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WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

Grotenfelt’s Modern Dairy Practice. American Edition.
By F. W. WoLL. Second Edition. New York, 1895.
285 pp. $2.00.

A Book on Silage. Chicago, Ill., 1895. Igo pp. Paper,
50 cents; cloth, $1.00.

Dairy Calendar, 1895-96. New York, 1894-95. 327-319
pp- $1.00.

Agricultural Calendar, 1895-96. New York, 1894-95.
304 pp. $1.00.

The last two publications form the foundation of the
present volume, |

-

HANDBOOK

FOR

FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN.

BY,

By Wl WOLE,

Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry,
University of Wisconsin.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
WELL-KNOWN SPECIALISTS.

OBHith Lllustrations.

FIRST EDITLO¥N~—~
FIRST THOUSAND,

»
~~

NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
Lonpon: CHAPMAN & HALL, LimMITED,

1897.

Copyright, 1897,
BY

F. W. WOLL.

ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK,

PREFACE.

THE effort of the author has been to make this small
volume a compendium of useful information on farm and
dairy topics. Brief discussions on subjects of importance
and interest to farmers and dairymen have been intro-
duced, and useful facts, tables, formulas, receipts, agricul-
tural statistics, etc., are given to such an extent as the plan
of the work permitted. Valuable data scattered throughout
our agricultural literature, in the reports and bulletins of
our experiment station, and the scientific divisions of
the United States Department of Agriculture, as well as in
other public documents and in farm papers and standard
works, have been gathered in this Handbook and arranged

‘in such a manner as to make them easily accessible and
convenient for reference purposes.

The present volume is a third edition of the Dairy and
Agricultural Calendars previously published by the author.
Much new material, both original and compiled, has been
included, and special articles, tables, statistics, etc., have
been verified, and brought up to date, making the book, as
it is hoped, of considerable value, and securing for it as
favorable reception and as enthusiastic friends as its pre-
decessors found.

The author takes this opportunity of thanking the follow-
ing able writers and specialists who have so materially

lll

iv PREFACE.

increased the usefulness of the book by comprehensive,
concise contributions on subjects in their particular lines
of study: Professors W. H. Caldwell, J. A. Craig, L. H.
Dewey, F. H. Farrington, 5B. E. Fernow, E. S. Gog,
G.H. Hicks, A. W. Richter,.H, L.. Russell; Thos.-Staw.
Wm. P. Wheeler; and Messrs. John Boyd, W. G. Clark,
M:D:C., Joha W. Decker,N. S. Fish, J. D. Frederiksen,
im. B. Gurler, S. Hoxie, J. Neer, M.D.; Jj. 2.0 P ieee
H. B. Richards, L. P. Sisson, J. McLain Smith, and C. M.
Winslow.

While all possible care in the preparation of the manu-
script and in the proof-reading of the book has been taken,
it cannot be expected that errors have been entirely avoided,
and readers discovering any such will confer a favor by
communicating them to the author.

F. W. WOLL.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
Mapison, Wis., February, 1897.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I. AGRICULTURE.

- I. FEEDING STUFFS.

PAGE
Composition of Feeding Stuffs......... 2. .....s0--cccceces sens anew se 1
Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs...................- 3
Average American Digestion Coefficients of Feeding Stuffs.......... 6
Mmeswicgian of Cattle Foods... <.1 sis. aeitdles de Wh ST is Tee
Classification of Concentrated Feed Stuffs PAAR Se. es OA stivhs jing
Feeding Standards for Farm Animals..................ccceeeeeee eens 10
ONE FOF DAIrY COWS}. nes <r S850 2D TER WA 4 cele ok i staeae ds os 11, 13
Calculation of Components of Feed Rations......... .... SAR HR 11
Weight of Concentrated Feeding Stuffs..............cceccescsceececss 15
Food Requirements of Farm Animals .. .............60 shee RS aN 15
Comparative Value of Cattle Foods. ............ ccc ee. cceeewee ceceees 15
Prices of Cereals per Bushel and per Ton........ .... 2... eee eee Sie
MN COE SOOGIE” RIE sg oii wn nam, vie invus tae etd ene’ seecece Body 17

II. FARM ANIMALS.
Characteristics of Breeds of Live Stock. Prof. John A. Craig, of

RCH PONPISPTIONID TOCHMPON.. 6. 255.5 eh ccs c nc scedesrecssizeccn 18
Feeding and General Care of Poultry. Prof. Wm. P. Wheeler, of

N.Y, (Géheva) Mxpériment Station ....... 2... ec cece eden 25
SS Tae SPCR WME. oe cess bots ano ce ts cance pins heer pact 30

Heredity. Prof. Thos. Shaw, of Minnesota Experiment Station.. 30

Ill. VETERINARY SCIENCE.

Common Diseases of Farm Animals. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., Beaver

oo EOEE ASME Se poe a i eo ae: eR rh Oa ce 35
Veterinary Remedies ‘and Doses. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., Beaver

[LESTE REIS an ae fof ih ma i a hk Oe ON Gay en IP 45
Suppression of Hog Cholera and Swine Plagué..... ...............4. 49
MIeMIOS LOT LUG; ELOTMEY .oik; tue, oases CUda wee dso sb ebbeee octeetecte 51
List of Disinfectants......... hasan eced an cates imee sib seis swsUR Rate. 52

v

vi CONTENTS.

PAGE
Rules for the Disinfection of Stables...... SOAS DO AAD OAc opin ice Meme 52
Regulations for the Government of Dairies and Dairy Farms in the
District of Colimebia os. 22 22s cas ccseeeas we ae as Peer ee 53
IV. FIELD CROPS.
Quantity of Seed Required per Acre......-.......+seeeeee protataniawraieete 56
Seed Mixtures for Hay and Permanent Pastures..............e0..00- 57
The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in Pounds
DET PAGO.) cic. siti cepa: cise sala Salant Rises Senet eee a ioe does weve 59
Soiling Crops Adopted to Northern New England States.. é seca hn
Time of Planting and Feeding Soiling Crops............. aie ctealeeieater 61
Capacity of Cylindrical Silosss; ease. pep gomiss . os 6s veces nose aeeiliem 61
Area of Feeding Surface in Silos Required for Different Herds....... 62
Number of Plants or Hills for an Acre of Ground .. ......cscsssecee 63

V. HORTICULTURE.

Usual Distances for Planting Vegetables..................- vs cticbaecee eeu
Quantity of Seed of Vegetables Required to Sow an Acre..e...+e.e2- 65
Distances/A part for Wruit-trees. 2. -2i-t clone... see os 4 se) cectemens Saves sete.
Average Yields per Acre of Various Crops......... AER Oo Menten 67
Relation of Specific Gravity, Dry Matter, and Starch Content of
POCACOCB ies a Wisin noe Re: sehen cs 22 eee Sete Ie, Sota ee ee 68
Specific Gravity, Sugar een and Boiling-point of Maple Sugar.. 69
Weight of Sugar Obtained from 100 lbs. of Maple Syrup............. 70
Temperatures to which Perishable Goods may be Subjected without
RAJU YE ao '5 550 BG 8 a5 cS cians oie 16 cse'e. isn) 0 a1: 0in'e, a wis alse che ChAS te aR RR te oes Sfhob tana
VI. SEEDS.
Seed-testing for the Farmer. Gilbert H. Hicks, in charge of Seed
Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture.................. 72
able.of Germination Standards: : c.i.<, sex svg smaccles claeecice es epee cae
Number, Weight, Cost of Grass Seeds, and Amount to Sow per
BON iis oso o tecla ay Mm etal cle, sreibis recieve © yar Sho Ries pa epee Qs > edie eee vite
Notes on the Adaptability and Uses of Grasses and Clovers........-- 79
VII. WEEDS.
Table of Noxious Weeds. L. H. Dewey, Assistant Botanist U. S.
Department of Agriculture............... Po Tt aan cee eae occm eae

Vill. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS.

Treatments for Injurious Insects and Fungous Diseases of Plants.

Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station. .......... ... 87
Spray ine Calendars. sc... 2.04 oss fad tee Sevisances nsec beni een 89
Fighting the Chinch-bug by Means of Kerosene Emulsion............ 92

A Cheap Orchard-spraying Outfit.... .... 22... Bela) stele a Mie 6is,6 nectodiete 93

\

CONTENTS. Vil

PAGE
IX. FORESTRY.
Forestry for Farmers. B. E. Fernow, Chief Division of Forestry,

U.S. Department of Agriculture... ..... aE ON Seat is ead cS 95
PexOre hres On AN SACTC tyjc hi: «fie «de Wis <o'aelyagit ota Casinjonue ove sees 99
Praranene Lable for, Cree-plantine. 5<.stio spyterd ayn 22) ojacin-ajnjesfe'aeplncia's See's 102
Fuel Value and Specific Gravity of some of the More Important

ROMMEL UTIIDEUSGALOS! 015 0.4) 14 chistes cis)asa eela'S Siac Aawne Y aetsma vieja 100
States and Territories Observing Arbor Day, with Dates.......... .. 103
Forest-fire Laws in the United States.....-.............2..c00 ssevees 104

X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.
Valuation.of Manures and Fertilizers. .,............2--+--scesscesrees 109
Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products....... 111
MaMEIAL OY ALLO Of, HeCOINE SUL ors lnc a. 2 wincinwe wd vince seca tvse eres esics 112
Amount of Soil Ingredients Withdrawn by Various Crops.... ... ... 114
Amount of Fertilizing Materials Contained in Different Crops Grown

REIN NEN aes Roots) 5 12k rojo) ce Sia elo obois afe mitin's fy ois als wins ese abeietia cic areas 115
Farmyard Manure Required to Replace Ingredients Abstracted from

tne Hol by an Acre of Different Crops .... ......--.0.seccseseece 116
Amount and Quality of Manure Produced by Stock...... ........... 116
Composition, Amount, and Value of Manure Produced by Different

Kinds of Farm Animals. . oe SSIES 9
Quantities of Nitrogen and ae Constituents Voided by ‘Anamene 2 a ELe
Percentage Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials........ 118
ReaD EARS LILO UO EUUIUZOER, co asics & mur Gas pyasie's <pegps e's 2 ees 66 ches ace ce ce 120
Equivalent Quantities of Fertilizing Materials EGielataaeiere ® ssvnromiele eta es 121
Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and Chemi-

SPUR ENCE A SEE foe OE oT ert SP ahs dy dikes an dhe mean vel abe eed a iano mee 122
Conversion Table for Calculating Fertilizing Ingredients..... ....... 123

XI. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING.
Drainage : Reasons for Tile-draining Land................... see eeee 124
Number of Rods and of Tiles per Acre, with Drains at Various Dis-

BET COS NN Ge cotinine start eee eR Cen cee ele ae aks. oe 125
Size of Tiles Required for Draining under Average Conditions..... 125
Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain............ Bien a ots Mctehire fens 126
Bimeror Obtaining Size of Main Pipesic... 6s... S..., eas cise ese cecs 126
Number of 12-inch Pipes Required per Acre at Different Distances

EU WECH. LO: TAINS. cc. «= o.cichr sacar etek eee mee ate clots cual, 126
oe SeeanS for 1 WEG. 5 240i) Suc ymikeasheds aees secs “sanecss 127
Quantity of Earth Removed per Rod of Drains of Various Dimen-

Mala ang 2 Wines Sins (5 one ae OReN ARO SER. ee de vs. dese. LP
Mn ane. one to ao eee ee EINE od Sane Sakae eek. 128

Windmills : Table Showing the Force ind Velocity of Wind......... 129
. Number of Square Feet and Acres Irrigated by Windmills of Dif-
NG EUS RE alent 20 ce ae nc 129

Vill CONTENTS.

PAGE

Table Showing Economy of Windmills. ....... SB hieus sca taren ia <aseee 131
Nominal Horse-power Required for the Discharge of Given Quan-

tities of Water with Lifts of 10 and 20 ft.................. ‘ 132

Irrigation : Definition of Technical Terms... ................ opetheks 132

Carrying Capacity of Pipes:...2..0. 0... 000 RI Oe RTT 135

Flow of Water through Straight Pipes......... 2.2.2... ce. eee eee 135

Power Required to Raise Water from Deep Wells by Pumping.... 136
Approximate Cost of Different Kinds of Pipe Used for Irrigation... 136
Average Cost per Mile of Constructing Irrigating Canals and

PUCCIO 6.05 9oo's! lose a's. ths Solar n Dro a Peo EL UE AOD EE oO he
The California Weir Table. Se SO ys (rae ones Sow op eregpsye pels ‘ota ee stele ete 137
Ganacity of Cisternsiand Tanks........°.2.., <..-sccse-scce seeneesene 137
Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, per Foot in Depth......... \ Seisieeen 138

TAS 7 ARORG-MAKINE cone coas sce eas sec peecacet cmas eee ae coe 138
iuanortance of Good Roads. ....: s,.26h0c° ures, Hone pe> aes oe eee 140
Tractive Force Required for Carriapes.. ...2-.. 2... +s. seeen eee 140
Fraction of the Weight of a Vehicle and Load Required to Move

Same on a Level Road.. 6s es ees oo na Ree | ate Oe ee en
DrAvehtiOl TAOISES : 6c arcmiais jo ak a1 seis hae URS pe ENE | owe oe ee Renee 141
Labor Done by one Horse on Canals, Railroads, and Turnpikes.... 142
Tabor Dene by. Teanga Plowitp,; .2-.: @..20--.- +. -2+en+s eee 142
The Piteet of Wide. Wagon TireS<:.. 9. s1ce.- «sys scbuicemes aoe eee 143
Average Quantity of Stone Required to Keep Roads in Repair..... 143

Interior Dimensions of Farm Buildings......... s/s « ara aio oie ete ee

XII. HUMAN FOODS.

Composition of Food Materials .......... 23 .. 145, 150
Percentages of Nutrients, Water, and Sten i in ceed Materials. ... 149
Pecuniary Heononty Of Pood 2 .02o2 So. 2 Sse es ie, ..-- 182
Amounts of Nutrients Furnished for 25 Cents in Food Materials. .... 153
RAY SteNCRPT, 2. Foote Cattle dais Suis eae giclee 155
Diagram of a Good Steer’s Carcass, as Cut Up and Priced in Eastern
MANROUS. cet ccctene te eee ee eee 2 20 SES 156
Diagrams of Cuts of Veal, Mutton, and Pork....... ......... 0 1... 156a
Live Weight and Dressed Weight of Steers of Different Breeds and
BORE ae cakes Sates tinged Gat Sus vet ke pes eae tre ee ae eee 156b
Proportion of Beef to the Live Weight of Cattle as oe aes 156b
Comparative Results Obtained with Fattening Animals... ...... ... 157
Live Weight and Gains Made by Swine..........5.5....c..cseccee sees 157

Proportion of the Various Parts of Cattle, Sheep, and Swine........ 158

CONTENTS, 1x

PART II. DAIRYING.

I. DAIRY COWS.

PAGE
On the Origin and Characteristics of the Different Breeds of Dairy
Tee ace bi 5 bine kb had EE rs cater nak) aankbpa ese ase ae 161
I, Jersey Cattle. By the Author.. , miterats st ters om, 1 Oe,
II. Guernsey Cattle. Prof. W. H. Caldwell, Sec’ F-5 bie sears aires a 164
III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. S. Hoxie, Supt......... ........--- 168
Weosayremres: ©. WITKIOW, MOC VY... 55 .2-cc ctl acoe tees easeece. 171
VY. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. J. H. Pickrell, Sec’y......... ... 173
VI. Red Polled Cattle. J. McLain Smith, Sec’y.......... ....... 176
itwemovon CAthle:: ir i. DISSOMs Wel Y:..2 <.tc2sc csacctescceecase 7
VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. H. B. Richards, Sec’y.......... at esee 181
IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. N.S. Fish, Sec’y............ 2.2... san er
Maeidof Malle and Fat from Dairy COWS:.? 22220422 eo25 loca dc eek 185
Results of Tests of Dairy Breeds Conducted by American Experi-
Fee bs SECC USE Sar ARE ie beat a PR fade Det SA ei aS elit ae ee ae 186
Results of Breed Tests Conducted at World’s Columbian Exposition,
A ate EE a A a teat cp A bon, pe eae 187
Average Yields of Milk and Fat by Premium Cows at Recent State
PASTE PER Seen ee eee oR ek ea nates tee Ceceuaet ae, gee 188
Highest Record for Yield of Fat Made by Any Cow in a Public Test
Puen st PY et Sat en Sue ae DOD ne tte sat Swe cece sees eens 188
Official Milk and Butter Records of Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, and
PUES ROOMS Ft Seer tae fenie ic a) ensue ae af) (Vokes voce oeee soenloe cx 189
ECOAIEILA OSE, SOME TIN NT IANEP PETERS Ss. ol! oom 5. hc nda cd nae ce aeete cua veo 189
English Standards for Annual Yield of Milk of the Various Breeds.. 190
Average Yields and Composition of Milk of Different Breeds ... .. 190
Average Percentage Composition of Milk from Different Breeds...... 191
Methods of Judging the Value of Dairy Cows. . .......-......0000-5- 191
Buying and Selling Cows by Tests of their Milk. ...... .......... tiv, 192
Il. MILK.
Percentage Composition of Various Kinds of Milk................... 193
Average Analyses of American Samples of Dairy Products.......... 193
Average Composition of Cows’ Milk, with Variations................ 194
Composition of Morning and Evening Milk......... ................. 194
Composition of Different Parts of the Same Milking.................. 194
Calculation of Components of Cows’ Milk .....................2.000- 195
Relation of Fat to Casein and Other Solids... ...................005. 195
Fertilizing Ingredients in Dairy Products............ ........2--000- 196
Papert en COOKIN. 505 Soe Liew eens vives sosdsen Seee us 196
Composition of Ash of Cows’ Milk and Colostrum.... .............. 196
peepee, On Milk Testing. J2id.it Pes OR A Re 197

Table for Converting N. Y. Bd. of Health Lactometer Degrees to
Quevyenne Lactometer Degrees.. ..:..-. ... Piven lib. i: 200

z CONTENTS.

PAGE
Temperature Correction Table for Specific Gravity of Milk.......... 201
Calculation of Total: Solidsiof Milk... .eccs. cs es nee etecsene cs aeeeeee 203
Table for Calculating Solids from Specific Gravity and Fat. ........ 205
Milk Standards in Different States, Cities, and Countries..... ....... 206
Aduilteration GiMalc. ee te OSE et one ee 207

Tables for Converting Quarts of Milk into Pounds, and vice versa... 209

III, CREAM.

Percentage Composition of Cream and Other Dairy Products........ 210
Yield of Cream from Milk of Different Richness. .................... 211
Hand and Power Cream Separators on the Market, 1896.............. 212
. Formulas for Finding the Fat Content of Cream.......... ... ..... 213
Handling and Care of Cream Separators. J. D. Frederiksen, Mgr.
Chr. Hansen’s Laboratory, Little Falis, N. Y.... ..........--.... 214
Per Cent Fat in Centrifugal Skim-mnilk .....,..:. 40.05.0001 de0e0n vals eet 215
Loss of Butter Caused by Inefficient Skimming....................... 220
Relation of Fat Content of Separator Skim-milk to Speed of Bowl,
Quantity of Milk Separated, and Temperature of the Milk....... 221
Steam-boiler and Engine Management. Prof. A. W. Richter, of the
University of Wisconsin.. = . 221
On the Preservation of Milk aaa Creat oe ‘Heat vis age Fi ‘Russell
of Wisconsin Experiment Station........ .....5.. 225 sceeccsere: 225
Directions for the Sterilization of Milk... ............csessseswectes= 227
Quantity of Water or Ice Required for Cooling Milk or Cream....... 229

IV. BUTTER.
Butter-making. H. B. Gurler, ex-President Illinois State Dairy-

MACH RAARBOCIMNIGN 172500 2-.t ceca ced eaves wrk esate aeees ye eee 230
On the Use of Pure Cultures in Butter- and Cheese-making.. ....... 232
Boyd’s Process of Cream-ripening. John Boyd, Chicago, Ill ...... 236
The Alkaline Tablet Test of Acidity in Milk or Cream. Prof. E. H.

Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy.School... ....:-........ sc emenee 239
Lercentape: Ceniposition Of Butter, -.-.2cc.c02. 0: ..0e cesamandceee waar
Directions for the Use of Mann’s Test for Ascertaining the Acidity

Of Cream sidycslcapesh ok tlh tes. Sela tees deals ited. Sse See eee 242

POUIEGOI etic eos ece. nee soa tt LED Seretee ye Te tee. A ee 242
Analyses of American Premium Butters...............0...e00% Seiteeelt 243
Percentage Composition of European Samples of Butter............. 243
Formula for Calculating the Yield of Butter. ....... . 248
Amount of Butter Obtained from 100 lbs. of Ginaaay of Different

WIGS Sera renteate aioe a8 are gue yaccae Siew binaictsberere AERTS eae ois 2 ate Milehra ee 244
Yield of Butter from Milk of Different RichneSs....................-- 245
Milk Required for Making One Pound of Butter.... ............0- 246, 247
Distribution of Milk Ingredients in Butter-making.... ............... 247

peore tor, Judging Butter... .. 3 |...cs..<-. Sassen faEuES Li airele Steklo ge eed

CONTENTS. xl

PAGE
English Scale of Points for Judging Butter......... owe Shy - sthfs Ste diate 248
Score in Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers...................---- 248
American Score for Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers........... 249
V. CHEESE.

How American Cheese is Made. John W. Decker, of Wisconsin Ex-
PENN fp Saha Scns aia Walaa sie eae ewes hide sw o's need REM ME a 250
A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese.................+.-- = a iaie adttetae Maes 250
B. Cheese Made on the Farm. ......... ...e.ssseeee as cinimaiate ictasin ec 252
PRICE IIE TIE HON l OBU. o Snpc.cactcep occ cama cen acm onde nae vaaee eee ei 253
AMBGSOl PAINtGd WK. 55+ crcc0c, capwiccsndaspovases OE ER 253
Determination of Humidity in Cheese-curing Rooms................. 255
Table Showing Relative Humidity of the Air.................00000005 257
SEC Gr UI COPE = 2.” ao. 3tc mane melon mimes sess See, 0 ee ae ducees 259
English Scale of Points for Judging Cheese ........cccccccccesccccs: 259
Percentage Composition of Cheese............. «.. asian pin stators wrererarite ae 260
Varieties and Analyses of Cheese..............scccecccsecs ai geaebesbaaned 260
Distribution of Ingredients in Cheese- making Se Pe Per aS 261
Formulas for Finding Yield of Cheddar Cheese............. ......-- 261
Yield of Different Kinds of Cheese from 100 lbs. of Milk..... sia aks ruri yeoe
Average Loss of American Cheddar Cheese in Curing................ 263
Loss in Weight of Cheese during Curing....... ..... 2... .......00--- 263
Table Showing Relative Cheese Value of Milks of Different Richness 264
Synopsis of Manufacture of Principal Varieties of Cheese............ 266
Quantities of Whey to be Returned to Patrons .... ....... ......... 267

VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND CHEFSE FACTORIES.

Payment of Milk at Creameries and Cheese Factories.. . .......-.. 268
Methods of Payment for Milk at Cheese and Butter Factories... ... 269
Price of Milk of Different Richness per Hundred Pounds. ........... 271
Directions for Making Dividends in Creameries and Cheese Factories. 273
Table’'Showing Average Per Cent of Fat in Milk ............. ...... 275
Suggestions to Patrons of Cheese Factories and Creameries......... 277
By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Creamery Associations......... 279
By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Cheese Factories.... ...... aueiac Ge

Rules for Patrons and Instructions to Cream or Milk Gatherers.... . 284

PART III. GENERAL TOPICS.
Z% CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS.
Constitution and By-laws of Agricultural Clubs....... ile daa Me otaeites

287
Constitution of Village-improvement Societies ....... ssecsesessesss++ 292
Constitution of Road Leagues... ...... oe eee svete seskauseads eer eee

xii CONTENTS.

PAGE
II. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES.

Explanation of Flag Signals Adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau.. 296

List of Headquarters of State Weather Services....................- 298
Beneficial and Harmful Hawks and Owls..... .......5....0004 ceeees 298
What to do in Case of Accidents. -J. Noer, M.D., SER Wis.... 299
Mrenvmene LOL F OISOMINGE y; ; <.ssis0s sae ek ces cooeawae eaqa cicnis® eninanien . 302
PHGCErESL PADIS =. =. Secu cicce oe ese celeee siesta sw ule Ciaapa ta Bieta rataetaie retete cement 303
Wares by the Week and the Day. .2c.... ..cescss os ccaeeene es aie ate 304
Osta On CHlendarae. 6 ao, wrow lcci aoe Seer ae Pens owen brake eas eee eee 305
Duration and Frequency of Heat in Farm Animals. aes coe ae Perper 306
Domestic and Foreign Postage......... ....... aveitage see ous ceseioge 307
Postal and Express Money Order Rates. ......... ... ..ceece ceceeces 308

Ill. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Customary System of Weights and Measures, ...... ..........eeeee 309
Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, and vice versa. 311
Kilograms Converted into Pounds, and vice versa......... .. pone nities 312
Inches Reduced to Decimals of a Foot........ ......... ee vcore 312
Ounces Reduced to Decimals of a Pound..... 2.2.0... cc ceeeececeeee 312
Comparisons of Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Réaumur Thermometer
SLES SSIs eho ke: NPIS CAC ROR eee see “Bsa ew pisie sia a otgis cia Rr earee eRe 313
Government Land Measures.................. WP EN eis Neo = die SLO
To Measure Corn on the Cob in Cribs... ...........e.00% wim Geet ae er 317
Legal Weights of Grain, Seeds, etc.......... .... 2 Msesarisanie mentees 318
Specific Gravity of Various Substances.... .......... wien pon ceqeeecs Eke
WEIMCS OF NOFGIBIPCOINS.... ienaetd aces cece vesecs ies ny es eee |

IV. STATISTICAL TABLES.

United States, Area and Population, 1890........ A re ee
iGanadn. Area and Population, 10). « 26. 065 <ada- ceca aés waxdnns deb nls 323
Normai Mean Temperature of the Air inthe United States........ .. 324
Normal Precipitation in the United States.................cececee sie.as aR
meteorological Date for Canada.) < i, a<nse8) ase anaepit Saneeeeeee 3826
Farming Population of the United States... > (Mem carnage gee eee weenan
Number of Farms in the United States, and their Valus ae RET 327
Statistics Concerning Farms in the United States............ awateaae 328
Comparison of Leading Industries in the United States..... ........ 326
Average Agricultural Wages in United States in 1893-95. ............. 329
Value of Principal Farm Products, 1859-89................ cccecee cee 329
Statistics of the Principal Crops in the United States in 1895.......... 330
Area, Product, and Value of Principal Crops, 1895.................... 334
The Principal Cereal Products of the United States, 1850-1890........ 334
Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat and Corn in the United
Sines, 1808. sation vases eat touunoindaeellil, le.coluriis 335

Production of Various Crops in Canada, 1891... ........2..00

CONTENTS. xili

PAGE

Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat and Corn in the United
EE EEMERTSS ee Pos or bain ch ols Umea a8 ake tinsel e Soak UE atmsb as <0, 335
Average Farm Price of Agricultural Products, 1886-1895. . ere bee Wye 7,

Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, } 1870-95. . . 340
Estimated Number of Farm Animals on Farms and Ranges in the

United States, Price per Head, and Value, January, 1896......... 336
’ Dairy Statistics for the United States (Eleventh Census)............. 338
Number of Farm Animals in Canada, 1891.........................05- 340
Number of Pure-bred Cattle in the United States, 1895.. Pe tee S40
Statistics of Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk ctorics (Eleventh
UND AS AME RES Se ee SEES tae 341
Cheese, Butter, and Condensed-milk Factories in the United States,
BGCCOIGINE 60 SEM oisccwiscrrsns sc aes sun vecaescauces wos scbesusews 342
Dairy Products Produced on Farms, according to the Eleventh
ROOTING Betis enc 2c ce ee eee el ae ee een SL ee oot ee 343
Domestic Exports of Butter and Cheese, 1870-95.... ..... ........... 344
Exports of Dairy Products from Canada, 1868-95............ 0.2.2.4. 344
Poultry and Egg Product of the United States.. ...... ...0. ....... 345
Importance of Apiarian Industry in the United States....... ....... 345
Production of Honey and Beeswax in the United States, according
to Census Returns of 1869, 1879 and 1889.............. 2... 0....... 345

V. DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS.

Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.............. 346
Ministers of Agriculture m Canada ... .... 6... .6s00...... 000. caeiee 347
American Educational Institutions having Courses in Agriculture... 348
Statistios of Agricultural Schools and Colleges in the United States. 350
List of American Veterinary Colleges....................0..eeee000s 351
Dairy Schools in the United States and Canada....... .............. 352
Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States and Canada. 353

VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE.

More Important Works on Dairying....................0eseeeeeeeeees 354
A List of Fifty Agricultural and Horticultural Books................ 355
List of American and Foreign Dairy Papers....................2.028- 357
The Main American Agricultural and Horticultural Papers.......... 358

PDEs ccccscsccccs cccbetess cove cu cnvett cudeaectos Seeetesrereseeeseseee 363

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS.

Pasture grass
Green clover
Green corn
Corn silage
Fodder Corn
Corn stalks
Timothy hay
Red Clover hay
Oat straw
Potatoes
Mangel-wurzels
Carrots
Indian Corn

Wheat

Barley

Oats

Rye

Pea meal

Corn & cob meal S

Corn cob

Wheat bran aa S

Wheat middlings

Rice bran

Linseed meal O.P.

Linseed meal N.P.

Cotton seed meal

Cotton seed hulls (=

Gluten meal EE SSS

Malt sprouts ial ss

pPrewers’ grains = (Es
; pee th

Chart showing Pounds of Water and of
Digestible Matter in 100 lbs.

Digestible Digestible DigestiBle
Water Protein Carbohydrates Fat
eS ecg —— KD

10 20 380 40 50 60 70 80 90 001bs,

SE eRe CR Mee oe me Ee
102030 4080 6070 6090100

PART I. AGRICULTURE.

I. FEEDING STUFFS.
COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS.

In the ordinary chemical analysis of feeding stuffs the
following constituents are determined, viz., water, ash, pro-
tein, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, ether extract (fat).

Water is present in all feeding stuffs, from above go per
cent in green foods and some kinds of roots, to below 10 per
cent in very dry hay and in concentrated food stuffs.

Ash, or mineral matter, is the non-combustible part of
plants, and goes to make the bones of the animal, or to sup-
ply material for the maintenance of other parts of the ani-
mal body.

Protein is the name of a large group of substances, all
characterized by the fact that they contain the element ni-
trogen; hence they are also called mztrogenous substances;
and foods rich in protein are spoken of as nitrogenous foods.
The protein substances supply the material necessary for the
formation of lean meat, ligaments, tendons, hair, horns,
hoofs, etc., and also of casein of the milk. Crude protein
includes aléuminoids and amides; among the former are
found white of egg, lean meat, curd of milk and gluten;
among the latter, asparagin and other crystallizable and
water-soluble substances, generally speaking, of asomewhat
inferior nutritive value.

Crude Fiber or woody fiber is the framework of plants,
forming the walls of their cells; it is usually the least
digestible portion of feeding stuffs, and the nutritive value
of a plant is decreased as its crude fiber content increases.

Nitrogen-free Extract includes starch, sugar, gums, or-
ganic acids, etc., and forms a most important and usually a
very large part of cattle foods. Together with cellulose,
nitrogen-free extract forms the group of bodies called cardo-

2 AGRICULTURE.

hydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is heat-produc-
ing substances, aS against flesh-forming substances, i.e.,
nitrogenous compounds, the names indicating the main
effices of the substances in animal nutrition.

Ether Extract, or crude fat (oil) includes a group of com-
pounds dissolved out by ether in the analysis of foods; fat
forms the main part of the extract; most feeding stuffs
contain only a small quantity of fat, but this component
is nevertheless of considerable importance in the feeding
of animals. z

Organic Matter signifies the combustible portion of chemi-
cally dry feeding stuffs, i.e., all the components given in the
preceding except water and ash.

Digestible Components.—The food stuffs used in the feed-
ing of farm animals are only partly of direct value to the
animals, the portion which their digestive fluids are unable
to dissolve being voided in the excrements. The digesti-
bility of fodders has been determined by direct experiments
with different kinds of farm animals, in this country or
abroad. The digestion coefficients (see pp. 6-8) mean the
percentages of any one component which have been found
to be digested by the animals experimented on.

Nutritive Ratio signifies the ratio between the digestible
nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous components in a feeding
stuff, or a combination of such. As fat has been found to
yield about 2.2times more heat, when burned, than dostarch,
sugar, and other carbohydrates, the per cent of digestible
fat in a food is multiplied by 2.2 when the nutritive ratio is
to be calculated; the product is added to the per cent of
digestible carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract + crude
fiber), and this sum is divided by the per cent of digestible
protein. (The factor 2} or 2} is sometimes used for obtaine
ing ‘‘the starch equivalent”’ of fat.)

Example: Clover hay contains on the average 6.5 per cent
digestible protein, 34.9 per cent digestible carbohydrates,
and 1.6 per cent digestible fat (see following table):

1.6 X 2.2 = 3.52; 34.9-+ 3.52 = 38.42; 38.42+ 6.5 = §.Q

Nutritive ratio, 1: 5.9.

FEEDING STUFFS.
FEEDING STUFFS.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN

w w Treo +o th WROANROA Lon | 00 AmM+ArtwMma OOnNNO HH +00

o . spenxa 1997 | end are. se <i Sega “ HH wie Oe Aces Ue ve Pees
9:5 9 "sayesp CO OtHHHRRH DONGCOCOND OF TH COWDTH NTR THARRM
re : a aes qlee oe af FO. (eRe To es = eo eee
3 ES -Ayoqie,) g ee aon ea me m oh eee oS Se
me OC MOARKHEOM RAATO MOOS On OW BRODMO ONHO RDO MM
uprorgepngy | Godda we HAW KS is adtaee ee casas Coe
“IIVIL ° MINH AO oN OV th ll i et TT oc CO mw naoonwt +tTONOMmH A MOCO

eas, Geir ee bi ee Bh eons ot elie

*, o1ues1O C AUEOKH MAD ROCART HO WS AR RadGo RowwsoOO Or
a co nO KH OO TMK aamama On won ee ON aAnNNM HH RHINO A MO
3 yoenxg 47a | ere tar HH 4 HH HM manana ANNdaHHHHH
B | -;oenxg eo14 S anon Mon MAGHH DOM SH OH ORRHO COMFOFOHR
a. uaso1}1 CH SAO OVE Cy USP ONES et, tO HO MAOHNHW HAOAAMO NM
g 7 IN Pein Os am mM Hottest StHttenttean
3 @ O¥nTOany annoomry Oy fe wooMe ARHOCHAGH
io) “aqit pny | t+ WRORHHOD CHOHO ROW tA At FHUAGD AKRORMOAO MN
Lada Lk Sateen! IB ea ale Naanaaa agaamamnten

& W OO THOCNM THe tHE nin om mMNOOD +tine0NnLtONO
s varaiorg apnig | mM H+tEMAMHOM AM+NHAT +0 ma otanw OnRREMMMADA
2 CE Ce ae ee cer Se FQ yemas COTHHAG HO
o qsv AQ HANAKNHAHA HAAKDHAAH at MO ONKWDOt HO NNH+NUKO
a mem | ¢ Gdctcdae pige ones SO 8M FFHRA THRTIOT HO

+
~ 8 VEAELSAT SSVS SLL TP. oe RS Oe oe Sere ae
‘saskjeuy jo ‘oN | (eg Fh .8 O° She eee a 6.) eS ee ke. ee uae oe
. ”

oF is . . eS. | wa a © pe La an OT om ook <3 ee Bee ee 2 eee

gi fe iS bei he Megha so eee «8 ees

= et he oe oe ee =a & High iu Goer :g Gt Giear ae ines ues

dj 8 Say Ber Pree eee ee ck ge eS oe i

& % a. el ce <8 ge BG lems pig org is eoky. Br Sat Sia en wo: i ia

3 x Cte ae a ee 5. di eee SN et gh eS ec 5 ;

~ ee i re eB t ee ie rae Aas haiti a: ea) Bee e < ere erie 5

nn Rego cee ye: sBEes et “ee : Op et eee 7 oMeltee! 5 eet TAS. ee ae oe
MBS ORE BOM Ce US OR Eg tangy iat DAUR: BR Iw:

be es HS :Sbbbess Gos SSO Mon, Sas gu ise ie

= QG a ge ee -2owqS bi SW dee = i :eg: Asqgess +

oJ Qoaawtude paeveSeg se SESS O..- ‘no naegev

3 a COUGDEGE RG EE ae ie LOB BLOF gGoOyPomods L4q

oO S Hee BVO OZS0 OS mM? & oO = u KH SS Hae Spe SB

S SeeSgyeesecg soi agate ogeggen, Fenago Bae tone

aa R Besa esol ma el AVoteo tm YD Sossderlnnughomewrvos

ow a & 3. << a

ic) Gera et maas 5 oVoOrsicols wy OR FSS eto aes toasts Goya G

AS <O<%OnKS BHLOOON & nO DH MmOnk meomnzama

aa oa of Analyses of

Jenkins and
t Konig,

gely from
American Feeding Stuffs,

* Par

AGRICULTURE.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN

FEEDING STUFFS.— Continued.

; Per cent

Home BA NN AMH

OF OV ONO AO OO NGO se Hn ONAN ONOWODWDAMAMMO MO
°

ce « elle SS St ey DY ae ee oe seme! me Ae, A) Coe ee OL ie Oe

wa +H+INA MHA a Nma A QHAHA HH WL nn oO

OONADNmNATH OO Lal plea ble) MINOW A Sins A eH Inst Oo

Fel D. Me Fb me

TOMA TMNOWONMO Mt + none Hin MAG MAA Nt00

Oo mMmrMN tt SCHOO WMO + rrr OO FTTEFMMMOBSTTMNWM

MMO +O

OO “om

Seas yw) a OHA MOO HH NRK A tin OOO
I AoA H a

2 | penxy 190Iq

2 Me

BS *saye1p ee OES ke ie

Og -Ayoque) OC Anatrnwon

SS +AAHH AO O

A “ujaqord apnsy | RE 0 hen ig “te
“INL eS eee ae:
d1ue B10 09. Oc

Percentage Composition.

‘yoeiyxyY Joyjy |

OO nA N — HOMM CO MOO +MO AN NO | OV

ae et i ew me ie se fe | NEKO ay ine oO mes (Mn A le shee. Bek) Cee

MAR OO +000 +H a monty moO +tMMO +HA DOC MO

CO CO CO CO CO CO

co 6&0 00 CO CO co oO 00 CO CO cc 000000000000 OO WO COC

tM Mo 00

S CAWw ae. Owe

mo IN MO

m0O CO CO

NTR AN

co m0 0 MBO CO AN MO MH +O mA

. Te he es SP ee. ee OS

mattn AHAAAMNN OC NH

*yOeXY 9935
-UdSOIIIN

"Iq @PNID

|

*uld}OIg Opnig

on: E= 0,00 MANNS
tS sh00 roto sae! ~

He mmMo tA

Rex) NAnMAANOADW OV

wowo Mo NNMMmO”O NW

NCO Ar mINO OVMCOC MN OW O

1 WO \O ono nO NnttTNOATOMNW

ROH BONN H A &MO

CNG? CV IESO 00 1) Ea

coe
A EA sr Gone

COA HHO
=

[is OI NG Tes UT ESL IED tay
cont+ HoH ch inod Hoo Hino +

oOMntrtMOT Lal onNnNh
Oo TON A ve) mtn N ASOLO Oo eee me AS
HoH HW WH =) HoH HH a a Lal Q

a
+
~
AttaIntno ann O10. 19 Biel one hod Oe GO enee ee
+
co

wWNtrNMON

BRATOO O© DOTD ToS SCS a aoe RO

shee lic abd cated HH AS GaN wh Sema GH mA nM Boome G
| Ar MNnDO NO AnmrKOOnRNAAN O Oc KFO COOOMOMHnA+THRADOW
Mt A ae cre mare be gee hte RD Ts P00 ee et we een
Mic. PRESB RR SS SE A eNO 8.8 8? Boe ee en ee ee ee
| CUNO ON COVE Ge SOU RECO ih I TO NEO La NH OO aoonnwta
‘sash|euy Jo "ON | 8 = DS ta ee ee oe R

nah eevee OR SOE RES Oe Ta hoes eee he ee
Sieirug Siace PS her S AE EGS ad: bale 032 eae eet LO eee lan Whe. eel ae a

: atl 5 aa 4 al . on : ves
er : x See chs Gy ys, Ce 8 anes 7 i ob: :
ah eee ek oe a ee oy aS RE ot Se ee, piety an
= Se ee OS ee ee ee ce El vee Seer nae ee aaa
ded x og 2 3B 2&3 -g set ob ogge Pee vee ogy Chee Se a8 Rg a). ch) Se
Py, \ °Oo °° O . Bry fa os Sen ea a re | = (= = a Ca pel ma
. . By) Leake & er D ea qs ° 2 Dem Cay 28) oF Fas g Reel” Oe

oa . sa Bie fe. Meir 1S al . eis aes oe ela ne eo

bo hy MSA Se NS OOM mS te oO She) Oa atari fe ate ee
c S Seee es: SSH Ser ey GE Ms OFS oS Sos: wHanR o 4G
3 NS pQt eters Ud gusa itis ee See eagp ict deed eae
oO 2 Vator ghn go Beek 1602 28 505° 4 aS goncea -S5o$s
2 S Sedu Gees 8 80S ACs hae se aa se ay oe be ee Oa og

S oo “6s ~ c Sy HO Oe Non : . ad MA

S Segeessh & Sob bgerse eee sa tees eoseessesteses

=} cual opel one cont
hAKAaZeO GS OOOLCOCOCCMMES F BEBQ exuammmanamma

* Konig.

FEEDING STUFFS.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN

FEEDING STUFFS,—Coxtinued.

Per cent

m™ en en0o ROH MA +O NCO

a Gaeta eee. ae

HRMRHAMHIO AAA A

NmnO ae HO Sy

BOF we DtaHoHoo
MO +NEHO MAN A
>On DOWAMAMONNOO

Ov'eA\© c0'69 arg ys Es ps ba H

o> <r ee

TMNOSOOHWMCH +HeN

x HO

2 | voenxg soma | ada
ae 2
2 3 *soyeip OS
v3 -Ayoqie) | BAS
| Oo mo
a Spread apni | ae 9
nN

‘aw te es

WUCSIC) | bo cies:

oOo +o

‘PORVNXA JI | cov

"JOVIIX| VIJ ab Sige
-uasolN | Sie

mo 1S HO NCO NWN HH OY

ee ee er ee er

O08. Sy woos © Ov e009 co
a

7.9/85.1

3 32-8] 7.1

4

SBAOTAAQO MOET A MM w

StH tO + St +t TO manana mom

‘Oo Hc

ise]

meow ty iene” |

m9 00 CO oH eh

tH +a NOwod OW

coco H NCO
OMAN N MOH MS

a ee A ee ie bE a

wWomMmnm- BOC
coo mn oe Se
ae

Percentage Composition.

“I9qiy apnig | att Home MO HHO Tae mh oo Dt: tee
a) OTANHODNDDOOH TAN DH NOTTATMOD
‘UlajJOId apni) nO + TMNADHAMTATOKHOAt A MO Hees’

fan) N N NANAK OY + - ie rco
Ran DOOWAMITORMAKHR WN OMMNHARRRR

‘USV | act mH OA x ama ANA WH Wt ++
00 00 oO CHRETMNMOTNRHTND A HTORR HTH &
“1978 beet ee eee ee ee eee ee
: eM a Orig Giese Lov gw eD oO SoFLIYS

~~ toa oN
‘sasA[euy JO ‘ON neces init eros eee FOBT
aes a a eT a ee.» : eS ee Boke? nl ae we
. e SS te). «eae ee ie g- . OBO SR, He cece aes .
en glen Baga) egg ae Me ea A . Ry a et i) py Wea Tyee,»
x eS Sh PB Ce ar ae Ree ee oa
. . % . Le] a} . te) Bree . a: 2 re ee Ce
= : ees he ees bc dee eee ae
3 . . 6 -AN— .F a -p -O95 0 (Goer eS es eae el
Ld . « ny -aan ae ee ews ont pia, bok
nN SO. i 8 wee ge VoG gk gas inp va Uy eM 3:
Gs .42SSopon4wo = As RC I 7 Ne
on On « © Shia Vee de eupUUY so sg: avg .
A] Sad 8 POP a mMOG Sees ig (Faas ke :
% Bag 8 FSossg &O 64GR9,0 ,889 SP ace
—_ '

Fe wee SHESRSS SER st Sea geseaags ess
SOS N See lees ovnSoon hog aavigs
NON AMMAMTOOOOOGHOON YQ AacsQnas

a
:0
i)
%

—

6 AGRICULTURE.

AVERAGE AMERICAN DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS
OF FEEDING STUFFS

As Determined by American Experiments. (Jorpan.)

Bl ls
1 = - |e 8
alelS|l if gif [3
oAre — o Lad
S\aie|) = Pees ce a
H\o Oo = _ CB) on? “=
N|N |= : oO 37 |0 s oO
cfolel|] e/a] eo] 2 is4/s
ZlIZ\AAl<d|ma}olZ | a
A.—EXPERIMENTS WITH RUMINANTS.
GREEN FODDER (fed when green).
Corn (maize) fodder—
Whole plant, average of all trials. ..] 2/15/30|] 68] 35] 61] 6x] 74| 74
Dent, immature, Pennsylvania ..... 1} 4] 9}| 68) 57) 69] 69] 7x 66
in milk, Pennsylvania......... x] 3| 6|| 68] 33] 62| 63] 73] 76
mature, Pennsylvania......... 1] 7/13|| 67} 22) 53] 54| 75 78
Sorghum, North Carolina and Texas..| 2| 2] 4|| 67| 42] 47| 59] 74| 74
FS GINS YI VAMlay ss las cis seen daenies oo tT] tT] 2/| 73! 56] 79] 79] 7o| 74
Timothy (PAleum pratense), Utah..... t] Tt} 3]| 63] 32] 48] 56] 66) 53
Hungarian grass (Setarza ztalica), Me.}| 1| 1| 4|| 63) 41] 62] 68] 66] 52
Pasture grass, Pennsylvania... ....... 1] I] r/| 69) so} 65! 74] 72] 55
Red clover (Trifolium pratense)...... 1} t| 2|| 66] ss! 67| 53] 78| ©
SILAGE,
Corn (maize) silage, whole plant—
Average of all kinds................. 6|r7|/37|| 66} 31| 53] 67] 70} 8t
Dent, immature, Maine, New York
and Pennsylvania....... halts ences 3] 5|z2/| 64! 33] 40] 71] 66} 75%
Dent, in milk, Pennsylvania......... 1} 3] 8|| 65} 32] 5o} 65] 69 87
Flint mature, Maine and New York.|} 2! 4/10|/ | 73| 30) 63| 75] 77| 83
SGja-pean Silage. os). 55. 2hwaes Pace obs 1} z} 21] 59] 57] 76! 55| s52| 72

DRIED FODDERS (fed ee or partially
SO).

Corn (maize) fodder, whole plant—
Average of all kinds ...... .........] 4/24/50|| 66] 34] 55] 66] 60] 72
Dent, immature, Maine and Penn...| 2/ 6/12|| 62} 38] 51| 67] 64] 68
in milk, New York and Penn..} 2] 5/12|| 63) 31] 45| 64] 66] 76

mature, Pennsylvania.........} x} 4/ 6|| 70] 20] 55]/ 52! 77| 79
Flint; mature, Maine..........-..... 1] 4] g|| 71] 42] 65] 76] 73] 70
Sweet, mature, Maine...2. 0125 :..... I} 3} 6]| 67} 36] 64] 74] 68) 74
Corn (maize) butts, Maryland.......... 1} tj 2|| 66] xz} 21} 73) 69] 79
husks, Maryland........ x] z| 2|| 72] 16] 29] ‘7o| 75| 32
fodder, tops above ear,
PNAC VAAN. Oo oon.) Sse 1{ 1] 2|| 55] 7| 22] 7o| 53] 63
pulled,Maryland,
North Carolina
and Texas..... 3] 3] 6|| 60 51} 69] 63] 64
stover, Pennsylvania ....| 1] 1] 4]| 62] 45] 52] 66] 64] s2
Sorghum fodder, leaves, N. Carolina..| x] 1] 2|| 63] 29] 61| 70| 64| 47
OAL straw, Maines, 25205. cache cw sos 6421) 210211, Sop eee 58] 53] 38

FEEDING STUFFS.

7

AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS.— Continued.

A.—ExXPRTS. WITH RuMINANTS—Cont,
DRIED FODDERS—Continued.

Hay from grasses named:
IArIGV im MAING es oiled o ochs sh ndeed teas
Blue joint (Calamagrostis canaden-
PRON ANHE IS 25/0 Acs ddd ‘sleds odviceae
Cat-tail millet (Pennisetum spica-
Zee) North; Carolina. .... 2 g.25<-
Hungarian grass (Setarta italica),
| ETRE ee eee ae CL ee Be
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense),
ici@m CG arOlia Yi. se scibe bh oels va
Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata),
Mame and New York...............
Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris), Maine..
Timothy (Phleum pratense), average
of all kinds, Maine and Utah.... ..
ditto, in full bloom, Maine....
ditto, late cut, Maine... ...
Wild-oat grass (Danthonia spicata),
RUIN taht id 6 <5 Sete <a ag oy" kai
Witch-grass (7riticum repens), Me..
Pasture grass, Pennsylvania.........
Mixed grasses, New York and Penn,
Hay from legumes named: ;
Alfalfa, Colorado. and New York.. .
Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum),
WEI feed ced sccal} ad-< 4s abies’
Crimson clover (7vifolium incarna-
tum), North Carolina ...... Ee ete
Red clover (Trifolium pratense),
Maine and Wisconsin..............
White clover (77z/olium repens),Me.
Cowpea vines, North Carolina.......
Soja-bean vines, North Carolina.....

MISCELLANEOUS FODDERS.

Buttercup hay (Ranunculus acris), Me.
Peanut-vine hay, North Carolina......
Sorghum bagasse, North Carolina.....
White weed, white daisy (Chrysanthe-
mum leucanthemum), Maine........

ROOTS.

Sugar-beets, Maine............ meee S

Mangel-wurzels, Maine........

No. States.

| No. Samples.

Lal

Single Trials.

Lal

es)

QO

Nv Ls)

G2 WD

Ww vy

5%) Ww OW WN

Nv

NNHN

Nn

N

iS)

re

=

a

=

b> |

ui | a

A|l<
61) 45
54) 29
62} 68
65 "
54| 56
56]...
60} 29}
58] 37
61| 44
54| 32
64) 35)
61; 41
72| 52
56|.-.-|
58).--.
62} 52)
61} 53)
53l-«=-|
66 58|
59} 49
62): 35%
56} 48
60} 20
61} 13
58) 52

'

94; 32
78| 16

e| |x
x13 /8
Z)2 {3
q | & es
tt vo
3/3185
- oI —
BiolZ
65) 62) 63
25) 54, 56
63) 66) 59
60, 68) 67
59} 60] 55)
61| 61 2|
49} 53] 63
57, 50] 64
45| 48| 61
58, 68) 65
58| 63] 65
73| 76) 74
5T| 55] 59]
73, 46) 68
66) 53] 7t|
69) 46| 70!
S2|° 47 61|
73, 61] 69
65} 42| 71
71} 61| 69
56} 41! 67
63} 52| 69
14, 46) 65
58} 45) 57

gI| 100] 100

Ether Extract.

50

75| 43| 91|---

8 AGRICULTURE.

AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS. — Continued

x

ale 2] .1e 13
(Ol |] # SA Siew
7 hod od vu Oa] a | »
—/8 iF || 3 = & jos|a
~| ala = wo X ra) wool.
el |g (Sale eee
o|o]S|| & a ju ARS = |
Z\Z\in||A | « |O O1Z |

SS SS ——— | | |

A.—ExprTs. WITH RumMinants—Cont.

Roots—Continued.

RVtADAPAS, PVIAINIE. cn. oe blcic ce cinyee Sonics
Turnips (strap-leaf), Maine «5 6026 she<cs
“Potatoes, Maine..........22 ceesecceces

Grains (fed whole or ground).
Corn and cob meal, North Carolina....

Ta y 2 88] 8
Corn meal, North Carolina and N. Y..| 2/ 2 : a iaald a : pe 92 =
Cotton seed, raw, North Carolina..... 1] x} 2|| 66) 43] 68) 75| so} 87
roasted, North Carolina..| 1} 1] 2|} 56)....| 47] 66} 51| 72
(Pea meal, Maine: 2.0.2. .).\c-- 1 2.2 2-02 «--| x] x] 2]] 87) 44] 83) 26] 4] 54

BY-PRODUCTS,

Brewers’ grains, dried, Massachusetts.

Corn cobs, Massachusetts. ROEM et eas

Cotton-seed hulls, N. Car. and Texas..
meal, N. Car. and Wis..

Gluten feed (Buffalo), Massachusetts.

meal VPAINE Joo ante oe eects» eutee

Lal

ANHNNNNNHNDND

41 24 Io| 38

87 87) ..-) gt)-88

Linseed meal, ites process, Mass ..... 81]... 87| 61] 86) ot
d process, Mass... ... 79| . 89} 57| 78] 890

Malt sprouts, Wiscousia asters oie ele bole 67}. 80] 33] 68\100

DRHHHHHNWHH

Wheat bran, Maine and Massachusetts;
middlings, Maine and Mass..

B.—ExXPERIMENTS WITH SWINE,

GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS,

Barley, MinnesGtal .. haps enics sae teers I] 1 81} 48] 87] 67
Corn (maize) (whole kernel), Maine and
RTT OSS 61: Reg AS eS Pe ete 2| 2 .---| 79] 44] g1| 62
pee pls iy hol ese ie aac Soc Soiaesie 1] I ..-.| 86] 29] 94] 82
Corn and’cob meal, Maine. ... .\..5.<... | x ..--| 76) 28] 84] 82
Peas MINES OA Faniae cies si lst seein ce aie ee 40} 89] 78] 95] 50
Wheat shorts, Minnesota...........-.. 1] 2 73| 36] 87]...
Wheat bran, Minnesota. .........0e0e: I 2 75| 33| 66) 72

ce:

FEEDING STUFFS.

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS, (Linosevy.)

Coarse Feeds. Concentrated Feeds.
; oc ae
Low in protein.|Medium in|/Low in pro-|Low in pro-)High in pro-
High in carbo-| protein. tein. tein. tein.
hydrates. Medium in|High in car-|High in car--Medium in
50 to 65 per cent) carbohy-| bohydrates. bohydrates.| carbohy-
digestible, drates. 85 to 95 per|80 to go per| drates.

55 to 65 per, cent digest-| cent digest-|80 to go per
cent digest-| ible. ible. cent digest-
ible. ible.

— EEE EE Eee Ee
Hays, straws,|Clovers, Carrots, pota-|Wheat, rye,|Bean and pea

corn fodder,| vetches, pea} toes, sugar} barley, oats,) meals, glu-
corn. stover,| and bean| beets, man-| Indiancorn.| ten feeds
and silage. fodders and| golds, tur- and meals,
brans. nips. linseed
meals and
cotton-seed
meal.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATED FEED

STUFFS.

Very richin aie : Fairly rich in Poor in protein
protein (above 4o0 Sani Pe rtcbht) protein (12-25 per} (below 12 per
per cent). ak cl aii be cent). cent).

Dried blood. Gluten meal. Malt sprouts. Wheat.
Meat scraps. Atlas meal. Dried brewers’ |Barley.
Cotton-seed meal. |Linseed meal. grains. Oats.
Buckwheat mid-|Gluten feed. Rye.
dlings. Cow pea. Corn.
Buckwheat shorts| Pea meal. Rice polish.
Soja bean. Wheat shorts. Rice.
Grano-gluten, Rye shorts. Hominy chops,
Oats shorts. Germ meal,
Wheat middlings.
Wheat bran.

Low-grade flour.

10 AGRICULTURE.

FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS.

(WoL LFF.)
(Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight.)

r. Steers at rest in stall........% we ieicheid
2. Steers moderately worked.......
Steers heavily worked..........
Ze AWINLCINGOWS se shel cin.soleiteesaale setts

4. Horses lightly worked..............
Horses moderately worked..........
Horses heavily worked....... ......

5. Wool sheep, coarser breeds. ...
“ 6s

6. Fattening steers, 1st period........
“cc a3 2d T4

finer breeds...........

“ ne wad nase eat ee,

7. Fattening sheep, 1st period .......
sé “cc 2d sé

8. Fattening swine, 1st period .......
es se od “é

3 Tide MERC,

9. Growing cattle:

Aver. live weight

Age, Months. per head.
2-3 165 lbs ...
3-6 chil biwocae
6-12 Real ous
12-18 770 ‘*..-
18-24 g4o. “*Kss.
1o. Growing sheep:
s-6 62 Ibs...
6-8 73 oe E
8-11 Saucy E
II-15 GO °° t..
15-20 95: Ss
11. Growing fat pigs:
2-3 55 ADS. <a
3-5 = Co ae
5-6 25 fee
6-8 187
8-12 275 ‘*

Total Organic
Substance.

22.0

42.0
34-0
3I+5
27.0
21.0

Nutritive
(Digestible)
Substances.

Carbo-
hydrates.

2.5/15.0|0.50
3-0|14.8]0.70
2.7|14.8]0.60

3-0]15.210.50
3-5|14. 410.60

u,-—Y
oe
4.
2.

4-0/13.8|/2.0
3-2/13.5|1-0
2.5/13-5/0.6
2.0/13.0|0.4
I.6/12.0]0.3

3-2/15.6/0.8
2.7|13.3|0.6
2.1/11.4|0.5
I.7|10.9|0.4
1.4|10.4/0.3

—

5] 30.0
o] 25.0
-3) 23-7
4| 20.4
5| 16.2

Total Nutritive
Substances,

=
io”
on

Nutritive Ratio.

| to)
ro) 000 +

oO ONY a

lone]
ann on oo
°

Ln ie!
Onn

eH
oe

Ann A

Aon an

ye eH

FEEDING STUFFS. t

_

RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS.

Digestible.

eS | CL.
Matter. Pea: Ratio,
Protein hydrates Fat. | Total.
Ibs lbs Ibs. lbs. Ibs.
ae pedaie TOL DB. .5.0:5, 016 25.0 2.5 12.5 «65, }) 25.05) | 555.6
Ube. ee SEB BOP er er 24.5 2.2 5373 7 16.2 | 1:6.9
2.5 12.5 4 15.4 55554

Welftis German Stand’, | 24.0

CALCULATION OF COMPONENTS OF FEED
RATIONS.

Let us suppose that we have at our disposal the following
common feeding stuffs: Fodder corn, clover hay, and wheat
bran, and that we want to know how much is required to keepa
milch cow of 1000 lbs. live weight in good condition and to
secure a maximum yield of milk. We will feed 14 lbs. of
fodder corn, 6 lbs. of clover hay, and 10 lbs. of wheat bran.
According to the table these quantities contain the following
number of pounds of digestible matter :

Digestible.
ee
atter
. : Carbo- Ether
Protein. hydrates.| Extract.

lbs. . lbs. Ibs. Ibs.

14 lbs. of field-cured foddercorn| 9.35 -52 5.66 17
Bil bse GLOVER HAs 6 ~ 2a cjse's!s imix sas 4-71 -39 2.09 .I0
Tous. Wileat DYAN. ce .cc ce san os 8.24 1.26 aA -29
PRGLAIG Ja cialeisie cule sails b cieleins 22.30 2.17 12.16 -56

This ration falls somewhat short of the feeding standard in
total organic matter and digestible substances. To bring it
nearer to the standard, we add a couple of pounds of some con-
centrated feed. In selecting the foods and deciding the quan-
tities to be given in each case, the market prices of the feeds
must be considered. We will suppose that a lot of corn-meal is
available in this case, and will add two pounds of this feed to
the above ration.

12 AGRICULTURE.

Digestible. :
Orcanic|—7—_, = hae ee i og
Matter.| Crude | Carbo- | Ether | Ratio.

Protein |hydrates. |Extract

Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs.
Ration as above............ Pye | ik “Jie loyal | oo as, 12.16 56
2 lbs. of corn meal........... 1.75 -14 1.25 .08
PROLAMAS. <b Mele oitsie aie Ge 24.05 | 2.31 13.41 -64 136.4
Proposed American feeding
ration for milch cOWS....«| 24.5 2.2 r3°9 7 1:6.9
Wolff’s feeding standard tor
MAMCH.COWSS oA « os ois Caicos 24.0 2.5 12.5 4 I:5-4

The ration now corresponds very well with the proposed
American feeding ration; there is a small deficit of organic
matter and of digestible fat ; but there is no necessity of trying
to follow any standard ration blindly, as they are only intended
to be approximate gauges which the farmer may use in estimat-
ing the quantities of nutrients required by farm animals in
order to do their best, cost and product both being considered.

In constructing rations according to the above feeding
standards, several points must be considered besides the chemi-
cal composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs; the
standards cannot be followed directly without regard to bulk
and other properties of the fodder; the ration must not be
too bulky, and still must contain a sufficient quantity of rough-
age to keep up the rumination of the animals, in case of cows
and sheep, and to secure a healthy condition of the animals
generally. The local market prices of cattle foods are of the
greatest importance in determining which foods to buy; the
conditions in the different sections of our great continent differ
so greatly in this respect that no generalizations can be made.
Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds are the
cheapest feeds in the South and the East, and flour-mill,

brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds the cheapest in the
Northwest.

FEEDING STUFES. 13

PRACTICAL RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS.

a by 16 American Dairymen Producing 325 Ibs. of
Butter or more per Cow per Year.*

1. Colorado.—30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. clover
hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. corn meal.

2. Connecticut.—35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. wheat
bran, 3 lbs. corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs,
Chicago gluten meal,

3. Illinois. —74 lbs. clover hay, 74 lbs. timothy hay, 12 lbs.
corn and cob-meal, 8 lbs, bran, 1} lbs. linseed meal, 1} lbs.
cotton-seed’ meal.

4. New Jersey.—24 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs, corn meal, 2 lbs,
wheat bran, 4 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. oil meal.

