair of feelers ; c is one of a row of
oar-like organs (cirri) at the base of which are inserted the locomotive bristles,

THE CLASS OF INSECTS. ' 5

but all becoming respectively more complicated. For example,
in the Earth- worm {Lumhricus) , each ring is distinguishable into
an upper and under side, and in addition to these a well-
marked side-area, to which, as for example in marine worms (e. g.
Nereis) , oar-like organs are attached. In most worms eye-spots
appear on the front rings, and slender tentacles grow out, and
a pair of nerve-knots (ganglia) are apportioned to each ring.

In the Crustaceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish {Asta-
cus), as shown by the German naturalist Rathke ; and also in
the earliest stages of the Insect, the body at once assumes a
worm-like form, thus beginning its embryonic life from the goal
reached by the adult worm.

The young of all Crustaceans (Fig. 7) first begin life in the
egg as oblong flattened worm-like bodies, each end of the body
being alike. The young of the lower Crustaceans, such as the
Barnacles, and some marine forms like the Jce?-a and some
lowly organized parasitic species inhabiting the gills of
fishes, are hatched as microscopic embryos which would readily
be mistaken for j^oung mites (Acarina). In the higher Crus-
taceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish, the
young, when hatched, does not greatly differ
from the parent, as it has passed through the
worm-like sta2:e within the e^s.

Fig. 7 represents the young of the fresh-
water Lobster (Crawfish) before leaving the
egg. The body is divided into rings, ending
in lobes on the sides, which are the rudiments
of the limbs, b is the rudiment of the eye- Fig. 7.

stalk, at the end of which is the eye ; a is the fore antennae ;
c is the hind antennae ; d is one of the maxilla-feet ; e is the
first pair of true feet destined in the adult to form the large
"claw." Thus the eye-stalks, antenna, claws, and legs are
moulded upon a common form, and at first are scarcely distin-

with the cirri serving as swimming and locomotive organs ; d, the caudal styles, or
tail-feelers. In this figure we see how slight are the differences between the
feelers of the head, the oar-like swimming organs, and the caudal filaments; we
can easily see that they are hut modifications of a common form, and all arise
from the common limb-bearing region of the body. The alimentary canal, with
the proventriculus, or anterior division of the stomach, occupies the middle of the
body; while the mouth opens on the under side of the head. — i^row^. Agassiz.
. Fig. 7. Embryo of the Crawfish. — ii^romiJft^/t/je.

I*

6

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

guishable from each other. Here we see the embryo divided,
into a head-tliorax and a tail.

It is the same with Insects. Within the egg at the dawn of
life they are flattened oblong bodies curved upon the yolk-
mass. Before hatching they become more cylindrical, the
limbs bud out on the sides of the rings, the head is clearly
demarked, and the young caterpillar soon steps forth from the
egg-shell ready armed and equipped for its riotous life.

As will be seen in Fig. 8, the legs, jaws, and antennae are
first started as buds from the- side of the rings, being simply

elongations of the body-wall,
which bud out, become larger,
and finally jointed, until the
\x buds arising from the thorax or
abdomen become legs, those
from the base of the head be-
come jaws, while the antennae
and palpi sprout Out from the
front rings of the head. Thus
while the bodies of all articulates
are built up from a common em-
bryonic form, their appendages, which are so diverse, when we
compare a Lobster's claw with an Insect's antenna, or a Spider's
spinneret with the hinder limbs of a Centipede, are yet but
modifications of a common form, adapted for the different uses
to which they are put by these animals.

Fig. ■.". A Caddis, or Case-fly (Mystacides) in tlie egg, with part of tlie yolk
(x) not yet inclosed within the body-walls, a, antennre ; between a and b the mandi-
bles; h, ma.xilla; c, labium; d, the separate eye-spots (ocelli), which afterwards in-
crease greatly in number and unite to form the compound eye. The "neck" or
junction of the' ;ad with the thorax is seen at the front part of the j'olk-mass; c,
the three pairs of legs, which are folded once on themselves;/, the pair of anal leg-;
attached to the tenth ring of the abdomen, as seen in caterpillars, Mhich form long
antenna-like filaments in the Cockroach and May-fly, etc. The rings of the body are
but partially formed: they are cylindrical, giving the body a worm-like form.
Here, as in the other two figures, though not so distinctly seen, the antennaj, jaws,
and last pair of abdominal legs are modifications of but a single form, and grow
out from the side of the body. The head-appendages are directed forv/ards, as
they are to be adapted for sensory and feeding purposes ; the legs are directed
doAvnwards, since they are to support the insect while walking. It appears that the
two ends of the body are perfected before the middle, and the under side before the
upper, as we see the yolk-mass is not yet inclosed and the rings not yet formed
above. Thus all articulates difl'er from all vertebrates in having the yolk-mass
situated on the back, instead of on the belly, as in the chick, dog, or human em-
bryo.— From Zaddach.

THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 7

The "Worm is long and slender, composed of an irregular
number of rings, all of very even size. Thus, while the size of
the rings is lixed, their number is indeterminate, varying from
twenty to two hundred or more. The outline of the body is a
single cylindrical figm*e. The organs of locomotion are fleshy
filaments and hairs (Fig. 2, /) appended to the sides.

In one of the low intestinal worms, the Tape-worm {Taenia),
each ring, behind the head and "neck," is provided with organs
of reproduction, so that when the bod3^ becomes broken up
into its constituent elements, or rings (as often occurs naturally
in these low forms for the more read}^ propagation of the
species, since the young are exposed to many dangers while
living in the intestines of animals), they become living inde-
pendent beings which "move freely and somewhat quickly
like Leaches," and until their real nature was known they
were thought to be worms. This and other facts prove, that,
in the Worm, the vitality of the animal is very equally dis-
tributed to each ring. If we cut off the head or tail of some
of the low worms, such as the Flat Worms {Planaria, etc.), the
pieces will become a distinct animal, but an Insect or Crab
sooner or later dies when deprived of its head or tail (abdomen).
Thus, in the Worm the vital force is very equally distributed
to each zoological element, or ring of the body ; no single
part of the body is much honored above the rest, so as to sub-
ordinate and hold the other « h

parts in subservience to its ^--^ — -___^' ;

peculiar and higher ends in f/"^'''^- i — ~-^-~IIIIIlZ:ir=='^=^^

the animal economy. /X.^_^ ^^^j^,.,-— ^--...Ot--..^^ ■

The Crustacean, of which V C^^^5^;,,,,_,JL{JX^>^^^3

the Shrimp (Fig. 9) is a ..j^^^^P ^^^"^^

typical example, is com- VfTv

posed of a determinate c^^ / \ V

number (21) of rings which Fig. o.

are gathered into two regions ; the head-thorax (cephalo-
thorax) and hind -body, or abdomen. In this class there
is a broad distinction between the anterior and posterior ends
of the body. The rings are now grouped into two regions,
and the hinder division is subordinate in its structure and

Fig. 9. A Shrimp. Pandalus annulicornis. a, cephalotliorax :&, abdomen.

8 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

uses to the forward portion of the body. Hence the nervous
power is transferred in some degree towards the head ; the
cephalothorax containing the nervous centres from which nerves
are distributed to the abdomen. Nearly all the organs perform-
ing the functions of locomotion and sensation reside in the front
region ; while the vegetative functions, or those concerned
in the reproduction and nourishment of the animal, are mostly
carried on in the hinder region of the body (the abdomen).

The typical Crustacean cannot be said to have a true head,
in distinction from a thorax bearing the organs of locomotion,
but rather a group of rings, to which are appended the organs
of sensation and locomotion. Hence we find the appendages
of this region gradually changing from antennae and jaws to
foot-jaws, or limbs capable of eating and also of locomotion ;
they shade into each other as seen in Fig. 9. Sometimes the
jaws become remarkably like claws ; or the legs resemble jaws
at the base, but towards their tips become claw-like ; gill-like
bodies are sometimes attached to the foot-jaws, and thus, as
stated by Professor J.'D. Dana in the introduction to his great
work on the Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi-
tion, the typical Crustaceans do not have a distinct head, but
rather a "head-thorax" (cephalothorax).

Wlien we rise a third and last step into the world of Insects,
we see a completion and final development of the articu-
late plan which has been but obscurely hinted at in the two
lowest classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. Hei^e we fii-st meet
with a true head, separate in its structure and functions .from
the thorax, which, in its turn, is clearly distinguishable from
the third region of the body, the abdomen, or hind-body.
These three .egions, as seen in the Wasp (Fig. 10), are each
provided with three distinct sets of organs,
each having distinct functions, though all are
governed by and minister to the brain force,
now in a great measure gathered up from the
posterior rings of the body, and, in a more
concentrated form (the brain being larger than in the lower
articulates) lodged in the head.

Here, then, is a centralization of parts headwards ; they are

Fig. 10. Philanthus ventilabrisFahr. AWood-wasp. — From Say.

COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 9

brought as if towards a focus, and that focus the head, which
is the meaning of the term " ceplialization," proposed by Pro-
fessor Dana.* Ring distinctions liave given way to regional
distinctions. The former characterize the Worm, the latter
the Insect. In other words, tlie division of the bod}^ into tlu'ee
parts, or regions, is in the insect, on tlie wliole, better marked
than the division of any one of those parts, except tlie abdo-
men, into rings.

Composition of the Insect-crust. Before describing the
composition of the body-wall, or crust, of the Insect, let us
briefly review the mode in which the same parts are foi'med in
the lower classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. We have seen
that the typical ring, or segment (called by authors zoonule,
zoonite, or somite,, meaning parts of a body, though we prefer
the term Cirthromere, denoting the elemental part of a jointed
or articulate animal), consists' of an upper (tergite), a side
(pleurite), and an under piece (sternite). This is seen in its
greatest simplicity in the Worm (Fig. 2), where the upper and
ventral arcs are separated by the pleural region. In the Crus-
tacean the parts, hardened by the deposition of chitine and
therefore thick and unjaelding, have to be farther subdivided to
secure the necessary amount of freedom of motion to the body
and legs. The tipper arc not only covers the back of the ani-
mal, but "extends down the sides; the legs are jointed to the
epimera, or flanks, on the lower arc ; the episternum is situated
between the epimerum and sternum ; and the sternum, form-
ing the breast, is situated between the legs. In the adult, there-
fore, each elemental ring ^ is composed of six pieces. It
should, however, be borne in mind that the tergum and ster-

* In two papers on the Classification of Animals, published in the American
Journal of Science and Arts, Second Series, vol. xxxv, p. 65, vol. xxxvi, July, 1863,
and also in his earlier paper on Crustaceans, " the principle of cephalization is
shown to be exhibited among animals in the following ways :

1. By a transfer of members from the locomotive to the cephalic series.

2. By the anterior of the locomotive organs participating to some extent in ce-
phalic functions.

3. By increased abbreviation, concentration, compactness, and perfection of
structure, in the parts and organs of the anterior portion of the body.

4. By increased abbreviation, condensation, and perfection of structure in the
posterior, or gastric and caudal portion of the body.

5. By an upward rise in the cephalic end of the nervous system. This rise
reaches its extreme limit in Man."

10 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

num each consist, in the embryo, of two lateral parts, or halves,
which, during development, unite on the median line of the
body. Typically, therefore, the crustacean ring consists pri-
marily of eight pieces. The same number is found in all insects
which are wingless, or in the larva and pupa state ; this applies
also to the Myriapods and Spiders.

In the Myriapoda, or Centipedes, the broad tergum overlaps
the small epimera, while the sternum is much larger than in
the Spiders and Insects. In this respect it is like the, broad
flat under-surface of most worms. Hence the legs of the
Centipede are inserted very far apart, and the "breast," or
sternum, is not much smaller than the dorsal part of the crust.
In the Julus the dorsal piece (tergum) is greatly developed
over the sternum, but this is a departure from what is ap-
parently the more typical form of the order, i. e. the Centipede.
In the Spiders there is a still greater disproportion in size
between the tergum and the sternum, though the latter is very
large compared with that of Insects. The epimera and episterna,
or side-pieces of the Spiders, are partially concealed by the
over-arching tergum, and they are small, since the joints of the
legs are very large, Audouin's law of development in Articu-
lates showing that one part of the insect crust is always
developed at the expense of the adjoining part. In the Spider
we notice that the back of the thorax is a single solid plate
consisting originally of four rings consolidated into a single
hard piece. In like manner the broad solid sternal plate
results from the reunion of the same number of sternites cor-
responding, originall}', to the number of thoracic legs. Thus
the whole upper side of the head and thorax of the Spider is
consolidated into a single hard horny immovable plate, like
the upper solid part of the cephalothorax of the Crab or
Shrimp. Hence the motions of the Spiders are very stiff com-
pared with those of many Insects, and correspond to those of
the Crab.

The crust of the winged insect is modified for the per-
formance of more complex motions. It is subdivided in so
different a manner from the two lower orders of the class, that
it would almost seem to have nothing in common, structurally
speaking, with the groups below them. It is only by examin-

COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST.

11

Fig. ]2.
ms sc.m ms"

ing the lowest wingless forms sucli as the Louse, Flea,
Podura, and Bark-lice, where we see a transition to the Or-
ders of Spiders and Myriapods, that we can perceive the plan
pervading all these forms, uniting them into a common
class.

A segment of a winged six-footed insect (Hexapod) consists
typically of eight pieces which we will now examine more
leisurely. Figure 12 represents a side-view of
the thorax of the Telea Polypliemxis^ or Silk-
worm moth, with the legs and wings removed.
Each ring consists primarily of the tergu7n, the
two side-pieces (epimerum and episternum) and
the sternum, or breast-plate. But one of these
pieces (sternum) remains simple, as in the lower orders. The
tergum is divided into four pieces. They were named by Au-
douin going from before backwards,
the prcescutum, scutum, scutellum,
and postscutellum.

The scutum is invariably present
and forms the larger part of the
upper portion (tergum) of the tho- ^p^:"
rax ; the scutellum is, as its name
indicates, the little shield so promi-
nent in the beetle, which is also
uniformly present. The other two
pieces are usually minute and
crowded down out of sight, and placed between the two oppos-
ing rings. As seen in Fig. 11, the prsescutum of the moth is
a small rounded piece, bent vertically down, so as not to be
seen from above. In the lowly organized Hepialus, and some

Fig. 11. Tergal view of the middle segment of the thorax of Telea Polyphemus,
prm, prsescutum; ms, scutum; scm, scutellum; ptm, postscutellum; pt, patagium,
or shoulder tippet, covering the insertion of the wings. — Original.

Fig. 12. Side view of the thorax of T. Polyphemus, the hairs removed. 1, Pro-
thorax ; 2, iNIesothorax ; 3, Metathorax, separated by the wider black lines. Tei-gum
of the prothorax not represented, ms, mesoscutum; scm, mesoscutellum; ms" ,
metascutum; scm'", metascutellum ; j)t, a supplementary piece near the inser-
tion of patagia; to, pieces situated at the insertion of the wings and surrounded by
membrane ; em, epimerum of prothorax, the long upright piece above being the
episternum; epm", episternum of the mesothorax; em", epimerum of the same;
epm", episternum of the metathorax; em"', epimerum of the same, divided into two
pieces; c', c", c", coxje; te, le", le"', trochantines ; tr, tr, tr, trochanters.

pt

em
em

tr te c" tr c"' tr
12 3

al

12 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Neuroptera, such as the Polystoechotes (Fig. 13 a), the prse-
scutum is large, well developed, triangular, and wedged in
between the two halves of the scutum. The little
piece succeeding the scutellum, i. e, the postscu-
tellum, is still smaller, and rarely used in descrip-
tive entomology. Thus far we have spoken of the
middle, or mesothoracic, ring, where these four
pieces are most equally developed. In the first,
or prothoracic, ring, one part, most probably the
scutum, is well developed, while the others are
aborted, and it is next to impossible to trace them
in most insects. The prothorax in the higher in-
sects, such as the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera is
very small, and often intimately soldered to the succeeding or
meso-thoracic ring. In the lower insects, however, such as the
Coleoptera, the bugs (Hemiptera), grasshoppers and their
allies (Orthoptera), and the Neuroptera, the large broad pro-
thorax consists almost entirely of this single piece, and most
writers speak of this part under the name of "thorax," since
the two posterior segments are concealed by the wings when
the animal is at rest. The metathorax is usually very broad
and short. Here we see the scutum split asunder, with the
prsescutum and scutellum wedged in between,' while the post-
scutellum is aborted.

On the side are two pieces, the upper (epimerum) placed
just beneath the tergum, which is the collective name for the
four ter^^al, or dorsal, pieces enumerated above. In front of
the epimerum and resting upon the sternum, as its name im-
plies, is the ejnstermim. These two parts (pleurites) compose
the flanks of tiic elemental ring. To them the legs are articu-
lated. Between the two episterna is situated the breast-piece
(sternum), which sliows a tendency to grow smaller as we
ascend from the Neuroptera to the Bees.

In those insects provided with wings, the epimera are also
subdivided. The smaller pieces, hinging upon each other, as
it were, give play to the very numerous muscles of flight

Fig. 13. a, tergal vieNv of thorax of Hepialus {Sthenopis) ; 1, prothorax; 3, meso-
thorax; 3, metathorax. The prothorax is very small compared with that of Poly-
stoschotes (13 a, 1), where it is nearly as long as bi'oad. — Original.

COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 13

needed by the insect to perform its complicated motions
while on the wing.

The insertion of the fore wing is concealed by the "shoulder

tippets," or patagia (Fig. 11), which are only present in the

mesothorax. The external opening of the spiracles just under

the wing perforates a little piece called by Audouin the j)eri-

• treme.

A glance at Figures 11 and 12 shows how compactly the
various parts of the thorax are agglutinated into a globular
mass, and that this is due to the diminished size of the first
and third rings, while the middle ring is greatly enlarged to
support the muscles of flight. There are four tergal, four
pleural, two on each side (and these in the Hymenoptera, Lepi-
doptera, and Diptera subdivide into several pieces), and a
single sternal piece, making nine for each ring and twenty-
seven for the whole thorax, with eight accessory pieces (the
three pairs of peritremes and the two patagia) , making a total
of thirty-five for the entu-e thorax ; or, multiplying the four
tergal pieces by two, since they are formed by the union of two
primitive pieces on the median line of the body, we have
thirty-nine pieces composing the thorax.

Table of the Parts of the Thorax applied to the Pro-,
Meso-, axd Metathorax, respectively.

-. Prsescutum,

r Dorsal S Scutum,

I Surface J Scutellura,

I ' Postscutellum.

Thorax \ Pleural ^ Epimcrum,
inorax i pleural i Episternura,

I buriace ^ Episternal apophysis, Stigma, Peritreme.

1 Sternal < sternum.
L Surface (

We must remember that these pieces are rarely of precisely
the same form in any two species, and that the}' differ, often in
a very marked way, in different genera of insects. How sim-
ple, then, is the tjqoical ring, and how complex are the va-
rious subdivisions of that ring as seen in the actual, living
insect, where each part has its appropriate muscles, nerves, and
tracheae !

We have seen how the thorax is formed in Insects generally,
let us now advert to the two types of thorax in the six-footed
2

14 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

insects. In the higher series of suborders, comprising the Dip-
tera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, placing the highest last,
the thorax shows a tendency to assume a giobula*' shape ; the
upper side, or tergum, is much arched, the pleural region bulges
out full and round, while the legs conceal at their insertion
the sternum which is minute in size.

In the lower series, embracing the Coleoptera, Hemiptera,
Orthoptera, and Nem'optera, the entire body tends to be more
flattened ; in the thorax the tergum is broad, especially that of
the prothorax, while the pleurites (episterna and epimera) are
short and bulge out less than in the higher series, and the ster-
num is almost invariably well developed, often presenting a
large thick breast-plate bearing a stout spine or thick tubercle,
as in (Edipoda. We can use these characters, in classifying
insects into suborders, as they are common to the whole order.
Hence the use of characters drawn from the wings and mouth-
parts (which are sometimes wanting), leads to artificial dis-
tinctions, as they are peripheral organs, though often Convenient
in our first attempts at classif^^ing and limiting natural groups.

The abdomen. In the hind body, or third region of the
trunk, the thi-ee divisions of the typical ring (arthromere), are
entire, the tergum is broad and often not much greater in ex-
tent than the sternum ; and the pleurites also form either a
single piece, or, divided into an epimerum and episternum,
form a distinct lateral region, on which the stigmata are sit-
uated. The segments of the abdomen have received from
Lacaze-Duthiers a still more special name, that of urite, and
the different tergal pieces belonging to the several rings,
but especially those that have been modified to form the genital
armor have been designated by him as tergites. We have
applied this last term to the tergal pieces generally. The tyi^i-
cal number of abdominal segments is eleven. In the lowest
insects, the Neuroptera, there are usually eleven ; as we have
counted them in the abdomen of the embryo of Diplax. In
others, such as the Il3rmenoptera and Lepidoptera, there may
never be more than ten, so far as present observation teaches
us.

The formation of the sting, and of the male intromittent
organ, may be observed in the full-grown larva and in the in-

COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOR.

15

17 a.

complete pupa of the Humble-bee, and other thin-skinned

Hymenopterous larvae, and in a less satisfactory way in the

young Dragon-flies.

If the larva of the Humble-bee be taken just after it has

become full-fed, and as it is about to enter upon the pupa state,

the elements
O O <iD,o {sterno - rliab-

dites Lacaze-
Duthiers), or
tubercles,
destined to rig. i6.
form the ovipositor, lie in
separate pairs, in two groups,
Fig. 14. Fig. 15. exposed distinctly to view,

as in Figures 14-18. The ovipositor thus consists of tlii'ee

pairs of slender non-articulated tubercles, situated in juxta-
position on each side of

the mesial line of the

body. The first pair arises j

from the eighth abdominal

ring, and the second and

third pair grow out from

the ninth ring. The ends

of the first pair scarcely

reach beyond the base of

the third pair. With the

growth of the semi-pupa,

the end of the abdomen

decreases in size, and is

Fig. 14. Rudiments of the sting, or ovipositor, of the Humble-bee. 8, 9, 10,
sternites of eighth, ninth, and tenth abdominal rings in the larva. «, first pair, situ-
ated on the eighth sternite ; b, second and inner pair ; and c, the outer pair. The let-
tering is the same in figures 14-22. The inner pair (6), forms the true ovipositor,
through which the eggs are supposed to pass when laid by the insect, the two
outer pairs, a and c, sheathing the inner pair.

Fig. 15. The same a little farther advanced.

Fig. 16. The same at a later stage, the three pairs approximating.

Fig. 17. The three pairs now appear as if together growing from the base of the
ninth segment; 17«, side view of the same, showing the end of the abdomen grow-
ing smaller thi-ough the diminution in size of the under side of the body.

Fig. 18. The three pairs of rhabdites now nearly equal in size, and nearly
ready to unite and form a tube; 18a, side view of the same; the end of the abdo-
men still more pointed; the ovipositor is situated between the seventh and tenth
rings, and is partially retracted within the body.

Fig. 18.

18 a.

16

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Fig. 19.

gradually incurved toward the base (Fig. 18), and the thi-ee
pairs of rhabdites approach each other so closely that the two
outer ones completely ensheath the inner, until a complete
extensible tube is formed, which is gradually withdrawn entirely
within the body.

The male genital organ is originally composed of three pairs
(two pairs, apparently, in ^s-
cJma, Fig. 19) of tubercles all
arising from the ninth abdominal
ring, being sternal outgrowths
and placed on each side of the
mesial line of the body, two be- Fi&

ing anterior, and ver}^ unequal in size, and the
third pair nearer the base of the abdomen. The ex-
ternal genital organs cannot be considered as
in any way homologous with the limbs, which
are articulated outgrowths budding out be-
tween the sternal and pleural
pieces of the arthromere.^
"^ Tliis view will apply to the
Fio-. 21. genital armor of all Insects, so
far as we have been able to observe. It is
so in the pupa of yEschna (Fig. 21), and
the pupa of Agrion (Fig. 22), which com-
pletely repeats, in its essential features, the
structure. of the ovipositor of Bomhus. Thus in ^schna and
Agrion the ovipositor consists of a pair of closely appressed ensi-
form processes which grow out from under the posterior edge of
the eighth abdominal ring, and are embraced between two pairs

* This term is proposed as better defining the ideal ring, or primary zoological
element of an articulated animal than the terms somite or zoonite, which seem too
vague; we also propose the term arthroderm for the outer crust, or body Avails, of
Articulates, and arthropleura for the pleural, or limb-bearing region, of the body,
being that portion of the arthromere situated between the tergite and sternite.

Fig. 19. The rudiments of the male intromittent organ of the pupa of ^schna,
consisting of two flattened tubercles situated on the ninth ring; the outer pair
large and rounded inclosing the smaller linear oval pair.

Fig. 20. The same in the Humble-bee, but consisting of three pairs of tubercles,
X, y, z ; 8, 9, 10, the last three segments of the abdomen.

Fig. 21. The rudimentary ovipositor of the pupa of jEschna, a Dragon-fly.

Fig. 22. The same in pupa of Agrion, a small Dragon-fly. Here the rudiments
of the eleventh abdominal ring is seen, d, the base of one of the abdominal false
gills, — Figs, 14-22 original.

COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOR.

17

of thin lamelliform pieces of similai- form and structure, arising
from the sternite of the ninth ring. These sternal outgrowths
do not homologize with tlie filiform, antennae-like, jointed
appendages of the eleventh ring, as seen in the Perlidse and
most Neuroptera and Orthoptera (especially in Mantis tes-
sellata where they -(Fig. 23) closely
resemble antennae), which, arising as
they do from the arthropleural, or limb-
bearing region of the body, i. e. between Fig. 23.
the sternum and episternum, are strictly homologous with the
abdominal legs of the Myriapoda, the "false legs" of cater-
pillars, and the abdominal legs of some Neuropterous larvae
{Corydalis, Phyganeidce^ etc.).

It will thus be seen that the attenuated form of the tip is
produced by the decrease in size of certain parts, the actual
disappearance of others, and the perfection of those parts to
be of future use. Thus towards the extremity of the body
the pleurites are absorbed and disappear, the tergites overlap
on the sternites, and the latter diminish in size and are
withdrawn within the body, while the last, or eleventh sternite,
entirely disappears.* Meanwhile the sting grows larger and

larger, until finally we
have the neatly fashioned
abdominal tip of the bee
concealing the complex
sting with its intricate
system of visceral ves-
, 24. sels and glands.

The ovipositor, or sting, of all insects, therefore, is formed
on a common plan (Fig. 24). The solid elements of the arthro-

*In lianatra, however, Lacaze-Duthiers has noticed the curious fact that in
order to fomri the long respiratory tube of this insect, the tergite and sternite of the
pregenital (eighth) segment are aborted, while the pleurites are enormously en-
larged and elongated, so as to carry the stigmata far out to the end of the long tube
thus formed.

Fig. 23. End of the abdomen of Mantis tessellata; p, many-jointed anal style
resembling an antenna. 5-11, the seven last abdominal segments; the 8-llth ster-
nites being obsolete. — From Lacaze-Duthiers.

Fig. 24. Ideal plan of the structure of the ovipositor in the adult insect. l-7t,

the tergites, connected by dotted lines with their corresponding sternites. 6, the

eighth tergite, or anal scale; c, epimerum; a, a, two pieces forming the outer pair

of rhabdites; i, the second pair, or stylets; and/, the inner pair, or sting; d, the

9*

18 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

mere are modijBed to form the parts supporting the sting alone.
The external opening of the oviduct is always situated between
the eighth and ninth segments, while the anal opening lies at
the end of the eleventh ring. So that there are really, as
Lacaze-Duthiers observes, thi-ee segments interposed between
the genital and anal openings.

The various modifications of the ovipositor and male organ
will be noticed under the different suborders.

The Structure of the Head. After studying the com-
position of the thorax and abdomen, where the constituent
parts of the elemental ring occur in their greatest simplicity,
we may attempt to unravel the intricate structure of the head.
We are to determine whether it is composed of one, or more,
segments, and if several, to ascertain how many, and then to
learn what parts of the typical arthromere are most largely
developed as compared with the development of similar parts
in the thorax or abdomen. In this, perhaps the most difficult
problem the entomologist has to deal with, the study of the
head of the adult insect alone is only guesswork. We must
trace its growth in the embryo. Though many writers consider
the head as consisting of but a single segment, the most emi-
nent entomologists have agreed that the head of insects is com-
posed of two or more segments. Savigny led the way to these
discoveries in transcendental entomology by stating that the
appendages of the head are but modified limbs, and homol-
ogous with the legs. This view at once gave a clue to the
complicated structure of the head. If the antennae and biting
organs are modified limbs, then there must be an elemental
segment preseni in some form, however slight^ developed in
the mature insect, to which such limbs are attached. But the
best observers have differed as to the supposed number of such
theoretical segments. Burmeister believed that there were two
only ; Carus and Audouin thought there were three ; McLeay
and Newman four, and Straus-Durckheim recognized seven.
From the study of the semipupa of the Humble-bee (Boinbus)

support of the sting; e, the support of the stylet (j). R, the anus ; O, the outlet of
the oviduct. The seventh, eighth, and ninth sternites are aborted. — From Lacaze-
Duthiers.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. 19

and several low Neuropterous forms, as the larva of Ephemera,
but chiefly the embryo of Diplax, a dragon-fly, we have con-
cluded that there are seven such elemental segments in the
head of insects.

That there are four corresponding to the jointed appendages,
i. e. the labium, or second maxillae, the first maxillae, the man-
dibles, and the antennae, seems indisputable. But where else
are we to look for jointed appendages in an insect's head ? We
must go out of the class of Insects and study the stalk-eyed
Crustacea, such as the Lobster, where the eye is supported on a
two-jointed stalk, which has been homologized with the limbs.
While, therefore, the eyes of insects are never "stalked," as in
the Lobster and Sln-imp, they are evidently developed, as in
the Crustacean, upon a separate segment (or its rudiments),
which may be called the " ophthalmic ring," and which is, there-
fore, the fifth cephalic ring. In advance of the eyes are nor-
mally placed the three ocelli, though in the highest Insects (the
Diptera, Lepidoptera, and H3anenoptera) they appear to be
situated in the rear of the eyes.

Each of these three ocelli is situated upon a distinct piece ;
but we must consider the anterior single ocellus as in reality
formed of two, since in the immature pupa of Bombus the
anterior ocellus is differently shaped from the two posterior
ones, being transversely ovate, resulting, as I think, from the
fusion of two originally distinct ocelli, and not round like the
other two. There are, therefore, two pairs of ocelli, and hence
they grow from the rudiments of a sixth and seventh ring
respectively.

Now,* since the artJiropleural is the limb-bearing region in
the thorax, it must follow that this region is largely developed
in the head, to the bulk of which the sensory and digestive
organs bear so large a proportion ; and as all the parts of the
head are subordinated in their development to that of the ap-
pendages of which they form the support, it must follow logi-
cally that the larger portion of the body of the head is pileiiral^
and that the tergal, and especially the sternal, parts are ■ either
very slightly developed, or wholly obsolete. Thus each region
of the body is characterized by the relative development of
the three parts of the arthromere. In the abdomen the upper

20

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

(tergal) and under (sternal) surfaces are most equally devel-
oped, while the pleural line is reduced to a minimum. In the
thorax the pleural region is much more developed, either quite
as much, or often more than the upper, or tergal portion, while
the sternal is reduced to a minimum. In the head the pleurites
form the main bulk of the region, the sternites are reduced to
a minimum, and the tergites may be identified in the occiput,
the cl3"peus, and labrum.

Table of the Segments or the Head and their Appendages,

BEGINNING WITH THE MOST AnTERIOII.*

Preoral.

{Hypothetical),

First Segment

{First Ocellary),

Second Segment
{Second Ocellary),

Third Seginent

{Ophthalmic),

Fourth Segment
{Antennary),

Fifth Segment
{Mandibular),

Sixth Segment
{First Maxillary),

Seventh Segment
{Second Maxillary, or
Labial),

Tergal,
> Pleural,
[ Pleural,
Pleural,

I Pleural,

Pastoral.

Pleural,

Pleural,

Labrum, epipharynx, cly-
peus.

' Anterior ocellus (originally
; doulile).

Two posterior ocelli.

Eyes.

Antennae.

Mandibles.
First maxillae.

' pSS/(S)?^' \ Secx)nd maxillae
I Sternal (gula), ( (Labmm).

The Ajypejidages. We naturally begin with the thoracic
appendages, or iegs, of which there is a pair to each ring. The
leg (Fig. 25) consists of seven joints, the basal one, the coxa, in
the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera, consisting of two

* In the first column are enumerated the seven ring-s, or segments, composing
the head. The tergal parts (i.e. the labrum, epipharynx, and clypeus), situated in
front of the ocelli, are left out in enumerating the seven segments, as they are not
siipposed by the author to belong to either of those segments.

In the first column the seven rings are named (in brackets) according to the sort of
appendages they bear. In the second column is given the part, or parts, of the ideal
segment supposed actually to exist in an insect's head; and in the third column are to
be found the names of the organs attached to their corresponding segments, beginning
with the front and going back to the base of the head.

THE APPENDAGES. 21

pieces, i. e. the coxa and trochantine (see Fig. 12) ; the tro-
cJianter; the femur; the tibia, and, lastly, the tarsus, which is
subdivided into from one to five joints, the latter being qa ^
the normal number. The terminal joint ends in a pair ^
of claws between which is a cushion-like sucker called
the pulvillus. This sucking disk enables the Fly to
walk upside down and on glass.

In the larva, the feet are short and horny, and the Fig. 25.
joints can be still distinguished. In Myriapods, each segment
of the abdomen has a pair of feet like the thoracic ones. We
must consider the three pairs of spinnerets of Spiders, which
are one to three-jointed, as homologous with the jointed limbs of
the higher insects. In the six-footed insects (Hexapoda), the
abdominal legs are deciduous, being present in the Coleopterous
grub, the Dipterous maggot, the caterpillar, and larva of the
Saw-fly, but disappearing in the pupa state. They are often,
as in most maggots, either absent, or reduced in number to the
two anal, or terminal, pair of legs ; while in the Saw-flies, there
are as many as eight pairs. These "false" or "prop-legs"
are soft and fleshy, and without articulations. At the retrac-
tile extremity is a crown of hooks, as seen in caterpillars or the
hind-legs of the larva of Chironomus (Fig. 26), in which the
prothoracic pair of legs is reduced to inarticu-
late fleshy legs like the abdominal ones.

The jyosition of the different pairs of legs
deserves notice in connection Avith the principle
of " antero-posterior sjanmetry." The fore- ■ ^ -
legs are directed forwards like the human arms. Fig. 26.
but the two hinder pairs are directed backwards. In the Spiders,
three pairs of abdominal legs (spinnerets) are retained through-
out life; in the lower Hexapods, a single pair, which is ap-
pended to the eleventh segment, is often retained, but under
a form which is rather like an antenna, than limb-like. In
some Neuropterous larvse {Phryganea, CorydaJus, etc.) the
anal pair of limbs are very well marked ; they constitute the
"anal forceps" of the adult insect. They sometimes become
true, many-jointed appendages, and are then remarkably like

Fig. 25. A, coxa; B, trochanter; C, femur; D, tibia; F, tibial spurs; E, tarsus,
divided into five tarsal joints, tlie fifth ending in a clsiw.—From Sanborn.

22

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

anteniife, as in the instance of Mantis tessellata described by
Lacaze-Diithiers (Fig. 23). In the Cockroach these append-
ages, sometimes called "anal cerci," resemble the antennis of
the same insect. In the Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera they
do not appear to be jointed, and are greatly aborted.

The Wings. The wings of insects first appear as little soft
vascular sacs permeated by tracheae. They grow out in the
preparatory stages (Fig. 27) of the pupa from the side of the
]; thorax and above the insertion of the

legs, i.e. between the epimerum and
...'n tergum. During the pupa state they
are pad-like, but Avlien the pupa skin is
thrown off they expand with air, and
in a few minutes, as in the Butterfly,
enlai'ge to many times their original
size. The wings of insects, then, are
simple expansions of the crust, spread
over a framework of horny tubes.
These tubes are really double, consist-
ing of a central trachea, or air tube,
inclosed within a larger tube filled with
blood, and which performs the functions of the veins. Hence
the aeration of the blood is carried on in the wings, and thus
they serve the double purpose of lungs and organs of fiiglit.

The number and situation of these veins and their branches
(veinlets) are of great use in separating genera and species.
The typical number of primary veins is five. They diverge
outward at a slight angle from the insertion of the wing, and
are soon divided into veinlets, from Avhich cross veins are
thrown out coiiviecting with others to form a net-work of veins
and veinlets, called the venation of the wing (Figs. 28, 29).
The interspaces between the veins and veinlets are called cells.
At a casual glance the venation seems very irregular, but in
many insects is simple enough to enable us to trace and name
the veinlets. The five main veins, most usuall}^ present, are

Fig. 27. The semipnpa of Bomhtis, the larva skin having been removed, show-
ing the two pairs of rudimentary vrings growing out from the mesothorax (Z:), and
metathorax (m). n and the seven succeeding dots represent the eight abdominal
stigmata, the iirst one (n) being in the pupa situated on the thorax, since the first
ring of the abdo'men is in this stage joined to the thorax. — Original.

Fig. 27.

THE WINGS.

23

Fig. 28.

called, going from the costa., or front edge, the costal^ subcostal,
median, snbmedian, and internal, and sometmies the median
divides into two, making six
veins. The costal vein is un-
divided ; the subcostal and me-
dian are divided into several
branches, while the snbmedian
and internal are usually simple.

The venation of the fore-
wings affords excellent marks
.in separating genera, but that
of the hind wings varies less,
and is consequently of less use.

The wings of many insects
are divided by the veins into
three well-marked areas ; the
costal, median, and interned.
The costal area (Fig. 316) forms
the front edge of the wing and
is the strongest,
since the veins are
nearer together than
elsewhere, and tluis
afford the greatest
resistance to the air

Fig. 28. Fore and hind wings of a Butterfly, showing tlie venation. I. fore wing :
a, costal veiii; b, subcostal vein; 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, five subcostal vemlets; c, inde-
pendent vein (it is sometimes a branch of the subcostal, and sometimes of the me-
dian vein); rf, median vein; rfi, rf2, rfs, rf4, four median veinlets; e, snbmedian vein;
/, internal vein; h, iuterno-median veinlet (rarely found, according to Doubleday,
except in Pai)ilio and Morpho) ; 6 and d are situated m the " discal cell ;''' 'j\fj% gZ,
the upper, middle, and lower discal veinlets. In the Bombycidaj and many other
moths f/i and g^ arc thrown off from the subcostal and median veins respectively,
meeting in the middle of the cell at g2. They are sometimes wholly absent.

II. The hind wing; the lettering and names of the veins and veinlets the same
as in the fore ^vmg. — Sltgkthj changed from Doubleday.

Fig. 29. Fore wing of a Ilymenopterous insect, c, costal vein ; sc, subcostal
vein; m, median vein; sm, snbmedian vein; i, internal vein; c, 1,2,3, the first,
second, and tliird costal cells ; the second frequently opaque and then called the
pterostigma. sc, 1, 2, 3, 4, the four subcostal cells; m, 1, 2, 3, 4, the median cells;
sm, 1, 2, 3, the three submedian cells ; ii, the internal cell ; this is sometimes divided
into two cells, and the numbers of all but the costal cells is inconstant, the outer
row of cells (4, 4, 3) being the first to disappear.

The costal edge extends from c to c; the outer c, the apex; the outer edge extends
from the apex (c) to a, and the inner edge extends from a, the inner angle, to the
insertion of the wing at i.— Original. Figs. 30-32 from Scudder.

24

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

during flight. The median area (Fig. 31 a) is the largest. It is
in the grasshoppers and crickets sometimes modified to form a
musical organ, being
drum-like, as in the
(EcantJms (Fig. 30), or
rasp-like, as in Archyp-
tera (Fig. 31a). The
internal area (c) is the
smallest, and less dis-
tinctly marked than the

two other regions ; the musical tile-like or-
gan of Orchelimum vulgare., a common gi'ass-
hopper (Fig. 32 d) is situated on this area.
The limits of the edges of the wing vary-
in almost every genus, and their comparative length afford
excellent generic characters. The front edge (Fig. 29) is called
the costal, its termina-
tion in the outer angle
of the wing is called
the apex; the outer edge
is situated between the
apex and the inner an-
gle, between which and
tlie base of the wing is
the inner, or internal,
edge. These distinc-
tions are of most use
in describing the butter-
flies and moths.

The Apjyendages of
Fig. 31 «. ^/jg Head. These organs
are divided into two gi'oups,
the first of which comprise the
sensory organs, i. e. the ocelli,
eyes, and antennae, which are attached to the region in front
of the mouth, or preoral region of the head. The second
group consists of the sensorio-digestive appendages, combining
the power of finding and seizing the food and preparing it for
digestion. They are inserted behind the mouth and belong
to the pastoral region of the head.

THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 25

We will first describe the ocelli, going backwards to the
basal appendages, the labium (second maxillae) being the
hindermost.

The simple eye. Ocellus, or Stemma, is the simplest form of
the eye. Its most elementary form (seen in the larva of the
Bot-fly and the Cecidom3aan larva of Miastor) is that of a brown
spot, or group of pigment-cells lodged under the skin and
against which a nerve-filament impinges. Over this spot New-
port states that the tegument is transparent and convex,
resembling a true cornea, or eye-lens. A well-developed
ocellus consists, according to Newport, of a "very convex,
smooth, single cornea, beneath which is a spherical crystalline
lens, resting upon the plano-convex surface of the expanded
vitreous humor, the analogue of the transparent cones of the
compound e3^es." Miiller believes that the function of the ocelli
is the perception of nearer objects, while that of the compound
eyes is to see more distant objects. The ocelli constitute the
only visual organs in the Myriapods (except Cermatici) , the
Arachnida, and the larvae of many Six-footed Insects ; they
are usually from one to six on a side. In adult insects
they are generally three in number, and
are generally present except in the large
majority of Coleoptera. Tlieir normal site
is in front of the eyes, but they are usually
thrown back, during the growth of the insect, behind the eyes,
on the vertex, or topmost part of the head (Fig. 33).

The Compound Eyes are a congeries of simple eyes. During
the growth of the insect the simple eyes of the larva increase

-^^ in number, and flnall}'^ coalesce to form the compound

M^/ eye, or compound cornea, the surface of which is
Fig. 31. very convex and protuberant in the predaceous insects,
or those requiring an extended field of vision.

The number of facets, or corneae, var^' from fifty (in the Ant)
to 3,650, the latter number being counted b}^ Geoflroy in the
eye of a Butterfly. These facets are usuallj' hexagonal, as in
the Dragon-flj^ (Fig. 34), or, rarely, quadrangular.

Fig. 33. OcellL of three species of Sand-wasps, Pompilus. — From Cresson.
Fig. 34. Three hexagonal facets of the compound eye of a fossil Dragon-fly,
greatly magnified. — From Daioson.

26 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

The Antennm (Figs. 35, 36) are inserted usually in the adult
insect between, or in front of the ej^es, though normally the
antennar}'- is posterior to the ophthalmic ring.
It is normally a long, filiform, slender, many- _a
jointed appendage, undergoing great changes
in form. When it is highly specialized, as in ^::A/''^^i
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, it is divided \} J
into three parts, the basal or scape^ the middle :r>==i==^
or -pedicel, and the terminal part or flagellum, ^^s- 36.
Fig. 35. or clavola, which usually comprises the greater part of
the antenna.

It is believed b}^ some that the sense of hearing is lodged
in the antennae, though Siebold has discovered an auditory
apparatus situated at the base of the abdomen of some, and
in the fore-legs of other species of Grasshoppers.

Mr. J. B. Hicks has made the latest studies on the auditory
apparatus. According to him "it consists first of a cell, sac,
or cavity filled with fluid, closed in from the air by a mem-
brane analogous to that which closes the foramen ovale in the
higher animals ; second, that this membrane is, for the most
part, thin and delicate, but often projects above the surface, in
either a hemispherical, conical, or canoe-shaped, or even hair-
like form, or variousl}^ marked ; thirdly, that the antennal nerve
gives off" branches which come in contact with the inner wall of
the sacs ; but whether the nerve enters, or, as is most probable,
ends in the small internally projecting papilla which I have
shown to exist in many of these sacs, it is very diflScult to say.
The principal part of the nerve proceeds to these organs, the
remaining portion passing to the muscles, and to the roots of
the hairs, at least to those of the larger sort." On the other
hand, Lefebvre, Leydig, and Gerstaecker regard this so-called
"auditory apparatus" as an organ of smell.

The antennjE have also the sense of touch, as may readily be
observed in Ants, Bees, and the Grasshopper and Cockroach.
"The Honey-bee, when constructing its cells, ascertains their
proper direction and size by means of the extremities of these

Fig. 35. Filiform antenna of ^TTipftJsoa. — From Horn.

Fig. 36. A, lamellate antenna of a Lamelliciorn Beetle; B, antenna of a Fly,
with the bristle thrown off from the terminal joint; C, bristle-Uke antenna of a
Dragon-fly, Libellula. — From Sanborn.

THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD.

27

organs ; while the same insect, when evidently affected by
sounds, keeps them motionless in one direction, as if in the act
of listening." (Ne-^vi^ort.)

After cutting off one or both antennae of the June beetle,
Lachnosterna, the insect loses its power of directing its flight
or steps, wheeling about in a senseless manner. Dr. Clemens
observed that the Cecropia moth was similarly affected after
losing its antennae.

TJie Mandibles (Fig. 37) are inserted on each side of the
mouth-opening. They usually consist of but a single joint,

H

Fig. 37.

representing probably the basal part of the ideal limb. This
part, however, is often subdivided by two longitudinal fun-ows
into three parts, each ending in a "tooth" of unequal size for
tearing and cutting the food. This tripartite form of the man-
dibles, to which attention has been called by Mr. Scudder, is
more fully carried out in the maxilla, where each portion is
highly specialized. The mandibles vary greatly in form and
size. The two cutting edges are usually opposed to each other,
or frequently overlap in the carnivorous forms. Then- base is
often concealed by the clypeus
I and labrum. Their motion is
transverse, being the reverse of
the motion of the jaws of Ver-
tebrates.

The Maxillm (Figs. 38 &, 39) are
much more complicated organs than the mandibles.

Fig. 37. Different forms of mandibles. A, mandible of Cicindela purimrea; B,
PhyUoptera, ii green grasshopper; C, Libellula trimactilata ; D, Fespa maculata, or
paper-making Wasp : E, " rostrum" or jointed sucker of the Bed-bug, Cimex lectu-
Jarius, consisting of mandibles, maxilla?, and labium; F, proboscis, or sucker, of a
Mosquito, Culex, in which the mandibles are long and bristle-like. — From Sanborn.
G, mandible of AmpMzoa; H, mandible of ^craiws, a genus of Cockchafers. — -Front
Horn.

Fig. 38. rt, mentnm and labial palpi; 6, one maxilla, Avith its palpus, of Acra-
tus. — From Horn.

Fig. 39. Maxilla of AmpMzoa, with the two lobes (stipes and lacinia), and the
palpifer bearing the four-jointed palpus. — From Horn.

a Fi

Fig. 39.

They are

28 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

inserted en the under side of the head and just behind the
mouth. The maxilla consists of a basal joint, or cardo,
beyond which it is subdivided into three lobes, the stijpes, or
footstalk ; the xialpifer, or palpus-bearer ; and the lacinia, or
blade. The stipes forms the outer and main division of the
organ. The lacinia is more membranaceous than the other
parts, and its upper surface is covered with fine hairs, and
forms a great part of the side of the mouth. It is divided
into two lobes, the superior of which is called the galea, or
helmet, which is often a thick double-jointed organ edged with
stiff hairs, and is used as a palpus in the Orthoptera and many
Coleoptera. The inferior lobe is attached to the internal angle
of the lacinia. It terminates in a stiff minute claw, and is
densely covered with stout hairs. The maxillary pal^n are
long, slender, one to four-jointed organs, very flexible and sen-
sitive.

The maxillse vary greatly in the different groups. Their office
is to seize the food and retain it within the mouth, and also to
aid the mandibles in comminuting it before it is swallowed.
This function reminds us of that of the tongue of vertebrate
animals.

. The kibium., or second maxUlm (Fig. 40), is placed in front of
the gula, which forms the under part of the head, and is bounded
a on each side by the gence,-or cheeks, and
posteriorly by the occiput. The genae are
bounded laterally b}^ the epicranium and
the under side of the eyes. In front are
situated the basal parts of the labium, or
second maxillse, which embraces the suhmentum and mentum
(or labium proper). The labial palpi are inserted into the
mentum, but often the latter piece is differentiated into two,
the anterior of which takes the name of jxdjn'ger, called by
Dr. Leconte (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections) the ligula,
and the palpi originate from them. The ligula is the front
edge of the labium, being the piece forming the under lip.
It is often a fleshy organ, its inner surface being continuous

Fig. 40. Ligwla and labial palpi of ^wp/Msort, an aquatic beetle. It is quadrate
and Avithout paraglossas ; a, mentum of the same, being deeply incised, and with a
tooth at tlie bottom of the excavation. — J'ro??! Horn.

THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD.

29

with the soft membrane of the mouth. In the Bees, it is enor-
mously developed and covered with soft hairs. It is often
confounded with the palpiger. In Hydrous it is divided into
two lobes. In most of the Carabidce and Bees it is divided
into three lobes, the two outer ones forming the paraglossce
(Fig. 4zlm), and acting as feelers, while the middle, usually
much longer, forms the lingua, or tongue, being the continuation
of the ligula. In the bees, where
the ligula is greatly developed,
it performs the part of the tongue
in Vertebrates, and aids the max-
illae in collecting nectar and
pollen.

The roof of the mouth is
formed by the labrum and the
epipharynx (Fig. 42 c), a small
fleshy tubercle concealed beneath
the labrum. It is seen in the
bees on turning up the labrum.
It probably corresponds to the
"labellum" of Schi5dte. The
labrum (Fig. 41 e) is usually
transverse and situated in front
of the dypeus (Fig. Alb). The
shield-like dypeus is the broad,
visor-like, square piece forming usually the front of the head.
Behind it is the dyp)eus posterior, or supra-dypeus, a subdivision
of the clypeus, and especially observable in the Hymenoptera.
The epicranium forms a large part of the head ; it is bounded
posteriorly by the occiput, on the sides by the eyes, and in
front by the clypeus, and though usually described as a
single piece, is really composed of several. The ocelli often
appear to be situated upon it, though in reality they are placed
upon a distinct piece or pieces. The " epicranial suture" is the
line of junction of the tAvo "procephalic lobes" (Huxley).

Fig. 41.

Fig. 41. Front view of the head of a bee, Anthcplwra. a, compound eyes ; c,
three simple eyes, situated upon the epicranium; 6, clypeus; e, labrum; d, an-
tennas;/, mandibles; i, maxillaj; h, maxillary palpi; I, palpifer; j, labial palpi; m,
paraglossae ; Ic, ligula. — From Newport.
3*

30

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

(These lobes will be explained farther on when speaking
of their development in the embryo.) Behind the epicra-

nium is the occiput,
or base of the head.
It belongs to the la-
bial, or second max-
illary segment, and
helps to form a com-
plete ring, articulat-
ing with the thorax.
It is perforated by a
foramen to afford a
connection between
the interior of the
head and thorax. It
is sometimes, as in
many Coleoptera, Or-
thoptera, and Hemip-
tera, elongated be-
^'S- 42. hind and constricted,

thus forming a "neck." It will be seen beyond, that the
labrum and clypeus are in the embrj-o developed from a
"tongue-like process whose inferior part eventually becomes
the labrum, while superiorly it sends a triangular process (the
rudmient of the clypeus) into the interval between the proce-
phalic lobes."* This part {i.e. the clypeus and labrum) is the
most anterior part of the head, and in the embryo, as in the
adult, is normally situated in front of the ocelli, and may be
compared with the "anal plate," or eleventh tergite, of the
larva.-j-

Fig. 42. Side view of tlie front part of the head, together with the mouth-
parts of the Humble-bee (Bombus). «, clypeus covered with hairs ; h, labrum ;
c, the fleshy epipharynx partially concealed by the base of the mandibles (d);
e, laciuia, or blade of the maxillse, with their two-jointed palpi (/) at the base; jj, the
labium to which is appended the ligula {g); below are the labial palpi; h, the two
basal joints, being greatly enlarged; Tc, the compound eyes. — Original.

* These lobes are folded back upon the top of the base of the head, and they
seem to form the i!e?-</rt7 portion of the hypothetical, elemental ring, orrings, to which
they respectively belong, and do not seem to us to be the sternal portion, as sug-
gested by Huxley, for they arc apparently developed in frontof the mouth-opening,
and form the roof of the mouth.

t " Lastly, there are certain parts developed singlji- in the median line in the Artie-
ulata. Of this nature are the frontal spines of Crustacea, their telsou,and the sting

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 31

111 describing Insects the vertex^ or crown, of the head is the
highest part ; and tlie front is the part usually in front of the
insertion of the antennae.

The Muscular System lies just beneath, and is continuous
with the integument. It consists of numerous "distinct isola-
ted straight fibres, which are not gathered into bundles united
by common tendons, or covered by aponeuroses [or tendinous
sheaths] to form distinct muscles, as in the Vertebrata, but
remain separate from each other, and only in some instances
are united at one extremity by tendons." (Newport.) These
minute fibres form laj-ers, which Newport regards as separate
muscles. "Each fibre is composed of a great number of very
minute fibrillae, or fasciculi of fibrillar," and has been observed
by Wagner and Newport to be often striated as in Vertebrates.
The muscular sj^stem is simplest in the lower insects and the
larvae of the higher forms, and is more complex in the head
than elsewhere, and more complex in the thorax than in the
abdomen. These minute muscles are excessively numerous.
"Lyonnet, in his immortal work on the anatomy of the larva
of Cossus ligniperda, found two hundred and twenty-eight dis-
tinct muscles in the head alone, and, by enumerating the fibres
in the layers of the different segments, reckoned 1,647 for the
body, and 2,118 for the internal organs, thus making together
3,993 muscles in a single larva. In the larva of /SjJhinx ligus-
tri we have found the muscles equally numerous with those
discovered by Lyonnet in the Cossus." (Newport.)

The muscular system corresponds to the jointed structure of
insects, as do the other internal systems of organs. Of the
muscles belonging to a single ring, some stretch from the front
edge of one segment to the front edge of the next, and others

of the Scorpion, whose mode of development appears to be precisely similar to
that of a telson. In the same category we must rank the labrum in front of the
mouth, which in the Crustacea (at least) appears to bo developed from the sternum
of the antennary, or third somite, the metastoma (or so called labium, or lingua)
of Crustacea, and the lingua of Insecta, behind the oral aperture.

" However much these appendages may occasionally simulate, or play the part
of appendages, it is important to remember, that, morphologically, they are of a
very different nature, and that the confusing them with true appendages must
tend completely to obscure the beautiful relations which obtain among the dif-
ferent classes of the Articulata." — Huxley, Linnsean Transactions, vol. xxii.
London,

32 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

to the hinder edge ; there are also sets of dorsal and ventral
muscles going in an oblique or vertical course. The muscles
are either colorless and transparent, or yellowish white and
of a soft, almost gelatinous consistence. In form they are
simply flat and thin, straight, band-like, or pyramidal, barrel
or feather-shaped. They act variously as rotators, elevators,
depressors, retractors, protrusors, flexors, and extensors.

The muscular potoer of insects is enormous. The Flea will
leap two hundred times its own height. Certain beetles can
support enormous weights. Newport cites the case of Geo-
trupes stercorarius i^liich. is "able to sustain and escape from
beneath a pressure of from twenty to thirty ounces, a prodi-
gious weight when it is remembered that the insect itself does
not weigh even so many grains." Some beetles have been
known to gnaw through lead-pipes, and the Stag-beetle of
Europe, Lucanus cervus, has, as stated by Mr. Stephens,
gnawed "a hole an inch in diameter tlu'ough the side of an
iron canister in which it was confined."

"The motions of the insect in walking as in flying are
dependent, in the perfect individual, entirely upon the thoracic
segments, but in the larva chiefly upon the abdominal. Al-
though the number of legs in the former is always six, and in
the latter sometimes so many as twenty-two, progression is
simple and easy. Miiller states (Elements of Physiology, p.
970, Translation) that on watching insects that move slowly
he has distinctly perceived that three legs are always moved at
one time, being advanced and put to the ground while the
other three propel the body forwards. In perfect insects, those
moved simultaneously are the fore and hind feet on one side,
and the intermediate foot on the opposite ; and afterwards the
fore and hind feet on that side, and the middle one on the
other, so that, he remarks, in two steps the whole of the legs
are in motion. A similar uniformity of motion takes place
in the larva, although the whole anterior part of the body is
elevated and carried forwards at regular distances, the steps of
the insect being almost entirely performed by the 'false,' or
abdominal legs."

'■'- In flight the motions depend upon the meso- and meta-
thoracic segments conjointly, or entirely upon the former. The

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

33

sternal, epistenial, and epimeral pieces, freely articulated
together, correspond in function with the sternum, the ribs,
and the clavicles of birds.* The thorax is expanded and con-
tracted at each motion of the
wings, as in birds and other ani-
mals, and becomes fixed at each
increased effoi't as a fulcrum or
point of resistance upon which
the great muscles of the wings
are to act, tlms identifying this
part of the body in function as
in structure with that of other ani-
mals." (Newport.)

The Nervous System. In its
simplest form the nervous system
consists of two longitudinal cords,
each with a swelling (nerve-knot,
or ganglion,) coi'responding to
each segment (Fig. 43). This
cord lies on the ventral side of tlie
body, but in the head it passes
upwards, sending a filament from
each side to surround the oesoph-
agus.-f As in the Vertebrates,
the nervous cord of insects is
composed of two distinct columns
of fibres placed one upon the other
column, which is nearest to the exterior of the body, is that in
which the ganglia, or enlargements, are situated. The upper
one, or that which is internal and nearest to the viscera, is
entirely without ganglia, and passes directly over the ganglia
of the under column without forming part of them, but in very

* Bennet on the Anatomy of the Thorax in Insects, and its Function during
Flight. Zoological Journal, vol. i, p. 394.

fThe brain of insects is formed of several pairs of ganglia, corresponding,
probably, to the number of primitive segments composing the head. The nervous
cord is thus, in the head, massed together and compacted to form a brain.

Fig. 43. Nervous System of Corydalus cornutus. a, " cerebrum ; " h, " cere-
brellum;" c, thoracic ganglia, which distribute a nerve to each leg; d, eight pairs
of abdominal ganglia. The dotted lines represent the wings. — From Leuhj.

Fig. 43.

"The under or external

34 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

close approximation to them." Newport also believes that the
ganglionless upper, or internal, column of fibres is analogous
to the motor column of Vertebrata, while the external, or under
one, corresponds to the sensitive column, thus representing the
cerebro-spinal system of the Vertebrata.

From each pair of ganglia are distributed special nerves to
the various organs. In the larva of Sphinx the normal num-
ber of double ganglia is thirteen, and the nervous cord of the
Neuroptera and other lowly organized and attenuated forms of
insects corresponds in the main to this number. In the adult
insect, especially in the Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and
Hymenoptera, the three thoracic ganglia are fused together,
following the fusion and general headwise development of the
segments of the tegument. Besides the central nervous cord,
corresponding to the spinal cord of the Vertebrates, there is a
vagus, or visceral nerve, representing the sympathetic nerve of
higher animals. This nerve "arises, in the larva, from the
anterior part of the cerebrum, and, forming a ganglion on the
upper surface of the pharynx, always passes backward beneath
the brain, along the middle line of the oesophagus." In its
microscopic structure the nervous cord, like that of Vertebrata,
consists of a central "white" substance, and an outer or peri-
pheral part, the "gi'ay" substance.

In the embryo the ganglia are very large and close together,
the commissures, or connecting filaments being very short, and
small in proportion.

Orgaks of Nutrition. These consist of the alimentary canal
and its appendages, or accessory glands (Fig. 44). We have
already treated of the external appendages (mouth-parts)
which prepare the food for digestion. The simplest form of
the alimentary canal is that of a straight tube. In the larva
of Stylops, and the sedentary young of Bees it ends in a blind
sac, as they live on liquid food and expel no solid excretions.
When well developed, as in the adult insect, it becomes a long
convoluted thick muscular tube, subdivided into diflferent parts
which perform different functions and have distinct names,
taken from analogous organs in the vertebrate animals. This
digestive tube is composed of three coats, the outer, or j^eri-

ORGANS OF NUTRITION.

35

tonecd; the middle, or muscular; and the inner, or mucous. The
mucous coat is variously modified, being plaited or folded ; or,

c d e h f h

Fiff. a.

as in the Orthoptera and carnivorous Coleoptera, it is solidified
and covered with rows of strong horny teeth, forming a sort of
gizzard. The alimentary canal is held in place by retractor
muscles, but principally by exceedingly numerous branches of
the main tracheae.

This canal (Fig. 45) is subdivided into the mouth and pha-
rynx^ the oesophagus, supplementary to which is the crop, or
" sucking stomach" of Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera.
The proventriculus, or gizzard ; the ventriculus, or true stomach
succeed, and the intestine consists of the ileum, or short intes-

FiG. 44. Anatomy of Sphinx ligustri. m, i, q, the nervous cord resting on
the floor of the body ; at c, the ganglia form a brain-like organ, much larger than
the ganglia of the thorax (m) and abdomen (q). From the brain is sent ofi" the
suboesophageal nerve which surrounds the gullet into which the food is conveyed
by the maxillae, or spiral tongue (a), which, when at rest, is rolled up between the
labial palpi (6).

From the nervous cord is also thrown oflf a pair of nerves to each pair of legs
(as at'n, o,p) and a branch, d, is sent off 'from above, distributing nerves to the
muscles of flight.

The heart, or dorsal vessel (e,/), lies just beneath the median line of the body,
and is retained in place by muscular bands (as at /) as well as by small tracheal
branches.

The alimentary canal (h,J, g), forms a straight tube in the head and thorax; h,
the crop, or sucking stomach, which opens into the oesophagus; j, the true, chyle-
forming stomach, which contracts posteriorly, and then dilates near its anal outlet
into a cloaca (indicated at g, but not distinctly, as it is concealed by the numerous
urinary vessels). The urinary vessels also indicated at g, form long tubes (which
correspond to the kidneys of Vertebrates), opening into the pyloric end of the
stomach. The position of the testes {k)is, the same as that of the ovary, and the
dotted line I shows the course of the efferent duct {vas deferens) and also of the
oviduct of the female.

The numerals indicate the number of segments of the body, which in the Lepi-
doptera, consists of twenty, the 21st, or 11th abdominal, being absent. — i?Vowi
Newport.

36

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

tine, and the colon and rectum. The latter part, as well as the
crop and proventriculus, is sometimes absent.

Of the appendages of the canal, the first
are the salivary glands, which are usually
long simple tubes, which in the larva, ac-
cording to Newport, form the silk vessels.
They " empty themselves by a single duct
tlu'ough the spinneret on the floor (labium)
of the mouth." In the Ant-lion (Myrmeleon)
the silk is spun from "a slender telescopic-
like spinneret, placed at the extremity of
its body," and Westwood also states that the
larva of Chrysopa spins a cocoon "from the
spinneret, at the extremity of the body."

These silk glands when taken out of the
larva, just as it is about ready to transform,
are readily prepared as "gut" for fish-lines,
etc., by chying on a board.

In the Bees these glands are largely de-
veloped to produce a sufficient amount of
salivary fluid to moisten the dry pollen of
Fig. 45. flowers, before it enters the oesophagus.

"Bee-bread" consists of pollen thus moistened and kneaded
by the insect. The Honey-bee also dissolves, by the aid of the
salivary fluid, the wax used in making its cells. Newport
believes this fluid is alkaline, and forms a solvent for the other-
wise brittle wax, as he has seen this insect "reduce the per-
fectly transparent thin white scales of newly secreted wax to
a pasty or soapy consistence, by kneading it between its man-
dibles, and mixing it with a fluid from its mouth, before apply-
ing it to assist in the formation of part of a new cell."

Insects have no true liver; its functions being performed
"by the walls of the stomach, the internal timic of which is
composed of closely-aggregated hepatic cells." (Siebold.) In
the Spiders and Scorpions, however, there is a liver distinct
from the digestive canal. In the Spiders it is very large,
enveloping most of the other viscera.

Fig. 45. Alimentary tube of Corydalus cornutus. a, oesophagus; h, proven-
triculus; c, ventriculus; d, large intestine; e, urinai'y tubes; /, cojcuni; g., testis or
ovary. — From Leidy.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 37

Siebold states that in some insects the ileum has glandular
appendages whose product is perhaps analogous to the pancre-
atic fluid. In the larva of insects is found the corpus adiposum,
or fat-body, in the form of large lobes of fat-cells which spread
through the intervals of the viscera in the general cavity of
the body. It is interpenetrated and retained in place by
numerous tracheae.

The Circulatory System. The vascular, or circulatory,
system is not a closed sac as in the Worms and Vertebrates.
The organs of circulation consist of a contractile, articulated
dorsal vessel, or so-called "heart," which terminates in a
cephalic aorta. The dorsal vessel receives the veinous current
through the lateral valvular openings and pumps the blood into
its prolongation or cephalic aorta, whence it escapes, traversing
the body in all directions, in regular currents, which do not
have, however, vascular walls. "In this way, it penetrates the
antennae, the extremities, the wings, and the other appendages
of the body, by arterial currents, and is returned by those of a
veinous nature. All the veinous currents empty into two
lateral ones, running towards the posterior extremity of the
body, and which enter, through lateral orifices, the dorsal
vessel." (Siebold.)

"The blood of the Insecta is usually a colorless liquid,
though sometimes yellowish, but rarely red. In this liquid are
suspended a few very small, oval, or spheroidal corpuscles,
which are always colorless, have a granular aspect, and are
sometimes nucleated.

"The dorsal vessel, which is constricted at regular intervals,
is always situated on the median line of the abdomen, being
attached to the dorsal wall of its segments by several trian-
gular muscles whose apices point outwards. Its walls contain
both longitudinal and transverse fibres, and, externally, are
covered by a thin peritoneal tunic. Internally, it is lined by
another Very fine membrane, which, at the points of these con-
strictions, forms valvular folds, so that the organ is divided
into as many chambers as there are constrictions. Each of
these chambers has, at the anterior extremity on each side, a
valvular orifice which can be inwardly closed. The returning
4

38

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

blood is accumulated about the heart and enters into it during
the diastole of each of its chambers, thi'ough the lateral
orifices (Fig. 46 f). It then passes, by the regularly successive

Fig. 47.
Fig. 46.

contractions of the heart, from behind forwards into the aorta,
which is only a prolongation of the anterior chamber. This
aorta consists of a simple, small vessel, situated on the dorsal
surface of the thorax (Fig. 44 e,/), and extending even to the
cephalic ganglion, where it either ends in an open extremity, or
divides into several short branches which terminate in a like
manner. The length of the dorsal vessel depends, in all the
three states of insects, upon that of the abdomen. The number
of its chambers is very variable, but is, most usually, eight.

"The blood, after leaving the aorta, traverses the body in
currents which are also extravascular, and in this way bathes
all the organs. The newly-prepared nutritive fluid passes
through the walls of the digestive canal in which it is found,
into the visceral cavity, and thence directly into the blood.
Latterly, this extravascular circulation has been called in
question, but its presence may be easily and directly observed

Fig. 46. Part of the dorsal vessel or heart of Lzicanus cervus ; a, the posterior
chambers (the anterior chambers are covered by a part of the ligaments which hold
the heart in place), i, the auriculo-ventricular openings; g, g, the lateral mus-
cles fixed by the prolongations h,h, to the upper side of the abdomen. — From
Straus Durckheim.

Fig. 47. Interior of the dorsal vessel ; a, the inner walls with their circular
fleshy fibres; c, the auriculo-ventricular opening; with its semilunar valve (c), in
front of which is d; the interventricular valvule. — From Straus Durckheim,

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 39

with very many perfect Insecta and their larvae. The vascular
walls, supposed to have been seen at certain points, 'are, un-
doubtedly, the result of some error of observation or interpre-
tation. This is also true of the pulsatile organs supposed to
have been observed in the legs of many Avater-bugs, and which
were thought to affect the circulation."

Blanchard and Agassiz believe in a "peritracheal circula-
tion," and other observers agree that the course of the circula-
tion is along the tracheae, i. e. that the blood circulates in the
space between the loose peritoneal envelope and the trachea
itself. Professor H. J. Clark objects to this view that the blood
disks are too large to pass through such an exceedingly minute
space as the distance between the trachea and its enveloping,
or peritoneal, wall.

Newport thinks that there are actual blood vessels distrib-
uted from the heart and "passing transversely across the
dorsal surface of each segment in the pupa of Sphinx. If
they be not vessels distributed from the heart, it is a some-
what curious circumstance that the whole of the blood should
be first sent to the head of the insect, and the viscera of the
abdominal region be nourished only by the returning blood,
which has in part passed the round of the circulation."

Newport also describes in Spliinx the siqjra-sjnnal, or great
ventral vessel which lies in the abdomen just over the nervous
cord, and which is also found in the Scorpion and Centipede.
He believes "this vessel to be the chief means of returning
the blood from the middle and inferior portion of the body to
the posterior extremity of the dorsal vessel or heart." He
strongly suspects that anteriorly this great ventral vessel is
connected with the aorta. The circulation of Insects, there-
fore, is probably as much a closed one as in the Myriapods, for
he states that the "blood certainly flows in distinct vessels, at
least in some parts of the body in perfect insects, and that
vessels exist even in the larva." Observations on the vascular
system are exceedingly difficult from the delicate structure of
the vessels, and the subject needs renewed observations to
settle these disputed points.

The blood is forced through the vessel into the body by regu-
lar pulsations. Herold counted thirty to forty in a minute in a

40

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

full-grown caterpillar ; we have counted about sixty a minute
in the recently hatched larva of Diplax. During excitement,
the number of pulsations increases in rapidity. Newport found
the pulsations in a bee, Antlwplwra, when quiet, to be eighty a
minute ; but when "the insects were quite lively, and had been
exposed to the sun for an hour or two, the number of pulsa-
tions amounted to one hundred and forty."

He found that the nmnber of pulsations decreased after each
moult of the larva of Sj^^ii^ix ligustri, but increased in force;
when it was full grown and had ceased feeding it was thirty.
"After it had passed into the pupa state the number fell to
twenty-two, and afterwards to ten or twelve, and, during the
period of hibernation, it almost entirely ceases ; but in the per-
fect insect it rose from forty-one to fifty, and when excited by
flight around the room it was from one hundred and ten to one
hundred and thirty-nine."

Organs of Respiration. All insects breathe air, or, when
they live in the water, respire, by means of branchiae, the
air mixed mechanically with water. Respiration is carried on
by an intricate sj'stem of tubes (pul-
monary trachcie) which open by pores
(spiracles or stigniiita) in the sides of
the body ; or, as in aquatic insects, by
branchioe, or gill-like flattened expan-
sions of the body-wall penetrated by
trachete (branchial tracheae).

There are sometimes eleven spiracles,

or breathing-holes (Fig. 48), on each side

of the body ; each consisting of an oval

horny ring situated in the peritreme

Fig. 48. and closed by a A'ah^e, which guards

the orifice (Fig. 49). Within this valve is a chamber closed

within by another A'alve which covers the entrance into the

tracheae. The air-tube itself (Fig. 50) consists of "an external

Fig. 48. Larva of the Humble-bee just beginning: to change to a pupa, showing
eleven pairs of stigmata. In the adult bee, onh- the fourth pair is apparent, the
remaining pairs being concealed from view, or in part aborted. In most insects
there are usually, only nine pairs of stigmata. — Orif/inal.

OEGANS OF RESPIRATION.

41

Fi?. 49.

Ficr. 50.

serous, and an internal mucous membrane, inclosing between
them a spirally convoluted fibre, thus giving great strength
and flexibility to the tube."

Nearly all the air enters through the thoracic and first
abdominal spiracles, so that on pinching most insects on
the thorax they can be
easily deprived of
breath and killed.

" In some aquatic
larvjB such as those
of Dyticidw, Eristalis
(Fig. 51, pupa), and
Epliydra^ and also in some perfect insects,
as in Nepa and Hanatra, the parts sup-
porting the stigmata are prolonged into slen-
der tubes, through which the insect, on rising to the surface,
breathes the atmospheric air. , ,

Agrion (Fig, 52) aflfords a good instance of branchiae
or gill-like expansions of the crust, or skin. It is
supposed that these false gills, or branchiae, "absorb
the air from the water, and convey it by the minute
ramifications of the tracheal ves-
sels, with which they are abun-
dantly supplied, and which ter-
minate in single trunks, into the
main tracheae, to be distributed over the whole body,
as in insects which live in the open atmosphere."
(Newport.)

