•VV,. K,' flQ- ir- ••'. f GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS AND A TREATISE ON THOSE INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO CROPS FOR THE USE OF COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS, AND AGRICULTURISTS BY A. S. PACKARD, JR., M.D. WITH FIFTEEN PLATES AND SIX HUNDRED AND SEVENTY WOOD-CUTS SIXTH EDITION NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY BOSTON: ESTES & LAURIAT 1878 COPYRIGHT BY A. S. PACKARD, JR., i.l 1876. •+ 7 3 JOHN V. TROW & SON, PRINTRRS, 205-213 EAST i2Tn ST., NEW VQR'K. PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. MOKE important additions and alterations have been made in this edition than in any previous one. The author has de- cided to consider the Ilexapoda, Arachnida, and Myriopoda as sub-classes of Tracheata, and consequently what have been in former editions regarded as sub-orders are called orders. The Thysanura, moreover, are separated from the Neuroptera, and regarded as a distinct order, comprising synthetic types with features allying them to the Orthoptera, Neuroptera, and Myriopoda. They are divided into two sub-orders, the lower the Collembola of Lubbock ; and for the higher sub-order, comprising the Lepismatidae and Campodea>, the term <'!inn-n (nivlcj, to move; ovpa, tail) is proposed. The terms tena^n- lion and elttter are adopted from the author's previous writ- ings for the "holder" and "spring" of the Collembola; and for the sucker or organ secreting the adhesive material char- acteristic of the Collembola, the term collophore is proposed. Brief mention has been made of the Pycnogonidae, which are placed among the mites ; also of the Peripatidea, which are given a place next to the sucking Myriopoda, since they have been proved by the researches of Mr. Moseley to be Tracheata. On page 240 the discovery by Mr. Swinton of an auditory apparatus at the base of the abdomen of Lepidoptera has been noticed, as well as Mr. Mason-Wood's discovery that Mygale and Scorpio stridulate (page 628). A number of minor changes and corrections have been made in the plates. Some important changes have been made in the classifica- tion of the Coleoptera which do not appear in the text. The weevils, Curculionidce, should, in accordance with the views expressed by Dr. Le Conte, be placed at the end of the group. The Coceinettidce and Erotylidoe, should also, in accordance with the views of Mr. G. R. Crotch (Check-List of the PREFACE. (Joleoptera of America north of Mexico, 1H74), be placed in the Clavicorn series, those aiid allied families being placed in the following succession: JJ< >-»ili/diii/<-idnielid«^ Tcnebr)<»tid« , Pyrochroidce, u, Jfyrtt /•(diiJi<»,<) and egg masses of a huge Neuropteron allied to Corydalus, together with others which indicate a partially tropical fauna at that time. Of post-tertiary insects, Dr. Horn has described ten beetles from a bone cave in Pennsylvania, and Mr. Scudder two from the interglacial clays of Ontario. A. S. PACKARD, JK. SALEM, MASS., April, 187s. PREFACE . THIS introduction to the study of insects is designed to . teach the beginner the elements of entomology, and to serve as a guide to the more elaborate treatises and memoirs which the advanced student may wish to consult. Should the book, imperfect as the author feels it to be, prove of some service in inducing others to study this most interesting and useful branch of natural history, the object of the writer will have been fully attained. In order to make it of value to farmers and gardeners, whose needs the writer has kept in view, and that it may be used as a text book in our agricultural colleges, concise ac- counts have been given of insects injurious or beneficial to vegetation, or those in any way affecting human interests. When the localities of the insects are not precisely given, it is to be understood that they occur in the Eastern Atlantic States from Maine to Pennsylvania, and the more northern of the Western States. When the family names occur in the text they are put in spaced Italics, to distinguish them from the generic and specific names which are Italicized in the usual way. The succession of the suborders of the hexapodous insects is that proposed by the author in 1863, and the attention of zoologists is called to their division into two series of sub- orders, which are characterized on page 104. To the first and highest may be applied Leach's term METABOLIA, as they all agree in having a perfect metamorphosis ; for the second and lower series the term HETEROMETABOLIA is pro- Vlli PREFACE. posed, as the four suborders comprised in it dirt'er in the degrees of completeness of their metamorphoses, and are all linked together by the structural features enumerated on page 104. The classification of the Hymenoptera is original with the author, the bees (Apidai) being placed highest, and the saw- flies and Uroceridee lowest. The succession of the families of the Lepidoptera is that now generally agreed upon by en- tomologists. Loew's classification of the Diptera, published in the '• Miscellaneous Collections" of the Smithsonian Institution, has been followed, with some modifications. Ilaliday's suggestion that the Pulicichv are allied to the M \cetophilido3 gives a clue to their position in nature among the higher Diptera. Leconte's classification of the Coleoptera is adopted as far as published by him, i.e., to the Bruchidae. For the succeeding families the arrangement of Gerstaecker in Peters and Cams' "Handbuch der Zoo- logic" has been followed, both being based on that of Lacor- daire. The Hemiptera are arranged according to the author's views of the succession of the families. The classification of the Orthoptera is that proposed by Mr. S. H. Scudder. This succession of families is the reverse of what has been given by recent authors, and is by far the most satisfactory yet presented. The arrangement of the Neuroptera (in the Lin- mean sense) is that of Dr. Hagen, published in his "Synop- sis," with the addition, however, of the Lepismatidre, Cam- podere and Poduridoe. The usual classification of the Arachnida is modified by placing the Phalangidee as a family among the Pedipalpi, and the succession of families of this suborder is suggested as be- ing a more natural one than has been previously given. The arrangement of the Araneina, imperfect as authors have left it, is that adopted by Gerstaecker in Peters and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. FIGS. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 84, 86, 87, 91, 93-106, 124, 126, 130, 131, 132, 142, 144, 146, 151, 180, 191-196, 201, 202, 204, 205, 201.;, 207, 208b, 209, 212, 213, 215, 219, 220. 221, 224, 225, 226, 246, 256 -260, 267, 320, 321, 332, 333, 379, 404, 408, 409, 42], 422, 442, 455, 480, 481, 484, 485, 487, 493, 500, 501, 502, 509, 513, 518, 519, 521, 531, 534, 535, 552, 561, 5G2, 576, 579, 593, 601 and 651, were borrowed from the American Entomological Society, at Philadelphia. FIGS. 2, 14, 15-24, 27, 48, G3-67, 69, 181, 216, 217, 222, 230, 231, 233 -235, 247, 369, 389, 420, 424, 427, 435, 436, 438, 497, 508, 578, 630 and 631 were loaned by the Boston Society of Natural History. FIGS. 25, 36, 37, 55, 83, 128, 136, 237, 242, 269, 350, 352-357, 362, 368, 372, 373, 380, 511, 512, 514, 542. 54:5, 544, 545, 546, 556, 585-587, 589, 590, 591, 594, 602, 603, 604 and 605, were borrowed from the report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture for 1862. FIGS. 155-165, 169-179, 270, 271, 285-296, 300, 303-306, 345-348, 358, 359, i;:;2. 633 and 634, were loaned by the Smithsonian Institution. FIGS. 1, 5, 8, 10, 30, 31, 32, 51, 52, 57, 58, 62, 64, 68, 72, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, S9, 92, 110-121, 127, 185, 186, 227, 22S. 239, 248, 250, 252, 262, 263, 273, 278, 298, 307-314, 317-319, 322, 324-327. 329-331, 334-343, 361, 3G3a, 375, 387, 412, 413, 425, 426, 428, 430, 432, 433, 437, 439, 447-451, 456-458, 463, 464, 474, 475, 504, 516, 576, 577, 580-584, 588, 592, 60s, 613, 615, 627, 636, 637, 638, 639, 641, 642, 646-649, were taken from the " American Naturalist." FIGS. 41, 70, 71, 88, 129, 138, 143, 152, 200, 232, 249, 253, 255, 349, 492, 554, 618, and 645 were borrowed from the "Report of the Maine Board of Agriculture for 1862." FIGS. 73-78, were kindly loaned by Prof. Jeffries Wyman. FIGS. 570, 571, 574, 575, 617 and 635, were loaned by the Illinois Geological Survey. I am also indebted to Prof. Sanborn Tenney for the use of Figs. 189, 190, 198, 315, 323, 563-567, from his "Manual of Zoology." The publishers of Hardwick's " Science-Gossip," London, afforded me stereotypes of Figs, 517, 557, 569, 573, 606, 607. 609-611, 616. 62. 131. 459-462, 495, 506. were copied from Harris; 43, 45, from Leidy: 46, 47, 49. 50, from Straus-Durckheim ; 44, 53. 54 and 650, from Newport ; 135. 140, from Fitch : 223. 243, 244. 528, 529, from Glover: 264, 467. from Curtis; 623-626, from Clapa- rede: 643, 644, from Poyere : 56 from Gerstaecker : 297. from Mec/.- nikow: 302. from Brauer: 417, 418, from Leprieur: 527. 558 559, from Gnerin-Meneville: 572 from Dohru : 394, from Blisson: 388, from Candeze; 377, 381, 382, 385,390, 391, 395, 399, 401, 406. 407. llo. 472 and 488, from Chapuis and Cande/.e. PLATES 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. 7, 9, 10 and 11, were taken from the "American Naturalist." Plates 5 and 8. are original, and drawn from nature by Mr. J. H. Emerton. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 8. Fn;. 1. Empretia stimulea; la, larva. FIG. 2. Leucania unipuncta; 2«, larva. FIG. 3. Xanthoptera semicrocea; 3«, larva. FIG. 4. Catocala ultronia ; 4 a, larva. FIG. 5. Angerona crocataria, male ; 5 a, larva. FIG. 6. Ennomos subsignaria; larva. Fir;. 7. Nematocampa filamentaria; 7o, larva (enlarged twice), FIG. 8. Abraxas ribearia. male. FIG. 9. Anisopteryx vernata, male: 9o, female (enlarged). 9ft, larva. FIG. 10. Cidaria diversilineata; 10 a, larva. FIG. 11. Galleria cereana. FIG. 12. Lozotsenia rosaceana; 12 a, larva. FIG. 13. Penthina pruniana. FIG. 14. Pepressaria robiniella. [its mine. FIG. 15. Lithocolletis geminatella: a, larva: ft, pupa (enlarged three times), 15c, FIG. Ifi. Buccnlatrix pomifoliella. FIG. 17. Coleophora: larva. FIG. 18. Tjyonetia saccatella : 18 ft, larva: 18ft, case (enlarged). FIG. 19. Lithocolletis nidificansella (enlarged) ; 19«, oocoon. FIG. 20. Aglossa cnprealis. FIG. 21. Anchvlopera vacciniana. FIG. 22. Penthina vitivorana (enlarged). FIG. 23. Pterophorns periscelidactylus: a, larva; ft, pupa (enlarged three times). PREFACE. ix Cams' "Handbuch der Zoologie." In the succession of the families of the Acarina, the suggestions of Claparede, in his "Studien der Acariden," have been followed, and in the preparation of the general account of the Arachnids the writer is greatly indebted to Claparede's elaborate work on the "Evolution of Spiders." In the preparation of this "Guide" the author has con- sulted and freely used Westwood's invaluable "Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects ; " Gerstaecker's " Arthropoden" in Peters and Cams' "Handbuch der Zoo- logie;" Siebold's "Anatomy of the Invertebrates" (Burnett's translation, 1854) ; Newport's Article "Insecta" in Todd's Cyclopaeci;a of Anatomy and Physiology ; and Dr. T. W. Harris' "Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation." He would also acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor L. Agassiz for many of the general ideas, acquired while the author was a student in the Museum of Comparative Zoo- logy at Cambridge, regarding the arrangement of the orders and classes, and the morphology of the Articulates. For kind assistance rendered in preparing this book, the author is specially indebted to Baron R. von Osten Sacken, who kindly read the proof sheets of the chapter on Diptera ; to Mr. F. G. Sanborn for the communication of many speci- mens and facts ; and also to Messrs. Edward Norton, S. H. Scudder, J. H. Emerton, C. T. Robinson, A. R. Grote, G. D. Smith, E. T. Cresson, P. R. Uhler, C. V. Riley, Dr. J. L. Le- conte, Dr. Hagen, W. C. Fish, and E. S. Morse. For much kind assistance and very many favors and suggestions, and constant sympathy and encouragement during the printing of the work, he is under special obligation to his valued friend, Mr. F. W. Putnam. The types of the new species noticed here are deposited in the Museum of the Peabodv Academy of Science. He would also express his thanks to X PREFACE. the American Entomological Society, the Society of Natural History at Boston, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, the Essex Institute, the Smithsonian Institu- tion, the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture, and to Mr. R. Harchvicke, the publisher of "Science-Gossip," Prof. Sanborn Tenney, the author of "A Manual of Zo- ology," and to his coeditors of the "•American Naturalist," for the use of many of the cuts, a list of which may be found on the succeeding pages. PEABODY ACADEMY <»F SCIENCE, SALEil. Nov. 10, 1869. • GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. THE CLASS OF INSECTS. THAT branch of the Animal Kingdom known as the Aimcu- LATA, includes all animals having the body composed of rings or segments, like short cylinders, which are placed successively one behind the other. Cuvier selected this term because he saw that the plan of their entire organization, the essential features which separate them from all other animals, lay in the idea of articulation, the apparent joining together of distinct segments along the line of the body. If we observe carefully the body of a AVorm, we shall see that it consists of a long cylindrical sac, which at regular intervals is folded in upon itself, thus giving a ringed (annulated, or articulated) appear- ance to the body. In Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, etc.) and in Insects, from the deposition of a peculiar chemical substance called cjiffitu', the walls of the body become so ^ hardened, that when the animal is dead and dry, it readily breaks into numerous very perfect rings. Though this branch contains a far greater number of species than any other of the animal kingdom, its myr- iad forms can all be reduced to a simple, ideal, typical figure ; that of a long slender cylinder divided into numerous segments, as in Fig. 1, representing the larva of a Fly. It is by the unequal development and the various modes of grouping them, as well as the differ- ences in the number of the rings themselves, and also in Fi^- *• the changes of form of their appendages, i.e. the feet, jaws, antenna1, and wings, that the various forms of Articulates are produced. Fit!. 1. Worm-like larva of a Fly, Scenopinus. — Oriijinnf. I THE CLASS OF INSECTS. Articulated animals are also very distinctly bilateral, i.e. the body is symmetrically divided into two lateral halves, and not only the trunk but the limbs also show this bilateral xi/niii«'tr>/. In a less marked degree there is also an ant^ra- postvrlnr Hiiniiiivtry, i.e. eaeh end of the body is opposed, just as each side of the body is, to the other.* The line separating the two ends is. however, imaginary and vague. The antenna1, on the anterior pole, or head, are represented by the caudal, or anal, stylets (Fig. 2), and the single parts on the median line of the body corre- spond. Thus the labrum and clypeus are represented by the tergite of the eleventh segment of the abdomen. Fjg L,» In all Articulates (Fig. 3) the long, tubular, alimentary canal occupies the centre of the body ; above it lies the "heart," or dorsal vessel, and below, upon the under .side, rests the nervous system. The breathing apparatus, or iw lungs," in Worms consists of /| simple filaments, placed on the front of the head ; or of gill-like processes, as in the Crustaceans, which are formed by membran- ous expansions of the legs ; or, Fig. 3. as in the Insects (Fig. 4), of delicate tubes (trachea:), which * Professor Wyman (On Symmetry and Homology in Limbs, Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, 1867) has shown that antero-posterior symmetry is very marked in Articulates. In the adjoining figure of Jcera (Fig. 2) the longi- tudinal lines illustrate what is meant by bilateral symmetry, and the transverse lines "fore and aft" symmetry. The two antero-posterior halves of the body arc very symmetrical in the Crustacean genera Jtern, Oniscus, Porcellio, and other Cru.-tacea, and also among the Myriopods, Scutiyera, 1'olydesmus, " in which the limbs are repeated oppositely, though with different degrees of inequality, from the centre of the body backwards and forwards." "Leuckurt and Van Beneden have shown that My sis has an ear in the last segment, and Schmidt has described an eye in the same part in a worm, Amphicora." — From Wyman. FIG. 3 represents an ideal section of a Worm. / indicates the skin, or mus- cular body-wall, which on each side is produced into one or more fleshy tubercles, usually tipped with bristles or hairs, which serve as organs of locomotion, and THE CLASS OF INSECTS. ramify throughout the whole interior of the animal, and con- nect with breathing pores (stigmata) in the sides of the body. They do not breathe through the month as do the higher ani- mals. The tracheae and blood-vessels follow closely the same a Fig. 4. course, so that the aeration of the blood goes on, apparently, over the whole interior of the body, not being confined to a single region, as in the lungs of the vertebrate animals. Thus it is by observing the general form of the body-walls, and the situation of the different anatomical systems, both in relation to themselves and the walls of the bod}-, or crust, which surrounds and protects the more delicate organs within, that we are able to find satisfactory characters for isolating, in our definitions, the articulates from all other animals. AVe shall perceive more clearly the differences between the three classes of Articulates, or jointed animals, namely, the WORMS, CRUSTACEANS, and INSECTS, by examining often as lungs. The nervous cord («) rests on the floor of the cylinder, sending a lilament into the oar-like feet (/), and also around the intestine or stomach (ft), to a supplementary cord (rf), which is situated just over the intestine, and under the heart or dorsal vessel (e). The circle c and e is a diagram of the circulatory sys- tem; c is the dorsal vessel, or heart, from the side of which, in each ring, a small vessel is sent downwards and around to e, the ventral vessel. — Original. FIG. 4. An ideal section of a Bee. Here the crust is dense and thick, to which strong muscles are attached. On the upper side of the ring the wings grow out, while the legs are inserted near the under side. The tracheae (). where the cilia' are restricted toa single circle surrounding tin' body, (iradually (Fig. <> ) the cilia- disap- pear and regular locomotive organs, consisting of minute paddles, grow out from each side; feelers (antenna1), jaws, and eyes (simple rudi- mentary eyes) appear on the few front ring's of the body, which are grouped by themselves into a sort of head, though it is difficult, in a large proportion of the lower worms, for un- skilled observers to distinguish the head from the tail. Thus we see throughout the growth of the worm, no attempt at subdividing the body into regions, each endowed with its peculiar I, functions; but only a more perfect system of Fifr rings, each relatively very equally developed, in the figure, also to the elm-sal vessel(<-), the intestine (&), and the nervous cord (a . The trachea1 and a nervous lilament are also sent into the legs and to the wings. The trachea1 are also distributed to the dorsal vessel and intestine by numerous branches which serve to hold them in place. — Original. Fui. ">. Young Tt'i-i-hella, soon after leaving the egg. — From A. ,-l//«.s.s/:. KKJ. <> represents the embryo of a worm (Autolytiis cornntus) at a later st.u of growth, a is the middle tentacle of the head; e, one of the posterior tentacles ; h, the t\vi> eye-spot* at the base of the hinder pair of feelers; c is one of a row of ear-like organs (cirri) at the base of which are inserted the locomotive bristles, THE CLASS OF INSECTS. •} but all becoming respectively more complicated. For example, in the Earth-worm (Lumbricus) , e&ch ring is distinguishable into jui upper and under side, and in addition to these a well- marked side-area, to which, as for example in marine worms (e. g. JVV/Y'/x), oar-like organs are attached. In most worms eye-spots appear on the front rings, and slender tentacles grow out, and a pair of nerve-knots (ganglia) are apportioned to each ring. In the Crustaceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish (A*t«- c^.s), as shown by the (German naturalist R at like ; and also in the earliest stages of the Insect, the body at. niu-c assumes a, worm-like form, thus beginning its embryonic life from the goal reached by the adult worm. The young of all Crustaceans (Fig. 7) lirst begin life in the egg as oblong flattened worm-like bodies, each end of the body being alike. The young of the. lower Crustaceans, such as the Barnacles, and some marine forms (Copepoda), and some lowly organized parasitic species inhabiting the gills of fishes, are hatched as microscopic embryos which would readily be mistaken for young mites (Antrim/). In the higher Crus- taceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish, the young, when hatched, does not greatly differ from the parent, as it has passed through the worm-like stage within the egg. Fig. 7 represents the young of the fresh- water Lobster (Crawfish) before leaving the egg. The body is divided into rings, ending in lobes on the sides, which are the rudiments of the limbs, b is the rudiment of the eye- Fig. 7. stalk, at the end of which is the eye ; a is the fore an ten me ; <• is the hind antenme ; d is one of the maxilla-feet ; e is the lirst pair of true feet destined in the adult to form the large "claw." Thus the eye-stalks, antenna*, claws, and legs are moulded upon a common form, and at first are scarcely distin- with the cirri serving as swimming and locomotive organs: it, the caudal stylus, or tail-feelers. In this figure we sec how slight are the differences between the feelers of the head, the oar-like swimming organs, and the caudal filaments; we ••an easily see that they are but modifications of a common form, and all arise from the common limb-bearing region of the body. The alimentary canal, with the pi'oventriciilus, or anterior division of the stomach, occupies the middle of the body ; while the mouth opens on the under side of the head. — From A. Agassi:;. Fi:;. 7. Embryo of the Crawfish. — From Ruthke. I* 6 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. guishable from each other. Here we see the embryo divided into u head-thorax and a tail. It is the same with Insects. Within the egg at the dawn of life they are flattened oblong bodies curved upon the yelk- mass. Before hatching they become more cylindrical, the limbs bud out on the sides of the rings, the head is clearly demarked, and the young caterpillar soon steps forth from the egg-shell ready armed and equipped for its riotous life. As will be seen in Fig. 8, the legs, jaws, and antennae are first started as buds from the side of the rings, being simply elongations of the body-wall, which bud out, become larger, and finally jointed, until the buds arising from the thorax or abdomen become legs, those from the base of the head be- come jaws, while the antenna; and palpi sprout out from the front rings of the head. Thus while the bodies of all articulates are built up from a common em- bryonic form, their appendages, which are so diverse, when we compare a Lobster's claw with an Insect's antenna, or a Spider's spinneret with the hinder limbs of a Centipede, are yet but modifications of a common form, adapted for the different uses to which they are put by these animals. FIG. 8. A Caddis, or Case-fly (Mystacides) iu the egg, with part of the yolk (x) not yet inclosed within the body -walls, a, antenna; ; between a and b the mandi- bles; 6, maxilla; c, labium; d, the separate eye-spots (ocelli), which afterwards in- crease greatly in number and unite to form the compound eye. The "neck" or junction of the head with the thorax is seen at the front part of the yolk-mass; e, the three pairs of legs, which are folded once on themselves;/, the pair of anal legs attached to the tenth ring of the abdomen, as seen in caterpillars, which form long antenna-like filaments in the Cockroach and May-fly, etc. The rings of the body are but partially formed; they are cylindrical, giving the body a worm-like form. Here, as in the other two figures, though not so distinctly seen, the antennae, jaws, and last pair of abdominal legs are modifications of but a single form, and grow out from the side of the body. The head-appendages are directed forwards, as they are to be adapted for sensory and feeding purposes; the legs are directed downwards, since they are to support the insect while walking. It appears that the two ends of the body are perfected before the middle, and the under side before the upper, as we see the yolk-mass is not yet inclosed and the rings not yet formed above. Thus all articulates differ from all vertebrates in having the yolk-mass situated on the back, instead of on the belly, as in the chick, dog, or human em- brvo. — From ZaddacU. Fig. 8. w p Hi — 02 w w a «E — c 03 o B w CD . Pandalus annulicornls. a, cephalothorax ; b, abdomen. 8 TMK CLASS OF 1NSKCTS. uses to the forward portion of the body. Hence the nervous power is transferred in some degree towards tin- head ; the cephalothorax containing the nervous centres from which nerves are distributed to the abdomen. Nearly all the organs perform- ing the functions of locomotion and sensation reside in the front region : while the vegetative functions, or those concerned in the reproduction and nourishment of the animal, are mostly carried on in the hinder region of the body (the abdomen). The typical Crustacean cannot be said to have a. true head, in distinction from a thorax bearing the organs of locomotion, but rather a, group of rings, to which are. appended the organs of sensation and locomotion. Hence we h'nd the appendages of this region gradually changing from antenna- and jaws to foot-jaws, or limbs capable of eating and also of locomotion; they shade into each other as seen in Fig. (J. Sometimes the jaws become remarkably like claws ; or the legs resemble jaws at the base, but towards their tips become claw-like; gill-like bodies are sometimes attached to the foot-jaws, and thus, as stated by Professor J. D. Dana in the introduction to his great work on the Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi- tion, the typical Crustaceans do not have a distinct head, but rather a • • head-tin >rax " ( cephalothorax ) . When Ave rise a third and last step into the world of Insects, \ve see a completion and final development of the articu- late plan which has been but obscurely hinted at in the two lowest classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. Here Ave first meet Avith a true head, separate in its structure and functions from the thorax, which, in its turn, is clearly distinguishable from the third region of the body, the abdomen, or hind-body. These three regions, as seen in the Wasp (Fig. 10), are each provided with three distinct sets of organs, each having distinct functions, though all are governed by and minister to the brain force, now in a great measure gathered up from the Fig. 10. posterior rings of the body, and in a more concentrated form (the brain being larger than in the lower articulates) lodged in the head. Here, then, is a centralization of parts head wards ; they are Fni. 10. Fhilititthus i'eiitilr. A AVood-wasp. — From Say. COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 0 brought us it' towards a locus, and that focus the head, which is the meaning of the term " cephalization," proposed by Pro- lessor Dana.* Hint/ distinctions have given way to regional distinctions. The former characterize the Worm, the latter the Insect. In other words, the division of the body into three parts, or regions, is in the insect, on the whole, better marked than the division of any one of those parts, except the abdo- men, into rings. COMPOSITION OF THE IXSKCT-* IM;ST. Before describing the composition of the body-wall, or crust, of the Insect, let us briefly review the mode in which the same parts are formed in the lower classes, the Worms and Crustaceans. We have seen that the typical ring, or segment (called by authors zooiiule, zudnlt<\ or somite, meaning parts of a body, though we prefer the term arthromere, denoting the elemental part of a jointed or articulate animal), consists of an upper (tergite), a side (pleurite), and an under piece (sternite). This is seen in its greatest simplicity in the Worm (Fig. 2), where the upper and ventral arcs are separated by the pleural region. In the Crus- tacean the parts, hardened by the deposition of chitine and therefore thick and unyielding, have to be farther subdivided to secure the necessary amount of freedom of motion to the body and legs. The upper arc not only covers the back of the ani- mal, but extends down the sides ; the legs are jointed to the vpimvm, or flanks, on the lower arc ; the episternum is situated between the epimerum and sternum ; and the sternum, form- ing the lireast, is situated between the legs. In the adult, there- fore, each elemental ring is composed of six pieces. It should, however, be borne in mind that the terguin and ster- * In two papers on the Classification of Animals, published in the American •niiiriKit nf Science and Arts, Second Series, vol. xxxv, p. U5, vol. xxxvi, July, lS(i:i, and also in his earlier paper on Crustaceans, "the principle of rcphaliztition is shown to be exhibited among animals in the following ways : ]. By a transfer of members from the locnuiotire to the cephalic series. •.!. By the anterior of the locomotive organs participating to some extent in ce- phalic, functions. :!. By increased abbreviation, concentration, compactness, and perfection of structure, in the parts and organs of the anterior portion of the body. 4. By increased abbreviation, condensation, and perfection of structure in the posterior, or gastric and caudal portion of the body. 5. By an upward rise in the cephalic end of the nervous system. This rise reaches its extreme limit in Alan." 10 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. num each consist, in the embryo, of two lateral parts, or halves, which, during development, unite on the median line of the body. Typically, therefore, the crustacean ring consists pri- marily of eight pieces. The same number is found in all insects which are wingless, or in the larva and pupa state ; this applies also to the Myriopods and Spiders. In the Myriopoda, or Centipedes, the broad tergum overlaps the small epimera, while the sternum is much larger than in the Spiders and Insects. In this respect it is like the broad flat under-surface of most worms. Hence the legs of the Centipede are inserted very far apart, and the "breast," or sternum, is not much smaller than the dorsal part of the crust. In the Julus the dorsal piece (tergum) is greatly developed over the sternum, but this is a departure from what is ap- parently the more t}Tpical form of the order, i. e. the Centipede. In the Spiders there is a still greater disproportion in size between the tergum and the sternum, though the latter is very large compared with that of Insects. The epimera and episterna, or side-pieces of the Spiders, are partially concealed by the over-arching tergum, and they are small, since the joints of the legs are very large, Audouin's law of development in Articu- lates showing that one part of the insect crust is always developed at the expense of the adjoining part. In the Spider we notice that the back of the thorax is a single solid plate consisting originally of four rings consolidated into a single hard piece. In like manner the broad solid sternal plate results from the reunion of the same number of sternites cor- responding, originally, to the number of thoracic legs. Thus the whole upper side of the head and thorax of the Spider is consolidated into a single hard horny immovable plate, like the upper solid part of the cephalothorax of the Crab or Shrimp. Hence the motions of the Spiders are very stiff com- pared with those of many Insects, and correspond to those of the Crab. The crust of the winged insect is modified for the per- formance of more complex motions. It is subdivided in so different a manner from the two lower orders of the class, that it would almost seem to have nothing in common, structurally speaking, with the groups below them. It is only by examin- COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CUUST. 11 Kflll ptlll Fig. 11. Fig. 12. m$ scm ms" ing the lowest wingless forms such as the Louse, Flea, Podura, and Bark-lice, where we see a transition to the Or- ders of Spiders and Myriopods, that we can perceive the plan pervading all these forms, uniting them into a common class. A segment of a winged six-footed insect (Hexapod) consists typically of eight pieces which we will now examine more leisurely. Figure 12 represents a side-view of the thorax of the Telea Polyphemus, or Silk- pt 3r worm moth, with the legs and wings removed. Each ring consists primarily of the tergum, the two side-pieces (epimerum and episternum) and the sternum, or breast-plate. But one of these pieces (sternum) remains simple, as in the lower orders. The tergum is divided into four pieces. They were named by Au- clouin going from before backwards, the jwwscutum, scutum, sen f din in, and postscutellum. The scutum is invariably present and forms the larger part of the upper portion (tergum) of the tho- rax ; the scutellum is, as its name indicates, the little shield so promi- nent in the beetle, which is also uniformly present. The other two pieces are usually minute and crowded down out of sight, and placed between the two oppos- ing rings. As seen in Fig. 11, the prsescutiun of the moth is a small rounded piece, bent vertically down, so as not to be seen from above. In the lowly organized Hepialus, and some FIG. 11. Tergal view of the middle segment of the thorax of Telea Polyphemus, prm, priescutum; ms, scutum; scm, scutellum; ptm, postscutellum; pt, p.itagium, or shoulder tippet, covering the insertion of the wings. — Original. FIG. 12. Side view of the thorax of T. Polyphemus, the hairs removed. 1, Pro- thorax ; -2, Mesothorax ; 3, Metathorax, separated by the wider black lines. Tergum of the prothorax not represented, ms, mesoscutum; scm, mesoscutellum; ms" , metascutum ; scm", metascutellum ; pt, a supplementary piece near the inser- tion of patagia; IP, pieces situated at the insertion of the wings and surrounded by membrane ; em, epimerum of prothorax, the long upright piece above being the episternum; epm", episternum of the mesothorax; em", epimerum of the same: epm", episternum of the metathorax; em", epimerum of the same, divided into two pieces; c, c", c", coxae; te', le", le", trochautines ; tr, tr, tr, trochanters. — Original. tr te c" tr c"' tr 1 2 3 12 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. such as the PotystoecJiotes (Fig-. 13 a), the pne- scutiun is largo, well developed, triangular, and wedged in between the two halves of the scutum. The little piece succeeding the scutellum, i. ly- vtifi-litites (13 tt, 1), whirr it is nearly as long as broad. — Orif/inaf. COMPOSITION OF TIIK I NSKOT-CltUST. J ;{ needed by the insect to perform its complicated motions while on the wing. The insertion of the fore wing is concealed by the "shoulder tippets," or patoyia (Fig. 11). which are only present in the mesothorax. The external opening of the spiracles just under the wing perforates a little piece called by Audouin the j».'(/;i<7»:i(Fig. ), the three pairs of tubercles arise from the 7th, Sth and 9th s°y- menta respectively. FIG. 15, l(i. The same a little farther advanced. FIG. 17. The three pairs now appear as if together growing from the base of the ninth segment; 17 «, side view of the same, showing the end of the abdomen grow- ing ^-mailer through the diminution in size of the under side of the body. FIG. 18. The three pairs of rhabdites now nearly equal in size, and nearly ready to unite and form a tube; 18 a, side view of the same; the end of the abdo- men still more pointed ; the ovipositor is situated between the seventh and tenth rings, and is partially retracted within the body. 1G THE CLASS OF INSECTS. gradually incurved toward the- base (Fig. IS), and the three pairs of rhabdites approach each other so closely that the two outer ones completely ensheath the inner, until a complete extensible tube is formed, which is gradually withdrawn entirely within the body. The male genital organ is originally composed of three pairs (two pairs, apparently, in ^£".s- i'/nni. Fig. ID) of tubercles all arising from the nint/i abdominal ring, being sternal outgrowths and placed on each side of the mesial line of the body, two be- F'.~- -"• ing anterior, and very unequal in size, and the Fiji-, in. third pair nearer the base of the abdomen. The ex- ternal genital organs are to be considered as probably homologous with the limbs, as damn has shown that they bud out in the same manner from (see p. 704 tig. 655) the arthromere.* This view will apply to the Fig. 21. genital armor of all Insects, so far as we have been able to observe. It is so in the pupa of ^Ex<-hnuthiers has noticed the envious fact that in order to Ibrni the long respiratory tube of this insect, the tergite and sternite of the pregenital (eighth) segment are aborted, while the pleurites are enormously en- larged and elongated, so as to carry the stigmata far out to the end of the long tube thus formed. FIG. 23. End of the abdomen of Mantis tessellata ; p, many-jointed anal style resembling an antenna. 5-11, the last seven abdominal segments; the8-llth ster- uites being obsolete. — From Lacaze-Duthiers. FK;. 24. Ideal plan of the structure of the ovipositor in the adult in.-sec.t. 1-7', the tergites, connected by dotted lines with their corresponding sternites. b, the eighth tergite, or anal scale; c, epimerum; «', «, two pieces forming the outer pair of rhabdites; •/, the second pair, or stylets; and/, the inner pair, or sting; ^ < K^^Z™ > I clypeus, eyes, and ocelli. Pastoral. Second Segment ) ^ * > Pleural, Mandibles. Third Segment ) ,. (First M- •••" Pleural, First maxilla1. Fourth Segment ) Tergal (occiput), ( Second Maxillary, or} > Pleural (gena) , toWaJ), Sternal (gula), The Appendages. We naturally begin with the thoracic appendages, or ler/x, of which there is a pair to each ring. The leg (Fig. 25) consists of six joints, the basal one, the coxa, in the ITymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera, consisting of two THE APPENDAGES. 21 pieces, i.e. the coxa and tro<-l«intiiuj (see Fig. 12); the tro- <-lnnttci' ; the femur; the tibia , and, lastly, the MAS^.S, which is Mibdivided into from one to live joints, the latter being the normal number. The terminal joint ends in a pair E of claws between which is a cushion-like sucker called the piilcillnx. This sucking disk enables the Fly to walk upside down and on glass. Jn the larva, the feet are short and horny, and the Fijj. -25. joints can be still distinguished. In Myriopods, each segment of the abdomen has a pair of feet like the thoracic ones. We must consider the three pairs of spinnerets of Spiders, which are one to three-jointed, as homologous with the jointed limbs of the higher insects. In the six-footed insects (Ilexapoda), the abdominal legs are deciduous, being present in the Coleopterous grub, the Dipterous maggot, the caterpillar, and larva of the Saw-fly, but disappearing in the pupa state. They are often, as in most maggots, cither absent, or reduced in number to the two anal, or terminal pair of legs ; while in the Saw-Hies, there are as many as eight pairs. These "false" or "prop-legs"' are soft and fleshy, and without articulations. At the retrac- tile extremity is a crown of hooks, as seen in caterpillars or the hind-legs of the larva of Cliiroiioiinix (Fig. 2G), in which the prothoracic pair of legs is reduced to inarticu- late fleshy legs like the abdominal ones. The /Htxition of the different pairs of legs deserves notice in connection with the principle of " antero-posterior symmetry." The fore- legs are directed forwards like the human arms, *'ix-*>- but the two hinder pairs are directed backwards. In the Spiders, three pairs of abdominal legs (spinnerets) are retained through- out life ; in the lower Hexapods, a single pair, which is ap- pended in the eleventh segment, is often retained, but under a form which is rather like an antenna, than limb-like. In some Neuropterous larvre. (PJiryganea, Corydalus, etc.) the anal pair of limbs are very well marked ; they constitute the u anal forceps" of the adult insect. They sometimes become true, many-jointed appendages, and are then remarkably like Fie. 2."). A, coxa; B, trochanter; C, femur; 1), tibia; F, tibial spurs; E, tarsus, divided into live tarsa! joints, the lillh ending in a claw. — From Sauborn. 2-2 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. antennas as in the instance of Mantis tcxselhtta described by Lacaze-Duthiers (Fig. 23). In the Cockroach these append- ages, sometimes called uanal cerci," resemble the antenna? < ••' the same insect. In the Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera they do not appear to be jointed, and are greatly aborted. The Winys. The wings of insects first appear as little soft vascular sacs permeated by trachea?. The}* grow out in the preparatory stages (Fig. 27) of the pupa from the side of the J: thorax and above the insertion of the legs, i.e. between the epimerum and ...'« tergum. During the pupa state they are pad-like, but when the pupa skin is thrown oft' they expand with air, and n in a few minutes, as in the Butterfly, enlarge to many times their original size. The wings of insects, then, are simple expansions of the crust, spread over a framework of horny tubes. These tubes are really double, consist- ing of a central trachea, or air tube, inclosed within a larger tube tilled with blood, and which performs the functions of the veins. Hence the aeration of the blood is carried on in the wings, and thus they serve the double purpose of lungs and organs of flight. The number and situation of these veins and their branches (veinlets) are of great use in separating genera and species. The typical number of primary veins is five. They diverge outward at a slight angle from the insertion of the wing, and are soon divided into veinlets, from which cross veins are thrown out connecting with others to form a net-work of veins and veinlets, called the venation of the wing (Figs. 28, 20). The interspaces between the veins and veinlets are called cell a. At a casual glance the venation seems very irregular, but in many insects is simple enough to enable ns to trace and namo the veinlets. The five main veins, most usually present, arc FIG. 27. The semipupa of Jioi/iliits, the larva skin having been removed, show- ing the two pairs of rudimentary wings growing out from the niesothorax (/,•), am;' metathorax (m). n and the seven succeeding dots represent the eight abdominal stigmata, the first one (n) being in the pupa situated on the thorax, since the first ring of the abdomen is in this stage joined to the thorax. — Original. Fig. '27 THE WINGS. Fig. 28. called, beginning at the costa, or front edge, the costal, subcoxtaf, median, tmbinediaiti and internal, and sometimes the median divides into two, making six veins. The costal vein is un- divided ; the subcostal and me- &• dian are divided into several branches, while the snbmedian and internal are usually simple. The venation of the fore- wings affords excellent marks in separating genera, but that of the hind wings varies less, and is consequently of less use. The wings of many insects are divided by the veins into three well-marked areas ; the coital, median, and internaL The costal area (Fig. 31 b) forms the front edge of the wing and is the strongest, since the A'eins are nearer together than elsewhere, and thus afford the greatest resistance to the air Fi<, i i_. ^,.j. FIG. 28. Fore and hind wings of a Butterfly, showing the venation. I. fore wing: «, costal vein; b, subcostal vein; bi, &-', 63, 64, bs, five subcostal veinlets; c, inde- pendent vein (it is sometimes a branch of the subcostal, and sometimes of the me- dian vein); d, median vein; rfi, rf->, ds, dA, four median veinlets ; e, submedian vein ; /, internal vein; h, interno-median veinlet (rarely found, according to Doubleday, except in Papilioand Morpho); b and d are situated in the "discal cell;" g*,g2, r/?,, the upper, middle, and lower discal veinlets. In the Bombycidse and many other moths gi and g* are thrown off from the subcostal and median veins respectively, meeting in the middle of the cell at #2. They are sometimes wholly absent. II. The hind wing; the lettering and names of the veins and veiulets the same as in the fore wing. — Slightly changed from DmibUday. FIG. 29. Fore wing of a Hymenopterous insect, c, costal vein; sc, subcostal vein; m, median vein; sm, submedian vein; i, internal vein; c, 1,2,3, the first, second, and third costal cells; the second frequently opaque and then called the 2)terostignui. sc, 1, 2, 3, 4, the four subcostal cells; m, 1, 2, 3, 4, the median cells; sm, 1, 2, 3, the three submedian cells ; ii, the internal cell ; this is sometimes divided into two cells, and the number of all but the costal cells is inconstant, the outer row of cells (4, 4, 3) being the first to disappear. The costal edge extends from c to c ; the outer c, the apex • the outer edge extends from the apex (<•) to a, and the inner edge extends from a, the inner angle, to the insertion of the wing at i.— Original. Figs. 30-32 from Scudder. 24 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. during flight. The median area (Fig. 31 a) is the largest. It is in the grasshoppers and crickets sometimes modified to form a musical organ, being Firagon-fly, Libeliii/a. — I'rour Simliorn. THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAT). 27 organs ; while the same insect, when evidently affected 1 >y sounds, keeps them motionless in one direction, as if in the act of listening." (Newport.) After cutting off one or both antennae of the June beetle, Lachvosterna, the insect loses its power of directing its flight or steps, wheeling about in a senseless manner. Dr. Clemens observed that the Cecropia moth was similarly affected after losing its antennae. The Mandibles (Fig. 37) are inserted on each side of the mouth-opening. They usually consist of but a single joint, representing probably the basal part of the ideal limb. This part, however, is often subdivided by two longitudinal furrows into three parts, each ending in a "tooth" of unequal size for tearing and cutting the food. This tripartite form of the man- dibles, to which attention has been called by Mr. Scudder, is more fully carried out in the maxilla, where each portion is highly specialized. The mandibles vary greatly in form and size. The two cutting edges are usually opposed to each other, or frequently overlap in the carnivorous forms. Their base is often concealed by the clypeus and labrum. Their motion is transverse, being the reverse of the motion of the jaws of Ver- tebrates. Fig. as. b The Maxilla? (Figs. 38^,39) are rig. so. much more complicated organs than the mandibles. They are FIG. 37. Different forms of mandibles. A, mandible of Cicindela purpurea ; !'•• /'hylloptera, a green grasshopper; C, Libelluta trimacitlata; D, J'espa maculata, or paper-making Wasp ; E, " rostrum" or jointed sucker of the Bed-bug, Cimex lectti- larius, consisting of mandibles, maxilla?, and labinm; F, proboscis, or sucker, of a Mosquito, Culex, in which the mandibles are long and bristle-like. — From Sanborn. G, mandible of Ampltizoa; H, mandible of Acratus,& genus of Cockchafers. — From Horn. FIG. 38. a, men turn and labial palpi; b, one maxilla, with its palpus, of Acra- tus. — From Horn. FIG. 39. Maxilla of AmpMsoa, with the two lobes (stipes and lacinia), and the palpifer bearing the four-jointed palpus. — From Horn. 28 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. iiiserteu on the under side of the head and just behind the month. The maxilla consists of a basal joint, or cardn. beyond which it is subdivided into three lobes, the stipes, or footstalk ; the i>r, or palpus-bearer: and the laciitia, or blade. The stipes forms the outer and main division of the organ. The laeinia is more membranaceous than the other parts, and its upper surface is covered with tine hairs, and forms a great part of the side of the mouth. It is divided into two lobes, the superior of which is called the (jalea, or helmet, which is often a thick double-jointed organ edged with stiff hairs, and is used as a palpus in the Urthoptera and many Coleoptera. The inferior lobe is attached to the internal angle of the laeinia. It terminates in a stiff minute claw, and is densely covered with stout hairs. The nui.i-i/}«r>/ palpi are long, slender, one to four-jointed organs. In P<',ia I have found that both pairs of palpi bear organs probably of smell. The maxilhv vary greatly in the different groups. Their oflice is to seize the food and retain it within the mouth, and also to aid the mandibles in comminuting it before it is swallowed. This function reminds us of that of the tongue of vertebrate animals. The l«b!nm. oi' »<<<•< >n and Bees it is divided into three lobes, the two outer ones forming the 'jHtrui/lnw (Fig. 41 ///), and acting as feelers, while the middle, usually much longer, forms the lingua, or tongue, being the continuation of the ligula. In the bees, where the ligula is greatly developed, it performs the part of the tongue in Vertebrates, and aids the max- illa1 in collecting nectar and pollen. The roof of the mouth is formed by the labrtim and the epij)]Kir)/>i.K (Fig. 42 c), a small fleshy tubercle concealed beneath the labrum. It is seen in the bees on turning up the labrum. It probably corresponds to the "labellum" of Schiodte. The labrum ( Fig. 4 1 e) is u s u a 1 1 y transverse and situated in front of the <-h/pevs (Fig. 41 b). The shield-like ch/peits is the broad, visor-like, square piece forming usually the front of the head. Behind it is the clypeiis posterior, or swpra-clypeus, a subdivision of the clypeus, and especially observable in the Ilymenoptera. The epicnnu'nm forms a large part of the head ; it is bounded posteriorly by the occiput, on the sides by the eyes, and in front by the clypeus, and though usually described as a single piece, is really composed of several. The ocelli often appear to be situated upon it, though in reality they are placed upon a distinct piece or pieces. The " epicranial suture" is the line of junction of the two "procephalic lobes" (Huxley). FIG. 41. Front view of the head of a bee, Anthophora. a, compound eyes: r, three simple eyes, situated upon the epicranium; b, clypeus; e, labrum; (/, an- tennas/, mandibles: i, maxilla?; h, maxillary palpi; /, palpifer; j, labial palpi: w, paraglossae; k, ligula. — From Ken-port. 3* Fig. 41. 30 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. (These lobes will be explained farther on when speaking of their development in the embryo.) Behind the epicra- nium is the occijmt, or base of the head. It belongs to the la- bial, or second max- illary segment, and helps to form a com- plete ring, articulat- ing with the thorax. It is perforated by a foramen to afford a connection between the interior of the head and thorax. It is sometimes, as in many Coleoptera, Or- thoptera, and Ilemip- tera, elongated be- hind and constricted, thus forming a ••neck." It will be seen beyond, that the labrum and clypeus are in the embryo developed from a "tongue-like process whose inferior part eventually becomes the labrum, while superiorly it sends a triangular process (the rudiment of the clypeus) into the interval between the proce- phalic lobes."* This part (i.e. the clypeus and labrum) is the most anterior part of the head, and in the embryo, as in the adult, is normally situated in front of the ocelli, but is not to be compared with the " anal plate," or eleventh tergite, of the larva, or with the telson of the scorpion, as Huxley f supposes. FIG. 42. Side view of the front part of the head, together with the niouth- ]i;irts of the Humble-bee (Bombns). ft, clypeus covered with hairs: ?/, labnnn; c, the Ik-shy epipharynx partially concealed by the base of the mandibles (, "cere- brellum:" c, thoracic, ganglia, which distribute a nerve to each leg; ft, eight pairs of abdominal ganglia. The dotted lines represent the wings. — From Li-iil;/. 3 ' Fig. 43. 