5. Mew York.—20 lbs. hay, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. cotton-
seed meal, 2 lbs. hominy meal.

6. Mew York.—12 lbs. timothy hay, 1 lb. wheat bran, 1 Ib,
middlings, 2 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 40 lbs,
skim-milk.

7. New York.—42 lbs, corn silage, 24 lbs. clover hay, 23 lbs.
timothy hay, 8 Ibs. corn and cob meal, 14 lbs. dried brewers’
grains.

8. North Carolina.—30 |bs, corn silage, 8 lbs. fodder corn,
3 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, I lb. cotton-seed meal,

9. Pennsylvania.—24 lbs. corn fodder, 5.1 lb. wheat bran,
5.1 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. oil meal.

10. Pennsylvania.—t1o lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. hay, 34 Ibs,
wheat bran, 14 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 14 lbs. oil meal, 24 Ibs.
corn meal.

11. Zexas.—30 lbs. corn silage, 134 lbs. sorghum hay, 1.3 lbs.
corn meal, 2.6 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2.2 lbs. cotton-seed, 1.3 lbs.
wheat bran.

12. Vermont.—30 Ibs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 4.2 lbs. corn
meal, 4.2 lbs. wheat bran, .8 lb. linseed meal.

13. West Virginia.—48 |bs. corn silage, 24 lbs. corn and cob
meal, 24 lbs. ground wheat, 24 lbs. oats, 2} lbs. barley meal.

* See Woll, ‘‘One Hundred American Rations for Dairy Cows,” Bul-
letin No. 38, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station,

14 AGRICULTURE.

14. Wisconsin.—26 Ibs. corn silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs.
timothy hay, 8 lbs. wheat middlings, 14 lbs. oil meal.

15. Wisconsin.—5o lbs. corn silage, 5 Ibs. sheaf oats, 5 Ibs. .
corn fodder, 1 lb. clover hay, 1 Ib. millet, 2.7 lbs. cotton-seed
meal, 1.3 lbs. oil meal, 6 Ibs. wheat bran.

16, Canada.—4o lbs. corn silage, 74 Ibs. clover hay, 3 lbs.
straw, 1} Ibs. oats, 14 lbs. barley, 14 lbs. pea meal, 3 lbs. wheat

bran, 1 lb. cotton-seed meal.
The preceding rations contain approximately the following

amounts of nutrients, calculated for 1000 lbs, live weight :

Digestible.
Organic Nutritive
No. Matter. ; Gina Ratio.
Protein. hydrates Fat. Total.
Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs.
I 31.09 2.70 15.78 .80 19.28 T 21025
2 25.70 2.69 13.96 -07 17.62 £21050
3 22.09 2.37 12.06 075 15.18 Ll: Bes
4 19.41 2.06 11.71 .87 14.64 T1075
5 26.19 2.36 13.78 79 16.93 1: 6.6
6 25-73 3.50 14.05 1.12 18.67 GS ley f
7 31.30 3-37 16.31 1.31 20.99 T 35.7
8 20.38 1.79 11.98 -80 14.57 Tusgay
9 26.52 2.53 15-74 -90 19.17 er
10 20.05 2.31 II.00 +72 14.03 Tustsnd
II 26.58 2.21 12.31 1.30 15.82 1 sh029
12 24.23 1.86 14.03 -75 16.64 oo ot
13 22.37 1.54 14.15 -72 16.41 I 310.2
14 31.00 3-01 16.02 -87 19.90 I: 6.0
15 23.79 2-93 12.46 -99 16.18 Ess See
16 22.96 2.08 12.17 -71 14.96 1: 6.6

a a a

FEEDING STUFFS. 13

WEIGHT OF CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFFS.

(ALVORD.)

Wiehe One Quart Weighs

Pounds. | Pounds, Ounces = Pounds.

WU CAL A WLIOIGS é s(0's 3 at0's 1s 0 00 5008 30 I csi = 4 5.86
(racked corM........ 2 eee 28 I bo eee Ree
Pererrmiecalic: os sse nike oe 26 I St ia0
eOLLon-seed, meal .......00%.56 254 I a — eer I
Ola) shit Git | ie a a a 23+ I | ee add 7 ts.
Cotn andicob meal... 2.0... 22 I 6 =. 1.38
Wheat middjings.............. 18 I > ee
Oats, whole......... iA eR 3a3 eke 16 1 oS} hf 7 xve0
Ground oatse...;.,...6 et Pe ey 12 iz. = 75
BGR OLEAN. fcc asc cc ee meee 10 26 eh 63

FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS,

It is generally assumed in comparing the food require-
ments of the different classes of farm animals that one cow
at pasture will eat as much, or seven-tenths as much, daily
as a full-grown horse, or as much as two yearling colts,
heifers, or young bulls, or as three to five calves, or four
colts taken from the mare, or ten to twelve sheep, or as
twelve to twenty three-months-old lambs, or as four to five
swine. It may be figured that the quantity of pasture grass
eaten by a cow per day, which of course will vary with the
season and the condition of the pasture, will equal 25-30 lbs.
of good meadow hay or 40 lbs. hay of inferior quality.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS.

Comparing concentrated foods with coarse feeds, one
pound of the former may be considered a food unit; the
quantity of grass eaten by one cow at pasture during one
day is assumed equivalent to 12 to 13 food units during
the early part of the summer, and to 4 food units in the
late fall, 10 units being considered an average figure.

The following quantities of different feeding stuffs are
considered approximately equivalent, as determined by
European, largely Danish, feeding experience (Schroll):

16 AGRICULTURE,

1 lb. concentrated feed (cereals, mill-rcfuse feeds, oil
meals, etc.) = 24 to 3 lbs. of good meadow hay = q lbs. of
poorer quality hay = 10 lbs. rutabagas = 12} lbs. turnips
= 4 lbs. potatoes = 10 lbs. green fodder = 6 lbs. buttermilk
= 6 lbs. skim-milk = 12 lbs. whey = 1 lb. new milk.

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS.
(HAcKER.)

The following table is based upon the percentages of di-
gestible protein in different feed stuffs, comparison of cost
being made with wheat bran asa basis for grain, and timothy
hay for coarse fodders. The figures given show only approx-
imately the comparative value of the different food stuffs, as
the digestible protein content, and not the total digestible
matter of each food was considered in calculating the
values. Since, however, protein is the most important
component of foods bought, carbohydrates being, as a rule,
produced in abundant quantities in the crops raised on the
farm, the data obtained by this method of calculation may
serve as a guide in estimating the comparative money
value of cattle foods offered for sale.

Value per Ton or Bushel when

Feed Stuffs. Wheat Bran is worth

$9.00 |$10.00 |$12.00 |$16.00 |$20.00

Bae yn pels sau das eee ieee biserns $0.16 | $0.18 | $0.22 | $0.30 | $0.36
NIA COMMS, welsh aGlar cies sine ocnee 0.18 | .0.2r| 0.24] 70.32 |) o.42
Corniand cobsneal.. 4... tbe oi 0.16 | 0.18 | 0.22] 0.30] 0.36
Millet seed...... BO SOt SOB aes Ae 0.20 | 0.22 0.26 | 0.34 | 0.44
AUSe mela oh ieistais- tetsisiaielelestele'ate. ceva'e sists 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.18 0.24
PEAS ihe Be bhicemae des picn “Pog oC oor 0.40 | 0.47 | 0.56] 0.74 | 0.094
RVC o Meine saci acini veces sisiciee's 0.22 | 0.24 0.28 | 0.38 | 0.48
WW ITEAUSHORIS tcc cies cise vcic'ecs sstecee 7.20 | 8.00 | 9.60 | 12.80 | 16.00
EA ratte oe eee en ie cpio w ohne Rem 0.24 | 0.25 | 0.30 | 0.40) ©.50
Cotton-saemtileal.:..) 2 3 is hohe 23.14 | 25.60 | 30.72 | 40.96 | 51.20
EG mIseed wmealen.scana.t iste ae tee ees 19.86 | 22.08 | 26.50 | 35.32 | 44.16

Value per Ton when Timothy is worth
Feed Stuffs.

$4.50 $6.00 $8.00 $10.00

Clover liavs red: .i.6.<:) +e. es $10.06 $13.41 $17.88 $22.33
Cornistover.=cc... Se ee ee 2.65 S053 4-70 6.88
Fodder corn.......... SRB S 3-44 4.50 6.12 7.65
Prairie hay (upland).,........... 4.63 6.17 8.23 10.29

Prairie hay (mised). mist a: 4.50 6.00 8.00 10.00
Sedge et assais stints: & ms o-keens: 4.50 6.00 8.00 10.00

FEEDING STUFFS. {7

PRICES OF CEREALS PER BUSHEL AND PER

TON.
: ist | eee ‘ wy a3
ct Sars) o's Le The) ee
Name. |= a} O58 Bs Name a = M as ake
wes) 2 | 33 ieee 55/3 | 83 1858
080 = |2a6 oem! 3g =O /7za9g
pita (hin Ee le |e i
tas pete $$ |__| —__ —__—
lbs. $ $ || lbs. $ $
Wheat.| 60 | 33.3 CAS» | rstagi(Oataventivecl 32 62.5 sE00| eTreas
4c | 08: ool 20 | 12.50
50 | 16.67 au) 15.02
60 | 20.00 30 | 18.75
7 75 | 25.00 35 | 21-90
1.00 | 33.33 50 | 31.25
Corn...| 56 | 35.7 30 | 10.71||Rye 56 | 35-7 4o | 14 28
35 | 12.50 50 | 17.85
40 | 14.28]| Barley. . 48 41.7 40 | 16.68
45 | 16.06 50 | 20.83
50 | 17.85 60 | 25.02

VALUATION OF FEEDING STUFFS.

The commercial value of protein, fat, and carbohydrates
in concentrated feeding stuffs has been calculated from the
average composition and market price of common feeding
stuffs as follows:

Cost of one pound of
Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates.

In Germany... (1890) 3: 2: I (Konig, Wolff.)
‘“* Connecticut (1888) 1.6 cts. 4.2 cts. .g6 cts. (Jenkins.)

cf “i (1890) 1.4 2.9 T.4
** Wisconsin.. (1891) 1.5 3.6 5 (Woll.)

“‘ Indiana.... (1891) I.0 2.75 .63 (Huston.)
““ Minnesota.. (1893) 3.1 9.1 24 (Hays.)

ce

18 AGRICULTURE.

II. FARM ANIMALS.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BREEDS OF LIVE
STOCK.

By Prof. J. A. Craic, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station.
I, Light Horses.

The Thoroughbred.—Leading characteristics: running speed
(Salvator, 1:354, holds the world’s mile record), quality, stam-
ina, and ambition. Common colors: brown, bay, chestnut.
Distinctive features: refined appearance, lengthy neck, deep
chest, long body, straight croup, long thighs and pasterns,
dense bone, firm muscle, active temperament, rangy type
standing 16 hands. Most common defects: light bodies,
lengthy pasterns, long legs, irritable temperament. Bred
principally for racing, which has given them endurance and
spirit. They are suited for mating with mares weighing II to
12 cwt., with the object of producing strong drivers or stylish
carriage and saddle horses.

The American Trotter.—Chief characteristics: speed at the
trotting gait. World’s record for one mile against time is that
of Alix, 2:03%. The type of the leading campaigners is that
towards which the trotter is tending; it is that of a horse re-
quired to have the endurance, ambition, and conformation to
maintain trotting speed. Most general features: intelligent
heads, light necks, low deep chests, oblique shoulders, long
forearm, short cannons, round body rising slightly over loin,
long croup and thighs, low hocks. Most common defects:
undersize, deficiency in style, finish, and substance. Sphere;
coach or carriage horses, roadsters, and trotters.

FARM ANIMALS. 19

Cleveland Bay. — Uniform in color, being bay with black
points. They stand at least 16 hands and are horses of larger
size and more power than those of most other breeds of light
horses. Rough joints, coarse bone, and deficiency in actior are
their most common defects, Their size, power, and evenness
of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms,
but owing to the defects mentioned they are not as popular for
breeding road and carriage horses as those of other breeds.

French Coach.—Smooth, symmetrical, and generally of fine
quality ; very graceful in movement, with high knee-action and
good back-action. Heads intelligent looking; necks graceful,
bodies snugly ribbed, and quarters muscular. As a rule, they
are striking in appearance, being upstanding and high-headed.
Common colors: bay, brown, and black. Best suited for
breeding coach-horses with moderately fast and graceful action.
Defects : coarseness and lack of prepotency in the stallions due
to their mixed breeding.

Hackney. — The typical hackney is a horse of extreme
smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines. The head is
light, neck muscular and curved, but free from heaviness;
shoulders smooth and laid well back; body circular, compact,
short ; hips smooth; quarters plump with muscle; legs short,
with tendons clearly defined. Their action is noted for its grace-
fulness and stylishness, being very high in the forelegs, and the
hock movement is regular. Common colors: bay and brown.
They are usually about 15.3 hands. Best suited for production
of high-stepping cab and coach horses for city driving.

II. Heavy Horses.

Clydesdale.—Usual colors: bay, brown, black, or chestnut with
white markings. The head is intelligent in features, but some-
times out of proportion with the other parts. Shoulder excep-
tionally good; being sloping, it gives them a free, easy, and
long stride in the walk or trot; arm well-muscled, and legs
clean and flat, with the fine and long feather springing from
the edge ; pasterns sloping, easing the feet from concussion;

20 AGRICULTURE.

feet large anddurable. Thecroup is muscular and the quarters
especially heavily-muscled. Their combination of weight,
quality, and action is exceptional in draught-horses.

Shire.—The best type is low, broad, and stout. They are
heavily built, muscular, with heavy bone and slow movement.
The shoulder is usually too upright, making the action too
short and stilted. The body is of large girth, deep and
strongly coupled, with broad, short back and heavily-muscled
quarters. Deficiencies: lack of quality, sluggish temperament,
and limited action. In general they are heavier than the
Clydesdale, though there is little difference between representa-
tive animals. The best type is suitable for breeding the
heaviest class of draught-horses adapted to slow work demand-
ing strength and heavy weight.

Percheron. — Types: the original gray in color, and the
modern of black color. Most peculiar characteristics of the
former were their action, style, endurance, and strength. They
had intelligent heads, prominent chests, round bodies, large
bone, inclined to roundness. The modern type is shorter-
legged, more compact and stouter, but lacking the size of the
’ original. The Percheron’s excellencies are seen in their active
temperament, intelligent heads, crested neck, deep body, and
wide croup. Their deficiencies appear in defective legs, being
light or round, straight pasterns, feet narrow at the hoof, heads
and quarters lacking muscle. Best type adapted for breeding
energetic, quick-gaited, strong horses suited for draught work
of light nature.

Suffolk.—Color uniform, being some shade of chestnut.
They are low-set, short-legged, deep-bodied, muscular horses,
with clean bone and durable feet; docile, easy keepers, and
steady when working. Generaldeficiency: a lack of weight due
to their smaller size in comparison with other draught-horses.
Suited for general farm labor ; they are not the highest-priced
horses on the market owing to the demand for heavier weights.

FARM ANIMALS. 21

Ill. Beef Cattle.*

Short-horns.—The three family types are: Bates, Booth, and
Cruikshank. Sates, noted for style, fine heads, clean necks,
straight level backs, light bone, and combination of milk and
beefing qualities. Booths are especially excellent in girth, wide
backs, lengthy quarters, deep flesh, and beefing qualities, though
lacking in finish and style. Cruzkshanks, noted for scale ; low,
broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, and mossy coats. The short-
horn breed is specially noted for beef form, early maturity, and
thrift under a variety of conditions, Their weakness in con-
stitution and sterility is traceable to in-and-in breeding and
artificial treatment. Their chief utility is to give beef form,
quality, and rapid fattening tendencies to grades for stall feed-
ing. Some families possess unequalled combinatioa of beefing
and milking qualities.

Aberdeen Angus, — Characteristic color, black. Head,
hornless; neck free from loose skin, exceptionally good
shoulder-vein ; shoulder oblique, fitting close to body; ribs
deep, very circular; hips moderately far apart, smoothly
curved ; rump long, level, smooth ; thighs muscular, twist low
and full, quarters long and rounded. Type: cylindrical, dis-
tinguished for smoothness, symmetry and quality ; bone light,
hide mellow, and coated with fine black hair. They are pre-
potent and prolific. Chief utility, production of beef of high
quality.

fTereford.—Most popular color, dark claret or cherry, with
white face, belly, switch, and small strip of white on neck and
over shoulder. Type: low-set and broad; heavy in fore-
quarters, with low heads ; full, deep chest ; hanging dewlap,
level lack, wide thick loin, full quarters and thin thighs.
Worst deficiencies, looseness in build and rough, coarse bone.
They are strong-constitutioned, active rangers, prepotent and
long-lived. Being active, hardy, and good feeders they make
good grazing cattle, and on that account have been popular on
ranches.

Galloway. — Color black, no white admissible, except on

* For description of breeds of dairy cattle, see Part II, Dairying.

22 AGRICULTURE.

udder or below underline. Type: thick, close to ground, and
symmetrical ; hair long, wavy, and thick ; head large, horn-
less, with no scurs; neck strong, giving a burly appearance
to forequarters ; shoulders snug, legs short and heavy, barrel
round, tight-ribbed ; quarter long and smooth ; flesh even over
all parts; hardiness and strength of constitution, strong feat-
ures. Require more time to mature and yield larger percentage
of offal than most other breeds. They are liked as ranch
cattle, as they are hardy, hornless, and yield excellent beef and
robes.

IV. Fine-wooled Sheep.

Merino.--The two types include those wrinkled and those
smooth in body. They are chiefly noted for the heavy weights
of fine wool that they shear. The fleece is dense, even, ex-
tending over all regions. The wool is bright, soft, fine, lustrous,
and pure. They are hardy and strong in constitution, of a quiet
disposition, and do well in large flocks.

V. Mutton Sheep.

Southdown.—Symmetrical, compact, close to the ground, and
of fine quality; head medium size, hornless; forehead and
face covered with wool, ears small, face brown or gray tint,
neck short, breast broad, back and loin wide and straight, body
deep, hips wide, twist full, fleece dense, and medium in length
and fineness. The mutton is of high quality, and lambs mature
early. They represent an exceptional combination of wool and
mutton of fine quality.

Shropshire.—Face and legs dark brown in color. They are
symmetrical and stylish. Rams are required to weigh 225 lbs.
in full flesh, and ewes 175 lbs. Head short, covered with wool,
hornless; neck well attached, full; body circular, round ribbed;
quarters lengthy, inclined to narrowness and slackness. ‘The
fleece dense, fibre strong, about three and one half inches in
length. The ewes are prolificand kind nurses. They combine
quality and quantity of wool and mutton in a high degree, and
are adapted to conditions of general farming and rolling land.

Hampshire.—Color of face dark brown or black; head large,
nose prominent, neck regular, taper from head to shoulder;

FARM ANIMALS. 23

strong-boned ana lengthy. Especially noted for early develop-
ment of lambs. They are vigorous and prepotent. The wool
.is short, dense, strong, and slightly coarse.

Suffolk.—Faces and legs deep black color. They are large
sheep when mature ; lengthy and straight in form. Noted
chiefly for prolificness and good milking and nursing qualities.
A large percentage of lambs are reared in flocks of this breed;
wool medium in quality and length.

Oxford.—Face either brown or gray, and lengthy. When
mature they are the heaviest of the Down breeds, being larger in
size and heavier in bone. Their fleece is also heavier and the
fibre longer, coarser, and more open than most others. Squarer
in form than the Shropshires, and not so closely covered with
wool, Adapted to strong land; respond readily to high feeding.

Leicester.—Face bare and pure white, body square, straight,
forequarters exceptionally full, hindquarters rounded slightiy.
Offal is light, bone fine, but fat too plentiful. The Border
type is stronger boned, heavier, and more vigorous than the
English. The Leicester has been extensively used for crossing
on grades. Wool lustrous, five or six inches long, soft, but
too frequently open and absent on the belly.

Cotswold.—Face white or slightly mixed with gray. Form
large, square, upstanding, and stylish. A tuft of wool grows
from forehead; fleece open, long, and heavily yielding. Body
long, level, and wide. The gray-faced strain is considered
hardier than the white-faced. The popularity of the breed lies
in the large yield of wool and of mutton, though the quality of
both is deficient. :

Lincoln.—The largest of the long-wooled breeds. The wool
is long and coarse, and especially lustrous. Square in form
and, when mature, very heavy. The mutton lacks quality.

Cheviot.—Face bare, white, hornless; wool fine, and the
fleece dense and even. Mutton agreeably flavored and fine-
grained. They are hardy, active, prolific, and the lambs come
active. They clip about four pounds of fine wool. Adapted to
rough and high pasturage.

Dorset.—Face white ; rams and ewes horned. Type: long,
round-bodied, and compactly built. Wool medium in length,
fineness, and weight; average clip 6 pounds. Chief character-

24 AGRICULTURE,

istics: prolificness, hardiness, and breeding early, so as to drop
lambs in winter. .

Highland.—Rams and ewes horned, face and legs black and
white. Low and blocky in type; fleece long, coarse. Their
mutton has a superior flavor. Mountain breed hardy, active,
and very strong of constitution.

VI. Swine.

Berkshire.—Color black, white on face, feet, tip of tail. Face
short, dished; ears sharp-pointed, erect; jaws full, back broad,
straight, full over shoulder; loin thick, level; hams excep-
tionally full, legs short, strong, and straight. Sows prolific,
good nurses. Active and vigorous in temperament.

Poland-China.—Color dark, spotted, or black; head small,
slightly dished; ears drooping, girth full, ribs well sprung, deep;
hindquarters lengthy, though inclined to be drooping. They
fatten readily, reach heavy weights, and are quiet-dispositioned.

Yor kshive.—White incolor; separated into large, middle, and
small varieties. The first-mentioned, are strong-boned, long-
bodied, and deep-sided, and have mixed meat; middle or im-
proved type, lighter in weight and bone, with smaller quantity
of offal; small variety, quick in maturing and compact in
form.

Chester- White.—White in color, strong-boned, vigorous, and
attain to very heavy weights, though slow in maturing. Sows
of good disposition and breeding qualities.

Duroc-Jerseys.—Deep, cherry red in color, large size, good
breeders, and liked in Southern countries because of ability to
withstand heat.

Victoria.—White in color with occasional black spots on skin;
head small, face slightly dished ; skin free from scurf; flesh
of good quality and evenly laid over body. Yearling boars
should weigh not less than 300 lbs.

Tamworth.—Red or dark brown color; snout very long,
body narrow, exceptionally deep and long in sides. Their
form and the mixture of fat and lean in their flesh make them
a special bacon hog.

L£ssex.—Color black; type: small, compact, early ma.uring,
and yielding a large percentage of edible meat.

FARM ANIMALS. 25

FEEDING AND GENERAL CARE OF POULTRY.
By Prof. Wm. P. WHEELER, of N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station.
Of the kinds of land birds and of water fowls under do-

mestication the common “ barnyard’”’ fowls, of one general
type, but of countless individual variations, and their thor-
oughbred varieties, are those usually thought of when the
subject of poultry is mentioned, and these are the fowls of
most general practical interest. It is remarkable that the
common fowl, although so widely bred, and for so long, in
Europe and America has no distinctive English name.

Ducks, turkeys, and geese constitute greater or smaller
portions of the market poultry according to the particular
locality and season, but the common fowl, besides produc-
ing most of the table poultry, is almost alone called upon
for the egg supply.

The relative prices of eggs and market poultry, the
proximity of markets, as well as the prices of foods, deter-
mine the relative profit in keeping larger or smaller breeds,
even with eggs as the special object. The meat value of
every fowl is of consideration sooner or later, and while
the smaller hens will produce eggs cheaper, the greater
net profit from hatching to market per hen may be with
the larger breed.

Most of the thoroughbred varieties have their character-
istics fairly established, so that it is better business policy
to employ them rather than the uncertain mongrels, which,
besides their unknown capabilities, are not less likely to
suffer from long and careless inbreeding. The fancier who
is fitted by judgment and experience to inbreed his stock
closely will know how far he can go with safety; but one
who finds it necessary to inquire about the advisability of
inbreeding had better not attempt any.

Among the breeds that lay white-shelled eggs, Ham-
burgs, when of vigorous ancestry, probably are the most
prolific. They certainly are exceptional layers, although
the size of the egg is small. The Hamburg varieties pos-
sess in unusual degree the thoroughbred characteristics.
Occasional complaints have been made in recent years con-
cerning their stamina.

26 AGRICULTURE.

For egg production the Leghorns are typical fowls, and
where white-shelled eggs are wanted the Leghorn varieties
are more widely kept than any others.

The Minorcas, other members of the Mediterranean class,
excel the Leghorns in size of eggs, but do not equal them
in number.

Some strains and varieties of Pit Games are not far from
the Leghorn in prolificacy.

Of the French breeds the Houdan is most widely bred
in this country, and for such an excellent table fowl, is an
exceptional layer of large white eggs.

The Polish, often wonderful layers, have sometimes
suffered in vigor because of their beauty, which admirers
hesitate to risk marring by introduction of distant blood.

Of the Asiatics, which lay brown-shelled eggs, the Lang-
shan is high in favor with practical poultrymen. The
Brahma, the largest of the thoroughbreds, also ranks high
and lays large eggs. Those strains, however, bred for
early laying are usually much inferior in size to the stand-
ard birds. The Cochin varieties are more particularly the
pride of the fancier than of the farmer.

Of the American breeds the Plymonth Rock is un-
doubtedly the most popular. Its type of plumage pos-
sesses an unusual strength, even in blood much diluted,
and faint reflections of the blue barring are seen in very
distant relatives of the thoroughbred. The perfect mark-
ings of the showroom bird are, however, quickly lost. The
American breeds lay brown-shelled eggs. Different flocks
vary as much as the breeds or varieties in productiveness.

Many other breeds and varieties recognized by the
American Poultry Association are of considerable economic
value, but are less commonly kept.

In feeding most farm animals the usual purpose is only
ito secure meat, wool, milk, or work, and not always is con-
sideration necessarily given to the breeding condition and
the breeding season. When poultry is kept for other than
fancy purposes, the life of the individual fowl is so short
that there is not only an annual necessity of growing
young birds with several more or less complete sets of

FARM ANIMALS. A

plumage, but egg production virtually implies a continual
breeding condition, for the ultimate constituents of the egg
are, with the exception of the amount obtained from the
air, all that are combined in the living chick,

The body of a Leghorn pullet, about nine months old, in
active laying, contains about 55.4 per cent of water, 21.2
per cent of different nitrogenous constituents, 18.0 per
cent of fat, 3.0 per cent of ash or mineral matter, and 2.0
per cent of other substances, including also a little water
lost in manipulation. Leghorn hens almost two years old
and laying, showed an average composition of 55.7 per
cent water, 21.6 per cent nitrogenous matter, 17.0 per cent
of fat, 3.8 per cent ash constituents, and 1.7 per cent other
substances. The body of a mature capon is composed of
about 41.6 per cent of water, 19.4 per cent nitrogenous
matter, 33.9 per cent fat, 3.7 per cent ash, and 1.4 per cent
other substances.

Notwithstanding the fact that the problem of poultry
feeding is much more complex than that of feeding most
other farm stock, fewer carefully collected data are avail-
able in formulating feeding standards for poultry than for
cattle. The following rations for laying hens are, how-
ever, near the average of those that have given best
results. They are stated at the rate per 1000 lbs, live
weight, to compare with the standards which have been
used in feeding other animals.

One thousand pounds live weight of laying hens, of
about three pounds average weight, require from 65 to 70
pounds of total food, less bulky than that for the cow, or
about 52 pounds water-free food, per day, containing about
9 pounds digestible protein, 20 pounds digestible nitrogen-
free extract and fiber, and 4 pounds of fat. From this ra-
tion the hens would produce generally from 16 to 31 pounds
of eggs containing from 5.2 lbs. to 9.8 lbs. dry matter, one
pound of eggs being produced from about 3.4 lbs. water-
free food, one pound of dry matter of eggs for each 8.8 lbs.
water-free food.

For one thousand pounds live weight of hens of about
six pounds average weight, there should be fed from 40 to

28 AGRICULTURE,

50 lbs. of food per day, containing about 34 pounds of
water-free food. There should be in this about 6 pounds
of digestible protein, 14 pounds of digestible nitrogen-free
extract and fiber, and 2 pounds of digestible fat.

Per hen the amount of food required per day varies
according to the size and somewhat with the season. A
smaller hen will eat more in proportion to live weight than
alargerone. The difference in amount of food consumed
by larger and smaller hens is less when laying than at other
times, when enough for maintenance only need be eaten.

A Cochin or Brahma hen when laying requires about 44
ounces of food per day, of which 3} ounces is water-free
food. A hen of Leghorn size when laying requires about 34
ounces of total food, or 2% ounces of water-free food, per day.

A much larger amount of food in proportion to the live
weight is required by the chicks than by the older fowls.
The amount of water-free food required for every one
hundred pounds live weight fed is 10.6 lbs. at about one
pound average weight; at two pounds 7.5 lbs.; at three
pounds 6.4 lbs; at four pounds 5.5 lbs.; at five pounds 5.3
Ibs.; at six pounds 4.9 lbs.; at seven pounds 4.7 lbs.; at
eight pounds 4 lbs.; at nine pounds 3.3 lbs.; at ten pounds
average live weight 3.2 lbs. The amounts of fresh food
equivalent to these weights would be correspondingly
greater. These are the amounts taken by growing fowls
which normally attain to the higher weights given, and
which are still immature and growing rapidly when at five
and six pounds average weight.

For young chicks the nutritive ratio of the ration fed
can be somewhat narrower than those given for laying
hens, and for fattening the ration can have a very much
wider ratio, although only for short periods.

For one hundred hens about 16 quarts of clean water
per day is required, especially in dry hot weather. In
each dozen eggs there is about a pint of water.

A Variety of Food is Essential.

Young hens, especially of the better laying breeds, when
in full laying, can be freely fed all they will readily eat, bu

FARM ANIMALS. 29

older hens and the young ones when not laying should be
fed only enough to keep them eager for food.

Salt should be fed mixed with the food, but not large
coarse crystals. One ounce of salt per day for one hun-
dred hens is a good proportion.

Animal food and green or succulent vegetable food, as
well as grain, should always be fed to hens that are con-
fined.

Some form of grit should be liberally supplied.

A largely grain ration will not contain the lime required
by laying hens, and oyster-shells or some other form of
carbonate of lime will supply this deficiency.

A grass run is better than any substitute in summer, and
enough hens to kill the grass should never be kept ina
run.

Common fowls, especially laying hens, must be kept in
moderately small flocks. Where large numbers are kept,
they should be divided in small lots in separate pens and
yards. Ten to twenty in a pen give better results than
larger numbers. The laying hens should be kept sepa-
rated from those not laying.

Hens will not always moult early enough to resume lay-
ing before midwinter. Chicks should be hatched in March
and April if eggs are to be obtained from the pullets in
November. Asiatics, to begin laying in the fall, should
be hatched in February and March.

The best results in egg production cannot be secured
where the average space of open run available per hen is
much less than too square feet. The average floor-space
per hen indoors should be about 20 square feet.

Exercise is of the utmost importance, especially for lay-
ing and breeding stock, and a good way to assure this in
winter-time is to scatter the grain in straw or any clean
and dry substitute.

Dampness is fatal, and dry warm houses free from
draughts are essential in winter. The floors should be of
dry earth or fine gravel, or wooden floors covered with
straw or dry sand. The houses should be warm enough
_ to prevent freezing of water, but should not be warmed by
heating apparatus more than will insure against freezing.

30 _AGRICULTURE.

SYNOPSIS OF BREEDS OF POULTRY.

(M. LEmorne.)

& c = o = ;
a2 8 | Be |sed| se. |e
Breeds. Hs sAu| Bo Bx5 aod Cob
fp ts ee om oat 388 Baa
op cape 2 ase) 1 Ge Oo &
priest ow ae mse = fz,

5 eae ep Ibs. | lb. oz. | Ib. oz. he
MIGAMISION bali rene coyote. 150] 20 5- 6 I 21 63
Brahma (light): .. 2.00, 252.2% ar 2bhg 8-10 : mee || 2 oh
Gachin (bum 2s2 3456. Ah 115| 24 8-10 4 9 |5 434) 17%
go no | Ae a ae oe 122| 33 8- 9 4 of) 4 1444] 7%
Dorking (silver gray)..... «..--]| 130] 2714 | 7-10 = Alé| 4a 634

43 AIK) 83 aga pester wae 130| 2744 | 6- 9 5a Vee 6%
NSAME RE elec eicckle Ts eho hee 100, 24 5- 6 3 54) 2. 734] 4%
Hamburgs (silver spangled)...} 239] 2014 | 4- 5 2 34) 2 734) 44

ve (golden pencilled).} 225} 1914 |314-4 I 1534/2 7 414
TI OUGANIG) Pict iene woken pe Ae 125| 26 6&7 13 7. | 2° 1034) 6%
Beat MCCHE Sec nc cede eee tee 140] 29144 | 6-7 3 53412 934] 634
Waneshanes. aise e waiee ene 115| 27 7-10 4 14%4|5 144) 7%
Leghorn (brown)............. 190| 22 5- 6 3 15146) 2 1014] 434
Winorca (black)i.? c<s.0. 0... « 180| 2814 |5l46-7
Elymoutn ROCK. se. o dace eke 120] 274% | 6- 7%
NeCOLCh Gray. «os sinc0- eiraal- wales 140] 29 6 3 4%) 2 12 634
Wivandottesscacntoces sae ole aes | 140] 25 5146-7

HEREDITY.

By Prof, Tuos, SHaw, of Minnesota Experiment Station.

Heredity in breeding relates to transmission. It is
doubtless governed by fixed laws, but many of these are
as yet imperfectly understood. It may be defined as the
outcome of the operation of that law whereby properties
and qualities of like kind with those of the parents are
transmitted to the offspring. This transmission is cer-
tainly comprehensive in its character, since it relates to
structure, function and qualities, and indeed to every
feature of the organization. But in instances not a few
there are apparent exceptions to this law of transmission,
These, however, are apparent rather than real. They
appear to us as exceptions because of the limitations of
our knowledge of this great question. These supposed
exceptions are doubtless the result of the predominant in-
fluence of other laws acting in opposition to the hereditary
tendency, and it is characterized as normal, abnormal,
and acquired, according to its nature,

FARM ANIMALS. 31

The heredity of normal characters means the transmis-
sion of those characters which are natural to the type.
These may be original traits bestowed upon the species,
as for instance, timidity in sheep; or they may have been
acquired and rendered permanent by long-continued trans-
mission, as in the changed form of all the improved breeds
of domesticanimals. The heredity of abnormal characters
means the transmission of irregular characters, or those

which have deviated from the natural and acquired char-
acteristics of the type. These abnormal characters may
appear as malformations of structure, derangement of
function, or they may assume one or the other of various
_forms of disease. Illustrations of the first are found in
‘certain families with an irregular number of fingers and
toes; of the second in the inheritance of deafness, dumb-
ness and impaired vision; and of the third, in the reap-
pearance in the offspring of certain diseases possessed by
the parents, as, for instance, any of the forms of scrofula.

The laws which govern heredity are those also which
determine the results in practical breeding. In practice
the rules which govern it are almost entirely empirical in
their origin, since they have been almost exclusively de-
rived from the accepted methods of the most successful
breeders. Those who have given thought to the question
will concede that breeding live-stock is at once a science
and an art. They will see in it a science in so far as it
discovers and systematically arranges those truths and
principles which relate to the improvement of live-stock,
and it will appear to them an art in so far as they perceive
that those principles can be successfully utilized in prac-
tice. Itisapparent therefore that the relation between the
science and the art of breeding is both close and intimate.
Without some knowlege of the former the latter is not
likely to be successfully practised, and the measure of
success which attends the efforts of the breeder will be
largely proportionate to the measure of the knowledge
which he may possess of the principles of heredity.

Reference has been made to certain laws which govern
transmission. Of these three may be considered as funda-

32 AGRICULTURE.

mental, viz.: first, the law that ‘“‘like begets like’’; sec-
ond, the law or principle of variation; and ¢hird, the law
or principle known as atavism. Since these Jaws or prin-
ciples appear to us to lack uniformity and regularity of
action, the art of breeding is in consequence much more
complicated and uncertain than it would otherwise be.
This want of uniformity and of regularity of action, how-
ever, is apparent rather than real. But so long as we are
ignorant of the cause or causes of these apparent irregu-
larities in transmission, we are unable to prevent them.
And yet there is so much of uniformity in the action of
these laws that the intelligent breeder cannot be said to
play ata game of chance. If well posted in the art, his
efforts will in the main be entirely successful. °

The law that ‘“‘Zke begets like’’ implies that the char-
acteristics of the parents will appear in their offspring.
This law would seem to pervade all animated nature;
generally speaking it is uniform in its action, but there
are some exceptions. Were it not so, examples to illus-
trate such a law of heredity and proofs to support it would
not have been needed. That the existence of this law was
recognized, and that many of its principles were well un-
derstood from an early period, finds ample illustration in
the breeding operations conducted by the patriarch Jacob,
in the monstrous forms that were bred for the amusement
of the Romans when the decline of the empire was pend-
ing, and in the care with which the Arabs kept their pedi-
grees from a remote antiquity.

So uniform is this principle of heredity in its action that
it may be designated the compass which guides the breeder
into the harbor of success. But before he can anchor there
he must give attention to certain principles, a close adher-
ence to which is absolutely essential to higher attainment
in results. He must, for instance, breed to a standard of
excellence; he must set a proper value on improved blood;
and he must understand the art of selection and the princi-
ples of good management generally. Without a standard
of excellence in his mind, that is, without an ideal type,
the breeder does not himself know what he is seeking.

FARM ANIMALS, 33

Without dominant or stable characters, iti at least one par-
ent, no stability in transmission can be looked for, and
without purity of breeding for generations dominant char-
acters cannot be secured. Hence the great importance of
purity of blood in effecting improvement in domestic ani-
mals. Since some inferior animals will occasionally ap-
pear, even where the breeding is the most skilful, the
necessity will always exist for the exercise of a most rigor-
ous selection on the part of every breeder who is to stand
on the upland of success. When aided by judicious selec-
tion, the law that like produces like enables us to effect
improvement until a certain standard of excellence is
reached, to maintain improvement when it has been
secured, and to mould new types and form new breeds.

By the Jaw or principle of variation is meant the ten-
dency sometimes found in animals to produce characters
in the progeny which differ from those of the parental
type. These changes relate to both form and function;
in time they may become modifications of the systems of
animals. They may be classed as gradual, or general and
ordinary; and as sudden, or spontaneous and extraordinary.
General variation is that tendency to change from the
original type which characterizes in a greater or a less de-
gree all the individuals of a breed. [Illustrations of the
principle of general variation may be found, /rsf/, in the
tendency of grain to deteriorate which has fallen upon an
unkindly soil; and second, in the quick deterioration of
the heavy breeds of sheep when confined to unproductive
and rugged pastures. Chief among the numerous causes
leading to general variation are changed conditions of life
in animals, as climate, food, habit, and environment. Some-
times these influences act independently and sometimes in
conjunction. The principle of spontaneous variation may
be defined as that tendency sometimes found in animals to
produce progeny more or less unlike either of the parents
or the ancestry of these. Illustrations of the operation of
this principle may be found in the Occasional production of
progeny very unlike the parents or the ancestry in color,
form, and other characteristics, and in the existence of horn-
less breeds of cattle.

34 AGRICULTURE.

By atavism is meant that innate tendency in animals to
revert to the original type. It differs from the principle
that like produces like in the reproduction of resemblances
to an ancestry more or less remote rather than to the par-
ents, and differs from spontaneous variation in produc-
ing resemblances to an ancestry more remote than the im-
mediate parents, whereas the latter produces characters
unlike those of the ancestry, whether near or remote. [II-
lustrations of atavic transmission are found in the occa-
sional apearance of scars or horns in the polled breeds of
cattle bred pure for many successive generations, and in
the occasional appearance of tan-colored spots on the ears
and face of the American merino.

It is evident, therefore, that an intimate knowledge of
the principles which govern breeding is highly important
to those engaged in the production of live-stock. Hence
they should study these with the utmost care and should em-
body them in their practice to the greatest possibile extent.

VETERINARY SCIENCE. oo

II]. VETERINARY SCIENCE.

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS.
By W. G. Ciark, M.D.C., Beaver Dam, Wis.

I, HORSES.

The common method of administering medicine to the horse
is in the form of a drench. In drenching a horse the bottle
should be clean, strong, and smooth. The head should be
elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the
:iquid from the mouth. If the animal refuses to swallow, tickle
the roof of the mouth with the finger or the neck of the bottle.
Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat, nor draw the tongue
out. These in no way aid the horse to swallow and often do
harm. If coughing occurs or by any mishap the bottle is
crushed in the mouth, lower the head atonce. Do not attempt
to pour medicine through the nose; it is liable to strangle the
animal,

Irritating substances, as turpentine, should be given in bland
fluids such as oil or milk.

Warm-water injections are of great value in treating many
bowel troubles. A very good injection pipe may be made with
about 30 inches of inch rubber hose and an ordinary tin funnel.
Oilthe hose and insert it in the rectum from 12 to 18 inches, and
elevate the funnel above the back and pour in the water. The
force of gravitation will carry it into the bowels.

Soap and water, or salt and water, may be injected in this
manner in quantitities of a gallon or more every hour.

-

Spasmodic Colic.

CAusEs.—Error in diet is the most prolific cause, as improper
food in improper quantities at irregular intervals; large
draughts of cold water when warm; eating when exhausted ;
intestinal parasites; or foreign bodies in the bowels.

SyMPTOMS.—The horse manifests uneasiness, moves forward
and back in the stall, looks toward the flank, switches the tail,
paws, lies down and rolls; after a little the spasm will subside
and the animal become quiet. Soon the spasm returns with

36 AGRICULTURE.

increased severity. As the disease progresses, the animal
will become more violent and the intervals between the
spasms shorter.

TREATMENT.—Always urgent, as it often runs a rapid
course, terminating fatally in a few hours.

Give as a drench laudanum 1 oz., baking-soda one table-
spoonful, sweet spts. nitre I oz., water one half-pint. This
may be repeated in half an hour if not relieved. Always
give injections of soap and warm water. Blanket the ani-
mal and rub the abdomen briskly. If inclined to hang on,
apply a paste of mustard to the abdomen and give raw lin-
seed oil 1 pt., chloral hydrate 4 dr., dissolved in warm
water.

Flatulent Colic.

The causes and symptoms are similar to those of spas-
modic colic.

The pain is not so severe at the outset and gradually in-
creases in severity as the bowels become distended by gas.
No intervals of ease as in spasmodic colic. The abdomen
becomes rapidly distended and the animal dies from suffo-
cation or rupture of the bowels unless soon relieved.

TREATMENT.— Usually necessary to puncture with a tro-
car and canula, which requires a knowledge of the anat-
omy of the parts. Internally give hyposulfite of soda 2 oz.,
fl. ex. ginger 4 dr., spts. turpentine 4 dr., water I pint.
Repeat in half an hour if necessary. Give injection of soap
and warm water at short intervals.

Pneumonia—Lung Fever.

The most common cause is exposure to a coid draught
when tired and sweaty.

SymMpToms.—It is usually ushered in with a chill, fol-
lowed by fever. The ears and legs are cold, pulse-rate in-
creased, labored breathing, elbows turned out, increased
working of the ribs, the animal persistently stands, appe-
tite usually lost.

TREATMENT.—Place in a comfortable well-veatilagall box-
stall. Blanket warmly, rub the legs and apply bandages.

:
:
:
|
|

bi
7
’

VETERINARY SCIENCE. 37

During the chill give large doses of stimulants, as whisky,
alcohol, ginger, etc., at short intervals.

If the breathing is notrelieved in a few hours, apply mus-
tard over the ribs, just back of the shoulder-blades.

Give nourishing, easily digested food. Keep the animal
perfectly quiet. Give 1-o0z. doses of nitrate of potash in the
drinking-water three times daily. After the chill is rélieved
keep a pail of fresh water before the animal at all times.

Azoturia—Black-water.

This disease is quite common among farm _ horses,
and is due solely to overfeeding on nitrogenous foods and
lack of exercise, followed by the accumulation in the sys-
tem of waste matters.

SyMpToMs.—The animal is taken from the barn after a
few days’ rest on full rations, apparently as well as usual.
After driving from half a mile to six or eight miles the
horse will begin to lag and sweat profusely. Shortly will
begin to golame, usually in one hind limb. If urged on,
will soon lose the use of the limbs and fall to the
ground, unable to rise. The urine if passed will
be dark and _ coffee-colored. This is a _ diagnos-
tic symptom. The muscles over the hips become hard
and swollen, and the animal will struggle convulsively and
attempt to rise.

TREATMENT.—Unhitch the animal as soon as the first symp-
toms are noticed and take the horse to the nearest barn. Fold
a woolen blanket and wring out of hot water and place over the
hips, covering with a dry blanket. Repeat as soon as it becomes
cool, and continue this until the more acute symptoms are re-
lieved. Internally give laudanum I 0z., raw linseed oil one pint,
and repeat the laudanum in an hour if the pain is not relieved.
If possible, the urine should be drawn with a catheter, as it is
rarely passed when the animal is down. Give injections of soapy
warm water at frequent intervals.

Distemper—Strangles.

This is a contagious disease due to a specific virus that very
few horses escape. It usually runs a benign course and termi-
nates favorably.

38 AGRICULTURE.

TREATMENT.—It is not of much use to attempt to check the
course of the disease; in all cases proper shelter and nursing are
most important.

Give laxative sloppy food and apply warm poultices to the
throat, to hasten suppuration. In no case give purging or de-
pressing medicines. In fact, the whole treatment consists in
producing and favoring the discharge of the abscess. As soon
as fluctuation can be detected the abscess should be opened.
When the disease assumes the malignant form or is complicated,
apply to a competent veterinarian.

Sprains.

TREATMENT.—Rest in a quiet well-bedded stall. Ifthe injury
is below the knee or hock and the weather is warm, bathe the
part three times daily for an hour at a time with cold water and
rub dry.

If above the knee or hock, or the weather is cold, use hot water.

After bathing apply a mild stimulant, as spirits of camphor,
arnica, etc.

If the lameness persists after the active inflammation is re-
duced use the following liniment: aqua ammonia and spirits
turpentine, 4 oz.; of each linseed oil 8 oz.; mix and apply twice
daily with friction,

Punctured Wounds of the Foot.

In all cases the horn around the seat of the injury should
be thinned down and a free opening made for the escape of
the products of suppuration. Cauterize the wound with 95
per cent carbolic acid and apply a poultice. Change twice.
daily and dress the wound with the following lotion: Zinc
sulph. I oz., sugar lead 1 0z., carbolic acid 4 dr., water 1 pint.

Thrush.

The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of
the stable in which the horse is kept. Muddy yards and roads,
also hard work on rough, stony roads may excite this disease.

SymPpToMs.—Increased secretion in the cleft of the frog and
an offensive odor. After a time considerable discharge takes
place and there is rapid destruction of the tissue of the frog.

TREATMENT.—Remove the cause, Cut away all diseased tissue
and cleanse the foot thoroughly. Take white vitriol 1 oz., and
water 6 ozs. Saturate pledgets of tow or cotton with the solu-
tion and crowd into the cleft and each side of the frog. Dress
once daily until the discharge ceases,

VETERINARY SCIENCE. 39

Cuts from Barb-wire, etc.

When bleeding to any extent follows a wound, this must first
be checked.

A moderately tight bandage with oakum, tow, or cobwebs will
usually stop the bleeding in a short time. If the blood is bright
red and flows in jets,apply a compress between the wound and
the heart.

If it is dark and the flow regular, apply pressure between the
wound and the extremity. Cleanse the wound thoroughly with
warm water and a soft sponge. Then dress with a 3 percent
solution of carbolic acid and apply a bandage so as to bring the
edges together. If proud flesh appears, treat it with burnt alum,

II. COWS.

Milk Fever.

Symptoms. — Dulness, uneasy movements of the hind
limbs, head and horns hot; the animal soon becomes weak
and unable to rise, head laid back on the flank or dashed to
the ground, bowels constipated, sensation usually lost.

TREATMENT.—Give a purgative dose of salts. Apply
mustard paste along the spine. Blanket and keep warm.

Give injections of soap and warm water. Internally give
4 pt. of whisky, fl. ex. belladonna 3 oz., tr. nux vomica 2 dr.
every three hours.

PREVENTION.—Spare diet a week before and after calving.
If constipated after delivery give a dose of salts.

Garget.

CausEs.—Irregularities of diet, overfeeding on stimulat-
ing food, exposure to cold, external injuries, as blows, etc.

Symptoms.—Seldom attacks the whole udder. Swelling,
heat, pain, and redness of the inflamed portion. The milk
is curdled, whey-like, and mixed with blood. In severe
cases there is much constitutional disturbance.

TREATMENT.—Endeavor to discover the cause and remove
it. The food should be devoid of milk-producing constitu-
ents. Draw the milk frequently, using a milking-tube if
necessary.

If the weather is warm bathe the udder for an hour or
more with hot water.

Take fluid extract betes I oz., glycerin 2 ozs.

40 AGRICULTURE.

mix and apply three times daily with mild friction. Give
two teaspoonfuls fluid extract belladonna three times
daily. If constipated, give epsom salts 1 lb., ginger I oz.,
water I qt.

Abortion.

The cow may abort from any cause profoundly disturbing
the nervous system, inflammation of the internal organs,
diarrhoea, acute indigestion, blows on the abdomen, expos-
ure to cold storms, drinking ice-water, feeding on ergotized
grains and grasses, and infection from abortion discharges
of other animals.

SympTomMs.—If it occurs within the first two months it is
not apt to be noticed. During the latter part of gestation
abortion resembles normal delivery, except that more effort
and straining are present.

TREATMENT.—The most important object in an impending
abortion is to recognize it as soon as possible and apply
preventive measures. Place in a quiet dark stall and check
straining ‘by sedatives. Laudanum 1 oz.; repeat in two
hours if necessary; or fl. ex. black haw. in same doses.

After an abortion burn the fcetus and afterbirth and all
litter that is soiled, or bury deeply and cover with quick-
lime.

Flood the womb with a 2% solution of carbolic acid and
wash the external organs once daily with a 5% solution.
Separate from the herd for 30 days.

In epizootic abortion material benefit has in many cases
been derived from phosphate of lime. Small doses (4 dram)
may be given daily in the food.

Hoven or Bloat.

CAUSES.—Overeating, choking, frosted roots, and fermen-
tation of the food.

TREATMENT.—In urgent cases tap on the left side at a
point equidistant from the point of the hip, the last rib and
the processes of the lumbar vertebre, pointing the trocar
or knife downward, inward, and forward. If slight give

VETERINARY SCIENCE. 4\

spts. turpentine I oz., raw linseed oil 4 pt., and place a gag
in the mouth.

When relieved give a purgative and keep on a light diet
for a few days.

Diarrhea in Calves.

Always due to indigestion and caused usuafly by over-
feeding or improper food.

PREVENTION.—Feed at least three times daily. The milk
should be sweet and fed at a temperature of go° to 100° F.
The pails,used in feeding should be kept sweet and clean.

TREATMENT.—Cut down the ration, scald the milk or add
lime-water in the proportion of 1 to 5. If the discharges
are bright yellow give castor oil 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls. If
there is great weakness give small doses of stimulants
(ginger, brandy, whisky).

Choking.

Common among cattle when fed on roots, etc. To pre-
vent tie the head so that it cannot be thrown up, or withhold
dangerous foods.

SymptToms.—Head extended, bloating, labored breathing,
continuous coughing. If in the throat there is great distress
and the animal may die quickly. If lower the symptoms
are not as acute.

TREATMENT.—If in the throat remove with the hand. If
below reach and the object can be located from the outside,
give small drenches of linseed oil and manipulate from the
outside. Taketime. Do not apply too much force. Usu-
ally best to work the object toward the throat.

If unable to remove the object it must be pushed down;
this may be done with a piece of 1-in. rubber-hose, 6 ft. in
length, well oiled, and inserted in the gullet, and gently
force the object down.

Tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease characterized by the
formation in the various organs of the body of tubercles or

49 AGRICULTURE.

nodules, and is due toa specific micro-organism, the dacidlus
tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis in animals is identical with tuberculosis
(consumption) in the human family, the ravages of which
are far greater than those of any other disease.

The death rate from consumption, which is but one of its
many forms, is about one in seven.

All domestic animals are more or less subject to the dis-
ease. Dairy cattle, however, in consequence of their mode
of life and the heavy drain on their system from excessive
breeding and milking, are more predisposed to the disease
than any other of the domestic animals.

CAuSE.—The essential cause is the specific germ, the
tubercle bacillus, without which the disease could not exist.
Since the disease is found in the lungsina large proportion
of cases, it is evident that tuberculosis is usually contracted
by inhaling the germs with the air. It may also be caused
by the ingestion of infected meat and milk and by direct
inoculation.

The development of the disease is favored by anything
that tends to impair the general health of the animal, as
overcrowding in poorly ventilated stables, hereditary pre-
disposition, in-and-in breeding, lack of exercise, errors in
diet, etc.

SympToms.—The symptoms are very obscure, and in some
cases where the disease is well advanced there is seemingly
little alteration in the health of the animal. The most
prominent symptoms are a short, husky cough, enlargement
of the lymph glands around the throat, dulness, capricious
appetite, staring coat, and emaciation.

Persistent cestrum or heat, with barrenness, especially
when there is a harsh, staring coat and general unthrifty
condition, is suspicious.

THE TUBERCULIN TEsT.—Tuberculin is a glycerin ex-
-tract of the soluble products produced by the growth of the
tubercle bacillus, concentrated, filtered, and _ sterilized.
When properly prepared it contains no living germs and
cannot produce tuberculosis. It was introduced to the
medical profession by Dr. Koch as a cure for tuberculosis.

VETERINARY SCIENCE. 43

Although it has not found practical application as a curative
agent, it furnishes us the best diagnostic agent for bovine
tuberculosis yet known.

A summary of statistics indicates that about 88 per cent
of tuberculous animals show the reaction fever on inocula-
tion, while go per cent that were declared free from disease
on account of the absence of fever did not show on autopsy
any signs of the disease.

PREVENTION.—The stables should be light and well ven-
tilated. Cattle should be kept from interchange of stalls
or stanchions. Breed only from healthy animals. No con-
sumptive person should be allowed to care for stock.

Isolate all suspected animals. Such animals should be
examined by a competent veterinarian, and if found to be
tuberculous the whole herd should be tested. Tuberculous
animals should be killed and the carcasses burned or buried
deeply and covered with quicklime. Disinfection should
be thorough. Remove and burn all litter. Burn sulphur
in the closed stable. Wash or spray all woodwork with a
solution of corrosive sublimate, one part, to one thousand
parts of water.

Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison and should be
used with care. Whitewash with freshly slaked lime.

III. SHEEP.
Scab.

Due to parasitic mites which infest the skin.

SympTomMs.—Intense itching, small reddish pimples ap-
pear, rupture, and discharge a watery fluid; scabs form, the
wool falls out in patches. Large sores sometimes result
from the incessant rubbing. The parasite may be seen with
a low-power lens.

TREATMENT.—Take one pound of tobacco to each five
gallons of water and boil until the strength is exhausted
from the leaves. Strain and add one pound of sulphur to
each five gallons. Allow each sheep to remain in the bath
for five minutes, working the solution into all parts of the
skin and breaking up the scabs. Place on a slooping rack
and press the liquid out of the fleece, allowing it to run back
into the trough. The same dip may be used for ticks.

44 AGRICULTURE.
Foot-Rot.

Separate the sound animals from the diseased ones and
from contaminated pastures and buildings. Carefully
vemove all diseased horn and foreign bodies and walk
the sheep through a trough containing one pound of blue
vitriol to three gallons of water. Place the infected flock
on a dry upland pasture, if possible.

Grub in the Head.

This is the larve of asmall gadfly (vestrus ovis) which
deposits its eggs within the nostrils. It stays there during
the winter and spring, often proving harmless, but some-
times causing much irritation, a white muco-purulent dis-
charge, with dullness and stupor.

PREVENTION.—Smear the nose with tar, or feed salt from
two-inch augur-holes bored in a log, the surface of which is
smeared with tar.

TREATMENT.—Place in a warm building and introduce
into the nostrils snuff, a solution of tobacco, or turpentine
and olive-oil equal parts, to kill the larve or cause their
expulsion by sneezing; or place ina close room and subject
to the fumes of burning sulphur for 15 min., as strong as
can be endured, once daily for 3 or 4 days.

IV. SWINE.
Hog Cholera.

A specific contagious fever of swine.

SymptToms.— The period of incubation varies from three
to fifteen days. Shivering, nose hot and dry, later refuses
food, lies under the litter, eyes sunken, gait unsteady.
Heat and soreness of the skin, with tenderness, red patches
and black spots; labored breathing; hard, dry cough; sore-
ness of the belly; costiveness, followed by a foetid diar-
rhoea.

PREVENTION.—If it breaks out in a herd, kill and bury the
diseased. Thoroughly disinfect everything they have come
in contact with, using one-half ounce of corrosive sublimate
in four gallons of water. Burn all straw and litter. Give
the healthy ones clean, dry quarters. If possible, divide up
the herd, placing a few in each pen. Allow free access to

VETERINARY SCIENCE. 45

wood or animal charcoal and give in the drinking-water ten
drops of carbolic acid for each one hundred and fifty pounds
of live weight. Take the temperature daily, inserting a
clinical thermometer in the rectum, and remove every
animal showing a temperature of 103° or over.

Kill and bury as soon as the symptoms of the disease are
well manifested.

Medicinal treatment of the disease is of but little avail.
A good dietetical treatment, including a strict observance of
sanitary principles, is of much more importance than the
use of medicines.

The pens should be kept scrupulously clean. The food
given should be clean, of the best quality, and easily
digested. The troughs used in feeding should be thor-
oughly cleaned at least once daily. Keep away from in-
fected herds, as the germs may be carried on the shoes or
clothing. It is said that the virus will blow half a mile on
the wind. It may also be spread by birds and dogs.

Intestinal. Worms.

This is one of the most common troubles of swine.

SymptToms.—A cough is usually the first symptom noticed;
animals have a voracious appetite, yet lose flesh and exhibit
general signs of ill health. If the feces are examined the
worms or their eggs can usually be found.

TREATMENT.—Give one teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine
for each one hundred and fifty pounds of live weight once
daily in milk oroil. Place common salt where they can have
free access to it. Give nutritious, easily digested food.

VETERINARY REMEDIES AND DOSES.
By W. G. Crark, M. D. C., Beaver Dam, Wis.

Graduation of Doses.

Horse. Ox. Dose.
3 years. 2 years. I part.
2 ars I ec 2/3 .
i te 9 months. x/3) eer
6 months, 2a Or ae 7/0
-600—C*S I-3 ae 1/16—1/32 part,

46 AGRICULTURE.

When not specified, the doses given apply to a full-grown
horse of medium size. Dose for the ox, from 14 to 2 parts;
sheep, } to} part. Animals of a nervous temperament are
usually more susceptible to the action of drugs.

No agent should be given until sufficiently diluted to
prevent irritation of the mouth, and irritants that will not
mix with water (turpentine, etc.) should be given in linseed
oil, milk, or eggs, after being thoroughly mixed.

RAw LINSEED OIL.—Dose: Horse, one half-pint to one
quart. Laxative in small doses, purgative in large. Not
so active as castor oil. A valuable laxative in young and
delicate animals. For calves and lambs it is more gentle
and safer than salts. In adults it is the best laxative to
use where there is an irritable condition of the bowels, and
in all febrile diseases where a laxative is needed. In im-
paction of the bowels a pint may be given two or three
times daily until relieved, supplemented by warm-water
injections everytwo hours. Valuable in cases of choking
on account of its lubricating qualities.

Castor O1L.—Causes more griping and nausea than lin-
seed oil and is more certain in its action. Used chiefly asa
laxative for calves, foals, sheep, swine, and dogs.

Useful in diarrhoea of calves and other young animals
when the discharges are bright yellow and _ irritating.
Dose for a calf, from I to 4 tablespoonfuls.

Epsom SALTS.—For cattle this is the purgative in most
frequent and general use. Adult cattle take from 1 lb. to14
lbs. In small doses in febrile diseases it lowers the tem-
perature, improves the appetite, and helps to maintain a
healthy and regular action of the bowels. Epsom salts is
one of the best antidotes for lead poisoning. When used
as a purgative, give from I to 2 oz. ginger with the salts.

OIL OF TURPENTINE (SPTS. TURPENTINE).—Dose: Horse,
4toloz. Very irritating to the mucous membrane, and when
used internally should be given in oil or some bland fluid.
Stimulant and anti-spasmodic. Ome of the most useful
remedies in flatulent colic in the horse, and hoven or bloat
in the ox. Also used to kill and expel intestinal worms.
When used for this purpose, it is given after fasting in

VETERINARY SCIENCE. 47

large doses, 14 to 2 oz. for the horse, followed in 12 hours
by a purgative.

Applied externally it is an irritant and is used in many
liniments. The following liniment may be used where a
mild counter-irritant is desired: Oil of turpentine and aqua
ammonia, of each 4 oz., linseed oil 8 0z. Mix. This lini-
ment is used chiefly for rheumatic swellings, sprains, and
bruises after the active pain is subdued by fomentations,
and for sore throats, as seen in distemper.

ALCOHOL.—Dose: Horse, $ oz. well diluted, whisky
or brandy 2to40z. Alcoholisa narcotic poison. It first
stimulates, then deranges, and ultimately depresses the
functions of the brain and spinal cord. It kills, as a rule, by
paralysis of respiration. Medicinally it is a very valuable,
diffusible stimulant, anti-spasmodic heart tonic and anti-
septic. Moderate doses increase the gastric secretions and
aid digestion, but large doses destroy pepsin, arrest secre-
tion, and interfere with absorption. There is probably no
drug more extensively used than alcohol. It is useful in
indigestion, spasmodic colic, cases of poisoning by aconite
or tobacco. It is valuable in influenza and debilitating dis-
eases. In blood-poisoning whisky combined with quinine
is one of the most effective agents we have in controlling
the temperature and keeping up the strength of the animal.