Of branchiae there are three kinds. The fii'st, as in
the larvae and pupae of Gnats, consist of slender fila-
ments arranged in tufts arising from a single stem. ^*o- ^-■
In the larva of Gyrinus and the aquatic caterpillar of a moth,

Fig. 49. Chamber leading into the trachea; a, «, external valve protecting the
outer opening of the stigma, or breathing hole; 6, c, c, inner and more complicated
vah'c closing the entrance into the trachea {I, h); m, conical occlusor muscle
closing the inner orifice. — From Strnus Dtirckheim.

Fig. 50. Portion of a trachea divested of its peritoneal envelope, a, spirally
convoluted fibre, closely wound around the trachea, as at e ; c, origin of a secondary
tracheal branch. — From Straus Durckheim.

Fig. 52. One of the three gill-like appendages to the abdomen of the larva and
pupa of Agrion enlarged, consisting of a broad leaf-like expansion, permeated by
trachea; which take up by endosmosis the air contained in water. — Oriffinal.
4.*

42 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Hydrocampa stratiolata, they form short stiff bristles placed
along the side of the body. Agrion and Ephemera, in their
larval stages, afford the second kind of branchiae, and Lihellula
the third kind, or internal gill, situated in the colon. The
Mosquito breathes both by branchiae which form large club-
shaped organs, and by lateral filaments.

In those insects that fliy, most of the tracheae are often dilated
into air-vesicles, so that by filling and emptying them of air the
insect can change its specific gravity. That their use is also
to lighten the body is shown by their presence in the heavy
mandibles and head of the male of Lucanus cervus. In the
adult Humble-bee there are two very large vesicles at the base
of the abdomen. These vesicles are not found in the larvae,
or in the adult forms of creeping insects.

The act of respiration consists in the alternate dilation and
contraction of the abdominal segments, the air entering the
body chiefly at the thoracic spiracles. As in the Vertebrates the
frequency of the acts of breathing increases after exertion.
"When an insect is preparing itself for flight, the act of res-
piration resembles that of birds under similar circumstances.
At the moment of elevating its elytra and expanding its wings,
which are, indeed, acts of respiration, the anterior pairs of
spiracles are opened, and the air rushing into them is extended
over the whole body, which, by the expansion of the aii'-bags, is
enlarged in bulk, and rendered of less specific gravity ; so that
when the spiracles are closed at the instant the insect endeavors
to make the first stroke with and raise itself upon its wings, it
is enabled to rise in the air, and sustain a long and powerful
flight with but little muscular exertion. In the pupa and larva
state respiration is performed more equally by all the spiracles,
and less especially by the thoracic ones."

During hibernation the act of breathing, like the circulation
of the blood, almost entirely ceases, and the heat of the body
is greatly lowered. Indeed Newport has shown that the devel-
opment of heat in Insects, just as in Vertebrates, depends on the
"quantity and activity of respiration, and the volume and
velocity of the circulation." The Humble-bee, according to
Newport, possesses the voluntary power of generating heat by
breathing faster. He says, confirming Huber's observations,

ORGANS OF SECRETION. 43

"the manner in which the bee performs her incubatory office is
by placing herself upon the cell of a nymph (pupa) that is
soon to be developed, and then beginning to respire at first
very gradually. In a short time the respirations become more
and more frequent, until at length they are increased to one
hundred and twenty, or one hundred and thirty per minute.
The body of the insect soon becomes of a high temperature,
and, on close inspection, is often found to be bathed with per-
spiration. When this is the case the temperature of the insect
soon becomes reduced, and the insect leaves the cell, and an-
other bee almost immediately takes her place. When respira-
tion is performed less violently, and consequently less heat is
evolved, the same bee will often continue on a cell for many
hours in succession. This extreme amount of heat was evolved
entirely by an act of the will in accelerating the respiratory ef-
forts, a strong indication of the relation which subsists between
the function of respiration and the development of animal heat."

Organs of Secretion. The urinary vessels, or what is
equivalent to the kidneys of the higher animals, consist in In-
sects of several long tubes which empty by one or two common
secretory ducts into the posterior or "pyloric" extremity of
the stomach. There are also odoriferous glands, analogous to
the cutaneous glands of vertebrates. The liquid poured out is
usually offensive, and it is used as a means of defence. The
Bees, Wasps, Gall-flies, etc., and Scorpions, have a poison-sac
(Fig. dig) developed in the tip of the abdomen. The bite of
the Musquito, the Horse-fly, and Bed-bug is thought by New-
port to be due to the simple act of thrusting their lancet-like
jaws tlu'ough the skin, and it is not known that these and
other insects which bite severely eject any poison into the
Wound. But in the spiders a minute drop of poison exudes from
an orifice at the end of the mandibles, "which spreads over the
whole wound at the instant it is inflicted." This poison is
secreted by a gland lodged in the celphalo-thorax, and which
is thought by Audouin to correspond in position to the salivary
apparatus and the silk glands of the Winged Insects.

Organs of Generation. We have already described the
external parts. The internal parts of the male insect consist.

44

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

or fertilizing fluid, contains

first, of the ductus ejaculatorius, wliich opens into the external
intromittent organ. This duct extends backwards, connecting
witli the vesicidce seminales, which lead by
the vasa differentia to the testes (Fig. 53).
The latter are usually rounded glandular
bodies, sometimes, as in Melolontlia and
Luccmus, numbering six on a side. These
organs lie in the abdominal cavity, usually
above and on each side of the alimentary
canal.

The sperm,
very active
spermatic par-
ticles which
are developed
in large cells
in the testes,
where they are
bundles of various

Fig. 53.

united into
forms.

In the female, the internal re-
productive organs (Fig. 54) are
more simple than those of the
other sex. The external open-
ing of the female is situated at
the end of the ovfduct, that
leads by two tubes to the ovary,
which consists of two or more
tubes (in the Queen Bee one hundred and sixty to one hundred
and eight}") in which the ova are developed. On the upper side

Fig. 54.

Fig. 53. Male organs of Athnlia centifolice. h, the penis, or external portion,
in which the ductus ejaculatorius (/) terminates, which extends backwards, and is
connected with the vcsindce seminales (e), and vasa differentia (d) which are con-
nected with the epididymis (b), and the testes (a), i and I, two pairs of horny plates,
surrounded by a horny ring (A-), i, horn}'- prehensile hooks attached to k. m, two
elongated muscular parts inclosing the penis (h). — From Newport.

Fig. 54. Female organs of generation of Athalia centifoliee. a, b, c, the eighteen
ovarial tubes originating from each of the two oviducts (e), and containing the im-
mature eggs ; /, the spermatheca ; (/, poison-sac, the poison being secreted in the
secretory vessels h. The poison flows through the oviduct into the sting and thence
into the wound made by the Sting. 10, the terminal ganglia of the uervous cord.
— From Xewport.

OKGANS OF GENERATION. 45

of the oviduct are from one to five appendages, the most impor-
tant of which is the spermatheca (the others being sebaceous
glands), which receives the fertilizing fluid of the male during
sexual union, and in which, according to Darwin, the male ele-
ment "is enabled to keep alive four or five years."

Insects bisexual. With the exception of the Tardigrades,
which are doubtfully referred to the Mites (Acarina) , there are
no hermaphrodites among Insects, that is, there are no individ-
uals having both male and female organs, and capable of self-
impregnation. On the contrary, the sexes are distinct ; Insects
are bisexual.

Hermaphrodites, so-called. Cases not unfrequently occur in
which from arrest of development of the embryo, the sexual
organs are imperfectly developed, so as to present the appear-
ance of being both male and female. "vSiebold has investigated
some hermaphrodite Honey-bees belonging to the Italian race,
obtained from a Dzierzon hive at Constance. He found in
many of them a combination of sexual characters, not only in the
external parts, but also in the generative organs. The mixture
of the external characters is manifested sometimes only in the
anterior or posterior part of the body, sometimes in all parts
of the body, or only in a few organs. Some specimens pre-
sent male and worker characters on the two sides of the body.
The development of the internal organs is singularly correla-
ted with these peculiarities of external organization. The sting,
with its vesicle and gland, is well developed in hermaphrodites
with the abdomen of the worker ; soft in those with the drone-
abdbitoen. The seminal receptacle, when present, is empty.
The ovaries contain no ova. In the hermaphrodites with the
drone-abdomen, the male sexual organs are well developed, and
the testes contain spermatozoids. Frequently with testicular
and ovarian organs present on each side, the epididymis and
copulatory apparatus are well developed, and an imperfect
poison-apparatus exists. In these cases the tube contains
spermatozoids, but there are no ova in the ovaries. The her-
maphrodites are thrown out of the cell by the workers as soon
as they emerge, and speedily perish. Siebold ascribes the pro-
duction of these hermaphrodites to an imperfect fecundation
of the ovum." (Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie,
1864, p. 73. See Giinther's Zoological Eeview for 1864.)

46 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

Mr. Dunning describes a specimen of Fidonia piniaria,
"which was sexually a female, and the abdomen was appar-
ently distended with eggs ; the general color was midway be-
tween the colors of the ordinary male and female, but the size
and markings were those of the male. (Transactions Ento-
mological Society, London, Aug. 7, 1865.) Professor West-
wood states that "he had an Orange-tip Butterfly (AntJiocharis
cardamines), which was female in every respect, except that
on the tip of one fore- wing were about a dozen of the bright
orange scales which characterize the male."

The Egg. Professor H. J. Clark (Mind in Nature) defines
an egg to be a globule surrounded by the vitelline membrane,
or yolk-envelope, which is protected by the chorion^ or egg-
shell, consisting of "two Icinds of fluid, albumen and oi7, which
are always situated at opposite sides or poles." "In the earli-
est stages of all eggs, these two poles shade off into each
other," but in the perfectly developed egg the small, or albu-
minous pole, is surrounded by a membrane, and forms the
Purkinjean (germinal) vesicle ; and thirdly and last, the inner-
most of the three globules is developed This last is the
Wagnerian vesicle, or germinal dot. The oily matter forms the
yolk. Thus formed, the egg is the initial animal. It becomes
an animal after contact with the male germs (unless the product
of organic reproduction), and the egg-shell or chorion is to be
considered as a protection to the animal, and is throAvn off
when the embryo is hatched, just as the larva throws off its
skin to transform into the pupa. So that the egg-state is
equivalent to the larva state, and hence there are four stages
in the life of an insect, i. e. the egg, the larva, the pupa, and
the imago, or adult state.

The egg is not always laid as a perfect egg (Clark). It
sometimes, as in the Aaits, continues to grow after it is laid by
the parent, like those of frogs, which, according to Clark, "Are
laid before they can hardly be said to have become fullj- formed
as eggs." Again, others are laid some time after the embryo
has begun to form ; and in some, such as Melojyhagus and
Braula, the larva is fully formed before it is expelled from the
oviduct.

THE EGG. 47

Eggs are usually small in proportion to the size of the
parent; but in many minute forms {i.e. Pidex, Pedicidus, etc.)
they are proportionately much larger. In shape eggs are
either spherical or oblong. In some there are radiating append-
ages at one end, as in those of Ne2Ki and Ranatra ; or they are
provided with a single stalk, as in Chrysopa, Cynips, and
Ojjhion.

The eggs of ihost Hymenoptera, Diptera, and many Coleop-
tera are usually cylindrical ; those of Lepidoptera are more
generally spherical. The eggs of the Mosquito are laid in a
boat-shaped mass, which floats on the surface of quiet pools,
while those of the Chrysopa, or Lace-winged Fly (Fig. 55), are
supported on long pedicels. - — -.^^ WWi <?

They are almost invariably ^'~~~^Ss„^^^^P^^ \ i/M
laid near or upon objects des- __=i^^^^^^^^^^,^^^^..

tined to be the food of the Fig. 55.

future larva. Thus the Copris, or "Tumble-bug," places its
egg in a ball of dung which it rolls away to a secure place ;
the Flesh-fly oviposits on meat ; and all vegetable-feeders lay
their eggs on the food-plant where the larva, upon its exit
from the egg, shall readily find an ample supply of food.

The posterior end of the egg is more often the fixed one, and
it may thus be distinguished from the anterior pole. In the
eggs of some Diptera and Orthoptera, the ventral side of the
embryo, according to Gerstaecker, corresponds to the convex
side of the egg, and the concave side of the latter corresponds
to the dorsal region of the embryo.

The surface of the chorion, or egg-shell, which is dense and
brittle, is often covered by a mosaic-work of more or less regu-
lar facets. In many small eggs the surface is only minutely
granulated, or ornamented with ribs and furrows, as in those
of many Butterflies.

Tlie Micropyle. On the anterior end (though sometimes
at both ends) of the egg is one or more pores of exceeding
minuteness, through which the spermatozoa (more than one
of which, according to Darwin, is requisite to fertilize an
ovule) enter to fertilize the egg-contents. In some cases
these micropyles are scattered over the whole surface of the egg.
Fig. 56 a represents the micropyles of M^ejxi cinerea, consisting

48 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

of a whorl of long bristles. Those of Locusta viridissima (Fig.
56 5) slightly resemble toodstools. Fig. 56 c represents the an-
grier pole of the egg with
le micropyles of Pyrliocoris
pterus. — {From Gerstaecker. )
This contact of a male
perm-cell with the yolk is
lie fertilization of tlie egg.
From this moment begins the
life of tlie embryo. Fertiliza-
tion of tlie female germ by
^^°- '5''- means of the male sperm,

through the congress of the sexes, is the rule with bisexual
animals, but tbere are exceptions among insects. An embryo
may start into being without the interposition of the male ; to
this mode of generation has been applied by Leuckart the term
Parthenogenesis. Among certain species of insects there are
some individuals which, by a sort of budding process, and with-
out the aid of the male element, throw off summer broods, con-
sisting of "asexual" individuals, which, as winter approaches,
are succeeded by a brood of true males and females, the latter
of which lay eggs. This phenomenon, called by Steenstrup
"alternation of generations," has been observed among a com-
paratively few species, and the apparent design of such an
anomalous mode of reproduction is to afford an immense num-
ber of individuals, thus providing for the continuance of the
species. The individuals in whom this budding process takes
place are called "asexual" because, though they may resemble
the female sex outwardl}^, their sexual organs are only partially
developed. This budding process is the same in kind with that
observable in the Jelly-fish, which throw off by parthenogen-
esis, or alternations of generations, summer broods of immense
extent, but in winter propagate by true eggs. Huxley has
studied the development of Aphis by parthenogenesis, the
anomalous nature of Avhicli has previously been discovered by
Bonnet, Trembly, Lyonet, Degeer, Kyber, and others, and
arrives at the following conclusions :

"1. Ova deposited b}^ impregnated female Aphides in autumn
are hatched in the spring.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 49

2. From these ova viviparous, and, in the great majority of
cases, apterous forms proceed.

8. The broods to which these give rise are either winged or
apterous, or botli.

4. Tlie number of successive broods has no certain limit, but
is, so far as we know at present, controlled only by tempera-
ture and the supply of food,

5. On the setting in of cold weather, or in some cases on the
failure of nourishment, the weather being still warm, males
and oviparous females are produced.

6. The males may be either winged or apterous.

7. So far as I am aware, there is no proof of the existence
of any exception to the law that the oviparous female is apte-
rous.

8. Viviparous Aphides may hybernate, and may co-exist with
oviparous females of the same species." (Linnsean Transac-
tions, xxii, p. 198.)

The origin of the viviparous, asexual, or agamic (from the
Greek a, without ; game, marriage) individual, as it may be
more properly called, is, up to a certain stage, the same as
that of the true egg, i.e. until the germ (p)seudovum) of
the former is detached from the false ovary (pseudovarium) .
"From this point onwards, however, the fate of the pseudovum
is different from that of the OA^um. The former begins at once
to be converted into the germ ; the latter accumulates yelk-sub-
stance, and changes but little. Both bodies acquire their mem-
branous investment rather late ; within it the pseudovum
becomes a living larva, while the ovum is impregnated, laid,
and remaia\s in a state of rest for a longer or shorter period.

"Although, then, the pseudovum and the ovum of Aj^his
are exceedingly similar in structure for some time after they
have passed out of the condition of indifferent tissue, it cannot
be said that the sole difference between them is, that the one
requires fecundation and the other not. When the ovum is of
the size of a pseudovum which is about to develop into an em-
bryo, and, therefore, long before fecundation, it manifests its
inherent physiological distinctness by becoming, not an em-
bryo, but an ovum. Up to this period the influence of fecunda-
tion has not been felt ; and the production of ova, instead of
5

50

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

pseudova, must depend upon a something impressed upon the
constitution of the parent before it was brought forth by its
viviparous progenetrix." (Huxley.)

Siebold has also shown that the "ova of the Queen-bee pro-
duces females or males, according as they are fecundated or
not. The fecundated ovum produces a queen or a neuter
according to the food of the larva and the other conditions to
which it is subjected ; the unfecundated ovum produces a
drone." This is analogous to the agamic reproduction of
Aphis, and " demonstrates still more clearly the impossi-
bility of drawing any absolute line of demarcation histologi-
cally between ova and buds."

This process of reproduction is not known in the M}i*iapods.
It occurs among the mites (Acarina), and occurs in isolated
genera of Hemiptera (Aphis^ Chermes, Leccmium, and Aspidi-
otus according to Gerstaecker).

Among Lepidoptera the Silk-moth sometimes lays fertile
eggs without previous, sexual union. This very rarely hap-
pens, for M. Jourdain found that, out of about 58,000 eggs
laid by unimpregnated silk-moths, many passed through their
early embryonic stages, showing that they were capable of
self-development, but only twenty-nine out of the whole
number produced caterpillars. (Darwin.) Several other moths *
have been found to lay fertile eggs without previous sexual
union, and among Hymenoptera, Nematus veyitricosus, Cynips,
NeuToterus^ perhaps A]}opliyUus (according to Gerstaecker),
and Cyvips spongifica (according to Walsh, Proceedings of

* We give a list from Gerstaecker (Bronn's Classen iTiid Ordntingen des Thier-
reichs) of all the kno\vii cases of agamic reproduction in this siiborder, with the
number of times the phenomenon has been observed, and the names of the ob-
servers.

Sphinx ligustri, once (Treviranus).
Smerintlius i)opuli, four times (Nord-

mann).
Smerintlius ocellatus, once (Johnston).
Euprepia cqja, Ave times (Brown, etc.).

" villioa, once (Stowell).
Telea Polyphemus, twice (Curtis).
Gastropacha inni, tliree times (Scopoli,

etc).
Gastropacha quercifolia, once (Basler).
" potatoria, once (Burmeis-

ter).

Gastropacha quercus, once (Plieninger).

LipaiHs dispar, once (Carlier).

" Efigermoth" (1 Liparis dispar), (Tardy,

Westwood).
Liparis ochropoda, once (Popoff).
Orgyiapudihunda, once (Werneburg).
Psyche apiformis, once (Rossi).

" heiix (Siebold),
Solenobia Uchenella (Siebold).

" triquetrella. (Siebold).
Bomhyx mori, several times.

The subject has been also discussed by Siebold in his work entitled, A true Par-
thenogenesis in Lepidoptera and Bees; by Owen, in his "Parthenogenesis," and
by Sir J. Lubbock in the Philosophical Transactions, London, vol. 147, pt. 1.

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 51

the Entomological Society of Philadelphia). Parthenogenesis,
or agamic reproduction, is, then, the result of a budding pro-
cess, or cell-growth. This process is a common mode among
the Radiates, the low Worms, and the Crustaceans. Metamor-
phosis is simply a series of marked stages, or periods, of
growth ; and hence growth, metamorphosis, and agamic re-
production are morphologically identical. All animals, there-
fore, as well as plants, grow by the multiplication of cells.

After hearing the surprising revelations of Bonnet, Reaumur,
Owen, Burnett, and Huxlej^ on the asexual mode of generation
in the Aphis, we are called to notice still a new phase of repro-
duction. None of the observers just mentioned were accus-
tomed to consider the virgin aphis as immature, but rather as
a wingless adult Plant-louse. But Nicolas Wagner, Professor
of Zoology at Kasan,* supported by able vouchers for the
truth of his assertions, both in Rvissia and in Germany, who
have repeated and thoroughly tested his observations, has
observed an asexual reproduction in the larva of a Cecidomy-
ian fly, Miastor metraloas Meinert, and Meinert has observed
it in this species and the Oligarces paradoxus Meinert.

Says Dr. R. Leuckart, whose article I we have drawn largely
upon in the present account, "This reproduction was said to
commence in autumn, to continue through the winter and
spring, giving origin, during the whole of this period, to a
series of successive generations of larvae, until, finally, in June,
the last of them were developed into perfect and sexually
mature animals. The flies, then, as usual, after copulation,
lay eggs, and thus recommence the developmental cycle just
described."

Professor Leuckart has observed these facts anew in the
larvae of a species of dipterous gall-fly, and which he believes
distinct from the Russian species, found under the bark of a
half dead apple-tree that was attacked by fungi. The young
are developed within the body of the larva-like parent from a

*K. E. Von Baer, "Report on a New Asexual Mode of Reproduction observed
by Professor Wagner in Kasan." Bull. Acad. St. Petersburg, 1863, pt. vi, p. 239.
Also, Wagner in the Journal of the University of Kasan, 1861.

fOn the Asexual Reproduction of Cecidomyia Larvaj. Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, March, 1806. Translated from Zeitschrift f Ur Wissenschaftliche
Zoologie, Bd. xiv.

62 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

"germ-ball" essentially agreeing with the ovary, and the asex-
ual larvee begin life as egg-like bodies developed from this
germ-ball, just as eggs are developed in the little tubes of
which the ovary is an aggregation. Hence these worms hud
out from the germ-stock, just as we have seen in the case of
the Aphides. Leuckart and Wagner farther agree, that " the
so-called chorion never being formed in either of them, the
vitellus [yolk] remains without that envelope which has so re-
markable and peculiar a development in the. true egg of in-
sects." .... "The processes of embrj^o-formation agree in
all essential points with the ordinary phenomena of devel-
opment in a fecundated egg, exactly as has been proved (by
Huxley) to be the case in the Aphides." .... "The only
difference consists in the germ-chambers of the Cecidomyide
larvae separating from the germ-stock, and moving about freely
in the cavity of the body, whilst in the Aphides they remain
permanently attached, and constitute an apparatus which, in
its form and arrangement, reproduces the conditions of the
female organs."

Thus we can neither pronounce these so-called larvce to be
larvae so long as they produce young, neither are they actual
males or females ; they are what Leuckart calls asexual forms,
which produce false-eggs (pseudova of Huxlej^, as restricted
by Leuckart). This is paralleled by the asexual Aphides, and
among HAanenoptera by the worker Ants^ and worker, or, as
they were formerly called, neuter Bees, the latter of which have
been known to produce young without the interposition of the
rnale ; thus the two sexes, at least the females, are dimorphic,
i. e. for certain exigencies of life they are specialized into two
distinct forms, one (as in the asexual Aphis) to produce an un-
limited number of young during the summer ; the other and
sexual, normal form to produce in the autumn a comparatively
limited number of eggs.

Dimorphism is intimately connected with agamic reproduc-
tion. Thus the asexual Aphis, and the perfect female, may be
called dimorphic forms. Or the perfect female may assume
two forms, so much so as to be mistaken for two distinct spe-
cies. Thus Cynips quercics-spongifica occurs in male and female
broods in the spring, while the fall brood of females were

DIMORPHISM. 53

described as a separate species, C. adculata. Mr. B. D. "Walsh
considers the two sets of females as dimorjihic forms, and he
thinks that 0. adculata lays eggs which produce G. quercus-
S])ongiJica.

Huber supposes there are two sizes of the three forms (i. e.
male, female, and worker) of Bo7nbi(s, one set being a little
larger than the other.

Alfred Wallace has discovered that there are two forms of
females of Pajyilio Memnon of the East Indies ; one is normal,
having its wings tailed and resembles a closelj^ allied species,
Papilio Coon, which is not dimorphous, while thp other is tail-
less, resembling its tailless male. Papilio Panimon has three
sorts of females, and is hence " trimorphic." One of its forms
predominates in Sumatra, and a second in Java, while a thuxl,
(described as P. Romulus) abounds in India and Ceylon. P.
Ormenus is trimorphic, as Mr. Wallace obtained in the island
of Waignion, "a third female quite distinct from either of the
others, and in some degree intermediate between the ordinary
male and female." Much the same thing occurs in the North
American P. Tiirnus. Papilio Glaucus is now known to be a
dimorphic form of the former butterfl}^, both having, according
to Mr. Uhler, been bred from the same batch of eggs. The
ordinary form of the female of P. Turnus occurs north of lat.
37°, while the dimorphic form, P. Gkmcus, occurs south of 42°.

The male sex also presents dimorphic forms. Mr. Pascoe
(Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London, 1862,
p. 71) states that there are dimorphic forms of Anthribidm ;
that they occur in the male of Stenocerus and Micoceros. Six
species of Dytiscus have two female forms, the most common
having the elytra deeply sulcate, while in the rarer forms the
eh^tra are smooth as in the male.

There is a tendency, we would observe, in the more abnor-
mal of the two sexual forms, to revert to a lower tj^pe. Thus
the agamic Aphis is more generally wingless, and the tailless
female butterfly mimics the members of a lower genus, Pieris.
The final cause of Dimorphism, like that of agamic reproduc-
tion, is the continuance of the species, and is, so far as yet
known, an exceptional occurrence.

Mimetic forms. Many insects often resemble, in a remark-

54 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

able manner, those of other groups. They are called mimetic
forms. Insects are related to each other by analogy and affin-
ity. Thus the truly tailless species of Papilio, i. e. those where
the tail is absent in both sexes, are related by affinity to Pie-
ris, which has rounded hind wings. They also stand next to
Pieris in the system of Nature. But there are, on the other
hand, mimetic forms, which borrow the features of groups far
above them in the natural system. Thus the Sesia resembles a
Bee, Bomhylius and Laphria resemble Bomhus; the Sja-phus
flies are easily mistaken for Wasps. So in the second series
of suborders of Insects, Forjicida resembles the Stapliylinus ;
Termes resembles the true Ant ; Psocus, the Aphis; AscalapJius
resembles Pcqnlio ; ilfcm^isj^a recalls the OrthopterousJfaw^is, and
Panorpa reminds us of the Tipulm {Bittacus being strikingly
analogous to the Dipterous BittacomorpJia) . Thus these lower,
more variable groups of insects strive, as it were, to connect
themselves by certain analogous, mimetic forms, with the more
stable and higher groups.

Comprehensive types are mimetic forms which combine the
characters of other and general^ higher groups. Thus each
Neuropterous family contains mimetic forms which ally them
strongly with some one of the six other suborders of insects.
The earl}^ fossil insects are remarkable for combining the char-
acters of groups which appear ages after. The most remark-
able comprehensive ty^e is a Carboniferous insect, the Eugereon
BoecMngi mentioned farther on.

HyBRiDiTY. Hybrids are sometimes produced between differ-
ent species, but though it is known that different genera unite
sexually, we knew of very few authentic instances of the pro-
duction of hybrids therefrom. One is related by Mr. Midford,
who exhibited at the March 4th (1861) meeting of the London
Entomological Society, hybrids produced from a male Phiga-
lia pilosaria, and a female Nyssia hispidaria. "The males
resemble N. hispidaria^ but in color have the lighter and
greener tint and trans^Darency of wing of P. pilosaria."

The Development of Insects. Immediately after the fer-
tilization of the egg, the fii'st act in the organization of the .

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.

00

future embryo is tlie formation of the germinal layer, or blas-
toderm (from the Greek, meaning primitive skin) . This layer
is formed at the surface out of a surface-layer of larger, often
nucleolated, cells which nearly encompass the yolk-mass. At
one point there is a break in this cellular laj' er, and the yolk
granules reach to the surface, so that it appears darker than
the other parts of the egg. This cellular layer is soon resolved
into the blastoderm, or germinal layer, which thickens and
narrows, forming a longitudinal band. This is the first stage
of the embryo, which lies as a thin layer of cells upon the outer
surface of the yolk. Both ends of the body are alike, and we
shall afterwards see that its back lies next to the centre of the
egg, its future ventral side looking outwards. The embryo is
thus bent on itself backwards.

In the next stage the blastoderm divides into a certain num-
ber of segments, or joints, which appear as indentations in the
body of the embryo. The head can now be distinguished from
the posterior end chiefly by its larger size, and both it and the
tail are folded back upon the body of the embryo, the head
especially being sunk backwards down into the yolk-mass.

In a succeeding stage, as we have observed in the embryo of
Diplax, a Dragon-fly (Fig. 57), the head is partially sketched

Fis. o;.

out, with the rudiments of the limbs and mouth-parts ; and the
sternites, or ventral walls, of the thorax and of the two basal
rings of the head appear. The anterior part of the head, in-
cluding the so-called "procephalic lobes" overhangs and con-

FiG. 57. Side view of embryo. The procephalic lobes are uot shown. 1, anteniwe;
2, mandibles; 3, maxilla?; 4, second maxillaj (labium); 5-7, legs. These numbers
and letters are the same in all the figures from 57-60. The under-side (sternum)
of six segments are indicated. Fig. 58. Ventral view of the same.

56 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

ceals the base of the antennse. It is probable that more
careful observation would have shown the end of the abdomen
folded back upon the dorsal region, as usual at this period in
the embryos of those insects whose embryology has been
studied.

The antennse, mandibles, and maxillse form a group by them-
selves, while the second maxillse (or labium) are very much
larger and turned backwards, being temporarity grouped with
the legs.

There are traces only of the two basal sterna of the abdo-
men. This indicates that the basal abdominal segments gTow
in succession from the base of the abdomen, the middle ones
appearing last. The post-abdomen (Fig. 59 a) has probably
been developed synchronous with the procephalic lobes, as it is
in all insect and crustacean embryos yet observed. As stated
by Zaddach, these two lobes in their development are exact
equivalents; antero- posterior sjanmetry is xevy clearly de-
marked, the two ends of the body at first looking alike. But
in this stage, after the two ends of the body have been evolved
from the primitive cell-layer, development in the post-abdomi-
nal region is retarded, that of the head progressing with much
greater rapidity.

In the next stage (not figured) the yolk is completely walled
in, though no traces of segments appear on the back or side of
the embryo. The revolution of the embryo has taken place ;
the post-abdomen being curved beneath the body, and the back
presenting outwards.

The rudiments of the eyes appear as a darker, rounded mass
of cells indistinctly seen through the yolk-granules, and situ-
ated at the bn/^e of the antennse. They consist of a few epithe-
lial cells of irregular form, the central one being the largest.

The second maxillse are a little over twice the length of the
first maxillse and are grouped with the legs, being curved back-
wards. They are, hoAvcs^er, now one-third shorter than the an-
terior legs. The second maxillary sternum is still visible.

The tip of the abdomen (or post-abdomen) consists of four
segments, the terminal one being much the larger, and ob-
scurely divided into two obtuse lobes.

The abdominal sternites are now well marked, and the ner-

DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSECT.

57

vous cord is represented by eight or nine large oblong-square
(seen sideways) ganglia, which lie contiguous to each other.

The formation of the eyes, the post-abdomen, the sternites,
and median portion of the nervous cord seems nearly synchro-
nous with the closing up of the dorsal walls of the bod}^, though
the division of the tegument into segments has not apparently
taken, place over the yolk-mass.

The succeeding stage (Fig. 59) is signalized by the appear-
ance of the rudiments of the intestine, i 3 2 e
while the second maxillae are directed
more aiiteriorly.

In form the body is ovate-cylin-
drical, and there is a deep constric-
tion separating the post- abdomen
from the anterior part of the abdo-
men.

The terminal (eleventh) ring is
immensely disproportioned to its size in the embrj^o just pre-
vious to hatching (see Fig. 61, where it forms a triangular piece
E 5 G 7 situated between its appendages,

the anal stylets). At a later
period of this stage two more ab-
dominal segments have been added,
one to the end of the main body
of the abdomen, and another to
the post- abdomen. They have
been apparently interpolated at the
junction of the post-abdomen to
the abdomen proper. Should this
observation be proved to be correct, it may then be considered
as a rule that, after reaching a certain number of segijients, all
additional ones are interpolated between the main body of the
abdomen and its terminal segment or segments. This is the
law of increase in the number of segments in Worms, and in
Myriapods (lulus, according to New^Dort's observations), in
Arachnids (Claparede), and Crustacea (Rathke).

The next stage (Fig. 60) , is characterized by the differentia-

f Fig. 59. An embryo much farther advanced, c, clypeus ; E, eye ; A, bi-lobed
extremity of the abdomen; i, the nidiments of the intestines.

58

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

tion of the head into the rudiments of the ophthalmic ring, and
the supraclypeal piece, and clypeus, together with the approx-
imation of the second pair of maxillae, which, when vmited, form
the labium, the extremities of which are now situated in the
middle of the body.

The antennae now extend to the middle of the labium, just
passing beyond the extremities of the mandibles and maxillae.
The oesophagus can now be seen going from the mouth-opening
situated just beneath the labium. It curves around just behind
the eyes. There are at this period no appearances of movable
blood-disks or of a dorsal vessel.

The abdomen is now pointed at the extremity and divided
into the rudiments of the two anal stjdets, which form large,
iacute tubercles. The yolk-mass is now almost
-c entirely inclosed within the body walls, form-
ing an oval mass.

Another embrj-o, observed July 27th, had
reached about the same stage of growth. The
front of the head, including the antennary
segment, is farther advanced than before. The
entire head is divided into two very distinct
regions ; i. e. one before the mouth-opening
(the preoral region, including the ocellary, or
first and second segments ; the ophthalmic, or
third segment, and antennary, or fourth seg-
ment of the head) ; and the other behind the
mouth {postoral, consisting of the mandibular,
or fifth segment, the first maxillary, or sixth
segment, and the second maxillary, or labial, being the seventh
and last cephal?^ ring.

At a later period the embryo is quite fully formed, and is
about ready to leave the egg. The three regions of the body
are now distinct. The articulations of the tergum are present,
the yolk-mass being completely inclosed by the tergal walls.

i'lff. 61.

Fig. 61. The embryo taken from the egg, but nearly ready to hatch. T, the
dotted line crosses the main trachea, going through the yolk-mass, now restricted
to the thoracic region. At x, the tracheaj send off numerous bi-anches around an
enlargement of the intestine (colon), where the blood is aerated; better seen in fig.
62. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, the last being a minute triangular
piece.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSECT.

59

The body is so bent upon itself that the extremities of tlie
second maxillae just overlap the tip of the abdomen.

The two limbs of the labium are now placed side by side,
with the prominent spinous appendage on the outer edges of
the tip. These spines are the rudiments of the labial palpi.

The general form of the embryo at a still later period (Fig.
61), on being taken from the egg and straightened out, re-
minds us striking!}^ of
the Thj'sanura, and, in
these and other re-
spects, tend to prove
that the Podurte and
Lepismae, and allied
genera, are embryonic,
degraded forms of Neu-
roptera, and should
therefore be considered
as a family of that sub-
order. Seen laterally,
the body gradually ta-
pers from the large
head to the pointed ex-
tremity. The body is
flattened from above
downwards. At this
stage the appendages
are still closely ap-
pressed to the body.

Just before the ex-
clusion of the embryo,
the legs and mouth-
parts stand out freer
from the body. The labium, especially, assumes a position at
nearly right angles to the body. The antennae, mandibles,
and maxillae have taken on a more definite form, being like

Fig. 62. The \avva, just hatched and swimming in the water. N, ventral cord or
nervous ganglia; d, dorsal vessel, or "heart," divided into its chambers. The
anal valves at the end of the abdomen, which open and shut during respiration, are
represented as being open. Both of the dotted lines cross the tracheae, x, net-
work of the tracheae, surrounding the cloaca.

60

THE CLASS OF INSECTS.

that of the young larva, and stand out free from the body.
The head is much smaller in proportion to the rest of the
body, and bent more upon the breast.

The Larva (Fig. 62)
when hatched is about
five hundredths of an
inch in length. The
head is now free and
the antennae stand out
free from the front.
The thorax has greatly
diminished in size,
while the abdomen has
become wider, and the
limbs very long ; and
the numerous minute tubercles, seen in the preceding stage,
have given origin to hairs. The dorsal vessel can now, for the
first time, be seen. When in motion, the resemblance
to a spider is most striking. The flow of blood to
the head, and the return currents through the lacunar
or venous circulation along the side of the body were
easily observed. The vessels were not crowded with
blood disks, the -latter being few in number, only one
or two passing along at a time. Two currents, pass-
ing in opposite directions, were observed in the legs.

Fig. C3. Side view of the Iiead of the larva of Dipl&x before the first moult, c,
deciduous tubercles terminating in a slender style; their use is unknown; they
have not been observed in the full-grown larva, e, the compound eyes. 1, the
three jointed antennre, the terminal joint nearly three tunes as long as the two
basal ones. 2, the mandibles, and also enlarged, showing the cutting edge divided
into four teeth. 3, n. axilla; divided into two lobes: (/, the outer and anterior lobe,
2-jointed, the basal joint terminating in two setre; and a, the inner lobe concealed
from view, in its natural position, by the outer lobe, d. 4, the base or pedicel of
the second maxillre, or labium, the expanded terminal portion being drawn sepa-
rately; (? and a, two movable stout styles representing, perhaps, the labial palpi;
the lobe to which they are attached is multidentate, and adapted for seizing
prey; on the right side the two stj-les are appressed to the lobe, a; represents,
perhaps, the ligula; but wc have not yet studied its homologies carefully: this
part is attached to a transversely linear piece soldered to the main part of the
labium, y, the 11th abdominal ring, with its pair of conical anal styles, z, the
last tarsal joint and pair of long slender claws.

Fig. 64. The pupa of Diplax, having rudimentary rings, in which the eyes are
much lai'ger, and the legs much shorter than in the recently hatched larva; in-
troduced to be compared with the young larva. Figs. 57-04, original.

Accession No

Added 187.

Catalogued by

Revised by

Memoranda.

/C:^/:rya,yfu-o //l y 'i^l^ve-^

From the American Journal of Science and Arts, No. 2, Vol. 36.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE

NORTH AMERICAN INSECTS

BELONGING TO THE

LINN^AN GENUS SPHINX

IN THE CABINET OF

THADDEUS WILLIAM HARRIS, M. D.,

LIBRARIAN OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE, &c.

The insects belonging to the order Lepidoptera have pecuHar
claims to our attention. In the adult or winged state they are
among the most beautiful, and in their previous or caterpillar state
are the most injurious of insects. Living while young principally
on the leaves of plants, they are at all times more or less exposed
to our observation, and too often obtrude themselves on our no-
tice by their extensive ravages. While it is comparatively easy
to discover these insects and observe their transformations, the de-
termination of their names and their places in a scientific arrange-
ment is rendered in many cases impossible, and in all exceedingly
difficult, to the American student, from the want of suitable de-
scriptive worltS on this branch of entomology. Having overcome
these difficulties myself only at a great expense and much loss of
time, it has occurred to me that a descriptive catalogue of our
Lepidoptera might be useful to others, while it would serve to
confirm the names given to these insects in my cabinet, and
transmitted in return for specimens to my friends. My own col-
lection has now become quite extensive, and contains a large
number of undescribed species from various parts of the United
States. Passing by our Butterflies, nearly all of which have been

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 3

figured and for the most part described in Dr. Boisduval's "His-
toire et Tconographie des Lepidopteres de I'Amerique Septentrio-
nale," I propose, at the present time, to offer for pubhcation
descriptions of the native insects in my collection belonging to
the second grand division of the order Lepidoptera, comprising
the Sphinges of Linnasus. Should these be favorably received,
they may hereafter be followed by descriptions of our Phalaense
or moths. The larvae or caterpillars of many of the species are
described partly from my own observations, and partly from the
figures given by Mr. Abbot in his great work, on the Lepidoptera
of Georgia, edited by Sir James E. Smith. My obligations to
the gentlemen who have favored me with specimens will be
found recorded on almost every page of this catalogue, and I beg
leave to tender to them my most grateful acknowledgments, and
to solicit from them, and from others, a continuation of similar
favors.

Linnasus v/as led to give the name of Sphinx to the insects in
his second group of the Lepidoptera, from a fancied resemblance
which some of their larvas, when at rest, have to the Sphinx of
the Egyptians. The attitude of these larvae is indeed very re-
markable. Supporting themselves by their four or six hind-legs,
they elevate the fore-part of the body, and remain immovably
fixed in this posture for hours together. In the winged state the
true Sphinges are known by the name of humming-bird moths,
from the sound which they make in flying, and hawk-moths,
from their habit of hovering in the air while taking their food.
These humming-bird or hawk-moths may be seen during the
morning and evening twilight flying with great swiftness from
flower to flower. Their wings are long, narrow, and pointed,
and are moved by powerful muscles, to accommodate which
their bodies are very thick and robust. They delight most in
the honeysuckle and scarlet Bignonia, from the tubular blossoms
of which they extract the honey, while on the wing, by means of
their excessively long maxillas or tongue. Other Sphinges fly
during the day-time only, and in the bright sunshine. Then it
is that our large clear- winged Sesise make their appearance among
the flowers, and regale themselves with their sweets. The fra-
grant Phlox is their especial favorite. From their size and form
and fan-like tails, from their brilliant colors, the swiftness of their
flight, and the manner in which they take their food, poised upon

4 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

rapidly vibrating wings above the blossoms, they might readily
be mistaken for humming-birds. The JEgerias are also diurnal
in their habits. Their flight is swift, but not prolonged, and they
usually alight while feeding. In form and color they so much
resemble bees and wasps as hardly to be distinguished from them.
The Smerinthi are heavy and sluggish in their motions. They
fly only during the night, and apparently take no food in the
winged state, their maxillae or tongues being so short as to be
useless for this purpose. The Glaucopididse, or Sphinges with
feathered antennae, fly mostly by day, and alight to take their
food like the ^geriee, to which some of them bear a resemblance,
while others have nearly the form of Phalasnae or moths, with
which also they agree in their previous transformations.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA.

It was not my intention originally to give here the characters
of the genera, but to refer the student for them to the works of
Latreille and other entomologists. Upon further consideration,
however, I have thought that the labor of determining our Sphin-
ges by means of the catalogue would be much abridged, if a sy-
nopsis of the families and genera were to be prefixed to it.

Class Insecta.

Animals with jointed bodies, breathing through lateral holes or spiracles, pro-
duced from eggs; while growing subject to a transformation of three stages ; in
the first stage called larvae, caterpillars, grubs, or maggots ; in the second pupae,
nymphs, or chrysalids ; in the third stage provided with wings, a body composed
of three distinct parts, the head, thorax or trunk, and the abdomen, and having
two compound eyes, two antennae, from two to six palpi or feelers, and six legs.

Order Lepidoptera.

The young, called larvae or caterpillars, are provided with jaws, and from ten to
sixteen legs. 1 hey feed principally upon vegetable substances. The pupee take
no food, are incapable of moving about, are apparently without legs, these parts
with their other members being folded up and firmly soldered to the body. In the
third stage they are, with few exceptions, provided with four wings, which, with
the body, are more or less covered with little colored branny scales, lapping over
each other like the scales of fishes ; their jaws are transformed to a tongue, more or
less long, and, when not in use, spirally rolled and concealed between the palpi.

Section I. — Papiliones.

Antennae threadlike and knobbed or thickened at the end. Wings not confined
by a bristle and hook; all of them, or the first pair at least, elevated perpendicu-

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 5

larly, and turned back to back when at rest. Only one pair of spurs to the hind-
legs in the greater number. Thorax moderate ; abdomen rather slender. Flight
diurnal. Larvee with sixteen feetj transformation in the open air. Pupoe angu-
lated, and fastened by silken threads, or ovoid, and enclosed in an imperfect co-
coon.

Section II. — Sphinges.

Antennae thickened in or just beyond the middle, tapering at each end, and
most often hooked at the tip ; more rarely slender and nearly setaceous, with a
double row of slender teeth or hairs on the under side in the males. Wings con-
fined by a bristle or bunch of stiff hairs on the front edge near the shoulder of each
hind-wing, which is retained by a hook on the under side of each fore-wing ; when
at rest horizontal, or inclined on the sides of the body, the fore-wings covering and
concealing the hind pair. Two pairs of spurs to the hind-legs. Thorax thick and
robust ; abdomen mostly conical. Flight of some in the morning and evening
twilight, of a few nocturnal, and of others during the day. Larvas with sixteen
legs ; transformation in or upon the ground, or in a silken cocoon. Pupoe elonga-
ted ovoid.

Section III. — Phalaenas.

Antennas (never knobbed at the end or thickened in the middle) slender and ta-
pering to a point, in some pectinated or feathered, in others simple or bristle-formed.
Wings confined together by bristles and hooks, the first pair covering the hind-
wings and horizontal or sloping when at rest. Two pairs of spurs to the hind-legs.
Flight for the most part nocturnal. Larvas with from ten to sixteen legs, transfor-
ming in a silken cocoon or in the ground. Pupoe ovoid.

The Sphinges may be divided into two tribes.

Tribe I. — Sphinges legitimas.

Larvae colored, naked, for the most part horned on the tail, and feeding on the
leaves of plants; or whitish, slightly hairy, not horned, and living on woody mat-
ter within the stems of plants. Antennee of the winged insects tipped with a mi-
nute bristly tuft.* Palpi (except in the ^geriadse) with the third joint minute
and indistinct.

Tribe II. — Sphinges adscitse.

Larvae always colored, more or less hairy, never horned, feeding on leaves, and
transforming in a silken cocoon, which is fastened to the plants on which they live.
AntenucE of the winged insects not tufted at the end. Palpi distinctly three-jointed.

The first tribe, or Sphinges legitimae, may be divided into three families.

Family I. — Sphingiadae.

Antennas fusiform and prismatic ; ending in a hook, and, in the males, trans-
versely biciliated beneath; or, more rarely, curved, and, in the males, bipectina-

* This little luft is obsolete or wanting in the Smerinthi.

6 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

ted beneath. Palpi pressed close to the face, short, thick, and obtuse, with the
third joint minute and concealed. Body thick ; abdomen conical and not tufted at
the end. Flight crepuscular. Larvae colored, naked, with a caudal horn, which
is sometimes obsolete and replaced by a callous spot; they devour the leaves of
plants, and go deep into the earth to transform, or conceal themselves upon the
surface, under leaves, in an imperfect cocoon.

The North American genera in this family are six.

Genus I. — Smerinthus.

Wings more or less angular and indented, the front margin of the hind-wings
projecting beyond the upper or fore-wings when at rest. Antennas short, prismat-
ical and fusiform, arcuated or curved near the tip, transversely biciliated or bipec-
tinated beneath in the males. Tongue obsolete. Larvse granulated, with the head
triangular, horned on the tail, obliquely banded on each side, and transforming in
the earth.

Genus II. — Ceratomia.

Wings entire. Antennas elongated, abruptly ending in a short and slender hook,
transversely biciliated beneath in the males. Palpi horizontal and nearly cylin-
drical. Tongue moderate. Abdomen longitudinally striped. Larvae with horns
on the fore-part of the body, a row of little teeth on the back, a long caudal horn,
and oblique bands on each side ; it transforms in the earth.

Genus III. — Sphinx.

Wings entire. Antennas long, abruptly ending in a short and slender hook, and
transversely biciliated beneath in the males. Palpi rising and enlarged at the
end. Tongue long. Abdomen spotted or transversely banded at the sides. Larvae
with oblique bands on the sides and a caudal horn, and transforming in the earth.

Genus lY. — Philampelus.

Wings sirjous. Antennce long, attenuated at the end, with a long terminal hook,
and transversely biciliated beneath in the males. Tongue moderate. Abdomen
not transversely banded or spotted at the sides. Larva short, thick, with the head
and first three segments rather small and capable of being drawn more or less
within the fourth segment; when young with a long, slender, recurved caudal
horn, which subsequently disappears and is replaced by a callous spot ; sides with
oblique spots sloping backwards and downwards ; transforms in the earth.

Genus V. — Chcerocampa.

Wings slrious or angulated. Antennas rather short and slender, generally arcua-
ted, tapering, and ending in a long hook ; more rarely straight, with a short termi-
nal hook ; transversely biciliated beneath in the males. Tongue moderate. Ab-
domen immaculate, or longitudinally striped, but never transversely banded at the
sides. Larvas elongated, the fore-part of the body tapering and retractile ; with
from one to three eye-like spots, or a series of oblique bands on each side ; caudal
horn short, sometimes obsolete and replaced by a callous spot ; transforms on the
surface of the ground, under leaves, in an imperfect cocoon.

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 7

Genus VI. — Deilephila.

Wings entire, upper ories acute. Antennae rather short, straight, gradually thick-
ening nearly to the end, which suddenly terminates in a small and short hook ;
in the males transversely biciliated beneath. Tongue moderate. Abdomen con-
ical, pointed, and transversely banded at the sides. Larva elongated, not tapering
before, and the head and first three segments not retractile, with a series of nine or
ten round spots on each side, and a long caudal horn ; transforms in the earth.

Family II. — ^Macroglossiadas.

Antennae fusiform, prismatic, ending with a hook, and transversely biciliated
beneath in the males. Palpi pressed close to the face, with the third joint minute
and concealed ; short, thick, and obtuse at the end in some ; slightly elongated
and subacute in others. Body short and thick, or flattened a little ; abdomen tufted
at the end. Flight diurnal. Larvae colored, naked, with a caudal horn, which is
sometimes obsolete and replaced by a callous spot ; they devour the leaves of
plants, and enter the earth to transform, or conceal themselves upon the surface in
an imperfect cocoon under leaves.

In this family we have three genera, Pterogon, Thyreus, and Sesia.

Genus VII. — Pterogon.

Wings angulated and indented. Antennas long, arcuated, tapering at the end,

with a long, terminal hook. Tongue as long as the body. Abdomen short

and conical. Larvae attenuated before, with a series of spots, on each side, sloping
obliquely backwards and downwards, and a caudal horn, which is frequently ob-
solete and replaced by a callous spot : they transform in an imperfect cocoon un-
der leaves.

Genus VIII. — Thyreus.

Wings angulated and indented. Antennse long, and ending with a long hook.
Palpi short, thick, and obtuse at the end. Tongue moderate. Abdomen ovoid.
Larvae elongated, not attenuated before, longitudinally striped on the back,
obliquely banded at the sides, with a long and straight caudal horn : they trans-
form in the earth.

Genus IX. — Sesia.

Wings entire, upper ones acute, all of them transpai-ent in the middle. An-
tennae short, straight, gradually thickened towards the end, with the terminal
hook obsolete, and obliquely biciliated beneath in the males. Palpi somewhat
elongated, subacute, and forming a conical beak. Tongue long. Abdomen short
ovoid, slightly flattened. Larvae not attenuated before, longitudinally striped on
the back, with a short, slightly recurved caudal horn : they transform in an imper-
fect cocoon under leaves on the surface of the ground.

Family III. — ^geriadas.

Antennae arcuated ; either thickening to beyond the middle, attenuated and
curved but not hooked at the end, and biciliated beneath in the males; or very
slightly fusiform and almost threadlike, and simple in both sexes. Palpi elonga-
ted, slender, distinctly three-jointed, prominent, separated and not pressed close to
the head, nearly cylindrical, covered with very small scales and almost naked ex-

8 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

ceptat the base, which is hairy, and pointed at the tip. Wings more or less trans-
parent. Abdomen with a caudal tuft. Flight diurnal. Larvee whitish, soft,
slightly downy, living within the stems of plants, and generally transforming in a
cocoon made of fragments of wood and bark cemented by a gummy matter. Pupas
with the edges of the abdominal segments armed with transverse rows of small
teeth.

The American species in this family may be disposed in the genera Trochilium,
iEgeria, and Thyris.

Genus X. — Trochilium.

Wings narrow, entire, all of them, or the hind-pair at least, transparent. An-
tennae short, stout, arcuated, gradually thickened nearly to the end, which is curved
but not hooked ; underside generally fringed with a double row of very short bris-
tles in the males. Tongue very short. Body thick ; abdomen slightly tufted at
the end.

Genus XI. — iEgeria.

Wings narrow, entire, all of them, or the hind-pair at least, transparent. An-
tennae mostly elongated, sometimes short, arcuated, gradually thickened nearly to
the end, which is curved but not hooked ; underside genei-ally fringed with a dou-
ble row of short bristles in tlie males. Tongue long. Body slender ; abdomen
nearly or quite cylindrical, ending with a flat or trilobed tuft.

Genus XII. — Thyris.

Wings broad, subtriangular, more or less angulated and indented, opaque, with
small semitransparent spots. Antennae fusiform, but slender and only slightly
thickened in the middle, arcuated, and simple in both sexes. Tongue moderate.
Body short and thick ; abdomen conical, and tufted at the end.

Tribe II. — Sphinges adscitas.

The species described in this catalogue may be disposed in three families, Aga-
ristiada3, Zygseniadae, and Glaucopididae.

Family IV. — Agaristiadas.

Antennae straight, slightly thickened in or beyond the middle, and curved at the
tip. Palpi elongated, slender, not pressed to the face, hairy at base, with the ter-
minal joint cylindrical, scaly or almost naked. Wings broad, subtriangular. Tail
hairy or tufted. Flight diurnal. Larvae elongated, cylindrical, or enlarged a little
behind, slightly uairy, transversely banded or spotted, and without a caudal horn.

Genus XIII. — Alypia.

Wings broad, subtria-ngular, entire, and opaque, with large whitish spots. An-
tennae somewhat elongated and slender, thickened very gradually from beyond the
middle nearly to the tip, which is slightly curved, obtuse, and not tufted. Palpi
long, porrect, separate, with the first two joints very hairy, and the third joint cy-
lindrical, scaly, and obtuse. Tongue moderate, and spirally rolled. Abdomen
somewhat elongated, nearly cylindrical, fringed at the sides and tip with short
hairs. Anterior and intermediate tibiae thickly clothed with hairs. Posterior tibiae
with two pairs of pretty long unequal spurs.

Catalogue of Noj^th American Sphinges. 9

Family V. — Zygseniadas.

Antennas arcuated, abruptly thickened and curved beyond the middle. Palpi
generally elongated, sometimes short, not pressed to the face, hairy at base, with
the terminal joint scaly or almost naked. Wings narrow, opaque, often spotted,
the hind-pair rather small. Abdomen more or less cylindrical, obtuse, and not
tufted at the end. Flight diurnal. Larvas short, contracted, variegated with spots,
slightly hairy, and not horned on the tail.

Genus XIV. — Mastigocera.

Wings long, narrow, entire, opaque, the hind-pair quite small. Antenna; simple
in both sexes, filiform at base, suddenly thickened and fusiform beyond the middle,
very much attenuated towards the tip, and ending in a long curved point. Labial
palpi somewhat curved, extending considerably beyond the clypeus, separated,
well covered with hairs beneath the base ; the penultimate joint longest, cylindri-
cal, and scaly ; the last joint also cylindrical, obtusely rounded at the end, and cov-
ered with small, close scales. Maxilla; (tongue) nearly as long as the body. Ab-
domen nearly cylindrical, obtusely rounded at the end, longitudinally grooved at
the sides before, with the basal segment strongly marked, and swelling on each
side into a little tubercle. Legs long and slender ; posterior tarsi laterally com-
pressed, and hairy on the outside, in the males.

Family YI. — Glaucopididge.

Antennae slender, almost setaceous, or very slightly thickened in the middle, and
distinctly bipectinated beneath in the males. Palpi slender, more or less elongated,
not pressed to the face. Wings sometimes narrow, and sometimes widened, en-
tire, and for the most part opaque. Abdomen nearly cylindrical, and frequently
tufted at the end. Flight diurnal. Larvae cylindrical, hairy, without a caudal horn.

Genus XY. — Procris.

Wings narrow, elongated, opaque, and immaculate. AntenntB slender, tapering
at each end, and bipectinated beneath in the males. Palpi small, short, pendent,
and nearly naked. Tongue short, but distinct, and spirally rolled. Abdomen
slender and nearly cylindrical in the males, thicker in the females, and tufted at
the end. Spurs of the hind tibiae two in number, and very minute.

Genus XYI. — Glaucopis.

Wings narrow in some, broad in others, entire, for the most part opaque, and
with the body more or less glossed with blue, sometimes spotted or partially trans-
parent. Antennae feathered or bipectinated in both sexes, the pectinations elonga-
ted in the males, and short in the females. Palpi more or less elongated and re-
curved. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled. Caudal tuft minute or wanting in the
greater number. Posterior tibiae with three or four spurs of moderate size.

From this Synopsis it will bo seen that the divisions and arrangement which I
have adopted, differ somewhat from those of the entomologists of the present time.
The affinities or resemblances of the Lepidoptera, in their different states, are so
various, that it is impossible to preserve a natural connection between them in a
linear series. After repeated trials, I have concluded still to adhere to the views
of our great masters in Entomology, Linnaeus and Fabricius, especially as modern
entomologists are by no means agreed upon the limits of the larger divisions of the
Lepidoptera, and the order of the genera.

2

10 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. L.

SPHINGES. L.

Crepuscularia. Latr. Closteroceres. Dumeril. Heteroceres.
Boisduval. (Part.)

Tribe I. SPHINGES LEGITIME. L.
Family I. SPHINGIAD^,. H. The Sphi7igians.

^ Alis angulatis. L.
Genus I. Smerinthus. Latr.

* AntenncB transversely hiciliated beneath in the males.

1. /S. exca?.cata. Smith-Abbot.

Fawn-colored ; fore- wings deeply scalloped and toothed on the
outer edge, clouded and banded with brown ; hind-wings rose-
colored in the middle, with a large round eye-like black spot,
having a pale blue centre, near the anal angle ; fringes narrow,
white ; thorax with a central lance-shaped chestnut-colored spot,
the point of which extends upon the head. Expands two and a
half to three inches and a half. Larva granulated, apple-green,
with two short pale lines before, seven oblique yellowish white
lines on each side, and a bluish caudal horn. It feeds upon the
leaves of the apple-tree, and upon those of Rosa Carolina also,
according to Abbots who (in his Insects of Georgia, p. 49, pi. 25,)
has represented a variety of the larva of a yellow color, and green-
ish at the sides, which are obliquely banded with yellow, and
have t%vo longitudinal rows of rust-red spots upon them. It en-
ters the earth to undergo its transformations. Pupa chestnut-
brown, with a short obtuse anal spine.

2. jS. jhiylus. Drury. = integerrima. H. Catalogue Ins.
Mass.*

Cinnamon-colored; fore-wings angulated but entire, tinged
with rosy white at base, with whitish wavy bands near the tip, a
bluish mark along the inner margin, and a tawn}'' yellow spot on
each outer angle ; hind-wings tawny yellow at base, with a
round black eye-like spot, having a pale blue centre, near the anal
angle ; middle of the thorax cinnamon-red, shoulder-covers paler

* Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts, by T. W. Harris ; appended to
Prof. Hitchcock's Report on the Geology, &c. of Massachusetts.

Catalogue of North American Sphmges. 11

with a rosy white tinge, and a brown edge above ; abdomen with
a longitudinal dorsal brown line. Expands from two and a half
to two inches and three quarters.

My specimens, a male and a female, were captured at Cam-
bridge on the Azalea viscosa.

3. S. Myops. Smith-Abbot. = Rosacearum. Boisd.
Chocolate-brown ; fore-wings sinuated and angulated on the

outer edge, varied with wavy whitish and brown bands, with a
white Z at tip, and a tawny yellow spot oneach of the outer an-
gles ; hind-wings with abbreviated whitish and brown bands
upon the front edge, ochre-yellow next to the body, with a round
black eye-spot having a pale blue centre near the anal angle ;
head and shoulder-covers glossed with bluish white ; a rusty
brown stripe in the middle of the thorax ; abdomen with a few
tawny yellow spots on each side. Expands from two inches and
three lines to two inches and six lines. Larva, as figured by Ab-
bot, (Ins. Georg. p. 51, pi. 26,) apple-green, the head margined
with yellow, and two rows of rust-red spots with six oblique yel-
lowish bands on each side of the body. Abbot says that it eats
the leaves of the wild cherry-tree, and buries itself in the ground
to undergo its transformations. Pupa deep brown.
" M. Boisduval has named and figured but has not described this
species, in the first volume of his Species General des Lepidop-
teres, pi. 15, fig. 4; moreover the name given by him is subse-
quent to that of Sir J. E. Smith, which is an additional reason
why it cannot be adopted.

* * Antenna, pectinated on both sides m the males.

4. /S*. geminata. Say.

Rosy ash-gray ; fore- wings angulated and with a sinuous outer
margin, varied with transverse wavy rosy gray and brown lines,
a brown spot and angulated band near the middle, and a deep
brown semioval spot at tip ; hind-wings rose-colored in the mid-
dle, with a large semioval black spot including two pale blue
spots near the anal angle ; thorax with a large central semioval
brown spot. Expands from two and a quarter to more than two
inches and a half

I am indebted to the Rev. L. W. Leonard, of Dublin, N. H.,
for my specimens, both of which are males. The figure of S.
ocellatus Jamaicensis. in Drury's Illustrations, Vol. II, pi. 25, fig.
2, 3, very nearly resembles the geminata. but it has only one blue
pupil in the eye-spot of the hind-wings. Mr. Kirby's aS*. Cerisii,

13 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

(Faun. Bor. Amer. IV, p. 301, pi. 4, fig. 4,) is probably identical
with Drury's species.

* * * AntenncB, in the males, with the joints distinct and douhly
hipectinated.

5. S. Juglandis. Smith-Abbot.

Rosy gray, drab, or dusky brown ; wings indented on the outer
edges ; fore-wings with a dusky outer margin, a short brownish
dash near the middle, and four transverse brown lines converging
behind and enclosing a square dark brown spot adjacent to the
middle of the inner margin ; hind wings with two narrow trans-
verse brown lines between two brownish bands ; thorax with a
central brown line ; abdominal segments plaited and prominent
at the sides. Expands from two and a quarter to three inches.
The females are much larger and of a lighter brownish gray color
than the males, with the square spot on the fore-wings less dis-
tinct. Larva with the head small, and the body attenuated be-
fore and behind, pale blue-green, with a long caudal horn, and
seven oblique white bands on each side. When disturbed it
makes a creaking noise by rubbing together the joints of the fore-
part of its body. It eats the leaves of the black walnut, and en-
ters the earth to undergo its transformations. Mr. Abbot (Ins.
Georg. p. 57, pi. 29) has figured a remarkable variety of the larva,
which is of a crimson color, with the fore-part of the body and
the oblique bands yellow. Pupa deep chestnut-brown, granula-
ted, with six little tubercles on the head-case, a transverse row of
acuminated granules on the hinder edges of the abdominal seg-
ments, the last three of which segments are flattened beneath and
angularly dilated at the sides, with the tip broad, truncated, and
externally bidentate.

The antennas of the males of this species differ from those of
the preceding in having the joints distinct to the naked eye, and
each joint furnished with two teeth or short pectinations on each
side. Mr. Doubleday presented me with specimens, from Flor-
ida, which differ from our northern specimens only in being of a
darker color.

* * * * Ante7incB, in the males, .

6. S. modesta. H.

Drab-colored ; fore-wings scalloped, with a transverse dusky
band before the middle ; hind-wings purplish-red in the middle,
deeper red next to the base, and with a blackish spot near the
anal angle. Expands four inches and one quarter.

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 13

I have never seen but one specimen, which was much rubbed
before it came into my possession. It is a female, with a very
thick and robust body, and simple antennse, and probably is the
North American representative of /S. Tilice. and Quercus.

<§) Alis integris, ano simplici. L.
Genus II. Ceratomia. H.

I have been induced to propose a new genus for the reception
of a single species, presenting characters, in the larva and winged
state, which do not allow it to be included in the genus Sphinx
as now received. The larva of this species, in the possession of
horns on the fore-part of the body, exhibits a peculiarity which
hitherto appears to have been unnoticed or undescribed among
the Sphinges. The name' of the genus, derived from y.sQara,
hortis, and a^uia, the shoulder, alludes to this peculiarity. An
analogous and still more imposing form is found in the larv£e of
the PhalcencB, belonging to the germs Ceratocampa.
C. quadricornis. H.

Light brown ; fore-wings with zigzag and wavy brown and
whitish bands, duslcy in the middle to the inner margin, the an-
terior edge whitish, and a large white dot near the middle ; hind-
wings with three dusky transverse bands, and a broad blackish
hind-border ; fringes dotted with white ; head and a broad line
on each side of the thorax to the shoulders white ; shoulder-
covers with three and abdomen with five longitudinal brown
lines. Expands four and a half to nearly five inches. Larva
pale blue-green, longitudinally wrinkled, with a pair of short
denticulated horns on the second segment, a similar pair on the
third, two parallel series of little teeth on the first four segments,
a dorsal row of larger teeth extending to the tail, a long bluish
caudal horn, and seven narrow oblique white lines on each side
of the body. It feeds upon the leaves of Ulmus Amej^icana,
and transforms in the earth.

Genus III. Sphinx. L.

* Tongue-case of the pupa detached from the breast.
1. ^S*. cingulata. F. = Convolvuli. Smith-Abbot.

Dark ash-gray, variegated with brown, body beneath white ;
middle of the hind-wings pink, with three or four black bands ;
fringes of the wings spotted with white ; and five pink-colored
spots separated by short transverse black lines on each side of

14 Catalogue of North Americati Sphinges.

the abdomen. Expands about four inches. Larva, as represent-
ed by Abbot, (Ins. Geog. p. 63, pi. 32) dark brown, with a dou-
ble chain-like rust-red dorsal line, a paler lateral line, a series
of eight hook-shaped yellowish spots on each side enclosing the
spiracles, and a short curved horn on the tail. Eats the leaves of
the sweet potato {Convolvulus batatas,) and enters the earth to
undergo its transformation. Pupa with a long hooked tongue-
case spirally recurved at its extremity. Inhabits the Middle and
Southern States.

I am indebted to Dr. J. E. Holbrook, of Charleston, S. C, for
a specimen.

2. ^S*. Cai'olina. L.

Ash-gray ; fore-wings with blackish wavy lines ; hind-wings
whitish in the middle, with four black bands, the two central
ones narrow and jagged ; fringes spotted with white ; five orange-
colored spots encircled Avith black on each side of the abdomen ;
and the tongue excessively long. Expands about five inches.
Larva a.pple-green, transversely wrinkled, with seven oblique
white lines on each side, and a rust-colored caudal horn. Com-
monly known by the names of potato-ivorm and tobacco-worm,
from the plants on which it is found ; transforms deep in the
earth. Pupa with a long tongue-case, curved near the head,
straight and touching the breast only at the end, representing the
handle of a vase.

3. S. Drupiferarum. Smith-Abbot.

Pale reddish-gray ; fore-wings with a dark brown band ex-
tending from the inner margin to the tip, and crossed by slender
black lines between the nervures ;* hind-wings with two trans-
verse blackish bands ; thorax dark chestnut, with the sides and
the head white ; abdomen dark brown above, with a slender
dorsal black line and about five whitish lateral spots margined
with black. Expands three and a half to four inches. Larva,
according to Abbot, (Ins. Geog. p. 71, pi. 36) apple-green, with
seven oblique lateral bands, which are violet above and white
below, a line on each side of the head and the caudal horn vio-
let. Feeds on the leaves of the Celtis and plum, and is trans-
formed in the earth. Pupa, like that of S. Ligusti^i, with a short
tongue-case detached from the breast.

* The veins, or elevated and branching lines on the wings of insects, are called
nervures by Mr. Kirby.

Catalogue of North American Sphinges, 15

4. S. Kalmim. Smith-Abbot.

Rusty-bnfF; fore-wings streaked with light brown, and with a
narrow whitish band near the outer margin ; hind-wings with a
narrow central and a broad marginal blackish band ; fringes
brown spotted with white; shoulder-covers white edged with
brown ; abdomen with a slender dorsal black line and short
transverse bands alternately black and white at the sides ; be-
neath dull reddish white. Expands three and a half to four and
a quarter inches. Larva, according to Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 73,
pi. 37) pale green, with seven oblique yellow bands, edged above
with violet, on each side, the caudal horn and a line on each side
of the head blue, and the hinder pair of legs yellow. Feeds on
the leaves of Kalmia latifolia, and transforms in the earth. Pu-
pa with a short detached tongue-case.

5. >$*. Gordius. Cramer.

Brownish ash-gray ; fore-wings streaked with black between
the nervures, with the anterior and inner margin dusky-brown, a
white dot near the middle, and a large gray spot at base ; fringe
spotted with white ; hind-wings with a narrow central and a
broad marginal dusky brown band, and a white fringe ; thorax
deep chestnut, with the sides and the head above whitish ; ab-
domen with a central black line, and the sides ash-white trans-
versely banded with black. Expands three to three inches and
a half. Larva apple-green, with seven oblique white lateral
bands, slightly edged above with violet, a rust-red caudal horn,
and a brownish line on each side of the head. It lives on the
apple-tree, and enters the earth to be transformed. Pupa with a
very short detached tongue-case.

6. S. cinerea. H.

Ash-gray ; fore-wings long, narrow, and entire, with five short
oblique lines between the nervures ; hind-wings with two black-
ish bands ; shoulder-covers slightly edged with black above ; ab-
domen with a narrow dorsal black line, and short alternate bands
of black and dirty white on the sides. Expands four and a half
to five inches and a quarter.

The specimens from which this description is taken were
raised many years ago from larvas, which, at the time, I neglect-
ed to figure and describe. To the best of my recollection, these
larvse were found on the lilac, and, with the pupse, corresponded
very nearly in form, color, and size, to those of the European S.

16 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

Ligustri. The present species is remarkable for the length and
sharpness of the wings, which are of a fine neutral gray tint, and
for the prominence of the head and palpi.

* * Tongue-case of the pupa not detached, but buried, and sol-
dered to the breast.

7. iS. sordida. H.

Dark gray ; fore-wings variegated with dark brown, dashed
with a few blackish lines, and with a whitish dot near the mid-
dle ; hind-wings with a blackish basal spot, and two broad black
bands ; a dark brown line on each shoulder-cover ; abdomen with
a dorsal black line, and alternate black and light gray bands on
the sides. Expands two inches and three quarters.

Although the larva and pupa of this species are unknown to
me, I judge from analogy that it belongs to this division of the
genus Sphinx.

8. S. Hylmus. Dmry. =Prini. Smith-Abbot.

Rusty brown ; fore-wings mottled with white, banded with
jagged dark brown lines, with a white dot near the middle, and
a spot of the same color at tip ; hind-wings whitish with a nar-
row indented brown band across the middle, and a broad one on
the outer margin ; fringes spotted with white ; a whitish line
above the eyes extending on each side of the thorax; two lon-
gitudinal rows of white dots on the top of the abdomen, and a
series of short narrow white bands on each side. Expands two
and a quarter to two inches and three quarters. Larva pea-
green, with six or seven oblique lateral whitish bands edged
above with pink, a purple caudal horn, and a pale blue line on
each side of the head. It feeds on the leaves of Prinos glo.ber
and various species of Vaccinium, and enters the earth to be
transformed.

This insect is much like the Brontes of Drury, which, how-
ever, is a liiuch larger species, more distinctly banded with
white, (fcc.

9. S. Plebeja. F.

Gray ; fore-wings with a white dot near the middle, and five
or six short oblique blackish lines between the nervures ; hind-
wings sooty black, dirty white at base ; fringes white, spotted
with dark brown ; abdomen with three black lines, one dorsal,
and two on each side, the latter enclosing a longitudinal series of
dirty white spots. Expands three inches. Inhabits the Southern
States.

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 17

The only specimen which I have seen was taken by Prof.
Hentz in North CaroHna, and now belongs to the Boston Soci-
ety of Natural History.

10. S. Coriiferorum. Smith-Abbot.

Gray ; fore-wings with about three narrow and indented
brownish bands, a spot near the middle, one or two streaks be-
yond the middle, and the nervures near the outer margin brown ;
hind-wings dusky or blackish gradually fading into gray towards
the base; fringes spotted with brown and white; abdomen gray
with brownish incisures. Expands one inch and three quarters
to two inches and three quarters. Larva^ as figured by Abbot,
(Ins. Georg. p. 83, pi. 42,) chequered with brown and white spots,
with a dorsal whitish line, and a short caudal horn. It eats the
leaves of various kinds of pine, and enters the earth to transform.
Mr. Leonard informs me that the tongue-case of the Pupa is
short, and buried so as not to rise above the leg-cases.

For my specimen I am indebted to the Rev. L. W. Leonard,
who raised it from a larva found on the pine in Burlington, Vt.
In the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural History there is
a larger specimen, which was taken in North Carolina by Prof.
Hentz ; the bands on the wings in the latter are less distinct than
in my specimen.

11. iS. Ella. L.