34 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. close approximation to them." Newport also believes that the ganglionless upper, or internal, column of fibres is analogous to the motor column of Vertebrata, while the external, or under one, corresponds to the sensitive column, thus representing- the i-erebro-spinal system of the Yertebrata. From each pair of ganglia are distributed special nerves to the various organs. In the larva of Sj^tinx the normal num- ber of double ganglia is thirteen, and the nervous cord of the Neuroptera and other lowly organized and attenuated forms of insects corresponds in the main to this number. In the adult insect, especially in the Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera, the three thoracic ganglia are fused together, following the fusion and general headwise development of the segments of the tegument. Besides the central nervous cord, corresponding to the spinal cord of the Vertebrates, there is a r which, when at rest, is rolled np between the labial palpi (b). From the nervous cord is also thrown off a pair of nerves to each pair of legs (as at n, o,p] and a branch, d, is sent off from above, distributing nerves to the muscles of flight. The heart, or dorsal vessel (e,f), lies just beneath the median line of the body, and is retained in place by muscular bauds (as at /) as well as by small trachea! branches. The alimentary canal (h,j, y], forms a straight tube in the head and thorax; /;, the crop, or sucking stomach, which opens into the oesophagus ; j, the true, chyle- forming stomach, which contracts posteriorly, and then dilates near its anal outlet into a cloaca (indicated at g, but not distinctly, as it is concealed by the numerous urinary vessels). The urinary vessels also indicated at g, form long tubes (which correspond to the kidneys of Vertebrates), opening into the pyloric end of the .stomach. The position of the testes (/j)is the same as that of the ovary, and the dotted line I shows the course of the efferent duct (vas deferens) and also of the oviduct of the female. The figure represents a longitudinal section of the insect, the legs and ends of tho antennae having been removed. — From Newport. at; THE CLASS OF INSECTS. tine, and the colon and rfrtnni. The hitter part, as well as the crop and proventricnlus, are sometimes absent. Of k\\s appendages of flu' mm//, the first are the .s/////v//v/ ////////As, which are usually long simple tubes, which in the larva, ac- cording to Newport, form the silk /v.s,sW.s. They " empty themselves by a single duct through the spinneret on the floor (hibiuni) of the month^' In the Ant-lion (Myrmeleon) the silk is spun from '-a slender telescopic- like spinneret, placed at the extremity <>i its body." and Westwood also states that the larva of Chn/xojH.i spins a cocoon "-from the spinneret, at the extremity of the body." These silk glands when taken out of the larva, just as it is about ready to transform, are readily prepared as "gut" lor lish-lines, etc.. l>v drving on a board. In the IJees these glands are largely de- veloped to produce a snllicient amount of salivary fluid to moisten the dry pollen of 45. flowers, before it enters the (esophagus. "Bee-bread" consists of pollen thus moistened and kneaded by the insect. The Honey-bee also dissolves, by the aid of the salivary fluid, the wax used in making its cells. Newport believes this fluid is alkaline, and forms a solvent for the other- wise brittle wax, as he lias seen this insect " reduce the per- fectly transparent thin white scales of newly secreted wax to a pasty or soapy consistence, by kneading it between its man- dibles, and mixing it with a fluid from its month, before apply- ing it to assist in the formation of part of a new cell." Insects have no true liver; its functions being performed •by the walls of the stomach, the internal tunic of which is composed of closely-aggregated hepatic cells." (Siebold.) In the Spiders and Scorpions, however, there is a liver distinct from the digestive canal. In the Spiders it is very large, enveloping most of the other viscera. Ki<;. 4f>. Alimentary tube of Cnri/ihittts ciiriiittits. a, rt'SOph.'ijni* ; '', proven- triruhis; c, vciitriruliis ; */, large intestine; r, urinary tubes; /, cu-cuiu ; ,/ti.r. During excitement, the number of pulsations increases in rapidity. Newport found tin- pulsations in a bet1, ^iiitlili<>r'/ OF IvKM'iK.vrioN. All insects breathe air. or, when they live in the water, respire, by means of branchhe, the air mixed mechanically with water. Respiration is earned on by an intricate system of tubes (pul- monary trachea-) which open by pores (spiracles or stigmata) in the sides of the liodv: or. as in aquatic insects, by branchia1, or gill-like flattened expan- sions of the body-wall penetrated by trachea.- (branchial trachea'). There are normally eleven spiracles, or breathing-holes (Fig. 4$), on each side of the body; each consisting of an oval horny ring situated in the poritreme F'fer-4S- and closed by a valve, which guards the orifice (Fig. 4U). Within this valve is a chamber closed within by another valve which covers the entrance into the trachea'. The air-tube itself (Fig. ;"><)) consists of "au external FIG. 48. Larva of the Humble-bee just beginning to change to a pupa, showing eleven pairs of stigmata. In the ailult bee, only the third pair is apparent, the remaining pairs being concealed from view, or in part aborted. In most insects there are usually only nine pairs of stigmata. — Original. ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 41 serous, and an internal mucous membrane, inclosing between them a spirally convoluted fibre, thus giving great strength and flexibility to the tube." Nearly all the air enters through the thoracic and first abdominal spiracles, so that on pinching most insects on the thorax they can be \y easily deprived of breath and killed. k* In some aquatic larva1 such as those of D>/tfcid«\ J^fiKta/ifi i Fig. 49. (Fjo-. 51, pupa), and , and also in some perfect insects, as in Nepa and lt«n:>) affords a good instance of branchia1 or gill-like expansions of the crust, or skin. It is supposed that these false gills, or branchia>, "absorb the air from the water, and convey it by the minute ramifications of the trachea! ves- sels, with which they are abun- dantly supplied, and which ter- Fig. si. minate in single trunks, into the main trachea?, to be distributed over the whole body, as in insects which live in the open atmosphere." (Newport.) Of branchiae there are three kinds. The first, as in the larvae and pupa1 of Gnats, consist of slender fila- ments arranged in tufts arising from a single stem. Fi^- •'-'• In the larva of Gi/rhius and the aquatic caterpillar of a moth, I I I I FIG. 49. Chamber leading- into the trachea; a, a, external valve protecting the outer opening of the stigma, or breathing hole; b, e, c, inner ami more complicated valve closing the entrance into the trachea (I, /j); ;«, conical occlusor muscle closing the inner orifice. — Front Strniix Dirrckhe-im. Fi<;. 50. Portion of a trachea divested of its peritoneal envelope, a, spirally convoluted fibre, closely wound around the trachea, as ate; c, origin of a secondary traclieal branch. — From Strnitx Dtircfcliciin. FIG. 52. One of the three gill-like appendages to the abdomen of the larva and pupa of Ayrion enlarged, consisting of a broad leaf-like expansion, permeated by trachea: which take up by endosmosi.s the air contained in water. — O 4* 42 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. Ilijdrocampa *trj>ment of heat in Insects, just as in Vertebrates, depends on the "quantity and activity of respiration, and the volume and velocity of the circulation." The Humble-bee, according to Newport, possesses the voluntary power of generating heat, In- breathing faster. He says, confirming Huber's observations. ORGANS OF SECRETION. 4:5 "the manner in which the bee performs her incubatory office is by placing herself upon the cell of a nymph (pupa) that is soon to be developed, and then beginning to respire at lir^t very gradually. In a short time the respirations become more and more frequent, until at length they are increased to one hundred and twenty, or one hundred and thirty per minute. The body of the insect soon becomes of a high temperature, and, on close inspection, is often found to be bathed with per- spiration. AVhen this is the case the temperature of the insect soon becomes reduced, and the insect leaves the cell, and an- other bee almost immediately takes her place. AVhen respira- tion is performed less violently, and consequently less heat is evolved, the same bee will often continue on a cell for many hours in succession. This extreme amount of heat was evolved entirely by an act of the will in accelerating the respiratory ef- forts, a strong indication of the relation which subsists between the function of respiration and the development of animal heat." ORGANS OF SECRETION. The urinary vessels, or what is equivalent to the kidneys of the higher animals, consist in In- sects of several long tubes which empty by one or two common secretory ducts into the posterior or "•pyloric" ext remit}' of the stomach. There are also odoriferous (jltoirlx, analogous t<> the cutaneous glands of vertebrates. The liquid poured out is usually offensive, and it is used as a means of defence. The Bees, "Wasps, Gall-flies, etc., and Scorpions, have a poison-sac (Fig. 54 g) developed in the tip of the abdomen. The bite of the Mosquito, the Horse-fly, and Bed-bug is thought by New- port to l)e due to the simple act of thrusting their lancet-like jaws through the skin, and it is not known that these and other insects which bite severely eject any poison into the wound. But in the spiders a minute drop of poison exudes from an orifice at the end of the mandibles, "which spreads over the whole wound at the instant it is inflicted." This poison is secreted by a gland lodged in the cephalo-thorax, and which is thought 1 »y Audouin to correspond in position to the salivary apparatus and the silk glands of the Winged Insects. ORGANS OF GENERATION. AV~e have already described the external parts. The internal parts of the male insect consist, 44 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. or fertilizing fluid, contains V of a duct, the dwti($ i'j«<_-nl«t.">). The latter are usually rounded glandular bodies, (sometimes, as in Melolontha and J.iiniiiiix. numbering six on a side. These organs lie in the abdominal cavity, usually above and ou each side of the alimentary canal. The sperm, very active spermatic par- ticles which are developed in large cells in the testes, where thev are Fig. 53. united into bundles of various forms. In the female, the internal re- productive organs (Fig. 54) are more simple than those of the other sex. The external open- ing of the female is situated at the end of the oviduct, that leads by two tubes to the ovary, which consists of two or more tubes (in the Queen Bee one hundred and sixty to one hundred and eighty) in which the ova are developed. On the upper side FK;. 53. Male organs of Athaliu centir'nliir. h, the penis, or external portion, in which the diiftns ejucitlatoriint (/) terminates, which extends backwards, and is connected with the rexicula- sx-mlntilvs (e), and rasa deferentia ((/) which are con- nected with the epidiiti/mis (6), and the t<-sti>s (ti). i and I, two pairs of horny plates, .surrounded by a horny ring (/.•). i, horny prehensile hooks attached to /•. //;, two elongated muscular parts inclosing the penis (/<). — From Newport. FK;. 54. Female organs of generation of Aflutlui. centifnUte. a, b, c, the eighteen ovarial tubes originating from each of the two oviducts («?), and containing the im- mature eggs;/, the spermatheca; g, poison-sac, the poison being secreted in the secretory vessels h. The poison flows through the oviduct into the sting and thence into the wound made toy the Sting. 10, the terminal ganglia of the nervous cord. — From Xcirport. Fig. 54. OlfGANS OF GENERATION. 45 of the oviduct arc from one to five appendages, the most impor- tant of which is the tf^nimtheca (the others being sebaceous glands), which receives the fertilizing fluid of the male during sexual union, and in which, according to Darwin, the male ele- ment k'is enabled to keep alive four or five years." Iiiwtx hitu'.i'iiul. \Yith the exception of the Tardigrade.-!, which are doubtfully referred to the Mites (^Inirfixi), there are no hermaphrodites among Insects, that is, there are no individ- uals having both male and female organs, and capable of self- impregnation. On the contrary, the sexes are distinct : Insects are bisexual. Hermaphrodites, so-called. Cases not unfrequently occur in which from arrest of development of the embryo, the sexual organs are imperfectly developed, so as to present the appear- ance of being both male and female. "Sicbold has investigated some hermaphrodite Honey-bees belonging to the Italian race, obtained from a Dzierzon hive at Constance. lie found in many of them a combination of sexual characters, not only in the external parts, but also in the generative organs. The mixture of the external characters is manifested sometimes only in the anterior or posterior part of the body, sometimes in all parts of the body, or only in a few organs. Some specimens pre- sent male and worker characters on the two sides of the body. Tin- development of the internal organs is singularly correla- ted with these peculiarities of external organization. The sting, with its vesicle and gland, is well developed in hermaphrodites with the abdomen of the worker; soft in those with the drone- abdomen. The seminal receptacle, when present, is empty. The ovaries contain no ova. In the hermaphrodites with the drone-abdomen, the male sexual organs are well developed, and the testes contain spermatozoids. Frequently with testicular and ovarian organs present on each side, the epididymis and copulatory apparatus are well developed, and an imperfect poison-apparatus exists. In these cases the tube contains spermatozoids, but there are no ova in the ovaries. The her- maphrodites are thrown out of the cell by the workers as soon as they emerge, and speedily perish. Siebold ascribes the pro- duction of these hermaphrodites to an imperfect fecundation of the ovum." (Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1864. p. 70. See Gimther's Zoological Kevievv for 18G4.) 4(1 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. Mr. Dunning describes ti specimen of Fidonia ••which was sexually a female, and the abdomen was appar- ently distended with eggs ; the general color was midway be- tween the colors of the ordinary male and female, but the size and markings were those of the male. (Transactions Ento- mological Society, London, Aug. 7, 1865.) Professor West- wood states that tkhe had an Orange-tip Butterfly (Anthocharis cardamines), which was female in every respect, except that on the tip of one fore-wing were about a dozen of the bright orange scales which characterize the male." THE P>;«. Professor H. J. Clark (Mind in Nature) defines an egg to be a globule surrounded by the vitelline membrane, or yelk-envelope, which is protected by the chorivn, or egg- shell, consisting of "two lands of fluid, albumen and o<7, which are always situated at opposite sides or poles." ''In the earli- est stages of all eggs, these two poles shade oft' into each other," but in the perfectly developed egg the small, or albu- minous pole, is surrounded by a membrane, and forms the Purkinjean (germinal) vesicle ; and thirdly and last, the inner- most of the three globules is developed. This last is the Wagnerian vesicle, or fjerininal dot. The oily matter forms the //O/A-. Thus formed, the egg is the initial «nhnaL It becomes an animal after contact with the male germs (unless the product of organic reproduction), and the egg-shell or chorion is to be considered as a protection to the animal, and is thrown oft' when the embryo is hatched, just as the larva throws off its skin to transform into the pupa. So that the egg-state is equivalent to the larva state, and hence there are four stages in the life of an insect, i. e. the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the imago, or adult state. The egg is not always laid as a perfect egg (Clark). It sometimes, as in the Ants, continues to grow after it is laid by the parent, like those of frogs, which, according to Clark, "Are laid before they can hardly be said to have become fully formed ex i-i/i/K."1 Again, others are laid some time after the embryo lias begun to form ; and in some, such as Melophagus and J>i-anla, the larva is fully formed before it is expelled from the oviduct. THE EGG. 47 Eggs arc usually small in proportion to the size of the parent; but in many minute forms (i.e. Pulex, Pediculus, etc.) they are proportionately much larger. In shape eggs are either spherical or oblong. In some there are radiating append- ages at one end, as in those of Nepa and Ranatra ; or they are provided with a single stalk, as in Chrysopa^ Cynips, and Ophion. The eggs of most Hymenoptera, Diptera, and many Coleop- tera arc usually cylindrical ; those of Lcpidoptera are more generally spherical. The eggs of the Mosquito are laid in a boat-shaped mass, which floats on the surface of quiet pools, while those of the Chrysopa, or Lace-winged Fly (Fig. 55), are supported on long pedicels. They are almost invariably laid near or upon objects des- tined to be the food of the Fig. 55. future larva. Thus the Copris, or "Tumble-bug," places its egg in a ball of dung which it rolls away to a secure place; the Flesh-fly oviposits on meat ; and all vegetable-feeders lay their eggs on the food-plant where the larva, upon its exit from the egg, shall readily find an ample supply of food. The posterior end of the egg is more often the fixed one, and it may thus be distinguished from the anterior pole. In the eggs of some Diptera and Orthoptera. the ventral side of the embryo, according to Gerstaecker, corresponds to the convex side of the egg, and the concave side of the latter corresponds to the dorsal region of the embryo. The surface of the chorion, or egg-shell, which is dense and brittle, is often covered by a mosaic-work of more or less regu- lar facets. In many small eggs the surface is only minutely granulated, or ornamented with ribs and furrows, as in those of many Butterflies. The Micropyle. On the anterior end (though sometimes at both ends) of the egg is one or more pores of exceeding minuteness, through which the spermatozoa (more than one of which, according to Darwin, is requisite to fertilize an ovule) enter to fertilize the egg-contents. In some cases these micropyles are scattered over the whole surface of the egg. Fig. 56 a represents the micropyles of Nepa cinerea, consisting 4H THK CLASS OF INSECTS. of a whorl of long bristles. Those of Locustn r//vV//.s.s//,m ( Fig. .")('>/>) slightly resemble toadstools. Fig. /JOr represents the an- terior pole of the egg with the micropyles of J'i/rrlio<-nrix apteniN. — (From, Grrstaeckcr.) This contact of a male sperm-cell with the yolk is the fertilization of the egg. From this moment begins tin- life of the embryo. Fertiliza- tion of the female germ bv means of the male sperm, through the congress of the sexes, is the rule with bisexual animals, but there are exceptions among insects. An embryo may start into being without the Intel-position of the male; to this mode of generation has been applied by Lenckart the term Partln'iiixji'iii'xix. Among certain species of insects there are some individuals which, by a sort of budding process, and with- out the aid of the male element, throw off summer broods, con- sisting of "asexual" individuals, which, as winter approaches, arc succeeded by a brood of true males and females, the hitter of which lay eggs. This phenomenon, called by Steeiistrnp ''alternation of generations." has been observed among a com- paratively few species, and the apparent design of such an anomalous mode of reproduction is to afford an immense num- ber of individuals, thus providing for the continuance of the species. The individuals in whom this budding process takes place are called "asexual" because, though they may resemble the female sex outwardly, their sexual organs are only partially developed. This budding process is the same in kind with that observable in the Jelly-fish, which throw off by parthenogen- esis, or alternations of generations, summer broods of immense extent, but in winter propagate by true eggs. Huxley has studied the development of Aphis by parthenogenesis, the anomalous nature of which had previously been discovered by Bonnet. Trembly. Lyonet. Degeer. Kyber. and others, and arrives at the following conclusions : " 1 . Ova deposited by impregnated female Aplnde* in autumn are hatched in the spring. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 49 2. From these ova viviparous, and, in the great majority of cases, apterous forms proceed. 3. The broods to which these give rise are either winged or apterous, or both. 4. The number of successive broods has no certain limit, but is, so far as we know at present, controlled only by tempera- ture and the supply of food. 5. On the setting in of cold weather, or in some cases on the failure of nourishment, the weather being still warm, males and oviparous females are produced. 6. The males may be either winged or apterous. 7. So far as I am aware, there is no proof of the existence of any exception to the law that the oviparous female is apte- rous. 8. Viviparous Aphidf* may hybernate, and may co-exist with oviparous females of the same species." (Linntean Transac- tions, xxii, p. 198.) The origin of the viviparous, asexual, or agamic (from the Greek a, without ; game, marriage) individual, as it may be more properly called, is, up to a certain stage, the same as that of the true egg, i.e. until the germ (pseudovum) of the former is detached from the false ovary (pseudovarium). "From this point onwards, however, the fate of the pseudovum is different from that of the ovum. The former begins at once to be converted into the germ ; the latter accumulates yelk-sub- stance, and changes but little. Both bodies acquire their mem- branous investment rather late ; within it the pseudovum becomes a living larva, while the ovum is impregnated, laid, and remains in a state of rest for a longer or shorter period. "Although, then, the pseudovum and the ovum of Aphis are exceedingly similar in structure for some time after they have passed out of the condition of indifferent tissue, it cannot be said that the sole difference between them is, that the one requires fecundation and the other not. When the ovum is of the size of a pseudovum which is about to develop into an em- bryo, and, therefore, long before fecundation, it manifests its inherent physiological distinctness by becoming, not an em- bryo, but an ovum. Up to this period the influence of fecunda- tion has not been felt ; and the production of ova, instead of 4 THE CLASS OV INSECTS. pseudova, must depend upon a something impressed upon the constitution of the parent before it was brought forth by its viviparous progenetrix." (Huxley.) Siebold has also shown that the wtova of the Queen-bee pro- duces females or males, according as they are fecundated or not. The fecundated ovum produces a queen or a neuter according to the food of the larva and the other conditions to which it is subjected ; the unfecundated ovum produces a drone." This is analogous to the agamic reproduction of Aphis, and ••demonstrates still more clearly the impossi- bility of drawing airy absolute line of demarcation histologi- cally between ova and buds." This process of reproduction is not known in the Myriapods. It occurs among the mites (A<-<.< recalls the OrthopterousJfaw^'s, and Panorpa reminds us of the Tipiilw (Bittacus being strikingly analogous to the Dipterous BittacomorpJia). Thus these lower, more variable groups of insects strive, as it were, to connect themselves by certain analogous, mimetic forms, with the more stable and higher groups. Comprehensive types are mimetic forms which combine tin characters of other and generally higher groups. Thus each Neuropterous family contains mimetic forms which ally them strongly with some one of the six other suborders of insects. The early fossil insects are remarkable for combining the char- acters of groups which appear ages after. The most remark- able comprehensive type is a Carboniferous insect, the Eurjereon Boeckingi mentioned farther on. HYBRIDITV. Hybrids are sometimes produced between differ- ent species, but though it is known that different genera unite sexually, we know of very few authentic instances of the pro- duction of hybrids therefrom. One is related by Mr. Midford, who exhibited at the March 4th (1861) meeting of the London Entomological Society, hybrids produced from a male Phiiju- lia pilosaria, and a female Nyssiu Jiixpidaria. "The males resemble N. higpidaria, but in color have the lighter and greener tint and transparency of wing of P. pilosaria.'" THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. Immediately after the fer- tilization of the egg, the first act in the organization of the THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. future embryo is the formation of the germinal layer, or />/«*- toderm (from the Greek, meaning primitive skin). This layer is formed at the surface out of a surface-layer of larger, often nucleolated, cells which nearly encompass the yolk-mass. At one point there is a break in this cellular layer, and the yolk granules reach to the surface, so that it appears darker thaii the other parts of the egg. This cellular la}-er is soon resolved into the blastoderm, or germinal layer, which thickens and narrows, forming a longitudinal band. This is the first stage of the embryo, which lies as a thin layer of cells upon the outer surface of the yolk. Both ends of the body are alike, and we shall afterwards see that its back lies next to the centre of the egg, its future ventral side looking outwards. The embryo is thus bent on itself backwards. In the next stage the blastoderm divides into a certain num- ber of segments, or joints, which appear as indentations in the bod}' of the embryo. The head can now be distinguished from the posterior end chiefly by its larger size, and both it and the tail are folded back upon the body of the embryo, the head especially being sunk backwards down into the yolk-mass. In a succeeding stage, as we have observed in the embryo of Diplax, a Dragon-fly (Fig. f>7), the head is partially sketched Fig. 57. Fig. 58. out, with the rudiments of the limbs and mouth-parts ; and the sternites, or ventral walls, of the thorax and of the two basal rings of the head appear. The anterior part of the head, in- cluding the so-called "procephalic lobes" overhangs and con- FIG. 57. Side view of embryo. The procephalic lobes are not shown. 1, antennae; 2, mandibles; 3, maxilla; ; 4, second maxillae (labium); 5-7, legs. These numbers and letters are the same in all the figures from 57-60. The under-side (sternum? of six segments are indicated. FIG. 58. Ventral view of the same. 56 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. ceals the base of the antenna?. It is probable that more rareful observation would have shown the end of the abdomen folded back upon the dorsal region, as usual at this period in the embryos of those insects whose embryology has been studied. The antenna?, mandibles, and maxilla? form a group by them- selves, while the second maxilla? (or labium) are very much larger and turned backwards, being temporarily grouped with the legs. There are traces only of the two basal sterna of the abdo- men. This indicates that the basal abdominal segments grow in succession from the base of the abdomen, the middle ones appearing last. The post-abdomen (Fig. 59 A) has probably been developed synchronous with the procephalic lobes, as it is in all insect and crustacean embryos yet observed. As stated by Zaddach, these two lobes in their development are exact equivalents; antero- posterior symmetry is very clearly de- marked, the two ends of the body at first looking alike. But in this stage, after the two ends of the body have been evolved from the primitive cell-layer, development in the post-abdomi- nal region is retarded, that of the head progressing with much greater rapidity. In the next stage (not figured) the yolk is completely walled in, though no traces of segments appear on the back or side of the embryo. The revolution of the embryo has taken place ; the post-abdomen being curved beneath the bod}', and the back presenting outwards. The rudiments of the eyes appear as a darker, rounded mass of cells indistinctly seen through the yolk-granules, and situ- ated at the base of the antenna?. They consist of a few epithe- lial cells of irregular form, the central one being the largest. The second maxilla? are a little over twice the length of the first maxilla? and are grouped with the legs, being curved back- wards. They are, however, now one-third shorter than the an- terior legs. The second maxillary sternum is still visible. The tip of the abdomen (or post-abdomen) consists of four segments, the terminal one being much the larger, and ob- scurely divided into two obtuse lobes. The abdominal sternites are now well marked, and the ner- THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. 57 2 E 1 C vous cord is represented by eight or nine large oblong-square 'seen sidewaj-s) ganglia, which lie contiguous to each other. The formation of the eyes, the post-abdomen, the sternites, and median portion of the nervous cord seems nearly synchro- nous with the closing up of the dorsal walls of the body, though the division of the tegument into segments has not apparently taken place over the yolk-mass. The succeeding stage (Fig. 59) is signalized by the appear- ance of the rudiments of the intestine, while the second maxilhe are directed more anteriorly. In form the body is ovate-cylin- drical, and there is a deep constric- tion separating the post -abdomen from the anterior part of the abdo- men. The terminal (eleventh) ring is immensely disproportioned to its size in the embryo just pre- vious to hatching (see Fig. 61, where it forms a triangular piece situated between its appendages, the anal stylets). At a later period of this stage two more ab- dominal segments have been added, one to the end of the main body of the abdomen, and another to the post- abdomen. They have been apparently interpolated at the junction of the post-abdomen to the abdomen proper. Should this observation be proved to be correct, it may then be considered as a rule that, after reaching a certain number of segments, all additional ones are interpolated between the main body of the abdomen and its terminal segment or segments. This is the law of increase in the number of segments in Worms, and in Myriopods (lulus, according to Newport's observations), in Arachnids (Claparede), and Crustacea (Rathke). The next stage (Fig. 60), is characterized by the differentia- 4 N A Fig. 60. FIG. 59. An embryo much farther advanced, c, clypeus; E, eye; A, bi-lobed extremity of the abdomen; i, the rudiments of the intestines. f>8 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. tiou of the head into the rudiments of the antennary ring, and the supraclypeal piece, and clypeus, together with the appro x. imation of the second pair of maxillae, which, when united, form the labium, the extremities of which are now situated in the middle of the body. The antenn;e now extend to the middle of the labium, just passing beyond the extremities of the mandibles and maxilla-. The oesophagus can also be seen going from the mouth-opening situated just beneath the labium. It curves around just behind the eyes. There are at this period no appearances of movable blood-disks or of a dorsal vessel. The abdomen is now pointed at the extremity and divided into the rudiments of the two anal stylets, which form large, acute tubercles. The yolk-mass is also almost entirely inclosed within the body walls, form- ing an oval mass. Another embryo, observed July 27th, had ,T reached about the same stage of growth. The front of the head, including the antennary segment, is farther advanced than before. The entire head is divided into two very distinct regions ; i. e. one before the mouth-opening (the preoral region, including the antennary, or first segment of the head, carrying the organs of vision ; namely, the ocelli and com- pound eyes, and the organs of sense, or an- tennae) ; and the other btftiiid the month (pastoral) consisting of the mandibular, or second segment, thejlrsf maxillary, or third segment, and the second maxillary, or labial, being the fourth and last segment. At a later period the embryo is quite fully formed, and is about ready to leave the egg. The three regions of the body are now distinct. The articulations of the tergum are present, the yolk-mass being completely inclosed by the tergal walls. FIG. 61. The embryo taken from the egg, but nearly ready to hatch. T, the dotted line crosses the main trachea, going through the yolk-mass, now restricted to the thoracic region. At x, the trachea- send off numerous branches around an enlargement of the intestine (colon), where the blood is aerated; better seen in fig. f>2. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, the last being a minute triangular piece. Fig. 61. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. 59 The body is so bent upon itself that the extremities of the second maxillae just overlap the tip of the abdomen. The two limbs of the labium are now placed side by side, with the prominent spinous appendage on the outer edges of the tip. These spines are the rudiments of the labial palpi. The general form of the embryo at a still later period (Fig. Gl), on being taken from the egg and straightened out, re- minds us strikingly of the Thysanura, and, in these and other re- spects, tend to prove that the Podurae and Lepisma?, and allied genera, are embryonic, degraded forms of Neu- roptera, and should therefore be considered as a family of that sub- order. Seen laterally, the body gradually ta- pers from the large N head to the pointed ex- tremity. The body is flattened -from above downward s . At this stage the appendages are still closely ap- pressed to the body. Just before the ex- clusion of the embryo, the legs and mouth- parts stand out freer Fig. 62. from the body. The labium, especially, assumes a position at nearly right angles to the body. The antennae, mandibles, and maxilla? have taken on a more definite form, being like FIG. 62. The larva just hatched and swimming in the water. N, ventral cord or nervous ganglia: i>, dorsal vessel, or "heart," divided into its chambers. The anal valves at the end of the abdomen, which open and shut during respiration, are represented as being open. Both of the dotted lines cross the tracheae, x, net- work of the trachea;, surrounding the cloaca. 60 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. that of the young larva, and stand out free from the body. The head is much smaller in proportion to the rest of the body, and bent more upon the breast. The Larva (Fig. (52) when hatched is about five hundredths of an inch in length. The head is now free and the antennfe stand out free from the front. The thorax has greatly diminished in size, while the abdomen has become wider, and the limbs very long ; and Fig. 63. the numerous minute tubercles, seen in the preceding stage, have given origin to hairs. The dorsal vessel can now, for the first time, be seen. When in motion, the resemblance to a spider is most striking. The flow of blood to the head, and the return currents through the lacunar or venous circulation along the side of the body were easily observed. The vessels were not crowded with blood disks, the latter being few in number, only one Fig. 64. or two passing along at a time. Two currents, pass- ing in opposite directions, were observed in the legs. FIG. 63. Side view of the head of the larva of Diplax before the first moult, c, deciduous tubercles terminating in a slender style; their use is unknown: they have not been observed in the full-grown larva, e, the compound eyes. 1, the three jointed antenna;, the terminal joint nearly three times as long as the two basal ones. 2, the mandibles, and also enlarged, showing the cutting edge divided into four teeth. 3, maxilhe divided into two lobes : membrane, the analogue of the membrane in which, as I have elsewhere shown,* the young Myriopod is inclosed, and re- tained several days after the bursting of the ovum, and which represents in the Articulata, not the allantois, but apparently the amnion, of Vertebrata ; next, the first, or foetal deciduation of the tegument, analogous probably to the first change of skin in the Myriopod, after it has escaped from the amnion, and also to the first change which the young Arachnid;) n invariably undergoes a few days after it has left the egg, and before it- can take food. This tegument, which, perhaps, may be analo- gous to the vemi.i- m.xro.s-a of Vertebrata, thrown off at the instant of birth, is left by the young Meloe with the amnion in the shell; and its separation from the body, at this early period, seems necessary to fit the insect for the active life it has commenced." (Linn. Trans, xx. p. ;j(J(J, etc.) The larva state. The larva (Latin l«rrhinx liijustri moults six times, and at the last moult be- comes a third larger than at any earlier period; the larva of Arctia caja moults from five to ten times. A few days before the assumption of the pupa state, the larva becomes restless, stops eating, and deserts its food, and usually spins a silken cocoon, or makes one of earth, or chips, if a borer, and there prepares for the change to the pupa state. During this semipupa period (lasting, in many insects, only for a day or several days, but in some Saw-flies through the winter) the skin of the pupa grows beneath that of the quies- cent larva. While the worm-like larva exhibits no trire- gional distinctions, the muscles of the growing pupa contract and enlarge in certain parts so as to modify the larva form, until it gradually assumes the triregional form of the adult insect, with the differentiation of the body into a head, thorax, and abdomen. In a series of careful studies, abundantly illustrated with excellent plates, Weismann has recently shown that Swammer- dam's idea that the pupa and imago skins were in reality already concealed under that of the larva is partially founded in truth. Swammerdam states, "I can point out in the larva all the limbs of the future nymph, or Culex, concealed beneath the skin," and he also observed beneath the skin of the larvae of bees just before pupating, the antenna?, mouth-parts, wings, and limbs of the adult. (Weismann.) During its transformations the pupa skin is developed from the hypodermis, or inner layer of skin. This peals off, as it were, from the inner layer of the old larva skin, which soon dries and hardens, and is thrown off. Meanwhile the muscles of the body contract and change in form, thus causing the origi- nal segments of the larva to infold and contract at certain parts, gradually producing the pupa form. If, during this period, the 64 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. insect be examined at intervals, a series of slight changes of form may be seen, from the larva to the imago state. In some cases each change is accompanied by a moult, as in the "ac- tive" Ephemera, where Lnbbock counted twenty one moults. As a general rule, then, it ma}r be stated that the body of the larva is transformed into that of the imago ; ring answer- ing to ring, and limb to limb in both, the head of the one is homologous with that of the other, and the appendages of the larva are homologous with the appendages of the imago. "VVeismann has shown that in the larva of the Meat-fly, MVK<-« voviitnriu, the thorax and head of the imago are developed from what he calls '"imaginal disks." These disks are minute isolated portions of the hypodermis, which are formed in the embryo, before it leaves the egg, and are held in place \\ ithin the body-cavity of the larva by being attached either to nerves or tracheae, or both. After the outer layer of the larva skin. dries and hardens, and forms the cask-shaped pupa ri inn, the use of which corresponds to the cocoon of moths, etc., these imaginal disks increase in size so as to form the tegument of the thorax and head. The abdomen of the Meat-fly, however, is formed by the direct conversion of the eight hinder segments of the body of the larva, into the corresponding segments of the imago. Accompanying this change in the integument there is a destruction of all the larval system of organs ; this is either total or effected by the gradual destruction of tissues. Now we see the use of the "fatty body;" this breaks up, setting free granular globules of fat, which, as we have seen in the embryo, produces by the multiplication of cells the new tissues of the pupa. Thus the larva-skin is cast aside, and also the softer organs within, but the formation of new tissues keeps even pace with the destruction of the old, and the insect pre- serves its identity throughout. The genital glands, however, are indicated even in the embryo, and are gradually developed throughout the growth of the insect, so that this liistolysis, or destruction of tissues, is not wholly complete. The quiescent pupa-state of Musca is long-continued, and its vitality is latent, the acts of respiration and circulation being almost suspended. (Weismann.) TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. (>f> Iii the metamorphosis of Corethra, a Mosquito-like Fly, which is active both in the larva and pupa states, ''the segments of the larva are converted directly into the corresponding seg- ments of the body of the imago, the appendages of the head into the corresponding ones of the head of the imago ; those of the thorax are produced after the last moult of the larva MS ilirerticula of the hypodermis round a nerve or trachea, from the cellular envelope of which the formation of tissue in the interior of the appendages issues. The larval muscles of the abdominal segments are transferred unchanged into the imago ; the thoracic muscles peculiar to the imago, as also some additional abdominal muscles, are developed in the last larval periods from indifferent cellular cords which are indi- cated even in the egg. The genital glands date back to the embryo, and are gradually developed ; all the other systems of organs pass with little or no alteration into the imago. Fatty- body none or inconsiderable. Pupa-state short and active." (Weismann.) As the two types are most clearly discriminated by the presence or absence of true imaginal disks, Weismann suggests that those insects which undergo a marked metamorphosis might be divided into Insecta cliscota (or Insects with imaginal disks), and those without, into Insecta adiscota. The metamorphosis of Corethra may prove to be a type of that of all insects which are active in their preparatory stages ; and that of Musca typical of all those that are quiescent in the pupa-state, at least the Lepidoptera and those Diptera which have a coarctate * pupa, together with the Coleoptera and those Neuroptera in which the metamorphosis is complete, as P/iry- ganea, Hemerobius, etc. The transformations of the Humble-bee are easily observed by taking a nest after the first brood have matured, when we shall find individuals in all stages of development from the larva to the imago state. The figures below show four stages, but in reality there is eveiy gradation between these stages. * The larvze of some of the higher Diptera spin a slight cocoon, while the true flies, such as the Muscidse and Syrphidse, etc., change to pupae within the larvu skin which contracts into a cylindrical "puparium" corresponding in use to the cocoon; such pupae are called "coarctate." 5 66 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. Fig. 64 shows what we may call the semipupa, concealed by the old larval skin. There are ten pairs of stigmata, two thoracic and eight abdominal. The head of the semi-pupa lies under the head («) and prothoracic ring (b). The basal ring of the abdomen (c), or fourth ring from the head, is un- changed in form. This figure also will suffice to represent Fig. 64. Fig. 05. m c Fig. 66. Fig. 67. the larva, though a little more produced anteriorly than in its natural form. In another stage (Fig. 65) of the semi-pupa, the larval skin is entirely sloughed off, the two pairs of wing-pads lying paral- lel, and very equal in size, like the wings of Nenroptera. The thoraco- abdominal ring, or propodeum (c), is distinguished by its oblong spiracle (H), essentially differing from those on the abdomen. At this point the body contracts, but the head TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 67 and thorax together are yet, as still more in the previous stage, much smaller than in the pupa, and there is still a con- tinuous curve from the tip of the abdomen to the head. (0, antenna; //, lingua, maxillae, and palpi; ?', fore-legs; j, mid- dle legs ; A-, meso-scutum ; ?, ineso-scutellum ; ?i, spiracle of the propodeum.) In a succeeding stage (Fig. 66) of the semi-pupa, the head and thorax together nearly equal in size the abdomen, and the propodeum (c) has become entirely transferred to the thorax. The head has become greatly enlarged ; the rings are very un- equal, the hinder pair are much smaller, and overlaid by the anterior pair ; the three terminal pair of abdominal rings, so large in Fig. 65, have been absorbed, and partially inclosed in the cavity of the abdomen ; and there has been a farther dif- ferentiation of the ring into the sternite (rf), pleurite (e), and tergite (/). («, eye; A, lingua; o, ovipositor, two outer rhabdites exposed to view.) The abdominal spiracles in Figs. 65 and 66, are represented by a row of dots. In the pupa they are concealed by the tergites, which overlap the sternites. Fig. 67 represents the pupa state, Avhere the body has become much shorter, and the appendages of the head and thorax greatly differentiated ; the external genital organs are wholly retracted within the cavity of the abdomen ; the head is freer from the body, and the whole bulk of the head and thorax together, in- eluding the appendages, greater than that of the abdomen. These changes of form, assumed by the insect in its passage from the larva to the pupa state, are nearly as striking as the so-called " hypermetamorphosis " of Mdoe. and S items described by Newport and Fabre. (/, mesoscutellum ; p, cly- peus ; '"/// /«/.s just before the imago leaves its cell, the body and limbs are surrounded by a thin pellicle. This pellicle also envelops the moth, just before it leaves the pupal state, and is cast off when it moults the pupn-skin. This is probably identical with the skin cast by the active subimago of Ephemera, soon after it has taken its flight. Westwood also considers this subimago skin identical with that covering the bodies of coarctate Diptera, as in Erixtnlis. Newport states, that when the imago of Sphinx is about to cast off the pupa-skin the abdominal segments are elongated beyond their original extent, this being the first part of the insect that is entirely freed from its attachment within the pupa-case. After this the thorax slits down, and the body is drawn out of the rent. In the Butterfly the wings mature in a few moments, but those of Sphinx being thicker, require two or three hours. Newport (Philosophical Transactions, London, 1832 and 1834) has detailed with great minuteness the internal changes of Sphinx liynstri while transforming. The most marked changes are in the nervous and digestive systems. Several anomalous modes of metamorphosis have been ob- served, one in Diptera and the other in Si'taris and Meloe. The development of the latter insect will be noticed beyond. Sir John Lubbock has described the singular metamorphosis of Lonchoptem, which he considers to be allied to Soryvs, though the adult stages differ greatly. The larvae are oblong TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 69 ovate, flattened, with four long setae in front and two behind, with the sides of the body emavginate and spinulated. They were found under logs. "AVhen the larva is full grown, it de- taches itself from the skin, which retains its form, and within which the insect changes into a white opaque fleshy grub con- sisting apparently- of thirteen segments which gradually dimin- ish in size from one end to the other. There are no limb-cases. According to analogy the pupa should be k incomplete ; ' it is probable, therefore, that the legs and wings make their appear- ance at a later stage. If this be so the perfect form is only attained after passing through three well-marked stages. I re- gret, however, that the specimens at my disposal did not enable me to decide this point." (Trans. Ent. !Soc. London, Third Ser. i, 18G2.) Ilaliday states that Thrips goes through & propupa and pupa stage. There are five well-defined stages in the Ilomopterous Typhlocybo,) and more than three in Apltix. Yersin has noticed several stages in the development of Gnjllus wunpextrix^ and the genus Psocus has four such stages. The duration of the different stages varies with the changes of the seasons. Cold and damp weather retards the process of transformation. Reaumur kept the pupa of a Butterfly two years in an ice-house before, on being removed to a warm place, it changed to a butterfly. Chrysalids survive great alter- nations of heat and cold ; they may be frozen stiff on ice, and then, on being gradually exposed to the heat, thaw out and finish their transformations. Retrograde Development. There are certain degradational forms among the lowest members of each group of Insects which imitate the group beneath them. The Tardigrades (which are considered by some authors to be allied to the Mites) are mimicked by the low parasitic worm-like Demodex folliculorum ; the low Neuroptera, such as Lepisma, imitate the Mvriopoda ; and the wingless Lice remind us of the larvae of the Neuropter- ous Hemerobius. Among the Coleoptera, the history of Stylops affords a strik- ing example. The active six-footed larva is transformed into the strange bag-like female which takes on the form of a cylin- drical sac, the head and thorax being consolidated into a 70 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. minute flattened portion. The process of degradation here seems carried out to its farthest limit. Thus the degraded forms of the lower series of Hexapods take on a Myriopod aspect. Jn the more highly cephalixed Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Ilymenoptera the degraded forms are modelled on a higher articulate type. The idea of a divis- ion into three regions is involved. Thus the wingless forms of Flies, such as the Bird-louse, \irnnix; the Bat-tick, X>/<-t<- ribio ; the Bee-louse, Braula; and Chionea resemble strikingly the biregional Arachnids. In the wingless female of Oryyia and the Canker-worm moth, the head is free, but the thorax is merged into the abdomen. The resemblance to the lower insects is less striking. The worker ants and wingless Ichneumons. 7V;.n//, [f>' • ^J • i -H, - , - -i- Fig. 5. Fig. G. if Fig. 7. Fig. 8. GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. 79 the characters of the Neuroptera and Hemiptera. It is a large insect, spreading about two inches ; its body must have measured over an inch in length. In the Mesozoic rocks, the celebrated Solenhofen locality in Bavaria is rich in Liassic insect-remains. Dr. Ilagen (Ento- mologist's Annual, London, 1862) states that among the Solen- hofen fossils the Neuroptera and Orthoptera are most largeby represented ; as out of four hundred and fifty species of insects, one hundred and fifty are Neuroptera, of which one hundred and thirty-six are Dragon-flies, and besides "there is a Cory- dalus, one Clirysopa, a large Apochrysa, and a beautiful Nymplies. The last two genera, which do not seem very remote from Chrysopa, are now found only in the Southern Hemi- sphere, Xi/mphes is peculiarly an Australian genus." The Lias of England is very rich in fossil insects, especially the Purbeck and Rhoetic Beds (see Brodie's AVork on Fos- sil Insects and also AYestwood in the Geological Journal, etc. Vol. X.). In the Trias, or New-Red Sandstone of the Connecticut Valley, Professor Hitchcock has found numerous remains of the larva of an aquatic Coleopterous insect. The insects of the Tertiary formation more closely resemble those of the present day. The most celebrated European locality is CEningen in Switzerland. According to Professor O. Heer, over five thousand specimens of fossil insects have been found at CEningen, comprising 844 species, of which 518 are Coleopterous. From all Tertiary Europe there are 1,322 species, as follows: 166 Hymenoptera, 18 Lepidoptera, 166 Diptera, 660 Coleoptera, 217 Hemiptera, 39 Orthoptera, and 56 Neuroptera. "If we inquire to what insect-fauna of the present period the Tertiary fauna is most analogous, we shall be surprised to find that most of the species belong to genera actually found in the old and the new world. The insect-fauna of CEningen con- tains 180 genera of this category, of which 114 belong to the Coleoptera. Of these last, two (Dineutes and Caryborus) re- main in Europe, while all the others are now found living both in Europe and in America. The whole number of Coleopterous genera furnished by CEningen, and known to me, amount to ftO THK CLASS OF INSECTS. 158 ; those that are common to both hemispheres forming then more than two-thirds of the whole number, while of the actual Coleopterous fauna of Europe, tic-cording to the calculation of M. Laeordaire, there is only one-third. The genera found to-day in both parts of the world have then during the Tertiary epoch played a more important part than is the case now ; hemv the knowledge of the character of the fauna is rendered more dillicult. We find at CEningen but a very small number (five) of genera exclusively European ; seventeen are found to-day in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, but not in America. For the most part they belong to the Mediterranean fauna (comprising eight genera) and give to the insect-fauna of (Eningen a strong proportion of Mediterranean forms. In this fauna I only know of one exclusively Asiatic genus ; two are peculiar to Africa, and two others (Anoplftes and Naupactus) are American. u There are now living, however, in Europe certain genera, which, without being exclusively American, since they are found in Asia and in Africa, belong more peculiarly to America ; such are Belostomwn , Hypselonotus, Diplonychus, EVm/o/v.s, THE CLASS OF INSECTS. jo IK- converted into one or more aerial receptacles of spores." (Leidv.) These fungi, so often infesting caterpillars, are hence railed •• caterpillar fungi." They fill the whole body, distend- ing even the legs, and throw out long filaments, sometimes longer than the larva itself, giving a grotesque appearance to the insect. Leidv has found a species which is very common in the SevcMiteen-year Locust, Cicada septendecim. He found "ainoim myriads of the imago between twelve and twenty specimens, which, though living, had the posterior third of the abdominal contents converted into a dry. powdery, ochreous- yellow, compact mass of sporuloid bodies." He thinks this Cicada is very subject to the attacks of these fungi, and that the spores enter the anal and genital passages more readily than the mouth ; thus accounting for their development in the abdomen. The most formidable disease is the " Jfwscaj'dme," caused by a fungus, the Botrytus Batmiana of Balsamo. It is well known that this disease has greatly reduced the silk crop in Europe. Ilalhiani has detected the spores of this fungus in the eggs of Jioniht/.i- mori as well as in the different parts of the body of the insect in all stages of growth. Extreme cleanliness and •care against contagion must be observed in its prevention. Among plants a disease like Muscardine, due to the presence of a minute fungus (Miicor mdlitophorus) , tills the stomach of some insects, including the Honey-bee, with its colorless spores, and greatly weakens those affected. Another fungus, Sporendon&na 'imiscce, infests the common House-fly. Another Silk-worm disease called " Pebrine" carries off many silk-worms. Whether it is of pathological or vegetable origin is not yet settled. There are also a few intestinal worms known to be para- sitic in insects. The well-known "Hair-worm" (Gordius) in its young state lives within the body of various insects in- cluding the Spiders. The tadpole-like young differs greatly from the parent, being short, sac-like, ending in a tail. Upon leaving the egg they work their way into the body of insects, and there live on the fatty substance of their hosts, where they undergo their metamorphosis into the adult hair-like worm, and make thvir way to the pools of water in which they live THE DEFORMITIES OF INSECTS. 