The following is very useful in some cases of indigestion:
Whisky 1 pt., quinine (sulfate) I oz., water I pt. Mix.
Give 3 ounces at intervals of 3 to 4 or 6 hours, according to
the nature of the case.

SALTPETER (NITRATE OF POTASH).—Dose: Horse, I tea-
spoonful to half an ounce. Large doses are irritant and
cathartic and are liable to cause inflammation of the bow-
els. Medicinal doses are discretive, alterative, antiseptic,
febrifugal, and refrigerant. In febrile, inflammatory, and
rheumatic complaints it allays fever, lowers excessive tem-
perature, and removes by the kidneys both solid and fluid
matters. Dissolved in water and applied externally it ab-
stracts heat and is a useful refrigerant. Combined with
sulfate of iron it makes an excellent tonic for horses
recovering from debilitating diseases.

48 AGRICULTURE.

Saltpeter 2 oz., dried sulf. iron 3 oz. Mix. Give 2
teaspoonfuls with the feed 2 or 3 times daily.

A.tuM.—Alum is an astringent. Chiefly used externally.
Use a saturated solution in hot water. Applied to the
shoulders of horses in the spring it toughens the skin and
prevents collar-galls. Useful in healing harness-galls.
One of the best lotions to apply to barb-wire cuts and other
wounds of a similar nature to prevent growth of proud
flesh. Sometimes dusted over the surface in the form
of burnt alum ; not so effective as the saturated solution.

GINGER.—Dose: Horse, 4 to 1 oz. Ginger stimulates
the various mucous membranes with which it comes in
contact. Administered internally it increases the gas-
tric secretions, facilitates digestion, and checks formation
of gas. It is a useful adjunct to many medicines and is
given with tonics and stimulants. Combined with purga-
tives it diminishes their liability to nauseate and gripe, and
also hastens their effect. It is used in all domesticated ani-
mals to fulfil those purposes, and is especially adapted to
cattle and sheep.

CARBOLIC AcID.—One of the best and cheapest disinfec-
tants known. For dressing fresh wounds it may be used
in from 2 percent to 5 percent watery solution. In oil r
part to 15. Inhalation of the vapor with steam is of great
service in malignant sore throat and abscesses following
strangles. Carbolic acid is a narcotic irritant poison, and
considerable care must be exercised in its use, as it is liable
to become absorbed and produce poisonous effects if ap-
plied over a large surfacein a strong solution. It has been
highly recommended in the treatment of hog cholera. It
may be given to hogs in doses of from 1 to 5 drops well
diluted.

PINE TAR.—Not much employed internally. It is a good
dressing in thrush and canker of the horse’s foot. It is also
of special service in foot-rot in sheep. It acts as a stimulant
and deodorizer to foul-smelling*wounds and prevents the
attacks of flies.

LIME WATER.—Lime water is prepared by slaking a small
quantity of freshly burned lime with a large quantity of

+ --2 as

VETERINARY SCIENCE. 49

water, allowing the undissolved matter to settle and pour-
ing off the clear solution. This should be kept in tightly

- corked bottles. Lime water is an alkali and is used in in-
digestion, bloat, and diarrhoea, especially among calves...
Given with the milk in the proportion of 1:5. Scalds and
burns may be treated with carron oil, which is composed of
lime water and linseed oil, equal parts. Fresh lime in
powder and solution is used in cleansing and disinfecting
stables. For this purpose a little carbolic acid may be
added to the solution.

SULFuR.—In large doses it is an active irritant poison. In
medicinal doses it is a laxative, alterative, and stimulates
secretion. Care should be taken to prevent the animal
from taking cold when given sulfur. It opens the pores of
the skin and stimulates perspiration. Chiefly used in treat-
ing rheumatism and chronic skin diseases. Dose: Horse,
+ oz. to 2 oz.

SUPPRESSION OF HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE
PLAGUE. (CRAIG.)

CAusEs.—Hog cholera and swine plague are caused by
different bacteria, but they are equally dependent for the
success of their attacks on the unhealthiness of the hogs,
due in most instances to unwholesome food and filthy sur-
roundings. The causes are so similar and the symptoms
are so much alike and often complicated that it will be best
to consider the diseases together in what follows. The
germs that cause them are easily spread over large terri-
tories by being carried by cars, wagons, or the shoes of per-
sons that have been among infected hogs. Most frequently
the origin of the outbreak may be traced to the importation
of hogs from diseased districts or to spread from such

centers by running streams.

SyMPTOMS.—The first symptoms usually shown in attacks
of these diseases are those that indicate fever—a rise in
temperature, thirst, loss of appetite, and redness of the skin
_ on the lower partof the neck and inner side of the thigh.
3 Usually a hog so diseased begins to cough when started

50 AGRICULTURE.

from its bed. A constipated condition of the bowels
changes to diarrhoea as the disease progresses, and this
results in a rapid loss of flesh. Dissection generally shows
the lungs to be inflamed, the spleen enlarged, or the
lining of the large intestine covered with numerous ulcers.

PREVENTION.—To protect hogs from attacks of these dis-
eases it is necessary to observe the following recommen-
dations: The hogs should not be watered at running
streams, as the germs are readily carried by these. Per-
sons coming from infected districts should not be allowed
to go near your hogs, and you should not go among your
neighbors’ hogs if they are sick. When other hogs are
brought to your farm, assume that they are infected and
keep them away from yours at least for six weeks. Observe
as much cleanliness as possible in regard to food and sur-
roundings. Feed a mixture of foods ina sloppy or soft con-
dition, and withhold heavy grain feeding. Disinfect the
quarters of the hogs by sprinkling liberally witha five per
cent solution (by volume) of carbolic acid, and use a two per
cent solution of the same for washing the hogs.

TREATMENT.— The hogs showing any of the symptoms
described should at once be separated from the others, and
put in cheaply constructed quarters, so that the latter may
be burned when no longer required. The well hogs should
be removed to disinfected quarters. Give all the hogs the
following mixture, recommended by Dr. Salmon, Chief of
the Bureau of Animal Industry:

WOGd a redah S25 se osu seesaw oapls Saleh 1 lb.
SAHA EMET IC <552 wale Bale's <s's BSW a < CBs ee & oes emi : ae
PANES. sigh hos At os sis'p wine, duis’ a's oe ge eae 2 lbs
PN SOC Acs scin's oy Cow meee meee Ree aie 2
RAHUL S Salts. os sees Stee seme pS ee eee eee 1 Ib.
sopruim hy postilite. +: oss ss. t vet ween se ae 2 lbs.
Amiamony SUlGd & .%..0)6s ik serene ee ere T lb.

This should be given in soft food in the proportion of a
teaspoonful daily to a two hundred pound hog. Remove
all refuse from the pens in which the infected hogs were
kept, and dig out the old soil, put in fresh earth, disinfect

VETERINARY SCIENCE. 51

with carbolic acid solution, and allow the pens to remain
vacant for at least six months. The same feeder should
not attend the well and the sick hogs unless his shoes are
changed after each visit to the sick hogs, The bodies of
the dead hogs should be thrown intoa rubbish heap and
burned; but if this cannot be easily carried out, along, deep
trench should be dug, and when the carcases are thrown
into it they should be covered with a layer of quicklime and
at least six inches of earth. When the disease has spent
itself or has been effaced, the entire mass in the trench
should bé covered with six inches of quicklime and at least
six feet of earth. The place selected for the burial of
the hogs should not drain towards a stream, and it would
be better to fence it. The dead hogs should never be drawn
over the ground, and the wagon used should be washed
with a disinfectant.

REMEDIES FOR THE HORN FLY.
CWEED.)

The most satisfactory way of preventing the attacks of
the horn fly is to apply to the cattle some substance that
Serves as a repellent; the best results are obtained by the
use of a cheap oil, such as fish oil or crude cotton-seed
oil, to which a small amount of carbolic acid or pine tar
has been added. Either of the following formulas are
recommended for this purpose:

I. Crude cotton-seed oil, or fish oil, 3 parts. Pine tar,
I part.

2. Crude cotton-seed oil, or fish oil, 100 parts. Crude
carbolic acid, 3 parts.

In either case these substances are to be mixed, and ap-
plied rather lightly to the cattle by means of a wide paint
brush, a sponge, or even a woolen cloth; the combination
immediately drives off the flies, and remains on in condi-
tion to keep them off for about five days. A combination
of ‘kerosene emulsion and tobacco decoction may also be
used with good effect.

52 AGRICULTURE.

LIST OF DISINFECTANTS.
(STERNBERG,)

The most useful agents for the destruction of spore-
containing infectious material are:

1. Fire.—Complete destruction by burning.

2. Steam under Pressure, 105° C. (221° F.,) for ten minutes.

3. Botling in Water for half an hour.

4. Chlorid of Lime (should contain at least 25 per cent of
available chlorin).—A 4 per cent solution.

5. Mercuric Chlorid.—A solution of 1-500.

For the destruction of infectious material which owes
its infecting power to the presence of micro-organisms not
containing spores, any of the following agents are recom-

mended:
1. ire.—Complete destruction by burning.

2. Boiling in water for ten minutes.

3. Dry Heat, 110° C. (230° F.), for two hours.

4. Chlorid of Lime.—A 2 per cent solution.

5. Solution of Chlorinated Soda (should contain at least
3 per cent of available chlorin).—A Io per cent solution.

6. Mercuric Chlorid.—A solution of I-2000.

7. Carbolic Acid.—A 5 per cent solution.

8. Sulfate of Copper.—A 5 per cent solution.

g. Chlorid of Zinc.—A 10 per cent solution.

10. Sulfur Dioxid (this will require the combustion of
between 3 and 4 lbs. of sulfur for every 1000 cubic feet
of air-space).—Exposure for twelve hours to an atmos-
phere containing at least 4 volumes per cent of this gas, tz
presence of moisture.

RULES FOR DISINFECTION OF STABLES.

In Case of Appearance of Contagious Diseases.

(TRUMBOWER.)

1. Have all loose litter, hay, and rubbish removed and’

burned.

2. Have all manure removed to land where cattle have no
access.

3. Have all feed-troughs, hay-racks and all woodwork

;

> VETERINARY SCIENCE, 53

thoroughly cleaned by washing with hot water in which two
ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water are dissolved.

4. Thoroughly whitewash the whole of the interior of the
building with a whitewash containing one pound of chloride
of lime to each four gallons of water. Enough freshly
burned quicklime should be added to make the wash show
where applied. Especially should this be applied to the
sides and front of the stalls, feed-troughs and hay-racks
(inside and outside).

5. All rotten woodwork to be removed and burned, and
replaced with new.

6. All buckets, forks, shovels, brooms, and other objects
used about the stable to be washed and covered with the
same solution.

7. All drains to be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
with a solution of chloride of lime, one pound to four gal-
lons of water.

8. In cases of glanders, all harness, poles, and shafts of
wagons, neck-yokes and pole-straps should be thoroughly
washed with hot water and soap, and afterwards oiled with
carbolized oil (one part of carbolic acid to ten of oil). Before
applying the oil, harness should be hung up in the open air
for one week.

REGULATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF
Dairies and Dairy Farms in the District of Colum-
bia.

SECTION 1.—No building shall be used for stabling cows
for dairy purposes which is not well lighted, ventilated,
drained, and constructed.

SEc. 2.—No building shall be used for stabling cows for
dairy purposes which is not provided with a suitable floor,
laid with proper grades and channels to immediately carry
off all drainage; and if a public sewer abuts the premises
upon which such building is situated, they shall be con-
nected therewith whenever, in the opinion of the health
officer, such sewer connection is necessary.

SEc. 3.—No building shall be used for stabling cows for
dairy purposes which is not provided with good and sufli-

54 AGRICULTURE.

cient feeding-troughs or boxes, and with a covered water-
tight receptacle, outside of the building, for the reception
of dung and other refuse.

Sec. 4.—No water closet, privy, cesspool, urinal, in-
habited room, or workshop shall be located within any
building or shed used for stabling cows for dairy purposes,
or for the storage of milk or cream, nor shall any fowl,
hog, horse, sheep, or goat be kept in any room used for
such purposes.

Sec. 5.—The space in buildings or sheds used for stabling
cows shall not be less than five hundred cubic feet for each
cow, and the stalls therefor shall not be less than four feet
in width.

SEc. 6.—It shall be the duty of each person using any
premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to keep suc
premises thoroughly clean and in good repair and weil
painted or whitewashed at all times.

Src. 7.—It shall be the duty of each person using any
premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to cause the
building in which cows are kept to be thoroughly cleaned,
and remove all dung from the premises so as to prevent its
accumulation in great quantities.

Src. 8.—It shall be the duty of any person having charge
or control of any premises upon which cows are kept to
notify the health officer, in writing, of the existence of any
contagious or infectious disease among such cows, within
twenty-four hours of the discovery thereof, and to thor-
oughly isolate any cow or cows affected or which may rea-
sonably be believed to be infected, and to exercise such
other precautions as may be directed, in writing, by the
health officer.

SEC. 9.—Any person using any premises for keeping
cows for dairy purposes shall provide and use a sufficient
number of receptacles made of non-absorbent materials,
for the reception, storage, and delivery of milk, and shall
cause them at all times to be cleansed and purified, and
shall cause all milk to be removed without delay from the
rooms in which the cows are kept.

SEC. 10.—Every person keeping cows for the production

VETERINARY SCIENCE, 55

of milk for sale shall cause every such cow to be cleaned
every day and to be properly fed and watered.

SEC. 11.—Every person using any premises for keeping
cows shall cause the yard used in connection therewith to
be provided with a proper receptacle for drinking water
for such cows; none but fresh, clean water to be used in
such receptacle.

SEc. 12.—Any enclosure in which cows are kept shall be
graded and drained so as to keep the surface reasonably
dry and to prevent the accumulation of water therein, ex-
cept as may be permitted for the purpose of supplying
drinking water; no garbage, urine, fecal matter, Or similar
substances shall be placed or allowed to remain in such en-
closure, and no open drain shall be allowed to run through it.

SEc. 13.—These regulations shall apply to all premises
upon which cow’s milk is produced for sale.

SEc. 14.—That any person violating any of these regula-
tions shall, on conviction inthe police court of said district,
be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than
ten dollars for each and every offense, to be collected as
other fines and penalties are collected.

56 AGRICULTURE,

IV. FIELD CROPS.

QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE.

(WarInG.)

Designation. ae” Designation. Quantity

WY Mea S Maleswe ss 0 1ito2 bu. | Broom-corn.... Ito 1$ bu.
Barley ........ 14 to 24 bu. | Potatoes........ 5 to 10 bu.
42 SMe GA fee's 2 ‘to 4 “bu."| Timothy. i. 22 fate
i Ses SEARS ae to‘ bu. ih Mustard sees .. 8 to 20 qts.
Buckwheat...... ®to1t4bu. | Herd grass,.... 12 to 16 qts.
Niet. ..ccet cee © to'1d ba: f’ Blattarmips: Po; 2to 3 lbs.
RRteetie. hiss ce 3 Sa +tor bu. | Redclover...... 10 to 16 lbs.
Eads CR SA I to2 bu. | White clover.... 3 to 4 lbs.
DENS ees. cee te 23 to 34 bu. | Blue grass...... 10 to 15 lbs.
TIGM Dans sain = Os I to14bu. | Orchard grass... 20 to 30 lbs.
NE sn Boe a doa ope 2302. bai, Scarrots:s. icresee 4 to 65 lbs.
LS ee ee . 2, to2$ bu,..] .Parsnips... si:ts 6to 8 lbs.

When planted in rows or drills:

Broom-corn..... I to 14 bu. | Onions.......+. 4to5 lbs.
PIOAPS 5.0) 2 is. ale wre Ii to 2) bu. | Carrots. .....5.< 92 tO

Peasess > <vsieess I9-tO'? . bu. | Parsnips. ..... 2.0 age
Beets .00cccs cess EO OE

FIELD CROPS. 57

SEED MIXTURES FOR HAY AND PERMANENT
PASTURES

In Pounds per acre.

ie Idi 3 oc ss IV. BA VI.
or Goo or For
Law-| Medium For Wet Chalky | Perma-

Names of Grasses. |Flint.| oo, | Soils. D Sule |_ Soils. sent
De Launé|~* “24"£| De Launé|Lawns,
lint.
Meadow foxtail...... 2 2 10 ML SPS Fans ste 3 z
Orchard grass........ 6 i Pee eal evades sek» leer: as de ais 3
PECL VEAL OF PT.8 SATS. Ash cl a oan cc sets sites oa cine 2
Meadow fescue....... 2 2 6 3 2 2
MEAIIeSCUE ok. ces | coo e ae 2 3 Sambal s rusia 3 c5s ° 2
AAG TESCUE. 25) 050. -ftoo0s- 2 I I 4 2
MGCP STESCUE. + .3- cufaasec|, e2se: eR aneooer 4 2
LET io) 0 2 ZA eR eer hot eer 1 ol Wbeeodem ar 3
Se So 2 bach ani tea [8 Sebel eee ete 4
Kentucky blue grass. Be lias hertie akee: te wae It aplotog. aigwilabs, Leb oiera:sueynosevsi ls Wialoeee oe
Italian rye grass...... 4 Gis be sce teaeisae hades sama agatap «de 3
Perennial rye grass.., 6 Si sana oe wantill vetaicGa ioe ane fats, bse, apa 5 4
PimGthy <2. Lee 3 3 Qe Cee 20h 3
Rough meadow grass} 2 2 14 Pan Aa eee 3
Wood meadow grass. BE Meee aa: eisiln woiaianytecm lola! crm erners ates ere oe “on
Med GIOVET, «3..---. 0. ENS SA | SRE EA Rey aeeic ee ne 2
Perennial red clover. 3 2 I I I 2
White (Dutch) clover 5 I I I 2
cognkk “Es Sei I | ee eee I I I Wachee
Yellow oat grass.....}...... te Be, SE Ny eee ae I I
Menem a TOUS. 5. 20s cc lass c-|eceres 7 10 PE: Roaeen se
crested dop’s-tail .2.)......).s000> 2 2 : BARA Hae
BNORIM ccs sss cess AP ae 4 MoeOer 14 pe (RARE eS | Ae 2 ee
PRAREEIGY We ch tte testes aees eh Pete: 6% I I Soe Eee:
Meee EON CR ere eee eo 2Niks cis eis\l\< ccheunlemopelcy sured eee em Sem ogo Hig on Wi tateiectate
007 2 Ae See ee I A oR Ney tbe han BBR 6
40 45 41 40 38 43

For the Northwest the following mixture will, according
to Shaw, be found suitable:

Timothy 4 lbs., blue grass 3 lbs., redtop 2 lbs., orchard
grass 2 lbs., meadow fescue 1 lb., tall oat grass 1 Ib.,
meadow foxtail 1 lb., alsike clover 3 lbs., white clover 2 lbs.,
lucern (alfalfa) 2 lbs., yellow clover 1 1b., total 22 lbs.

And for the States east of Michigan and for the provinces
of Canada eastward of Lake Huron:

Lucern (alfalfa) 5 lbs., orchard-grass 4 lbs., meadow
fescue and alsike clover 3 lbs. each, tall oat grass, timothy,
meadow foxtail, and white clover 2 lbs. each, yellow clover
I lb.; total 24 lbs.

58

AGRICULTURE.

Henry recommends the following mixture of grass and cloves
seed (pounds per acre):

Timothy) 2 :¢ a5 sanscnscusey 7 POUNn
ces: ir ae 5 aiwla aie ee
Ttalianigye. discs se ahd spp encase
Perennial rye....... siiee Soe ee else
Walliaat tases ea maswewsicntel: Bose
Redtop. « <4 Rees es caches Oe
Mentucky sess. sss eshee
Alfalhas oitoicaeeh als dee ate. ae ost
Wiate 'clovers24 3. cctenssden Rian
Alstke €lover 206.) token Ge Br
REG CIGVEL. 50 asteepass Soe e oe8tiy ke
Totaltee shes <8 ae seek Barc

Flint gives the following mixtures, among others, as repre-
senting the common ones adopted in New England and among
farmers throughout the country:

1. $ bu. (6 Ibs.) redtop; 1 peck (11 Ibs.) timothy; 5 lbs. red

Ow

clover.
. I bu. (12 lbs.) redtop; 1 peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 8 Ibs. red
clover.
3. 4 qts. (14 Ibs.) redtop ; 1 peck (11 Ibs.) timothy ; 2 qts.
clover; I pint white clover.
12 qts. (164 lbs.) timothy; 4 lbs. clover.
1 bu. redtop; 4 bu. timothy; 10 lbs. clover.
r peck redtop; 1 peck timothy; Io lbs. clover, etc.

red

FIELD CROPS.

59

THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF
ORDINARY CROPS IN POUNDS PER ACRE.

(WaRINGTON.)

Wheat :

grain, 30 bu..
Straw 2s... ><

Total crop..

Barley :

grain, 4o bu..
Sirawe~< ji: 5.

Total crop..

Maize:

grain, 30 bu..
stalks, tee...

Total crop..

Meadow hay,
wgtons. ...

Red clover hay,
EBORG is 55 2 3/5

Beans:

SUE ease

Total crop..

Turnips :

root, 17 tons.

leaf

Total crop..

Swedes:

root, 14 tons..

leaf

Total crop..

Weight of

ry
Gop. 1S u)'< ale
etl ON LEE @/29| ¢
ajo} b& | a . | & lao] -s -
At 2°) Sis fsa peel & leds be
Har} Dry.|6 | 2) 's-.als3 Bio ia” We =
vest. H |Z21/nN|Al[/nlH lala |O 1a
lbs. | lbs. | Ibs.| lbs.| lbs.|{Ibs.| lbs.| lbs.| lbs.| 1bs.| Ibs.| Ibs.
1,800] 1,530] 30| 33] 2-7] 9-3] 0.6] 1-0] 3.6]14.2| 0.1] 0.6
3,158] 2,653] 142| 15] 5.1/19.5] 2.0] 8.2] 3.5] 6.9] 2.4/96.3
4,958] 4,183] 172} 48] 7.8/28.8] 2.6) 9 7-1|21.1| 2.5|96.9
2,080} 1,747} 46) 35] 2.9] 9.8] 1.1] 1-2] 4.0]16.0] 0.5|11.8
2,447] 2,080] 111] 13] 3.2/25.9] 3-9] 8.0] 2.9] 4.7] 3.6/56.8
4:527| 3,827] 157] 48] 6.1135.7] 5.0] 9-2] 6.9]20.7| 4.1|68.6
1,890] 1,625} 51| 38] 3.2] 9.1] 0.8] 1.8] 3.6/13.0] 0.5/19.9
2,835| 2,353} 140} 17| 4.8/37.0| 4.6) 9.8) 5.1) 6.4) 6.1/65.4
45725] 3,978| 191] 55| 8.0/46.1| 5.4|t1.6) 8.7/19.4) 6.6/85.3
1,680} 1,500] 22} 28] 1.8] 6.5] 0.2] 0.5] 3.4]10.0] 0.2] 0.5
2,208} 1,877] 99] 15|....|29.8] ...|.- : -0
3,888] 3,377] 121] 43 elie | Were 4 Aber iaeec 18.0
3,360] 2,822] 203] 49] 5.7|50.9] 9.2/32-1|14.4]12.3]14.6|56.9
4,480] 3,763} 258) 102] 9.4/83.4] 5.1|90.1/28.2/24.9| 9.8] 7.0
1,920] 1,613] 58] 77] 4.4]24.3}] 0.6] 2 4.2|22.8] 1.1] 0.4
2,240] 1,848] 99] 29] 4.9|42.8] 1.7/26.3] 5.7] 6.3] 4-3] 6.9
4,160] 3,461] 157] 106] 9.3/67.1] 2.3/29.2] 9.9|29.1] 5.4] 7-3
38,080] 3,126] 218] 63]/15.2/108.6|17.0/25.5] 5.7|22.4|10.9| 2.6
11,424] 1,531] 146] 49] 5.7|/40.2| 7.5/48.5| 3-8]10.7|/11.2| 5.2
49,504] 4,657) 364] 192|20.9/148.8|24.0/74.0] 9.5/33-1/22.1] 7-7
31,360] 3,349] 163] 70|14.6|/63.3/22.8/19.7| 6.8]16.9) 6.8) 3.1
4,704] 706] 75] 28] 3.2/16.4] 9.2/22.7| 2.4] 4.8] 8.3] 3.6
36,064] 4,055] 238] 98]17.8*|79.7]32.0/42.4] 9.2/21.7|15-1| 6.7

* Calculated from a single analysis only.

60 AGRICULTURE.

THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF
ORDINARY CROPS,.—Coxtinued.

Weight of 5 e)
Crop.) ia, 14 3 le
————— al wo “ : no he <
Pe n on Me a . Vv ao om .
At s“|/o/Sia|/a¢}%]&l/ea/ 6/8
Har-| Dry: 6 +) 34 2 Sree Sale ia tees
vest. BS |124/njalni|Ala ie ola
Mangolds: Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs.} 1lbs.| 1bs.|ilbs.} lbs.} lbs.| Ibs.| Ibs.| lbs.| Ibs.
root, 22 tons../49,280| 5,914] 426] 87] 4.9|222.8169.4|15.9/18.3|36.4|42-5| 8-7
es Sa 18,233) 1,654] 254] 51] 9-1|77-9|49-3|27.0|24.2|16.5|40.6] 9.2
Total crop..|67,513] 7,568} 680} 138]14.0]300.7]187.7|42.9|42-5|52.9/83.1|17-9
Potato:
tubers, 6 tons.|13,440| 3,360] 127| 47] 2.7/76+5] 3.8] 3.4] 6.3lez.5] 4.4] 2-6
Beech
WOGEM ES At A 2,822] 26) fo}....| 4-2] 0.8/12.9] 3.4] 1.5]..--] 2-2
fal litter 7.5.4.3 12 2,975| 166] 39] ...| 8-8] 1.6]73.1/10.9] 9.3] ---153-9
T’l produce.|...... 5,797| 192] 49]..-.|13-0] 2.4]86.0]14.3]10.8]..../56.1
Scotch pine:
MeeOd 25 Sr a2. oi 22884) CTS) soc. | seas 2.3] 0.2] 9.0] 1.5] 1.0}. 0.5
leaf litter. ;.2.)2.5... 2,845} 42] ..-| ...| 4-3] t-7|16.8] 4.3] 3.3 5.8
T’l produce.|}...... 5,720| 57|----| ---| 6-6] 1-9]25.8] 5.8] 4.3]----| 6-3
Spruce fir:
WOOGS TT stor 8 3064) | Fool ce tee 3.6] 0.4] 8.2] 1.8] 1.3 2.9
leaf litter..... 2,683) 12x) pei. |e - 4-3] 1.-5/54.4| 6.2] 5.7 44.3

T'l .prodiice.|.2::). 5,747| r41|..--| .- | 7-9] 1-9]62.6| 8.0] 7.0]..--|47-2
SOILING CROPS ADAPTED TO NORTHERN Nikiw
ENGLAND STATES. (Linpsey.)

(For ro cows’ entire soiling.)

Ti ; ?
Kind. | Seed per Acre ecu Area. |Time of Cutting
Rye .. s.:...0-/2 bush.... .....|.- Sept. 10-15 ¥ acre May 20—May 30
Wineate 2-105). 5 2 tiie ss oe June 1—June 15
Ried clover ei): 120 IDS: eres) ceseee Julyrs—Aug.1| ‘ June 15—June 25
1g bu. redtop...
Grass did) ‘clo: ty peck timothy. Sept. % acre|June 15—June 30

Ver.--+----+++ ( lrolbs.red clover
3 bush. oats.... t April 30 \% acre June 25—July 10

Vetch and oats. Eodbs.ivetch «.
ia3 Lad “

me ee he

“ “ : mae 30 = July 1o—July 20
Peas and oats.. rd a anes t go Rs. a June 25—July to
ee Pi ee re et 5 ap sg July 1to—July 20
Barnyard millet. . |x an Dn he stoke May 10 %. acre July 25—Aug.10
eS Sis Ahh wae ee’ 25 Aug. 1o—Aug.20

Soja bean (me-
dium green)....|18 quarts....... S20 | “ Aug. 25—Sept.15
OED Fe ode he Nec aithe cease! Brees et Aug. 25—Sept.1o

‘

6 seers a Sots ts reer os ver ans 30 LN Sept. 1o—Sept.2o
Hungarian...... 1 Hashes isch July is ‘1% acre|Sept. 2o—Sept. 30

Barley and peas } ‘2 “ eticy., t Aug. 5 1acre|Oct. 1—Oct. 20

FIELD CROPS. ss 61

TIME OF PLANTING AND FEEDING SOILING
CROPS. (PuHELpPs.)

Amount of | Approxi-
Kind of Fodder. Seed mate Time
per Acre.|of Seeding.

Approximate
Time of Feeding.

Le Sn 2¢ to 3 bu. | Sept. x May 10-20
AmeWWHeat TOGGEr:< (0 6<002. 0: 2} to 3 bu. | Sept. 5-10 | May 20, June 5
eee 20 Ibs. July 20-30 | June 5-15

4. Grass (from grass- panel. June 15-25

5: Oats and peas.. Mo 2c./ 2) 2 Das each April 10 June 25, July 10
6. Bieta Atos eie'6 a % S ie July 10-20
oe a 2 “SAL. S. +30 ** 20, Aug. 1
BEAT ACAI go raio\e in, wish 0:6. 10)6% 14 busheJs! June 1 Aug. 1-10

9g. Clover’rowen (from. CARP ‘* 10-20
CORRS = ...-.| 1 bushel May 25 ** 20, Sept. 5
11. Cow-peas...... 1 bushel June 5-10
12. Rowen grass (from grass- Sept. 5-20

VAVACIS i 0t.t). cisin'> caicia's Povstetaie ** 20-30
na. Barley and peas............ 2 bu. each | Aug. 5-10 | Oct. 1-30

The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions
under approximately similar conditions.

CYLINDRICAL SILOS.

Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos for Well
Matured Corn Silage, in Tons. (K1nc.)

=e Inside Diameter in Feet.

ge

= 15 16 17 18 19 20 ar, | .22 |, 23,1) 240 | »os
BOR cs ots 58.84] 66.95] 75.58] 84.74] 94.41|104.6 |115.3]126.6)138.3]150.6/163.4
Ean 62.90] 71.56] 80.79] 90.57|100.9 {111.8 |123.3]135-3/147.9]161.0]174.7
22....- 67.35| 76.52} 86.38] 96.84/107.9 |119.6 |131.8)144.7|158.1/172.2/186.8
228 abe 71.73] 81.61] 92.14/103.3 [115.1 |127.5 |140.6/154.3/168.7/183.6|199.3
Ae o's 76.12] 86.61| 97.78]109.6 |122.1 |135.3 |149-2|163.7|179.0|/194.9|211.5
25.....| 80.62] 89.64/103.6 {116.1 |129.3 |143.3 |1£58.0/173.4]/189.5|206.4/223.9
2653. . 85.45] 97.23)/109.8 |123.0 |137.1 |151.9 |167.5]183.8]200.9/218.8/237.4
2 Oe 90.17}/102 6 /115.8 |129.8 |144.7 |160.3 |176.7|194.0/212.0/230.8]250.5
7 94.99}108.1 |122.0 |136.8 |152.4 |168.9 |186.2/204.3]}223.3/243.2/263.9
29.----]| 99.92/113.7 |128.3 |143.9 |160.3 |177.6 |195.8|214.9/234.9|255.8/277.6
coe 105.0 /119.4 |134.8 |151.2 |168.4 |186.6 |205.7)/225 .8/246.8/268.7/291.6
3I.....|109.8 {124.9 {141.1 |158.2 |176.2 |195.2 |215.3/236.3/258.2/281.8]305.1
32. .. [115.1 |135.9 |147.8 |165.7 |184.6 |204.6 |225.5]/247.5|270.5|204.6/319.6

62

AGRICULTURE.

Area of Feeding Surface and Inside Diameter of Cyl-
indrical Silo Required to Supply Herds of Different

Sizes. (K1nc.)

BO COWS soc wetaiies aieys oh a tes
AOL Set aS we aan tai MAB ee. a
50 (—“ wis pi aaeGaws «8
Da a Oa ain a ales pha 6 lars, 6 ise
mp CE. 423 PSRs steaPdwbuise 4 te
BO SEA ieee a's oe. G'an) git: SG
Riek is Baarele note ene Skee

Feeding Surface. Inside Diameter.
150 square feet 14 > tees,
200 “ce ce 16 66
250 “e “ce 18 ce
300 ce sé 19.75 ce
350 “ce 66 21.25 “ec
400 ae “é 22.75 ce
450 46 ce 24 cé
500 oe 66 25.25 ce

NUMBER OF PLANTS FOR AN ACRE OF GROUND.

Distance apart. Number of : Distance apart. Number of
Inches. Plants. Feet. Plants.
hee 6 PRE 696, 960 © OX 1G: cc s:s te enarebereneeee 1210
PEMA sateinn a\clsme aie 392,040 6} XC Gd,). 25 2b ce eee 1031
EO OO cto ca: ta ane tan 174,240 PIKE Kt ostenists aoe 881
9X9 Pease spy asaao 8 ><, By nn ais ieee eee 680
Feet. Q XK Qercmecns ocmertes 537
4S SSA sev 45,500 LO XX. TOs . vies a ponte 435

te eC a (as eto goo TE ult nore ee alee 360
ie | Ar panera” ek ee 12 I 2icpisa cee 302
BEC IBEr «in Soc weet > 10,890 13.3% IUBicwsexSe sho eee 257

2 et. OE RE ie 6,960 TA ORSTA TC Sot hoe eee 222
3K Teecccvcce eeee 14,520 T5 XK [5s ccccccces 193
4 See cists i ethan 10 SK TLO: a.c,050s ee eeee 170
Brees ae es oe se > ge8Ho ) T6E MOTOR See is st oe

SEO Bae a ges eek 3,555 07 XK OLY secs oom tee eee
Fie a eh 5 ape kak, OES 18. X15, o'.00:6 see eee
BYK 2.es wes eae ce we 5,445 IQ XK [Qseeceeccceces 120
ACRe 3 toe win baie claws a eR S030 BO dX! 20... «<0 soe eeeei oe
OE e's hid a eh ec’ a e° 2,722 A ae ESE aon, ie 69

44 X 44 pies 2,151 30. XK 30.5. sue 3 ene 48
et Soe erie 8,711 Sa 2g. Fear es 40
I 2 ioe Me mak Sons 4,356 40 40s do awe s saccame Wye
5 MK BJeewesneccccns 2,904 5O X50. oss + oe Sates 7
Se eee Pe 2,178 60 "M Wes aces eee 12
ee OS. ok ramets ae mien 1,742 66. C160 IU, Pi. va sets wee 10

BEX Boece esse eveee 1,417

yy

a, FIELD CROPS. 63

NUMBER OF HILLS OR PLANTS ON AN ACRE OF
land, for any distance apart, from 10 in. to 6 ft.,
the lateral and longitudinal distances being un-

equal. (Warina.)

10 12 15 18 20 2 378 a 5
: ‘ : : : 2ft. tt. 3 ft. ft. 4 ft. ment. tt. 6 ft.

52272|43560
41817|34848|27878

18 |34848|29040]23232] 19360

20 |31363|26136|20908/17424|15681

in
to |62726
12
15

26136/21780]17424|14520|13068]108g0
ale 20908]17424|13939|11616]10454| 8712/6969
3 |17424|14520|11616| 9680] 8712! 7260/5808|/4840
-344|14935|12446| 9953) 8297| 7467] 6223/4976] 4148/3565

444|11616| 9680] 7744] 6453] 5808] 4840/3872 3226/2767|2420| 2151

5. |10454| 8712] 6969) 5808} 5227) 4356/3484 2904|2489|2178| 1936/1742

544] 9504| 7920] 6336] 5280] 4752| 3960/3168 2640\2263]1980|1760/1584]1440)

6 8712| 7260] 5808! 4840] 4356 a 2904 2420 2074]1865!1613]1452]1320)12I10

4 |13068|10890] 8712] 7260] 6534] 5445/4356 3630/3111|2722

64

AGRICULTURE.

V. HORTICULTURE.

USUAL DISTANCES FOR PLANTING VEGETABLES.

Asparagus....
Beans, bush..
Be De te
Beet, early...
“Nig 1S ane ee
Cabbage, early
€ late..
Garrats. \is% ay
Cauliflower...

Corn, sweet ..
Cucumber....
Egg-plant.....
Bs bo
Melon, Musk..

* Water...
Onion, . .
Parsnip... i+.
Peas...

PORAIO. cs creas
Pampkin .2.°.
AMISH: os es.0.°
Rbubarb......
SIS 5 ssc =
SIAC 5.2550

Sweet-potato..
Tomato... 303%

Turnip. .....0.

(BaILey.)

Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, I to 2 ft. apart in row.
2 to 3 ft. apart, 1 ft. apart in rows.
3 to 4 ft. each way.

In drills 12 to 18 in. apart.

i eden ee CR a an

16 X 28 in. to 18 X 30 in.

2X 3ft. to 24 X 34 ft.

In drills 1 to 2 ft. apart.

2-2 ft. to2 X 3 ft.

Rows 3 to q ft. apart, 6 to 9g in. in row.

“« 3 to 34 ft. apart, 9 in. to 2 ft. in row.
4to 5 ft. each way.

3 X 3 ft.

1X t4 or 2 tt.

5 to 6 ft. each way.

7 to 8 ft. each way.

In drills from 14 to 20 in. apart.

He ne FS ins tors Tt. apatt.

«« “early kinds, usually in double row. 6
to g in. apart; late, in single rows, 2 to 3
ft. apart.

15 to18 in. X 2 to 24 ft.

Io to 18 in. X 23 to 3 ft.

8 to 10 ft. each way.

In drills, 10 to 18 in. apart.
Sto 4 tt. 4 ft.

In drills, 14 to 2 ft. apart.

‘s. S¢'4 ae to 1S 10) apats..
3 to 4 ft. x q ft.

2 it. X sho 4 it.

4 ft. X 4to 5 ft.

In drills, 14 to 2} ft. apart.

od

; HORTICULTURE. 65

QUANTITY OF SEED OF VEGETABLES REQUIRED
TO SOW AN ACRE. (Battey.)

0

Beans, dwarf, in drills.........
ce pole ce

Beet, “

Buckwheat, ig

Cabbage, in beds to transplant.
PPO 01 GTS. cee vee we
SOE ee

Cress, water, in drills..........

eeeeupland, in drills ........
aS ee ee
Reamemye SUTOULS. 1. wc cee scenes
Mtg case «is ayn ne G'S & oa!’
Melon, musk, in hills.........

water. in hilts..:. ..,. .'.
Saperara, DYOAdCAaSt .... 2... ..
on Es bg |

«¢ seed for sets, in drills...

‘« sets, in drills

Paseo, in drilis;......2.. .-
Peas Se ds aetna axosat eA: 015
Prmiato (cut. tubers). dias < o«
Pumpkin, in hills....<... Gewates
Seis i7) Ctills . 5 wo. cans aa
Sage Dea oncherss nine: Wis e-eta
Salsify Sos sn u OAkalas 2 ithe ee
Spinach ean ee atest dake we

Squash, bush, in hills, .

fae a tanning, in bills... <

Tomato, to transplant .

mn FY OTIS... wat ae os os.
See ETC CASE 2.5 cicada eles ieree

4 or 5 lbs., or 1 oz. for 50 ft.
of drill.

13 bushels.

Io to 12 quarts.

5 to 6 lbs.

I bushel.

+ Ib.

3 to 4 Ibs.

I oz. of seed for 1000 plants.
1 oz. of seed for 2000 plants.
8 to 10 quarts.

2 lbs.

2 to 3 lbs.

2 to 3 lbs.

I oz. of seed for 1000 plants.
3 to 4 lbs.

I oz. of seed for 1000 plants.
2 to 3 lbs.

4 to 5 lbs.

4+ bushel.

5 to 6 lbs.

30 lbs.

6 to 12 bushels.

4 to 6 lbs.

I to 2 bushels.

7 bushels.

4 to 5 lbs.

8 to 10 lbs.

8 to 10 lbs.

8 to 10 lbs.

10 to 12 lbs.

4 to 6 lbs.

3 to 4 Ibs.

+ Ib.

I to 2 lbs.

3, to 4 lbs.

2 to 4 bushels.

66

AGRICULTURE, . ot

DISTANCES APART FOR FRUIT TREES,
Time Required to Bear Fruit, and Longevity. (Barey.)

Apples, :aee

ec

dwarf...
Blackberry....
Currant

eee sweet

Gooseberry.....
Orange and
lemon as

Persimmon.....
12) bbe hee ae eee

Raspberry .

Strawberry

-14x7 to 6x8 ft

.|1 x3 or 4 feet

Usual Distances.

30 to 4o ft. each way.

to ft. each way

eee wre

MIS TECL. cciieasaette tte
A xipmkGeti nts. x Shore
25 to 30 ft. each way.
16 to 20 ft. each way.
20 to 30 ft. each way.

20 to 25 ft.
16 to 20 ft.

each way.
each way.

3x6 feet

!

Average
Time Required to | Profitable
Bear. Longevity
under high
Culture.
3 yrs. Good crop in
about ro years...... 25-40 yrs.
tyr. Good crop in
2—3 VCE ic. os va .tolaes 8-12 yrs.
tyr. Good crop in
2=3 Yeats... scccwes 20 years.
tyr. Good crop in
B= 3 VEALS sais ad sai ee 20 years.
2-3 yrs. Good crop
2-3 years later....... 50 or more,
2 yrs. Good crop in
ACV.GATS. abi idenhtc seins 8-12 yrs.
30r4yrs. Fair crop
in 6-12 years: ...:.. 50-75 yrs.
TROY LSe eas octane 25-40 yrs.
3 yrs. Good crop in
8 tO\G> VeatSsca. ome 20-25 yrs.
tyr. Good crop in
2: OL +2 VCatsene ceded 8-12 yrs.
1yr. Heaviest crop
usually in 2 years... 3 years,

HORTICULTURE. 67
AVERAGE YIELDS PER ACRE OF VARIOUS
CROPS. (BAILey.)

Apples......... A tree 20 to 30 years old may be expected
to yield from 25 to 40 bus, every alter-

nate year.

matichoke’>.).... 200 to 300 bus.
Beans, green or

ee 75 to 120 bus.
Bean, Lima. ... 75 to 100 bus. of dry beans.
ou eee 400 to 700 bus.
BUM ETOES, « - ccc ues 400 to 700 bus.
J ie 50 to 75 bus., shelled.
Cranberry...... 100 to 300 bus. ; goo bus. have been reported.
Cucumber....... About 150,000 fruits per acre.
o> ee 100 bus.

Egg-plant....... I or 2 large fruits to the plant for the large
sorts like New York purple, and from 3
to 8 fruits for the smaller varieties.

Gooseberry...... 100 bus.

Grape.......... 3 to 5 tons. Good raisin vineyards in
California, 15 years old, will produce
from I0 to 12 tons.

Horse-radish.... 3 to 5 tons.

BeeHITADL... ... «ss 500 to 1000 bus.

Onion, from seed 300 to 800 bus.; 600 bus. is a large average
yield.

BPATSTID. 5.5. . 40s 500 to 800 bus.

Pea, green, in pod 100 to 150 bus.

Peach........... ~In full bearing a peach-tree should produce
from 5 to Io bus.

Pear........... A tree 20 to 25 years old should give from
25 to 45 bus.

Pepper... ...... 30,000 to 50,000 fruits.

Plum........... 5 to 8 bus. may be considered an average

—
ro

’

‘
_ Turnip.......... 600 to 1000 bus,

:

crop for an average tree.
PotatO.......... 100 tO 300 bus.
See 200 to 400 bus.
Raspberry and
blackberry.... 50 to 100 bus.

ee 200 to 300 bus.

Spinach.. «=, 200. batrels.

Strawberry. ae. 75 to 250 or even 300 bus.
momato......... 8 to 16 tons.

68 AGRICULTURE.

RELATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY,
Dry Matter, and Starch Content of Potatoes.

(WoLFF.)

Spec. = pee Spec. at ae Spec. Do Starch
Gavi. on- || Grav ii on- || Grav. ub- | Con-
stance.}| tent. stance.| tent. stance.| tent.
Remet. rer, Ck Per ct. | Per ct. Per cth|Per ct:

1.080 | 19.7 13.9 I.107 25.5 19.7 I.134 31.3 25-5
-o81 19-9 14.1 108 25-7 19.9 <1 31-5 25-7
-082 20.1 14-3 109 25.9 20.1 .136 31.7 25.9
083 20.3 14.5 I.110 26.1 20.3 137 31.9 26.1
084 20.5 14.7 IIt 26.3 20.5 138 32.1 26.3
085 20.7 14.9 112 26.5 20.7 139 32.3 26.5
086 | 20.9 15:1 113 26.7 20.9 I.140 32.5 26.7
087 | 21.2 I5.4 II4 26.9 2Es «141 32.8 27.0
088 21.4 15.6 1I5 27.2 21.4 -142 33-0 27-2
089 | 21.6 15.8 116 27.4 21.6 -143 3362 27-4
1.090 | 21.8 16.0 117 27.6 21.8 -144 REE! 27.6
-O91 22.0 16.2 118 27.8 22.0 145 33.6 27.8
-092 22.2 16.4 119 28.0 22.2 -146 33-8 28.0
-093 22.4 16.6 1.120 28.3 22.5 ey] 34-1 28 3
-094 22.7 16.9 121 28.5 22.7 -148 S43 28.5
095 22.9 17.1 122 28.7 22.9 149 gate 28.7
096 | 23.1 17-3 123 28.9 23.1 I.150 34-7 28.9
-097 | 23-3 17.5 -124 29.1 23.3 -I51 34.9 29.1
098 | 23.5 17-7 125 29.3 2a25 -152 S60 29.3
+099 2307 17-9 126 29.5 23-7 -153 35-4 29.6
I.100 24.0 18.2 127 29.8 24.0 +154 35.6 29.8
- 101 24.2 18.4 128 30.0 24.2 155 35-8 30.0
1o2 | 24.4 18.6 129 30.2 24.4 156 36.0 30.2
-103 | @4.6 18 8 I.130 30.4 24.6 157 36.2 30.4
104 | 24.8 19.0 .131 30.6 24.8 158 36.4 30.6
105 25.0 19.2 132 30.8 25.0 -159 36.6 30.8
stop |) “25.2 19.4 see! 31.0 25.2 1.160 36.9 31.1

HORTICULTURE. 69

SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SUGAR CONTENT, AND
BOILING-POINT OF MAPLE SUGAR.

(CooKE AND HILtts.)

' ' ts Ste ' - ve
> > aT) wor wo on o ZB.
4 € Ee duo | 3.8 - e§
my 2 o -& g Be a5 ; aa
ae Q gf HO sas 26 Bao)
Meee ce | eel. Geeiskagae | Be | Bb
Bye ks PES oor: & ack BS 8 5O oo
A a A < G = 4
25 ~ 1.205 44.9 41 215.0° F.| 1o0.olbs. 68
26 L.255 40.8 43 25.1 10.1 72
27 1.226 48.7 45 215.3 10.2 75
28 1.236 50.5 47 215.6 10.3 78
29 1.246 52.4 49 215.9 10.4 82
30 1.257 54-3 51 216.2 TO.5 85
31 1.268 56.2 53 216.6 10.6 88
32 1.279 58.1 54 217.0 10.7 90
33 1.290 ° 56 217.4 10.7 93
34 1.302 62.0 58 218.1 10.8 07
35 F.303 63.9 60 218.6 10.9 100
36 1.325 65.8 62 219.5 II.o 103
37 1.337 67.8 64 220.3 TIVE 107
38 1.350 69.8 66 221.2 Lise IIo
39 1.362 71.8 68 222.0 EES x13
40 1.374 73°7 7° 223.2 11.4 117
41 1.387 75°7 72 224.5 11.6 120
42 1.400 The 74 226.0 £E.F 123
43 I.415 79.8 75 227.8 11.8 125
44 1.428 81.8 77 229.7 II.9 128
45 1.442 83.9 79 231.8 12.0 132
46 1.457 86.0 8 234.0 12.1 135
47 1.471 88.1 83 236.3 12.3 138
48 1.486 go.2 85 238.7 12.4 142

‘* The per cents of sugar given are calculated for a fairly
good syrup. The relative values in the last column are
based on these per cents, but will be nearly the same for
all except the poorest of syrups. The relative value is
made use of as follows: A weight of 11 pounds per gallon,
and 35° Baumé is taken as the standard; dividing the
weight of the syrup by 11 gives the number of standard
gallons; multiplying the price that is to be paid for II-
pound syrup by the relative value figure, and dividing by
100, gives the price to be paid per standard gallon.

‘‘Example: If 75 cents a gallon is to be paid for 11-pound

70 AGRICULTURE.

syrup, how much should be paid for 671 pounds of syrup
testing 31° by the Baumé hydrometer ?
671 + 11 = 61 standard gallons.
75 XK 88 + 100 = 66 cents per gallon.
61 K 66 = $41.26, price to be paid.”

WEIGHT OF SUGAR OBTAINED FROM 100 LBS.
OF MAPLE SYRUP
Weighing 11 Ibs. to the Gallon, when Sugared Off at
Different Temperatures. (Cooxz anv Hitts,)

= ~ = ~

A ae ee es & oP clog "a
sc |S. /S2| Ze | 22 | Se | Se | Ze
@ Ep Be | 7 & = & @ & © oe & | Bh
os s a= od os 2) te |
ON 4: WV ov) oN ON g: nn on Gn
aso | 83 | ms | Es Sso | $3 | ws | ES

> — io > hoe °

& < = Pa ress < ie Pe
° Fahr. | Lbs. Lbs Lbs. ° Fahr Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
232 62.7 82.0 83.3 238 79-5 78.5 60.7
233 81.9 80.5 82.8 239 79.2 78.4 80.3
234 81.2 80.0 61.9 240 73.7 78 .2 79-7
235 80.8 79°5 81.6 241 78-5 77-9 79+3
236 80.5 79°5 61.1 242 78.1 77+4 78.9

237 80.0 79-0 80.9

Pekin aa

JURY.

Name of Article.

Apples,in bbls.......
‘* loose
Apricots, baskets....
ASMaragus.: .2......
Bananas .....
Beans, snap....... ..
ee
- Cabbage, early or late
Cantaloupes. ......
Cauliflower
ES
oe a
Cranberries... .......
Cucumbers

see eee

ed

oe ee)

WWUATGATING. + .\.s006 0
eee Sie, dtc de
Olives, in bulk.......

ad ‘© glass
Onions, boxes...

Ce ey

Pp ites:
Peaches, fresh, b’skets
[6 os boar
Pineapples
Plums
Potatoes, Irish... ...
; sweet......
MEMCISNES, ........ 5.
NE 8d oid ak «>
Shrubs, roses, or trees
Spinach.
Strawberries........
Tangerines. .
LG he baby se! Ie ald
Tomatoes, fresh......
Turnips, late.........
Watermelons

se fee ee we se seee

eee eee

TEMPERATURES
GOODS MAY BE SUBJECTED WITHOUT IN-

HORTICULTURE,

ah

TO WHICH PERISHABLE

(U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.)

Lowest Outside

InOrdinaryPkgs.
Unprotected

oF,| :

Temperature.
Fi re g
pS | 2°
ge | 5p
oH |a2a
aes) Lp
OF =
Bm | aoe
ae IS
10 |—10
I5 |—10
24 10
22 a a's
32 3
26 -
20 =the
20 zero
25 10
15 7:
zero RAS
25 10
20 zero
20 ;
20 zero
zero ae
20 Fe Io
20 zero
zero a
20 ees
20 10
ne re
20 zero
28 zero
25 zero
20 zero
15 zero
10 we
20 zero
20 eee
20 ite
20 be)
20 hick
25 zero
32 zero
25 10
28 10
15 aioe
10 af
10 |—10
15 s
25 |—I0
15 | zero
10 aor
28 Bie)
zero ee
10

\

Temperatures above

cals

which Injury Occurs

Remarks,

Covered with straw.
Packed in straw.

In boxes covered with moss.
Bulk or boxes with straw.
In barrels or crates.

In crates.

Barrels or crates.

In barrels with straw.
Packed in crates.
In boxes with moss.

In barrels always iced.

.|Packed in moss.
.|Packed in cork,

Packed in boxes or crates.
Packed in boxes.

In boxes or crates.

In boxes or crates,

In boxes,

..|In barrels.

In barrels, boxes, or crates.

Baskets, boxes, bbls.,or crates,
In baskets.
In baskets or barrels.

In baskets or barrels.

In barrels, crates, or in bulk.
In boxes with paper.

In barrels or baskets.

In barrels or baskets.

In baskets.

In baskets or sacks.

.|In canvas or sacking,

In barrels or crates.

In boxes.
In small baskets.

In barrels.
Jn barrels and in bulk.

%2 AGRICULTURE.

VI. SEEDS.

SEED-TESTING FOR THE FARMER.

By GivBerT H. Hicks, in charge of Seed Investigations, U. S. Department
of Agriculture.

Not less important than good soil and suitable cultivation
is seed of the best obtainable quality. In no feature of
farm practice is niggardly economy or lack of proper atten-
tion more productive of disappointment and loss than in
the failure to provide proper seed for sowing. The market
gardener is fully alive to this fact, and makes the purchase
of desirable seed his foremost care. He wants not only
seed which will grow, but also that which will produce an
even stand and yielda largecrop of the very best vegetables.
The matter of paying a few cents or even a dollar extra
per pound is to him of no significance, since he knows by
long experience that the increased value of his crop will
far outweigh the extra cost of the seed.

With many farmers this care in the selection of seed is
often lacking. Frequently the land is all tilled and ready
for sowing before the seed is bought. It is then too late
to give it a careful preliminary test, even if the owner de-
sired to do so. This results very often in a poor stand,
perhaps in a failure of the crop, or in the scattering of
hordes of weeds all over the farm, which usurp the place
of the cultivated plants, and cost infinite trouble in their
eradication. This is especially noticeable in the case of
the clovers, grasses, and other forage plants. No matter
how poor the seed turns out to be, after once sown it is too
late to secure any redress from the seedsman. Besides,
there are very few places in this country where one can
get seed tested in order that its real value may be ascer-
tained before sowing. It becomes, then, a matter of great
importance to the farmer to provide himself with some

SEEDS. 73

simple but efficient means for testing his seed before it is
sown.

All seed which is to be used for spring sowing should be
procured whenever possible in the previous fall or winter.
The long winter months will give ample opportunity for
close examination of the seed, and if any of it be found of
inferior quality, as will not infrequently prove to be the case,
there will be plenty of time to replace it with a desirable
article. In all cases seed should be bought of the most re-
liable seedsmen. In many instances it will pay to get seed
from the large dealers, as they have first-class opportu-
nities for handling the very best seed in the country. The
extra cost for carriage will be a small item compared with
the chance for obtaining good seed.

No matter from what source the seed is obtained, nor
how reliable the dealer, every farmer should test each lot
of seed he expects to plant. Besides learning its quality,
he will often obtain valuable information concerning the
depth, temperature, and amount of moisture needed, etc.
Furthermore, if the seed fails to come up well, the planter
will have some intelligent data for ascertaining the reason,
and will not be obliged to depend entirely upon the state-
ment of seed catalogues, which convey the impression that
failure to germinate is more likely to be the fault of the
outdoor conditions than of the seed itself.

Good seed is marked by three characteristics : purity—
or freedom from foreign matter, whether seeds of weeds
or other plants; vita/ity—or capacity for sprouting under
favorable conditions; and genuimeness—or trueness to
name. If any of these qualities be lacking, the seed is un-
worthy of general trial.

Purity.—Most vegetable seeds, especially if grown in
America, are quite free from admixture. Seed of the cab-
bage family, however, if grown abroad, and sometimes
that of American origin, may contain a mixture of wild
mustard or similar seed, often so near like the good seed
as to be almost indistinguishable from it.

Clover and grass seed is very likely to contain more or
less seed of noxious weeds or inferior grasses ; hence a

V4 AGRICULTURE.

careful purity test is necessaryin such cases. Hairy vetch
and other leguminous forage seeds, excepting the clovers,
generally come from Europe and are frequently impure.
Often it will require considerable care to detect impurities
in the seeds of forage plants, and in case of any doubt
samples of such seed should be sent to the nearest experi-
ment station or to the Department of Agriculture for ex-
amination.

Purity tests are usually made by weighing out a few
ounces of seed which has been well stirred up so as to
make the sample uniform. This seed is placed upon a
pane of glass under which is a piece of light-colored paper,
and the sample is carefully gone over seed by seed witha
small forceps until all the impurities are separated out.
After again weighing, the percentage of impurity is easily
obtained. If the impurity consists of chaff or dirt, the loss
will consist only in paying for something which will not
grow. This will render necessary the sowing of more than
the usual amount of seed tothe acre. If weed seeds are
present, there will be greater or less loss according to the
character of the weeds. Such seeds as Canada thistle,
dodder, Russian thistle, chess, wild mustard, cockle, plan-
tain, black medic, daisy, penny-cress, wild carrot, wild
oats, and a few others, are serious pests. Every farmer
should be able to recognize these weed seeds, and avoid all
seed which contains any of them even in small amounts.
He should also be familiar with the ordinary grass seeds of
trade, such as June grass, orchard grass, the common fes-
cues, red top, tall meadow oat grass, etc. Grass-seed
mixtures almost invariably contain a large proportion of
seed of inferior, if not worthless, species, dirt, and chaff,
and should be avoided. It is much better to find out what
grasses are adapted to one’s fields or pastures and to buy
such seed separately, mixing it at home.

If scales are not at hand, the amount of pure seed ina
given sample can be approximately learned by placing the
pure seed in a small bottle with the impurities in another
bottle of similar shape and size. The names of the foreign

SEEDS, 75

seeds may be learned from some botanist or experiment
station.*

After determining the per cent of pure seed in a sample,
the germinative ability should be ascertained. Thisis even
more important. One can judge fairly well of the purity
of seed by a casual inspection, but no one can tell by its

looks whether a seed is capable of sprouting or not. Con-
sidering the great amount of labor and expense involved,
it is surprising that so few farmers test their vegetable and
field seeds before they are sown.

Even fresh seed is sometimes incapable of germination
through improper care in harvesting or cleaning. Nor
can fresh seed be told by its appearance with certainty.
Add to this the fact that old seed is frequently offered for
sale, and there is no lack of reason for testing the sprout-
ing capacity of the seed one intends to sow.

If the heat and moisture are properly controlled, seed-
testing will be found a very simple matter. Seventy to
eighty degrees Fahrenheit must be maintained during the
day, with a fall of not more than twenty degrees at night,
and the seed must be kept constantly damp, but not wet.
A good plan is to plant a hundred seeds of average quality
—that is, an average number of large, small, plump, and
shrivelled ones, etc.—in moist soil in a box or ina small
flower-pot which is set inside of a large pot also containing
soil. Water as needed is added from time to time in the
larger pot and the whole is kept covered so as to prevent
evaporation and sudden cooling. When the seeds begin

* The following standards of purity are adopted by the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture :
Asparagus, beans, buckwheat, cabbage, cauliflower, celery,

collards, Indian corn, cow pea, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce,

melon, millet (common and pearl), oats, okra, onion, peas,

pumpkin, radish, rutabaga, salsify, squash, tomato, a

Bete CRAIG Y)) die lefu. 3.2 lysis oye cFi+. oe. ag per cent:
Alfalfa, beets, crimson coece. ah aie Saitou: aki corn,

ye RES nicks cemait sees d's op.s's sxe deae~ sel ee ag
2 authite, CAS 4 PSSA On Sener bs eee an Per Ova ee

Hungarian brome grass, carrot, white clover, alge clover...95
eels PION: CONIDIA ais i Ses we wed de twewe nscews taaeeels go

76 AGRICULTURE.

to come up, the pots should be exposed to the light. After
about two weeks for most seeds the’seedlings are counted
and the percentage of sprouts ascertained. If the soil has
been previously heated to kill all weed seeds, and proper
precautions have been taken, such a test will give a good
indication of the value of the seed. To make sure, a dupli-
cate lot of one hundred seeds should be tested at the same
time under the same conditions and the results compared.
If the variation exceeds ten percent, the tests should be
repeated until the source of error is discovered. Grasses
and very fine seed will require more care than other kinds.
Such seed should be barely covered with soil, while in all
cases too deep planting must be avoided. Some hard-
coated seeds may be soaked a few hours in warm water,
but as a usual thing it is better not to do so.

Seeds of clovers and most vegetables can be easily ger-
minated between two folds of damp flannel cloth placed be
tween two plates. Such tests permit frequent inspection
of the seed, which should be thrown away as fast as it
germinates, count being kept of the same. Damp blotters,
porous dishes, and various kinds of especially prepared
germinating apparatus are sometimes used in seed-testing.
The amount of moisture to be given varies greatly with
the variety of seed and can be best learned by experience.
In general, quick-sprouting seeds, like clover, cabbage,
radish, etc., will stand more moisture than those varieties
which sprout more slowly.

To make sure of the vitality of seed it is better to test it
in the soil, as previously suggested, and also by the cloth
or plate method. Soil testsshould be continued a few days
longer than those made between cloth or blotters. There
is considerable difference of opinion as to the standards of
germination to which first-class seed should attain. Those
in use at present by the U. S. Department of Agriculture
are given in the first table on page 77. While first-class
seeds should reach the standards referred to, it may be said
that seed which falls as much as ten per cent below them
need not be rejected as bad.