Gray ; fore-wings slightly indented on the outer margin, with
a ieysr irregularly scattered black dots, and a blackish stripe ex-
tending from the base to the tip; hind-wings rust-red, with a
broad black hind-border; thorax with five longitudinal black
lines, and abdomen on each side banded with black. In the fe-
male the blackish stripe on the fore-wings and the lines on the
thorax are usually wanting or indistinct. Expands three and a
quarter to four inches. Inhabits the Southern States, the West
Indies, and South America.

In the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural History there
is a spechmen of this tropical insect, which was captured by Prof.
Hentz in the interior of North Carolina, where eventually the spe-
cies may become common. According to Madam Merian (In-
sectes de Surinam, page and plate 61) the larva, in Surinam,
lives on the leaves of a species of Psidium or Guava, is of an ob-
scure brown color, with a black dorsal line, some small irregular
white spots on the sides, and the head and caudal horn purple.

3

] 8 Catalogue of Noj^tli American Sphinges.

The tongue-case of the pvpa, from the figure, seems to be short
and soldered to the breast. From the shape of its body and
wings, this insect must belong to a very distinct group in the
Linnean genus Sphinx; but, without knowing more of the larva
and its transformations, I do not feel authorized to separate it
from the present genus.

Genus IV. Philampelus. H,

The insects belonging to this genus cannot with propriety be
included in the genus Chosrocampa of Duponchel, or Metopsilus
of Duncan, to which they approach the nearest ; and, therefore,
I have considered it proper to institute a new genus for their
reception. They, indeed, seem to form a characteristic and typi-
cal group, peculiar to the New World, being found only in the
United States, Mexico, the West Indies, and the tropical parts of
South America. The larvse feed chiefly on the vine and the
plants allied to it, which suggested the name of the genus, de-
rived from cpdio), I love, and aunelog, a grape-vine. In those spe-
cies whose transformations have passed under my own obser-
vation, the larvae when young were furnished with a long slen-
der caudal horn, recurved over the back like the tail of a dog ;
when about half grown, the caudal horn is shed with the skin,
and is replaced by a prominent, eye-like, polished spot. The
oblique spots on the sides of these larvas slope downwards and
backwards ; this is also the direction of the bands in the larvcE
of Pterogon ; but in those of all the other Sphinges the oblique
lateral bands slope upwards and backwards. The joi/pa is elon-
gated, attenuated at the fore-part, with a pretty long, robust,
rough, anal horn, notched at the tip ; the tongue-case is buried
and soldered to the breast, and slightly longer than the wing-
cases ; and the fore-part of the abdominal rings is roughened
with deep punctures. In the perfect state, the fore-wings are en-
tire, acute, slightly emarginated below the tip in the males, and
almost falcated, with a sinous inner margin, and well-marked
hind-angle ; the outer margin of the hind-wings is undulated or
slightly crenated ; the shoulder-covers are large ; and the abdo-
men IS short, thick, conical, and usually immaculate. Madame
Merian in her Insectes de Surinam, plates 34 and 47, has repre-
sented the transformations of three species of this genus; and
two are also figured by Mr. Abbot in the Insects of Georgia, plates
40 and 41.

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 19

1. P. Vitis. L.

Grayish flesh-colored ; fore-wings, except the anterior and
outer margins, dark olive, with a broad stripe from base to tip,
crossed by another from the middle of the inner margin, a small
hook-shaped spot near the middle, and the nervures behind, of a
pale flesh-color ; hind-wings pale green at base, with the inner
and hinder margins rose-red, a black spot near the middle and a
black transverse band behind ; a longitudinal line on the head
and thorax, the shoulder-covers, two broad stripes on the abdo-
men, and a round spot on each side of its base of a dark olive
color. Expands about four inches. Larva, as represented by
Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 79, pi. 40,) pale pea-green, longitudinally
striped on the top of the back and transversely at the sides with
brown, and with seven oval, oblique, cream-colored spots on each
side. According to Linnseus and Mad. Merian, it lives on the
grape-vine ; but Mr. Abbot has represented it upon Jussicea erecta.
Inhabits the Southern States, South America, &c.

This insect fades very much by age, which changes the flesh-
colored portions to a pale reddish bufl" or nankin color. My spe-
cimens were received from Dr. J. E. Holbrook, of Charleston,
S. Carolina.*

2. P. Satellitia. L. = Licaon ? Cramer.

Light olive, variegated with dark olive ; fore-wings with an
abbreviated band beyond the middle, an oblong patch on the ba-
sal half of the hind margin including a square darker spot, a semi-
oval spot near the tip, and a triangular one near the hind angle,
of a dark oUve color, and two approximated brownish dots near
the middle ; hind- wings with a black spot near the middle of the
inner margin, and a transverse blackish band behind, obsolete
near the anal angle and ending there in a few small black spots ;

* I have received from Dr. H. B. Hornbeck, King's physician, in the island of
St. Thomas, W. I., a species which is closely allied to P. Vitis ; and, as it is not
described in any of my books, I am happy to describe it here under the name of

P. Hornbeckiana.

Above olive gray ; fore-wings dark olive, with two silvery white stripes crossing
each other in the middle of the wing, the longest stripe toothed near the base of
the wing and obsolete thence to the middle, three of the nervures and a band on
the outer margin whitish, and two approximated black dots near the middle ; hind-
wings on the inner margin pink, witli a large square olive-colored spot, dusky be-
hind with a black transverse band ; an olive-colored line on the head and thorax ;
the shoulder-covers and first segment of the abdomen olive, bordered witii white ;
upper part of the abdomen olive, with a central gray line; outer sides of the legs
and anlenncE white. Expands about four inches. Inhabits St. Thomas, W. I.

20 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

a slender line on the head and thorax, the shoulder-covers, and a
transverse patch on the top of the first abdominal segment, dark
olive. Expands from four to four inches and three quarters.
Larva, when young, pea-green, with a slender recurved caudal
horn, and of the same color or of a clear light brown and without
a tail afterwards, with six oblique broad oval cream-colored spots
on each side of the body ; feeds on the leaves of indigenous and
exotic grape-vines, and on those of Ampelopsis hederacea, and
enters the earth to transform.

3. P. Achemon. Drury. = Crantor ? F.

Red-ash colored ; fore-wings with a few short transverse brown
lines, and shaded with brown from the middle to the hind mar-
gin, with a square spot near the middle of the inner margin, an-
other near the tip, and a triangular spot near the hind angle, of a
deep brov/n color ; hind-wings pink, with a deeper red spot near
the inner margin, a dusky hind border, and a transverse row of
small black spots ; palpi and a large triangular spot on each shoul-
der-cover deep brown. Expands from three to four inches. Larva
pea-green with a slender recurved tail when young, of the same
color or light brown and without a tail subsequently, with six
oblique oblong oval scalloped cream-colored spots on each side.
It eats the leaves of grape-vines and of the common creeper or
Amp e lop sis.

This and the preceding species, in the larva state, are very in-
jurious to our cultivated grape-vines.

Genus V. Chcerocampa. Duponchel.

Metopsilus. Duncan. Deilephila. (section.) Boisduval.
This genus was established, in 1835, by M. Duponchel,* to
receive certain European Sphinges the larvae of which have the
head and fore-part of the body retractile, the head being very
small, and th< first three segments abruptly diminishing in size
from the fourth, which gives to the fore-part of the body a re-
semblance to the head and snout of a hog. Hence the French
name of these larvae, cochonnes, and the generical name proposed
by Duponchel, which is derived from ;k'or^oc, a hog, and x6i.um], a
caterpillar. This peculiarity in the form of the larvae seems to
have suggested to LinuEeus the names that he has given to two

* Godart and Duponchel. Lepidopteres de France. Supplement. Tome II, p.
159. (1835.) -

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 21

of the species, to wit, porcellus, the pig, and Elpenor, the name
of one of the companions of Ulysses, who was changed to a hog
by Circe. In the year 1836, Mr. Duncan,* probably not aware of
the previous establishment of this genus, pointed out its charac-
ters under the name of Metopsilus, derived from fiimmof, the
front, and ii/ddc, slender, in allusion to the form of this part of the
larva. These naturalists, in separating this new group from the
genus Sphinx, or rather from Deilephila, seem to have had only
European insects under consideration ; but in America there are
several species, which, so far as similarity of form and habits, in
all their states, indicates a natural affinity, ought certainly to be
included in the same generical group, from which, however, they
will be excluded unless the characters of the genus are somewhat
modified to receive them. Believing the genus to be a good one,
and susceptible of modification, I have changed the characters of
it in the synopsis prefixed to this catalogue, so as to admit our
American species. In C. Pampinatrix, Choerilus, and versicolor,
the antennas are rather short and slender, arcuated, and end in a
very long slender hook ; the fore-wings have the outer and inner
margins sinuous, so as to exhibit prominent outer and hinder an-
gles ; the hind-wings have a sinuous hind-margin, and a promi-
nent angle near the tail ; and the abdomen is rather short, and
conical at tip. The larvcc of the first two of these species have
the eleventh segment conically prolonged above, forming a base
for a very short slightly curved caudal horn, and the sides of the
body are marked with oblique bands sloping upwards and back-
wards. They transform above ground, under fallen leaves, or
slightly covered with grains of earth, connected by a few threads,
so as to form a loose imperfect cocoon. The pupa is short, thick,
obtusely rounded before, with the tongue-case imbedded, indis-
tinct, and nearly as long as the wing-cases ; the tail is rather
blunt, and ends in a long, slender point, which, under a mag-
nifier, is found to be rough, and notched at the tip.
1. C. Pampinatrix. Smith-Abbot.
Light olive-gray above, shaded with olive ; fore-wings with a
dot near the middle, a transverse band near the base, a broader
band beyond the middle and a large triangular spot adjacent to
each acute angle and almost forming a third band, of an olive
color ; hind-wings rust-colored, dusky behind, and gray next the

* Jardine's Naturalist's Library. Entomology. Vol. iv, p. 154. (1836.)

22 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

anal angle ; head and shoulder-covers dark olive ; and a white
line on each side of the thorax at the origin of the wings. Ex-
pands two and a half to two inches and three quarters. Larva pale
green, with a longitudinal series of six triangular orange-colored
spots on the top of the back and a darker green lateral line ; sides
below this paler, almost white, sprinkled with rusty dots, and
with six oblique green bands ; caudal horn short, bluish green.
It varies in being of a clear light brown color, with the back
bounded on each side by a darker longitudinal line, meeting at
the origin of the caudal horn, the sides tinged with pink, and
obliquely banded with brown. Feeds on the leaves of the grape-
vine. Pupa clay-colored, sprinkled and punctured with black,
and with the incisures of the abdomen black.

Mr. Abbot, on plate 28 of his Insects of Georgia, has represen-
ted this larva with the caudal horn too long and too much curved,
and the eleventh segment not so much produced behind as it
ought to be. This species, in the winged state, comes very near
to Cramer's Sphinx Myron, which, from the figure, seems to
want the spot in the middle of the fore-wings, and, according to
Cramer, has a very short tongue, a character that does not apply
to the Pampinat7^ix. The larva, above described, is one of the
most injurious to our cultivated grape-vines ; for, not satisfied
with devouring the leaves, it nips off the fruit-stalks when the
grapes are not more than half grown. I have gathered under a
single grape-vine above a quart of unripe grapes which had been
detached thus during one night by these larvse.

2. C. Chcerilus. Cramer. = Azalece. Smith- Abbot.

Rust-colored : fore-wings rusty gray tinged with blue, with a
dot near the middle, a few spots between it and the base, and a
very broad band beyond the middle, rust-colored ; hind-wings
rust-colored, dusky near the anal angle, with a whitish fringe ; a
spot at the sides and a slender line on the top of the thorax, the
edges of the shoulder-covers and of the abdominal segments
white. In the male the broad band of the fore-wings is marked
by a pale and a dark zigzag line so as nearly to divide it into two
bands. Expands two and a half to three inches. Larva, as rep-
resented by Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 53, pi. 27,) varying in color,
being either pale green, with a narrow dusky dorsal line, a green-
ish line on each side, a blue-green caudal horn, and the sides
obliquely banded with green ; or clear pale red, with the lines
and bands brownish, and the horn chestnut-colored. Mr. Abbot

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 23

says that it lives on Azalea nudiflora, and that it spins itself up
in a thin web on the leaves. Pupa like that of C. Pampinatrix.

3. C. versicolor. H.

Light olive, variegated with olive-green and white ; fore-wings
with narrow curved bands of white and olive-green, and a zigzag
white line at tip ; hind-wings rust-colored, with the inner and
hind margin olive-green ; tips of the palpi, a hue on each side of
the head above the eyes, a longitudinal dorsal line from the front
to the tail, and the edges of the collar and of the shoulder-covers,
white ; two spots on the metathorax and the abdominal segments
on each side of the dorsal line tinged with dark buff. Expands
about three inches.

Although the larva and pupa of this species are unknown to
me, I have ventured to place it in the genus Chosrocampa. The
palpi are rather thicker towards the tip than those of the two pre-
ceding species ; the fore-wings are not quite so much emarginated,
and consequently, their angles are not quite so prominent. The
under-side is quite as prettily variegated as the upper-side ; that
of the fore-wings being pale olive, tinged with deep buff near the
hind-angle, with rust-red in the middle, and mottled and streaked
with olive-green and white ; that of the hind-wings olive-green,
banded with white, dark olive, and buff. My specimen was taken
sitting upon the leaves of Azalea viscosa ; it was quite fresh, and
seemed to have been recently transformed.

Dr. Hornbeck has presented to me a species, from St. Thomas,
resembling the versicolor very nearly in color and form ; but the
palpi are more prominent, the antennas are not so much arcuated,
and the terminal hook is much shorter. It evidently leads to the
genus Deilephila.

4. C. tersa. L.

Grayish olive above ; fore-wings streaked from base to tip with
numerous narrow dusky and pale lines, and with a minute black
dot near the middle ; hind-wings black, paler round the edges,
with the anal angle and the fringe cream-colored, and a trans-
verse row of small wedge-shaped cream-colored spots near the
hind-margin ; a reddish white line on the sides of the head and
thorax ; shoulder-covers slightly edged above with rust-red ; sides
of the abdomen, and the body and wings beneath, rusty buff,
streaked and sprinkled with dusky olive-gray. Expands two and
three quarters to three inches. Larva^ according to Abbot, (Ins.
Georg. p. 75, pi. 38,) pea-green or brown, with seven white eye-

24 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

like spots having a red centre and a black margin and connected
by a longitudinal white line, on each side of the body, and a red
caudal horn. It lives on Sperinacocce Hyssopifolia, and, like the
other species, is transformed in an imperfect cocoon which it spins
above ground. Pupa clay-colored, freckled with dusky spots. It
inhabits the Southern States, the West Indies, and South America.
I am indebted to Dr. J. E. Holbrook of Charleston, S. C, and
to Dr. H. B. Hornbeck, of St. Thomas, W. I., for specimens.
The antennae are straight, with a shorter terminal hook than in
the three preceding species ; the outer margin of the fore-wings
is not so sinuous, and the abdomen is much more elongated, slen-
der and pointed. It may be necessary, hereafter, to institute a
new genus for the reception of this and several other closely al-
lied West-Indian and South-American species.

Genus VI. Deilephila. Ochsenheimer.

1. D. lineata. F. — Daucus. Cramer.

Olive-brown ; fore-wings with a pale buff-colored stripe from
the base of the inner margin to the tip, crossed by six white lines
on the nervures, the outer margin ash-gray, the fringe and edge
of the inner margin white ; hind-wings rose-pink, with a white
spot near the inner margin, a black band at base, another near the
hind-margin, and the fringe, white ; a white line on each side of
the head above the eyes, and six lines, of the same color, placed in
pairs, on the thorax ; two rows of small black spots and a slender
dorsal white line on the top of the abdomen, the sides reddish,
with a short transverse black band on each side of the first ab-
dominal segment, and a white band behind it, followed by a lat-
eral series of alternately black and white spots. Expands from
three to four inches. Larva pea-green, with a longitudinal series
of nine or ten orange-colored oval spots encircled with black, on
each side, and an orange-colored caudal horn. Feeds upon the
leaves of the purslane and turnip, and of various other humble
plants, and buries itself in the ground to undergo its transforma-
tions. Pupa light brown.

Contrary to what is usual among our Sphinges, there are two
broods of thi^ species in the course of one summer. This is the
true Sphinx lineata of Fabricius, described by him as an Ameri-
can insect in his " Systema Entomologiae." His description of
the thorax, ^' striis tribus albis duplicatis,^' applies exactly to our
insect, and not to the Livornica of Europe, with which it is often

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 25

confounded, and which has only four white lines instead of six,
on the thorax. The larva of the latter, moreover, differs from
that of our lineata. Dr. Hornbeck has sent to me from St.
Thomas, W. I., specimens which vary a little, but are not speci-
fically distinct from the lineata of the United States.

2. D. Chammnerii. H. = Epilobii. H. (Catalogue.)

Olive-brown ; fore-wings with a sinuous buff-colored stripe,
indented before, beginning near the base of the inner margin and
extending to the tip, and a dark olive-brown tapering stripe behind
it, a black spot at base, a white dash and a diamond-shaped black-
ish spot before the middle ; hind- wings dark brown, with a trans-
verse rose -colored band, including a white spot near the body and
a deep red one before the anal angle ; inner edge of the fore-wings
and fringe of the hind-wings whitish ; palpi white below ; a
white line above each eye extending on the sides of the thorax,
where it is bounded above by a black line ; abdomen with a dor-
sal series of white dots, two black and two alternating white
bands on each side of the base, and two narrow transverse white
lateral lines near the tip ; segments beneath edged with white.
Expands from two and three quarters to three inches. Larva
green, somewhat bronzed, dull red beneath ; with nine round
cream-colored spots, encircled with black, on each side, and a dull
red caudal horn. It lives on the Epilobium angustifoliimi, and
(as Mr. Leonard informs me) transforms in the ground, without
making a cocoon. Inhabits New Hampshire.

The larva very closely resembles that of Z>. Galii, as figured
by Roesel, III, Tab. YI, Fig. 1, 2. For a specimen of it, and
for the insects in the winged state, I am indebted to Mr. Leonard,
by whom they were raised. This species is the American rep-
resentative of D. Gain, and is also allied to several other Euro-
pean species, such as D. Epilobii, EsuIcb, Amelia, Tithymali,
Dahlii, Euphorbice, &c. ; but I am satisfied that it is perfectly dis-
tinct from all of them ; and the long description which I have
given of it will render it easy to discover in what respects it differs
from them. Moreover it is a legitimate species, which is more than
can be said of all of the above-named European insects, some of
which are now admitted to be hybrids. Mr. Kirby (Fauna Bo-
reali- Americana, IV. p. 302,) describes a North American species,
under the name of D. interinedia, which, according to him, has
the stripe on the fore-wings of a pale rose color, and wants the

4

26 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

dorsal series of white dots on the abdomen ; in other respects it
seems nearly aUied to the Chamcenerii. When my Catalogues of
the Insects of Massachusetts were published I was not aware that
the specific name Epilobii had been previously appropriated ; for
the species to which I then applied it I have now substituted
that of Chamcenerii derived from Tournefort's name for the genus
Epilobium.

<§) LegitimcB ano barbato. L.

Family II. MACROGLOSSIADJi:. H. The Macroglossians.

Sesiidce. Stephens. Sesiadce. Kirby.

* Wings angulated and indented ; antenncB tapering at the end,
with a. long tertninal hook.

Genus YII. Pterogon. Boisduval.

P 7 inscriptum. H.

Ash-gray ; wings angularly indented ; first pair with two dusky
bands near the base, connected on the inner margin by a blackish
hue, a few undulated and zigzag transverse lines beyond the mid-
dle, a dusky outer margin, a half-oval brown spot at tip, and a
small deep brown patch including a white I near the tip; hind-
wings reddish gray, with a dusky hind-margin ; collar edged
with brown ; abdomen with two dorsal series of black dots. Ex-
pands two inches. Inhabits Indiana.

Of this species I have seen only two individuals, both females,
having rather long slender and simple antenna, attenuated and
curved so as to form a hook at the end. In the shape of the
wings and distribution of the colors this insect nearly resembles
some species of Smerint/ws, from which genus it is excluded by
the length of the tongue, which nearly equals that of the body.
Pterogon Gaurm^ which I suppose to be the only legitimate spe-
cies of the genus that has yet been discovered in the United
States, is known to me only by Mr. Abbot's figure.

Genus YIII. Thyreus. Swainson.

]. T. lugubris. L.
Brown ; wings sinuated and slightly angulated on the outer
edge ; first pair with an oblique streak and an eye-like dot before

Catalogue of Noi^th American Sphmges. 27

the middle, and a large triangular brown patch near the tip ; hind-
wings with two or three obscure transverse brown lines ; male
with a triple-tufted tail. Expands two and a half to three
inches. Inhabits the Southern States. Larva pale green, with
three darker longitudinal dorsal lines, nine oblique yellowish
bands on each side, and a long, slender, nearly straight caudal
horn. Mr. Abbot, from whose figure (Ins. Geog. p. 59, pi. 30)
this description of the larva is taken, says that it feeds on Virgin-
ian creeper, Ampelopsis Hederacea, and that it enters the earth to
transform. The pupa is elongated, chestnut-brown, with a short
anal point.

My specimen of this insect was presented to me by Dr. J. E.
Holbrook. It is closely allied to several South American species,
figured by Cramer, such as his Fegeiis, Gorgon^ &c. ; and, in-
deed, the Fegeus may prove to be identical with it.

M. Boisduval (Icones Hist, des Lepidopteres d'Europe nou-
veaux, Yol. II, p. 15) refers the Gorgon of Cramer [?] to his genus
Pterogon; but, in my opinion, the genus Thyreus of Swainson,
besides having the priority in point of time, is entitled to rank as
a distinct genus. Is the European Gorgon of Esper, Hiibner,
and Ochsenheimer, quoted in Mr. Children's Abstract of the
Characters of Ochsenheimer's Genera (Philos. Mag. N. S. Vol. V,
p. 37), the same as the Surinam species named Gorgon by Cra-
mer ? And if not, is M. Boisduval's citation of Cramer's name
correct ?

2. T. Ahhotii. = Ahhottii. Swainson.

Chocolate-brown ; wings very much indented on the outer
edge ; first pair with wavy and oblique blackish brown streaks,
and a black dot near the middle ; hind-wings yellow, with a
broad blackish brown hind-border ; edge of the collar and a trans-
verse stripe across the thorax black ; abdomen banded with black
at base, tufted at the sides of the hinder segments, and terminated
by a triple-tufted rust-colored tail. Expands from two and one
third to nearly three inches. Larva, as figured by Abbot,
(Swainson's Zoological Illustrations, Part I, pi. 60) pea-green,
with narrow dorsal brown lines, nine lateral oblique yellowish
bands broadly bordered above with brown, and a long slender
slightly curved caudal horn. It feeds on the grape-vine. Pupa
chestnut-brown, with two yellowish abdominal incisures.

28 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

This species is not uncommon in the Southern States, and I
have one specimen which was taken in Cambridge, Mass.
3. T? Nessus. Cramer.

Dark brown ; fore-wings with a sinuous and angular outer
edge, a blackish brown band across the middle, another near the
outer margin, and a small rust-red spot near the tip ; hind-wings
rust-red, with a dark brown hind-border ; abdomen with two
pale yellow bands behind the middle, four rust-red spots on each
side, and a triple-tufted tail. Expands from two to two inches
and a quarter.

Of this species I have seen only females, in which the antennae
are similar to those of the same sex in T. Ahhotii. The palpi,
however, are more acuminated, and approach in form to those of
Sesia Pelasgus, &c. It ought, perhaps, to be included in a new
genus, which, without a knowledge of the larva and pupa, I shall
not venture to propose.

* * Wings entire; ajitennoi thickened toioards the end, ivith
a minnte termitial hook.

Genus IX. Sesia. F. (Syst. Gloss.)

1. >S'. Pelasgus. Cramer.

Wings transparent and iridescent, with a broad purple-brown
border and nervures ; antennas and palpi, above, blue-black ;
head and thorax olive ; breast and legs cream-white ; abdomen
purple-brown below, ochre-yellow above, with the two middle
segments and a spot behind them purple-brown, and three lateral
white spots ; tip with a central fan-shaped brown tail, and two
black tufts on each side of it. Expands from two to two inches
and one quarter.

2. P. diffinis. Boisduval. ^= fuciformis. Smith-Abbot.
Wings transparent and iridescent, with a narrow blackish bor-
der and nervures, and a rust-red spot at tip ; antennas and palpi
black above ; thorax and breast covered with pale yellow hairs;
abdomen black above, with two longitudinal patches of yellow
hairs, the two middle segments black, the next two covered with
yellow hairs, and the tip with a fan-shaped tail, which is yellow
in the middle and tufted with black on each side. Expands from
one inch and three quarters to two inches. Larva, according to
Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 85, pi. 43.) pale pea-green, reddish beneath,
with a longitudinal dorsal line, a lateral pale yellow stripe, and a

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 29

short recurved candal horn. In Georgia, it feeds upon the Ta-
herncBmontana Amsonia, and forms an imperfect cocoon on the
surface of the ground. Pupa brown with the abdominal incisures
ochre-yellow.

My specimens were presented to me by Mr. Leonard, who cap-
tured them in New Hampshire, where the TaberncBmontana does
not grow. The larva must, therefore, be sought upon some other
plant ; perhaps it may be found upon the Apocyivum. M. Bois-
duval has named and given a figure of this species in his Hist.
Nat. des Insectes Lepidopteres, Vol. I, pi. 15, fig. 2 ; and, as it is
evidently distinct from the European /Ma/onms, I have retained
the name proposed by M. Boisduval, although he has not estab-
lished a claim to it by any description of the insect. Mr. Kirby's
S. rujicaudis (Faun. Bor. Amer. IV, p. 303,) is evidently different
from this species, and comes nearer to the Pelasgus, to which,
however, the description does not very well apply, in many
respects.

Family III. iEGERIADiE. H. The JSgerians.

Genus X. Trochilium. (Scop.) Stephens.

Sesia. F. (Entom. Syst.) Latr. Boisd. JSgei^ia. F. (Syst. Glossat.)

1. T. marginatum. H.

Black ; wings transparent ; first pair with a broad border, the
tip, and a transverse band beyond the middle pale brown : hind-
wings with a broad black fringe ; antennas black ; two longitu-
dinal lines on the thorax, hind margins of the abdominal seg-
ments, orbits, palpi, and legs, except at base, yellow. Expands
rather more than one inch and a quarter.

This insect was taken in New-Hampshire, and presented to me
by the Rev. L. W. Leonard.

2. T. tibiale. H.

Brownish ; wings transparent ; first pair with a narrow border
and an abbreviated band beyond the middle pale brown ; hind-
wings with a narrow brownish fringe ; antennas black ; orbits,
two lines on the thorax, edges of the abdominal segments, and
tibiag yellow ; hindmost tibiae thickly covered with yellow hairs.
Expands one inch and a half The yellow bands on the abdo-
men are much narrower and less bright than in the marginatum.

Found in New-Hampshire on the Populus candicans, and pre-
sented to me by Mr. Leonard.

30 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

3. T. denudaium.

Chestnut-brown ; fore-wings opaque, with a large triangular
transparent spot adjacent to the outer hind-angle, a rust-red spot
at base and another near the middle ; hind-wings transparent,
with the margin and fringe brown, and a rust-red costal spot ;
orbits, edges of the collar, incisures of the abdomen, tibise, and
tarsi dull yellow ; antennge brownish above, rust-yellow at tip
and beneath. Expands from one inch and a quarter to more than
one inch and a half. The transparent spots at the tips of the
fore- wings have the appearance of being caused by the removal
of the colored scales.

The specimens, from which the descriptions of these three spe-
cies are drawn up, had become somewhat oily, and it is possible
that some of their characteristic markings may have become ob-
literated.

Genus XT. ^geria. F. (Syst. Glossat.)

Sesia. F. (Entom. Syst.) Latr. Boisd. Trochilium. Scopoli.

1. j¥^. tricincta. H. (Catalogue.)

Blue-black ; fore-wings opaque ; hind-wings transparent, with
the border, fringe, and a short transverse line near the middle
black ; palpi at tip, collar, a spot on each shoulder, and three
bands on the abdomen yellow ; antennas short, black ; four pos-
terior tibiae banded with orange ; tarsi yellow, tipped with black ;
tail flat, with two longitudinal yellow lines. Expands from one
inch to one inch and two lines.

This species seems to come near to the European Asiliformis ;
but the male has only three yellow abdominal bands ; while in
the Asiliformts there are five bands in the male sex. The an-
tennae are shorter and thicker than in the following species, and
are furnished beneath with a double row of short pectinations or
teeth, which are thickly fringed with hairs. The sexes were
captured together upon the common tansy.

2. JE. Cucurbitm. H. (New-England Farmer.)
Fore-wings opaque, lustrous olive-brown ; hind-wings transpa-
rent, with the margin and fringe brown ; antennae greenish black ;
palpi pale yellow, with a little black tuft near the tip ; thorax
olive ; abdomen deep orange, v/ith a transverse basal black band,
and a longitudinal row of five or six black spots ; tibiae and tarsi
of the hind-legs thickly fringed on the inside with black, and on

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 31

the outside with long orange-colored hairs ; spurs covered with
white hairs. Expands from thirteen to fifteen lines. Larva,
similar in form and color to those of other species of the genus,
lives in the pith of squash and pumpkin vines, which it leaves at
the root, and forms in the ground a cocoon composed of grains of
earth cemented by a gummy matter. Pupa^ by the aid of the
abdominal denticulations, almost entirely excluded from the co-
coon during the last transformation.

The sudden death of the squash-vines, during midsummer, is
occasioned by the ravages of the larva of this insect. For further
particulars relating to it, a communication, by the author, in the
New-England Farmer, Vol. YIII, p. 33, for 1828, may be con-
sulted. This species seems to be closely allied to, but sufficiently
distinct from the tibialis of Drury, and the Bombiliformis of
Cramer.

3. ^. caudata. H. = fulvicornis. H.* (Catalogue.)
Brown ; male with the fore-wings transparent from the base to

the middle ; hind-wings transparent, with a brownish border,
fringe, and subcostal spot ; antennae, palpi, collar, and tarsi tawny
yellow ; hind-legs yellow, end of the tibiae and first tarsal jomt
fringed with tawny yellow and black hairs ; tail slender, cylindri-
cal, nearly as long as the body, tawny yellow, with a little black
tuft on each side at base. The female differs from the male in hav-
ing the fore-wings entirely opaque ; the hind-legs black, with a
rusty spot in the middle of the tibiae, and fringed with black ; cau-
dal tuft of the ordinary form and size. Expands from one inch
to one inch and three lines. Larva inhabits the stems of our
indigenous currant, Ribes Floridu7n.

The Zygmna caudata, of Fabricius, has a somewhat similar
tail, but does not belong to the genus j^geria.

4. JE. Syringm. H.

Brown ; fore-wings with a transparent line at base ; hind-wings
transparent, with a brown border, fringe, and subcostal spot ; an-
tennas, palpi, collar, first and second pairs of tarsi, and middle of
the mtermediate tibiae rust-red; middle of the tibis and the tarsi
of ihe hind-legs yellow. Expands one inch and two lines. Larva,
lives in the trunks of Syringa vulgaris, the common lilac.

* Credited to Mr. Say, in the Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts, by
mistake.

32 Catalogue of North A'merica7i Sphinges.

5. j33. exitiosa. Say.

Steel-blue ; male with the wings transparent, the margins and
fringes, and a band beyond the middle of the first pair steel-blue ;
palpi, collar, edges of the shoulder-covers and of the abdominal
segments, two bands on the tibice including the spurs, anterior
tarsi, and lateral edges of the wedge-shaped tail pale yellow ;
female with the fore-wings opaque ; the hind-wings transparent,
with a broad opaque front-margin and the fringe purple-black ;
antennae, palpi, legs, and abdomen steel-blue, the latter encircled
in the middle by a broad saffron-colored band. Male expands
from nine to thirteen lines ; female from fifteen to seventeen lines.
Larva inhabits the trunks and roots of the peach and cherry
trees, beneath the bark.

The larva is the well-known peach-tree borer, which annually
injures to a great extent or destroys numbers of these trees. For
the means of preventing its ravages, see Say's Entomology, Yol.
II, and my communication in the New England Farmer, Vol. V,
p. 33. The insects above described, though very dissimilar, are
really the sexes of one species. I have raised many of them from
the larvae, and have also repeatedly captured them, in connection,
on the trunks of peach and cherry trees.

6. yE. fidvipes. H. (Catalogue.)

Blue-black ; wings transparent, margin and fringes, and a trans-
verse band beyond the middle of the first pair blue-black ; anten-
nae black, yellowish at the end ; palpi beneath, a spot on the tho-
rax under the origin of the wings, intermediate and hindmost
tibiae, all the tarsi, and the basal half of the underside of the ab-
domen orange-colored ; hindmost tibiae somewhat thickened by a
covering of tawny hairs. Expands thirteen lines.

7. JE. Tipuliformis. L.

Blue-black ; wings transparent, with the margin and fringes
blackish ; thu first pair with a transverse blue-black band beyond
the middle, and a broad one at tip streaked with copper-color ;
antennae black ; palpi beneath, collar, upper edges of the shoulder-
covers, a spot on each side of the breast, three narrow rings on
the abdomen, ends of the tibiae and the spurs pale golden yellow ;
tail fan-shaped, blue-black. The male has an additional trans-
verse yellow line between the second and third abdominal bands.
Expands from seven and a half to nine-MajAsesr Larva lives in
the pith of the currant-bush.

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 33

This destructive insect is not a native, but has been introdu-
ced from Europe witli the cuhivated currant-bush.

8. JE. scitula. H.

Purple-black ; wings transparent, with the margins golden yel-
low ; the first pair with a narrow purple-brown band beyond the
middle and a broad one at the tip ornamented with golden yel-
low lines ; fringes blackish ; front and orbits covered with silvery
white hairs ; antenna black ; palpi, collar, upper edges of the
shoulder-covers, a narrow band at the base of the abdomen, a dor-
sal spot behind it, a broad band around the middle, the lateral
edges of the fan-shaped tail, anterior coxee, sides of the breast,
tibiae and tarsi except at the joints, with the spurs golden yellow.
Expands about eight lines.

This beautiful little species is easily distinguished by the prev-
alence of yellow on the under-side of the body and legs.

9. ^. Pyri. H. (New-England Farmer.)
Purple-black ; wings transparent, with the margins, a narrow

band beyond the middle of the first pair, and a broad one at tip
purple-black, the latter streaked with brassy yellow ; antennae
blackish; palpi beneath, collar, edges of the shoulder-covers, a
broad band across the middle of the abdomen, a narrow one be-
fore it, an indistinct transverse line at base, the posterior half of
the abdomen beneath, the sides of the breast, anterior coxae, legs
except the joints of the tibiae, and the lateral edges of the wedge-
shaped tail golden yellow. Expands six lines and a half. Larva
lives under the bark of the pear-tree.

For some further particulars respecting this species, see my
communication in the New-England Farmer, Vol. IX. p. 2, 1830.

Mr. Edward Doubleday presented me with a new species of
Algeria which he captured in Florida, and Dr. J. W. Randall has
still another which was taken in Massachusetts. To these gen-
tlemen belongs the right of first naming and describing these spe-
cies which they have discovered, and I do not feel myself author-
ized to anticipate them.

Genus XII. Thyris. lUiger.

T. maculata. H. (Catalogue.)
Brownish black, sprinkled with rust-yellow dots; hind-mar-
gins of the wings deeply scalloped, with the edges of the inden-
tations white ; each of the wings with a transparent white spot,

5

34 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

which in the fore-wings is nearly oval and slightly narrowed in
the middle, in the hind- wings larger, kidney-shaped and almost
divided in two ; palpi beneath, a spot before the anterior coxas,
the tips of the tarsal joints above, and the hind-edges of the last
three or four abdominal segments white. Expands from six to
eight lines.

This species comes very near to the fenestrata of Europe, but
is sufficiently distinct from it.

Mr. Doubleday has presented to me a much larger species of
Thyris, which was captured by him in Florida, and was new to
my collection. There is a figure of it in M. Boisduval's Hist.
Nat. Ins. Lepidopt. Vol. I, pi. 14, where it is named T. luguhris.
This name has not yet received the proper sanction of a descrip-
tion ; but, taking into consideration the circumstances under
which this nondescript came into my possession, I do not think
proper to describe it myself at this time.

Tribe 11. SPHINGES ADSCIT^. L.

Family IV. AGARISTIAD^. H. The Agaristians.

Hesperi- Sphinges. Latr. Agaristides. Boisd. Zygmnidce. Kirby.

Genus XIII. Alypia. (Hiibner.) Kirby.

Zygcena and Sesia. F. Agarista. Latr.

A. octomaculata. F.

Black ; with two sulphur-yellow spots on the fore-wings, and
two white ones on the hind-wings; shoulder-covers and front
sulphur-yellow ; first and second pairs of tibias thickly covered
with orange-colored hairs. Expands from eleven to fifteen lines.
Larva, as represented by Abbot, (Ins. Georg. p. 8, pi. 44,) cylin-
drical, elongated ; yellow, with transverse rows of black points,
slightly hairy, and without a caudal horn. It lives on the grape-
vine, and encloses itself in a cocoon in the earth.

In some individuals there is a white spot near the end of the
abdomen, and the inner white spots of the hind-wings are en-
larged and cover the whole base of the wings. Mr. Kirby (Fauna
Bor. Amer. IV, p. 301, pi. 4, fig. 5,) has described another species
of Alypia, a native of Nova Scotia and Canada, and names it A.
MacCullochii.

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 35

Family V. ZYG^NIADiE. H. The Zygcenians.

Zygcenidce. Stephens. Zygenides. Boisd,
Hitherto I have not met with any insects in the United States
belonging to this family ; but Dr. Hornbeck has sent to me, from
St. Thomas, a species which not only seems to be undescribed,
but must constitute a new genus, the characters of which are
given in the Synopsis, and those of the species in the note below.*

"Family YI. GLAUCOPIDID^. H. The Glaucopidians.

Procrides and Zygenides. Boisd. Zygceniadce. H. Cat. Cte~
nuchidce. Kirby. Callimorphce. Westwood.

Genus XV. Procris. F.

Ino. Leach,

P. Americana. = Aglaope Americana ? Boisd. = dispar.
H. (Cat.)

Blue-black ; with a saffron-colored collar, and a fan-shaped,
somewhat bilobed, black caudal tuft. Expands from ten lines to
one inch. Larva, according to Prof Hentz, hairy, green, with
black bands. It is gregarious, and devours the leaves of the
grape-vine, and undergoes its transformations in an oblong-oval,
tough, whitish cocoon, which is fastened to a leaf.

* Genus XIV. Mastigocera. H.

From /n&aTi^, a lohip or thong, and ni^a, horns ; the antennae being thickened
in the middle and tapering at each end like a whip lash. In the West Indian
insect to which I Jiave applied this name, the antennae agree, in the main, with
Xhoie o? JEgocer a, as described by Lalreille and other authors; but most of its
other characters disagree, and it has an entirely different form from that of the
type of the genus. These characters are so very striking, that I have ventured to
propose this new genus, although the transformations of the species are unknown
to me.

M. vespina. H.

Light rust-brown ; wings immaculate ; collar, first abdominal segments above,
third below, and a triangular spot on each side, white ; head, thickened part of
the antennae, edge of the thorax behind the collar, and a large triangular spot on
each side of the second abdominal segment, black; breast black, spotted with
white; first and second pairs of thighs, except at base, middle of the hind-pair,
and extremity of the tibiae, black. Expands from one and a half to one inch and
three quarters. Inhabits the island of St. Thomas, W. I.

The Zygmna Eunolplms of Fabricius, and the Pretus of Cramer are probably
congenerical and closely allied to this species.

36 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

This insect appears to be the same as the one figured in Gne-
rin's Iconographie and in Griffith's Cavier, under the name of
Aglaope Americana^ Boisduval ; but it is not an Aglaope, for it
has a distinct, spirally-rolled tongue.

Genus XVI. Glaucopis. F.

The insects which, at present, I refer to this genus, belong to
ZygcBna of the Entomologia Systematica of Fabricius ; whose
Z. Glaucopis^ if it was not actually the type, furnished the ge-
nerical name which this author gave, in his last work, the Sys-
tema Glossatorum, to this group of his former ZygcBuce. Sev-
eral of the insects, which Mr. West wood, in his edition of Drury's
Illustrations, refers to the genus Callimorpha, without doubt be-
long to the family Glaucopididm. Mr. Kirby has placed one spe-
cies, after Lithosia, in a family which he names Ctenuchidce.
These insects seem to me much more nearly allied to the Sphin-
ges adscitce than to the Phalcena, of Linnasus, with which also
they agree in their diurnal flight, and in their transformations, so
far as the latter are known. Although they do not appear to be
strictly congenerical, I prefer to arrange them, for the present, un-
der the genus Glaucopis^ in groups or subgenera, which, when
the larvae and their transformations are better known, it may be
proper to raise to the rardi of independent genera.

Subgenus Syntomeida. H.

Antennas bipectinated, tapering at each end. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled.
Palpi short, not extending beyond the clypeus, slightly curved and hairy at base,
covered with short close scales ; terminal joint somewhat acuminated. Wings
elongated, hind-pair small, with the discoidal cell closed behind by an acute-an-
gled nervure, the anterior branch of which crosses the subcostal nervure and ends
near the lip of the wing. Body cylindrical, rounded and not tufted behind, and
with a rounded tubercle on each side of the first abdominal segment. Spurs of the
posterior tibiae four, small, and approximated.

1. G. (S.) IpomxiE. = Sesia Ipomcea. CEmler, in letters.
Fore-wings greenish black, with three yellowish white dots
near the front margin and two others close together beyond the
middle ; hind-wings violet-black, with a transparent colorless spot
at base ; body tawny orange ; antennas and head black, the latter
spotted with orange ; a broad stripe on the shoulder-covers, a
transverse spot on the thorax behind, and the incisures of the ab-
domen, black ; legs violet-black ; coxae beneath, and a spot on
the thighs, orange-colored. Expands one inch and three quarters.

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 37

I received this species from Dr. A. G. (Emler, of Savannah,
Georgia, and have adopted the specific name that he gave to it,
and from which it is to be presumed that the larva lives upon the
Jpomcea. The Melanthus and Nydeus of Cramer resemble it
somewhat, and are probably congenerical with it.

Subgenus Cosmosoma. Hubner.

Antennae long, very much attenuated at the end, and with a double row of very
short pectinations beneath. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled. Palpi long, curved
upwards, and extending beyond the clypeus; the joints cylindrical, covered with
small scales, a little hairy at base, and obtuse at tip. Wings elongated, hind pair
rather small, and with the discoidal cell and nervures as in Sijntomeida. Body
cylindrical, rounded and not tufted behind, and with a small tubercle on each side
of the first abdominal segment. Spurs of the hindmost tibiae four and of moderate
size.

2. G. (C.) Omphale. Hiibner (according to Say). = ^ge-
ria Omphale. Say.

Scarlet ; wings transparent, veined and bordered with black,
the first pair with a small black subcostal spot, and the black bor-
der very much widened at tip; head azure-blue ; antennas black,
with the tips white ; two terminal joints of the palpi, and a line
on each shoulder-cover black ; four azure-blue dots in a transverse
row on the fore-part of the thorax ; last four segments of the ab-
domen black, with four azure-blue spots on each side, and a dor-
sal black line extending from the middle of the second segment
including in it seven azure-blue spots ; belly and outside of the
second pair of tibiae black. Expands one inch and a half or more.
Inhabits Florida.

For a specimen of this beautiful insect T am indebted to Mr.
Doubleday. It cannot belong to the genus JEgeria, to which it
was referred by Mr. Say, in his American Entomology, where it
is figured. As Hiibner's works are not accessible to me, I have
drawn up the characters of the subgenus Cosmosoma from the
specimen of the Omphale in my possession. Zygcena Androm-
acha of Fabricius and the Camius of Cramer probably belong to
the same subgenus.

Subgenus Lycomorpha. H.

AntenuEe rather short, curved, toothed or with very short pectinations on each
side, which give to the joints, when seen from beneath, a cordate or bilobed appear-
ance. Tongue about half as long as the body, spirally rolled. Palpi short, hardly
extending beyond the clypeus, nearly horizontal and but slightly curved at base,
and covered with large and rather loose scales. Wings not elongated, rounded at
tip ; discoidal cell of the hind pair long, extending nearly to the hind-margin, and

38 Catalogue of North Amei'ican Sphinges.

closed by an oblique nervure. Body rather short, nearly cylindrical, not tufted
behind. Spurs of the hind-legs three, two at the end and one beyond the middle
of the tibige.

3. G. (L.) Pholus. Drury.

Blue-black, or deep indigo-blue, wings at base and shoulder-
covers orange-colored. Expands fourteen or fifteen lines. Larva,
according to Mr. Leonard, pale green, with yellowish spots run-
ning into the green (in a specimen preserved in spirit, pale green
mottled with red ;) head black, covered with a few short whitish
hairs ; body sparingly clothed with rather long hairs, which are
white at the sides and black on the back, the hairs arising singly
from minute tubercles, those on the third segment the longest
and with the others before them directed forwards. It eats the
lichens on stone heaps and walls in shady places, and undergoes
its transformations in a thin silky cocoon.

This pretty species is often seen flying in considerable numbers
in the fields, throughout the day, and at first sight would be mis-
taken for a species of Lycus.

Subgenus. Ctenucha. Kirby.

Antenna; pectinated on both sides in the males, thickened in the middle with
extremely short pectinations in the females. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled.
Palpi slender, rising beyond the clypeus, nearly cylindrical and obtuse, covered
with small close scales, and somewhat hairy at base. Wings in some rather nar-
row, in others widened and rounded at the tip ; discoidal cell of the hind pair
closed by an angulated nervure. Body nearly cylindrical, enlarged a little behind
in the females, with a few minute tufts at the sides of the segments, obtuse and
slightly tufted at tip ; first abdominal segment with a conspicuous tubercle on each
side. Spurs of the hind-legs small, four in number, two terminal, and two beyond
the middle of the tibiae.

4. G. (C.) semidiaphana. H.

Slate-colored ; wings rather narrow and subacute ; first pair
brownish slate, with the anterior edge clay-colored ; hind-wings
semitransparent in the middle ; head and antennge black ; collar,
front edge of ihe breast, and base of the palpi, orange-colored.
Expands fifteen to sixteen lines. Inhabits the Middle and South-
ern States.

Dr. Charles Pickering, several years ago, gave me specimens of
this insect, which he captured near Philadelphia; there are also
specimens of it, in the cabinet of the Boston Society of Natural
History, taken in North Carolina by Prof Hentz ; and I have re-
cently received several individuals, in fine preservation, which
were found by Mr. Doubleday in Florida. This species some-

Catalogue of North American Sphinges. 39

what resembles, in form and color, the Thetis of Linnaeus and
Drury.

5. G. (C) Latreillana. = Ctenucha Latreillana. Kirby.
Fore-wings dusky drab, with a silky lustre, and the anterior

edge clay-colored; hind-wings rusty black; fringes of all the
wings white, interrupted with black in the middle ; top of the
head, orbits behind, base of the palpi, front of the breast, and a
spot on the fore-part of each shoulder-cover orange-colored ; tho-
rax, abdomen, and coxss, glaucous or greenish blue with a silky
lustre ; belly and legs light brown. Expands almost two inches.
Inhabits New-Hampshire and Maine, and, according to Mr. Kirby,
Canada and Nova-Scotia.

I am indebted to the Rev. L. W. Leonard for one specimen,
taken by him in New-Hampshire, and to Dr. J. W. Randall for
another from Maine. Although they are rather smaller than Mr.
Kirby's Latreillana, and do not exactly agree with the descrip-
tion in the Fauna Bor. Amer. Vol. IV, p. 305, I think that they
must be referred to his species. This insect has precisely the
same antennae and nearly the same form as the Glaucopis of
Drury and Fabricius, stated by the latter author to be a native of
Carolina, and is, without doubt, generically allied to it, and prob-
ably also to several other American species, such as the Pylotis
and collaris of Drury. The following species, from the figures
given of them, seem also to belong to the same generical group ;
viz. Glauca, Celadon, Circe, Coslestina, Asterea, Cephise, Alec-
toji, Cassandra, and Porphyria of Cramer.

Subgenus Psychomorpha. H. (Catalogue) =^ Callimorpka. Westwood.

Antennae in the males pectinated on both sides, the pectinations rather short,
setaceous in the female, according to Drury. Tongue moderate, spirally rolled.
Palpi slender, nearly horizontal, extending a little beyond the clypeus, covered
with loose hairs so as to conceal the joints. Wings short, somewhat triangular,
with the outer margins rounded ; discoidal cell of the hind pair short, closed by a
sinuous nervure. Body slender, hairy at tip. I-egs short, hairy ; spurs of the hind
tibiae three, slender, nearly concealed by the hairs.

6. G. (P.) Epimenis. Drury. = Psychomorpha maculata.
H. (Catalogue.)

Brownish black ; fore-wings sprinkled in spots with light blue
scales, which form a narrow band near the hinder margin, and
marked with a large yellowish white patch beyond the middle ;
hind-wings with a broad dark orange-red band behind the mid-
dle. The white spot of the fore-wings is indented towards the

40 Catalogue of North American Sphinges.

middle of the wing, and on the under side there is a small trian-
gular spot near the base of the wing, and a short transverse one
beyond it which unites behind with the angular projection of the
large white patch. Expands rather more than one inch,

I captured this beautiful insect on the wing at midday, in Mil-
ton, Mass., and have since seen it flying among the shrubbery at
Mount Auburn, Cambridge, There is also a broken specimen,
among Mr. Say's insects, which was taken in Indiana, My spe-
cimen is a male, as is also the one in Mr, Say's cabinet, and they
have the anal organs very large and hairy, Drury's specimen
seems to have been a female, for he says the antennae are seta-
ceous. It is possible that this insect is not one of the Sphinges
adscita. ; but I place it here on account of its diurnal habits, and
a certain resemblance, more easily seen than described, which it
bears to some of the Glaucopidida. It does not agree generically
with the types of Latreille's genus Callimorpha. When my
Catalogue of the Insects of Massachusetts was published, I had
not seen a colored copy of Drury's Illustrations^ and failed to re-
cognize this insect in the uncolored one which I used.

Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 1, 1839.

S CI'&N TIFIC TRACTS

NUMBER VII. '

ENTOMOLOGY

Among the different sciences which of late years have
been zealously studied in this portion of our country,
none, perhaps, have received more attention than several
branches of Natural History.

A taste for these pursuits is rapidly increasing, as the
pleasure and instruction received from them are pointed
out by those who have diligently and faithfully investiga-
ted them. But while peculiar circumstances have ren-
dered some of these branches more popular than others,
a few have been neglected almost altogether. Thus while
the objects of some may have been eagerly sought after at
much labor and pecuniary expense, and those of others
have been carefully examined and accurately arranged,
several have been permitted to remain unheeded and
unsought for.

Mineralogy, indebted for much of its popularity as a
science among us within a few years, to the brilliancy of
a star in the East, has become not only a delightful
pursuit for the student at our Universities, but an amuse-
ment for the man of leisure, and a fashionable recreation
among the most wealthy.

The variety and beauty of our plants — the pleasing
associations at all times recalled by reverting to the days
of our childhood, when we so joyously plucked them —
and the unusual facilities offered for their study, have
rendered them the objects of general admiration. Few
are there among us who have not some slight acquaint-
ance with this fascinating branch ; who cannot describe
the parts which compose a flower, and distinguish many
of our frequently observed species. Here we have great
inducements to proceed, being furnished with many in-
valuable aids. Dictionaries and manuals, written in the

VOJ.- I. NO. VJI, 15

162 ENTOMOLOGY.

most simple and attractive manner, — freed from all the
useless terms with which the older writers had em-
barrassed the subject, and pointing out its pleasures and
advantages, have been afforded us by those who were
well qualified for the arduous duty. An impetus was
long since given ; and the establishment of Professor-
ships at our colleges, and the introduction of elemejgjM-y
works on this subject, not only into seminaries de^^d
to the education of our young ladies, but also into the
schools of children, prove how desirable the possession of
this branch of knowledge is considered. This taste,
enthusiastic, as it may almost be called, is yearly in-
creasing by means of the spirited efforts of our horti-
culturists, who, not content to cultivate the natives of
our own soil alone, are continually introducing many
varieties of rare and choice exotics.

Zoology has not been extensively studied with us.
Comparatively few, very i'ew, have devoted themselves to
an examination of the animal world, although in each of
its departments, individuals have distinguished themselves
by their industry and talents ; and invaluable papers
relating to objects in most of these departments are trea-
sured up in our scientific periodicals.

Our birds have been minutely and correctly described,
and splendidly figured by Wilson, and Bonaparte, and
Audubon ; and we are soon to be gratified with a work
on these animals from the pen of Nuttall, whose name is
a sure pledge of the accuracy and perfection of the great
undertaking.

Conchology, the study of shells, has been more at-
tended to, than either of the other branches of this great
division. The objects of this class are generally trea-
sured up for their beauty ; and on this account it is a fa-
vorite branch with our young ladies. Cabinets formed
by them are often met with, showing a taste, and per-
severance, and knowledge, of which they may well be
proud

But while these branches are pursued with such una-
bating zeal, the same individual oftentimes takes but a
cursory view of the most delightful branch of the works
of nature — the Insect creation. To procure the humblest

ENTOMOLOOY. 163

mbss, he will toil up the rugged mountain with eagerness,
regardless alike of fatigue and exposure, and feel richly
repaid by the possession of his undescribed treasure.
For a beautiful shell, with cheerfulness will he part
with his last dollar, and proudly add it to his finely
polished and carefully arranged cabinet. But why, it
may be asked, is the study of insects less cultivated than
either of the other branches ? Why have they each en-
thusiastic disciples wherever we may look, while those
who devote themselves to this branch, are comparatively so
few ? Would the Ijver of nature, he who delights to re-
lire from the scenes of a busy world, and amid the har-
mony about him, forget the bitterness of his daily cup,
cherish a fond delight for the vegetable kingdom, or
listen enraptured to the free and delicious notes of the
joyous songsters, and not even capture the splendid
object before him, or bestow upon it a passing moment,
if from it he could reap either pleasure or advantage ? I
would endeavor to answer such questions, — to remove
the objections which may exist to the study of entomo-
logy, and offer such motives as may appear why it should
be cultivated with equal devotion as the other depart-
ments of Natural History.

OBJECTIONS. , -- .

Many an individual has in childhood imbibed an
aversion for insects, from the ciixumstance of having met
with them in his articles of food ; or having observed
them in situations, little to be desired either for their
cleanliness or comfort ; an aversion, which, like other
early impressions, is extremely difficult to be removed ;
increasing, unless an effort be made to destroy it, in pro-
portion to the frequency of the exposure. Who does not,
if in his boyish days he has often noticed an insect hover-
ing over a stagnant pool, or glutting itself with putre-
fying matter, particularly if he has seized that insect and
found it not only overrun with parasites, but emitting a
most offensive odour, even more unpleasant than that
arising from its repast — who does not remember, that
the mere presence of that insect, preserved perhaps by
some zealous companion, did for a time recall the preju-
dices which were so early formed, and all the trifling

164 ENTOMOLOGY.

circumstances which existed to fix them 1 This disgust,
occasioned by an individual, involuntarily leads many to
avoid the whole class.

The inconveniences suflfered from insects, and the
injuries produced by them, cause many superficial ob-
servers to turn from these to other objects, more v/orthy
their interest. The musquitto, and flea, and bug, leave im-
pressions not easily to be effaced. The acute sufferings
of a night are not forgotten for years. But when, in addi-
tion to these annoyances, our clothes, and furniture, and
books, — the dearly collected specimens of the naturalist,
and the cheaply purchased works of art are all ruined by
various species of this class, no slight degree of philoso-
phy is required, to revert to these animals without
awakening unpleasant associations. And if beside these,
we perceive the merciless destroyers blasting our forest
and fruit trees, our most valuable vegetables and choicest
plants, — depriving us of our grain when it is carefully
gathered into store-houses, and thus adding to the distresses
of the poor, when they are least able to bear them, it is not
surprising that a feeling of uneasiness should often be
awakened ; nor that the mind which dwells upon the
clouds only in the horizon, should forget that they are
sometimes dispelled. The entomologist, even, cannot
read the histories of some particular species, without agi-
tation. The locust, for example, must ever excite a
degree of terror in the minds of the most enthusiastic.
Although Arabia appears to be the favorite resort of these
dreaded intruders they have visited the other countries
of Asia ; and not only these, but Africa and Europe also
have felt their unrelenting havoc. From the earliest times
we have been taught to shudder at their devastations.
And removed as far as we may be from the countries of
this genus, we cannot carefully read of the ruin produced
by them, without a sensation of horror. Not only do
they destroy every part of plants, and trees, and grasses,
the root, trunk, leaf, bud, fruit, with merciless voracity,
but every green thing is swept off without distinction ;
thus depopulating nations, and carrying more dread with
them than the most powerful armies. Nothing but deso-
lation can be connected with a host of these, extending
five hundred miles, and so dense that when on wing, like

ENTOMOLOGY. 165

an eclipse, they completely hide the sun. But this is not all.
These immense multitudes, when they have destroyed
everything about them, die ; and their decomposing car-
cases often produce the plague. One hundred thousand
men have been swept off in Africa in one season, and
nearly a million of men and beasts in Italy, by this cause.

The insignificance of the animals belonging to this
class, prevents many from engaging in the study. A
senseless worm, say some, is unworthy the attention of
man. Other objects should occupy his thoughts. Nobler
pursuits should claim his precious time.

Others, alive to sensibility , at once shrink from a pur-
suit which to them appears cruel in the extreme, and thus
suppress an inclination which might prompt them to be-
come benefactors to their fellow-men.

MOTIVES TO THE STUDY OF THE SCIENCE.

Ought we not to remember with gratitude, such
animals as are hourly removing from around us, the causes .
of uneasiness or the elements of disease ? Should we
avoid the medicinal plant, satisfied as we may be of its
value, on account of its fetid, nauseating smell, one of its
principal characteristics, which renders it discoverable by
all 1 Should we not rather regard it the more for disclo-
sing its nature to us, at our first meeting, while as yet we
are strangers'?

I have said that the inconveniences suffered from these
animals deter many from examining them. What stronger
argument, I would ask, can possibly be offered, why our
attention should be directed to any subject than this —
that by our ignorance of it, we are made to suffer ; and
that in proportion to our knowledge, are not only our in-
conveniences lessened, but our pleasures increased]
This very circumstance, which is urged as an objection,
prompts many a cultivator of the soil to become an ento-
mologist ; and thus he is enabled, not only to prevent the
injuries which would have occurred to his own harvest,
but also to render an essential service to thousands, who
had previously suffered with him. If our persons are the
objects of attack, additional motives exist. Not only will
our ill-founded fears, as to the increase and ravages of any

VOL. I, NO. VII. 15*

166 ENTOMOLOGY.

particular species be removed, but we shall be able
to lessen the degree of temporary inconvenience suffered
from them, and also to ward off several loathsome
diseases.

The iuimiteness, and apparently imperfect formation of
these animals, undoubtedly deter many from becoming
interested in their history. With no elevated mind could
these circumstances be regarded as objections to their
examination. They would rather present themselves,
as strong reasons why this science should be pursued —
as the defects here would be the mere absence of organs
or powers possessed by others, destined for different pur-
poses, and would most forcibly prove the existence of a
plan in which can be traced consummate skill, creating
at one moment the most complicated of living beings, —
then leaving us to admire and wonder at the construction
of objects, the simplicity of whose formation renders them
more accessible to the comprehension of man. But if the
absence of something which is essential for the perform-
ance of necessary operations be alone a defect, then no
imperfection can be pointed at, as a characteristic of the
animals v^hose history it is delightful to study. Furnished
with faculties for the execution of all the purposes of their
existence, no one can direct his attention to them unpre-
judiced, without finding himself involuntarily interested
in their study : and when he discovers them possessed of
all the senses- he is blessed with, and observes, besides
their perfect beauty and curious external formation, a
something which he at times almost believes cannot be
mere instinct — when he reflects upon operations, the
magnitude of whose design can scarcely be realized, and
whose completion can hardly be credited, he is compelled
to exclaim like a distinguished Roman philosopher, when
examining these same objects, ' the nature of things is
never more complete than in the least things.'

From an erroneous idea that much crueltij must neces-
sarily be exercised in the pursuit of this science, many
are deterred from attending to it. If the individuals be-
longing to this class were as susceptible of suffering as
those of some other classes, — and were it absolutely ne-

ENTOMOLOGY. 167

cessary that many individuals of the same family should
be destroyed in order to become acquainted with their
histories, then might this be offered as an objection. But
although all the senses are possessed, they do not exist
with the same power as in other classes. It is not an un-
common circumstance for an insect to leave a leg in the
hands of the entomologist, and not only fly off apparently
as joyous as ever, but in a moment to alight and partake
of its accustomed food. Kirby remarks, ' I have seen
the common cockchaffer walk about with apparent in-
difference after some bird had nearly emptied its body of
its viscera. An humble-bee will eat honey with greediness,
though deprived of its abdomen. And I myself lately
saw an ant, which had been brought out of the nest
by its comrades, walk when deprived of its head. The
head of a wasp will attempt to bite after it is separated
from the rest of the body ; and the abdomen under simi-
lar circumstances, if the finger be moved to it, will
attempt to sting.' M. Riboud speaks of a beetle which
survived fourteen days with a pin passed through it,-
as thick as its thigh. Dalyell relates that a butterfly
lived a month after being stuck through with a pin^ and
after he thought it had been destroyed by sulphur. And
our own Say tells us, that he observed a butterfly feeding
with eagerness after it had escaped from him, impaled with
a pin. Leuwenhoek had a mite which lived eleven weeks,
stuck on the point of a needle, under his microscope.
Vaillant, the African traveller, endeavoring to preserve a
locust, took out the intestines, and filled the abdomen
with cotton, and then fixed it down by a pin through the
thorax : yet after five months the animal still moved its
feet and antennae. But if these remarks do not prove this
objection to be ill-founded, I will change the argument.
If suffering should be borne, — if a confined insect should
be made to endure agoniziiig struggles, — if by its capti-
vity any useful purpose can be gained, the entomologist
cannot be called cruel. Cruelty implies the ' unnecessary
infliction of suffering,' to gratify depraved feelings; the
disposition to inflict pain, when no possible benefit can be
derived from such an act. But it is not shown by pur-
suing any department of natural history, when the feel-

168 ENTOMOLOGY.

ings which prompt us to study them are the most gene-
rous and elevated of our natures.

Having dwelt upon such objections as would most
probably be offered to the cultivation of this science, by
those who oppose it, and having endeavored to show their
futility, a few inducements shall be offered to its study.

We are so prone to avoid whatever at first sight is dis-
pleasing, so willing to lend a ready ear to whatever les-
sens the value of any object, so liable to be more impressed
by the remembrance of an injury than the possession of a
blessing, that most of mankind pass by this noble, eleva-
ting study, as if it were useless ; and forgetting the utility
of many of this class of creation, see in it nothing which
should employ the rational mind. These incorrect views
are removed solely by observation and reflection. No
one department of the works of nature exhibits more
powerful motives for its successful cultivation than this,
if the number, variety, beauty, or perfection of its subjects
be considered. At all seasons, and in almost every
situation, individuals may be observed belonging to this
class. The lovers of other branches may make but com-
paratively few additions to the objects they ah-eady possess.
But the entomologist, even if he should be confined to
the close and less pure air of a city, and allowed to travel
over paved streets only, and this too, while in the per-
formance of his necessary duties, has frequent opportuni-
ties of noticing species with which previously he had
been unacquainted. And to the naturalist, what can be
more grateful, than to find, wherever he may go, some
new object to admire, some fresh incentive to the pursuit
of his favorite study. To the lover of nature, the argu-
ment just offered will appear weighty. But I am well
aware many will require stronger reasons, than that faci-
lities exist for the cultivation of a science, and that much
gratification of feeling is to be derived from attending to
it, ere they think it worthy their consideration.

For such, other reasons can be offered, strong enough
to convince any one of its advantages. As the agricul-
turist, by a minute acquaintance with the habits of this
order of beings, is enabled to prevent in a great degree
the injuries he would otherwise inevitably be compelled

ENTOMOLOGV. 169

to suffer, so is he restrained from much useless labor, and
no little voluntary suffering. lie neither amuses us by
burying in the earth, with the intention of destroying
them, immense quantities of caterpillars which spend a
part of their lives there ; nor by cutting down valuable
trees, to spare others, because the insects which inhabit
both, appear to him as belonging to the same species. He
is enabled also to discover that some of our most common
insects are of much value to him, in checking the increase
of others, which would be injurious to his crops. An
acquaintance with this subject will also remove many er-
roneous ideas which had been formed respecting the
characters of these individuals, and the purposes for
which they were created. Tlie ticking of the death-
watch will no longer be listened to with silent shuddering ;
nor will the protuberance on the oak leaf be examined
with fearful forebodings, but the fretal larva will be
allowed quietly to go on to perfection, whether it foretels
war, pestilence, or famine ; and the minutest and most
neglected insect, when the purposes of its existence are
well known, will prove how injurious oftentimes are pre-
conceived opinions.

IMMEDIATE ADVANTAGES DEKIVED FROM INSECTS.

Another reason should be dwelt upon. The direct benefits
derived from the individuals belonging to this class, should
claim forthem a greater share of attention. Well do 1 know,
that all other arguments whicli can be offered, are slight in
comparison with this. We are ever ready to engage m a
pursuit, when it affords a prospect of remuneration, which
before hardly claimed a thought ; and often become from
this cause zealous enthusiasts, where previously we had
studiously avoided engaging our feelings. And here,
I would refer particularly to the immense profits which
may be received from insects, as articles of commerce.
None, save those who have particularly attended to this
subject, can for a moment conceive the extent of this
traffic. Not only are various species used in the arts,
but in some countries as articles of food, many have an
extensive circulation. A few examples only shall be of-
fered at the present time. To entomology must we look
for Several of our most beautiful and valuable dyes. A

170 ENTOMOLOGY.

perfect scarlet is obtained from the same insect whose se-
cretion, under the name of Lac, is applied to so many
useful purposes ; and with the crimson dye of the Cochi-
neal insect, all are familiar. This insect, the Coccus
Cacti, is' a native of South America, and is particularly
cultivated in Mexico. When the female, which is alone
valuable, has arrived at its perfect state, it fixes itself to
the surface of the leaf, and encloses itself in a white cottony
matter which it secretes. When it has deposited all its eggs,
it shrivels and dies ; but as its colouring qualities are thus
destroyed, those who raise them are careful to kill them
before this time, which they do by brushing them off the
plants, and applying the fumes of hot vinegar, or throw-
ing them into boiling water ; they are then dried and im-
ported into Europe. The cultivation of the cochineal
insect requires much attention, and the gathering of
the'in also. But the time of those thus occupied is well
employed, this insect furnishing the most valuable dye ob-
tained from this class of animals. Humboldt tells us, that,
the quantity annually exported from South America, is
there worth upwards of five hundred thousand pounds ster-
ling ; and it has been said that the Spanish government
is yearly more enriched by this article, than by the
produce of all its gold mines. The directors of the East
India Company offered a reward of six thousand pounds
to any one who should introduce it into India. In com-
merce, this article is almost always adulterated, different
substances being mixed with it, and colored by it ; and Dr
Paris, in his Pharmacologia, remarks, that a very consi-
derable number of women and children get a support in
London, by forming in moulds made for that purpose,
particles of dough, and coloring them with cochineal.

The Lac insect referred to above, another species of
Coccus, lives upon a species of Rhamnus. It is nourish-
ed by the tree, and there deposits its eggs, which it
defends by this secretion, which also serves as a habita-
tion for the perfect insect, and ansv/ers for food to the
larva. This lac is formed into cells, finished with much
regularity and art. The flies are invited to deposit their
eggs on the branches of the tree, by besmearing them
with some of the fresh lac steeped in water, which attf acts

ENTOMOLOGV. 171

them, and thus gives a larger crop. When purified — which
is done by first removing the twrigs, leaves, and all the
foreign substances, then breaking it into small pieces,
placing them in a canvas bag, which is applied to the
fire until the liquid lac passes through its pores, when it
is taken off the fire and pressed — it is used for making
sealing-wax, beads, rings, and various ornaments.

The Bee also furnishes an article of much importance ;
honey, the juice of plants, changed in its properties
while in the stomach of the bee, is no small source of re-
venue to many individuals. Although most of the honey
consumed is obtained from the hive-bee, great quantities
are in various countries collected from different species
of wild bees. Thus, in South America, much is obtained
from nests in the trunks of trees. The beautiful rock-
honey is also the produce of wild bees, which form their
nests to rocks. Large quantities of hives of a bee differ-
ing from our common bee, are carried to different situa-
tions on the Nile, as the food of the bees at different
places, fails them. The French have learned a lesson from
this, and been profited. As the flowers decrease at any
particular spot, compelling the bees to go far from their
hives, the proprietors of the hives place them on a barge
well covered, and they pass down the rivers, collecting the
honey on the banks. In Spain the number of bee-hives
is very great : Mills relates that a single priest was
known to possess five thousand hives.

Wax, a substance vv'hich is secreted from honey, and
transpires through the pores of the skin of the bee, and
the article of which the bee forms its comb, is to some
countries a source of great revenue. Thus we are told,
that upwards of eightythree thousand pounds* value are
annually sent from Cuba to New Spain ; and that the whole
quantity exported from the same island, has been worth
upwards of one hundred and thirty thousand pounds in a
year. By those who are never satisfied of the expediency
of anyobject, who would prefer to receive everything of
others, rather than make the slightest effort themselves,
objections have been advanced as to the probability of our
succeeding in rearing bees in New England. Our mild
weather continues so short a time, say they, that the

172

ENTOMOLOCiV.

bees have time enough only to provide a sufficiency for
their own vi^ants during the remainder of the year. We
ought not to be surprised at the misrepresentations of
foreigners respecting our climate, while we have so many
traducers at home ; nor feel irritated at the insinuations
which would imply the degeneracy of all created things
in a traveller, while those who should repel are so ready
to give such errors circulation. That much may be done
has already been proved in many of our States. And if
at any particular spots it is desirable to establish hives,
previous to the growth of such seed as may be sown, they
might be moved as in Egypt and France, to points where
food may be found in great abundance, and afterwards
restored to the appointed place. But even if this should
be impracticable, and if the quantity of honey produced
by the bees were but little besides what would be neces-
sary for them, if they should be allowed to feed continu-
ally and to the extent of their appetites, much might be
gained by placing the hives, after all the honey was col-
lected, in situations where the temperature should be so
low as to render the bees inactive, and consequently re-
quiring but little to nourish them, until the returning
spring.

* The product of another insect, the caterpillar of a
moth, whether it be looked upon as an article of
commerce, or an object of domestic employment, is well
worthy the attention of our country. The raising of
silk-worms engaged the attention of an emperor of China,
so long ago as tvi'entyseven hundred years before the
Christian era ; and an empress first attended to the man-
ufacture of silk. This occupation for a long time was
confined to ladies of the most elevated standing; but gra-
dually became an employment for females generally.
After the quantity of silk manufactured was sufficient to
clothe all classes in China, it was used as an article of
exportation, and was carried from the northern parts of
the Chinese dominions to every part of Asia. In 555,
two monks brought from China in their hollow staves,

* The following remarks upon t!ie silk worm have been previously
inserted in a number of the Ladies' Magazine.

ENTOMOLOGY. 173

silk-worms' eggs to Constantinople ; and thus Europe
first became possessed of the power of raising silk. In
Greece, as in China, females of the first families com-
menced the care of silk-worms. Next to Greece, Italy
attended to the rearing of these insects. About the year
1600, Henry IV. introduced the raising of silk-worms
into France, which now derives from their labors
23,560,000 francs annually. Although in 1180, silk was
imported into England from China, which was earlier
than it had been received in France, still nothing of im-
portance was done towards the introduction of the cater-
pillar into England, until within the last eleven years, - -
two hundred years after France had set the example.
Although two preceding attempts had failed to render the
cultivation of silk important in Germany, during the
past twelve years great efforts have been made there, ori-
ginating with the Agricultural Society of Bavaria. Prus-
sia and Sweden also, have not been idle ; and in the for-
mer of these, it has been proved, that ' silk equal to that
of Italy may be produced, affording greater profit than
any other branch of rural industry ; ' while that raised in
the latter country would show ' that the silk raised near
the polar circle, is equal in strength and firmness to any
species cultivated in more temperate climates.'