83 and beget their species, and lay "millions of eggs connected together in long cords." Leidy thus writes regarding the habits of a species which infests grasshoppers. " The number of Gordii in each insect varies from one to live, their length from three inches to a foot ; they occupy a position in the visceral cavity, where they lie coiled among the viscera, and often extend from the end of the abdomen forward through the thorax even into the head ; their bulk and weight are fre- quently greater than all the soft parts, including the muscles, of their living habitation. Nevertheless, with this relatively immense mass of parasites, the insects jump about almost as freely as those not infested. "The worms are milk-white in color, and undivided at the extremities. The females are distended with ova, but I have never observed them extruded. When the bodies of Grass- hoppers, containing these entozoa, are broken and lain upon moist earth, the worms gradually creep out and pass below its surface." Goureau states that Filarta, a somewhat similar worm, in- habits Hibcntni bnimata and Vanessa j>rors«. (Ann. Ent. Soc. France.) Siebold describes Gonliux subbifurcus which infests the Honey-bee, especially the drones, though it is rather the work- ers, which frequent the pools where the Gordii live, that we would expect to find thus infested. Another entozoan is Mer- rin.ix aJbicans of Siebold, which is a very slender whitish worm much like Gordius, and about five inches long. It is found in the drone of the honey-bee and in some other insects. Deformities of Insects. Numerous instances of supernume- rary legs and antenna? are recorded. The antennae are some- times double, but more commonly the legs. "Of these As- muss has collected eight examples, and it is remarkable that in six of them the parts on one side are treble." Newport, from whom we have quoted, states that "the most remarkable ex- ample is that given by Lefebvre of Scarites Pyraclimon in which from a single coxa on the left side of the prosternum two tro- fha liters originated. The anterior one, the proper trochanter, supported the true prothoracic leg ; while the posterior one, in the form of an oblong lanceolate body, attached to the base of ,SJ THE CLASS OF INSECTS. the first, supported two additional legs equally well tunned as the true one." The wings are often partially aborted and deformed ; this is especially noticeable in the wings of butterflies and moths. Mr. F. G. Sanborn has described and figured a wing of a female of LibeUnln lurtuoisa Burin. (Fig. <>9), in which among other deformities ''the ptero- F{s- (i9- stigma is shorter and broader than that of the opposite wing, and is situated about one-eighth of an inch only from the nodus, only on(j cubital vein occurring between them, instead of fourteen as in the opposite wing." (Proceed- ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xi. p. :}•>(>.) DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. Insects differ sexually in that the female generally appears to have one abdominal ring less (one ring disappearing during the semi-pupa state, when the ovipositor is formed), and in being- larger, fuller, and duller colored than the males, while the lat- ter often differ in seulpture and ornamentation. In collect- ing, whenever the two sexes are found united they should be pinned upon the same pin, the male being placed highest. When we take one sex alone, we may feel sure that the other is somewhere in the vicinity ; perhaps while one is flying about so as to be easily captured, the other is hidden under some leaf, or resting on the trunk of some tree near by, which must be examined arid every bush in the vicinity rigorously beaten by the net. Many species rare in most places have a tn<'t >•<> )><>!! * where thev occur in u'reat abundance. During seasons when ~ his favorites are especially abundant the collector should lav up a store against years of scarcity. At no time of the year need the entomologist rest from his labors. In the winter, under the bark of trees and in moss he can find many species, or on trees, etc., detect their eggs, which he can mark for observation in the spring when they hatch out. He need not relax his endeavors day or night. Mothing is night employment. Skunks and toads entomologize at night. Early in the morning, at sunrise, when the dew is still on the leaves, insects are sluggish and easily taken with the hand ; COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 85 so at dusk, when many species are found flying, and in the night, the collector will be rewarded with many rarities, many species flying then that hide themselves by day, while many caterpillars leave their retreats to come out and feed, when the lantern can be used with success in searching for them. Wollaston (Entomologist's Annual, 1865) states that sandy districts, especially towards the coast, are at all times prefer- able to clayey ones, but the intermediate soils, such as the loamy soil of swamps and marshes are more productive. Near the sea, insects occur most abundantly beneath pebbles and other objects in grassy spots, or else at the roots of plants. In man}* places, especially in Alpine tracts, as we have found on the summit of Mt. Washington and in Labrador, one has to lie down and look carefully among the short herbage and in the moss for Coleoptera. The most advantageous places for collecting are gardens and farms, the borders of woods and the banks of streams and ponds. The deep, dense forests, and open, treeless tracts are less prolific in insect life. In winter and early spring the moss on the trunks of trees, when carefully shaken over a newspaper or white cloth, reveal many beetles and Hymenoptera. In the late summer and autumn, toadstools and various fungi and rot- ten fruits attract many insects, and in early spring when the sap is running we have taken rare insects from the stumps of freshly cut hard-wood trees. Wollaston says, "Dead animals, partially-dried bones, as well as the skins of moles and other vermin which are ordinarily hung up in fields are magnificent traps for Coleoptera ; and if any of these be placed around or- chards and inclosures near at home, and be examined every morning, various species of Nitidnlcv , ftilphidw., and other insects of similar habits, are certain to lie enticed and cap- tured.' "Planks and chippings of wood may be likewise employed as successful agents in alluring a vast number of species which might otherwise escape our notice, and if these be laid down in grassy places, and carefully inverted every now and then with as little violence as possible, many insects will be found adhering beneath them, especially after dewy nights and in showery weather. Nor must we omit to urge the importance tfg THE CLASS OF INSECTS. of examining the under sides of stones in the vicinity of ants' nests, in which position, during the spring and summer months, many of the rarest of our native Coleoptera may be occasion- ally procured." Excrementitious matter always contains many interesting forms in various stages of growth. The trunks of fallen and decaying trees offer a rich harvest for many wood-boring larva?, especially the Longicorn beetles, and weevils can be found in the spring, in all their stages. Nu- merous carnivorous Coleopterous and Dipterous larvie dwell within them, and other larva; which eat the dust made by the borers. The inside of pithy plants like the elder, raspberry, blackberry, and syringa, are inhabited by many of the wild bees, 0*mia, Ceratina, and the wood- wasps, Crabro, £Y/>/ /;<>/*, etc., the habits of which, with those of their Chalcid and Ich- neumon parasites, offer endless amusement and study. Ponds and streams shelter a vast throng of insects, and should be diligently dredged with the water-net, and stones and pebbles should be overturned for aquatic beetles, Ile- miptera, and Dipterous larva?. The various sorts of galls should be collected in spring and autumn and placed in vials or boxes, where they may be rear- ed, and the rafters of out-houses, stone-walls, etc., should be carefully searched for the nests of Mud-wasps. Collecting Apparatus. First in importance is the net. This is made by attaching a ring of brass wire to a handle made to slide on a pole six feet long. The net may be a foot in diameter, and the bag itself made of thin gauze or mosquito- netting (the finer, lighter, and more durable the better), and should be about twenty inches deep. It should be sewed to a narrow border of cloth placed around the wire. A light net like this can be rapidly turned upon the insect with one hand. The insect is captured by a dexterous twist which also throws the lx>ttom over the mouth of the net. The insect should be temporarily held between the thumb and fore-finger of the hand at liberty, and then pinned through the thorax while in the net. Tin- pin can be drawn through the meshes upon opening the net. The beating-net should be made much stouter, with a shal- lower cloth bag and attached to a shorter stick. It is used for beating trees, bushes, and herbage for beetles and Hemiptera COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 87 and various larva-. Its thorough use we would recommend in the low vegetation on mountains and in meadows. The water- net may be either round or of the shape indicated in Fig. 70. The ring should be made of brass, and the shallow net of grass-cloth or coarse millinet. It is used for collecting aqua- tic insects. Various sorts of forceps are indispen- Fig. "o. sable for handling insects. Small delicate narrow-blacled for- ceps with fine sharp points in use by jewellers, and made either of steel or brass, are excellent for handling minute specimens. For larger ones long curved forceps are very con- venient. For pinning insects into boxes the forceps should be stout, the blades blunt and curved at the end so that the insect can be pinned without slanting the forceps much. The ends need to be broad and finely indented by lines so as to firmly hold the pin. With a little practice the forceps soon take the place of the fingers. They will have to be made to order by a neat workman or surgical-instrument maker. Some persons use the ordinary form of pliers with curved handles, but they should be long and slender. A spring set in to separate the handles when not grasped by the hand is a great convenience. Various pill-boxes, vials, and bottles must always be taken, some containing alcohol or whiske}-. Many collectors use a wide-mouth bottle, containing a sponge saturated with ether, chloroform, or benzine, or bruised laurel leaves, the latter be- ing pounded with a hammer and then cut with scissors into small pieces, which give out exhalations of prussic acid strong enough to kill most small insects. Besides these the collector needs a small box lined with corn-pith, or cork, and small enough to slip into the coat- pocket ; or a larger box carried by a strap. Most moths and small flies can be pinned alive without being pinched (which injures their shape and rubs off the scales and hairs), and then killed by pouring a little benzine into the bottom of the box. Kilt ing Insects for the Cabinet. Care in killing affects very sensibly the looks of the cabinet. If hastily killed and dis- torted by being pinched, with the scales rubbed off and other- wise mangled, the value of such a specimen is diminished R8 TIIK CLASS OF INSECTS. either lor purposes of study or the neat appearance of the col- lection. resides the vapor of ether, chloroform, and benzine, the fumes of sulphur readily kill insects. Large specimens may IK- killed l.y inserting a pin dipped in a strong solution of ox- alic acid. An excellent collecting bottle is made by putting into :i wide-mouth bottle two or three small pieces of cyanide ,,r pota-ium. which may be covered with cotton, about half- tilliu- the bottle. The cotton may be covered with paper liirhtlv attached to the glass and pierced with pin-holes; this keeps the insect from being lost in the bottle. For Diptera, J.MCW recommends moistening the bottom of the collecting box with creosote. This is excellent for small flies and moths, as the mouth of the bottle can be placed over the insect while at rest ; the insect flies up into the bottle and is immediately suffocated. A bottle well prepared will, according to Laboulbene, last several months, even a year, and is vastly superior to the old means of using ether or chloroform. He states, "the incon- venience of taking small insects from a net i.s well known, as the most valuable ones usually escape ; but by placing the end of the net. tilled with insects, in a wide-mouthed bottle, and putting in the cork for a few minutes, they will be suffocated." I 'in H in'/ Inserts. The pin should be inserted through the thorax of most insects. The Coleoptera, however, should be pinned through the right wing-cover; many Hemiptera are be-t pinned through the scutellum. The specimens should all lie pinned at an equal height, so that about one-fourth of the pin should project above the insect. The best pins are those made in Berlin by Klager. They are of live sixes. No. 1 being the smallest; Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are the most convenient. For very minute insects still smaller pins are made. A very good but too short pin is made by Edles- lon and Williams, Crown Court. Cheapside, London. Their Nos. I'.i and 20 may be used to impale minute insects upon, and then stuck through a bit of cork, or pith, through which a \". •> Klager pin may be thrust. Then the insect is kept out of the reach of devouring insects. Still smaller pins are made by cutting off bits of very line silvered wire at the right length, which may be thrust by the forceps into a piece of pith, after the injects have been impaled upon them. COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 89 Small insects, especially beetles, may be mounted on cards or pieces of mica through which the pin may be thrust. The French use small oblong bits of mica, with the posterior half covered with green paper on which the number may be placed. The insect ma}*- be gummed on the clear part, the two sexes to- gether. The under side can be seen through the thin mica. Others prefer triangular pieces of card, across the end of which the insect may be gummed, so that nearly the whole un- der side is visible. Mr. Wollaston advocates gumming small Coleoptera upon cards. Instead of cutting the pieces of cards first, he gums them promiscuously upon a sheet of card-board. "Having gummed thickly a space on your card-board equal to, at least, the entire specimen when expanded, place the beetle upon it, drag out the limbs with a pin, and, leaving it to dry, go on with the next one that presents itself. As the card has to be cut after- wards around your insect (so as to suit it), there is no advan- tage in gumming it precisely straight upon your frame, — though it is true that a certain amount of care in this respect lessens your after labor of cutting-otf very materially. AVhen your frame has been tilled, and yon are desirous of separating the species, cut out the insect with finely pointed scissors." For mending broken insects, i.e. gumming on legs and an- tenna? which have fallen off, inspissated ox-gall, softened with a little water, is the best gum. For gumming insects upon cards Mr. Wollaston recommends a gum "composed of three parts of tragacanth to one of Arabic, both in powder ; to be mixed in water containing a grain of corrosive sublimate, without which it will not keep, until of a consistency just thick enough to run. As this gum is of an extremely absorbent nature, nearly a fortnight is required before it can be properly made. The best plan is to keep add- ing a little water (and stirring it) every few days until it is of the proper consistency. It is advisable to dissolve the grain of corrosive sublimate in the water which is poured Jirst upon the gum." Preservative Fluids. The best for common use is alco- hol, diluted with a little water ; or whiskey, as alcohol of full strength is too strong for caterpillars, etc., since it shrivels them DO THE CLASS OF INSECTS. up. Glycerine is excellent for preserving the colors of cater- pillars, though the internal parts decay somewhat, and the specimen is apt to fall to pieces on being roughly handled. Laboulbene recommends for the preservation of insects in a fresh state plunging them in a preservative fluid consisting of alcohol with an excess of arsenious acid in fragments, or the common white arsenic of commerce. A pint and a half of al- cohol will take about fourteen grains (troy) of arsenic. The living insect, put into this preparation, absorbs about -n$y(>) a plan which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a large museum, and which are placed in horizontal show-cases (Fig. 72). "A box is made of the re- quired depth, and a light frame is fitted to its in- terior. Upon the upper and under surfaces of this frame, a sheet of white paper (drawing or log- paper answers the pur- pose) is securely glued. The paper, having been previously dampened, in drying con- tracts and tightens like a drum-head. The frame is then secured about one-fourth of an inch from the bottom of the box, and the pin is forced down through the thicknesses of paper, and if the bottom of the box be of soft pine, the point of the pin may be slightly forced into it. It is thus firmly held at two or three different points, and all lateral movements art- prevented. Other advantages are secured by this arrangement besides firmness; when the box needs cleaning or fumigation, the entire collection may be removed by taking out the frame, or camphor, tobacco, or other material can be placed on the bottom of the box, and concealed from sight. The annexed figure represents a transverse section of a portion of the side and bottom of the box with the frame. A, A, box ; B, frame ; Fia 94 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 'k" P, P, upper and under sheets of paper ; C, space between lower sheet of paper and bottom of box." Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially of corn ; and palm wood, and " inodorous felt" is used, being cut to fit the bottom of the box. Leconte recommends that "for the purpose of distinguish- ing specimens from different regions, little disks of variously colored paper be used ; they are easily made by a small punch, and should be kept in wooden pill-boxes ready for use ; at the same time a key to the colors, showing the regions em- braced by each, should be made on the fly-leaf of the catalogue •/ */ o of the collection." He also strongly recommends that the "specimens should all be pinned at the same height, since the ease of recognizing species allied in characters is greatly in- creased by having them on the same level." He also states that "it is better, even when numbers with reference to a catalogue are employed, that the name of each species should be written on a label attached to the first speci- men. Thus the eye is familiarized with the association of the species and its name, memory is aided, and greater power given of identifying species when the cabinet is not at hand." For indicating the sexes the astronomical sign $ (Mars) is used for the male, and (Venus) for the female, and 9 for the worker. Transportation of Insects. While travelling, all hard-bodied insects, comprising many Hymenoptera, the Coleoptera, Ile- miptera, and many Neuroptera should be thrown, with their larva?, etc., into bottles and vials filled with strong alcohol. When the bottle is filled new liquor should be poured in, and the old may be saved for collecting purposes ; in this way the specimens will not soften and can be preserved indefinitely, and the colors do not, in most cases, change. Leconte states that "if the bottles are in danger of being broken, the specimens, after remaining for a day or two in alcohol, may be taken out, partially dried by exposure to the air, but not so as to be brit- tle, and these packed in layers in small boxes between soft paper ; the boxes should then be carefully closed with gum- paper or paste, so as to exclude all enemies." Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies and other soft-bodied insects may be well preserved by placing them in square pieces of pa- REARING LARV.K. !)5 per ibkled into a triangular form with the edges overlapping. Put up thus, multitudes can be packed away in tin boxes, and will bear transportation to any distance. In tropical climates, c-lu'sts lined with tin should be made to contain the insect- boxes, which can thus be preserved against the ravages of white ants, etc. In sending live larvae by mail, they should be inclosed in lit- tle tin boxes, and in sending dry specimens, the box should b- light and strong, and directions given at the post-office to stamp the box lightly. In sending boxes by express they should be carefully packed in a larger box, having an inter- space of two inches, which can be filled in tightly with hay or crumpled bits of paper. Beetles can be wrapped in pieces of soft paper. Labels for alcoholic specimens should consist of parchment with the locality, date of capture, and name of collector written in ink. A temporary label of firm paper with the locality, etc., written with a pencil, will last for several years. Preservation of Larvce. Alcoholic specimens of insects, in all stages of growth, are very useful. Few collections contain al- coholic specimens of the adult insect. This is a mistake. Many of the most important characters are effaced during the drying process, and for purposes of general study alcoholic speci- mens, even of Bees, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Dragon-flies are very necessary. Larvoe, generally, may be well preserved in vials or bottles of alcohol. They should first be put into whiskey, and then into alcohol. If placed in the latter first, they shrivel and become distorted. Mr. E. Burgess preserves caterpillars with the colors unchanged, by immersing them in boiling water thirty or forty seconds, and then placing them in equal parts of alcohol and water. It is well to collect larvie and pupa1 indiscriminately, even if we do not know their adult forms ; we i-an approximate to them, and in some cases tell very exactly what they must be. REARING LARVAE. More attention has been paid to rearing Caterpillars than the }roung of any other suborder of insects, and the following remarks apply more particularly to them, but IM> THE CLASS OF INSECTS. very much the same methods ma}' be pursued in rearing the larvae of Beetles, Flies, and Hymenoptera. Subterranean larva; have to be kept in moist earth, aquatic larva? must be reared in aquaria, and carnivorous larva; must be supplied with flesh. The larva? of Butterflies are rare ; those of moths occur more frequently, while their images may be scarce. In some years many larvae, which are usually rare, occur in abundance, and should then be reared in numbers. In hunting- for caterpillars bushes should be shaken and beaten over newspapers or sheets, or an umbrella; herbage should be swept, and trees examined carefully for leaf-rollers and miners. The best specimens of moths and butterflies are obtained by rearing them from the egg, or from the larva or pupa. In confinement the food should be kept fresh, and the box well ventilated. Tumblers covered with gauze, pasteboard boxes pierced with holes and fitted with glass in the covers, or large glass-jars, are very convenient to use as cages. The bot- tom of such vessels may be covered with moist sand, in which the food-plant of the larva may be stuck and kept fresh for several days. Larger and more airy boxes, a foot squa) , with the sides of gauze, and titted with a door, through whic a bot- tle of water may be introduced, serve well. The obje< is to keep the food-plant fresh, the air cool, the larva out of \ ie riun, and in fact everything in such a state of equilibrium that the larva will not feel the change of circumstances when fc"-ot in confinement. Most caterpillars change to pupae in the'! "> ; and those which transform in the earth should be covered with earth, kept damp by wet moss, and placed in the cellar until the following summer. The collector in seeking for larvae should carry a good number of pill-boxes, and especially a close tin box, in which the leaves may be kept fresh for a long time. The different forms and markings of caterpillars should be noted, and the}' should be drawn carefully together with a leaf of the food-plant, and the drawings and pupa skins, and per- fect insect, be numbered to correspond. Descriptions of cat- erpillars cannot be too carefully made, or too long. The relative size of the head, its ornamentation, the stripes and spots of the body, and the position and number of tubercles, and the hairs, or fascicles of hairs, or spines and spinules, ENTOMOLOGICAL WOIMvS. \)1 which tirise from Uiem, should be noted, besides tlic general form of the body- The lines along the body are called f/oy.sr//, if in the middle of the back, subdorsal ; if upon one side, lnf~ era?, and ventral when on the sides and under surface, or fttfi/- mated if including- the stigmuta or breathing pores, which are generally parti-colored. Indeed, the whole biography of an insect should be ascertained by the observer; the points to be noted are : 1. Date, when and ho\v the eyys are laid ; and number, size, and marking of the eggs. 2. Date of hatching, the appearance, food-plant of lurnt, and number of days between each moulting ; the changes the larva undergoes, which are often remarkable, especially before the last moulting, with drawings illustrative of these ; the hab- its of the larva, whether solitary or gregarious, whether a day or night feeder ; tne Ichneumon parasites, and their mode of attack. Specimens of larvae in the different moultings should be preserved in alcohol. The appearance of the larvae when full-fed, the date, number of days before pupating, the forma- tion and description of the cocoon, the duration of larvae in the cocoon before pupation, their appearance just before changing, their appearance while changing, and alcoholic specimens of larvae in the act, should all be studied and noted. 3. Date of pupation ; description of the pupa or chrysalis ; duration of the pupa state, habits, etc. ; together with alcoholic specimens, or pinned dry ones. Lepidopterous pupa; should be looked for late in the summer or in the fall and spring, about the roots of trees, and kept moist in mould until the imago appears. Many Coleopterous pupae may also occur in mould, and if aquatic, under submerged sticks and stones, and those of borers under the bark of decaying trees. 4. Date when the insect escapes from the pupa, and method of escape ; duration of life of the imago ; and the number of broods in a season. ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. The titles of a few of the most im- portant works on Insects are given below. The more advanced student should, however, possess Dr. Hagen's Bibliotheea En- tomologica, 8vo, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1862-3, which contains a 7 98 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. complete list of all entomological publications up to the year 1K62. Besides these he should consult the annual reports on the progress of Entomology published in Wiegmann's Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, begun in 1834, and continued up to the ! present time ; and also Gimther's Zoological Record (8vo, Van : Voorst, London) , beginning with the year 1864. Occasional articles are also scattered through the various government re- ports, and those of agricultural societies and agricultural papers. GENERAL WORKS. The works of Swammerdam, Malphighi, Leeuwenhoek, Ly on-net, Serres, Mecl-el, Ramdohr, Suckow, Merian, and Herbst. Reaumur, Renv A nt. do. Memoires pour servir a 1' Histoire des Insectes. Paris, 1734 -1742, 7 vols. 4to. Jioesel, Aug. Joh. Dermonatlich herausgegeben Insekten-Belustigung. Numberg, 174(5-1761, 4 vols. 4to, illustrated. Geer, Carl de. Memoires pour servir a 1' Histoire des Insectes, 1752-1778, 7 TO!S. 4tO. Linnmis, Carolus. Systema Naturae, 1735. 12th edition, 1766-1768. Hilii-tcius, Joh. Christ. Systema Entomologiae, 1775, 8vo. . Genera Insectorum, 1777, 8vo. • . Species Insectorum, 1781, 2 vols. 8vo. . Mantissa Insectorum, 1787, 2 vols. 8vo. . Entomologia Systematica., 4 vols. 8vo, 1792-94. Cramer, P. Papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde. 4 vols. 4to, 1775-82. Stoll, Casper. Supplement to Cramer's Papillons exotiques. 4to, Amsterdam, 1787-1)1. Smith, J. E.t and Abbot, John. The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous Insects of Georgia. Fol. Plates. London, 1797. LntreiUe, Pierre Andre. Precis des caracteres generique des Insectes, 1796, 8vo. Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum, 4 vols. 8vo, 1806-1809. . Consideration generates sur 1' Ordre naturel des Animaux composant les Classes des Crustaces, des Arachnides et des Insectes. . In Cuvier's Regne animal, 8vo, 1810. . Families naturelles du Regne animal, 8vo, 1825. Cours d' Entomologie, 8vo, 1831. Fubi-icius, Otho. Fauna Groenlaudica. Hafnia1, 1780, 8vo. Contains Libellula rirgo (erroneously), Phryganea rhombica, Termes dirinatoritt>»,rtf. ttriiry, Drew. Illustrations of Natural History, etc. London, 1770-1782, 4to,3 vols. (ed. Westwood, 1837). Numerous species are figured and described. Trrriranus, G. fi. Vermischte Schriften anatomischen und physiologischen Inhalts lid. 1 u. 2. Gottingen, 1816-17, 4to. Mm- Lean, T. .S'. Hor» Entomologies?, 2 vols. London, 181!). AfcifU'ii, F. ir. Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europiiischeu zweinii- geligen Insecten. 7 vols. Aachen and Hamm, 1818-1835. (Although this work contains only European species, many of them are common to both continents.) ,s»///, T. American Entomology. 3 vols. With plates. Philadelphia, 1824, 25, 28. . Complete Writings on the Entomology of North America, edited by J. L. Leconte, M. D. 2 vols. 8vo, colored plates. New York, 1859. n. The Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera. so col- ored plates, 2 vols. Ibl. London, ls4(i-5:>. Walker, F. List of the specimens of Lepiilopterous, Dipterous, Neuropterotis, ami Homopterous Insects in the Collection of the liritish Museum. London, 1848-07. Amyol, ('., and Si-rrille, A. llemipteres. Svo, Paris, Roret, 1S4.">. Rntzebiirg. J. T. C. Die Eorstinsekten. 4to, .'{ vols. Berlin, 1837-44. 1'n ii ili r Ifn-ren, J. Handbook of Zoology, English translation. 2 vols. Svo, 1850. (,'i'i-xtaecker, A. Ilandbnch tier Zoiilogie (in connection with V. Cams), 2 vois. Svo. (vol. 2, Arthropoda). Leipzig, IN;:;. f>e Sehj.t I.onychamps', E. Revue des Odonates on Libellules d'Enrope avec la col- laboration de II. Hagen. Paris, 1850, Svo. (Memoir. Soc. R. Science de Liege, vol. vi.) (Two species, Lib. HtKlxouicit, p. r>:;, and Agrion Doublcdayi, p. 209, are described in this work.) Hiigen, If. Revue des Oilonat.es; Monographic des Calopterygines; Monographic des Gomphines (cf. Selys Lougchamps). Ar/ussiz, L. Lake Superior, its Physical Character, its Vegetation, and its Animals, Boston, 1850. With Catalogue of Coleoptera, by Dr. J. L. Leconte, and of the Lepidoptera, by Dr. T. W. Harris. I:.!'- Diiflih'rs, H. Recherchcs snr i- arniure geuitale femelle des Insectes. Plates. Svo. Paris, 185:;. imer, F. E. Catalogue of the described Coleoptera of the United States. Smithsonian Institution. 8vo, is.Yi. DuUns, ir. S. Catalogue of Hemipterous Insects in the I'.ntish Museum. 1, 2. Illustrated. London, 1852. Fitch, Ana. The noxious, beneficial, and other Insects of the State of New York, Reports 1-8, ls:>n- ;i;. Smith, l''r*'(1eric. Catalogue of Hymenoptera in the British Museum. Parts i-\i. Plates. London, 1857-58. Fallen, ('. /•'., Still, C., and Fieber. Various papers on Ilemiptera in Scandinavian ami German periodicals. Hiilnier, ./. Saminlung Kxotischer Schrnetterlinge. 5 vols. 4to. Plates. 180U. Gin'iK'i', .(. Species general des Lepidopteres. (Noctuidae, Phala^nida* and Pyia- lida>) Suite a Buflon. Paris, 8vo, 18.VJ-57. Sffiiiiton, Jf. T. The Natural History of the Tineina. 8vo, with many plates. Lon don, vols. 1-8, 1855-04, 8vo. LiK-oriluire, J. T. Genera des Coleopteres. Svo, tomes 1-7. Paris, Roret, 1854. Jioisdnral, J. A. Ilistoire generale et Iconographie des Lepidopteres et des Che- nilles de 1'Amerique septentrionale. Svo. Paris, Roret, 1829-42. . Species generale des Lepidopteres. 8vo. Roret, Pans, 185G. . Kssai sur rEntomologie horticole. Svo. Paris, 1807. Practical Entomologist. Entomological Society of Philadelphia. Vols. 1, 2, 4to, 1865-G7. Harris, T. W. A Treatise on some of the Insects of New England, which are injurious to Vegetation. Third edition, illustrated. Boston, 1802. Leronte, J. L. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America. Part I, 1801-2. Smithsonian Institution. . List of Coleoptera of North America. 8vo, 180:i-fi. Smithsonian Institu- tion. . New Species of North American Coleoptera. Svo. Part I, 1803-0. Smith- sonian Institution. . Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. 4to. 3 plates. 1859. Smithsonian Institution. Hagen, H. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America. Svo. 1801. Smith- sonian Institution. Morris, .T. G. Catalogue of the described Lepidoptera of North America. 8vo. 18GO. Smithsonian Institution. ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 101 Oaten Sackcn, /?. Catalogue of the described Diptera of North America. 1R58. Smithsonian JnMittition. Loew, II., and Oxtrii Uticken, Jl. Monograph of the Diptera of North America. Part* 1,2. Svo, 1S(;2-G4. Smithsonian Institution. Trimble, 1. I'. A Treatise on the Insect Enemies of Fruit and Fruit Trees. The Curculio and Apple moth. 4to. Plates. New York, 180.5. MORPHOLOGY. Snrigny, J. C. Memoires sur les Animaux sans Vertebras. 1 Partic. Description et Classification des Animaux invertebres et articuk-s, 1. Fascicule. Tin-one des Organes de la Bouchc des Crustaees et des Insectes. Paris, 1816. Andouin, ./. r. Recherches anatomiques sur le Thorax des animaux articult'-s et celui des Insectes hexapodes en particulier. (Annales d. Scienc. natur. 1, 1824, p. 97 and 416.) J-'nf)iwholts, •/. F. Beschreibung des inneren Skeletes einiger Insekten aus ver- schiedenen Ordnnngen. Dorpat, 1820, Svo, p. 24-49, "2 Taf. Jiacr, K. E. ('. Ueber das aussere und innere Skelet (Meckel's Archiv. f. Anatom. u. Physiol. 182il-338.) JSlanchard, E. Recherches anatomiques et zoiilogiqnes snr le Systeme nervenx des Animanx sans vertebres. Du systeme nerveux des Insectes. (Annal. d. scienc-. natur. 3. ser. V, 1846, p. 273-37'J.) 102 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. Itlancliard, E. Du Systeme nerveux chcz les Invertebres dans ses rapports avec la Classification de ces Animaux. Paris, 1S4'.), Svo. 3rUnc-J-:ilu- Taf. Jlcrohl, J. ]\f. Exercitationcs de animalium vertebris carentium in ovo formationo J. De generatione Aranearnm in ovo. — Untersuchungen iiber die Bildungsge- schichte der Wirbellosen Thieve im Ei. 1. Th. Von der Erzeugung dev Spinnen im Ei. Marburg, Krieger, 1824, fol. mit 4 Taf. . Disquisitiones de animalium vertebris carentium in ovo fovmatione. De generatione Insectorum in ovo. Fasc. I, II, Frankfurt a Main, 1835-38, fol. Kvlliker, A. Observationes de prima Insectorum genesi, adjecta articulatorum evolutionis cum vertcbratorum comparatione. Dissert, iuaug. Turici, Meyer et Zeller, 1842, 4to, c. tab. 3. Zntblfirlt, G. Untersuchung iiber die Entwickelung und den Ban der Gliederthiere. Heft 1. Die Entwickelung des Phryganiden-Eies. Berlin, Reimer. 1854, 4to, c. tab. 5. Leuckart, It. Die Fortpflanzung und Entwickelung der Pupiparen nach Beobach- tungen an Melophagus oviuus. (Abhandl. d. naturf. Gesellsch. zu Halle IV, 1858» 8. 145-22(5.) Huxley, T. On the agamic Reproduction and Morphology of Aphis (Transact. Linnean Soc. of London, XXII, p. 193-23ti.) LubbocJ.; J. On the Ova and Pseudova of Insects (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Soc. 1859, p. 341-369. Clapari'tle, E. Recherches sur 1' evolution des Araignees. 4to. Utrecht, lsi;->. Wi'iaiiiinin, A. Ueber die Entstehung des vollendeten Insekts in Lavveiuul Puppe. Ein Beitrag zur Metamorphose der Insekten, Frankfurt a Main, 1803, 4to. . Die Entwickelung der Dipteren im Ei, nach Beobachtungen an Chirono- nuis, Musca vomitoria und Pulex canis (Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zo- ologie XIII, p. 107-204.) . Die nachembryonale Entwickelung der Musciden nach Beobachtungen an Musca vomitoria uud Sarcophaga carnaria. (The same, XIV, p. 187-33U.) FOSSIL INSECTS. Giebel, C. Fauna rler Vorwelt mit steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Thiere. 2. Bd. Gliederthiere. 1. Abtheilung. Die Insekten und Spinnen der Vorwelt mit steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Insekten und Spinnen. Leipzig, 185G, Svo. Berendt, C. G. Die im Bernstein beflndlichen organischen Reste der Vorwelt, go- sammelt und in Verbindung mit Mehreren herausgegeben. 1. Band. 2, Abth. Die im Bernstein befindlichen Crustaceen.Myriapoden, Arachniden undapteren der Vonvelt, bearbeitet von C.L.Koch und C. G. Berendt.— 2. Band. Die im Bernstein beflndlichen Hemipteren, Orthopteren, und Neuropteren dev Vorwelt, beavbeitet von E. F. Germar, F. J. Pictet, und H. Ilagen. Berlin, 1854-5(i, fol. ffeer, O. Die Insecten-faunader Tertiaergebilde von CEningenund Radoboj. Leip- zig, 1849, 4to, 3 vols. Scudder, S. H. An inquiry into the Zoological Relations of the first discovered. Traces of fossil Neuropterous Insects in North America. From the Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. I, 1M7, with a plate. ENTOMOLOGICAL JOURNAL. KKJ PERIODICAL WORKS (now in course of publication). Edwards, If. If. Butterflies of North America. Colored plates. Commenced 1868. Annales de la Societe entomologique de France, Paris. Commenced 183'2. Transaction* of the Entomological Society of London. Commenced IS.'U. L' Insectologie, Agricole, Monthly Journal, Paris. Commenced 1867. Z<-itung. Entomologische Vereiu, Stettin. Commenced 1840. Linncea entomoloffica. Entomologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced I84i;. Xeitschrift. Entomologische Vereiu, Berlin. Commenced 1857. Annaies de la Societe entomologique Beige, Brussels. Commenced 1857. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced I8p.i. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced 1817. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. New Series. Commenced 1818. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834. Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. Commenced 18:24. Proceeding* and Transactions of the American Entomological Society, Philadel- phia. Commenced 1861. Proceedings and Communications of the Essex Institute, Salem. Commenced American Naturalist, Salem. Commenced March, 1867. ENTOMOLOGICAL JOURNAL. Every collector should keep u daily journal of his captures and observations, noting down every fact and hint that falls under his notice. In this book, commenced as soon as the season opens in early spring, can be placed on record the earliest appearance, the time of great- est abundance, and the disappearance of every insect in any of its stages. Also the descriptions of larvae, with sketches, and observations upon their habits ; though drawings had better be kept upon separate pieces of paper for easier reference. The insects, when captured and unnamed should be numbered to agree with corresponding numbers in the note-book. At the close of the season one will be surprised to see how much material of this kind has accumulated. He can then make a calendar of appearances of perfect insects and larvae, so as to have the work of the next season portioned out to him ; he will thus know when and where to look for any particular insect or caterpillar. THE NUMBER OF SPECIES OF INSECTS. Oswald Heer estimates that the Insects comprise four-fifths of the whole animal king- dom. While there are about 55,000 species of animals known, excluding the Insects, the number of this last single class amounts to upwards of 190,000 known species, according to 104 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. Gerstaecker's estimate. lie reckons that there are at least 2"). 000 species of Ilymenoptera, from 22,000 to 24,000 Lepidop- tera, about 24,000 Diptera, and !>0,000 Coleoptera ; the number of the other suborders cannot be easily estimated. Besides these there are about 4,000 Arachnida, and 800 Myriopods. MNi; OF INSECTS INTO ORDERS AND SrnoitDEiis. Be- fore beginning an account of the .Six-footed Insects, we present the following tabular view of the Classification of In- sects. The idea that the Myriopods, Spiders, and Six-footed Insects formed orders and not classes was first proposed by R. Leuckart in 1848, and afterwards supported by Agassiz and Dana,. The arrangements proposed by these and other authors are put in tabular form on page 106. THE CLASS OF IXSECTS. Sub-class {.Segments grouped into three distinct re- "| gions; eyes compound and simple; two pairs of I HKXAPODA wings:* three pairs of thoracic legs; one pair of f (Six-footed In- jointed abdominal appendages. A more or less | sects). complete metamorphosis, ..... } -clux* //.Segments grouped into two regions, a ") false cephalothoraxf and an abdomen; no antenna-: | eyes simple; wingless; four pairs of thoracic legs ; J> Al=ACIINI|)A three pairs of jointed abdominal appendages (spin- | lie rets) often present. No metamorphosis, . . } i-i-l/rxs /"//.Body cylindrical, worm-like. Segments "1 not grouped into regions. Head free; eyes sim- ,,, pie; antennae present; wingless; numerous ab- }~ /p U dominal legs present; yelk-sac present for a | short period after hatching. No metamorphosis. J THK ORDERS OK SIX-FOOTED INSECTS J Metabola. The body usually cylindrical; prothorax 1 small; mouth-parts more generally haustellate | HYMENOPTERA (formed for sucking) ; metamorphosis complete; }• LEPIDOPTERA. pupa inactive; larva usually cylindrical, very | DIPTERA. unlike the adult, ...... \ H<-tcrometabola. The body usually flattened; pro- ^ COLEOPTERA. thorax large and squarish ; moiith-parts usually | HEMIPTERA. adapted for bitiug; metamorphosis in a large }• ORTIIOPTERA. number incomplete; pupa often inactive; larva | NEUROPTERA. flattened, often resembling the adult, . . J TIIYSANUKA. * The uumbei-of wingless forms is comparatively few. The Diptera have but one pair. t The so-called " cephalotliorax" of Spiders is not like that region in the Crabs, the head being much freer from the thorax. J Leuckart's classification is an advance on others in his considering the Hexa- poda, Arachnida, ami Myriapoda as orders instead of classes, but he says nothing OF INSECTS. 105 The following diagram shows, in a rude way, the relative rank and affinities of the eight orders, and of the two series of Six-footed Insects. OJ Neuroptera. Thysamira. Through l^epistna, and Podura which are wingless Thysa- nurous insects, the lower series is connected with the Myriopods, the minute degraded Pauropus and Scolopendrella perhaps forming the connecting links; and through the wingless flies, Braula, Chionea, and Nycteribia, the Diptera, belonging to the higher series, assume the form of the Spiders, the head being small, and sunken into the thorax, while the legs are long and slender. The first and highest series culminates in Apis, the Honey-bee ; and the second, or lower, in CicunMa, the Tiger-beetle. regarding the rank and value of the minor groups. Professor Agassiz extended Leuckart's views in considering the seven grand divisions of the order of Hexapods as suborders. In 18U3 (How to Observe and Collect Insects, Maine Scientific Sur- vey, and Synthetic Types of Insects, Boston Journal of Natural History), we proposed a new classification of these divisions, by which they are thrown into two main groups headed by the Hymenoptera and Coleoptera respectively. These two groups, as represented in the diagram, are nearly equivalent in value, and stand in a somewhat parallel relation. There is nothing like a linear series in the animal kingdom, but it is like a tree. The higher series of orders form more of a linear series than the lower series, so that in the diagram the Neuroptera, Orthoptera, llemiptera, and Coleoptera form a more broken series than the Hy- menoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera. A Bee, Butterfly, and House-fly are much more closely allied to each other than a Beetle, a Squash-bug, a Grasshopper, and a Dragon-fly are among themselves. The Neuroptera are the most indepen- dent, and stand at the bottom of and between the two series, though by the Orthop- tera they arc very intimately linked with the Jleiniptera and Coleoptera. 106 THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 03 tf o S OJ o x O a g CO a tf m X co •/" c-i si^* ^^.rcT^r -^-b I 'S • 1 1 r >^- *^ T-H " * ri T. _X < 2 Q " 114111111111 ^ /- ^> 2 ">? ~ O '3 ^ *2 ^ '^ — ^ '" S 0 ci o rt I- 0 r 5 •| 5^5" >i^'~^ ^3'^ o ^ "3 3~£ •"? "— i" -U JH ^ "^ ^" S ^ B 5 -5"^ WH^oqOWOec "* X x^1" i-^ CO c-i i ?• - 1 ^ ' 2 x* ^ Z Z « - =i g --^ *~* •? 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O 2 a £ ^5 5 a, 5 §-;3 ^ a • C3 r^i o -5 c^ +* "^ o fS~ * i* .-+ /— , *r* ^ ~* 'v~ co~ Z$ fS EH & & ^ & r- ^ ^ r* *~ '— \ p . ^oi-^s^- ^ ^ 'Cs^X o ^Ts f iff *, O F"— _3 -g_g O ^ a 1 "I > ^ O ^— ' o 'S f- 0 C3 ^5 •5 -* "^ *j co „ oj i^1 o JT !i C1 ^ *pH lf^ ^ a,*^ ci *-> o X o ^^ c "tr •< S o o ^< *•< p< s 5*1 s o s c « « S 3^ *J « ^ ?: ^^ ' — • -u) t,, C5 •< S r;^ 5 5" a; •»-> I-^SH |5 S O rt S ^ HYMENOl'TERA. 1()7 HYMENOPTEEA. THE Bees, Wasps, Saw-flies, Ants, and other members of this suborder differ from all other insects in having, in the higher and more typical forms, the basal joint of the abdomen thrown for- ward upon and intimately united with the thorax. The head is large, with large compound eyes, and three ocelli. The month-parts are well developed both for biting, and feeding on the sweets of plants, the lignla especially, used in lapping nectar, being greatly developed. The other regions of the body are more distinct than in other insects ; the wings are small but powerful, with comparative!}- few and somewhat irregular veins, adapted for powerful and long-sustained flights ; and the genital appendages retracted, except in the Ichneu- mon parasites and Saw-flies, within the body, are in the female modified into a sting. The transformations of this suborder are the most complete of all insects ; the larvae in their general form are more unlike the adult insects than in any other suborder, while the pup;e, on the other hand, most clearly approximate to the imago. The larva? are short, cylindrical, footless (excepting the j'oung of the Saw-flies, the lowest family, which are provided with abdominal legs like Lepidopterous larvae), worm-like grubs, which are helpless, and have to be fed by the prevision of the parent. The pupa has the limbs free, and is generally contained in a thin silken cocoon ; that of the Saw-flies, however, being thick. The Hymenoptera exhibit, according to Professor Dana, the normal size of the insect-type. "This archetypic size is be- NOTE to page 10G.— Ray divided the Hexapods into Coleoptera and Aneloptera , the latter division embracing all the other suborders except the Coleoptera. His Ametamorphota Hexapoda contained the wingless hexapoda; while the Ametamor- phota polypoda comprise the Myriopods, and the A. octopoda the Arachnids. Lin- na3iis' Aptera (with numerous feet) are equivalent to the Myriopods, and his Aptera (with S-14 feet) to the Arachnids. In Fabricius' system the Eleuthcrata are equiva- lent to the Coleoptera ; the Ulonata to the Orthoptera ; the Synistata to the Neurop- tera; the Piezata to the Hymenoptera; the Odonata to theLibellulida;; the Glossata to the Lepidoptera ; the llliyngota to the Hemiptera; the Antliata to the Diptera. The Mitosata are the Myriopods, and the Unogata, the Arachnids. In Latreille's system the Suctoria,or Fleas, are now referred to the Diptera; the Parasita or Lice, to the Ilemiptera, and the Thysanura to the Neuroptera. HYMENOPTERA. tween eight and twelve lines (or twelfths of an inch) in length, mid two and a half and three lines in breadth." This size is probably a smaller average than in any other suborder ; thus the Ilvmenoptera while being the most cephalized, consequently comprise the most compactly moulded insectean forms. Besides these structural characters, as animals, endowed with instincts and a kind of reason differing, perhaps, only in drijw from that of man, these insects outrank all other Articu- lates. In the unusual differentiation of the individual into males and females, and, generally sterile workers, with a farther dimor- phism of these three sexual forms, such as lluber has noticed in tin- Humble-bee, and a consequent subdivision of labor among them ; in dwelling in large colonies, thus involving new and intricate relations with other insects (such as Aphides, ant-hill-inhabiting beetles, and the peculiar bee-parasites) ; their wonderful instincts, their living principally on the sweets and pollen of flowers, and not being essentially carnivorous (i.e. seizing their prey like the Tiger-beetle) in their h; bits, as are a large proportion of the other suborders, with the exception of Lepidoptera ; and in their relation to man as a domestic an- imal, subservient to his wants. — the Bees, and Ilymenoptera in general, possess a combination of characters which are not found existing in any other suborder of insects, and which rank them first and highest in the insect series. The body-wall of the Ilymenoptera is unusually dense and hard, smooth and highly polished, and either naked, or covered with hair as in a large proportion of the bees. The head is large, not much smaller than the thorax, and its front is verti- cal. The antenna; are short, filiform, often geniculate, very rarely pectinated. The mandibles are large, stout, toothed, and the maxilla? are well developed into their three subdivisions, the palpi being usually six-jointed ; the labial palpi are usually four-jointed, and the prolongation of the under lip, or lignla, is highly developed, being furnished with a secondary pair of palpi, the paraglossa?, while in the pollen-gathering species the lignla is of great length, and thus answers much the same purpose as the spiral tongue (maxilla?) of the Lepidoptera. Reaumur states that the Bee does not suck up the liquid sweets, but laps them up with its long slender hairy tongue. HYMENOPTERA. 