SEEDS. t7
TABLE OF GERMINATION STANDARDS.
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

Seed. Seed. Seed
ASparacush.... .... Scr |(Cucumberys sso aees go: lOkral eo.. Seen go
Beans; bush. ..... 95||Egg-plant......... 80 ||Onion 85

a LIGHIAR Sco ts\ 9,0 O54 (HE NGiVE. Soe seat oe 94 ||Parley 75
Lac) Say ae eee ieee TG |Gherkine «... -b. a ae(02" |atSMio ns 5. < eer 75
Borecole .........| 95||Grasses CAS canes tia ath eeee 98
EEOCEO)M Mas 5s se a 85 Bnghsh, Diners. -2 50. || PEppery 225.26 0 85
Brussels sprouts...| 95 Fow! meadow...} 75 \|Pumpkin. ........ 90
Buckwheat........ Ss Jobnsonie) ii: 32 75 aGIsDie:.. ioe nas. 05
Capbage... ...5.5-s\- 95 Hungarian brome! 80 |/Rape.... ......... 95
SAGE OE Se he. te. a 85 Kentucky blue..| 50 ||Rhubarb ..... 85
Cauliflower........ 85 Meadow fescue..| 80 |}Rutabaga..... 95
eleriacses S..s2 es. 65 Orchard soe. 80 ||Salsify...... 83
BEM Ce ga Hs 65 | bexas blue... \.. 50 iSOrgehumi:..s ss go
WHTGOLy 25... 05 Soi (4 Tamothy. 32So..- oo iSpmachs....2 545. 89
Clover, alfalfa..... gail Katircorns.. >... go iS parry oe eee go

4 alsikes'.< =| 80||Rohl-rabi.. 005.3%. 90° || Squash Jo: 2s tse ste go

z BEM cess s,s Gon Waa lee tarcrscicins sbeaie = 65 || SUnHOWer co.cc. es | gO

ss scarlet Oy estueecs.. Ne: ee 00) || Pabacco.s.. ines ee 88

a IES... 80 ||Lupin yellow......| go ||Tomato go
Ccebeos?2 st... Be (PRCeLOle Haack et | OOO Fiemip: 2.2 ofoeee 95
Corme.-..-;..-..-:| 90||Millet, common....| 90 ||Vetch, hairy....... go
(Cio to) re go i. 2 peathes 23° | Go4|| Wheat... 2.0. cece 95
OW Pea «. 2075-5030. oc| | Mustards (52... 95
GreSS6.. Sassi oes ss gollOats.2:55...0ee 0s. go

NUMBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AND
AMOUNT TO SOW PER ACRE.

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
(Columns 1, 2, 3, and 4 are compiled from “ The Best Forage Plants,’’ by

Stebler and Schroeter.

The figures in column 5 are obtained by multi-

plying the amount of standard quality of seed required (col. 2) by the retail

price quoted in N. Y. catalogues.

The weight of 10,000,000 grains (col. 6)

is obtained by dividing this quantity by the number of seeds in one pound

(col. x).]
|
(x) 7 (2) i (3) | @ |G | ©
* ie} ho
o's Od Oc%VG 5
—o = Dt lY-m n
Name. wh Y Cou BF 0 Dg lu 82
oOW) | o 2 a SthSeee ua Par Os iGt oO ta
wee [SOS a2 9SM Lg I|MSll os
UHL. lagqpAsl(aeatn.S| oc wet | OG
OE lai Geer) weet oT ee ed
S Peo oes (289k) wa ee loes
Z ZOo la = |¢ Bale |S"
1|Redtop (Agrostis alba) ...| 603,000] 9.7 7.00 | 8-32 |$r.45| 16.58
2|Reed canary grass (Pha-
laris arundinacea)....... 660,000] 21.0 12.00 |44-48 | 7-35] 15.15
3|\Smooth-stalked meadow
grass (Poa pratensis)....|2,400,000] 17.5 S408 Wis.5) 2.10| 4.17
4|Rough~-stalked meadow
grass (Poa trivialis)..... 3,000,000] 19.5 8.75 |11-17 | 4.88] 3.33

78

NUMBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS,

AGRICULTURE.

AND

AMOUNT TO SOW PER ACRE— Continued.

Name.
te)
a
5|Sheep’s fescue (Festuca

ey

ovina)
6| Various-leaved fescue (Fes-
tuca heterophylla) .. ...
7\Creeping fescue (Festuca

AUDA) crore set atin snort erebeas
g|Awnless brome grass (Bro-
MIMS ANEGMIS)e Pct ses hs
g|Perennial rye grass(Lolium
PELCNNC)S-o ewenmioet so
zo|Italian rye grass (Lolium
MEER ANTI) nie erwrsteyeteioe etre Sic
1x1jOrchard grass (Dactylis
BUOINELALA) cee A eras
1z2|Meadow fescue (Festuca
pratensis) ..

13|Meadow oat grass (Arrhe-
natherum avenaceum)..
14| Yellow oat grass (Trisetum
MAVESCENS). 227 665 oe ce? ont
15 a grass (Holcus lana-
USS) Prem cles 4 celal iol tisiaie & ore ous
16| Timothy (Phleum pratense)
17|Meadow foxtail (Alopecu-
GUS Pratensis).. 2-15...
18|/Vernal grass (Anthoxan-
thum odoratum) Ree Miah 58
19|Crested dog’s tail (Cynosu-
rus cristatus)

20/Alsike clover (Trifolium
iy brid tim) techie sth S28
21|Sainfoin (Onobrychis Sa-
Lice casts sh tesa oct
22|Red clover (Trifolium pra-
CENSE) ye Pw ele ae eh
23|White clover (Trifolium
EWEMS) ¥ by Or ata.s pres Sano Siete
24|Common kidney vetch (An-
thyllus vulneraria).......
25|Alfalfa, or lucern (Medi-
CAPOISALIVA) os0 0 5.29

26| Trefoil (Medicago lupulina)
27|Bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus
corniculatus)
28|Officinal goat’s rue (Galega
OMICINALIS) -cGeldlaosene tee

~~
Lal
—

Number of
Grains per Ib.
of Pure Seed.

680,000
400,000
600,000
137,000
336,800
285,000
579,500
318,200
159,000
2,045,000

T,304,000
1,170,500

907,000
924,000
1,127,000
707,000
22,500
279,000
740,000
154,000

209,500
328,000

375,000

62,000

Amount to Sow

“~
tS
~~

per Acre in
lbs., Standard

Quality.
Amount to Sow

Ww

per Acre in lbs, ~
of Pure Ger- ~
minating Seed.

-60

Weight per a
Bushel, —

10-15

eter ee

seen ee

20-32

94-100

40

eeeeae

-~
eat
—
“—_~
fo.)
~—

per Acre,
10,000,000
Grains, lbs.

Cost of Seed
Weight of

$4.20
8.38

8.50

1.60] 14.14
6.25/444.44
2.50] 35.84
“94

-58

13.51
67.15

48.56
30.48
40| 26.66

-14/161.29

* Unshelled.

SEEDS. a

NOTES ON ADAPTABILITY AND USES OF PRE-
CEDING GRASSES AND CLOVERS.

No. 1. Requires moist climate or dampsoil. Best propa-
gated by transplanting small turf cuttings in autumn.
_ Valuable for late pasturage or lawns in the New England
and Middle States. Use 5-10 per cent in mixtures.
No. 2. Adapted to stiff, wet lands and flooded fields.
Requires moisture. Valuable hay when cut young, and
_ well suited for binding loose banks near running water or
_ for forming a firm sod on marshy ground.

No. 3. Grows best on strongly calcareous soils. Well
: adapted for pasture, and makes a good bottom grass for
meadows. An excellent lawn grass.

No. 4. Should be sown only on moist, fertile, and shel-
tered soils in mixtures.

No. 5. Light, dry soils, especially those which are poor,
shallow, and silicious. Valuable bottom grass and for sheep
_ pastures. Sown only in mixtures.

No. 6. Best on moist, low lands containing humus and
_ sandy loams. Withstands drought; useful in pasture; un-
important for hay. Alone it makes no continuous turf.

_ No. 7. Valuable pasture or bottom grass. Withstands
_ drought; endures both cold and shade. On poor land, es-
_ pecially moist sands and railway banks, serves to bind the
soil. Product small.

No. 8. Valuable for light soils, especially in regions sub-
_ ject to extremes of heat or long periods of drought. Used
alone or in mixtures for permanent meadows and pastures.
No. 9. Excellent and lasting pasture grass for heavy soils
in moist, cool climates. On light, dry soils disappears after
the second year. Rarely sown alone.

_ No. 10. Excellent for rich and rather moist lands. Re-
garded in Europe as one of the best for hay. Lasts only
two or three years.

No. 11. Grows well on any soil, excepting that which is
very wet; withstands shade. Affords a large amount of
aftermath. Valuable alike for hay and pasturage.

_ No. 12. Thrives in either dry or wet soils. Valuable hay
oF pasture grass.

80 AGRICULTURE.

No. 13. Thrives on moist, loamy sands or light clays
which are not too moist, and marls. Spring most favorable
seed-time. Valuable in the South for hay and winter
pasture.

No. 14. Valuable for temporary or permanent pastures.
Thrives on marly or calcareous soil, in all light land rich in
humus.

No. 15. Sometimes sown on light, thin soils unsuited
for more valuable sorts. Rarely used excepting in mix-
tures.

No. 16. Best known and most extensively cultivated for
hay. Sown alone or mixed with redtop or clover. Suc-
ceeds best on moist loams or clays. On dry ground the
yield is light.

No. 17. Endures cold. Likes strong soil, stiff loam, or
clay. One of the best grasses for land under irrigation.
Very early. Twoto four pounds in mixtures for permanent
pastures.

No. 18. Grows on almost any kind of soil; sown only in
mixtures, I to 2 pounds, with permanent pasture or meadow
grasses.

No. 19. Especially adapted for loams, light clays, marls,
and moist, loamy sands. Moist climates are most suitable.
Withstands drought and thrives well in shade. Nutritive
value high. Used in mixtures to form bottom grass either
in pasture or hay.

No. 20. Grows on strongest clay or peaty soil; peculiarly
adapted to damp ground. Bears heavy frosts without
injury. Sownin August or February.

No. 21. Requires good and open subsoil, free from water,
Sown alone, from end of March to beginning of May.

No, 22. Succeeds best in rich, loamy soil, on good clays,
and on soils of an alluvial nature. A standard fodder
plant.

No. 23. Thrives on mellow land containing lime, and on
all soils rich in humus. Resists drought. Generally used
in mixtures for pastures or lawns,

No. 24. Cultivated for grazing; on-warm soils, if manured

2
ins a. a ee ee ee

SEEDS. 81

and of proper depth. Hardy; resists drought. Sheep,
goats, and horned cattle eat it greedily.

No. 25. Grows well on any calcareous soil having a per-
meable subsoil. Especially adapted to the warm and dry
regions of the West and Southwest. Requires irrigation.

No. 26. Any soil containing sufficient moisture and lime
is suitable. Most successful on clay marls. Cultivated
only where the better kinds of clover cannot be grown.

No. 27. Thrives on dry or moist, sandy or clayey soils.
Well suited to dry lands at high elevations, though poor.

No. 28. Excellent fodder plant for warm, sheltered situ-
ations. Thrives only in deep soil, and when subsoil is not
wet.

AGRICULTURE.

82

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AGRICULTURE.

86

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ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 87

VIII ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS.

TREATMENTS FOR INJURIOUS INSECTS AND
FUNGOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS.

By Prof. E. S. Gorr, of Wisconsin Experiment Station.

The value of the following treatments for preventing injury
to crops from insects and fungous diseases has been proved by
abundant experience. It is essential that the treatments be
given promptly and thoroughly. In the case of fungous dis-
eases, it is generally essential that the applications be made
before the disease appears, since they are preventive, rather than
curative. The treatments considered most important are printed
in italics. As arule, those not so printed need be given only
in seasons or localities in which the attack is serious.*

Formulas.

No. 1. Bordeaux Mixture.—Place 6 pounds of copper sulfate
in acloth sack and suspend this over night in a wood vessel
containing 4 gallons of water, immersing the sack. Inanother
wood vessel slake 4 pounds of fresh lime in as many gallons of
water. When the lime iscool, pour it and the copper sulfate
solution into a barrel and add enough water to make 40 gallons.
Apply at once with a force-pump, with spraying nozzle, stir-
ring frequently during the application.

No. 2. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate.—Dissolve 1 ounce of
copper carbonate in 3 pints of strong ammonia and add this
solution to 25 gallons of water. Apply as in No.1. No stir-
ring is required.

No. 3. Copper Sulfate Solution.—Dissolve, as directed in No.
I, I pound of copper sulphate in 15 gallons of water. Apply
as in No 2.

No. 4. Stir 4 ounces of Paris green in 40 gallons of water,

: and add 4 pound of fresh lime, slaked in 2 oa. of hot
_ water. Apply as in No. I.

: No. 5. Bordeaux Mixture (No. 1), with Paris green added at
; the rate of I ounce to 10 gallons. Apply as in No. I.

* The following scheme for treating crops is after a plan published by
Mr. E. G. Lodeman, of Cornell University, in Trans. N. Y. State Agri-
cultural Society for 1893, pp. 176-179.

88 AGRICULTURE.

No. 6. London purple, 4 ounces, very thoroughly mixed with
25 pounds of /and plaster. Apply with a sprinkiing-box.

No. 7. Mix 1 ounce of fresh powdered white hellebore in 3
gallons of water. Apply at once with force-pump or sprinkling
pot.

No. 8. Kerosene Emulsion.—Dissolve + pound hard, or I
quart of soft soap in 2 quarts of boiling water; add 1 pint of
kerosene and pour at once into a tin can; cork, and shake
rapidly for 15 seconds. Before using, dilute with its own bulk
of warm soft-water. Apply asin No. 2.

No. 9. Mix 1 pound of fresh Pyrethrum powder with an equal
bulk of air-slaked lime in a bottle or tincan; cork tightly and
leave 24 hours before use. Apply in still air, with sprinkling-
box or powder-bellows.

No. 10. Air-slaked lime applied with the sprinkling-box.

No. 11. Cut small cards from thin tarred paper, slit one side
to the centre, and make a short cross-cut near the end of the
slit, as in drawing.

No. 12. Corrosive Sublimate Solution.—Dissolve 2} ounces
of corrosive sublimate in 2 gallons of hot water, and pour
this solution into 13 gallons of cold water. Use wood,
earthen, or glass vessels.

No. 13. Potassium Sulfid Solution.—Dissolve 4 ounce of
potassium sulfid (liver of sulfur, sulfuret of potassium)
in I quart of warm (not hot) water, and add this solution to
3 quarts of cold water. Apply as in No. 2.

89

ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS.

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‘panuzzuog— UAVAGNHIVO ONIAVUdS

ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS.

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92 AGRICULTURE.

FIGHTING THE CHINCH-BUG BY MEANS OF
KEROSENE EMULSION. (Gorr.)

Experiments have established the fact that with thorough
work according to the directions given below the kerosene
emulsion will prevent the invasion of cornfields by chinch-
bugs, even though the bugs appear in great numbers.

. How to Make and Apply the Kerosene Emulsion.—Slice half
a pound of common bar soap, put it in a kettle with one gal-
lon of soft water, and boil until dissolved ; put two gallons
of kerosene in a churn or stone jar, and to it add the boiling-
hot soap solution; churn from twenty to thirty minutes,
when the whole will appear creamy. If properly made, no
oil will separate out when a few drops of the emulsion are
placed on a piece of glass. To each gallon of the emulsion
add eight gations of water and stir. Apply with a sprink-
ling-pot.

Every farmer should learn to make this emulsion, as it is
a most useful insecticide. It is especially valuable for kill-
ing lice on cattle and hogs. Paris green will not kill chinch-
bugs.

The bugs will be very likely to enter cornfields border-
ing grainfields, after the grain is cut. Before they have
had time to do this plough a deep furrow along the side of
the field they will enter, and throw into it stalks of green
corn. When the bugs have accumulated on the corn,
sprinkle with the emulsion. Put in fresh stalks and sprinkle
whenever the bugs accumulate. If they break over the
barrier, as they probably will, run a few furrows a few
rows back in the field, and repeat. When they have at-
tacked stalks of standing corn, destroy by sprinkling.

If the remedy is tried, it should be used persistently. To
kill one lot of bugs and then stop will do little or no good.
When the bugs threaten to destroy as much as five or ten
acres, it will pay for one or two.men to devote their whole
time to the warfare. Only a part of each day, however,

will be needed. Some corn will be lost at best. but the most
of the field should be saved.

ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 93

A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING OUTFIT.
(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly those
of the orchard and garden, has reached so satisfactory and
inexpensive a basis that it is recognized by every progres-
sive farmer as a nec-
essary feature of the
year’s operations, and
in the case of the apple,
pear, amd plum crops
the omission of such
treatment means seri-
ous loss. The conse-
quent demand for
spraying apparatus has

been met by all the RCH
leading pump manufac- WE re

turers of this country,
and ready-fitted appa-
ratus, consisting of
pump, spray tank or
barrel, and nozzle with
hose, are on the market
in numerous styles and
at prices ranging from
$20 upward. The cost of a spraying outfit for orchard
work may, however, be considerably reduced by purchasing
merely the pump and fixtures, and mounting them at home
on a strong barrel. An apparatus of this sort, representing
a style that has proven very satisfactory in practical ex-
perience, is illustrated in the accompanying figure. It is
merely a strong pump with an air-chamber to give a steady
stream, provided with two discharge hose-pipes. One of
these enters the barrel and keeps the water agitated and
the poison thoroughly intermixed, and the other and longer
one is the spraying hose and terminates inthe nozzle. The
spraying-hose should be about 20 feet long, and may be
fastened to a light pole, preferably of bamboo, to assist in

Fae

Orchard-spraying Apparatus.

94 . AGRICULTURE.

directing the sptay. The nozzle should be capable of
breaking the water up into a fine mist spray, so as to wet
the plant completely with the least possible expenditure of
liquid. The two more satisfactory nozzles are those of the
Nixcr and the Vermorel type. A suitable pump with nozzle
and hose may be obtained of any pump manufacturer or
hardware dealer at a cost of from $13 to $15. If one with
brass fittings be secured it will also serve for the application
of fungicides. The outfit outlined above may be mounted
on a cart or wagon, the additional elevation secured in this
way facilitating the spraving of trees, or for more extended
operations, the pump may be mounted on a large water
tank.

——

FORESTRY. 95

IX. FORESTRY.

FORESTRY FOR FARMERS.

By B. E. Fernow, Chief Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

There has been much talk about forestry, but there has
been little application of the teachings of that science.
This is easily explained as far as the lumbermen are con-
cerned, who are in the business of making money by cutting
the virgin woods, similar to the mining of ore, but it is less
intelligible with the farmer, who is presumed to be in the
business of making money by.the production and harvesting
of crops, which he grows on the soil of his farm.

That his wood-lot could and should by him be also treated
as a crop seems rarely to have entered his mind. Whether
he starts out, as in the prairie portions of the State, by
planting a grove, or whether he cuts his wood from the
virgin growth which he left after clearing enough for field
and meadow, in either case he should fully realize that he
is dealing with a valuable crop, which requires and will
pay for the attention and application of knowledge in its
management, such as a husbandman will give to it.

The Wisconsin farmcr, just as his neighbor in Minnesota,
living in a State largely covered with timber of great value,
has special reason to practise the principles of forestry in
order to get the most out of this part of the property both
for the present and the future. And those who are located
in the prairie portions have no less need of maintaining a
forest growth on some part of their farm asa matter of
proper management of their resources.

The first thing, as with every other crop, that will have to
be decided is on what portions of the farm this wood-crop
is best propagated. In deciding about the location of the
wood-lot the farmer must keep in mind:

1. That wood will grow on almost any soil, which is unfit
for agricultural use; that, although it grows best on the

96 AGRICULTURE.

best sites, it is to be mainly considered and used as a ‘‘stop-
gap’’ to make useful those parts which would otherwise be
waste.

2. Thata forest growth, besides furnishing useful material,
is a condition of soil-cover which affects other conditions,
namely, of climate and water-flow, and hence its location
should be such as to secure the most favorable influence on
these.

3. That the wood-crop does not live on the soil, but on the
air, enriching the soil in nutritive elements by its decaying
foliage rather than exhausting it, and hence that no ma-
nuring and no rotation of crops is necessary as in field
crops; in other words, the location of the wood-crop can be
made permanent.

A wood growth should therefore be maintained on the
farm :

a. Wherever the ground is too wet or too dry, too thin
or too rocky or too steep, for comfortable ploughing and for
farm crops to do well, or for pasturage to last long, or, in
general, where the ground is unfit for field and meadow.

6. On the highest portions of the farm, the tops of hills
and also in belts along the hillsides, so as to interrupt con-
tinuous slopes, which might give rise to such a rush of
surface-waters as to gully the ground and make it unfit for
field crops or pasture ; the gentler slopes which are liable
to washing should at least be kept in grass or terraced for
crops to prevent the rush of surface-waters.

c. Along watercourses, where narrower or wider belts of
timber should be maintained to prevent undermining of
banks and washing of soil into the streams if ploughed too
close to the border; the shade of a forest growth would
also check rapid evaporation of smaller watercourses.

d. Wherever the protection by a wind-break against cold
or hot winds is desirable, for which purpose the timber belt
is of more far-reaching effect than the wind-break of a single
row of trees ; the reduced evaporation from the fields due
to this protection has been known to increase the yield of
field crops by as much as 25 per cent.

e, On all unsightly places, which impair the general

ee

FORESTRY. 97

aspect of the farm—and there are few farms without these
—a few trees, a small grove, will add to the thrifty appear-
ance of the farm, make useful the otherwise waste spots,
and serve as shelter to grazing cattle, etc.

Altogether, the farmer should realize that husbandry of
soil and water is the secret of future success, and that
successful water management is best attained by the main-
tenance of properly located and well-managed forest areas.

There is much extravagant talk about the influence of
forests on climate and on rainfall especially. We have but
little definite knowledge on these subjects, but it takes no
expert, only a little observation, to appreciate the effects of
a wind-breaking timber belt on one’s own feeling, and it
takes but little reasoning to appreciate that the field crop
in the shelter of the timber belt participates in this feeling.
The dry winds are the great bane of field crops in the West,
because they dissipate the moisture ; a timber belt breaks
their force and reduces thereby their evaporating power.

Just so it takes no great philosopher to see that when
rain falls on naked ground it compacts that ground and by
and by prevents itself from penetrating; the water is forced
to drain up superficially and rapidly, instead of sinking into
the ground and remaining there for the use of field crops.
And that the washing and gullying of the soil is alsoa result
of this rushing off of surface-waters, due to the clearing
away of its plant-cover, requires no wise man to point out;
every farmer experiences it more or less every year.

That any one farmer’s neglect or the devastation of any
small part of the forest growth should have an influence on
the rainfall or climate of the whole country nobody should
claim; but the conditions surrounding each particular farm,
its local climate, soil, and water conditions, are changed,
and finally the aggregate changes make themselves felt over
the whole state.

Now as to the management of the wood-lot a few hints
may be acceptable. The farmer may not necessarily employ
the finer methods of managing the wood-crop, but by the
mere application of common sense and a little knowledge
of tree-life he may do better than he does at present,

ae AGRICULTURE.

He should at least observe the following rules:

1. Fire should be carefully kept out of the wood-lot,
for it has inno way a beneficial effect. It kills not only the
undergrowth, which is desirable because it helps to shade
the soil, and injures, if it does not kill, the young tree
growth, which is to take the place of the older growth, but
the worst effect is that it consumes the vegetable mould
which has accumulated by the fall and decay of leaves,
twigs, and other vegetation, and which forms the manure,
the fertility, of the soil. Fire is to be used only when
through bad management or otherwise a dense undesirable
undergrowth has come in, which it is too expensive to re-
move in other ways when the time for natural reproduction
has come or planting is to be done. It must then be used
with caution in early spring or late fall, before the brush is
too dry, when the fire will smoulder rather than burn
fiercely and can be kept within bounds.

2. Cattle must be kept out where young forest growth is
to be fostered. Sheep and goats especially are of no benefit
to wood-crops, but horses and cattle may be allowed to
browse through the wood-lot where the young growth has
passed out of their reach. Pigs are a benefit by working
over the ground and thereby burying seeds, especially
acorns; but after the seed is so brought under ground
where a young crop is expected to be reared next year they
must be kept out. Altogether, the cattle and farm animals
should be kept where you want them, and not where you
do not want them. Sometimes, however, the roaming of
cattle may be beneficial by keeping down too dense im-
penetrable underbrush in young sapling growth.

It is better to so cut and manage the old timber that a
desirable new growth will spring up than to cut clean and
replant. Planting should be done only where there is no
desirable natural tree growth. Hence where there is a well-
established wood-lot, the whole management of the crop
consists in proper cutting.

How this is best done cannot be described readily within
the short space of this article, but every farmer who is
interested in learning the principles of using the axe to

FORESTRY, 99

advantage in reproducing a wood crop or how to establish
a wood-lot can obtain from the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, free of charge, a pamphlet entitled ‘‘ Forestry for
Farmers,” in which in plain language is discussed in detail
how trees and forests grow, how to start a wood-crop, and
how to manage the wood-lot.

It does not exhaust the subject, but merely teaches the
first stéps, and the thinking farmer will find his way of step-
ping farther.

NUMBER OF TREES ON AN ACRE. (Ecuezsron.)

The number of trees needed to plant an acre of ground,
at various distances apart, is as follows:

2 ft. apart each way 10,890 | 12 ft. apart each way... 302

ie Ee Eins aie 5 Pape: | ay |S es (Sys ae
3 ‘“ apart each way 4,840 |18 ‘* ‘* es Seay ce as
ae es ee ae ie ie as oi Se PES
5 “ce ce «sé “ce 1,742 22 sé ce “é ce oe go
6 “ec “e «ec “ce 1,210 25 ce ce ce cc aa. 70
SR r ~ Ste So * Pa S$). on RO
peta es ty 455

Rows six feet apart, and trees one foot apart in the row,
7260 trees per acre.

Rows eight feet apart, and one foot apart in the row,
5445 trees per acre.

Rows ten feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 4356
trees per acre.

One mile of wind-breaks or shelter-belt requires 528c
trees, or cuttings for a single row one foot apart in the row.

AGRICULTURE.

100

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FORESTRY.

103

STATES AND TERRITORIES OBSERVING ARBOR

DAY, WITH DATES.

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

ee

Seu bites 50) ee
Colorado... 22° 263:

Plmnois.. <<. eoaae

Lavoe hh © hi

Massachusetts. ...
lichipan.........

iMinmesota ...:...°:
Mississippi........

MNISSOR IGT... a2. <<
WEONtAI a. +. se. s0
WebraSka® : ose s oss.

Nevada

New Hampshire..
New Jersey .......
New Mexico.......

New York ....

North Carolina ....
North Dakota......

Ghio-......

Oklahoma .... ...
Orepo nies). Gaede.
Pennsylvania.....

Rhode Island..

South Carolina.....
South Dakota......
Tennessee .........

Virginia....... eed
West Virginia. ....

WVISCONSH So sic). os
UB oso 22:50
Washington... ...

Year of
First Ob-
servance.

1887
1890-91

1886
1885
1887
1886
1887
1886
1888

1884

1887

1875
1886

1887
Uncertain.

1884

1875

1890
1885
1892
1883

1889
1888
1892

Time of Observance.

22d of February.
First Friday after 1st of February.

Third Friday in April.
In spring, at appointment of governor.
| January 8.
| First Friday in December.
| Last Monday in April.
_ Date fixed by governor and superintend-
ent of public instruction.
| Date fixed by superintendent of public
instruction.
Do.
| Option os governor, usually in April,

oO.

Option of parish boards,
Option of governor.
Option of governor, in April.
Last Saturday in April.
| Option of governor.

Do.
Option of board of education. :
First Friday after tirst Tuesday in April,
Third Tuesday of April.
22d of April.
Option of governor.

Do

Option of governor, in April.
| Second Friday in March.
| First Friday after May 1.

6th of May, by proclamation of governor.
In April, by proclamation of governor,

Second Friday in April.
Option of governor.
Do.
Variable.
| Option of governor.
November, at designation of county sup-
erintendents.
2ed of February.
Option of governor.
Fall and spring. at designation of super-
intendent of schools.
Option of governor.
Do.
Do.

104 AGRICULTURE.

FORES!I-FIRE LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES,

(FERNOW.)

(See p. 106 for penalties imposed.)

Edition of

State. Code: Title. Chapter. Section.

Wiabama:. 3-5 44. CG. eeeee eee) eee Cae ee, sees 4226-8
?

Arkansas!.. eh S. a : % Ah cia an 48 1580-4
Californiats, +... ..\P, 7c +386. Ale EO Ml yoe szecs tee eels 384
Colorado... .... ue ye : Se teb ee g 36 1414 15, 17-18
Connecticut’...... G75. 888. se 19 99 1458, 1460-2
Delaware?,....... Wiss WE nn oman am 93 1-2
RlOnMGars see 2. ass SARS LOT cere ceo a eis: ois inseall ates sin tte atiahe aie 3141
Geareiaetiey. 2. TOO2 fe Cee eee Mee eee cues Io 1456-9
USE Oh Se as RUS. 1867, .. x0. 9 gas ees 6921
Milimois 2. RSsese: RPS OOS Me eae ee eeees 38 18
Anglian as. \j.j.22 bi. RES: tepals ore ces 5 2001
MGW ial iets shore ots) s 0% McLean’s, 1888 24 3 5185-92
Kansas2ts.8), ofs.%5 Goulk 1889. Fei eect BAS SBA ree ese 7276-8
Kentucky ......... (6S: TOSS. fe eel| se cok ae 29 5-6
Louisiana ....... SURGOM en < atesiesiato oll croie sutmaials, tact atest etoraie ine ee 817
WrAINe ei. 2). ICAWS XOOT. oe Pelcc a! tata clece 3 100 5
Maryland.®
Massachusetts’. ...|Sup. 1888......]..... = Ee 163 1-2
Michigan§.... .. / a ee ae |i Base fe he 328 9402-4
Minnesota®....... Gis: 1878... ot SAS Set Ne 95 6
Mississippi........ EUO2 ote tei kee colts tis cect hes 29 Logi
Missouri..... woes AE TS est le ibe taendl Wetec Nee 47 3613

1S. 1847: Burning off permitted when consent of neighbors is secured
after 1 day’s notice.

2 Pol. Code, S. 3344-5: Persons firing woods, etc., liable in treble dam-
ages, Constable, etc., may order any inhabitants liable to poll-tax to
assist in extinguishing fire.

3 Must give notice, before burning off, to all residents within one mile,
aud can only be done between February 15 and March 31, unless otherwise
ordered by county commissioner.

4 Prohibits building fire in woods without owner’s permission, and with-
out first clearing away combustibles, and extinguishing fire.

5 Must give 1 day’s notice, before burning off, to adjoining property
owners, and then only betwen Feb. 20 and April 1.

§ No law included in Revised Statutes.

7 Ch. 296, S. 1-6, G. S. 1883: Duty of fire wardens to post warnings,
extinguish fires, and investigate causes of fires.

8 Supervisors and highway commissioners to order assistance in putting
out fires; fine $5-$50 for refusal to assist.

® See act of April 18, 1895.

FORESTRY. 105

FOREST-FIRE LAWS— Continued.

State. ae of Title. Chapter. Section,
Mean ure TE, Gz r805s.ls s| ese Gs aafiee-aedle Syesieie 1071-2
Nebraska.).). 0.12 =: BOGIs Seegecinsafiwea wheat. .Gs C..0-O2 6713
Nevada.. ona | ES iS Ae ee een Dee OEE | SCOn oR CREE ae 4794
New Hampshire... ST IGOL 2c. cals se ese eta 277 3-7

11 : 1 and sup-
New Jersey!!.,.... Rew ig, 19975 was Fire. : } plements.
Wem York... .... ARE Slee > se s'se.e 14 20 BREE
North Carolina!?.,|Vol. I. 1883....].--.+---++-: 7 52-4
Mate alcGta. 2251x895 23) ais dacs 03 te owas oe eo wee PeC.40 7314-15
(3) 71 a eee BOGE a deica[ eos ose. wee a eae wim aw eed 6334
MAE ae. 2) | SESS AITO See nwiccilic'= +-,0 mm - =e ee [acc omale sans Page 45
Peansylvania. ....)1894.. . 2.2 .-cpecscccnc-se-frncscceeccees eee
Rhode Island.. .. |G. S. 1886. ... |---:+--+ +++) 279 6
South Carolinas. ./1893............ Crim. Stat. 101 151-7
Bonmenncota. . .| Dak. Ter....5.|--<-<scosss-| sadveeneeset 2398
Tennessee!®.... . |M.& V. C. 1884]. ------ = || sre ee or 2277-8
RS oo as oie, 50 BiG ak S80ics «6 ly es 2 669-70
MITAND ce cees ee C. L. 1888 IG! Pea eeoceieae2 4576
Vermont.......... COQ ow asckisn. os 32 213 4934
WG Mia... sane «. TSB z aware false sifia te} serie 181 3701-2
West Virginia ... |1891......... oofseer-eeeeee: 2 81-84
Wisconsin.... .... R. S. 1889. .....Jeserceeccseclecececceccee: 4406
Wyoming!® ...... BR Ss T8755 Ae [ere tametetes [ie cw aeew se 920-2
(ot eee R. S. 1887. 0... | eer eeee creel ones aivesjs thn 608-9
New Mexico ..... TOGA Ja.0 anise BR RAC OCC) Ct OT EE 2903-14
Oklahoma!®....... TODA clo cr cin Sowell mann serene { 39 aa t 2269-70

10 Penalty for failing to extinguish camp-fire or malicious firing of woods,
fine not exceeding $5000, or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both.

11 Ch, 188, G. P. Laws 1888, provides detectives for violators of fire
law. Ch. 119, Laws 1892, and Ch. 194, Laws 1894, provide for fire mar-
shals and define their duties.

12 Fine $10 for leaving unextinguished camp-fire. Two days’ notice in
writing before firing one’s own woods.

13 S, 4750-1: Penalty for refusing to assist in extinguishing fires, fine $ro.

14 Requires governor to issue proclamation annually July 1, warning
people against forest fires.

15 If turpentine farm, fine $500, or penitentiary 1 year.

18 Owner may fire his own woods after two days’ notice to neighbors.

17 Ch. 27, Laws 1892: Duty of county sheriffs to extinguish fires.

18 Permits firing grass and sage-bush March, April, and October, if kept
within control.

19 Camp-fires, and regulations for burning off prairies, etc., Ch. 37 (enacted
1890) provides penalties for setting fires and failure to extinguish.

106 AGRICULTURE.
FOREST-FIRE LAWS— Continued.

PENALTY PRESCRIBED BY STATE LAWS.

Alabama.—Fine $10-$200; if turpentine forest, $100-$1000, or hard
labor for not more than 12 months.

Arkansas.—Fine $25-$300, or jail 10-60 days. Liable for double
damages.

California.—Fine not more than $1000, or jail not more than 1 year, or
both, ,

Colorado.—F ine $50-$300, or jail 15 days to 3 months, or both If on State
lands, $50-$500, or jail 20 days to 6 months.

Connecticut.—Fine $20-$200, or jail 2-6 months, or both. Fine $1-$50,
or jail not more than 30 days.

Delaware.—Fine $25.

Florida,—¥Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 60 days.

Georgta.—Fine not more than $1000, or 1 year in chain-gang, or both.

Idaho.—Misdemeanor.

Lilinois.— Fine $5-$100.

Indiana.—Fine $5-$100, to-which may be added imprisonment not more
than 30 days.

Jowa.—Fine not exceeding $500, or jail not exceeding x year.

Kansas.—Fine $30-$s00, or jail ro days to 6 months, or both.

Kentucky.—Fine $100, or in discretion of jury.

Louisiana.—Fine $5-$500.

Maine.—Fine not exceeding $100, or jail not exceeding 30 days, or both.

Massachusetts.—Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 6 months.

Michigan.—Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 1 year, or
both.

Minnesota.—State prison 6 months to 2 years.

Mississippt.—F ine $20-$s500, or jail not more than 3 months, or both.

Missouri —Fine not more than $500, or jail not more than 12 months.

Montana.—Fine not more than $rooo, or jail not more than 1 year.

Nebraska.—Fine $5-$100, and jail 1-6 months.

Nevada.—Fine $200-$1000, or jail ro days to 6 months, or both.

New Hampshire,—Fine $10-$2000~r imprisonment not more than 3
years.

New Jersey.—Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than x year, or
both.

New York.—Fine not exceeding $1000, or imprisonment not exceeding
1 year.

North Carolina --Fine $50.

North Dakota.—Wilful, a misdemeanor ; negligent, fine $10-$100.

O&Azo.—Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 20 days, or both.

Oregon.—Fine $10-$1000, and in certain cases penitentiary not exceed.
ing 1 year.

Pennsylvania.—Fine not more than $300, or jail not more than 1 year.
or both.

oa.

FORESTRY. 107

Rhode Island.—Imprisonment not exceeding 2 years,

South Carolina.—Fine $s-$100, or jail not more than 30 days.

South Dakota.—Fine not more than $200, or jail not more than 1 year,
or both.

Tennessee.—Forfeit $100 to prosecutor and fine $5-$s50 (S. 2277, Code
Sup. 1893).

Texas.—Fine $50-300.

Utah.—Misdemeancr.

Vermont.—Fine not more than $500, or penitentiary not more than «
years.

Virginia.—Fine $5-$100, and jail 1-6 months.

West Virginia.— Fine $10-$1000, or jail not more than 12 months.

Wisconsin.—F ine not more than $500, or jail not more than 1 year,

Wyoming.—Fine not more than $500, or jail 30 days to 6 months.

Avrizona.—Misdemeanor. If on State or U. S. lands, fine not more than
$1000, or jail not more than 1 year, or both,

New Mexico.—Fine $60-$500.

Oklahoma,--Fine $10-$s500, or jail not more than 1 year, or both.

108 AGRICULTURE,

X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.

It isa matter of common experience among farmers that the
soil is impoverished by continuous cropping, and the yields
obtained therefore gradually decreased. The decrease in
yields can only be prevented by applications of farmyard
manure or commercial fertilizers; ploughing and thorough
cultivation of the soil bring the land in a better mechanical
condition and increase the amount of available plant food
present in the soil, but these operations are not sufficient
to maintain the fertility of the land so that it will yield
equally well from year to year under otherwise favorable
conditions. Every crop harvested contains certain quan-
tities of fertilizing ingredients, and taking away these
amounts in general leaves the soil in a poorer condition for
the production of crops than it was before.

The fertilizing ingredients of which the soilis thus liable
to be robbed are potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and
sometimes lime. They are not present as such in the soil,
or inthe fertilizers applied to the soil, but in chemical com-
binations with a large variety of compounds. The soil will
contain nearly all the different elements which chemists
have so far succeeded in isolating, but it is mainly the
three elements, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen,
which are apt to be decreased in the soil below the amounts
required for the nutrition of crops, or at least of maxi-
mum crops. In rational fertilization the effort therefore
always is toreturn to the soil such quantities of fertilizing
ingredients, in the shape of farmyard manure or com-
mercial fertilizers, as will restore the loss sustained by the
withdrawal of the crops harvested. Other mineral ingre-
dients contained in the crops need not generally be re-
turned to the soil, since they are nearly everywhere pres-
ent in abundance.

eee,

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 109

It is the grand work done for the farmer by agricultural
chemistry during the past half century which has ex-
plained the causes of the decreased fertility of land due
to continuous cropping, and has given the remedies for
maintaining the fertility. The latter are as follows:

First, by selling only such products from the farm as will
deprive the soil of the smallest quantities of fertilizing in-
gredients, i.e., manufactured products, like milk, cream,
butter, meat, eggs, rather than grain crops, hay, etc. The
tables given on pp. III-114 show the amounts of fertilizing
ingredients removed in farm products of various kinds and
deserve a close study by all farmers.

Secondly, by carefully saving the manure produced by
stock—both liquid and solid (the former by the use of ab-
sorbents, peat, land plaster, kainit, superphosphate, shav-
ings, etc., or by building special cisterns for storing it; the
latter by placing it under shelter, guarding against leakage)
—and returning it to the land; as the products sold off the land
also contain certain quantities of fertilizing constituents,
the loss must be repaired by purchase of concentrated food
stuffs, at least three fourths of whose valuable ash ingredi-
ents will go into the manure and thus be saved for crops.

Thirdly, by following a rational system of rotation of
crops, and by frequent culture of leguminous crops,—
clovers, peas, beans, etc.,—since these are able to so fix
the free nitrogen of the air as to render it of value to ani-
mals and plants.

VALUATION OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.

The valuation of fertilizing ingredients shown below (see
p. 122) is the one agreed upon by a number of Eastern
experiment and fertilizer control stations after a careful
study of the retail prices of crude products of fertilizers
during the six months prior to Marchi, 1896. It expresses
the commercial value of the fertilizers, and not their agri-
cultural value, which will vary according to the require-
ments of the land and the character of the crops grown.
Fertilizers are sold in States having fertilizer control, on
the basis of a guarantee of a minimum content of potash,

110 AGRICULTURE.

phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, singly or combined, and it
is the office of the fertilizer control stations to watch that
goods offered for sale in their respective states are up to
the guarantee. Farmers living in states where fertilizer
laws are enacted (Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Dela-
ware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louis-
iana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missis-
sippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Caroe-
lina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wis-
consin) should not buy fertilizers except on guarantee, and
should examine the fertilizer bulletins published by their
respective stations to ascertain that the goods put on the
market are not below the guarantee, and that the valuation
price is not below the selling price of the article. Where
a reasonable suspicion of fraud exists, apply to the direc-
tor of the experiment station for information concerning
the goods offered for sale or the firm placing them on the
market.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. lil

FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING
STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS.

(Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

ST

=
; 3 5 ;
Material, 3 : > rata a
3 a = Zo sg
ay = < 7, i <
a a
Paes |
FE Green Fodders, per ct. | per ct. | per ct. | per ct. | per ct.
Meee aStUre Tass .. ..-........... 63.1 3.27 -OI +23 75
me ©6<Green fodder corn............- 78.6 4.84 +41 as 33
mee sorghum fodder. ............. oa By Pe 23 09 +23
Mee Rye fodd@............... Sieerl. SE | Pate ses 33 “rs 73
Mumeiat fodder,.............csecc0- 83.4 1.31 -49 S53 38
Timothy grass..... beads aie 66.9 2.15 .48 .26 .76
REMEIIEROWED, ....2..-.<22.-5----| 90.0 |.....-.. -53 «13 46
3 White clover........ Senelee = ven ra ll CRE a ae -50 -20 24
me Alsike clover ............ ae ateters 8r.8 1.47 +44 a 20
ie BAEC CIOVEL.. - 2. .oeene- ess. ekg fetid 43 113 49
Seeniialta (lucern). .....00..:...- 75-3 2.25 -72 13 56
: _ in) ee ap dnicta 78.8 1.47 +27 .I0 31
eT nee r= al Oa a -29 15 53
PEPER VCOMITCY \.., 6. .c0cassss 84.4 2.45 42 0% 75
DEG oa eben scans sas 78.0 brearve vs .28 «xz 37
Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders.
Fodder corn (with ears)... ... 7.85 | 4.91 1.76 54 .89
Corn.stover (without ears)..... Qg.12 | 3.74 I.04 29 1.40
Piumrarian STass. -.....: .... FeO) |i Oates 1.20 35 1.30
Momsmion millet.:......0...::.. Gapsrpeee eter eee -49 1.69
2 Hay of mixed grasses ......... EE.99 | 6.34 I.4¥ 27 1.55
fr RSME V ec). 5)-' = 5. = a eareratina Sn 7-71 4-59 S55 36 1.02
sry SUES EE Se ns vince siceccc 2 0nee Se 7.52 | 4.q2 1.26 a5 -90
mized clover.... ........ So ee EL.33) | 0:63 2.07 38 2.20
Mammoth red clover........... 11.41 72 2.23 55 1.22
me White clover ..:..-:. EN KET PKL CERT RE TC CEE 2.75 52 1.81
BE SCAGIOE. GlOV OL oc v:ccyuciecc ce cine 18.30 | 7.70 2.05 .40 5
PRE CLOVEL. oo . ... waliac(s 9-94 | 11.11 2.34 .67 2.23
PRE TRE ere oe ne Scie beinieia o's\e'o sie o's 6.55 7-07 2.19 5X 1.68
MEIOWESEL AW ois. o\c v.c/e so aists'si<\ssls 11.44 | 5.30 Smo 30 2.09
gee Chatty. Saterres esata BRO sree I.O1 27 -99
Wheat straw........ Sebetislebeshabsouboes 12.56 | 3.8r -59 -I2 365
“> CTA Be eos oct moe 8.05 | 7.18 -79 +70 +42
BRUCISELAW!... c.cc02s0 dasusee Sen 7.0%) |e. 25 .40 28 -79
bi: So GY a re ado bab on g-09 | 4.76 .62 .20 1.24
Buckwheat hulls.............. al skh QOn len tele -49 .07 52
Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, etc.
EPNMPOES ES nels 72 i- mens el) 7Os24. 0° 89 32 -12 | .46
RIMEeE POLATOES: wc... 20 cece see. 71.26 | 1.00 24 .08 .37
PRECRNCEESS 25555 cccc es nes eee 87.73°|| ¥.13 +24 :OO- mia) #544,
Yellow fodder beets............ go .60 -95 .19 09 -46
Sar BECES ... .. .........-..| 86.95 | 1.04 .22 | 10 48
Mangel-wurzels..........:--..- 87 29 | 1.22 19 | 09 38
TREATS et ae ois sie ci cecas) [wield ncn oe 89.49 | 1-01 -18 | «10 -39
0S eee Ll Soi) 2200 os get -49
Aisi 2 ao eee eee 89.79 | 1.22 ans .09 «5E

Ne AGRICULTURE.

MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS.

Chart showing Pounds of Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding
Stuffs in one Ton, and the Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs,
according to the Valuation given.

Nitrogen _Phosphoric Acid Potash
EZZA | K wg
Price per pound 12 cts. 434 cts. 4% ets.

Black Bar represents Manurial Value per Ton.
ite ca ™— T9140 "60 780 "100 120 "140 "160 “180 ‘200 Ibs. 3
Green corn fodderZa $1.42
Oat fodder Zee 1.64
Green clover ZW 1.80
Corn silage ZS 1.10
Catovery 4.02

Timothy hay ZZ... 4.31

Red clover hay ZZ”, eeees 1229

Wheat straw P77 1.98

Potatoes 1.22

Turnips ESL. .87

Inia” — CS re 5.38

Wheat ZZ LN

Barley 4.77

Oats OZ 6.24

Rye 5.45

ities ZF es 2.83

Pea meal EZZE=W™*S

Buckwheat ZR es, 4.04.

Corn § cob meal ZZZ777A=D>pe_ 4.3

Corn cob LSS 1.79

Wheat bran VUZE =ZWy\Q 10.46

Wheat middlingsZZy-ZZZ7 FW es 1:73

Rice bran 2.18

Li i @ Rg
saa aes:
Cotton seed Mee A i
Cotton seed hulls 2.81 19.70 —=="
Glutenmecl EZZZZZZZZZire 12.41

Malt sprouts 11.27

Brewers’ grains ZZ ee 2.46

ee ee Oe Be ee ee ee eee!
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 lbs,

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.

113

FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING
STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS.—(Continued.)

- 1
Material. S a £¢

Dn _—
= < ar

Grains and Other Seeds. per’ et. |} per ct.. | per ‘et.
gern Osea Bere |, a0-ee ) 2-54 1.82
Sorghum seed.... .. eS ee 14.00 : 1.48
Barley. ......i. 14.30 | 2.48 1.51
a. RE eae ae eae 18.17 2.98 2.06
Wheat, SPRING ses. «4525. See. ty meas 1) | 57 2.36
winter..... Py ee 14+75 |-------: 2.36
peed. <a 2s oF OE 14.90 |... 20. 1.76
Millet, common................ 12.68 |....... 2.04
Japanese millet........ aseveces| 29-08" [pence ct] 37g
BE SNe ee oer ee eee 12.60 -82 1.08
Meme writeat i207... 22.5..28 2 5! T4.10 |........ 1.44
8) 2 Ee ete 18.33 | 4-99 5+30
2 Other = $omeceaael feeds,

GREUSHEAD © lence so t..4... eeit 12.05 1.41 1.58
Corn and cob meal............. 8.96 hee ripe
ReTTHOALS vas x % adi ~ ciclo o 6a bs FELIZ 3:37 1.86

ze barley. hs) wrotdiawte 6 era me uta 13.43 2.06 P55
WS TEMLOUI (ck . strsmable oad i/3 9.83 I.22 2.21
eee As Gren «ate due we de «| 8.85 | 2.68 3-08
Corn 7] SSE ee ee el ee ee 12.09 82 -50
Hominy PECGrEE. «scot nek Face 8 93 2.21 I .63
Seeitermmeal 4... 5.0 .ck eas Seu de 8.59 “73 5-03
Starch feed (glucose refuse) .. soy eee 2.62
Re SOROUIS: |g. .iscs a0 18.38 | 12.48 3-55
Brewers’ grains, chy joeeo ee Cee 9-14 | 3.92 3-62
WEL. .2..00%. Yee oe -89

(op Se ee eee ee ee 12.50 | 4.60 2.32

SP OMNES: Oo. eee 0% 2 es) 12.54 | 3.52 1.84
) OS™ ee eee 11.74 | 6.25 2.67

Se MG GATS Ss «oS» o's divans’ 9-18 | 2.30 2.63
Me AAPOR rs 55h WSs a nidecd 10.20 | 12.94 71

POMS... o73.0. 6065 Se. wich 10.30 | 9.00 1.97
Buckwheat middlings.......... 14.72 I.40 1.38
Cotton-seed meal..... .........] 7.81 | 6.05 6.79

+ Helles. be. 10.17 | 2.40 | -:69
Linseed meal (old process)..... 8.88 6.08 5.43
‘* (mew process).... 7-77. | 5:37 5-78

ECS EUWIL oo. 0. ccc tw ole hee = = 85.30 -39 aig
PIPING, POMACE: 52222 022 se 2k wes « 80.50 27 23

Dairy Products, etc.

Whole milk ....... 87.00 75 53
Shisnenmlks.. i555. ..5. 90.25 .80 56
NBME MIRE ee scene one cs vee ures 74.05 -50 -40
Buttermilk .ies).2; hk. oR go.50 -70 .48
LAGS i Gee re == 92.97 -60 SiS
LS) ae ee ee 79-10 15 -12
(57S SSE! ayes ee Rn 33-25 | 2.10 3-93
Live exatie.2.02,3. hat: “ees ese he 4.40 2.48

MEE Py Sea cceetre’ ub te rates 44.8 2.90 £.95
SE VELL DUES Ue a eee 42 0 1.80 1.76

HoH

is)

Leal

114 AGRICULTURE,

AMOUNT OF SOIL INGREDIENTS WITHDRAWN
BY VARIOUS CROPS, IN LBS. PER ACRE.

(HiLGarD.)
: =
2 ; Si ate
Crop aa) dee | oe
Pile eae
& Ou me | Ae Ss) a
GrAPeSs 1.000 1DS kana ee aes ci c'| Saisie com 5-00] 1.00] 1.52 -I0] 1.70
@ropiott16,c00 Ibseaecrnitoescen- |S ser Bs: 50.00} 10.00] 15.20] 1.00] 17-00
DBECUSMOHO IDS: PRONG) coos wel Peewee DAG Wea vee 5.075 aie «| eee
BileshworqadlbS) .ctiesc sees. coc teas + pec 7 iW ie ee 8.08 )eseen
Woodie ore IDS isi ineciinss os 35 53-42 | 15.69] 21.60] 8.74 (6n] sseeee
Prunes, r.000 lbs.5 %. ce tee eee: 3.03 | 2.66 03 a53 -or| 1.48
Groptot.so;c00 lbswcaerceme cess 120.90 | 79.70] 3.92] 15.95 22| 44.40
Bitsr.O357 DS: i: Sones svateee ess 8.60 | 2.06 252] °2.80 02] 10.30
Mlesh ad, 205 IDS 5 ces weg: 505+] E290 | 77-64] 3.40) 13.55 20| 34.10
Apricots, 1,000 lbs.... ... me misyera. 5-160 | 2.83 18 -7I 02] 2.29
roplotso.con Ibs Sts. 3.055. 154-80 | 84.98| 5.45] 21.38 94| 68.70
PUCS Me 7HOSLDS -21. Seca gecciners 12.25 1.36 -83] 5.36 19| I5.00
Bleshy-28:260 Ibss4s ei decks x: 142.55 | 83.62] 4.65] 16.02 75| 53-70
Oranges, 1.900: IDS aatewece ists 65: 4.32 | 2.1% 99 {53 04| 1.83
Croprotizoc00 DS acceso sw v's 86.40 | 42.28) 19.72] 10.60 80] 36.60
Seeds, 240 ; A ee SB ee 590 | 22.74) or ai sersOr OA emis
Flesh and rind, 10,760 lbs...... 79-50 | 39.54] 18.40] 8.99 17O| Poste te
Roots, percentage.......... ...| 1oo.12 | 15.43] 49.89] 13.47 “72 se
SEEMS; 5 sy HGR nore Te 100.00 | 11.69] 55.13] 17.09 CTRL MSS
Leaves Pies Sa eae Marorits 99-91 | 16.51) 56.38] 3.27; 4.03]......
Olives, 1,000 lbs..... eee eee 94.63 | 8.55]. 2.32] 1.18 .23| 5.85
Crop of 2,200 Ibs..... .........| 208.18 | 18.82) 5.10] 2.59 50] 12.86
IPAES: AZO 0IDS 5 MBS Roe reuse: Stele eae oxc EOg.25) | | 0.771, 4con||, 2.40 -48| 9.67
PMCS tg 7c DS 1a Bete eee 14.56 | 12.04| 1.09 .19 -02] 3.19
EAVES; 45400 IDS... ore, .cie<teisraiesa.e -| 190.16 | 58.05) 88.53] 20.08 .28] 69.90
OOd,-11000 ]DS-6 1. srs cle cunt oe 123.18 | 24.46) 66.63] 14.87|......|117.67
Wheat, 1,000 lbs. (whole ee 51.20, | |9.15). .2.30|'. 4.13|) te Olmos
Crop of 4,800 lbs. (hay). -| 246.04 | 43.92] 11.04] 19.80] 7.89] 42.00
Grain, zoibushels. 225 =<. cess!) <z 24.00] 7.85 -72| I1.90 .02| 24 00
Straw, EOE HDS heise e mera: bine yorete 222.04 | 36.07] 10.32] 7.90| 7.87] 18.00
Alltalfa, tyooo-lbs. 13.28. o. Oe are 65.00 | 13.49| 22.86! 6.43] 1.59! 12.96
Crop of TrorOoO | DSaeacueeene ss 780.00 |161.88 274.32] 77.16] 19.08/155.52
Sugar beets (fresh), 1,000 Ibs..... 18.73 |. 5-38)... 3-13|., 7.65 .86] 2.38
Crop of 72,000, 1DSe aa nwan anes s 1349.72 |387.44/224.08/116.16| 61.68/173.40
IGOtS,»40:000) DS Mn. gaa ss sige oe 287.00 |152.00) 16.00] 36.00] 12.00] 60.40
MOPS, 32000) DSi sees men lus 1a. 1062.72 |235.44/208.08] 80.16] 49.68|1t13.00
Ramie, 1,000 lbs...:...: avehaelevopurarols 75-19 | 8.84! 23.08] 6.46] 1.12] 12.97
Crop of 14.25 toms......... ....|2143.57 |251.98/657.82 155-70| 51.85|369.70
WEAVESameaniCOMS: cons seh sob c.. 1641.35 | 68.13/566.91| 77.13] 41.56|206. 10
Stalk (without bark), 7.25 tons.| 410.48 |155.99| 71.77| 67.71| 2.50|105.85
Bark (cuticle and fibre), 2.75
CONG tees t cieve Stereo ae'ooinis DR eee a 91.74 | 27.86) 19.14] 10.86] 7.79] 57-75
Gotton, aco lbS Gs). rr es cos Meee 54.260 | 11-00] 19.76|| 7.03] 2.55) gees
Crop of 3,200 lbs...... of Lae 173-60 | 35.26| 44.04] 22.54] 8.27] ..0.
Meavies!doo IDS: s... cea. Ms «cee = 48.69 | ‘\gpog] 15.03] 4.22) 2.75). .cne
Stems, 1,200 lbs. ..... Bie cnet 38.44 | }9.17] 10.58). 4-40|| 2.n4| aaa
Seeds (SoG lbS, -aa.ceetaee bees 29-37 | 8.99} 3.07] 9-74 -48| 29.20
Bas, 400 UGS. ats ne ee ee eee 52.08 | )7.42|\ 14.10). 3.57] Satan
int, 400 IDS ss: ee <a OF a eats 5-09 1.69] 1.20 ~52 <3Oliteaeietd

115

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.

gz 0} £1 O20} 505, | SO <07 Srh
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tS 03 42 0Z 0} oF | z oO} OF
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ob 01 02 VAOTses GE 0} Tor
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SdOuUO INAUAAMIG NI GHNIVEINOO SIVINALVW ONIZIILLMAA FO LNAOWYV

116 AGRICULTURE.

MINIMUM AMOUNT OF FARMYARD MANURE
required to replace the Ingredients abstracted from
the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops. (McConne tt.)

WIHGSGc cores ests stons. | Turnips..........- 15 tons.
ON iar ous ama a 5 DWEGES a2 ob a'sc Geka 10
SPs Sade dos Oh Go 5 Mangolds.......... 20
Meadow hay....... 8 Potatoes: 45 2-45 10
Red tlover..-:...-.. 12 Cappare <9. oo. sss 25
Demise eS ooo 4:.5 a8 10 CAfrets<. . <. . +. s- 10

AMOUNT AND QUALITY OF MANURE PRODUCED
BY STOCK.

The various classes of farm animals will produce about
the following quantities of solid and liquid manure during
a year, viz.:

Solid Manure. Liquid Manure.

EAMG ia See eas o0lb a .vle Cp 2 wn Eee 12,000 lbs. 3,000 lbs.
MOIR seme s aks Sct oc ow haope oye 20,000 ‘* 8,000 ‘*
MERA ee rote te At Geen ee 760 ‘* 380 ‘
0 2 ES eae eee 1,800 ‘‘ 1,200

Since a considerable portion of the manure is lost while
the animal is working or is out-doors, the quantities secured
in the manure-pile will not come up to these figures.

The quantities of urine voided by farm animals during
twenty-four hours are on the average as follows, accord-
ing to Wilckens: cows, 15-20 lbs.; horses, 20-27 lIbs.;
sheep, 2 lbs.; swine, 7-9 lbs. The capacity for liquid
manure-tanks or cisterns intended to hold the fluid excre-
ments of a herd of a certain size may readily be calculated
on a basis of these figures (see tables on p. 137). 6000 lbs.
(about 720 gallons) of urine per 1000 lbs. live weight of
cattle, is a liberal estimate.

The quality of the manure produced will depend on the
character of the feeding and the kind of stock kept. Rich
feeding produces a rich manure, since, as shown in the
table given below, only a relatively small portion of the
valuable fertilizing ingredients of the food is retained in

MANURES AND FERFPILIZERS. PGi ar

the bodies of the animals, or is taken away in the products
sold. Rich feeding, therefore, has a beneficial influence in
two directions, larger yields of products being obtained,
and a better quality of manure being produced.

COMPOSITION, AMOUNT, AND VALUE OF MANURE
Produced by Different Kinds of Farm Animals.

(Results of experiments conducted at Cornell University Experiment
Station.)

| | Amount and Value per

Analysis and Value per Ton of 1000 Ibs. Live Weight

ca Manure. |

per Day.
.: ho Opes re! Oo, *. | a o * jw *
2 | £2 |288| 2 |ghs| Ske | eke |aus
is} = = vo
> 2 Lares | Sood ei 2 Picea pa
EpmctjsPperclarinerict, | Perce Cents.
Sheep...} 59.52 97 9-39 -59 ,|$3.30]) 34-1 7-2 |$26 09
Calves..| 77.73 .50 17 53 2.18 7.8 6.7 24.45
Pigs ....| 74.13 84 39 .32 3-29 |} 83 6 16.7 60.88
Cows...| 75.25 -43 29 “44 2.02 74.1 8.0 29.27
Horses .| 48.69 49 26 -48 | 2.21]| 48.8 7.6 | 27.74

QUANTITIES OF NITROGEN AND ASH CONSTITU-
ents Voided by Animais or Obtained in Animal
Products. (Lawes and GILBeErt.)

Percentage of Ash

Percentage of Nitrogen. Constituents.

Obtain- Voided : Voided

ed as pone as In Total sear see as Excre-

Animal Excte: Liquid] Excre- Weight | ment or

Prod- eee. Excre-| ment. az Milk Perspira-
uct. ment. : tion.
Horse at rest ...| None. 43.0 57.0 100.0 None 100.0
Horse at work...| None. 29.4 70.6 100.0 None. 100.9
Fattening oxen. 3-9 22.6 73-5 96.1 2.3 97-7
Fattening sheep. Az3 16.7 79-0 95-7 3.8 96.2
Fattening pigs. 14.7 22.0 63.3 85.3 4.0 96.0
Milking cows.. 24.5 18.1 57+4 75-5 10.3 89.7

* Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash
at 44 cents per pound.

118

AGRICULTURE.

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL

FERTILIZING MATERIALS.

(BEAL.)