The cultivation of the silk-worm in this country, is
becoming an object of so much importance, that during
the year 1828, the Senate of the United States, ordered
2000 copies of a letter from the Secretary of the Treasury,
transmitting all the information which could be collected
respecting the cultivation of silk in the Union, to be
printed for the use of its members. In Virginia, Georgia
and South Carolina, the silk-worm has been reared for
many years. In 1760, silk was first raised in Connecti-
cut. Since then in New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa-
chusetts and very lately in Maine, this subject has at-
tracted the attention of economists. Connecticut has
been eminently successful in her efforts: — in 1825, in
the town of Mansfield alone, in that State, the silk man-
ufactured was three hundred pounds — valued ^t fifteen
thousand dollars : — in 1826, the County of Windham
manufactured silk to the amount of fiftyfour thousand

VOL. I. NO. VII, 16

174 ENTOMOLOGY.

dollars. It is estimated that five thousand dollars' worth
of silk is annually sold in one County, (Orange County)
in New York ; and the whole sale of this article in
that State, is calculated at fifteen thousand dollars.
When it is considered that the greater part of the
labor may be accomplished by females and children,
and that it is not only a healtiiful exercise, but an agree-
able amusement, it will be thought not a little surprising,
that we are so willing and ready to import silk from
abroad.

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE INJURIES AND BENEFITS PRO-
DUCED BY EACH ORDER OF INSECTS.

But perhaps many might be persuaded to engage in
the study of entomology, if the benefits derived from,
and the injuries produced by eaph order of insects, were
exhibited in a general manner, that they might be readily
compared.

The first order is called Coleoptera, from the Greek
words koleos, a sheath — and j^teron, a wing — referring to
the strong elytra or external wings, which protect the
true wings. Among the genera of this order which are
most common, are the beetle, stag-beetle, carrion-bug,
weevil, lady-bird, blistering-fly, water-beetle, &.c, &c.
From the ravages of the first order of insects, man
suffers extremely : — although our jjcrsons are incom-
moded as little perhaps by the animals belonging to
this order, as either of the other orders, still the ob-
jects by which we are surrounded, those necessary to
our subsistence, as well as articles of luxury and ease, are
all subject to their depredations.

But if the many are not useful, the few are of infinite
value. Decomposing substances, while they are removed
from our view, are carried by these animals into the
earth, and thereby tend to enrich vegetation. Noxious
genera are held in detestation by others, which offer us
no molestation, while some species afford subsistence to
others. Thus the Aphides, the small flies, or (as they
are generally called) lice, so common upon many of our
plants, are in some seasons devoured in immense quanti-
ties by our beautiful lady-birds ; and the females of the
cockchaffer, one of the most iniurious of the tribe to the

ENTOMOLOGY, J 75

agriculturist, are destroyed at the moment they are
most to be dreaded, by the genus of Ground-beetles. JNor
do these afford sustenance to animals of the same scien-
tific class alone. Our native birds, those which follow on
wherever cultivation is, — whose delightful notes meet
the ear at the rising of the sun, — whose melody cheers
the husbandman fatigued at noonday, — and by whose
evening concerts the pure heart is elevated and enrap^
tured, — which teach us a glorious lesson of confidence,
by rearing and educating their young at our very doors —
these also are provided for by the existence of noxious
insects : — and little does he study his own interest,
whose selfishness causes their destruction. Other ani-
mals also feed upon insects. I am not compelled to go
back to the Romans, to speak of their larvae fattened to
glut the appetites of epicures ; nor to point to the Afri-
can greedily devouring his roasted caterpillar, while the-
larvae of one of the largest species of beetle, is at the
present day an article of luxury with many in South
America, and is served up at the tables of some of the
most wealthy inhabitants of the West India islands. But
from no insect belonging to this order, I might almost
have said this class, do we derive so much benefit as
from the genus Meloe, in which is found the blistering-
fly. The blistering, or as it is called in commerce, the
Spanish-fly, is found in large quantities in the South of
Europe ; and is particularly abundant in Spain. They
are collected from the leaves of different trees in summer,
and are afterwards destroyed by the fumes of vinegar,
and dried in the sun ; when applied externally to the
human body, they act as a powerful vesicatory ; when
given internally, as a stimulant of great efficacy. In
many derangements of the system, they are, in the hands
of the judicious practitioner, the means of preserving many
of our race. When exhibited by the ignorant empiric,
they are not unfrequently productive of the most severe
sufferings and lamentable deaths. Our common jJotafo-fli/
is one of this genus of insects, and while it possesses all
the virtues of the Spanish-fly, it does not produce the bad
symptoms, which often attend the employment of that
remedy : and Professor Barton of Philadelphia, after

176 ' ENTOMOLOGY,

employing both for a long time in his practice, gave the
preference to our native fly. It however cannot be col-
lected here in sufficient quantities to supply the demand,
and consequently is not so much used as the foreign in-
sect. The active virtues of the Blistering-fly, depend
upon the existence of a principle, which has obtained the
name of Caniharidin.

The second order, is named IJemipiera, from emisu,
the half, and pferoii, a wing. Tlie outer wings of this
order, are semicoriaceous : they are not so strong as those
of the first order, but more so than the remaining orders.
This includes the cockroach, locust, lantern-fly, wa-
ter-scorpion, bug-plant, louse, &c, &c. The 1st genus,
as arrangeil by Linnccus, is the cockroach : this is an
extremely troublesome animal, not only destroying our
articles of food, but in many cases, our garments and
books. By the ravages of the Aphis, or plant-louse,
whole crops are often destroyed; our esculents and valu-
able plants ; our fruit trees, as well as those of our woods,
are all injured by this insect : by suction, it abstracts
from the tender shoot its nutriment, and blasts the leaf
by its peculiar secretion. This secretion is sometimes
enormous ; and not only by its quantity completely encases
the plant, but by its saccharine nature, affords a resting
place for noxious insects. The cocci also, which look
like protuberances upon the stalks of plants, do consid-
erable injury by drawing off the sap, and thus destroying
life. To refer to any more genera of this order, would
be needless. It is time to turn to those of this order
which are of value to us. In speaking of the advan-
tages derived from many insects of the preceding
order, I referred to some which kept other species in
check, by subsisting upon them. In tiiis order we find
the Mantis tribe ; those whose peculiar appearance has
given the idea of sanctity, one of the most ferocious tribes
of insects, even carrying there animosities so far as to
destroy each other. But to the coccus are we to look,
as the most valuable genus of this order. By a species
of this genus, is produced the Pe-la, or white wax of
China. The Chinese cherish these insects by stocking
some species of trees with them. This secretion begins

ENTOMOLOGY. 177

to appear about the commencement of summer, and is col-
lected in the autumn. This wax is used by the nobility,
and also by public speakers, to excite them. To the Lac,
and also to the Cochineal Coccus, 1 have referred above.
Besides the dying property of the Cochineal Coccus,
while many unhesitatingly deny it any medicinal virtues,
it is still employed by numerous physicians of experience
and eminence, as a stimulant medicine.

Like the larvee of the preceding order, some of the
individuals belonging to this, are used as articles of food.
That genus which has often produced such extensive
suffering, the locust, has in many countries had its
devourers. At Mecca, in times of famine, they have
been ground up and mixed with flour for cakes : in
Greece, and the Barbary powers, they have been an ar-
ticle of merchandize ; and the Hottentots, although their
vegetation may be ruined, joyously fatten themselves upon
cooked locusts.

The third order is composed of such insects as have
their wings covered with scales. This is called Lepi-
doptera, from lepis^ a scale. Three genera only are in-
cluded in this order. The butterfly, hawk moth and
moth. The individuals of this order are the most beau-
tiful of the class, and often claim the admiration of those
who would absurdly cherish for others an inexplicable
disgust. Few as are the genera belonging to this order,
their ravages are far from being slight ; — their advantages
are far from unimportant — although the caterpillars of the
1st genus, Papilio, the butterfly, are sometimes slightly
pernicious, to the other genera, the moth and hawk-
moth, we are to look principally for the causes of our
injuries. A species ofmoth does incredible mischief in
some seasons to grass. We are told that about half a
century since, the fields of Sweden were rendered quite
dry by these, as if a fire had passed over them. A
small species of moth destroys our grain ; our vege-
tables also suffer from their inroads ; while others
destroy the bark, and leaves, and blossoms of our
fruit trees. Many forests also, in our country, have thus
been seriously injured. The foliage being removed when
the heat was very great, the unsheltered trunks have

vol.. I. NO. vii. 16*

178 - ENTOMOLOGY.

yielded up their lives. The vine, too, is often entirely
destroyed by a caterpillar of this genus, on the borders of
the Black Sea : as soon as the buds open, they eat them
off, especially the fruit buds, and devour the germ of
the grape : two or three of these caterpillars will so injure
a vine, by passing from one germ to another, that it will
bear no fruit the next year. But their depredations are
not confined to the vegetable kingdom. The larvae of
several species of moths do much injury to the hive bee ;
inclosing themselves in tubes of wax, they dwell there,
unmindful of the bees. Our farmers have been almost
discouraged some seasons, by the depredations of a moth,
which utterly ruins their hives, and which has obtained
the name generally, of the bee-moth. As however, it is
ascertained that the perfect insect deposits its eggs only
in clear dry spots, it is thought the evil may, in a great
measure, be removed, by placing the hives upon the
ground, or strewing earth to the depth of several inches
upon their floors. Experiments lead us to hope much
will be gained by this method of hiving. Nor are in-
sects the only animals affected — man himself is not
wholly exempt from their attacks. We are told by Azara,
that in South America, tliere is a large brown moth,
which deposits its eggs in a kind of saliva, upon the flesh
of persons sleeping naked ; introducing themselves under
the skin without being perceived, they occasion swelling,
accompanied by much pain and inflammation. AHhough
the caterpillars of this order are, among the Chinese, and
the inhabitants of New Holland, an article of food, and
are considered by the Moors one of their greatest deli-
cacies, our chief advantage is derived from individuals
of the third genus, Phalena — the moth — and from that
species particularly, which subsists upon the white mul-
berry tree, and supplies us with silk.

Insects having four membranaceous, naked wings,
reticulated with veins, or in which the membranes look
like net work, make up the fourth order, which is called
Ncuroptcra, from luuron — a nerve. The dragon-fly, may-
fly, and spring-fly, are among the genera of this order.
Although the benefits received from this order are of less
magnitude than those derived from several others, the

ENTOMOLOGY. 179

injuries suffered from its subjects are unimportant, and
I might say, unknown. The voracious and tyrannical
dragun-fiy, may perhaps destroy in its fury many species
of insects, which are of value to the husbandman ; but as
its instinct prompts it to feed upon many noxious species,
it ought perhaps to be regarded as a blessing, rather than
a curse. The next genus, Ephemera, the spring-fly, al-
though its existence is continued but a day, affords a
valuable substitute to many farmers in Europe for manure.
Scopoli, the historian of the insects of Carniola, remarks
that the peasants in his neighborhood are dissatisfied, un-
less they can individually, collect at the times of their
appearance, at least twenty cart loads, to strew over
their grounds. The Hemerobius, or golden-eye, in its
larvae state, is of great value also, in the destruction of the
Aphides, or plant-lice.

The fifth order has four membranaceous, naked wings,
and is called Hymenoptera, from umen, a membrane. This
order has been ranked at the head of the class by some
naturalists, on account of their admirable economy. The
gall-fly, saw-fly, ichneumon-fly, wasp, bee and ant,
are arranged by Linnseus, in this order of insects. Some
genera are extremely injurious, while others are- of im-
mense value.

The Cynips, or gall-fly, when its larvae are deposited
in unusual numbers upon a leaf, must detract largely from
its nourishment : consequently, whole trees may, in some
seasons, suffer from their presence. The second genus,
Tenthredo, commonly called saw-fly, is the most dreaded
insect of this order — its vulgar name is derived from the
instrument by which it makes an incision in a leaf; this
instrument, is a double saw, which in using, the insect
first throws out one, then the other alternately, until a
sufficient incision is made; when they are both retracted,
and the egg is deposited from between them. Although
the larvae of this genus generally feed on the rose, and
the willow tree, our grain, vegetables and fruit trees, have
been at times, seriously injured. One species of these
larvae, which has received the name of slug-worm, and
which has been admirably described, its changes and its
injuries, by the late Professor Peck, in a volume of the

ISO ENTOMOLOGV.

papers of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, caused
serious alarm in this country, about thirty years since. At
that time, some of our most valuable trees were com-
pletely stripped of their leaves, and the crops of the suc-
ceeding years blasted by their ravages. I will not speak
of the stings of the bee, nor the wasp, nor the Ichneumon-
fly, for although I, with others, may have suffered from
their venom, the suffering was deserved, and I am in-
clined to believe, tliat in almost every case, in which
injuries are produced by these insects, they act on the
defensive.

This order of insects is extremely important. If the
injuries produced by them have been minutely detailed,
obligations for benefits received shall be as readily ac-
knowledged. And here, as strongly, perhaps, as in any
order of nature, do we observe the necessity of under-
standing perfectly the character of an individual before
we decide upon merits — of reflecting upon the ends of
actions, before we think of them as worse than useless.
Thus the protuberances upon our leaves, produced by
the gall-fly, while they disfigure them, and in some in-
stances greatly injure the tree, thus causing vexation to
the possessors, not only are eaten as delicacies by the
inhabitants of the Levant, and form a considerable article
of commerce at Constantinople, where, preserved, they
are e?<posed for sale, but they also furnish us with a
valuable dyeing material ; and what is of still greater im-^
portance, we are indebted to them for the means of form-
ing ink.

The ant, too — little do we think, when incommoded by
this genus, that any of its species are important to man :
but we find, upon reflection, that the anatomist entrusts
his nicest dissections to the inmates of an ant-hill, with
perfect confidence in their skill. The cockroach in
Ceylon, is destroyed by a species of ant — and in the
eighth volume of the (Quarterly Journal of Science, Liter-
ature and the Arts, is a very interesting paper by a Capt.
Bagnald, who says, while in the West-Indies, he had
repeated opportunities of watching the movements of
these insects ; he saw them often destroy spiders and
cockroaches, and upon one occasion, he observed them

ENTOMOLOGY. 181

encounter a centipede, which, however, the)' did not put
to death, until they had completely encrusted him ; and
thougli in the conflict, thousands of them were.destvoyed,
they finally killed him. Nor are these all the advan-
tages derived from them : a low priced brandy is made in
Sweden, of rye and ants — these insects supplying a
resin, an oil, and an acid. And in that country, they
are not unfrequently eaten uncooked, for their acid taste ;
the devourers first plucking off their heads and wings.
The ichneumon-fly is of essential service, in depositing
its eggs, in the eggs or as yet imbecile larvse — or by
checking the progress of the powerful and voracious
caterpillar. The sphex, or ichneumon-wasp, is a de-
stroyer of the cockroach; wasps destroy for us immense
quantities of flies — and in the interior of New England,
their paper nests are used in affections of the lungs. —
What their virtues are, the writer knows not : the sub-
stance by which they unite the particles of their nests
together may perhaps be of a stimulating quality, and
thus be enabled to relieve the existing stricture. But the
Bee, which has been already dwelt upon, is the most
valuable insect of this order.

If in speaking of the order Neuroptera, it was remark-
ed that the injuries they produced were of but small con-
sideration, I must here notice an order, in which but
little obvious advantage is perceived, to compensate for
its powers of annoyance.

The sixth order of Insects is called Diptera — from dis,
twice, or double ; they having but two wings. In this
order, we find the various kinds of flies and the musquitto ;
here we observe not only genera which attack our provi-
sions and ruin them, which harass, and render furious
our cattle, and horses, and flocks, but also those which
avoid less palatable food, to regale themselves with the
blood of man. The first genus, CEstrus, the gad-fly,
is the most troublesome, which affects our domestic ani-
mals. The gad-fly of the ox, deposits its eggs in the
body of that animal, and thus the larvae are provided for,
during the whole winter. You may imagine how trouble-
some such an insect must be to the animal, particularly
if it should suffer from indisposition after the deposition

183 ENTOMOLOGY.

of the egg. Another species, by irritating the lips of the
horse in its endeavors to deposit its eggs there, renders
the animal almost ungovernable : while the larvae of,a
third species, hatching in the stomaeh of this animal from
eggs introduced by its tongue, produce a disease, often-
times severe, and which receives its name from the larvae
which produce it. Our inoffensive flocks too, are com-
pelled to suffer from a species of gad-fly, which, deposit-
ing its eggs in the nostrils of the animal, feeds in the
larvae state upon the delicate membrane there, causing
extreme distress, and not unfrequently, by insinuating
itself into the brain, produces death. But these are
not. the only sufferers: not only does a species of gad-
fly deposit its eggs in the abdomen of man, causing great
irritation and suffering, in the torrid zone, but in some
cases, even destroys life. The larv^ of the second genus,
Tipula, the crane-fly, in some seasons, do much injury
to grass, wheat and corn, by burrowing in their roots.
With the inconveniences of the third genus, Musca, the
fly, all must be conversant : by this genus, our articles
of luxury are tarnished, our provisions destroyed, our
persons molested, — v/hile some species, not satisfied with
one substance, attack all provisions which may be gather-
ed for use by the husbandman : others are abroad, de-
positing the seeds of ruin in our grain, disappointing the
hard working agriculturist. One species, a few years
since in this country, from its ravages in our wheat fields,
caused no common alarm. Nor is it to be wondered at,
that the Hessian-fly should now be thought of with terror,
when it is remembered, that it not only attacked this
grain as soon as it began to grow, and destroyed every
part of it, but also by depositing its eggs in the stem, so
weakened it, as to prevent the ear from ripening. An-
other genus, Tabanus, the whame-fiy, is at times very
troublesome. The horse is a principal sufferer from their
attacks — although in Africa, the inhabitants of whole
counties are compelled to emigrate yearly to the locations
of sand, to prevent their cattle from being destroyed by
the attacks of this insect. The Culex, or gnat, remains
to be noticed — the greatest plague of this order. Annoy-
ing as the musquitto is to us, wiien travelling in the viciri'

ENTOMOLOGY, 183

ity of marshes, or when our rooms are lighted during the
evenings of summer — we have but little reason for com-
plaint, when we observe their ravages in other countries.
It is said that in South America, soldiers are sometimes
forced to sleep with their heads thrust into holes in the
earth, made with their bayonets, and to wrap round their
necks their hammocks ; that a king of Persia, his army
having been completely exhausted by these insects, has
been compelled to raise the siege of cities : that the Lap-
lander is barely able to exist, with every means of defence
he can employ ; and that the Russian soldier, although
sleeping in a sack, is not always able to live under such
excessive irritation. And for all the sufferings expe-
rienced from this order, decomposing matter is removed
by the infinite tribe of flies, which on every side surrounds
us. The larvse of one species, the inmate of putrid
cheese, is a delicious repast for the refined epicure ; and
it is conjectured that the larvse of the gad fly, which ex-
haust the poor horse, are in some cases, a gentle and
beneficial stimulant.

The seventh and last order, is called Apicra — from a,
primitive, :xndpteron, wing, and includes all such insects
as want wings, in either sex. This order includes the
Lepismse, commonly called moths ; Termites, or white-
ants; Pedicalus, the louse; Palex, the flea; &c, &c.
The termites or white-ants, are extremely numerous in
warm countries, and very destructive, although wood is
their common food ; clothes, furniture, books, and almost
a manufactured articles, are ruined by them. They
curiously avoid injurin.:,^ the exterior of substances, while
they are destroying all within ; houses are ruined by them ;
and when vessels are so unfortunate as to receive any on
board of them, much injury is suffered. The genus
Pediculus, louse, is very extensive. There is scarcely
an animal or vegetable, that does not suffer from its own
peculiar louse. Our domestic animals, as well as birds,
fishes, plants, all have their lice — to man, it is extremely
troublesome : but as it has been ascertained that the in-
convenience is merely external irritation^ we ought per-
haps to consider it in the light of a proper reward for
those who cherish them ; as rarely, any ond is annoyed,

184 ENTOMOLOGY.

unless really deserving of their attacks. The Pulex, or
flea, and Acanis, or mite, are also included in this order,
and are extremely troublesome.

Although other slight benefits have been derived from
several genera, the insects of this order appear to be
most extensively employed as articles of food.

It would be almost useless to mention any of the dis-
tinct and individual cases of this singular propensity ;
although they might be pointed at, among the most polish-
ed nations of Europe ; because they would be considered
perversions of taste, when the inhabitants of extensive
tracts of country offer themselves as examples. The
people of New Caledonia eat immense quantities of
spiders ; and all who have ever read of the Hottentots and
Esquimaux Indians, must have been disgusted with their
meals of lice.

In the compilation of the above Tract, the system of
Linnaeus the Swede, has been followed, on account of its
conciseness, principally. The entomologist will at once
perceive, that it was prepared for the general reader, and
not for him who would be satisfied only with the more
elaborate classifications of the great French naturalists.

"ON THE COLOURING MATTER OF
SOME APHIDES,"

VOL. XI.— NMW SEE.] 352

On the Colouring Matter of some Aphides.
By H. C. SoRBY, F.R.S., &c.

Those who have orchards are no doubt often only too
familiar with the red Aphides found in downy patches on the
bark of the apple tree. These are coloured by a substance
possessing somewhat remarkable properties, connecting it on
the one hand with cochineal, and on the other with the
hsemoglobin of the blood of vertebrate animals. It rapidly
changes into a series of new products, which have remarkable
optical characters, and are in some respects analogous to the
colouring matters of oils and fats.

In order to obtain this red colouring matter in a state
suitable for examination, the insects, fresh taken from the tree,
should be crushed up in a small quantity of boiling water,
and the solution filtered. It is then of a fine crimson colour,
giving a spectrum with a broad general absorption, extending
from the yellow over the whole of the green to the centre of
the blue, without any well-marked narrow band, as shown in
No. 1 of the accompanying iig. 1.

Fig. 1. — Spectra of the light transmitted by aqueous solutions.
Red end. Blue end.

1. Aphideine.

2. First change.

■pnyryi 'rryM

I 1^ ||l l|| 'l||''l|ll 3. Second change.

I> w Eraunhofer's lines.

The addition of a small quantity of citric acid immediately
alters the colour to yellow, and then the spectrum merely
shows an absorption of the blue end, extending to about the
centre of the green, without any definite absorption-bands.
A little ammonia restores the colour to its original state, and
therefore the crimson colour is characteristic of a neutral or

1

353

slightly alkaline solution. When a small quantity of the
double sulphate of protoxide of iron and ammonia is added
to the solution in its natural state (as in all similar cases,
using along with it some of the double tartrate of potash and
soda, to prevent the precipitation of oxide of iron), it is
changed at once to a pale flesh-colour ; and, if a little am-
monia had been previously added, the solution becomes quite
colourless. On exposure to the air, it changes back again to
the original tint, from the surface downwards. No such
alteration is produced by adding the ferrous salt to an acid
solution. This red substance, therefore, like hsemoglobin and
hsematin, exists in an oxidised and in a deoxidised condition,
and, like them, can be deoxidised by the above-named pro-
cess only when the solution is somewhat alkaline. It thus .
seems reasonable to suppose that it may perform the same
functions in the economy of those insects which contain it
that haemoglobin does in the case of the vertebrata. For con-
venience, it may be well to call this red colouring matter of
Aphides Aphideine. It is entirely different from any
substance on which they feed, and is the same in several
species living on entirely different plants.

One of the remarkable peculiarities of hsemoglobin is that
it can be changed into a number of substances, each giving a
well-marked spectrum, and in this respect Aphideine is little,
if at all, less remarkable. On very gradually adding a small
quantity of hypochlorite of soda to a recently prepared solu-
tion, the original spectrum No. I is changed to that shown
in No. 3 ; but the compound then formed changes quickly
into another, the spectrum of which shows two similar narrow
absorption-bands, somewhat nearer the red end, not removed
by the addition of ammonia or citric acid, disappearing at
once when the ferrous salt is added to an alkaline solution,
and partially restored by reoxidisation, if not kept long in a
deoxidised state. The same results may be obtained by using
the Aphideine extracted cold by crushing the insects in a
small quantity of water, but this solution, which is often
turbid, changes so raj^idly on exposure to the air, that it is
difficult to examine it before it has been considerably altered.
On crushing the living insects in a watch-glass with a little
w^ater, the solution is at first pink, but rapidly becomes
orange. On pouring this off into another watch-glass, leaving
it for a short time, and then pouring the comparatively clear
solution into an experiment cell, it will be found that the
original Aphideine has been completely altered. On adding
a little ammonia, instead of the spectrum showing a broad,
continuous band like No. 1, three well-marked narrow bands

354

are seen, as shown by No. 2. For the actual position of these
and those in other spectra, I refer to the table given at the
end of this paper.

The relative intensity of these three bands varies con-
siderably, and this led me to conclude that two diiferent
substances were present, as was subsequently proved in the
manner described in the sequel. A weak acid entirely re-
moves the narrower band nearest the red end, raises the
others somewhat, and develops a new band still nearer the
extreme blue, which can only be seen with excellent sun-
light. On adding the ferrous salt to the alkaline solution,
the absorption-bands gradually vanish, and, if kept deoxidised
for some time, a new compound is formed with an absorption-
band between the orange and yellow, and another in the
green, disappearing when reoxidised. On the contrary, if the
solution which gives the spectrum No. 2 be kept for a while
exposed to the air, it is gradually changed into another com-
pound, giving the two absorption-bands shown in No. S. On
keeping still longer these disappear, and the spectrum shows
only a general absorption extending over the blue and green
without any narrow bands. I am therefore inclined to believe
that the compounds which give spectrum No. 2 are gradually
altered into two other substances, which when mixed give
spectrum No. 3, the narrow bands being due to one and the
greater part of the broad absorption of the blue end to the
other. These two narrow bands are at once removed by
citric acid. The addition of the ferrous salt to an alkaline
solution also removes the bands, and they are restored if re-
oxidised in a short time. When the solution is kept for a
day or two deoxidised, and then rapidly reoxidised, no bands
make their appearance ; but if, after having been thus kej)t
deoxidised, the cell be exposed uncovered to the air, so as to
reoxidise slowly, another compound is formed, which gives a
spectrum with an absorption-band nearer the red end than
that shown in No. 3, made much more faint by citric acid,
removed at once by deoxidising the alkaline solution, and
reappearing when reoxidised. Since some of these solutions
are often turbid, it is requisite to use strong concentrated sun-
light to penetrate through them.

It will thus be seen that by exposing the solution to the
air Aphideine passes successively into four different coloured
products, and by deoxidisation and by subsequent exposure
two others are formed. These complicated changes do not
thus rapidly occur in the comparatively pure solution
obtained by boiling the insects in water. It seems requisite
that it should contain some of the (perhaps albuminous) sub-

355

stances present when the insects are crushed up in cold
water, which by their rapid decomposition seem to induce the
above-named changes in the Aphideine itself.

In my paper on some compounds derived from the colour-
ing matter of blood/ I briefly described some of the products
of the oxidisation of heemoglobin. Of these there are af least
four, three of which are characterised by the presence of
absorption-bands at the red end of their spectra when the
solutions are deoxidised. The products of the change of
Aphideine are in some respects analogous to these, only that
except in one the bands are characteristic of the oxidised
state. The physical and optical properties of Aphideine and
its products differ completely from those of the colouring
matter of the cochineal insects of commerce. Whether this
is a normal constituent of the living insects or a product can
only be decided by examining them when alive, which
hitherto I have not been able to do. I have met with
Aphideine only in several dark-coloured species of Aphides,
but at the same time I must confess that my acquaintance
with the colouring matters of insects is very limited.

When carefully selected living Aphides of the apple tree
are quickly crushed up in ether, and the clear solution agi-
tated with about an equal quantity of water, it sinks to the
bottom coloured pink-red by the Aphideine, whilst the su-
pernatant ether is of pale yellow colour. On evaporating
this to dryness, and dissolving in bisulphide of carbon, the '
yellow solution gives a spectrum without any decided ab-
sorption-bands, and seems to be coloured by a substance like
that occurring in the fat or wax of other insects. If, how-
ever, similar living Aphides are crushed up in a test tube,
kept in that state for a few minutes, and then treated with
ether, on agitating with water it subsides almost colourless,
whilst the ether is coloured deep yellow, and its spectrum
shows two well-marked absorption-bands in the blue. When
this solution is agitated with water, no colour is dissolved
from it, but on adding a little ammonia the greater part of
the colouring matter passes to the water in the alkaline
modification, of orange colour, giving two well-marked ab-
sorption-bands between the blue and the green part of the
spectrum, corresponding exactly to the two bands in No. 3,
fig. 1, which are nearest to the blue end. On adding a little
citric acid that on the green side is removed, and another
developed still nearer to the blue end than the one which
remains nearly in the original position. If the crushed
Aphides are kept longer and treated in the same manner, we
1 'Quart. Journ. of Micros. Science/ x, 1870, pp. 400—402.

35G

obtain a spectrum witli three bands^ analogous to No. %,
fig. 1 ; and after they have been kept crushed and damp for
half a day, the spectrum shows only tAvo bands, which lie
so much farther from the blue end than in the former that
the band nearest to it in this case almost coincides with that
farthest from it in the other. On agitating this solution with
water and a little ammonia, the colouring matter is deposited
as a pink layer between the ether and the water, the
alkaline modification of this substance thus difiering from
that of the former in being insoluble in water as well
as in ether. Separating it and mixing in alcohol it gives
a spectrum with two well-marked absorption-bands in the
green and green-blue, corresponding exactly with the two
bands in No. 2, fig. 1, which lie towards the red end; and
on adding a little citric acid the band in the green disappears,
and another is developed in the blue. There is thus good
evidence to show that the variation in the relative intensity
of the bands in spectrum No. 2 of fig. 1 is really due to a
variable mixture of these two substances. Both are of yellow
colour when the solution is neutral, and when dry are of
waxy consistence. They are manifestly formed by an altera-
tion of the original Aphideine, and therefore it may perhaps
be well to call the former Aphidiluteine, and the latter ApM-
diluteoleine. On still further exposure to the air a red
colouring matter is formed, which may be distinguished by
the name of Aphidirhodeine ; but this may be more conve-
niently obtained pure in the manner described in the sequel.
As in the case of all such substances, their spectra are best
seen when they are dissolved in bisulphide of carbon, for
then the absorption-bands lie farther from the blue end, and
there is no chance of there being any variation in their
position, owing to any difference in the amount of water that
may be present in alcohol or ether. When carefully picked
out living Aphides are crushed up in a test tube with the
bisulphide, the colour is at first red, but almost immediately
changes to yellow ; and on stirring them up so as to expose
to the air and to the bisulphide, the original Aphideine is
rapidly altered into Aphidiluteine, which dissolves in the
liquid, giving a bright yellow solution. This should be
filtered and examined at once. The spectrum of transmitted
light shows two well-marked absorption-bands in the blue,
situated much nearer to the extreme blue than those of any
other analogous substance which has come under my notice.
It is also very fluorescent, of a fine green colour, and this
light of fluorescence giv-es the spectrum shown in No. 4 of
the following woodcut, fig. 2 :

357

Fig. 2. — Spectra of the Light of Fluorescence.
Red end. Blue end.

4. Apbidilut.eiue,

5. Aphidiluteoleine.

6. Aphidirliodeine.

Praunhofer's lines.

The whole of the green part of the spectrum is seen, with
the exception of two somewhat faint bands, which I believe
are due to the Aphidiluteine itself, but am not quite certain,
since it rapidly changes into other compounds which have
absorption-bands nearly in the same situation. On keeping
the above-named solution for some hours it is completely
changed. The spectrum of transmitted light shows two ab-
sorption-bands situated very considerably further from the
blue end than before, and the light of fluorescence is yellow-
green, giving the spectrum No. 5 with a bright band nearly
in the centre of the green and a fainter between the green
and yellow. This change takes place much more slowly in
the case of the solution in ether, but much more rapidly
when crushed insects are exposed to the air, and a third
compound is formed, which may be obtained in a very satis-
factory manner by digesting dead insects, kept dry for some
weeks, in a solution of bisulphide of carbon in alcohol, and
after it has remained for a few days agitating the clear solu-
tion with excess of the bisulphide. This sinks to the bottom
with the greater part of the required substance, and leaves
various impurities dissolved in the alcohol. After washing
with more alcohol, the solution in bisulphide when evapo-
rated leaves an oily or waxy substance coloured brown orange.
When dissolved in bisulphide of carbon this gives most
remarkable spectra. The transmitted light is of an orange-red
colour, giving five well-marked absorption -bands, one in the
orange, dark, narrow, and well defined ; one at the yellow
end of the green, very dark and well defined, with some
general shading on the green side ; a third and a fourth, less

358

dark than the above two, one nearly in the centre of the
green and the other at the green end of the blue, whilst the
fifth is nearly in its centre. This spectrum is not only re-
markable for the number of bands thus spread over so large
a space, but also for the manner in which they are related to
one another. This is much like what might be due to a
mixture of two substances, and yet there is no further evi-
dence of its being so.^ The solution is strongly fluorescent,
the light of fluorescence is orange-coloured, and its spectrum
is as shown by No. 6. The yellow, green, and blue are
entirely absent ; there is a red band, but it is comparatively
so faint that the light may be said to be nearly monochro-
matic, being almost entirely due to the well-defined orange
band shown by the figure, which is so narrow that it is only
about -jV^h part of the whole visible spectrum of daylight.
As will be seen, it is quite on the red side of the sodium
line D, but when the substance is dissolved in ether instead
of bisulphide of carbon, the centre of the bright band almost
exactly coincides with D, and all the various bands in the
other spectra already described are raised to about the same
extent towards the blue end, when ether is employed as the
solvent.

On agitating the solution of this Aphidirhodeine in ether
with water containing a little ammonia, the greater part of
the colour is deposited as a green layer between the water
and the ether, as though the alkaline modification were in-
soluble in both water and ether. Separating this and mixing
it up in dilute alcohol it gives the spectrum No. S of fig. 1,
and this fact led me to think it probable that the substance
which gives these bands, formed on exposing a solution of
aphidieine to the air, is really Aphidirhodeine remaining in
a state of very unstable solution. I therefore added to such a
preparation two or three times its bulk of alcohol, and on
agitating with excess of bisulphide of carbon obtained a red
solution of Aphidirhodeine with some Aphidiluteoleine. It
therefore appears that though the products derived from
Aphideine are not dissolved by water, they may in some
cases remain in solution for a time, so as to give a more or
less clear liquid. I specially mention this because as an
almost universal rule colouring matters soluble in water are
insoluble in bisulphide of carbon, or in fats and oils ; and
misled by the apparent solubility in water, it was some time
before I discovered that this brown, dirty-looking solution was
in great measure coloured by the clear red and highly fluo-

^ See my late paper, " On the Examination of Mixed Colouring Matters,"
' Monthly Micros. Journal,' vol. vi, pp. 124 — 134.

359

rescent substance obtained as already described by the use of
bisulphide of carbon, for on superficial examination they
seem to have so very little in common.

As already named, when the living insects are crushed up
in ether, a small quantity of a yellow colour is obtained ana-
logous to that in the fat or wax of other insects, but no
Aphidiluteine, which, therefore, appears not to be a normal
constituent. If the insects be killed by exposure for a short
time to the vapour of bisulphide of carbon, and the colouring
matter dissolved out by ether in the course of a few minutes,
the amount of Aphidiluteine obtained is very small ; but, if
the insects have been kept dead for a quarter of an hour,
there is no difficulty whatever in proving that a considerable
part of the Aphideine has changed into Aphidiluteine even
in so short a period of time. After having been kept dead
for about a day very little unaltered Aphideine remains. On
keeping them much longer they turn darker and transmit
red light, showing the absorption bands of Aphidirhodeine.
These facts clearly prove that in such inquiries it is most
important to decide whether the colouring matters are or are
not present in the living insects. The change from Aphi-
deine to Aphidiluteine is so rapid that I was for a consider-
able time led to conclude inaccurately that Aphides con-
tained a waxy substance coloured yellow by that compound.
Such an instance of rapid and remarkable changes may be
rare, but at the same time it serves to show the importance
of our taking into consideration the possibility of its occur-
rence, even when circumstances are not so favorable for de-
ciding the question. When exposed to the vapour of ether,
though apparently killed, the insects sometimes revive, and,
even if they do not, the Aphideine changes far more slowly,
which may explain why bisulphide of car! n has a so much
more poisonous action.

Since it may, perhaps, be convenient for reference, I here
subjoin a table of the character and position of the more
important absorption-bands seen in some of the spectra
roughly described in this paper, making use of the notation
explained m a previous communication. ^

Table of Spectra.

Fraunko/er's lines, D is at Z\ and F. at 1\.
1. As dissolved iu water :

Aphideine, alkaline .......

„ acid

3i...
6..7-

.8i
-8—

^ "On Some Technical Applications of the Spectrum-microscope,"
' Quarterly Journ. of Micros. Science ' (N.S.), Vol. IX, pp. 358 and 359.

360

The first mixed product :

When alkaline varying as thus shown .

When acid

The second product .....

2. As dissolved in ether, &c. :

Aphidiluteine in ether ......

„ in aniiiiouiacal solution of ether in water

„ in acid solution of ether in water

Aphidiluteoleine in edier ......

„- suspended in dilute alcohol with ammonia
,, „ ,, „ citric acid

Aphidirhodeine in ether . . . _2 ^s ■ • •

,, suspended in dilute alcohol with ammonia

3. As dissolved in bisulphide of carbon :

Aphidiluteine . . . . . . ...

Aphidiiuteoleine .......

H

7

H

H

H

H

7f

H

m

H

H

9 101

H

lOi

n

n

5

6*

73

' 8

9

' S

H

21-

4*

H 101

Aphidirhodeii/^.

;^i 4.i 4.3

4

ON THE

NEPHILA PLUMIPES

SILK SPIDER OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

BY BURT G. WILDER, S.B., il.D.,

Late Suro-eoii 5oth Mass. Vols.

P'rom the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History.
October 4, 1865.

ON TIIE

NEPHILA PLUMIPES:

SILK SPIDER OT^ sniTTTT r< A TDrvx THVT .

Note. For more or less extended accounts of the different parts of this sub-
iect lee Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences foi Nov.

th 1865 Proc. lost. Soc. Nat. History, Oct. 11th and De- ^th 1865 and
Mar^h 7th, 1866; and Proc. Ma^. Inst, of Technology, Jan. 18th and Feb. 1st,

1866.

From the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,
October 4, 1865.

Dr. B. G. Wilder exhibited specimens, living and pre-
served, of both sexes of a large and but little known species
of geometrical spider, Nephila plumipes ? from the coast of
South Carolina, together with silk of a brilliant yellow color,
which he had reeled directly from the living insect ; and gave
the following account of the species and of the hitherto un-
known method of obtaining its silk.*

*Wliile this was passing through the press I found in the Aster Library, New
Tork, a copy of a rare Italian work by R. M. de Termeyer, entitled " Eicherche
e sperimenti suUa setade Kagni," in which is described bis process of obtaining silk
directly from spiders. But no allusion is made by others, to either the idea or the
book itself, which was published about 1800. I find also that in Jones' "Naturalist
in Bermuda," 1859, page 126, is described an experiment of the author for ascertain-
ing the strength of the silk of Epeira {Nephila) clavipes, by drawing the silk out
of its body.

ON THE

NEPHILA PLTJMIPES

SILK SPIDER OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

BY BURT G. WILDER, S.B., M.D.,
Late Surgeon 55th Mass. Vols.

From the Proceedmgs of the Boston Society of Natural History,
October 4, 1865.

Dr. B, G. Wilder exhibited specimens, living and pre-
served, of both sexes of a large and but little known species
of geometrical spider, Nephila plumipes ? from the coast of
South Carolina, together with silk of a brilliant yellow color,
which he had reeled directly from the living insect ; and gave
the following account of the species and of the hitherto un-
known method of obtaining its silk.*

* While this was passing through the press I found in the Astor Library, New
York, a copy of a rare Itahan work by R. M. de Termeyer, entitled " Kicherche
e sperimenti sulla seta de Kagni," in which is described his process of obtaining silk
directly from spiders. But no allusion is made by others, to either tlie idea or the
book itself, whicli was published about 1800. I find also that in Jones' " Naturalist
in Bermuda," 1859, page 126, is described an experiment of the author for ascertain-
ing the strength of the silk of Epeira (Nephila) clavipes, by drawing the silk out
of its body.

2 [Wilder,

By a letter -written on tte 20th of August, 1863, from the camp
of the 55th Mass. Vol. Inf , at the north end of Folly Island, South
Carolina, I find that " on that day I caught a large and very hand-
some spider, from which, as it stood quiet near the top of my tent,
I wound ofi" silk upon a quill for an hour and a quarter, at the rate of
six feet per minute, making four hundred and fifty feet or one hun-
dred and fifty yards."

This silk is stUl in my possession, but has been removed from the
quill for the purpose of ascertaining its weight,- which is one-thbd of a
grain. I had never heard of this method of obtaining silk ; neither
had I ever seen or read of such a spider ; but, though this specimen
was not preserved, I was so impressed with its size and the peculiar
aspect given by the brushes of stiff hairs upon the legs, that when,
during the following summer, another officer* of our regiment described
to me a large spider very common upon Long Island, which lies just
west from Folly Island, I knew it was the same species and told him
what I had done, adding that I was "sure something would come of it
sometime." By substituting a cylinder worked with a crank, for mine
turned in the fingers, this officer obtained more of the silk, which he
wound in grooves cut upon rings of hard rubber, and in other directions
upon the sides of such I'ings; while another officer ;f by employing a
"gear drill stock" with cog-wheels, accomplished similar results still
more rapidly ; on the first simple machine I wound off silk into two
grooves cut in the periphery of a hard rubber ring, parallel except at
one point where they crossed to form a kind of signet, the silk being
guided at this crossing by a pin upon a pivot moved by the hand at
each revolution of the ring; and on the " gear drill stock " upon a
larger ring one inch in diameter and three-eighths of an inch in width,
in a groove upon its periphery one-fourth of an inch in width, and across
the sides of the ring in two directions, I wound three thousand four
hundred and eighth/ yards, or nearly two miles of silk. This length
was estimated by accurately determining the different dimensions of
the ring where wound upon, and multiplying by this the number of
revolutions of the cylinder per minute (170), and this product again
by the number of minutes of actual winding (285), having deducted
from the gross time of winding (about nine hours), each moment of
stoppage for any cause.

This was in the autumn of 1864, and so the matter rested till Feb.
1865, when, preparing to present the subject to the Society, I showed
specimens of the spider and silk to Professors Wyman, Agassiz,
and Cooke of Harvard University, to all of whom both the species of

* Major Sigourney Wales, 55tli Mass. Vols.
t Lieut. Col. Chas. B. Fox.

Wilder.] 3

spider and tlie kiud of silk were entirely new* as was also the idea of
reeling silk directly from it or any other insect.

At this time too, a friend f to whom the whole history of the matter
was known, expressed his confident belief that this new silken product
could be made of some practical utility, especially in view of the an-
ticipated scarcity of the ordinary silk ; and it is with his advice and
assistance that the experiments and investigations recounted below
have been made as far as our limited time and means have allowed.

On the 30th of August, 1865, 1 obtained from Long Island some liv-
ing specimens, chiefly females, and have succeeded in bringing a few of
them to the North.

I find no mention of this spider in the works of Hentz or any other
American entomologist, which may be the result of its being very cir-
cumscribed in its locality to a small and unimportant island ; but in "Die
Arachniden," by C. L. Koch, Vol. 6., is a figure of a mutilated female
specimen, the only one ever collected, and said to have been found in
Louisiana, which was preserved in the Museum of J. Sturm at Nu-
remberg.

The description and figure of this specimen are so unsatisfactory
that I am really in doubt as to its Identity with the spider under con-
sideration, but will provisionally regard the latter as the Nephila
plumipes, hoping at some time to settle the point by an actual com-
parison with the unique specimen described by Koch.

I append here a description and figure of the spider drawn from
living Individuals.

USTephila plumipes Koch.

A large and very elegant species, resembling most of its conajeners
in the general form of the body, and like N. clavipes and N.fasci-
culata possessing peculiar collections of stiff hairs upon the legs, but
differing from them in that these hairs are more closely set together,
so as to justify the German term "Haarbiirste" (Hair brushes).

The cephalothorax Is black above, but covered, except In spots,
with silver-colored hairs. The abdomen Is olive-brown variously
marked with yellow and white spots and stripes. On the 1st, 2d, and
3d pairs of legs are one or two brushes of stiff black hairs, pointing
forward away fi-om the body. The length of the body is fi-om 1 to
1.10 and the spread of the legs 2.75 in a lateral, and 3.75 Inches in a
longitudinal direction.

The above applies only to the female, which will now be more
minutely described; the male Is very small and differently mai-ked.

* Prof. "Wyman has since found among his alcoholic specimens of insects col-
lected in the South, one female individual of this species, but is not certain of the
precise locality in which it was obtained.

t Dr. William Nichols of Boston.

4 [Wilder.

The entire upper and anterior surface of the cephalothorax is jet
black, but behind the eye-spots it is thickly covered with little white
hairs, except in six spots, three upon each side over the origins of the
three anterior pairs of legs; the first pair of spots being the largest
and pointing obliquely forward and outward. The edges of the cepha-
lothorax are reddish-brown. The eye-spots are black and eight in
number, four in the centre in form of a square, and two upon each
side, one above and one below a rounded elevation. The falces are
black. The abdomen above is light yellow. On each side of the mid-
dle line are six silvery spots, of which the 1st and 3d pairs are the
largest, then the 2d, 4th, 5th, and 6th; the three anterior pairs are
rounded, the others flattened laterally. On the middle line between
the 1st and 2d pairs, and again between the 3d and 4th pairs, the
pulsations of the dorsal vessel are visible; besides the larger spots
there are many smaller ones iri-egular in size, shape and position, but
more numerous anteriorly. The anterior edge of the abdomen is
olive-brown; in front of and below it is a silvery cross stripe semilunar
in shape, the horns pointing backward ; and just behind it is a similar
stripe.

The sides of the abdomen are lighter than the top and the spots are
generally silver-colored and oblong, especially in the line of the hoims
of the above mentioned white stripe. The lower surface is still darker
than the sides, but the anterior third is a hard and horny plate with a
free posterior edge covering the generative orifice. The surface of this
is by its coloring divisible into three sections, one median and two lateral,
each of which is again composed of a broad anterior and a narrow poste-
rior portion. The anterior median portion is brown and depressed be-
tween the lateral portions, which are black and slightly punctate and
bordered internally by a yellow, and externally by a dull reddish
stripe; the posterior median section is dark brown, raised and quite
convex, while the lateral portions are dull red and flat, with sharp pos-
terior edges.

The middle third of the lower surface of the 9,bdomen is dull red
without spots and separated from the sides by yellow stripes or series
of spots, and from the posterior third by several yellow spots ; this third
is also dull 'red and without spots, but not so distinctly separated from
the sides; behind the posterior third, and forming its boundary, is the
group of spinnerets, or mammulae, of which there are two principal
pairs, anterior and posterior. Between these and concealed by them is a
very small pair, the nature and use of which I have not yet ascertained.
In color the mammulae are dull red, but the apices are surrounded by
short black hairs; behind the spinners and enclosed in the same fold
of integument is a median papilla through which the excrement is
voided. The posterior surface of the abdomen is flattened, and re-

Wilder.] 5

sembles the sides in color and marking. The lower surface of the cepha-
lothorax is shield or heart shaped, black in the centre but dull rec>.
at the sides.

The 1st and 2d segments (shanks) of the limbs are dull red; the 3d
segment (thigh) is dirty yellow, but in the first, second and fourth
pairs the distal third is dull red, and covered with a brush of stiff
black hairs ; the depth of the color and the size of the brush decreases
from the first to the fourth pair ; the thigh of the third pair Is perhaps
a shade darker where the brushes are upon the others. The 4th seg-
ment is dull red in all the legs; the 5th is, in all, dirty yellow as to its
proximal portion (a little less than half) while the distal portion is
dull red. In the third pair it presents a few scattering black hairs, but
on the other three pairs there is a hair brush like that upon the thigh,
completely encircling the limb, but the hairs are set a little more nearly
at right angles with the surface. There are also a few black hairs on
the under side just at the junction of the 5th with the 4th segments,
and in the tlaird pair a few in the place of the hair brushes on the others.
The proximal portions, (again less than one-half) of the 6th segment
(1st of the foot) Is dark dirty yellow and the distal portion, with the
7th segment, is dark dull red, or nearly black, and both segments are
covered with short black hairs. Upon the proximal yellow portion of
the 3d and 5th segments are very fine short hairs, with a few longer
ones intermixed.

The outer half of the maxillae is dirty yellow, the inner half,
with the 1st segment of the palpi, dull red ; 2d segment dirty yellow
and covered by very small black hairs, the 3d segment is dull red,
likewise the 4th and 5th, the latter being nearly black and thickly
covered by black hairs.

Of the eight eyes, the four intermediate ones form a square, and are
set at the four corners of a prominence ; the lateral eyes are set upon
the extremities of two more oblique tubercles, those of each pair being
separated Irom each other by more than their own diameter, and look-
ing, the one downward and forward and the other upward and back-
ward.

The body of the male Is one-fourth of an inch in length, and his
legs spread less than one Inch in a longitudinal and three-fourths of
an Inch In a lateral direction. The general color of both body and
legs is dark-brown, the former presenting a median dorsal stripe of
a darker color, and the latter a few scattering black hairs, but no
such brushes as those of the female. Plis palpi are strongly clavate at
the middle of their length and end in a sharp point turning outward.

I have never, during a two years' stay on the coast and in the in-
terior of South Carolina and Florida, met with any traces of this
spider elsewhere than near Long Island ; nor, with the exception of

6 [WUder.

the first specimen found upon Folly Island, and a cocoon found in a
tree on James Island, have I seen it upon the adjoining islands, though
there seems no reason why it should not also occur all along the sea-
coast.

Long Island is a low, narrow, uninhabited strip of land about five
miles southwest from Charleston, surrounded on all sides by creeks and
in the midst of a great salt marsh. The spiders are found in the for-
est, building their webs between trees and shrubs, sometimes within
reach, but more often ten or fifteen or even more feet from the ground
60 as to be reached by the sun. The web is very large, from three to
four feet in diameter, quite strong and very viscid; its yellow color is
seen in the sunlight, or when the web is gathered into a mass. It is
composed of two kinds of silk, of which one is white or silver-gray, in-
elastic and perfectly dry ; the other is of a bright yellow or golden hue,
very elastic and studded with little globules of gum which render it
exceedingly adhesive ; the frame-work of the web, namely, the guy-
lines or stays and the diverging lines or spokes of the wheel-shaped
structure, is all composed of the former or silver colored, dry and in-
elastic silk, while the concentric circles which serve for entangling
the prey are composed of the latter, or golden, elastic and sticky silk;
these circles are very numerous, being generally less than one-third
of an inch apart, but for the further strengthening of So large a web,
between every eight or ten* such circles occurs one of the silver colored
silk ; these latter are made before the viscid lines, but neither of them
are in the web of this species spiral, as in the web described by Black-
wall and others, f on the contrary they seldom if ever, form complete
circles, but are looped and return in the opposite direction into a cor-
responding point at the other side of the web, leaving above the cen-
tre a space occupied only by radii through which the spider can pass
to either surface of her web, the greater part of which, therefore, is
below the point where the radii converge, the dry lines are not de-
stroyed on the completion of the web, but remain and seem necessary
for its stability.

As might be inferred from these facts this spider not only has the pow-
er of regulating the size of its thread, according as one or two, or three,
or four of its mammulas are pressed upon the surface from which the
line Is to extend, or as a greater or less number of the sj^Innerules in
any mammula are employed ; but can also use in the construction of
its web, either the white or the yellow silk at will ; for of its two prin-
cipal pairs of mammul^e, one, the anterior, yields the yellotv, while the
other or posterior pair yields the white silk. Of this I satisfied myself

*The number varies according to the individual and even in different parts of the
same web.
t Zoological Journal, Vol. Y., p. 181.

Wilder.] 7

by carrying the thread from the anterior pair of mammulse upon one
part of a spindle and that from the posterior pair upon another, guiding
them with pins while the spindle was in motion ; the result being the
formation of two circles of silk, one of a golden, the other of a sil-
ver color, as in one of the specimens exhibited ; morever, if while both
threads are being drawn out, they are slackened, the lower silver
thread will wrinkle and fly up, being inelastic, while the other will
contract and, within certain limits, preserve its direction. At that
time the existence of a smaller pair of mammulaa intermediate be-
tween the other two, was unknown to me, and it is possible that the
yellow line proceeded from them, and that both the larger pair yield
the white silk. Most of these experiments were made in the field under
unfavorable circumstances and will be more accurately repeated.

The careful dissection of an alcoholic specimen will readily discover
the organs from which this silk proceeds, and which have been described
in other species by several authors ; the preparation exhibited to the
Society shows one set of silk-glands consisting of six elongated yellow
bodies, more or less convoluted and measuring about one-third of an
inch in length, lying under the integument of the lower surface of
the abdomen, three upon each side of the middle line ; the excreting
ducts, one for each gland, are also plainly visible. But beside these,
there are to be found at least four more glands, of which one pair
shorter but thicker and larger, and also of a yellow color, are located in
the upper and anterior angles of the abdomen ; while the other two
glands are white, or transparent, and lie nearly In the center of the
abdomen ; the ducts of all these glands are easily traced to the region
of the spinnerets, but I have not yet observed the precise mode of their
termination. It will be noticed that the yellow silk is secreted in
greater abundance, as also that it is more extensively employed in the
construction of the web.

All these glands contain a semi-fluid and very viscid gum which may
be drawn out into threads of variable diameter ; these however, being
single and not, Uke those spun by the spider, minutely compound,
break up on being sharply bent.

A familiar, but thus far unexplained, fact is, that while the yellow
thread as spun by the spider in Its web is so exceedingly viscid on ac-
count of the numerous globules of gum with which it is studded, as to
follow the point of a pin, this same yellow silk when reeled from
the insect, whether slowly or rapidly, and also when employed by the
spider to form the cocoon about her eggs, is perfectly dry and much
less elastic and yielding, though still more so than the white variety.
I have put several specimens under the influence of chloroform which
apparently has no eflfect upon the evolution of silk.

I have never been able to reel above three hundred yards of sUk from

' 8 fWUder.

a sj^Ider at one time; but this evidently does not exhaust the supply,
for on opening the abdomen the glands are still partially filled and the
following day a quantity equal to the first may be obtained ; this I did
upon three successive days, so that, if, as now seems probable, the
emission of the silk is mainly mechanical, then a certain degree of
preparation is necessary after it is secreted before it is ready for use.

The diameter of the silk as spun by the insect or as reeled from it,
varies from g-gVo ^'^ T"oW °^ ^"^ ^^^'^^^ ; * it is exceedingly strong, but I
have not yet been able to accurately determine its strength as com-
pared with fine ordinary silk. The largest threads are those comjDos-
ing the outer layer of the cocoons, but these are evidently comjaound,
and the two, three or four strands are apparently such as proceed from
the single spinners, the minute fibrils of which have united at once on
leaving the spinnerules so as to form the ordinary silken fibre which
generally appears simple under the microscope.

Having completed her web, the female stations herself at its centre
head downward, waiting for prey ; the diminutive male (they are not con-
stantly present) preserves a resjDectful distance from her, and, as far
as I have seen, never attempts to do anything for himself, except of
com'se the impregnation of the eggs ; he builds no web and catches no
prey ; and while she is moving from place to place, or even while mak-
ing her web, he gets upon the upper or lower side of her abdomen
holding on with his legs and darting about to keep out of the way of
hers ; for she seems to pay no attention to him and might easily do
him an injury even by accident.

On one occasion I saw a male stray away from his proper home to
an adjoining web, from which, however, he was speedily driven by the
indignant female possessor, with the loss of two of his legs ; of which
injury he shortly afterwards died.

In the webs of these spiders are found insects of all kinds, even the
largest and most vigorous, such as the great cicada of the South.
When anything strikes the web, the spider instantly starts, and, if the
vibrations indicate that it is suitable for food she rushes to it and seiz-
ing it in her powerful jaws holds on till it is dead ; after which she
throws a net around it and carries it to a place where she can devour
it at her leisure ; in this respect unlike some other geometrical spiders,
of which one species, common on James Island, S. C, never attempts
to seize the prey with the jaws till it has first dexterously spread a net
over it by turning it over and over with the first and third pairs of
legs and, with the fourth pair, used alternately, drawing out the silk
as a broad white band.

But if the violent struggles of the prey show it to be of large size,
then our spider advances with caution, feeling with her anterior legs,

♦The micrometer measurements were made by Mr. E. C. Greenleaf.

Wilder.] 9

and if satisfied that she can do so with safety, will suddenly close with
the victim ; but if not, or if some foreign body is placed in the web,
then she will snip off with her jaws every line which supports it till it
drops to the earth ; this I saw done by several spiders, which had made
their webs in my room in South Carolina, with a dead snake six inches
in length.

It is remarkable, that although these spiders possess eight eyes and
can evidently distinguish light from darkness, yet, so far as my
observation goes, they cannot see anything at all whether near or re-
mote ; they pay no attention to an object put close to them nor to the
quiet movements of any one about them, and will often rush by an
insect entangled in their web if it chance to cease its struggles before
the spider has accurately determined upon its position ; it will then
slowly return to the center of the web and wait till another vibration
indicates the whereabouts of the insect ; a fly offered to it upon the
point of a needle will not be noticed till it begins to buzz, when it will
be seized at once ; the hearing and touch are evidently very acute ;
the organ of the former sense is not known ; the latter is exercised by
the palpi and by the extremities of all the legs, especially those of the
first pair, which are continually used as feelers. How acute the sense
of smell is I do not know.

This spider is remarkably quiet in its habits, never leaving its web
unless disturbed in some way, and it bears handling better than any
species with which 1 am acquainted. That it can bite is evident from
the size of the jaws and the firmness of their hold, and that the venom
is active is shown by the speedy death of its victims ; * but they never
attempt to bite unless provoked, and may be allowed to run over
one's flesh with impunity, care being taken not to remove them from
it suddenly or roughly for they are apt to hold on with the jaws when
the grasp of the legs is not sufiicient. The length and comparative
weakness of the legs renders it easy to put this spider in the only po-
sition in which any sjiider can be safely handled, namely with all the
legs held behind the back. In their webs they are active and sure-
footed, but slow and awkward on the ground or any plane surface.
They always prefer the light, and construct their webs where the sun
can reach them ; the young manifest the same instinct and always seek
the sunny side of a glass vessel containing them ; they also keep the

*BlackwaU, (Linn. Transactions, Vol. xxi. page 31-37) recounts experiments to
support his opinion that the bite of the larger British species causes no more injury
to man, to other spiders, or to insects than an ordinary puncture or laceration of
equal extent and severity ; and the same author in his Spiders of Great Britain and
Ireland, Part 1, p. 2, does not even mention the word poison in speaking of the
colorless fluid emitted through the falces, but although we seldom hear of well au-
thenticated cases of injury from the bite of a spider, it would hardly be safe to sup-
pose all of them harmless.

10 tWMer.

head downward and will instantly turn over if the vessel containing
them be inverted.

The eggs are laid In a rounded, or flattened mass about one half an
inch in diameter ; they are .04 to .05 of an inch in diameter, white and
at first slightly agglutinated together, but become yellowish and easUy
separable as the time for hatching arrives, which, in the case of some
eggs laid this fall was in about thirty days ; the young spiders are yel-
low with whitish legs, which however soon become darker in color
while the abdomen presents some faint markings on its surface ; some
have cast one skin within a few days and can spin a thread within a
week after leaving the egg ; but of their own accord they do not leave
the cavity of the cocoon for some time, during which, as far as I know,
they take no food, excepting perhaps that they devour one another,
but seem to undergo an increase of the legs and cephalpthorax at the
expense of the abdomen ; but for some reason, whether on account
of the elements, or birds, or other insects, or the attacks upon one an-
other, I cannot say, only five or six out of the five or six hundred
hatched in any one cocoon ever come to maturity in the natural
state.

The mass of eggs is enclosed in a loose silken cocoon, the threads
of which are very large and strong, especially the outer ones, which
are ^^Vo ^^ ^^ ''^'^^ ^^ diameter while the interior ones are -^q-q of
an inch in diameter; this cocoon weighs from .320 to .655 of a grain.

The grown females, which I have kept alive for one month or more,
in boxes or in webs constructed in my room in South Carolina, have
all readily taken, from the point of a needle, live flies or bits of fresh
chicken's liver, from which they suck the juices ; they likewise take
water from the point of a stick or hair pencil, holding the drop be-
tween the palpi and the jaws while it is slowly swallowed ; one spider
has thus taken six drops of water in succession.

Much more might be related concerning the habits of the insect, of
the manner of keeping and feeding the young, of the means of secur-
ing the spider while its silk is obtained, and of the various apparatus
employed ; but I am so impressed with the peculiarities thus far ob-
served in themselves, and with the beauty and strength of the silk that
if time and means permit, I shall continue the inquiry as far as possi-
ble, and will defer to a future occasion a more complete account of the
spider, its habits, anatomy and embryology, and of the various qual-
ities of its silk, with whatever conclusion can be reached concerning
the practicability of rearing the young, and also how far it is possible
to apply the same method of extraction to the silk worm, and other
silk' producing larvse.

Note. April 2d, 1866. Some of these spiders, hatched in October, 1865, are
now more than an inch in length.

rUOCEEDINGB B. 3. If. H.— VOL. X. 14 APRIL, 186B.

Wilder.]

11

It is but recently that I have had the benefit of an acquaintance with the in-
vestigations of others upon the economy of the geometrical spiders ; and in the
entire absence of any American works on this subject, I will refer to the me-
moirs of Blackwall and other British naturalists published in the Linncean
Transactions, Vols, xvi., xviii., and xxi., in the Zoological Journal, Vols. iv. and
v., in the Transactions of the Entomological Society, Vols, i., ii., and iii.; En-
tomological Magazine, Vols. ii. and iii., and Reports of the British Association
for 1844 and 1858. The earlier papers are quoted in Kirby and Spence's En-
tomology, while a brief synopsis of nearly all is contained in the introduction
to Part 1. of BlackwaU's Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, published by the
Kay Society in 1861 and 1864.

Many of these opinions have been confirmed by my observations upon the
NepMla plumipes, and where it is otherwise stated, the difi'erences may sometimes
(as with the construction of the webs, mentioned above) be in consequence
of specific peculiarities.

NepMla plumipes Koch.
The smaller figure, the male ; the larger, the female.

1864.] 679

[From the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia;.]

Descriptions of several new species of CYNIPS, and a new species of
DIASTROPHUS.

BY H . F. B A S S E T T .

QuERCUS RUBRA. A cluster of forty or fifty elongate-ovate galls on
a branch of a young red oak tree. They are from three-fourths of an
inch to an inch in leiigth, and a half an inch in diameter in the middle,
tapering to a point at the ends ; covered loith a short, velvety pubes-
cence, and when dry, ridged like a melon ; the inside, a cork-like sub-
stance adhering closely to the larval cell, and divided lengthwise into
many parts like the dissepiments of the seed-vessels of various kinds of
plants ; monothalamous — the cell one-tenth of an inch long.

C. q. formosa n. sp.

9. Head black. Head and face finely and evenly rugose. Antennce lb-
jointed, yellowish-red, the terminal joints darker. The suture between the 14th
and 15th as distinct as the preceding ones; face with a short pubescence, the
hairs converging towards the mouth ; mandibles black, palpi yellowish-red.
Thorax black : a few short hairs on the collare; me-sothorax : parapsidal grooves
distinctly marked, median line broad where it begins on the seutellum, but
gradually decreases and disappears just before reaching the collare; between
this and the parapsidal grooves two short lines beginning on the collar and ex-
tending half way to the seutellum. The thorax and pleuras are beautifully
ripple-marked with fine short transverse lines. This style of marking is distinct
from that of any of the species in my collection — thirty or more. The same
style, only coarser, is seen in some Chalcidians. Seutellum small, finely rugose,
the small fovese are smooth and shining. Legs bright brownish-red, except the
upper part of the femur, which is nearly black, and the black coxse. Abdomen
bright reddish-brown, with an extremely minute microscopic punctation :
sheath of the ovipositor a dark brownish-red. Wings hyaline, also the veins,
except the first and second transverse and the subcostal, which are a very pale
yellow; areolet large, equiangular, bounded on the inner side by entirely color-
less veins, radial area open. Length .12. % unknown.

The flies have not yet left the gall (Nov. 25) though they have been
in the imago state for several weeks, and crawled about actively when
the galls were opened. They may be imprisoned by the hard dry gall,
but I am inclined to think, that, like some other species, they remain
in the galls in the perfect state through the winter and come out early
in the spring.

680 [December

The galls of this species are very rare. I have found only two clus-
ters, and one of these was much eaten by some Lepidopterous larva,
and the larvae of the true gall fly were destroyed. Only a part of the
galls in the other cluster were developed as described above; the small-
est were not larger than grains of barley, but contained larvae, and have
produced true gall flies. Their diminutive size was owing, apparently,
to their being closely crowded.

This and the species nest described, G. q. ventricosa n. sp., are rea-
dily distinguished from any other American species yet described, by
the female, (male as yet unknown,) having fifteen distincf antenna/.
Joints. Dr. Fitch (N. Y. Rep. Vol. 2. No. 309) speaks of having, in
his collection, a female gall fly with fifteen jointed antennae, but he
does not describe it, nor the gall from which it came.

Westwood (Syn. Gen. Br. Insects) does not characterize any genus
of the family Cynipidae as having more than the 9 14, and the % 15
antennal joints — but the % of my C. q. singularis* (Proc. Ent. Soe.
Phila. Vol. 2nd. p. 326) has 16-jointed antennae, and 0. q. scitula — a
new species described in this paper — also has the same number. The
females of both these species have only 13 joints, the terminal one long
and connately divided in the middle.

C. q. formosa and the species next described are evidently closely
related, for besides the 15-jointed antennae of the 9 there are other
points of resemblance; and the remarkable difiierence in the colors of
the two species, the ripple-marked thorax of 0. q. formosa, and the
widely diff'erent galls from different species of oak, are the most marked
specific characters. The shape of the abdomen of both species is pe-
culiar; different in form, and, I think, in structure, from any other spe-
cies I am acquainted with, but I have not yet sufficiently studied the
structure to describe it well, and have simply, in my description, no-
ticed the vertical diameter as equalling or exceeding the length.

*Mr. Walsh assures me that my C. q. singularis is the same as C. q. nubili-
pennis Harris. He is undoubtedly correct, and my name stands, of course, as
a Synonym. Dr. Harris' very brief descriptions were definite enough, perhaps,
when the number of species was, as when he wrote, very small, but hardly com-
plete enough for the genus to-day. The number of species described and
properly belonging to, or provisionally placed in. the genus Cynips, exceeds fifty,
and many more will probably be found.

1864.] 681

QuERCUS ILICIFOLIA. Galls growing in clusters from three or four
to a dozen together^ on the limhs and occasionalhj on the trunhs of young
shrub oaks. They are cone-shaped, truncate at the base, the apex often
prolonged, in a slender, recurved -point. They are from four to five-
eighths of an inch long, and from one-fourth to three-eightlis in diame-
ter at the base. When green, often of a deep red color ; when dry,
broion or black ; very hard, enclosing a nearly free larval cell like that
of C. q. globulus, Fitch.

C. q. ventricosa n. sp.

9 . Head and thorax a bright cinnamon color, head finely punctate, face pu-
bescent, dark brown around the mouth, tips of the mandibles black, palpi pale
brown. Antennae long, 15-jointed, third joint longest, others gradually decreas-
ing in length to the 15th, which is as long as the two preceding ones, and shows
plainly a connate suture. Thorax finely and evenly punctate; parapsidal
grooves not deep; the line dividing the mesothorax lengthwise reaches from the
coUare to the scutellum ; each side of this is a line reaching half way from the
collare to the scutellum, and marked with an indentation at the posterior end;
also a deep linear depression on each side over the base of the wings ; pleura
microscopically punctate; mesothorax bounded on the sides and where it joins
the scutellum by a dark reddish-brown line. Scutellum very finely sculptured,
a dark and narrow ridge dividing it half the length. Feet yellow, tips of the
tarsi black. Wings hyaline; the subcostal, anal, first and second transverse
veins large, dark reddish-brown ; the first two rather paler towards the base ;
areolet distinct; radial area open, the vein forming its base Considerably en^
larged. Abdomen darker brown than the thorax; segments short, second long-
est; vertical diameter, i. e. tne distance from the back of the abdomen to the
ventral edge, equals or slightly exceeds the length ; terminal segments show a
fine punctation. Length .14. Male unknown.

My galls were collected in June. The flies were found to be fully
developed in October. They were cut out, else they would probably
have remained in the galls until spring.

QuERCUS ILICIFOLIA. Elongated, fusiform galls growing on the
upper side of the leaves of Q. ilicifolia, and standing erect, or nearly
so — sometimes entirely preventing the development of the leaf, and ap-
parently growing out' of the petiole. The central nucleus containing the
larvse. is kept in place by radiating woody fibres as in C. q. inanis 0. S.
The largest gcdls are two inches in length and seven-eighths of an inch
in diameter ) average size about one and three-fourths inches long, and
three-fourths in diameter. Apex rather longer and more slender than
the basal portion, and often considerably curved.

682 [December

These galls are of the same dark green as the leaves. Many are
found very much smaller than those described above, but they produce
parasitic flies. Baron Osten Sacken writes me that he met with num-
bers of these galls in Pennsylvania several years ago. They are rather
rare here (Conn.)

Q. q. ilicifoliae n. sp.

9 Black, vertex of the head, and the entire thorax black, and deeply and
irregularly sculptured; face rugose and pubescent: hairs converging toward
the mouth; palpi shining reddish brown. Antennae 13-jointed, the 13th long,
and with a false suture apparent on the inner side; first and second joints very
short, shining black; the remaining ones pubescent, and dull black. Thorax
with a coarse pubescence. The parapsidal groove obliterated by the coarse,
somewhat linearly arranged sculpturing. Fovese large but sculptured like the
rest of the scutellum. Feet: coxse, and the upper part of the femur of the two
anterior pairs black — other parts reddish-brown; posterior pair black, reddish
at the joints. Abdomen black shining, the ventral edge clear brownish red.
The segments, except the first and second, with a very fine microscopic punc-
tation, most apparent on the third segment. Wings slightly dusky ; veins brown-
ish black, heavy; areolet very small, vein at the base of the open radial area
covered by a large brownish black cloud, which covers part of the areolet but
does not reach the anterior margin of the wing. A very light brown cloud in
the basal cell of some specimens. Length .17.

'^ . — Antennee 15-jointed, feet darker than those of the female ; posterior pair,
including the tarsi, almost entirely black. Otherwise like the female except the
usual sexual differences. Length .14.

Ten 9 and four % specimens.

QuERCUS ALBA. Flat^ green, succulent galls, often of a very irregu-
lar outline, and from one-fourth to more than an inch in diameter, the
vertical diameter from, one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch, groxcing on
the leaves of the tvhite oak, and producing, according to the size, from
two or three, to more than a dozen gall-flies.

The flies escape from the galls in June, through the upper or under
surface. The water that enters the cavities the flies have left causes
the galls soon to decay and drop off, but a few change to a dry pith-
like substance, and remain on the tree through the summer. These
might be taken for a diff"erent species, as they generally contain larvje,
but having reared a few Spalangia (?) from such galls. T infer they are
all parasitic.

This species is closely related to C. q. irregularis 0. S. but grows on
a different species of oak, and Baron Osten Sacken to whom I sent

1S()4.] GSP,

■specimens, thinks it may be specifically distinct from that species,
which I have not yet seen. The imperfect condition of his only spe-
cimen of C q. irregularis renders a satisfactory comparison impossible,
and actinj^ upon his suggestion. I describe it as

C. q. majalis n. sp.

9 Head transverse, black, nearly smooth, but under a powerful magnifier
presents a fine netted appearance: face smooth with a very few short white
hairs; mouth brown, tips of the mandibles black. Antennoe long, with 13 joints,
first and second short, third very long and enlarged at the upper end. These,
except the slightly enlarged portion of the third, are a pale yellowish white,
the remaining joints a light opaque brown. Thorax black, smooth and shin-
ing; without any grooves or striae whatever on the mesothorax. Scutellum
smooth, separated from the mesothorax by a broad shallow groove ; fovese want-
ing; marked posteriorly by two deep transverse grooves, causing three transverse
ridges above the insertion of the abdominal peduncle. Feet white with a tinge
of yellow, like the basal joints of the antennae. Abdomen black, smooth; in dry
specimens shrunken and wrinkled. Wings large with a faint duskiness and a
dusky cloud resting on the first transverse vein; veins dull brown; areolet pre-
sent; radial area open, long and very narrow. Length (dry) .09.

% . — Head black ; antennce 15-jointed ; three basal joints paler than of the 5 ;
others a semitranslucent brown. Third joint very long, remaining ones short,
and of equal length. Third joint curved rather than incised. Thorax, the
feet and the first and part of the second segment of the abdomen very light
yellowish brown. The central part of the mesothorax dark shining brown;
terminal segments of abdomen dark brown; in some specimens nearly black.
Length .10, slightly longer than the J.