10',* -'Even hi the drop of honey the bee fiends the end of its tongue about, and lengthens and shortens it successively, and, indeed, withdraws it from moment to moment." The liquid passes along the upper surface of the pilose tongue, which is withdrawn between its sheaths, the palpi and maxilhe, and thus "'conveys and deposits the liquid with which it is charged within a sort of channel, formed by the upper surface of the tongue and the sheaths which fold over it, by which the liquid is conveyed to the mouth." (Shuckard.) The thorax forms a rounded compact oval mass, with the prothorax and metathorax very small, the mesothorax 1 icing- large, and also the propodeuni, to which the pedicel of the ab- domen is attached. The pleurites are large and bulging, while the sternum is minute. The coxa? and troclmntines are large, and quite free from the thorax ; and the trochanters are small, while the rather slender legs are subject to great modifications, as they are devoted to so many different uses by these insects ; thus, in the Sand-wasps they are strongly bristled for the purpose of digging, and in the Bees, the basal joint of the tarsi is much enlarged for carrying pollen. "•The manner in which the bee conveys either the pollen, or other material it purposes carrying home, to the posterior legs, or venter, which is to bear it, is very curious. The rapidity of the motion of its legs is then vr y great ; so great, indeed, as to make it very difficult to follow them; but it seems first to collect its material gradually with its mandibles, from which the anterior tarsi gather it, and that on each side passes successively the grains of Avhich it consists to the inter- mediate legs, by multiplicated scrapings and twistings of the limbs ; this, then, passes it on by similar manoeuvres, and de- posits it, according to the nature of the bee, upon the pos- terior tibia? and tarsi, or upon the under side of the abdomen. The evidence of this process is speedily manifested by the pos- terior legs gradually exhibiting an increasing pellet of pollen. Thus, for this purpose, all the legs of the bees are more or less covered with hair. It is the mandibles which are chiefly used in their boring or excavating operations, applying their hands, or anterior tarsi, only to clear their way ; but by the construc- tive, or artisan bees, they are used both in their building and 110 HYMENOPTEHA. mining operations, and are worked like trowels to collect moist clay, and to apply it to the masonry of their habitations." (Shuckard.) The four wings are present, except in rare instances. They are small ; the hinder pair long, narrow, ovate, lanceolate. The costal edge of the fore-wing (Fig. 29), is generally straight, becoming a little curved towards the apex, which is obtusely subrectangular ; the outer edge is bent at riu'ht angles, while the inner edge of the wing is long and straight. The veins are often difficult to trace, as in the outer half of the wing they break up into a system of net-veins, which are few in number, yet the continuations of the subcostal, median, and submedian veins can be distinguished after careful studv. In some low Ichneumonidce, the Proctotrupidce, and Ohalcididce, the veins show a tendency to become obsolete, (»uly the simple subcostal vein remaining; and in Ptemtomus, the veins are entirely obliterated, and the linear feather-like wings are in one pair fissured, reminding us of the Plume- moths, Pterophorus. The abdomen is composed in the larva state of ten segments, but in the adult stinging Hymenoptera, of six complete seg- ments in the females, and seven in the males ; while in the lower families the number varies, having in the Tentliredi- n idw, eight tergites on the upper side and six sternites on the lower side. The remaining segments are, during the transfor- mations of the insect, aborted and withdrawn within the body. The ovipositor and corresponding parts in the male have been described on pp. 14-18. The nervous system consists in the larvae of eleven ganglia, in the adult five or six of these remain as abdominal ganglia, while the remainder, excluding the cephalic ganglia, are placed in two groups in the thorax. The cerebral ganglia are well developed, evincing the high intellectual qualities necessary in presiding over organs with such different uses as the simple and compound eyes, the antennae, and lingua and palpi, and mandibles, especially in those sociable species which build complete nests. The digestive system, in those bees which sip up their food, consists, besides the external mouth-parts, of a "long ojsoph- 1IYMENOPTEK A . Ill iigus which dilates into u thin-walled sacking stomach," which in the Apiarin; and Vex pi /phitni, the male Lopltyrus has well-pectinated antenna?, as also has Cladomacra macropus of Smith, from New (riiinea and Celebes. The wings of perhaps the most degraded Hymenoptera, the Proctotrupidce, are rarely fissured; when this occurs, as in Pteratomus Pudnimii, they somewhat resemble those of Ptvro- pJwrus, the lowest moth. It is extremely rare that the com- pound eyes are replaced by stemmata, or simple eyes ; in but one instance, the genus Antliopliorabia, are the eyes in the male sex reduced to a simple ocellus. This species lives in the -s/>/doe) and Bees (Apiariw) are the most difficult insects to stud}". The easiest characters for the recognition of the genera, lie in the venation of the wings ; though in the fossorial families the legs vary greatly. The best specific characters lie in the sculptur- ing and style of coloration, but the spots and markings are apt to vary greatly. The great differences between the sexes are liable to mislead the student, and hence large collections are indispensable for their proper study. Bees act as "marriage priests" in the fertilization of plants, conveying pollen from flower to flower, and thus insuring the formation of the fruit. It is said that many plants could not be fertilized without the interposition of Bees. Their interesting habits deserve long and patient study; it is tor their observations on the insects of this suborder that the names of Reaumur, the two Ilubers, and Latreille will be ever held in special remembrance. Most Hymenoptera love the sun, and they may be caught while flying about flowers. The nests of bees, wasps, and ants should be sought for and the entire colony captured, together with the parasites. The hairy species should be pinned while in the net, and the naked ones can be put in the collecting-bot- tle. The larger species may be pinned, like other insects, through the thorax ; but the minute Chalcids, etc., should be gummed, like small Coleoptera, upon cards. The nests of bees and of wasps and ants and the young iu various stages of growth should be collected, and in such num- bers as to show their different stages of construction, to serve- as illustrations of insect architecture. APIARIJE Latreille (Apidcc Leach). This and those families succeeding which are provided with a true sting, were called by Latreille Hymenoptera Aculeata. The male antennae are mostly thirteen-jointed, while in the female they are twelve- jointed. The females (and the workers, when they exist) feed the larvae, which mostly live in nests or cells. 11(5 HYMENOrTEKA. Iii the social Bees, besides the normal male and female forms, there are asexual females, whose inner genital organs are partly aborted, though externally only differing in their smaller size from the true females. The male antenme are longer, tapering more towards the tips, and the eyes of the male approach each other closer over the vertex than in the opposite sex, though these are characters which apply to other Hymenoptera. The mouth-parts are in the higher genera greatly elongated, the labium being long, with the lingua of great length, and the lobes of the maxilla? long and knife-shaped ; but these parts. a> well as the form of the jaws, are subject to great modifications in the different genera : the labial palpi are four-jointed, and the maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed. The hind tibia and basal joint of the tarsi are, in the pollen-gathering species, very broad ; the tibia is in Apis and Bombus hollowed on the outside, and stiff bristles project over the cavity from each side of the joint, forming the honey-basket (eorbiailnm), on which the uelodden masses of honey and pollen" are con- veyed to their nests. In the parasitic genera, such as Ap«tlms, the tibia is, on the contrary, convex, rather than concave, though of the usual width ; while in Nomada, also parasitic, the legs are narrow, the tibia not being dilated. In Andrena and its allies, Halictus and Colletes, the mouth- parts, especially the tongue, are much shortened, thus afford- ing a passage into the Vespiclce . In these genera the tongue is folded back but once between the horny encasement of the maxillae, but in the higher Apiariw the part formed by the union of the lingua and maxilla is twice bent back, and thus protected by the horny lobes of the inaxill*. The fore-wings have two or three subcostal (cubital) cells. There are two thousand species of this family. The differ- ences between the larvae of the various genera of this family are very slight, those of the parasitic species are, however, readily distinguished from their hosts. The higher Apiarim, comprising the subfamily Apinix, have the ligula long, cylindrical, while the labial palpi have two very long, slender, compressed basal joints, and two short terminal joints. The genus Apis has no terminal spurs on the hind tibi;e, APIAKI^E. 117 while the fore-wings have three subcostal (cubital) cells, the middle of which is elongated and acutely wedge-shaped. The eves iu the male are united above ; the mouth-parts are nearly aborted, and the hind legs are smooth. In the female there are two paraglossaf on the lignla, and the maxillary palpi are one-jointed. The worker only differs externally from the female in the shorter abdomen. The larva of the Honey-bee closely resembles that of Bom- bus, but the body is shorter, broader, and more flattened, while the head is less prominent, and the lateral tubercles along the body are, perhaps, less prominent than in the young Humble- bee, otherwise the two genera are, in the larval state, much alike. In its natural position, the larva lies at the bottom of the cell doubled upon itself. Though the larva? are said usually to feed upon pollen, Mr. Desborough states that honey alone is the food of the grub, as he reared 729 larva> with no other food than honey. But as with the wild bees they may extract honey from the pollen provided for them. He says the matured bees may be observed feeding at night on the bee-bread (pollen). Lang- stroth (The Hive and Honey-bee), however, states that "pol- len is indispensable to the nourishment of the young. It is very rich in the nitrogenous substances which are not contained in the honey." The Honey-bee, Apis mellifica, is now distributed over the civilized world. It was introduced into this country during the seventeenth century, and into South America in 1845 (Ger- staecker). The Italian, or Ligurian, bee is considered by F Smith as being a climatic variety. The cultivation of the Honey-bee is rapidly increasing in this country, but the German Bee-masters have made the most pro- gress in theoretical and practical Bee-culture. Convenient hives are now constructed by which all the operations of the bees can be observed at leisure. Gersta?cker thus sums up the habits of the Honey-bee : A fertilized queen which, with a few workers, has wintered over, lays its eggs in the spring first in the worker, and afterwards, at a later period, in the drone- cells (both arranged in two perpendicular rows of cells). Early in summer, the workers construct the larger flask-shaped queen- US HYMENOPTERA. cells, which are placed on the edge of the comb, and in these the queen-lame are fed with rich and choice nourishment. As soon as the first of the new brood of queens is excluded from its cell, which it indicates by a peculiar buzzing noise, the old queen deserts the nest, carrying away with her a part of the swarm, and thus forms a new colony. The recently excluded queen then hikes its marriage flight high in the air with a drone, and on its return undertakes the management of the hive, and the duty of laving eggs. When another queen is disclosed, the same process of forming a new colony goes on. When the supply of young queens is exhausted, the workers fall upon the drones and destroy them without mercy. The first brood of workers live about six weeks in summer, and then give way to a new brood. Mr. J. G. Desborough states that the maximum period of the life of a worker is eight months. The queens are known to live five years, and during their whole life lay more than a million eggs (V. Berlepsch). Langstroth states that '••during the height of the breeding season, she will often, under favorable circumstances, lay from 2,000 to 3,000 eggs a day." According to Von Siebold's discovery only the queens' and workers' eggs are fertilized by sperm- cells stored in the receptaculum xemhns, and these she can fertilize at will, retaining the power for four or five years, as the muscles guarding the duct leading from this sperm-bag are subject to her will. Drone eggs are laid by unfertilized queen-bees, and in some cases even by worker-bees. This last fact has been confirmed by the more recent observations of Mr. Tegetmeier, of London. Principal Leitch, according to Tegetmeier, has suggested the theory that a worker egg may develop a queen, if transferred into a queen-cell. "It is well known that bees, deprived of their queen, select several worker-eggs, or very young larvae, for the purpose of rearing, queens. The cells in which these eggs are situated are lengthened out and the end turned down- ward." He suggests that the development into a queen was caused by the increased temperature of the queen-cell, above that of the worker-cells. But Messrs. F. Smith and Woodbury (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London, January 2, 1862) support F. AI'IAKIJE. H9 Huber's theory, that the change is due to "'the quality as well as quantity of food with which the royal larva i.s supplied," though Dr. Leitch objects, that it has been by no means con- clusively proved " that the so-called royal jelly differs in any respect from the ordinary food supplied to the worker larva ; " and Mr. Woodbury cites the experiments of Dzierzon, as quoted by Kleine, "that as Huber, by introducing some royal jelly in cells containing worker-brood, obtained queens, it may be possible to induce bees to construct royal cells, when the Apiarian prefers to have them, by inserting a small portion of royal jelly in cells containing worker-larva'." Kleine takes "an unsealed royal cell — which usually contains an excess of royal jelly — and removes from it a portion of the jelly, on the point of a knife or pen, and by placing it on the inner margin of any worker cell, feels confident that the lame in them will be reared as queens." Before these points are settled we must study the habits of the Wild Bees, and of the other social Hymenoptera and White Ants, together with the social Aphides more carefully. Mr. F. W. Putnam pertinently states, "at present I cannot believe that the peculiarity of food, or the structure of the cells, pro- duces a difference of development in Humble-bees, for the lar- vae, as has been previously stated, were seen to make their own cells from the pollen paste. Is it not more natural to believe, as has been suggested to me by Professor J. Wyman, that the difference in the development of the eggs is owing to their be- ing laid at various times after impregnation? Thus, if I urn right in supposing that the queens are impregnated by the males late in the summer, the eggs, laid soon after, produce the large queen larva? ; * the next set of eggs, laid in the spring, produce the workers, or undeveloped females, while from those deposited still later, male bees are principally developed." (Proceedings of the Essex Institute, Salem, vol. iv, 18G4, p. 103.) Referring to Mr. Putnam's statement that there are both small and large queens (besides the workers), Dr. Gerstaecker infers, *Dr. Gerstaecker, on the other hand, states that "from the brood-cells of a nest of Rambus muscorum, found by him on the 18th of September, there were devel- oped at the end of the same month only workers." 120 11YMENOPTEUA. '•from the examination of numerous individuals found flying in tin- spring after hibernation, that these could not be considered as true queens, since their ovaries were only moderately devel- oped, though larger than those of the workers, while in the true queen, captured in the summer, the ovaries were perfectly developed. This corresponds almost entirely to what we find in the wasps, whose spring females have only moderately de- veloped ovaries." How the Honey-bee builds its cells, and whether they are ex- actly hexagonal, are questions that have interested the best observers from Maraldi who wrote in 1712, and Reaumur, whose Jlemoires appeared in 1740, down to the present date. Their solution involves not only the closest observation of the insect while at work, but also the shrewdest judgment to ex- plain the facts observed and deduce a legitimate theory. Does the bee intelligently plan her work out beforehand, or does she follow the guidance of what is called instinct? Does she construct hexagonal cells which are mathematically exact, or does she vary the proportions of each cell, so that it is per- fect only in its general ideal form? Again, in making the cell, is the bee actually capable of making such a cell alone, or is it due to the resultant action of several bees? Professor J. Wy- man is of the latter opinion, as he thinks ''that if left alone to build a single cell, this would most probably be round. In the cells of Melipona, as Huber's plate shows, they are only hex- agonal when in contact with the adjoining cells." (Proceed- ings of the Boston Society of Natural Histoiy, x, p. 27-s, 1866.) A similar view is that proposed in 1862 by the Rev. Samuel llaughton, in a paper read before the Natural History Society of Dublin, where he says, according to Mr. F. Smith, that the hexagonal form of the cell " may be accounted for simply by the mechanical pressure of the insects against each other during the formation of the cell. In consequence of the instinct that compels them to work with reference to a plane, and of the cylindrical form of the insect's body, the cells must be hex- agonal." Mr. G. R. Waterhouse (Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. Third series, vol. ii, p. 129, 18G4) has 121 proposed what has been called the ''circular theory," or what the author himself terms "the principle of working in seg- ments of circles." He contends " that the hexagonal form of the cells of certain bees and wasps may, and does, arise out of this mode of action when under certain conditions ; that those condi- tions are, that the cells are so commenced that their natural cir- cumferences, as the work proceeds, are either simply brought into contact with each other, or that the cells are so placed that the (we will say theoretical) circumferences must intersect. Contact with adjoining cells, then, is an essential condition to bring about the hexagonal form as I have before pointed out (See Proceedings of the Entomological Society, 1858, p. 17) ; but for this result it is not necessary that a hexagonal cell should be completely surrounded by other cells." Is not this theory, after all, too mechanical? Is not our bee more of a free agent ? Does it not have a mind to design its work ? Mr. F. Smith, who has devoted years to the study of Ilymenoptera, especially the higher forms of this suborder, the Bees and Wasps, replies to both theories of Waterhouse and Ilaughton, by bringing in the case of the Wasps which also build hexagonal cells, showing that a solitary wasp will build its cells in very regular hexagons. Thus the nest of the soli- tary Wasp, Icaria guttatipennis, "consists of a double row, the number of cells being ten ; I now direct your attention to the fact that all the cells are perfectly hexagonal, the exterior planes being as beautifully finished as those in contact with the inner planes of the opposing cells. I have placed a draw- ing of this nest (Plate 5, Fig. 7) in the box on the table, and I particularly wish you to observe, that the first cell is carried up in a perfectly hexagonal form above the adjoining cells ; a proof that, if Wasps never build perfect isolated hexagonal cells, they certainly possess the capability of doing so. The exterior of all the cells, as I before observed, is hexagonal, not cylindri- cal, until fresh cells are added on the outer side, as was ob- served to be the case in combs of the Hive-bee, by 31 r. Tegetmeier." (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London. Third series, ii, 18G4, p. 135.) An examination of the cells of three species of Polistes (the female of which begins alone in the spring to build her nest 122 HYMKNOPTEKA. the cells of which are afterwards greatly increased in number after the first brood of females appeal1), convinced us that the Wasp begins with the circular cup-shaped form of cell, and when about depositing an egg in it, changes her mode of ope- rating, builds up the edges into a hexagonal form, and carries up the rim of each cell independently to its required height. She thus apparently changes her plan at a certain stage of the work, and is so far a free agent. Mr. Smith also exhibited a portion of the nest of another wasp, Tatua Morio (Plate 5, Fig. 9), that proved to his mind the primary intention of the wasp instinctively to build cells with exactly six sides. The figure represents part of one of the fiat floors, on which the foundations of the cells are laid in regular hexagons, instead of beginning in hemispherical cups. Mr. Smith (p. 141) concludes, '"that all hexagonal cells are not constructed upon a circular principle, and that the primary idea of all social bees and wasps is not to produce cylindrical cells with hemispherical bases." In this connection the following extract from Mr. Smith's remarks is of interest : tklt may not be known that in order to expedite the building of honey -combs, it is a common practice with bee-keepers in Germany to furnish hives with artificial foundations for the cells ; these consist of sheets of wax, upon which is impressed a series of pyramidal hollows ; in fact, the counterpart of a comb built by the bees themselves, entirely deprived of the cell-walls ; and it is from such a piece of comb that the casts for the artificial foundations are obtained. A piece of casting of this description I lay before you, and I par- ticularly call your attention (addressing the members of the Entomological Society of London) to the commencement of the outer cells ; you Avill see, in some instances, a single plane of the hexagonal cell commenced, in others two or three are in progress ; here you have a ground-plan supplied, or, I may say, the foundations of the habitations ready prepared, upon which the laborers are to raise the walls, and you may see how admi- rably they have done it. Instinct enables the bee to construct hexagonal cells without teaching, and, we are told, in one un- ileviating manner. Surely the example before us exhibits an amount of intelligence on the part of the bees in availing them- !:>:> selves of such adventitious aid. Must we not henceforth, when speaking of the marvels of the hive or the vespiary, erase from our vocabulary such terms as blind instinct ; and must we not cease to stigmatize the bee as a mere machine?" At the meeting of the same society held Feb. 1, 18G4, Mr. F. Smith exhibited a collection of Wasps' nests, — one of T>.sy" /v(/«, the rest of T7". vulgaris ; they were in various stages of formation, the earliest consisting of only a single cup contain- ing the first egg, others consisting of three or four cups, whilst others again were more complete. The whole had been arti- ficially obtained by Mr. Stone, who tempted the wasps to build by excavating holes in banks and furnishing them with foot- stalks ; in fact, Mr. Stone appeared to possess the power of inducing wasps to build nests of almost any shape he pleased. But to return to the cell of the Bee. It should first In- proved that the cells are not exactly and mathematically per- fect hexagons, though sufficiently so for the purpose for which they are used. In the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. vii, 1866, Professor Wyman has, by a most careful as well as novel and ingenious mode of investiga- tion, proved that the cells are all more or less imperfect, and that a hexagonal cell mathematically exact, does not exist in nature, but onl}' in theory. The form of the cell is liable to marked variations, chief among which the following may be mentioned, in the author's own words : " 1. The diameters of workers' cells may so vary, that ten of them may have an aggregate deviation from the normal quantity equal to the diameter of a cell. The average varia- tion is a little less than one half that amount, namely, nearly 0.10 inch, in the same number of cells. U2. The width of the sides varies, and this generally in- volves a variation of the angles which adjoining sides make with each other, since the sides vary not only in length but in direction. "3. The variation in the diameters does not depend upon accidental distortion, but upon the manner in which the cell was built. 124 HYMENOPTERA. B ••4. The relative size of the rhombic faces of the pyramidal base is liable to frequent variation, and this where the cells are not transitional from one kind to another. 'k5. When a fourth side exists in the basal pyramid, it may be in consequence of irregularity in the size of the cells, or of incorrect alignment of them on the two sides of the comb." Sometimes one of the faces is lost, and a new one formed, so that all the basal portion of the cell becomes reversed, as ABC will be seen by refer- ence to Figs. 73 and 74 ; the first repre- 7:J- senting the cells when the base is viewed, and the second when looked at perpendic- ularly to one of the sides. In both figures A indicates the ordinary form of the cell. The whole scries of Fig. 74 shows the gradual introduction of the new face, which is seen on the lower border, and the elimination of one of the original faces, which is seen on the upper border. At B, which is intermediate between the two extremes, the four faces consist of two equal rhombs, — one of which is the outgoing and the other the incoming one, and two equal hexagons. B, Fig. 74, represents the sides of the same cell, which, instead of forming three trapeziums, as at A, «, b, c, now form two pentagons, a' and c', and a parallelogram, b'. At C, Figs. 73 and 74, the forms are in all respects the reverse of those of A. A and C are symmetrical with each other, and B is symmetrical in itself. No pre- Fig. 75. cise number " of cells is necessary for the purpose of making this transition, for it may take place in two or three, or extend through a long series, as in Fig. 73. "•0. Ordinarily, the error of alignment does not amount to more than one or two diameters of a cell. But occasionally a v Fig. c 4. C" APIARI^E. 125 the rows of cells on one side of the comb may deviate from their true direction with regard to those on the other, to the extent of 30°." "Thus, if a piece of normal comb be held in the position in which it was built, two of the opposite angles of the hexagon, Fig. 75, A, ft, will be in the same vertical line, and two of the sides will be parallel to this. The same is true of the opposite side of the g.. ; T "I f comb ; and thus all the cor- responding parts of the cells on the two sides will be par- allel. In the deviation we are now noticing, the change is like that represented in A, where the cell « is in its true position, while the cell />, which is from the oppo- site side, and is in contact with ft, varies from it by about 30°. If we look at these two cells in the direc- tion of their sides as at B, g the prism a will have one Fig. 70. of its angles towards the eye, and b one of its sides. In consequence of this deviation and the continual crossing of the rows on opposite sides, the pyramidal base is not made, and the cell is shortened. " 7. In curved or bent combs the cells on the concave side tend to be- come narrower, while those on the other tend to become broader to- wards their months. In Fig. 7(> (this and Figs. 77 and 78 are made from impressions obtained directly from the comb and transferred to wood ; they represent the form of the cells exactly), as in the central line of cells, there are a variety of hexagons, each resulting from the union 12f> HYMENOPTJSRA. of two cells, the base being double while the mouth is single. That 011 the line o, 1>, has three sides at one end, united by two long sides with one at the other, and thus two of the opposite sides are not parallel ; at c, d, two sides at 6 ' ff either end are united by two long sides, these last being par- allel ; and at e, /, the mouth of the compound cell has seven sides. Each has a partition at its base, separating the two originally distinct cells, and each was lined with a cocoon, showing that it had been used for rearing young. At y, not oulv has the partition between the combining cells disappeared, but also three of the sides of each cell." The bees do not appear to have any systematic way of mak- ing a transition from worker to drone cells, which are one-lifth larger than the former. More commonly, they effect it by a gradual alteration of the diameters, thus enlarging a worker into a drone, or narrowing a drone into a worker cell. This alteration is usually made in from four to six rows. In one ease APIATCOR. 127 "Professor Wyman noticed tlie transition made with only one cell, as in Fig. 78, bnt not without destroying the regularity of the two adjoining rows. uln consequence of the, gradual narrowing or widening of the transition cells, the comb tends to become more or less tri- angular and the cells to become disturbed. The bees counter- act this tendency by the occasional intercalation of an additional row, of which two instances are given in Fig. 78, at a and A, where three rows of worker cells are continuous with two of drone cells, f, d and ?, /'; or, reversing the statement, and supposing the transition, as in the building of the comb, is from worker to drone-cells, a row of the latter is from time to time omitted as the rows a and 1> ; in this way, the regularity of the comb is preserved." Honey-cells are formed either by enlarging the ordinary brood-cells, or adding them to others often larger, or by con- structing a new comb, devoted entirely to the storing of honey. "While the cells of this last are built unequivocally in accord- ance with the hexagonal type, they exhibit a range of variation from it which almost defies description." No Ichneumon-flies are known to attack the larva of the Honey-bee, nor in fact, with few exceptions, any of the wild bees, owing, probably, to the difficulty of their gaining across to them, since Anomalon resparum has been reared from the cells of wasps which are more exposed than those of bees. But the Honey, as well as the wild bees, are afflicted by a peculiar assemblage of insect-parasites, some of which have the most remarkable habits. The most formidable pest of the Hive-bee is the Bee Fly, Phora incmssata, which in Europe sometimes produces the well-known disease called "foul- brood." The Bee-louse, Braula cwca, is, in Europe, sometimes troublesome to the adult bee, while Tricliodcs npiarins, a beetle, devours the larva1. The larva? of Mdoe and Styhps are known in Europe to infest the Honey-bee, and among the low intesti- nal worms Assmus enumerates Gordlns subbifurcus which in- fests the drones of the Honey-bee as well as other insects. Professor Siebold has also described Mermis albicanx, which is a similar kind of hair-worm, from two to five inches long, and whitish in color. This worm is also found, strangely 128 HYMENOPTERA. enough, only in the drones, though it is the workers which frequent watery places (where the worm deposits its eggs) to appease their thirst. The Wax-moths, Galleria cereana ami Achroia alrearia, do much harm by consuming the wax and thus breaking down the cells, and by tilling the hive with their webs.* The genus Apis is indigenous in South America, though the Honey-bee has been extensively introduced into the AVest In- dies. Our Honey-bee is replaced in the tropics by the stingless, minute bees, which store up honey and live in far more numer- ous colonies. The cells of Melipona are hexagonal, nearly approaching in regularity those of the Hive-bee, while the honey-cells are irregular, much larger cavities, which hold about one-half as much honey as a cell of the Humble-bee. From a paper on the Brazilian Honey-bees, read by Mr. F. Smith be- fore the Entomological Society of London, March, 18G3, he states that the Meliponas are small insects, having winrjs shorter tfiaii the abdomen, the latter being very convex and oblong; their mandibles never being dentate ; while the Trir/onas have the wings more ample, and longer than the abdomen, which is short, somewhat triangular, while the mandibles are serrated, denticulate, or sometimes edentate. The Meliponas are re- stricted to the new world, while Tri, pupa. Fig. 7, Afelov angusticollis : Fig. 8, freshly hatche< 1 larva; Fig. 9, second stage of larva; Fig. 10, first stage of semi-pupa; Fig. 11, pupa. Fig. 12, Stylops Child-rent in the body of a wild bee, Andrena; Fig. i:», top view of the same removed from its host; Fig. 14, male of the same; a, side view. Fig. 15, Mucor mellitophorus, a parasitic, fungus. Fig. 16, unknown larva found in nest of Humble-bee. Descriptions of the insect parasites will be given beyond. Plate 3. 3a .PARASITES OF WILD BEES. Al'lAKI.E. 129 llu- species is also confirmatory of the same supposition; in- deed, the great diversity in this respect observable in these bees, appears to me to be analogous to a similar diversity in the length of the bills of humming-birds, which, it is well known, are always adapted for reaching the nectaries of the particular flowers which they usually frequent." In regard to the immense numbers of individuals in a col- onv, Mr. Stretch, who collected them at Panama, "found a •J ' nest several feet in length in the hollow of a tree, containing thousands of individuals, their numbers being, as he informs me, apparently countless. "Gardner, in his travels, gives a list of such species (of Melipona) as he met in the provinces of Piauhy and Goyaz, where he found them numerous ; in every house, he says, 'you find the honey of these bees ; ' many species, he tells us, build in the hollow trunks of trees, others in banks ; some suspend their nests from branches of trees, whilst one species constructs its nest of clay, it being of large size ; the honey of this spe- cies, he says, is very good." (Smith.) In a nest of Trigona carbonana from Eastern Australia, Smith, of the British Museum, found from 400 to 500 dead workers crammed in the spaces between the combs, but he did not find a female among them. The combs are arranged precisely similar to those of the common wasp. The number of honey-pots, which are placed at the foot of the nest, amounted to 250. Smith inclines to the opinion that the hive of Trigona con- tains several prolific females ; "the accounts given of the mul- titudes inhabiting some nests is too great, I think, to render it possible that one female could produce them all. Mr. Stretch described a hive that he saw, occupying the interior of a decay- ing tree, that measured six feet in length, and the multitude of bees he compared to a black cloud. M. Guerin found six fe- males in a nest of Melipona fulvipes" Hill states, in Gosse's Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica, "that the wax of these bees [Trigona] is very unctuous and dark colored, but susceptible of being whitened by bleaching. The honey is stored in clusters of cups, about the size of pigeon's eggs, at the bottom of the hive, and always from the l;',0 HYMENOPTERA. brood-cells. The brood-cells are hexagonal ; they are not deep, and the young ones, when ready to burst their casement, just h'll the whole cavity. The mother bee is lighter in color than the other bees, and elongated at the abdomen to double their length." Smith also states that the female of this genus has the abdomen greatly distended, reminding one of the gravid female of the White Ant. (Smith. Proc. Iv.-.t. Sue., London, Dec. 7, 1800.) In North America, our nearest ally, as regards its habits, of the true Honey-bee, is the Humble-bee (Bvitihiix), of which over forty species are known to inhabit North America. The economy of the Humble-bee is thus : the queen awakens in early spring from her winter's sleep beneath the leaves or moss, or in deserted nests, and selects a nesting-place generally in an abandoned nest of a field-mouse, or beneath a stump or sod, and "immediately," according to Mr. F. "NV. Putnam, "collects a small amount of pollen mixed with honey, and in this deposits from seven to fourteen eggs, gradually adding to the pollen mass until the first brood is hatched. She does not wait, however, for one brood to be hatched before laying the eggs of another ; but, as soon as food enough has been collected, she lays the eggs for a second. The eggs [Plate 4, Fig. 2] are laid, in contact with each other, in one cavity of the mass of pollen, with a part of which they are slightly covered. They are very soon developed ; in fact, the lines are nowhere dis- tinctly drawn between the egg and the larva, the larva and pupa, and again between the latter and the imago ; a perfect series, showing this gradual transformation of the young to the imago, can be found in almost every nest. "As soon as the larva? are capable of motion and commence feeding, they eat the pollen by which they are surrounded, and, gradually separating, push their way in various directions. Eating as they move, and increasing in size quite rapidly, they soon make large cavities in the pollen mass. "When they have attained their full size, they spin a silken wall about them, which is strengthened by the old bees covering it with a thin layer of wax, Avhich soon becomes hard and tough, thus form- ing a cell. [Plate 4, Figs. 1, 2.] The larva? now gradually attain the pupa stage, and remain inactive until their full (level- •*• Plate 2 Fig. 1. . 3. Fig. 2. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. 4. Fig. 8. Fig. 14. Fig. 1-2. Fig. 15. Fig. 13. PARASITES OF THE HONEY BEE. APIARI^E. l;51 opmont. They then cut their way out, and arc ready to assume their duties as workers, small females, males or queens. "It is apparent that the irregular disposition of the cells is due to their being constructed so peculiarly by the larva*. After the first brood, composed of workers, has come forth, the queen bee devotes her time principally to her duties at home, the workers supplying the colony with honey and pollen. As the queen continues prolific, more workers are added, and the nest is rapidly enlarged. u About the middle of summer eggs are deposited which produce both small females and males." . . . "All eggs laid after the last of July produce the large females, or queens ; jind, the males being still in the nest, it is presumed that the queens are impregnated at this time, as, on the approach of cold weather, all except the queens, of which there are several in each nest, die." (Putnam, Com. Essex lust., vol. iv, p. 98, 1804.) Besides Apathus, the larva? of various moths consume the honey and waxen cells ; the two-winged flies, Volucella and Conops, and the larvae of what is either an Anthomyia or Tachina-like fly ; several species of Anthrax, the Coleopterous Anobium paniceum of Europe, Meloe, Stylops, and Anthero- phagus ochraceus are parasitic on Humble-bees.* The habits of the genus Apathus are not clearly known, but they are supposed to prey, in the larva state, upon the larva1 of Bombus, being found in their nests ; their habits, so tar as known, ally them with Nomarla. The species are distinguished by the tibire being convex, instead of concave, as in Bombus, while the mandibles of the females are acute, triangular, biden- tate, being spatulate and three-toothed in Bombus, and they have no pollenigerous organs. There are males and females only, as in all the remaining genera of the family. Apufhiis Ashtouii (Plate 3, Fig. 1) is found in the Northern States. * EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. — Parasites of the Humble and Leaf-cutter Bees. Fig. 1, Apathus Ashtonii. Fig. 2, Nephopteryx E, a Mite found in the nests of Humble-bees. 132 HYMENOPTERA. Xi/Jo<'tipj>«- Virt /illicit). AVe have received from Mr. James Angus, of West Farms, X. Y., a piece of trellis for a grape- vine, made of pine wood, containing the cells and young in various stages of growth, together with the larvre and chrysa- lids of Antlirox xin.iiuxa (Plate 4, Fig. (I, larva ; Fig. 7, pupa). a speeies of fly parasitic on the larva of tin- bee, and which buries its head in its soft body and feeds on its juices. Mr. Angus thus writes us regarding its habits, under date of July 1!> : "I asked an intelligent and observing carpenter yes- terday, if he knew how long it took the Xylocopa to bore her tunnel. lie said he thought she bored about one-quarter of an inch a day. I don't think myself she bores more than one- half inch, if she does that. If I mistake not, it takes her about two days to make her own length at the iirst start; but this being across the grain of the wood may not be so easily done as the remainder, which runs parallel with it. She always follows the grain of the wood, with the exception of the en- trance, which is about her own length. The tunnels run from one to one and a half feet in length. They generally run in opposite directions from the opening, and sometimes other gal- leries are run above the iirst, using the same opening. I think they only make new tunnels when old ones are not to be found, and that the same tunnels are used for many years. Nome of the old tunnels are very wide. I have found parts of them about an inch in diameter. I think this is caused by rasping oil' the sides to procure the necessary material for con- structing their cells. The partitions are composed of wood- raspings, and some sticky fluid, probably saliva, to make it adhere. A PI A KIM. I.)., "The tunnels arc sometimes taken possession of by other bees and wasps. I think when this is the case, the Xylor<>|>:i prefers making a new eell to cleaning out the mud and rubbish of the other species. I frequently find these bees remaining for a long time on the wing close to the opening, and bobbing their heads against the side, as if fanning air into the opening. I have seen them thus employed for twenty minutes. Whether one bee, or more, makes the tunnel, that is, whether the}- take turns in boring, I cannot say at present. In opening the cells, more than one are generally found, even at this season. About two weeks ago, I found as many as seven, I think, in one."* The hole is divided by partitions into cells about seven-tenths of an inch long. These partitions are constructed of the dust or clippings made by the bee in eating out her cells, for our actiA'e little carpenter is provided with strong cutting jaws, moved by powerful muscles, and on her legs are stiff brushes of hair for cleaning out the tunnel as she descends into the heart of the solid wood. She must throw out the chips she bites off from the sides of the burrow with her hind legs, pas>- ing the load of chips backwards out of the cell with her fore- limbs, which she uses as hands. The partitions are built most elaborately of a single flattened band of chips, which is rolled up into a coil four layers deep. One side, forming the bottom of the cell, is concave, being * " Since writing the above I have opened one of the new holes of Xylocopa which was commenced between three and four weeks ago, in a pine slat used in the staging of the greenhouse. The dimensions were as follows : Opening fully 0-8 wide ; depth 7-l(» ; whole length of tunnel i> and 5-16 inches. The tunnel branched both ways from the hole. One end, from opening, was 2 and 5-8, containing three cells, two with larva and pollen, the third empty. The other side of the opening-, or the rest of the tunnel, was empty, with the exception of the old bee (only one) at work. I think this was the work of one bee, and, as near as I can judge, about twenty-five days' work. Width of tunnel inside at widest !)-16 inch. For some days this bee has been discharging a great quantity of saw-dust and pollen, which I had collected by placing a vessel under it. It would seem that she had cells constructed also in the opposite side of the hole, and that she removed them to enlarge the tunnel. Among the stun" thrown out, I find a partition of a cell nearly entire. I have just found a Xylocopa bobbing at one of the holes, and in order to ascer- tain the depth of the tunnel, and to see whether there were any others in them, 1 sounded with a pliable rod, and found others in one side, at a depth of live and one half inches ; the other side was four inches deep, without bees. The morning- wa- cool, so that the object in bobbing could not be to introduce fresh currents of air. bnt must have had some relation to those inside. The legs on such occasions are, as 1 have noticed, loaded with pollen/' — American Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 370. 1,')4 HYMENOPTERA. l)eaten down and smoothed off by the bee. The other side of the partition, forming the top of the cell, is flat and rough. At the time of opening the burrow. July ack of the worm. The pupa, or chrysalis, we have found in the cells the last of July. It is white, and three-tenths of an inch long. It differs from that of the Leaf-cutter bee in having four spines on the end of the body, and in having a much longer tongue and maxillae, both being almost twice as long. In none of the wild bees are the cells constructed with more nicety than those of our little Ceratina. She bores out with her jaws a long deep well just the size of her body, and then stretches a thin delicate cloth of silk, drawn tight as a drum- head, across each end of her chambers, which she then fills with a mixture of pollen and honey. Her young are not, in this supposed retreat, entirely free from danger. The most invidious foes enter and attack them. Three species of Ichneumon-flies, two of which belong- to the Chalcid family, lay their eggs within the body of the larva, and emerge from the dried larva and pupa skins of the bee, often in great numbers. The smallest parasite, belonging to the genus Anthophorabia (so called from being first known as a parasite on another bee, Anthophora), is a minute species found also abundantly in the tight cells of the Leaf-cutter bee. The species of Anthiclium, according to Smith, are gaily marked with yellow bands and spots ; the ligula is almost twice as long as the labial palpi, and acutely pointed ; the paragloss;e are short, the maxillary palpi are two-jointed, and there are two subcostal cells. The males are longer than the females, with an elongated and stoutly toothed abdominal tip. The female lines her nest, situated in any hole convenient for its purpose, with down from woolly-stemmed plants. They pass the winter in the larva state, and the bees do not appear until mid-summer. The species mostly occur in the old world. In Anthophora, which approaches nearer to Bombus in its plump and hairy body than the two preceding genera, the lig- ula is twice as long as the labial maxillae, ending in a bristle- like point ; the basal joint of the hind tarsus is thickly hirsute, while the middle tarsus of the males is generally elongated. The species are gregarious, their numerous cells, while indepen- \ 136 HYMENOPTERA. dent, are crowded together in grassy banks. Species of Melecta are parasitic on them, ovipositing in their cells. The larva? are infected by the Chalcid flies, AiithophoraMa and Monodontomerus, and by a peculiar species of Mite, Ilete- rqpus ventricosns, described by Newport. Say has described Antlioplioru «bniptu and A. tatirea from Indiana. In E'twra the antenna? are very long, while the body is still plump and hairy : our more common form in the Middle States is Ew-era nuiaildta St. Fargeau. The species are likewise gregarious, and. according to Smith, their habits are precisely the same as those of Anthophora. In Meyacltile, the Leaf-cutter Bee. the head is broad, the body stout, oblong, the ligula is about one-half longer than the labial palpi, being quite stout, while the paraglossiv art- short and pointed; the maxilla? are long and sabre-shaped, while their palpi are short and two-jointed. There are two subcostal cells in the fore wing. It is a thick-bodied bee, with a large square head, stout scissor-like jaws, and with a thick mass of dense hairs on the under side of the tail for the pur- pose of carrying pollen, since it is not provided with a pollen basket as in the Honey and Humble-bees. The larva is broader and natter than that of Bombus, the raised pleural region is a little more prominent, and the raised, thickened tergal portion of each ring is more prominent than in Bombus. The Megachile lays its eggs in burrows in the stems of the elder (Plate 4, Fig. 9), which we have received from Mr. James Angus ; we have also found them in the hollows of the locust tree. Mr. F. "VV. Putnam thus speaks of the economy of M. centuncularis, our most common species. kt My attention was first called, on the 26th of June, to a female busily en- gaged in bringing pieces of leaf to her cells, which she was build- ing under a board, on the roof of the piazza, directly under my window. Nearly the whole morning was occupied by the bee in bringing pieces of leaf from a rose-bush growing about ten yards from her cells, returning at intervals of a half minute to a minute with the pieces which she carried in such a manner as not to impede her walking when she alighted near her hole. [We give a figure of the Leaf-cutter bee in the act of cutting out a circular piece of a rose-leaf (Plate 4, Fig. 8). She aliii'hts upon the lent', and in a few seconds swiftly runs her scissors-like jaws around through the leaf, bearing off the piece in her hind legs.] About noon she had probably com- pleted the cell, upon which she had been engaged, as, during the afternoon, she was occupied in bringing pollen, preparatory to laying her single egg in the cell. For about twenty days the bee continued at work, building new cells and supplying them with pollen. . . .On the 2Sth of July, upon removing the board, it was found that the bee had made thirty cells, arranged in nine rows of unequal length, some being slightly curved to adapt them to the space under the board. The longest row contained six cells, and was two and three-quarters inches in length : the whole leaf-structure being equal to a length of fifteen, inches. Upon making an estimate of the pieces of leaf in this structure, it was ascertained that there must have been at least a thousand pieces used. In addition to the labor of making the cells, this bee, unassisted in all her duties, had to collect the requisite amount of pollen (and honey?) for each cell, and lay her eggs therein, when com- pleted. Upon carefully cutting out a portion of one of the cells, a full-grown larva was seen engaged in spinning a slight silken cocoon about the walls of its prison, which were quite hard and smooth on the inside, probably owing to the move- ments of the larva, and the consequent pressing of the sticky particles to the walls. In a short time the opening made was closed over by a very thin silken web. The cells, measured on the inside of the hard walls, were .35 of an inch in length, and .15 in diameter. The natural attitude of the larva is some- what curved in its cell, but if straightened, it just equals the inside length of the cell. On the 31st of Juby, two female bees came out, having cut their way through the sides of their cells." In three other cells "several hundred minute Ichneu- mons [Anthophorabia megachilis] were seen, which came forth as soon as the cells were opened." (Com. Essex Inst., A'ol. iv, p. 105, 1864.) Megachile integer Say MS., according to Dr. Harris (MS. notes), forms its nest of leaves the first of August. This spe- cies is twice as large, but closely resembles Megachile brevis of Say. The front of the head is covered with dense ochreous 138 HYMEXOPTERA. hairs, becoming shorter and black on the vertex. The ne.st, preserved in the Harris collection, now in the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History, is made of rose-leaves, and is scarcely distinguishable from that of M. centuncularis, ON //th. The cell she con- structs is half an inch long, oval, cylindrical, and contracted slightly into a sort of neck jnst before the opening for the exit of the bee. From Mr. James Angus I have received the pellets of pollen, about the size of a pea, in which it deposits its eggs ; the larvae were about one-third grown in August. This species is larger than Osmia siiniUin<« of .Smith, while the male antenna; are much paler, being fuscous. The front of the head is covered with long dense yellow ochreous hairs. The vertex is not of so dark a green as in 0. simittima, and is covered with coarse punctures. The thorax is heavily clothed with yellow ochreous, thick hairs. The abdomen is yellowish, and much more hairy. The legs are stout, fuscous, with yel- lowish hairs. Length, .35 inch. Our smallest and most abundant species is the little green Osniia siixilliinH of Smith. It builds its little oval, somewhat urn-shaped cells, against the roof of the large deserted galls of the oak-gall fly ( Diplolepis confluentus), placing them, in this instance, eleven in number, in two irregular rows, from which the mature bees issue through a hole in the gall (Plate 4,* Fig. 14. From specimens communicated by Mr. F. G. Sanborn). The earthen cells, containing the tough dense cocoons, were arranged irregularly so as to fit the concave vault of the larger gall, which was about two inches in diameter. On emerging from the cell the Osmia cuts out with its powerful jaws an ovate lid, nearly as large as one side of the cell. Both sexes may be found in April and May in the tlowers of the willow * KXIT. \\ATION OF PLATE 4. — Fig. 1, a cell of the Humble-bee; natural .