Phosphoric Acid.

o ro} so)
Name. 5 2 a é g :
2 2 = 2 3 2
e = I) WS o 3 &
= Zz a n ™~ & 4
Algze (Lyngbia majuscula).| 16.26) 4.25 79 -19} 2.06
PAVMOMTC coc, oes Beis 0s 5-86] 11.33 : 3243) sore
PARE. wie maa cage = ine |) Roe | ae eset lll ae rice acer 30.05) "omer
Asheswaothracite coal). sdf. con] a oko -I0 10) siete
Pee RAEVIMVIMOMS) Sse dtsithels as atl ss ble -40 -40| ere
Somes lnt jachacet ee 0 [tS 6 45 1.20 I.14| 48.50
‘¢ wood, leached....... BOs 22 Ihc faces yA ee od | Ma I.51| 28.08
: ‘-') unleached .: TBO |ste ss ain Bg 28 bie cena ee sea co I.70| 34.00
PACHOUIAT Ons os a0 pws seine 40.09] 8.20] 1.31] .2.37| 1.24) 3.80)jacee
SOWIE AS Dn gers sik ink) ome ecm ete<s FOO] ac fat sail era'alw ote eeepareie Nit capes 35-89| 44.89
ONE -DlACK,.. 2. cincem. = Le wares A {00 5-50 ale @ ores ell cece lace oe 28.28]......
. BeCLISSOUVEG. = th cuswiel tos gavil| sig soll ola ole I5.40| I-30} 17;00|anaaee
BONE WME Al. Sa nic CoG fine e on). 5 7a5O|| + AsOB pa inioretere 40). 7. 60] 23-25] eee he
~-~+—-—~
< Se GIssGlved= os see et se se: ZOO eas 13.53 T7<O0) steer
st eo free Prom fat... alts as 2 Os 20) sos 3 cae 20.10
* “ from Ene fACtOLy |... sc HOVOUE Soe) Seek B= |aotek 29 .90|| 6 e-
NGAI ANILE: caida Years sare lteetes bh ses ee 13.60 dant | oe
Caribbean guano.. BZ TY. | Aig Pettit es, OER: eee 26.77| 39.95
Castor MOMACE .. Miwind..-5h-/ O-50l) pSa5O) AG IO | ecient ae Ta7h| so seee
Cotton-hul' ashes .......... .80 ..| 22.75] 1.25) 6.50| 8.85] 9.60
Cotton- seed meal, decort .. fa 6 eae Stor £2) Waar eos fr Peeeg sa Vien 2.88) ie
“ " undecort..|....-. 4-30] 1.50 3.,70|-- see
Cube nanos so. a sts cece BA27 | ESOT evs cin testes ee] saeco T3.°35|oeeen
Drredsbiood ey ai2<4 ese <2 eee T2350| 10-52 || Sc Reds Sy ROS
WSC AHS hens. ciclais eidiscei'ecere © 2 12.75 wees} sestes -55| 2-60; 8.25 Ee
Eel-grass (zostera in Sun ye 81.19 235 SS2| | aerne | eset 07 os
Gas lime.. =a] 22.20 SEA Pa ey aes es .© ...|) ageGe
Horn and hoof waste ...... oor i} Me i A ep ee (a 1.83) soe
PRRIVIek- £ 5 BO Ric ese. dre) ctit= care Be2O] esac EASA <' aetec | ps cwlueil wa eee De =
Kelp (daminaria)........... 87.75 20 SPA cee Secor .06 -40
KoeSerite ye ccce ei eseie eee see e7ope te Rreie ds os) el eee 2.82
RRO PIPER s: | Stics Sains Cs BE tas [oes 8.42 PRA fee i
ILGBSTGL/SHENS<-c.: 32. ee. eee 7+27| 4.50 LS] AS all Scores 3-52] 22.24
Maiisvisentucky:. 3.3... 4 E350 easy Sec | a Whe se = 2] 3-34
‘© Marylandand Virginia| 1.50 .2—5]. .O-2) 0-40
‘© New Jersey green sand} 1.50}...... cy | me el be Eye -I-4] 1-9
** North Carolina.... TsO) tonic deel 2—T esl see ear eeee O-.4 5-45
Meat scrap ©. 2s... ... eee ee E25OO| 1OSAA| ss = capasesenilae tees 2:509| emer
Mona Island BMEO? Se acta 13.32 SFO imac lascin ante ote 7-55| 21£.88] 37.49
HEN Perec: a ce yixis 34 50.00] T.IO «ES fae pare licrarseres .10 Loe
DMG SANG e Beal kas sitet 60.00 -40 ois} eit erat Io .90
Muriate of Lee ae OG) a otsveis BE aoc . SIT bei Se
Navassa: phosphate: =. 05. |) 7 eOoltees se] oe cel See eal eee ce 34-27| 37-45
Nitrate of soda... .% j2.-. <-al) (2.40) 15-70 3c Pe Heo
Oleomargarine refuse....... 8 54] 12.12 d si ae s88lc..- ee

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.

119

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZING MATERIALS,.— Continued.

Phosphoric Acid.

Name. o FI P +3

OE ea ai a a ers a

Se eS bee ee

2 = iS) va) v S &

= Z Ay n a4 a 4
Oyster-shell lime*. 15.00 a ol eee soe 18] 55.00
ina2) Pee | Sa re 61.50 .85 TSS S eS eee sOolcereas
eCuvian SUANO.....:... +. E4cO1| 7-35, 2005)" 3220|"" sexo) THagaloce 5.
Phosphates, Florida.. PAPAS [Bese Pl beg Mt .-| 24.50] 28.50
REE EE Set et, etd Sono es fences beoa pps seria: betsy ef conte 20.93
Seaweed oy Ee ee 81.90 -29 BP Te | eee (ee Losi area
ee ashes byte UPA as 357.15, 3 -92|. -30| 6.06
SPM See sey ie A eee 81.50 S73 asa 38 23
Sewage sludge, precipitated] 88.49 05 O5| AIAkiPseeee to] 1.58
SOU. eke ey 554. SNPrecOalee ses. Vonceec tase ee eee

“+S
S. Carolina rock, dissolved.. 38, Ween et noe 11.60 ER sPObnioze as
Sy ee .50 ot =27, - 207] 28.03) 45.87
Spent tan-bark ashes. . > re BOR aces icleeiee 1.61] 33.46
PHIEMACIOUASEE! 4 inn cc sho St 0. | lees 9p 40 | bake ny IE ERC CATER | [ro Procie ae
Sulfate of ammonia ........ 1.00] 20.50 va : wistats i:
Sulfate of potash and mag-

Mesiaw: -2 = ATS ev as.els 25-50] -- =f we ewccloccecs 2.57
Sulfate of potash, high grade 2 EAeaee 35 240). ct. fo% Jree re
Sylvanite.... ... cf ee 16.65 re Py ee ad ines Rie
PRtehACe ee, fo SR oes hx: - 10-00), .6.7G} i 223..% SHON: HetO| Ex soles yes
Thomas slag : Bal nt ed earns. :00 ©6.3..06| 23.49] 48.66
FEObaGcco StAlKS:. .\-tciccss)s ws Ste GarOls 372) - ih -O2| (risen sc pe .65| 2.22

es StEMStieriiscseewtes FOLOO | 2695) 8. 20 ow ee ‘5 -70| 4.20
MUG OIRWASHIN DS 26 dee ccte es [ines SAG WEE AG oars PIED el ee ao
MOO lewWAStGoc. cse) sca: ane ESO) | 02 SO} pl. 2k eve sto. cei) eveinte ate 235 II

Composition of Farm

Manures.

Barnyard manure, average.. a -49 -43 Se) octic 232 |sinsties
Cattle excrement, ‘solid, ffesh|. <2. .:}"" S29 Sale ee. & Ey si eeeace
Cattle urine, iach Slee ae al Nias -58 AO eattecela elie

Hen manure, fresh... ...... GoOo|P Ee TOlt BON Saws See Res im4 siete
Horse excrement, solid......]...... 044 -35 E acces
Horse urine, fresh. i Fel bakery Seal (ibe gets Mike vat fol [keen a oe ee
Human excrement, solid... 77.20| 1.00 Seni eas ene eters af x70 tee caere
EiamMan UTNE. ......ss-.5s <> 95-90 .60 0 VPs APE Bi or li ecice
Pigeon manure, dry. ....... TO.O0}) 136201 1 cOOllec cies > 1.90] 2.10
Poudrette, night SOU ey as 50.00 .80 JBO| as sieias 1.40 .80
Sheep excrement, solid,fresh|...... Oss ited a Stacy Porte Feed laa
Sheep urine, regtie sict'n acho chs. TEQS te Aa2Olen en xs lita nee SOF ae
Stable manure, mixed.. qaeaa se) ASO cOO|la- sh < oleceeres AE Tenanoics
Swine excrement, solid, fresh|...... .60 P| Oe (ees vANly oot
Swine urine, PEE. veh ii Bed naa 2 eae | le, yr 207" s.ontee

* 18.5 per cent carbonate.

+ Nova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent
carbonate of lime; Onondaga and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and

18-28 per cent carbonate of lime.

+ Sometimes as high as 5 per cent.

120 ~ AGRICULTURE.

EXHAUSTION OF FERTILIZERS. (Scotch Authority.)

ON CULTIVATED CLAY LOAM.

= | Per Cent remaining in the
Soe Soil Viet at
= iF av End of Each of First
Kind of Fertilizer. Bo Sie Venn.
as
~AjG
ca PA 2 | 3 |) ec) See
RETIN fete aca tk reve ae dive ars a Bae beet Avvstes Sana r2) | 80-| 65 less |) 4a) [as alee
GME MEAL cn. isles ste hte tease ote 51160" |)30 [20 {ra .
PHoSphabic PUAN, soca ss eee (a ste aes 5 50 4-308] -20n | Ste
Dissolved bones and plain superphos-
PIALSS tae pasos ice brs © Re Beas. Hod 4 20 | 10 5
High-grade ammoniated fertilizers,
PERO CLG. teeta p iota=isiole = elaielaleialer)-<)--1 seine 3 ZO } 20° [6 fees .
COttom-Seedimeal i... chon es einas oa 5} | 40 ,| 30] 20.) "TO hes alert
Gated PIES ty. in ee Spe ores sheaye > +S aia 5 { 60 | 30 | 20 | 10

ON CULTIVATED LIGHT OR MEDIUM SOILS.

GUI Ee AIO secre Fanteeeeab sane oie ame Io 75 | 60] 40 | 30 | 20] 15
IBIS ATC es eeneen saree aes seis eee 4) .éGor 630) |to gs <a ae
FBOS Matic PUANOS 3.0. dee, £8 as oe co wee 4 | 50] 20] Io
Dissolved bones and plain superphos-

(POE Se eat ee ERS 2 tay poe nen 3 20 |' IO 5
High-grade ammoniates, ‘guanos. 31 )| 30 zoa|beea ne 5 is :
emcee Wal 200s osc encind cone se 4)°}':40>) 30 | 20" | ene Sorel
Stable manure.@ ........ 2c: EAR cee ce 41,1 60"|)-30. | TOM eas

ON CULTIVATED PASTURE LAND.

OUR E Pie See e eles. sie Sale cayoct 15 | 80} 70 | 60] 50 | 45 | 40
ROTO MN EAI tee friar ttaiescrel chaiats Oras Soba Gavia d 7 60 | 50 | 40 | 30°| 20 | 10
PHOSpHACIC PUANOS! 225.5. bas tiaie at oss as Fe 6 50 | 40 | 30 | 20] ro] ..
Orssalyed Hone. etG.-2:n 4 5 .seaeiec. aide 4 30 | 20 | Io

High-grade ammoniated PUANos se . spc 4h'41"30\) 2oule ro teers
Cotton-seed meal..... .....2-.+--.0 000. 5 | 467. 304] 20' | azo PE aise
Stable manure..... Noahs Seen cere 7 | 60] 50] 40 | 30] 20 |} 10

Sulfate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, sulfate, nitrate,
and muriate of potash are generally held to be entirely
exhausted by the crops grown the season of their applica-
tion.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.

~

121

EQUIVALENT QUANTITIES OF FERTILIZING

MATERIALS.

(WHEELER and HARTWELL.)

For

too lbs. nitrate of
soda

1oo lbs. sulfate
of ammonia

too lbs. dried
blood

1o0 lbs. cotton-
seed meal

100 lbs. diss. phos-
phate rock

100 lbs. diss. bone
black

1oo lbs. double
superphosphate
f
too lbs. tank- |
age
L

1oo lbs. dry
ground fish {
l
|
too lbs. fine- j
|

ground bone

|

ee DUE IE EnSSIEnE SEEDER

May be Substituted any One of these Materials.

76 lbs. sulfate of| 141 lbs. dried] 235 lbs. cotton-
ammonia blood seed meal.

132 Ibs. nitrate of} 186 lbs. dried| 311 lbs. cotton-
soda blood seed meal

71 lbs. nitrate of| 54 lbs. sulfate of} 167 lbs. cotton-
soda ammonia seed meal

43 lbs. nitrate of| 32 lbs. sulfate of| 60 lbs. dried
soda ammonia blood

76 lbs. diss. bone} 33 lbs. double su-
black perphosphate

131 lbs. diss. phos-| 43 lbs. double su-
phate rock perphosphate

308 Ibs diss, phos-| 235 Ibs. double
phate rock superphosphate

39 lbs. nitrate of soda and 38 lbs. phosphate rock.

29 ly, Bullate of ammonia and 38 lbs. phosphate
rock,

55 Ibs. dried blood and 38 lbs. phosphate rock.

gt Ibs. cotton-seed meal and 38 lbs, phosphate rock.

80 lbs, dry ground fish and 14 lbs. phosphate rock.

33 lbs. nitrate of soda and 4.5 lbs. fine-ground bone.

48 lbs. nitrate of soda and 31 Ibs. diss, phosphate rock.
37 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 31 Ibs. diss. phosphate

rock.

68 lbs. dried blood and 31 Ibs. diss. phosphate rock.

113 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 31 lbs. diss. phosphate
rock,

80 lbs. tankage and 17 lbs. nitrate of soda.

36 Ibs. fine ground bone and 44 lbs. nitrate of soda.

13 Ibs. nitrate of soda and 85 lbs. diss. phosphate rock.

10 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 8s Ibs. diss. phosphate
rock,

18 lbs. dried blood and 8s lbs. diss. phosphate rock.

30 ee Se oreee meal and 85 lbs, diss, phosphate
rock.

33 Ibs. tankage and 72 lbs. diss. phosphate rock.

27 lbs. dry ground fish and 76 lbs. diss. phosphate rock

132 AGRICULTURE.

TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS .
IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS, 1896,

Cents
per lb
Witrogen—
in ammonia SaltS.....-.+eeeeees ee ey tse EE
WUTC ES sb soc oe oko Seales be aie sep Keen © boas ree 134

Organic nitrogen—
in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, blood, and in high-

grade mixed fertilizers..........ee eee cess eee eees 14
in cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, and castor pomace I2
in fine-ground bone and tankage...........+..-esee- 134
in fine-ground medium bone and tankage......... ook
in medium bone and tankage........-.eeeeeeeeccees 9
in coarse bone and tankage..........--- Pe te ee
in hair, horn-shavings, and coarse fish scraps....... 3

Phosphoric acid—

BOMIE UU WALET jane a's <yce nitor, taurus sel ie «0 nae Se
soluble in ammonium ‘citrate 2/0000. 2. 0 ao oetels cee 5
in dry fine-ground fish and in fine bone and tankage. 5
in fine medium bone and tankage..........-++ee-+eeee 4
in medium bone and tankage........-+-se+-seeeeeees 23
in coarse bone and tankage ....-...-eeeeereereeerees 2
in fine-ground fish, cotton-seed meal, linseed meal,

castor pomace, and wood ashes...-..+++++++eeeee- 44
insoluble (in ammonium citrate solution), in mixed

FOrtMizeesS.oal. ob [ewe ose Svat wedi. Choe) Oe 2

Potash as high-grade sulfate, and in mixtures free
frominuriate 6. 5 PPI Se SS be eee ae
AS MUPIAIC. + eee peer ere ss bere reer Te ew 44

The manurial constituents contained in feeding stuffs are
valued as follows:

Organic nitrogen .....cseseesreces PE eT 12
Phosphoric acid....... err oe ie o> ie
Potash se. ose 6 6 eeneeoee ecsceee eeovevoeeveeeeseeeeeeeoe ee % + 44

|

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS.

123

CONVERSION TABLE FOR CALCULATING FER-
TILIZING INGREDIENTS.

Amount of

ee

ey
ey
Ce ee

ee ey

CO ee eo ee)

Sultate of potash.... ........
Miatate or potash............
Phosphoric acid (anhydrous).

ee 4c

Mono-calcium phosphate ...
Di-calcium phosphate........
Tri-calcium phosphate......

Ce ay

Multiplied

by

On

U1 W Wo W

Gives wa il Amount
oO

Ammonia,
Nitrate of soda.

Nitrogen.

Sulfate of ammonia,
Chlorid of ammonia,
Nitric acid.

Nitrate of soda.

Nitrogen.
Ammonia.
Nitrogen.
Ammonia,

Sulfate of potash.
Muriate of potash.
Potash.

“sé

Tri-calcium phosphate,
Di-calcium phosphate.
Mono-calcium phosphate.

Tri-calcium phosphate,
Phosphoric acid.
Tri-calcium phosphate.

Carbonate of lime.
Sodium chlorid.

124 AGRICULTURE.

XI. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING.

REASONS FOR TILE-DRAINING LAND.
(CHAMBERLAIN.*)

Land should be drained, because:

1. Tilc drainage makes all tillage and harvesting operations
easier and more rapid, physically and mechanically.

2. Drainage removes both the excess surface-water, and the
surplus water in the soil and the subsoil.

3. Drainage prevents loss of fertility by surface wash.

4. Drainage will add fertility to the soil with each rainfall.

5. Drainage helps to warm the soil as well as to dry it, giv-
ing best conditions for plant growth.

6. Drainage Icngthens the season of tillage, crop, growth,
and harvest.

7. Drainage increases the extent of root pasturage.

8. Drainage helps to disintegrate the soil and make pulveri-
zation possible.

g. Drainage greatly diminishes the effect of frost in heaving
out wheat, clover, etc., in winter and spring.

1o. Drainage on clayey soils helps the crops to resist drought
better.

11. Drainage often, though not always, diminishes the sud-
denness and violence of floods.

12. Drainage, both open and with tiles, improves the health
of a region.

* Tile Drainage, by W. I. Chamberlain, Medina, Ohio, 1891, 35 cents.

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 125

NUMBER OF RODS AND OF TILES PER ACRE,
WITH DRAINS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES
APART. (Scort.)

Distance Rods

-inch 13-inch 14-inch 15-inch
between |(s44Yards)| *2-)0¢ = 5 Sp me
eat Diediac. i here, Tile. Tile. Tile. Tile.
Feet
15 176 2904 2680 2489 2323
18 146 2420 2234 2074 1930
21 125 207 IQI5 1778 1659
24 110 1815 1676 1555 1452
27 07 1613 1489 1383 1290
30 88 1452 1340 1244 1161
ay 80 1320 1219 L131 1056
36 72 1210 III7 1037 968
39 67 1117 1031 957 893
42 62 1037 958 888 829

SIZE OF TILE PIPES

Required for Draining under Average Conditions.
(WARING.)

The drains being laid four feet, or more, deep, and laid on
a well-regulated fall of three inches in a hundred feet:

For 2 ASTCS sc bes sa.60.0 7000.6 14-inch pipes

PS eet ss aaveokenes SE -
Pi seeewutctedacectan, Se Bs
at 2 ee eas ee a -
GRE Regi Dh dyaianniss ace saian eat 1 =
oS Ry Gan. as o's a8 sa as ae as ee

These drains will remove the water fast enough for all prac-
tical purposes, even after heavy storms; if the pipes are securely
laid, the drains will only be benefited by the occasional cleaning
they will receive when running ‘‘ more than full.”

126 AGRICULTURE.

Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain.

(McConnELt.)

Acres Drained.

Fall.

3-inch | 4-inch | 6-inch | 8-inch | 10-inch | 12-inch

Tile. | Tile. | Tile. | Tile. | Tiles
TALOGEIE SOs easter tar 18.6 26.8 74-4 150.0 270.0 | 426.0
Res SO cdepewrsis.c.0 15.1 21.8 60.4 128.0 | 220.8] 346.0
I a if BOs Sele ai 12.9 18.6 51.6 108.8 | 189.6 | 298.4
a ad BO Sacates nt = 11.9 17.0 47.7 98.0 170.4 | 269.0
a 60 sees 19.9 15.6 43-4 go.o 156.0 246.0
tae FO vsiesieee as 10.0 14.5 39-9 83-0 144.4 228.1
re, 80 ois 9.3 rod 3732 77.0 135.0 213.0
Je 90 Lantesg.=% 8.1 12.6 35.0 7225 127.0 | 200.5
Te gg LOOr eter tee ee IB II.9 33.2 69.2 120.6 190.5
Te TBO creoeees 6.7 9-5 26.6 56.0 97-3 154.4
ae oe DOO Ne eieratciwraton 5-7 8.2 22.8 48.0 83.9 132.5
Te B5Qese ee eee ‘Sack 7.5 20.4 42.4 74-4 117.0
Sea ng JOO) ee sine! eee 4.6 6.9 18.4 38.2 65.5 107.0
ee og ae 4-1 5-9 16.5 32.6 60.3 90.7
Zs ierecge BOO aelotavs ie ate Bary. 5-2 14.8 30.1 54.0 81.6
eo Sere GOO roe ree 3+3 467 t33 28.0 48.6 74.0
te okey SOO sins cin/= iat 2.9 4.1 11.4 24.0 41.9 65.0
I LOOG Wersieis rine ci 2.6 S27 10.2 2h.2 37-2 56.0
Tap ht o? | EOO. ces 2.1 3.0 8.5 16.8 30.8 47.0
Tee Meee (2OOO\ bee eheaeaee 1.9 2.8 7.4 15.0 25.0 40.8

Rule for Obtaining Size of Main Pipes.—Multiply the
square root of the number of small drains (of fair average
length) by the diameter of small pipes; the quotient gives the
diameter of main.

If the distance apart of drains in feet be denoted by J, that
in links by Z, and the length of drains in chains per acre by C,
then

Number of 12-inch Pipes Required per Acre at
Different Distances between the Drains:

Distance. Distance.

Peet. Number. Feet. Number.
12 3630 33 1320
15 2904 40 1089
18 2420 50 871
21 2073 60 726

27 1613

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 127

RISE OF THE SLOPE FOR 100 FEET. (Warine.)

Table I. gives the rise of the slope for 100 feet of the horizontal
measurement.
Table II., the rise of the slope for 100 feet of its own length.

Table No, I. Table No. II.
Deg.| Feet. Deg. Feet. Dep: Feet. Deg Feet.
5 8.749 50 I1Q.175 5 8.716 5c 76.604
10 17.633 55 142.815 to 17.365 55 81.915
15 26.795 60 173-205 15 25.882 60 86.602
20 36.307 65 214.451 20 34-202 65 go.631
25 46.631 7o 274.748 25 42.262 70 93.969
30 57-735 75 373-205 30 50 75 96.593
35 70.021 80 567.128 35 57-358 80 98.481
40 83.gI0 85 1143-010 40 64.279 85 99.619
45 100 45 70.711

Exampile.—lf the horizontal measurement is 100 feet, and the slope is at
an angle of 10°, the rise will be 17.633 feet.
If the sloping line (at an angle of 15°) is 100 feet, it rises 25.882 feet.

QUANTITY OF EARTH REMOVED PER ROD OF
DRAINS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS. § (Scort.)

Mean Width of Drains.

c

3

A fii tn. | in: | In..| In. | In. | In.) Inst Tn. | In.) In. | In
9 7 8 9 TO) Ex 12 | 13 14 re, | 16.) x7 )28
oe

a

v Cubic Yards.

A

24 0.89] 1.02] 1.14] 1.27] 1.40] 1.53] 1.65] 1.78] 1.91] 2.04] 2.16] 2.29
3 1.07| 1.22| 1.37] 1.53] 1.68] 1.83] 1.98] 2.14] 2.20] 2.24] 2.60] 2.75
316 1.25} 1.42] 1.60] 1.78] 1.96] 2.14] 2.32] 2.49] 2.67] 2.85] 3-03] 3.21
4 1.42| 1.63] 1.83] 2.04] 2.24] 2.44] 2.65] 2.85] 3.05] 3.26] 3.46] 3.66
5 1.78| 2.03] 2.29] 2.54] 2.80] 3.05] 3.31] 3-56] 3-82] 4.07] 4.33] 4.58

“Tf a 4-ft. drain be cut 14 in. wide at topand q in. at bot-
tom, the mean width will be g in., and the quantity of earth
excavated in cutting each rod will be 1.83 cubic yards ; if

ye. AGRICULTURE.

the same drain be cut 18 in. at top and 8 in. at bottom, the
mean width will be 13 in., and 2.65 cubic yards of earth
will have to be removed in cutting each rod: so that if the
digging of the drain costs 6cents per cubic yard of earth
moved the narrow drain will cost 11 cents per rod, and the
other nearly 16 cents per rod, showing the cost to be one
half larger, quite unnecessarily.

‘The same table will be found useful in helping to fix the
relative prices of deep and shallow drains; but it must be
recollected that the deeper drains will be increased in cost
not only by reason of the greater quantity of earth which
has to be moved, but also because of the increased labor of
lifting the earth to the surface from a greater depth.”

RAINFALL. (McCownne tt.)

Inches Cubic Feet Gallons Tons
of Depth. per Acre. per Acre. per Acre,

I 3,630 22,635 IOI.1

2 7,260 45,270 202.2

3 10,890 67,905 303.3

+ 14,520 90,539 404.4

5 18,150 113,174 505.5
6 21,780 135,809 606.6

7 25,410 158,444 707-7

8 29,040 181,072 808.8

9 32,670 203,714 909.9
10 36,300 226,349 IOII.O
II 39,930 248,984 ITi2.f

12 43,563 271,619 1213.2

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, 129

TABLE SHOWING THE FORCE AND VELOCITY
OF WIND. (Warrne.)

: Lbs. Press-
Miles Feet : aa
per Hour. |per Minute. eqn Description.
I 88 005 Barely observable.
2 176 .020 ' :
3 a Le Just perceptible.
4 352 .080 Light breeze.
5 440 +125 f
6 528 .180 Gentle, pleasant wind
"8 7O4 320
10 880 «500 t :
15 1320 1.125 Brisk blow.
20 1760 2,000 .
ae jan 3.125 t Very brisk.
30 2640 4.500 5 ?
35 3080 Gras t High wind.
40 3520 8.000 :
45 3960 10,125 t Very high.
50 4400 12.500 Storm.
60 5280 18.000 Great storm,
80 7040 32.000 = Hurricane.
ornado, uprooting trees, sweeping
ssi - 50.000 | off buildings, etc.

NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET AND ACRES THAT A
First-class Windmill can Irrigate One Inch in 8
Hours, Raising the Water 10,15 or 25 Feet.

(A. R. Wo trFr.)

10 Feet. 15 Feet. 25 Feet.
Size of Windmill.

Sq. Ft. {Acres} Sq, Ft. |Acres} Sq. Ft. |Acres

8} ft. diam. of wheel.. 11,736.34 .269} 7,824.74] 180] 4,744.74] .109

TO ke cece | 3Z2161-74) 853] 241774-75| +569) 14,767.83] - 339
an nt 8 aus 66,765.16] 1.533] 44,509.85] 1.022| 26,134.57| .600
TH we | 85198205] 1-974) 57,321.11] 1-316] 34,757-03| «798
16 : acs - 120,106.14] 2.757] 80,070.76] 1.838] 49,742.00] 1.142
18 2 :. a Soe 192,446.10] 4.418] 123,164.58] 2.827] 75,215.14| 1.727
eo. oe ag ots 238,395.08] 5.473] 158,930.31] 3.649] 906,211.50] 2.209
ae aed. +s 410,038.09] 9.413] 273,359-24| 6.275] 163,533-37| 3-75:
30 .- | 831,686.24]19.093] 561,197.56|12.883] 331,752.96] 7.616

i eee

AGRICULTURE,

1350

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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING.

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132 AGRICULTURE.

NOMINAL HORSE-POWER REQUIRED FOR THE
DISCHARGE OF GIVEN QUANTITIES OF WATER
WITH LIFTS OF 10 AND 20 FEET. (Scort.)

F P Gallons Nominal H.P. Nominal H.P.
Ds Pipe, Discharged per | required fora required fora
Minute. ro-foot Lift. 20-foot Lift.

3 Too I 2

4 200 18 3

5 350 2 4

6 500 246 5

a 759 3 6

8 1000 4 8

10 1500 6 10

12 2300 8 14

14 2800 Io 16

15 3300 12 20

18 6000 20 35

IRRIGATION. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

A water right is the right or privilege of using water for
irrigating purposes, either in a definite quantity or upon a
prescribed area of land, such right or privilege being cus-
tomarily acquired either by priority of use or by purchase.
In many parts of the arid region a water right is an exceed-
ingly valuable property. The average value of the water
rights of the entire arid region, as determined by the cen-
sus of 1890, was $26 per acre, and there are fruit-growing
districts in California where water rights have been sold at
as high as $1500 per miner’s- inch, or from $100 to
$500 per acre, according to the amount used on any given
area of land.

The duty of water is the extent of the service it will per-
form when used for irrigating purposes, that is, the num-
ber of acres a given quantity of water will adequately irri-
gate under ordinary circumstances. This is usually from
100 to 200 acres for each second-foot. Where water is
abundant the duty has been known to be as low as 50
acres, and where very scarce as high as 500 acres, to the
second-foot. :

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 133

A miner's inch is theoretically sucha quantity of water as
will flow through an aperture I inch square in a board 2
inches thick undera head of water of 6 inches in one sec-
ond of time, and it is equal to 0.194 gallon, or 0.0259337
cubic foot, per second, or to 11.64 gal., or 1.556024 cubic ft.,
per minute. Theamount of water flowing through a given
aperture in a given time varies, however, with the head of
water over the opening, and also with the form of the
opening. In Colorado the miner’s inch legalized by statute
equals 11.7 gal. per min. The California miner’s inch, how-
ever, €quals only 9 gal. per min., 100 Colorado inches being,
accordingly, equal to 130 California inches. One hundred
Colorado inches will cover an acre to a depth of 5.2 ft. in
24 hours; 100 California inches will cover the same area
only to a depth of 4 ft. inthe sametime. Fifty California
inches are, therefore, approximately equal to I second-
foot, and 50 Colorado inches equal to about three tenths
more.

An acre-foot of water is the amount required to cover an
acre of ground to adepth of 1 foot. This is 43,560 cubic
feet, or 325,851.45 gal. Its weight is 1213 tons 2113 pounds,
at 2240 pounds to the ton.

The amount of water required tocover an acre of ground
to a depth of 1 inch is 3630 cubic feet, or 27,154.29 gal. Its
weight is 101 tons 362% pounds, at 2240 pounds to the
ton.

A second-foot is the most satisfactory because the most
definite unit of measurement for flowing water. It is used
by the U. S. Government in the gauging of rivers and
streams, and is rapidly superseding the miner’s inch in the
measurement of water for irrigation. It is the quantity rep-
resented by a stream 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep flowing
at the average rate of 1 foot per second. In other words,
it is 1 cub. ft. per second, 60 cub. ft. per min., 3600 cub.
ft. per hour, etc. A stream flowing continuously at the
average rate of 1 second-foot would carry in one day of 24
hours 86,400 cub. ft., or 646,316.9 gal., sufficient to cover
134° acres to a depth of 1 ft. Flowing continuously for one
year of 355 days, such a stream would carry 31,536,000 cub.

134 AGRICULTURE.

ft., or 235,905,678.7 gal., sufficient to cover 723437 acres toa
depth of 1 ft.

The sub-humid region is the strip of country running
north and south between the arid region, where irrigation
is absolutely necessary to the successful prosecution of
agriculture, and those portions of the United States in
which the rainfall is usually sufficient for agricultural pur-
poses. It includes portions of North Dakota, South Da-
kota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and may be described
as a region where irrigation is not always necessary, but
where agricultural operations cannot, with any assurance
of success, be undertaken without it.

The average value of the irrigated land in farms in the
United States was ascertained by the census of 1890 to be
$83.28 per acre, and that of the non-irrigated land in farms
$20.95 per acre.

The average annual value of the agricultural products of
the irrigated land was ascertained to be $14.89 per acre irri-
gated, and that of those of the non-irrigated land $6.80 for
each acre improved.

The average first cost of the irrigated land, including
purchase money, water rights, etc., was ascertained to
have been $8.15 per acre, and the average annual cost of
the water supply $1.07 per acre.

The total vaiue of the irrigated farms of the United
States, as reported by the farmers themselves, was, in round
figures, $296,850,000, an increase of $219,360,000, or 283 per
cent, upon their cost, including land, water right, fences,
and preparation for cultivation.

The total value of the productive irrigating systems was
found to be $94,412,000, an increase of $64,801,000, or aun
per cent, upon their cost.

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 135

CARRYING CAPACITY OF PIPES, GALLONS PER
MINUTE. (Wicox.)

metas: | ae ae gal—|-SS > - eae
Brepeives phe | a3 | Bg pee | me eee
Pipe ALES an qn aH Gr we wH wH
y Oo. ee On oS Oy ou o 1, on
ao ao so Rom) om) ou oy ou
7Q ] TQ | TO io “7 A Pack ane TO

coal N on Ne) OV al a oe)
3 inch 13 19 23 32 40 46 64 79
4 27 38 47 66 81 93 131 163
ary *s 75 105 129 183 224 258 364 450
Be 153 | 216] 265 375 460 527 750 | 923
9 # 205 290 355 503 617 712 1,006 | 1,240
TOs. °° 267 378 463 655 803 926 15310: |) -x,653
ma 422 596 730 | 1,033 | 1,273 | 1,468 | 2,076 | 2,554
rt oy 740 | 1,021 | 1,282 1,818 2,224 2,464 3,617 | 4,467
Ph 1,168 | 1,65t | 2,022 | 2,860 | 3,508 | 4,045 | 5,704 | 7,047
24 2,396 | 3,387 | 4,155 | 5,874 | 7,202 | 8,303 | 11,744 | 14,466
30 4,187 | 5,920 | 7,252 | 10,557 | 12,580 | 14,504 | 20,516 | 25,277

FLOW OF WATER THROUGH STRAIGHT PIPES
(CoLLET.)

Flowing Full, in Gallons per Minute.

an Head of Water Divided by Length of Pipe.
is
ge
me] 4 * a ee 2 5 1
A 100} 30 25 i0 10 10 10 10 a
ee ees Oey CO Car - Bec 024 036 046 06 077 086
aes le oreo > = 056 075 089 124 158 18
in| eer ae Beeare 14. 21 -26 REY! +44 50
+ oe a °31 44 «52 SG Q2 1.04
£ 22 233, EG ees L.2 £5 2.0 2.6 2.9
4 .46 .70 E-O|ateo 2.5 Bt 4.1 Cee 6.0
£ £30 E.90 2.9| 4.9 7h! 8.9 It.7 15 16.9
I 2.7G| 4.15 6.1| to 14.8 18.4 24 31 ae
14 4-96] 7.36] 10.8] 18 26 22 42 54 61
1} iy ke fe) en & ey 17.2] 28 41 51 67 36 97
1h Cie | Lh 25.5| 42 61 76 100 128 144
2 16.6 | 24 36 59 86 106 140 179 202
2} 29 43 63 |104 151 188 246 315 354
3 46 69 ior |166 240 298 390 500 562
4 98 144 210 |344 498 617 808 1033 \r162
5 173 254 370 |606 876 1085 I41Q 1815 2040
6 227 404 589 |959 1389 1720 2248 2876 3230

If the diameter be doubled, nearly 5.8 times the quantity can be passed

136 AGRICULTURE.

POWER REQUIRED TO RAISE WATER FROM
DEEP WELLS BY PUMPING, (App zsy.)

Gallons of water raised per hour..... | 200] 350] 500 | 650] 800 | 1000

Height of lift for one man, in feet...}| 90} 51 36 28 22 18
tt eee donkey, in feet| 180] 102 72 56 45 36
6é 66 “ “se ec horse, ee 630 357 252 196 154 126

46 73 “ce te “ 2
rats tere e t 990} 561 396 | 308 242 198

APPROXIMATE COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF
PIPE USED FOR IRRIGATION. (Wixcox.)

rs wk OF ko o > ;
Say a aS cae eae | 4 Eg] O Bi a
Be Ebr ko Beg | Pan eee cet oe
oe | SUM | SUM | Ate | Cas | 3 o S
Se 1VeSS 1 Ber gga] Fas Bere | vse) we
ake OF i 8 ER a ee Sg
Oe —
A heim Fol wm eo > 2 O
6 $0.32 $o. 41 $o.52 | $o.72$ | $o.164 }. ...... $o.12
42 5% 62 1.04 De eieveahets 20
IO 53 .60 p86 1.42 re ee SBE ene 26
12 [ee 68 .98 1.84 BP be a epee cic 32
14 69 75 1.17 2.30 -55 | $0.74 38
16 .82 -93 1.25 2.83 68% -94 +45
18 -QI 1.00 1.43 S537 -€24 1.08 Se
20 I.00 I.14 1.63 3.97 -96} 1.22 4
22 I.05 I.30 1.85 4.62 Lat 132 -68
EA Me ailnh SSiatgrs-aedeas 1.46 2.00 5.33 1.374 I.40 -80

AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF CONSTRUCTING
IRRIGATING CANALS AND DITCHES.
(Eleventh U. S. Census.)

10 Feet and
States and Territories. Dares 5) Reet|''5 to 10 Feet Over in
n Width. in Width. :

Width.

General average...) )si...4% $481 $1,628 $5,603
PA ices i SARE sly <1 Rekha s Ses $471 $1,674 $5,274
RS OMMED S Eb slau aie ithe Gee ae 885 5,057 15,511
Colotad@: £.2..-bkis <b. Roce. Ce 380 I,131 5,258
TOO ARs eves cise «occ ke ees 205 810 1,320
MOLARS eo eeit sso dest wa e's 325 800 2,300
INGE Vil Gate occ ne ai! o cathe es < 200 x50 + |b? )3. oe
INGW MGxXICGO. S284... . Speen are 310 581 6,666
Wrevanls Sees ws oct cobee. 260 1,060 1,300
ete eaten cher ad cathe Oe ae 403 1,025 3,072
Washinetont icasovd) sia Ci. Beed 285 1,236 2,571
VA ORO Mere es Santos, oe S| MIM 837 3.884

Sub-humid region............. 303 447 1,884
re SO Ne a ee

te

AGRICULTORAL ENGINEERING. 137

THE CALIFORNIA WEIR TABLE. (W11cox.)

(

Miner’s | Miner’s. Miner’s Miner’s

“id eal Inches. || Sar Inches. cas bog Inches. | pare Inches.
ys OI 3% 2.56 7% 7.04 1234 15.27
14 -04 4 2.69 734 7.22 13 15.72
8 .07 446 2.81 7% 7.40 1314 16.18
% -12 + 2.93 8 7.58 1344 16.64
5g +17 43 3-07 84 7-76 || 1334 | 17.10
34 -22 4% 3-19 814 7-93 || 14 17-57
¥% 27 458 3-33 836 8.12 1414 18.04
I +33 434 3+47 8h4 8.30 || 144% 18.52
i +39 49 3.61 85% 8.48 || 1434 19.00
+. oo .46 5 3-75 834 8.67 || 15 19.48
134 54 3% 3-89 8% 8.86 || 1544 19.98
136 -62 514 4-03 9 9-05 || 1546 | 20.47
198 .69 5% 4.18 9% 9-23 1534 20.97
134 “77 546 4-32 934 9-42 || 16 21.47
1% 86 5% 4-47 93 9.62 1644 22647
2 +95 534 4-62 946 g-8r || 17 23.50
24 1.04 Yy, 4-77 958 | 10.00 || 174 | 24.54
2 Tt 6 4.92 934 10.19 18 25.58
286 1.22 614 5.08 9% 10.3 1844 26.65
244 1.32 614 5.24 10 10.59 19 27.74
258 1.42 638 5-39 1014 10.99 194 28.83
234 1.52 644 iS 104 11.30 20 29-95
24 1.63 6% ey 1034 11.80 2014 31.07
3 1.74 634 O79 AM sta 12.22 21 32.21
3% 1.86 6% 6.04 || x14 12.65 || 216 33-36
314 1.97 7 6.20 II 13.06 || 22 34.52
3 2.08 74 6.37 1134 13.50 2214 35-70
344 2.19 714 6.53 12 13-94 || 23 36.90
356 2.31 7 6.70 1214 14.38 || 23% 38.10
334 2.43 7% 6.87 1244 | 14.82 || 24 39-32

CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND TANKS,

in Gallons, for Each Twelve Inches in Depth.
(A. R. WotrFr.)

Diameter in | Gallons, || Diameter in | Gallons, || Diameter in| Galtons.
Feet. Feet. Feet.

1.0 5.87. 6.5 248.23 II.0 710.90
2.0 23.50 7.0 287.88 II.0 777-95
2.5 36.72 7.5 330.48 12.0 846.03
3-0 52.88 8.0 376.00 13-0 992.91
3:5 71.97 8.5 424.48 14.0 II51.54
4-0 94.00 9.0 475-89 15.0 1321.92
4°5 118.87 9-5 530.24 20.0 2350.08
5-0 146.88 10.0 587.52 25.0 3672.00
5.5 177-72 10.5 647.74 30.0 5287.68
6.0 2LL.5%

138 AGRICULTURE.

Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, Per Foot in Depth.

(HALL.)
Square Cistern. Circular Cistern.

Barrels. Barrels.
5 feet by 5 feet holds Peis wa be 5.92 5 feet in diameter holds <apas 4.66
pene gee beret ants Pope (pe ee
eRe am a he te Ue Oia. Mae aO Supt: jose be 6S. sae: Cae)

“ec “ “cc “ 6 ee ee 66

a ee ee ee ee eT

ROAD-MAKING. (CampseELt.)

Drainage.—Perfect drainage, first of the foundation of
the roadbed, secondly of the road surface, are the points
in road-making on which too much Stress cannot be laid.

The first is accomplished by underdrainage, tile drains
being laid at a depth of three or more feet below the sur-
face on each side of the roadbed at the foot of the grade
and parallel toit. Care should be taken to fit and settle
the tile in the trench so that, when refilling with earth,
they will not be displaced. Asa rule 2}- to q-in. tile will
be sufficient. The joints should be close, and the grade
a true line. Loose joints and an uneven grade allow silt to
pass into the tile and remain there, destroying the drain.

Surface drainage is accomplished by open drains on each
side of the grade, having sufficient capacity to drain, both
the roadbed and the land adjoining. With open drains and
with tile drains make and maintain a free outlet to the
nearest watercourse. A drain without an outlet is useless.

Crowning the Road.—The graded portion of the road
should be wide enough to accommodate the travel upon it,
and not greater, the slope being uniform, not heaped in
the centre. The crown should be well above the overflow
of storm water, and should have a grade sufficient to shed
water readily to the open ditches on either side. Do not
round it up so as to make the grade steep and dangerous,
under the mistaken impression that better drainage will
thereby be secured. Nor should it be so low as to allow
water to stand upon it in depressions. Under ordinary
circumstances one inch or one inch and a half to the foot is

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 139

a proper grade; that is, a roadbed twenty-six feet wide
should be from thirteen to twenty inches higher at the
center than at the side.

Quality of Gravel.—The gravel should preferably be
sharp, clean, and of uniform size. Pit gravel usually con-
tains too much earthy matter, and where the latter is in
excess, the gravel, as a road-making material, is useless.
Lake gravel is apt to be rounded, water-worn, and lacking
in the necessary earthy matter to make a solid and compact
surface, but is generallya better road material than pit
gravel, A coating of pit gravel with a surfacing of creek
gravel isa goodcombination. All large stones should be
removed, as they will work to the surface, and will then
roll loosely or form rough protuberances.

Placing the Gravel.—The gravel should be spread evenly
over the surface of the sub-grade to a depth of six or eight
inches, and to the required width, then rolled with a heavy
roller. Rolling should be performed in showery weather,
as it is impossible to consolidate dry earth or gravel. The
heavier the roller the better will be the results, but ifa
heavy roller cannot be obtained, a light roller is much bet-
ter than none. The roller should be passed over the sur-
face until the gravel or earth is so compact as not to be
displaced and rutted by the wheels of a wagon passing
over it with an ordinary load. The surface must be main-
tained smooth and hard, to shed water and resist wear.
Every municipality should have a roller, but whether one
can be obtained or not the gravel should not be left ina
heap just as it falls from the wagon. Spread it evenly.

Repairs.—Gravel roads already constructed will need re-
pair. Bythe use of road machinery, scrape the surface
and cut off the corners, which will have formed at the foot of
the grade by the washing down of dusty material from the
crown of the road. Loosen the surface, particularly that
part of the traveled portion and where the road is rutted,
with picks, or, if possible, with road machinery ; then apply
a coating of gravel, and roll thoroughly. It is of more im-
portance, however, to see that the drains are not obstructed
in their course and that their outlets are free and open.

140 AGRICULTURE.

IMPORTANCE OF GOOD ROADS.

It is estimated that it costs a farmer more to haul a bushel of
wheat than it does a railroad to haul a ton; that our poor roads
cost the farmer at least $15.00 a year for every horse, and that
good earth roads would save more than half the cost of hauling,
and good permanent roads more than three quarters of it.
(GILMORE.)

Force Required to Draw a Load on Different Kinds of Roads.

Steepest |Draught on a Level Com-

Force Grade (rise | pared with that on Dif-
Required to] per 1oo ft.) ferent Grades. Rise in
DrawaGross|_ on which feet per roo feet.
Load of Vehicle will
2240 Pounds. not Roll
Back. © |. 3.4. 6 s), 9 ]* teers
Pounds Feet
Earth road....... 200 8.9 1 | 1.3] 7.7] 2.0] 2.3] 2.7
Gravelo | oci.. 1434 6.4 r | 2,5], 2-9) 2541 250leees
Macadam road... 65 2.9 I] 2.0] 3.1] 4.1] 5eniuoen
Telford ne geass 46 2.0 T | 2.5] 3-9] 5-4] 6.8] 8.2
Plank eee 41 1.8 r | 2.6)'4.3| 5-9] 7esioex
Stone trackway.. 12} J5 r | 6.4]11.7]17.1|22.3/27.5

TRACTIVE FORCE REQUIRED FOR CARRIAGES
of one ton, on a level road. (McConnext.)
Force of Trac-
Description of Road. tion per Ton.
ie tin © naa tans cs ange shhemdleee elon err.
Wiell-made Dayewiest . <2 4.2. «cin = 1 ap)+ 18s Seaibn Se
WCAC AOU COAL. 4a cccueps'm a> eereet i sects» 44 to.67
Porapike, Ward and dry . «. ccsis:c» peeve bore o% 2 )cac anne
ae 3 9 ean a pha i ie perigee! anahea tte 9 «OO 48
Flag Gompact 1OAg, 4. weg datas =5-ca<e yee be
PAE bn cin a am Bei Oe ken h Rape oy eit os cscs <p ad ccnt a
Sandy and. etravelly ...¢...4¢- »s008 Tan eer ee
Ordinary by-road..... SAE ccieagihteihd IR anit dpeleteiree at eae
Turnpike, newly-cravelled ,.... WP ./cjcs0i:01 bm «04> p SR
11, Loose sandy foad...,,;.,: eas Rep ee en ee

OPW AXE YE DH

—_
°

A horse produces his greatest mechanical effect in drawing a
load 24 miles per hour with a tractive force of 150 lbs,

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 141

FRACTION OF THE WEIGHT OF A VEHICLE
AND LOAD REQUIRED TO MOVE SAME ON A
LEVEL ROAD. (Mortn.)

Character of the Vehicle.

-o ssuists
Bel & & t
Lo} nS 3 —— i} og
Character of the Road. o. | 9s oes Oo &
o% |8ar ors a oo mG
von 1S) DN og vo
aa i/o nen ho OUR
Gt =) ocd 3.8 =
BO |ivrg S aun
! Cy a 9° '
a c on of a
Firm soil, covered with gravel
4to 6 inches deep........... tz 3 Fs &
Firm embankment, covered
with gravel 1}to rdinch.deep.| rs it 16 to
Earth embankment, in very
goed condition.......:....... at 35 36 26
Bridge flooring of thick oak :
(Oe ae ee eee ee ae 70 a6 tt as
Broken-stone Road: Walk. | Trot.| W alk. | Trot.
In very good condition, very
dry, compact and even..... 75 Et a5 rat a5 az
A little moist or a little dusty..| 2s a3 aa o7 3a a7
Firm, but with ruts and mud.| 35 az 2T 18 32 15
Very bad, ruts 4 to 43 inches _
deep, thick mud............. ts tr Ts to iz 10
Good pavement, dry.. .... | de as br a8 5 35
= covered with
Sa as oy as 33 ds 34

DRAUGHT OF HORSES.

At 8 hours per day, 2} miles per hour, and tractive force of
150 lbs.:
Mn Jevel hard redd.ccrecesvcewreverrrrrsecsrevereces ~~ 9 toms
Sidterior or hilly, £OAd.~ Jccneeiacs oss cescecesees.s FS
RSA rc ao rh de Paina Cacia Gana Walniaveiés se banienae we ekc EO a
MOEN oo Cdidececevieieal Ceudassesenicess se «O00 60:90
Lifting over a pulley... ..cccccesscerscesccesseses I10
Carrying on his back......ecseceeceesescteseeeress 300 lbs.

ce

ce

142 AGRICULTURE.

LABOR ONE HORSE IS ABLE TO PERFORM
at different rates of speed on canals, railroads, and
turnpikes. (Drawing force, 83} lbs.) (Warine.)

Useful Effect for 1 Day, drawn 1 mile.

Duration of

Speed per ’
eth geile bee

hours. On aCanal, |Ona Railroad,|On a Turnpike,
tons. tons. tons.
2% 1% 520 TI5 14
3 8 243 g2 12
3% 6 154 82 10
: 4 448 102 72 9
5 29/10 52 57 7+3
6 2 30 48 6
7 134 19 41 5
8 14 12.8 36 4-5
9 9/10 9 32 4
10 34 6.5 28.8 3.6

PERFORMANCE OF ONE TEAM AND PLOUGH IN
A DAY, IN ACRES AND TENTHS. (Warine.)

4.8 . wE . iE S15
Ps: sf3 Ae: a3
= re 7) a)
o o9 Acres. 3 6'0 Acres. Oe Acres. 3 62 Acres,
S57 i 25 35
a — wet —
5 I.0 12 2.4 2 4.8 5% 13.2
6 1.2 14 2.8 246 6.0 6 tA ee
7 1.4 16 3-2 3 7.2 64% 15.6
8 1.6 18 3.6 3% 8.4 7 16.8
9 1.8 20 4.0 4 9.6 76 18.0
To 2.0 22 4-4 4% 10.8 8 19.2
Ir 2.2 5 12.0

asst

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 143

THE EFFECT OF WIDE WAGON-TIRES.

The effect of wide and narrow tires for wagons is well
illustrated by the following results of carefully conducted
experiments by the Studebaker Wagon Co., West Bend, Ind.
In the trials given in the second column 13-inch tires
had been substituted for 4-inch tires. (Agr. of Pa., 1894.)

Width of Tires.

4 inches, | 1} inches.
lbs. Ibs.

Wepht of wagon.and load..........csccces cecorss 4345 4235
Draft to start load on block pavement.............. 350 300
Draft to move load at a dead pull on block pave-

Ee inet essa vias ete racede seetscee deeeony 100 75
Draft to start load on good hard, sandy road.. 700 725
Draft to move load at a dead pull on good hard,

TIL TOE. oc OAD GS SORRINE IES iaANrShaninser 275 300
Draft to start load on good level gravel road.. 600 650
Draft to move load at a dead pull on good level -

SOAR BLOT Clete 3 Ms sla cots Juicintsias <.0vs. 1 seats 1 aida acres 175 175
rate to start load on muddy road. .:. 2:32. s.6%..- 800 goo
Draft to move load at a dead pull on muddy road.. 550 500

AVERAGE QUANTITY OF STONE REQUIRED PER
YEAR TO KEEP 10 FEET OF ROAD, WIDTH =
20 FEET, IN REPAIR. (HeErscue.)

Cub, ft. Cub. yds.

1. Good material and heavy travel....... 15-20 = .55— -74
2. Good material and medium amount of

(LOIN ELES Gee ne Oe Seip rane are ar aeae IO-15 = .37- -55
3. Good material and light travel........ 5-I0 = .18— .37

4. Medium material and heavytravel.... 20-25 = .74— .92
5. Medium material and medium amount

BRR Gack WN oem fel chaiechas hee sino att Miata mimi «= 15-20 = .55— .74
6. Medium material and light travel..... IO-I5 = .37- .55

. Third-rate material and heavy travel.. 25-30 = .g2-I.10
. Third-rate materialand medium amount

DRUM AWE rac alates 2st ins eo elem ae oss 20-25 = .74- .92
g. Third-rate material and light travel... 15-20 = .55- .74

os

144 AGRICULTURE.

INTERIOR DIMENSIONS OF FARM BUILDINGS.

(McConneELt.)

Length.|Breadth.|Height.
ft. ia i.
BarAes .cB. tole Ass. ce 9B er Sa Se 40 20 20
BL ICSUEAW)teciic ciaicicis o'sz ce ers w eyelajatelne’s aimieveen’sieieie 60 20 20
Cattle feeding- boxes, rT ELS, {eRe ER aT Re NE Io 20 8
BIS ceicictviainene wee aernisid Io 10 8
Cattle-sheds, for each animal........ Saber seis 5 15 8
Gart-sueds. fc. eachi ate .ocatisls 0. sisieh a ele oe oe 8 20 Io
Cow- stable, for each Cpw, Dogue. <.s).~ 2.20% 2 4 30 10
}) SINGIE Sa. deasinsiced 4 20 10
IDET) gee ORS SESGeO Abaot SSauneSeecrrmercicter aes 20 20 10
Fold. -yards, for each animal.................-- 5 30 6
GYRE. <a et mae aia he kis cscs nelle Soe a irom ee 30 20 8
PLOSP eal ercp eet «cools acvaciog sect. d° sam Slee -E 18 18 9
WEIN Tarski 0S $4. 4R ods Sabb oRMcoacSane Gans boc 18 18 8
Pipsues, for each 3 animals: : ce wan rinse 6 10 8
IRoultcy=DOUSE ...0 a. . as: Asgacifcdaamewlsels BMapiy ste : 18 18 9
MSOGL=NDUSE®. tisriinn a cis dewswicscisieesiscieecsciecces 20 20 Io
Stable,.for each horse..... <2... B SARE CE eee 6.5 18 10
WWOEESTIOD 5 de asia nm 4 Seepgd tapes “pee sitar hae 18 18 9
General dimensions of other apartments Sere care care 18 9

64 ft. allowed to the length of the stable for each horse in it
and 7 or 8 ft. for every pair of cows in cow-stable. Horses
must each have 1200 cu. ft. of space, and cattle 800 cu. ft.,
where stalled in stables. Cattle-boxes to be sunk 2 ft. below
surface and raised by a dwarf wall 1 ft. above. Cattle-folds
and sheds should have a length of 5 ft. for every animal they
are intended to contain; when covered, 150 sq. ft. allowed to
every head. The pigsties have small open areas attached to
each.

HUMAN FOODS. 145

XII. HUMAN FOODS.

COMPOSITION OF HUMAN FOOD MATERIALS.*

(ATWATER.)

Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, pota-
toes, wheat, etc., consist of—

Refuse.—As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish,
skin of potatoes, bran of wheat, etc.

Edible Portion.—As the flesh of meat and fish, the white
and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, etc. The edible portion con-
sists of water and nutritive ingredients or nutrients.

The principal kinds of nutritive ingredients are protein,
fats, carbohydrates, and mineral matters.

The water, refuse, and salt of salted meat and fish are
called non-nutrients. In comparing the values of different
food materials for nourishment they are left out of account.

Classes of Nutrients.—The following are familiar examples
of compounds of each of the four principal classes of nutri-

ents
( ( Albuminoids, e.g., albumen (white of

| | eggs); casein (curd) of milk; myosin,
| the basis of muscle (lean meat);
Proteids.4 gluten of wheat, etc.
| Gelatinoids, e.g., collagen of tendons;
ossein of bones; which yield gelatin
4 | vp Oh; Blue, tc.
| Meats and fish contain very small quantities of
i so-called ‘‘extractives.’”’ They include kreatin
| and allied compounds, and are the chief ingre-
l

PROTEIN.

dients of beef-tea and meat-extract. They
contain nitrogen, and hence are commonly
classed with protein.
Fats, e.g., fat of meat; fat (butter) of milk; olive-oil; oil
of corn, wheat, etc.
Carbohydrates, e.g., sugar, starch, cellulose (woody fiber),
eric.

* Extracts from ‘‘ Foods, Nutritive Value and Cost’ (Farmers’ Bulletin
No. 23), and “‘ Food and Diet” (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Year book, 1894),

146 AGRICULTURE,

Mineral matters, e.g., phosphate of lime, sodium chlorid

(common salt), etc.

The Fuel Value of Food.—Heat and muscular power are
forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as
the food is consumed in the body. It is measured in the
laboratory by means of an apparatus called the calorimeter.
The unit commonly used is the calorie, the amount of heat
which would raise the temperature of a pound of water
four degrees Fahrenheit.

Taking ordinary food materials as they come, the follow-
ing general estimate has been made for the average amount
of heat and energy in 1 pound of each of the classes of
nutrients:

Calories.
In 1 pound of protein........eeeeeeeeee- 1,860
In 1 pound of fats...........66. EEE ys 4,220
In 1 pound of carbohydrates..... Reese ete 1,860

In other words, when we compare the nutrients in re-
spect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat
and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean meat or
albumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of
sugar or starch, and a little over two pounds of either
would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or
butter or the body fat.

Ways in which Food is Used in the Body.—¥Food supplies
the wants of the body in several ways. It either—

Is used to form the tissues and fluids of the body;

Is used to repair the wastes of tissues;

Is stored in the body for future consumption;

Is consumed as fuel, its potential energy being trans-
formed into heat or muscular energy, or other forms of
energy required by the body; or,

In being consumed protects tissues or other food from
consumption.

Uses of the Different Classes ofxVutrients.—Protein forms
tissue (muscle, tendon, etc., and fat) and serves as fuel.

Fats form fatty tissue (not muscle, etc.) and serve as fuel.

Carbohydrates are transformed into fat and serve as fuel.

HUMAN FOODS. 147

All nutrients yield energy in form of heat and muscular
strength.

In being themselves burned to yield energy the nutrients
protect each other from being consumed. The protein and
fats of body tissue are used like those of food. An impor-
tant use of the carbohydrates and fats is to protect protein
(muscle, etc.) from consumption.

Definition of Food and Food Economy.—The views thus
presented lead to the following definitions: (1) Food is
that which, taken into the body, builds tissues or yields
energy; (2) the most healthful food is that which is best
fitted to the wants of the user; (3) the cheapest food is that
which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment at the
least cost; (4) the best food is that which is both most
healthful and cheapest.

We have, then, to consider the kinds and amounts of
nutrients in different food materials, their digestibility, and
the kinds and amounts needed for nourishment by people
doing different kinds of work.

In general, the animal foods have the most of protein
and fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in the carbo-
hydrates, starch, and sugar. The lean meats and fish
abound in protein. Cheese has so large a quantity of
protein because it contains the casein of the milk. Among
the vegetable foods, beans and peas have a high proportion
of protein. The proportion in oatmeal is also large. In
wheat it is moderate, and in corn meal it is rather small.
The materials with the highest fuel value are those with
the most fat, because the fuel value of the fat is, weight
for weight, two and one-fourth times as great as that of
either sugar, starch, or protein. Hence fat pork and butter
lead the other materials in fuel value. The fat meats in
general stand high in this respect. So also do the grains,
flour, and meal, as they have large quantities of carbo-
hydrates. Potatoes are quite low in the list in respect to
fuel value as well as protein, principally because they are
three-fourths water. For the same reason, milk, which is
seven-eighths water, ranks low in respect to both protein
and fuel value.

148 AGRICULTURE.

Dietaries and Dietary Standards.--As the outcome of
a great deal of observation and experiment, nearly all in
Europe, standards have been proposed for the amounts
of nutrients and energy in the daily food required by
different classes of people. Those of Prof. Voit, of Munich,
Germany, are most commonly accepted by specialists in
Europe. Voit’s standard for a laboring man at moderately
hard muscular work calls for about 0.25 pound of protein
and quantities of carbohydrates and fats sufficient, with
the protein, to yield 3050 calories of energy. Taking into
account the more active life in the United States, and the
fact that well-nourished people of the working classes here
eat more and do more work than in Europe, and in the
belief that ample nourishment is necessary for doing the
most and the best work, I have ventured to suggest a
standard with 0.28 pound of protein and 3500 calories of
energy for the man at moderate muscular work. (For list
of dietary standards, see p. 155.)

Calculation of Daily Dietaries.—Due regard for health,
strength, and purse requires that food shall supply enough
protein to build tissue and enough fats and carbohydrates
for fuel, and that it shall not be needlessly expensive.

On the basis of the standards for dietaries given on
page 155, various combinations of food materials for daily
dietaries may be made by calculations from the table,
showing percentages of nutrients, etc., in food materials
(p. 149). Thus if a dietary for a man at moderately hard
muscular work is to be made up of round beefsteak, butter,
potatoes, and bread, it may be calculated as follows:

Protein. Calories.
; Pounds

mound Steak........- 1 pound contains......... 18 855
BUG ae cutee sti e ee es 1 pound contains......... .O1 3,615
IPORACORS Ws oitinieg doo 1 pound contains......... -O19 325
Wheat bread........ 1 pound contains......... .088 1,280
Round steak......... 13 Ounces contain,......... 14 695
WRULCED «ie eoneme cuecer » 3 ounces contain.......... Sep 680
Botatodsiy.. 3. £23.) 28 G:ouncesi contain: 62% vs... .02 320
Wheat bread.... ... | 22 ounces contain.......... .12 1,760

MO tallitevan crisis to aes -28 3,455

Standard for man at mod-
erate muscular work.... -28 3,500

HUMAN FOODS.

149

PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, WATER, AND
REFUSE IN SPECIMENS OF FOOD MATERIALS.