Several hundred S S and 9 $ •

QuERCUS TINi^TORIA. Wood^. tuber-like galls, fjroicing on the green
hraiirhes (if Q. tinctoria. sometimes simply an enlargement of the limb.
lit others entirely checking its growth and covered^ with leaves. They
are from three-fourths to an inch and a half in lengthy and rather more
than half an inch in diameter at the base., tapering to a cone-like point.

C. q. scitula, n. sp.

9- Black. Head, vertex black, subrugose; sides of the head and the face in
some specimens a very dark brown, with a shade of red. but most are a dull
brownish black; face pubescent. Antennce 13-jointed, the 13th long and in the
middle connately divided; the basal joints yellowish-brown, the terminal dark
brown, the transition gradual. Thorax finely and regularly punctate; parap-
sidal lines fine, and two parallel interparapsidal lines so faint as to be seen only
in certain positions to the light, median line merely a longitudinal depression,
a short deep groove over the base of the wings. Scutellum regularly and finely
sculptured; basal pits obsolete. Feet shining yellowish-brown. Middle of the

GSi [December

femur and tibia darker than the joints, tarsal tips black. Wings hyaline, 1st
transverse and radial veins dark brown, others pale but distinct: areolet of me-
dium size and at the base of the open radial area. Length .09.

The % closely resembles the 9 in color and markings. The abdomen is very
long, and the antennge a rich amber color, with a few of the terminal joints of
a light brown. In all the specimens I have examined (16) the number of an-
tennal joints is sixteen. Lengtli .OS.

Numerous 9 9 and 25 •£ S .

Dr. Fitch has given a very correct figure and description of the gall
of his C. q. batatus, which, it will be seen, closely resembles that of the
above species. Indeed there is little or no apparent difference in the
o-alls more than pertains to the different species of oak on which they
'j-row, but the flies are very distinct. As Dr. Fitch describes the fly so
very briefly that it may easily be confounded with C q. scttula, 1 give
a more full description below :

Quercus alba.

C. q. batatus Fitch. (N. Y. Reports, Vol. 2nd, No. 311.)

9 Black, shining, entire head black, vertex smooth ; face, covered with a
fine thin pubescence ; color of the palpi, clear vitreous brown. Antennce 13-
jointed, first three joints pale yellow, others a pale semi-translucent brown.
Thorax black, shining, but under a powerful magnifier shows a net-work of fine
lines; parapsidal grooves and striae obsolete. Scutellum smooth, polished: a
few scattered hairs on the posterior portion; basal pits wanting; separated
from the mesothorax by a deep shining groove. Abdomen black and polished
but in all my dry specimens contracted and wrinkled. Feet, coxse clear yel-
lowish brown, femur, in the middle dark brown or black, as is also the tibia of
the posterior pair: remaining portions, except the tips of the tarsi which are
black, are of the same color as the coxse. Wings hyaline, all the veins dark
brown and of nearly equal size. The cubitus large and heavy its whole length ;
areolet large; radial area open. Length .09.

'^. — -The antennae of the male is 14-jointed. Feet dull pale yellow. Abdomen
petiolate by the elongation of the first segment. Length .08.

Numerous specimens % and 9 .*

*I am satisfied that there are annually two generations of C. q. batatus. The
first appears early in May, from galls of the preceding year's growth, — the last
late in June, from green galls. I have often found perfect insects in the galls
in winter, and have reared flies from them, apparently of the same species
reared from the summer galls. Inquilinae in great numbers are produced from
the winter galls and few true gall flies, while the reverse is true of the summer
form. As many of the summer galls remain green after the flies have left them,
and as the tree's annual growth is nearly or quite complete the first of July, it

1864.] 685

QuERCTis ILICIFOLIA. Club-shnped. woodi/ galh, grovnng on the
ends of the, small limbs. Apex blunt and generalh/ turned to one side,
covered in sum,m,er with a few leaves and containing one, and, occasion-
ally two or three larvse,. It is strikingly like that of 0. q. tuber of
Fitch, hut produces a fly which though closely related, is evidently a
different species.

C. q. similis n. sp.

9 • Head and thorax a bright brownish red ; vertex of the head finely sculp-
tured ; the rather jDroniinent ocelli are black only at the apex, face pubescent:
hairs short, converging towards the mouth. Antennce 13-jointed, the 13th nearly
as long as the two preceding ones and in some individuals there is an obscurely
marked connate suture. Thorax coarsely punctate, sparsely hairy, a shade
darker than the head, three faint longitudinal lines reach from the collare to
the scutellum, and two other lines, one on each side and very close to the me-
dian line, start from the collare and extend half-way to the scutellum ; obscure
line over the base of the wing=. Scutellum sculptured, basal pits small, deep
and smooth. The central portion of the pleura — in many species smooth and
polished — is in this covered with very fine longitudinal striae. The legs of a
uniform brownish red, except the tips of the tarsi which are black. Wings, a
subopaque white, the subcostal, anal, 1st and 2nd transverse very pale yellow,
others colorless and the vein which bounds the posterior side of the radial area in
other species is, in this obsolete, as is, also, the cubitus and areolet. Abdomen, red,
except the dorsal portion of the middle segments which is nearly black; ter-
minal segments withdrawn into the others in dry specimens, and the sheath of
the ovipositor turned abruptly upward but does not extend above the back of
the abdomen as in the Inquilinas. Length .12.

% . Black head and thorax. Antennae 15-jointed, 1st and 2nd joints nearly
black, others red. Legs, posterior pairs dark reddish-brown, the posterior pair
dark brown, nearly black — -all lighter at the joints. Abdomen black and shin-
ing, 2nd segment long. It is much smaller than the female. Length .08.

16 9 , 4 S specimens.

C. q. tuber Fitch. (N". Y. Eep. Vol. 2nd, l^o. 309.)

9 . — Head black, sides, however, in a strong light have a tinge of red ; face
black, pubescent, hairs converging towards the mouth Antennae yellowish-
brown, 13-jointed. Thorax, a reddish tinge on the shoulder of the collar; other
parts black, rather densely pubescent. Three longitudinal lines somewhat ob-
scured by the pubescence ; two short lines extend half way from the collare to
the scutellum and there is a short faint line over the base of the wings ; scutel-
lum rough, hairy; fovse medium size; smooth spot on the pleura polished, shin-
ing, but not perfectly smooth. Legs brown, tips of the tarsi black. Abdomen

seems probable the June flies oviposit in the galls from which they were pro-
duced.—Jan. 28, 1865.

(38G [Decembkr

black shining, second segment longest, separated from the third by a connate
suture, third with microscopic punctation. Sheath of the ovipositor not turned
up nearly so much as in C. q. similis, to which species it is closely related.
Wings hyaline, sub-costal, first and second transverse veins pale brown, others
colorless : lower part of the cubitus obsolete: areolet present: radial area open.
Length .12.

Nine speeimeiis.

I have a single male gall fly reared from the same galls, but it differs
so much from the female that T am inclined to think it belongs to a
diff'erent species. The thorax is quite smooth and shining, with a few
short, scattering hairs, and only two longitudinal lines that closely con-
verge at the seutellum. The venation of the wings is like that of the
female described above, and is unquestionably that of a true gall-fly.
The antennae light dusky brown, 15-jointed ; legs dark shining brown,
nearly black, paler at the joints.

Though the galls are very much alike, the venation of the wings,
the pleurae, and several other points of difi'erence mark it as a distinct
species from G. q. similis. Dr. Fitch has figured the gall of his C. q.
tuber which he found " quite common particularly upon the soft and
tender limbs of young (white oak) trees" (N. Y. Rep.^ Vol. 2d, No.
309). He describes (1. c. No. 310) the galls of C. q. arbos as " swellings
similar to that above described, growing on the tips of the limbs of
aged and large white oak trees."

My galls, which are probably identical with his 0. q. fiiber, were
gathered from low, shrubby white oak bushes, though I have often
seen precisely similar ones on large trees. Dr. Fitch's descriptions of
the flies from 0. q. tuber or 0. q. arbos will apply, so far as they go, to
either the gall flies, or to the guest flies as the inquilinae are termed by
Mr. Walsh. For the reasons that follow, I am led to think that the
species he described under the above names are both inquilinious
species.

1st. My galls were gathered about the 20th of June, and were then
green and soft like the wood of the young shoots on which they grew.
The insects were then in the pupa state, and the imago came out early
in July. The gall from which Dr. Fitch's G. q. arbos was reared was
found in March, and were of the preceding year's growth, as were also
those of G. q. tuber, if we may judge from his description of the color

1864.] 687

of the gall, which will only apply to the galls long after the true gall-
flies have left them.

2nd. My galls gathered from young white oaks, and which answer
perfectly to his figure and description of G. q. tuber, produced females
with 13-jointed antennse, while his have but 12 antennal joints.

3rd. I have gathered several hundreds of these galls in the autumn,
winter and early spring within the last two or three years, but have
never reared from them one true gall-fly, though they have produced
large numbers of male and female guest-flies — the male answering per-
fectly to Dr. Fitch's description of C. q. arbos. The female he had not
seen.

4th. The galls I collected in June have not yet produced any guest-
flies, but cutting open several to-day I found in one a large living
larva — the others were empty or contained dead gall-flies that had not
been able to eat their way out of the dried gall.

From the above facts I am forced to believe that the galls C. q. tuber
and arbos Fitch are both produced by the same fly, and that it is the
same species that I have described above and for which I retain Dr.
Fitch's name, O. q. tuber. Dr. Fitch has, no doubt, described two dis-
tinct flies, for Mr. Walsh, who has devoted much attention to the
guest-flies of the oak galls, finds that not only do some species live in
several difi"erent species of galls, but that the same kind of gall may
produce more than one species of guest-fly. {Proc. Ent. Soc. Philad.
Vol. 2d, p. 465.)

Mr. Walsh, in the article referred to, mentions other of Dr. Fitch's
species which he is satisfied are inquilinae, and not the producers of the
galls from which they were reared. (See pp. 464-5, 484 and 494.)
His remark that " Q. q. tuber Fitch is in all probability a guest-fly,"
escaped my notice till this moment.

QuERCUS MONTANA. Hard, round galh, .25 of an inch in. diame-
ter with a finely papillose surface and a solid radiated cellular struc-
ture ; growing sometimes on the upper, but as often on the under side
of the leaf; attached to the larger veins by a very short pedicel.

These galls are rarely met with, and I have seldom found more than
one on a leaf. In a single instance there were three on the same leaf,
two on the under side and one on the upper. My specimens were found
iu October and contained perfect insects. Through the gall of several,

♦W8 [December

i^athered October 20th, the insect had eaten a passage but they still
remain in the galls.* Each contains a single, subapterous, female gall-
fly, closely related to C. q. forticornis Walsh, and C q. pezomachoides
Osten Sacken. Dr. Fitch's figure and description of the gall of C q.
plsUm, {N. Y. Rej). Vol. 2, No. 319.) answers well for this gall, but his
were from a diff'erent species of oak, and this gall-fly is very distinct
from that he describes. Baron Osten Sacken informs me that these
subapterous females have winged males and belong to the genus x\ndri-
cus.

I let this species stand with the related species named above and call it

C. q. hirta n. sp.

Head black, vertex slightly rugose, densely hairy as is also the entire dorsal
portion of the thorax; face pubescent, hairs converging towards the mouth:
palpi shining brown, tips black. Antennce long, slender, black, 14-jointed.
Thorax black, very small, densely covered with a coarse, yellowish-white pu-
bescence. No striae visible on the mesothorax. They are concealed by the
pubescence if they exist. Feet a dull brownish black, but in a strong light
appear of a very dark reddish brown, posterior pair lightest and all somewhat
paler at the joints. The wings are mere yellowish white scales. Abdomen
large, black and shining, a short, close pubescence on each side of the 2nd seg-
ment and this and the remaining segments, except the first, bounded across
the back and sides on the posterior edge by a belt of long, silvery white hairs.
These belts are divided on the dorsal ridge by a shining glabrous line like the
anterior portion of the segment. These belts are plainly visible without the
aid of a magnifier. Length .14.

Six 9 specimens.

New species of galls, the flies of which are. as yet, unknown to me-
QuERCUS Chinquapin. Gall a cone-like hoaij^ developed from the
axillary leaf-buds^ and covered ivhen green and often when dry with a
dense, rose-like cluster of imperfectly developed leaves. The cell con-
taining the larva smooth, shining, oval, about one-eighth of an inch long,
half immersed in the apex of the cone. — C. Q. frondosa n. sp. Gall
fly unknown.

These singular and very pretty galls are developed after the summer
growth of the tree is completed, and the axillary buds are formed. The

* November 29. A single fly was found in the box yesterday. It is quite ac-
tive, and does not diflTer from those cut from the galls, showing those to have
been mature.

1864.] 689

sting of the insect causes the huds that would otherwise remain unde-
veloped till the following year, to develop in the autumn in the abnor-
mal manner described above.

The rudimentary leaves are green, ligulate. and the more perfectly
developed galls resemble, more than anything else I can think of, the
flowers of the common Artemesia of the flower garden. They are not
common, but T have several times met with them, and the clump of oak
bushes from which my specimens were gathered was covered with them.
The larvae are now fully grown. On the same bushes I found a gall
like C. q. globulus Fitch, — and several dry, brown galls on the petioles
of the leaves, apparently those of C. q. petioUcoIa.

Q. RUBRA. Clusters of seed-like bodies^ often thirty or forty toge-
ther growing on the midvein on the under side of the leaves of Q. rubra.
The larger cells are about the size of a grain of wheat. They are
smooth, greenish-white, the apex enlarged, arid would remiud a botanist
of the sessile stigma of some flowers. — C. Q. decidua, n. sp. Gall fly
unknown.

My specimens were collected about the first of October, and were
then fully grown. Some had fallen to the ground, but on cutting open
a large number I could not detect any larvae. The leaf stems and twigs
were placed in water to keep them green, but the galls soon dried and
many fell ofi". A few fell into the water, and these not only kept green.
but on opening them a few days since, half-grown larvae were found.
Prom this I infer that the growth of this species is dependent upon the
galls being covered in the earth.

Gen, DIASTROPHUS.
DiASTROPHUS PoTENTlLL^, n. sp. Gralls On Potentilla Canadensis-
They are from .3 to .5 of an inch in diameter, and rather longer than
thick, growing in the axils of the leaves ; of a soft spongy consistence
when dry, and each contains a single cell in shape and size like the nu-
cleus of G. q. globulus, though not, like that, free from the substance
in which it is enclosed. They are rather rare here (Conn.), but I saw
large numbers of them in the northern part of Berkshire Co., Mass.,
last summer. The fly came out May 20th from galls of the previous
year's growth. It is much like D. nebulosus 0. S., but Baron Osten
Sacken has compared it with this species, and pronounces it distinct.

690 [December

Male. — Head black; vertex nearly smooth, the face black, finely aciculate, a
ridge or carina from the vertex to the mouth, organs of the mouth with faintest
possible tinge of reddish-brown. Antennae.: 1st, 2nd and 3rd joints black, the
remaining ones dark cinnamon. 3rd joint not deeply incised, 14-jointed. Tho-
rax black; collare hairy: mesothorax shining; two deep lines from coUare con-
verging towards the scutellum ; space enclosed nearly smooth and hairless,
with very faint longitudinal grooves. Scutellum sculptured, the basal pits
large and deep. Lateral view of the scutellum shows as a cone, the axis of
which is at an angle of 45 deg. from the axis of the body. Legs dark brown or
black, coxse black; femur and tibia yellowish brown, on the upper side darker;
tips of tarsi black or nearly so; pleura very finely aciculate. Abdomen briefly
petiolate, shining black, 2nd and 3rd segments connate jointed. Wings pale
dusky; veins heavy, none of them reaching the margin; vein forming the base
of radial area with heavy brown blotch. 1st transverse reddish-brown; areolet
small distinct; radial area open. Cubitus disappearing before reaching the first
transverse. Length (dry specimen) .11.

Female. — Antennae 13-jointed, legs a shade darker than the male, otherwise
as the male, though as usual larger, .13 long. The ocelli form nearly a straight
line on the head. Abdomen in male and female perfectly smooth and shining.

[n Mr. Cresson's Catalogue of described N. Am. Hjmenoptera,
.pltm^yotantillse, Harris, occurs, taken from Dr. Harris' Catalogue of Ins.
Mass. 2nd ed. I have not seen Dr. Harris' catalogue. Should my
insect prove identical with his. I shall have only removed it to Dias'
trophus, the genus to which, without doubt, it properly belongs.

The following remarks and description were communicated to me by
Baron R. Osten Sacken, for publication in this paper:

" In my paper entitled 'Additions and Corrections,' etc., (Proc. JSntom. Soc. 1862)
1 described a gall under the name of C. q. strobilana (1. c. p. 254), the producer
of which was at that time unknown to me. Many months afterwards, I ob-
tained the fly, by cutting the dry galls open. It belongs to the genus Cynips
in the restricted sense (agamous according to Hartig), and I let its description
follow;
Cynips quercws strobilana 0. Sacken.

J. Antennse 14-jointed; body dark brown, with a close, appressed pubescence
on the thorax and along the hind margins of the abdominal segments; feet
brown ; anterior knees and tarsi reddish ; wings hyaline ; length from 0.17 — 0.22.

Head black, finely punctured and pubescent; palpi reddish; antennse rather
short for the size of the insect, 14-jointed; third joint about as long as the two
first, taken together; fourth, fifth and sixth gradually decreasing in length, the
seven penultimate joints being nearly as long as broad; the last segment \i
somewhat longer than the preceding, although not equal in length to the two
penultimate joints taken together; it shows no indication of a sub-division.
Thorax densely clothed above with a yellowish, appressed pubescence, which

1864.] 691

does not prevent, however, from distinguishing the sculpture; the latter con-
sists of a moderately dense punctation and several rather shallow grooves, two
of which, running from the collare backwards, end about the middle of the
thorax by a slight, smooth and flat expansion. Pleurae black, punctured, ex-
cept a smooth, shining spot in the middle; their lower part is pubescent. Scu-
tellum punctured above, rugose behind and finely pubescent; the pits at its
base are of moderate size. Abdomen pitch-black, in some specimens slightly
reddish below and along the hind margin of the segments; its whole surface,
except the base of the segments and a narrow, smooth line along the back, is
clothed with a whitish, appressed pubescence; under this pubescence a mode-
rately dense jjunctation is perceptible; the second (largest) segment of the ab-
domen hardly reaches its middle. The feet are dark brown, pubescent: the
base of the femora, the knees and the tarsi of the foremost pair are reddish; in
some specimens a reddish tinge appears at the base of the femora and on the
knees of the two posterior pairs. Wings hyaline; the second transverse vein
forms a knee which bears a distinct stump of a vein in the middle.
Seven 9 specimens."

Waterbury, Conn.. Dee. 1864,

CONTEIBUTIONS

TO THE

Natural History of the CYNIPID^ op the United States
and their galls.

Aeticle 3rd.

BY BABON B. OSTEN SACKEN.

[From the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philada., April, 1863.]

1863.] ni{

Contributions to the Natural History of the CYNIPID^ffi of the United States
and of their galls. Article 3rd.

BY BARON R. OSTEN SACKEN. ^

Since my first articles on this subject (on the Cynipidse of the oaJc,
in Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., Oct. 18 .1, and Arlditions^ etc., ibid. Sept.
1862), I have continued to work out the collections of galls and their
inmates I had on hand ; a large supply of materials I owe to the libe-
rahty of Mr. Norton. Thus I found myself able, in addition to the
CynipkJse of the oak, described in the above quoted papers, to prepare
one on those of the hlacliherrij and ilie rose^ which I submit herewith
to the friends of entomology.

The present publication does' not exhaust the materials contained in
my collection and I hope, in one or two more articles, to bring them
also before the entomological public. As all these papei-s, although
disconnected, serve to complete each other, thus gradually accumulat-
ing a store of materials for the future monographer, I have preferred
to publish them henceforth under a general title.

New York, March 6, 1863.

Cynips-Galls on the Blackberry — {RuJms sp.)

The two cynipideous galls heretofore found on the blackberry bushes
of this country are the produce of two species of the genus Diastrophus
Hartig. This deserves to be noticed, as the first and only insect of this
genus, described by Hartig, was also reared from a gall on the black-
berry. Two more species have been described since by Mr. Griraud
(Verb. Zool. Bot. Gesellsch. Wien, 1859, p. 368), the one reared from
a gall on Gentaurea scahiosa, the other captured in the net.

The genus Diastrophus, as all the other of Hartig's genera, has not
been defined anywhere. From Mr. Hartig's analytical sketch (Germ.
Z. II, p. 186, and from the addition to it, given 1. c. IV, p. 410), we
merely gather that Diastrophus has 15 ( S ) and 14 ( 9 ) jointed an-
tennae, five-articulate maxillary and three-articulate labial palpi. The
characters taken from the number of joints of the palpi, are, in my

34 [April

opinion, of little practical value, as anybody can satisfy himself by try-
ing to count them. As for the number of joints of the antennae, it
seems to vary. One of the species described below (Z). nehidosus) has
14 ( 'S ) and 13 ( 9 ) joints; Giraud's D. scahiosse has the same num-
ber; of his D. areolatus he possessed only the $ and it likewise has 13
joints. The other N. American species, however, which I describe
below (i). cuscutaeformis) has, like Hartig's D. ruhi 15 (S ) and 14
( 9 ) joints.* What Hartig says about the antennae of the % (1. c. p.
410, at bottom), " that the last joint is subdivided in two joints of
nearly equal length, thus making 15 joints", seems to indicate a struc-
ture similar to that of D. cuscutaefomis % , where the 15th joint ap-
pears to be a mere subdivision of the 14th.

One of the most curious circumstances connected with the history
of two North American blackberry galls, observed by me is, that be-
sides the Diastroj^hus, apparently the genuine originator of the gall,
they produce another gall-fly, probably parasitical, belonging to the
genus Aulax Hartig, and showing the most striking resemblance in
size, coloring, and sculpture, to the Diastrophus, their companion. The
one is the very counterpart of the other, hardly showing any differences,
except the strictly generic characters ! This seems to be again one of
those curious instances, so frequent in entomology, of the resemblance
between the parasites and their hosts ! By rearing a considerable
number of galls of D. nebidosus, I obtained this species as well as its
parasite almost in equal numbers. By cutting some of the galls open,
I ascertained that a single specimen of the gall frequently contained
both species, thus setting aside a possible doubt whether these insects
are not produced by two different, although closely similar galls.

From the gall of D. custutaeformis I also obtained an Aidax (comp.
below).

The genus Aulax Hartig (Aylax in Glerm. Z. II and III, Aulax in
vol. /F, p. 412) is not much better defined than Diasti-ophus, and I owe
the determination of both to Dr. Bheinhard, in Bautzes, Saxony.

Aulax, according to Hartig, has the antennae 15 or 16 jointed {%),
14 or 15 jointed ( 9 ). The three species described by Griraud have
all 14 ( S ) and 13(9) joints.

"•■■ I have to add, however, that I can couut only 13 joints in the 9 specimens
of X>. 7-ubi, kindly sent me by Dr. Rheinhard.

1863.] 35

My A. si/lvesfris has 14 ( ^ ) and 12 ( 9 ) joints. Another North
American species, parasitical in the gall of Rlwdites radicum 0. S. is,
in this respect, like the preceding.

The striking difference in the structure of the abdomen of the % and
the 9 is, as Mr. Rheinhard informs me, a peculiarity of this genus.
As to the position of Aidax in the system, that assigned to it by Hartig
is somewhat doubtful, as, according to his statement, some of its spe-
cies are true gall-producers (^Psenides')^ others parasites {Inquilinae).
.The further observations of Giraud have not dispelled these doubts.
Of the European 16 species at present described, seven are said to pro-
duce galls on Salvia, Scorzonera, Papaver rlioeas, Hieracium and
Glechoma ; three have been reared from galls of other species, (two
from Rliodites-g2i\\^ on the rose, one from an oak-gall of Andricus).

The N. American Aidox known to me at present, are all parasites.
A. sylvestris, described below, lives in the gSiW of Diastrophus; Atdax
semipicea Harris is obtained from the root-gall of the rose (^Rhodites
radicum 0. S.), and was mistaken by Dr. Harris for the originator of
this gall. A third species, A. futilis, which I described in my paper
on the Cynipidse of the oak (Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. I, p. 64) is some-
what doubtful, as I was not well acquainted with the characters of the
genus Aidax at that time, and have accidentally broken since the only
specimen, which I reared from the gall of Gymps q. futUis O. S. I
moreover possess three other species, all reared from rose-galls, and of
one of which (A. infuscatus 0. S.) I give a short description below.

This inconstancy in the habits of the species of the same genus is
rather anomalous, and requires further observation. I would remind
here of a very common reniform gall occurring on Vaccinium, in this
country, and from which, although collected quite abundantly, I never
reared anything but two Clialcidii : a Decatoma and a Pteromalold
insect. Would this be considered as a sufficient proof that either of
these insects is the originator of the gall ? The neuration of the wings
of the species of Aulax, especially the form of the radial area, undoubt-
edly establishes their relationship to the parasitical Cynipidae (Inqui-
linae^.

Hartig says (1. c. Ill, p. 334) that the radial area in Aulax is closed
in some species, open in others. Judging by the structure of this area
in A. sylvestris and A. semipicea, I am inclined to believe that this
character, at least in this genus, is a very indefinite one, as the closing

36 [April

of the radial area is not so mucli due to a vein, as to a thickening of
the margin of the wing, which appears like a pi-olongation of the suh-
costal vein. This thickening is more or less apparent in different spe-
cies, and hence, doubts may often arise as to the radial area being open
or closed. (Hartig himself, pag. cit., calls it, in some species, half -closed?)
The two N. American Diastrophus-gsWB and their insects may be
described as follows.

RuBUS VILLOSUS (?). Blachherry. Elongated, abrupt^ pitliy swell-
ing on the twigs, from an inch to three inches in length. DlASTRO--
PHUS NBBULOSUS n. Sp.

This deformation, chiefly due to a hypertrophy of the pith, in con-
sequence of the sting of the insect, is very common in the environs of
Washington. Its color is generally dark red or reddish brown ; its
shape oblong ; its surface generally uneven with irregular tubercles, or
with deep longitudinal farrows, dividing the whole gall in four or five
parallel ridges. The full-grown specimens are usually 2 or 3 inches
long, and from f to an inch in diameter. A transverse section of the
gall shows a large number of oblong cells, about 0.13 long, arranged
for the most part near the middle of the gall; their intervals are filled
with soft pithy matter and harder woody fibres. From galls collected
in the fall,^ the insects usually come out during the winter and in the
spring.

Besides the Diastrophm and the Aulax, I have reared from these
galls parasites belonging to the genera: C'allimome (two species),
Ormi/rus and Eiwytuma.

Diastrophus nebulosus n. sp. — Pitch-black, smooth and glossy above, antennae
and feet red: wings hyaline areolet c^tsimcii, second transverse vein and tip of
the subcostal slightly clouded; length, %, O.OS— 0.1; 9, 0.1—0.11.

% antennee 14 jointed; third joint slightly excised below.
9 " 13 ■'' third joint entire.

Head jDitcli-black, jnandibles more or less reddish, tip black; face also some-
times tinged with brownish or reddish, especially round the mouth, the face is
sculptured with fine scratches, (aciculated) convergent towards the mouth ; its
middle shows an elongated, smooth swelling; above antennae, the head is smooth
and shining; antennse reddish someti.mes darker at tip, C^ ) 14, ( 9 ) 13-joirit-
ed; the 3d joint of the '^ is the largest, excised beneath ; last joint longer than
the preceding, but shorter than the two preceding taken together, pointed, almost
conical; last joint of the J as long as the two preceding together, subcylin-
drical. pointed, showing slight indications of a subdivision into three joints;

1863.] 37

thorax pitcli black, collave and humeri aeicnlated, reddish in some specimens;
the smooth, shining siDace on the jsleurae is aciculated below, near the coxaj;
the mesothorax is smooth and shining above; interval between the parapsidal
grooves smooth ; scutellum gibbose, black, densely sculiDtured, with two pits at
base; abdomen pitch-brown, slightly tinged with red at base, second segment*
equal to half the length of the abdomen; the third somewhat shorter, the
following very short; feet, including coxee, reddish, onychia blackish; wings
hyaline, radial vein not reaching the anterior margin; both transverse veins
and the two latter segments of the subcostal more or less infuscated; areolet
distinct, of moderate size, slightly petiolate that is, separated by a short stout
vein from the adjoining corner of the radial area; two almost obsolete narrow,
diverging pale brownish streaks in the apical area; they are frequently al-
together indistinct.

Numerous % and 9 specimens. The coloring is more or less brown-
ish or reddish, according to the degree of maturity of the specimens.

Aulax sylvestris n. sp. — Pitch-black, antennse reddish, feet yellowish-red:
space between the jjarapsidal furrows somewhat punctate anteriorly ; areolet
distinct: wings hyaline; length, %, 0.09—0.1; 9, 0.1—0.12.

% ; antennse 14-jointed; second and third segments of the abdomen not
diiFering much in length ; the others short.

9 ; antennae 12-jointed the second segment of the abdomen occupies almost
the whole of its surface.

Head black, face aciculate, the scratches converging towards the mouth,
front and vertex glossy and shining. Thorax black; prothorax opaque, finely
pubescent, sculpture indistinct; dorsum of the mesothorax shining, although
a strong magnifying power shows that it is minutely punctured; pleurae with a
large, smooth and glossy square space, the lower side of which is somewhat
aciculated ; scutellum gibbose, deeply rugose-punctate, with the two usual basal
pits; abdomen pitch brown, verging in chestnut brown or yellowish brown
below; feet reddish yellow; wings hyaline; veins yellowish brown, not clouded,
radial area open (that is, not limited by a vein along the eosta).

Many S and 9 specimens.

As stated above, there is the most striking resemblance in sculpture
and coloring between this species and the preceding. In order to com-
plete their descriptions, I will add here a detailed comparison between
them.

■ ■••■ In order to avoid a possible misunderstanding, I remind here, that in
this paper, as in my preceding papers on Cynipidtz I call second segment that
which is apparently ihe first, thus following Dr. Eheinhard's terminology. (See
my paper: On the Cynipidw, etc.. Proceed. Entom Soe Phil. Vol. I, ]). 48 in the
note.)

38

[April

Diastrophus nebulosus.

9 anteiinse, 13 jointed, last joint as
long as the two- preceding taken to-
gether, etc.

'^ antennee 14-jointed; 1st joint longer,
last joint shorter than in A. sylvestris.

Prothorax (eollare) and humeri aeicu-

lated.
Thorax smooth and very shining above,

without any vestige of a sculpture,

except the usual furrows.

Interval between the anterior ends of
the parapsidal grooves (near the jjro-
thorax) smooth ; the two short, inter-
mediate grooves usually apparent
there, are hardly perceptible.

% abdomen oval, more or less attenu-
ated and pointed ( not truncate )
behind; it is compressed from above
that is, its vertical diameter is longer
than, or at least equal to, its trans-
verse diameter.

9 abdomen in structure, like that of
the % (with the usual sexual differ-
ences) ; that is, the second and third
segments of the abdomen do not dif-
fer considerably in length.

Sheath of the ovipositor concealed.

Wings. Subcostal, first and second
transverse veins much stouter than
the others and clouded with brown.

Second transverse vein slightly arched
and shorter than in A. sylvestris.

Aulax sylvestris.

9 antennse, 12-jointed, last joint longer
than the two preceding taken toge-
ther, subcylindrical, showing a sub-
division in three joints.

% antennse, 14-jointed; first joint shor-
ter, last joint longer than in D.nebu-
losus.

Prothorax and humeri indistinctly
punctured and finely downy.

Dorsum of the thorax appearing mi-
nutely punctured under a strong
magnifying power, and therefore
somewhat less shining than in D.
nebulosus.

Interval between the anterior ends of
the parapsidal grooves with some
distinct punctures ; the two short,
intermediate grooves are apparent.

% abdomen bell or funnel-shaped, ti'un-
cate behind; it is compressed from
the sides, that is, its transverse dia-
meter, at the broadest place is shorter
than its vertical diameter.

9 abdomen very different in structure
from tliat of the male, as the second
segment occujDies almost its whole
surface, the following ones being
either concealed under it or protrud-
ing but little beyond it; the abdomen
is strongly compressed from the
sides, that is, its vertical diameter is
much longer than the transverse
one ; seen from above, the abdomen
appears somewhat bell-shaped in
outline, being oval and truncated at
top.

Sheath of the ovipositor directed up-
wards and protruding distinctly.

Subcostal, etc., not, or very slightly,
stouter than the radial vein, not
clouded with brown.

Second transverse vein straight and
lona;er than in D. nebulosus.

1863.] 3!)

The consequence of this last diffei'ence is that the radial area of
Aulax is broader, resembling in this respect those of the other Inqui-
Unae.1 whereas the narrower, although short, area of Diastroplius, with
the areolet nearer its basis, is more like those of the true Cynipidae
{Psemdes'). Other differences between the two species are, that A.
sylvestris has the areolet slightly larger, that its feet are somewhat
paler, etc.

RuBUS sp. Blaclxherry . A numbei- of smalljTound,hoUoivhodies^
forming a cluster roitnit a hrancli. Diastrophus cuscut^formis
n. sp.

I possess two specimens of this gall, collected near Bladensburgh ,
Md., and kindly communicated to me by Mr. Hitz.

The globular, seedlike bodies, each having about 0.1 in diameter
and producing a single insect, are (in one of my galls) from 60 to 70
in number, and occupy a space of about an inch and a half on the
branch. They are pressed closely together and offer some resemblance
to the seeds of Cuscuta, when found in winter attached to a stem.
Many of the round bodies emit more or less strong spines, which impair
in a measure the regularity of their form. The consistency of their
shell is woody ; their color brownish, like that of the branch.

I was unable to ascertain on what species of Ruhus this gall occurs.

Besides the Diastrophus^ originating this gall, I have obtained from
it an Ormyrus and an Aidax^ which, as far as I can judge from a single
specimen, is my A. sylvestris, also reared from the other blackberry-
gall.

Diastrophus cuscutaeformis n. sp. Pitch brown or black; antennae and feet
red; areolet toanting ; wings hyaline, a small brown cloud near the anterior
margin, on the angle formed by the second transverse vein and the tip of the
subcostal; % 15 (?), 9 14 jointed antennae.

This species is like D. nebulosus in sculpture and coloring, with the
following differences : 1. The $ antennae are 14 (and not 13-jointed) ;
the last joint is shorter than the two preceding taken together, sub-
conical, pointed; the 9 antennae (at least in the only specimen of that
sex which is in my possession) have the 14th joint elongated and sub-
divided by a somewhat indistinct suture in two unequal halves, the
posterior one being the shortest and thus forming a minute 15th joint.

40 [April

2. The color of the aiitennse is somewhat more brownish. 3. The face
is aciculated all over its surface, without any smooth spot in the mid-
dle. 4. The scutullum is drawn out into a point, almost subconical.
5. The wings have no areolet (two specimens have an irregularly formed
areolet on the left wing only) ; this cell, however, cannot even be con-
sidered as a true areolet, as, instead of being formed by a bifurcation
of the second transverse vein, it occupies the lower corner of the radial
ai-ea. 6. The brown cloud near the tip of the subcostal vein is larger
and more distinct; this portion of that vein is very stout, dark brown,
and is distinctly attenuated before reaching the margin, whereas in
D. nehulosus it has the appearance of touching the margin, and is
paler brown and less distinctly attenuated. 7. The pale brown clouds,
in the form of streaks, towards the tip of the wing, which exist in D.
nehulosus, are wanting here.

One % and eight 9 specimens. The % is easily distinguished by
the third antennal joint, excised below. The coloring of this species,
like that of the preceding, is frequently more or less brownish or red-
dish, especially on the face, the collare and the humeri, according to
the maturity of the specimens.

Cynips-galls on the Rose.

I. The Galls.

I am acquainted with eight cynipideous galls on the different kinds
of roses of this country. My account of them is, perhaps, not so com-
plete as I would desire it, as most of these galls have not been observed
by myself, but were communicated to me by others.

1. An agglomeration of hard celU round a branch, the whole covered
with long and dense greenish filaments and forming a moss-lihe mass
of an inch and a half or more in diameter. This, or a similar gall
(see Reaumur, vol. Ill, Tab. 47) is well known in Europe under the
name of the hedeguar, (from the Hebrew hedeguach, said to mean rose-
apple), and was formerly used medicinally. I cannot discover any
difference between the gall-fly obtained in this country and some Euro-
pean specimens of R. rosae, communicated to me by Mr. Rheinhardt.
One specimen of the gall from New York, was communicated to me by
Mr. Glover ; another, with numerous female Rhodites reared from it,
by Mr. Norton. Mossy galls of simillar appearance, but much smaller,

1863.] 41

occur frequently on rose leaves. I do not know whether they are the
produce of the same insect. Besides the ordinary parasites, a beautiful
Eupelmua with rudimental wings and two elevated ridges on the meso-
thorax, has been reared from this gall.

2. Hard, woody, irregidar sioellmg of the branches, generally about
two inches long and about half an inch or a little more in diameter.
This is the gall of Rhodites dichlocerus Harris (Harris, Insects, etc.,
p. 549, Tab. VIII, p. 8, of the 3d edition). Specimens from New York
and Connecticut were communicated to me by Mr. Akhurst and Mr.
E. Norton. The % and 9 insect are described below under the above
name. A^dax, (Jallimome, Ormyrus and Eurytoma were reared from
this gall.

Several 9 specimens of Rhodites apparently identical with R. dich-
locerus were labelled in Mr. Norton's collection as having been reared
from the elongated, densely prickly rose-gall (comp. below, No. 8). If
this is not a mistake, it would lead to one of the two conclusions : either
the insects obtained from the two galls offer some nice distinctions
which escaped my scrutiny, or the prickly gall No. 8 is a mere variety
of the other.

8. Oblong or rounded swellings of the small branches. They vary in
appearance, as there is sometimes one more or less oblong swelling, con-
taining two or three cells, and about one third of an inch long, some-
times a series of three or four such swellings, which, although continu-
ous, do not coalesce entirely, each preserving its rounded shape. In
this respect this gall is very different from the preceding, which, in
the majority of specimens, is a more continuous swelling, tapering at
both ends.

When cut open, the galls appear more hollow than those of R. dich-
locerus, and this for the very plain reason that, although being smaller,
they produce insects, and consequently contain hollows, of the same
size. There also seems to exist a constant difference in the color of
both galls; the specimens of the gall of R. dichlocerus in my posses-
sion have a more or less dark, purplish-red skin; those of the other
gall are either green, when found on young, green twigs, or they have
the color of a dead branch. I found this gall near Washington, and
reared from it (besides the R. verna n. sp. described below), Eurytoma,
Ormyrus, Eupelmus, Tetrastichus and Pteromalus. A small moth had
also taken refuge within one of the probably empty galls.

42 [April

4. Rounded^ warty ^ sometimes very large gall, smooth on the out-
side^ occurring on the roots of roses and containing numerous cells,
with an intervening pithy matter. This is the gall described by Dr.
Harris (1. c. p. 5-i9), as the gall of Cynips semipicea, Harris. But
Dr. Harris's description of this insect does not refer to the true origi-
nator of the gall, Rhodites radicum n. sp. (described below). Dr.
Harris says : they resemble closely the darh varieties of C dichlocerus
in color and in the little furrows of the thorax, hut their legs are rather
paler and they do not measure more tlian one-tentli of an inch in
lengthJ' R. radicum is much larger than one-tenth, and its legs in-
stead of being paler, are on the contrary conspicuous among those of
the other Rhodites by the intensity of their brownish-red color. Dr.
Harris's description probably refers to a parasite (perhaps an Aulax^.

Specimens of this gall have been communicated to me by Mr. Nor-
ton and Mr. Akhurst. Evrytoma, Callimome, Ormyrus and an Eu-
ptelmus, with rudimental wings, have also been reared from it.

5. Rounded, smooth, ahnipt swellings of the branches. The out-
side of this gall (form, color and skin), is not like the preceding.
Some of them remind by their appearance the galls of Diastrophus
nebulosus on the blackberry. They are easily distinguished from R.
dichlocerus (No. 2), as they rise abruptly from the branch, whereas the
other gall is gradually tapering at both ends. The substance of this
gall is rather soft, corky, with numerous cells. The form is more or
less oblong, sometimes almost round ; my specimens measure from
three-fourths of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length ; the
largest is a little more than three-fourths of an inch broad.

Mr. Norton, to whom I owe the communication of this gall, reared
from it a very large number of specimens of an Aulax. Until further
proof I cannot, however, consider this insect as the originator of the
gall. I am also doubtful, whether several specimens of Rhodites (de-
scribed below as R. ignota n. sp.) in Mr. Norton's collection, marked
as being obtained from " smooth rose-galls,'' belong here, as precisely
similar specimens were reared from another gall (comp. gall. No. 7).

Aulax pirata n. sjd. — Black, with reddish-yellow feet and antennse ; base of
coxse black ; thorax pubescent; wings hyaline; length % 0.08, 9 0.1.

Head black, mandibles somewhat reddish; face finely pubescent , a longitu-
dinal j)rotuberance between the mouth and the antennse; the interval between
it and the eyes is finely aeiculated, the scratches converging more or less to-

1863.] 43

wards the mouth; antennas reddish (somewhat brownish in some of tlie 9);
14:-jointed in the % , the third joint very strongly excised on the underside,
with jDrojections on both sides of the excision which give this joint an almost
reniform or crescent-shajDed appearance; last joint but a little longer than the
preceding; 9 antennae 12-jointed, third joint without excision, last joint much
longer than the preceding, although not quite as long as the two before last
taken together ; thorax black, finely pubescent, finely but densely sculptured,
and therefore not very shining, although not opaque; parapsidal grooves not
deep, and distinctly apparent only from a side view; intermediate grooves in-
distinct, shallow, convergent ; pleurae with a large, polished space, which ap-
pears aciculated only under a strong magnifying power ; scutellum protube-
rant, deeply rugose, opaque, with two small pits at the bottom ; abdomen black,
polished; in the % elliptical, base finely pubescent above, the third segment
longer than the second ; the following ones contracted ; the tip finely punc-
tured and pubescent ; in the 9 somewhat rhomboidal on a side-view, flattened
from the sides ; the second segment occupies nearly the whole of its surface ;
the following ones contracted : the last one finely pubescent ; sheath of the
ovipositor exserted above the abdomen, pointing upwards ; (the structure of
the 9 abdomen is exactly the same as that of A. sylvestris, n. sp. described on
page 37) ; wings hyaline, veins pale; second transverse vein somewhat arched;
margin of the wing inside of the radial area thickened, so as to make it appear
closed ; areolet of moderate size.

A large number of % and 9 specimens.

6. Round galls^ about 0.3 or 0.4 in diameter, covered with prickles
about as long as the diameter of the gall. Sometimes three or four of
these galls are in a cluster. This is the gall of Rhodites (Cynips)
bicolor Harris (1. c. p. 548). Grail and fly were communicated to me
by Mr. Norton; the fly is described below. Besides other parasites,
numerous specimens of an Aulax were reared from it by Messrs. Norton
and Akhurst. This Aulax is hardly different from A.pirata, described
above.

7. Round gcdls of the size of a pea, covered with a white effores-
cence, on the leaves of Rosa Carolina. Sometimes two or three of
these galls coalesce, thus forming an elongated mass of more irregular
shape. The leaf is often almost wholly obliterated, the galls growing
near the central rib. The substance (at least that of the dry galls
which I have for examination), is hard and woody. Each gall contains
several cells. They were communicated to me by Dr. Foreman, who
found them in Maryland, but, except a Ccdlimome, I obtained nothing
from them.

Among the galls communicated to me by Mr. Norton, there is a

44 [April

single specimen of one, which is not unlike the preceding, and may be
the same gall ; it consists of a mid-rib of a leaf, on which are four
rounded galls, somewhat, although not entirely coalescent, each retain-
ing its rounded form; the specimen is about 0.8 long, the diameter of
each of the galls being 0.15 or 0.2. The surface is finely, irregularly
netted, yellowish and not whitish-mealy like the other. From this
gall were obtained two % specimens, which apparently belong to the
species described below as R. ignota. The latter species was labelled
in Mr. Norton's collection as being reared from a " smooth rose-gall."
(See above, No. 5).

8. Elongated swelling of a tvng, covered with numerous^ dense
prickles. I owe to Mr. Grlover a specimen of this gall, a section of
which shows cells, evidently belonging to a cynipideous insect. The
originator of the gall is unknown to me ; but in Mr. Norton's collection
several 9 specimens of an insect apparently identical with i?. dicMocerxhs
were labelled as being reared from a similar gall.

II. Ehodites Hartig.

The genus Rhodites., in Europe as in N. America, seems to be ex-
clusively confined to the rose. Five European species are known, all
producing galls on this shrub. Six N orth- American species, which all
share the same mode of living, are described below ; one of these spe-
cies (R. rosse, L.) is common to Europe and N. America.

Rhodites as a genus, is very easily distinguished by its general ap-
pearance, although it is no more satisfactorily defined than the other
cynipideous genera. Hartig, for instance, counts 15 and 16 joints on
the antennae, whereas I never found more than 14 in hath sexes. The
last joint shows, it is true, a kind of suture in the middle, but this
suture is no true division of a joint, as can be easily ascertained by
comparing it to the other divisions; moreover, it occurs in both sexes
and may even be indistinctly perceived in some of the other joints.
The third joint is the longest, generally as long as, or a little longer
than, the two following taken together. The underside of the last ab-
dominal segment is drawn out here in a long point, which seems to be
peculiar to the genus ; in Diastrophus for instance, the tip of this seg-
ment is more or less truncated.

The sexes are frequently distinguished in this genus by the coloring
of their abdomen and wings; the neuration as well as the sculpture of
the thorax are generally the same in both sexes.

1863.] 45

Analytical table for the determination of the species.

MALE SEX.

1. "Whole abdomen black 2

Basal third of the abdomen red ; areolet small, often

wanting R. dichlocerus Harris.

2. A stump of a vein, or at least a pointed or angular

projection inside of the radial area on the second

transverse vein M

Ifo such stump or projection, the second transverse

vein, inside of the radial area, being smooth ;")

?>. A short, brown line or projection, like the stump of a
vein, on the underside of the areolet, near the angle
directed towards the tip of the wing ; elongated
brownish clouds, indefinite in outline, in the apical

area E. Mcolor Harris.

No such line or stump 4

4. A more or less distinct brown spot or cloud at the tip

of the radial vein, near the margin of the wing;
another on the transverse vein between the areolet
and the margin; space of the radial area between these
two clouds hyaline; no glossy, shining spots on the

pleurae R. ignota n. sp.

Radial area tinged more uniformly than in the pre-
ceding species ; pleurae with smooth spots, which
are much more glossy than their surroundings R. rosse Linn.

5. Parapsidal grooves remarkably deep ; areolet small,

radial and apical areas clouded R. radicum n. sp.

Parapsidal grooves very moderate, areolet of ordi-
nary size; hardly any distinct clouds on the radial
and apical areae R. verna n. sp.

FEMALE SEX.

1. Whole body pale chestnut R. dichlocerus Harris.

Body black R. radicum n. sp.

Head and thorax black, abdomen red 2

2. Whole abdomen red 3

Three or four of the last segments black R. rossB Linn.

3. No stump or projection on the second transverse vein,

inside of the radial area; the latter and its sur-
roundings clouded with pale brownish, R. verna n. sp.

A stump of a vein or a pointed or angular projection
on the second transverse vein, inside of the radial
area 4

4. Radial area and its environs clouded ; a short brown

line, like the stump of a vein on the underside of

the areolet R. bicolor Harris.

Two small, but well-marked clouds occupy ^oth sides
of the radial area, its middle being hyaiWe R. ignota n. sp.

46 [April

Description of the sjiecies.

Khodites dicMocerus Harris.

Syn. Cynijjs dichlocerus Harris, Ins. of Mass. 3d edit. p. 549.

% 0.1 long, black, base of abdomen red.

2 0.14 long, brownish red, antennae black, excejst the three basal joints.

% Head black, dark reddish behind, sometimes also with a reddish spot on
the inside of the eye ; mandibles (except tip) and labrum red ; two basal joints
of the antennae often reddish-brown. Thorax black, suboj)aque, pubescent,
punctate and rugose, parapsidal grooves well marked, intermediate grooves
flat, with a shining bottom; often a reddish spot on the pleurse, immediately
over the anterior coxse , sonaetimes one on the scutellum; abdomen black, yel-
lowish-red at base ; this red has more extent on its sides (where it sometimes
reaches the third segment), than on its back; feet red; coxse red with black
base, sometimes black with reddish tip; tip of tarsi black ; wings hyaline; the
second transverse vein curved or angular ; areolet either of moderate size, or
very small, or altogether wanting, its sides coalescing into one stout vein (this .
is quite often the case with this species).

' 9 Head brownish red, cheeks generally more brownish ; antennae : three
basal joints, except the very tip of the third, red; the remainder black; thorax
brownish red, sculpture as in the % ; abdomen brownish red; pointed tip of the
lower half of the last segment, brown ; wings pale brownish ; radial area and
surroundings clouded with pale brown; areolet extant; second transverse
vein angular.

Numerous % aud $ specimens ; the latter more common. Mr. Har-
ris does not notice the difference in color of the % and the 9 ', he only
mentions a darker variety, which may be the % . Some of tlie % spe-
cimens are much smaller than the others, and with much less red at
the base of the abdomen.

The gall is described above (No. 2).

Rhodites radicum n. sp.

'^ 0.13 long; coxse black.

9 0.15 long; coxse dark reddish, their base black.

Head and antennse black ; two basal joints of the latter sometimes reddish-
brown; mandibles reddish; thorax black, somewhat shining, densely, but very
finely and uniformly sculptured, so as to give its surface a silky ajjpearance ;
parapsidal grooves broader and deeper than in the other species, running down to
the humeri ; intermediate grooves short, but well marked ; pubescence of the
thorax above scattered and hardly apparent, except on a side-view ; pleurse
with two smooth and shining oblong spaces ; huineri very rugose, scutellum
likewise; abdomen black, shining, sometimes brown; borders of segments
sometimes paler ; feet dark red, two hind pairs of femora infuscated, especially
at base ; tips of tarsi brown ; wings : radial and apical arese and a portion of
the cubital clouded with brown ; areolet rather small ; its angle, directed to-
wards the base of the wing, is for the most time pale, subobsolete; the portion
of the cubital between the first transverse vein and the areolet is often subob-

1868.] 47

solete or obsolete in this species ; the secoad transverse vein is smooth, with-
out projection inside of the radial area, although sometimes slightly angular.

The sexes in this species are more alike than in any other- they are,
however, easily distinguished by the structure of the abdomen.

The specimens which I possess in considerable number, were com-
municated to me by Mr. E. Norton.

As already noticed above. Dr. Harris's C semipicea cannot possibly
refer to this species. (Compare about it the description of the gall,
under No. 4.)

Rhodites rosse Linn.

% Black.

9 0.13 — 0.15 long, abdomen red, black at tip.

9 Head and antennae black, mandibles reddish, thorax black, pubescent,
smooth and but finely sculptured, parapsidal grooves not deep, and quite in-
distinct when viewed from above, stopping some distance before reaching the
humeri, intermediate furrows well marked, shining at bottom, pleurae with two
oblong, shining spots, abdomen red, the four last segments black ; feet red,
coxse and tip of tarsi black , wings pale brownish, with a brown cloud on the
radial area and its surroundings ; the second transverse v&in, which is angular,
has a small, but distinct projection within the radial area; areolet of moder-
ate size.

The sculpture of the thorax is not dense enough to render it opaque
and it retains some of its gloss; in this respect it resembles the R.
verna. By all means, the black tip of the abdomen renders this spe-
cies sufficiently distinct.

The male seems to be very rare, as among 200 specimens which
passed through my hands, thanks to Messrs. Norton and Akhurst, there
was only a single % . I was unfortunate enough to lose it in attempt-
ing to paste it on paper. The glimpse I had of it was sufficient to
show that its abdomen was black, and its wings less tinged with brown.
(The European Rlioclites rosse % has also a black abdomen.)

The gall of this species has been described above (under No. 1); it
is similar to the European gall, known as the hedeguar of the rose. I
could not perceive any difference between my specimens of the Euro-
pean R. rosse Linn, and the American insect.

Rhodites verna n. sp.

% 0.1 — 0.11 long, body black, feet red, coxse black.

9 0.15 long, abdomen red; feet, including the coxse, red; base of the latter
black.

Head and antennae black, mandibles reddish, thorax black, finely, not
densely sculptured, sometohat shining, pubescent, parapsidal grooves moderately deep ;

48 [April

they touch the humeri : the intermediate grooves generally appear as smooth
lines, unless viewed obliquely; scutellum rugose on the sides, more smooth in
the middle, but, in general, not so rough in appearance as in most other species ;
abdomen ( %, ) black, ( 9 ) mA, fringed with pale yellowish hairs on the hind borders
of the segments; tip of the point on the underside of the 9 abdomen brown:
basis of % femora brownish; wings % hyaline, 9 somewhat tinged with brown
and with a more or less distinct cloud on the radial area and its surroundings;
. in both sexes, the second tranverse vein has no projection within the radial
area and is arcuate ; the areolet is of a moderate size, larger in 9 •

Two % and 16 9 specimens reared by me in Washington, from the
galls. These have been described above (No. 8).

The fringe of pale yellow hairs on the border of the % abdominal
segments seems to be peculiar to this species, as it is quite distinct in
all my specimens, whereas I do not notice it in the numerous speci-
mens of other species, communicated to me by Mr. Norton.

R. verna resembles in coloring R. hicolor and R. ignota; but the
latter is easily distinguished by the peculiar coloring of its wings; R.
hicolor by its less pubescent, more roughly sculptured, and therefore
more opaque thora^s and scutellum, the structure of its second trans-
verse vein, etc.

Rhodites hicolor Harris.

% 0.15 long, black ; feet red, coxse black.

J 0.15 — 0.16 long, abdomen red ; feet and coxse, except at the base, red.

This species is so much like the preceding, in both sexes, that it will be
sufficient, for its recognition, to notice the differences.

Thorax less pubescent, somewhat more roughly sculptured and therefore
more opaque ; parapsidal furrows somewhat deeper ; the intermediate furrows
appear as distinct ridges when viewed obliquely; scutellum, likewise, more
deeply rugose : the smooth, glossy spots existing on the pleurae of some other
species are hardly apparent here, these spots being sculptured more or less like
the remainder of the pleurae ; the brownish cloud on the radial area of the 9
is more intense ; the % wing is also somewhat clouded along the stout veins
and has two indistinct clouds in the apical area ; the second transverse vein
has a light projection about its middle, in the radial area (in some specimens
this projection is very small) ; the veins forming the anterior angle of the
areolet, as well as the portion of the cubital vein, preceding the areolet, in this
species are thin, often subobsolete ; said portion of the cubital vein being ofcen
merely indicated by a brownish streak (without vein) ; there is a short, pale
hrovm line, as if a stump of a vein, close by the posterior angle of the areolet, (that
is the angle, which is nearer the tip of the wing), on its out and underside.
This last mark, trifling as its seems to be, exists in precisely the same degree
of distinctness, in the nine specimens which I have before me.

A single % and 8 9 specimens, communicated by Mr. Norton and

1863.] 41)

reared by him from the gall (see above, No. 6). The male is- conside-
rably larger than that of 7?. verna.

Rhodites ignota n. sp.

'J, 0.12 — 0.13 long, black; feet red; coxse and base of femora black.
9 0.14 long, abdomen red; feet, including coxse, red.

Head and antenna black, mandibles brownish red, thorax black, densely
rugose, opaque; i^arapsidal furrows not very distinct, intermediate ones like-
wise; the latter, in some specimens, have the appearance of small ridges ; no
distinct, smooth, shining spots on the pleurte, especially in the 9; wings: se-
cond transverse vein angularly bent, with a projection in the middle, inside of
the radial area; (in some specimens, especially the %, this projection is quite
large, like the stump of a vein); radial area shorter than in the other species,
the radial vein being slightly arched; the margin of the wing within this area
is thickened, so as to appear like a vein, closing the area; a brown spot between
the areolet and the anterior margin; another one at the tip of the-jadial vein,
near the margin; (in the % these spots have often very little extent, appearing
only like brownish margins along the veins); the space of the radial area be-
tween these spots is hyaline; the tinge of the 9 wing is somewhat yellowish,
whereas that of the % is more hyaline.

The thorax of this species is proportionally smaller than the thorax
of JR. verna or bicolor, and hence the body has a more slender appear-
ance.

Four S and two 9 specimens were in Mr. Norton's collection, with
labels indicating that they had been obtained from a '' smooth rose
gall". Is it the gall described above under No. 5 ? This seems doubt-
ful, as two other males, apparently of the same species, were reared
from quite a different gall, described under No. 7.

ERRATA.

Some corrections in my paper have become necessary in consequence of my
having made a change in the latter part of my manuscript, and having forgot-
ten to introduce a corresponding alteration in the preceding text. These cor-
rections refer all to page 35 and are as follows : —

Line 1 and 2 from the top. Instead of Another ISTorth American species par-
asitical, in the gall of It. radicum, read: My Aulax pirata, parasitical on rose-
galls, is, etc.

Line 15 and 16. For ^wtoa; semipicea Harris is obtained, read: Ct/nips seini.-
picea Harris is probably an Aulax, obtained etc.

Line 17. Strike out the word ivas.

Line 23. For three read two.

Line 24. For A. infuscatus rea,d A. pirata.

Line 2 from the bottom, for A. semipicea read A. pirata.

On page 39, line 8 from the bottom, after the word antennee. add: Length.,
% 0.08; 9 about 0.1.

f a^^v/t -2'

ABDITIOKS ANB CORBECTlOKS

TO THE PAPER ENTITLED:

ON THE CYNIPID^ OP THE NORTH AMERICAN OAKS

AND THEIR GALLS."

BY BABON B. OSTEN SACEEN.

[From the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, Sept. 1862.]

18(i2.] 241

Additions and corrections to the paper entitled:
"On the CYNIPID^ of the North American Oaks and their Galls."

BY BARON R. OSTEN SACKEN.

Since the publication of my paper on the Cijnipidse of the North Amer-
ican Oaks (Proc. Entom. Soc. Phila. Oct. 1861), I have had occasion to
make some additional observations, which serve to complete and often to
correct, the statements of that paper.

It requires a particularly favorable situation to be able to pursue obser-
vations of this kind with some hope of attaining a certain completeness.
My position in Washington, although affording me some facilities, did not
always allow me to attain the accuracy which I desired. My removal to
New York will probably deprive me for a long time of any opportunity
of pursuing my observations. I .prefer therefore, to publish now those I
have on hand, following the conviction, already expressed before, that ob-
servations of nature should be made known without waiting too long for
their further accumulation. The reader favorably situated may perhaps
find among mine, incomplete as they are, some useful hints and suggestions.
The subject is so extremely interesting and attractive that it deserves more
attention than has been paid to it, not only in this country, but even in
Europe.

All the observations, recorded below, have been made in Washington,
unless otherwise mentioned.

Those who have paid any attention to the nomenclature of the oaks of
this country, are acquainted with the difficulties attending the recognition
of the species, chiefly of the red-oak group, if this recognition is to be
based upon single leaves or even young trees. Thus I became aware after
the publication of my paper, that the tree which I had called the red-oak
( Q. riibrci) was, in most cases, the scarlet-oak ( Q. coccinea), which seems
to be more abundant around Washington than the other. Most of the
galls, therefore, mentioned as found on the red-oak, belong very probably
to the other species. In some cases, I have been able to verify this fact,
last spring. Other cases, however, are still doubtful.

I. Additions to the paragraphs on the Oak-Apple Galls.

( 1. c. No. 1 and No. 3, p. 66 and 58.)*

At the time of my previous publication, I took for the gall of C cou-

•••■ This paragraph supersedes the NN 1 and 3 of my former jjaper, except the
descriptions of C. q. aciculata and Synophrus heinventris (1. c. p. 56 and 57), which
have not been reproduced here.

242 [Septkmbbr

fluens Harris all the oak-apples filled with a spongy substance, which I
found in the environs of Washington.

Already then, however, I noticed two varieties of this gall, the one with
a glossy, the other with an opaque surface (Compare 1. c. p. 56).

These two varieties proved since to occur on two different kinds of oaks
and therefore, very probably, to constitute two species, although the gall-
flies, obtained from them, hardly show any difference. The gall-fly from
the oak-apple No. 3 (1. c. p. 58), which I did not know at the time, but
for which I proposed by anticipation the name of 0. q. iiianis^ has also
been reared by me since, and likewise closely resembles the other two gall-
flies. Thus we have three (or perhaps four, as will be seen below) differ-
ent and easily distinguished oak-apple galls, occuring on diff"erent species
of the red-oak group, but all three producing uncommonly similar gall-flies.

The fourth oak-apple gall, peculiar to the same group of oaks, that of
C. q. aciculata, discovered by Mr. Walsh, gives a totally different fly, as
the 9 has 14- and not T3-jointed antennae.

I distinguish therefore, at present, the following oak-apple galls and
their gall-flies : —

Q. COCCINEA. Scarlet Oah? Large, more or less round gall, not at-
tenuated towards the basis; surface glossy ; shell thin and brittle; on the
inside whitish filaments radiating from the kernel to the shell. Diameter
about an inch. C. Q. inanis 0. S. (Synon. 1. c. No. 3, p. 58, and pro-
bably C. confiuens Fitch, non Harris.)

Two 9 specimens obtained from the galls on the 20th of June, 1862,
iinswer to the following description : —

Head black, deeply, irregularly sculptured on the front and vertex; face finely
pubescent, rugose; antennae 13-jointed, brown or reddish-brjown, especially to-
wards the tip. Thorax black, deeply, irregularly rugose, finely and sjiarsely pu-
bescent; three deeper longitudinal furrows, converging towards the scutellum,
may be distinguished among this rugosity ; their bottom is intersected by numer-
ous transverse ridges and wrinkles. These furrows are deepest and broadest near
the scutellum; the intermediate one is gradually attenuated towards the coUarej
the anterior end of the I literal ones, which runs towards the shoulders, can be seen
only when the insect is kept in a certain position towards the light. Near the an-
terior end of the intermediate furrow and parallel to it, there are smaller, rather
indistinct, longitudinal furrows and ridges. The pit at the basis of the scutellum
is large, divided in two by a longitudinal ridge; its bottom, althovigh glossy, is
marked with transverse ridges. Abdomen brownish-red, glossy ; the large basal,
in reality the second, segment (see 1. c. p. 48, foot-note) is perfectly smooth, the
other segments show a minute punctation ; (the jjosterior edge of the smooth seg-
ment shows traces of a similar punctation, but they are so minute, as to be hardly

1802.] 243

visible, requiring a strong lens to be distinguished). Legs reddish-yellow, pubes-
cent, hind tarsi sometimes infuseated ; onychia black. Wings with a brownish-
black spot at the basis of the radial area; it slightly trangresses the second trans-
verse vein, but does not touch the anterior margin of the wing.

I have found this gall more than once on young trees, belonging either
to Q. coccinea or Q. rubra. (The leaves were elongate, cuneate at the
basis and hardly or, at least, not deeply, sinuate; this is, I believe, one of
the varieties of the scarlet oak,)

Among the specimens of my collection, I find a number of galls, col-
lected in one locality and somewhat diiferent in shape from the typical
specimens of C. q. inanis. The latter are more or less globular, the leaf
being, so to say, the tangent of the globe. There is no distinct point or
nipple on the top. The other gall, on the contrary, is somewhat lemon-
shaped, being attenuated at its basis with a corresponding elongation, end-
ing in a minute nipple, at the opposite end. Its color is more brownish
than that of C. q. inanis; on the inside, I did not detect any diiference
between both galls. The tree is also either the red, or the scarlet oak.
As twelve specimens of this gall, although of diiferent size, all show the
same characters with distinctness, I can hardly believe that these are mere-
ly accidental. I obtained only parasites from this gall.

Q. COCCINEA. Scarlet Oak. Large, more or less round gall, not atten-
uated at the basis, surface glossy, shell thin and brittle ; on the inside with
a spongy substance, surrounding a kernel in the centre. Diameter upwards
to an inch and a half. C. Q. coccinea 0. S. (Syn. C. confiuens 0. S.
non Harris, ex parte ; gall No. 1, 1. c. p. 56.)

The external appeai-ance of this gall is very like that of the gall of (J.
q. inanis. It is more or less globular (although irregular specimens of
both frequently occur), that is, not narrowed towards the basis; its sur-
face is glossy. Internally, it is easily distinguished by the spongy mass
which fills it. It seems to reach a larger size than the former o-all as
among six specimens now before me, one measures an inch and a half in
diameter and two others are but little smaller, whereas among eight spec-
imens of the gall of C q. inanis the largest does not much exceed an
inch.

From the following gall it is distinguished by its glossy surface, its less
dense and more whitish spongy internal matter, its much thinner and brit-
tle shell and by its shape, which is more rounded on the top. From this
gall I have obtained this year (about the 25th of June) only one 9 speci-
men, not showing any perceptible difference from C. q. inanis, except that

244 [September

the thorax i.s somewhat reddish, which is probably due to the immaturity
of the specimen.

Q. TINCTORIA. Black Oak. Large, round gall, somewhat attenuated
and pointed at the top; surface inore or less opaque, as if powdered or
dusted; shell thick; inside, a dense, spongn/, brownish substance, surrounding
the kernel. Diameter about an inch and a half. C. Q. spongipica 0. S.

This is the opaque variety mentioned 1. c. p. 56, under the head of
Oynips confuens. On the 25th of May last I found four full-grown spec-
imens of this gall on the leaves of a large black oak (^Q. tinctorial, and
have obtained, on June 15, three 9 specimens of the gall-fly. They look
exactly like C. q. inanis, only they are a little larger, (the gall being also
larger) ; the three grooves on the back of the thorax seem to be deeper
and more distinct on their anterior portion ; the posterior part of the scu-
tellum, immediately behind the pit, seems to be more deeply and distinct-
ly excised ; finally, the punetation on the hind margin of the large (2nd)
segment of the abdomen is somewhat more distinct.

Of these galls three, taken from a high branch of the tree, can be con-
sidered as typical specimens. They are slightly oblong, that is, somewhat
extended into a point at the end, although not narrowed at the basis.
Their diameter is about an inch and a half. Their color is drab, some-
times spotted with brown on one side ; the surface is more or less opaque,
as if powdered or sericeous, and shows very little gloss. The shell is
much thicker than that of the two previous species; the spongy mass is
more dense and brownish.

A fourth specimen, found on the same tree, is more irregular in its
shape; its surface is without any gloss and altogether drab, without brown
spots. Specimens of this kind are frequently found on young shrubs of
Q. finctoria, the leaves of which are very rusty-puberulent beneath.

On a shrub of this kind, apparently also belonging to Q. tinctoria, I
found, last June, three galls, resembling exactly those just described. I
cut them open and obtained ffom two of them perfectly mature male
specimens of Cynips; the third also contained a mature specimen, yet con-
tracted in the shape of a pupa and the abdomen of which was consumed
by parasitical larvae.*

There is no reason to doubt that the two males thus obtained, belong-
to C q. spongifca ; but if not for the circumstance that they were found

* This fact is worthy of reniark, as it proves that some kinds of parasites be-
2;in their attacks only at a very late stage of the development, of the insect.

1862.] ** 245

in a similar gall, they might as well be taken for the males of the two
previous species, as the slight diiFerences they show distinguish them alike
from the three species of females.

These differences, (besides their longer and 15-jointed antennae and a
smaller abdomen, both being peculiar to the sex) consist, as far as I could
perceive, only in the dark brown, almost black, and not 7'ed color of their
abdomen, in their infuscated hind tibiae and tarsi, in a somewhat deeper
sculpture of the thorax and in a slightly more distinct punctation of the
abdomen. These male Ci/nips also resemble the C. q. cmlehs, except that
the latter is somewhat smaller and that the spot on its wing is also more
small and paler.

Q. TINCTORIA. Black oak. Large, round gall, broad and 7-ounded at
the top; surface smooth and glossy; shell, thick; inside, a dense, brown,
spongy substance surrounding the kernel. Diameter upwards to an inch
and a half. C. Q. aciculata 0. S. (Syn. C. confluens Harris ?)

This gall was communicated to me by Benj. D. Walsh Esq., in Rock
Island, 111.

The specimens which I received from him can at once be distinguished
from the gall of G. q. sjjongijica, by their smooth, glossy surface and their
subglobular or short-oval foiin, their basis being slightly attenuated, their
top, on the contrary, being bruad and rounded. Otherwise, their thick
shell and their dense, brownish spongy substance reminds of C. q. spong-
ifca.

Mr. Walsh noticed their appearance in summer (about July). The gall-
flies usually remain in the gall through the winter and escape in the spring ;
sometimes however, especially when the weather in the fall is unusually
warm, the flies leave the gall already at that season.

The synonymy of this species with C. confluens Harris, supposed by
Mr. Walsh, is founded on the occurrence of their galls at the same season,
and on the statement of Mr. Norton about the agreement of G. q. acicu-
lata with the original specimens of G. confluens in Dr. Harris's collection.
But if Dr. Harris's gall-fly really lives on the red oak (^Q. ridjra?), its great
resemblance to G. q. aciculata, occuring on the black oak ((). tinctoria)
would no more be a proof of their identity, than the great resemblance of
G. q. inanis and spongifica is of theirs. The two latter gall-flies, although
almost perfectly similar in appearance, occur on different oaks and pro-
duce quite different galls. It may be that the true G. confluens Harris,
although closely resembling G. q. aciculata, produces on the red oak a

246 [September

gall, sufficiently different from that of the other species, to be distinguish-
ed by constant characters. The synonymy of both therefore, although
probable, seems to require further confirmation.

The gall-fly G. q. aciculata has been described 1. c. p. 56. Its anteu-
nse are 14-jointed, the last joint being separated from the penultimate one
by a suture as distinct as that of all the other joints; the 14th joint is
very slightly longer than the 13th, and without any apparent transverse
impression. This character, common to C. q. aciculata and to C. q. cen~
tricola (of the oak-apple on Q. ohtusilohd) distinguishes these species at
once from C. q. inanis^ spongifica and coccinese, where the last (loth) joint
of the antennae is almost twice as long as the preceding, and shows two
indistinct transverse sutures, foreshadowing the 14th and 15th joints of
the % . The structure of the abdomen of these two groups of gall-flies
is also very different. Seen from the side, it appears in C. q. aciculata.
and centricola very slightly convex above, the line of its back not rising
abruptly above the petiole; the principal curve in the outline of the ab-
domen is on its under side, so that its side-view is not unlike that of the
seed of a Desmodium. In C. q. inanis and the two other species, on the
contrary, the abdomen, seen from the side, appears as convex above as be-
low, its doi'sal line rising steeply above the petiole. In the former group
the largest or 2nd joint (the petiole being taken for the first) is compara-
tively longer, occupying almost f of the length of the abdomen, whereas
in the other group (C. q. inanis etc.) it only reaches its middle. These
differences prove that these two groups should, in a rational systematic
arrangement, form two genera. It is also worthy of remark that both
species of one group (C q. aciculata and centricola) are produced by au-
tumnal galls, and escape either late in the fall, or remain in the gall through
the winter, whereas, the species of the other group all belong to vernal
galls, the gall growing with the leaves and the fly passing through all the
stages of its growth between the earliest spring and the end of June.

To the four oak-apple galls just described, have to be added that of C.
q. centricola 0. S., on the post-oak (1. c. p. 58, gall No. 4) and that which
I found once on Q. nicp-a, the black-jack oak (see 1. c. p. 53, line 14).
I have not found it since, but possess in my collection a specimen of a
gall-fly, closely resembling 0. q. inanis^ spongifica and coccinese, and dis-
tinguished only by a much more distinct punctation of the abdomen, which
specimen. If I remember right, was reared from that gall. (Unfortunately
I lost the label indicating its origin. )

1«62.] 247

I conclude the foregoing descriptions of oak-apple galls, by a synopsis
of those at present known to me. I omit the species gi'owing on the black
oak, as I know it but imperfectly.

With the spongy substance inside.

Shell thick ; spongy substance very dense.

Broad and rounded on the top; surface smooth

and glossy; autumnal gall on Q. tinctoria: C. q. aciculata 0. S.

Attenuated and pointed on the top ; surface
more or less opaque, as if powdered or dust-
ed ; vernal gall on Q. tinctoria : C. q. spongifica 0. S.

Shell thin and brittle ; spongy substance less dense.
Rounded, almost globular; surface glossy; ver-
nal gall on Q. coccinea : C. q. coccineae 0. S.

With the filaments radiating from the kernel to the
shell ; the latter thin and brittle.