-i/c, with tlu' pollen mass upon the top. Fig. 2, end view of the same mass, showing the three eggs laid in three divisions of the cavity. Fig. 3, Xi/loropa 1'iryinicfi, the Carpenter Bee. Fig. 4, the larva of Xylocopa Virginia! : natural size. Fig. 5, the nest containing the cells of the same, with the partitions and pollen musses, on which the young larva is seen in the act of feeding; natural size. Fig. (I, young larva of Anthrax sinuosa; side view. Fig. 7, pupa of Antlirii.c sinm>*, 5 a) first noticed April 29th, there were but two eggs deposited, the third cell being without an egg, and a little smaller, and the rim not so high as in the other two. The outer edge did not sei-in to be perfectly circular, though stated by Water- house to be so in the incipient cells, for in some cases we de- tected two slight angles, thus making three sides, which, however, would be easily overlooked on casual observation ; as there are only two sides within, the cell, from being at its earliest inception hemispherical, or *• saucer-shaped," becomes five, and subsequently six-sided, and thus from being cir- cular, it is converted by the wasps into a hexagonal cell. In some cells, perhaps a majority, both in this and the other spe- cies, the newly made rim of the small cells is thinner than the parts below, and slightly bent inwards : thus being quite there- verse of the thickened rim of the cells of the Hive Bee. It would seem that the wasp plasters on more silk, especially on the angles, building them out, and making them more promi- nent, in order to complete, when other cells are added, their hexagonal form. The three cells are of much the same size and height when the third egg is laid, as we observed in another nest, that of l^olistes Canadensis (Linn.), built at the Defences of Washington, near Munson's Hill, June 9th. Again, when one or two more cells have been added to the nest, and there are four or five in all (Plate 5, Fig. (i ; G«, top view, in which there are lour cells), two of them are nearly twice as large as the others, Avhile the fifth has been just begun, and is eggless. The form of the two which run up much higher than the others is the same as that of the smaller and shorter ones, i.e. they are on one side nearly semicircular, and on the other, partly hexagonal, and the angular sides show a tendency to be even more circular than when the others are built around them, for the little architect seems to bring out the angles more prominently when carrying up the walls of the other cells. Tims she builds, as if by design, one and the same cell both by the kk circular" and "hexagonal" methods, afterwards adopt- VESPARKK. If,;', ing only the hitter, and if she devotes her attentions specially to plastering the corners alone, with the design of making the cell six-sided, then we must allow, contrary to Mr. Water- house's views, that the wasp builds the hexagon by choice, and not as the mere result of her blindly "working in segments of circles ;" for if our point be proved, and the most careful obser- vation of the wasp while at work is needed to prove it, then it may be shown that the wasp is a free agent, and can abandon one method of working at a certain stage of her work, and adopt a different mode of operating. The eggs are oval, pointed at the end,' and glued to the in- side of the cell. They are situated midwaj' from the top and bottom of the incipient cell, and placed on the innermost sides, so that in a group of several cells the eggs are close together, only separated by the thin cellular walls. In a completed cell the egg is placed very near the bottom. For several days a Polistes Canadensis \\&s engaged in build- ing its nest in my tent in camp near Washington. When first noticed on June 9th, there were three cells, two of which con- tained eggs ; and it was not for two days, the 1 1th, that the third cell was completed, and a third egg deposited in it. The wasp paid especial attention to strengthening the pedicel, going- over it repeatedly for an hour or two with its tongue, as if lay- ing on more silken matter, and then proved the work by its swiftly vibrating antennae. It would often fly out of the tent, and on its return anxiously examine each cell, thrusting its head deep down into each one. It gradually became accustomed to my presence, but eventually abandoned the nest, without adding more cells. The others, while at work on the bushes, abscond- ed at my approach, and seemed very wary and distrustful, as if desirous of concealing their abodes. Mr. Smith has found Triymatys bijmstulatus to be a parasite on Polistes lanio Fabr. (P. Canadensis Linn.), from St. Salvador, S. A. Saussure arranges the higher Vespidae into two parallel series. Vespa is offset by Chartergus and Nectarina ; lower down we find Tatua and Synoeca, while Polistes is offset by Polybia. These five genera are tropical, and in their habits, the general appearance of their nests, and in the number of individuals represent Vespa and Polistes of the temperate zone. The 154 HYMEXOPTERA. genus Nectarina is a short plump wasp, somewhat like Odync- rus iu shape ; its distinguishing mark is the concealment of the postscutellum by the scutellum. Nectarina mellifica Say, of Mexico, builds a large nest externally like that of a wasp, but it is more irregular, and the papery covering consists of but one layer. The interior of the nest is very different, the galleries of cells, instead of being parallel, being arranged in concentric spheres. Chartergus has the tip of the clypeus slighted excavated, and an oval sessile abdomen. C. charturius Olivier makes an ex- ceedingly thick tough nest, attached by a broad base to the bough of a tree, about twice as long as thick, and ending in a cone, pierced in the centre by the entrance which passes through the middle to the basal gallery ; the other galleries are formed by a continuation of the sides of the nest, and arranged in a conical plane. In Tatua, the abdomen is pedicelled, but the petiole is not enlarged, and the abdomen itself is very regularly conical. T. m.orio Cuvier, from Cayenne, forms a nest like that of Charter- o;us ; but the galleries form a flat floor, and each gallery has tin ~ O entrance from the outside of the nest, where in the latter there is one common entrance. Plate 5, Fig. 9, shows how the base -4 of the cells are laid out on the edge of a gallery. In ,S'//>'"'(-" the peculiarly shaped abdomen is cordate and compressed. The curious nest of /S. c;/anea Fabr. is formed of a single layer of cells fixed against the trunk of a tree, and covered in with a dense covering made from the bark of dead trees. Some nests of Symeca are three feet long. In the very extensive genus Poli/bia, which resembles Polistes in its general shape, the abdo- men is pedicelled, and the mandibles are four-toothed. The nests are somewhat like those of Chartergus, but much smaller. Sev- eral species occur in Mexico, and in Brazil the number of species is very great. In Apo'ica the abdomen is very long, and the third segment is as long as the second. Plate f>. Fig. 11, represents the nest of Apo'icii /mlHda Olivier, from Cayenne. It is unprotected, with a conical base, and with a single row of cells. In Icaria we have an approach to Polistes in the slender series of cells composing the nest, forming two or three rows VESPARI^E. only. Plate 5, Fig. 7, represents the nest of /. (f Saussure, from Senegal ; 8, ground plan of a similar nest. These wasps are mostly distinguished from Polybia by the petiole ending in a globular mass. Plate 5, Fig. 10, represents the elegant nest of Mischo<'ijtt«rns labiatus Fabr., from Cay- enne and Brazil, which consists of a few cells supported by a long pedicel. The wasp itself much resembles Polistes, but the petiole is very much longer. The remaining genera noticed here are solitary, building separate cells, and with only males and females. There are three subcostal cells in the fore wings, and the maxillae and labium are much elongated. In Eumenes the abdomen has a long pedicel, being sessile in Odynerus. While authors place Eumenes higher than Ody- nerus, we would consider the latter as a higher, more cepha- lized form, since the abdomen is less elongated, and the head is larger. In Odyiierus the ligula is long, deeply forked at the slender extremity, while the slender paraglossa? are shorter, ending in a two-toothed claw-like tip ; the maxilla1 are slender, and the palpi have an elongated basal joint ; the clypeus is nearly circular, toothed on the front edge. The larva ditTers from those of the higher Ve sp a r i w , in its more elongated head, the square clypeus, the unusually deep fissure of the bilobate la- brum, and in the larger tubercles of the body, as the larva is more active, turning and twisting in its cell, while feeding on its living food ; and in this respect it is more closely allied to the young Crabro n iflw . In the pupa of 0. cdbopJialeratus, the tip is more incurved than in the pupa of Vespa, so that the hind legs (tarsi) reach to the tip, and the abdomen is rounded ovate, while in Vespa it is oblong. The cells (Plate 4, Figs. 13, 14) of Od'/iterus alboplwl erotic Sauss. have been detected like those of Osmia in a deserted gall of Diplolepis confluens, where several were found in a row, arranged around one side of the gall, side by side, with the holes pointing towards the centre of the gall. The cells are half an inch long, and one-half as wide, being formed of small pellets of mud, giving a corrugated, granulated appearance to the outside, while the inside is lined with silk. 1 .-)<•, HYMENOPTERA. We have- received from Mr. Angus deserted cells of Cera- tina in a syringa stem, in which we detected a pupa of an Odynerus, perhaps 0. IciK-nimJas; the cell was a little shorter than that of the Ceratina it had occupied. The cocoon of the Odynerus was of silk, and almost nndistinguishable from the old cocoon of Ceratina. The wasp had dispensed with the necessity of making a mud cell. If future research shows that either this or any other species makes a mud cell or not at will, it shows the intelligence of these little "free-agents;" and that a blind adherence to fixed mechanical laws does not obtain in these insects. The larvie of Odynerus and Eumenes are carnivorous. I found several cells of O. cdbophaleratus, June 22d, in the deserted nest of a Clisiocaii~q><.<, which were stored with micro- lepidopterous larvae and pupa?, still alive, having been para- lyzed by the sting of the wasp. The larvae of the wasp was short and thick, being, when contracted, not more than twice as long as broad ; the rings of the body are moderately convex, and the pleural region is faintly marked. Prof. A. E. Verrill has discovered the cells of an Odynerus at New Haven, forming a sandy mass (Plate 5, Fig. 12) attached to the stem of a plant. In Elements the lingua is very long. 1 icing narrower and more deeply divided than in Odynerus: the second subcostal space of the wings is long and narrow, while in Odynerus it is triangular. The genus is easily recognized by the very long pedicel of the abdomen. EmiicnCK fr«i<>rnu Say constructs a thin cell (Plate o,* Fig. lf>) of pellets of mud, and as large * EXPLANATION OF PLATE ">. Fit:. 1. Mouth of the tunnel of AugoMoru imnitt .- from Emerton. Fig. 2. Cells of Osm'ut ]>:icijictt : communicated by Mr. Sanborn. Fig. :5. Vertical section of nest of f'espn, with a group of primitive cells surrounded by one layer of paper, and part of another; from Saussure. Fig. 4. Nest of /'<>- listen tiiiHitltirix ; from Saussure. Fig. 5. Three primitive cells of Polistes; 5 view of the same, one being eggless. The sides adjoining are angular. Figs. f cells of Tittiia morio ; from Smith. Fig. 10. Nest of Mischocyttams Itiliititn.t : from Saussure. Fig. 11. Nest of Apo'ica pall'nhi ; from Saussure. Fig. 12, Nest of Odynerus birenimaculatus. Fig. 13. Nest of Odynerux nlbophaleratus ; original.' Fig. 14. Mud cell of Pelopceus flavipes; original. Fig. !.">. A row of spherical cells of Enmcnes fraterna, with the female; from Harris. Plate 5. ARCHITECTURE OF WASPS. OUABUONIDyE. 157 as a cheriy. It is attached by a short stout pedicel to bushes, and the cavity is filled with the larvae of small moths. Raphiylossa odyneroides, from Epirus, described by S. S. Saunders, makes elongated cells in galleries in briars, storing them with the larvae of what he supposed to be weevils. Tin- dark brown dense tough cocoon of a Chrysis was also found in the cells. In Masaris, which connects the Vesparion with the succeed- ing family, the wings are not completely folded when at rest : there are but two subcostal cells ; the maxillae are rudimen- tary ; and the antennae are clavate and eight-jointed. M(is<.tr>x vespoides Cresson, inhabits Colorado Territory. CUABKONIDJE Latreille. Sand-wasps, Wood-wasps. In the more typical genera the head is remarkably large, cnboidal, while the clypeus is very short, and covered for the most part with a dense silvery or golden pile. The antennae are genicu- late, the long second joint being received, when at rest, in a deep frontal vertical groove ; the mandibles are large, and of oven width throughout, and the mouth-parts are rather short, especially the lingua, which is often, however, well developed. There is only one subcostal cell, except in the Philanfhiim'. The thorax is sub-spherical, and the abdomen is either short and stout, or more or less pedicellate. The forefeet are adapted for digging and tunnelling, the forelegs in the females being broad and flat, and in the males, which are supposed to no work, they are sometimes, as in Thyreopus, armed with vexhillate expansions. The larva is rather short and thick, a little flattened on the under side, but much rounded above ; the segments are convex- above, the thoracic segments differing from the abdominal seg- ments in not being thickened posteriorly on each ring. They spin either a very slight cocoon, or a thin dense brown oval cylindrical case, generally reddish brown in color. The pupa- have much the same character as the imago, with prominent acute tubercles above the ocelli. The members of this family afford, so far as we are ac- quainted with their habits, most interesting examples of the interdependence of structure and the habits of insects. Most HYMENOPTERA. of the species are wood-wasps, making their cells in cy- lindrical holes in rotten wood, or enlarging nail-holes in posts, as is the case with Crabro singularis, according to the observations of Mr. C. A. Shurtleff", thus adapting them to the requirements of their young. Other genera (Rhopalum pedicel- latum, Stigmus fraternus, and Crabro stirpicola) avail them- selves of those plants whose stem has a pith which they can readily excavate and refit for their habitations. The females provision their nests with caterpillars, aphidiv, spiders, and other insects. This family is most difficult to classify ; it consists rather of groups of genera, some higher and some lower, though as a general rule those genera with pedunculate abdomens are the lowest in the series. In illustration, we regard Stigmus, with its elongated decephalized body, as inferior to Blepharipus, which again is subordinate to the more cephalized Crabro, where the body is shorter, the abdomen sessile, the anterior part of the body more developed headwards, while its nests are constructed more elaborately. The genus Psen, for the same reason, is lower than Cerceris, of which it seems a de- graded form. Some of the most useful characters in separating the genera of this family are to be found in the form of the clypeus, its sculpturing and relative amount of pubescence or hirsuties ; in the form and sculpturing of the propodeum (Newman), or tho- racico-abdominal ring of Newport; while the tip of the abdo- men presents excellent generic and also specific characters, depending on its grooved or flattened shape. The species of this family are mostly found in the north temperate zone, being very abundant in North America and in Europe. The Pemphredomnse occur far north in abundance, while Cerceris occurs farthest towards the tropics. The subfamily PliilantliincB includes the three genera, J'hi- lonthus, Eucerceris, and Cerceris, In Philanthus (Fig. 84, wing), the head is short, transversely suboval, the clypeus longer than broad, Avith the first joint of the abdomen nearly as broad when seen from above as the succeeding one. Our more com- mon form southward is Philanthus vcrtilabris Say (Fig. So). In Europe P. apioorus provisions its nest with honey-bees. CRABRONHXaE. Fig. St Fig. s:i. Fig. 8fia. Fig. 85. Cresson remarks that Encerceris (Fig. 80, fore wing of male ; «, female) (litters from Cerceris in the venation, which differs greatly in the two sexes. E. zonatus Say occurs in the west. The species of Cerceris (Fig. 87, wing) have transversely oblong heads, the front of the head is flattened and destitute of hairs, and the rings of the abdomen are contracted, the middle part being un- usually convex and coarsely punctured, while the basal ring is nearly one-half nar- rower than the succeeding ones. Cerceris deserta Say is our most com- mou form. In Europe some species are Fig. 87. known to store their nests with bees, and the larva: of Cn ' >'- citlio H idw and Buprestidce. Dufour unearthed in a sin- gle field thirty nests of C. bupresticida which were filled with ten species of Buprestis, comprising four hundred individuals, and none of any other genus. Cerceris tuberculata provisions its nest with Leucosomus ophthalmicus ; and C. tricincta with Clythra. In the subfamily Crabronince, there is a great disparity in the sexes, the form of the females being the most persistent. In the male the head is smaller, narrow behind, with shorter mandibles, and a narrower clypeus ; the body is also much slenderer, especially the abdomen, and the legs are simple in Crabro, but in Thyreopus variously modified by expansions of the joints, especially the tibia. The species of Crabro (Fig. 88) are readily distinguished by the large cubical head, and the sharp mucronate abdo- minal tip of the female. The more typical form of this very extensive genus is Crabro sex-maculatus Say, so-called from the six yellow spots on the subpedunculate abdomen. According to Dr. T. W. Harris (MS. notes), this wasp was seen by Rev. Mr. Leonard, of Dublin, N. H., burrowing in decayed wood, June 10th. Fig. ss. 100 HYMENOPTERA. shigularis Smith, was discovered by Mr. C'. A. Sluutlrtl' boring in a post. In Thyri'opus, the body is slender, and the forelegs are curiously dilated in the males, often forming a broad expansion, and so dotted as to present a sieve-like appearance, while the head is much shorter, being more transverse. T. latipes Smith is known by the broad, long, acute, mucronate, shield-like ex- pansion of the fore tibia, which is striped with black at the base. The species of Khopalum are usually blackish, without the gay colors prevalent in the genera before mentioned ; the legs are simple, and the abdomen is long and slender, with a long- peduncle. The body of the larva is short and thick, tapering rapidly towards each extremity ; the segments are convex, those of the thorax especially being smooth, broad, and regu- larly convex, while the abdominal rings are provided with prominent tubercles. The tip of the body is quite extensible, and when protruded is subacute, terminating in a small knob- like body, formed by the last ring. The larvae of this genus ditter from those of the Vesparicv undApiarice known to us by having a few hairs scattered over the body. In the pupa the antenna?, in their natural position, do not quite reach to the second pair of trochanters, and reach only to the tip of the maxillary palpi. The tip of the abdomen is very acute and elongated unusually far beyond the ovipositor. On the head, between the ocelli and antenna?, are two very prominent, acute tubercles, and the abdominal segments are dentate on the hind edge. Thus both the larva and pupa would seem, by their anatomy, to be unusually active in their loose, illy-constructed cells, which do not confine their food so closely as in the other wasps, as the insects on which they prob- ably feed have a greater range in their rather roomy cells. April 18th we opened several stems grown in the open air, and found both larva? and pupa? ; the latter in different stages of development. The cells were placed in the closely packed dust made by the larva of an ^Egeria, or directly bored in the pith of the plants. There were six such cells, eacli with its inhabitant, within a space an inch in length, some laying cross- wise, others along the middle. The larva? spin but a very CRABRONIDJE. K>1 slight cocoon, not at all comparable with that of Crabro ; the walls of the cell being simply lined with silken threads. I'mler other circumstances, i.e. where the cells are more exposed, it is not unlikely that a more elaborate cocoon may be spun. Mr. James Angus has bred numerous specimens of Wtojxi- lum pedicellatuin Pack., from stems of the Rose, Corcorus, Ja- ponica, and Spiraea, grown in hot-houses at West Farms, N. Y. The larva is a quarter of an inch long. The following genera belong to the subfamily PempJirc- donince: The genus Stigmus, as its name indicates, may at once be known by the very large pterostigma, as well as the unusually small size of the species. The bod}' of the larva is moderately long and slender, cylindrical, tapering slowly towards both ex- tremities. The rings are short, very convex, subacutely so, and the larva is of a beautiful roseate color, titigmiis frater- nus Say burrows in the stems of the Syringa, of which speci- mens have been received from Mr. Angus with the larva and pupa?. In Cemonus the front narrows rapidly towards the insertion of the mandibles, and there is a short triangular enclosure on the propodeum, while the abdomen is shorter and thicker than in Pempliredon, a closely allied genus ; the pedicel is also longer. The larvae of Cemonus inornatus Harris live in irregu- lar burrows in the elder, like those of Rhopalum from which they have been reared by Mr. Angus. They are known by the broad flattened head and body, serrate side and tergum of the body, and large, conspicuously bidentate mandibles, as well as by the peculiarly flattened abdominal tip. In Passalaecus the labrum is very prominent, while the man- dibles are very large, widening towards the tip, and in the com- mon P. mandibnlaris Cresson they are white, and thus very conspicuous. This species burrows in company with the other wood-wasps mentioned above in the stems of the elder and syringa. The cells are lined with silk. The wasps appear early in June. Their nests are tenanted by Chalcids. The female stores her cells with Aphides, as we have found them abundantly in stems of plants received from Mr. Angus. The genus Psen seems to be a degraded Cere-ens, but the 11 1(52 HYMENOPTERA. abdomen is pedicelled, and differs 1'rom J/7»msr/, a still more slender-bodied genus, in having the tip of the abdomen more or less grooved, while in Mimesa it is tint mid not grooved at all. Psen leuwpits Say has a dense silvery pile on the front of the head, with black antennae and the pedicel is rather short. XYSSOXIIKK Leach. In this family the head is transversely longer and less cubical than in the preceding group ; the ver- tex is higher and more convex, while the front is narrow, the • •Ivpeus long and narrow, the eyes long and narrow, and the antenna? are more clavate than in the Crabronidce, and the propodemn is sometimes armed with acute spines, while the enclosed space is smoothly polished or striated. The wings are long and narrow, and the abdomen is sessile in the typical genera, where it is obconic, but clavate when pedicellate. In TnjpoxyloH the body is long, with a pedicellate clavate abdomen. In Europe "Mr. Johnson has detected it frequent- ing the holes of a post pre-occupied by a species of Odynerus, and into which it conveyed a small round ball, or pellet, con- taining about fifty individuals of a species of Aphis ; this the Odynerus, upon her return, invariably turned out, flying out with it, held by her legs, to the distance of about a foot from the aperture of her cell, where she hovered a moment, and then let it fall ; and this was constantly the case till the Trypoxylon had sufficient time to mortar up the orifice of the hole, and the. Odynerus was then entirely excluded; for although she would return to the spot repeatedly, she never endeavored to force the entrance, but flew off to seek another hole elsewhere." T. polition Say has purplish wings, and no enclosure on the propodeum. T. frifjidnm. Smith lives in the stems of Syringa, from which it has been reared by Mr. Angus. The thin, delicate cocoon is long and slender, enlarging slightly towards the anterior end. The genus MeUhnis (belonging to the third subfamilv, J/W- Hninw,) is known by its broad front, and slender antenna1, and its pedunculate abdomen, while in Aly*/.s.so /*//«?, so named from >»'ys- son, a typical genus. The genus Gorytes is truly a mimetic form, closely simulat- ing the genus Odynerus, one of the Vesparim. The front ol' the head is narrow, while the clypeus is larger than usual. The species are numerous, occurring late in the summer on the flowers of Spiiwa. Gorytes flavicornis Harris is polished russet In-own, Avith narrow yellow rings on the abdomen, the propo- deum is smooth and polished, and the basal ring of the abdomen is black. A species has been observed in Europe protruding her sting into the frothy secretion of Tettigonia- living on grass, and carrying off the insect to provision its nest with. Oxybdus is a short, stout, Mack genus, with whitish abdomi- nal spots, and stout spines on the thorax, while the sessile abdomen is distinctly conical. k>lts prey consists of Diptera, which it has a peculiar mode of carrying by the hind legs the while it either opens the aperture of its burrow or else forms a new one with its anterior pair. Its flight is low, and in skips ; it is very active." (Westwood.) Oxybelus emarginatus Say has two oval membranous appen- dages to the metathorax, and is a common black species found abundantly on the flowers of the Virginia Creeper. In Ni/xtion the body is a little longer, narrow compared with Miat of Oxybelus, while the terminal joint of the antenna? is Jiickened, flattened, and excavated beneath. Nystson lateralis Say is dull black, with six light spots on the abdomen. The species of Stiz-tts are of large size and easily recognized by their hirsute body, stont legs, triangular silvery clypeus, and the high transverse vertex of the head. The propodeum has a faintly marked triangular enclosure. The species are very rapacious, paralyzing grasshoppers and other large insects with their formidable sting, and carrying them off to provision their nests. Professor S. Tenney has sent us a specimen of the Dog-day Cicada (C. canicularis) which Stizus spedosus had thus stung. Mr. Atkinson has observed the same fact, and has found the deep burrows of this species, the hole being three- fourths of an inch in diameter. He has observed it feeding on sap running from a tree. 1 G4 HYMENOl'TERA . The species of Larra are smaller, and differ from those of Stizus in the long, narrow, very prominent labrum, the shorter clypeus, broader front and longer abdomen, the tip of which is without the broad subtriangular area which is present in Stizus and the other genera of this family. Larra vn icincta Say is black- ish, with a single reddish band on the second abdominal ring. BEMBECID^E Latreille. We have but two genera, Bembex and Moneclula, which have large heads and flattened bodies, bearing a strong resemblance to Syrphus flies from their similar coloration. The labrum is very large and long, triangular, like a beak. The species are very active, flying rapidly about flowers with a loud hum. "The female Bembex burrows in sand to a considerable depth, burying various species of Dip- tera (Syrplmhv, Muscida% etc.), and depositing her eggs at the same time in company with them, upon which the larva' , when hatched, subsist. When a sufficient store has been collected, the parent closes the mouth of the cell with earth." " An anonymous correspondent in the Entomological Magazine, states that B. rostrata constructs its nests in the soft light sea-sands in the Ionian Islands, and appears to catch its prey (consist ing of such flies as frequent the sand; amongst others, a bottle- green Ay) whilst on the wing. lie describes the mode in •which the female, with astonishing swiftness, scratches its hole with its forelegs like a dog. Bembex tarsata, according to Latreille, provisions its nests with Bombyln." (Westwood.) Dufour states that two Diptera, Panopea carnea and Toxophora fasciata, the latter allied to Systrophus, are parasites on Bem- bex. Mr. F. G. Sanborn has noticed the exceedingly swift flight of our common Bembex fasciata Fabr. on sandy beaches where it is found most abundantly. Moneclula differs from Bembex in its slenderer body, more clavate antennae, and its shorter, very obtuse labrum. The body is smoother, and most generally more highly colored and more gaily spotted than in Bembex. Moneclula Carolina Fabr. and M. 4-fasciata Say are common southwards of New England. LAKRID^K Leach. Mr. F. Smith defines this family as having "mandibles notched exteriorly near the base ; the labrum con- LAKR1D.E. 165 coaled, with a single spine at the apex of the intermediate tibise ; the abdomen is ovoid-conical." The genus Astata is a large hairy form, with long antennae and palpi and an elongated prothorax. Its spiny legs show its nc.ir relationship to the Sphegidce. Astata unicolor Say repre- sents the genus in this country. Tachytes is also of larger size than the following genus. It is covered with long dense golden short hairs, with a trap- ezoidal front. Tachytes aurulentus Fabr. is rare ; it frequents the flowers of the Asclepias, as we have found pollen masses at- tached to the spines of its legs. We figure (89) a tarsus of a wasp belonging probably to this genus, received from Mr. V. T. Chambers, showing the pollen masses of Asclepias at- tached to the spines. The genus Larrada "contains those species which have the marginal cell truncated at the apex and appendiculated, and three submarginal cells, the first as long as the two following ; .... the metathorax [propodeum] truncated posteriorly, elongate, the sides being generally parallel ; the mandibles are large and arcuate, with a tooth on their exterior towards the base ; abdomen ovate-conical, acuminate at the apex." Larrada argentata Beauv. is covered with silvery pile. It is a slender form, with short, nearly unarmed legs. A Brazilian species of Larmda, according to Mr. H. W. Bates, builds a nest composed apparently of the scrapings of the woolly texture of plants ; it is attached to a leaf, having a close resemblance to a piece of German tinder, or a piece of sponge. The cocoons were dark brown, and of a brittle consist- ency. The reporter, Mr. F. Smith, adds : "I am not aware of any similar habit of building an external nest having been pre- viously recorded ; our British species of the closely allied genus Tachytes, are burrowers in the ground, particularly in sandy situations ; their anterior tarsi are strongly ciliated, the claws bifid and admirably adapted for burrowing. On examin- ing the insect which constructed the nest now exhibited, I find the legs differently armed; the anterior pair are not ciliated, Fig. 89. ICC HYMENOPTERA. :i,nd the claws are simple and slender, clearly indicative »>f a peculiar habit differing from its congeners, and how admirably is this illustrated in the nest before ns?" SFHEGIDJE Latreille. Smith defines this family as having '•'the posterior margin of the prothorax not prolonged back- wards to the insertion of the wings, and anteriorly produced into a neck, with the abdomen petiolated." The very fossorial legs are long and spiny, the posterior pair being of unusual length. The mandibles are large, curved, narrow, and acute, the base not being toothed externally, and the antennae arc long and filiform. The species are often gaily colored, being <>i i lamented with black and red. brown and red, or are entirely black, or blue. They love the sunshine, are very active, rest- less in their movements, and have a powerful sting. The sting of these and other wasps which store up insects for their young, penetrates the nervous centres and paralyzes the victim without depriving it of life, so that it lives many days. A store of living food is thus laid up for the young wasp. After being stung the caterpillars will transform into chrys- alids, though too weak to change to moths. Mr. (iueinzius, who resides in South Africa, observes that "large spiders and caterpillars became immediately motionless on being stung, and I cannot help thinking that the poisonous acid of Ilymen- optera has an antiseptic and preserving property ; for cater- pillars and locusts retain their colors weeks after being stung, and this, too, in a moist situation under a burning sun." These insects either make their nests in the sand, or, like the succeeding family, are "mud-daubers," building their cells of mud and plastering them on walls, etc. The tropical genus Ampnhx is more closely allied to the preceding family than the other genera. The species are brassy green. Dr. G. A. Perkins has described in the Ameri- can Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 293, the habits of a wasp, probably the Ampnlex tiilrirka Fabr., which inhabits Sierra Leone, and oviposits in the body of the cockroach. The dead bodies of the cockroaches are often found with the empty cocoon of flu- wasp occupying the cavity of the abdomen. A species of this genus, abundant at Zanzibar at certain sea- SIMIEGID.K. 1(57 sons, WHS frequently observed by Mr. C. C'ooke to attack the cockroach. The cockroach, as if cowed ut its presence, im- mediately yields without a struggle. The Ampulex stings and paralyses its victim, and then flies away with it. ('/i/i>rinn is closely allied, containing blue and metallic green species, often with golden yellow wings. Chlorion i->factf>i>iiN," which is found only in the tropics and Aus- tralia. Priononyx Thomw. is found from South Carolina to Brazil, including the West Indies. The genus tfpJtrx is quite an extensive one. The head is as wick' as the thorax ; the antenna1 are filiform, mandibles large and acute, bidentate within, the teeth notched at their base, forming a rudimentary tooth, the apical tooth being acute. The thorax is elongate-ovate, truncated behind, with a trans- verse collar (prothorax). The fore wings have one marginal and three submarginal cells ; the marginal cell elongate, rounded at its apex ; the first submarginal cell as long as the two following. The abdomen is pedun- culated, conic-ally ovate, and the an- terior tarsi are cili- ated in the females. iSphex iclmeinno- nea Linn. (Figure 90) is a large rust- red species, with a dense golden pu- Fig. no. bescence. It is common from Massachusetts southwards. In the last week of July, and during August and early in Sep- tember, we noticed nearly a dozen of these wasps busily en- gaged in digging their holes in a gravelly walk. In previous seasons they were more numerous, burrowing into grassy HYMENOPTERA. banks near the walk. The holes were four to six inches deep. In beginning its hole the wasp dragged away Avith its teeth a stone one half as large as itself to a distance of eight inches from the hole, while it pushed away others with its head. In beginning its burrow it used its large and powerful jaws almost entirely, digging to the depth of an inch in five minutes, com- pleting its hole in about half an hour. After having inserted its head into the hole, where it loosened the earth with its jaws and threw it out of the hole with its jaws and fore legs, it would retreat backwards and push the dirt still farther back from the mouth of the cell with its hind legs. In cases where the farther progress of the work was stopped by a stone too large for the wasp to remove or dig around, it would abandon it and begin a new hole. Just as soon as it reached the required depth the wasp flew a few feet to the adjoining bank and falling upon an Orchelimum vulgare or O. gracile, stung' and paralyzed it instantly, bore it to its nest, and was out of sight for a moment, and while in the bottom of its hole must have deposited its egg in its victim. Reappearing it be- gan to draw the sand back into the hole, scratching it in quite briskly by means of its spiny fore tarsi, while standing on its two hind pairs of legs. It thus threw in half an inch of dirt upon the grasshopper and then flew off. In this Avay one Sphex will make two or three such holes in an afternoon. The walk was hard and composed of a coarse sea-gravel, and the rapidity with which the wasp worked her way in with tooth and nail was marvellous. Sphex tibialis St. Fargeau is a black, stout, thick insect. Mr. J. Angus has reared this species, sending me the larva' in a cavity previously tunnelled by Xylocopa Virginica in a pine board. The hole was six inches long, and the oval cylin- drical cocoons were packed loosely, either side by side, where there was room, or one a little in advance of the other. The interstices between them were filled with bits of rope, which had perhaps been bitten up into pieces by the wasp itself ; while the end of the cell was filled for a distance of two inches with a coarse sedge arranged in layers, as if rammed in like gun- wad- ding. The cocoons are eighty to ninety hundredths of an inch long, oval lanceolate, somewhat like those of Pompilus. They consist of tAvo layers, the outer very thin, the inner tough. parchment-like. The larvst hybernate and turn to pupa> in the spring, appearing in the summer and also in the autumn. The larva is cylindrical, with the pleura! ridge prominent, and with no traces of feet ; the head, which is small and not prominent, and rather narrow compared Avith that of Pelopoeus, is bent inwards on the breast so that the mouth reaches to the sternum of the fourth abdominal ring. The posterior half of each ring is much thickened, giving a crenulated outline to the tergum. The abdominal tip is obtuse. Xphex Lanierii Guerin, according to Smith (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London, Feb. 7, 1859), con- structs its nest of a cottony substance, filling a tunnel formed by a large curved leaf. The species of the genus are sup- posed to burrow in the ground, and the two cases above cited show an interesting divergence from this habit. Mr. Smith adds, that in "the Sphex which constructs the nest in the rolled leaf, the anterior tarsi are found to be very slightly ciliated, and the tibire almost destitute of spines, thus affording another instance proving that difference of structure is indica- tive of difference of habit." The genus Pelopwus is of a slighter form than in Sphex, the body being longer and slenderer ; the clypeus is as broad as long, triangular above, in front convex, or produced and end- ing in two teeth. The outer costal cell is lanceolate oval, the second subcostal cell subtrapezoidal, being widest above ; it is also somewhat longer than broad. The first median cell is very long and narrow, much more so than usual. The pedicel of the abdomen is long, the first joint in the male being often as long as the remainder of the abdomen. The larva of P. cceruleus Linn, is much like that of Sphex, having a cylindrical body with the rings thickened posteriorly. It differs from that of Pompilus in its longer and narrower head, the short broadly trapezoidal clypeus, and the distinctly marked exserted labrum. The mandibles are long and tridentate. The pupa (of P. flavipes) differs from that of the Vespn rice in having the head more raised from the breast ; the palpi are not partially concealed, as they may be easily seen for their whole length. The long curved mandibles cover the base of the 170 HYMENOPTEEA. maxilhe and lingua, and the antenna? reach to the posterior coxa-. The maxilla' are slender, not reaching to the tip of the labinni. The female usually provisions her cells (Plate 5, Fig. 14) with spiders. The- cells are constructed of layers of mud of unequal length, and formed of little pellets placed in two rows, and di- verging from the middle. They are a little over an inch long, and from a half to three-quarters of an inch wide, and are some- what three-sided, the inner side next the object, either stone- walls or rafters, to which it is attached, being flat. As the earthen cells sufficiently protect the delicate larva1 within, the cocoons are very thin, and brown in color. The cells of Pelopwus flavipes from Brownville. Texas, col- lected by an United States officer and presented to the Boston Society of Natural History, contained both spiders and numer- ous pupa* of a fly, Sarcophaga nudipennis Loew (MS) which is somewhat allied to Tachina. These last hatched out in mid- summer a few days before the specimens of Pelopanis. It is most probable that they were parasitic on the latter. These specimens of P. flavipes were more highly ornamented with yel- low than in those found northwards in the Atlantic States, the metathorax being crossed by a broad yellow baud. ~ «/ » The genus Ammophila is a long slender form, with a petio- late abdomen, the tip of which is often red. The petiole of the abdomen is two-jointed, and very long and slender, being longer than the fusiform part. In the males the petiole is in some species much shorter. The wings are small, with the apex more obtuse than usual ; the second subcostal cell is pentag- onal, and the third is broadly triangular. Westwood states that "the species inhabit sandy districts, in which A. sabulosa forms its burrow, using its jaws in bur- rowing ; and when they are loaded, it ascends backwards to the mouth, turns quickly around, flies to about a foot's distance, gives a sudden turn, throwing the sand in a complete shower to about six inches' distance, and again alights at the mouth of its buiTow." 1 ' Latreille states that this species provisions its cells with caterpillars, but Mr. Shuckard states that he has observed the female dragging a very large inflated spider xip the nearly per- pendicular side of a sand-bank, at least twenty feet high, and rOMPILID.K. 171 that whilst burrowing it makes a loud whirring buzz ; and, in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, he states that he has detected both A. sabidosa and A. hirxittn dragging along large spiders. Mr. Curtis observed it bury the caterpillars of a Noctua and Geometra. St. Fargeau, how- ever, states that A. sabidosa collects caterpillars of large sixe, especially those of Noctiue, with a surprising perseverance, whereas A. arenaria, forming a distinct section in the genus, collects spiders." (Westwood.) Ammophila cementaria Smith, and A. urnaria Klug, are the more common species in this country ; they are red and white, while A. htctuosa Smith is a black, shorter, stouter, more hirsute species. They may all be seen flying about hot sandy places, and alighting near wells and standing water to drink. POMPILIUA: Leach. In this family the body is oblong, the sides often compressed, and the head shorter, when seen from above, being more trans- versely ovate than in the preceding family. The antennae are long, not geniculate, and in the males are stouter and with shorter joints than in the females. The eyes are narrow oval, and the maxillary palpi are six, and the labial palpi four-jointed. The prothorax is ex- tended on the sides back to the base of the wings, which latter are large and broad, the fore pair having three subcostal cells. The legs are very long and slender, with thick slender spines. The Pompilidce , of which about seven hun- dred species are known, have a wide geographical range, from the temperate zone to the tropics. Like the Sphegidw, they oviposit in the body of other insects, storing their nests, usually built in the sand, Avith spiders and caterpillars. The head of Pompihix (Fig. 91) is a little longer, seen from 172 HYMENOPTERA. above, than in the other genera ; the front of the head is about a third longer than broad. The antennae are long and fili- form and sometimes crenulate, as in Figure 91 o, in the [\ males ; the mandibles are stout, broad, sabre-shaped, being much curved, with low flattened teeth, and the maxillary palpi are longer than the labial palpi. The wino-s are rather broad, with the three subcostal cells Ivino- in a straight row. The abdomen is slightly com- •J & pressed, and equals in length the remainder of the body. The sting is very large and formidable, and ex- cessively painful, benumbing the parts it enters. They Fijr !l1 a- are exceedingly active, running and flying over sandy places like winged spiders. There are about five hundred species of this genus described. They are usually shining black or deep bluish black, with Fig. 92. smoky or reddish wings, and sometimes a reddish abdominal band. This genus is interesting, as affording in its form a mean between the globular thorax and short body of the Apt ((riff and the elongated body of the Iclineumonidtv. The Pompilus formosus Say (Fig. 92), called in Texas the Tarantula-killer, attacks that immense spider the Mygale Hentzii, and. according to Dr. (1. Lincecum (American Naturalist, May, POMPILID^E. 17;; 1867), paralyzes it with its formidable sting, and inserting an egg in its body, places it in its nest, dug to the depth of five inches. There is but a single brood, produced in June, which is killed off by the frosts of November. This species feeds in summer "upon the honey and pollen of the flowers of the Elder, and of Vitfs ampelopsis, the Virginia Creeper ; but its favorite nourishment is taken from the blossoms of Asdepias quadr! folium" Fig. 93. Fig. 94. (Lincecum.) P. cylmdricus Cresson (Fig. 93, wing) is one of our smallest species, being from three to five lines long. It occurs in the South and West. P. arctus Cresson (Fig. 94, wing) in- habits Colorado Territory. P. Mar ice Cresson (Fig. 95, § enlarged) is a beautiful and rare species found in Pennsylvania. The genus Priocnemis is characterized by the two hind pair of tibia.1 being serrated ( 5 , Fig. 96, a, wing ; b, pos- terior leg ; c, anterior leg), and by the want of spines on the an- terior legs. P. unifasciatus Say is a wide-spread species and readily recognized by the deep black color of the body, the yellow an- tennae and the large yellow spot at the tip of each anterior wing. The genus Agenia (Fig. 97, «, wing ; &, posterior leg) differs in having smooth legs. A. brevix Cres- son (Fig. 98, wing) is a little spe- A. congruus Cresson (Fig. 99, wing) Fig. 95. Fig. 96. cies found in Georgia, was captured in AVest Virginia ; and A. acceptus Cresson (Fig. 100, wing) in Georgia. The genus Notocyphus (Fig. 101, $,wing) is found in Brazil and Mexico. Planiceps (Fig. 102, 174 HYMENOPTERA. rig. 99. Fig. 101. wing) contains a few specie's, of which P. nitjer Cresson. an entirely black species, is found in Connecticut. Aporus (Fig. 103, wing) contains a single American species, ^1. fasciatus Smith, taken in North Carolina. From Mr. F. (J. Sanborn we have re- ceived the larva and cocoon of P<»npilux Flg- 9~- fit a ere us St. Farg., a small black spe- cies, which builds its nest in fields. The larva is short and broad, with the lateral region rather prominent, and the tip of the abdomen rather acute. It differs from Pelopaeus in its stouter, rather flat- tened body, and thickened segments, though as our specimen is preserved in alcohol these characters may have be- come exaggerated. It more nearly re- sembles Pelopaeus in its transverse clypeus, thin bilobate labrum, and the stout mandibles, which are, however, much stouter than in Pelopjeus, while the whole head is shorter, broader, and rounder. It is probable that this pecu- liar form of the head (which as in Sphex is bent beneath the breast), together Fig. 10:;. with the broad transverse clypeus. and broad, short, bilobate, thin, transparent labrum, and especially the nnidentate short broad mandibles are family characters, sep- arating the larva? of this group from those of the Sphegidce . The cocoon is ovate, long, and slender, much smaller at one end than the other, not being so regularly fusiform as in Sphex. CeropaZes differs from the foregoing gen- era in its broad head, its much shorter ab- domen ; and also in the eyes being a little excavated, in the depressed labiutn. the narrow front, which dilates above and below the middle, and in the greatly elongated hind legs, gen- erally banded with red or whitish, ('empales hipinictata Say is generally distributed throughout the United States. It Fig. 10-2. Fig. its. SCOL.IAIU-:. r Fiar. 104. is easily recognized by the black body and legs, and red pos- terior femora, and is six lines long. C. Robinsonii Cresson (Fig. 104, $ ) is an elegant species found in West Virginia. An allied genus is Jlt/ynimia (Fig. 105, wing) containing M. Me.v- icana Cresson and 37. ».s- tulataT)ahlb., two Mexican species. In the genus J*cpsis (Fig. 106, wing) the max- illary and labial palpi are of equal length. The spe- cies are large, some of them being among the lar- gest of Hymenoptera, and are generally indigo-blue in color. Pepsis heron Dahlbom is found in Cuba ; it is two inches long. P. cyanca Linn., which is blackish-blue, with blue abdomen and wings, the latter reddish at the apex, has been described by Beauvois from the United States, while P. elryanx St. Farg. also occurs in the Southern States. P. formosa Say affords another example of a species common to both sides of the Rocky Mountains, as it has been found both in Texas and Cal- ifornia. It is black, with bluish or greenish reflections, with bright fiery red wings, and is thirteen to eighteen lines long. SCOLIAD.K Leach. This family forms a group very easily distinguished from the Bembecidw or Chrysiclidw , as weli as the Pomp Hi dee , by the broad front, the small indented 63Tes, and the great sexual differences in the antenna?, those of the male being long and slowly thickened towards the tip, while in Fig. 105. Fig. 10(5. 176 HYMENOPTERA. the female the}' are short, thick, and elbowed on the second joint. The clypeus is large, irregularly quadrilateral, becom- ing shorter in the lower genera, and the labrum is small, scarcely exserted, while the mandibles are, in the female es- pecially, large and broad. The prothorax is very square in front. In the fore-wings are three subcostal spaces. The abdomen in the typical genus (Scolia) is broad and Hat, longer than the rest of the body. The abdomen of Mutilla approaches that of the Chrysididce in having the second ring much en- larged over the others. The males usually have the anal stylets very prominent, while the sting of the female is very powerful. The body and legs are generall}- very hirsute, and the first tarsal joint is as long as the tibia?. The genus Sapyga is easily recognized by its smooth slender body, being ornamented with yellow, with transverse bands on the abdomen. The head is long, very convex in front, and the antennae are clavate ; the prothorax is very broad, giving an oblong appearance to the thorax. The legs are slender and smooth. It is said to be parasitic, laying its eggs in the cells of Osmia. Sapyga Martinii of .Smith is found northward. The species of Scolia are often of great size, being black and very hirsute, with the labium composed of three linear di- visions ; the abdomen alone being banded or spotted with yellow on the sides. They are found in the hottest places about strongly scented flowers. In Europe, Scolia b>ci>tct« "makes its burrows in sand-banks, to the depth of sixteen inches, with a very wide mouth;" and it is probable that the nest is stored with grasshoppers. Scolia quadrimaculata Fabr. is found in the Middle and Southern States. The larva of Scolia Jlavifrons was found by Passerini to live in the body of the lamellicorn beetle, Oryctes nasicornis. In Madagascar, Scolia oryctophaga lives on Oryctes simia, according to Coquerel. Professor Sumichrast states that at Tehuacan (Department of Puebla) the Scolia Azteca Sauss. is very common ; and is particularly abundant in the leather tanneries, which leads him to think that the females of this species also deposit their eggs under the epidermis of the larva which abounds in the tan. Tiphia is black throughout and rather hirsute. The anteinue MUTILLARIJS. 177 are shorter than in Scolia or Myzine ; the clypeus is also shorter, while the prothorax is longer. In the fore-wings the outer cos- tal cell is short, broad, angulated, oval; and of the two sul>- costal cells, the outer one is broad and triangular, twice as long as broad, while the first median cell is regularly short rhoin- boidal, much more so than in the other genera. The females, according to Westwood, '-make perpendicular burrows in sandy situations, for the reception of their eggs ; but the precise food stored up for the larvae has not been ob- served." Tipltia inornate Say is a common species with us, and flies low over sandy places early in the season. The short oval head, the large eyes, short meso-scutum, large meso-scutellum, and the flattened, rather smooth body, characterize the genus Myzine. The females are very different from the males, the two sexes being for a long time considered as separate genera. The female, especially, differs in the great length of the square prothorax, which is very broad and convex in front. In the male the eyes are lunate, while in the female they are small, entire, and remote. In its general form the fe- males much resemble Scolia, while the males are long and nar- row, with broad yellow bands, especially on the abdomen, and a large exserted sting-like organ. Myzine sexcinrfa Fabr. is seen from New England southwards, flying low over hot sandy places. The genus Elis is closely allied. Sumichrast (American Nat- uralist, vol. 2), surmises that Elis costalis St. Farg. lives on certain Scarabseides, which undergo their metamorphosis in the formicary of CEcodoma in Mexico. Latreille. This interesting family is character- ized by the females alone being wingless, though Morawitz says that wingless males occur in two species ; and by the absence, generally, of the three ocelli. In Mutilla and Myrmosa the thorax is still high, compressed, and oblong cuboidal, and ex- cept in the closely united tergal pieces the females do not greatly recede from the type of the winged males. The species are very equal in size, are black, or black and red, and either smooth or hirsute. The antennas are inserted low down on the front, the clypeus being very short and broadly ovate (especially in Myrmosa), 12 178 HYMENOPTERA. or it is indented, as in Mutilla. The tongue is shorter than usual. The sides of the thorax contract in width, both before and be- hind. The meso-scutum is squarer than usual, while the rneso- scutellum is much narrower and longer, and the propodeum is squarely truncated behind, thus presenting a full convex surface. The abdomen is not much longer than the rest of the bod}', be- ing shorter than usual. In all these characters this family shows its affinities to the Ants. The wings are very dissimilar in the different genera. In Myrmosa the neuratioii closely approaches that of Sapyga, while in the larger, more acute primaries of Mutilla, and especially in the short outer costal cell, and short open pterostigma, the latter genus differs from the others. The male of Xderodenna closely mimics the Procto- t r yj> i (I <>> , the veins of the wings being absent, while the form of the head and abdomen also reminds us of some genera in that family. The wingless female is veiy different, having more of the form of Mutilla, with a large oblong head and long- acutely conical abdomen. The species are minute and rarely met with. S. contracta Westwood is found in kt Carolina." In the female Methoca the eyes are very long, and the seg- ments of the abdomen are widely separated, much as in the ants. Methoca Canadensis Smith is shin- ing black, and slightly villose. The species of Myrmosa may be known by the very short clypeus, the broad ver- tex, and the rings of the abdomen of the male being unusually contracted. The abdomen of the female is cylindrical, about twice as long as broad, and thickest on the second ring. The rings are densely hirsute on the hinder edge. Myrmosa nuicolor Say (Figs. 107, male ; 108, female) is widely distributed. We have taken this species in Maine, while sex- ually united, early in June. The wingless female is like an ant, and is pale reddish on the thorax and basal ring of the abdomen, and the; antennae and feet are concolorous, while the head and remaining abdominal rings are much darker. It is .20 inch long. The male is .2« inch long and entirely black. 