(ATWATER.)
ao Edible Portion.
Uo
5 Nutrients.
a=
7 ae?) - °
Food Materials. oe | ¢ sé|a¢
2-(2i/a3/28] ,./ 28] 83
Oo S ao as os
rd Bla] gy FTE
Animal Foods, as Purchased. % | %|% | &% % %
SCORING CRs), 1s sie aviie ch aeetelecnn 20.0 149.630. 4|15.6]14.0]...... 0.8
SHOUIGEDS. 2's Pistavehd chal cate 2. | 42.67|55-0|3re0lnyeorrqe7| 2... 0.9
Greene Risen won'cte oe anit 14.6 |49.5135.9|15.0/20.1]...... 0.8
REL Bere ps cok t-jact oasis a sis tals hey eee 21.0 |38.2)40.8/12.2/27.9]...... 0.7
OL ens or aa een ee 19.5 |48.3/32.2115.0|16.4] ..... 0.8
BONG SECA cece sce se neelase 7-8 |60.9}/31.3/18.0/12.3],..... I.0
Side without kidney fat...... 19.2 |44.3/36.5]13.9/21.8]...... 0.8
HOUND, COLNE on iis sais cise on Cod bf (oes) 2 led bot 4 eo 2.4
PIO NGOLNEG>.%. ..<\0's <p os ve nie = 12.1 \43-7|44.2|12.4|29.2|...... 2.6
Veal: Shoulder........ Presi piniel Go lols 17-9 |50.7\25.4|16.6] 7-9]... .. 0.9
Mutton: Shoulder......... yenssennis| 26.3 |49.0154:7|/ 15. 1170,5|.. 23) 0.8
Er et iicioisin' a,c OAS ane ES.0_|50.60|32.3115,0) 25. Olen 0.7
Berta fers Shs aa atest 15.8 |41.5|42.7|12.6/29.5|... .. 0.6
Side, without kidney fat..| 17.3 |44.2|38.5|15.0/23.7|...... 0.8

Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh........ 14.6 |143.0|/42.4|13.6/28.0]...... 0.8
Ham, salted, smoked........ ¥2E<4),(36-0/51.0|04-8(394-6)". oon 2.4

MG Tia eee oleh ad as o/s cic o's, amie widnya,> 38 2 |44.6)17.2\/15.1| r.2]...... 0.9

PURKCMiicnslas< veeauhee cass eiataPnieerat 32.4 |44-7|22.9/16.1| 5.9]..-..- 0.9

Eggs, in __ 1 SR ED 13.7 |63.1|23.2/12.1|10.2]...... 0.9

Fish, etc.: Flounder, whole........ 66.8 |27.2] 6.0] 5.2| 0.3] _.... 0.5

Bluefish, dressed........ 49-6" |43-O|T -1] 0-6 |.0aD eek ee 0.7
Codfish, dressed ....... 29.9 |58-5|11.6|10.6] O.2]...... 0.8
meni ie non i 0) | cape geen 50.1 |35.2/14.7| 9.2] 4.8|...... 0.7
Mackerel, whole........ 44.8 |40.4]15.0/10.0] 4.3]...... 0.7
Halibut, dressed.. 17.7 \61.9|20.4|15.1| 4.4].....- 0.9
Sainron;. whole,......... By. 5 (d0-0|24. nl t4eg) SoR |. =~ +e I.0
Salt codfish. . seeece:| 42-1 |40.5|17.6|16.0] 074 I.2
Smoked herring Pike cwee 50-9 |19.2|29.9|20.2| 8.8]...... 0.9
Salimackereleaiwcs sis. 40.4 |28.1/31.5|14.7|15.1]...... e7)
Canned salmon......... 4.0150). 9) 25. 8150. 318665]-..5 <5 1.2
TLODStGrS:. oss sc ou o Se 62.1 |3r.0| 6.9] 5.5] 0.7]. 0.2 | 0.6
OYSlETS. 32s ssea wero unas 82.3 |15.4| 2.3] 1.1] 0.2] 0.6] 0.4
Animal Foods, Edible Portion.

PCCM NC CK ns s0 sn cie'e Sebeecisiej aie iar etl ice ents |62.0/38.0/19.5]17.5]...... 1.0
SHOMIGET: cock se eletcticls 2 Sr eget 63-9 36.7110. 5)F560| sc". 1.0
PIG BAD cin nina nei aan so n.ne.ax) opel eee eR IeS ee ihn isla 0.9
REAPS ora salar tecc ta ales See be ociora AO. Li SE SO] LR = 413520) ~.'ts 's- 0.9
‘Sita (03) 1 Sanaeear aS ea ES pel oles Aceage 60.0]40.0]18.5]/20.5]...... I.0
PME occ a actite cinehs Memb ae chs Se Pate a 68.2|31.8]20.5|10.1]..... I.2
Side, without idiney, fatenu elec ses 54-9|45.2117-2]27 1|....-- 0.9
Rump, corned Dae ea ete oiatecoaed ena as 58.1/41.9|13.3|26.6]...... 2.0
LUST © Steg nll Epa ee enpere Rais bal 49.8]50.2|14.2|33.0|..... 3.0

Veal: Shoulder..........-. ... 68.8]31.2]20.2] 9.8]... .. 1.2

LA EGS Va rn re 58.6|41.4/18.1]/22.4]...... 0.9

BSE Genki ators Su ne wiareud ae ns fais ao 61 .8/38.2|18.3]19.0]...... 0.9
TEOIB ed cade walle in erste =+°+/49-3]50-7|15-0/35-0]....-. 0.7

1

Codfish, fresh &

50 AGRICULTURE.

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS,
Nutritive ingredients, refuse, and fuel value.

Nutrients. Non-nutrients.
, ae a2 Fuel value.
E = ZZ SS§ Es ed
Protein Fats. Carbo- Mineral Water. Refuse. Calories.

hydrates. matters

Protein compounds, e. g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and
gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.

Fats, e. g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, ) serve as fuel to yield heat

Carbohydrates, e. g., starch and sugar, and muscular power.

Nutrients, etc.,p. ct. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80. 90
Fuel value of 1\lb. _ 400 ” 12001600 2060 2490 2800 3200 3600 4000

Beef,round s = —

*
Beef, round

Be Oa La

Beef, sirloin* §

Beef, rib

Beef, rib* ———— ht

Mutton, leg

Fork, spare rib

Pork, salt

Ham, smoked &

Codyish, salt

Oysters : VES SS eS ee ee eS

Mille ae

Butter

Cheese

Eggs

Wheat bread

Wheat flour

Corn Meal YY REESE
Oatmeal Be ILLS
Beans, dried See eee Li Z Yt

Rice

Potatoes = ——— :

Sugar. Site te

* Without bone.

HUMAN FOODS. 151

PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, ETC., IN FOOD
MATERIALS.— Continued.

Food Materials. °

Animal Foods, Edible Portion.

Mutton: Side, without kidney fat..
Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh........
Ham, salted, smoked........

MEL TEMSAILOO Soca << ciiwisiasiees'e'ere
ee OG seo an die cau bioie denne
BOON: « csieisccosinc pet ieiaiees

OIGGMALOAEING i ooinin oe.0 10.0 <aiciacees oe
Cheese: Full-cream.........cccecce

SiciM-—MViliee soe ees vas ss
Fish: Flounder....... rttere eta aha: cote

1s ga ae a ee ae

Mackerel, salt.....
CONSTR STS arcane pe a a

Vegetable Foods.

\LEL29] V5 110) C1 pg eee ee ae

Graham flour (wheat)........... ...
PERIGEE acu cess does one oe teal
Iulekwheat Hout......ccceccceceesss

BIEHICAL cc eiisiccs cies see oe ce cw ene came
(COWIMEAl. Alen cameene Aeiwiccbelnas
FRIGE:,...c PISS swe orere NS eau ede

SERING DEANS) «2.0.01 00.0 sistelayeatsaisis (oomes
Seer dee en a eee ee eee xe
EEE OECOPRD oa cinian oven nine aor

BUSS OS ersten ona oe w Siearai arene ersialatw Uae
White bread (wheat)............ stele
TOStORICEAGKCKS x. occa ce re oewibiccse

Edible Portion.

Nutrients.

pe = p 2
to} [oj 3 —_
Fle | & |&|6*/ ss

% % % | &% %
5355) | 40.5% | L069) [28.2.9] cc c.0-e 0.9
50.3, | 4957) | 10-01 |32.. 8} vac... = 0.9
AEG le5GeS fiL0279 (SO nEhcass ste 2.7
12.1 | 87.9 O.O) |82-8psese.- 4-2
AXc2aESOsS: | Eaeay (420 Slane sie 2.2
G2egniegz7.G | 18208. |T5-8i tetas s 3.0
JH. ZO SIS || 2A S44 | ZeOll oc --0¥0 TA
6602"1'593.8 | 2359) | 8:7) 22%. £52
7326) |b aae2 h TALOe LONG) sec see 0.8
S7:or/er3.0"| 3:6 | 4.0] © 427°)" "0.7
10.5 | 89.0 1.0 185.0] 0.5 |! 3.0
1E-07|'89.'5 | 0.6 |85.0}" ov47} 3.0
20.2) |) 69.8 |) 28t3) |su.5|) x. S| eace
41.3 | 58.7 | 38.4 | 6.8] 8.9] 4.6
S402) [EUG leases: || OT |.cc ve 13
81.7 |°18.3 | 16.8) | 0.3]: 1.2
S2.Gr|e27.4 | 05. S)-|°O.4) secieec 1.2
70.65|29.4° | 18.6 | 9-5) cse9 oe r3
73° AG L206 |) LSe2) | 7- Tl) ccc Tae
7ErAa 24.0"). 18.3. | Gai estes I.I
63.00) 36can | Sn. 6) (TS s4ll sz.ace Fd
em |Biscrine 2HrAy | Ossie s aes 1.6
34-6 36-48 [P66 6 | ernaieieis T-5
AD Ar Pree ates E72 q |20- 4 cscs 2.6
87.1 | 12.9 6.0) | 21.2) 3.7) ta2-0
TG 5] ERO |lTsr/74.9u) 0-5
Tger 86.9 | 1E.7 | 1-7) 7-7 1.8
Bcte56:9:| 627, | 0.8|' 78.79" 0.7
14.6 | 85.4 6.9 | 1.4] 76.1 1.0
7-6 | 92.4 | 15.1 | 7.1| 68.2 2.0
E50 /.65¢0 | 6.2 | 3:8] 7o.6. |) 1.4
12.4 | 87.6 Jef) | O-4| 70-401nO-d
12.3 | 87.7 | 26.7 | 1.7] 56.4 26
42.6 | 8724.| 23s5 | 2.0).59.2 3.1
78.9 | 2I.1 2.E | 0.1] 17.9 1.0
71.1 | 28.9 Loh (sO. 4120-0) | 1-6
89.4 | 10.6] 1.2] 0.2] 8.2 I.0
88.6 | 11.4 I.r | 0.4] 8.9 1.0
87.6 | 12.4 X.4 || 0.3) 10. 0.6
87.2 | 12.8 2am |Os.4\|) . Oia! 0.8
732r"\"2t.9 | 4.4 | 0.6] 16-0 | 0.9
Ste sul tous | (2.0 (ot. Bp Tae O60
QGzaI) 4.0: | (0.8 | 0:4] 2:55 fs O23
91.9 8.1 Pfam (ie ate | aed red
83.2 | 16.8 0.2 | 0.4] 15.9 0.3
203% hfe tao al Pieced Ieee 97.8 |. 0.2
ce FLA ENG ey al eS JRE 2.3
32-3 | 67.7 56.3 | 90.9
3 a) 68.7 | 2.4

152 AGRICULTURE.

PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD.

Amounts of actually nutritive ingredients obtained in different
food materials for 25 cents.
{Amount of nutrients in pounds. Fuel value in calories.]
Protein. Fats. Carbohydrates, Fuel value.

eaatarety

bes

aes Weights of nutrients and calories of

is 4 & energy in 25 cents worth.

aA °

1 Lb. 3 Lbs. 5 Ubs.
2 Calas Cal. 6200 Cal. 10000 Oal.
PRES ee

Beef, sirloin

Beef, round 15.0, 1. 7 —e

Beef, neck

Mutton, leg

ITam, smoked

Salt pork, very fat
Codflsh, fresh

Codfish, salt 7]
ee ee

Mackerel, salt 12.0) 2.08 i =

Oysters, 35 cents quart{s.0) 1. 13 i

Eiggs, 25 cents dozen 1. 70 pene no

Milk, 7 cents quart cE Tad! ss —<——- ——__————_

Cheese, whole milk SS

==

Cheese, skim milk 8.0). 3. Be

Butter

Sugar

Wheat flour

Wheat bread

L 5.00 ee =F El

Beans

ee VM
ELL, YATRA.

Standard for daily) German.* {es LL

dict t ==,
ee dae ) |American. teeeJn4_—_

*Voit —_— tAtwater.

Potatoes 1.2) 20.00%

HUMAN FOODS. 153

AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR
TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS
AT ORDINARY PRICES. (Arwarer.)

Twenty-five Cents will pay for

Org 38 Nutrients. ‘os5:
Food Materials as Furnished. | °¢ | £5 = 2 bo
vol—as| a jal. | gs less

2a) ss 3 =|a|/25/oo8

x Ga | oO Cla] a6 |nhA

& o a) e&}oO O
eiikers ee cts. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs.) lbs.| Ibs. | cals.
Cel.

' 8 | 3-13 | -95 | -49| -44].----. 2765
Beef: Weck. .......... AGQHODE ETS ; 6 phe 27 Gs| 58h) 3055
: I 1.5) 5 ray he ey Ie ae T7395

9 a i aie peat BPS G7 ES pee

22 1.14 47 TA, sS2etes ae 1610

SL Saar Seine 23 hk 4g Rm ate ee ei 1960

™4 | 1.79 Cy al lines 39) ede 35) ae 1615

SiG Ge SA ree re ae eas ee apa Sac

ae 22 I.I4 37.| -17) -19 1120
UMAR Gia Sein. Satins «sm 38 aes FEE ae eA poi ao

I 1.39 Gay | LG |er- 43)| entre 2170

MEINERS oo how vicar +2. «i'm x 7.67 yee a ae a

18 £530 AA | c 25 lero 27 |< tas 3 1180

Round, first cut.......... } 54 63 oe Panis axle ak ana

10 2.50 EE S89 GGy eee 1285

Round, second cut....... ; gt 3323 ER Gays be ean #253

I5 “| £167 7 iy fal Wage) 8 Tel eps mie, 2460

Hank corned... ........ 45: Vis 5 EE eae minty ge c) ellen 5. 3055
I 1.39 CORI S e724 eee 1700

Corned and canned..... gy ee ee Ro ae ae ce

BRANT: Chin. s'G¥b.n\oictate|\0:< cieie'- 8- | 3.13 96 | .63| .17| .11 2095

. 20 1.25 AL \okO| = 2ebhe siete re 1265
Mutton: Shoulder...... vere osnae ore ; age bh £365 5) as “31 aula e775
25 »| 2400 ee ieee Ts) lee eller ee 955

: (32 AER agciae “Oepoer Bae iz a re Cee «reas bade
ae $25 | 1.00 Gai) BESl =26l es = sac oR
| See. aes {20 1.25 1) oes wos Gl eeereor 1840
- Pe 12 2.08 Bef) e2Gl 0 55a cistern 2970
BORIC RTD) LOASE bo as icles 06 o:2 cic ot } wd ekea) Kee + Aah Foleo 5885
16 1.56 SEaIL 25) 4. SOl see os'- 2915

Smoked ham, whole..... { 12 BMG ESOS OSE e7ellins ac ate 3615

15 PIOZ |) DoE7 she ~O2)T 30) Sate 5860

1S uN Lag 010) ge SRC BOE ; Bal Bee cae | eae gee a azar

15 1.67 Sys | eu eley Sana 3465

IPOVK | SAUSAGE? oo o's oie fe ; pS seh yizat sel Bolo 4295

° - 22 1.14 BE We ZBI» sOZN eavesiate 605

Poultry; etc.: Chicken.......... } 6 dake | ee pee and 83 5
23 | 1.09 37.4. -26| .09}...... 865

Turkey......... | 18 1.38 AG |e <Q2)) <E2)- a's.) EEOO

Fish, etc. 18 | 1.39 22 | .14] .06 se [e S05

Mackerel, whole ........... devel fha.67 SE, eal) Ops. asian 610
Io | 2.50 fe | EAS] ae ea on 930

15 1.67 +19 | .16] .o1 340

Bluefish, dressed....0.0sc205.5° 135 S| See Ss eee aus
Be) 2.50 Aree || Vato (ee nice 505

COOHALESSER faces aiesict seas Sh asia bo caG | cagh compecss 655

6 | 4.17 s4Gu py 244 OR serempere

154 AGRICULTURE.

AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR
TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS
AT ORDINARY PRICES. —Continued.

Twenty-five Cents will pay for

M Ua - =
FT} om Nutrients. ‘S33.
Food Materials as Furnished. sal ie = 2 Si
se lae| ¢ |8la4| Ss (ese
ma | Oo 2 2S thie up ioe
oe o0 (6.68 | a | RS ee
rae oe
& & {a | &|O Oo
Fish, etc. cts. | Ibs. | Ibs. |Ibs.|1bs | Ibs. | cals.
: 20 1.25 -26| <2], .6G)ioane 605
Eictsistit StCARS.. 42.0 sep sce astea i= %.50) 42) «24] vor} 740
Canned salmon..... .... otis ore 20 1.25} 46)" 225). 20} Soa 1310
Oysters, 50 cts. per quart. ...... 25 T.00 13 06} .ot 04] 230
Sa aa PR eee | 17.5) 1-43 18] .o9} .02 05] 345
Tetidics: wholt ; 12 2.08 14| <23|-.08} cage 345
SP WRGNG: coh tac ees se ae - 2.50 17| .¥4| .o2]...2.. 415
* CAnReG feos ah eee 20 1.25 = <23] <OEbsscous 470
Eggs and Dairy Products.
Mees a: cts. pet dex... ..- 25 I.00 23! .12| .10/fss.ae 645
- 25 a - ae Ae a 18.2] 1.37 32) +17) -T4]-----. gio
: I scl cael chp ok es CA es a II 2.27) 53). 25) ..23 eee 1490
Milk, 8 cts. per quart. ......... 4 6.25 81} .23] 25 29| 2020
eS 6 é . Be 2 eee 3 8.33} 1.08] .30) -33 +39} 2675
’ Noone lal Paks Wil met Yer oe oe 2 12.50] 1.63] -40} .50 59| 4065
UB yn Sg SR A Re tare sy 35 -71 :64| on} Gopssieke 2550
25 +00 -9o} .o1| .85 or] 3635
Cheese, full cream.............- 18 1.38 .96| .40| .49] .02| 3850
12 2.08] 1.45] -50| -72 04| 4210
Vegetable Foods.
Potatoes, $1.00 per bushel...... 1.7 | 14.70] .31} .03] .o1 26} 580
80 aa He EE I 25 20.00 a = -02 36} 790
ber. ee. |} feeceee 0.85] 29.40 .62] .06] .03 53| 1225
Sweet potatoes $5 | 5.00) «14! -00] .00] 73) 240
i Se Se RE ee “2 PR es es a
2 | 12.50 Sr4)" .02] .0ols s3ein 46
(255 Se seep S es eee SEES » Saeae ; me ap “25|" .04( 6c) ae
5 2 | 12.50} .13] .02| .co}] © .z0] 225
CRRRUBS coos os 0 3 4765-6" SS aS = rs Se “oat Pn RRS, Diab
So RE Re oe ae a 5 5-00} 4.90] .00| .00] 4.89] 9095
f 6 4-17| 3-64] .96| .o9] 2.47] 6760
Dried beans <<... s-cc... ea 5 5.00 4.37 1-15 -I0] 2.96] 8065
4 6.25] 5.46|1.44| .13] 3.70] IIIIO
Maize ** corn”? meal 5 3 SoS 7-08 -77)| +32 5-88 13720
5 Seek tO e = 25.00} 21.25 2.30] .95| 17-65) 41115
nines! © 2.4200. .ana ce ee ap re 5 5.00) 4.61) -74| -36] 3.42] 9255
4 6.25 5-47) - -07} 4.68] 10285
Wheat flour ...... Site «pele ae iSite 7. Ed 6.25) -79| -08] 5.35] 11755
= 8.33] 7-29] .92 2 6.24] 13695
Wheatibread; ...5.202 025-3022 } 7 3-37} 2-42) 35), = a) a
5 aes 3-38) .44) -09) 2.82] 6445
12 2. I.QI| .21| .20], 1.47} 3970
Crackers... Setteeseeeeeeeeeees 1% 3.13] 2.88| .32| .29| 2.21] 5030

HUMAN FOODS. 155

DIETARY STANDARDS, (Jarra.)

on ¥€ v
&.| 8 (48 jSatee
a3 | 3 \ealece) Se
© = |SS4\|50e] 5
ae Pes ae
1. Children, 1-2 years (average) .........| .06 .08 16 765 | 1:5.6
2. Children, 2-6 years (average)......... .13 -09 .444)\2 E4200 5:0
3. Children, 6-15 years (average)........ .16 .10 +71 | 2040] 5.2
4- Adult in full health—Playfair...... a 2D TEX {i Eat7 | 3240 | 5.5
s. Active laborers—Playfair ........... acy! 216.) 11325" 1)° 3630)|° 4:7
6. Man at moderate work—Voit .......| .26 ~i2 | Bivew 395501) S-3
7. Man at hard work—Voit...... .. 32 +22 .99 | 33705] 4-7
8. Man with little physical exercise—
PREM RECT Semen, eee tot cis, «.- 55504 ab +20 +20 -66| 2450] 5.5
g. Man’ with light muscular work—At-
MERECE A Seas Stee ac wae are +22 .22 7 Fe yp 2008 |) 15-7
1o. Man with moderate work—Atwater..| .28 .28 -99 | 3520] 5.8
11. Man with active work—Atwater...... Se -33 | 1.10 | 4060] 5.6
12. Man with hard work—Atwater........| .39 -55 | 1.43 | 5700] 6.9
13. Subsistence diet—Playfair..... een 13 -03 .g5r| 19760,) 6.3
14. Average of 7 dietaries of professional
MERIBCLUOESUTOPG SS coca. ocicceccees) «25 -22 .63 | 2670] 4.7
15. Average of 5 dietaries of professional
MeM CE LMbEds SEALE 3... 6h. a. 650i x 27 -34 | 1.08 | 39255]; 66

156 AGRICULTURE.

DIAGRAMS OF CUTS OF MEAT.

Ribs Plate
x 80 lbs,

Nat 4% cts.
N

WY?

a ‘\ tt y i\
Nar asa i
WAN AN Many IL Nn

Diagram I. A Good Steer’s Carcass, as Cut Up and Priced in the
Eastern Market.

$e
Z
Wf Bi
YO.
SY OW ms ~
Sw

A

ind
yn aA
RN NW i)

\
hy
AA

A good 1200-pound steer will dress about 800 pounds of
beef cut up as above—715 pounds salable cuts, with 85
pounds of fat, bone, and waste.

The diagram illustrates what the breeder and feeder
should aim to produce in the conformation of the beef- and
mutton-producing animal, so that the highest possible per-
centage of the carcass will be cuts of the high-priced class,
thereby giving the best possible return for food consumed.
(McKERROW.)

The methods of dividing up the carcasses of slaughtered
animals into parts, and the terms used for the ‘‘cuts,” as
these parts are commonly called, vary considerably in dif-
ferent localities. The accompanying diagrams will make
clear the terms used in the table Composition of Human
Foods (pp. 149-51).

CW) toe dep ei an dite Sania Wbe~

156a

HUMAN FOODS.

*

Diagram of Cuts of Veal

IE

Len |
ei}
2
€
=
$

ie

<7

Diagram of Cuts of Mutton.*

Ill.

i.
5
$s
Sy
=

f Cuts of Pork.*

iagram o

D

IV

* U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,

15686 AGRICULTURE.

LIVE WEIGHT AND DRESSED WEIGHT OF STEERS
OF DIFFERENT BREEDS AND AGES. (Henry.)

(Smithfield Show, 1888-95.)

aa
No. of » |) Aver. eight
Breed and Age. Ani- | AVEr. | Daily at BS iy
mals ge. | Gains. |Slaugh-| ¥e!got
tering
Days Lbs Lbs. "| BermGe
Shorthorn, zr year olds.. 5 642 2.11 1355 66.1
Dra ss poe | 18 963 1.92 1842 67.5
5 ak ie 16 1321 1.72 2251 69.4
Hereford, Be he - 16 663 1.07 1308 65.1
a = Ad 13 1020 1.78 1817 67.2
a a 8 1349 1.64 2218 69.2
Devon, = bibl “s 13 634 1.75 III2 66.0
2 ¥ q i 1045 1.51 1583 rs 7
3 tT 1311 1.37 179 tha:
Aberdeen Angus, 7“ * 26 668 2.04 1366 65.4
eels: *e 21 1008 1.74 1765 66.7
Base oo, 2 1346 1.59 2138 67.4
Sussex, NS 17 677 2.15 1452 65.4
os . 18 989 1.86 1837 68.2
RE 3 12 1285 1.61 2064 68.0
Red Poll, han: es 12 1002 1.64 1631 65.7
Zs ae 6 1362 1.49 2022 65.8
Galloway, 7a wa? a 7 1027 1.64 1688 64.5
3 Ie 4 1344 1.47 1969 | 64.8

PROPORTION OF BEEF TO THE LIVE WEIGHT
OF CATTLE, (McConne t.)

Per Cent of Beef.
Live Weight,
Pounds SSS

Avoirdupois.

Class I. | Class II. |Class III.
PUCIFERS, Sees 00's acetate Under 2520 70.72 GES66 i] wt ieee
SLEELS 2: . 2.8 Mae,2 Sine eee e ‘© 2520 69.71 66.60) 4) 4 4-e eee
RILCEES jin e\c's ccc e cies cite ooo 1680-2100 66.68 63.65 63.66
FACIIELS ods. ss eens ee ss 3 = 1400-1680 66.68 63.65 63.66
Sree (een. et BAR 1400--1680 62.65 60.62 57.62
Eleifiers’ . os-.n:< Settee 3 oe se 1260-1400 62 65 60.62 57-62
BEEEKSi 5. 5 aici eee | SARE Ie 1260-1460 57 61 54.59 51.56
Heifers. .c .. Senet ee oe 1120-1260 57.61 54-59 51.56
NECERS Es. dc Gee eee, ee 1120-1260 53-50 50.53 48.50
HMeiersw..c.2 cols se piece ae g80-1120 53-56 50.53 48.50

Heifers co iiaccicews oe ere der he Sernyneeel.. Fi ssdo0cns oe 45-47

errr —n—nwnhwn sgxKgRRRp@oooO———— oot

HUMAN FOODS. L577

COMPARATIVE RESULTS OBTAINED WITH
FATTENING ANIMALS, (Lawes anp GILBERT.)
(a) Per 100 lbs. live weight per week.

Received by Animal. Results Produced.
Total | Digestible end, Com Dry Increase
Dry Organic Pear avd Manure in Live
Food. Matter. Work. Produced.| Weight.
Ibs. Ibs, Ibs. lbs. lbs.
ORE) 2s fs 12.5 8.9 6.86 4-56 1.13
Sheep: ct... .,- 16.0 12.3 9.06 5.10 1.76
LE SIS Fe Seagate 27.0 22.0 12.58 P ipslsi 6.43
«

(6) In relation to food consumed.

Increase in Live

Weight. On too lbs. of Dry Food.

re sae Consumed Dry Dry
lbs. Dry Oreanic for Heat Manure Increase
Food. 8 and Work. | Produced.| Yielded.

Matter.
lbs Ibs. lbs. lbs lbs
O02. ee 9.0 12.7 54-9 36.5 6.2
SHEED Ss. ac s0- II.0 TA2 56.6 31.9 8.0
Pigs 23.8 29.2 46.6 16.7 17.6

LIVE WEIGHT AND GAINS MADE BY SWINE.

(HENRY AND SANBORN.)

Per 100 Lbs, Live

’ _of : i Feed Weight.
Live ee at ga08 Feed eee per as
fc)

Weight. l ; Eaten.
mals. |Weight. Made. Gaim Feed Gain
Eaten. Made.

Lbs. Lbs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
Under so 59 S77e la 2e35 -70% | 3.30 6.13 1.86
50-100 gI 75°5 aa -900 | 3.70 4.41 TsO
IO0=150 119 126.1 4-29 I.029 4-17 3-40 82
150-200 138 176.2 6.45 1.123 5075 3.66 64
200-250 65 214.1 6.89 1.287 5-35 3.22 60
250-300 41 266.4 7.64 1.457 5.24 2.87 55
300-350 12 333-0 6.02 1.352 4-45 1.81 41

AGRICULTURE.

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AGRICULTURE.

160

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PART II. DAIRYING

f DAIEY, COWS.

ON THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE.

BE TERSEY CATTLE,

The origin of the Jersey cattle, like many of our other
improved breeds of live-stock, is not known with cer-
tainty. The theory is that they descend from cattle
brought from the Scandinavian countries to Normandy,
France, during the tenth century or before, whence they
were introduced into the Island of Jersey, off the French
coast. The breed has been kept pure on this little island
for a longer period than any other English breeds, as a
result of the enactment in 1789 of a law forbidding im-
portations of foreign cattle into the island. According to
Flint, Jerseys were. first imported into this country about
1838, but heavy importations did not begin until after 1850.

The following is a description of typical Jersey cows:
Head fine and tapering; cheek small; throat clean; the
muzzle fine and encircled with a slight stripe; the nostril
high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, not very
thick at the base, tapering, and tipped with black; ears
small and thin, deep orange color inside; eyes full and
placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; bar-
rel hooped, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back straight
from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip
to the setting on of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with
the back, and hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light
color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair; forelegs
short, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and
full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs

162 DAIRYING.

short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine,
squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small;
udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up
behind; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide
apart, milk veins very prominent; color is generally
cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less white.

The Jerseys are generally considered a butter-producing
breed, and justly so. The milk produced isasarule richer
in fat and solids than that of any other breed, but the
quantity yielded, on the other hand, is apt to be lower.
Milk from good Jersey cows often contains over six per
cent of fat, the average being about five per cent. Produc-
tion of rich milk has been the primary aim of Jersey
breeders; in 1881 the secretary of the American Jersey
Cattle Club wrote: ‘‘ The sole office of the Jersey cow is
to produce the largest possible amount of rich, highly
colored cream from a given amount of food. Everything
else in connection with the breeding of the race is, or
‘should be, incidental.’’

-The highest yields of butter-fat or butter, in case of
Jersey cows as well as other dairy breeds, are not, how-
ever, apt to come from cows producing exceptionally rich
milk, but rather from such producing an exceptionally
large quantity of good milk; generally speaking, an ex-
traordinarily high fat-content is accompanied by a small
milk yield.

Typical Jerseys generally have a high-strung, nervous
temperament, and in order to do their best must receive
good care; they cannot be abused as to feed or treatment
without injury; for this reason they will only prove a suc-
cess in the hands of intelligent feeders who care for and _
take an interest in their stock. The dairy type predomi-
nates, viz.: a wedge-shaped, deep-chested body, with
good digestive organs, large full udders, well-developed
milk-veins, and a soft, mellow skin. The cows are gentle
and docile, while the bulls ‘have the reputation of being
hard to handle, and often ugly and dangerous after a couple
of years’ service.

The maximum yields of milk and butter produced by
Jersey cows are given on page 189, the table giving the

DAIRY COWS. 168

official records. In the breed-tests conducted by the ex-
periment stations in Maine, New Jersey, and New York
(Geneva), the Jerseys have ranked among the first, but
have seldom beenthe foremost. Astheaverage of all tests
of dairy breeds up to date, we notice that the Jerseys rank
after the Shorthorns and the Guernseys in total yield of
fat during a full period of lactation, and after Guernseys in
the cost of producing one pound of fat; they rank first as to
richness of milk produced. Inthe English milking trials
conducted by the British Dairy Farmers’ Association, the
Shorthorn cows have generally led the Jerseys in the
total quantities of fat produced per day, and other breeds
have also, on the average, given better results than these.
The Jerseys came out victorious in the breed-tests con-
ducted at the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893; they
produced more milk, butter-fat, butter, and cheese, and
gave a higher net gain than either of the two other breeds
competing (Guernsey and Shorthorn); the Guernseys, on
the other hand, led as regards the cost of the food con-
sumed. Inthe breed-test No. 1 (‘‘the fifteen-day cheese
test ’’) Ida Marigold, 32615, produced the largest quantity
of cheese, viz.: 70.92 lbs., and Merry Maiden, 69449, the
largest quantity of butter-fat, viz.: 30.73 lbs. In breed-
test No. 2 (‘‘the ninety-day test’’) Brown Bessie, 74997,
produced 178.12 lbs. of butter-fat, Merry Maiden and Ida
Marigold following, with 164.81 lbs. and 164.28 lbs., re-
spectively.

The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in July
1868; the Herd Xegister of the club, the first volume of
which was published in 1871, has been issued in forty-five
volumes up to date, including in all 42,000 bulls and 109,000
cows. Butter Tests of Registered Jersey Cows gives a'l tests
of registered Jerseys where the yield of butter for seven
consecutive days was 14 lbs. or more; the latest volume
published is Vol. II., New Series.

The present secretary of the American Jersey Cattle
Club is J. J. Hemingway, No. 8 W. Seventeenth St.. New
York City.

164 DAIRYING.

II. GUERNSEY CATTLE.

By Prof. W. H. Catpwe tt, Peterboro, N. H., Sec’y Am. Guernsey Cattle
Club.

The Guernsey breed takes its name from the Island of
Guernsey, one of the Channel, or sometimes termed Alder-
ney, Islands. The origin of the Channel Island cattle,
while somewhat involved in controversy, is generally be-
lieved to have come from stock originally from the French
provinces of Normandy and Brittany, and that the founda-
tion for the Guernseys was laid by crossing the Normandy
bull on the Brittany cow. It is very interesting to turn to
the Island of Guernsey, cut off as it is from the main land
by the little strip of sea, and protected on all sides by
a rough, rocky coast, and note the characteristics which
we find there that have played so important a part in
moulding the character of the Guernsey of to-day. There
the shrewd, careful, sturdy people have labored many years
to produce a cow that should excel in butter production.
Their labors have been rewarded in the Guernsey, which is
noted the world over for producing butter of the highest
natural color and with the least outlay for cost of feed.
Fate might have been different with these people but for
their insular situation, pride of self-government, habits and
customs, which led them to zealously fight invasions, and
even as early as 1789 to take measures against the fraud-
ulent importation of stock. In 1826 came more stringent
laws, that prohibited importation to the island except for
slaughter. It thus isolated the islanders and their cows
from the cattle kingdom.

The striking appearance of the Guernsey is at once seen
in its rich yellow skin, which has always been noted as the
characteristic of agood butter-cow. Inappearance they are
rangy, deep, business-looking animals, with a particularly
quiet, gentle, tractable temperament, free from nervous-
ness. The prevailing color is a delicate shade of fawn with
white markings, and cream-colored nose; and their most
remarkable characteristic of richness is apparent in the

DAIRY COWS. 165

golden color around the eye, on the udder and teats, at
base of horn, and at end of the bone of tail.

Until recently Guernseys in America were kept chiefly
for family use. They were introduced into private dairies
around Philadelphia as early as 1840, and since that time no

other breeds have been permitted to replace them. The

gentlemen who first introduced Guernseys had no motive
to advertise them. They esteemed their golden-colored

products so highly that they were kept for the supplying

of families with the best milk and butter that could be pro-
duced. About 1865 a few Guernseys were introduced by
the importers, which laid the foundation of some of our
herds of to-day. A few years later the Massachusetts So-
ciety for the Promotion of Agriculture, realizing the great
promise of the breed, imported some and distributed them
at a public sale to dairymen in the State. A few years
later a number of Connecticut farmers joined together and
sent a man to the island to bring overa lot. It soon became
obvious to these gentlemen that some organization was
necessary to preserve the purity of these cattle and to
encourage their recognition. Accordingly on February 7,
1877, the American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized in
New York City. At that time there were about one hun-
dred and fifty pure-bred Guernseys in the country, whose
pedigrees could be traced without question to importation
from the island. At present there are about 14,000 animals
in the Register. In the last few years—in fact since the
World’s Fair Dairy tests in 1893, and the work at the New
York and New Jersey Experiment Stations—great interest
has been taken in the Guernseys. More entries and trans-
fers have been recorded, and more members have joined
the Club than at any similar period in its history. The
public are just realizing the straightforward work that
has been quietly done for the last quarter of a century, and
find in a study of it that there are many valuable records to
the credit of the breed. These are all the more valuable as
the Guernsey has not been forced for high records, but
have honestly won their way.

The best records reported of Guernseys are those of Lily

166 DAIRYING.

of Alexandre, No. 1059, and Imp. Bretonne, No. 3660. Lily
of Alexandre gave 12,8554 pounds of milk in one year; and
two months before calving tested 7.2 per cent of butter-fat.
Bretonne gave in the year ending October 20, 1894, I1,219
pounds of milk. Her milk was tested carefully once a
month by taking a composite sample of eight consecutive
milkings. The lowest test was 5.2 per cent and highest
6.t per cent butter-fat. Her milk yielded 6023, pounds
of butter-fat, or equivalent to 753,%, pounds of butter con-
taining 80 ver cent butter-fat. She is a large, well-built
~<ow, and weighed at the close of her year’s work I150
poutids. In addition the cow Fantine 2d, No. 3730, owned
by Mr. Chas. Solveson of Nashotah, Wis., gave in one year,
besides dropping a fine calf and being dry four weeks, 9748
pounds of milk, the lowest test being 5 and the highest
5.6 per cent butter-fat, which would yield a year’s record
of 516.6 pounds butter fat or 602 pounds of butter. Mr.
Ezra Michener of Carversville, Pa., owns the cow King’s
Myra, No. 5339, who has just completed the year’s test
under the direction of the Guernsey Breeders’ Association
and received their first prize. She is four years old, and
gave in the year 8611 pounds of milk, which yielded 539
pounds of butter. Nearly a hundred cows have been re-
ported that have made a record of 14 pounds or over of
butter a week, and several that have made exceedingly fine
single-day tests, as one cow, Pretty Dairymaid 2d of
Guernsey, No. 6366, who in an official test gave in three
consecutive days 61 pounds 2 ounces, 62 pounds 12 ounces,
and 52 pounds and g ounces of milk, a total of 176 pounds
7 ounces.

The irability to produce butter-fat and butter at a low
cost demands the careful attention of the dairymen. At
the New York Experiment Station several of the dairy
breeds are being carefully tested. The annual report of the
director, which was recently issued, gives the result of the
first two periods of lactation. In both instances the Guern-
seys produced butter-fat at the least cost, as the following
shows:

DAIRY COWS. 167

COST OF BUTTER-FAT PER POUND.

1st Period. 2d Period.
ISHEMNGEY.-s0ccacsc5s 19.4 Cts. 15.6 cts.
Jetsey......- o dale were 20:0; Ea. io
WEVOMs «<<..0 Se euhentoy Bator. 19,0 =
Ayrshire...... daisteam eee a Aap ts
Amr. Elolderness...... 26.3 Saar.”
Holstein-Friesian..... 26586 ° abia st"

This agrees with the work done at the New Jersey Ex-
periment Station and with the average results of the butter
©
tests at the World’s Fair.
COST PER POUND OF BUTTER PRODUCED.

New Jersey. World’s Fair.

Guernsey...... ditie ba, ge quets. ¥3.2 cts,
Jersey... 2.....60: tees Hag x ees
Ayrshire.......eeeee. 20.6. oa
SROKLROLA « i.0's nein ee BOS.) “S = ae
BIOISeINys Fessler» hs 2a ay “* er

This shows the Guernseys to be the most economical
producers of butter; and such golden-yellow butter, too!

The American dairyman, in his endeavor to improve his
own herd and collectively to improve the herds of his sec-
tion, naturally takes a great deal of interest in the grade
dairy cow. In the progressive dairy sections the influence
which pure-bred bulls exert is readily acknowledged.
They intensify the good qualities of the breed to which
they belong, and make such a section a desirable place for
the seeking of good family and profitable dairy cows. The
value of the Guernsey bull in effecting this improvement
has been well understood for many years, and especially is
it realized to-day in the desire to secure in the dairy cattle
of America greater physical strength and more profitable
butter production without reducing size or sacrificing rich-
ness of milk production. Mr. Lewis F. Allen, in his writings
several years ago, spoke especially of his experience with
the Guernsey for grading. He said his experience was
good, large-sized animals, free and persistent milkers, and

168 DAIRYING.

the making of the first quality butter for private family or
hotel use. He believed that on a whole the Guernseys
were more Satisfactory for the dairy than any which in his
forty years’ experience he had ever had. His cows had
good square udders, well set front and behind, teats of
good size and easy to grasp.

The Herd Register is published by the American Guern-
sey Cattle Club, whose headquarters are at Peterboro, N.
H. The breeders of Guernseys have always been harmoni-
ous in letting their favorites win their way by their own
Straightforward efforts in the dairy. By addressing the
Secretary of the Club at Peterboro, N. H., further informa:
tion will cheerfully be furnished.

III. HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE.

By S. Hoxie, Yorkville, N. Y., Supt. Advanced Registry Holstein-
Friesian Association of America.

This is our American representative of the Lowland
race, native to the low, rich lands of Belgium, Holland,
and Northern Germany. Its origin is ascribed to the
Friesians—a tribe of people mentioned by Roman historians
before the opening of the Christian era as peaceable cattle-
breeders dwelling on the shores of the North Sea. The
present dairy farmers of the provinces of North Holland
and Friesland are the lineal descendants of those cattle-
breeders, and they are to-day handling the same race upon
the same lands. These farmers are the leading dairymen
of Europe. As evidence of this, Chambers’ Encyclopedia*
gives the export of butter from the province of Friesland
to England in 1874 as 266,041 cwt. The number of cows
owned in that province in 1879 was 144,802. Assuming
the same number in 1874, this export averages 2052 lbs.
per cow; assuming the same number of acres of grass
lands, this export averages 1171 Ibs. per acre. No data of
home consumption or of exports to other countries are
given. These combined must have been large, and, were
they added, would much increase these averages. Lest

* Edinburgh and London edition, article “* Friesland.”

ij

DAIRY COWS, 169

some reader may assume that a part of this enormous ex-
port must have been oleomargarine or artificial butter, it is
well to add here that no such products were known in
Friesland at that date.

According to U. S. Consular reports on Cattle and Dairy
Farming, the amount of butter imported from Holland into
Great Britain in 1877 was 41,679,085 lbs. in 1884, of cheese,
65,994,544 lbs. The import of butter for 1877 rather
than for 1884 is quoted, because the former date was ‘‘be-
fore oleomargarine had become an industry in that coun-
try.”"** There is no question that nearly all these imports
were from the two provinces, North Holland and Fries-
land. The country we call Holland is composed of eleven
provinces with a total area of 12,597 sq. miles. The total
area of North Holland and Friesland is 2303 sq. miles.
To get the significance of the above statistics, let them be
compared with the total imports, to the same common mar-
ket, from the United States and Canada. These in 1884
were, of butter 17,440,416 lbs., and of cheese, 109,333,280
lbs. So far as this breed of cattle is concerned, it is safe
to let the reader draw his own conclusions.

As to the characteristics of this breed the most important
is indicated by the above statistics. Tothe casual observer
the color may appear the more striking. This is variegated
in distinct markings. The American herd-books receive
only black-and-white to entry. The European herd-books
receive red-and-white, gray-and-white, and mouse-colored-
and-white; but the great bulk of their entries are black-and |
white. The structure of this breed is also an important
characteristic. This is best shown by measurements. The
average measurements of ail the full-age cows (those five
years old and upwards) received to the fourth volume of
the Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register were as follows:
Height at shoulders, 51.8-+ inches; at hips, 53; length of
body, 64.9-++ ; of rump, 21.4—; width of hips, 21.qg—, at
thurl, 19.6+-; girth at smallest circumference of chest,
75-6-++. These are fairly representative of the breed, and
describe what is technically called the milk-and-beef form.

* U.S. Consular Reports [1886]|—Cattle and Dairy Farming, p. 15.

170 DAIRYING.

There are animals of the breed of other forms, but they
must be regarded as exceptional in this respect. The
average weight of these cows was 1262-++ lbs. This is also
fairly representative of the breed. Rapidity of growth and
earliness of maturity are alike characteristics of the breed.
This may also be shown by measurements. Taking the
entries in one of the European herd-books, we find, from
actual measurements reported, that heifers reach their full
height at between two and a half and three years old, that
each year for the following two years they increase one
and three fourths inches in length of body, two inches in
girth of chest, and three-fourths of an inch in width of
hips. After five years old no increase is shown except
what may be properly ascribed to additions of flesh.
Another characteristic is constitutional vigor. No dairy
breed probably excels it in this. It enables the breed to
resist disease, to endure climatic changes, and its cows to
endure forcing to enormous productions. In the reign of
Peter the Great, importations of this breed were made into
Northern Russia, into the district of Kolmogory, within
three and a half degrees of the Arctic Circle. Otherimpor-
tations to the same district have since been made. All
appear to have acclimated without difficulty. Crossed on
the nondescript native cattle of that district they have pro-
duced a numerous progeny called the Kolmogory breed,
‘‘remarkable for its yield of milk.’’*

Every breed has limited adaptations. A breed valuable
in one section may not be valuable in another that differs
in soil, lay of territory, and wants of its inhabitants. The
adaptations of this breed make it specially valuable on rich
soils, level lands, and in densely populated districts, where
every product—milk, butter, cheese, beef, and veal—can be
utilized. In view of these facts. the merits of a breed may
properly be measured by its distribution—by its aggres-
siveness. Judged by this standard, we find that this breed
is the exclusive breed of North Holland and Friesland,
‘* more esteemed than any other in Belgium;’’} ‘‘ furnishing

* U.S. Consular Reports [1836]—Cattle and Dairy Farming, p. 519.
+ The same, p. 367.

DAIRY COWS. Lt

the best and most prolific milch cows in Germany;”*
crossed on native cattle, the ‘‘ favorite in St. Petersburg,” +
and used in almost every country of Europe outside of
Switzerland and Great Britain. At the present time it is
finding place in South Africa, New Zealand, and in some of
the states of South America. Its introduction and spread
in our own country, within the present generation, is one
of the marvels of our day.

IV. AYRSHIRES.

By C. M. Winstow, Brandon, Vt., Secretary Association of Ayrshire
Breeders.

The original home of the Ayrshire cow is in Scotland,
in the county of Ayr. This county has always been noted
for its dairy industry, and the thrift of its inhabitants.
The soil is strong, giving good pasturing and abundant
crops, the climate is rough, and people and cattle hardy.

The Ayrshires began to attract the attention of dairy-
men in other parts of the world some fifty years ago, and
there was an importation made into Canada and the New
England states, where they are bred in considerable num-
bers and highly prized. They have been sent South, and
are said to endure the heat better than any other breed.
They also are said to stand the cold of Canada better than
any other dairy breed.

The Ayrshire cow is of medium size, weighing about one
thousand pounds, of blocky build, low on legs, and usually
spotted in color, being red and white as a rule, though
sometimes nearly red. They are hardy and healthy, en-
during changes of heat and cold with little discomfort, and
quickly adapt themselves to surrounding conditions. They
perhaps show to the best advantage where the food sup-
ply is limited, and they are compelled to hunt for a full
supply.

It is claimed for the cows of this breed that they will
give the largest return of dairy product for food consumed
of any of the dairy breeds. There has never been much
said or done by the owners of Ayrshires to bring their
merits to the attention of the public. They are a popular

* U.S. Consular Reports [+886] — Cattle and Dairy Farming, PP. 398, 404,
+ The same, P- 519.

172 DAIRYING.

cow for the milkman, because they are economical pro-
ducers and because they give milk of good quality that
satisfies the trade.

High-grade Ayrshire cows always command the highest
fancy price in Brighton, to go into the stables of milk pro-
ducers. It i3 said by the milk inspectors of Boston that
they have no trouble with the milk from Ayrshire herds,
it being up tothe 13 per cent totalsolids required by Massa-
chusetts law.

The average yield of Ayrshire cows is a little over 6000
lbs. of milk in a year, on ordinary dairy food and care, but
there are a large number of individual cows with authenti-
cated records all the way from 7000 lbs. to over 12,000 lbs.
of milk in a year. There has never been any attempt
made to develop the butter quality of the Ayrshire cow,
and but little is known of her ability in this direction; but
occasional evidence shows her to be naturally adapted to
taking a high stand as a butter maker, if she was desired
for that branch of dairying. The following instances of
her butter quality will illustrate:

Duchess of Smithfield, owned by Mr. Watson, gave an

official record of 19 lbs. 6 oz. of butter in seven days.
_ Rena Myrtle, a cow sold by the writer to the experiment
station at Burlington, Vt., gave them this last year 546 lbs.
of butter in 365 days, being the largest butter record they
ever made by any cow of any breed. Her milk record for
the time was 12,172 lbs.

I might mention other instances, but they are private
records.

The Ayrshire, being a dairy cow, has never been claimed
for beef or even for a general purpose cow, but her easy
keeping qualities and hardy disposition cause her to lay
on flesh rapidly when dry, and she will probably return to
her owner in beef the full cost of raising her. Farmers
who fatten calves for veal tell me the calves are small
when born, but grow so rapidly that when of age to sell,
are large and heavy for their age and are good handlers.

{[Mr. Winslow’s herd of Ayrshires averaged during 1895
6765 lbs. of milk; average per cent of fat, 3.85; average

DAIRY COWS. 173

yield of butter fat, 260.5 lbs., or of butter, 303.9 lbs. (see
p. 244). In maintaining his herd he adheres to the following
requirements:

‘“Size: About 1000 pounds at maturity, this size having
been found to give the best results in this locality, and
being of sufficient size to please buyers, either for breeding
or to sell in Brighton as milk cows.

‘Color: Dark red with white patches—about one-fourth
white being preferred. This gives a wonderfully attractive
and lively look to a herd of cows, grouped or moving.
Thén, too, I have thought cows of this color were tougher
and gave yellower milk and butter.

““Style: Small head and horns, slim neck, straight back,
sharp shoulders, wide on the loin; large, shapely hind
quarters; long, slim tail; udder extending well forward
and back, well up under belly; teats long, of equal length,
well spread; large milk veins.

‘“‘ Disposition: Quiet and pleasant.’’—W. |

V. SHORTHORNS AS DAIRY Cows.

By J. 8. Picxre t, Springfield, Ill., Secretary American Shorthorn Breed-
ers’ Association.

Away back in the early history of this country, there
were occasionally cows imported from England. Buffalo
and wild game were abundant for meat, but milk, butter,
and cheese did not come that way.

As creatures of circumstances, cows were in demand.
Soon after the Revolutionary War, cattle that were pure-
bred Shorthorns were imported into Virginia, and after-
wards, in 1797, found their way into Kentucky. The cows
were Said to be great milkers, and are reported to have
given as much as 32 quarts of milk per day, and were
called by the natives ‘‘the milk breed.’’ Later importa-
tions with more particular reference to their beef qualities
were made, but, in spite of all that had been fed into them
with that end in view, many of the cows developed into
remarkably heavy milkers, and were very noted for their
large yield cf a good quality of milk.

The late L. F. Allen, in his history of ‘‘ American Cat-
tle,”” published in 1868, says: “‘ We have numerous well-

174 DAIRYING.

authenticated instances of their (Shorthorns) giving six,
seven, eight, and even nine gallons a day, on grass alone,
in the height of their season, and yielding fourteen to
eighteen pounds of butter per week, and of holding out in
their milk in proportionate quantity, as well as other
breeds of cows, through the year. Cows so much larger
in size than other kinds should be expected to give more
than smaller ones that consume less food, and without as-
serting that they do give more, in proportion to their size,
it is claimed that when educated and used for the dairy
chiefly, they give quite as much as others. That the in-
herent quality of abundant milking exists in the Short-
horns, no intelligent breeders of them need doubt. Our
own observation in more than thirty years’ experience
with hundreds of them, first and last, under our own eyes,
is to ourself evidence of the fact, both in thoroughbreds
and grades.”’

The Columbian dairy tests, though made under un-
favorable circumstances, proved the milking qualities of
Shorthorns. I say unfavorable, because the matter was
not taken hold of soon enough by the American Short-
horn Breeders’ Association, under whose auspices the ex-
hibit was made, to select the best cows in every instance
so as to have them bred to produce and have them at their
highest flow of milk at the proper.time. As a conse-
quence, cows had to be picked up that had produced at
hap-hazard, and were not in every instance the best that
might have been used, if selections had been made in sea-
son to have them bred soas to have them produce just prior _
to the tests. But with all these disadvantages, the two
strictly acknowledged dairy breeds—bred for that purpose
almost exclusively—which were selected with the greatest
care, so much sothat it is doubtful whether they could be
duplicated, had but little the advantage of the Shorthorns in
the general ‘‘ round-up,’’ as a few comparisons will prove.

In test No. 1 (cheese), with 25 cows of each breed, the
score stood as follows:

JELSEV. Stave <5 Ber een ee Te 906.1 points
SHOTEHOEDS nese cece ace seca 905.5 ‘

GUCINSEYS. eee eeetearteertrteees 871.9 ‘f

DAIRY COWS. 1%5

In the score for perfection of 100 points flavor was counted
35 points.

Shorthorns headed the list by taking 504.3 points.

RN ia, oe a oa:5 nin 0 Sie.o. syn pss <8) vere Aap 407: Oye
Mee eM ors ale ars oie mil Gel aye sing) S p23. p 4893450505
The cost of production was:
SPRMNEMANOH TI Syfrcti cise’ <i owlw Sle ee 2 ibis SOE 4.4 $99.36
JETSEYS. 2 woe cee en cee ee nie teem ewrens 98.14
BSN foie dicnin Sim nt ase oie hag wee oie 76.25
The champion cheese cow of the Jerseys netted...... $6.97
oe “5 if. 4% ot) Shorthoras* metted. 2 6927
is us ant S-UGMennSey Ss eer ec

In the second test, go days, for butter, loss and gain in
live weight, where maintenance was counted against the
cows, the net gain was for

eraey Ss 1(25 COWS)~ 205.2 Hes esa ce $I, 323.81

Grermiseys: (25 COWS}. oes. see ei ee. 997.63

SEOtEnOGNS (24. COWS)s. 2524 esc els QII.13
To produce this result it cost the

IY S (25a ata o let's aah odieia en's Sale woe $587.87

PEPE CMGI (PA) uh, soc oles wine sie vs oa oa wick 2 SOOR SO

PpRERMSE VSI (25) as o.nwe vers n'e melee neers so 487.25

The champion
Shorthorn cow (Nora) produced 3679.8 Ibs. of milk.
Jersey (Brown Bessie) ie B94 6 fees st
Guernsey (Materna) ¥ Gy, bo Bee RE laa

When reduced to gain in the products over cost of pro-
duction, the account stood as follows:

JETSEY COW... - cece cece erence cee ev cease $73.22
RSE THISEY COW ecu te 0 o0 oles a5 ait od assure es 57.82
PRIDECHOLI, COW. 2 a.55 ae ass ol sng i019 8 wele.ce a 52.63

Again, in tests 2, 3, and 4 (Guernseys were not ~-
in test No. 4) the three best Shorthorns (one ineach
test, including the two-year-old heifer) gave...... 5861 lbs.
While the Jerseys of the same description gave.-. 5330 ‘‘

Showing in favor of Shorthorns...........--..-. Ee

176 DAIRYING.

In test No. 3 (butter), ‘‘go as you please,”
The champion Jersey cow at a cost of $8.57 pro-
duéediaets ou A o.ahs be 8 Oe ae een eee $24.69
The champion Shorthorn cow at a cost of $8.18
PROGUCCHIDELE 4.22222 265s 48 ies 22 et een eee 19.57
The champion Guernsey cow at a cost of $5.57 pro-
Bucemsgel: tors Siac s ots its ele tte oe $19.37
In test No. 4 (heifers) 7 Jerseys cost for food $34.43
Pad COREE ie rt tales eh cas pb ens sk ss vas) @ tee 56.27
6 Shorthorns cost $23.52 and netted......... ..... 47.42

making an average of 13 cents per head in favor of the Jer-
seys.

While butter was rated by points, beef was not, and the
Jerseys got as much allowance per pound for gain in live
weight as the Shorthorns.

As hinted above, dairy cows are not always wanted for
butter alone, or cheese alone, but very frequently to sup-
ply city customers with good milk for their tables. The
tests at the Columbian Dairy School proved that for a
large supply of milk of the best flavor, Shorthorns not
only were good dairy cows in every sense of the term, but
that they led the other two breeds. Therefore, if milk of
good quality and lots of it is wanted, Shorthorn cows can
supply it, to say nothing of their ‘‘ general-use’’ qualities
that will just suit the farmer who wants milk, butter,
cheese, and beef.

VI. RED POLLED CATTLE.

By J. McLarn Situ, Dayton, Ohio, Secretary Red Polled Cattle Club of
America.

Hornless or polled cattle have existed in the counties of
Norfolk and Suffolk, England, from time immemorial.
Originally there were two distinct types: the Suffolks,
usually of a pale red or dun color, and hence known as
Suffolk duns—large and rather rough cattle, but celebrated
for their milking qualities; and the Norfolks, commonly
deep red in color, smaller, finer, more compact in build,
not so large milkers, but great favorites with the butcher,

_ DAIRY COWS. 177

Youatt, speaking of the old Suffolk strain as it existed
in his day (some half century ago), says: ‘‘In the height
of the season some of these cows will give as muchas eight
gallons of milk (80 lbs.) in a day, and six gallons (60 lbs.)
is not an unusual quantity.”’

The modern Red Polled cow is a result of the combina-
tion of these old strains, and it is the aim of the most pro-
gressive breeders to produce a cow of medium size, blood-
red in color, of fine bone, smooth and compact of form,
hardy, docile, fatting easily, and giving a good flow of
faigly rich milk all the year round. The breed, in other
words, is being developed as a general farm cow, suited
to the wants of the general farmer. While the cows can-
not, I think, compete in flow of milk with the best Hol-
steins, or in yield of butter with the best Jerseys, and the
steers have not, as yet, taken a place in the front rank at
the fat-stock shows, it is believed that the breed combines
the several desirable traits as well at least as any other, and
with them the equally essential qualities of hardiness, do-
cility, andahornlesshead. Asan illustration of the points
named, and a proof of their possible combination, the cow
No. 2213, Gleaner, V, 9, is credited in 1894, according to
the accepted record of the owner, with a yield of 14,189 lbs.
of milk, an average of 33 86 lbs. a day for the entire year.
The cow was then twelve years old, and was milking with
her tenth calf (or tenth calving, as one or more of them
produced twins).

Among these is a pair of twins (Freemartins), shown
as fat stock, at Norwich and London, England. The steer
(1st and cup at Norfolk and 1st at Smithfield) weighed at
I year 53 months old, 1238 lbs., and when shown again,
at 2 years 6 months old, had a live weight of 1735 lbs., a
gain in a few days over a year of 497 lbs., and a gain
from birth of about 2.12 Ibs.a day. The heifer, twin to
above (ist and reserve for cup at Norfolk and Ist and
reserve for cup at Smithfield), had a live weight when
shown (2 years 6 months old) of 1452 lbs., a gain from birth
of nearly 1.8 lbs. a day. :

178 DAIRYING.

An illustration nearer home is reported by Dr. J. R.
Slingerland, Trustee of the Shaker Society at Union Vil-
lage, O. In January, 1895, he bought 35 head of Shorthorn
steers, coming 2 years old, for feeding. At the same time
they had 18 head, the same age, of their own breeding, the
produce of a Red Polled bull on Shorthorn cows. At the
time named the full-blood Shorthorns averaged 940 lbs. in
weight, and the cross-breds 790 lbs. All were pastured the
summer of 1895, fed out in the late fall, and sold to the
same buyer on the same day in January, 1896.

The full-blood steers consumed an average of 85 bushels
of corn, besides hay and corn-fodder, in fatting, and weighed
when sold an average of 1540 Ibs. each—a gain of 600 lbs.
in the year. They sold for $4a hundred. The polled cross-
breds consumed an average of 50 bushels of corn, with
corn-fodder only for roughage, and weighed when sold an
average of 1492 lbs.—a gain in the year of 702 lbs. They
sold for $4.25 a hundred.

The Red Polled bull, Osman 1251, used in producing the
cross-bred steers in this trial, is the son of a full sister to
Eleanor, and is the sire of many fine dairy cows.

In appearance the Red Polls greatly resemble Devons,
save the horns, and except that they are somewhat larger,
and the cows, as a rule, are better milkers. They have the
same rich color, fine bone, round, smooth, compact form,
free from prominent points, and the same muscular habit
and active disposition ; and their meat is of the same fine-
grained, juicy character.

Milking Qualities.—The modern Red Polled cow does not
milk so largely as the old Suffolk, but her milk is of better
quality. Sixty pounds a day, which Youatt says in his time
was not unusual, is now, I think, somewhat rare. Four
and a half to five gallons a day, or say 40 to 45 lbs., is a
good yield from a mature cow in the flush of the season.
But she will easily give, with proper care, 6000 to 8000 lbs.
in a year, and some will considerably exceed this. In the
report of English herds, published in the Red Polled Herd
Book, the average yields of mature cows in the best herds
is from 5000 to over 7000 lbs. a year. In Lord Rothchild’s

DAIRY COWS. 179

herd, 22 cows, seven milking with first or second calf, gave
in 1895 an average of 77443 lbs. of milk each. In my own
little herd the mature cows will average over 6000 lbs. of
milk a year and 4 per cent of fat.

Beef Qualities.—In this line, so far, we are entirely de-
pendent for facts on the English records. No full-blood
steers of the breed have as yet been shown in this country.
A few samples will suffice. At the Smithfield Club Show in
1889, two Red Polled steers, two years old, showed the
largest daily gain of anything on exhibition that old—2.18
Ws. and 2.29 lbs., respectively. At the Smithfield Club
Show of 1890 a Red Polled steer dressed the highest per
cent of his live weight of any animal slaughtered—73.72
percent. This, according tothe London Live Stock Journal,
has only once been exceeded in England—by a cross-bred
steer, which dressed 74 per cent of his live weight.

At the fat-stock shows in England in 1894 the following
live weights were recorded: A steer I year 10} months,
1374 lbs., and a year later 1702 lbs.; a steer I year ro}
months, 1323 lbs.; a steer I year 10} months, 1208 lbs., and
a year later 1656 lbs.; a steer I year g months, 1250 lbs., a
year later 1728 lbs., and at 3 years 9 months 2112 lbs,

Mature Red Polled cows, in breeding condition, should
weigh 1200 to 1400 Ibs., and bulls 1800 to 2000 lbs. A few
will greatly exceed these weights, but many, as now bred,
are smaller. These, however, are about the weights at-
tained in the best herds.

VII. DEVON CATTLE.

By L. P. Sisson, Wheeling, W. Va., Secretary American Devon Cattle Club.

The Devon breed of cattle is one of the oldest of the
English cattle. Their native home is on the highlands of
Devonshire, in southwestern England. Our records show
that in the year 1800 Messrs. Winthrop & Davenport im-
ported Devons into Plymouth, Mass.; in 1805 General Eaton
imported some into Otsego county, New York; in 1817 Mr.
George Patterson came into possession of some Devons,
brought over by T. W. Coke, who presented them to a

180 DAIRYING.

brother of George Patterson; these afterward were the
foundation of the above-mentioned herd (George Patter-
son of Sykesville, Md.). These and other animals im-
ported by Mr. Patterson, our records show, were all brought
from Devonshire, and from the best that could be found
rhece,

Others were imported into New York State; among im-
porters whom we might mention are John Cowlin of Trux-
ton, N. J.; L. F. Allen, Miles Vernon, A. Becket, W. P.
& C. S. Wainwright, Col. L. G. Morris, D. W. Catlin, W.
R. Sanford, J. Howard McHenry of Pikesville, Md.; C. P.
Halcomb of Delaware, and others. Later importations are
by James Murray of Virginia, R. W. Cameron of New
York, Frank Brown of Baltimore, Md., and still later John
Hudson, Moweaqua, Ill., Dr. J. Cheston Morris, Philadel-
phia, Pa., and A. S. Worden, Ulysses, Pa.