More or less globular, not attenuated towards
the basis ; surface glossy ; vernal gall on Q.
coccinea (or Q. rubra^ : C. q. inanis 0. S.

Somewhat lemon-shaped, that is, attenuated at
both ends, with a distinct nipple on top; per-
haps a variety of the preceding, as it occurs
apparently on the same kind of oak? Gall-fly unknown.

Perfectly globular, smooth, smaller than all the
preceding galls, not drab, but more reddish-
yellow when ripe; shell although thin, but
harder; filaments on the inside more dense
and silky; autumnal gall on Q. ohtusiloha : C. q. centricola 0. S.

II. General remarks on the Oak-Apple Gtalls.

The foregoing chapter records my recent observations on the oak-apple
galls of this country. These observations being, however, yet incomplete,
leave open several questions to which I now call the attention of future
observers. Such questions are : —

1. Are Cyni-ps q. inanis, C. q. coccineoe and C. q. spongijlca one and the same species .'

2. Have the gall-flies of the oak-apples one or two yearly generations?

3. The question of the sexes.

248 [Septkmbeu

1. Aee CYNIPS Q. INANIS, C. Q. COCCINEiE and C. Q. SPONGIFICA o.ve

AND THE SAME SPECIES?

We have seen above, that these gall-flies are so similar that I could not
find any important characters to distinguish them. Still, it does not fol-
low hence that such characters do not exist. The comparison of a larger
number of specimens would probably lead to their discovery.

The supposition that they are the same species would involve another
one, that the difiierence between the galls, described under the above names
is merely due to the organic reaction of different kinds of oak against the
sting of one and the same insect. It is obvious however, that this last
supposition must be dropped if it is proved that C. q. coccincse, and C q.
iiiams both occur on Q. coccinea, of which, as shown already* I am as yet
uncertain.

Another fact apparently proving that they are really different species,
is the close resemblance of C ij. ojelebs % to the male of C. q. sponglfica.
The former is only smaller, otherwise it does not differ from the Litter more
than the females of the three species in question differ from each other.
Now C. q. Calebs seems to be undoubtedly a different species, as its spin-
dle-shaped gall occurs also on a species of oak about which I am uncer-
tain whether it is Q. coccinea or rubra. Thus we have tlii:ee different
galls, occuriug, at the utmost, on two kinds of oak, so that, by all means
two of the galls, and perhaps all the three grow on the same kind of oak.
It seems obvious, hence, thcit gall-flies, however similar they may be, must
belong to different species if they produce different galls on the same tree
and that, at the same season. Mr. Ratzeburg (in his work : Forst-In-
secteu) asserts, from personal observation, that a .species of Cj/nij)s pro-
duces the same gall even on different kinds of oak. The european C./e-
cundatrix of the Quercus pedunculata gave this result, when it attacked
some american oaks in his garden.

For all these reasons, I believe, therefore, that C. q. mams, coccinese,
spongifica and ccelebs are different, although closely allied, species of the
same genus.

2. Have the Gall-Plies or the Oak-Apples one or two generations?

If they have but one generation, what becomes of the gall-flies escap-
ing in June and the larvae of which begin to develope nearly a year later,
in the buds of the following spring ? They may lay their eggs in the buds
destined to be developed on the next year, which eggs may remain dor-
mant, till the buds begin to grow. But this remains to be proved. I do

1862.] 249

not recollect now having observed any instance of the same kind of oak-
apple being sometimes vernal (that is, beginning to grow early in the
spring, together with the growth of the leaves and producing the fly to-
wards midsummer) sometimes aufumnal (that is, reaching its full growth
later in the summer or in the fall ; the fly either escaping late in the fall
or remaining in the gall till the following spring). In my former paper
I said on p. 56 " I am inclined to agree with Dr. Fitch, who supposes that
there are annually two generations of this fly ( C. confluens).'" But I do
not remember now whether I founded this opinion on a fact or on a mere
probability, and rather believe the latter, as otherwise I would have re-
corded that fact. The question remains, therefore, undecided.

3. Sexes of the CYNIPID^.

When I first reared C. q. ccelebs % , its resemblance to the females ob-
tained from the oak-apples, which, at that time, I called C confluens,
started the idea in my mind that they might belong together and that the
question of the sexes of the Cijnipidse might thus find its solution in the
occurrence of the males in galls difierent in shape from those of the fe-
males. The discovery of the four exceedingly similar species recorded
above diminishes the importance of the resemblance on which I have bas-
ed my hypothesis. The latter is moreover apparently altogether unsettled
by the rearing of male specimens of Cynips from oak-apples. I now pos-
sess % and $ of G. q. spongifica, and Mr. Walsh has reared a S of what
seems to be G. q. coccincse. It follows hence that if % and 9 gall-flies can
be reared from oak-apples, the as yet unknown 9 of G. q. ccelehs may also
be obtained from a spindle-shaped gall, resembling that of the male. It
follows also that the gall-flies, produced by the ■vernal oak-apples of G. q.
coccinese^ inanis and spongifica do not belong to the agamous genera of
Hartig. The case is different with the autumnal oak-apples. Mr. Walsh
informs me that he has now reared over 100 Gi/nlps aciculata from oak-
apples gathered in the fall, without a single % among them. I have shown
already (p. 246) that this species, as well as Gynips q. centricola 0. S.,
which is also produced by an autumnal oak-apple, both belong to a genus
different from the above veVnal gall-flies. This genus therefore must be
the true agamous Gynips scnsu strictiori of Hartig and the question of
the male sex remains open for it.

250 [September

III. Additions to some other G-alls described in the paper
ON the CYNIPID^E etc.

To No. 5. CYZSTIPS QUERCUS PISUM Fitch (1. c. p. 59).

Last winter Dr. Morris, in Baltimore, gave me an oak leaf, apparently
that of a white oak, with several galls on its underside, resembling very
much those of G. q. pisum Fitch, only that the intervals between the
cracks of the net-work were less convex, so that the galls seemed some-
what smoother. On opening the box which contained them, on the 7th
of January, I found a wingless gall-fly walking in it. I immediately cut
one of the galls open and found that it contained two other similar apter-
ous flies, both alive. Each gall, like those of 0. q. pisum ^ contained two
cavities, separated by a partition. I am unable to decide whether these
gall-flies are the true producers of the gall or merely parasites. The three
gall-flies were females. Not knowing exactly to what genus this species
should be referred, I call it provisionally : —

Cynips pezomachoides n. sp. — Brown, mixed luith reddish on head and thorax; legs
reddish; wings rudiinental ; length about 0.12.

Head brown on front and vertex and in the middle of the face, reddish around
the eyes; antennse 14-jointed, brown, somewhat mixed witli reddish at the basis,
but little shorter than the body ; sculpture of the head hardly apparent. Thorax
comparatively small, reddish on the back, brown on the pleurae and the shoulders ;
finely pubescent; wings reduced to the size of small scales: scutellum small, with-
out any a23parent basal pits; its tijj somewhat jsointed and recurved upwards; feet
reddish; basal part of the coxse brown; the middle of the femora, the external
side of the tibiae and the tarsi, especially their tip, more or less brownish ; last
joint of tarsi rather large. Abdomen dark brown, shining, with a somewhat blu-
ish (oj^alizing) reflection. The large 2nd (apparently first) segment, with a yellow-
ish spot on each side. The four following segments are short, slightly, but gradu-
ally diminishing in length, the last of them bears below a short double jarojection,
with a fan-shaped pencil of yellowish hairs. The following (in fact the 7th) seg-
ment is longer than the jjreeeding but, being narrower, forms an abrupt angle with
the hind margin of the latter ; it is sj)arsely j^ubescent on its surface ; the eighth
segment above is connected with the preceding by a triangular, whitish membrane ;
the ovipositor is short and bears a few hairs.

Three 9 specimens.

To No. 6. CYNIPS QUERCUS TUBIC0LA 0. S. ( 1. c. p. 60).

On the first of March, 1862, I obtained a new brood of this insect, from
galls collected in autumn. The coloring of the body is variable, being
more or less mixed with brown; some of the specimens are altogether dark
brown. The antetmae appear to me now 14-jointed and as the abdomen

1862.] 251

has the same shape as those of G. q. centrlcola and (iciculafa, it is proba-
ble that G. q. tuhkola has a generic affinity with them, the more so as
all these galls are autumnal and produce only females.

To No. 11. CYNIPS QUEECUS PALUSTRIS 0. S. (1. c. p. 63).

Galls perfectly similar to those described as occuring on the pin-oak,
were observed by me this spring on Quercus falcata^ tinctovia and cocci-
nea. I succeeded in rearing the gall-flies from the two former and could
not discover any perceptible difference between them and that of Q. palus-
tris, so that my description applies to all. Still, I do not consider my in-
ability to distinguish them as a proof of their specific identity.

My description stated erroneously that the antennae are 15-jointed in
both sexes. In reality they are, as they ought to be, 14-jointed in the fe-
males. The last joint, however, is, in most specimens, distinctly divided
in two by a slight annular incision. As this incision is more distinct in
dry specimens, this was the cause of the error in my description, which I
became aware of, as soon as I obtained fresh specimens. In the same way
female gall-flies with 13-jointed antennse generally have an indication of
tivo subdivisions on their last, elongated joint.

Mr. Walsh, in Rock Island, writes me that he also discovered the gall
on Q. tinctoria. He became likewise aware of my error as to the number
of joints of the 9 antennae.

IV. Oak-Gtalls not mentioned in the paper: On the
CYNIPID^ ETC.

The following galls have been partly observed by myself, partly com-
municated to me by other persons since the publication of my paper on
the Gijnipidse,. About some of them, as will be seen below, I am not
quite sure, whether they are really the produce of this class of insects.

Quercus palustris. Pin Oak. Woody knots on the limbs, emitting
pale yellow, conical, brittle projections. Cynips quercus cornigera
n. sp. (as yet unknown).

Of all excrescences on oaks in general, the present one, wherever it oc-
curs, is perhaps the most conspicuous, as by its abundance it deforms the
tree and seems to cause considerable injury. (It has already been alluded
to 1. c. p. 55, foot-note.) It consists of woody knots on the limbs, looking
usually as if many of them were closely packed together and thus forming

252 [September

an oblong, woody irregular mass, sometimes two inches or more long. Its
most striking character are its slightly curved conical projections, hollow
on the inside, which bud forth from all sides of the gall. On dry, dead
galls, these horn-shaped projections are for the most part broken off, so
that their bases alone are visible, projecting like short tubes from the
cracks of the woody tubercle. In order to be able to designate this gall,
the development of which I have not been able to investigate completely,
I give its as yet unknown originator the provisional name of G. q. corni-
gera n. sp.

After having very frequently observed dead galls of this kind, I finally
succeeded on the 13th of May, 1862, to find some young and growing
ones. They were of moderate size; their back was greenish and their
wood soft and succulent. The conical projections were just beginning to
bud forth ; when laid bare, by removing with a knife the wood around
them, they appeared to extend deep inside of the gall, almost down to
the twig. Their color was whitish, their consistency soft, apparently
fibrous, and not woody. At that time, they were not hollow yet, and I
could not find any larvae in them. When I brought the galls home, numer-
ous gall-flies, evidently parasitical, began to escapo from them. They
emerged from hollows in the woody substance between the horn-shaped
bodies and had nothing in common with the latter. They resemble the
Cijnips (Synerges?) oneratus Harris and evidently belong to the same par-
asitical genus. When I visited the same spot during the latter part of
June, 1 found some of the horn-shaped bodies already projecting about
one-tenth of an inch; their substance had become harder and more woody;
their inner end had become club-shaped, distinctly isolated from the sur-
rovmding wood, so that the whole of these bodies could be easily removed
by cutting away the wood around them. On the inside, the inner end
was hollow and contained a small larva. This larva is probably that of
the true gall-producing Ci/iiipi<, but, unfortunately, I was prevented from
watching its growth further.

Cynips (Synerges?) lignicola 0. S. — Yellow, black sj^ot on the vertex: upper
part of thorax and of the abdomen black; length, % about 0.1 ; 9 0.12.

Head pale yellow with a black spot on the vertex: tips of mandibles black : ^
antennse 16-jointed, the third joint with the usual excision below: 9 antennse 13-
jointed, the last being elongated and showing two slight subdivisions, Collare
and pectus yellow; upj^er and hind part of the thorax black. Legs, including
the coxffi, yellow, onychia brown ; abdomen brownish- red, black above ; it consists
apparently of a single, smooth, shining segment, the following segments being

1862.] 258

contracted inider it, so that its posterior margin projects beyond them. The neck
(or first segment) of the abdomen is turgid and longitudinally grooved. The
wings are hyaline, the radial area closed; the stout veins pale yellow; the areo-
let narrow, triangular, its two anterior sides rather indistinct, almost obsolete;
the origin of the cubital vein (from the first transverse vein) is obsolete.

Numerous % and $ specimens.

Cynips oneratus Harris is somewhat larger than this species, it has a
black spot on the pectus, so that the middle coxae are inserted on a black
ground; the yellow color is not strictly confined to the collare, as in G.
lignicola^ but extends across the suture on both sides of the dorsum of
the mesothorax ; at the same time the black of this dorsum encroaches
anteriorly on the middle part of the collare, reaching the head; the ab-
domen is more light yellow, and the black on its upper part is less extend-
ed. These characters belong at least to the only specimen of C. oneratus
in my possession.

QuERCUS PALUSTRIS. Pin Oak. Rounded., looody gall on the upper
side of the leaves, along the p>rincipal ribs. Diameter upwards to 0.4 to
0.5. Gall-fly unknown.

These excrescenses, occuring frequently in autumn, vary in size from
0.15 to 0.4 or 0.5; most of them, however, are about 0.2 or 0.3 long and
narrower than their length. Their color is brownish, sometimes more or
less yellow, or reddish or with a grey efflorescence ; their surface has ir-
regular, more or less deep wrinkles, according to the age or size of the
gall; otherwise it is smooth, and has nothing of the deep and regular
sculpture of C. q. pismn. They somewhat resemble the gall of Cecido.
myia symmetrica 0. S. (see Monographs of N. A. Diptera, p. 200), but
project only on one side of the leaf; besides, their outline is more regular-
ly rounded and less deeply cracked. When cut open they show several
(commonly three) cells, divided by partitions, somewhat converging to-
wards the middle of the base.

I am not sure whether they are produced by a Cynipts, the more so as /. /

Gynips-gaWs usually occur on the under side of the leaves./ ^i?; hi.in'^ .\jiciu/'i-^<>J

IX. Lc ciJ^i^L^ii^: j
QuERCUS PALUSTRIS. Pin Oak. Round, toart-like, rusty-puberlent ex- /

crescences on the upper side of the leaf, groiving several together. Diam.

of single ones about 0.1.

These galls are not unlike those of G. q. verrucarum 0. S. (1. c. p. 61,
No. 9) of the post oak and similar galls, found on the white and the swamp

254 ' [Septemueh

.chestnut oak, with the important diiFerence, however, that they occur on
the upper side of the leaf, whereas, the others are found on the under side.
This makes me uncertain, whether they are the produce of Cijnips or of
Cecidomyia. I had no opportunity of observing fresh specimens, as those
in my possession were communicated to me by Dr. Foreman, who had
found them in Maryland. I did not find anything in the hai'd kernel of
those which I cut open.

QuERCUS PRINOS, var. bicolor. Large gall, at the tip of twigs, con-
sisting of a number of wedge-shaped bodies, fastened by their pointed^
ends to a common centre. Diameter about an inch and a half. C. Q.
STOBILANA n. sp. (as yet not reared).

This gall, one of the most remarkable in my collection, was kindly com-
municated to me by Dr. Samuel Lewis, in Philadelphia, as found on young
branches of this oak, in Hoope's Grarden, near West Chester, Peuu. For
another specimen I am indebted to Dr. Morris, in Baltimore. These
specimens measure rather more than an inch and a half in diameter and
look somewhat like the cones of some kinds of pine, for instance, of the
scrub-pine, as they consist of a number from 2 (J to 25 or more of wedge-
shaped bodies, closely packed together, with their pointed ends attached
to a common centre. These wedges are hard and corky and break off
very easily when the gall is dry. Each of them contains a hollow kernel
with a plump, large larva inside. This gall is evidently produced by the
sting of the insect on the single leaves of a bud, each leaf growing into
the shape of a wedge. I did not succeed in rearing the larvas, which
were still living when I received the gall. I call the Cynips by antici-
pation C q. strobilana.

QuERCUS PRINOS. Sioamp-chestivut Oak. Globular galls on, the un-
der side of the lecf, along the pjrincipal ribs. Diameter upwards to O.o.
Gall-fly unknown.

They were communicated to me by Dr. Foreman, who found them in
Maryland. Not having seen any fresh specimen, I can only describe the
dry and somewhat shrivelled ones. Their surface is finely downy, which
gives them a peculiar brownish-cream-colored shade. They contain a ker-
nel in the middle, nearer to their bases, from which numerous woody fibres
radiate toward the stout woody shell. They occur in numbers on the same
leaf, a moderate sized leaf which is in my possession, bearing eight of
them, the largest of which has 0.3. the smallest hardly 0.1 in diameter.

18()2.] 255

I have uo doubt, on account of their structure, that they are the produce
of a Ci/n>p>i.

QuERCUS OBTUSILOBA. Post Oak. Clusters of small, soonewhat bell-
shaped, petiolate, greenish galls on the under side of tlhe leaves, along the
midrib.

Their shape may be compared to that of the flowers of Vaccinium. They
are attenuated at the basis into a short petiole, fastened to the midrib of
the leaf; the opposite end is truncated, the truncature being excavated ;
the length, from the foot of the petiole to the truncated end, is from 0.12
to 0.15. They grow in numbers, sometimes of ten or more together, so
that six, for instance, form a row on one side of the midrib and four or
five on the opposite side. When found by me on the tree in October, 1861,
these galls were pale green; the dry specimens are brownish. Inside of
each was a small whitish larva, probably of a Gynips.

QuERCUS ALBA. White Oak. Clusters of S7nall, round, reddish galls
on the petioles of the ivhite oak leaves; inside eompact, with a hard ker-
nel. Diameter about 0.15.

Found quite abundantly in October, 1861. I did not describe them at
once and the specimens now before me are brown and shrunken. The
kernels of those which I opened at that time seemed empty. Still, I be-
lieve that the galls belong to Ci/nips, as I found in the box, containing
them, a parasitical Cynipideous insect, apparently escaped from them.

QuERCUS ALBA. White Oak ? Large, round gall of a hard corky sub-
stance, growing on the branches; a round, hollov- space in the centre.
Diameter 0.75-0.95. Cynips quercus juglans n. sp. (as yet unknown).

I found a couple of these galls in winter, on the ground, under an oak,
the species of which I was unable to ascertain. Afterwards, Mr. Hitz, of
the Maryland Agricultural College, communicated to me a number of these
galls, with the statement that they grow on the branches of the white oak.
All these galls, as well as those found by myself, were somewhat shrunken
and wrinkled on the surface, probably from the effects of dryness. They
are easily distinguished from the galls of C. q. globulus Fitch by their
large size and their much harder substance. It requires some efibrt to cut
them open, whereas, the dry galls of C. q. globulus can be easily cracked.
For the same reason the kernel of the latter gall can be more easily detach-
ed from the surrounding corky substance, than that of the other gall.
The greater part of the galls which I cut open contained a cluster of small

256 [September

evidently parasitical larvae. In two or three, however, I found a single
Cynipideous larva. I did not succeed in rearing it, but obtained several
kinds of parasites.

QuERCUS COCCINEA. Scarlet Dale. Round, someivhat ohlomj, liollow,
pah greenish-yelloiD gall on the under side of the leaf, slightly projecting
on the opjiosite side; internally^ an oblong kernel, kept in its position hy
Jilaments, radiating towards the shell. Diameter of the gall about 0.25.

This gall occurs frequently along the margins of the leaf, although some-
times in the middle, near the principal ribs. The shell is rather thin ; the
kernel 0.1—0.15 long, oblong in shape. Having found this gall in June,
I obtained only a parasite.

Unknown Oak. Round gall of a hard, corky substance, groning on
the branches, its tip drawn out in a point; a hollow kernel in the centre.
diameter of the full-grown specimens 0.4-0.5.

These galls were communicated to me by Dr. Morris, in Baltimore, Md.
The branches to which they are attached, belong apparently to an oak
(they have no leaves). The galls are not unlike those of C. q. globulus
Fitch in size and structure; only instead of being altogether globular, their
tip is extended into a point; their color is more reddish. They are at-
tached in the same way to the young branches, only they seem to occur in
much larger numbers crowded together. Whereas, the galls of 0. q. glob-
idus, observed by me occur either singly, or in clusters of two or three,
symmetrically arranged round the limb; one of the branches given to me
by Dr. Morris, which is G inches long, bears 19 of the galls of the other
kind, crowded together in irregular clusters of full-grown and abortive
specimens. Another branch o inches long bears 9 specimens.

From this gall 1 have reared a parasitical Oynips and another parasiti-
cal hymenopteron.

QuERCUS NIGRA. Black-Jack Oak. Round mass, resembling wool, on
the tioigs, loith numerous seed-like grains inside. Cynips QUERCUS OPE-
RATOR 0. S. ,

This gall resembles very much the beautiful gall pi'oduced on the white
oak by C. seminator Harris (1. c. p. 69, No. 21). When fresh and grow-
ing, it also consists of whitish filaments, forming a white, round body with
beautiful pink spots. The inside also contains seed-like kernels. I found
the gall in June, on young, flowering branches and obtained on the 28rd
of that month the gall-fly which I call : —

1862.]

257

Cynips quercus operator n. sp. — Reddish; posterior part of the abdomen brown-
ish; wings without discal areolet : % antennte 14-, 9 12-jointed; length of ^ 0.1,
of 9 0.12—0.13.

Head yellowish-red, esjiecially on the underside ; tip of mandibles brown ; an-
tennae of % 14-jointed; 3rd joint distinctly excised inferiorly: the 4 following
joints of about the same length, slightly shorter than the 3rd,- the other joints
gradually, but slightly diminish in length towards the tip; 9 antennse 12-jointed,
gradually diminishing in length from the 3rd joint, the longest, except the last
joint, which is a little longer and shows a slight indication of a subdivision in three
joints. Thorax reddish, very minutely sculptured; the two usual furrows between
the collare and scutellum delicate, but distinctly marked; a short groove on each
side between them and the basis of the wing; an indication of a pair of other in-
termediate furrows beginning at the collare and not running farther than the mid-
dle of the thorax; scutellum roughly sculptured; its basal pits rather small.
Feet pale reddish, except the ungues, the hind tibije and the base of the hind
tarsi, wTiich are brown. Abdomen brownish-red ; its posterior part, especialh'
above, more brown ; large (2nd) segment smooth and shining; the other segments
with a microscopic punctation. Ovipositor rather long, projecting from its elong-
ated sheath, which is directed upwards. "Wings hyaline, very transparent; areo-
let none; subcostal vein, first and second transverse veins, stout, pale yellowish :
last segment of the subcostal vein (usually forming an angle with the remainder
of the vein and running towards the anterior margin) obsolete; radial vein and
latter part of cubitus pale and subobsolete; the anterior part of cubitus (between
the first and second transverse veins), altogether obsolete : anal vein hardly in-
dicated.

2 % and 11 9 specimens.

This species is, at first glance, somewhat Hke C. q. nigrfp. 0. S. (1. c. p.
0(3, No. 17) which produces a swelling on the leaf of the same kind of
oak. Their resemblance consist principally in the coloring and in the
ueuration of the wings, which, in both species have no areolet. The dif-
ferences, however, are the following (the description of C. q. iiigrx given
in my former paper may be completed from this comparison) : —

C. Q. OPERATOR.

f^ize: S 0.1; 9 0.12—0.13.

Anteimge,: 9 12-jointed, with a dis-
tinct indication of a 13th joint.

Abdomen : ovate, its dorsal ridge
smooth, the segments being closely
applied to each other;

C. Q. NIGR^.

Size: % 0.05; 9 0.09.

Antennse: 9 14-jointed; or, if the
two last joints are taken for one,
13-, but by no means 12-jointed.

A/nlome)! : much shorter, its dorsal
ridge much more convex, the seg-
ments being at angles to each other
and with intervals between their

258

[September

its punctation microscopic ;

its color more or less reddish at the

basis and on the underside.

Sheath of tlir ovii^ositor long, pro-
jecting above the abdomen,.

Hind tihise brownish.

Suhcostal and both transverse veins
pale yellowish.

The subcostal forms with the second
transverse vein a rounded angle;
the branch usually running from
it towards the anterior margin is
obsolete.

The radial vein gradually disappears
before reaching; the margin.

hind margins and the next seg-
ment ;

its punctation much more distinct;
its color altogether brown.

Sheath short, not projecting above
the abdomen.

Hind femora and fihiae brownish.

These veins pale, colorless.

The branch of the subcostal, run-
ning towards the anterior margin is
distinct and well defined, although
it is abruptly truncated before reach-
ins: that marain.

The radicd vein abruptly stops before
reaching the margin.

The aments of the same kind of oak {Q. nigra') are sometimes deform-
ed by swellings, covered with white and pink filaments exactly similar to
those of the gall of O. seminator and operator; I suppose, therefore, that
they are produced by the sting of the latter gall-fly, although I did not
succeed to watch their development.

QuERCUS VIRENS. Live Oak. Clusters of galls eroiocled together
round a limb, not unlike G. q. ficus Fitch in appearance, but much harder.

It was communicated to me by Mr. Glover, who brought it from Florida.
The specimen before me is a branch round which, on a length of 2\ inches,
21 galls are crowded together. Their shape seems originally to be round,
but from being close together they have assumed all kinds of irregular
shapes, the appearance of the whole cluster being well represented by Dr.
Fitch's figure of the gall of C. q. ficus. Their color is brownish-yellow,
mixed with brown. They are much harder than the galls of C. q. ficus.
Having broken one open, I found in the kernel the remains of a Gynip>s.

QuERCUS VIRENS. Live Oak. Woodij su^ellbig of the limh.
The specimen, communicated by Mr. Glover, is a fragment of a branch
about IJ inches lono- with two sucli swellinas; the one is rounded about

1802.] 259

0.7 long and 0.5 broad ; the other much smaller. I opened the latter and
found on the inside a small empty hollow from the structure of which I
have no doubt that the gall is the produce of a Cynips.

QuERCUS VIRENS. Live Oak. Small, rmind, wooly galls on the wi-
flerskle of the leaves.

They are not unlike the galls of C. q. verrucarum and the analogous
galls, only the wool is much longer. It seems that each gall consists of a
hard kernel, covered with this pale yellow wool and that they occur in
numbers together. Communicated by Mr. Grlover. Undoubtedly a Cy-
nips.

JZ€dtil^fS7X.

y/OOSLo-rL 'coc^^e. XjLArrtkAx^

THE

WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER

(Cemiostoma coffeellum Stainton).

A REPORT AS

^nt0mol00tst t0 i\t %Q\i%xxmn\\ d granl

B. PICKMAN MANN.

[Reprinted from the Americau Naturalist for June and October, 1872.]

SALEM.
PRINTED AT THE SALEM PRESS.

1872,

THE

WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER

(Cemiostoma coffeellum Stainton).

A REPORT AS

^nlomol0jgtst f0 tl^t ^obmxmtxxt of §ni^il.

B. PICKMAN MANN,

[Reprinted from the American Naturalist for June and Auguct-, 1872.]

SALEM :

PRINTED AT THE SALEM PRESS.

1872.

a? h: IB

WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER/

The observations upon which I base the following histor}^ of
that insect {Cemiostoma coffeellum) which is tlie greatest enemy
to the coffee-cultnre of Brazil, were made in the autumn and win-
ter of the year 1871, at the fazendas of Sao Sebastiao and Secre-
tario, in the township of Vassouras, Province of Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.

At Sao Sebastiao, to whose owner, my esteemed friend Snr.
Lindorf Moreira de Vasconcellos, I return my most heartfelt

* A Report as Entomologist to the Government of Brazil.

4 THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

thanks for bis unbounded hospitality and kindness, my observa-
tions extended through the greater part of the month of March.

At Secretario I continued my observations until the latter part
of June, aided by the s^'mpathy and cooperation of the proprietor,
Dr. Christovao Correa e Castro, one of the most enlightened and
progressive men whom I had the pleasure of knowing in Brazil.

The acknowledgment of my deep gratitude is due also to Col.
Antonio Correa e Castro for his tender care of me during a month
when I was prostrated b}' severe sickness.

I have arranged my account of the insect under headings, for
greater convenience to the future investigator, and have added an
explanation of the less familiar words used, for the benefit of those
who are not acquainted with the science of entomolog3\

Food-plant^ and Indications of the presence of the Insect. — The
caterpillar (larva) lives in the leaves of the coffee-tree (Cojfea
Arabica)., where the injury done by it is shown by the presence
of rust-colored blotches on the upper surface of the leaf. These
blotches are sometimes almost black in the centre.

After the larva has stopped feeding, and changed to a chrysalis
(pupa), the slender, white chrj-salis-case (cocoon) covered wdth
its silken web may easily be found in a fold of the leaf.

The moths (imagos) whose beautifully ornamented, silvery wings
hardl}' cover the breadth of the little finger nail, rest upon the leaves
and branches of the tree when quiet, but are easily disturbed.
Then they fly actively with a jerking flight.

Scientific Name. — The name of the genus (Cemiostoma) is
derived from the Greek words hr^por, meaning muzzle, and (TTo/ia.,
meaning mouth, so that it may be translated muzzle-mouth. This
name was given by Zeller, in the year 1848 (in the "LinnaBa
Entomologica," vol. iii, p. 273), because the hairs on the side of
the face are so long as to cover up the mouth. It should be ac-
cented on the antepenultimate S3dlable. Since it is neuter in
gender, because (ttoiao. is neuter, the speciflc name must be neuter
also. The specific name is taken from the scientific name of the
food-plant, with a termination indicating the small size of the
insect.

Synonyme. — The insect was called Elachista cqffeella b}'' Guerin-
Meneville in his memoir (to which,! shall often refer hereafter),
because at the time when he described it, the genus Cemiostoma
had not been established, and the genus Elachista was still consid-
ered of such extent as to include this species.

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER. O

It was referred to under the same name by Nietner in his
pamphlet on the enemies of the coffee-tree in Ceylon.

Vernamilar names. — Guerin-Meneville, who described it as com-
ing from the Antilles, called it " L'Elachiste du Cafier."*

In Brazil it is called " A Borboleta do Cafezal," the coffee-plan-
tation butterfly or moth, but I should think it much more satis-
factory to unite accuracy with definiteness by giving it the name
of the White Coffee-leaf Miner, because other species of moths
are found also living on the coffee-tree, and a black coffee-leaf
miner (Gracilaria? coffeifoliella) is known in Ceylon.

Erroneous names. — This is probably the insect referred to
doubtfully as a Bucculatrix ( ?) b}'- Stainton in the " Entomologist's
Weekly- Intelligencer," vol. iv (1858), p. 70.

Imago. — The outspread wings of the perfect insect (imago)
measure from tip to tip between four and six millimeters. The
body is about two millimeters long. Silvery white scales cover
the head and face, the body below, the upper side of the front
wings, and the legs, except the tips of the first, second and
fourth foot-joints (tarsi), upon the upper side of which the scales
are black. In my specimens, which are not in good condition, the
upper side of the hind-body (abdomen) is bare and of a yellowish
brown color. The antenna are smoky black, except at the base.
The front wings are long in proportion to their breadth. On the
upper side of each, at the extremity of the inner edge (inner an-
gle) is a large steel-blue or black spot, which has a violet lustre.
This spot is bordered on the sides towards the base and front edge
of the wing by a golden-yellow band, which is continued toward
the end of the wing. At more than half the distance from the
base of the wing to the tip, arises from the front edge (costa)
another golden-yellow band, with converging sides, bordered on
each edge with black scales, which runs obliquely toward the black
spot, and sometimes almost reaches the golden edging of that
spot. Beyond an interval of about the width of this band nearer
the tip of the wing (apex) arises another band of the same color,
but wider and shorter, and bordered only on the inside with black
scales. This band runs less obliquel}^ toward the black spot,
but does not meet the other bands. About as far beyond the sec-
ond band as that is beyond the first, a line of black scales arises

*The effect upon the leaves was called " rouille" (rust), by the people of the coun-
try, who did not know to what it was due, and ascribed it to the action of the sun.

6 THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

from the costa, and runs obliquely to a point at some distance
beyond the black spot. Still nearer the end arises another line of
black scales, which runs less obliquel}^, and meets the former at
its termination, the two thus forming an acute angle. The inner
and outer edges of the front wings, and the whole circumference of
the hind wings bear long smoky-black or brown fringes, 'rhe
hind wings are very narrow and pointed. They are smok3'-'lolack
on both the upper and under sides.* The front wings are of the
same color on the under side. P\-om the front of the head pro-
jects a spreading tuft of silvery-white hairs. The scales behind
this tuft lie smoothly back on the head. The antennse are about
three- fourths as long as the front wings, and thread-like. Their
basal joints are thickly clothed with silvery hairs, which form a
velvety ^ye-cap as large as the e3^es. The eyes are black.

Pupa. — The chrysalis (pupa) is two millimeters long ; of a
yellowish brown color. The head is large ; the eyes are black ; the
limbs ai'e glued to the body ; the last pair of legs extends very
little beyond the tip of the abdomen. It appears to me that eight
abdominal segments are visible.

Cocoon. — The cocoon is five millimeters long, slender, spindle-
shaped, formed of threads of silk of a white color, which are laid
lengthwise and close together upon the outside. It is open at
each end with a longitudinal slit. It rests upon a flooring of silk,
and is covered by a light web of white silk, which is spun across
one of the furrows at the edge of a leaf. This web is a little
broader at each end than in the middle, and has an opening in
each end shaped like the point of a lance, through which openings
the ends of the cocoon beneath may be seen.

iLarva. — The caterpillar (larva) is four or five millimeters long,
and seventy-five hundredths of a millimeter broad across the first
ring (prothorax), which is the widest part. It is of a j^ellowish
flesh color, partially transparent. It is flattened, and consists of
twelve rings (segments) behind the head, between each of which
the body is much constricted. The second and third segments
(which, with the first, form the thorax,) are successively narrower
than the segment in front of them ; the next three segments are
successively broader, and the rest of the segments (which, with
the three before them, form the abdomen), are successively nar-

*Guerin says (Mem. etc., p. 15) that they are covered with silvery scales like the su-
periors.

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEA.F MINER. 7

• rower to the end. The head is flat, rounded in front, and is fre-
quently much retracted within the prothorax, when its lobes show
through the skin of the prothorax. The jaws (mandibles) have
three teeth at the end,* and are covered in repose by the upper lip
(labrum). The head on each side, has two eye-spots (ocelli), of
whicli the anterior is the lai'ger, and about nine hairs. The three
segments of the thorax bear each a pair of jointed legs ; the third,
fourth, fifth, sixth and ninth or last segment of the abdomen bears
each a pair of fleshy projections which serve as feet, so that the
larva may be considered as sixteen-legged. From each side of the
back of each abdominal segment, arise three hairs, of which the
anterior or shortest is directed forward, while the two others are
directed backward. The third hair is twice or more than twice
as long as the second, being nearly equal in length to the breadth
of the segment. The thoracic segments have all three hairs di-
rected forward ; the second hair is the longest, and an additional
hair arises from the outer edge of the back of each segment.

The mine. — The habitation of the larva is a mine, which is
made in the leaf b^^ eating out the soft green substance (paren-
chyma) between the upper skin (epidermis) and the framework of
the leaf, laying the framework bare, but leaving the epidermis
intact, except at the point where (I suppose) the larva enters the
leaf. At this point the wound heals up and forms a lenticular scar
twenty-five hundredths of a millimeter in length, and fifteen
hundredths of a millimeter in breadth, raised a little above the
general surface of the leaf. The epidermis which covers the
mine becomes rusty brown, sometimes almost black in the centre.
The excrement (frass) adheres in-egularly to its under surface.
Sometimes a portion of the under surface of the leaf opposite the
mine also turns brown.

When the eggs are laid in sets, as hereafter to be described, the
mines of the separate larvae usually become united, and even the
mines of two sets may be united into one.

One mine fifteen millimeters long and ten millimeters broad,
contained seven larvae, the scars arranged in two groups of four
and three respectively. Another scar was near.

As many as five mines, all inhabited, hafVe been found on one
leaf and even eight mines made by ten larvae, though in this case
some of the larvae had escaped.

*Gu6rin says (M^m. etc., p. 13) that they are bidentate.

8 THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

When the larva escapes, it cuts an angular or rounded slit in
the epidermis near an edge of the mine. This slit is slightly more
than one millimeter across, about one and five-tenths millimeters
long.

The eggs. — Before I had seen any of the insects, I was shown
some eggs on a coffee-leaf, which were said to be the eggs of this
moth. I was not able to describe them at the time, but I think
they could not have belonged to this moth, because they seemed
too large. Stainton says, however (Nat. Hist. Tin., i, 324), that
the eggs of C. scitellum, which is in its habits one of the nearest
allies of this species, are disproportionately large for the size of
the insect. Guerin does not describe the eggs in his memoir.

Classification. — It belongs to the suborder of scaly-winged
insects (Lepidoptera), which may be known from other winged
insects because their wings are more or less covered with scales,
which lap over each other like tiles on the roof of a house, and
further they (in the imago state) have no visible jaws, but either
have a tubular tongue formed of two similar pieces which can be
rolled up like a watch-spring, or have no means of taking food.

It belongs to the tribe of cloth- worm moths (Tineina), which
are all of small size, and may be known from the other Lepido-
ptera because their wings, which are elongated, are not split, but
are fringed with long hairs.

According to Zeller (Linn. Entom., iii (1848), p. 250), the
only Tineina whose larvae make mines in leaves, and whose ima-
gos have the head covered with entirely smooth scales, and have
the lower joints of the antennae widened into an eye-cap, are in-
cluded in the genera Cemiostoma and Phyllocnistis. These genera
with others, were considered by Stainton (I know not in what
work) to form the family of Lyonetia moths (Lyonetidse). The
genus Cemiostoma, to which our insect belongs, is distinguished
from the genus Phyllocnistis by the absence of tongue-shields
(palpi) (1. c, p. 250), and by the middle area (cell) of the fore
wings not being closed (1. c, p. 265).

The genus Cemiostoma was divided by Stainton (Nat. Hist.
Tin., i, 288) into two groups, one of which has the anterior
wings of the perfect insect white, while the other has these wings
leaden-gray. The former of these groups, to which our species
belongs, contains six species, as far as known at present. These
are C. susinellum, spartifoliellum, wailesellum, coffeellum, labur-

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER, 9

nellum and zandceellum. Cemiostoma coffeeJhim is the only spe-
cies of the genus yet known outside of the limits of Europe.

Our species may be known from the other species of the group
by the following characters : C. zanchjeellum has not the first
golden band on the costa ; in C. susinellum this band extends
across the wing, reaching the inner angle; in C. laburnellum,
spartifoliellum and wailesellum, this band hardly reaches to more
than half the distance from the costa to the black spot, and the
second band is bordered on both edges by dark scales. Further,
all the species of the group, except possibly C. zandceellum, have
two or three fuscous streaks on the fringe, radiating from the
black spot. I can discover no such streaks in this species.

I do not find it recorded that any other species of the group,
except C. laburnellum, breeds more than once in a year. Stainton
says (Nat. Hist. Tin., i, 314) that C. laburnellum breeds twice.

Seaso7is. — The larvae are said to attack the new leaves in early
spring, and to be found from that time forth. As the coffee-tree
is evergreen, it seems likely that the period of hibernation is very
short or none at all, Guerin says (Mem. etc., p. 16) that the
Insect occurs throughout the year in the Antilles, but is more or
less abundant according to the seasons.

The eggs which I have mentioned were seen on the twenty-fifth
of January. The planter who showed them to me said he had
seen the moths that day. I found the larvae, pupae, and images
from the ninth of March until my observations ended on the
twenty-first of June.

Periodicity. — Guerin says (Mem. etc., pp. 17, 43) that the eggs
hatch seven or eight days after being laid. The larvae then live
about fifteen or twenty days within the leaf, after which they make
their cocoons. The cocoon is spun within less than twenty-four
hours after the larva has left the mine. The larva-skin is thrown
ofi" within twenty-four hours after the cocoon is completed. I did
not observe how long the pupa-state continues. According to
Guerin (Mem. etc., p. 13, 17), the imago comes out of the cocoon
at the end of six days. It is not known how long it lives. I
should judge that it lived less than two weeks, as that has been
noticed to be the probable limit of life in C. scitellum (Entom.
Monthl. Mag., iv (1867), p. 162).

The history of reproduction, and of the deposition of eggs is
not known. It must have an important efiect upon the longevity

10 THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

of the sexes. Guerin says (Mem. etc., p. 17), that the insect is
reproduced several times in the year, in the Antilles, once in about
every forty to forty-eight days. This would allow for the Eggs,
7 to 8 days ; Larva, 15 to 20 days ; Pupation, 2 daj^s ; Pupa, 6
days ; Imago, 10 to 12 days ; total, 40 to 48 days.

Habits of the larva. — As soon as the larva is hatched (if I mis-
take not), it cuts through the upper epidermis of the leaf, and begins
to eat the parenchyma. Usually it may be found under an edge
or an end of the blotch, eating. I found no cast skins in the mines.
The larvse can not be considered social, although several are
often found in one mine when several mines have become united.
They show no signs of pugnacity or mutual destructiveness. When
the larva is full-grown it escapes from the mine, and often, or
even generally, goes to another leaf to make its cocoon. This
it can do by letting itself drop with a thread of silk. It then
makes its cocoon across one of the furrows at the edge of a leaf,
on either the upper or the under surface, but oftener on the under
surface. The larva places itself across the furrow, and begins a
web -by spinning a series of threads from one side to beyond the
middle of the furrow, swinging the fore part of its body back and
forth sidewise. When it has made one side of one end of its web
thus, it spins a like series of threads to make the other side, with-
out changing the position of the hind part of its body. Thus an
opening is left in the middle of this end of the web, in the space
occupied by the body of the larva. It then turns around, and
places its body across the furrow in the opposite direction. Here
it spins a like series of threads on each side of it, from the leaf to
the former part of the web, leaving a similar opening in this end.
It then retires beneath the web, and lays a flooring of silk. On
this flooring it spins its cocoon, laying the outside threads length-
wise.

The cocoons are fou.nd in the greatest abundance on the leaves
which are near the ground, and frequently on leaves which have
never been injured.

Habits of the Pupa. — The larva-skin is split longitudinally over
the middle line of the head and first two thoracic segments. The
split extends from the very foremost extremity of the head to the
third thoracic segment {metathorax) , but does not enter this
latter. For the certain observation of this fact, and of the manner
in which the pupa-skin is burst, I am indebted to Dr. Hagen,

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER. 11

who pointed out to me these interesting details. The skin is then
thrown off and pushed out through the posterior end of the
cocoon.

Habits of the Imago. — The pupa-skin is split transversely across
the back of the head {vertex) then longitudinally along the sides
of the thorax as far as the metathorax. When the imago emerges,
the pupa-skin is left inside of the cocoon, generally I think, but
in some cases I have found it protruding from the anterior end of
the cocoon, through which the imago escapes by pushing aside the
threads. It rests on or under the leaves or branches, but is easily
disturbed. "It is very lively and very agile," as Guerin says
(Mem. etc. p. 16) "and flies in all directions seeking to copulate.
It is seen to execute rapid bounds, and its jerking flight makes it
known even at a distance." It flies in the daj^-time, perhaps also
in the night-time.

I judge from the appearance of the scars in the epidermis, al-
ready described, that the eggs are laid unconcealed on the upper
surface of the leaf, singly, or in sets of two, three or more, but
not in immediate proximity, and that sometimes two or more sets
are placed on the same leaf. It is not known how many eggs are
laid by one female.

Abundance. — Some idea of the abundance of these insects may
be given by stating that, although, as I was frequently told, the}^
were much less destructive than usual during the year in which
I observed them, yet from one tree, which I chose for an experi-
ment as not exceptional unless by reason of its size, I picked
one hundred and fifty-three leaves in the course of nineteen min-
utes, endeavoring at the same time to select onlj^ those leaves
which contained living larvae, and to leave those from which the
larvae had escaped. Of these leaves forty-four contained recent
mines, but the larvae had escaped ; ninety contained one hundred
and twenty-two mines still inhabited ; the rest contained old mines
or blotches made by a fungus which also attacks the leaves.

Manner of Devastation. — The injury caused by this insect is
due to the destruction of the digestive and respiratory organs of
the plant. The larva "absorbs the sap, obstructs the circulatory
channels, and impedes the vegetable respiration" (Madinier, 1. c.
p. 33), thus depriving the plant of its food, or preventing the
food from becoming fit to sustain life, in consequence of which
the plant becomes exhausted, and either dies, or bears fewer and
smaller fruit.

12 THE "WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

Amount of Devastation. — Guerin says (Mem. etc. p. 12;
[Dumeril, Rapp.,] p. 33) that in the Antilles "all the coffee-trees
were feeble and languishing : they bore only small and stunted
fruits, their leaves were spotted or blackened, in [great] part
dried up, and although dead, remaining upon the branches, * *
which rendered these shrubs languishing, and had even caused the
death of many of them." Madinier says (1. c. p. 33) that owing
to the attacks of insects, of which this is the most noxious, the
culture of the coffee-tree was abandoned in the island of Mai'ti-
nique. This insect is said to lessen the coffee-crop of Brazil by
at least one-fifth.

Enemies: Fungus. — The leaves of the coffee-tree sometimes turn
yellow at the tip or some portion of the edge. The spots thus
formed increase in size until they cover the whole leaf, gradually
turning to a brown color, by which time the leaf has become dried
up. These spots may be easily distinguished from those made by
the larva, because the two slvins of the leaf which is attacked by this
disease cannot be separated, and the color is more uniform,
appearing equally on both surfaces of the leaf. I was told that
this Avas the work of a fungus. It attacks leaves which have or
have not been injured by the larva, but seems to find more ready
lodgment on such part of the leaf as has been injured previously.
It appears in these cases to kill the larva within the mine, as many
mines recently begun are found to contain the flat and empty
skin of the larva, with no indication of another destroyer, but
I may have been misled in my judgment by seeing the interrupted
labor of the Eulophus of which I will speak next.

Enemies : Parasites. — I have found two ichneumons parasitic
upon the insect : one upon the larva, the other upon the pupa. I
have also found great numbers of mites (Acarina) living in the
mines. The first of these ichneumons, which feeds upon the
larva of Cemiostoma coffeellum, was found several times under
a small roundish blotch of a grayish-brown color (about the same
in color as the fungus-spot), which was dotted with black dots, as
if a lichen had grown upon it. These black dots may have been
the frass of the larva, which showed through the epidermis.

Where the ichneumon had escaped • from these dotted blotches,
it had cut out an oval or rounded hole in the upper surface of the
blotch. Once, before I broke open one of these mines from which
the ichneumon had escaped, I found the pupa-skin in situ, with its

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER. 13

broken end just touching the hole, through which it could be seen.
The hole was about 0 2 millimeter in diameter.

I found several of these blotches wliich had no hole in them,
and 3'et I found no ichneumon within, but the lai"\'a-skin flat and
empty. TJiis led me to think that the fnngus which I have men-
tioned may kill and exliaust some larvse.

According to Ratzebnrg (Fchnennjonen der Forstinsecten, i,
(1844), p. 158), this ichneumon belongs to the genus Eulophus, in
the family of Cflialcididop,. I have not been able to make a satis-
factory figure of it, owing to the injured condition of the onl}' three
examples which I succeeded in preserving. It may be called
Eulophus cemiostomatis, if it has not been previously described.

The imago is metallic green or coppery ; the wings are trans-
parent, somewhat iridescent : Lhe fore wings crossed by a brownish
cloud beyond the middle. The fore wings have no other vein
than a double one near the front margin, which is bent at about
one-quarter, and ends in a fork at about three-quarters of the
distance between the base and the tip, sending one prong of the
fork in line with the A'cin, and the other towards the ijiner angle
of the wing. The inner margin of the' fore wing is also thickened
for a short distance near the middle : and lhe i'ront inai'gin of the
hind wing is thickened along more than iialf its length from the
base. All the wings are fringed around theij' margins, and the
wings as well as tlie differcni. parts of the bod}' aiid legs are
pubescent. The antenuj-e are eiglit-jointed, thinly haired ; the tirst
joint long, enlarged at the apex; tlie last three joints forming an
ovate-conical club : the intermediate four joints ovate-cylindrical.
The abdomen is elongate- o\al, attached to the thorax by a broad
neck, and is turned up at t)ie sides. The tarsi are four-jointed.
Tlic length of tlio head and body is about 0*8 millimeter, the
ex})aiise of wings about I'o uilllimetcrs.

Tlie pupa when seen through the pupa-skin seems ' to be
longer than the imagos. — The pupa-skins look large; all are
alilce ; one or two were sufPiciently transparent to alhiw the occu-
pant to be seen, which was much narrower than the pupa-skin.
From one pupa-skin I hatched one of these ichneumons. I
found them during all the time (April to June) in which I studied
the Cemiostoma. In the one hundred and flftj^-three leaves men-
tioned I found eight mines containing these insects. Afterwards
I obtained two from a box containing leaves.

14

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

The second iclnieumon parasitic on the Ceyniostoma coJfeeUiim,
inhabits the larva while it is still in the mine, as I learned by
finding an immature example dead within the thin and dried skin
of a nearly full-grown larva, but I believe that it usually does
not kill its victim until after the Leaf-miner has become a pupa.
It then completes its work of destruction and cuts a hole in tJie
upper side of the cocoon, through which it escapes.

It belongs to that subfamily of the ichneumons called Braconi-
doe; consequently I will call it Bracon letifer.; but' as far as I liaA^e
examined its characters, it corresponds more nearly to the genus

Fig, 130.

Bracon Parasite of the Coffee Moth.

Eogas than to any other genus described in Curtis' " British
Entomolog}^," and seems to be congeneric with, and judging by the
venation of the wings, neaii}^ related to Exothecus exsertor^ as
given in Wesmael's "Monographic des Braconides de Belgique"
in the Nouvelles Memoiresde 1' Academic de Bruxelles, xi (1838),
p. 73, and accompanying plate, fig. 10.

The perfect insect (Fig. 130) is honej^ j-ellow, except the ejes,
ocelli, and sometimes the ocellar space, which are black. The
antennse are also black, and consist of twelve slender, sub-equal,
uniformly cylindrical joints beyond the scape, which seems to
consist of two short, stout joints, making fourteen in all. The
head is transverse ; the front projects slightly beyond the eyes ;

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER. 15

the hind margin of the vertex is emarginate, the emargination
filled with the upper edge of the occiput. The three ocelli are
arranged triangularly ; in some examples they are approximate,
in others distant, which may be a sexual difference. The neck is
distinct ; the back of the mesothorax sub-hexagonal, rounded,
tapering anterior^. In some of my examples the abdomen
is elongate, subclavate ; in others it is rotundate. I think the
shape given in the figure is the most lifelike. In some examples
the veins near the extremity of the wings are very feebly devel-
oped. The wings are fringed. The legs, abdomen, thorax, head,
antennse and wings are pubescent. Length 1-9 millimeters;
expanse 4-7 millimeters. The immature example, or pupa of the
Bracon, which I found as stated above, had wing pads instead
of wings. These were dark, smoky black, 0*5 millimeter long.
The antennse are honey yellow, instead of black, as in the devel-
oped specimens. They lie along the breast, and reach to the end
of the posterior femora, which is about the length of the whole
body. The first two joints are retracted within a cavity in the
front of the head, which seems to be the result of a doubling in
of the front. Only the two posterior ocelli are visible, distant,
and though enough of the front remains to contain the anterior
ocellus, it seems as if it must be still farther forward than in the
imago. The hind pair of legs is stuck straight out behind. (The
abdomen is broken off.) The first and second pair of legs have
the femur folded forwards ; the tibia and tarsus lie towards the
end of the body. This example lay within the skin of the larva,
with its head towards the head of the larva.

A possible enemy is a greenish-yellow spider which draws down
the edge of a coffee-leaf on the under side, and spins a light web
from this edge to the surface of the leaf, leaving each end of the
nest open.

Geographical Distribi^tion. — As we have stated, M. Perrottet
met these insects in the Antilles ; M. Madinier found them in the
island of Martinique ; and I observed them in the Province of
Rio de Janeiro. They are said to extend over the whole coffee-
region of Brazil.

History. — Dr. Christovao, and his brother Col. Antonio Correa
e Castro told me that the coffee-trees were first introduced into
Brazil by the Brazilian Minister at Paris, who sent two plants to
the city of Rio de Janeiro, where they were planted on Mount

16 THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

Tijuca. From these two plants many others were obtained, which
were kept in gardens as ornamental shrubs. Some of these were
afterwards distributed to the plantations to be cultivated for com-
mercial purposes. From them sprung the coffee-plantations of
Brazil. Until about twenty years ago these plantations were free
from all noticed pests. About that time, owing. to the general
exhaustion of the coffee-trees thi'ough long bearing, the Govern-
ment imported quantities of new plants from the Antilles and
from the isle of Bourbon, and distributed them all over the coun-
try. It was noticed during the very next year that the leaves of
the coffee-tree were attacked by the larva of the moth, whose history
is given here, which has ravaged the coffee-plantations of Brazil
ever since. It cannot be doubted that the insects were brought
from the Antilles with the plants, and that a proper examination
of the plants at that time, by any person familiar with the appear-
ance and habits of the enemies of the coffee-tree, would have
prevented the introduction of so great a pest.*

Bemedies. — The entomologist, like the physician, finds it much
more difficult to choose a proper remedy for a disease with which
he is familiar, than to trace out the nature and progress of the
disease. But at this day the science of entomology, particularly
in its practical application, is of such recent origin, that it suffers
under a disadvantage from which the practice of medicine is free,
namely, it possesses ]io treasiu'y of results drawn from experience.

* Bibliograxjluj . 1. Guerin-Meneville et Perrottet. Memoire sur uii Insecte et un
Champignon qui ravagent les Cafeiers aux Antilles.- Paris. Ministere de la Marine.
1842. 8vo. pg. 40. tab. 2. Gives the history of Elachista coffeella.

*2. Revue Zoologique. 1842. p. 126-127. Contains a notice of No. 1.

* 3. Annales de la Societe Entomologiqne de France. 1842. T. XI, Bulletin, p. n.
Contains a notice of No. 1.

*4. Zeller. Linnaa Entomologica. 1848. T. Ill, p. 250, 272-273; T. II, tab. II, fig.
37-39. Establishes the genus Cemiostoma.

* 5. Stainton. The Natural History of the Tineina. 1855. Vol. I, p. 284-334, tab. 1. Con-
tains " General Observations on the genus Cemiostonu^^" and the history of C. sparti-
foliellum, laburnelhim, and scitelhnn.

* 6. Nietner. Observations on tlie Enemies of the Coffee-tree in Ceylon. Ceylon.
Published at the Ceylon Times Oflace. 1861. Svo.pg. 31. On p. 24, mentions Elachista
coffeella.

* 7. Stainton. The Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer for 1861. Vol. X, p. 110-111.
"A few words respecting Cemiostoma coffeella; an insect injurious to the Coffee planta-
tions of the West Indies."

8. Madinier. Revista Agricola do Imjierial Institute Fluminense de Agricultura.
No. 3. p. 29 et seq. Brief notice of the Coffee-tree, containing on p. 33 an account of the
habits of an insect called '• noctuella," which must be the C. coffeellum.

(The asterisks before the titles of the above works indicate that I have taken the
titles and references directly from the works cited).

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAP MINER. 17

The practical entomologist can only recommend measures to be
put to the trial, and in this way gradually gather a body of experi-
mental facts which may' serve as a guide in the future.

The most 'obvious remedy which suggests itself is the collection
and destruction of the leaves which contain the living larvse.
If this was done thoroughly, it would no doubt result in the
complete extermination of the pests, a result the value of which
would be incredible.

Towards this end Guerin recommends (Mem., etc., pp. 18-20)
that "the branches of the coffee-trees which are loaded with
[infested] leaves should be cut off in all parts of the country at
one time, and burned, while the insect is in the larva state."
If this were done, he says, " these coffee- trees should be cut down
in such manner that the vegetation could resume its ordinary course
shortly after the operation, to the end, if it were possible, of not
having to regret but one crop of coffee. * * To attain this condi-
'tion more promptly, the operation in question should be made
with a cutting instrument, and at a height which should be deter-
mined by the proprietor himself (a metre and a lialf). Care should
be taken to preserve here and there some young and vigorous
branches, which would tend to maintain the equilibrium of the sap
in all parts of the plant. * * Afterwards the development of new
leaves ought to be watched with the greatest exactness, and if
there should appear from place to place some spotted leaves, they
should be destroyed promptly."

It will be seen that Guerin expects to cause the loss of one
crop of coffee in his endeavor to exterminate the insect. Cer-
tainly the issue of the experiment, if successful, would be well
worth the loss of an entire crop, but I think the same result could
be obtained in a preferable way : entailing much more labor, but
avoiding at the same time the loss. Probably not a single branch
would be free from infested leaves, so that it would be necessary
to find some other means of killing the larvae in the leaves of
those branches which remained. On the other hand, many healthy
leaves would be lost, if whole branches were cut off. I think it
would be better to piclc off all the infested leaA'es, and burn them,
leaving tlte healthy leaves to support the tree. Guerin sa,js [Mem.
etc., p. 19] that " the epoch whicli it would seem ought to be the
most favorable for this operation would be that which immediately
follows tlic winter season, or that during which the temperature is

18 THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

the lowest, because the larva finds itself then as it were benumbed,
and cannot be transformed into a moth until tlie return of a softer
temperature." The time appointed for -picking off tlie leaves
might be, for the obvious purpose of saving labor, that at which
the smallest number. of old leaves remain upon the trees, if there
is ajxj such time. If the leaves were picked at such time as to
take the greatest number of larvfe wlien they were about two
weeks old, it would )iot be difficult to select them, as the size of
the blotches would make them A'cry noticeable.

I have made a theoretical estimate of tlio expense which would
be incurred in picking off the leaves as 1 recommend, and of the
relative increased yield of coflce wliicli wotdd result on a planta-
tion of given size. Testing this theory by the juuuerical data
given to me by Dr. Christo\'ao Correa e Castro, and making large
allowances for unfavorable circumstances, I find tliat the expense
would be more than met by the next year's crop; but even if
this should not be the case in the second year, it must be remem- •
bered that such a thorougli and expeiisive war upon the insects
never need be made more tlian once, and that with vigilance the
trees could be kept in good ordei' and the increased yield raaintained
continually afterwards. But vigilance must be exercised. One
picking woukl not entirely exterminate tlie insects, however thor-
oughly it were done. The planters should also make experiments
at all times, and seelc other means of destroj-ing not only this
but all the enemies of their crops. They alone have the facili-
ties for increasing and utilizing all tlie knowledge which can be
gained upon these subjects.

Another remedy which Gucrin recommends is "to kindle fires at
all points of the coffee-plantations, at the time when th.e moths
begin to issue from their cocoons. It is well known that many
insects, and above all the nocturnal Lcpidoptera, are attracted by
light, and come whirling around a fire until they are burned there.
Certainly a great numlter of individuals would be thus desti'oyed.
At the same time, and to attain this object more promptly, lighted
torches might be carried through the plantations in the evening.
Thus a crowd of moths, hidden in places to which the light of
fixed fires could not penetrate, would be attracted, and killed."
Although this measure tvould not be absolutelj' efficacious, unless
practised for a long time and together over the whole country,
which would be difficult to accomplish, yet it would repay all the

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER. 19

labor expenrled upon it, if adopted at the time when the moths
were abundant.

I will also recommend again the use of Col. Sorsby's process,
which I have described at length in my report upon the enemies of
Maize, drawing the description of it from the Report of the United
States Commissioner of Patents for the year 1854, Part iii, p. 65.

1 have thus stated all the direct means which have been sug-
gested for the suppi"ession of these pests. It is evident that none
of them can be adopted without the expenditure of much time
and labor. If other measures, less direct, could be employed,
which would add to the efficiency, or take the place of those
already suggested, the benefit would be great. Whatever meas-
ures are employed, however, must be founded upon certain general
principles, in order to insure their success. What those principles
are must first be learned, and then in what detail they can be
applied. It is only in this way that we can determine whether
there is any mode of opposing our insect enemies which will not
cost more than it is worth.

Men gain time to advance in civilization and prosperity, by mas-
tering the laws of nature, and converting natural forces into tools
whicJi do their work automatically as it were. Nature has pro-
vided enemies for tlic moth whose history we have been studying.
Let us only learn how to clierish and encourage these natural
friends of ours, and they will work for us thoroughly. They were
made to work for us wlieiiCA'er we should learn how to command
them.

I recommend that before tlic picked leaves fire bnnied tliey be
placed in an aparlment from whirli the uiotb?: cniinot escape, and
there allowed to lie nnlil tlie insects have developed. If such an
apartment sliouUl be made with sides of glass, and a properly
guarded entrance, it wmild be easy to (•a[)tnre tlie parasites while
they rested on the glass, and to liberate them in tbe ])lantations,
or transport them to other parts of tlie country where they might
be needed more. At the same time the moths could be caught
and killed. Or the sides of such an apartment could be made of
gauze, fine enough not to allow the passage of the moths, but yet
large enough to let the parasites out. Such a building could be
placed in the midst of a plantation. I believe that eventually we
shall have to rely mainly upon such indirect measures as a pro-
tection for our crops. It might even be worth while to undertake

20 THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER.

a positive cultivation of tlie parasites, at least at those times when
the race has greatly diminished in numbers. It has often been
observed, in studying the history of those insects which are sub-
jected to unnatural conditions b}' man's cultivation of the ground,
that there is an alternation of years or of series of years in which
the insects are found to be very destructive, or to have almost
entirely disappeared. These alternations are partly due to the
influence of the seasons, but largely to the attacks of other insects.
At first the destructive insects are found to be very numerous, but
an examination will show that they have already been attacked by
parasites which kill them, while the parasites themselves develop.
This process goes on until the parasites have so far outnumbered
their prey as nearly to exterminate them, when they will no longer
be able to find food, and will themselves perish. Then once more
the destructive insects will have an opportunity to multiply, and so
the rotation Will be continued. Now it is at the time when the de-
structive insects have been reduced to the smallest numbers that the
enlightened agriculturist will find it most practicable to adopt such
measures that their numbers may never again increase. Knowing
how rapidlj' these insects increase, when not held in control by the
forces of nature, he will feel that every eff'ort of his to stop them at
the first step will be a]i investment of labor at compound interest
for a long time to come. Who then would count the trouble ? But
he must know what to do.

p. S. — I desire to correct an error in the farmer part of this biography, kindly
pointed out to me by Mr. V. T. Chambers, of Covington, Kentucky, in the current
volunicof the American Naturalist, p. 489-4911. Onp.:338,I said that CcoffeellumsYas
the only species of the genus known outside of the limits of Europe. This is a mistake.
Wliile I was in Brazil, Mr. Chambers described in the Canadian Entomologist, iii (1871),
p. 23-2.5, a species from the United States, called C. alhella.

As all but one of Mr. Chambers' references, in his note of correction, were wrong, I
must, in order to be able t>i compare liis species with the otliers of the genus, suppose
it also due to negligence that he (throiigh Mr. Staiuton) describes the silvery gray
metallic spot of tlie ibre \vings as apical, instead of at the inner angle. If this suppo-
sition is correct, C. albellum seems more nearly related to C. coffeellum than any of the
other species, but may l)e known fnim it by having the spot at the inner angle of the
fore wings silvery gray metallic, with very distinct black margins before and
behind, and an indistinct pale golden streak along tlie base of the fringe from the costa
not qiiite to the inner angle; while it seems not to have the two oblique lines of black
scales described in C. cajfeellum, ]ui]' the golden band which partially surrounds the
spot in that species.

Mr. CI\ambers says also, in Ids ndte of correction, that "in the Transactions of the
London Entomological Society, S(t.2, Vol. v, pp. 21 and 27, and in Ser. ."J, Vol. ii, p. 101,
certainly two, and if my [)ns] memory is not at fault, tlu-eo species [of Cemiostoma],
are described from Iiiilia." 1 have examined the pages to which he evidently intends
to refer, and find thnt both the species mentioned, C. ivailesdlum and C. lotellum, are
said to come from England.

THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAF MINER. 21

I have had a new edition of tlie accomiinnying' plate struck off, because the former
one contained some errors introduced by tlie artist, who translerred my figures from
paper to wood. Some of the figures are incomplete, because I have only drawn what I
could see. This is especially the case with the larva.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5.

Fig. 1. Imago of Cemiostomn coffeellum, magnified 15 diameters.

Fig. 2. Empty pupa-skin of the same, seen from beneath, magnified about 20 diame-
ters. (The projections near the liead are the broken sides of the thorax.) -

Fig. 3. Larva of the same from above ; tlae head retracted, magn. 15 diameters.

Fig. 4. Head of the larva fl-om below, showing some of the mouth-parts, magnified
about 60 diameters.

Fig. 5. Cocoon of tlie same, natural size; 5a, the same magnified 3 diameters.

Fig. 6. Leaf of coffee tree natural size, containing five mines made by ten larvse, five
of the larvas belonging in the four mines wholly figured; 6a, part of a mine
magnified 10 diameters to show the scar made by the larva in entering the
leaf; 66, part of a mine magnified 5 diameters to show the slit made by the
larva in leaving the mine.

(22)

American Natui'alist,

Vol. VI, PL 5.

S.PM^,VM.D£l..

MANN, ON THE WHITE COFFEE-LEAE MINER.

(Corrected.) (23)

/:' /

THE

BUTTERFLIES OF NORTH AMERICA.

By W. H. EDWARDS.
SECOND SERIES.

The first volume of this work, issued in parts, was
completed in the fall of 1872, and the author has
been engaged since in perfecting arrangements for
the issue of a second volume which will not be so
strictly confined to the description and delineation
of new species as was the first. Within the past
three years great advance has been made in knowl-
edge of the preparatory stages of many species, so
that the attempt made in this volume to illustrate
the successive steps by which from the' tgg, through
many curious larval phases, the chrysaUs and butter-
fly are at last reached, will, it is hoped, meet with
favor.

The same persons who were engaged upon the
plates of the previous volume. Miss Mary Peart and
Mrs. Bowen, will execute the plates of this, which is
an assurance that the illustrations will equal in fidel-
ity and finish those of the former series.

The series will be issued in quarterly parts, each

part containing five plates ; the descriptive letter-
press will be printed in large type on fine paper.
With the last part a revised Synopsis of Species
will be given.

The Publishers desire to call attention to the very
favorable opinions respecting the execution of the
first volume, expressed by leading naturalists and
journals : —

From the late Professor Louis Agassiz.

" Without knowing more of your doings than appears on the face
of your publication, I was so much struck by the beauty and thor-
oughness of your Lepidoptera that I requested Dr. Hagen to write
to you and offer you anything from our collections that might be de-
sirable in the prosecution of your work."

Frovi Charles Darwin.

"Part 9 of your Butterflies is one of the most beautiful works
which I have seen. Your careful observations on the dimorphism
or rather trimorphism of Papilio Ajax strike me as most remarkable
and interesting."

From Dr. Hagen, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

" I have before me the first volume of your work. It is for Amer-
ican Lepidoptera beyond comparison with any so far published, and
it ranges with the most prominent works on this class of insects pub-
lished outside of America, both in the plates and the text."

From Professor P. C- Zeller, Stettin, Prussia.

" This work is undoubtedly the best that America has produced
hitherto in the cause of Entomology, and equals the very best Euro-
pean works."

From Alfred R. IVallace, Esq.

" Part 9 is an exceedingly interesting number, and goes far, I think,
to elucidate one mode at least in which species are formed."

From H. IV. Bates, Esq.

"Your discoveries regarding Papilio Ajax and Grapta Interroga-
tionis" (detailed in Part 9, Vol. I.) "are of the greatest interest."

From ^'Nature," Vol. V., fi. 490.
' This number (9th), like its predecessors, is accompanied by

many quarto plates in the highest style of pictorial excellence, depict-
ing some extremely beautiful species and varieties of Butterflies."

From ^^Nature" Vol. VII., p. 412.

" No American work of the kind has ever been printed containing
in its pages so satisfactory illustrations of the various species."

From ''^ E}itomologis{ s Monthly Magazine,'''' Lo7tdo}t.

" It is not too much to say that the figures w '"ear comparison
with the best that have ever been given in iconogi , j^hical works.
They are correct in outline and drawing, and colored with great
truthfulness and sobriety. The letter-press accompaniment to the
plates is also remarkably well done."

From the " Canadian Ento7>iologistJ'''

" It would be difficult to produce anything more beautiful or true
to nature than these exquisite drawings of Butterflies ; they vie in
excellence with any European work we have seen."

Frojn the ''''American Entoinologist,'''' B. D. WahJi, Editor.

" The colored plates illustrating these species are unsurpassed in
splendor, naturalness of color, and correctness of detail, while the
typography and press-work are such that Americans may justly feel
proud of the work."

Price of the work to subscribers., $2.50 a part.

For the convenience of those wishing to subscribe,
a blank form has been printed on the fourth page of
this circular.

Copies of Volume I. may be had, bound in half
morocco or half calf, for $30.00.

Address the Publishers,

HURD AND HOUGHTON,

13 Astor Place, New York.

THE RIVERSIDE PRESS,

Cambridge.

part containing five plates ; the descriptive letter-
press will be printed in large type on fine paper.
With the last part a revised Synopsis of Species
will be given.

The Publishers desire to call attention to the very
favorable opinions respecting the execution of the
first volume, expressed by leading naturalists and
journals : —

From the late Professor Louis Agassiz.

" Without knowing more of your doings than appears on the face
of your publication, I was so much strucic by the beauty and thor-
oughness of your Lepidoptera that I requested Dr. Hagen to write
to you and offer you anything from our collections that might be de-
sirable in the prosecution of your work."

From Charles Darwin-

" Part 9 of your Butterflies is one of the most beautiful works
which I have seen. Your careful observations on the dimorphism
or rather trimorphism of Papilio Ajax strike me as most remarkable
and interesting."

From Dr. Hagen, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass,

" I have before me the first volume of your work. It is for Amer-
ican Lepidoptera beyond comparison with any so far published, and
it ranges with the most prominent works on this class of insects pub-
lished outside of America, both in the plates and the text."

From Professor P. C- Zeller, Stettin, Prussia.

" This work is undoubtedly the best that America has produced
hitherto in the cause of Entomology, and equals the very best Euro-
pean works."

From Alfred R. Wallace, Esq.

" Part 9 is an exceedingly interesting number, and goes far, I think,
to elucidate one mode at least in which species are formed."

From H. W. Bates, Esq.

" Your discoveries regarding Papilio Ajax and Grapta Interroga-
tionis" (detailed in Part 9, VoL I.) "are of the greatest interest."

Froin ''^ Nature,^' Vol. V., p. 490.
' This number (9th), like its predecessors, is accompanied by

many quarto plates in the highest style of pictorial excellence, depict-
ing some extremely beautiful species and varieties of Butterflies."

From ''''Nature^'' Vol. VII., p. 412.

"No American work of the kind has ever been printed containing
in its pages so satisfactory' illustrations of the various species."

From '''' E7itomologisi' s Monthly Magazine,'''' Lotidon.

"It is not too much to say that the figures w *'"ear comparison
with the best that have ever been given in iconogi. ■>hical works.
They are correct in outline and drawing, and colored with great
truthfulness and sobriety. The letter-press accompaniment to the
plates is also remarkably well done."

From the " Canadian Ento^nologist.''''

" It would be difficult to produce anything more beautiful or true
to nature than these exquisite drawings of Butterflies ; they vie in
excellence with any European work we have seen."

Front tlie " Atnerican Entotnologisi,'''' B. D. Walsh, Editor.

" The colored plates illustrating these species are unsurpassed in
splendor, naturalness of color, and correctness of detail, while the
typography and press-work are such that Americans may justly feel
proud of the work."

Pi-ice of the work to subscribers, $2.50 a part.

For the convenience of those wishing to subscribe,
a blank form has been printed on the fourth page of
this circular.

Copies of Volume I. may be had, bound in half
morocco or half calf, for ^30.00.

Address the Publishers,

HURD AND HOUGHTON,

13 Astor Place, ITew York.

THE RIVERSIDE PRESS,

Cambridge.

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ARflCLE IV.

KROM THE

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

PHILADELPHIA:

May, 1865.

1865.] 3:i1

[From the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia.]

Contributions to the Natural History of the CYNIPID^ of the United States
and of their Galls. Article 4th.

BY BARON R. OSTEN SaCKKN.

{Communicated A2wil 10,1865.)