107. Fig. 108. FOUMICAKI^E. 179 The genus Muttlla is a very extensive one, and enjoys a wide geographical range. It is throughout stouter than Mynnosa, the head is more cubical, and the thorax and abdomen is shorter, the tip of the latter being somewhat truncated. The wingless female closely resembles, both in its form and motions, a worker ant. The body is coarsely granulated and either naked or densely hirsute, and of a scarlet, black, or pale red, or brown-black color. The females are found running in hot sandy places, and hide themselves quickly when disturbed, while the males frequent flowers. Mntilla occidentalis is a large species. It is of a beautiful scarlet color and is armed Avith a very powerful sting. According to Profes- sor A. E. Verrill this species was found by him. at New Haven, to construct deei) with insects. This species is also said by Fig. 109. Kirby to be very active, "taking flies by surprise." (West- wood.) Mr. Verrill noticed that this insect makes a slight ' ~ creaking noise. The larva* of J/. Enroptua are said to live parasitic-ally in Humble-bees' nests. MtitiUa ferrugata Fabr. (Fig. 10'J) is found frequently in New England. Latreille. The family of ants would seem naturally to belong with the truly fossorial Hymenoptera, both from their habits and structure. Both males and females are winged, but the males are much smaller than the females, while the wingless workers are smaller than the males. In these wingless forms the segments of the thorax become more or less separated, making the body much longer and slenderer, and less compact than in the winged nor- mal sexual forms, the prothorax being more developed than in the males and females. The workers often consist of two forms : one with a large cubical head, or worker major, some- times called a soldier, and the usual small-headed form, or worker minor. The head is generally triangular. The eyes are large in the males, smaller in the workers, and in those of some genera (Ponera, Typhlopone, etc.) they are absent ; while in the 1 rather small and bent upon the breast. The larva- are fed by the workers with food elaborated in their stomachs. The larvae of the stingless genera usually spin a delicate silken cocoon, while those of the aculeate genera do not. Both Latreille and Westwood, however, state that sometimes, ;is in Formica fusca, of Europe, the pupa- tire naked, and at other times enclosed in a cocoon. The colonies of the different species vary greatly in si/e. In the nests of Formica sanyuinea the number of individuals is very great. The history of a formicarium, or ant's nest is as follows : The workers only (but sometimes the winged ants) hibernate, and are found early in spring, taking care of the eggs and larvoi produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the course of the summer the adult forms are developed, swarming on a hot sultry day. The little yellow ants, abundant in paths and about houses in New England, generally swarm on the af- ternoon of some hot day in the first week of September, when the air is iilled towards sunset with myriads of them. The females, after their marriage night in the air, may then be seen entering the ground to lay their eggs for new colonies, or, as Westwood states, they are often seized bj* the workers and retained in the old colonies. Having no more use for their wings they pluck them off, and may be seen running about wingless. According to (iould, an early English observer, the eggs destined to hatch the future females, nudes and workers, are deposited at three different periods. The nests of some species of Formica are six feet in diameter FOKMICAKl^E. 181 mid contain many thousand individuals. Ants also build nests of clay or mud, and inhabit hollow trees. They enjoy feeding upon the sweets of flowers and the honey of the Plant- lice, which they domesticate in their nests. Several species of beetles, including some of the StaphylinidcK , take up their abode in ants' nests. Ants are useful as scavengers, feeding on decaying animal matter. A good method of obtaining the skeletons of the smaller animals, is to place them on a densely populated ant-hill. The habits of the ants, their economy and slave-making habits, are described in the works of Huber, La- treille, and Kirby and Spence. Upwards of a thousand species of ants have already been described ; those of this country have still to be monographed. The first group of this extensive family consists of Dorylus and its allies, and Formica and the neighboring genera, all of which are distinguished by having only the first abdominal seg- ment contracted, while in the second group (Mynnicaria'), the two bas;i 1 rings are contracted into knot-like segments. The genus Dorylus was, by Latreille, King, and others, in- cluded in the M n t i liar ice . The head is very short, the ocelli are large and globular. The thorax and abdomen are elongated, the last is cylindrical, with a small, round, basal joint. The legs are short, with broad compressed femora and feather-like tarsi. In the wings the outer subcostal cells are wanting. The females are not yet known. Mr. F. Smith says that Dorylus was found by lion. W. Ellliot to live in the man- ner of ants, under the stone foundation of a house in India. The society was very numerous. The difference in size of the male and worker is very remarkable. The males are of large size and are found in tropical Asia and Africa. TypJilopone is an allied genus. T. £>a7?(/>fs Ilaldeman is found in Pennsylvania. To the genus Anomma belong the Driver-ants of Western Africa. They march in vast armies, driving eveiy thing before them, so formidable are they from their numbers and bite, though they are of small size. They cross streams, bridging them by their interlocked bodies. Only the workers are known. Two species only, A. Burmeisteri Shuckard, and A. fcrcois Westwood, are described from near Cape Palmas, West Africa. 182 HLYMENOPTEKA. The genus Ponera is found distributed throughout the tropics. The females and workers are armed with spines ; the abdomen is elongated, the segments more or less diminished in size, the first comparatively large and often cubical. The legs are slender. P. ferrwginea Smith is a Mexican species. The allied genus Odontomachus springs like some leaping spiders. It uses for this purpose its unusually long mandibles, which are bent at right angles. 0. darns Roger lives in Texas. Formica includes the typical species of ants. Over two hun- dred species of this genus have been already described. The body is unarmed. The abdomen is short, oval or spherical, the scale-like first segment being lenticular in form, with a sharp upper edge. The subcostal cell of the fore-wings ends in a point. Formica sangvinea Latr. is one of our most abundant species, making hillocks of sand or clay, according to the nature of the ground. From the formicary walks, and underground galleries, radiate in all directions. This species has been ob- served making forays upon each others colonies. We have found a variety of this species in Labrador, where it is com- mon. It does not throw up hillocks, but tunnels the earth. This species has been observed in Europe by P. Iluber, to goon slave expeditions. They attack a "negro-colony" be- longing to a smaller black species, pillaging the nest, and carry- ing on" merely the larvae and pupae. The victors educate them in their own nests, and on arriving at maturity the negroes take the entire care of the colony. Poly erg us rufescens is also a slave- making ant, and '' Latreille very justly observes that it is physi- cally impossible for the rufescent ants (Poh/ergus rufescens), on account of the form of their jaws, and the accessory parts of their mouth, either to prepare habitations for their family, to procure food, or to feed them." Formica sanguinea sallies forth in immensely long columns to attack the negro ant. Ilu- ber states that only five or six of these forays are made within a period of a month, at other seasons they remain at peace. Iluber found that the slave-making Polyergus rufescens when left to themselves perish from pure laziness. They are waited upon and fed by their slaves, and when they are taken away, their masters perish miserably. Sometimes they are known to labor, and were once observed to carry their slaves to a spot chosen FORMICARY. 183 for a nest. The F. sanguined is not so helpless, "they assist their negroes in the construction of their nests, they collect their sweet fluid from the Aphides ; and one of their most usual occupations is to lie in wait for a small species of ant on which they feed ; and when their nest is menaced by an enemy they show their value for these faith- ful servants, by carrying them down into the lowest apartments, as to a place of the greatest security." (Kirby.) Pupae of both of the slave- making species were placed in the same formicary by Huber, where they Fig. no. were reared by the "negroes," and on arriving at maturity "lived together under the same roof in the most perfect amity," as we quote from Kirby. Darwin states that in England, F. sanguinea does not enslave other species. In this country Mr. J. A. Allen has described in the Proceedings of the Essex Institute, vol. 5, 1866, a foray of a colony of F. sanauinea upon a colony of a black species of Formica, for the purpose of making slaves of them. Formica Pensytvanica, our largest species, is found in oaks and decay- ing trees, while F. herculanea Latr. burrows in the earth, its hole opening beneath stones and sticks. Gould, who wrote in 1747, states that there are two sizes of workers of the common European Formica rufa, and fara; one set of individuals exceeding the other by about one-third. Kirby states that in his specimens "the large workers of For- mica rufa are nearly three times, and of F. flava, twice the size of the small ones." Mr. E. Norton describes F. fulrucea (Fig. 110, worker minor), and also Tapinoma tomentosa (Fig. Ill, worker major; antennae broken off), from Mexico. The tropical genus Polyrhachis includes, according to Smith, all those species that closely resemble Formica, but which Fig. 111. 184 HYMENOPTERA. 11-2. have the thorax and node of the peduncle armed with spines or hooks. The}' construct small semicircular nests, of a kind of net-work, on the leaves of trees and shrubs. Their communities are small, sel- 4, dom exceeding twenty individuals. Mr. Norton describes P. arboricola (Fig. 112, worker major) from Mexico. An allied genus is Ectatomma (Fig. 113, worker major of E. fcrrnyima Norton, from Mexico). Mr. F. Smith has described a new genus, (Ewphylla, which is allied to Formica. They are green ants, found building in trees Fi in the tropics of the old world. The nest of (E. Smith is "•formed by drawing together a number of green leaves, which they unite with a fine web. Some nests are a foot in diameter. They swarm, says Mr. Wallace, in hilly for- ests in New Guinea. Their sting is not very severe. This genus forms a link between Formica and Myrmica ; it agrees with the former in hav- ing a single node to the pe- duncle, and with the latter in having the ocelli obsolete in the workers, and in being fur- nished with a sting." The curious Honey-ant of Texas and Mexico, Mtfrtiteco- ct/stus Mexicanus Westwood, has two kinds of ' ' workers of very distinct forms, one of the usual shape," according to Smith, " and performing the active duties of the formica- rium ; the other and larger worker is inactive and does not quit the nest, its sole purpose, apparently, being to elaborate a kind of honey, which they are said to discharge into prepared recep- tacles, which constitutes the food of the entire population of the community. In the honey-secreting workers the abdomen is distended into a large globose bladder-like form. From this honey an agreeable drink is made by the Mexicans." Fig. 113. FOKM1CAK1 JE . 1 So The second subfamily, Myrmicaruv, includes those species in which the two first abdominal segments are contracted and lenticular. In ^lynnica the females and workers are armed with spines, and the ocelli are absent in the workers. The species are very small, and mostly bright colored. Mijrmica niolesta Say is found in houses all over the world. G-. Lincecum describes the habits of the Agricultural Ant of Texas, Myrmica molefadens. It lives in populous communi- ties. "They build paved cities, construct roads, and sustain a large military force." In a year and a half from the time the colony begins, the ants previously living concealed beneath the surface, appear above and "dear away the grass, herbage, and other litter, to the distance of three or four feet around the entrance to their city, and construct a pavement, .... con- sisting of a pretty hard crust about half an inch thick," formed of coarse sand and grit. These pavements would be inun- dated in the rainy season, hence, " at least six months pre- vious to the coming of the rain," they begin to build mounds rising a foot or more from the centre of the pavement. Within these mounds are neatly constructed cells into which the "eggs, young ones, and their stores of grain, are carried in time of rainy seasons." No green herb is allowed to grow on the pavement except a grain-bearing grass, Aristida stricta. This grain, when ripe, is harvested, and the chaff removed, while the clean grain is carefully stored away in dry cells. Lincecum avers that the ants even sow this grain. They also store up the "grain from several other species of grass, as well as seeds from many kinds of herbaceous plants." PhehMe is distinguished by having workers with enormous heads. P. notabilis Smith, from the Island of Bachian, Indian Archipelago, is noted for the enormously enlarged, cubical head of the worker major, which is at least six times the size of the abdomen, while in the worker minor, the head is of the ordinary size. An Indian species, P. providens Westwood, according to Col. Sykes, "collects so large a store of grass seeds as to last from January and February, the time of their ripening, till October." The genus Atta is also well-armed, while the Avorkers have a very large, deeply incised and heart-shaped head, without 180 HYMENOPTEKA. ocelli, and the second abdominal knot-like ring is very trans- verse. A. dypeata Smith is a Mexican species. In Eciton the man- dibles nearly equal the length of the in- sect itself. This ge- nns is the most ferocious of all the ants, entering the nest of species of Formica and tearing them, limb from limb, and then carrying off the remains to their own houses. Ecitini Mexirtinn Roger (Fig. 114, worker major, a, front view of head, show- ing the immense sickle-like mandibles, and only the two basal joints of the antemife ; Fig. 115, worker minor, with a front view of the head, showing the mandi- bles of the usual size). This species, with Eciton Sumichrasti Norton, (Fig. 116, worker minor) has been found by Professor Sumichrast at Cordova and Orizaba, Mexico. The males of Eciton are not }ret known. Smith supposes that Labichis (a genus allied to Dorylus) is the male form, and Sumi- chrast thinks this conjec- ture is "sustained by the Fig. iw. fact that it is in the season when the sorties of the Eciton are the more frequent that the Labidus also show themselves." Fig. 114. FORMIC ARL, inser- tion of the abdomen) lives in Cuba. Faeiins is quite a different genus, as the abdomen is very long and slender. Fmnus jaculator Linn, is known in Europe to frequent the nests of Crabronidce, ovipositing in the larvae. JWwiitiix is a fa- miliar insect, the im- mensely elongated, linear abdomen of the female easily Fig. 1-2.1. distinguishing it. The male is extreme!}- rare ; its abdomen is short and clavate. It strikingly resembles Trypoxylon, though the abdomen is considerably larger. Pelwhnis j»>/>/- <-c>-«tor Drury (Fig. 125, $ and ?) is widely distributed throughout this country. The genuine Irfn>t'Hi»oitiyx neustria. He describes the larva as elliptical, white, .shining, rugose, subincurved, and one-third of an inch long." (Westwood.) Of the extensive genus Platygaster over a hundred European species are already known. The body, especially the abdomen, is generally flattened, the antennas are ten-jointed, and in the female clavate. The wing veins are absent ; the rather slender legs are not adapted for leaping, and the tarsi are five-jointed. A species of Platygaster (Fig. 134) not yet named, oviposits in the eggs of the Canker-worm moth, Anisopteryx vernata, and by its numbers does much to check the increase of this caterpillar. We have seen several of these minute insects engaged in inserting their eggs into those of the Canker- worm. Dr. Harris, in speaking of the enemies of the Hessian-fly, states, that "two more parasites, which Mr. Herrick has not yet described, also destroy the Hessian-fly, while the latter is in the flax-seed or pupa state. Mr. Herrick says, that the egg- parasite of the Hessian-fly is a species of Platygaster, that it is very abundant in the autumn, when it lays its own eggs, four or five together, in a single egg of the Hessian-fly. This, it appears, does not prevent the latter from hatching, but the maggot of the Hessian-fly is unable to go through its trans- formations, and dies after taking on the flax-seed form. Mean- while its intestine foes are hatched, come to their growth, spin PKOCTOTEYPID^E. 201 themselves little brown cocoons within the skin of their victim, and in due time, tire changed to winged insects, and eat their way out." P. error Fitch (Fig. 135) is closely allied to P. n'puke Kirby, which, in Europe, destroys great numbers of the Wheat-midge. Whether this is a parasite of the midge, or not, Dr. Fitch has not yet determined. The habits of the genus Bethylus remind us of the fossorial wasps. Betliylus fuscicornis, according to Halidajr, "buries the larvae of some species of Tinea, which feed upon the low tufts of Rosa spinosissima, dragging them to a considerable distance with great labor and solicitude, and employing, in the instance recorded by Mr. Haliday, the bore of a reed stuck in the ground instead of an arti- ficial funnel, for the cells which should contain the progeny of the Bethylus, with its store of provision." (Westwood.) The genus Inostemma is re- markable for having the basal segment of the abdomen of the females furnished with a thick curved horn, which extends over the back of the thorax and head. Dr. Fitch states that /. inserens is supposed by Kirby to insert its eggs into those of the Wheat-midge. In the genus Galesus of Curtis, the mandibles are so enlarged and length- ened as to form a long beak, and Westwood farther states that in some specimens the anterior wings have a notch at the ex- tremity. Say's genus Coptera has similar wings. C. polita Say was discovered in Indiana. In the very minute species of Mymar and its allies, the head is transverse, with the antennae inserted above the middle of the face ; they are long and slender and elbowed in the male, but clavate in the female. There are no palpi, while the very narrow wings have a very short subcostal vein and on the edges are provided with long dense cilia?. The antenna? of Mymar are thirteen-jointed in the male, and nine-jointed in the female ; the club is not jointed. The tarsi are four-jointed, and the abdomen is pedunculated. Mymar piilchellus Curtis is a quarter of a line long. It is found in Europe. An allied 202 HYMENOPTEKA. form Polynesia ovulorum Linn, lays numerous eggs in a single butterfly's egg. In Anaphes the male antemue are twelve-jointed, those of the female nine-jointed, and the abdomen is subsessile and ovoid. In Anayrus the male antennas are thirteen-jointed, those of the female nine-jointed, while the tarsi are four-jointed, and the acutely conical abdomen is sessile. No native species are known. The smallest Hymenopterous insect known, if not the most minute of all insects, is the Pteratomus Patnamii Pack. (Plate 3, figs. 8, 8 a, hind wing), which we first discovered on the body of an Anthophorabia in the minute eggs of which it is undoubtedly parasitic. It differs from Anagrus in the obtusely conical abdomen, and the narrower, very linear wings, which are edged with a fringe of long, curved hairs, giving them a graceful, feathery appearance. The fore-wings are fissured, a very interesting fact, since it shows the tendency of the wings of a low Hymenopterous insect to be fissured like those of Pterophorus and Alucita, the two lowest Lepidop- terous genera. It is one-ninetieth of an inch in length. CHALCIDIDJE Westwood. This is a group of great extent ; the species are of small size ; they are often of shiny colors, as the name of the principal genus implies, being either bronxen or metallic. They have also elbowed antennae with from six to fourteen joints, and the wings are often deficient in veins. In some genera, including Chalcis, the hind thighs are thickened for leaping. The differences between the sexes, general!}' very marked in Hymenoptera, are here especially so. The abdo- men is usually seven-jointed in the male and six-jointed in the female, the other rings being aborted. The male of several species has the joints of the antennae swelled and furnished with long hairs above. Some of the species of Pteromalus are wing- less, and closely resemble ants. They infest eggs and larva*. Some species prey upon the Aphides, others lay their eggs in the nests of wasps and bees. One species is known in Europe to be a parasite of the common house-fly. Others consume the larva? of the Hessian-fly, and those Cecidomyia? that pro- duce galls, and also the true gall-flies (Cynips). Some are CILALCUDID/K. parasites on other Ichneumon parasites, us there are species preying on the genus Aphidius, which is a parasite on the Aphis. Mr. Walsh has bred a species of Hockeria and 01' Glyphe, which are parasitic on a Microgaster, which in turn preys upon the Army-worm, Leucania unipimcta ; and Chalcis albifrons Walsh, was bred from the cocoons of Pezomachus, an Ichneumon parasite of the same caterpillar. The pupai of some species are said to have the limbs and wings soldered together as in Lepidoptera, and the larvae sel- dom spin a silken compact cocoon. We have probably in this country at least a thousand species of these small parasites, nearly twelve hundred having been named and described in Europe alone. They are generally large enough to be pinned or stuck upon cards or mica ; some individuals should be preserved in this way, others, as wet specimens. Fig. 136. Chalcis is known by the abdomen having a long pedicel, its much thickened, oval thighs, and curved tibise. Chalcis bra- <-ata (Fig. 136), so named by Mr. Sanborn "in allusion to the ornamental and trousered appearance of the posterior feet" is about .32 inch in length. ''Reaumur has described and figured a species of Chalcis, which is parasitic in the nest of the American wasp Epipone nitidulans and which he regarded as the female of that wasp." (Westwood.) The genus Leucospis is of large size. It is known by having the large ovipositor laid upon the upper surface of the abdo- men, and being spotted and banded with yellow, resembling wasps. One of our more common species is the L. qffinis (Fig. 137) of Say. The Cuban L. Poet/i Guerin is para- sitic on the Megachile Poeyi of Guerin. The well-known Joint-worm, Enri/toma, (or Isosoma Walsh) produces galls on wheat- stems. The antennae are, in the male, slender and provided with verticils of hairs. The acutely oval abdomen has a short pedicel. The hind legs are scarcely thicker than the fore limbs. E. hordei Harris (Fig. 138) is found in gall-like swellings of wheat-stalks. It is still a matter of discussion. Fis,'. 137. 204 HYMENOPTERA. whether it directly produces the galls, or is parasitic, like many of the family, on other gall-insects. Dr. Harris, who has studied the habits of the Joint-worm, states that the body of the adult fly is jet black, and that the thighs, shanks (tibiae), and claw-joints, are blackish, Avhile the knees and other joints of the feet, are pale-yellow. The females are .13 inch long, while the males are smaller, have a club-shaped abdomen, and the joints of the antennae surrounded with a verticil of hairs. The larva is described by Harris from specimens received from Virginia, as varying from one-tenth to nearly three-twentieths of an inch in length. It is of a pale yellowish white color, with an internal dusky streak, and is destitute of hairs. The head is round and partially retractile, with a distinct pair of jaws, and can be distinguished from the larvae of the dipterous gall-flies by not having the v-shaped organs on the segment succeeding the head. During the sum- mer, according to Mr. Gourgas's observa- tions reported by Dr. Harris, and when the barley or wheat is about eight or ten inches high, the presence of the young Joint-worms is detected "by a sudden rig. i3s. check in the growth of the plants, and the yellow color of their leaves," and several irregular gall- like swellings between the second and third joints, or, accord- ing to Dr. Fitch, " immediate!}- above the lower joint in the sheathing base of the leaf;" or, as Harris states, in the joint itself. The ravages of this insect have been noticed in wheat and barley. During November, in New England, the worms transform into the pupa state, according to the observations of Dr. A. Nichols, and "live tlnxmgh the winter unchanged in the straw, many of them in the stubble in the field, while others are carried away when the grain is harvested." In Virginia, however, the larva does not transform until late in February, or early in March, according to Mr. Glover. From earl}- in May, until the first week in July, the four-winged flies issue from the galls in the dry stubble, and are supposed to im- mediately lay their eggs in the stalks of the young wheat or barley plants. The losses by this insect has amounted, in Virginia, to over a third of the whole crop. The best remedy CHALCIDIDyE. 205 against the attacks of this insidious foe, is to burn the stubble in the autumn or spring for several successive years. Plough- ing in the stubble does not injure the insects, as they can work their way out of the earth. It has been objected by Westwood, Ratzburg, and more recently by Mr. Walsh, (who afterwards changed his views), that as all the species of this family, so far as known, are para- sitic, the Eurytoma cannot be a gall-producer, and that the galls are made by a dipterous insect (Cecidomyia) on which the Eurytoma is a parasite ; but, as they offer no new facts to support this opinion, we are inclined to believe from the statements of Harris, Fitch, Cabell, T. Glover (Patent Office Report for 1854), and others, that the larva of the Eurytoma produces the gall. We. must remember that the habits of comparatively few species of this immense family have been studied ; that the genus Eurytoma is not remotely allied to the Cynipidse, or true gall-flies (which also comprise animal parasites), in which group it has actually been placed by Esen- beck, for the reason that in Europe "several species of Eurytoma have been observed to be attached to different kinds of galls." (Westwood.) Dr. Fitch also describes the Yellow-legged Barley-fly, Eurytoma fiannpes, which produce^ similar galls in barley, and differs from the Wheat Joint- worm in having yellow legs, while the antenna? of the male are not surrounded with whorls of hair. The Eurytoma secalis Fitch infests rye. It differs from E. hordei in '" having the hind pair of. shanks dull pale-yellow, as well as the forward ones." We shall also see beyond that several species of Saw-flies produce true galls, while other species of the same genus are external feeders, which reconciles us more easily to the theory that the Eurytoma hordei, and the other species described by Dr. Fitch, differ in their habits from others of the family, and are not ani- mal parasites. Indeed the Joint-worm is preyed upon by two Chalcid parasites, for Harris records finding the larva?, proba- bly of Torymus, feeding on the Eurytoma larvae, and that a species of Torymus (named T. Harrisii, by Dr. Fitch, and per- haps the adult of the first-named Torymus) and a species of Pteromalus are parasites on Eurytoma. In Sfonodontomerus (Torymus) the third joint of the an- 20C. HYMENOPTEKA. teinue is minute, and the liind femora are thick, but not ser- rated, and beneath armed with a tooth near the tip. The wings are rudimentary so that it does not quit the cell. Newport states that the larva is fiat, yen- hairy, and spins a silken cocoon when about to pupate. It is an ''external feed- ing parasite" consuming the pupa as well as the larva of An- thophorabia. The imago appears about the last of June, perforating the cell of the bee. Jt also lives in the nests of Osinia, Anthophora, and Odynerus. The genus Anthopliorabia is so-called from being a parasite on Anthophora. The males differ remarkably from the females, especially in having simple instead of compound eyes, besides the usual three ocelli. ^1. mw/itchilis Pack. (Plate 3; tig. 7. larva; IK. pupa) is a parasite on a species of Megachile. The larva is white, short and thick, cylindrical, with both extremities much alike ; the segments are slightly convex, and the terminal ring is orbicular and rather large. Length. .04 inch, being one-third as broad as long. On opening the cells of Megachile, we found nearly a dozen containing these para- sites, of which l."iu larva? were counted clustering on the out- side of a dead and dry Megachile larva. In England they occur, according to Newport's observations, in much less num- bers, as he found from thirty to lifty in a cell of Anthophora. A few females hatched out in the middle of October, and there- were a, few pupae left, but the majority wintered over in the larva state, and a new and larger brood appeared in the spring. J'crtlfiitipiis is a beautiful genus, with its shining, metallic tints. The eleven-jointed antenna; are short, lying Avhen at rest in a dee)) frontal furrow. The head is large, while the abdomen is slightly pedicelled, being short, contracted, with the ovipositor concealed. P. pldtiiyuxtcr Say and /'. triamjit- /((/•/.s Say were described from Indiana. The numerous species of Pt•«- Harris is a parasite on Vanessa Antiopa. P. rlisio- CIlALCIDIDyE. 207 <-(tj Harris infests Clisiocampa. " Pternnniliis «J,I/IH, is parasitic in the nests of the Mason-bee." (AVestwood.) A spe- cies of this or an allied genus (Fig. 139) infests the eggs of the Clisiocampa Ameri- cana. Its eggs are probably laid within those of the Tent-caterpillar moth early in the summer, hatching out in the autumn, and late in the spring or early in June. An allied genus, ftiphonum, is a para- site on galls. It resembles a beetle, Mor- della, from its very peculiar scutum. Fis- 1:J!)- The antennae of Semiotellus are twelve-jointed. »S. (Ceraph- roii) ih-xtriictor Say (Fig. 140), according to that author, destroys the Hessian-fly, while lying in the "flax-seed" state. Fitch de- scribes it as being a tenth of an inch long, black, with a brassy green reflection on the head and thorax, while the legs and base of the abdomen are yellowish. In Encyrtus, which comprises over a hundred species already known, usually rather small in size, the body is short and rounded. The eleven-jointed antennae are inserted near the mouth. The thorax is square behind, and the sessile abdomen is short and broad at the base. Encyrtus Bolx* and E. Iteate are described from North America by Mr. F. Walker, f EiicyrtH* rariconu's is in Europe ^~ found as a parasite in the cells of Enmenes coarctata. The antenna? of Evlophns are nine- Fig- U1 jointed, with a long branch attached to the third, fourth, and tifth joints. The abdomen is flattened, sessile. E. 7>o.sv///.s- Say was described from Indiana. We figure a Chalcid (Fig. 141, (?), allied to Eulopus, which preys upon the American Tent Caterpillar. A species of Blastophaga (B. grossorum Grav.) is interest- ing as it is the means of assisting in the fertilization of the Fig Fisr. 140. 208 HYMENOPTERA. blossoms, which act, as applied to this instance of the fertiliza- tion of flowering plants by insects, has been called by Mr. Westwoocl " capriflcation." CYXIPID^E "Westwood. (Diploleparirv Latreille.) Gall-flics. In this most interesting family we have a singular combination of zoological and biological characters. The gall-flies are closely allied to the parasitic Chalcids, but in their habits are plant- parasites, as they live in a gall or tumor formed by the ab- normal growth of the vegetable cells, due to the irritation iirst excited when the egg is laid in the bark, or substance of the leaf, as the case may be. The generation of the summer broods is also anomalous, but the parthenogenesis that occurs in these forms, by which immense numbers of females are produced, is necessary for the work they perform in the economy of nature. When we see a single oak hung with countless galls, the work of a single species, and learn how numerous are its natural v. JIT. 6 5*3 Fig. U-2 / enemies, it becomes evident that the demand for a great nu- merical increase must be met by extraordinary means, like the generation of the summer broods of the Plant-lice. The gall-flies are readily recognized by their resemblance to certain Chalcids, but the abdomen is much compressed, and usually very short, while the second, or the second and third seg- ments, are greatly developed, the remaining ones being imbri- cated or covered one by the other, leaving the hind edges exposed. Concealed within these, is the long, partially coiled, very slender ovipositor, which arises near the base of the abdo- men.* Among other distinguishing characters, are the straight *Fig. 142. I, abdomen of Ci/nips quercus-aciculata Osten Sacken, with the ovipos- itor exserted ; II, the same with the ovipositor retracted ; III, the abdomen of the female of Figites (Diplolepis) 5-Kneattts Say; IV, the same showing the ventral portion, in nature covered by the tergal portion of the abdomen ; V, end view of the CYNIPIDyE. 200 (not being elbowed) thirteen to sixteen-jointed antenna?, the labial palpi being from two to four-jointed, and the maxil- laiy palpi from four to six-jointed. The maxillary lobes are broad and membranous, while the lignla is fleshy, and either rounded or square at the end. There is a complete costal cell, while the subcostal cells are incomplete. The egg is of large size, and increases in size as the embryo becomes more devel- oped. The larva is a short, thick, fleshy, footless grub, with the segments of the body rather convex. When hatched they immediately attack the interior of the gall, which has already formed around them. Many species transform within the gall, while others enter the earth and there become pupa?. It is well known that of many gall-flies the males have never been discovered. "Hartig says that he examined at least 15,000 specimens of the genus Cynips, as limited by him, with- out ever discovering a male. To the same purpose he collected about 28,000 galls of Cynips divisa, and reared 9,000 to 10,000 Cynips from them ; all were females. Of C. folii, likewise, he had thousands of specimens of the female sex without a single male." (Osten Sacken.) Siebold supposes in such cases that there is a true parthenogenesis, which accounts for the immense number of females. Mr. B. D. Walsh has discovered (American Entomologist, ii, p. 330) that Cynips quemis-aciculata 0. Sack., which pro- duces a large gall in the autumn upon the black oak, in the spring of the year succeeding lays eggs which produce galls disclosing Cynips qmrcus-spongijica O. Sack. He proved this by colonizing certain trees with a number of individuals of C. quercus-aciculata, and finding the next spring that the eggs laid by them produced C. qmrcus-spongifica. The autumn brood of Cynips consists entirely of agamous females, while the vernal brood consists of both males and females, and Mi- Walsh declares after several experiments that " the agamous autumnal female form of this Cynips (C. q. aciculata) sooner or later reproduces the bisexual vernal form, and is thus " a mere dimorphous female form" of (7. q. spongifica. abdomen of Cynips, showing the relations of segments 7-8, the sternal portion of the eighth segment being obsolete; sp.the single pair of abdominal spiracles; VI, terminal ventral piece, from which the sheaths (s s) and the ovipositor (o) take their origin ; it is strongly attached at m to the tergites of the sixth and seventh rings; o, ovipositor; s, s its sheaths; a, an appendage to v, the terminal sternite. — From Walsh. U 210 HYMENOPTEEA. Jn this connection he refers to the discovery of Clans, in 1867. of several males of Psyche helix, which had been sup- posed to be parthenogenous, thousands of specimens having been bred by Siebold, all of which were females. Baron Osten Sac-ken (in the Proceedings of the Entomol- ogical Society of Philadelphia, vol. 1, p. 50) says that "a strong proof in confirmation of my assertion is, that in (hose genera, the males of which are known, both sexes are obtained from galls in almost equal numbers ; even the males, not unfrequently, predominate in number (see Ilartig, 1. c. iv, -'VJ'J). Now the gall-flies, reared by me from the oak-apple, were all females. Dr. Fitch, also, had only females; and Mr. B. 1). Walsh, at Hock Island, Illinois, reared (from oak-apples of a different kind) from thirty-five to forty females, without a single male. This leads to the conclusion that the Cynipes of the oak-apples belong to the genera hitherto supposed to be agamous." For an account of the habits and many other interesting points in the biology of these interesting insects, we further quote Baron Osten. Sacken. ' • Most of the gall-flies always attack the same kind of oak; thus, the gall of C. seminator Harris, is always found on the white oak ; C. tubicola Osten Sacken on the post oak, etc. Still, some galls of the same form occur on different oaks ; a gall closely resembling that of C. qiicrcuf- ijlolmliiH Fitch, of the white oak, occurs also on the post oak, and the swamp chestnut oak; a gall veiy similar to the com- mon oak-apple of the red oak occurs on the black-jack oak. etc. Are such galls identical, that is, are they produced by a gall-fly of the same kind? I have not been able to investigate this question sufficiently. Again, if the same gall-fly attacks dif- ferent oaks, may it not, in some cases, produce a slightly differ- ent gall ? It will be seen below, that C. quercus-futilix. from :, leaf-gall on the white oak, is very like C. quercus-pap'illato from a leaf-gall on the swamp-chestnut oak. I could not perceive any difference, except a very slight one in the coloring of the feet. Both gall-flies may belong to the same species, and although the galls are somewhat different, they are in some respects analogous, and might be the produce of the same gall- fly on two different trees. CYNIPIDJK. 211 "Some gall-flies appear very early in the season; Cynips quercus-palustris for instance, emerges from its gull before the end of May ; these galls are the earliest of the season ; they grow , and "have the wings fringed like a My mar, and the former has them emargi- nate at tip with the radial area in my species distinctly open, and the latter simple at tip with the radial area in my species marginally closed by a coarse brown vein." Eucoila is sup- posed to be parasitic on some insect attacking the turnip. TENTHREDINID^E Leach. The Saw-flies connect the Ilymen- optera with the Lepidoptera. In the perfect state they con- form to the Hymenop- , 0 terous type, but as larvae they would often be mistaken for Lepi- rf dopterous larvae, and in their habits closely resemble many cater- pillars. The three divisions of the bod}', usually so trenchantly marked in the higher Hymenoptera, are here Fis- 144- less distinct, since the abdomen is sessile, its basal ring being / o fj broad and applied closely to the thorax, while the succeeding rings are very equal in size. The head is broad and the thorax wide, closely resembling that of the Lepidoptera. The wings (Fig. 144, fore-wing) are larger in proportion to the rest of the body than usual ; they are more net- veined, the cells being more numerous and extending to the outer margin. * *In treating of this family we avail ourselves largely of the important work on the American species, publishing at the time of writing, by Mr. E. Norton, in the Transactions of the American Entomological Society, vols. 1, 2. WQ therefore 214 HYMENOPTERA. All these characters show that the saw-fly is, n degraded Hymenopter. The antennoe are not elbowed ; are rather short and simple, clavate. but in rare instances fissured or feathered. The ab- domen consists, usual]}', of eight external segments, the two last being aborted on the under side, owing to the great develop- ment of the ovipositor. The ovipositor or asaw" (compare Fig. 24) consists of two lamella?, the lower edge of which is toothed and fits in a groove in the under side of the upper one, which is toothed above, both protected by the usual sheath-like stylets. On pressing, says Lacaze-Duthiers, the end of the abdomen, we see the saw depressed, leave the direction of the axis of the body, and become perpendicular. By this movement the saw, which both cuts and pierces, makes a gash in the soft part of the leaf where it deposits its eggs. The eggs are laid more commonly near the ribs of the leaf, in a series of slits, each slit containing but a single egg. "Some species, 011 the other hand, introduce their eggs by means of their saws into the edges of leaves (_A>/?mf/'s conjn- gatus Dahlb.), and others beneath the longitudinal ribs of the leaves. A few, indeed, merely fasten their eggs upon the outer surface of the leaves (Nematiix yrossiilarice, etc.), attaching them together like a string of beads (Reaumur, vol. v, plate 10. lig. , ii, submar- ginal or cubital cells; 7, 8, 9, discoidal cells ; 10, costal cell; 11, 12, brachial or me- dial cells; 13, 14, inner and outer apical cells. (Hinder cell*. Ilartig. Cellule du limbe, St. Farg.) No. 11 is sometimes the medial, and Xos. 12 and r; the siibinedial cells ; Xos. 9 and 14 the apical cells : Xos. 7 and 13 discoidal; Xos. 10. 11, 12, 1"», the first, second, third and fourth brachial cells; 15, lanceolate cell. 1, open; •_', con- tracted; 3, petiolate; 4, subcontracted; .">, with oblique cross nervure; ", with straight cross nervure. TEXTTIREDINID^E. question whether the increase in size of the eggs of the Saw- fly is not rather due to the same cause. The punctures in the plant often lead, in some genera, to tin- production of galls, in which the larva? live, thus showing the near relationship of this family to the gall-flies (Cynipida> ) . The larvae strongly resemble caterpillars, but there are six to eight pairs of abdominal legs, whereas the caterpillar has but five pairs. Many species curl the hind body up spirally when feeding or at rest. They are usually green, with lines and markings of various colors. They usually moult four times, the last change being the most marked. Most of the larva? secrete silk and spin a tough cocoon, in which they hiber- nate in the larva, and often in the pupa state. The pupa has free limbs, as in the other families. The eggs are usually do- posited in the leaves of plants, but in a few cases, according to Norton, in slender or hollow stems. While some are slug- shaped, like the Pear-slug, others like Lyda inanita, mentioned by Westwood, live on rose bushes, and construct a "portable case, formed of bits of rose-leaves arranged in a spiral coil ; " and other species are leaf-rollers, like the Tortricids. The larva of CepJn/s does injury to grain, in Europe, by boring within the stems of wheat. A remarkable instance of the care of the saw-fly for her young, is recorded by Mr. R. II. Lewis, who observed in Australia, the female of Perga Lewisii deposit its eggs in a slit next the midribs of an Eucalyptus leaf. They were placed transversely in a double series. "On this leaf the mother sits till the exclusion of the larvae ; and as soon as these are hatched, the parent follows them, sitting with out- stretched legs over her brood, protecting them from the attacks of parasites and other enemies with admirable perseverance." (Westwood.) The species are mostly limited to the temperate zone, but few being found in the tropics. The perfect insects mostly occur in the early summer, and are found on the leaves of the trees they infest, or feeding on flowers, especially those of the umbelliferous plants. The genus Cimbex contains our largest species, the antenna1 ending in a knob. C. Americana Leach is widely distributed, and varies greatly in color. The large whitish larva, with a 21(j HY3IENOPTEKA. blackish dorsal stripe, may be found rolled up in a spiral on the leaves of the elm, birch, linden and willow trees. When disturbed it ejects a fluid from pores situated above the spira- cles. It constructs a large tough parchment-like cocoon, and the fly appears in the early summer. The genus Trichiosoma is recognized by its hairy body, and the antennae have five joints preceding the three-jointed club. T. triangulum Ivirby is found in British America and Colorado, and a variety, T. bicolor Harris, on Mount Washington ; it is black, except the tip of the abdomen, with the fourth and fifth joints of the antenna? piceous, and the thorax is covered with ash-colored hair. In Abia the antennae are seven-jointed, with the club obtuse ; the body is villose, the abdomen having a metallic silken hue. The Abia caprtfolii Norton (Fig. 145, larva) is very destruc- tive to the Tartarian Honeysuckle, sometimes stripping the bush of its leaves during successive sea- sons in Maine and Massachusetts. It hatches out and begins its ravages very soon after the leaves are out, eating cir- cular holes in them. It lies curled up on the leaf and when disturbed emits drops of a watery fluid from the pores in the sides of the body, and then falls to the. ground. During the early part of August it spins a pale yellowish silken cocoon, but does not change to a pupa, Mr. Eiley states, until the following Flg- 14r>- spring. He describes the larva as being- common about Chicago ; that it is "bluish green on the back, and yellow on the sides, which are pale near the spiracles, and covered with small black dots. Between every segment is a small, transverse, yellow band, with a black spot in the middle and at each end. Head free, of a brownish black above and color of the body beneath." The fly is described by Norton as being black, with faint greenish reflections on the abdomen ; there are two white bands at the base of the metathorax, and the wings are banded. It is .30 inch long and the wings ex- pand .70 inch. The larva? can easily be destroyed from their TENTHREDINIDvE . 217 habit of foiling to the ground when the bush is shaken, where they can be crushed by the foot. Dr. Fitch has reared Abia <•<'!•< i si from one or two cocoons found on the wild cherry, the fly appearing in New York during March. Hylotoma is a much smaller genus ; the basal joint of the antenna is oval, while the second is small and round, and the terminal joint is very long. The larva is twenty-footed, and when eating curves the end of the body into the form of an 8. The pupa is protected by a gauzy, doubly enveloping cocoon. H. McLeayi Leach is wholly black, sometimes with a tinge of blue. It is found throughout the Northern States. The genus PristipJiora, closely allied to Nematus, is known by its nine-jointed antennas, and the single costal cell ; the first submarginal (subcostal) cell having two recurrent veinlets. P. identklem Norton has been discovered by Mr. W. C. Fish to be destructive to the cranberry on Cape Cod. He has reared the insect, and sent me the following notes on its habits, while the adult fly has been identified by Mr. Norton, to whom I submitted specimens. The larvae were detected in the first week of June, eating the leaves ; "they were light or pale yel- lowish green when first hatched," and grew darker with age. The head of the young was dark, but in the full-grown worm lighter. When full-grown they were about .30 of an inch in length, and had two lighter whitish green stripes running along the back from head to tail. They had spun their cocoons by the 20th of June in the rubbish at the bottom of the rearing bot- tles. On the 29th of June they came out in the perfect state. We would add to this description that the body, in two alco- holic specimens of the larvae, was long, cylindrical, and smooth, with seven pairs of abdominal feet. The head is full, rounded and blackish, but after the last moult pale honey-yellow. The male is shining black, and Mr. Norton informs me that it is his P. idiota. P. grossidarice Walsh is a widely diffused species in the Northern and Western States, and injures the currant and gooseberry. The female fly is shining black, while the head is dull j-ellow, and the legs are honey-yellow, with the tips of the six tarsi, and sometimes the extreme tips of the hinder tibiae and of the tarsal joints pale dusky for a quarter of their length. The wings are partially hyaline, with black veins, a 218 HYMEXOPTERA. honey-yellow costa, and a dusky stigma, edged with honey- yellow. The male differs a little in having black coxae. Mr. Walsh states that the larva is a pale grass-green worm, half an inch long, with a Mack head, which becomes green after the last moult, but with a lateral brown stripe meeting with the opposite one on the top of the head, where it is more or less confluent; and a central brown-black spot on its face. It appears the last of June and early in July, and a second brood in August. The}- spin their cocoons on the bushes on which they feed, and the fly appears in two or three weeks, the specimens reared by him flying on the 2Gth of August. P. sycophcmta Walsh is an "inquiline," or guest gall-saw-fly, inhabiting a Ceeidomyian gall on a willow. The genus Euura comprises several gall-making species. It differs from the preceding genus in the second, instead of the first, submarginal cell having two recurrent veiiules. Mr. Walsh has raised E. orbitaHs Norton (E. genuina Walsh) from galls found on Salix humilis. This gall is a bud which is found enlarged two or three times its natural size, before it unfolds in spring. The larva is twenty-footed, is from .13 to .19 of an inch long, of a greenish white color, and the head is dusky. It bores out of its gall in autumn, descending an inch into the ground, where it spins a thin, silken, whitish cocoon. The gall of E. salicis-ovtim Walsh is found on Salix cordata. The female is shining yellow, while the ground color of the male is greenish white. The gall of this species is an oval roundish, sessile, one-chambered, green or brownish swell- ing, .30 to .50 of an inch long, placed lengthwise on the side of small twigs. The larva is pale yellowish, and the fly appears in April. The fly is, according to Walsh, " absolutely undistin- guishable by any reliable character from the guest gall-saw-fly. Euura perturbans Walsh," which inhabits dipterous galls made by Ceeidomyian flies on the willow and grape (Walsh). If these two "species" do not differ from each other, either in the larva or adult state, "by any reliable characters," then one must question whether the variation in habits is sufficient to separate them as species, and whether E. salicis-OA-um does not, some- times, instead of forming a new gall, lay its eggs in a gall ready- made by a dipterous gall-fly. We have seen that Odynerus TENTHREDINID.E. 2 ID albophaleratus, which usually makes a mud cell situated in the most diverse places, in one case at least, makes no cell at all, I mt uses the tunnel bored out by a Ceratina ! and yet we should not split this species into two, on account of this difference in its habits. We had written this before meeting with Mr. Norton's remark that k'it is difficult to give a hearty assent to Mr. Walsh's iuquilines or guest-flies, without further inves- tigation." (Transactions of the American Entomological Society, vol. i, p. 194.) In Nematus the nine-jointed antennae have the third joint longest. There is one costal and four subcostal cells, the second cell receiving two recurrent veinlets ; the basal half of the lanceolate cell is closed ; the hind wings have two mid- file cells, and the tibiae are simple. The larvae are hairy with warts behind the abdominal feet. They have twenty feet, the fourth and eleventh segments (count- ing the head as one) being footless. They are either solitary, feeding upon the leaves of plants, or social and generally found on pine trees, while some species live in the galls of plants. The pupa, according to Hartig, is enclosed in an. egg-shaped cocoon, like that of Lophyrus, but less firm, though with more outside silk. It is generally made in the earth, or in leaves which fall to the ground. N. vertebratus Say is green, with the antenna- and dorsal spots blackish, the thorax being trilineate. There are fifty species in this country, of Avhich the most injurious one, the Gooseberry saw-fly, has been brought from Europe. This is the N. ventricosxs King which was undoubtedly imported into this country about the year 1860, spreading mostly from Rochester, N. Y., where there are extensive nurseries. It does more injury to the currant and gooseberry than any other native insect, except the currant moth (Abraxas ribearia). Professor Wine-hell, who has studied this insect in Ann Arbor, Michigan, where it has been very destructive, observed the female on the 16th of June, while depositing her cylindrical, whitish and transparent eggs, in regular rows along the under side of the veins of the leaves, at the rate of about one in forty-live seconds. The embryo escapes from the egg in four days. It feeds, moults and burrows into the ground within a period of eight days. It remains thirteen days in the ground, being 220 HYMENOPTERA. most of the time in the pupa state, while the fly lives nine days.. The first brood of worms appeared May 21, the second brood Jnne 25. Wine-hell describes the larva as being pale-green,, with the head, tail and feet, black, with numerous black spots regularly arranged around the body, from which arise two or more hairs. Figure 14G, 1, shows the eggs deposited along the under side of the midribs of the leaf; 2, the holes bored by the very young larvae, and 3, those eaten by the larger worms. In transporting gooseberry and currant bushes, Walsh recom- mends that the roots be carefully cleansed of dirt, so that the cocoons may not be car- ried about from one gar- den to another. The leaves of the bushes should IK- examined during the last week of May, and as_ only a few leaves are affected at first, these can be de- tected by the presence of the eggs and the little round holes in them, and should be plucked oft' and burnt. The female saw- fly is bright honey-yellow, Fis- li(5- with the head black, but yellow below the insertion of the antennae. The male differs in its black thorax, and the antennae are paler reddish than in the female.