As to the beef qualities of the Devons one only has to
turn to the records of the markets of the country to see
that they are among the leading beefers, bringing the top
prices atalltimes. As to milk and butter production from
Devons, it will be found from records that they produce
from 12 to 25 lbs. of butter per week. Mr. A. E. Baker, of
Wisconsin, says his cows average him 365 lbs. of butter
per cow for the year, which is about as much as any breed
will do on farmers’ feed andcare. Dr. J. Cheston Morris
says, in regard to Devons for milk: “‘ A herd of Devons may
be relied upon to give an annual yield of 2000 quarts of
milk from each cow; the length of the period averages be-
tween 10 and I1 months, though single cows will continue
in profit from 13to14 months. An average yield of seven
quarts daily from each cow may therefore be expected,
and an examination of milk records of Devon herds will
show that they are remarkably uniform in their yields.
As comparatively little attention has been paid to their
milking qualities, a large improvement may be looked for
by proper selection and breeding. As my animals weigh
only 700 lbs. each, it follows that each cow has given be-
tween five and six times her own weight in milk during
the course of the year, besides maintaining her own

DAIRY COWS. 181

weight, and producing healthy offspring. This I consider
a physiological fact well worthy of notice, and very
creditable to the ‘little red cow.’ Of course the same
nutritive power applied in other directions would give
beef-producing results, such as we all know of.’’

Devon cattle are active and very hardy, qualities that
make them especially valuable in dry or mountainous re-
gions. The bulls are quite intelligent and active, and are
not as liable to be cross as some other breeds; they weigh
from 1800 to 2000 lbs. at three to four years old. The cows
have strong vital organs, and large digestive and assimi-
lating powers. Their udders are not large for the amount
of milk they give, with good elastic teats, seldom sore.
The milk is of good quality, either as food for infants and
invalids, for the manufacture of butter or cheese, or for
market delivery; it does not churn in the cans, nor look
blue in the bottle.

Devons will pay their way at the dairy as well as in the
feeder’s stable; they will keep in good condition, and look
plump and sleek on pasture that other breeds can hardly
live on; they are easy keepers, good producers of the finest
kind of milk, and also make the very best quality of beef.

VIII. DutcH BELTED CATTLE.

By H. B. Ricuarps, Easton, Penna., Secretary Dutch Belted Cattle Asso-
ciation of America.

Dutch belted cattle are natives of Holland, and originated
in that country during the seventeenth century, when the
cattle interests of Holland were in the most thrifty condi-
tion; in fact, it was the chief industry of the country. At
that time breeding had been developed to a science, and
cattle of remarkable contrast of color were bred whose
foundation color was black, with a broad white band
around the centre of the body, a white head, a black ring
around each eye, and a full white tail. Wonderful and
remarkable as it may appear, a feat was accomplished
during that period that would defy our modern breeders
and can be Safely classified as a iost art.

Dutch belted cattle became a classified breed and were

182 DAIRYING.

bred to a remarkably high standard. For several centuries
they were owned and controlled by the nobility keeping
them pure and limiting their number to their ownership.
They were first imported into this country about the mid-
dle of the present century, the importers procuring the
finest herds in Holland; the herds in the United States
to-day are purely of American breeding.

The American Association have adopted as their standard
of color a pure black, with a continuous white belt around
their body, beginning behind the shoulders and extending
nearly to the hips; this sharp contrast of colors makes a
beautiful and imposing contrast and a most beautiful
sight; when seen in number grazing on the green, they are
admired by all, even if not interested in cattle or farm-
ing. This belt is almost invariably reproduced, and is
so perfectly fixed that it will crop out in their grades for
many generations, even against cold strains of blood; the
potency of this feature is very striking, as the belt is often
reproduced after the foundation color is lost; and grades
of any foundation color can be produced to an unlimited
extent.

Their form is a strong characterized dairy type, medium
size, and possessing all the qualifications of an ideal dairy
animal. They are strictly a dairy breed, and are large and
persistent milkers; strong constitutions, peaceable and
quiet dispositions of a very compact form. Cows range
from eight to twelve hundred, and bulls reach eighteen
to twenty hundred. The late P. T. Barnum, the showman
of national fame, said: ‘‘ They struck my tancy in Holland
about 1850; I imported a few, and then found their unique
and novel appearance not their only quality, for they
proved to be wonderful milkers, far superior to any other
cattle to which my attention has been drawn.”

Nearly all the herds now in the United States are owned
in New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, with a
few scattering South and West. A herd of eighteen were
exhibited at the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago,
where they attracted great attention and were admired by
thousands who had never heard of such novel ana beautiful

DAIRY COWS. 183

cattle before. This herd was sold and exported toa wealthy
resident of the City of Mexico, where they are now kept
and are doing well in that congenial climate. There is an
association of breeders of these cattle known as the Dutch
Belted Cattle Association of America, who have adopted a
high standard of excellence, requiring breeders to breed
typical animals of correct markings, thereby gaining
uniformity and correctness of type. The association issues
a herd-book,;of which vol. 4, of recent issue, is the last
number.

» IX. Brown-Swiss CATTLE.

By N. S. Fisu, Groton, Conn., Secretary Brown-Swiss Cattle Breeders’
Association.

Brown-Swiss cattle were first imported into this coun-
try by Mr. Henry M. Clarke of Belmont, Mass., in 1869.
He imported seven cows and one bull; since then there
have been several importations. Most of the animals
have come from the famed Canton of Schwyz, and the
adjacent Cantons of Zug, Uri, and Unterwalden. The Rigi
mountains, covered to their tops with fine, rich herbage, lie
here, and some of the finest breeds of cattle in the whole
country are here produced, the cattle grazing in the valley
in winter and on the mountains in summer.

The United States consul at Zurich in 1882 made a report
to our government of the cattle and dairy interest of
Switzerland. He writes: ‘‘For a hundred years Switzer-
land has been famous for the production of its dairies. At
the cattle show of Paris, 1878, every Swiss cow exhibited
bore away a prize in competition with exhibits from Hol-
land, England, Denmark, and other famous cattle countries.

The Brown-Swiss cattle are fed on grass or hay only
the year through. A fair average for cows in Canton
Zurich is ten quarts of milk per day the milking-year
through; in Schwyz and Zug the average is but little
less.”

The consul of St. Gall says: ‘‘When a farmer in Ger-
many, Italy, or France wishes to improve his breed, he

184 DAIRYING.

makes a selection from Swiss herds as the healthiest and
hardiest known to the herd-book. . . . The Brown-
Swiss is considered the dairy breed par excellence of Swit-
zerland; it not only gives more milk, but this is richer
than any other European breed of cattle.”

Marked Characteristics.—Size large; form firm; color
shades from dark to light chestnut brown. The tuft of
hair between the horns, on the inside of ear, and a narrow
line along the back generally light. Horns rather short,
waxey, with black tips. Nose black, with mealy-colored
band surrounding nose. Switch, hoofs, and tongue black.
Straight hind legs, wide thighs, and heavy quarters. The
cows often weigh 1600 lbs., bulls 2000 lbs. Calves large,
some weighing 110 lbs. when dropped. They mature fast,
fave healrhy constitutions, yielding generous returns for
whatever care, time, labor, or money is expended on them.

A cow srown at the Fat Stock Show in November, 18g1,
gave in three days 245 lbs, of milk, showing 9.32 lbs. of
butter-fat by the Babcock test, yielding during one day of the
test 3+ lbs. of fat, the largest amount of butter-fat ever
shown at an Official test of any cow of any breed up to that
time. The cow Muotta calved about November 1, 1893, and
in February, 1894, gave 67 lps. of milk in one day.

The milk of Brown-Swiss cows nas a sweet flavor which
is very noticeable, and makes it very desirable for family
use. With good farm care the cows give unaer favorable
circumstances from 20 to 25 quarts of milk per day. They
make the finest of beef and veal; when intended to be
used for working oxen, they are easily broken and are fast
walkers.

The cows are persistent milkers, with good teats; where
used to produce grade animals they give the best of sat-
isfaction, with the Swiss characteristics predominating.
There are now about 1800 recorded animals in this country,
located in almost every State, and some in Mexico.

DAIRY COWS. 185

YIELD OF MILK AND FAT FROM DAIRY COWS,

A good dairy cow should give at least 5000 pounds ot
milk during a whole period of lactation. As the quality ot
milk given by different cows varies greatly, however, as
will be apparent from the tables given in the following, the
yield of fat produced during a lactation period is a better
standard to go by than that of the milk; three-fourths of a
pound of tat per day for an average of 300 days may be con-
sidered a good yield (total 225 pounds). Many dairy farmers
aim to have all mature cows in their herds produce a pound
of fat, on the average, for every day in the year. To do
this, a cow whose milk tests about 4 per cent. must give 25
pounds of milk a day (3 gallons) as an average for the
whole year; a cow producing 3 per cent milk must give 33}
pounds of milk daily, and one producing 5 per cent milk
must yield 20 pounds of milk daily, on the average, etc.

The flow of milk is usually at its highest shortly after
calving, and then gradually decreases, the rate of decrease
being determined by the inbred milking qualities of the
cow and the system of feeding practised. The average de-
crease in milk yield for good dairy cows on good feed is
from one half to three fourths of a pound per head per ten
days. Where cows are not fed liberally and receive but lit-
tle concentrated feed, the decrease will be more marked,
and often exceed one pound of milk per head per ten days.
The decrease is more marked during the latter stages of
the period of lactation than in the earlier ones, and is also
more marked in cows with poorly developed milking qual-
ities than in good dairy cows. A cow is considered at her
best when from five to seven years old; the constitutional
strength of the animal, the system of feeding practised,
and the general treatment given the cow will determine
her period of usefulness.

The quality of the milk produced by individual cows
generally remains fairly uniform through the greater por-
tion of the lactation period, and is not permanently influ-
enced in any marked manner by feed or any external
conditions. During the last couple of months, when the

186 ~~ -DATRYING.

yield of milk is decreasing more rapidly than before, the
quality is generally improved to some extent, the variation
being, as a rule. within 1 percent. Variations of several
per cents of fat may sometimes occur from day to day, or
milking to milking, in the milk from single cows; variations
amounting to I per cent are common. Herd milk varies
much less, the percentages of fat on subsequent days being
as a rule within two tenths of one per cent, and only excep-
tionally near one per cent.

RESULTS OF TESTS OF DAIRY BREEDS
Conducted by American Agricultural
Experiment Stations.

g 4 eprede
| 2 ields per |.
83 28 3 avteaiit @ 45 Average Cost of
gitt| Period. jog
Breed. ‘3 3 lon Rye p ee
Ss 5§| Food | Produc- |Produc-
On| o.2|Milk.| Fat.|+ %| Eaten ing too jing 1 lb.
ZA \A <_ |per Day. |Ibs. Milk.| Fat.
——— EE Eee ee ae es Fae
New YorK | lbs. | lbs cents cents cents
(GENEVA)
gewseys 1 SHE 4 | It | 5045 | 282.1|5.60 12.4 go 16.1
Guernsey...... 4 | 6] 5385 | 285 5|5.30| 12.5 86 16.1
Holstein . ....] 4 | 4 | 7918 | 266.1/3.36] 13-9 65 19.1
Ayrshire «. 205 -< 4 | 12 | 6824 | 244.8 3.60} 13-5 74 20.2
Shore HOmM...5) st 2 | 6055 | 269.0/4.44] 12-7 78 17.2
DSvGn <2 5.2: 3 5 | 3984 | 183.3]4.60 10.3 94 20.5
American Hol- |
derness......-| 2] 4 | 5721 | 213.1|3.73| 12-2 76 20.1
Mainz: |
f Bes os 2] 4 | 5460 | 297.0/5.50 16.2 113.0 20.4
Holstein... ..: --| 21] 3 | 8369 | 285.0/3.47 19.5 83.1 24.3
Agrshire.....« | 2] 4 | 6612.| 233.0/3.67 17.1 94.9 26.8
NEw JERSEY:
WELSOR oid axe, 3 3 | 7695 | 376.3/4-89 16.1 87.1 17.9
Guernsey ...... 4| 4 | 7446 | 379.0|5.09| 14.9 78.1 15.3
Holstein. 3 | 3 | 8455 | 300.2/3.55 19.3 79-3 22.4
PVT SHIRE. os 4| 4] 7461 | 275.3/3.69 15.0 76.0 20.6
Short Horn... 3] 3 }10457 | 396.313.79 15-4 79.2 20.6
Averages for all Breeds and Lactation Periods.
Jersey ........- ag | 18 | 5579 Pye 13.9 94-7 17-4
Guernsey........ 8 | 10 | 6210 | 322 9|5.20 fn 82.8 15.8
Holstein..... .... 9 | 10 | 8215 | 282.0/3.43 17.2 74-7 21.5
Ayrshire.....)....| 10 | 20 | 69094} 248.5|/3.60] 14.5 78.5 21.5
sloth: Horn «220 4 | 5 | 8696 | 345-4/3.907 14.3 78.7 19.4
Devon ........... 3 | 5 | 3984 | 183.3|4.60] 10.3 94.0 20.5
American Hol-
GEERESS ono 2] .4 | 5721 | 213-1/3-73 Tt. 76.0 20.1

DAIRY COWS. 187

The animals included in the foregoing breed tests rank
on the average as follows:

I. As to yield of fat: Shorthorn, Guernsey, Jersey, Hol-
stein, Ayrshire, American Holderness, Devon.

2. As to cost of producing 1 lb. of fat: Guernsey, Jersey,
Shorthorn, American, Holderness, Devon, Holstein and
Ayrshire.

3. As to yield of milk: Shorthorn, Holstein, Ayrshire,
Guernsey, American Holderness, Jersey, Devon.

4. As to cost of producing 100 lbs. of milk; Holstein,
American Holderness, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Guernsey,
Devon, Jersey.

5. As to cost of food: Devon, American Holderness,
Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, Ayrshire, Holstein.

6. As torichness of milk; Jersey, Guernsey, Dévon, Short-
horn, American Holderness, Ayrshire, Holstein.

RESULTS OF BREED TESTS CONDUCTED AT
WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893.
A. Breed Test No. | (Cheese Test), May 10 to 25.

Milk Fat Price of
Pro- Pro- Cheese, Cheese Cost
duced, duced, bs. pet lb...> OF Net
lbs. Ibs. cents. Feed. Gain.
BENCUSEVS. rss. so. 13,2906.4 G6o1rgrt 1451.8 13.36 $08.14 $119.82
25 Guernseys...... 10,938.6 488.42 1130.6 II.95 76.25 88.30
25Short-horns..... 12,186.9 436.60 1077.6 13.00 99.36 81.36

B. Breed Test No. 2 (Ninety-day Butter Test), June 1 to Aug. 29.

Butter Price of
credited Butter.

BOMETSCYS..<ceecwse 73:488.8 3516.08 4274.01 $1747.37 $587.50 $1323.81
25 Guernseys...... 61,781.7 2784.56 3360.43 1355.44 484.14 997.64
24 Short-horns...... 66,263.2 2409.97 2890.87 1171.77 501.79 gto.12
AVERAGES PER DAY PER COW.
Fat, Cost of
per cent. Food.
Sy ee 32.7 1.56 4-78 26.1 cts.
Guernseys......... 27.5 1.24 4.51 2T.Bus"
Short-horns.. ..... 30.7 1.12 3.64 23.2 ‘S

C. Breed Test No. 3 (Thirty-day Butter Test), Aug. 29 to Sept. 28.

Butter Price of
credited Butter.

ME AVCTSCYS ij oe sais sss 13,921.9 685.8r 837.21 $385.59 $111.24 $274.13
my Guernseys:....<. 13,518.4 597.96 724.17 320.77 92.77 237.00
15 Short-horns..... 15,018.3 555-43 662.67 303.69 104.55 198.89
D. Breed Test No. 4 (Heifer Test), Sept 30 to Oct. 20.
NCITSCV Se. cc cc.cs 5 sic 3356.6 155.38 194.23 $77.69 $34.44 $56.28

6 Short-horns...... 2581.0 97.89 122.36 48.95 23.53 47-42

188 DAIRYING.

AVERAGE YIELDS OF MILK AND FAT BY PRE-
MIUM COWS AT RECENT STATE FAIRS.

State. Name of Cow. Breed. | Milk.| Fat. |Fat.| Test made at
|
New York. |Intze Von Hol- Ibs. Ibs. |p.c.
AMEN eres tenet Holstein} 58.55 1.691|2.89 Fair grounds.
Maine. ie Jersey | 48.68 2.190/4.50
Mass. |Weston Lily. Sctais _|Guernsey 43-50, 2.150|4.94| Home.
Obto. “Very Much=;.:., <: Jersey | 44.75| 2.060/4.62| ‘“
Lady of Lyons 6th Holstein 72.86| 2.110\2.9o} ‘“
Indiana. j Nahe 2d 225 |... 2 47-00| I.553/3.30|Fair grounds
Illinois. Cows over 3 yrs.
old.
Beulah Shawlan...| Jersey | 37.43) 1.585/4.33| “* “¢
Cows under 39rs.
old,
Kitty King 7.47) 2s * 29.60, 1.485/5.02| “* ss
Wisconsin. |Johanna sth...... Holstein | 83.95. 2.500|/2.98: Home.
DAISY: so iacces tees! SJErsey | 40.15 2.420|5sQ51 eee
Iowa. Eurodna..... ff BS 40.12 1.597|4.07|F air grounds.
Nebraska. |Geertje Lefing... .| Holstein | 50.31; 1.510/3-00} ‘* Ne
California. |Lady Woods ... .. Jersey 38.58 2.626/6.74| “ a
ay phat? 9.4265 2.8 2 Holstein | 49.73, 1.544|/3.10| ‘° ‘s
Canada. |
Toronto, |Eunice’Clay s: . 2: ce 65.00) r.590/2.45| ‘* ee
Guelph. |Calamity Jane.... : 4 69.18, 2.090/3.16, ** “s
Gananoque |Carmen Sylva. se as oh

ee 1.914/2.80

HIGHEST RECORD FOR YIELD OF FAT

During Twenty-four Hours Made by any Cow in a
Public Test at a Fair.

BRIENZ, Brown-Swiss, 11 years old, weighing 1395 lbs.

Average seed yield of milk; <2. nic. « -- 81.7 lbs.
3 Y ya at. cS eases) Saleen
- per cent of fat in day’ S 5 Bilk. 2s ee

(American Dairy Show, Chicago, 1891; 3-day test.)

DAIRY COWS. 189

OFFICIAL MILK AND BUTTER RECORDS.

365 7 24
Days. | Days. | Hours.
A. Mix ReEcorDs. Ibs, Ibs. lbs.
I. Holstein-Friesian:
Pietertje 2d, 3273 H. H.B Syl Hees pS erent i) yal (ieee rales sh
Rosa Bonheur sth, 11227 at COAG © hs: blag Ga apis 7204. | shortness
Shadeland Boon ad, 8892 H. H. B....... Soe EO AeA | (OE
Il. Guernsey:
iExly of Alexander, NO: 1059: -% je. ..-..-. Pet al peer ral (Pe ee ie
III. Ayrshire:
IVEMIAMNIGEIES O530 sta 2 cies sie eae we ness Mee nena cosllooeonare
B. ButTerR RECORDS.
Il. Holstein-Friesian :
maesPanine Paul eso A. R..er99 HH: B:..! 1,15382 ||.0.. olen cee
(1 lb, butter from 16.18 lbs. milk.)
Natsey, 646 A. R., 2265 H. H.B . oa eee CY ey ee hee es
(x lb. butter from 15.87 Ibs. milk. iy
Elgin Belle, 840 A. R., 4640 H. H.B . 454
(x lb. butter from 17.46 and 17.78 lbs. milk. )
Il. Jersey -
Signal’s Lily Flagg, No. 31035 feats oer LOA Pardee Sexe lletctoaetee
Princess 2d, No. 8046. .. ia! tao salle elec cere, oe I Omen ene
Ill. Guernsey -
Ibretonne, NO. 3660. «.%<226.5. <<nesse) 753-6 Bobet Ih is Ai so
Gullysctliye NO: 590%... acces cio) sacle Sant eel ioy | faster cine
PEATE NIVE SEIN Obs 25s aie nic cal waa a ctate clolnetele Wors|'s tela aatehoe Pees Pie ser
IV. Ayrshire:
Rena MY Ttle: O530) =-- sd-0 -==6 2 \ eretare 546 ae oe Pee
Duchess of Smithfield,.4256.2.'.0¢.2.5.=8-!az = 55 2-2 1035 aC
* From 11,339 lbs. of milk. + From 299% lbs. of milk.

RESULTS OF ENGLISH MILKING TRIALS.

(Averages of breed-tests conducted at the annual dairy shows of the Brit-
ish Dairy Farmers’ Assoc., 1879-95, inclusive.)

rar
Ca ae TotalSolids.| Fat. Solids
sg Yield of Eo HOE | Live
a8 bee Milk | Yield] p,, | Yield] p,, | Fat: | Weight.
£5 per | per |c es per |c oe Per
& Day. |'Day.-> | Ba ent./Cent
lbs. lbs. Ibs. lbs.
174|Shorthorns....... 44.58 | 5.64 | 12.66] 1.63 | 3.65 | 9-01 | 1406(55)*
207\JerseyS.... ...... 27.99 | 4-06 | 14 51] 1-37 | 4.90 | 9.61 846 (92)
7o|Guernseys ..... 28.78 | 4.04 | 14.04| 1-37 | 4.77 | 9.27 | 1037 (21)
to|Holsteins(Dutch)} 45.19 | 5.53 | 12-25] 1-54 | 3-41 | $3.84 | 1383 ( 3)
21|Ayrshires....-.... 37-73 | 5.34 | 13-52] 2-68 | 4-25 | g.27 | 1077 (20)
PIDEVODS. os: /3- 6. 3OR02 le Aese lela a4 mA Se tt .GO) | O44 | tee acre
19|Red Polls. -«..... 38.84 | 4.91 | 12.64] 1.49 | 3-84 | 8.80 | 1123 (16)
1; Welsh.. tes AG.O0) [5-00 |el2-74letaOi)| 4elO | O55. |ewatineeme
1|Aberdeen ‘Angus. 60.30))1/3 2902374 |pos0L | 4.99) | 8.75) Il > —araer-iee-

12|Kerries and Dex-
ter’ Kerries: --=| 26.59
BQNCTOSSES 2.5. a5. 4L.5Q9 | 5-72 || 13-77) 1-66 | 4.0

556

749 ( 9)
-77 | 1250 (13)

ee)
wat

oO
4
oP)
Go
N
~
~
La]
>
~

oo
NolNe)
“4
Ne)

* Average for 55 animals.

190 DAIRYING.

ENGLISH STANDARDS FOR ANNUAL YIELD OF
MILK OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.

The standards proposed for the respective breeds by the
British Dairy Farmers’ Association for entry in the ‘‘ Dairy
Cattle Register” are as under:

Weight of Milkin Pure Butter Fat per
the Milking Period Day (average of two
(not exceeding 11 testsas determined

Pedigree and Non-Pedigree. months). by analysis),

lbs. lbs.
SHOFE=DOLN 5) ec ede as werd « 8500 1.25
PeESC Ira). s esips =e a rene 6000 1.25
GUETNSEY... ceccesccceecs 6000 1.25
AYTSHITe.. css cscvenvesace 7500 1.00
PEE OIE” siren. bs axe 2 epee ae 7000 1.00
Kerry and Dexter Kerry.. 4500 0.75
Datchy Holstein) ..%..- 5. 8500 1.00

The standard for crosses of either of the above will be
the mean of the standards for the pure breeds. No animal
is admitted whose milk contains less than 12 per cent of
solids at any test. (McConnell.)

AVERAGE YIELDS AND COMPOSITION OF MILK
OF DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Hucho.)

Annual Av Per 1000 Ibs.
Yield. eeage’Rer Celt...) 2 ive ae
Breed. ah a a oe ae Sol aa
2 . ids} .
Lbs. | Milk, | Fat ; one's! Milk, | Fat
tbs.” | The! | Soins: |. Hat. | DOl, +. teenie
at.

Short-horn..... 1300 6800 | 260 12.9 3-8 g.1 5200 | 200
Brown Swiss...| 1300 7300 | 275 13.0 3.8 g.2 5600 | 210
Holstein:.. 22: 5- 1100 7700 | 230 11 8 3.0 8.2 7000 | 210
Guernsey ..... 1050 6600 | 330 14.7 5.0 9-7 6300 | 310
Ayshire ; 3.222%: 1000 6600 | 245 12.5 3-7 8.8 6600 | 245
Jersey goo 6600 | 300 14.7 5.0 9-7 6700 | 330
AIP IEtia. ccs. goo 6600 | 240 12.0 3-4 8.6 7300 | 270
Ioerry..: - «a% sas 550 5000 | 190 12.5 BLS 8.7 gooo | 350

DAIRY COWS. 191

AVERAGE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK
FROM DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Konig.)

7 =a a

oO av Ea

se| x ae Ya 4 |e
Name of Breed. od] & ener puree ae (Oat
ss] @ | 3 \82\e2| 4 | S38 Res

ele hie ro | = < || a? 18
Steyer (Austrian)...... T2 \a0.90 4.075], 3.24. | 4.60 9),..73 13.10/8.93
Simmenthal (Swiss)....| 6 | 87 26] 3.79 | 2.64 | 5.81 | .70 12.74|8.95
Tillerthal (Tyrolean)...} 22 | 87.43) 3.70 | 3.07 | 5.10] .70 12.57|8.87
Vorarlberg (Austrian). | 19 | 87.38] 3.54 | 2.91 | 5.40 | .77 12.62|9.08
Algau (Bavarian)... ..| 4 | 87.88] 3.20 | 3.22 | 5.13 | .57 12.12|8.92
Bobemian.......... a 21986.00] 5,06 | 3.07.) 4..69, |. <64 14.00|8 94
[el otS Oy 0) Se eet 24 | 88.04] 3.25 | 3.99] 4.16 | .56 11.96/8.71
Ol@enburg (German)...| 18 | 87.95] 3.38 | 3.10 | 4.81 | .76 12.05|8.67
Angler (Danish)........ TOW | SSS] esavan ee ole oa. 11.85|8.73
Short-horn......... ... 67 | 87.20| 3.47 | 3.21 | 5-43 | -69 12.80|/9.33
DIEWON. - 25 ).....2.%.-+2-| 20 | 86.57) 4.44 —_ -64 13 43/8.99
PANOSUIEE) vac” a 'sie eas. o's 49. | 86.93| 3.58.| 3.42 | 5.43] .64 13.07/9.49
NBESON ors Sacto os: stel cia eraiclnis'« gr} 8§.90l! 4.43 5/' 3034) 5.70 | 74 I14.10|9.78
SEGUE Y sicioe)-isic me) nio'sss) 26 | 85.39] 5.11 | 3-98 | 4.38 |z.14 (?)|] 14.6119.50
UNRSS0(6 | i 12 | 87 20| 3.90 | 3.07 | 5.06 | .77 12.80|8.90
NeandiNaAVian . .5..0-. 6+. 4 | 88.00] 3.51 | 2.76 | 4.97 | .76 12.00|8.49

METHODS OF JUDGING THE VALUE OF DAIRY
COWS.

The British Dairy Farmers’ Association, which has con-
ducted tests of dairy cows at their annual fair for the last
fifteen years, has scored the dairy cows competing for pre-
miums according to the following scale during late years:

I point for each pound of milk;
20 points for each pound of fat;
4 points foreach pound of solids not fat.
I point for each ten days in milk after the first twenty
days (limit 200 days).
Io points are deducted from the total score for each
per cent. of fat below three per cent in the milk.

The cows entered in the test are separated into four
classes, according to the breed, each class being divided
into two divisions, cows and heifers. The classes are
Shorthorns, Jerseys, Guernseys, and cross-breeds.

Other associations abroad or in this country have not
generally followed any definite plan from year to year in
awarding premiums to dairy cowsat fairs, the awards having

192 | DAIRYING. -

been given to cows producing most milk, or richest milk,
or most butter-fat, or most solids, during the test, which
may have lasted one tothree days. At the Vermont State
Fair, 1889, the following points were given: For each 20
days since calving, I point; for each 10 days of gestation,
I point; for each 2 oz. of total solids in 24 hours’ milk, 1
point ; for each oz. of butter-fat in 24 hours’ milk, 2 points;
for each 2 oz. of salted butter from 24 hours’ milk, I point.
In the milking trials conducted by the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, the size of the cows has been con-
sidered, the cows being, as a rule, separated into two
classes, viz., over and under 1100 lbs. live weight.

From the best information at hand at the present, the
system of awards adopted by the British Dairy Farmers’
Association, and given above, must be considered the most
perfect and the most just to all concerned. Its main short-
comings lie, as it would seem, in its not considering the
food eaten by each animal during the test, and in the fact
that the test is made at the fair, and not at home under”
every-day conditions and in surroundings familiar to the
animals. The former objection would be removed by tak-
ing into account the dry matter in the food eaten, as shown
by chemical analysis.

BUYING AND SELLING COWS BY TESTS OF THEIR
MILK. (Emery.)

The money value of a cow may be estimated by multi-
plying the number of gallons of milk which the cow gives
by 12, adding to or subtracting from this product one dollar
for every one fourth per cent of fat in the milk above or
below 3.5 per cent.

pounds of milk per day
83
(See Bull. No. 113, N. C. Exp. Station.)

Value = x 12 +4 (per cent fat—3.5).

MILK. 193
[f.). MEI LE,
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS
OF MILK. (Konic.)
- No. of Casein Milk Specific
Analy-|Water.| Fat. |and Al- Gisar Ash. | Grav-
ses. bumen. oy ity.
Human..... 107 | 87.41 | 3.78 2.29 6.21 .31 | 1.0270
McineRe cs. oc. sess 50 | 90.78 1.21 1.99 5-67 735 1.0347
PIUELALOB 6. 5 cr-)s)0 010. Si) Bevzes le 7. at 5.05 Tiny -75 | 1.0330
INES SOS 7 89.64 1.64 2.22 5-99 a5 I .0345
(OGG iets Re eee 7Os0 i S787 pe gn00 2 sess 4.88 71 1.0316
IW Craec ease ices 32 | 80.82] 6.86 6.52 4-91 .89 | 1.0341
GOA. or s.ts b2 ss 38 85.71 4.78 4.29 4.46 -76 1.0328
Reindeer*...... < 2 | 67.20 | 17.10 | 11.39 2.82 1.49 1.0477
SOV ee eRe 8 84.04 4-55 7-23 Bye) 1.05 1.038
Bite), .<22. 3.2 a PORE 75s44e iO. 57 (hit. 27 3-09 *73, | 1-035
iBilepuant......- .. 3 79.30 g.10 2.51 8.59 -50 1.0313
Hippopotamus.. Tinmede4s. | 4257 ee 4-40 SEE. all erect
Cane lig tsi wp. 3 86.57 3-07 4.00 5-59 77 1.042
Pela irsta casi > - 5 86.55 eee 3-90 5.60 80 1.034
* Werenskiold
AVERAGE ANALYSES OF AMERICAN SAMPLES
OF DAIRY PRODUCTS, (Goessmann.)
a com
ole Skim- Butter- | rom
Milk. | milk. milk, | Cooley | Butter.
Creamer.
No. of samples....... 1889 348 31 197 25
Waterco. fc. c. Genscan 86.53 90.52 91.67 73-90 10.89
La 3 Sa aati ee aed | 32 .27 17.66 83.95
Casein and albumen.. 3.20 BASE: ARG (3 yall eReee 42
MilE=SUPar. |. ss seccs: 5-43 4.83 Bae) nsass ES
UNS Bint ro sre oi wave eras" = -70 .80 .80 .62 4-74
I00.00 1350.00 IQQ.00 | «~cecce 100,00
ebOtalisolids.).. lef. s'5 13.47 9.48 8.33 26.10 89.11
Solids not fat.... ... 9-33 9.16 8.06 8.44 5-16

* By difference.

194 DAIRYING.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COWS’ MILK, WITH
VARIATIONS. (K6nic.)

Average of
793 Analyses Minimum. Maximum.
(largely Euro-
pean).
Waters. 20.6 25.452: 87.17 per cent. 80.32 per cent. 90.69 per cent.
Le) Cee gr 6g 2 35 saikt OT Spe 6.47
Kibumen ..77...1)| 2154 f3-ssPerct-| 722 F207 per ct.| 1°99 | 6.40 per et
Milk-sugar., 4... .%. 4.88 per cent. 2.11 per cent. 6.12 per cent.
Jn a eee? eee ie a 35 E ¥.25) 09
100.00

Total solids....... 12.83 per cent 9-32 19.68
Solids not fat...... OT es ee ele daa te! come bs k oni o ofdtee Jeees
Specific gravity....] 1.0316 ‘‘ 1.0264 1.0370

COMPOSITION OF MORNING AND EVENING MILK,
AND OF MORNING, NOON, AND EVENING MILK,
(Kontc.)

No. Casein .

of An-| Water.| Fat, pera ES. une

alyses. Albumen.| SU&4"- ‘

Per ct. | Per et | “Per ct. ‘| Per ct. Pret.) Pemen

Morning milk. 157 86.70 | 3.32 3-63 5.64 71 13.30
Evening ‘ 157 86.47 | 3-56 z. 65 5.60 721 13.53
Morning milk. 28 88.08 | 3.06 3.24 4.88 +74 II.92
Noon 28 87.44 | 3.87 3.26 4.68 75 12 56
Evening “ 2) 87.49 | 3.62 3.19 4-99 -7L |, 32.55

COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
SAME MILKINGS. (Kénre.)

No. Casein :
of An-| Water.| Fat. and ae Ash. iaal
alyses. Albumen.| SU8@?- i

Per ct.,| Per ct. | Per. ct.).| Per ct.|P’rct.|Permer

First portion.. 7 89.84 | 1.78 2.88 4,82, |. .69 |. zo.m6
Second - 7 S8ui2el 3.34 2.94 4-92 .68 | 12.88
(bird + ** 6 86.29 | 4.52 2.59 5.88 -72 | 13.71

—_——

MILK. 195

CALCULATION OF COMPONENTS OF COWS’
MILK.

According to Vieth the components of milk solids will

stand in the ratio to one another of about
10 : 13 : 2
for casein and albumen : milk sugar : ash.

If the solids not fat in a sample of milk are g per cent,
the per cent of casein and albumen in the same will be
approximately # X 10 = 3.60 per cent; sugar, s& XK 13 = 4.68
per cent; and ash, 3% X 2=.72 per cent.

TABLE SHOWING RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN
AND OTHER SOLIDS. (Cooxz.)

Total Solids. Re ean) eee
ios Es eee 3.07 2.92 5.01
ols eee ae 3.29 3.00 5.21
OS RR ee ee 3.50 3.07 5-43
ER EOK ss pags' eich ds 38 75 3.19 5.56
PONS in sicta'e oh 3.99 3.30 BATE
OF A SY Pee 4.34 3.44 5-72
TO cals <5 sia si> 4.68 3.57 5-75
BASSO S wcluctaes ss 4.93 3.79 5.68
E5.00.e.qveeens os 5.38 4.00 5.62
oe a eae eee 5.69 4.15 5.66
POLE su Pee. 6.00 4.30 5.70

This table, which is summarized from the analyses of
about 2400 American samples of milk, shows that while the
percentage of fat varies from 3.07 to 6 per cent, or nearly
three per cent, that of casein varies only from 2.92 to 4.30
per cent, less than one and one half per cent. It also
shows that a higher percentage of fat is always accom-
panied by a higher percentage of casein. Milk sugar and
ash increase but little as the milk grows richer.

vw

196 DAIRYING.
FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN DAIRY PROD-
UCTS.

Average of American Analyses. (Cooxe and Hits.)

~_—

Nitrogen. hors es Potash. Vee pe
Whole milk..... -53% -19% -175% $ 2.17
Skim-milk....... 56 -20 .185 2.31
Creamt sey 5 52 . -40 ar .130 -66
Buttermilk. ..... -48 -17 158 1.98
WHEY. 23 42%..-2~- ES .14 -181 .84
Pete hese sedan « .12 -O4 .036 +49
Cheese: 2.3...) 2% 3-93 .60 .120 14.19
$$ — eel

COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM. (Kénic.)

e No. of f a ilk-
Anal- | Water. | Casein. ee 5 ed Ash.

yses. Folkd
Wes ae. sobs II 77.9 4-9 324 Sea 4.6 -9
Goat ..@.. 2s: I 64.1 5.2 3.2 7 Wk stim Lyfe 8 3.0
SOWisckocinheee I 70.1 7.6 8.0 9-5 3-9 .9
COW. ses -<'e 42 74.6 4.0 13.6 3-6 2.7 1.6

COMPOSITION OF ASH OF COWS’ MILK AND

COLOSTRUM.
Cows' Milk. . Colostrum.
AGHAST gS. vis ns ehoergnn a pee ee -7 per cent 1.6 per cent
too parts of ash will contain:

Potash: Ps Ae oie ties ee. chek 24 < i aac?
Bas mes A rca thinss aw chi AS 6 “4 eee og
MAING ge, cia inias Serasare min shice sn 23 i. 35 =
PNOSPHOnIC AGIGs f= 2 q- 226 s.e4< 28 ww 41 *
RIGA Ele oa eS eb eee wen » +53 ec is

om

MILK. 197

A CHAPTER ON MILK TESTING,

The Babcock milk test is the quick and simple method
of determining the fat content of milk which has been
most generally adopted in this country. The test was in-
vented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of Wisconsin Agricultural
Experiment Station, and was first published in July, 1890.
The following is an outline of the method:

A known quantity of milk (17.6 cubic centimeters, or
about § of an ounce) is pipetted off into a graduated test-
bottle; 17.5 cc. of commercial sulfuric acid. of a specific
gravity of 1.82 to 1.83, is then measured out by means of
a graduated cylinder or an automatic pipette, and added to
the milk. The two fluids are mixed, and when the curd is
dissolved, the test-bottles are placed in a centrifugal ma-
chine and whirled for 5 minutes at a rate of 800-1200 revo-
lutions per minute, the small hand-machines on the market
requiring the higher number of revolutions. Boiling hot
water is then filled into the bottles, by which means the
liquid fat is brought into the narrow graduated neck of the
bottles ; after an additional whirling of the bottles for a
minute, the length of the celumn of fat is read off in per
cent.

The whole process of testing a sample of milk according
to this method will take less than a quarter of an hour
when a little skill in manipulation has been reached.

The various dealers in dairy implements have placed
Babcock machines on the market in sizes from 4- to 60-
bottle machines, and supply the necessary outfit, as test-
bottles, pipettes, graduates, and sulfuric acid. There are
at present three different types of machines—hand-machines
(friction or cog-wheel machines; the latter ones are to be
preferred, but are also somewhat more expensive), steam
turbine,and belt-power machines. In Sharples’ Russian
Babcock Tester (a steam turbine test) the bottles used can
be filled while the machine is in motion; the results are, how-
ever, apt to come somewhat too low; the test bottles used

198 DAIRYING.

are arranged for half the usual quantity of milk. The
‘*“No-Tin” test manufactured by the same firm is
one of the best hand-machines on the market. Steam
turbine machines are to be recommended for factory use;
they should always be provided with a speed indicator so
as to avoid too slow or too rapid whirling; accidents have
happened in several cases where the bottles were unable to
stand the pressure caused by too rapid whirling.

Points to be watched in making tests by the Babcock
method :

The strength of the acid used is very important; its
specific gravity should not go below 1.82 or above 1.84 ; if
the acid is somewhat too strong less may be taken, and a
little more if it is rather weak. It is, however, not possible
to make a satisfactory test with acid of a specific gravity
below 1.82. Keep the acid bottle corked when not in use,
as the acid will otherwise take up moisture from the air.

In testing separator skim-milk use a somewhat larger
quantity of acid than usual, and whirl 5 to 6 minutes; this
will insure a perfect separation of all the fat present in
such milks. The two-necked so-called Ohlsson bottles are
recommended for testing separator skim-milk.

The centrifugal machines should run at a rate of about
800 to 1000 revolutions per minute; if its diameter is small,
whirl 1000 or 1200.

Soft or rain-water is used in filling up the bottle after
boiling, or hard water may be used if some drops of sulfuric
acid have been added to it before the boiling.

In adding the acid the bottle should be held at an angle,
so as to cause the acid to follow the inside of the wall. Mix
the milk and acid at once, or within a short time, and pro-
ceed with the test without delay.

Read off results before the fat begins to crystallize. If
many tests are made at a time, and the room is cold, place
the bottles in a pail with hot water and keep them warm
until results are recorded.

MILK. 199

Application of Babcock’s Test.—The method may be used
to advantage in determining the fat content of full milk,
skim-milk, buttermilk, whey, cream, condensed milk, and
cheese. It cannot be recommended for the estimation of
fat in butter, since the error of analysis in this case is too
large. Intesting separator skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey
by this method, no reading should be taken lower than one-
tenth of one percent. Ifonly a small drop or two of liquid
fat appears in the neck of the bottles after finished whirling,
the result is therefore to be put down as .I percent, instead
off estimates of .05, and still lower, which are sometimes
made. (See Bull. No. 52, Wis. Experiment Station.)

Lactometer.—The Quevenne lactometer, with the ther-
mometer tube extending into the narrow stem of the instru-
ment, is recommended for dairy work. Inthe N. Y. Board
of Health lactometer, often used, the scale is divided into
120 divisions, the mark 100 corresponding to a specific
gravity of 1.029, and that of 120 to a specific gravity of
1.0348. These lactometer degrees can be converted into
Quevenne lactometer degrees by multiplying by .29. The
following table gives the readings of the two scales be-
tween 60 and 120 on the Board of Health lactometer:

200 DAIRYING.

TABLE SHOWING THE QUEVENNE LACTOMETER
DEGREES CORRESPONDING TO THE SCALE OF
LACTOMETERS GRADUATED FROM 0 TO 120.

Nov. Ba: Ne Yecbd. N. Y. Bd. -
of Health | Quevenne of Health Quevenne | OF Health Queveeas
Saal Scale. || Seale: Scale. Solig! Scale.
60 17.4 81 23.5 IOI 20.3
61 17.7 82 23.8 102 29.6
62 18 83 24.1 103 29.9
63 18.3 84 24.4 104 30.2
64 18.6 85 24.6 105 30.5
65 18.8 86 24.9 106 30.7
66 IQ.1 87 25.2 107 31
67 19.4 88 ons 108 StS
68 19-7 89 25.8 109 31.6
69 20 go 26.1 110 31.9
7O 20.3 gt 26.4 II 32.2
71 20.6 92 26.7 112 32.5
72 20.9 93 27 113 32.8
73 21.2 04 2713 II4 33-2
74 21.5 95 27.6 aI 33-4
75 2r.7 96 27.8 116 33.6
76 22 97 28.1 117 33-9
77 22.3 98 28.4 118 34.2
78 22.6 99 28.7 119 34-5
79 22.9 100 29 120 34.8

80 23.2

In taking the specific gravity of milk by means of a lac-
tometer, the temperature of the milk should not vary more
than 10° either way from 60° F. The following tables
show the proper corrections for temperature to be made, if
the milk was either warmer or colder than 60° F., the tem-
perature to which the specific gravities of all liquids are
usually referred.

In practical work sufficiently accurate corrections for tem-
perature may generally be made by adding .1 to the lacto-
meter reading for each degree above 60° F., and by subtract-
ing .1 for each degree below 60°; e.g., if the reading at 64°
is 29.5, it will be about 29.5 + .4 = 29.9 at 60°; if 34.0 at 52°,
it will be about 34.0 — ,8 = 33.2 at 60°. By reference to the
following table we find it is more correctly 33.0.

oS€ | 6°ve
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Once | GrZe
Gece” | G:rt
o'1rf | 6'0€
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o'Sz | 6°b2e
o'bz | 6°Ez
o*fzZ.| Ose
o'ss-| 6 12
Qrr1z2 || O07
O’oz | 6°61

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g°gz | L'gz | g*ge | S*gz | bge | Ege | Zge | r°gz | o'gz 0'g% 6:Lz g lz g lz L:Lz 6z
gle | L:Le | g*le | S*Le | ble | €-4e | ale | rhe | o'Lz | ove 6°92 Q°9% 8°92 L+9z gz
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DATIRYING.

202

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(penuzuo)— FTW AO ALIAVHD OLMIONdS HOA AIAVE NOILOYHOO FAHOALVHHdWaL

MILK. 203

CALCULATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS OF MILK.

The relation existing between the various components of
the milk is such as to make possible the calculation of the
percentage of solids not fat, and total solids, in a sample of
milk when the fat-content and the specific gravity (lactom-
eter reading) of the milk are known. - Several formulas
have been worked out by chemists in different parts of the
world, by the application of which the total solids may be
calculated from the percentage of fat and the specific grav-
ity of the milk. We give here Babcock’s formula, pub-
lished in the twelfth report of Wisconsin Experiment
Station.

Sohds ‘not fat-= ( ro

100 — 1.07535f r) SOS SIN Rae
where s = specific gravity of the milk and / per cent of fat
found. Whensand / are known the per cent of solids not
fat in the milk may be calculated by means of this formula.
In order to avoid making the lengthy calculations in every
case, tables for solids not fat are given on the following
pages; results obtained by the formula given above, or
by means of the following tables, will come within a couple
of tenths from the actual percentages present, when
reasonable care is taken in the determinations of fat and
specific gravity (or lactometer reading).

Short formulas. The following formulas for solids not
fat and for total solids are derived from the data given in
the following tables. Z—=lactometer reading at 60° F.
(specific gravity < I000 — 1000); #= per cent of fat in
milk.

Solids not fat = a+ 2fF

Total solids = at 1.2.

204 DAIRYING.

Rule: To find per cent of solids not fat, add two tenths of
the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactometer reading.

To find per cent of total solids, add one and two tenths times
the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactometer reading.

Results obtained by using the short formulas will agree
very closely with those derived from the general formula,
or from the tables published below, and may be safely
relied upon in practical work.

The tables cover a range of .o to 6.0 per cent of fat,
and from 26 to 36 lactometer reading. If intermediate
values for fand Z are at hand, corrections in the per cent
of solids not fat found may easily be made, with .o2 per
cent for every tenth of one per cent of fat, and .25 per
cent for every lactometer degree. LFxample: Given f=
3.67 per cent and Z= 32.5. By referring to the table we
find that f=3.6 and ZL= 32 will give 8.73 per cent of
solids not fat; correction for fat-content, .oI per cent (3.67
being nearer 3.65 than 3.70), and for lactometer reading,
I2 per cent; corrected per cent solids not fat, 8.86.

205

(BABCOCK.,)

MILK.

Per Cent of Fat.

OHNM+ MOND A COHAM+T.s NO KW O CHAM MO MOA CHAMHT MO HWA OF AMS

Ct a eT ee ee ae ye lg Me OM TN) ae, en ee Or ee i a MeN ie me TA Arr, aS

Boe eH Se ow Se - eH adada NANAN A ch 6 cA ef 60 69 eA CF totes

TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF SOLIDS NOT FAT,
Corresponding to Quevenne Lactometer Readings and

PP eee sao Ge oa +00 ON +Oc#~ ONFRD HMNARD HMORD &§ TODO ~ +.000 O OWN OH
©, 0000 AHR AR aaanaa AAMAMMH B+t+Tt MNMMNMH OOOCONR BRRKRKRDO DWDHMDDADDA
| Saad6 DIANDD ADADADAD ANAND AADBDA DAADH DANDADD ADADH BDoann
1monnoH | InN Or | uonnar + mOOneK +t ODONA ODONt COOH MN NOR NID wON tO
ea NMRROCO MWD AD OAV O OO0O#H HeHaAAA ANANMNNMH MANtTetT +tHNNNH NHOWO
| obc6 os co 6 WCOWMMWHMO ADDODDAH DANDOHD ADADADAHA ADADHD ANAND DNADH Annan
ON +0 0 oa +00 ON +00 ° +. 00 KE OURO HMINKRO HH MIND O Q +0 00 O a +0 00 O
a MMNMMM WOWOMO0OO Tt oS 08 00 00 00 80 WAN OD) oo0000 bell Leb lait 5) aaaa on men en on
# 00000000 HHH HWHHNH WNHMMH WHOMWO DADDA ADADH ABNADA Dnanag
a Pwonarom nm OK | OEAHO MRSAHM ODOANAtT OWDON TF ODO + ONtr ODH MN
fx, Mi aaa-emm mamtt tetnn MNNNMOoO OORNN BRoocw 00 DAS SASSS OO HH
lao) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (tee eet hey ey i . . . . .
2, | 06 06 0 00 00 COCOCOC 0 WMMMWH DWHMNNH WOM WWM WNHWNWH HDNHNH WN ARH ADGA
NS [Qt SND Op on +O on +00 On tO0 On tO ONTRHD HMMRD HMINKRH MIN O
| a o0o00 AHH AA aangnaa mAmMoaAM tertt MiNnnn OOowowo Ll a al Solo oMooloMon
Isa |e eden cae Pea Reiter ge cane, sate, Shiai, Geil cein pe ac cas, ca Ce eee eter oe ea See Arana parties
A | 6 66 5 06 os COW 000000 WMH MH WMH WAMDWNOHM WNHNHNWH DWH NH DHMH MOO WO
a rINROHM OMRDHAN ONROHM MNEREADHM MNGAHM MEAHM OMOnt ODONFT OOON
B= By MRO BOO MMM AW DWrV0 O OOO0HH HHARA aaann amt SEMIN IMS OS
“se SARK R RRR RR RRO (000K WOW HH HDOWNHH WHHHH DMAONMM MMMM
(-B) —
la 1on too ON +00 oa +O On +00 Oa +00 2 9 9 0 OMMRD HMMNRA HMNNO
oF MNMMMH OOWOdo NWNNKRN 000000000 BAND 6000 RoR ea aaaaa on oF on on ON
5 Es 8 coho NBANRNH RRA RRO NNN RR RRR RR COOHHKH WWMM KH WOM 0NM M00 C0
WwW
Co) PORDHOM MNRDHM MRDHSG NHRDHM MADHM MRHA# Mm mMmMnBanAt OF atx oOwoa +
g os aa amen e909 OO oS T+ TY INNO 0 Wooo nm ™ N& &0O 00 00 00 CO OVO) ao (oe) OOR KH
3 BRNRRR NRRN RR RAR RRR RR RRR RRR RRR RR RRO COMKHO
3 foutrono OANFTOHO ONFTOHMO ONntoOM COATOMD ONFTOO ONHTORD HMNKRD ob Minn of,
S| 5 o0000 Bip AH aanaaa men ON oN OH So ie OR RG MunMnnnm wOwowoworo SSNs 00 00 00 CO 00 |,
is Mts, LiwiS ii. NN Bos ie Oe SIS IN be, SEA Sts DS Resists Pst i be eee
PWR OH OE INAH RAR OH MO NKR OAM DBR OHMH NMRAHH HRAHM MOOAtT ODMOAS
a NMNROCO COMM QAO AOAWn0 0 OOOH HHHAAN nanamm oN oN en et ot NEE INI MMO OO
. WOOWDO OWOOMOO OOORNR RRRAKRNR RARRN RRRRR RARKRKR RARRR ARARRA
1 Oa +00 N+00 ONtH00 ONHTO0D Of tO Qa Toe On +t00 ONwrO00O OA +0OC%
‘9 TF 1 19 1n 1h NeR eRe te) SNNNN C00 KM COO ADANANWAWD ooo0o$°o Hee A OH Na aaa eA EN ON en ON
ODODDNOD OOOD0O0D OCOWOODWOOD OWOWOWMO WONWUWWW) NANKRR RAR RR RRR RR RRR RR
al
wou ORAM MOROA OH AM+ MO DOO OHAMt MONOA OHAMtT MOND A OH AMT!
Aan rales 2 ee aan? bs eRe) ge Lads 8 Lee Re Eel ela. Rtg web. 6 he cerdeau he kacate) Vi MMO im, ile tis A. 16 Ta
Ay oy HHH RH HHH CAAA AAAAA mmAMmM maAMAM +e+ed]
O

206 DAIRYING.

TABLE FOR SOLIDS NOT FAT—(Continued).

Per Lactometer Readings at 60° Fahr, Per
Ct..of : Ct. of
Fat.| 26| 27] 28] 29| 30/ 3:| 32| 33] 34] 35| 36] Pat
eee a” 2 —-|—-- a ee
4-5 | 7-40| 7-66] 7.91] 8.16] 8.41) 8.66) 8.92] 9.17] 9.42] 9.68] 9.93) 4.5
4-6 | 7.43] 7-68] 7-93] 8.18] 8.43 8.68) 8.94| 9.19] 9-44| 9-70] 9.95] 4.6
4-7 | 7-45| 7-70] 7-95] 8.20] 8.45! 8.70) 8.96] 9.21] 9.46] 9.72] 9.97] 4.7
4.8 | 7.47| 7-72] 7-97| 8.22] 8.47 8.72| 8.98] 9.23] 9-48) 9-74] 9-99] 4.8
4-9 | 7-49] 7-74] 7.99] 8.24] 8.49 8.74) 9.00 ae 9-50} 9-76/10.01] 4.9
5-0 | 7.51| 7-76] 8.01] 8.26] 8.51 8.76) 9.02] 9.27) 9.52] 9.78|10.03] 5.0
5-1 | 7.53] 7-78| 8.03] 8.28] 8.53) 8.79) 9.05] 9-29] 9.54] 9-80}10.05] 5.1
5-2 | 7-55| 7-80) 8.05] 8.30] 8.55 8.81| 9.06) 9.31| 9.56) 9.82/10.07/ 5.2
5-3 | 7-57| 7 82| 8.07] 8.32] 8.57) 8.83) 9.08] 9.33) 9-58] 9.84]10.09] 5.3
5-4 | 7-590| 7-84] 8.cg] 8.34] 8. 8.85] 9.10] 9.36) 9.61] 9.86}/ro.11] 5.4
5-5 | 7-61] 7.86] 8.11) 8.36 8.62 8.87, 9.12] 9.38] 9.63] 9.88]10.13] 5.5
5.6 | 7.63] 7.88) 8.13] 8.39] 8.64) 8.89) 9.15] 9.40) 9.65] 9.90}10.15] 5.6
5.7 | 7-65] 7-90] 8.15] 8.41] 8.66 8.91) 9.17] 9.42) 9.67] 9.92/10.17] 5.7
5.8 | 7.67| 7.92| 8.17} 8.43] 8.68 8.94) 9.19] 9.44] 9.69] 9-94/10.19| 5.8
5-9 | 7-69] 7.94] 8.20] 8.45] 8.70 8.96) 9.21] 9.46) 9.71] 9.96/10.22] 5.9
6.0 | 7.71] 7-96| 8.22] 8.47] 8.72 8.98! 9.23] 9.48] 9.731 9.98]10.24] 6.0

. MILK STANDARDS IN DIFFERENT STATES,
CITIES, AND COUNTRIES.

Solids | Law or
Solids. | Fat. Not Ordi-
Fat. | nance of

per ct. | per ct. | per ct.

1) ETS Ry eae a eGo et lt tara d 12.0 3.0 [9.0] | 1893,255
New PAAMIDS DIE 3 5.0 a. Seas fin nice oh olan 2 E80 folks oS! | aay ee ae 1883
Werner se. 2nd cist as oMaca ete ion si 12.5 [3-25] | 9.25 | 1888,108
in May ANG JUN! « core oi heres’ 12.0 3-0 [9.0]
INVARSAGHUSEDES so teins am diiet Sone atc em 13.0 [3-7] 9-3 1886,318
in May and June...... EDO heeinectiiee al Saas
SETA TIC GUNAU | od 5 spn] opine ib a oad oe “if ges 1885,252
fs BL EE iS taper at ae eh 12.0 3.0 [9-0] | 1893,338
New Jersey....... So BAPE ees os : R250 telicts seer wn >, alt Cer
Pennsylvania*..... tas Res as sini a a west) EQsIE 3.0 [9.5] 1885,706
RETIEY Sirol = cele ciciacicats Adee Sods Not ue e 12.5 3-0 [9.5] 1889,86
Michigan*, alors starape. ais shove oceinakap alice. 12.5 3-0 lo.5] 1889, 219
Wisccnsin..... ma ohgMin we'd minia Gta emia nas Ceoie Ale eee, IP pa ee jp ok el BOQ EASE
REE fins d oa ay dine de dnkn niger (ASP 3-5 [9.5] | 1880,247
Lowa. 3230. ~<. Etaeids sie aE eee alee aryl (ese 3 = .0 Tepes 1892,50
CREP ie nid 55 # winns on ds sje Sle eee 12.5 3.2 [9.3] | 1803
City ME CRO. Bas oe ive as dpon dd Row I2.0 3.0 [9.0] | 1892
Ste ESOS Sos Scns 5 dan Oa waif $22.0 2.8 [9.2] 88

eS Seer S ACHedIn oo... Shae ee 22.0 | 12.0 [10.0 ee

«¢ * Omaha.. ony sexe ieannate ae a «| 32.0 3.0 oo 8

ip Salts ‘cream. AMES £278 Pos ete See) (oh Se | 16,05) hee ae T2993

aad 8) = ee - Soathé e363 ee ee ee 1893
ERMAN. 7. denna sie. te emer de Bes [zz.5] 2.5 | 9 teen eens
SY PECERIN Gs on, Evin ees e tal 2 aes. R Tee Le 3-0 [9. a 1895
ee BE Te BS Se EE Se SS ee eee

* Specific gravity, 1.029-1.033 at 60° F. + Cheese, 40 per cent fat in

solids, + Butter, 14 per cent water.

ral age

MILE, < 207

ADULTERATION OF MILK.

The legal standards adopted in the different States of the
Union determine the limits for fat or solids, below which
the milk offered for sale must not fall. Where no control
sample can be taken of a suspected sample of milk, calcula-
tions of the extent of the adulteration practised are made
on basis of the legal standard in each State. Whenever
possible, a control sample should be secured on the prem-
ises of the suspected party, and subjected to analysis. If
the control sample contains appreciably less fat or solids
not fat than did the suspected sample, the latter was
skimmed or watered, or both skimmed and watered.

Skimminc.—I. If a sample is skimmed, the following for-
mula will give the number of pounds of fat abstracted from
too Ibs. of milk:

Fat abstracted = x = legal standard for fat—/,. (I)

f being the per cent of fat in the suspected sample.

In this and following formulas the percentages found in
the control samples, if such are at hand, are always to be
substituted for the legal standards.

II. The following formula will give the per cent of fat
abstracted, calculated on the total quantity of fat originally
found in the milk:

J X 100
~ leg. stand. for fat’ * Cre

WATERING.—I. If a sample is watered, the calculations
are most conveniently based on the percentage of solids
not fat in the milk:

x = [00

Per cent extraneous water in milk

s X 100

leg. stand. for solids aot m...--

a oa

s being the per cent of solids not fat in the suspected
sample.

Example.—A sample contains 8.5 per cent of solids not

fat ; if the legal standard for solids not fat be g per cent,

100 — B56 590. = 5.6, will give the per cent of extraneous

water in the suspected sample of milk,

208 DAIRYING.

II. Watering of milk may also be expressed in per cent
of water added to the original milk, by formula IV:

Per cent water added to original milk

100 X leg. stand. for solids not fat
z — 100

(IV)

— A —

100 X 9

8.5
of water was added to the original milk.

WATERING AND SKIMMING.—If a sample has been both
watered and skimmed, the extent of watering is ascertained
by means of formula III ; and the fat abstracted found ac-
cording to the following formula:

In the example given above, — 100 = 5.9 per cent

Per cent fat abstracted

leg. stand. for solids not fat
S

= « =leg.stand.for fat — yee,
Example.—A sample of milk contains 2.4 per cent of fat
and 8.1 per cent solids not fat; then

: ; 8.1 X 100
extraneous water in milk = 100 — PrP ary = 10 per'cent;

_ 9X 2.4
8.1

100 lbs. of the milk contained 10 lbs. of extraneous water
and .33 lb. of fat had been skimmed from it.

fat abstracted = .33 per cemt.

—

MILK. 209

TABLE FOR CONVERTING QUARTS OF MILK
INTC POUNDS.

Qts Lbs. Ots. Lbs. Ots. Lbs. Ots. Lbs.
I 2.15 29 62.3 57 122.4 85 182.5
2 4°3 30 64.4 58 124.5 86 184.6
3 6.4 31 66.5 59 120.6 87 186.8
4 8.6 32 68.7 60 128.8 88 188 9
5 10.7 33 70.8 61 130.9 89 I9I 0
6 12.9 34 73-0 62 Teele go 193.2
7 15-0 35 75-1 63 135-2 gt 195-3
8 17.2 36 77+3 64 137-4 92 197.5
9 19.3 37 79-4 65 139-5 93 199.6
10 21.5 38 81.6 66 141.7 04 201 8
1 23.6 39 83-7 67 143.8 95 203.9
12 25.8 40 85-9 68 146.0 06 206.1
13 27.9 41 88.0 69 148.1 07 208.2
14 30.1 42 go.2 70 150.3 98 210.4

"15 32-2 43 92-3 71 152-4 99 212.5
16 34:3 44 94-5 72 154-6 £00 214.7
17 36.5 45 96.6 73 156.7 200 429.3
18 38.6 40 98.7 74 158.3 300 644.0
19 40.8 47 100.9 75 161.0 400 858 6

20 42.9 48 103.0 76 163.1 500 1073.3
21 45-1 49 105.2 oH 165.3 600 1288 o
22 47.2 50 107.3 78 167.4 70o 1502.6
23 49+4 51 109-5 79 169.6 800 1717-3
24 51.5 52 TIr.6 80 C7 D7 goo 1931 9
25 557 53 113.8 81 173-9 1000 2146.6
26 55-8 54 II5.9 82 176.0
27 58.0 55 118.1 83 178.2
28 60.1 56 120.2 84 180.3

TABLE FOR CONVERTING POUNDS OF MILK
INTO QUARTS.