The present paper brings but very few new facts before the entomo-
logical reader. The intention which principally prompted me, in pre-
paring it was, to give an account of the present state of the European
literature on Gynipidse, (exclusive of Figi.tidae)^ an account intended
especially for the benefit of entomologists unfavorably situated with
regard to access to scientific libraries and to whom this literature,
scattered over many volumes of transactions of European learned socie-
ties would otherwise have remained inaccessible. At the same time, I
have taken advantage of this opportunity, in order to correct several
errors of my former papers, to complete some descriptions of species
and to introduce some remarks, synonymous and others, suggested by
the comparisou of the specimens of my collection which I owe to the
liberality of MM. Walsh and Bassett. In this respect my paper will
afford a kind of recapitulation of the N. A. Qi/nqmlse at present known.

My correspondence with 'Dr. Reinhard and the exchange of speci-
mens with him, have led me to a somewhat better insight into Har-
tig's system of Gijni'pidse,^ than I po.ssessed before, but have convinced
me at the same time, 1st, that although most of his genera may be
easily recognizable to European entomologists, they have never been
scientifically defined ; 2nd, that Hartig's system will require a consid-
erable development, in order to be applicable to the N. A. Ci/nipidse;
this development consisting principally in the adoption of several new
genera peculiar to North America and coordinate to Hartig's genera.
Gi/nips^ Andricus, Neuroteriis, Spathegaster and Trigonaspis. How-
ever, to establish new genera, without strictly defining the already
existing ones, would merely increase the confusion. A simultaneous
reform of the whole system will therefore be the only warrantable
course to pursue.

About one hundred European gall-producing (p^eiitdous) Ci/nipidse
are at present known. The number of American species has not quite
reached fifty, and yet, considering the great prevalence of oaks in this
country, much more abundant in species of this tree than Europe, we
may expect that the number of N. A. Cynipidae, will far exceed the

332 [Mat

number of European insects of this family. In view of the compara-
tively small number of known N. A. species and of the large additions
which we can reasonably expect very soon, it would be premature to
attempt now the reform above alluded to. This conclusion is still more
justified by the consideration that we may likewise hope within a short
time, to see new light thrown upon the still mysterious sexual ques-
tion of this family, a discovery which will naturally affect its systema-
tic distribution.

In agreement with these motives, I have adopted in this paper only
three psenidous genei*a, easily recognizable by their general appearance,
even in the absence of a definition, the more so, as each of them is con-
fined to a different genus of plants. These genera are : Ci/nipx (in the
wider sense, in contradistinction of the genus C(/nips Hartig, in the
narrower sense, reputed agamous), which is confined to the oak; Rho-
d'ites, all the known species of which live on the rose, and Diastrophus,
hitherto obtained from galls on Ruhus and the allied PotentiUa. As
to the subdivision of the first and largest of these genera, I have con-
fined myself to a few hints, leaving it to the future student either to
follow them out or to controvert them.

The same views about the unseasonableness of a reform of the sys-
tem of Gijnipidae, have induced me to retain the primary subdivision of
the family, adopted by Hartig and based upon the shape of the radial
cell and the position of the areolet. This subdivision, insufficient as it
is, affords the advantage of being almost coincident with the subdivi-
sion into Psenidis and Inquilinai, based upon the habits of the insects.

Hartig divides the gall-inhabiting Cynipld^ into two sections :

I. With a narrow radial area, the areolet being opposite its basis.

II. With a broad and sto^ radial area, the areolet being beyond its
basis.

The former are generally Psenidse ; the latter Iv.quilinse ; the excep-
tions, mentioned by Hartig or observed by others, will be noticed at
the proper places in the sequel. Besides, most of the former (with the
exception of Rhodites), have an open radial area; most of the latter
(with the exception of several Aidax^, have it closed. All these dis-
tinctive characters may be useful, as long as taken in connection ; but
how vague Hartig's definition of the two sections is, becomes very
striking, if the radial area of Rhodites is compared with that of any spe-
cies of the other section ; of the two, it is certainly the former which
deserves to be called broad and short; moreover, it is closed, whereas
the area of Aulax syloestris is open.

1865.] 333

I will close this introductory paragraph by briefly stating the points
which deserve an early investigation from those who are so situated as
to be able to devote themselves to it.

1. The species Cijnips pezomachouhs^ forticornis and Ar/Yor, known
in their wingless form only, have been referred by me to Teras Hartig,
because they do not possess the principal character ascribed by this
author to Biorhiza^ '\n almost obsolete scutellum (" scutellum subnul-
lum" Hartig). Their scutellum is as large, and even larger, than that
of the wingless specimens of the European Andricus (Teras) terminalis
which I have received from Dr. Reiohard. It is singular enough,
however, that the winged form of these species has not been discovered
yet, and it would be worth while to bre,ed the galls in larger numbers
in order to obtain this winged form, if it exists.

2. The dimorphism of certain female Cynipidse, being accepted as an
apparently well established fact, it remains now to be investigated how
far this mode of reproduction is general in this family. The only
dimorphous female as yet discovered belongs to a particular group of
Cynipidse,, occurring on the black and red oaks only, and having certain
characters in common, which probably will cause this group to be sepa-
rated as a distinct genus. (The details of these characters will be given
at the proper place below.) This group, as far as I can understand,
is foreign to Europe.

The following questions arise at once: — 1st. Is this character of
dimorphism common to the whole group above alluded to 'I This
can be easily ascertained, I think, by subjecting galls of C. singida-
ris, for instance, or any other common species of the group, to the
same process of observation as Mr Walsh applied to the galls of
C. spongifica. 2d. Are the other species of the black, red and wil-
low-oak group, species known as yet in the female sex only, dimor-
phous forms of some as yet unknown bisexual species ? This applies
especially to C. punctata {pndagrse) of which more than one hundred
females have been reared without any male, and to G formosa, which
shows rather striking structural affinities to the agamous female of 6'.
spongifica (C. aciculata olim.) 3d. Are the 39 European species be-
longing to the agamous genus Cynips Hartig, the four or five North
American species belonging to the same genus, and the European aga-
mous species of Netiroterus, all dimorphous females of some known or
unknown bisexual species? This is the most important question of all,
and the most difficult to solve by means of an a priori reasoning. If,
on one side, we cannot but concur in the views expressed by Mr. Walsh

334 [May

(Proc. etc. IT, p. 448) on the improbability of an entirely agamous mode
of reproduction, on the other side, it seems still more difficult to suppose
that the dimorphism of the females, if it really exists in the genus Cy-
nips in Hartig's sense, should have remained undiscovered for more
than a quarter of a century, during which the question of the appa-
rent parthenogenesis of this genus has attracted the liveliest interest in
Europe.

I read in the last number of the Berliner Eatomologische Zeitschrift
for 1864, (page 405), that at the last annual meeting of the German
Naturalists at Giessen, Professor Hartig lectured upon the partheno-
genesis of Vt/nips. He said that the experiments of breeding these
insects from galls made during the last twenty-five years, produced
only females of the genera Ct/nij>s and Neuroterus. The females of
the agamous species oviposit immediately after the completion of their
development; those of the bisexual species only after copulation. He
described the receptaculum seminis of the bisexual species; it contained
spermatozoa after the copula (in Spatltegaster.) The agamous species
possess a receptaculum, but it contained no spermatozoa. It must be
observed that there is nothing in these statements to subvert Mr. Walsh's
hypothesis, and, as improbabilities are not impossibilities, it, may turn
out yet that some important fact, solving the vexed question, has been
overlooked by European observers. Hartig reared Neuroterus parasi-
ticus from the gall of a true Ci/nips. Neuroterus belongs to the first
section of Cynipidse and all its other species are pseuidous. But Har-
tig-'^uggest\himselfythat iV'^ together with several other
species, (which were all caught but not bred), may be considered as a
distinct genus, on account of the perfectly smooth mesonotum, which
has no parapsidal grooves.

The rather common gall of Gj/nips globulus Fitch, a true agamous
Cynips in the sense of Hartig, can be recommended as a suitable object
of observation towards the solution of the mystery. And it would be
very gratifying if this solution, so happily begun by Mr. Walsh, was
also completed on this side of the ocean.

New York, April 3, 1865.

Section I.

( •' Area radialis angusta ; areolea basalis." Hartig, Germ. Zcitschr.
II, p. 185.)

Hartig's arrangement of the genera belonging to this section is as
follows :

1865.] 335

A. Antennae articulis ingequalibus, ultimis 7-8 brevioribus, cla-
vam elongatam constituentibus.

a. Scutelluni haamisphericum.

1. Thoracis dorso villoso.

Palpi max. 5 artic. ; palpi labiates 3 art Cynips.

2. Thoracis dorso nudo, plerisque coriaceo.

Palpi max. 5 art.; lab. 2 artic Andricus.

3. Thoracis dorso nudo, plerisque Isevigauo.

Palpi max. 4 art, lab. 2 art Neuroterus.

b. Scutellura depressum^ planum.

4. Palpi max. 4 artic, lab. 2 artic Teras.

c. Seutellum subnullum (apterus).

5. Palpi max. 5 art., lab. 3 artic. ultimis appendiculis

couicis coronatis Apophyllus.

{=Biorhiza Westw.)

B. Antennae setacese, 15 — 16 articulates.

6. Palpi max. 4 art., lab. 2 art Rhodites.

7. Palpi max. 5 art., lab. 3 art., articulis ultimis appen-

diculis parvis lateralibus Diastrophus.

C. Antennse filiformes, 15 — 16 articulatee.

8. Thoracis dorso coriaceo.

Palpi max. 5 art., lab. 3 art Spathegaster.

9. Thoracis dorso lajvissimo.

Palpi max. 5 art., lab. 2 art. articulis ultimis ap-
pendiculis coronatis Trigonaspis.

This is all that Hartig's first article on Cynipidse (Germ. Zeitschr.
II, p. 176) affords towards a definition of the genera.

His second article (1. c. Vol. Ill, p 322) contains on pages 330 and
331 some few additional remarks, among which the only important one.
is the following: — "The phrase in the tabular arrangement of the
genera ' A. Antennae articulis ingequalibus. ultimis 7 — 8,' etc , refers
ohJa/ to the female ?ex, as the males of the bisexual genera Andricus
and Teras have filiform antennae with more or less coarctate, sometimes
even (A. moniUatus) rounded joints. These males might therefore be
confounded with those of the genera Spathegaster. Rhodites, Trigo-
iHiKpis and Di'astrophus, if the % of Spathegaster were not distinguish-
able by the abdomen, which is attached to a long peduncle, the S of
Rhodites by the closed radial area. At the same time, there exists the
most remarkable resemblance between the males of Andricus and Tri-
gonaspis, two genera which are so easily distinguished in the female
sex by the structure of the antennae. The only easily noticeable diifer-
ences are that Trigonaspis has the single antennal joints cylindrical,
Andricus more or less truncate-ovate; that the seutellum of Trigonas-
pis is larger, narrower, ending in a sharper point, and especially that
it is more deeply excavated and more porrected over the abdomen, than
in Andricus. The lateral tubercles of the seutellum of Trigonaspis

336 [May

are sharper and more protruding, which gives the scutellum a more
triangular shape."

About Neuroterus Hartig says (1. c. Ill, p. 388), that it can be
divided into two groups, based on the presence or the absence of parapsi-
dal grooves; in the group without them, the mesonotum is an uninter-
rupted, smooth, very shining convex surface; as a general rule, the
mesonotum of this genus is more smooth and shining than in most spe-
cies of Andn'cus. It is remarkable, adds Hartig, that two so closely
allied genera as Andricus and Neuroterus should be so different with
regard to their mode of reproduction. Neuroterus certainly belongs to
the agamous genera; in Andricus the males are as common as the
females.

Other remarks of Hartig, bearing on the subject of classification,
are the following :

1. (I. c. Ill, p. 323). All the genera, named on the analytical table
(page 5), are gall-producers (Psenidse) ; Neuroterus alone ma^ some-
times be inquilinous ; Aulax^ which belongs to the following section,
he also refers In part to the Psenides. (I will discuss this question in
the introductory remarks to the second section.)

2. (ibid.') All the above named genera are bisexual ; with the ex-
ception of the following, which are agamous : Oj/nips, Apophi/llus and
those species of Neuroterus, which are gall-producers ; (the latter
circumstance is rather remarkable and perhaps suggestive ! Compare
above, page 334.)

3. (1. c. IV, p. 408). Wingless females of Teras are often bred from
galls, together with winged specimens of both sexes ; such specimens
show a less developed thorax, but are however distinguished from Bior-
hiza Westw. {Apophi/llus Hartig) by a larger scutellum.

4. (1. c. IV, p. 411). Hartig introduces the new genus /Sj/nophrus,
which was not included in the tabular arrangement given above. It
is characterized as follows: " Segmentum abdominis secundum* reli-
quis longius, ai*ea radialis angusta, areola basalis, antennae filiformes,
14 ( — 15 ?) articulatae; palpi maxill. 5 articulati ; palpi lab. triarticulati,
articulis ultimis appendiculis parvis apicalibus; facies thoracisque latera
aciculata; abdominis segmentum secundum* reliquis prominens." This
insect was obtained from a gall on Quercus cerris ; its second abdomi-
nal segment seems to have nearly the same structure as that of Synergus.

The extracts which I have just given, contain nearly all the infor-

* Hartig has primum in both cases, but in accordance with the terminology
adopted by us, I change it to secundum.

1865.] 337

matioii which Harfcig has communicated to his readers about the new
genera introduced by him. He says that the great number of new
species, obtained by him after the publication of these genera, were all
very easily located in them. In his last paper (1. c. V^ol. IV), the num-
ber of species in the different genera reaches the following figures :
G//nips 28, Andricus 12, Neuroferus 11, Teras 2, Biorhiza Westw. 2,
Rhodites 3, Diastrophua 1, Synophrus 1, Spathegaster 3, Trigo-
naspis 2.

Since Hartig, Griraud has published numerous new species of Euro-
pean Cynipidse. (Verb. Zool. Botan. Gesellsch. Wien, 1859, p. 353).
He did not introduce any changes nor improvements in the system,
except that he united the genus Teras to Andricus^ the characters dis-
tinguishing them being insufiicient, and that he established a new genus
DryocosTnus. I will translate here the character of the genus and give
a short extract on the gall-fly, which belongs to it. as well as on its gall.

Dryocosmus, Giraud. — "Maxillary palpi 5-jointed ; labial palpi 3-jointed;
mandibles bidentate ; antennae slightly inerassated towards the tip, 15-jointed,-
the basal joints of the flagellum gradually decrease in length, the sixth is at
least twice as long as it is broad, the following joints are shorter, hardly longer
than broad."

" Mesothorax convex, with deep parapsidal grooves, limited ijosteriorly by
an elevated transverse ridge ; scutellum hemispherical, projecting, transversely
depressed at the basis and bordered on the sides by a slightly elevated ridge,
which becomes weaker and almost obsolete posteriorly."

" Wings and abdomen as in the genus Gynvps ; the first (what we call now
'second') segment occupies about half of the whole length of the abdomen."

"This genus is principally distinguished from Neurotcrus by the structure of
the scutellum."

The only specie?, D. cerriphilus 9 • was obtained by Griraud from
a gall on Q. cerris^ which, judging from his description, must be some-
what like the gall of C cornigera 0. S., only the conical points, pro-
jecting through the woody swelling of the limb in the latter gall, are
replaced here by numerous rounded, oboval or fusifoi-m bodies, which
in June pierce the outer skin of the swelling. These bodies, when
fresh, are pale green, tinged with rosy and reddish and exude a sap of
which the ants are very fond. The gall-fly has a smooth shining meso-
notum and pleurae, a long, narrow radial cell and a distinct areolet.

The only mention 1 have to make yet, in order to complete the lite-
erature of this section of Cynipidse, is the genus Pediaspis Tischbein
(Stett. Entom. Zeit. 1852, p. 141). The author obtained forty-two
female specimens, in winter, from the galls on the roots of Sorbus au-
cuparia. I abstain from translating the description, as it is published
in an easily accessible entomological review, the more so, as the charac-

338 r^AY

ter of the genus is not very clearly stated. Pediaspis has, like Gpiips
Hartig, (in the restricted sense,) a pubescent thorax and seems in
general rather closely allied to it.

Iji my former publications on Ct/nipidse, I have more than once com-
plained of the incompleteness of Hartig's definitions of the genera in-
troduced by him. The reader may judge now for himself. For my
own part, even with the aid of typical specimens, which I owe to the
kindness of Dr. Reinhard, I am still unable to recognize the genera
Andricus^ Neuroterua, Spathegasfer and Triognaspis with any degree
of scientific accuracy.

Without speaking of the diffieulty of counting the joints of the palpi,
it is contrary to all analogy, that their number should be so variable
in closely allied genera. And that the European entomologists them-
selves do not value this character very highly is proved by the fact
that Griraud united Teraa and Andricus into one genus, from want of
sufficient characters to distinguish them, although Teras, according to
Hartig, has 4-jointed, Aiuincus 5-jouited maxillary palpi. The palpi
being left out, what is the difference between Andricus and Neurnte-
nix ? Hartig's phrase : "thorax bare,ii.swa% coriaceous" for the former,
and -'thorax bare, usuaUij smooth," is the only, but not a sufficient, defi-
nition. In the above quoted passage, Hartig informs us that Spatlie-
gaster has the % abdomen pedunculated ; but the same is the case with
Trigonaspis ! (A specimen of this genus was sent to me by Dr. Rein-
hard.) In what, then, does the difference between these genera con-
sist? As if to increase the difficulty, Mr. Hartig tells us (compare
above) that there is the most remarkable resemblance between the males
of Andricus and. Trigonaspis., and, in the enumeration of the diff'erences
which follow, he makes no mention of the pedunculated S abdomen.
Have we to conclude from this statement that the % abdomen of An-
dricus is also sometimes pedunculated ?

It is the place here to bring to notice, that Hartig generally counted
one antennal joint more than necessary^ as he evidently considered as
the first joint, the socket of the antenna, which is often visible below the
first joint. Noticing the frequent disagreement between Hartig's state-
ments in this respect and my own observations, I always suspected that
such was the case, until I'ecently my suspicions were confirmed, when
I happened to notice Hartig's remark about Trigonaspis (1. c. II, p.
195): ^^ articidus 4i antennarum % curvatvs," which evidently refers
to the third joint.

The difficulty experienced by me in arranging the North American

1865.]

339

(Ji/nipidse according to Hartig's system, is apparently due, besides the
imperfection of the system itself, to the peculiarity of the American
fauna, which may require the establishment of several new genera.

The great prevalence of oaks in this country and the great number
of their species, would justify a priori the inference that Ci/mpidse are
very abundant. That they are not only abundant, but also very diiferent
from the European representatives of this family, may be inferred from
the following facts : — 1st. The group consisting of the species G. spon-
ijifica^ ilidfoUae^ coelehs, smgularis, etc., quite numerously represented
in North America, does not exist in Europe. 2d. The agamous genus
equips, in the restricted sense of Hartig, is much more numerous in
Europe than in America, as among 98 species of true gall-flies {Psenides),
described by Hartig, and in the last publication of Giraud, 39 belong
to that genus ; whereas among nearly 50 North American Psenides at
present known, only four, perhaps y?.tfe, as we shall see hereafter, belong
to C^mpii Hartig.

In the introductory remarks to this paper, I have already expressed
the conviction that before the North American fauna of Cynipidse is
better known, but especially before the myaterij of the reproduction of
Cynipidae. is soloed, it would be premature to attempt a final distribution
of the family in genera. Indeed, if we were not acquainted with the
fact that C acieulata is nothing but a dimorphous $ of C sjjovr/ifca,
we would probably have located it in a different genus, on account of
the peculiar structure of its abdomen, the number of joints of its an-
tennse, etc.

Admitting, therefore, as announced in the introduction, only three
genera of psenidous Cynipidse, O/yuips, Phodifes and Diastrophus, all
that I can offer at present, as to the subdivision of Ci/nips, is confined
to a few hints, as follows : —

1. G. strobilana 0. S., G. tuhicola 0. S., G. globulus Fitch, and G.
centricola 0. S., are the only American species at present known which
Hartig would have located in his agamous genus Gi/nips. (The two
former species I have communicated to Dr. Reinhard ; of the two latter.
I judge by analogy.) Although G. clavida Bassett has a pubescent
thorax, a character peculiar to Gijnips Hartig, I am not sure whether
it can be considered as belonging to this genus. All these species
occur within the group of the white and chestnut oaks ( Q. alba,prinus,
obfusiloba, etc.)

2. 0. semmafor Harris, which I have communicated to Dr. Reinhard,
is an Aiidricus ; judging by some structural analogies, G. petiolicola
Bassett and G. fusiformis 0. S., perhaps also G.fufUlis (^G. papillata},

340 [Mat

very probably belong to tbe same genus. These species all occur in
the group of the white and chestnut oaks.

3. C. pezomachoitles 0. S., 6\ /orh'cor?iis Walsh and C. hlrta Bassett
are apparently wingless females of Teras Hartig (a genus now united
with Andricus) ; if such is the case, we may expect the discovery of
winged individuals of these species. As these wingless specimens, in-
variably females, have always been reared in winter, may they not be
dimorphous females of the winged individuals, for which we would
have to look out, in such a case, in the early part of summer ? Biorliiza
Westw. {=^ Apophijllus Hartig) is distinguished from Teras by an
almost obsolete scutellum. The three species named above belong to
the group of the white and chestnut oaks.

4. C. irregularis 0. S., C. majalis Bassett and G. hatatus Fitch
are distinguished by the % abdomen being fastened to a rather
long, linear peduncle, by the great development of the third antennal
joint, which is long, stout and curved; by the smooth mesonotum, with-
out any traces of parapsidal grooves ; by the elevated hind margin of
the mesonotum ; by the absence of pits at the basis of the scutellum
which are replaced by a transverse impression, etc. These species are
evidently allied to Spatliegaster tricolor Hartig, of which I possess spe-
cimens, the latter having an abdomen of the same structure, no pits at
the base of the scutel, the same large wings, with a rather distinct cu-
bital vein, etc. But the third antennal joint of S. tricolor^ is linear
and slender, and not much longer than the fourth; the mesonotum is
very finely coriaceous, and shows faint impressions, foreshadowing the
parapsidal grooves. Trigonaspis Hartig has the third antennal joint
elongated and curved, but its abdomen, although pedunculated, has a
difi'erent structure and the parapsidal grooves are distinctly marked. I
conclude, hence, that the three above named N. A. species form a dis-
tinct group, allied to Spafhegaster. G. verrucarum 0. S., known in
the female sex only, shows many points of analogy with these three
.species, and I should not wonder if the male proved to have a pedun-
cled abdomen.

5. G. spongijica (inanis, coccinea3), coelehs^ iUcifolix^ singidaris, Osten
Sackenii, and probably the gall-fly of Q. falcafa, the gall of which
was described by me, Proc. etc. I, p. 69, No. 20, form a distinct group,
foreign to Europe, and which will probably have to be separated as
a distinct genus. It is worthy of remark, 1st, that the galls of all
these species occur exclusively on the group of the blacJc and red. oaks ;
2d. that all these galls are built on the same plan; they are monothala-
mous, and consist of a globular or fusiform, comparatively thin and

1865.] 341

brittle shell, containing a proportionally small central nucleus, kept in
position either by a spongy matter, filling up the space between it and
the shell, or by filaments, radiating from it. It is in this group that
the dimorphism of a female (that of C. spoivjifica) was first discovered
by Mr. Walsh, and it would be an interesting and comparatively easy
subject for observers to investigate, whether the other species of the
group likewise have dimorphous females? It would be sufficient, I
think, to use for this purpose the same process which Mr. Walsh has
used for the discovery of the dimorphism of C. sijongifica, that is, to
collect a large number of galls at the proper time in the spring or in
early summer, and thus to obtain the two successive broods, the bisexual
one in summer and the dimorphous female brood in winter or early
next spring. I should not wonder at all if, in some cases, the galls
producing the dimorphous females were somewhat, or perhaps even
altogether, dififerent from those producing the bisexual brood. Is not
C formosa Bassett, known in the female sex only and bred in winter,
a dimorphous female of some other species ? It is distinguished from
the sexual females of the genus by precisely the same characters which
distinguish C. ackulata (the agamous female of G. spongifica^ ; its
abdomen has the same shape as G. aciculata, and is diiferent in shape
from the abdomen of the sexual females; its sculpture, like that of G.
aciculatd, is less coarse than that of the sexual females, and also distin-
guished by five aciculate striae ; its antennas have more joints than
those of the sexual females.

6. G. modesta 0. S., C. quercus iiigne 0. S. and G. tumifica O. S.
form again a distinct natural group, remarkable for the absence of the
areolet, the peculiar, microscopic sculpture of the thorax, rendering it
opaque, and the great diflference in size and color between the two
sexes. Their galls are polythalamous swellings of the leaf-ribs, contain-
ing many small, seed-like bodies. They occur on Q. rubra, tinctoria
and nigra.

7. G. operator 0. S. with 12-jointed 9 antennae and some other pe-
culiarities, will probably form a new genus. It occurs on Q. nigra, and
the same species or a similar one on Q. palustris and ilicifolia. A pe-
culiarity in the neuration constitutes a point of relationship between
this species and G q. phellos and G. similis, which, however, are dis-
tinguished by the sheath of the ovipositor being much less protruded.

8. G. punctata Bassett {podagrse Walsh) is apparently agamous ;
more than 120 9 specimens were reared by MM. Walsh and Bassett.
without a single male. If such is the case, we have iDefore us an aga-
mous species, the thorax of which is not pubescent, as the thorax of the

342 [May

agamous Cijnips Hartig invariably is. The presumption is, therefore,
that it belongs to a different genus, and this is supported, by the other
characters, as the sculpture, the shape of the abdomen, etc. Now C.
scitula Bassett, known in both sexes, resembles C. punctata very much,
except that it is much smaller ; it occurs, like C. podagrse, on Q. tine-
tor ia, and produces a gall which, judging by the description, is not
unlike that of the latter species. These facts irresistibly suggest the
impi'ession that C. podagrse, its larger size notwithstanding, is but an
agamous female of C scitula. Again a fact for observers to investigate.
The above remarks may be summed up as follows : —

1. The species of 0,i/iiips producing galls on trees of the white and
chestnut oak group (Q. ohtU'iilohco macrocarpa, alba, prinu-t, prinoides^
castanea, forming Mr. Grray's first division, fruit ripening the first year ;
compare Gray's Manual of Botany,) seem to be, as a general rule, gene-
rically distinct from the species, producing galls on the trees of the
black, red and, willow oak group (^Q. rubra, coccinea, tinctoria, falcata,
ilicifolia, palustris, phellos, imbricaria, nigra; Grray's second division,
fruit not maturing until the second year^. Thus the genera Cynips
(in Hartig's sense), Andricus, Spathegaster, Teras, as far as they are
recognized among the N. A. species, all occur on the white oak group,
whereas most of the species belonging to the other group will probably
require the establishment of new genera. Hence, the relationship with
the European fauna is especially to be found in the first group, the
second principally containing forms peculiar to America.

2. If any species of Cynips produces galls on more than one kind of
oak it will always confine itself to oaks of the same botanical group. I
am not aware of a single exception to this rule.*

Genus CYNIPS.
(Galls on trees of the genus QwercMS.)
The number of species of Cynips in its present acceptation being
now more than forty, and a number of galls having been described be-
sides, the gall-flies of which are as yet unknown, it became very desira-
ble to have a general synopsis of the knowledge thus accumulated, the
more so as the data respecting this knowledge are scattered in several
volumes. To this end, the following two tables have been prepared:
1st, an analytical table of the known species of N. A. Cynips ; 2d, a
synoptical table of the known N. A. oak-galls produced or supposed to

*Tliis was already written when I received Mr. "Walsh's paper " On the in-
sects etc. inhabiting the galls of certain willows," (Proc. Ent. Soc. Vol. Ill, p. 54.3^
and found, that by a remarkable coincidence, this author has made precisely
the same observation (1. c. p. 639).

1865.] 34P.

be produced by Cj/nips. At the end of these tables have been added
od. Remarks, containing all the necessary references to the previous
publications bearing on the subject, and some new facts, suggested by
the comparison of original specimens, additional descriptions, etc.

1. The construction of the first of these tables is necessarily imper-
fect, owing to the difficulty of finding discriminating characters of easy
and general application. Another still more evident cause of imper-
fection is, that of inany species, only one sex is known. It will be
highly desirable to have a new, corrected table published as soon as the
accumulation of new facts will require it. Such a table affords the ad-
vantage of being the only means for identifying, if not with certainty,
at least with some degree of approximation, the species of Cijnips taken
at large and not bred from galls. A very useful, if not indispensable
addition to the table, would have been a full and comparative descrip-
tion of all the known species, instead of the existing descriptions differ-
ing in the degree of their completeness, often in their nomenclature
and" scattered in many volumes. I regret that I have not had time to
prepare such descriptions.

The frequent occurrence of phytophagie varieties within the present
group has induced me always to add the name of the tree to the name
of the species bred from it. The name of the tree and the description
of the gall being added to the description of the insect, it will be pos-
sible, in most cases, to attain comparative certainty as to the specific
identity of the insect, even if its description should only be of average
completeness. On the contrary, the insect alone or even the gall and
the insect being described, without the name of the tree, the identifica-
tion may often seem doubtful. If a species has been first found on one
kind of oak and subsequently on others, I have added the name of the
first kind of oak only, thus showing that the insect bred from that oak
represents the type of the species. If, for instance, it is once proved
that constant differences occur between C. q. palustris bred from Q.
palustris and G. q. pahistris bred from Q. tinctoria, the first should
be considered as typical. Entomologists should be especially cautioned
against rashly concluding as to the specific identify of insects bred from
two galls, showing a superficial resemblance, but found on different
trees.

In the analytical table No. I, those species which are nearly identi-
cal, but occur on different trees, and may thus be considered as phyto-
phagie varieties, or incipient new species, are united by brackets.

I have also introduced a slight change in the nomenclature, which I
have to account for. In my previous papers, following the example of

344 TMat

former writers, [ have alwiiys placed the letter q {querent) between the
generic and the specific names of the Gtjnlpidse. of the oak. But af
this addition seems to me perfectly useless, I have omitted it now, ex-
cept in cases when the name of the species is derived from the name
of the oak, (as, for instance, C qwrcm nigrse 0. S.)

'1. In preparing the Synopais of the galls (Table No. II ), I have
mostly retained the subdivisions adopted in my first paper (Proc. etc.
I, p. 58). xilthough these subdivisions are merely empirical, the table
will considerably facilitate the task of determining whether a given
gall has been described or not, and, in the first case, where the descrip-
tion is to be looked for. A scientific subdivision of the galls has to be
based on physiological characters, which are not sufficiently investigated
at present. As galls are apt to undergo several modifications of their
appearance during the different stages of their growth, the description
of a gall should represent it in the state of maturity, which is reached
when the gall-fly is ready to escape. This rule should be invariably
understood, unless the description is rendei'ed still more complete by
representing the successive stages of growth.

I. Analytical Tahlf of the known species of N. A. Cynips.
Observation . — The numbers on the left-hand side of the specific
names refer to the Remarks^ etc. on page 350 and the following.

1. No distinct parapsidal grooves ; mesonotum quite smooth and bare,

scutellum likewise 2

Parapsidal grooves distinctly marked (unless indistinct in consequenoe
of a very rough sculpture of the mesonotum) 4

2. Third antennal joint equal in length to three f 18- C- irregularis 0.^.%.

or four of the following joints taken together; -j jg_ J.^afaUs'satiett %
thorax of the 'J, with yellowish pleurge. i g. (Q. alba.)

Third antennal joint equal to two of the following joints taken toge-
ther, or less 3

f20. C. batatus Fitch -^ ?.

3. 0.10— 0.12 long j (Q. alba.)

0.05 long 1 21. C. verrucarum O.S. 9.

[ (Q. obtusiloba.)

4. "Wings with a conspicuous dark brown cloud at the basis of the ra-

dial area, on the second cross-vein 5

Wings without such a cloud, or, at the utmost, with a narrow, in-
conspicuous brown margin on the second cross-vein 7

6. Feet black, except the two anterior pairs of tibiae ] 26. C. q. ilicifoliae Bassett
and tarsi, which are brownish-yellow. j 'S ?• (Q- ilicifolia.)

Feet reddish or yellowish R

f22. C. spongifica 0 S. ^
I 9- (Q- tinetoria.)

6. Areolet distinct; % 0.18 long; 9 0.23 , 23. C q. coccine^ 0. S. 9 .

" 6 ' + (Q. eoccinea.)

24. C. inanis 0. S. -^9 .

(Q. rubra.)

1865.] 345

Areolet very indistinct; % 0.14 long 25. C. coelebs 0. S. 'J, .

(Q. rubra?)

7. Areolet present (the veins, bounding it on the inside may often be

nearly obsolete, still the areolet, in a certain light, is visible.) 8

No areolet 2.5

8. Mesonotum and scutellura clothed with a rather dense, appressed

pubescence 9

Mesonotum altogether glabrous or seldom with a few short, scat-
tered, microscopic hairs* 13

9. Body reddish, small (0.10—0.12 long) | *' C tubicola 0. S. 9.

•' ■ ^ "^^ ( (Q- obtusiloba.)
Body black or brown 1(1

10. Posterior half of the abdomen pubescent j ^- ^V®*^"^^^'^^,^" ^' ^ '

^ [ (Q. bicolor?)

Posterior half of the abdomen not pubescent 11

11. Body not more than 0.12 long j ^- ^■,^}f^^^^,^^',\®">

•^ 1 litt. 9 . (Q. alba.)

Body more than 0.15 long ]2

12. A brown cloud in the angle between the radial ) o r *. • nan
and cubital veins and a couple of irregular brown I"' ^'^ centricola O.b. J .
marks towards the apex of the wing. J (^- o'^'tusUoba.)

No clouds or marks in the space between the ra- ) 2. C. globulus Fitch 9 .
dial and cubital veins J (Q,. alba.)

13. Mesonotum more or less distinctly, (although sometimes microsco-
pically) sculptured 14

Mesonotum smooth, shining, without any apparent sculpture (ex-
cept the usual longitudinal furrows) 23

11. Sculpture of the mesonotum very coarse and rough 15

Sculpture of the mesonotum delicate 16

15. % Antenna distinctly 16-jointed : 9 tind feet") 27. C. singularis Bas-
concolorous with the other feet, red.dish ; 9 ab- > sett % 9 .
domen red or. reddish-brown J (Q. rubra.)

% AntennEB 15-jointed; 9 hind feet darker than j ^^- ^ Osten-Sackenii

the two other pairs, brown: 9 abdomen black. 1 ^^f^ .,P.f:. .

^ ' ' + • (^ (Q. ihciiolia.)

16. The whole pleurae are rugose, opaque 17

A considerable portion of the upper jjart of the pleurse is smooth

and shining 21

17. 9 Antennse distinctly 15-jointed : whole body ( 9 ) not black nor

dark brown 18

9 Antennse 1.3 or 14-jointed ; bodj^ (except antennse or feet) black

or dark brown 19

IS. 9 head and thorax brownish-yellow, abdomen | 37. C. ventricosa Bas-

brownish J sett 9 • (Q. ilicifolia.)

9 head and thorax deep-black, abdomen bright | 29. C. formosa Bassett
red I 9. (Q. rubra.)

19. Mesonotum with a dense, even sculpture, giving it a haiidsome,

semiopaque appearance 20

Mesonotum rather shining, its sculpture percep- [ 38. C. cornigera 0. S. 9 •
ceptible under a very strong lens only j (Q. palustris.)

* The only possible error here is with C. petiolicola, which may be referred to
the preceding diagnostic phrase, as its thorax has a sparse, but rather distinct
pubescence.

346 ""M^^

f39. C. punctata Bassett
I 9. (Q. rubra.)

20. Length 0.12 ^ 40. C. podagrse Walsh

[ 9. (Q- tinctoria.)

T tu n A^ n no f 41. C. scitula Bassett -J,

Length 0.0/-0.09 | ^ _ ^q tinctoria )

21. The rough sculpture of the humeral parts of the collare is in dis-

tinct contrast with the comparatively smooth and finely sculp-
tured surface of the mesonotum * 1^

There is no marked contrast between the sculpture of the humeral
parts of the collare and the mesonotum 22

^ ^ „ „ , ' I 7. C.petiolicolaBassett 9

22. Scutellum finely rugose, opaque | ^ ^^_ montana.)

Basal half of the scutellum rather smooth and ) S. C. fusiformis 0. S. 9 •
.-Bomewhat shining J (Q. alba.)

23. Scutellum deeply rugose, and therefore opaqueOg_ C. seminator Harris 9

male abdomen not pedunculated; head 01 V 't IQ alba 1

the female reddish J o • IV-

Scutellum moderately rugose, and therefore more or less shining;
head of the female black (except the face, which in C. q. palustris
is reddish) 24

. , ^ ,. An n m n 1 | 42. C. q. palustris 0. S. %

•n. % 0.09, 9 0.10 long } ^"i^^^ palustris.)

f 9. C. futilis O.&. %.

^ , A ^- , I (Q- alba.)

% only O.Oo long ^0 C. papillata 0. S. ^ •

[ (Q. prions.)

25. The branch of the subcostal vein, running towards the anterior

margin, is obsolete; the radial area is therefore open on the inner

side 26

The branch of the subcostal vein running towards the anterior mar-
gin is distinctly marked, although sometimes abbreviated 27

2(5. The sheaths of the 9 ovipositor project consi-1

derably above the dorsal line of the abdomen; | 36. C. operator 0. S. ■J, 9 •
% of the same coloring with the 9) both be- f (Q. nigra.)

ing brownish-red J

The sheaths of the 9 ovipositor do not project! ^.^_ c.similis Bassett ^ 9
above the dorsal line of the abdomen; the 9 ,q ilieifolia )

is bro^vnish-red or reddish-brown: the % of U-^^ q. q. phellos 0. S. 9.
C. similis IS black; the % of C. q. phellos is as (Q phellos )

yetunknown J

27. Stout veins of the wings pale, colorless; head ~| .,g q nisrse 0 S 'J; 9
and thorax ( 9 ) reddish, abdomen dark brown: V" ' ' m njo-ra )'

'^ small in size, black J \ ■ a ■>

Stout veins of the wings colored with brown, head and thorax ( 9 )

brown 2S

2S. Antennne uniformly brownish-yellow ; length] 35. C. modesta 0. S. 9-'

of 9 0.06—0.07 (male unknown) | (Q. rubra?)

Antennce darker towards the tip; length of the ] 34. C. tumifica 0. S. "J, 9 •
9 O.O'J— 0.10 J (Q- tinctoria.)

*This brings back to C. cornigera 0. S. This species has a small smooth space
on the upper part of the pleural, which might mislead those who perceive it.
Care has been therefore taken to arrange the table in such a manner that
whichever of the two phrases under ISTo. 16 is chosen, C. cornigera may be reached.

1865.] 347

N. B. — Are not mentioned in this table the species known in their wingless
form only (12. C. pezomachoides 0. S., 1.3. C. forticornis Walsh and 14. C. Mrta
Bassett) and the species which I have not seen (11. C. flocci Walsh, 30. C. sculpta
Bassett, 15. Philonix fulvicollis Fitch, 16. Ph. nigricollis Fitch, 17. Biorhiza
nigra Fitch).

II. Synopsis of the described Galls of N. A. Cynips.
Observation. — The numbers on the left hand of the names refer to
the Remarks on page 350 and the following. An asterisk near this
number means that I have not seen the gall, and therefore cannot
judge with certainty about its location. As some galls have been de-
scribed (especially by Dr. Fitch) under the name of their guest-flies,
and had to change their name since the discovery of the true gall-flies,
I have mentioned their former name as synonym of the gall^ which of
course does not imply the synonymy of the insects. All the galls of
the left-hand column are found on the group of the white and chestnut
oaks ; all those of the right-hand column belong to the group of red,
black and willow oaks. This subdivision will render it easier to find a
gall in this synopsis, the more so as in no instance, as yet known, has
the same species of gall-fly been discovered on two species of oaks be-
longing to diiferent groiips. (Compare above, page 342, No 2.) Some
of the galls, the gall-flies of which are not known, may prove not to be-
long to the Cynijjidse, at all.

Group of white and chestnut-oaks. | Group of red, black and willow-oaks.
I. GrALLS ON LEAVES.

A. Galls not intimately connected with the substance of the leaf,
generally fastened by a small portion of their surface, and which can
be removed without carrying a portion of the leaf with them, (project-
ing from one side of the leaf, or from the margin.)

1. Grlobular galls, with a kernel in the centre, kept in position by
a softer substance (dry spongy, fibrous, or succulent) or by filaments,
radiating from it to the shell; all monothalamous.

a. Kernel kept in position by a dry, spongy or fibrous substance.

43. Q. jwilavs ; gall-fly unknown. 22. Q. tinctoria; C. spongifica 0. S.

dcvteX' gy^^ Qf tijQ g2i\\ : confluens Harris.

M.4ix'ii;w]t0iitiJ4aV^<iifc<fet8afe*€*^ 23. Q. coccinea; C. q. coccinese 0. S.

b. Kernel kept in position by delicate filaments.

3. Q. obtusiloba; C. centricola 0. S. 24. Q. rubra? C. inauis 0. S. Syn. of the

gall: covfluens Fitch, (non Harris.)

c. Kernel kept in position by a juicy substance.

*30. Q. rubra ) „

,. „„ ^ ,. , . ^ C. sculpta Bassett.

"■"30. Q. tinctoria j

2. Globular or irregularly rounded galls of a hard, woody sub-

348 [May

Group of wMte and chestnut-oaks. | Group of red, black and willow-oaks.

stance, hollow inside, but without distinct kernel of a harder sub-
stance ; the hollow space usually divided in two or more cells.

57. Q. alba; gall-fly unknown (the 44. Q. palustris; gall-fly unknown.

same as the following ?) Syn.
of the gall Q. pisuvx Fitch ?
12. Q. alba ? C. pezomachoides 0. S.

58. Q. alba; gall-fly unknown: gall

Q. eWwacei "Walsh. ^ /-t/— fSrijJctC.

/^, ^.J^« ''««.-' iv^ir. >T%,.^£ri.*^^ - 1^- ht''lA r^rtnijcy

' o. Spindle-shaped galls.
8. Q. alba: C. fusiformis 0. S. 25. Q. rubra? C. coelebs 0. S.

56. Q. prinoides : gall-fly doubtful. 26. Q. ilicifolia : C. q. ilicifoliae Bassett.
{Figites chinquapin Fitch.)

4. Woolly or hairy excrescences on leaves, wartlike or irregular.
11. Q. alba? C. flocci Walsh. 48. Q. palustris: gall-fly unknown.

45. Q. alba; gall-fly unknown; (C.

flocci/) Synon.oi gall: Q. lanos .
Fitch.

46. Q. obtusiloba; gall-fly unknown.
21. Q. obtusiloba; C.verrucarumO.S.

47. Q. prinus ; gall-fly unknown.
47. Q. alba; gall-fly unknown.

5. Clusters of small galls growing on the underside of the leaves,
or on the petiole.

49. Q. obtusiloba: gall-fly unknown. 51. Q. rubra; gall-fly unknown; gall Q.

decidua Bassett.

50. Q. alba ; gall-fly unknown.

6. Tubular galls with spines on the outside.
4. Q. obtusiloba; C. tubicola 0. S.

AA. G-alls intimately connected with the substance of the leaf, so
that they cannot be taken off without carrying a portion of the leaf
with them.

1. Griobular, hollow, mouothalamous galls.

a. With a kernel in the centre, kept in
position by filaments, radiating from it
to the shell (same type of structure as
the galls of section A, 1, b.)

27. Q. rubra; C. singularis Bassett. Syn.

of gall Q. nubilipennifi Fitch (non
Harris.)

28. Q. ilicifolia; C. Osten Sackenii Bas-

sett.
28. Q. coccinea ; gall-fly unknown.

b. With a white, cocoon-like body, roll-
ing freely about in the cavity (on very
young leaves and on buds, early in the
spring).

1S65.] 349

Group of white and chestnut-oaks. | Group of red, black and willow-oaks.

42. Q,. palustris. ]
Q,. tinctoria. |

Votlte.. |C.q.palustrisO.S.
Q. imbricaria. |
Q. ilicifolia. J

2. Swellings or espausions of the leaf or of the leaf-ribs, mostly
polythalamous, except No. 7, which seems to be monothalamous.*

a. Juicy swellings of the blade of the d. Swellings of the leaf, usuallj'
leaf; of a cellular, pithy structure, along the principal ribs ; they contain
when dry. numerous, seed-like kernels.

18. Q. obtusiloba; C. irregularis 0. S. .33. Q. nigra; C. q. nigrae 0. S.

19. Q. alba; C. majalis Bassett. 34. Q. tinctoria; C. tumifiea 0. S.

b. Expansion of the leaf, not juicy, 35. Q. rubra; C. modesta 0. S.
with two or three seed-like kernels in «

the centre, kept in posi tion by filaments.
9. Q. alba; C. futilis 0. S.
10. Q. prinus ; C. papillata 0. S.

c. Hard, woody swellings of the leaf-
stalk at the basis of the leaf, or of the
principal leaf-rib.

7. ^-AiTJTrtana ; C.petiolicola Bassett.

7. Q,. prinoides 1 • io

' ^ I I same insect?

7. Q. alba , J

7. Q. pwerste ; same gall? Insect un-
known'.

II. GrALLS ON BRANCHES, TWIGS, ETC.

A. G-alls of a different substance than the limb, and which can be
taken off, without carrying a portion of the branch with them.

1. Monothalamous galls, mostl}^ of a corky substance (except the

gall No. 54, which is filled with a spongy substance.)

a. Each gall wedge-shaped ; a nam- c. Large globular gall, growing from
ber of them growing together, with the the side of the cup of the acorn,
points of the wedges in the centre, form 53. Q. rubra ") Gall-fly unknown;
abody not unlike the cone of a pine. f gall named Q. pru-

, ^ • / u- 1 \ n i I.- Q. tinctoria J nus Walsh.

1. Q. prinus (var. bicolor). C. strobi- ^

, „ „ d. Subcorneal galls, often m clusters.

lana 0. S. &

,„,,,,, ,, .,, 37. Q. ilicifolia: C. ventricosa Bassett.
6. Galls globular, smooth, or with a

, ■ 1 i i.1, J e. Cluster of elongate-ovate galls.

nipple or point at the end. ^ , „ „ -^

^„ „ . , 1,- 1 \o n 11 a ■■'29. Q. rubra; C. formosa Bassett.

52. Q. prinus (var. bicolor) ? Gall-iiy ^ '

, /'. MonothalamouSjOblonsraralls, filled

unknown. ■' ' &o

. „ ,, , with a spongy substance.

' Q.'^Iottana)! ^- g^o^^^^s Fitch. 54. Q. falcata; gall-fly unknown.

2. Q. obtusiloba '] Galls similar to

V the preceding : —
2. Q. macrocarpaj gallfly not reared.

53. Q. alba?? Gall-fly unknown; gall

named Q.juglans 0. S.

■*The gall of C. petiolicola is certainly polythalamous. — H. F. Bassett. May
25th, 1865.

350 [Mat

Group of white and chestnut-oaks. | Group of red, black and willow-oaks.

2. Woolly excrescences, with a great number of seed-like kernels
inside.

6. Q. alba : C. seminator Harris. 36. Q. nigra "|

Q. ilicifolia > C. operator 0. S.

Q. palustris J

3. Bladder-like, thin-shelled, hollow, irregular galls, crowded to-
gether round small limbs.

13. Q. alba : C. forticornis Walsh.
*S[?/?i. of gall : Q.Jtcus Fitch.

4. Clusters of small, narrow, deformed leaves, with the gall in the
centre .

.55. Q. prinoides ; gall-fly unknown;
gall Q. frondosa Bassett.

A. A. Swellings of the branches, twigs, etc., which cannot be taken
off. without breaking the branch.

a. Swellings at the tip of the twig.
20. Q. alba; C. batatus Fitch. 31. Q. phellos; C. q. phellos 0. S.

5. Q. alba; C. clavula Bassett. ■■•32. Q. ilicifolia; C. similis 0. S.

Si/n. of gall. Q. tuber Fitch.
Q. arbos Fitch ?
b. Swellings in the middle of the branch.

39. Q. rubra ; C. punctata Bassett.

40. Q. tinctoria; C. podagrae "Walsh.
-■HI. Q. tinctoria; C. scitula Bassett.

38. Q. palustris; C. cornigera 0. S.
*38. Q. ilicifolia; gall-fly unknown.

III. Rema7-ks supplemental' y to the two precediny Tables,
a. Galls on the group of the white and chestnut-oaks.

1. C. STROBILANA 0. S., Proc. etc. Ill, p. 690; ( 9 ; Q. prinus, var.
hicolor) ; the gall Proc. etc. I, p. 254. This, as Mr. Reinhard informs
me, is a true agamous Ct/nips^ in the restricted sense of Hartig; it be-
longs to Hartig's first division, which has the tip of the abdomen pube-
scent.

2. C. GLOBULUS Fitch, Rep. 11, No. 812 ( 9 ; <2- aiha'). Compare
also 0. S. Proc. etc. I, p. 68 and Bassett, Proc. etc. II, p. 828. Dr.
Fitch, Mr. Walsh, Mr. Bassett and myself have found this gall on Q.
alba. Mr. Bassett has found a similar gall, giving apparently the same
insect, on Q. montana. Grails of the same kind were observed by me
on Q. obtusiloba and by Mr. Walsh on Q. macrocaipa ; neither of us
have obtained the insect, however. Ctjnips globulus belongs to the genus

Cynips, in the restricted sense of Hartig.

3. C. CENTRICOLA 0. S. Proc. ctc. I, p. 58 (5; Q. obtmiloba).
Likewise a Gynips in Hartig's sense.

1865.] 351

4. C. TUBICOLA 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 60 ( 9 ; Q. obtusiloba.) Again
a Cynips Hartig, as Mr. Eeinharcl, to whom I have communicated spe-
cimens, informs me.

5. C. CLAVULA Bassett in litt. ('^yn. C.q. tuber Bassett, non Fitch).
( 9 ; Q. alba). This insect, described by Mr. Bassett (Proc. etc. Ill,
p. 685) as G. q. tuber Fitch, could not retain this name, as Mr. Bassett
himself proves that it is not the insect described by Dr. Fitch, the latter
being a guest-fly. I have therefore adopted the name G. clavtcla, sug-
gested to me in a letter by Mr. Bassett himself. Although this insect
has a pubescent thorax, like Gi/nips in the restricted sense of Hartig, I
am not sure whether it is to be referred to this genus. The feet of my
specimen are brownish-yellow and not brown, as mentioned in Mr.
Bassett's description. According to this author's opinion (1. c.) this
gall and that of G. q. arbos Fitch are produced by the same insect.
Both G. q. tuber Fitch and G. q. arbos Fitch are guest-flies; (compare
below, the genus Geroptres).

6. C. SEMINATOR Harris, Insects etc. p. 548 ; Fitch, Rep. II, No.
315; 0. Sack., Proc. etc. I, 69, No. 21; Walsh, Proc. etc. II, p. 465
(at the top); ( S ? ; Q. alba). I had expressed some doubts about the
identity of the specimens obtained by me from these galls, with those
described by Fitch, as he says that the thorax of the 9 is cinnamon-red.
Mr. Walsh confirmed my doubts, venturing even the supposition that
the gall-fly described by Fitch was a guest-gall-fly. I believe now to
have found the solution of the difficulty. Having exaniined my speci-
mens recently, after a lapse of several years, I find that the thorax of
all the 9 specimens has become reddish, whereas that of the %, speci-
mens has remained black. It seems probable, therefore, that Dr. Fitch
had rather old specimens before him when drawing his description. G.
seminator belongs to the genus Andricus Hartig.

7. C. PETIOLICOLA Bassett, Proc. etc. II, p. 325 (S <^ ; Q.montana);
compare also Walsh, Proc. etc. II, p. 487; (Q. prinus., var. discolor).
This is the gall which was described by me as occurring on Q. prinus
(Proc. etc. I, p. Q&) ; at that time I obtained only parasites from it.
Mr. Bassett has found a similar gall on Q. prinoides (1. c. II, p. 325),
giving a closely resembling fly. A number of specimens of the latter,
which I owe to Mr. Basse ct, are smaller, the body of the female is con-
stantly pale brown (and not black, as that of G. petiolkola 9 ), and, as
Mr. Bassett remarks, the veins of the wings are less distinctly marked.
This is again a case of a phytophagic variety, which may almost be con-
sidered as a distinct species. A similar gall on Q. alba^ mentioned by
3Ir. Bassett (1. c.) produces an insect which stands to G. petioUcola in

352 " [Mat

the same relation as the gall-fly of Q. prinoides. C. petiolicola is very
probably an Aniricus.

8. C. FUSiFORMis 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 61 ( 9 ; Q. alhd). This
insect somewhat resembles C. petioUcoIa^ and, as I possess only a single
specimen of it, the difference indicated in the analytical table may not
be a constant one; I will try, therefore, to point out some others. Both
species have, between the parapsidal gTooves. two lines or grooves run-
ning from the collare a short distance backwards; in 0. ■petiolicola they
are much more distinct, but can hardly be called grooves, as they are
smooth lines, easily perceptible, on account of their lustre, among the
sculpture of the surface of the mesonotum ; in C. fmiformh they ap-
pear more like furrows, but not being very deep, they have less lustre
than those of the other species, and are therefore less perceptible; a
third, intermediate, impressed line is, in a certain light, perceptible be-
tween them. The scutellum of C. jjetioUcola is more deeply wrinkled
than that of C. fusiformis. Both species have a short, sparse, micro-
scopic pubescence on the sides of the mesonotum and on the scutellum,
but this pubescence is more distinct in C. petiolicola. (Compare also
below, No. 56, about the possible relationship between this gall and
that of Figites chinquapin Fitch).

9. C. FUTiLis 0. S. (S ; Q. alba?). 10. C. papillata 0. S., (S ;
Q. prinm') Proc. etc. I, p. 63-64, Nos. 13, 14. Compare also Bassett,
1. c. II, p. 329. These are probably the same species, attacking two
diflferent oaks and producing somewhat different galls.

11. C. FLOCCi Walsh 9 , Proc. etc. II, p. 482 ( 9 ; Q. alhaf). This
species, which I have not seen, may po.ssibly belong to Andricus Hartig.
Whether the gall is identical with the gall Q. lana Fitch is not certain.
(Compare below, No. 45.)

12. C. PEZOMACHOIDES 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 250 ($; Q. alba?).
Although, at the time I described this insect, I was somewhat un-
cei-tain about the kind of oak to which the galls belonged, I hardly
doubt now that this insect is the author of the gall called Q. pisum by
Fitch (Rep. II, No. 319), the C^nip^ q. pisum Fitch being a guest-
gall-fly. The gall described by Mr. Walsh as Q. erinacei {Q. alba;
gall-fly unknown) Proc. etc. II, p. 483, may be the same species, as Dr.
Fitch also mentions prickles, occasionally occurring on his galls of Q.
pisum. A difference somewhat more difficult to reconcile is, that Mr.
Walsh's gall is said to occur twice as often on the uppe?- side of the leaf
as on the under side ; whereas both Dr. Fitch and myself found the
gall Q. pisum (which is now to be called pezomachoides) always on the

1865.] 358

under side. This species probably belongs to the genus Tcras Hartig,
now united to Andricus. (Compare also the following species).

13. C. FORTICORNIS Walsh, Proc. etc. II, p. 490 ( 9 ; (?. alba), is
easily distinguished from the preceding species by its smaller size, the
more uniformly reddish coloring of the head and the thorax, and
especially by the structure of the antennte, which are shorter and
stouter, whereas they are slender and filiform in the other species.
The third antennal joint of C forticornis is not longer than the two
preceding taken together, obconical ; the fourth is much shorter and
also somewhat obconical, and all the following joints, except the last,
are almost as broad as long. The third joint of C. pezomaclioides is
about once and a half the length of the two preceding taken together,
linear, slender; the fourth, although shorter, has the same linear shape ;
the following joints (5, 6, 7) gradually diminish in length, but are all
elongated. This is also a Teras Hartig, and not Biorhiza Westw.

14. C. HiRTA Bassett, Proc. etc. Ill, p. 688 ( ? ; <?. montana) ; is
easily distinguished from the two preceding species by its large size, its
uniformly brown coloring and its pubescent abdomen. The structure
of its antennas is like that of the antennas of C. pezomachoides 0. S.
(Cnmpirn n1 ii Nn iri^ 1ir1nir-V

15. PiiiLONix FULVicoLLis Fitch, Rep. II, No. 291 ; 16. Philonix
niCtRICOLLIS Fitch, Rep. II, No. 292, which the author found on snow
in winter, but did not breed from galls, probably belong to Teras
Hartig. Whether 17. Biorhiza niora Fitch, Rep. IT, No. 290, is
really a Biorhiza^ seems uncertain, but it is not improbable, as the Eu-
ropean species of this genus likewise occurs on snow.

18. C. IRREGULARIS 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 65 {% ; Q. ohhisdoha) ;
19. C. MAJAlils Bassett, Proc. etc. Ill, p. 683 ( S 9 ; Q. alba). Both
galls are exactly alike, as I have ascertained by comparison, only my
description applies to dry galls, Mr. Bassett's to fresh ones. Whether
the gall-flies have to be considered as distinct species or as phytophagic
varieties, I am uncertain, as I have never possessed more than a single
specimen (without abdomen) of C. irregularis. By all means this re-
semblance is close enough to render the description of C majalis useful
to consult for the identification of my species, the abdomen of which,
as well as the female sex, have not been described by me. I have
already discussed above (p. 340) the generic location of these species.

20. C. BATATUS Fitch, Rep. II, No. 311; Bassett, Proc. etc III, p.
684 ( % 9 ; Q- olba) ; (about the generic location compare page 340, No.
4). Having received the gall and the fly from Mr. Bassett, I found,
upon comparison, that the gall is identical with the one I took for that

354 [May

of C. tuber Fitch (compare Proc. etc. I, p. 71, No. 27). Mr. Bassett
may be right, and if I have any hesitation in this matter, it is on ac-
count of the hard, seed-hke bodies, mentioned by Fitch as belonging to
the gall Q. tube)-, and not mentioned in the description of the gall Q.
batatus. These seed-like bodies are not to be found in the gall called
Q. tuber by Mr. Bassett (now daoula Bassett). Whether the fly C
batatus Bassett is identical with 0. batatus Fitch is also not quite cer-
tain, as Dr. Fitch's short description may just as well apply to a guest-
fly (^Ceroptres) usually obtained in abundance from the same gall.
Still, as there is nothing in Dr. Fitch's description to contradict the
synonymy, there is no harm in adopting it.

21. C. VERRUCARUM 0. S., Proc. etc. I, 62 (9; Q. obtusiloba.~)
Compare also above, page 340, No. 4. At the time when I described
this species I was not positive about the sex of my specimens. I per-
ceive now that they are really females.

b. Galls on the group of the red, black and willow-oaks.

22. C. SPONGIFIOA 0. S., (S 9; Q. tinctoria). 23. C. COCCINE^
0. S., Proc. I, p. 243-245 (?;(>. coccinea.') Mr. Walsh suggests
(Proc. etc. II, p. 445) that as Q. coccinea is probably nothing but a
variety of Q. tinctoria, these two galls, which show but little difference
and produce apparently the same insect, may be considered as identical.
It may really be so, but the apparent identity of the insect alone would
not be a sufficient proof, as it seems that in the group of Ct/nipidae to
which C. spongifica belongs, the species are sometimes very difficult to
distinguish. (Compare the two following species.) C. aciculata 0. S.
(Proc. etc. I, 56) being the dimorphous 9 of C'. spongifica, all that
has been said by me (Proc. etc. I, p. 244—245) about the assumed dif-
ference between their galls will have to be cancelled. Still, it would
be worth while to investigate whether these galls are absolutely identi-
cal, so that no outward sign whatever indicates the contents of the gall.
C. confliiens Harris.. Ins. etc. p. 546, 3d edit, is apparently synonymous
with C. acicxdata, although Harris says that it occurs on the red oak.

24. C. INANIS 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 242 ( S 9 ; §. rubra). Com-
pare also Walsh, Proc. etc. II, pp. 457, 458. At the time when I de-
scribed this gall, I was uncertain whether it occurred on Q. rubra or
Q. coccinea. Mr. Walsh found it on Q. rubra in the environs of Rock
Island; and Dr. Fitch, (Rep. II, No. 317) who described this gall as
that of Callasjndia conHuenta Harris, likewise found it on the red oak.
Thus the question may be considered as settled. Mr. Walsh was the
first to obtain the male sex of this species. I am not aware of any dis-

1865.] 355

tinctive character between C. I'nanis and C. spongifica ; the galls, how-
ever, are very different. It is not impossible that we have here not a
species, but a phytophagic variety, habitually attacking a different spe-
cies of oak, and, owing to the physiologic peculiarities of this species of
tree, producing a somewhut different gall. C.futUts and C. papillata
(compare above, Nos. 9 and 10) stand probably in the same relation to
each other.

25. C. COELEBS 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 60, No. 7 {% ; Q. rubra).
The male (the only sex I know), is remarkably like G. spongifica % ,
and differs only by its smaller size, its somewhat paler feet, and a
less distinct areolet. The gall is very different in shape from the galls
C. spongifica and C. inanis, although the principle of its structure is
the same, as it contains a single nucleus, kept in position by fibres ra-
diating towards the shell. If this gall really occurs on Q. rubra, of
which I have but little doubt, it is a remarkable fact that two insects
so closely allied as C. inanis and 0. coelebs should produce so different
galls on the same kind of oak. The females (both sexual and dimor-
phous) of C. coelebs remain as yet to be discovered.

26. C. iLiciFOLi^ Bassett, Proc. etc. Ill, p. 682 ( S 9 ; Q- ilici/ofia).
The gall is spindle-shaped, like the preceding, but much larger and
broader in the middle.

27. C. siNGULARis Bassett, Proc. etc. II, p. 326 (S 9; Q. rubra).
Compare also Walsh, 1. c. p. 484. Whether 0. nubilipennis Harris
(Ins. etc. p. 548, 3d edit.) is really this insect, seems very doubtful, as
I do not perceive in my specimens any vestige of a " smoky cloud on
the tip of its wings," which determined the choice of the name of the
species. Nor do- 1 think that the description "galls of the size and
color of grapes " applies to the gall of 0. nubilipennis better than to any
other gall. The gall described by Dr. Fitch as that of C. nubilipennis
is certainly identical with Mr. Bassett's gall, but whether it is identical
with Mr. Harris' gall, is another question; it is equally uncertain whe-
ther the gall-fly which Dr. Fitch calls G. nubilipennis, really belongs to
his gall, as, according to his own statement, it was found on the ground
among fallen oak-leaves. Under such circumstances, I would propose
to retain Mr. Bassett's name for the gall and fly described by him.

28. C. OsTEN Sackenii Bassett, Proc. etc. II, p. 327 ( S 9 ; Q.
ilicifolia). As Mr. Bassett observes, this gall is very like a gall on Q.
coccinea, which I described (Proc. etc. I, p. 256). Nevertheless, [
would hesitate to unite them before convincing myself of the identity
of the gall-flies. I do not know the gall-fly of my gall ; the gall and
gall-fly of 0. Sackenii I owe to the liberality of Mr. Bassett.

356 [Mat

29. C. FORMOSA Bassett, Proc. etc. Ill, p. 679 ( 9 ; $. rubra). la
not this remarkable species, obtained from the gall in winter, a dimor-
phous female of some as yet unknown % and 9 escaping from the gall in
summer? I have already made this suggestion above, p^Jge 341.

30. C. SCULPTA Bassett, Proc. etc. II, p. o24 (% ^ ; Q- rubra). I
have not seen this insect, nor its gall. May this not be the C. nubiU-
pennis Harris? (compare above, No. 27). Mr. Walsh has observed on

Q. tinctoria a gall which he considers as identical with that of 0.
sculjjta (Proc. etc. Ill, p. 639).

31. C. Q. PHELLO.S 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 70, No. 23 ( 9 ; Q. phellos).

32. C. siMiMS Bassett, Proc. etc. Ill, p. 685 (S 9; Q. UicifoKa).
This gall-fly is very like the preceding, and it would require a larger
number of specimens than I possess in order to discover permanent
differences. C i>im'dls is somewhat larger, its abdomen is apparently
broader, its coloring somewhat darker, etc. Their galls, judging by
Mr. Bassett's description of that of G. shnllis, are also very much alike.

33. C. Q. NiGR^ 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 66, No. 17 ( S 9 ; Q. nigra).
The gall resembles that of 0. fumifica 0. S.j the gall-fly is easily dis-
tinguished by its coloring.

34. C. TUJVirFlCA, n. sp. ( S 9 ; Q. tinctoria). Obtained by me from
a swelling on the midrib of the leaves of Q. tinctoria. Most of the
swellings were near the basis of the leaf; some of them even on the
leaf-stalk. Cut open, they show numerous seed-like bodies, arranged
in rows, and each containing an insect.

C. tumifica n. sp. '^ 9 •

9 0.09 long. Head brownish-red or yellowish-brown; a blackish spot on the
vertex encloses the ocelli ; anteunse 14-jointed^ the last joint is much shorter
than the two preceding joints taken together: their color is yellowish-brown,
the last five or six joints are brown. Mesonotum brown, mixed with reddish in
such a way that the parapsidal grooves are on reddish ground; a space adjoin-
ing the scutellum is also reddish; the surface of the mesonotum is finely, dense-
ly, but irregularly rugose and opaque ; between the parapsidal grooves two
narrow, polished lines run from the coUare a short distance backwards; scu-
tellum brown, deeply rugose, and therefore opaque; abdomen dark brown,
almost black, polished, with a microscopic punctation on the margin of the seg-
ments; sheath of the ovipositor not reaching above the dorsal line of the abdo-
men; feet brownish-yellow; femora and tibife more or less infuscated; the pos-
terior ones more than the foremost ones; tarsi brownish-yellow, brown at tip.
Wings hyaline ; no areolet ; stout veins brown.

x\ single female specimen, bred from galls found in June, near Dobb'a
Ferry, New York, on Q. tinctoria.

Mr. Bassett having found the same gall on Q. tinctoria and a similar
one on Q. rubra, communicated me the flies bred from one of them, he

1865.] 357

was not quite sure which. These gall-flies altogether resemble C. tumi-
yica, and I do not doubt of their identity. Some of the specimens had
the whole mesonotum reddish, and only a broad stripe in the middle,
not reaching the scutellum, brown. As among these specimens there
were several males, I give here their description.

% 0.06 — 0.07 long; altogether black, except the entennse, which are browniBh,
and the feet, which are like those of the 9; antennae 15-jointed; third joint
elongated, curved; sculpture of the mesonotum exceedingly fine, almost im-
perceptible, and for this reason the mesonotum moderately shining; the two
smooth lines between the parapsidal grooves are perceptible; abdomen very
small in comparison to the body; wings like those of the $>; veins dark brown.

G. modesta and G. tumifica are very closely allied and their galls
also; both differ principally in size. The insects diifer, moreover, by
the number of joints of the 9 antennjB, by the coloring of the latter,
which is a uniform brownish-yellow in G. modesta^ whereas the antennae
of tumifica are brown at the tip ; by the coloring of the mesonotum of
the female, which is uniform brown in G. modesta and is more or less
mixed with reddish in G. tumifica. These two species, with G. q. ?ii(/rse
form a distinct group, having the structure of their galls, the absence
of an areolet, the sculpture and coloring, etc. iu common, and it is pro-
bable that the % of G. modeMa is, like that of the two other species,
distinguished by its small size and dark coloring. It is also worthy
of notice that the ovipositor of G. nigrse and especially of G. tumifica is
very often entirely exserted from the sheath, in the shape of a large,
free spiral, outside of the abdomen. I do not know how to explain this
peculiarity, which I have not observed so constantly in any other species.

35. C. MODESTA O. S. Proc. etc. I, p. 65, No. 16. ( 9 . Q. rubra.)
Compare the preceding species.

86. C. OPERATOR 0. S. Proc, etc., I, p. 256. ( S 9 ; Q. nigra.)
Compare also Bassett, 1. c. II, p. 332. This species has 12-jointed 9
antennas; the length and structure of the sheath of the ovipositor, the
structure of the abdomen and the neuration of the wings will probably
entitle G. operator to become, at once, the type of a new genus. The pe-
culiar character of the neuration (absence of the branch of the subcostal,
running towards the margin of the wing) it has in common with G.
similis and G. quercus phellos. Mr. Bassett has observed galls similar to
those of G. operator 0. S. (Q. nigra), on Q. ilici folia and Q.palustris.
He communicated to me the insects obtained from these galls, and I can-
not discover any important difference, except that the hind tibiae of
the specimens obtained from Q. ilicifolia were not infuscated, and the
subcostal as well as the transverse veins, were somewhat darker.

358 [May

37. G. VENTRicosA Bassett, Proc, etc., Ill, p. 681. ( 9 . §. ilici-
folia?)

38. C. CORNIGERA 0. S. I have described the gall, which I observed
in cousiderable number on Q. palustris (Proc, etc., I, p. 2.51). Since
then, I have obtained the gall-fly, and let its description follow. Whe-
ther the gall observed by Mr. Bassett on Q. Uicifolia (Proc. II, 328)
belongs to the same species is very uncertain. I have not seen it.

C. comigera n. sp. 9- 0- H If'iig- Black; the head comparatively broad, as
broad as the thorax; face finely and indistinctly pubescent; irregularly rugose,
semi-opaque ; a few indistinct striae converging towards the mouth on both sides ;
mandibles reddish, their tips blaclc; palpi brownish-yellow; front opaque, ver-
tex with some more lustre, finely, irregularly sculptured; antennae 14-jointed,
yellowish-brown, brown towards the tip; third joint nearly as long as the
two preceding taken together ; the following joints gradually diminish in
length; joints 8 to 13 differ but little in length; the last joint is about once and
ahalf the length of the preceding. Humeral parts of the collare coarsely rugose,
opaque, in contrast to the comparatively smooth and shining mesonotum; the
latter with delicate, dense transverse microscojDic rugae, not much diminishing
the lustre of the surface ; three moderately distinct impressed lines run from
the collare some distance backwards; parapsidal grooves very distinctly mark-
ed, but their margins are less well cut or less smooth than usual, as if the groove
was formed by a series of confluent punctures; the lateral grooves partake of
the same character, and are somewhat curved, with the convexity on the out-
side; tegulse yellowish-brown; pleurae densely and irregularly sculptured,
opaque, except a shining spot on their upper portion; scutellum deeply and
coarsely rugose; abdomen black, or rather dark-brown, polished, the margins
of the segments lighter brown; second segment comparatively large ; ventral
valve ending in a short apicule, bearing a tuft of hairs; feet brownish-yellow,
tips of tarsi brown ; hind femora and tibiae infuscated ; middle femora some-
times also. Wings hyaline, somewhat whitish, stout veins pale-brownish ; areo-
let distinct.

I possess only two specimens, bred from the gall ; one of them is
certainly a female ; the abdomen of the other is somewhat injured, and
as, at the same time the 14th antennal joint shows an indistinct sub-
division in two, it is not impossible that this is a male.

39. C. PUNCTATA Bassett, Proc. etc. II, p. 324. (9; Q. rubra.)
40. C. PODAGRA Walsh, Proc. etc. II, p. 492. ( 9 ; Q. tinctorial)
About these species probably being merely phytoghapic varieties, com-
pare Walsh, 1. c. in the foot-note. Although more than 120 specimens
were reared by both authors, no male has yet been found.*

41. C. sciTULA Bassett, Proc. etc. Ill, p. 683. (S 9. Q.tinctoria.)
The diiference in the size notwithstanding, there is a striking analogy
iii shape and sculpture between this species and the former. I have

* I have found nearly 600 specimens— all females. — H. F. Bassett.

1865.] 35^

already commented upon this analogy (page 342). The galls seem like-
wise to be somewhat alike.

42. C. QUERCUS PALusTRis O. S. Proc. etc. I, p. 62, No. 11., 1. c.
I, p. 251 ; Walsh, 1. c. II, p. 488 ; Bassett, 1. e. II, p. 329. This gall,
originally found by me on Q. palustn's^ has been found since on Q.
tinctoria, coccinea, falcata, {mhricaria and ilicifolia. The insects from
all these galls belong apparently to the same species.

The insects producing the following galls, are as yet unknown and
some of them may not belong to the Cijnipidse at all.