* The genus Empltytus has nine-jointed antennae ; the third * Mr. Norton has communicated the following description of the larva of another saw-fly of this genus which infests the weeping-willow. ;< Nematus trUineatus Norton. The larvce of this were first seen upon the weep- ing-willows about August 1st, in immense numbers, almost wholly stripping large trees of their leaves. They begin upon the edge of the leaf and eat all of it except the inner midrib. They' are very sensitive to disturbances, very lively, and are generally found with the hinder part of their bodies bent up over the back. They are twenty-footed, of a bright green color, palest at head and tail, with five rows of black dots down the back, the outer row upon each side irregular and with inter- vals. On each side above the feet is another row of larger black dots, and the three- anterior pair of feet are black at the base, middle and tip. " A great number of the saw-flies were found flying about the trees, August I'.ith. in the proportion of about ten males to one female. The males being almost wholly black upon the thorax." TENTHREDINID^E. 221 and fourth joints of equal length ; the wings have two subcos- tal and three median cells, the first as long as the second, gen- erally longer ; the first receiving one recurrent vein, the second two. AVe have found the larva of E. maculatus Norton on the cultivated strawberry, to which, in the Western States, it some- times does considerable damage, but it can be quite readily exterminated by hand-picking. Mr. Riley has carefully ob- -servecl the habits of this insect, and we condense the follow- ing remarks from his account in the Prairie Farmer : — Early in May, in Northern Illinois, the female saw-fly deposits her eggs in the stem of the plant. The}' are white and .03 of an inch long, and may be readily perceived upon splitting the stalk ; though the outside orifice, at which they were intro- duced, is scarcely perceptible, their presence causes a .swelling in the stalk. By the mid- dle of May the worms will have eaten innumerable small holes in the leaves. They are dirty yellow and gray green, and at rest curl the abdomen up spirally. They moult four times, and are, when full-fed, about three-fourths of -an inch in length. The}r make a loose, earthen cocoon in the ground, and change to perfect flies by the end of June and the beginning of July. A second brood of worms appears, and in the early part of August descend into the ground and remain in the larva state until the middle of the succeeding April, when they finish their transformations. The fly is pitchy black, with two rows of dull, dirty white, transverse spots upon the abdomen. The nine-jointed tmtenna? are black, and the legs are brown, and almost white at the joints. Fig. 147 rep- resents the Strawberry Emphytus in all its stages of growth. 1, 2, ventral and side-view of the pupa; 3, the fly enlarged ; 2-2-2 HYMEXOPTERA. 5, the same, natural size ; 8, an antenna enlarged ; 4, the larva" while feeding ; G, the same, at rest ; 7, the cocoon ; 9, an egg enlarged. Of the genus Dolerus, known by the second snbmarginal cell receiving two recurrents, 1). arcensis Say, is a common blue- black species found in April and May on willows. The genus Selaiidria is the most injurious genus of the family. It embraces the Pear and Rose-slugs, the Vine-slug l> and the Raspberry slug. The flies are small, black, with short and stout nine-jointed au- tennoe, and broad thin wings. "The larva' are twenty and twenty-two-footed, present- ing great differences in appearance and habit, being slimy, hairy or woolly, feeding in companies or alone, eating the whole leaf as they go, or, removing only the cuticle of the leaf, and forming sometimes one and some- times two broods in a year. Selandria r/f/.s-, the Vine-slug, is twenty-footed ; it has a smooth skin, and the body is somewhat thick- ened in the middle but slender towards the tail. "While growing, the color is green above, with black dots across each ring, and yellow beneath, with head and tail black. They live upon the vine and arc very destruc- tive, feeding early in August in companies, on rig. 148. £]ie }0wer sjcje of the leaf, and eating it all as they go from the edge inwards. There are two broods in a season. The fly is shining black, with red shoulders, and the front wings are clouded." (Norton.) 8. rubi Harris feeds on the raspberry, appearing in May. The larva is green, not slimy, and feeds in the night, or early iii the morning. 8. tillw feeds on the linden. The Pear-slug, 8. cerasi Peck (Fig. 148, larvae feeding on a leaf of the pear, and showing the surface eaten off in patches; «, enlarged; b. fly), is twenty-footed ; it narrows rapidly behind the swollen thorax, and is covered with a stick}' olive-colored slime. It feeds on the upper side of the leaves of both the wild and cultivated cherry and pear trees, and has been found on the plum and TKNTHKKDIMDJE. 22'.} mountain-ash. It appears in June and September. The fly is shiny black, with the tips of the four anterior femora, and the tibi;v and tarsi, dull white. An egg-parasite, belonging to the genus Encyrtus, renders, according to Peck, a great number of its eggs abortive. The Rose-slug, Selawlrid, yo.sv.« Harris, is longer than the Pear- slug, the body being scarcely thickened anteriorly, and not covered with slime. It is pale-green and yellowish beneath. It appears in July and August, and does great injuiy in dis- ligtiring and killing the leaves of the rose, which remain dried and with- ered on the bush. AVhen full-fed, the larva, like the Pear-slug, makes a cocoon beneath the surface of the ground. The flies are seen in abund- ance about the rose-bushes as soon ris- as the leaves are expanded, when they may be caught with nets, or the hand on cloudy days. Hand-picking, and the application of a very weak solution of carbolic acid, coal oil, whale oil soap, or quassia, are useful in killing the larvae. ( )n the 25th of July a young friend brought me a large num- ber of some remarkable larva' (Fig. 149, natural size) of a saw-fly, which I surmised might belong to this genus. It pre- sented the appearance of an animated, white, cottony mass, about an inch long and two-thirds as high. The head of the larva is rounded, pale whitish, and covered with a snow-white powdery secretion, with prominent black eyes. The body (Fig. 150, naked larva) is cylindrical, with eight Fig. 150. pairs of abdominal legs, the segments transversely wrinkled, pale pea-green, with a powdery secre- tion low down on the sides, but above and on the back, arise long, flattened masses of flocculent matter (exactly resembling that produced by the woolly plant-lice and other Homopterous Hemiptera) forming an irregular dense cottony mass, reaching to a height equal to two-thirds the length of the worm, and con- cealing the head and tail. On the 27th and 28th of July the larva1 moulted, leaving the cast skins on the leaf. They were then naked, a little thicker than before, of a pale-green color, 2-24 HYMENOPTERA. and were curled on the leaf. They cat out the edge of the leaf of the butternut tree. Sometime during August, two cocoons were spun between the leaves, but I did not succeed in raising the saw-fly. On describing the larva, in a letter to Mr. E. Nor- ton, he kindly sent me alcoholic specimens of larvae (without the woolly substance, which dissolves and disappears in alcohol) found feeding on the hickory, which are Fig- 151- apparently, from the comparison of alcoholic specimens, identical with the Butternut Selandria. The adult fly (Fig. 151, /«'. of which he has kindly furnished me with the subjoined description.* AUantus is closely related to Se- landria j both in its structure and its habits, but differs in having the an- tenme short and somewhat clavate. A. basilaris Say is a common species. The Pine saw-fly, Lophyms, may be known by the feathered antennae of the male. L. abietis Harris (Fig. 152, female) infests the fir and pitch-pine. The male is black above and brown beneath, while the female is yellowish brown above, * Selandria cnryce Norton, nov. sp. (Belonging to tribe 2. Under wings with one middle cell. Div. A. Antenna; filiform, short). Female. Color shining black. The pro- and mesothorax and scutellum rufous, the apex of the latter black ; the nasus and legs white, with their tarsi blackish ; the base of coxae and a line down the upper side of the legs black. Antennae short, the second joint as long as the first; the four final joints together, not longer than the two preceding. Xasus slightly incurved. Claws of tarsi apparently bifid. Wings subviolaceous. Lanceolate cell petiolate, the first submedial cell above it, with a distinct cross vein. Under wings with one submarginal middle cell (all other species have this cell discoidal), the marginal cell with a cross nervure, and all the outer cells closed by an outer nervure, which does not touch the margin. The submedial cell extended nearly to margin. Length, .25 of an inch. Expanse of wings .40 of an inch. " The male resembles the female, but the under wings are without middle cells. The larva; feed upon the leaves of the hickory (Juglans squamosa.) They are found upon the lower side of the leaf, sometimes fifteen or twenty upon one leaf, which they eat from the outer extremity inward, often leaving nothing but the strong midribs. They cover themselves wholly with white flocculent tufts which are rubbed off on being touched, leaving a green twenty-two legged worm, about .75 15-2. TENTHEEDINID^E . 225 with a short black stripe on each side of the thorax. The larvae are about half an inch long, of a pale dirty green, yel- lowish beneath, striped with green, and when full-fed yellowish all over. They are social, and may often be found in consider- able numbers on a single needle of the pitch-pine. The larva: spin tough cocoons among the leaves, and the flies appear during August, but probably in greater numbers in the spring. These slugs can be best destroyed by showering them with a solution of carbolic acid, pe- troleum, whale oil Fig. 153. soap, or tobacco water. Mr. Fish has sent me the larvre of a saw-fly, allied to L. abietis, which, in Eastham, Mass., ravaged the young pitch-pines planted in the sandy soil of that region.* The eggs are laid singly in the side of a needle of the pine ; though sometimes an egg is inserted on each side of the leaf. Mr. Riley has described the habits of the White-pine saw-fly, of ail inch in length when full}- grown; darkest above, and with indistinct black- ish spots upon the sides. The head is white with a small black dot upon each side. " Specimens were taken upon the leaves July 4th. Went into the ground about the 20th of July. The cocoon is formed near the surface of the ground of a little earth or sand drawn together. Four specimens came forth about August 22 d, all seeming very small for so large larvae." * On sending specimens of the male and female to Mr. Norton he writes that this is an undescribed species, of which he has prepared the following description : " Lophyrus pini-rigidce Norton. New Species. Female. Length, 0.30; expanse of wings, 0.6.5 of an inch; antennae seventeen-jointed, short, brown; color, luteous brown, with a black line joining the ocelli, a black stripe down each of the three lobes of the thorax above, and the sutures behind; body paler beneath; the trochauters and base of the tibia waxen; claws with an inner tooth near the middle; wings very slightly clouded; cross nervure of the lanceolate cell straight. Male. Length, 0.25; expanse of wings, 0.55 of an inch; antenna; fifteen-jointed, black, quite short, with twelve branches on each side, those at the base nearly as long as the sixth and seventh ; apical joint simple, enlarged at base; color of insect black, with the abdomen at apex and beneath yellow- brown; legs the same color at base; below the knees whitish. 15 HYMENOPTERA. L. Abbot it Leach. The flies appear early in June, and there is but u single brood of larva?, which remain on the trees, in Illi- nois, until November, and hibernate before changing to pupa'. The female is honey-yellow, with pale rufous legs, and the male is jet black. Fig. 153 represents, after Riley, the trans- formations of this species, whose habits closely resemble those of L. abietis. 1, is the fly somewhat magnified; G, magnified antenna of the male ; 7, female antenna ; 2 and 3, pupa1 ; 4, larva? in different positions, natural size ; 5, cocoon. The L. L4"- "The larva, or grub, is yellowish white, of a cylindrical shape, rounded behind, with a conical, horny point on the upper part of the hinder extremity, and it grows to the length of about an inch and a half. It 13 often destro}~ed by the maggots of two kinds of Ichneumon-flies (Rhyssa atrata and lunator of Fabricius). These flies may frequently be seen thrusting their slender borers, measuring from three to four inches in length, into the trunks of trees inhabited by the grubs of the Tremex, and by other wood-eat- ing insects ; and like the female of the Tremex they some- times become fastened to the trees, and die without being able to draw their borers out again." We have noticed the trunk of an elm, at Saratoga Springs, perforated by great numbers of holes, apparently made by these insects. T. hititarsus Oessou (Fig. 154 ; a, antenna ; ?>, wing ; c, hind leg) is remarkable for the expansions on the hind legs. It lives in Cuba. LEPIDOPTERA. 229 LEPIDOPTEEA. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS are readily recognized by their cylindrical, compact bodies ; their small head, with its large clypeus ; by the maxillae being prolonged into a tubular n lL n--.- Fig. 155.* Fig. 156. "tongue;" the obsolete mandibles; and the broad, regularly veined wings, which are covered with minute scales. Their transformations are complete ; the active larvae assum- ing a cylindrical, worm-like form, being rarely footless, and al am ab aid Fig. 157. Fig. 15S. having from one to five pairs of fleshy abdominal legs, besides the three pairs of corneous jointed thoracic limbs. A large proportion (butterflies excepted) spin silken cocoons before *For explanation of cuts, 155 to 171, see pages 233 anil 234. LKPIUOPTKUA. changing to pupae (chrysalids, nymphs). In the pupa state the limbs and appendages of the head are soldered together, and the head and thorax tend to form one region, upon which the third region, or abdomen, is more or less movable. Three Fiar. 1/59. or four genera of the lower families are partially aquatic, while, as a whole, the suborder is purely terrestrial. The three regions of the body are very distinct, but the head, though free, is smaller and with its parts less equally developed ^ ? E 12 iU/10/ c, ran la la Fig. KJ-2. than in the Hymenoptera, and the "propodeum" has now be- come plainly the first abdominal ring. The abdomen is also longer, with the genital armor partially exserted, thus showing a tendency to decephalization. In fine, the whole body is Fig. KW. Fig. 1G4. loosened and less compact than in the Hymenoptera. Their broad wings ; obsolete mouth-parts, with the abnormally devel- oped maxillre ; and active larvae, with their worm-like shupe. LEPIDOPTERA. are also characters which show that they are more degraded than the Ilymenoptera. There is also a greater disproportion in the relative size of the three thoracic rings. In the abdominal rings the pleurites are much larger than in Ilymenoptera, where they are partially obsolete. They scarcely use the legs, the fore pair (so remarkably differen- £ B tiated in the higher Hymenop- tera) being partially obsolete in some butterflies (Vanessa, etc.). They are . essentially fliers, not having the great variety in the mode of loco- Fig. Kin. motion observable in the Ilymenoptera. No parasites are known to occur in this suborder. They are only social while in the larval state, and then merely because their eggs, in such in- stances, are laid in bunches, and on distinct food-plants to which the larvre are confined. The adults rarely take an active part in the economy of nature, and have but little opportunity for the mani- festation of instinct and reason, though the larvae in seeking for suitable places in which to undergo their transformations often exhibit Fig. 100. wonderful instinct. The readiest method of determining the natural position of groups is by a comparison of their degradational forms. Thus we find that in the degraded Hymenoptera the tripartite form of the body is preserved ; while, on the contrary, in the wing- less Lepidoptera (such as the female of Orgyia and Anisopteryx) the body is either oval, the head being less free and smaller than in the winged form, and the thorax and abdomen continuous, their respective rings being of much the same size and shape, while the legs are feeble : or, as in the female of CEketicus, the body is elongated, and worm-like. The wingless moths, then, are much lower than the worker ants, the female Scolia, Fig. 107. 232 LEPIDOPTERA. etc., giving us an unfailing test of the difference in rank of the two suborders. In their habits and transformations, and in their external anatomy, the Lep- idoptera vary less than other insects. T h e Lepidop- tera, while in the perfect state, can be scarcely said to walk much, com- pared with beetles Fi=- 1G8- and other walking insects, the legs being only used to support them while at rest, and not for locomotion. They move almost entirely by their broad wings, which with them are more highly specialized than in other in- sects. Their fore wings are usually triangular in form, while wings their are hind some- Fiff. 170. what square or rounded. The anterior wings are the most typical in form and venation. The surface, from the costa to the inner edge, may be ABC c.--- iff. 171. divided into three areas, — the costal, median, and internal. There are five principal veins : the costal and subcostal are LEPIDOPTERA. 233 grouped together, and form the costa or front edge of the wing ; the median occupies the middle of the wing ; and the sub- median and internal, the hinder, or internal, area of the wing. The costal vein is usually simple, and joins the costa near its outer third. The subcostal, near the middle of the wing, is usually subdivided into five branches, which are called ven- ules, while the median is usually subdivided into one venule less, and the submedian and internal are simple. The last, or fifth, subcostal venule, and the first median venule, generally each throw out a sinall venule, which meet to form the discal venule, thus enclosing a large central area called the discal area, or cell. There are rarely any cross venules present. Some- times, as in Hepialus, there is a transverse costal venule, and an interno-submediaii venule. They are usually found onl}' in degraded Lepidoptera, and recall the net-veined style of vena- tion of the Neuroptera. The legs are slender, cylindrical, and weak. The cox?e are closely united with the thorax, the trochanters are spherical, FIGS. 155, 151, give a general view of the body of a butterfly denuded of scales. FIG. 155. «, antenna ; 1, prothorax ; m, patagia, or shoulder-tippets ; k, mesoscutum ; M, abdomen; A, costal edge of fore- wing; D, apex; C, outer edge excavated; E, enter angle; B, inner edge; al>, discal cell; am, discal venules, throwing off the independent vein, al. The dotted lines indicate the inner, middle and outer third of the wing. FIG. 157 illustrates the mode of ornamentation of the wings of moths; nb, am and al, the inner, the middle, and outer third of the wings. The capitals are the same as in FIG. 155; sd, the basal line; sa, the inner line; sp, the outer, and ms, the marginal line variously waved, scalloped and angulated. In most of the Xoctnidae are the dentiform spot, 1 b; mo, the orbicular, and mr, the reniform spots ; between the two latter often runs the transverse shade, um. In FIG. 158, hind wing, fr indicates the "bristle" which fits into the "hook" on the fore-wing, uniting the two wings during flight; cm, situated in the discal cell, indicates the " luuule," and beyond are the outer and marginal dusky bands. FIG. 150, la, internal vein; 1 b, submcdiau vein; 2, 3, 4, 5, the four branches (vonules) of the median vein (in FIG. 100, 5 becomes the independent venule); (i to 12, branches of the subcostal (in FIG. 101, xii, is the costo-subcostal recurrent venule). In FIG. 102, wings of the Hepialus, the venation is more irregular, and in the fore-wing the discal cell is divided into an anterior and posterior discal cellule, by the disco-longitudinal vein ; sd, x, and s, accessory cells. In the Tiiieids the venation is very simple. In FIG. 103, the submedian and internal veins have disappeared; 9 is the costal vein; 2, 3, the two branches of the median vein; 4 to 8, branches of the subcostal vein. In FIG. 104, the internal vein is shortened, and the submedian forked, while the median and subcostal are merged together. — From Heinemann, in Morris's Synopsis, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Compare also FIG. 29 on page 23. FIGS. 150 and 165. a, antenna, on one side wholly, and on the other partially, pectinate; b, eye:/, ocellus; h, labial palpus; y, maxilla? or "tongue;" o, coxa; />, trochanter; q, femur; r, tibia; V, single anterior spur; r*, two middle tibial spurs ; 2, 3, two pairs of posterior tibial spurs ; s, tarsus. 2o4 LEPIDOPTERA. and the femora, tibia? and tarsi, slender and very equal in length. There are usually two tibial spurs. The tarsus is five-jointed, the terminal joint ending in two slender claws. The scales covering the body of Lepidoptera are simply modified hairs. In studying the wing of the C'ecropia moth, we find the hairs of the body and base of the wing gradually passing into the forms represented in Fig. 1G(>. They are attached to the wings and laid partially over one another like the tiles on a roof (Fig. 1G7). They are inserted in somewhat regular lines, though, as seen in the figure, these lines are often irregular, as shown by the line of scars where the scales have been removed. The scales are beautifully ornamented with mi- croscopic lines. ~\Ye find, on removing the scales, that the head consists of three well-marked pieces,* i. e. the occiput or basal piece Avhich lies behind the ocelli ; the epicrauium, lying behind the insertion of the antennae, and carrying the eyes and ocelli, and the clypens, which constitutes the front of the head. The latter piece is larger than in all other insects, its size being distinctive of the Lepidoptera. There is a general form of this piece for each family, and it affords excellent characters in the different genera, especially among the butter- flies (as Mr. L. Trouvelot has shown us in a series of drawings made by him), and the Zygcenidce and Bombycidce. It is largest, and most perfect!}- shield-shaped, in the Attach In the Phalcenidce, it is smaller, and square; and in the Tinci it is smaller still, while the occiput and epicranium are larger. The labrum is remarkably small and often concealed by the overhanging clypeus. The labium is small, short, triangular, and the mentum is nearl}- obsolete. The lingua is obsolete, its place being supplied by the tongue-like maxilla?. The labial palpi are feebly developed, sometimes rudimentary, and consist *FIG. 108. A, head of Ctemicha Virginica denuded; or, occiput; cc, epicranium, with the two ocelli, o, and the base of the antenna-, at ; c, eye; <;, clypens; /, la- brum; m, mandible; m,r, tongue, or maxilla', with the end split apart; B, rudimen- tary maxilla of Actias Luna, with its single-jointed rudimentary palpus, showing the mode of attachment to the base of the maxilla ; C, two-jointed, rudimentary labial palpus of A. Luna; D, the same, single jointed, of Platysamia Cecropia. FIGS. 169, 170. Head of a moth in relation to the prothorax (1). FK;. 171, A, B, side view and (C) front view of the head of a moth ; o, antenna ; b, eye ; rf, the '' front ; " e, orl-it of the eye; /, ocellus; r/, maxilla situated between li, the three-jointed la- bial palpi ; i, the maxillary palpus, sometimes very large and three-jointed. LEPIDOPTEKA. of from one to three joints, the terminal one being small and pointed. The}' are recurved in front of the head, on each side of the spiral tongue, and are covered with hairs ; their func- tion, as touchers or feelers, seeming to be lost. The man- dibles are rudimentary, consist- ing of a pair of horny tubercles, partly concealed by the front edge of the clypeus. The maxillae, on the other hand, are remarkably developed. In their rudimentary state, as in Attacus, they form a pair of grooved blades, the hollowed sides being opposed and held Fig. 173. Fig. 174. Fig. 17:.. together by a row of minute teeth, thus forming a canal. The insect sucks through this long tube the sweets of flowers. Fig. 176. Fig. 177. Fig. 178. Fig. 17!>. The "tongue" is often nearly as long as the body of the insect itself, and when at rest, is rolled up and held between the palpi. At its base are the minute rudimental maxillary palpi, 236 LEPIDOPTERA. which are generally concealed, but are apparent in the smaller and lower moths, Crambus and the Tineids. They are usually from two to three-jointed, and even five to six-jointed, as in Tinea granella, and longer than the maxillae, thus resembling the Phryganeidcs , or Caddis flies. In seeking for honey with their long maxillae, the Lepidop- tera play an important part in the fertilization of plants., especially the Orchids. The ocelli are often present, though they do not form a tri- angle on the vertex, as there are only two, the third and most anterior one being absent. The eyes are large and globose, and vary in their distance apart in different families. The antenna? vaiy greatly ; they are either filiform (Fig. 1 72. u), or setiform (Fig. 172, &), or fusiform, as in the Sphinges (Fig. 172, c), or club-shaped, as in Papilio (Fig. 172, d). They are rarely entirety naked, but are finely ciliated (Fig. 173), or have a pair of bristles on each joint (Fig. 174), which are sometimes tufted (Fig. 175). The joints are sometimes toothed (Fig. 176), lamellate (Fig. 177), serrate (Fig. 178), or pec- tinate (Fig. 179). The thorax in Lepidoptera is remarkable for the small size of the first, or prothoracic ring, the mesothorax being highly developed. In Telea (Figs. 11 and 12, on page 11) the char- acteristic form is well shown. The tergal arch of the pro- thorax is almost obsolete, the scutum alone being represented by a corneous piece, while the pleural parts are more developed as supports for the forelegs. In the mesothorax the prse- scutum is present, but is usually vertical, being bent down and concealed between the two rings, becoming visible, how- ever, from above in Hepialns (Sthenopis), in which respect it strikingly resembles the position and development of the same piece in the neuropterous Polystoechotes. The scutum is large r with convex sides, broadest behind the middle, and deeply notched for the reception of the triangular scutellum, which is about one-fourth the size of the scutum. The postscutellum is transverse, and situated out of sight, unless the two hinder thoracic rings are separated, under the scutellum. The epi- sterna and trochantines are large, and the whole mesothoracic flanks nearly twice as wide as those of the metathorax. The* LEPIDOPTERA. 1>;',7 luetathorax is much compressed antero-posteriorly. The scu- tum is thrown aside as it were by the scutellum into two lat- eral, nearly square halves, the remaining tergal pieces being usually obsolete and membranous, but in Sthenopis the pra> .scutum and scutellum (Fig. 13, page 12) are large, and meet in the middle of the segment, much as in the neuropterous *$' i a I i d ce and He m erob i i d ce . The abdomen is oval in Papilio, becoming long and linear in the Tineids. In the Zygcenidce, especially, the basal ring is membranous and is partly adherent to the thorax, and somewhat inflated on each side. The number of abdominal segments varies, being either eight or nine ; the variation occurring, as stated by Lacaze-Duthiers, in closely allied genera ; thus the genital and anal openings are placed more usually behind the •eighth, but sometimes behind the ninth segment. The genital armor is very simple, consisting of two valve- like pieces. The parts beyond (anal stylets, etc.) are aborted, so that the anus and external opening of the oviduct are brought closely together. In the male the parts are more com- plex, the anal forceps often, as in the Callosamia Promethea, forming long curved hooks for clasping the abdomen of the female. The nervous system of Lepidoptera, and its changes during the transformations of the larva, have been studied most thoroughly by Herold (in Pieris) and Newport (in Sphinx ligustri and Vanessa urticae). In the imago the ventral cord •consists of seven ganglia, while in the larva there are eleven. This decrease in their number is due to the fusion, during the pupa state, of the first, second, third and fourth ganglia of the larva, exclusive of those situated in the front part of the head ; these form the two thoracic ganglia which distribute nerves to the legs and the muscles of the wings. Meanwhile the fifth and sixth ganglia of the larva have either disappeared entirely, or been united with the others. The digestive system (see Fig. 44, on page 35) of butterflies and moths is modified to suit their peculiar habits. They draw in the sweets of plants through the "tongue" by a sucking- stomach which opens into the hinder end of the oesophagus. 4 'The ileuni is long, small, and nearly always forms several 23.S LEPIDOPTEEA. convolutions. The colon is constantly of a large size, and is often dilated into a ca?eum at its anterior portion." (Siebold.) The salivary glands are composed of two simple tubes, which are very large in the larval state, extending into the abdomen. The respiratory system is normal and well developed. In the larva the stigmata are wanting on the second and third thoracic and last abdominal segment. In those species of SpliingiddBi Bomb yd dee and Noctnulrt* * which have a long-sustained flight there are numerous vesicular dilatations of the trachea3. The urinary tubes are six in number; they are long, free, and open into the stomach by two excretory ducts. The silk-glands consist of two long, Hexuous, thick-walled sacs, situated on the sides of the body, and opening by a common orifice on the under lip (labium) usually at the extremity of a short tubular protuberance (Siebold). They are most developed when the larva approaches the pupa st:ite. We once found a larva of Clisiocampa Americana that had just spun its cocoon, and to ascertain whether the silk had been exhausted, we removed the worm from its cocoon, when it spun another, but thinner one ; and upon removing it a second time it spun a third very thin cocoon, before the supply of silk was entirely exhausted. The ovary consists of four very long, spiral, multilocular tiibes. The receptaculum semhifft is pyriform. and often lias a long, spiral <1ix-tttH scmhtaUs. At its luise is situated a large, double sebaceous gland ; and there are two small ramose glands, perhaps odoriferous, situated at the orifice of the vagina. The copulatory pouch is a remarkably large, pyriform reservoir, having for the reception of the male intromittent organ a canal, which opens by a special orifice, situated below and behind the external opening of the oviduct. (Siebold.) The testes form two round or oval follicles, and the two short deferent canals unite with two simple and very flexuoiis accessory glands, to form the long dnctiilio, or ••Swallow-tail." over 300 species are known. The larva is rather short and stout, with a v-shaped scent-organ, or "• tentacles." The pupa is supported by a filament passed entirely around it. The common P. As- f<'i-i> Godart, our most common butterfly, is a type, occur everywhere. There are three broods, one appearing in April and May, and the other in July ; while a third brood appears late in August (Scudder). "The female deposited her eggs on the 24th of July ; they were very long, tapering at each end, with twelve or fourteen raised, longitudinal ribs, and smaller cross lines in the concave spaces between them. They hatched on the 31st. The freshly hatched larva is about a thirteenth of an inch long ; the head is black, and the body dull yellowish brown. AVlu-n five-eighths of an inch long, it is nearly the same as when ma- ture ; the head being dark green and slightly down}-, with minute hairs, which also give a downy appearance to the whole body, which is also dotted minutely with paler points. There is a 3rellowish white stripe, on each side close to the under sur- face. Beneath, the bod}- is slightly paler than above. The full grown larva is tan inch long, and differs from the young in hav- ing an irregular streak of bright red running through the whitish lateral line. It feeds on the clover and lupine, and on the cultivated pea. It is not unlike a saw-fly larva in its ap- pearance and movements, feeding on the upper surface of the leaves and twisting its body into a coil when disturbed. The chrysalis is about seven lines long, girt with a silken thread across the greatest diameter of the body, which is full and bulg- ing on the sides. The head is pointed coniealby, with a purplish red line on each side, running to the tip and margined behind with yellow. The body is pale green, with a yellowish tinge, and a ventral line of a darker shade formed by a succession of minute, yellowish dots ; a yellow stripe runs along the side on the five hinder segments. Beneath, on the seventh, eighth and ninth rings, is a blackish brown line on each side, deepening in color about the middle of each segment, and a dorsal line of dark green about the same length. It remains in the chrys- alis state about ten days." (Saunders.) Mr. Scudder has described three species of this genus from the north. Colias Pelidne we have taken abundantly in PAPILIONID7E. ">')\ Labrador. It represents our C. Philodice. C. interior lives north of the Great Lakes, and C. occfdentalis ranges from Fort Simpson to the Gulf of Georgia. The species of a closely allied genus, Terias ( T. Lisa and T. Delia}, are much smaller and are more tropical. The genus Danais has antennae with a long and curved knob, the head and thorax are spotted with white, and the wings are round and entire. The caterpillars have projecting, thread-like horns, arranged in pairs on the top of the second and eleventh segments, and the body (D. Archippus) is banded with yellow, black and white. The oval chrysalids are short and thick and decked with golden spots. The larva of D. Archippus Harris feeds on the silk-weed, Asclepias, and matures in about two weeks, changing its skin three times, while the chiysalis state lasts for ten or twelve days. The butterfly appears from July to September. A very beautiful and quite aberrant tropical genus is Heli- conia, in which the wings are small, very narrow and often very transparent, while the antennae are nearly as long as the body. The larvae are either long, cylindrical and spinose (Acraea viola?) , or furnished with several pairs of long fleshy append- ages, and the chrysalids are often brilliantly spotted with golden and suspended by the tail. According to H. AY. Bates (Transactions of the Entomolog- o v ical Society, 1857), the venation of the wing in many species of Mechanitis and Ithomia, which are allied to Heliconia, varies in different individuals of the same species. The sexes have the closest resemblance in color and markings. They are very gregarious in their habits. The Brazilian ;t H. Melpomone varies in a curious manner. I have no doubt they are hybrids (i. e. the varieties), and I can almost point out the species with which it hybridates. Strange to say, the hybrids occur in one district and not in another, and one style of hybrids only occur in one district and not in the others, the species being equally abundant in all the districts." Argynnis is readily recognized by the numerous round and triangular silver spots on the under side of the hind wings. The very spiny caterpillars have a round head, and the spines are branched, two of the prothoracic ones being the largest and 252 LEl'IDOPTERA. reaching over the head. The angular arched chrysalids have the head either square, or slightly notched, with a smooth thorax, while on the back of the abdomen are two rows of usually gold colored tubercles. They usually feed on violets, and may be found from May to July. Argynnis Idalia Drurv is found the last of summer. ^1. Cybele Fabr. is found in the Middle States, and A. Atlantis Edwards in the White Moun- tain valleys and the colder portions of New England. Mr. C. A. Shurtleff discovered the larva and pupa of the lat- ter, July 17th, at Eastport, Maine, and being with him at the time, we made the following description of them : The larva is uniformly cylindrical, tapering alike towards each end of the body. On each side of the vertex of the head is a small low spine, giving the head an oblong shape when seen sidewise. The front is broad, somewhat square, flattened, with scattered hairs. On the first and second thoracic rings are two large subdorsal spines and minute lateral warts bearing small bris- tles, and on the hind edge of these rings are two large spines. On the third thoracic ring are three large spines. On each abdominal ring are six stout spines of the same size and placed equidistant on the upper surface. The bristles on the spines are nearly one-half as long as the spines themselves. Small pa- pilla', giving rise to bristles, are scattered over the body, with a row of them above the abdominal feet. The triangular anal plate is small, papilliform and prominent. The larva is dark velvety purple, the base of the head being of a pale horn color : the body beneath is scarcely paler than above ; the spines are pale livid on the basal half. They were full-fed and ready to pupate July 17th. The head of the pupa is square in front. On the prothorax are two subdorsal spines, and an elevated mesial ridge on the mesothoracic ring, rising highest behind. At the base of each wing is a sharp, conical, prominent papilla, immediately succeeded by a broad, thin-edged dilatation, con- stricted and appressed to the base of the abdomen ; this is the internal angle of the wings. On the abdomen are two lines of subdorsal sharp papilla-, one on each side. The wings extend to the fifth abdominal ring, and from this point the abdomen rapidly tapers to the tip. The surface of the body is wrinkled with conspicuous black spiracles. Its general color is chest- PAPILIONID.2E. 253 nut brown, mottled with black; the wings being Muck at the base. The sexes of the rare and superb A. Diana Cramer differ remarkably, the male being dark velvety brown, with a deep orange border, while the female is blue-black, with lighter blue spots and patches on the border of the wings. It has been taken in West Virginia, Georgia and Arkansas. A. ApJirodfie (Fig. 183*) abounds in the Northern States. According to Scudder, it is double-brooded, appearing about the middle of June, and fresh specimens late in August. A. Monti-mts, a more diminutive species, was discovered by Mr. Scudder on the lower half of the barren summits of the AVhite Mountains. Allied to this last species by their size, are ^1. Myrina Cramer and A. JBeUona Fabr. found in damp meadows late in summer. A. Myrina has tawny wings bor- dered with black above, and ex- pands from one and three-fourths to one and eight- tenths of an inch. A. Bellona differs from the other species by not Fi£- 183- having any silvery spots on the under side of the wings. Mr. Sannders has reared A. Myrina from eggs deposited June 24th, by a specimen confined in a box. "The egg is pale green, elongated, shaped something like an acorn, with the base smooth, convex and the circumference striated longitudinally, with about fourteen raised striae which are linear and smooth : the spaces between are about three times wider than the strue, depressed, concave in the middle, and ribbed by a number of cross lines, fifteen to twenty between each stria, and distinctly indented. The egg is contracted at the apex, the striae protrud- ing at the tip all around a little beyond the body of the egg. The larva hatched in six or seven days, and when fresh from the *The upper side of the wing-8 is figured on the left side, and the under side on the right, in this and in FIGS. 184 and 188. 254 LEPIDOPTERA. egg was about one-tenth of an inch long. The head is medium sized, black, and shining ; the body above is dark brown, with transverse lines of a paler color, especially on the anterior seg- ments ; it is thickly covered with stout hairs of a pale brownish color ; between the first and second moult it is one-fourth of an inch long. The head is bilobed, shining, black and hairy, and the body above is greenish black, the greenish tinge most apparent on the second and third segments, with a few small yellowish dots along each side, and transverse rows of strongly elevated, black tubercles, emitting numerous short, black hair- like spines. 11 The under surface is similar to the upper ; the feet are black and shining, and the prolegs are black, tipped with a paler hue. After the second moult there are two fleshy tubercles on the second segment much longer than the others, being three or four times their length, which are covered throughout with small hair-like spines. The yellowish spots along the sides of the body assume more of an orange tint, and there are one or two faint, longitudinal streaks of the same color along the sides close to the under surface, and between the rows of large, raised tubercles, are many smaller ones which are also black and appear but slightly raised. August 7th the larva was full- grown. The head is, at this period, slightly bilobed, black, shining, and covered with short, fine, black hairs. "The body above is dark greyish brown, beautifully spotted and dotted with deep velvety black ; the second segment, has two long, fleshy horns, yellowish white at base, black above, covered with minute, blackish, hair-like spines. The third and fourth segment, have each four whitish spines tipped with black, those on the sides placed on the anterior portion of the segment, those above about the middle. All the other seg- ments have six whitish spines, excepting the terminal one, which has four. All the spines have fine branches of a black or brownish black color and are about one-third the length of the fleshy horns on the second segment. A pale line extends along each side from the fifth to the terminal segments close to the under surface. The under surface is brownish black, darker on the anterior segments ; feet black and shining ; prolegs brown, with a shining band of brownish black on the outside. PAPILIONID.*;. 255 The duration of the pupa stage was ten or eleven days." The pupa, received from Mr. launders, has two large, conical tuber- cles in front of the insertion of the antemuie, and two acute tubercles on the pro- thorax. The thorax is acutely bituberculated on the sides, with an acute thin dorsal ridge, on each side of which are two small, sharp tubercles. Along the back of the abdomen Fig. 184. are two rows of tubercles, those on the third abdominal ring being much larger. It is half an inch long, and pale ash, with black dots and irregular lines. MelitoM differs in not having silver spots beneath, while the caterpillars are covered with blunt tubercles which give rise to short stiff bristles. They feed on different species of Fig. 185. plantain. The chrysalids are like those of Argynnis, but spotted with black or brown, and not with golden. Melitcea Phaeton Drury (Fig. 184) is found in damp bogs. We have taken the young larva less than one-half of an inch t/ long, early in spring under leaves, where it had doubtless hibernated. The mature larva (Fig. 185, enlarged, the specimen from which the drawing was made, is too contracted, the head being drawn in unnaturally ; fig. 186, pupa) is cylindrical, and the head is slightly angulated. There are nine rows of black spines which are fleshy and surrounded at the tips with rather .:>ng, thickset spinules. The head and thoracic ;iud last three abdominal rings are black ; the rest of the body being deep orange, with black lines between the spines, and dots along the side. Towards the last of May and early in June it changes to a chrysalis, which is white with a slight bluish tinge, with yellow papillae, and scattered black 256 LEPIDOPTERA. spots, giving it a guy and variegated appearance. The butter- fly rises from cold, swampy places the last of June and early in July. Its wings are velvety black, with orange red civs- cents and spots. It expands from two to two and a quarter- inches, being our largest species. M. Thai'os Boisd. and Leconte is a very abundant species in New England. There are two broods, one appearing in June and early in July, and the second one late in August and Sep- tember. It has short, broad wings which are tawny orange above, with black, irregular lines and spots ; it expands from one and three-tenths to one and a half inches. Mr. Saunders has sent us a remarkable and undescribed but- terfly, under the name of Melitoea Packardii Saunders, with the following description: "It resembles M. Tharos in size, and expands IA'2 of an inch. The palpi are pale brown above, yel- lowish below ; antenna; black above, dotted with white and tipped with red ; below white tipped with red. Head, thorax and abdomen, black above, clothed with brownish hairs ; white underneath ; feet brownish yellow ; wings above brown, with a cupreous tinge, sprinkled with fulvous atoms, with a wide band of dark brown on the outer margin, faintly edged on each side with black. The primaries have a fulvous macular band a short distance from the base, extending nearly across the wings, and a patch of the same hue a little beyond and towards the front margin. Beyond the middle is a wide band of the same, divided by the veins into a series of seven spots ; the upper one is very small, a mere dot with a whitish hue ; the second is much larger ; the third and fourth are nearly uniform in size, larger and more elongated than the second ; the fifth and sixth are the largest and wider and longer than any of the upper ones : the seventh is nearly of the same width as the sixth, but not more than half the length ; the fringe is clotted with white, especially about the tip. ' ' On the secondaries a wide fulvous patch covers the inner part of the wing, extending from near the base to near the middle of the wing, and bounded towards the inner margin by a brown edging ; within this patch are three rounded blackish spots, one most distinct about the middle, the others near the inner margin and partly lost in the brown edging of the wing PAPILIONID^E. 257 Beyond this is an imperfect band of fulvous spots, in continua- tion of those on the primaries ; the upper ones faint and indis- tinct, and two of the lower ones prominent and nearly round ; the last small and linear. The inner margin is edged with fulvous, having a yellowish tinge which encroaches on the outer brown marginal band at the anal angle. The fringe of the secondaries is dotted with dull white. The primaries below are fulvous, with a single wavy, brown line across the wing a short distance within the outer margin ; base yellowish, costal margin sprinkled with dark brown atoms, and a streak of the same along the middle of the wing near the hind margin. At the tip is a yellowish patch, occupying the space between the brown line and the margin, and within this, one of silvery white nearly equal in size. Below the white are three indis- tinct, yellowish patches, the lower one extending to the outer margin ; a large patch of yellow at the lower corner where the outer and hinder margins meet. The secondaries below are yellowish from the base to near the middle, with streaks and spots of brown ; the yellowish color extending down the inner to the hinder margin. Beyond the middle the wings are silvery white, sprinkled with yellow and brown scales, divided by the brown veins and partially crossed by an irregular streak of brown. There are also two brown patches on the hind mar- gin, the smaller one nearly round and occupying the space between the first and second median venules ; the larger being irregular and resting on the median vein, and extending across the third to the second subcostal venule." (Canada.) This is now known to be a suffused variety of M. Tharos. Melitwa Nycteis Scudder is rarely found in Maine and Mas- sachusetts ; it is pale fulvous above, with blackish brown markings, and expands from one and three-fifths to one and four-fifths inches. M. Harrisii Scudder ma}^ be readily distin- guished from M. Nycteis by the under surface of the hind wings being cinnamon-red, with bands and spots of white margined with black. It expands one and three-fourths inches and is found in New England, though rather a rare species. The larva has been reared in Norway, Maine, by Mr. S. I. Smith. It feeds on Diplopappus umbellatus, pupating from the middle to the last of June, and remaining in the chrysalis state from ten to 17 2i3X LEPIDOPTERA. sixteen days ; the butterfly appears from June 20th to Aug. 1st. The larva (Fig. 187, with the chrysalis, after Mr. W. H. Edwards) closely resembles that of Melitwa Phaeton, but, sa37s Mr. Scudder in a letter, it is smaller, and the orange color pre- dominates over the black. Like that of M. Phaeton the caterpillar lives in swarms on its food plant, covering the whole summit of the plant with a web, which at all times is foul with excrement, and presents a most un- sightly appearance. The chrysalis, he also states, may be best described by saying that it is a miniature copy of that of Phaeton. M. Ulialcedon Doubleday is found in California and the Rock}T Mountains, while M. Anicia Doubleday, the under side of which is much like that of Chalcedon, occurs not only in California and the Rocky Mountains but also in Kansas. M. 7V.m/m Edwards is a Texan species expanding one and one- half inches1. In Vanessa the wings are notched and angulated or tailed on the hind edges, while the palpi are long and beak-like. The larva is cylindrical and stoutly spined, the spines being long and branched. The caterpillars are gregarious during the early stages. 4'The head of the chrysalis is deeply notched, or fur- nished with two ear-like prominences ; the sides are very angu- lar ; in the middle of the thorax there is a thin projection, in profile, somewhat like a Roman nose, and on the back are two rows of very sharp tubercles of a golden color." (Harris.) Vanessa Antiopa Linn, is one of our most abundant butterflies, being much more common in this country than in Europe, whither it has probably been carried. Its wings are purplish brown above, with a broad buff yellow border in which is a row of pale blue spots. The butterfly hibernates, appearing before the snow is off the ground. It is seen until June, and then not until the middle of August. The larva is black, spotted minutely with white, with a row of eight dark, brick-red spots on the back. The chrysalis is dark brown, with large tawny spots around the tubercles on the back. The caterpillar defoli- PAPILIONID^E. 2.09 ates the willow, poplar and Balm of (iilead. Vanessa Mil- bt'iiii Godart is much smaller and is rather rare. It occurs about roadsides in May, July and August. The larva feeds on nettles. Mr. Saunders informs me that "it was found feed- ing on the nettle, nearly full grown, July 20th. It was from one to one and one-eighth inches long. The head is black, thickly covered with line, brownish white hairs, and sprinkled with many minute whitish dots. The body is black, thickly sprinkled with whitish dots and with small, fine, white hairs, each segment, excepting the second, with a transverse row of branching spines. A greenish yellow lateral line runs close to the under surface, with a second broken line of a brighter yel- low color. All the spines and their branches are black, except- ing the lower row on each side from the fifth to the twelfth segment, springing from the greenish yellow lines ; these are of a greenish yellow color. Under surface dull greenish, minutely dotted with whitish dots. There is a wide, central, blackish stripe covering anteriorly, nearly the whole of the under sur- face." V. Californica Boisd. is bright fulvous, with three black bands on the anterior edge of the fore-wings, and there are no black crescents in the black border of the wings. The genus Grapta differs from the preceding in its deeply incised wings, its smaller size, and red and brown colors. The under side of the hind wings has usually a silvery or golden dot and curved line, or both, imitating different punc- tuation marks. Grapta interrogation-is Doubleday is one of the largest species, and has a golden semicolon beneath. It is found in May, August, and in autumn. The caterpillars injure the foliage of the elm and lime trees, and also the hop vine, some- times defoliating the whole vine. The larva has been found, by Mr. Saunders, feeding on the hop, August 7th. "When full grown its length is one and one-fourth inches. The head is reddish black, flat in front and somewhat bilobed, each lobe tipped with a tubercle emitting five single, black, pointed spines ; it is covered with many small, white, and several black- ish tubercles. The body is cylindrical, black, thickly covered with streaks and dots of yellowish white ; the second segment is without spines, but with a row of yellowish tubercles in their place ; the third segment has four branching spines, all black, 2<>0 LEPIDOPTERA. with a spot of dark yellow at their base ; and on the fourth segment are four spines, as there are on all the others, except- ing the terminal, which has two pairs, one posterior to the other. The spines are yellow, with blackish branches, except- ing the terminal pair which is black ; and there is a row of reddish ones on each side. The under surface is yellowish grey, darker on the anterior segments, with a central line of blackish and many small, black dots." The chrysalis state lasts from twelve to fourteen days. It is ash brown, with the head deeply notched, and eight silvery spots on the back. Grapta c-aryvn- teum Kirby (Fig. 188, G. Progne Harris) is a small species with a silvery L in the middle of the under side of the hind wings. It is our most common species northward. It appears the last of summer. The larva lives on the hop and elm. Grapta comma Double- day is more common southward. It is known by having a silvery- comma in the middle of the hinder wings. The caterpillar lives on the hop and elm. Mr. AV~. H. Edwards h;i- Fig. iss. found the larva? on the broad-leaved nettle. He says "my attention was first attracted by observing certain leaves drooping, and more or less eaten. On the under side of these I usually found the caterpillar inactive, ajul never more than one upon the same plant. The half-grown larva? were black, with a yellowish stripe along the side from the third segment to the tail, and with yellow stripes across the back, and spots of the same color at the base of the dorsal spines, which were yellow, tipped with black. The mature larva} were white, mottled or striped with grey or ashen, and with red spiracles." The chrysalis is brownish gray or white, variegated with pale brown, and ornamented with gold on the tubercles. The fly appears in May, July, August and September. In the colder and mountainous portions of New England and New York, these species are replaced by the Grapta Fannus of Edwards, PAPILIONII)^. 