43. Grail on Q. pimuis, described by me, Proc. etc. I, p. 254. May^—
4t-B-9t be the same' as the gall of 0. hula Baa3ctt-((2. nionfana) 1 —

4^ G-all on Q. palustris, described by me, P\;oc. etc. I, 253. The
gall desifiribed by Mr. Walsh (Proc. etc. II, p. 48l\ under the name of
Q. pihafK (Q. tinctorid), the gall-fly of which Re did not obtain,
is not unliW my gall of Q. palustrls. Mr. Walsh's^ gall is the pro-
duce of a Cebidomyia ; the orange-colored larvae, m^itioned by this
author (1. c. at ihe bottom of the page) are larvae o^that genus of
Diptera; and theVall itself is the same which has beenVnentioned by
me, (in the Monogrbi^s on JSF. A. Diptera, Vol. I, p. 201,^ine 10 from
the top,) in connectio^vith Cecid. ajjinmetrica 0. S. It isVot impro-
bable, therefore, as alre^^ suggested by me (Proc. etc. I, p. 253), that
the gall of Q. palustris ^ere described is likewise the produ^^ of a
Gecidomijia. The fact ihst Mr. Walsh bred an inquilinous gii^-fly,
Ceroptrp.s (Amblynotus) ine\nis Walsh, from his gall is very rema
able, and I believe the only iraetance on record of a Cynipidous inse^
living as guest in a dipterous g-all.

45. Cynips q. lana Fitch {Q. alba), being probably not a Ci/nips,
but a guest-fly, perhaps Si/nergus, the gall-fly of the gall which Dr.
Fitch describes under the name of Q. lana, is as yet unknown. Mr.
Bassett has communicated to me specimens of a gall answering exactly to
Dr. Fitch's description and figure. Until the gall-fly of Q. lana Fitch
(which gall will have to be called then by the name of that gall-fly) is
bred, the question of the identity of this gall with that of O.flocci Walsh,
can hardly be settled. Judging by the measurements given by Mr. Walsh
(0.2 — 0.4), his gall seems to be usually smaller. (Compare Walsh,
Proc. etc. II, p. 482.)

46. G-all on Q. ohtusUoha, similar to the preceding, and described by
me Proc. etc. I, p. 62. My specimens are of a darker, more brownish-
yellow color than the gall Q. lana Fitch, and seem usually to occur
near the basis of the leaf, whereas Q. lana is generally found about the

360 [Mat

middle of the leaf. It may be inferred hence, that these galls are the
produce of two different insects.

47. These two galls (on Q. prinus and alba) were mentioned by me,
Proc. etc. I, p. 62, in connection with the gall of C. verrucarum.

48. Gall on Q. palustris, described by me, Proc. etc. I, p. 25B.

49. Gall on Q. obtusiloha, described by me, -Proc. etc. T, p, 255.

50. Gall on Q. alba, described by me, Proc. etc. I, p. 255. When
dry, these galls become brown and hard like wood ; being crowded to-
gether, their lower ends become wedge-shaped.

51. Gall on Q. rubra, called Q. decidua by Mr. Bassett, Proc. etc.
Ill, p. 689 ; this gall, of which I have specimens, has some analogy to
that of Q. obtusiloba (No. 46), but it is certainly different.

52. These galls were described by me, Proc. etc. I, p. 256, as being
from an unknown kind of oak. Since then, Mr. Bassett communi-
cated to me apparently similar galls, found in Ohio, on Q. bicolor. x\s
the specimens described by me were communicated to me by Dr. Mor-
ris, together with the gall of G. strob'dana, occurring on Q. bk-ohr, it
ia not unlikely that they were found on the same tree.

53. Mr. Walsh mentions this gall in the following manner (Proc. etc.
Ill, p. 639) : — " I found last August and early in September, in very
great numbei'S, both on Q. rubra and Q. tinctoria, growing from the
side of the cup of the acorn, a globular, smooth, plum-like, fleshy, in-
tensely bitter gall, about 0.50 to 0.75 inch in diameter, mottled with
yellowish and crimson outside and internally yellowish in the centre,
and towards the circumference pink, like a watermelon. This gall, of
which I forwarded a specimen to Baron Osten Sacken, is thought by
him to be identical with his Q.jiiglans, which was described only from
dry, shrivelled up specimens, and which was stated by Mr. Hitz, who
found it, ' to gro\Y on the branches of the White Oak.' . . . Either
Mr. Hitz must be mistaken, ... or else my gall is a distinct species.
If so, I propose for it the name of Q. jjrunus." The dry gall sent by
Mr. Walsh looks exactly like the galls which I have described Proc.
etc. I, p. 255, under the name of Q. juglans. The inside, however, of
the dry gall is porous, like pith, and therefore much less hard than that
of my galls. The identity of these galls seems therefore at least doubt-
ful, since I have compared them more closely.

54. Although different in shape, this gall, found on Q. falcata and
described by me Proc. etc. I, p. 69, No. 20, belongs to the same type
>of structure with the gall C xpongifica, and probably produces an insect
of the same group.

1865.] 361

55. Grail on Q. prinoides, called C. q. frondosa Bassett. Proc. etc.
Ill, p. 688.

56. Spindle-shaped galls, inserted like pins on the leaves of Q. pri-
noides, described by Dr. Fitch (Rep. II, No. 320). He bred from it
an insect which he calls Figites chinquapin. The description of the
gall answers that of G. fasiformis very well ; that the insect obtained
from it by Dr. Fitch is the real aiithor of the gall is possible, but un-
certain. Likewise it does not appear why Dr. Fitch calls this gall-fly
a Figites.

57. G-all on Q. alba, described by Dr. Fitch (Rep. II, No. 319) as
that of G. q. pisum, which, however, is a guest-fly. I mention this
gall-fly at this place, as I am not quite certain whether G. pezomachoides
O. S. has been bred from a gall on Q. alba. (Compare above, No. 12.)

58. Grail on Q. alba, described by Mr. Walsh as G. q. erinacei,
(Proc. etc. II, p. 488) the. gall-fly being unknown. About the iden-
tity of this gall with the preceding compare above, No. 12.

N. B. — The following galls on the live oak {Q. virens), described
by me in my former papers, have been altogether omitted in the >S^^-
noptical table, as well as in the Remarks, both of which were especially
intended for the fauna of the Middle and Northern States : —

I. On leaves.

1. Small globular gall, Proc. etc. I, p. 57.

2. Woolly gall, Proc. etc. I, p. 259.

II. On branches.

3. Clusters of galls not unlike the galls of G. forticornis Walsh

in appearance, Proc. etc. I, p. 258.

4. Woody swelling of the limb, Proc. etc. I, p. 258.
The gall-flies of all these galls are unknown.

Genus RHODITES.
(Galls on the genus Rosa.)
The six N. A. species of this group are sufficiently characterized in
the Proc. etc. II, p. 45 and the following.

Genus DIASTKOPHUS.

(Galls on the genera Ruhus and Potentilla.)
To the two species described by me, (Proc. etc. II, pp. 36 and 39)
and occurring on Rubus, Mr. Bassett had added a third, bred from a
gall on Potentilla (Proc. etc. Ill, p. 690.) It is somewhat like my D.
iiebulosus, but certainly distinct.

362 [May

Section II.
("Area radialis brevis, lata; areola intermedia." Hartig, 1. c. p. 186.)
Of the six genera placed by Hartig in this section, tln-ee — Xystus
{=. Allotria Westw.), Cothonaspis (^=Eucoila Westw.) and Megapel-
mus (=Anacharis Westw.) — have been removed since among the
Figitidse. The three remaining genera are defined by Hartig as fol-
lows :

a. Abdomen collo Isevigato.

1. Antennae clavatae, 9 13, % 14: articulate.

Palpi maxill. 5 artic. ; palpi lab. 3 art., articulis ultimis ap-
pendiculis later alibus cylindricis Ceroptres.

2. AntennEe filiformes, 9 13-14, % 15-16 articulatje; flagellum

articulis longitudine sequalibus.
Palpi maxill. 5 artic; palpi lab. 3 art.; articulis ultimis ap-
pendiculis parvis, acutis, coronatis Aulax.

b. Abdomen collo tumido, striolato.

Palpi maxill. 5 artic; palpi lab. 2 art.; articulis ultimis ap-

pendiculis validis coronatis .Synergus.

Since Hartig, only one new genus, apparently belonging to this sec-
tion, has been described. This is Phanacis Foerster (Verb. d-Rheinl.
Vereins fiir Naturk. XVII, p. 145, 1856). I will translate the defini-
tion of this genus, and add an extract from the description of the spe-
cies.

"Phanacis Foerst. Maxillary palpi 4-, labial palpi 3-jointed ; radial area
closed; second cubital likewise closed on the inside. Thorax not pubescent,
scutellum cushion-shaped ; the tip of the metathorax (called neck by Hartig) is
provided with delicate longitudinal ridges; the first abdominal segment is the
largest."

•'This genus, belonging to the family Cynipidce, may be next to Ceroptres in
the structure of its abdomen, but differs from it in several points; such are
principally the 4-jointed maxillary palpi and the sharp ridges, with which the
apex (neck) of the metathorax is provided. The pleurae are not aciculate, but
finely coriaceous, entirely opaque; the antennse are almost imperceptibly in-
crassated towards the tip, not clavate. If, with all this, we take the mode of
life into consideration, there will be no doubt left that this is a well established
genus."

" Observation. — Both pairs of palpi show on the last joint a distinct subuliform
point, which has not been counted, however, as a distinct joint."

The species Phanacis centaurese has been reared from the stalks of
Centaurea scahrosa ; only females were obtained. They have 13-
jointed antennae, head and thorax have very little lustre and are finely
coriaceous, the mesonotum finely transversely rugose; parapsidal grooves
distinct. "The second abdominal segment " (called by Foerster the first
in the generic characters given above) "is about equal in length to one-
half of the abdomen ; the third is much shorter and about equal to all

1865.] 36H

the following taken together; a short ovipositor protrudes in a straight
direction from the tip; the radial area is closed on the anterior margin
by a somewhat paler vein, and the small second cubital is not opened
internally, but completely closed by a pale-colored prolongation of the
cubitus."

It is not quite clear what Foerster means by the apex of the meta-
fhorax, called, as he says, neck by Hartig. The last named author
called neck (cuUuni, compare the analytical table given above) what wo
call the Ji7-st abdominal segment^ which is narrow, tubular, neck-like,
and sometimes (as in the genus Sj/nergus) longitudinally striate. The
apex of the metathorax is quite a different thing ; it is a narrow pro-
jection of the metathorax, adapted, by its shape, to be inserted in the
neck-like first abdominal ses-ment.

Having communicated to Dr. Reinhard specimens of N. A. Aulax
{A. si/lvestris), Si/nergus{S.lignicola and S.camjjanida) and Ceroptret^
(two species) and having also obtained from him types of Aulax (four
species) and Synergus (three species), I have attempted to characterize
these genera in the sequel. The principal characters may be laid down
as follows : .

Synergus. — First abdominal segment longitudinally striate; the second oct
cupies, in both sexes, the whole remaining surface of the abdomen and conceals
all the following segments.

Aulax. — Abdomen of a very different structure in the two sexes; in the male,
the second and third segments are subequal in length, and occupy, together, the
larger portion of the surf xce of the abdomen ; in the female, the second segmen-
alone occupies nearly the whole surface of the abdomen; first segment exceed-
ingly short, not longitudinally striate ; the third and the following more or
less concealed under the second.

Ceroptres. — The second abdominal segment occupies, iw both sexes, the greater
portion of the surface of the abdomen; a delicate, connate suture divides it appa-
rently into tioo segments.

Among the unnamed species of my collection I possess one which
was communicated to me, in several male and female specimens, by Mr.
Bassett. He informed me that, they were bred from stalks given to
him by some person, who said they were mustard stalks. Mr. Bassett
is of the opinion that by all means these stalks must belong to some
cruciferous plant. The pith of the stalk contains numerous round cells,
in which the insect probably underwent its transformation.

The gall-fly has a closed radial area, the structure of which is nearer
to that of the gall-flies of the second section than to that of the first.

364 [Mat

The radial area of Diastrophus alone, among the first section, would
remind of that of the new species, if the latter was not closed. The
abdomen of both sexes does not show anything of the great preponde-
rance of the second abdominal segment, characterizing both sexes in
S^nergus and Caroptres and the female sex in Aulax. Thus, in more
than one respect, this species seems to hold an intermediate position
between the two sections of Gi/nip>%dse,.

We have had occasion to remark, more than once, how important a
character the sculpture of the thorax is among the Cijnipldee. In
many cases this sculpture characterizes the genus. The sculpture of
the thorax of our new species is very peculiar ; the surface is semi-
opaque and has a silky (sericeous) gloss, due to a microscopic coriace-
ous sculpture on the mesonotum and to exceedingly delicate aciculate
striae on the pleurae. Judging from Mr. Fcerster's description of Pha-
nacis centauresR, it seems that the sculpture of its thorax is somewhat
of the same nature, and a closer comparison of his generic definition
leads to the belief that both species must be closely allied. Only the
minute ridges on the "apex" of the metathorax, mentioned by Foerster,
do not exist in my species.

Among the species of European Aulax^ communicated to me by Dr.
Ueinhard, there is one, A. hieracii (Bouche) Hartig, which differs very
considerably from the three other species sent by him, {A. hrandtU.
Hartig, gernianus Gir., and potenfillse Vill.) Whereas the three latter
come within my definition of the genus Aulax, the former shows the
most remarkable analogy to the new species in question, bred from
Sinapis. The structure of the abdomen, the sculpture of the thorax,
the neuration, etc., are very nearly the same. Now, the so-called Aulax
hieracii is said not to be a guest gall-fly, but a psenidous gall-fly, living
on Hieracium. This would establish a new point of relationship be-
tween it and the new North American species, as well as with Pha-
nacis.

It seems, therefore, that we have here a group of species living on
different herbaceous plants and intermediate between the gall-flies of
the oak, the rose and the bramble on one side and the guest gall-flies
on the other. There is no doubt, that in the course of time, many
other species will be added to this group ; it may also happen, that
most of these species will have to be united in a single genus, or that
the definition of Phanacis, somewhat modified, will apply to a number
or to all of them. Our data are too scanty to warrant, as yet, any con-
clusion, but we recommend the subject to the attention of observers

1865.] 865

and wish that, in the meantime, Mr. Bassett would describe the new
species.*

Leaving aside, for the present, this intermediate and as yet doubtful
group, the following question requires, at this point, our attention. Are
all the Cijnipidse of the second section of Hartig guest gall-flies or not 't
All the American gall-flies of the genera Sj/nergus^ Ceroptres and Au-
lax, which I have had the opportunity to observe, are guest gall-flies.
But Hartig and Griraud mention a number of Aidax, which they con-
sidered at true Psenides. This may really be the case, but before ad-
mitting it, we must advert to two circumstances, which may be sources
of error : 1. We have seen that Aulax Hieracii^ which is one of the
species said to be psenidoiis, is generically distinct from the other spe-
cies of Aulax ; Dr. Reinhard writes me that A. glechomse Htg., another
psenidous Aidax "will probably have to be removed to the genus Di<i>>-
trophus;" this proves, that the definition of Aidax by European authors
is more loose than that which we have adopted ; may not all the gall-
producing Aidax of Hartig and Giraud belong to other genera ? 2.
We have had frequent instances of inqm'linous gall-flies erroneously
taken for the originators of the galls, and why could not the same error
have taken place with regard to certain species of Aidax ? I possess,
for instance, the European A. potentUlse Villers, which is a true Aidax.
As the name implies, it is probably reared from a gall on Potentilla..
(I have not been able to compare the original reference.) Now, Mr.
Bassett has recently described a Diastrophus producing a gall on Po-
tentdla. Aidax, as we know, is frequently a guest of Rhodites and
Diastroplnis ; is it not possible that A. potentUlse is likewise the guest
of a Diastrophus ? I am far from affirming that such is the case ; my
purpose is merely to show how an error of this kind may originate.
The question whether Aulax is an entirely inquilinous genus, thus
remains as yet open.

Genus ATILAX.
Abdomen ( S ), with the segments 2 and 3 subequal in length, the
following somewhat projecting beyond the third ; in the 9 the second
segment occupies nearly the whole surface of the abdomen and more or
less conceals the following segments. Antennae 14-jointed (% ), and
12- (sometimes 13 ?) jointed ( 9 ).

* Mr. Walsh has communicated me a gall-fly, which I cannot distinguish
from Mr. Bassett's gall-fly of Sinapis, and which he bred from '-'a woody sub-
spherical gall, surrounding a twig of Q. rubra." I merely state the fact, leav-
ing it for future observers to reconcile it with M. Bassett's statement.

366 [May

The female of Aulax resembles that of Sj/nergus iu the structure of
the abdomen ; it differs, however, in the extreme shortness of the first
abdominal segment, ivJiich is not striated., and probably also by the
number of antennal joints, which, in both species known to me, is 12
and not 13. From the 9 of Geroptres, it is distinguished by the ab-
sence of any suture on the second segment.

The S of Aulax is easily distinguished from the % of Sijnergus by
the structure of the abdomen ; it differs from that of Ceroptres by the
subdivision of the second segment into two parts, not merely by a con-
nate suture, but by a real incisure.

In the general remarks about the second section of Ai/nijjidse, I have
discussed the question whether this genus is entirely inquilinous or
not. The question is still a doubtful one. The European A. Brandtii
Hartig, caninse Hartig, germanus Gir. and the American A. pirata
0. S., and the doubtful A. semipiceus Harris, are guest gall-flies in
galls of the genus Rhodites. A. sylvestris 0. S. occurs in the galls of
Diastrophus. Aidax pumilus Grir. have been bred from an oak-uall of
Andricus. As psenidons species of Aulax have been considered : — A.
hieracii Htg., which I possess and which is no Aulax at all, A. gle-
chomse, Htg., which, according to Dr. Reinhard's statement, is pro-
bably a Diastrophus, A. Rhoeadis Htg.. A. minor Htg. (both on
Papaver^j A. sabaudi (on Ilieracium), A. salvise (on Salvia), A. sco?'-
zonerse. (on Scorzonera). The five last species I do not know and am
not able to confirm whether they really belong to Aulax or not.
(About A. potentillse I have not been able to compare the reference.)

The described N. A. species are the following:

1. Aulax sylvestris 0. S. Proc. Ent, Soc Philad. II, p. 37.
Bred from the gall of Diastrophus nebulosus, on the blackberry.

2. I possess a specimen very like the preceding species, only smaller
and showing but slight differences, which was bred from the gall of
Rhodites radicum. I have explained already (Proc. etc. II, p. 42, 4)
why Cynips semipicca Harris (Ins. etc. p. 549), can hardly be synony-
mous with my Rhodites radicum. It is not at all improbable that Har-
ris reared the above mentioned Aulax from the gall and mistook it for
the gall-producer. This would then be Aulax semipiceus Harris.
Whether it is synonymous with A. sylvestris I do not attempt to decide,
having only a single specimen for comparison.

3. Aulax pirata 0. S., 1. c. p. 42. Bred from a rose-gall.

4. Aulax ? futilis 0. S., 1. c. I, p. 64. This species is doubtful,
as I was not acquainted with the characters of the genus Aulax at that

1865.] BCT

time and have accidentally lost, since then, the only specimen which 1
had reared from the gall of C. q. fidi/iK 0. S.
Genus CEROPTKES.

This genus is easily distinguished by an impressed, transverse lino,
dividing the second abdominal segment into two portions, which are sub-
equal in length in the male, and the anterior of which is much shorter
than the posterior in the female. A very close attention is often' re-
quired in order to perceive this line, which otherwise seems to be a
good distinctive character. Whether this line really represents a con-
nate suture I am unable to say, as the decision of this point would re-
quire a dissection which I cannot now undertake.

Although the second segment (considered as a whole, as if the suture
did not exist) is very large in comparison with the others, it does not, as
is the case with Si/nergus, entirely conceal all the following segments;
these project more or less considerably beyond the posterior edge of the
second segment, so that the segments three to seven can be easily
counted in some specimens; in others, however, they are more con-
tracted. The first abdominal segment is very short, projecting only a
little, in the shape of a rim, over the anterior edge of the second seg-
ment, and not at all tubular and striated, as in Si/nergusi. Another im-
portant difierence from the latter genus consists in the length of the
sheaths of the ovipositor, which project very considerably above the
dorsal line. Ceroptres lyisum 0. S. is the only species having, appa-
rently, very short sheaths ; but I am not certain whether they are really
so, or only broken off in the only specimen of that species which I pos-
sess. The basal portion of the second abdominal segment is usually
more or less downy. The polished surface of the pleurge is perfectly
smooth and shining in all the specimens in my possession, or aciculate
on its lower part only, whereas it is more or less aciculate in all the
species of Synergus which I have seen. As Hartig, however, places
Ceroptres among the genera with aciculate pleurse^ as may be seen
on the analytical table of page 362, this character is probably not
one of general application. The antennae are 15-jointed in the male
and usually 12-jointed in the female; the last joint in the female is
very elongated, fully equal to the two preceding joints taken together;
occasibnally this joint is subdivided in two joints by a distinct suture,
and then the antennas are apparently 13-jointed. Ceroptres pisum has
13-jointed antennae and the last joint is subdivided into two joints. Har-
tig calls the antennae 14- ( S ) and 13- ( 9 ) jointed In some of the
species the antennas are very slightly incrassated on their latter half;
in others this character is not perceptible. I think that Hartig gives

368 , [May

it too much importance when he says (Germ. Zeitschr. Ill, p. 343)
that it distingtsishes the genus.

Misled by the impressed line on the second abdominal segment,
which is not mentioned anywhere in Hartig, I had previously consid-
ered this genus as belenging to the Figitidse (Proc. Ent. Soc. I, p. 67)
and had doubtingly referred it to Amhlynotus Hart. I owe the cor-
rection of my error to Dr. Reinhard, to whom I communicated two
species ; a small one, reared from the gall of G. q. verrucarum, which
has slightly incrassated (sub-clavate) antennae, and a larger one, reared
from the gall of G. q. hatatus Fitch, with filiform antennas. The first
was returned as Geroptres ; the second was sent back by Dr, Reinhard
with the following remark : " This species may also be taken for Gerop-
tres ; the structure of the abdomen is exactly the same, only the pube-
scence at the basis is stronger than usual ; a more striking difference is
that the antennas are filiform ; this might render the generic identity
doubtful." It would be hardly prudent, however, to establish a new
genus on such slight differences; the better plan will be to keep the
structure of the second abdominal segment in view as the principal
character of Geroptres.

I have mentioned the communication of Dr. Reinhard to me about
Geroptres in order to prove that, the discrepancy between Hartig's cha-
racters and my specimens notwithstanding, these specimens really be-
long to Geroptres.

The species of this genus are vei'y difficult to distinguish on ac-
count of the great uniformity of the coloring of the body and the
apparent inconstancy in their size and the coloring of their feet. The
differences in the sculpture of the thorax, which would afford the prin-
cipal characters for specific distinction, seem to be very slight here, and
for this reason are difficult to describe. I leave, therefore, the task of
describing the species to those who will be in possession of more mate-
rials, principally obtained by breeding large numbers of specimens from
different galls. My present object is merely to point out those among
the described N. A. Gijnipidx which, according to my opinion, belong
to Geroptres, but in doing so I do not even pretend to decide whether
all these species are really distinct, or whether some of them would not
be better united.

1. Geroptres ficus Fitch.
Syn. Cynips q. ficus Fitch, Rep. etc. II, No. .314.

Synophrus Iceviventris Walsh, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. II, p. 494. (Exparte.)

Mr. Walsh, probably deceived by the coloring of this species, which

1865.] 36^

he had obtained from the gall of C./orticornis (called C q. ficus hy
Fitch), took it to be identical with the specimens of Sijucrgiis laevivoi-
/r?',s, which he bred from the gall of 0. sponr/ijica. But I agree with
this author in thinking that the specimens which he bred from the gall
of 0. forticornis are the C^nips q. ficus of Fiteh, the latter author
having in this case, as in several others, mistaken the guest-gall-fly for
the gall-producer. This insect has, in accordance with Dr. Fitch'e
statements, 13-jointed ^ antennas, the hind tibiae dusky, the head partly
yellowish or reddish, etc.

2. Ceroptres petiolicola 0. S. '^ 9 -

Syn. Amhlynotus? petiolicola 0. S. Proc, Ent. Soc. Phil. I, p. 67.

Amblynotus ensiger Walsh (?), Proc. etc. II, p. 496.
Bred from the gall of C. petiolicola Bassett. Since the above men-
tioned description of mine, which was based on one or two specimens
only, I have reared two more specimens from the same gall, a % and a

9 . The male has the middle and hind femora and tibiae dusky, and a
black line on the upper side of the fore-femora. The 9 bas apparently
13-jointed antennae and infuscated femora. These differences from

Ceroptres (Amblynotus) ensiger Walsh (Proc. Ent. Soc. II, p. 496),
notwithstanding, I incline to believe, with Mr. Walsh, that his species
is identical with mine. The twelfth antenna! joint of the 9 (which is
the last, according to Mr. Walsh's opinion,) may, in some specimens,
show a more distinct suture and be counted for two joints. As to the
difference in size and in the coloring of the feet, they seem to be very
variable, as we will see, for instance, in the species reared from the
gall of Ct/nips q. hatatus.

3. Ceroptres inermis Walsh.

Syn. Amblynotus inermis Walsh, Proc. etc. II, p. 498.

Reared from the same author's gall Q. pilulse, and unknown to me.
This gall being that of a Cecidomyia and not of a Ci/nips^ it is a re-
markable and heretofore unique instance of a guest-fly inhabiting the
gall of a dipterous insect. The differences between C. inermis and C.
ensiger are explained by the author, 1. c.

4. Ceroptres pisum 0. S.

Syn. Sarothrus? pisum 0. S., Proc. etc. I, p. 59.

In my description I have erroneously stated that my specimen is a male
and that it has 14-jointed antennee; and in this case again, deceived by
the transverse line dividing the second segment, I was induced to think
that this insect belongs to the Figitidae. That Gynips q. pisum Fitch is
not the gall-fly of the gall described by Dr. Fitch, Rep. II, No. 319, but a
guest-fly, seems certain, since the discovery of C. pezomachoides O. S.

370 [May

(unless it is proved that I was mistaken in the supposed identity of Q.
piaum with the gall which gave me the latter species; compare above,
p. 352, No. 12). But whether this guest-fiy is identical with Ceroptre^
pisum 0. S. is rather doubtful, as my specimen measures 0.14, whereas
Dr. Fitch's species is said to be 0.08 ( "S ) and 0.11 ( o ) long.

In order to complete my previous description, I give a new one here :

9 • About 0.14 long; head black, finely pubescent; mandibles and the mouth
brownish red; face aciculate, au oblong swelling under the antennae; vertex
microscopically punctate; antennae brownish-yellow, 13-jointed, nearly as long
as the body, almost filiform; fourth joint slightly longer than the third; the
following joints very gradually diminish in length; the thirteenth or last
joint is twice the length of the preceding; a distinct suture divides it in two
parts, in the only specimen in my possession. Thorax black, finely jjubeseent
and densely, but very delicately rugose: parapsidal grooves distinct, moderately
deep; between these grooves two very indistinctly marked impressed lines run
some distance from the collare backwards; scutellum with a deep, rough, irreg-
ular sculpture; polished space on the pleurae smooth. Abdomen dark brown
or black, paler brown along its inferior edge; second joint divided into two une-
qual parts by a very distinct suture; the first part has, dorsally, a little less
than half the length of the second; at the basis of this second segment the ab-
domen is distinctly downy; the ventral valve is pale brown, considerably pro-
jecting, its tip at an angle of somewhat more than 46°; the sheaths of the ovi-
positor do not project at all above the dorsal line. The feet are yellow, except
the extreme basis of the coxae, especially of the hind ones, which is black, and
the tip of the tarsi, which is infuscated. Veins of the wings pale yellow; areo-
let of moderate size, its posterior portion somewhat indistinct.

Bred a single specimen from the gall called Q. pisum by Dr. Fitch,
but which is probably the produce of Andricus (Teras) pezomachoideft
0. S. This species is larger and more slender than the other species
of the genus. It is remarkable for the contrast between the sculpture
of the scutellum, which is very deeply rugose, and that of the thorax,
which is very delicate and perceptible only under a strong lens. Whe-
ther the shortness of the sheath of the ovipositor is really a character of
the species, or whether its tip is broken olf in the only specimen which I
possess, I am unable positively to affirm; in the first case, this character
would distinguish tiiis species from the other known species of the
genus.

5. Ceroptres arbos Fitch.

Syn. Cynips q. arbos Fitch, Rep. II, No. 310.

6. Ceroptres tuber Fitch. (?)

Syn. Cynips q. tuber Fitch, Rep. II, No. 309.

Mr. Bassett has shown (Proc. etc. Ill, p. 687) that both galls, de-
scribed by Dr. Fitch under the above-mentioned names are produced
by the same gall-fly, which wa? not known to Dr. Fitch, and that this

1865.] 371

gall-fly occurs only ou soft, green shoots of the same year's growth,
whereas the galls of the last year's growth, the only ones described by
Dr. Fitch, always give guest-flies. These guest-flies, as I have had
occasion to observe myself, belong to the genus Ccroptres. We can
take it for certain, therefore, that Ci/nips q. arhos Fitch, the male of
which is said to have 15-jointed antennae, is a Ceroptres. Whether
C. q. tuber Fitch, belongs to the same genus, is somewhat doubtful, as
it is said to have 14-( % ) and 12-( 9 ) jointed antennas. Whether this
statement is based upon a mistake, or whether Geroptres % sometimes
has 14-jointed autennfe (which would agree with Hartig's statement),
or, finally, whether C. q. tuber Fitch, belongs to some other inquilinous
genus, I do not pretend to decide. The last hypothesis, however, seems
to me the most improbable of all.

7. I have bred numerous % and 9 specimens of Ceroptres from the
gall of C. q. batatus Fitch (the same gall which I erroneously took,
Pr;c. etc. J, 71, 27, for that of C. q. tuber Fitch). These specimens
were mentioned by me (1. c.) as belonging to Amblijnotus. They vary
very much in size and in the coloring of the feet, which are more or
less infuscated ; some specimens have the hind femora and tibise almost
black. Most specimens have the cheeks reddish, which distinguish
them from my specimens of C. petioUcola and of G. arbos with which
they otherwise closely agree. The tip of the ventral valve forms, usu-
ally, an angle of 45°, sometimes a little larger • the 9 antennae are 12-
jointed. I leave it undecided whether all the specimens showing the
above differences belong to the same species, and whether this species
is only a phytophagic variety or race of G. petioUcola and G. arbos.

8. Besides the above-mentioned doubtful species, I possess several
specimens of the same genus, but which certainly belong to a distinct
species. Without naming or describing this species, I will, by a short
notice, draw the attention of observers to it. I have bred these speci-
mens from the gall of Gynips verrucarum 0. S. (Q. obtusiloba). They
are hardly 0.5 long, black, with yellow feet; parapsidal grooves not
apparent, except near the scutellum ; surface of the thorax smooth,
with an exceedingly fine, hardly apparent pubescence; viewed from
above, the thoracic dorsum seems to be slightly flattened. The antennse
( 9 ) are 12-jointed and somewhat incrassated towards the tip. This
is the species which Dr. Reinhard returned to me as the true represen-
tative of Geroptres Hartig.

Gemis SYNERGUS.
The structure of the abdomen afi'ords the characteristic marks of this

372 [Mat

genus ; the first segment is longitudinally striate ; the second conceals
all the following in both sexes. The antennas are 15-jointed (%) and
13 or 14-jointed ( 9 )• The seven known North American species have
the polished spot on the pleurae aciculate ; in S. mendax this sculpture,
although very faiut, also exists. The species of Ceroptres known to
me, have these spots perfectly smooth ; this difference between the two
genera may however not prevail through all the species, as Hartig
places Ceroptres, among the species with aciculate pleurae. The sheath
of the ovipositor is much less projecting above the ventral line in this
genus than in Ceroptres.

The first segment of the abdomen usually appears somewhat tumid,
as was already noticed by Hartig (^abdomen collo striato, tumido, says
he) ; but it seems to me that this appearance is merely an optical illu-
sion, produced by the presence of the striae. The face is aciculate, the
striae converging towards the mouth ; but as this character seems com-
mon to all the specifes, and in fact, to a great many Cynipldae,. it has
been omitted in the descriptions.

The species of St/nergus are very numerous in Europe and rather
difficult to distinguish, being not only very uniform, but also very vari-
able, in their coloring; it has been observed, however, that in the spe-
cies of mixed coloring (black and yellow), certain parts of the body
only are subject to variations, others pi'eserving, on the contrary, a very
constant coloring. The principal characters have to be derived from
the shape of the body, especially of the abdomen, and from the sculp-
ture of the thorax. Hartig also adverts to frontal ridges immediately
above the eyes, which, in some species, reach the vertex, in others run
only a very short distance. I distinctly perceive very short ridges of
this kind in S. oneratus and S. campanula, but characters of such ex-
treme delicacy are apt to mislead, as their perception is too dependent
on optical conditions.

The following arrangement of the seven known North American
species applies principally to females, the males of some of the species
not being yet discovered Ct/nips quercus lana Fitch, Rep. II, No.
316, apparently likewise a Sjjnergus, but unknown to me, has not been
included in this table.

1. Prevailing color of the body yellow 2

Prevailing color of the body black 3

2. Antennal joints 3 and 4 of nearly equal length ; 1

mesonotum reddish-yellow, with a more or ( , « . -rr ■ a

less broad, sometimes obsolete black stripe in ( '■ "• o^^^atus Harris y .
the middle; antennae ( 9 ) 14-jointed. J

1865.] 373

Antennal joint 4 but little more than half the]

length of the third: antennre ( 9 ) 13-jointed; |,,(jt -inai-n
mesonotum entirely black, the yellow being i ^- ^ Ugnicola U. b. 'J, V-
strictly confined to the collare. J

3. Mesonotum with coarse, transverse, ridge-like rugosities, giving it a

rough appearance 4

Mesonotum with fine transverse wrinkles, preserving, however, a
smooth appearance 5

4. All the feet partly infuscated; antennte ( J) 14-1

jointed, nearly as long as the body; the se- ! -, g ^^^ax Walsh 0
cond abdominal segment seen from the side [ '• '*' "i^nttax waisn V-
is distinctly longer than broad. J

The hind tibise and the basis of the hind tarsi "|

alone are infuscated; antennee ( 9 ) 13-jointed; |

the second abdominal segment, ( 9 ) seen from i. c c HimnrTihii'; O S 't 9

the side, is but very little longer than broad; i' ' " ^ • • o X

thorax of 9 black; in the %, the pleurse and

the head are yellow. J

6. Second abdominal segment. ( 9) seen from the")

side, much longer than broad, attenuated to a I 3. S. Iseviventris 0. S. 9 •

point at the tip, almost lanceolate. j

Second abdominal segment ( 9 )> seen from the side, but little, or not

longer than broad 6

C. Long ( 9 )> ventral valve considerably projecting. .6. S. albipes Walsh, % 9 •

Long ( 9 )) ventral valve usually concealed 4. S. campanula 0. S. 9 •

1. Synergus oneratus Harris.
Syn. Q/wtps oweraiws Harris, Ins. etc. 3d ed. p. 548. Fitch, Rep. etc. II, No. 313.
This species (0.12 — 0.14 long) is variable in coloring, the black stripe
in the middle of the thorax and of the head having more or less ex-
tent; in some specimens the head has no black spot at all, and the
stripe on the thorax is also obsolete. It is distinguished from the fol-
lowing species: 1st, by its larger size; 2d, by the antennas of the 9
being 14-jointed. If extended backwards, they would almost reach the
tip of the second abdominal segment; the joints three and four are of
nearly equal length, linear (that if^, their length being out of all pro-
portion to their breadth) ; joint four is a little shorter than three, and
the following gradually diminish in length till the thirteenth joint,
the length of which is about double its breadth; the fourteenth is about
once and a half the length of the preceding; the antennae of /S*. lignl-
cola are shorter, that is, if extended backwards, they would hardly
reach the middle of the second abdominal segment; the fourth joint is
slightly more than half the length of the third, not linear, its length
being a little more than twice its breadth; the breadth of the eleventh
and twelfth segments is but little more than their length ; the thir-
teenth, or last joint, is about twice as long as the twelfth. As to the
male sex, the proportional length of the third and fourth joints of H.
lignicola % is the same as in the 9 > that is, the third is almost twice

374 [May

as Ions: as tlie fourth, and I infer from this that the % of S. onerafus,
which I do not possess, has, like the 9 , the third and fourth joints of
nearly the same length; 3d, by the mesonotum always having more or
less yellow on the sides, whereas in S. ligv.icola it is altogether black,
the yellow being strictly confined to the collare ; 4th, by the black spot
on the upper part of the abdomen having a more definite, oblong out-
line, the tip of the abdomen (or rather of its second segment) and its
sides remaining yellow, whereas the limits of the black color in ;S'. Ug-
nicola are less well defined ; this color extends in the latter to the very
tip of the second segment and merges into bi-ownish or brownish-yellow
on the sides; in many 9 specimens the venter and the ventral valve
are again blackish ; 5th. the ventral valve of *S'. oneratus is shorter and
truncate at the tip ; that of ;S'. lignicola ends at an angle of about
45°.

I possess five $ specimens of this species, obtained from the galls of
G. q. globulus Fitch (on Quercus alha)^ from a similar gall on Q. ob-
tusiloba and from that of C strobilana 0. S.

2. Synergus lignicola 0. S.

Syn. 8. lignicola 0. 8., Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. I, p. 252.

8. rhoditiformis Walsh, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. II, p. 499.

The synonymy is admitted by Mr. Walsh himself, to whom I have
communicated specimens of my S. lignicola. My description was
drawn from rather pale specimens, and has to be corrected in the fol-
lowing points : 1st. The collare has a brown or black spot in the mid-
dle, which is more or less extended, being sometimes confined to a
narrow brown line, in front of the angle formed by the mesonotum an-
teriorly and sometimes extended into a large black spot, which crosses
over to the occiput, and occupies a small portion of it round the neck ;
the specimens bred by Mr. Walsh from the gall of 0. q. podagrse (Q.
tinctoria), and described as *S'. rhoditiformis, seem to have had this spot,
usually, of a large size. 2d. The pectus is black and the middle coxae
not inserted on yellow ground as stated by me. The question of the
presence or absence of "two slight subdivisions" of the last joint of
the 9 antennae is unimportant, as it depends on the strength of the lens
used and on that of the eyesight. I perceive it in S. lignicola as well
as in the specimens of S. rhoditiformis, which I owe to the kindness
of Mr. Walsh. His description being more detailed and accurate than
mine, will have to be relied upon for determining the species, keeping,
however, in view the remark about the collare, given above, and the cir-
cumstance that the ventral valve is not always of " a highly polished
black," but sometimes paler. As Mr. Walsh's specimens, reared from

1865.] 375

the gall of C. q. podagrse (Quercus tinctoria), seem to have had in
general a darker coloring than my specimens, reared from the gall of
C. q. cornigera (Q. palustris), it is probable that we have here again an
instance of two races of the same species living on different trees. The
differences between this species and S. oneratus have been detailed
under the head of the latter species.

3. Synergus laeviventris 0. S. 9 •

Syn. Synophrus? laeviventris 0. S. Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil. I, p. 57.

Synophrus loeviventi-is Walsh, Proc. etc. II, p. 494. {Exparte.)

0.07 — 0.08 long. Head reddish-brown, vertex darker, antennae brownish-yel-
low, second joint not much shorter than the fourth, the third about one-third
longer than the fourth ; joints four, five and six of about equal length ; the four-
teenth or last joint is somewhat less than once and a half the length of the pre-
ceding; thorax black, moderately glossy, finely rugoso -punctate and pubescent;
scutellum gibbose, with a slight, sharp, recurved, elevated margin; (thorax
and scutellum in older specimens often become brownish or reddish-brown) ;
parapsidal grooves distinct their whole length; foveas at the base of the scu-
tellum rather small, but distinct; pleurae black or brownish, polished and glossy
under the root of the wing, aciculate below, punctate anteriorly; first abdomi-
nal segment striate ; the second segment, covering all the following, is chestnut-
brown or black, paler on the under side; its shape, seen from above, is elon-
gated-ovoid, the tip being drawn out in a point; the side-view is almost lanceo-
late, the tip appearing likewise pointed; held against the light, the valves of
the ovipositor, as well as the ventral valve, may be seen, concealed as they are
under their unusually long second joint; the ovipositor alone protrudes some-
times beyond the joint; feet brownish-yellow, extreme tip of tarsi more or less
brownish; (one of my specimens has the hind tibiae and tarsi somewhat infus-
cated); wings hyaline, veins pale; areolet almost obsolete, as one side of it only
(which is the prolongation of the second transverse vein,) is stout and distinct;
the two other sides, as well as the whole course of the cubital vein, are almost
obsolete.

Four 9 specimens, reared from the galls of G. spongifica, G. centri-
cola and the gall on Q. falcata^ described by me Proc. etc. I, p. 69,
No. 20. It may not be useless to observe that the European S. thau-
tnacera Dalm., which seems to be closely allied to our species, has the
third joint of the antennae enormously developed in the male sex.

Mr. Walsh having had the kindness to communicate to me specimens
of the insects mentioned by him (Proc. Ent. Soc. II, p. 494) as Syno-
phrus Is&oiventris 0. S., I convinced myself that those specimens which
he had bred from the gall of G. q. spongijica really belong to the pre-
sent species; but that the specimens obtained by him from the gall G.
q. forticornis are the species of Geroptres mentioned above, p. 51, as G.
Jicus Fitch, and closely resembling S. laeviventris in its coloring. The
remarks of this author (1. c.) have to be sifted accordingly.

376 [.AIat

4. Synergus campanula, n. sp. 9 ■

0.08 — 0.10 long. Head black, except the face, which is brownish below the
antennae and brownish-yellow above the mouth; the brownish or yellowish co-
loring sometimes extends above the antennae in the shape of a narrow stripe
along the eyes ; vertex black, little shining, smooth. Antennae brownish-yel-
low, a little shorter than the body; 14-jointed ( 9 ); the fourth joint is a little
shorter than the third, the following joints gradually decrease in length; the
fourteenth is about once and a half the length of the preceding joint. Thorax
deep black, and but little shining, with dense, delicate, transverse rugae, evenly
spread over its upper surface, which is also clothed with a short, fine and scat-
tered pubescence; parapsidal grooves not very deep, but distinct; a vestige of
an intermediate furrow, especially visible in a certain light, towards the scu-
tellum; two minute, parallel, glabrous lines, running a short distance from the
middle of the coUare, backwards; (they are visible under a strong lens only);
scutellum rather large, gibbose, densely and deeply rugose; its basal fovese ra-
ther small; pleurae with a smooth, black, polished space, the lower part of which
is finely aciculate; scapulae yellow. First segment of the abdomen longitudi-
nally striate; the second segment, concealing all the following, has the shape
of a regular oval when seen from above; seen from the side its longitudinal dia-
meter is about equal to the transverse one; its outline is almost that of half a
circle, which has a flat arc (the dorsal side of the segment) instead of a diame-
ter; the ventral valve or the tip of the sheath of the ovijjositor are sometimes,
but not always, protruding beyond the hind edge of the second segment; the
abdomen is polished, black, sometimes brownish along the hind edge; feet
brownish-yellow, tips of the tarsi brown; veins of the wings pale; areolet of
medium size, almost obsolete, as one side of it only (the prolongation of the se-
cond transverse vein,) is short and distinct.

Three 9 specimens reared from the gall of Cijnips q. glohuhis Fitch,
(white oak) and seven from a somewhat similar gall {Quercus hicolorf),
described by me in Proc. Ent. Soc. I, p. 256.

5. Synergus dimorphus n. sp. % 9-

Female. 0.12 — 0.13 long. Head, black, except the face, which is brownish-
red, mixed with black, below the antenniw; mandibles (except their tip, which
Is black), and more or less space near their roots on the cheeks, yellowish ; the
brownish coloring of the face extend above the antennae, in the shape of a nar-
row stripe along the eyes ; vertex black, moderately shining, with sparse, broad,
flat-bottomed punctures. Antennae brownish-yellow, 13-jointed, about three-
fourths the length of the body ; the fourth joint is a little longer than one-half
of the third ; joints four, five and six are nearly of the same length ; the follow-
ing joints are somewhat shorter; the last joint is about equal to the two pre-
ceding taken together. Thorax black, moderately shining, with very rough,
but not very dense transverse rugosities; pubescence short and very sparse:
parapsidal grooves well marked, punctured at the bottom; scutellum coarsely
sculptured; its basal foveas are indistinct; the smooth space of the pleurae is
almost entirely aciculate; scapulae brownish-yellow. First segment of the ab-
domen longitudinally striate; the second segment, concealing all the follow-
ing, has the shape of an elongated oval, when seen from above ; seen from the
side, its longitudinal diameter distinctly exceeds the transverse one; the ven-
tral valve, ending in a short, pubescent point, usually projects beyond the edge
of the second segment, its angle is about 60° or 70° ; abdomen polished, black ;

ISCiS.] 377

ventral valve yellowish-brown ; feet brownish-yellow; hind tibise and a part
of the first joint of the hind tarsi infuscated : tips of all the tarsi brownish;
veins of the wings brownish; areolet rather small, its structure like that of the
{^receding species.

Male. 0.10 long; antennae 16-jointed, third joint excised below, fourth half
as long as the third; head yellow, except a black spot on the vertex, which in-
cludes tlve ocelli; a part of the collare and of the pleurae also yellow, which
color seems to be variable in extent in different specimens ; abdomen truncate
at the tip, bell-shaped, when seen from the side ; the sculpture of the head and
thorax and the coloring of the feet are the same as in the female.

Numerous 9 ^iid two % specimens, found in the box containing my
callection of galls ; I have not been able to ascertain what gall pro-
duced them.

This species is distinguished from *S'. campanula by its more elon-
gated shape, the sculpture of the vertex, the coloring of the hind tibiae,
etc. Viewed from above, the abdomen is more elongated-oval than that
of S. campanula ; the sculpture of the thorax appears rough, as the
wrinkles seems to be due to sharp, projecting ridges, whereas the tho-
rax of S. campanula, although more densely wrinkled, has a handsomely
smooth appearance ; the pubescence on the thorax of the latter species
is more dense, etc. Besides, the antennse of the 9 of >S'. dimorpJms
are 13 and not 14-jointed. The punctures on the vertex of this species
can be perceived only under a rather strong lens.

6. Synergus albipes Walsh, % 9 •

Syn. Synophrus albipes Walsh, Proc. Ent. Soc. II, p. 496, 17.

Antennae ( 9 ) 14-joiuted, according to Mr. Walsh, the last joint one-
third longer than the preceding one (the tip of the antennae of my only
9 is broken.) The entire body is black, except the yellow palpi, the
yellowish-brown mandibles and the brownish-yellow scapulae. The ver-
tex is moderately shining, without any apparent punctures. The thorax
is moderately shining, very finely and evenly rugoso-punctate ; its pu-
bescence short, moderately dense and very even ; the parapsidal grooves
but moderately distinct; the polished space on the pleurfe microscopi-
cally aciculate. The first abdominal segment is longitudinally striate;
" the sheaths of the ovipositor do not project beyond the line of the
back, or scarcely, and in a single 9 only" (Walsh) ; the ventral valve
is considerably projecting beyond the edge of the second segment ; its
tip at an angle of more than 45° ; it is extended in a very short apicule;
the shape of the second segment, as seen from the side, is nearly like
that of S. climorpkus. Feet pale whitish-yellow, tarsal tips brown ;
" in a single % the hind femora and tibiae, and in a less degree the in-
termediate ones, are brown" (Walsh).

Mr. Walsh reared many % 9 specimens from the gall of C. q. flocci

378 [May

Walsh ( = 3'. lansE Fitch?) in August; to him I owe the communica-

tioQ of some specimens.

7. Synergus mendax Walsh. 9- Proc. Ent. Soc. II, 498.

A specimen, communicated to me by the author, enables me to add
the following remarks to his description : 1st. The sculpture of the
mesonotum is very rough and not unlike that of S. dimorjjhus, consist-
ing apparently of transverse, projecting ridges, with intervening smooth
and moderately shining spaces; only the ridges appear here more ele-
vated and sharper, but at the same time wider apart than in S. dlmor-
phus and thus the surface of the thorax is more rough, but at the same
time more shining than the latter species. 2nd. The polished spot on
the pleurae is almost smooth in this species ; however, under a strong
lens and in an oblique light, the sculpture, common to the other species
of the genus, becomes apparent here. 3rd. The general shape of the
body is more elongated than in S. dimorphus ; the abdomen, seen from
the side, appears more elongated, as its transverse diameter appears,
comparatively, much shorter than that of the other species. 4th. Mr.
Walsh calls the ventral valve "unarmed"; but the specimen he com-
municated me, of this species, distinctly shows a projecting point beyond
the tip of the valve.

Bred by Mr. Walsh from the gall of 0. q. jjodagrse Walsh, together
with S. llgnicola 0. S. {S. rhoditiformis. Walsh).

p. s. — Since this article was presented to the Society, I have received from
Mr. Bassett galls of his Cynips hirta. They look precisely like the galls of Q.
pisum Fitch {=pezomachoides nob ?) only they seem usually to be a little smaller,
and the netting on the surface is more dense. In the Synoptical Table of the
galls, those of C. hirta have therefore to be put next to those of C. pezomachoides.
Both produce apterous gall-flies.

Being at the same time a synonymical catalogue of all the described
N. A. 0_i/nipidse, exclusive of Fir/itidse.

Observation. — An asterisk near a specific name signifies that I have
not seen the species ; an interrogation (?) that the location of the spe-
cies in the genus is doubtful. Species united by brackets are probably
phytophagic varieties. The subdivision of the genus Cynips in genera
is subject to the doubts and limitations expressed in the body of my
paper, and is, for this reason, only provisional. I have thought it con-
venient to retain the subdivision of this genus in two groups, according
to the kinds of oaks which the species inhabit; this subdivision is, as
I have shown, very often coincident with the generic subdivisions.
although I would not affirm that it is always so.

1865.]

379

A. GALL-FLIES.

I. CYNIPS.

(Quercus).

Group of White and Chestnut-oaks.

PAGE

Cynips Hartig.

1. a strobilana 0. S 350

2. C. globulus Fitch 350

Syn. Callaspidia q. glo-
bulus Fitch.

3. C. centricola 0. S 350

4. a tubicola 0. S 351

?5. C. clavula Bassett 351

Syn. C. q. tuber Bassett

(nou Fitch).
Syn. of gall: Q. tuber Fitch
Q. arbos Fitch

Andricus.

6. C.seminator Harris 351

7. C. petiolicola Bassett 351

8. C.fusiformis 0. S 352

I 9. C.futilisO.S 352

(10. C.papillata 0.8 352

?»11. C. flocci Walsh 352

Teras.

12. C. pezomachoides 0. S 352

Syn. of gall : Q. pisum
Fitch?

13. C. fortieornis Walsh 353

Syn. of gall: Q. ficus Fitch.

14. C. hirta Bassett 353

*15. C. fulvicoUis'Fiic'h 353

Syn. Philonix fulvii^oUis
Fitch.

*16. C. nigricollis Fitch 353

Syn. Philonix nigricollis
' Fitch.

Biorhiza Westw.

??*17. C.nigra Fitch 353

Syn. Biorhiza nigra Fitch.

(s^i«A>tti Spathegaster Hartig.|r

I 18. C. irregularis 0. S 353

I 19. C. mqjalis Bassett 353

20. a batatus Bassett (Fitch? )..353

21. C, verrucarum 0. S 354

Group of red, black and willow-oaks.

PAGB

Nov. gen. m t^^y^ A < 6 a l^p^

f 22. C. spongifica 0. S 354

Syn. C. aciculata 0. S. (di-
morphous 9 .)

C. confluens Harris
(Syn. of aciculata.)
Syn. of gall: confluens
Harris.

.23. C. q. coccineae 0. S 354

24. C.inanisO. S 354

Syn. C. confluens Fitch (non
Harris.)
■ 25. a coelebs 0. S 355

26. C. ilicifolioe Bassett 355

27. C. singularis Bassett 355

28. C. Osten-Sackenii'Ra.sseiit 355

?29. C. /ormosa Bassett 356

?®30. C. sculpta Bassett 356

(The following species may be ar-
ranged in groups, which will per-
haps yet constitute as many ge-
nera) .

31. C. q.phellos 0. S 356

32. C similis Bassett 356

33. C. q. nigrce 0. S 356

34. C. tumifica 0. S 366

35. C. modesta 0. S 357

36. C. operator 0. S 357

37. C. ventricosa Bassett 358

* « -is *

38. C. cornigera 0. S 358

I 39. C. punctata Bassett 358

(40. C. podagrcE Walsh 358

41. C. scitula Bassett 358

42. C. q. palustris 0. S.

.369

380

[May

II.

Jt. dichlocerus Harris.

Syn. Cynips dichlocerus Harris.
M. hicolor Harris.

Syn. Cynips bicolor Harris.

RHODITES

(Eosa.)

R. ignota 0. S.
R. rosce Linn.
R. radicum 0. S.
R. verna 0. S.

.361

D. nehulosus 0. S.

D. cuscutoeformis 0. S.

III. DIASTROPHUS

(Rubus, Potentilla.)

I D. potentillce Bassett.

B. GUEST-FLIES.
AULAX.

.361

^4. sylvestris 0. S 366

A. pirata 0. S 366

?A.futUis 0. S 366 I

?A. semipiceus Harris 366

Syn. Cynips semipiceus Harris.

CEROPTRES.

C. /icus Fitch 368

Syn. Cynips q. ficus Fitch.

Synophrus Iseviventris
Walsh (exparte).

C. petiolicola 0. S 369

Syn. Amblynotus ? petiolicola

0. S.
Syn. ?Amblynotus ensigerWalsh

0. inermis Walsh 369

AS[yn.. Amblynotus inerm.is Walsh

C. pisum 0. S 369

Syn. Sarothrus pisum 0. S.

C. arbos Fitch 370

Syn. Cynips q. arbos Fitch.

a tuber Fitch 370

Syn. Cynips q. tuber Fitch.

SYNERGUS.

4. S. campanula 0. S 375

5. S. dimorphus 0. S 376

6. S.albipes W&lsh 377

Syn. Synophrus albipes Walsh.

7. S. menrfaa; Walsh 378

1. S. oneratus Harris 373

Syn. Cynips oneratus Harris.

2. S. lignicola 0. S 374

Syn. S. rhoditiformis Walsh.

3. S. loeviventris 0. S 375

*Sfyw.Synophrus? Iseviventris O.S.
Syn. Synophrus Iseviventris
Walsh (exparte).

Species of doubtful location. >

Figites chinquapin Fitch, see No. 56..361 I Cynips q. lana Fitch, see No. 45 359

Cynips q. pisum Fitch, see No. 57 361 I

ERRATA.
Page 334, line 25, for "suggests himself" read " himself suggests."
" 336, line 15, for -'on" read "in."
" 366, line 11, for •'■ Kynipidae,'' read " Ci/nipk1se.''

/^

6/

A^'C-^

\j

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. II.— MAY, 1868.— No. 3.
THE SONGS OF THE GRASSHOPPERS.

BY S. H. SCUDDER.

Although every one is familiar with the
notes of birds, few can distinguish the differ-
ent chirpings of insects, or are even aware
that every kind of Grasshopper has its distinc-
tive note. The songs of insects are neither
so varied nor complicated as those of birds,
i-'E^Mnm ^^^^ their study presents peculiar difficulties.

/■1/fei/ Sounds become inaudible to many persons

when they are derived from vibrations more
rapid than 25,000 per second, and when the
number reaches 38,000, the limit of human
perceptibility is attained : thus, the shrill-
ness of a note may prove a hinderance to
its study. This is illustrated by Tyndall in
his recent book on Sound. He writes : " Crossing the Wen-
gern Alp with a friend, the grass on each side of the path
swarmed with insects, which, to me, rent the air with their
shrill chirruping. My friend heard nothing of this, the in-
sect world lying beyond his limit of audition."

Another and universal obstacle lies in the delicacy or
feebleness of the notes of some species ; to distinguish them

Entered according to Act of Congress, In the year 1868, by the Peabody Academy of
SciEXCE, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

AMKK. ^'AXUKALIbT, VOL. n.

15

(iia)

114 THE SONGS OF THE GRASSHOPPERS.

clearly, one must bring his ear to within a few feet, or even
inches of the insect during its striclulation, — a process which
requires 'great caution lest the shyness of the little violinist
should overcome his egotistic love of song. The observer
must walk quietly toward the sound until it ceases, and wait
motionless for its renewal ; the direction of the chirping can
then easily be determined, although its distance is deceptive.
After drawing an imaginary line towards the spot from
whence the sound proceeds, cautious steps must be taken
aromid the arc of a wide circle until another line is fixed at
right angles to the first, and the location of the songster ap-
proximately determined. Then walking quickly but quietly
to within five or six feet of the insect, the observer will fall
upon his hands and knees, and produce a quill edge and file,
which, on being rubbed together, imitate, with great exact-
ness, the desired note. He will commence his mock strid-
ulation after a short delay; at first the sounds must be
subdued and separated by considerable intervals, then loud,
and repeated in quick succession ; usually a response is
heard before a minute has elapsed, and sometimes it comes
at once. When the insect has forgotten his fears and begins
to stridulate violently, the observer may cease operations
and carefully approach him. In this way one can place
himself within a few inches of any species living in the
grass.

Grasshoppers stridulate in four diflferent ways : first, by
rubbing the base of one wing-cover upon the other, using,
for that purpose, the veins running through the middle por-
tion of the wing ; second, by a similar method, but using
the veins of the inner part of the wing ; third, by rubbing
the inner surface of the hind les^s against the outer surface
of the wing-covers ; and fourth, by rubbing together the
upper surface of the front edge of the wings and the under
surface of the wing-covers. The insects which employ the
fourth method stridulate during fliofht, — the others while at
rest. To the first group belong the Crickets ; to the second

THE SONGS OF THE GRASSHOPPERS. 115

the Green or Long-horned Grasshoppers ; to the third and
fourth, certain kinds of Short-horned or Jumping Grasshop-
pers. The sounds j)roduced by the different groups vary in
pitch, tliose of the crickets being shrillest and the others
following in the order just given. With but few exceptions
the males alone sins;.

The notes of the Cricket — called by the French "cri cri"
on account of its song — maybe heard near Boston* from the
middle of June until November ; further north they do not
appear until much later in the season. Their note is crrri^
and the rapidity with which it is uttered varies even in the
same strain ; sometimes it is as slow as two notes a second,
at others it is twice as rapid. The note is sharp and shrill,
and appears to be pitched at E natural, two octaves above
middle C. Sometimes two choirs of these insects may be
heard at once, the individuals of each choir chirping simul-
taneously, but one choir more rapidly than the other ; most
of the time this produces a sort of discord, but, as they
occasionally harmonize, one hears cycles of accordance and
discordance, often of remarkable uniformity and duration.

The Spotted-cricket (^Nemobius vittatus) appears simulta-
neously with the Black-cricket ( Gryllus niger) . The chirpiug
of the two insects is very similar, but that of the former may
be better expressed by r-r-r-u, pronounced as though it were
a French word. The note is trilled forcibly, and lasts a vari-
able length of time. One of these insects was once observed
while singing to its mate. At first the song was mild and
frequently broken ; afterwards it grew impetuous, forcible,
and more prolonged ; then it decreased in volume and extent
until it became quite soft and feeble. At this point the male
began to approach the female, uttering a series of twitteriug
chirps ; the female ran away, and the male, after a short
chase, returned to his old haunt, singing with the same
vigor but with frequent pauses ; at last, finding all persua-
sion unavailing he brouo:ht his serenade to a close.

* All my illustrations are drawn from New England insects.

116 THE SOXGS or THE GRASSHOPPERS.

In September and October, the White Climbing- cricket
(^CScanthus niveus, Fig. 1, left wing-cover of male, Fig. 1 a,
the same of female*) is found on the
leaves of low trees and bushes. It makes
a uniform note, exceedingly shrill but
attenuated.

The peculiar development of the wing
in stridulating Orthoptera is nowhere seen
to better advantage than in this insect.
In the female, the veins of the central field run nearly paral-
lel to the border ; in the male, they cross the wing in various
directions, and either converge toward the point of stridu-
latiou on the inner border of the wing, where the inner and
central fields meet, or act as supports to the converging
veins.

AH these insects balong to the first class. There are many
species in the second group (the green or long-horned grass-
hoppers), but a few examples will suffice. These insects,
like the crickets, sing both by day and night, but, unlike the
latter, their day- song difiers from tliat of the night. On
a summer's day, it is curious to observe these little crea-
tures suddenly changing; from the day to the night-song at
the mere passing of a cloud, and returning to the old note
when the sky is clear. By imitating the two songs in the
daytime, the grasshoppers can be made to respond to either
at will ; at night, they have but one note.

The previous illustrations showed that the stridulating
organ of crickets occupied the middle field of the wing ; in
the green grasshoppers, on the contrar}^ it will be found in
the inner field ; here, too, the relative size of the inner field
is nearly the same in both sexes, but the stout, curved vein
of the male is altogether wanting in the voiceless female.
One of them, the Phaneroptera curvicauda (Fig. 2, male ;

* In all the illustrations, the dotted lines show the limitations of the different fields of
the wing; a represents the " file;" b points at the line of separation between the costal
(or outer) and central fields; c, at that point between the central and inner fields.

THE SONGS OF THE GRASSHOPPERS. '

11-7

Fig. 2 a, female), prefers to sing in the night. His day-
song is hzrwi, and lasts one-third of a second ; the night-
song consists of a repetition — ordinarily eight times — of a
note which sounds like tcJiw. This is repeated at the rate
of five in three-quarters of a rig. 2a. rig. 2.

second, making each note one-
half as long as that of the day.

The song of the common
Meadow -grasshopper ( Orcheli-
mum vulgare) is more compli-
cated. Commencing with ts, it
changes almost instantly into a
trill of zr: at first there is a
crescendo movement which
reaches its volume in half a sec-
ond ; the trill is then sustained
for a period varying from one
to twenty seconds, and closes
suddenly with j^' This strain
is followed by a series of stac-
cato notes, sounding like jip;
they are one-eighth of a second in length, and are produced
at one-half second intervals. The staccato notes and the
trill alternate ad libitum. The ni2:ht-sono; differs from that
of the day simply in its slower movement ; the pitch of both
is at B flat, two octaves above middle C.

A conical- headed grasshopper {^Conocephalus robustiis),
found near the seashore in the southern part of New England,
makes the salt marshes resound with its incessant, shrill din.
The resemblance of its song to that of the harvest-fly is quite
striking; at a distance, the note seems to be perfectly uni-
form ; close at hand, one can hear it rising and falling rhyth-
mically, two and a half times a second, accompanied by a
loud droning noise.

There are numerous kinds of jumping grasshoppers vv'hich
stridulate in the daytime only. They do this by the aid of

118

THE SONGS OF THE GRASSHOPPERS.

the hind legs, rubbing their thighs against their wing-covers ;
every movement of the fiddle-bow produces a short note, and
the uniformity with which each species plays its own song
is quite remarkable. One kind (Stenobothrus curtipennis)
produces about six notes per second, and continues them
from one and a half to two and a half seconds ; another
(S. melanopleurus) makes from nine to twelve notes in
about three seconds. In both cases the notes follow each
other uniformly, and are slower in the shade than in the
sun.

The stridulating apparatus of the jumping grasshoppers is
of a very diiferent character from that of the green grasshop-
Fig.3. Fig. 3a. pcrs. 1\\ Avcyptera Uneata (Fig. d, pi„ 3^
left wing of male ; Fig. 3 a, left wing
of female) , for example, it is situated
in the central field of the wino;,
which is of about the same size in
both sexes ; some of the veins in the
centre of the wing [a, enlarged in
Fig. 3 5) have a rasp -like surface
upon which the hind thighs are
scraped up and down, producing mo-
notonous, nearly uniform notes.
^ ^ The grasshoppers which stridulate

during flight, by the contact of the wings and wing-
covers, belong mostly to the genus CEdipoda; in many
of them the wings are variegated with brilliant colors. The
sound which the}" make seems to be under the control of the
insects, for they often omit it when alarmed. Some species
produce a uniform, rattling noise during the whole of their
undeviating flight ; others make it only during the intervals
of flight, and seem to stridulate more at will. The flight
of the latter is more sustained, they are capable of changing
their course, and at each turn emit a crackling sound of
short duration.

THE SONGS OF THE GRASSHOPPERS.

119

•P JiP Jip Jip Jip Jip Jip

jri-^^ p^^ -^^

jip ts

tr^

^-O-m-»-0-0-0-~»-»-»~0~0-»-9-»-»-»-»~»-»-9-9-»-»-9-0-»-O-»

■'...iT-ii.'ii.i.'i.i-i— .'-..Lir ' II

P Jip

Note of Orchelimum vulgare.

120 THE SONGS OF THE GRASSHOPPERS.

crrn crrri crrri crrri crrri

Note of Gryllus neglectus.
ru ru ru ru ru ru ru ru ru ru ru ru ru ru

tr \ I -""^ \ tr \

—f-f-0-fi — ^-*-* ^ f-^—*1 » —«-»-0-9 O-0-

I I I I I I I I ' III ' I I I 1 I I I I I

ru ru ru ru ru ru ti ru ru ru ru ru ru

^r \ ^ ^ \ tr

— r- 1 -f-f-f-r- 1 -r-^-^-^- 1 -r

, - , r -^ ^ *-

^ ' 1/ I r 1 I I

Note of Nemobius vittatus.

bzrwi bzrwi ' bzrwi

^ 1*^ — ^ ^ ^ P' — ""^ ^ — g^-nP^ <llj

Note of Phaneroptera curvicauda by day.
tchw tcbw tcbw tcbw tchw tchw tchw tchw

Note of Phaneroptera curvicauda by night.
Note of Stenobothrus melanopleurus in the sun.

trfrfrrfjrfflrtriirmT—

Note of Stenobothrus melanopleurus in the shade.
Note of Stenobothrus curtipennis.

Note of Arcyptera lineata.

Accession No.

Added 187

Catalogued by

Revised by

Memoranda.

$

Pamphlets

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J>^ zL '^:. riost.Sa^.-^'^. Jt:M,:isr,p. ssr/ss/,

Anisopteryx vernata distinguished from a. pometaria.
By B. Pickman Mann.

The question of the difference between Anisopteryx vernata and
Anwopten/x pometaria having been raised, I have looked over my
notes, and made some new observations- with the results contained in
this paper.

In the following descriptions I have drawn as much as possible
from Harris' Treatise on Some of the Insects Injurious to Vegeta-
tion, and have indicated by italics the portions so adopted.

Fii'st, I give the characters which, as far as I know at present, are
common to both species.

The aniennce of the male have a very narroro and almost downy edg-
ing, on each >iide, hardly to be seen ivith the naked eye. The feelers are
minute and do not extend lieyond the mouth. The tongue is not visible.
The icings are large, very thin, and silky; and, tvhcn the insect is at
rest, the fore loings are turned back, entirely cover the hind ivings, and
overlap on their inner edges. The feincde is wingless, and its antennce
are short, being about half the length of the body, filiform, and slen-
der. Its body approaches to an ovcd form, Harris adds, but tapers
and is turned up behind. I am not able to say whether this character
is common to both species or not.

I find the following differences between the species: —

Anisopteryx vernata.

The first seven rings of the abdo.-
men of both sexes with no spines
upon the bacli.

Fore wings of male ash-colored, imtli

a distinct whitish spot on the front edge,
near the tip;

[fore ivings] crossed by tioo jayged,
whitish bands; the outermost band has
an angle near the front edge. The
white bands are often entirely loantiny,
in ■which case only the whitish spot near
the tip remains.

Along the sides of the whitish bauds
there are several hlacJdsh dots, each on
a nervure, aiid all generally con-
nected together by a dusky band
which incliides them, and runs on
that side of each whitish band which
is towards the other. These bands
remain visible when the whitish bands
are wanting.

Anisopteryx pometaria.

The first seven rings of the abdo-
men of both sexes bear each upon
the back two transverse rows of stiff
red spines pointing towards the end
of the body.

Fore wings of male ash-colored or
brownish-gray ;

the whitish spot found on the fore
wings of A. vernata is loanting.

The ivhitish bands found on the
fore wings of A. vernata are luantiny,
out there is' a jagged, submarginal
white band on the upper side of the
fove wings in most specimens.

There are three iniemvpted, dusky
lines across the fore wings, instead of
two lines, as in A. vernata. Some-
times these lines are only indicated
by dark spots on the front edge of the
wing, and by blackish dashes at the
crossing of median nervure; rarely
are they very distinct throughout
their whole extent.

1873.

883

[Mann.

Within the angle of the outermost
whitish band, near the front edge,
there is a short, faint, blackish line,
following a nervure; and there is a
roio of black dots along the outer mar-
gin, close to the fringe.

The hind wings are pale ash-colored,
or light gray, with a faint blackish dot
near the middle.

In most specimens a curved white
band is plainly visible on the hind
wings, about half way between the
middle and the end.

The outermost white band of the
fore wings, with its angulation, and
the band of the hind wings, are also
visible on the under side of the
wings. Within the angulation is a
brown or blackish spot on the costa.

The u-ings expand about one inch
and a quarter (32 milliraetei-s'), vary-
ing between 26 and 34 millimeters,
and predominating at 30 millimeters.

Antennce, of the female naked.

Abdomen not terminating in an ovi-
positor, rathes bluntly tapering be-
hind.

Whole body and legs of the female
smooth, clothed with glistening brown
and white tnincate scales intermixed,
giving it an appearance of uniform
shiny dark ash-color above and gray
beneath.

There is an oblique, blackish dash
near the tip of the fore wings, cross-
ing ii nervure; and there is a dis-
tinctly interrupted or nearly uniform
continuous line of .blackish along the
outer margin, close to the fringe.

The hind wings are pale ash-colored,
or very light gray, with a faint black-
ish dot near the middle.

The white band found on the hind
\f ings of A. vernata is wanting.

Oil the costa, opposite the begin-
ning of the outermost dark band of
the upper surface, and on the edge of
tlie disk, are dark spots on the lower
surface of the wings. Along the
median nervure beneath is a dark
line. These marks are sometimes
indistinct.

Of a. rather smaller size than A.
vernata, varying between 22 and 3-3
millimeters,' and predominating at
29 millimeters.

Anteniiog of the female pubescent.

Abdomen terminating in a retrac-
tile ovipositor, rather acutely taper-
ing behind.

Wliole body and legs of the female
pubescent, clothed with whitish and
brown or black dentate scales or
hairs; general coloration not uniform.
A black band along the middle of the
back of the abdomen, often inter-
rupted on the second to seventh
rings; with a whitish patch each side
of its frO!it end; the spines frequently
giving a reddish appearance to the
part they occupy.

Crest of j^rothorax and mesothorax
black.

lOne specimen in my collection with all tlie otlier characters except size,
measures 38 millimeters.

Mann.] , 384 ■ [April 23,

Length of the female 6-10 mm. Length of the female 5-8 mm.

Of 16 dated specimens of the male Of 16 dated specimens of the male

hi my collection, 12 were taken in in my collection, 1 was taken in

October or November, and 4 in Mai-ch March and 15 in April,

or April. The two spring specimens Of nine females in my collection,

in my collection now are among the all were taken in April. Among sev-

most strongly characterized I have. eral hundred females of A. vernata

Of several hundred females in my taken in November I do not find one

collection, four were taken in April female of this species, wherefore I

and the rest in November. think it probable that this species is

found only in spring.

I must acknowledge myself indebteil to Mr. H. K. Morrison for
the suggestion that I should find ^1. vernata a fall species and A. jJom-
etaria a spring species. It seems as if the occurrence of A. vernata
in spring might be explained by considering the spring specimens as
belated. The necessity of applying the name i^ernata to a fall spe-
cies illustrates the danger of attempting to give names characteristic
of season or locality.

I hope observers will take note next spring whether the eggs of A.
pometaria do not want the jug-like shape and lid-like upper end
which are seen in the eggs of ^4. vernata, also whether the eggs
are not laid separately in chinks of bark, and whether their num-
ber is not about sixty, instead of over two hundred, as in A. ver-
nata. I have only seen apparently immature eggs in the female.^

1 A few days after the presentation of the above communication Mr. Morrison
informed me that he had lately seen a female A. jyometaria thrust her ovipositor
in between th.e chiuks of bark of the apple-tree, and )ay an egg thpre. He pulled
ofT the bark and found eggs beneath. He had also seen the female thrust her ovi-
positor into tlie crack of a board fence, and lay an egg there. He did not observe
the shape of the egg.

Corrigenda, to be explained in a subsequent communication : —

p. 384, hues 16-18. Omit the whole sentence from " The neces-
sity " to " locality," inclusive.

pp. 382-384. Instead of vernata read pometaria, and instead of
pometaria read vernata.

Accession No

Added 187.

Catalogued by

Revised by

Memoranda

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B.

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