261 who states that ''comparing Faunas with c-albam, the former is deeper colored by many degrees ; it is one- fifth larger, the black spots and margins much heavier, and, owing to this and the depth of the ground-color, the general hue of the surface is much darker than either c-album or any of the American spe- cies." The under side of G. Faaiius is beautifully marbled in several colors. The genus Pymmeis differs from Vanessa in having the wings simply scalloped, not notched ; beneath, they are not marked with metallic colors, and the long, tapering palpi curve upward. The larvae are covered with branched spines, corre- sponding in size, and often wanting on the first and last seg- ments ; the head is heart-shaped. They are solitary, hiding under a rolled leaf or spinning a slight web, and hang by the hind feet alone when about to transform. The chrysalids are angular on the sides, with two or three lateral rows of sharp, golden tubercles, and a short, thick tubercle on the top of the thorax. P. cardui Linn, feeds on thistles and the sunflower, the hollyhock, burdock and other rough-leaved plants, in June and July. It remains in the pupa state twelve days, the but- terfly appearing in Maine, about the 20th of July. ]Ji/r«iii<'is Ifniit(jr wide. It is fastened with a silken thread. The abdomen is thickened and somewhat raised. It is minutel}' hairy, pale brown, with many dots and patches of a darker color ; the upper edge of the wings being quite dark, with a dark ventral stripe, and four or five short, dark lines on the side. It remains in the chrysalis state eight or nine days, the caterpillar turning dark July 3d, just before pupating." The body, especially the abdomen, is thicker and fuller than in Chrysophanus Americanus. Theclu Mopsvs Hubner is' found in New England and Canada. Mr. Sannders sends me the following description of the larva taken June 9th, by beating bushes, at London, Canada. ''It was .40 of an inch in length. The head is small, of a shin- ing black color, with a pale stripe across the front just above the mandibles, and is drawn within the second ring when at rest. The body above is green along the middle rings, deep rose color at each extremity, and is thickly covered with short, brown «, ' » hairs. The second segment is rosy above, greenish yellow at the sides, with an edging of the same color in front ; the third segment is entirely rose colored ; from the third to the tenth segments is a dorsal stripe of rose which is wide on the fourth, fifth, eight and ninth segments, but narrow and linear on the intermediate ones ; on the tenth segment the green encroaches on the rose color on the sides of the body, extending more than half-way upon the segment behind the tenth. The body is rose colored with a dorsal streak of a darker shade. The rose color at each extremity is united by a rosy line along each side close to the under surface which grows fainter on the middle segments. The under surface is dull green, with a yellowish tint ; the feet and prolegs (abdominal legs) are yellowish green. June 24th, the larva has now become quite large and will probably soon go into the chrysalis state. I found it would readily eat the plum and cherry. 4,' t/ "Its length is now .70 ; its width about .20 of an inch. The O head is very small, bilobed, black and shining, with a streak of dull white across the front above the mandibles, which are reddish brown. The body above is dull green, with a yel- lowish tint, especially on the anterior segments, which are -2(\~ thickly covered with very short, brown hairs, scarcely visible without a magnifier ; these hairs arise from small, pale, yel- lowish dots which appear slightly raised ; there is a dorsal streak of dark green arising from the internal organs showing through the semitransparent skin. There is a patch of dull pink, or rosy color, on the anterior segments from the second to the fourth inclusive ; it is faint on the second ring, and covering but a single portion of its upper surface, and nearly covering the dorsal crest on the third segment, and reduced again to a small, faint patch on the fourth. On the posterior segments is a much larger ros}* patch, extending from the hinder part of the ninth segment to the end of the body. The hinder part of the ninth segment is merely tinged. On the tenth segment it becomes a rather large patch, widening posteriorly. Behind this the bod}T is entirely covered with rosy red. The sides of the tenth segment, close to the under surface, have a streak of the same color, and there is a faint continuation of this on the ninth segment. The head is drawn within the second segment when at rest. The second segment is smaller than the third ; there is a wide dorsal crest, or ridge, from the third to the tenth segments inclusive ; behind this the body is suddenly flattened, the sides suddenly sloping. The under surface is yellowish green, with a few very fine brownish hairs; the feet and prolegs are greenish, semitransparent. "On June 29th it fastened itself to the lid of the box, chang- ing to a chrysalis July 1st, which was .45 of an inch in length, and its greatest width .20 of an inch. The body is pale brown and glossy, with many small, dark brown or black- ish dots distributed over the whole surface ; they are thicker along the middle above, with a faint, imperfect, ventral stripe from the seventh to the eleventh segments ; the surface is thickly covered with very short, brown hairs, invisible without a magnifier. The imago appeared July 13th." Mr. Saunders has found the larva of TJieda strfgosa Harris, a rare species in Canada and New England, feeding on the thorn, Cratsegus, July 13th. "The head is small, greenish, with a faint tint of brown, and a black stripe across the front below the middle, and a patch of white between this stripe and the mandibles, which are brownish black above. The body is of a 26S LEPIDOPTEBA. rich velvety green, with a yellowish tinge, slightly paler be- tween the segments, and a dorsal stripe of a darker shade, centred along the middle segments with a faint, j-ellowish line. The anterior edge of the second segment is yellowish brown, with a few dots of a darker color. The body is thickly covered with minute hairs which are brown above and white below, being scarcely visible to the naked eye. The body is flattened above (dorsal crest not bordered with yellow as in T. Acadica), steeply sloped at the sides, where it is striped with faint oblique lines of ^yellowish, two or three on each segment. The two last segments have a patch of yellowish on each side? making the dark dorsal line appear much more prominent. A faint yellowish line close to the under surface from the fifth to the terminal segments. The under surface is bluish green, with a darker patch on the last two segments. " The chrysalis changed June 19th, and is nearly oval in form. The head-case is rounded, and the body is dark reddish brown, with black markings thickly covered with fine, short, whitish hairs, rather more numerous on the anterior and posterior segments. Anterior segments with many thickly set patches of blackish, and a dark ventral line from the sixth to the twelfth segments. It is bound by a few silken threads on the anterior portion of the seventh segment." The accompanying cut (Fig. 1!)7) represents the pupa of a Thecla, found in July by Mr. Sanborn, on the Glen road to Mount AVashington. The body is smooth and tapers gradually from the mesothorax, and the venation of the wings is very apparent. Another pupa, probably T. niplion, found by Mr. Stillborn, is very different, being much stouter, and thicker through the abdomen, by a third of its 19'' diameter, than the chrysalis figured. It is rough and covered with short, fine, stiff hairs ; the tegument is so thick, that there are no traces of the veins of the wing, while the sutures between the segments and the appendages are not nearly as distinct. The larva, according to Mr. Sanborn's notes, was found feeding upon the A\rhite Pine, July loth. k>lt was .45 of an inch long; the head was retracted, yellow- ish, and the body pale, transparent green, with four longi- tudinal, white stripes, and one transverse, lozenge-shaped 2(10 patch, of the same color, on the eleventh segment. The rings were all somewhat elevated in the middle of their diameter and thinly covered with yellowish brown, short hairs." He did not succeed in rearing the butterfly, but this description will be useful to any entomologist who may be fortunate enough to rear it hereafter. The Hesperians, or Skippers, are a large group of small, dark, dun-colored butterflies, whose antennae have the knob curved like a hook, or ending in a little point bent to one side, reminding us of the antennae of the Sphinges. They are moth- like in their motions, form, and larval characters. They are stout bodied, with large heads and prominent eyes, and thick palpi, almost square at the end. The larvae are spindle-shaped, naked, and with a remarkably large head. They are solitary, and often hide in folded leaves like the Tort rid , trans- forming in a rude cocoon of dead leaves or stub- ble, held together by silken threads. The pupae are, somewhat conical, like those of moths, smooth and generally covered with a bluish white powder. They are fastened by the tail and a slight band of threads within their rude cocoons. We have many species in this country ; the largest forms occurring southwards. Eadamus Tityrus Cramer feeds on the locust and is our largest species northward. E. Bathyllus flies in June and July. It feeds on Glycine and Hedysarum in May and June. In Hesperia the knobs are shorter, and end in a point turned sidewise. The upper wings are raised, and the lower spread out flat when at rest. The chrysalis has a long tongue-case free at the end, in this respect showing a transition to the hawk-moths. They are snuff-brown, with dark spots. Mr. W. Saunders has been very successful in raising the larvae of H. Hobomoc Harris and other butterflies and moths, by watching for the fertile eggs in captured specimens, which are often deposited on the sides of the collecting box. The food-plant of the larvae can usually be discovered after experi- menting with those plants on which other species of this or allied genera are known to feed. "The egg, deposited June 17th, is nearly round, flattened on the lower side, and of a 270 LEPIDOFTERA. pale green color. Under the microscope it appears plainly reticulated, with fine, six-sided markings, strongly resembling the cornea of a fly's eye. The larva on finding its way out, .June 27th, began to eat the egg-shell at the centre above. It feeds on grass, on the inside of the leaves near the joints, drawing portions of the leaves together with silken threads. When placed on a strongly ribbed blade of grass, it spins a few threads from rib to rib, and stations itself behind the threads. By the 14th of July the caterpillars were three- eighths of an inch long and resembled those of H. Mystic of the same age." Mr. Saunders did not succeed in raising the caterpillars to maturity as they were unfortunately lost. The most abundant species in New England is H. Wainwtta Harris (Fig. 198) which frequents roadsides throughout the summer. According to Mr. Saunders' notes, from "eggs de- posited July 10th, the young larva was hatched July 24th, the eggs growing darker about two or three days previous. The egg is pale greenish yellow, or yellowish green, strongly con- vex above, and flattened at the place of attachment. The flat- tened portion is slightly concave and very faintly reticulated under a power of forty-five diameters. The young larva, when first hatched, is about the same as that of Mystic and Ilobomoc, probably .10 of an inch, and is scarcely distinguishable from them, excepting that it is slightly darker in color. The head is large and prominent and of a shining black color. The second segment has a ring of brown- ish black, encircling it above. The body is dull brownish yel- low, very faintly dotted with black, each dot emitting a single, rather long, brownish hair. The under surface is rather paler than the upper. Mr. .Saunders has also reared the larva of //. Mystic Edwards from the egg, which is ' L strongly convex above, flattened below and depressed in the centre of the flattened portion. Under a magnifying power of eighty diameters, the surface is seen to be faintly reticulated ; it is pale yellowish green. The eggs were deposited about the 20th of June and hatched on the 28th and 29th of June. When hatched it was .10 of an inch long, with a large, black head, and was white, becoming yel- lowish brown, especially towards the end of the body. It feeds SPHINGID^E. 271 on grass, and at this stage can scarcely be distinguished from the young larva ot'H. Hobomoc. When an inch long the head is not large in proportion to the body, though it is prominent and wider than the second segment ; it is dull reddish brown and black posteriorly. The body above is semitransparent, dull brownish green, with minute, whitish hairs, similar to those on the head, Avith a dorsal line and many darker dots over the surface. The second segment is pale whitish, with a line of brownish black across the upper surface, with a faint, pale, lateral line close to the under surface : the terminal seg- ments are paler than the rest of the body. The feet are whitish, semitransparent. This species is found from Canada to Maryland. SPHINGID/E Latreille. The Hawk-moths or Humming-bird moths are among the largest and stoutest of Lepidoptera. The body is very stout, spindle-shaped, with narrow, powerful wings. Their flight is, consequently, exceedingly swift and strong. The antennae are prismatic in form and thickened in the mid- dle. The tongue, or maxilla?, is remarkably long, so that the insect is able, while on the wing, to explore the interior of deep flowers. This habit of remaining for a considerable time poised in the air on their rapidly vibrating wings, causes them to be mistaken for humming-birds. At rest the wings are folded, roof-like, over the body. The larvae have sixteen legs, and on the last segment is an acute horn, sometimes represented by a simple tubercle. At rest they stand with the forepart of the body elevated in a supposed Sphinx-like attitude. The larvae descend into the earth and transform, often in rude, earthen cocoons, moulded into form by the pressure of the body. The tongue-case is usually free. There are between 300 and 400 species known, a large part of which are tropical American. Most of the species fly in June and July. The larvae transform in the latter part of August and in September. In Ellema the bocty is small. The head is small, narrow and somewhat tufted, and with small eyes. It might be passed over on a hasty view for a Noctuid. The larva of Ellema Harrisii Clemens is green, has no caudal horn, and lives on the pine. 272 LEPIDOPTERA. Mr. Sounders writes me that he has found it feeding 011 the pine, about the middle of September. "It is two inches long, the body being smooth and nearly cylindrical and thickest in the middle of the body. The head is large, pointed above, flat in front and green, with a yellow stripe on each side. The body is bright green, with a dorsal row of dark red spots on the fifth to the twelfth segments inclusive, with a bright yel- low stripe on each side of the reddish spots and a lateral white stripe mixed with yellow." The moth is a very small, ash grey species, only expanding two inches. It frequents flowers at dusk in June. The genus /Sphinx, as now limited by systematists, is much larger bodied, with a long and narrow head, small eyes and long and narrow wings. The head of the larva is rather large, semi-oval and flattened in front. The body is cylin- drical, smooth and obliquely banded on the side, with an arching, caudal horn. It transforms in a subterranean earthen cell. The tongue-case of the pupa is short and free, instead of being soldered to the body. Sphinx gordius Cramer is dark brown, with a roseate tinge, and the thorax is blackish brown above. The larva feeds on the apple. /Sphinx kalmice- Smith is hoary and rust-red, and on the hind wings are a median and marginal black band. The caterpillar feeds on the lilac and laurel. It is pale green, with seven oblique, lateral, pale yellow bands, edged above with black, which is again bordered with pale blue. /Sphinx drvpiferarum Smith has the fore- wings blackish brown, with the discal dot and outer edge of the wing whitish fawn-color. The larva feeds on the different species of plum. The body is pale green, with lateral purple bands, edged beneath with white. /Sphinx chersis Hiibner (S. cinerea Harris) is the largest species we have, and is pale ashen, and reddish gray beneath. The larva feeds on the lilac. The large "potato worm" belongs to the genus Macrosiht, containing our largest species of the family ; the head is pro- portionally large, and the wings are rather broad, with the interior angles dilated. M. cingulata Fabr. has pink hind wings and pink spots on the abdomen. It feeds on the sweet potato. M. qninque-maculata Haworth (Fig. 199, moth ; a, SPHLNGOXE. 273 18 274 LEPIDOPTERA. 200. larva ; b, pupa) is gray ; the fore-wings are immaculate at the base, and on the hind wings are two distinct angulated bands. The larva feeds on the tomato and potato vines. It is dark ii'reen, with a series of greenish yellow angular bands on the side. The tongue-case is long and much arched. M. Carolina Linn, is cinereous, with a white spot at the base of the fore- wing, while the central band of the hind wings are indistinct. The larva (Fig. 200) feeds on the tobacco and tomato. It is dark green with lateral, oblique, white bands, edged above with blu- ish and short trans- verse black stripes. The tongue-case is shorter and less curved than in M. f>-macu- lata. The tongue of a Madagascar hawk-moth, M. duwttinx, Wallace states, is nine and a quarter inches long, probably adapted for exploring the long nectaries of some Orchids. In Cemtomia the body is thick, with the head and eyes small ; the thorax is .short and round, while the abdomen is rather long. The larva is easily known by the four thoracic horns, besides the usual caudal horn. The tongue-case is not free. C. Amyiitor lli'ibner (quadricornis Harris) feeds on the elm. We now come to the more aberrant forms of the family. Under the name of Cressonfa Mr. Grote has separated Fig. 201. from the genus Smeriiithus, a species in which the wings are more notched than in the latter genus, and the antenna are slightly pectinated. Cressonia juglandis Smith (Fig. 201, venation) is of a pale fawn-color, and has no eye-like spots on the hind wings, as in Smeriiithus. The larva is bluish green, with a row of subdorsal and stigmatal reddish brown spots, and six oblique, lateral, bright yellow bands. It lives on the wild cherry. In Fnicrinthits the body is stout, the head sunken and the maxilla are only as long as the palpi, being almost obsolete. Sl'HINGIDJE. 275 The species are said to fly heavily and only in the night. The head of the larva is semi-oval or pyramidal, acute above, and the thoracic rings are obliquely banded on each side. The pupa is smooth, cylindrical and somewhat conical in form. S. iiKxlcxtns Harris is a very large species, expanding nearly six inches. It feeds on the Lombardy poplar. S. exccecatus Smith has the hind wings rosy on the inner angle. The "ocellus" or eye-like spot is black, with a large, pale blue pupil. The larva is apple green, with seven oblique, yellowish white lines on the sides, and a bluish caudal horn. It feeds on the apple and the Rosa Carolina. S. geminatus Say (Fig. 202, venation of the hind wing) is so called from the two sky-blue pupils in the black ocellus on the roseate hind wings. The pupa has been found at the roots of willows. lu the genus I'lu'/ampc/HN, or lover of the vine, as its name indicates, the tongue is again as long Fis- -02- as the body. The antennae have a long hook tapering to the end, bearing cilia? in the male. The abdomen is large and thick, and the wings are deeply concave on the inner border. The larva has a tubercle in place of a caudal horn. The tongue-case of the pupa is not free. P. vitis Harris is olive green, with pale green hind wings, which are rose-red towards the inner margin. The larva is flesh-colored mixed with yel- low, and with short, transverse, black lines, and lateral, semi- oval, yellowish white bands, edged with black. In Deilephihi the abdomen tapers suddenly at the tip and the fusiform antennae end in a minute hook. The gaily colored larva has a straight and rather short caudal horn. There are no oblique bands on the sides of the body, but a row of subdorsal spots on each side. Clemens states that the anterior segments are much attenuated, and are capable of being withdrawn or shortened, or much extended. "When disturbed they fall from their food-plants, shorten the anterior segments and bend the head inwards." They transform in a cell excavated from the surface. The tongue-case of the pupa is not free. D. lhi(>l><>i!i. Swainson (Fig. 203 and larva) is dull chocolate brown, with dull sulphureous hind wings, with a dark brown terminal band broken up into short lines on a roseate spot at the inner angle. The larva is reddish brown, with numerous patches of light green. The tubercle is black, encircled at base by a yellowish line and a blackish cordate patch. It feeds on the wild and cultivated grape-vines and on the Ampelopsis quinquefolia, or woodbine. The Bee-moth or Clear-wing, Sesia, is smaller than the fort-- going genera, and the body is flattened, oval and gaily colored with yellow, black and red, while the wings are transparent in the middle, The larva tapers in front, has a dorsal stripe just Fi- •_>(«. 277 I above the row of stigmata, and a short recurved horn. It transforms in an imperfect cocoon at the surface of the earth. tiesia dffiii.ix Boisd. is pale greenish yellow, with the abdomen black beneath, and the legs black. The larva is pale green, reddish beneath. Sesia Thy she Fabr. is a more common species northward. The thorax is deep olive green, with the abdomen reddish be- neath, and with whitish legs. It is abundant, flying in June in the hot sun about the lilac and Bhodora Canadensis. Under the name of Lepisesia Mr. Grote has separated L. Jlavofasciata Barnston (Fig. 204, -venation of fore-wing) found in Canada, from the genus Macrogiossa, repre- sented in Europe by M. stdlataru.m Linn. Mr. Grote also separates from the latter genus, under the name of Eupyrrfioglossum, Fig 205. a Cuban moth, which has larger, fuller eyes, and larger hind wings than in Macrogiossa. E. Sagra (Fig. 205, venation of fore-wing) is a handsome form described by Professor Poey. Harris. These elegant and gaily colored moths, which by the arrangement of their colors and their clear wings, look like bees and wasps, are readily recognized by their small size, narrow wings, thickened antenna', and by the tufts at the end of the body, which they can spread out fan-like. They fly very swiftly in the hottest sunshine. The larva- are borers, living mostly in the hollowed stems of plants. They are whit- ish, cylindrical, with sparse, short, inconspicuous hairs, and they have no anal horns. They transform in a rude, oblong, oval cocoon, constructed of the chips they make in boring out their tunnels, cemented by a gummy secretion. The pupae are chestnut-brown, with transverse rows of short teeth on the abdominal rings, by which they make their Avay out, partly through the hole previously made by the larva for the exit of the moth. The shell of the chrysalis is often left protruding from the hole. This family is, therefore, quite injurious to gardeners. ^•Egeria exitiosa Say (Fig. 206. c? ) the Peach-tree borer, ha>; caused the death of many peach trees and also, according to Fitch, occasionally attacks the plum. It is a slender, dark 27X LEPIDOPTERA. blue moth, expanding an inch and a hall', or more. The male is much smaller than the female (Fig. 207), expanding one inch. She deposits her eggs near the root of the tree. The larvae are hatched and bore in to feed upon the inner bark and sap wood. When one year old they make their cocoon tinder the bark or at the root of the tree. Borers of all sizes, Harris states, will be found in the trees throughout the year. The trees should be protected by wrapping sheathing paper around the bottom of the trunk, and putting fresh mortar around the roots. The wounded part may be cov- ered with clay. ^Egeria pyri Harris infest > the pear tree. It is purple black above and golden yellow beneath, with three yellow dj •/ «/ bands across the abdomen, the middle band Fig. 20(i. being the larger. The habits of the Grape-root borer, ^E. polistifnrmix Harri>. resemble those of the Peach-tree borer. It sometimes de- stroys grape-vines in the Middle and Western States, but does not attack the Scuppernong variety. The larva lives under ground, the female, according to Walsh, "depositing her i-iii; on the collar of the grape-vine, close to the earth; the young larvae, as soon as they hatch out, immediately descend into the roots." They attack the sap-wood and bark of the roots, eating irregular furrows. The cocoons are oval, and covered with bits of wood and dirt. They are found, through the summer, in the earth near the roots of the grape, and the moths fly from the middle of June until the mid- dle of September, according to Dr. Kron. Harris describes the moth as being dark- Fig. 207. brown, tinged with tawny orange on tin- sides, and banded with bright yellow upon the edge of the second abdominal ring. The thorax and fourth abdominal ring are faintly tinged with yellow, or tawny orange, as are the palpi, under side of the antennae, and the legs. The female has a little orange colored tuft on each side of the tail, and the males have two tufts on each side. The wings expand from one to one and a half inches. Another species, caudata Harris, inhabits the wild currant. 279 Tlie currant borer, ^Egeria tipidiforme Linn. (Fig. 208 ; 6, larva ; a, pupa, enlarged) has been introduced from Europe, and is a great pest in our gar- dens, injuring the currant bushes. It is a slender. agile, dark blue moth, found flying in July in the hot sun. about the currant leaves. The larva bores in the stems, and by splitting them open, in the fall and spring, we shall find the larva, which pupates towards the last of May. . -Jus. Mr. James Ridings describes from Virginia ^E. qninque caudata (Fig. 209) Avhich has five filaments at the tip of the abdomen. Its body is blue black, with a transparent spot at the base of the hind wings, while the third abdom- inal segment is red above. The Squash-vine borer, Fis- m Melittia cucurbitw Harris (Fig. 210 ; a, larva), often kills, very suddenly, the squash plant. The moth is orange colored, spotted with black, and its hind legs are fringed with long, orange and black hairs. She oviposits on the vine close to the roots, from the tenth of July to the middle of Au- gust. The larva eats out the interior of the vine, and usually transforms in a rude earthen Fig. 209. cocoon near the roots, but as we have no- ticed, within the stem, beginning to spin its cocoon the first of October. Latreille. This interesting group connects the diurnal with the nocturnal Lepidoptera. Some of the forms (Castnia) remind us strikingly of the butterflies. The group may be recognized by the rather large free head, and the simple antenna? which are slightly swollen in the middle, or 2«U L.EPIDOPTERA. partially clavate, as in Zygtena. The wings are long and nar- row in the typical genera, becoming shorter and broader in the lower genera, such as Eureiiua, from India. The scales are line, powdeiy and scattered thinly over the surface, often leav- ing naked spots on the wings. The species are usually green or deep blue, with scales of purplish black, or entirely black, alternating with gay colors, such as golden, bronze, or white and red. They fly in the hot sunshine. The sixteen-footed, greenish larvre are short, cylindrical, the l)od}- being obtuse at each end. The head is very small and when at rest is partially drawn into the prothoracic ring. The segments are short and convex, with transverse rows of un- equal tubercles which give rise to thin fascicles of very short and evenly cut hairs, which are often nearly absent. The larvae are either naked, as in Alypia, Eudryas and Castnia, or, as in the lower moth-like species, they are hairy, like those of the Lithosians and Arctians in the next family. Before trans- forming, the larvae usually spin a dense, silken cocoon, though Eudryas and Castnia make none at all, and Ctenucha a slight one of hairs. The pupa of ZygaMia, especially, is intermediate in form between that of ^Egeria and Arctia, being much stouter than the first, and somewhat less so than the last. The head is prominent, and the tips of the abdomen sub-acute. Ctenucha is more like Arctia. while Castnia and Alypia are elongate, slender, with the head made especially prominent by a tubercle on the front of the clypeus. In common writh the Sphingidce and .sEgeriadw, the Zyg;enidae are confined to the temperate and tropical regions. The family type, Zygoma, has its metropolis about the Mediter- ranean Sea, and thence spreads to the north of Europe, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope. Zygw-iHi cxtdans is found as far north as Lapland, and in vertical distribution rises C.OOO to 7,000 feet in the Alps of Styria. Castnia is, however, a tropical American genus. Alypia is the most northern genus, extending into the Hudson Bay ter- ritories. Glaucopis and allies, which comprise a large number of species, are almost exclusively tropical American. In Aus- tralia, as King observes, Castnia is represented by Synemon. The American genus Eudryas is represented by very closely allied South African genera. Castnia closely resembles the Hesperians, though much larger. The species are of large size and of brilliant hues, and fly in the day time, like the butterflies. The head is, however, much narrower in front, and the antennae inserted higher up. The larva is a borer, living in the stems of Orchids ; it is not known, but probably has the usual form of boring caterpillars, tiiid the pupa is said by King to resemble that of Cossus. Alypia comprises black moths, ornamented with white and yellow patches on the wings. The antenme are long, and a little thickened in the middle. The wings are short and broad. The body of the pupa is not contracted at the base of the abdomen as in Eudryas. The larva feeds on the grape and constructs an earthen cocoon, like that of -ZEgeria, according to Harris. A. octo-iim<-ii/y their plump form. "Bar mentions the occurrence in Cayenne of an aquatic caterpillar, which produces a moth, resembling Bombyx plui'tlima of Cramer. This larva lives at the bottom of the water, and feeds on the roots of an abundant weed." (Bulletin Societe Entomologique de France, 1864.) LitJiosia and its allies (Lithosiinae) have very narrow wings, the antennae filiform, and the bod}' slender. The larva? are cylindrical and covered with short, spinulated hairs. Some of them do not spin cocoons, so far as we know, the pupa of Cro- cota being found under stones with the dried larva skin still adhering to the tip of the abdomen. Lfthosia argiUacea Pack, is slate-colored, writh yellow palpi and pro thorax. The base of the wings and the tip of the abdomen are yellowish. Lfthosia casta Sanborn (Fig. 214) is an undescribed species BOMBYCID/K. 285 of great beauty, discovered by Mr. Sanborn at Berlin Falls, N. H., August 10th, and also at Ausable Chasm, N. Y. It is pure milk white, with a slight slate -colored tinge on the hind wings, and is slate-colored beneath, especially on the fore wings, and white on the inner edge of the hind wings. Just behind the middle of the white abdomen are tufts of tawny hairs, and the tip is white. It ex- pands one and a quarter inches. CramMdia has still narrower wings. C. pallida Pack, is of an uniform drab color and would be easily mistaken for a Crambus. Nudaria has broad wings like a Fi"- -14- geometrid moth, with hyaline spots. The larva is hirsute and makes a thin cocoon of interwoven hairs. N. mundana is a European moth. It is represented in this country by Evplm- •jtcfma 'inendica Walk., which has broader wings and longer palpi. The wings have two rows of smoky transparent spots. Iltlpoprepia has rather broader wings than Lithosia. //. 1'n- cum Hiibner is deep scarlet, with three leaden stripes on the fore wings, the middle stripe situated at the apex of the wing. The larva, Mr. Saunders informs me, is "spiny and black, sprinkled lightly with yellow dots and short lines ; there is a dorsal row of yellow dots from the fifth to the twelfth segments. The head is black." Early in May, according to Harris, it makes its cocoon, which is thin and silky, and the moth appears twenty days afterwards. Crocota is red, or yellowish red, throughout, with black margins and dots on the wings. The an- tenure are filiform and the wings are broad, being triangular in form. Our most common species is Crocota ferruginosa Walk., which is pale rust-red, with two dusky broad bands on the outer half of the wing. A much larger form is Utetheisa bella Linn. (Fig. 215), a beautiful moth, whose yellow fore wings are crossed by bands of white, encircling black dots, while its scarlet hind wings are edged irregularly with black. 280 LEPIDOPTEEA. Tlie genus Oallimorpha is still larger, with broad wings. C. Lecontei Boisdnval is white, the fore wings being almost entirely bordered with brown. The caterpillars of this genus are usually dark colored, with longitudinal yellow stripes. By day they hide under leaves or stones and feed by night on various shrubby and herbaceous plants. C. interrupto-marginata Beauv. (Fig. 210, fore wing) has an anchor-shaped black spot when the wings are folded, one side of the anchor being seen in the figure. Arctia and its allies are stout-bodied, with short, moderately broad wings, and simple or feathered antenna1. The hairy larva1 are covered with dense whorls of long, spinulose hairs. They make a loose cocoon of interwoven hairs under the shelter of some board or stone. The pupa is short and thick. Arctia virgo Linn, is an exceedingly beautiful insect. Its fore wings sometimes expand two inches and a half, and are flesh- red, streaked thickly with broad, black slashes, and on the vermilion-red hind wings are seven or eight large black spots. The caterpillar is brown. ^1. Anita Grote is allied, but differs in the wholly black ab- domen and black hind wings. It was de- scribed first from Pennsylvania, and has been detected by Mr. B. P. Mann on the Alpine summit of Mount Washington, N. II. The common black and reddish, very hairy caterpillar, found feeding on various garden weeds, is the young of Pyrrliar<-ti-!<-»/.r, differing so much in the breadth of their wings and thickness of their bodies, are, how- ever, connected by many intermediate forms occurring in Europe. Psyche is a hairy-bodied moth, with broad and thin wings, the female of which is wingless and closely resembles the larva, and inhabits a case, which is constructed of bits of its food-plant. The female of Pst/che helix has been known to produce young from eggs not fertilized by the male. It lives in a case of grains of sand arranged in the form of a snail shell, thus resembling some Phryganeids in its habits, as it does structurally. Fig-. 2-20. 221. BOMHYCIl).!.. The male of Thyridopteryx (T. eplieiner«'j'nnni* Haworth), the "basket-worm," is stout-bodied, with broadly pectinated antenna; and a long abdomen ; the anal forceps and the adjoin- ing parts being capable wf unusual extension in order to roach the oviduct of the female, which is wingless, cylindrical, and in its general form closely resembles its larva, and does not leave its case. On being hatched from the eggs, which are, so far as known by us, not extruded from its case by the parent, the young- larva; immediately build little, elongated, bas- ket-like cones, of bits of twigs of the cedar, on which they feed, and may then be seen walking about, tail in the air, this tail or abdomen cov- ered by the incipient case, and presenting a comical sight. The case (Fig. 222) of the full grown larva is elongated, oval, cylindrical, and the fleshy larva transforms within it, while it shelters the female through life. The genus (Eveticus comprises large species, with much the same habits, growing in tropical America and in Australia. A basket-worm, allied to (Eeetkus, has been discovered in Florida, by Mr. Glover, feeding upon the orange, and we give the following account of it from the study of his admirable drawings. With much the same habits, it lie- longs to quite a different and uudescribed genus. The body of the male resembles that of the broad winged Psyche, and indeed, this moth may be regarded as a connecting link between the latter genus and CEceticus. It may be called the Phitawtlriis Gloverii (Fig. 223). Its body is slender, with pectinated an- tennae ; the wings very broad, irregular. !•'>*• -2-23. an,i the hind wings are broad and much rounded, reaching a third of their length beyond the tip of the abdomen. It is dark brown throughout, and expands three-fourths of an inch. The wingless, cylindrical, worm-like female (Fig. 223 &) is acutely oval in form, and whitish, larva (Fig. 223 c) is rather flattened and resembles that of LKITDOPTKUA. Thyridopteryx. It constructs tin oval cocoon (Fig. 223 d) which hangs to the edge of the leaf. The genus PeropJtom, another sack-bearer (P. Melsheimerii Harris), is a gigantic Psychid, being about the size of the silk- worm moth, which it closely resembles in the imago state. It also lives in a case during the larva state, formed of two oblong pieces of leaf, fastened together in the neatest manner by their edges, and lined with a thick and tough layer of brownish silk. The larva is cylindrical, as thick as a common pipe-stem and light reddish brown in color. The head has extensible, jointed feelers which, when extended, are kept in constant motion, while be- hind is a pair of antenna-like organs, broad and flattened at the end. The tail is widened and flattened, form- ing a circular horny plate, which like the operculum of a whelk, closes up the aperture of the case. Before transforming Avithin its cuse, the larva closes each end with a circular silken lid. The pupa is blunt at the hinder end and with a row of teeth on each abdominal ring. Both sexes are winged. Our species, P. Mdxlu'i'inerii Harris, is reddish ash grey, sprinkled with blackish points, and with a common oblique blackish line. Notodonta and its allies (Ptilodontes Hi'ibner) are mostly naked in the larva state, with large humps on the back, and the hind legs often greatly prolonged, as in Cerura, the "fork-tail." The pupa and moths are best described by stat- ing that they bear a close resemblance to the Noctuids. for which they are often mistaken. Ccelodasys (Notodonta) -HH ten mis Fi»- 22r>- Smith derives its specific name from the horn on the back of the caterpillar, and its generic name from the large conical tuft of hairs on the under side of the prothorax. The moth is light brown, with irregular green patches on the fore wings. The cocoon is thin and parchment-like, and the caterpillars remain a long time in their cocoons before changing to pupae. N<''' bidentata Walker (Fig. 224) is a closely allied moth. BOMBYOID.K. L>(J."> nlbifrons Smith (Fig. 225) is known by the costa being white on the outer two-thirds. It feeds on the o:ik, to which it is oc- casionally destructive. Mr. Riley (American Entomologist, vol. i, p. 39) describes the larva as being of a '"bluish white ground-color, marked longitudinally with yellow bands and fine black lines, with the head and a hump on the eleventh seg- ment either of a light coral or dark flesh color." It generally elevates the end of the body. It pupates during the last of September, the moth appearing about the middle of April, in the vicinity of Chicago. P/at//j>t<'i'i[Xi a small geometra-like moth, with its broad fal- cate wings, seems a miniature Attacns. Its larva is slender, with fourteen legs, and naked, with several little prominences on the back, and the tail is forked like Cernra. The pupa is enclosed in a co- coon among leaves. J\ /7/o/>/r/v.s- /o.sm (irote, represent this interesting group. AVe also give a rude sketch, traced from Abbot's drawings, from the advanced sheets of the Harris Correspondence, of an nndescribed species of Dryopteris (Fig. -226, and its larva). Doubleday states that the moth is rose-colored, with a few red dots in the yellow portion of the hind wings. The Chinese silk- worm, Bo'iiibt/.i- niori Linn., has white falcate fore wings, while the hind wings do not reach to the tip of the abdomen, and the antennae are well pectinated. The larva is naked, rather slender compared with those of the next group, and cylindrical ; the second thoracic ring is humped, and there is a long horn on the tail. It is three to three and a half inches long. It is of an ashy or cream color, but "in almost every batch of worms there will be seen after the first moult lias occurred, some dark colored, which, at the first glance, appear to be a distinct species," but Captain Ilntton, of India, shows that w-so far. however, are they from being a mere pass- ing variety that thej' are actually types of the original species, and merely require to be treated according to the established rules of breeding in order to render them permanent and healthy." 294 LEPIDOPTERA. "•He attributed the enormous loss of silk-worms by mus- cardiue and other diseases, and the consequent diminution of the crop of silk, to the combined effects of bad and scanty food, want of sufficient light and ventilation, too high a tem- perature, and constant interbreeding for centuries of a debili- tated stock. He asserted that there was 110 such thing now in existence as a perfectly healthy domesticated stock of silk- worms ; and moreover, that it was useless to seek for healthy seed, for whether in Europe, Persia, India or China, the worms were all equally degenerated, or, if there were a difference at all, it was in favor of the European race. He had for several years been experimenting on Bombvx mori, with a view, if possible, to reclaim the worms, to restore to them a healthy constitution and to induce them to revert from their present artificial and moribund condition to one of vigor and perma- nent health. The occasional occurrence in a brood of one or more dark grey or blackish-brindled worms — the 'vers tigres' or 'vers zebres' of the French — contrasting strongly with the pale sickly hue of the majority, must have been noticed by all who have had experience in rearing silk-worms ; such occur- rences have been always spoken of as indicating varieties aris- ing from domestication. The author had endeavored, b}r a series of experiments, to ascertain the cause of this phenomenon, his conviction being, either that the species had at some time or other been crossed by another of different colors, and that Na- ture, as sooner or later she always would do, wras making an effort to separate them, or that the original color of the worm had been dark, and an effort was being made to rerert from a sickly condition to the original healthy starting point. He ac- cordingly picked out all the dark colored worms and reared them separately, allowing the moths to couple only inter se, and the same with the white worms. In the following spring the one batch of eggs produced nearly all dark brindled worms, whilst the other batch produced white worms, sparingly interspersed with an occasional dark one ; these latter were removed into a dark batch, which was also weeded of its pale worms. In the third year the worms were still darker than before, and were always larger and more vigorous than the pale ones, giving larger and better stuffed cocoons. He finally succeeded in BOMBYCID^E. 29-3 getting an entire brood of dark worms, which he regarded as a sign of increased health and strength in the larvae, thus proving that the dark worms were of the original race, which also agrees with the colors of the numerous species of the genus of which he has, with others, made known nearly twenty. The author also considers the white cocoons as a strong sign of de- generacy, arguing that the good quality of the silk produced, was no proof of the general health of the insect, as the mala- dies affected rather the quantity produced, and the present great fineness was due likewise to the disease." (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London.) The silk- worm is an an- nual, though some species of this group yield two and three broods in the warmer parts of India. It moults four times, but occasionally only three times. The cocoon of the silk-worm is white or whitish yellow and is over an inch long and nearly half as broad ; 360 cocoons weigh a pound and a half. In France and Italy about thirty- six days elapse between the hatching of the larva and the for- mation of the cocoon, it taking four days for the spinning of the cocoon. In England and certain parts of India it requires forty-six days for its formation. The above remarks apply to Bombyx mori Linn., the Chinese silk-worm, which feeds on the mulberry, originally derived from the mountainous provinces of China. It is the largest and strongest of the domesticated species. There are, however, as shown by Captain Hutton, twelve species of silk-worms, most of which have been confounded under the name of B. mori, and which belong to the genera Bombyx of Schrank, Ocinara of Walker, and Tnlocha Moore. There are six domesticated species of Bombyx. There is not silk enough in the cocoon of Ocinara to make it worth cultivating (Hutton). Captain Hutton, speaking of the larvae of B. Huttoni, re- marks that it "is curious to observe the instinctive knowledge which these worms appear to possess of the approach of a hail- storm. No sooner are the peals of thunder heard, than the whole brood seems to regard them as a warning trumpet-call, and all are instantly in motion, seeking shelter beneath the thicker branches, and even descending the trunk of the tree to some little distance, but never proceeding so low down as to 296 LEPIDOPTERA. lose the protecting shelter of the boughs. For rain they care nothing, but appear to be able to distinguish between the coin- ing of a heavy shower, and the more pitiless pelting of the hail." Attacus and its allies (Attaci) form the central and most typical group of the family. They are among the largest of insects. The genus Attacus is found in China, the East Indies and the South Sea Islands, and in Brazil. Its immense size, falcate wings, with the large triangular transparent spot in the centre, readily distinguish it. A. Atlas Linn., from China, expands from seven to nine inches. Samia is a smaller genus and with a partially transparent lunate spot in the middle of the wings. Hantia Cynthia Linn, has been introduced from China and is a hardy worm, quite easily raised, and the silk is of a good quality. Mr. W. V. Andrews urges, in the American Naturalist (vol. ii. p. oil), the cultivation of the Cynthia silk- worm in this country, as it is double-brooded, our native spe- cies bearing but a single crop of worms. It feeds on the ail- anthus, and can be reared in the open air. Among many allied forms, generally referred to the genus Attacus but which still need revision, are the A. M>/litt(t (Tussah worm), from China and India ; A. Pernyi, from Manchouria, which feeds on the oak. and which has been raised in France, and the Japanese AntJtercea Yama-mai, all of which produce silk, though less reared in Europe than the Cynthia worm. The silk of the Yama-mai moth approaches nearest that of B. mori, and as it feeds on BOMBYCIDJE. 297 the oak, and can be raised in the open air, its cultivation lias gained much attention in Europe. A. Aurota Beauv. is com- mon in Central and South America. In Brazil it could be raised with success for home use, but is too delicate for a northern climate. Tclea Polyphemus (PI. G, male ; PL 7, female) is brown, with large transparent eye-like spots in the centre of the wings. Tue thread of which the cocoon is spun is continuous, and is readily unwound. It is coarser than that of the Bombyx mori, but has a rich gloss and can be used very exten- sively in commerce. Its larva (Fig. 227), which feeds on the *"w- ••%*• oak, is thick, fleshy, striped obliquely with white on the sides, with angulated segments, on which are tubercles giving rise to a few short hairs. The pupa (Fig. 228) is very thick, and the cocoon (Fig. 229) is regularly oval cylindrical. Mr. L. Trouvelot gives an account in the American Natural- ist (vol. i) of this silk-worm, which is our most hardy native worm. So successful was he in rearing them that in a single season "not less than a million could lie seen feeding in the open air upon bushes covered with a net." ^^j/^ ' >^ ; The moths leave the co- coons late in May, ap- pearing until the middle of June. They then lay their eggs, generally singly, on the under side vig. *M. of the leaves. In ten or twelve days the caterpillars hatch ; the operation usually takes place early in the day. The worm moults five times, the first four moultings occurring at intervals often days, while about twenty days elapse between the fourth and fifth moults, this process usually occurring late in the after- noon. It makes its cocoon late in September, and in six or eight days after beginning its cocoon assumes the pupa state, and in this condition passes the winter. The genus Act fas is at once known by the hind winu's oe- 298 LEPIDOPTERA. ing prolonged into a long tail which reaches far behind the tip of the abdomen. Actias Luna Linn, is green and the larva closely resembles that of Telea ; it is, however, banded ob- liquely with yellow instead of white, and spins a cocoon that is of much the same shape. It is not so hardy a worm as the Polyphemus caterpillar. It lives on the walnut, hickory and maple. In the Museum of the Peabody Academy is a closely allied and undescribed species from the west coast of Guate- mala, which we would call Actias Azteca. It differs from A. Luna in its much smaller size, expanding only three and a half inches, and in the shorter fore wings, the apex being much rounded and with shorter veins, while the "tails" on the hind wings are only half as long as those of A. Luna. It also dif- fers in having the origin of the first subcostal venule much nearer the discal spot than in A. Luna, being very near that of the second subcostal venule. It is whitish green, with markings not essentially differing from those of A. Lima. Callosamia is a genus with broader wings and no transpa- rent e}^e-like spots. The larva has large tubercles and is very plump. Its characters are intermediate between those of Samia and Platysamia. C. Promethea Drury is a smaller spe- cies than the others. Its larva is pale bluish green, with the head, tail and feet yellow, with eight warts on each ring, those on the two first thoracic rings being the largest, much longer than the rest and coral red. The cocoon is hung by a stout silken cord to the stem of the leaf which is then wrapped around it. It ma}- be found attached to the twigs of the wild cherry, Azalea and Cephalanthus, or button bush, in winter after the leaves have fallen. Our most common species of this group is the Cecropia moth, belonging to the genus Platysamia, which has a broader head and wings than the foregoing genera. The caterpillar of P. Cecropia Linn, is longer, with long spinulated tubercles, especially marked on the thoracic rings ; the large, very dense cocoon is open at one end and thus the silk cannot be un- wound so well as that of the Polyphemus worm, but it is still useful, and Platysamia Ewyale Boisduval is cultivated in Cali- fornia for its silk, though the cultivation of the Chinese silk- worm (B. mori) is carried on there very largely. BOMBYCIU^E. 299 The next group, the Ceratocampadse of Harris, is composed of large moths, in which the hind wings scarcely extend beyond the tip of the abdomen, and the wings are often ocellated. The larvae are longer than in the Attaci and more hairy. Eucronia Maia Drnry has a narrow, lunate, curved white- line in the centre of each wing ; it expands from two and a half to three inches, and is black with a common, broad, yel- lowish white band. The caterpillar is elongated, with six long branched prickles 011 each ring. It feeds on the oak. Hyperchiria To of Walker ( Saturnia lo of Harris) is a little larger than the preceding. The male is yellow and the female reddish brown, with a faint eye-like spot on the fore wing, and on the hind wings a large round blue spot, margined with black and pupilled with white. The caterpillar is green, with spreading tufts of spines, very sharp, stinging severely when the insect 1 is handled, and arising from a tubercle, of which there are six on each ring ; the fascicles on the side are as represented in Fig. 230. The pupa is thick, pointed at the tip of the abdo- men, and the cocoon is thin, being made under leaves on the ground. It feeds on the corn and cotton, to which it is very harmful southwards, and also on the maple, elm, etc. Citheronia regaUs Hiibner expands from five to six inch»'s, and its fore wings are olive colored, spotted with yellow and veined with broad red lines, while the hind wings are orange red, spotted with olive, green and yellow. The caterpillar is spiny, having four large acute spinulated spines on the anterior thoracic segments. It feeds on the walnut, hickoiy and the persim- mon tree, and spins no cocoon. A second spe- cies, C. Mexicana Grote and Robinson, has been described, as its name indicates, from Mexico : it is more orange and less red, with duller yellow patches. Fig. 231 is a rude sketch (from the Harris Correspondence) of the young larva, with two of the peculiar long hairs next the head magnified. A much smaller species, which expands only 3.10 inches, is the C. sepulcralis G. and R., which was discovered at Andover, Mass., by Mr. J. O. Treat. It is purplish brown, without any yellow spots, and with a diffuse discal spot, centred 300 LEPIDOPTEHA. Avith reddish scales. Mr. Treat has raised this line moth front the larva found on the common pitch pine ; it resembles that of C. regalis. It also occurs in Georgia, as it has been figured in the unpublished drawings of Abbot, now in the possession of the Boston Society of jSatural History. Eii3. doutfe, the segments being humped, and the anal legs raised while at rest, while Cymatophora is pale ashen, the fore wings being crossed by four or five waved lines. The larva is smooth, rather flattened beneath, with a large head. It feeds on trees, between two leaves united by silk. C. canf- playa Walker describes from Canada. Gramatoplioni fr>xi>i<-tn>i