Lbs. Ots. Lbs. Ots. Lbs. Qts. Lbs. Ots
I -47 29 13.5 57 20.6 85 39.6
2 -93 30 14.0 58 27.0 86 40.1
3 1.40 31 14.4 59 27-5 87 40.5
4 1.86 32 14.9 60 28.0 88 41.0
5 2.33 33 15.4 61 28.4 89 41.5
6 2 80 34 15.8 62 28.9 go 41.9
7, 3.26 35 16.3 63 29.4 gt 42-4
8 S076 36 16.8 64 29.8 92 42.9
9 4.1 37 17.2 65 30-3 93 43-3
10 4 66 i Ne Be 4 66 30.8 04 43-8
5 Seae 39 18.2 67 31.2 95 44-3
12 5 59 40 18.6 68 31.7 96 44-7
13 6 06 41 19.1 69 32.2 07 45-2
14 6.52 42 19.6 70 32.6 98 45-7
15 6.99 43 20.0 71 33-1 99 40.1
16 aie (2) 44 20.5 72 33-6 100 46.6
17 7.92 45 21.0 vis: 34.0 200 93-2
18 8.39 40 21.4 74 34-5 300 139.8
19 8 85 47 21.9 75 35-0 400 186.4
20 9-32 48 22 4 76 35-4 500 233.0
21 9-79 49 22.8 77 35-9 600 279.6
22 10.3 50 23.3 73: 36.3 700 326.2
23 10.7 51 23.8 79 36.8 800 372.8
24 ir. 2 52 24.2 80 a7 3 goo 419.4
25 tL 7 53 24.7 81 277 1000 406.0
26 12.1 54 25.2 82 38.2

27 12.6 55 25.6 83 38.7
28 13.1 56 26.1 | 84 39.1

210 DAIRYING.

Ill. CREAM.

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CREAM. (Kén1c.)

Mean of 43 dhe :
Analyses. Minimum. | Maximum,
WWACEN Gent hts cts et eset eka aes 68.82 22.83 83.23
aE eae, 6 eee atlas Sched a gia ete 22.66 15.19 29.93
Casein, Albumen, etc............... 3.76 63 7-88
Milk Sugar... .. fackea bs tes aaeeet ne 4-23 59 5-52
a a yee err ee en oe 53 Ex 2.50
I00.00

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF DAIRY
PRODUCTS. (Kénic.)

oe. ; <s xs
o's Ss " an a |u& : Specific
38 2! 3 = met iets || irae a Gravity.
Skim - milk, grav-
ity creamin 56 | 90.43 87} 3.26 | 4.74 -70 1.0357
Centrifugal s im- 5
PAPE it ke ‘ 7 | 90.60) :31] 3.06 | 5.29 74 1.0350
Buttermilk. ...:... 57 90.12} 1.09} 4.03 4.04 72 1.0348
Wihewses 2. fsccs. 46 | 93.38 32 86 | 4.79 .65 1.0272
Preserved milk.. 4. 187297] _3:2the 3.34. | 4.74 74 1.0313

Condensed milk,
(no sugar added) 36 | 58.99] 12.42] 11.92 |14.49 | 2.18
Condensed milk,

(sugar added).. 64 25.61] 10.35] 13.79 |50.06*| 2.19
Scherff’s condens-

ed: milk ° 5. — =. 5 | 72-87| 6.62] 8.20 |10.63 | 1.68 |Lactic Alco-
Koumiss (from ‘ acid. hol.

mares’ milk) ...| 43 | 90.44] 1.46} 2.24 | 1.77 -42 -QI I.QI
Koumiss (from

cows’ milk). ...| rz | 89.20] 1.83] 2.66 | 4.09 43 an ee
WSODNI Iie. oo. ens 22 | gr.2t| 4£.44| 3.49 | 2.41 .68 | 1.02 -75

* 13.84 per cent milk-sugar, 36.22 per cent cane-sugar,

211

CREAM.

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212

DAIRYING.

LIST OF HAND AND POWER CREAM SEPA-
RATORS ON THE MARKET, 1896.

Name.

A. Hanp or Darry SEPARATORS.
1. De Laval ‘‘Baby” Cream
Separators.
‘“THaummine bird’ .... .-,
Baby No. 1 (“‘hollow’’ bow])
és No; 7“ dise”bowl):.<
cee VIN ios oe ec, he Ee Se
SEINE] CoM ER are <a
Dairy Turbine
2. U.S. Cream Separators
No. 3. Improved U. S. Sep.

No. a oe “ce “
No. 7. - (Midget)
. Butter Accumulator.
No. 2 B as separator........
as accumulator...

w

4. Keystone Cream Separator.

. Russian Steam Separators.
Little Giant Russian No. 1.
No. 2.
Sharples Belt a es
Safety Hand IN Qt... oe’ eo4

wn

sty ies) Sesh. eiae Soe oe hae 2
The Empress Separator...
7. Empire Separators.
mew Markato sae’. <a> as oe
ABR WPAN DIEC. 5 tetas s to ce oo

8. The Eclipse Cream Separator
No.-o-5-(6.styles)......2.. <2

9. The Kneeland Omega Hand
Separator.

No, 1 Jr.—No. 4 Jr.(5 styles)| }

10. American Cream Separator

LAI) i ey ee pe a me ee

B. Power SEPARATORS,

1. Alpha Separators.
Alpha ay 13 Belt Power .
a Ze
4 No. ne SteamTurbine

oie
Alpha Ae Belt Power..
** Steam Turbine
Standard Belt Power.
Gurbive.. «: 424s

Capacity
| per Hour.

lbs.

Retail Manufacturer
Price. or Agency.
$65 )
65 | |The De Laval Sep:
9° 4! arator Co., N. Y.
Kole ite
200 |
225 J
200 1 |vermont Farm Ma
125 chine Co., Bel-
=o8 lows Falls, Vt.
75 J
Swedish Cream and
t 200 | Butter Separator
Co., Ne VeGity:
KeystoneSeparator
100 Co., Etd.; Phila-
delphia, Pa.
125 )
200 ||p. M._ Sharples,
f * West Chester,Pa.
125
200 J
Dairymen’s Supply
oe Co., Philadelphia,
=, Pa.
D. H. Burrell &
75 Co., Little Falls,
oe IN: OW
rhe. i Chap-
man eparator
i Ww’ “a ,Little Falls,
Kneeland Crystal
75-150 Sharad t Co;,
Lansing, Mich.
100 | Am. Separator Co.,
150 Bainbridge, N. Y.

500)

75°

a The De Laval Sep-
es pad Coj, N.Y.
375

N
“sl
on
—

MILK.

213

HAND AND POWER CREAM SEPARATORS—(Coz.).

Capacity
Name. per Hour.
PowER SEPARATOKS—(Con?’d). Ibs.

2. Russtan Steam Separators.

The Standard Russian..... 1200-1500

The Imperial ot ene 2000-2500
Standard Belt Separators.

sive Standard Belt ses... = 1200-1500

Thelmperial ‘* 2000-2500

3 U.S. Cream Separators.
The Improved No, 1 U. S.|¢

SEPALALOM ch eac esc sees crests
The Improved No. 3 U.S. t &
Separator Sabet eae 650-700
No. 3 U. S. Cream Separa-
tor(ow frame) =>. . <'a.%- { Beane
4. Reid at be Danish hee t i
arator. : FOO SO?

5. Columbia Cream Seharators
(three styles)

6. Empire Power Bee

Empire ro. 1000: I100
Empire 25. ... 2500

7. Butter Accumulator.
No. 1 A as separator.. 2000 t

as accumulator..... 1200
No. 2A,B, & Cas separator 600
as accumu-
lafioris:.544- 400 {
Butter

No. 4 for cream only . 35-40
No; 4.B, ‘ 20-25

8. evsinne Cream Separators.
DNs elianesjoate ate ror dars| or diss store) Vato goo
ING echis iota Petes ac,4 rn, staves 0,6 1500
INGA ea th ou RR sacise. ais 2000

9. Victoria Power Separator.
Empress Power....... . . { nes

3500

to. The Eclipse Separator.

No. 6-9 (four styles)........ 800-3000

Retail
Price.

500

t 300-600 | 100-150

275
450

400

200

Manufacturer
or Agency.

P. M._ Sharples,
West Chester, Pa.

Vermont Farm Ma-
chine Co., Bel-
lows Falls, Vt.

A. H. Reid, Phila-

|| delphia, Pa.
Columbia Cream
Separator Co;,

Avon, :

D.H. Burrell & Co.,
Little Falls, N.Y.

‘Swedish Cream and
Butter Separator
Go., NoY. Gity-

| Keystone Separator
Cor tds sPhila-
delphia, Pa.

/Dairymen’s Supply

Co., Philadelphia,
Pa.

iThe L. S. Chapman
Separator Works,
Little Falls, N.Y.

FORMULAS FOR FINDING THE FAT CONTENT
OF CREAM.

Fleischmann’s formula:

Per cent fat in cream = f2 =

©: fi) tae

214 DAIRYING.

where & = percen, of cream obtained, f = per cent fat in
milk, f1 = per cent fat in skim-milk; or
100F
Page

where F = per cent of fat in butter, 2 = yield of butter
from 100 lbs. of milk, A = percentage churning. Under
ordinary conditions of creaming these formulas may be
simplified to

S2 = 6.677 — 1.42,
J2 = 5-778.
Formula for finding the per cent cream to be separated when
a certain fat content in the cream is wanted (Fleischmann):

_ 100 f—Sfi),

Sabie 8 ere
tf, fi, and f2 = per cent of fat in full milk, skim-milk, and
cream, respectively.

HANDLING AND CARE OF CREAM SEPARATORS.
By J. D. FrepErRIKsSEN, Little Falls, N. Y., Manager Chr. Hansen’s
Laboratory.

In selecting a separator,local conditions, space at dis-
posal, nearness to its manufacturer who can put it up,
be held responsible, and quickly attend to repairs, etc.,
may be of importance, and the following points should be
considered:

Thorough Separation. — All manufacturers claim that
their machines do perfect work, but they do not always
come upto the claims. Under normal conditions the meas-
ure for thoroughness of separation ts the contents of butter-fat
in the skim-milk as ascertained by the Babcock test. The best
modern separators skim practically absolutely clean, and
there is now no excuse for anything but perfect skimming.
With normal milk at the proper temperature run into the
machine at the rate of the capacity claimed for it, mo sepa-
rator should leave more than 0.1% of butter-fat in the skim-
milk, which is the smallest percentage that can be ascer-
tained by the Babcock test with accuracy.

The table below gives the grand averages for the per-
centages of fat found in the trials of a number of the
leading separators, conducted at the experiment stations
of Delaware, Cornell (N. Y.), Vermont, Pennsylvania. and
Wisconsin.

_—— |

CREAM. 215

} PER CENT FAT IN CENTRIFUGAL SKIM-MILK.

Averages of Trials at
American Experiment

Stations.
Style of Separator.
/ Number pode
siainingsenoe | Skim-milk.

RG TT eee eee ee eee II wa
Pama Cream Separator.... ....-. ---+ «0.e- 19 12
Reid’s Impr. Danish Separator... .+--.+++s2e0-. 3 14
OS Le SS a ee eee eee rrr 3 -I0
— Laval Alpha No. 1 Shee reece Peers 2 -10
Alpha Acme om OS se daeass ered ass 21 .09

aft PRIGERCU EINECS di! os on wee ae os 51 .0°9

a Alpha Baby No. 2 ee ce I12 .08
hes LAA ST dl ie en eee 7 -125

+ Horizontal eee, a er eee 9 19
SMM REAR EOE 7 5 esos aot i.e. Bas 4 +21
Sharples Russian Separator SERS PETES aeRO 34 24
Imperial ee RR ee ele oie 30 -34

Sea esticr extractor Sep. No.1, 52-5... «ce: 5 -24
Do. (as separator) ........ 2 +14

U. S. Butter Extr. Sep. No. 2..--..-----+++++--+- 8 34
Do. [ae Leet Eee aa Io -2I

iS: Separator Ws eon es ees oss 9 17
Do. LS ep See pee Sai i oo wih 2I 10

Do. LE eee agra cesta hn Bene toes 27 +13
Victoria, 30 gal. Separator... - ia. cenavexancateeee 25 -22
Li. €) 5213 ee pro eer errr 12 .10

With the constant improvement in machines it is not
difficult to find separators which will do perfect work.

Simplicity, durability and safety of coustruction are con-
siderations of vital importance. The separator must be
simple in construction so as to be easy to handle, to clean,
and to oil. It must be duraéd/le, so that it will need but few
repairs, and, first of all, it must be absolutely safe. Too
many deplorable fatal accidents are already due to burst-
ing separator bowls, and too much stress cannot be laid on
the demand that the machine must by strongly built, of first-
class material and workmanship, so that accidents are
made impossible with reasonably careful handling.

As the pressure on the circumference of the bowl increases
with the square of the speed, it is evident that the modern
high-speed separators are exposed to a tremendous strain
—in fact the tensile strain in some of them is as high as
20,000 to 30,000 Ibs. to the squareinch. Fortunately, the im-
provements in bearings and other features of construction

4
v-
.

Pee eee —s a erro

Piel —

216 DAIRYING.

which have enabled manufacturers to increase the speed,
have caused them at the same time to reduce the diameter
of the bowl, which makes the modern machine much safer
than the first crude and heavy separators.

Power.—Considering its capacity, a well-built separator
requires comparatively little power, whether coal or
muscle. But as either is money, it is a matter of impor-
tance that none be wasted. Many so-called hand separa-
tors are altogether too heavy to run by hand, hence in
selecting one see that it is easy to keep it running for
several hours. The tests made at the experiment stations
by dynamometer, as well as by measuring the steam con-
sumed, show that there is a great deal of steam wasted in
acreamery above that actually required to drive the separa-
tor; that ‘‘the turbines use steam extravagantly, but that
the small engine of the creamery uses it still more extrava-
gantly.’’ Due allowance must therefore be made for this
waste in comparing results obtained by various methods
of testing. The following table gives some of the results
published by the stations:

Horse-power per 1000 Ibs Milk.

Dela- New Ver-

Style of Separator. wate’ | Work.“ } thont Wisconsin,
Butter T1Coemiunacor 04 6. in #169 “1 A. oeee 2.45
Colambia Cream Separatonieg a. 0 «- sficnes ans: BIZ, rhe sarcmgee
RGIGISIMDLOVER DANISM. 2. cect. sc cel enecece|icecciccas 1.83 1.52
DewWeavaliStandards i. ha 0o2ks «eons aS aa 2.12
py PAT DING use wis ieis: ars,0.57s 10 g Péiake «| ad astute eles) gee 0.81
<a ANCIENTS. chdsa cto ss SecA he Cea Gago 0.98
Re Baye Ousact accriecssc a aes 0297 Fhe serene dle neato 0.46
a SSR UN GE arcaelanctee e Aiee «Cine re te Oe20), | mesk ee
Pte ays, 202) kM RSD: Bee SS deicis G28 EM Oa aM), Bee 1.87
United States ING ier fice eee ancuse cn es SP ike al ieee 1.37 1.12
ORES renters wa state sie etanl (eres ote OG: Poe en 0.6
ae INO SBN a: caers,< a ee er en ee s ramen eau
WH GEOLIA SOO LOSE. coerce, Pees sree arom esis oe ZeFG ||\n.ccceteeteys
= 30 Galetti: ikaw sietsatae Os74 © okey Gs eee
ef Eh RRR cee TOC Onr noe Of8e" i cacaiseul lea eeen
De Laval. Afoha ar bine. Flee en 5% Balai sae eee 1.47 tO 1.79
Sharples UR CMA assis syofard shoteia lw raga © Hintejesirs accel] whet hn oath ie arate ee 1.42
IRUISSEAM ghana ale. shits. <2ie) «avers alll mera ae nc tay eee | eee 1.75 tO 2.11

These tests are made with single machines and do not
guarantee that all separators of the same makes consume

CREAM. - 217

the same power or steam. The accumulating results of
such trials being compiled, however, become a guide in
estimating the value of the various machines in the
market. As between belt and turbine (or direct steam)
power, the former is preferable in large creameries. In
small plants one is about as economical as the other, and
the choice may depend upon whether an engine is needed
for churning, butter-worker, pump, and other purposes, or
you can do without it.

Capacity.—In selecting a separator it is best to have
plenty of capacity. In a large creamery it is better to
have two separators of moderate size than one very large
machine. Only in very large creameries may separators
of largest capacity be preferable. The capacity should be
such as to finish the day’s work in 4 to 6 hours at the time
when there is most milk. In the private dairy, using a
hand separator, the work should require only one hour,
rather less. The following would be our idea of the proper
capacity:

Largest Supply of Milk | Number of Capacity of Fach

. Machine, lbs. Power.
per Day, Ibs. Machines. per hour.
2 or Engi
E5,000 OF MOTE .... ecco. more 2,000 tO 2,500 ngine
TEROOO TONE, O00,:.: « jsicss + 2 1,500 ‘* 2,000 ce
BGO | TO,GOO., «0. 56s owe 2 1,200 ‘* 1,500 a
EPOGOL 8 T7GOOr swe la dste'e 2 1,000 Eng. or Turb.
RE OO be. SG: OOD a «arate acai aid I 1,200 e ss
TAO We” 2yROOS ss 0% a's nleis s I 600 to 1,000 i dy
Sheep, or dog
ee ’ é b
500 itor hc ae SINE I 600 { or Hiebing.
Hand, or dog
“ce s ,
300 BGO, cacsin slalele I 300 to 500 j or sheep.
too ‘* GOs « Swialte Slovo I 300 Hand
fess -than’ x00%.... =. ../.\4.% I I50 ss

Condition of Cream.—As discharged from the separator,
the cream should be smooth and even, free from froth and
of perfect ‘‘ churnability.”’

As to cost, the best machine is always the cheapest in the long
run. Repairs, waste of fat in the skim-milk, of oil, and of
coal, by an inferior machine, will more than make up any
saving in first cost.

218 DAIRYING.

RUNNING THE SEPARATOR.

The Operator should understand his Business.—He should
have thorough training in creameries as a helper and, if
possible, in a dairy school, before undertaking to manage
a creamery separator on his own responsibility. A new
machine should be put upand started by the manufacturer
or his agent, and prove in perfect shape and efficiency be-
fore he leaves. Every manufacturer gives detailed in-
structions as to the care of the separator, and such an
instruction book should always be at hand. The operator
of hand as well as of power machines should make him-
self familiar with every detail of the construction.

Condition and Temperature of the Milk.—Fresh and warm
From the cow, the milk is in the best condition to be skimmed.
If it cannot be had in that condition, it should be aerated
and cooled on the farm, so that it arrives at the creamery
or the dairy at not over 60°. Then reheat it to 80° or 85°,
not under 75° and not over go°. This heating is prefer-
ably done in some continuous heater, as it is dangerous to
heat it in bulk, because milk standing some time at 85° is
apt to spoil. While the separator will skim at a lower
temperature, either the skimming is not clean or less milk
must be run through the machine in the sametime. Of
course, the milk must be sweet.

Starting.—Oil all bearings thoroughly, using only the very
best oil, Ascertain that everything is in trim order, then
Start according to instructions, which vary for different
kinds of machines. Always start carefully, and where the
belt from the intermediate is shifted from loose to fixed
pulley, do it slowly and gradually, helping with the hand
on the belt to start the bowl. When the bowl appears to
be running at full speed without shaking, ascertain if it
really does so by means of the sfeed indicator, which
should always be found on any power machine.

Never allow the machine to run faster than permitted by
the manufacturer. If you do, it is at your risk and at
the risk of the lives of your assistants. Use the speed
indicator often.

ie ated

il

ira § CREAM. z 219

See that the feed of new milk is correct and that the pro-
portion of cream to milk is as wanted. Hold a quart meas-
ure under the skim-milk spout and a measuring glass un-
der the cream outlet, and, when the quart measure is full,
see how much cream you have in the measuring glass, tak-
ing the time by your watch. If you have 6 ozs. of cream
to I quart of skim-milk in 9 seconds, you have taken 6
parts of cream from 38 of new milk, or a little less than
one sixth, or about 16%, and you are running at the rate
of 950 lbs. per hour. How large a proportion of cream to
take"from the milk depends upon the richness of the milk
and the consistency of cream desired. If you have 4¢
milk and you wish cream of 28¢ fat, you will take 1
part of cream from 7 of new milk, or 14%.

Keep the oil-cups filled and look frequently at all working
parts of the machinery. Well started and regulated, it
will run uninterrupted until all the milk is skimmed.
When the last milk has entered the bowl, pour in suffi-
cient skim-milk to crowd out all the cream left. If the
skim-milk is removed from the building while the separa-
tor is running, take samples frequently, or, if it is all left
after the work is done, take a few average samples to ¢est
with the Babcock machine, so as to control the day’s work.

Stop the machine cautiously, removing the motive power
and letting the bowl come to a stand-still of itself wzthout
applying any brake. Remove the skim-milk left in the bowl
by a siphon or otherwise, take off the covers, etc., and lift
out the bowl.

Cleaning.—First rinse the bowl and other parts which
have been in contact with milk in cold or tepid water, and
then scrub them in boiling water, frequently using some
solution of sal-soda. Scrubandbrusheverycorner. Rinse
in clean boiling water and steam out the tin covers, etc.
Wipe with a cloth and set the things todry. Pump out
every pipe that cannot be reached by hand and brush. If
possible, avoid the use of rubber hose to conduct the milk
from the vat or heater to the separator, but use open tin
conductors or short tin pipes, which can be easily kept
clean. Rubber hose cannot be washed in boiling water

220 DAIRYING.

or soda, and is a source of contamination. Clean the
separator stand carefully with acloth and wipe the spindles,
etc. Occasionally clean out the oil-chambers with kerosene
oil, and always see to it that no gum is formed and that
the oz/-grooves and tubes are open.

If the separator shakes, or in any way works imper-
fectly, find the cause without delay and remedy it. If you
fail to find the fault, or you cannot remedy it yourself,
notify the manufacturer or his agent, and have him attend
to it at once.

Treatment of the Cream.—As the cream leaves the separa-
tor, it should at once be cooled to 50° or lower. This in-
sures ‘‘ body ’’ in the butter, and should not be neglected,
at least not unless the cream is thoroughly chilled after it
is ripened, before churning.

LOSS OF BUTTER CAUSED BY INEFFICIENT
SKIMMING.

If three-tenths of one per cent of fat is left in the skim-
milk, instead of two-tenths, in a separator creamery receiv-
ing 1000 lbs. of milk a day, there will be aloss of about 340
Ibs. of butter for the whole year, on the supposition that
1000 lbs. of milk yield 800 lbs. of skim-milk, and 1 lb. of
butter contains .86 lbs. of fat. If the separation is still
poorer, greater losses will be sustained, as will be seen in
the table given below. (Friis.)

Excess of Fat Left in Skim-milk.

Lbs. of Milk
per Day. .o5 per cent. | .10 per cent. | .20 per cent. | .30 per cent.
Loss of Butter During Whole Year.
1,000 170 340 680 1,020
2,000 340 680 1360 2.040
3,000 510 1020 2040 3.060
4,000 680 1360 2720 4,089
5,000 850 1700 3400 5,100
6,000 1020 2040 4080 6,120
7,000 1190 2380 4760 7,140
8,000 1360 2729 5440 8,160
9.000 1530 3060 6120 9,180

10,000 1700 3400 E800 10,200

MILK. 221

RELATION OF FAT CONTENT OF SEPARATOR
SKIM-MILK AND SPEED OF BOWL, QUANTITY
OF MILK SEPARATED, AND TEMPERATURE
OF THE MILK.

Fleischmann gives the following formula for ascertaining
the fat content of separator skim-milk, / being ne per cent
fat in the skim-milk, 4/7 the quantity of milk skimmed per
hour, # the speed of the bowl, and ¢ the temperature of
the milk:

: pac Vl x 1.035)

Uu

¢is a constant which must be determined for each machine;
Hittcher found its value, in the case of three different ma-
chines, as follows: 480,152; 547,800; 363,430. The results
obtained by the use of the formula seem to agree fairly
well with chemical analysis of the skim-milk where care
is taken in determining the various factors entering into
the calculation.

STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
By Prof. A. W. RicuTeEr, of the University of Wisconsin.

Boiler.

Feed Apparatus.—Every boiler should be provided with a
check-valve, placed between the feed apparatus and boiler, and
in such a manner as to have the weight of the valve assist in
closing it. Between this check-valve and boiler there should be
an additional globe or gate-valve which may be closed, thus
permitting repairing or cleaning of the check-valve while the
boiler is in operation.

Water Supply.—Feed-water should enter a boiler in sucha
manner that the plates do not receive the direct impact of cold
water. The usual practice is to have the feed enter through
the blow-off pipe, thus preventing this pipe from clogging. The
feed supply should be regulated so as to keep the water level
as stationary as possible, The greatest care must be taken that
the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. Neg-
lect in this direction will cause the metal to become overheated
and consequently weakened, causing leakage of joints and in-

222 DAIRYING.

creased wear and tear, but more often resulting in an explosion
of a more or less serious nature.

Water-glass and Water-gauges.—Every boiler should have
three water-gauges in addition to a water-glass; these are
usually attached to a hollow cast-iron cylinder or tube con-
nected with the water and steam spaces.

The water-glass should be blown out daily, and, if clogged,
can be safely cleaned with a bent wire.

In no case should the water glass alone be depended upon to
indicate the water level.

Steam-gauge.—-Each boiler should be provided with a steam-
gauge, which gauge should be directly connected with it.

Safety-valve.—Every boiler should be provided with a safety -
valve having direct communication with the steam space, and
moreover should there be an intervening valve. Some of the
most disastrous explosions can be traced to faulty arrangement
in this respect. The valve thoughtlessly left closed after clean-
ing or repairs prevents the safety-valve. from relieving the
pressure when it rises above the safe working pressure of the
boiler.

Safety-valves are of two kinds: spring and lever safety-
valves. Of the two valves the lever-valve has the most dis-
advantages, one of the most important being the ease with
which it may be made useless by adding an additional weight
to that already provided, in order to keep the valve on its seat,
and therefore greatly increasing the pressure at which it will
blow off.

A safety-valve should be raised each day by hand so as to
allow steam to escape; this prevents clogging and rusting.

The dealer wiil usually set the spring-valve so that it will
blow off at the desired pressure. It can be adjusted, however,
by loosening or tightening a screw provided for that purpose.

The lever-valve may be set with the aid of the following
formula:

2 pee be Ad heel

W ,
7 = distance from weight to fulcrum;
= “e ‘” valve centre to fulcrum;

¢ = distance from the centre of gravity of the lever of the ful-
crum;

Se a

CREAM. 223

P = boiler pressure;

A = area of valve;

V = weight of valve;

aa) “lever,

W = weight hung upon the lever.

Firing.—Firing should be gradual, and the grate kept com-
pletely covered with coal or ashes. The fire should not be more
than four or five inches deep unless the pieces of coal are large,
in which case the depth may be increased.

The fire-doors and flue-doors should not be opened in order to
keep down the steam pressure. This practice not only wastes
fuel but is injurious to the boiler, and will not be necessary if
the boiler is properly attended to.

Priming or Foaming.—Foaming is a rapid disturbance of the
water, in consequence of which it rises in the boiler in the form
of spray or foam; it is usually caused by dirty water, presence
of oil, etc., the boiler not having been cleaned for some time or
not thoroughly cleaned. Foaming may, however, be due to
other causes, such as too small a steam space, sudden demand
of a great quantity of steam, etc. In case a boiler foams all
steam connections should be shut off and the fire dampened by
means of a fresh supply of live coal or ashes. These precau-
tions will usually suffice to allow the water to settle, and to
enable one to ascertain the true water level. If the glass shows
a small amount of water, start the pump or injector, and fill the
boiler to a point between the second and third gauge. The
boiler may then be blown off to the first gauge by means of the
surface blow-off, if one be present, and if not present the regular
blow-off valve may be used. This operation being repeated,
the impurities are gradually diminished, but care must be taken
that the water level does not fall below the top of the flues.
The boiler can now be used as before, but in all cases it should
be thoroughly cleaned as soon as possible.

Removal of Scale.—Potatoes, about eight or ten in number,
are sometimes placed in the boiler after cleaning. Soda or
kerosene may also be injected with the feed-water in quantity to
be determined by observation. Boiler compounds should be
used with caution, and when used should be obtained from a
reliable dealer. Too great a quantity of any of the above will
be harmful,

224 DAIRYING.

-

Cleaning.—The interval during which a boiler requires no
cleaning depends upon the quantity and the quality of water
evaporated. Under usual conditions, in order to obtain the
best results, a boiler should be cleaned every six or eight weeks.

If a boiler is to be cleaned it should be allowed to stand until

it is partially cooled off. When blown out cold the metal in the
interior will usually be found covered with a thick coating of soft
deposit, which can easily be scraped off or washed off with a
hose and stream of water. —
. If a boiler be blown off while the metal is at a high tempera-
ture, the deposited matter is usually baked and forms a solid and
hard coating, increasing rapidly if not carefully removed by the
process of chipping.

Boiler Power.—The manner in which the horse-power of a
boiler is usually calculated is far from satisfactory, depending
rather upon its size than its power of evaporation.

In 1884 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers

adopted the following definite standard:
“* A horse-power shall be equivalent to an evaporation of

thirty pounds of water into dry steam per hour from feed-
water at 100° Fahrenheit, and under a pressure of 70 lbs. ber
square inch above the atmosphere.”

Steam-engine.—The engine should be provided with a gov-
ernor to regulate its speed, a lubricator to oil valve and piston,
and a sufficient number of oil cups, so that all bearings may be
properly oiled.

Starting the Engine.—Before starting, all bearings should be
supplied with oil, and all waste pipes connected with cylinder
and steam-chest opened. The engine should then be started
slowly, so as to allowthe water toescape. A quantity of steam
will always condense as it comes in contact with the cold
cylinder-walls, in addition to the water already present in the
steam-pipe. This water does not pass off as readily as steam,
neither can it be compressed to any great extent. Therefore,
if more water be present in the cylinder than will fill the clear-
ance space, and this water not be allowed to escape, the piston
moving towards the end of its stroke will strike the water, and
consequently be compelled to stop. The greater the speed of
the piston as it advances, the greater the force with which it
strikes the water, resulting in many cases in a broken cylinder-
head,

CREAM. 225

It is well to have a waste-pipe connected to the steam-pipe at
a point just above the engine-valve, in order that the water
which has collected in the steam pipe may be biown out before
opening the steam-valve.

After the engine has been in operation for a minute or two
the waste-valves should be closed.

Horse-power,—The horse-power of an engine may be calcu-
lated by means of the following formula:

iis PLan f

HB: Ps.= :
33000

°
H. P. = horse power;
Pf = mean effective pressure in the cylinder;
Z = twice the length of the stroke, in feet;
@ = area of piston in square inches;
# = number of revolutions per minute.

ON THE PRESERVATION OF MILK AND CREAM
BY HEAT,

By Dr. H, L. Russe.t, of Wisconsin Experiment Station,
Author of *‘ Dairy Bacteriology”.

On account of the innumerable bacteria that gain access
to milk during the process of milking, and subsequent to
that time, and the rapid increase of the same in this nutri-
tious fluid, this material universally undergoes fermentative
changes, the rapidity of which is largely dependent upon
the surrounding temperature. To increase the keeping
quality of milk, it is necessary to annihilate these bacteria
or keep them under influences unfavorable to their growth.

Heat has been found to be the most efficacious agent in
preserving milk in its natural condition. It is applied in
two ways, viz., I. Pasteurization, where the milk or cream
is heated for a short time (20-30 min.) at a temperature near
the coagulating point of the proteid constituents of the milk
(150°-160° F.). 2. Sterilization, where the temperature ap-
proximates or exceeds the boiling-point and is applied for
a longer time.

The object in both cases is to kill the bacteria present in
the milk.

226 DAIRYING.

Sterilization accomplishes this most successfully, but it
changes the proteid compounds so that the milk has an un-
desirable ‘‘ cooked” flavor and odor.

This defect is not found in pasteurized milk, and if prop-
erly handled, milk treated by this process will remain sweet
from 4 to 8 days.

For use in the near future the pasteurized product is, on
the whole, the most satisfactory; the sterilized material being
best adapted for export purposes.

The essential condition in pasteurization is that the pas-
teurizing temperature shall exceed the thermal death point
(the temperature at which growing bacteria are destroyed)
of disease-producing as well as fermentative bacteria. This
temperature for most forms is about 140° F., but certain dis-
ease organisms like the tubercle germ of tuberculosis is not
killed below 149° F. for 30 minutes, or 155° F. for 15 minutes.
As this germ is often found in milk from tuberculous cows,
prudence dictates the use of this temperature as a standard
for the pasteurization of milk and cream. The proteids in
the milk are slightly affected at this temperature, but if the
milk is thoroughly chilled, the ‘‘ cooked” flavor disappears.

The application of this temperature kills only the growing
bacteria, and does not affect the latent spores. If after
being heated the milk is allowed to cool slowly, and is left
at a comparatively warm temperature (exceeding 55° F.),
these spores germinate and soon change the character of the
milk, so that the value of the heating process is lost. To be
efficient, it is necessary to rapidly cool the pasteurized prod-
uct below the germinating point of the spores, for if they are
once allowed to sprout, they will develop slowly at a very
low temperature.

In pasteurizing milk or cream, the apparatus should be
constructed so that a definite quantity of the fluid can be
held at any desired temperature for any length of time, and
during the process protected from infection from the air.
The apparatus must also be made so as to be easily cleaned
and thoroughly sterilized by steam throughout. The milk
must be protected from air infection during its withdrawal
from the pasteurizing vat into storage vessels (cans and

awiso0--

MILK. 227

bottles), and should be thoroughly chilled in a refrigerator
for several hours (better over night) before being delivered
to the consumer. This chilling process should succeed the
heating operation as quickly as possible, as the sudden
transition in temperature from 155° F. to 55° F. or less has
a paralyzing effect on the development of those organisms
(spores) that are not killed by the heat. A large number of
machines have been put on the market, but they have for
the most part been designed primarily from the dairyman’s
standpoint, and while they fulfill their requirements as to
capacity, cheapness, etc., yet they cannot be relied upon to
treat the milk in a way so as to free it with certainty from
all possible disease-producing bacteria.

Pasteurization in this country is applied with great suc-
cess to milk and cream where these products are used in
the liquid form. It is used to some extent in this country,
but much more widely in continental Europe, in the prepara-
tion of cream for the manufacture of butter by the use of a
pure culture-starter. It can also be used advantageously
in the hot months for increasing the length of time that
by-products of the factory like skim-milk and whey may be
preserved.

Pasteurization, as well as sterilization, reduces the body,
consistency, of milk and cream, and these products therefore
seem thinner after having been subjected to the process of
heating than before. To obviate this, Dr. Babcock and
the writer in 1896 recommended the addition of a small
quantity of a solution of sucrate of lime (‘‘ viscogen”’) to
the milk or cream, which will restore the consistency of the
products, and in case of cream, greatly increase its whip-
ping quality. (See Bull. No. 54 or thirteenth report of
Wisconsin Experiment Station.)

DIRECTIONS FOR THE STERILIZATION OF MILK
(U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
The sterilization of milk for children, now quite exten-

sively practised in order to destroy the injurious germs
which it may contain, can be satisfactorily accomplished

228 DAIRYING.

with very simple apparatus. The vessel containing the
milk, which may be the bottle from which it is to be used
or any other suitable vessel, is placed inside of a larger
vessel of metal, which contains the water. Ifa bottle, it is
plugged with absorbent cotton, if this is at hand, or in its
absence, other clean cotton willanswer. A small fruit-jar
loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle. The re-
quirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised
about half an inch above the bottom of the other, and that
the water shall reach nearly or quite as high as the milk.
The apparatus is then heated on a range or stove until the
water reaches a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit,
when it is removed from the heat and kept tightly covered
for half an hour. The milk-bottles are then taken out and
kept in a cool place. The milk may be used any time within
twenty-four hours. A temperature of 150 degrees main-
tained for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs
likely to be present in the milk, and it is found in practice
that raising the temperature to 155 degrees and then allow-
ing it to stand in the heated water for half an hour insures
the proper temperature for the required time. The tempera-
ture should not be raised above 155 degrees, otherwise the
taste and quality of the milk will be impaired.

The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a per-
forated tin pie-plate in the bottom, or have made for it a
removable false bottom perforated with holes and having
legs half an inch high to allow circulation of the water.
The milk-bottle is set on this false bottom, and sufficient
water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface
of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the
cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermom |
eter put through the cork, so that the bulb dips into the
water. The temperature can thus be watched without re-
moving the cover. If preferred an ordinary dairy ther-
mometer may be used and the temperature tested from time
to time by removing the lid. This is very easily arranged,
and is just as satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold
for the same purpose.

MILK. 229

QUANTITY OF WATER OR ICE REQUIRED FOR
COOLING MILK OR CREAM. (Martiny.)

The quantity of water or ice required to cool milk or
cream may be calculated from the following formulas, where

M = quantity of milk or cream to be cooled, in lbs.
¢ = its temperature.
W = quantity of water required for cooling, in lbs.
f= te ms jee se 5 * vr
_ # = temperature of water or ice at beginning.

7 = end temperature of cooled milk or cream.

™ = end temperature of cooling water.

S = specific heat of milk (.84*) or of cream (.78*).

79.25 = latent heat of water.

(2) Water required for cooling milk or cream—
1. Cooled in tin cans holding milk or cream to be cooled:

_ (Mt — MT)S
Danvers gare

2. By application of coolers and running water:

Mt —
ie MT)S

rf
(6) Ice required for cooling milk or cream—

_ (Mt — MT)S

Yh Nr
T+ t X 79.25

In these formulas the influence of the surrounding air is
not considered.

* Not determined, but considered approximately correct.

200 DAIRYING.

IV. BUTTER.

BUTTER-MAKING.

By H. B. Gurier, De Kalb, IIl., ex-President Ill. State Dairymen’s Assn.,
Author of ‘* American Dairying.”

Butter is made from milk. The cow manufactures the
milk from the food she eats, hence the necessity of sound
food. Unsound food makes off-flavored milk and poor
butter. Some cows can manufacture food into milk at a
profit, others cannot; hence the necessity of knowing the
individuality of each cow, or her ability to work at a profit
to her owner.

At this stage of the dairy work there is no excuse for a
dairyman not knowing what each and every cow is doing
for him, thus being able to ‘‘ weed out” the unprofitable
ones.

Be careful and cleanly in milking. Remove the milk to
a pure atmosphere as soon as drawn from thecows, Ifthe
cream is raised by gravity process be careful of the sur-
roundings, as milk will absorb bad odors from decayed
vegetables, the hog-pen, the cow-yard, the kerosene-can, a
filthy stable, from cooking in the kitchen, and various other
sources.

When milk is put through the separator as soon as it is
drawn from the cow this source of danger is removed.
Cream from the separator should be cooled immediately to
a temperature of 60°; 55° is better. A cooler that will
zrate at the same time it is cooling is very desirable. This
is a vital point which many butter-makers stumble over.
When through separating and cooling, temper the cream to
the temperature necessary to have it ripen at the time you
wish to churn. If it is to be churned the following day this
temperature should be 65°—-7o0°. If the second day, 55°-60°;
and if it is to stand four to seven days, cool to 40°, if possi-

_¥

BUTTER, Pas |

ble, as soon as practicable, and hold at that temperature
until the day before you wish to churn, when it should be
warmed to a temperature that will give the right acidity by
the time you wish tochurn. This temperature will depena
on the kind of cream, whether separator cream or cream
from some gravity process. Cream from shallow setting
mray be sufficiently ripened when taken from the milk. I
recommend the use of Prof. Farrington’s acid tablets for
testing the acidity of cream (see p. 239). They are a great
help to a beginner.

Churn at as low a temperature as youcan. This will de-
pend on the per cent of fat in the cream. Rich cream can
be churned at a much lower temperature than cream poor
in fat. Cream from deep, cold setting may be churned at
58° to 62°; and thick, rich cream from shallow setting at
a much lower temperature. An ironclad rule cannot be
made that will fit all cases. The separator will give cream
containing various per cent of fat, from 15 to 4o per cent.
Separator cream containing 15 per cent fat will need to be
churned at about the same temperature as deep, cold setting
cream. Separator cream containing 40 per cent can be
churned at a temperature of 50°, can be gathered at 50°, so
the buttermilk will draw at that temperature. A low tem-
perature gives the most exhaustive churning. At this tem-
perature the buttermilk should contain no more fat than
the average separator skim-milk. Cream containing a large
per cent of fat does not develop acid as fast as cream with
more milk in it. Cool cream for churning about two hours
before, so as to let the butter-fat have time to solidify or
harden. This gives a more waxy texture to the butter.

Stop the churn when the butter granules are the size of
wheat. If the granules are too small there is danger of a
loss from its passing through the strainer. Wash no more
than is necessary to remove the buttermilk. The colder it
is churned the less washing is needed. When butter gathers
at 54° one washing is sufficient ; if at 62° to 64°, two or
three washings will be needed. Washing removes some
of the delicate flavor or aroma. Remove the water from
the churn as soon as possible—as soon as it has done its

232 DAIRYING.

work. Never allow it to lie and soak unless there is no
other way of hardening the butter to a temperature where
you can handle it.

Salt to suit your trade. Work once or twice, as you pre-
fer; twice working is preferable, as it makes the nicer-ap-
pearing butter. Work just enough to remove the mottled
or streaked appearance. When worked twice this can be
told at the time by the appearance of the butter. When
worked but once it cannot be told until the butter has stood
long enough for the salt to dissolve. If worked but once
examine the butter the following day, until you make your-
self a rule of thumb to work by. I have found this neces-
sary. I am compelled to look after this point in my
creamery work when the butter is worked but once. Use
the kind of butter-package that suits your trade, but always
let it be meat. Never send a mussy-looking package to
market. You cannot afford to do it.

ON THE USE OF PURE CULTURES IN BUTTER-
AND CHEESE-MAKING.

The ripening of cream is brought about through the action
of minute plants, so-called bacteria. These are practically
omnipresent where man lives, and get into the milk during
the milking and the handling of the milk and cream in the
dairy. They multiply enormously in the cream during the
ripening process, owing to the very favorable conditions of
life which they find there. Some forms of bacteria are de-
sirable and even essential in the manufacture of sour-cream
butter; these feed largely on the milk-sugar of the cream,
and decompose this component into lactic acid, which is the
characteristic acid of sour cream (as well as of sour milk).
Along with this formation of lactic acid in the cream other
complicated, and yet but little understood, decomposition
processes take place, the results of which are felt in the fine
aromatic flavor of the butter produced. Other forms of
bacteria cause obnoxious fermentations in the cream, and
produce a butter of ‘‘off’’ flavor, in aggravated cases
diseased butter, making the product unfit to eat, or at least

—))

BUTTER. 233

unsalable as a first-class article. The process of sour-
cream butter-making is therefore, at the bottom, a question
of keeping the fermentations during the ripening of the
cream in the right track, of controlling the same so as to
exclude all but lactic-acid-producing bacteria. The old
original way of reaching this end was to allow the cream
to sour spontaneously, trusting to luck to obtain the desired
fermentation of the cream by leaving it standing ina warm
room for a couple of days. Later on, a buttermilk starter
from a preceding churning or a skim-milk starter was added
for the purpose of ripening the cream; by this means
the lactic-acid bacteria contained in the starter were intro-
duced in such large numbers that they generally were able to
crowd out other kinds of bacteria that might be found in the
cream, and which, if left alone, would produce undesirable
fermentations in the cream and bad flavor in the butter.
The next step in advance was the introduction of pure
cultures of lactic-acid bacteria; these consist of one or a
few forms of bacteria, and when introduced in milk or
cream will be apt to overpower all other forms of bacteria
therein, and thus produce the pure mild flavor of sour-
cream butter desired.

The honor of having first introduced pure cultures in
butter-making belongs to Dr. V. Storch, the chemist of
the Danish state experiment station in Copenhagen; the
bulletin describing Dr. Storch’s investigations of this
subject, ‘‘On the Ripening of Cream,” was published in
1890. Other bacteriologists in Europe and in this country
have worked along this same line, and as a result we find
that pure cultures are at the present time used almost
universally in the manufacture of sour-cream butter in
the creameries and dairies of northern Europe, and also
in this country their use has become general and is spread-
ing. The expected result of adding a pure culture-starter,
viz., that of excluding all undesirable fermentations in
the ripening of the cream, will not, however, follow with
any certainty unless the seeding with the pure culture
is preceded by pasteurization or sterilization of the cream,
that is, at least a partial destruction of the bacteria already
found therein. In Europe, notably in Denmark and the

234 DAIRYING.

other Scandinavian countries, pasteurization of the milk
(or of the cream) is practised regularly in all the best
creameries, in the former country at present in perhaps 80
per cent of the creameries in operation. In this. country
the firms manufacturing and selling pure cultures have
unfortunately not insisted on this point, and where pure
culture-starters are used with us it is nearly always with-
out previous pasteurization. One reason why pasteuriza-
tion has not been adopted in the manufacture of butter in
this country is that the market demands a higher flavored,
“stronger” butter than is wanted by the European market,
and the pure cultures on the market, when used with
pasteurized cream, do not produce such a butter. The
expense of pasteurization of the cream and the absence of
proper apparatus, or non-introduction of such as have
proved successful in European practice, furthermore tend
to explain why our butter-makers do not generally pasteur-
ize the cream in using pure culture-starters.

The two pure cultures now on the market in this country
are Chr. Hansen’s Lactic Ferment and Conn’s culture (B.
41, Conn Culture Co., Waterloo, Ia., and Conn Butter
Improvement Co., Philadelphia, Pa.). The former is of
Danish origin, and is one of the standard pure cultures
used in the Scandinavian countries; the latter was described
by its originator in the author’s Dairy Calendar for 1896.
Both these cultures are placed on the market in dry form,
the one as a powder, the other as pellets. Directions for
using the cultures accompany each package sold. In
general, the method to be followed is to seed the culture in
a quantity of sterilized skim-milk or cream; this is kept for
one to two days at a temperature below go° (B. 41 70°,
Lactic Ferment 86°); the starter is then mixed with the
cream to be ripened, generally adding about 2 percent. The
cream will be ready for churning the next day. A portion
of the starter prepared is used for the seeding of a new lat
of sterilized skim-milk, which will make the starter for the
following day, and the same process is continued until
deterioration of the starter sets in, as shown by lack of
flavor in the ripened cream and in the butter; a fresh batch
is then prepared from a new package of ferment. If proper

BUTTER. 235

care in Sterilizing the skim-milk and in handling the starter
is taken, the pure culture may be propagated in this manner
for months. With lack of cleanliness and care it must be
renewed every other week or oftener.

While the use of pure cultures has not as yet become
general in American creameries, the agitation caused by
their introduction and the discussions in dairy papers and
dairy meetings which they have brought about have doubt-
less been of great benefit to our dairy industry in empha-
sizing in the minds of butter-makers the necessity of
thorough cleanliness in the creamery and the importance
of the proper conduct of the ripening process for the
manufacture of high-grade butter. They have enabled us
to make butter of uniform fine flavor and of greater keep-
ing quality than was previously possible.

Where abnormal fermentations appear, and the butter
produced is diseased or ‘“‘off flavor,” the evil may be
remedied by the use of purecultures. In case of the estab-
lishment of an export trade of American butter of high
quality, the pure cultures used in connection with previous
pasteurization of the milk or cream will prove of great
benefit, insuring uniform goods and perfect keeping quality
in the product.

The use of pure culture-starters in the manufacture of
Cheddar cheese is of recent date, and but limited experience
has so far been gained in this line. According to the
testimony of some of our leading cheese-makers, and of
recent experiments conducted at Wisconsin experiment
station, their use for this purpose is very beneficial, cheese
of improved, clean flavor and high keeping qualities being
produced. Pure cultures may therefore be safely recom-
mended for this purpose. The general method of applica-
tion is similar to that followed in the manufacture of pure
culture butter. The starter is propagated in sterilized
milk and kept at go° F. for one day, when it will be slightly
lobbered, having an acidity of about .8 per cent. Mr.
Decker of the Wis. Dairy School gives the following hints
on the use of the starter by the cheese-maker:

‘The starter is introduced into the milk by rubbing it

236 DAIRYING.

through a fine hair sieve so as to break up curd particles.
If too large quantities of starter is used, there is a tendency
to produce a sour cheese. The best results are obtained
when a 2 per cent Starter, of the acidity given, is added.

‘In propagating the starter from day to day care must be
taken to keep it free from contamination. It should always
be prepared in a covered vessel that has previously been
sterilized, and the milk used should first be pasteurized
(or sterilized) and chilled before adding the ‘seed.’ Some
of the original starter should be taken for ‘seed,’ not the
whole milk after the starter has been added.

‘« The starter cannot be used for cheese-making if the milk
is overripe, which is the case when the rennet test is 65
seconds or under (see p. 251). In sweet milk, testing by
the rennet test 120 seconds, the addition of a 2 per cent
starter will increase the acidity, so that the rennet test will
act in 70 seconds. '

‘‘With sweet milk the use of a pure lactic starter will
result in the saving of 3-5 hours in time. With tainted
milk in which the acid develops imperfectly the addition
of the starter aids in producing the acidity required for the
manufacture of Cheddar cheese.”

BOYD’S PROCESS OF CREAM RIPENING.

By Joun Boyp, Chicago, Ill.

It is an accepted fact that the fine aromatic flavor and
also the keeping properties of butter depend largely upon
the treatment of the cream from the time it is separated
from the milk until it is ready for the churn, that is, in
the best possible condition to yield the maximum quantity
and the best quality as to flavor, texture, solidity, etc.,
free from casein and other undesirable substances. This
perfect condition of cream is understood by the term
“‘ripened cream,’’ and when this condition can be pro-
duced by the butter-maker with uniformity, regardless of
the seasons of the year or extremes of climate, the process
may be reckoned as nearly perfect as possible, and not
until then. Itis most desirable that the process be as sim-

BUTTER. 28

ple as possible, in fact within the reach of every creamery
and dairyman in the country, and all the means required to
attain these results can and should bea part of every dairy
and creamery, large or small.

Boyd’s process or system of ripening cream or milk is
the result of years of practical work in a private dairy of
about 40 Jersey cows. After it had been thoroughly tested
and used, during all the seasons of the year, it was pat-
ented in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain,
and given to the public in the year 1889, a very consider-
able time in advance of any of the artificial methods of
ripening, now being advocated under the representations
of ‘‘ pure cultures of bacteria.’’

When first introduced it was met by a sea of opposition
from the experts, who would see nothing good in it, but
gradually it has been making its way in a quiet manner
into popularity until at present it is being successfully
practised in every state in the Union, and is gaining favor
every day with the most practical butter-makers.

The apparatus necessary to practise the process supplies
all the conditions required to produce a uniform result every
day in the year, the temperature of the lactive ferment
and also of the cream being entirely under the control of
the operator during the entire process:

The directions for using the process, which go with every
purchase of the apparatus, are as follows:

To make the Best Ferment.—Take milk from fresh-milk-
ing cows (that from pregnant cows will not answer); sub-
merge the milk warm from the cows in Cooley cans in ice
water. Skim at twelve or twenty-four hours, as most con- .
venient, and use this skimmed milk for making the fer-
ment; or select milk as above, run it through a separator,
and save the skimmed milk for making the ferment.

The skimmed milk so selected is then brought to a tem-
perature of go°, in a water bath, being constantly stirred
during the operation of heating. As soon as the tempera-
ture of the milk reaches go’, place it in the fermenting-can
and close the cover tightly, having first rinsed out the can
with warm water. Allow the can to remain closed for

238 DAIRYING.

twenty or twenty-four hours, when the ferment will be
found thick and in the proper condition for mixing with
the cream or milk to be ripened.

How to use the Ferment.—First bring the cream or milk
in the vat to a temperature of 66° to 70° Fahrenheit, when
the ferment is to be thoroughly mixed with the cream or
milk in the proportion of 2 per cent of the ferment to the
amount of cream or milk to be ripened. Remove one or
two inches of the top of the ferment, which is not desirable
to use, and strain the rest through a fine strainer or hair
sieve into the milk or cream. The finer the ferment is
broken up the more effective its operation will be. After
the cream or milk and ferment are well stirred and mixed
at the above temperature, the vat must be closed and al-

lowed to remain undisturbed until the cream is ripened,-

requiring from twenty to twenty-four hours for the opera-
tion; the cream when ripe will be found thick, mildly acid,
and in the proper chemical condition, requiring only to be
cooled to the proper temperature for churning.

Churning.—The best temperature for churning depends
so much upon circumstances that the range is very wide,
from 55° to 68° Fahrenheit. The richer the cream in but-
ter-fat the colder the temperature should be, and the more
milk the cream contains the higher the churning tempera-
ture should be. After the cream or milk and ferment are
mixed, no more stirring is admissible, as any agitation of
the cream afterwards retards the ripening process.

Butter by Shallow-pan Creaming.—Raise the cream in a
temperature of about 60° F.; avoid as much as possible
skimming milk in with the. cream; ripen at abuut 68° fP.;
churn at 60° to 62°. Free the granules of butter from the
buttermilk by washing in water, temperature about 55°.
Salt, I oz. to 1 lb. of butter.

Butter by Deep Cold Setting and Cooley System.—Raise the
cream in ice-water; milk may be skimmed in with the
cream or not as desired; with the Cooley cream a very
considerable portion of milk added to the cream will pro-
duce no bad effects. Ripen at a temperature of 68° by
adding lactive ferment; churn at temperature of 58° to 65°:

BUTTER. 239

wash the granules in water, temperature 50° to 55°, and
salt as above.

Butter from Separator Cream.—Cool the cream from sep-
arator to 66° to 68°, add lactive ferment, and churn at 55° to
58°, according to the percentage of butter-fat in the cream.
The cream should be cooled after ripening so that the
temperature of the cream will register not over 55°. This
cooling requires time and patience, but will be rewarded
with solid granules. Wash in water at 50 to 52°. Salt,
Foz. to.1 1b. of butter.

Good butter should not contain more than 16% of water
(and may contain as little as 8%) when properly worked.
It is sufficiently worked when it presents a delicate elastic-
ity to the touch, and when broken should show a perfect
uniformity of grain and color.

ae ALKALINE TABLET TEST OF ACIDITY IN
MILK OR CREAM.

By Prof. E. H. Farrineron, of Wisconsin Dairy School.

Since this test was first described by the author, a
number of changes have been made in the way of
using it.

Reliable results are now obtained with less and simpler
apparatus than when the test was originally published.
“At the present time it is used for two purposes.

First.—For testing the acidity of milk. To detect those
lots which are apparently sweet, but too nearly sour for
pasteurizing, for retailing, or for making the best butter
or cheese.

Second.—F or testing the acidity of each lot of cream dur-
ing its ripening, to trace the progress of its souring, and to
show whether the fermentations should be hastened or
checked in order to have the cream in a certain acid condi-
tion at a given time and ready for churning.

In addition to the tablets, the only apparatus necessary
for testing the acidity of either milk or cream is a common
white teacup, a 4, 6 or 8 oz. bottle, anda No. 10 brass car-
tridge-shell or similar measure. The testing solution is

240 DAIRYING.

prepared by dissolving one tablet in one ounce of water.
Thisisthe standard. Four ounces of the tablet solution are
made by filling a four-ounce bottle with water and adding
to it four tablets. The No. 10 shell is filled with the milk
or cream to be tested. This measured quantity is poured
into the white cup. The same measure is then filled with
the tablet solution and this is poured into the cup. The
two liquids are thoroughly mixed and the color of the mix-
ture is noted. If there is no change of color, another
measure of tablet solution is added. This is continued
until the sample which is being tested becomes of a pink
color. As soonas the pink color is obtained no more tablet
solution is added. The per cent of acid in the sample
tested is found from the number of measures of tablet
solution it is necessary to add to one measure of the
sample in order to produce the pink color. Each measure
of tablet solution represents one tenth of one per cent
acid.

A more exact testing of acidity can be made by using a
20-cc. pipette for measuring the milk or cream to be tested
and a 50-cc. graduated cylinder for the tablet solution.

Five tablets are dissolved in 50 cc. of water in the
cylinder, and this solution is gradually poured into the
20 cc. of milk or cream in the white cup. When sufficient
tablet solution has been added to produce the pink color in
the sample tested, the operator observes on the scale of the
graduated cylinder the number of cc. tablet solution used
and from this calculates the per cent of acid in the sample
tested. Each cc. of this tablet solution is equal to 0.0034
gr. lactic acid, and when 20 cc. of a sample is tested, each
cc. of the tablet solution is equal to .o17 per cent acid in
the sample.

Milk does not smell or taste sour until it contains from
three to four tenths of one per cent acid. It has been
found, however, that milk containing over two tenths per
cent acid cannot be safely pasteurized, because such milk
sours very soon. These tablets supply a quick means of
selecting the sweetest of different lots of sweet milk, by
showing which contain less than two tenths of one per
cent acid.

BUTTER. 241

Cream is o1cu ripened so far that the qua.ity of the but-
ter is injured. The usual method of the butter-maker for
testing the sourness of the cream is by the sense of smell
and taste. A tablet test shows exactly what per cent cf
acid each lot of cream contains, so that the butter-maker
is better able to manufacture a uniform grade of butter by
ripening his cream to the same point before it is churned.
Sweet cream contains abouto.15zacid. Cream has reached
the proper point for churning when it contains about six-
tenths per cent acid. As the souring of cream is largely
influénced by the temperature at which it is held, the but-
ter-maker is able to know from an acid test of the cream
whether it should be warmed or cooled in order to have tt
ready for churning at a given time and just sour enough
for making butter of good flavor.

DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF MANNS’ TEST
FOR ASCERTAINING THE ACIDIVY OF
CREAM.

1. Stir the cream thoroughly; insert small end of pipette
in cream and draw until nearly full; then put the finger over
upper end of pipette and allow cream to escape slowly (by
admitting air) until mark on neck of pipette is reached.
Transfer to a tumbler, rinse the pipette three times with
lukewarm water, adding the rinsing water to the cream in
the tumbler. Now add to contents of the tumbler three
drops of the solution marked “‘ Indicator” (phenolphtalein).

2. Fill the burette up to the o mark with the solution
marked ‘‘ Neutralizer”’ (alkali solution).

3. While constantly stirring the cream with the glass rod,
allow the liquid to flow from the burette into the tumbler
until the entire contents of the tumbler shows a pink tinge.
Stop adding the solution from the burette the moment the
color is permanent.

4. Read the level of the liquid remaining in the burette.
The reading shows the amount of acid present.

The experience of those using the test indicates that
where the acidity of the cream is right, to secure the best
results in yield and flavor of butter, from 38 to 42 cc. of the
neutralizer will be required for the test. It is a simple

242 DAIRYING.

matter for each butter maker to learn by experiment the
exact degree of acidity and churning temperature suited to
the best results, and with these as standards reduce the
process of butter-making to a certainty. By testing his
cream in the afternoon the butter-maker will be able to set
it to ripen at such atemperature that it will show the proper
acidity for churning next morning.

In testing the milk for cheese-making the same directions
are to be followed, excepting that a much less acid condition
is required; probably 15-20 cc. will give the best results.
The whole numbers are cubic centimeters; the intermediate
divisions are fractions of a cubic centimeter.

Precautions in Using the Test.—The solution marked ‘‘Neu:
tralizer” is prepared of acertain strength. It is essentia.
that this strength remain constant. Never let this solution
stand without a stopper. Keepin glass or stoneware.

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. (Konic.)

- | Sweet} Sour
Aver- | Mini- pes Cream | Cream
BES re Butter.| Butter.

No. of analyses included....... 302 to II
LIS Ie Ps es One. P AVE |) e5ore 12.93 | 13.08
Ars sete eicter tic a tai Stee ol hassle vores 69.96 | 86.15 | 84.53 | 84.26
CARPIN ee sm oe aed A ) 19 4.78 - >
Milk sugar .50 68
Lactic acid.............s.0e0.. 6a]! 2450) F-260| o
PAST ein Paso aiekaaje, afeieyo 3. 0's,< ar¥s .66 £624 10.08 1.25 I.19

100.00

AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SWEET
CREAM- AND SOUR CREAM-BUTTER.

(FLEISCHMANN. )

Made from Sweet Made from Sour

Cream, not Salted. Cream, Salted.
Not Not

inactita. Washed. dette Washed

Per ct. Penct Perce Perict

Woeter oof sitar; ie wes oc 15.00 15.00 12.00 12.50
sc, PEP RE ee ae eee 83.47 83.73 84.75 84.62
Casein and albumen ... ake .60 55 50 48
Other organic substances.... . .80 .60 55 .40

Ash orash and osaltss<e2 22. ae fre .12 2.20 2.00

BUTTER. 243

ANALYSES OF PREMIUM BUTTERS, FAT-STOCK
SHOW, CHICAGO, 1889.—IN PER CENT. (Mozrow.)

*
vo .

Description of Samples. = 8 5 ogi
on] © | # | 5 |a
aT Se ae ore

i. Sweepstakes—Creamery, gathered cream...|96 9.99] 85-41|1.01|3.58
2 whole milk........ 94 | 12.19] 82.66)1.21|/3.93
& = IDE Tia aba ae Ros ae ee a eCOreee 03 8.49] 86.53] .86|4.12
4. = roma eradecow.- +... =-- 95-5| 9-71| 85.96|1.03/3.29
5. First prize—From a Jersey COW. <2... -4- gt 8.99| 88.08] .79]2.13
6 From a Shorthorn cow......... QI 12.07| 84.79|1.34]1-79
asia. pe From an Ayrshire cow ........ 93 9-53] 86.53] .81/3.32
ce oe BProm.a. Deyon'cow... .--=- =-< 87 | 10.78] 86.20] .72/2.29
ga s From a Holstein cow.........-. g2.5| 10.56] 85.53] .88/3.03

PASTOLAG ES. cialeys e016) Seri aiciateteere cay tecieinnieeieniss 92.5] 10.23] 85.74] .96/3-05

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF EUROPEAN SAM-
PLES OF BUTTER.

Spek French, a
0.8 ° > ss
vo ° a j as =}
Bo) | a 3 o =i 8 JB2ar cS
smi] oa s | ga |e] ws |sAml «
n Q nN un | YP = | a)
Number of samples
AMANYZEG sir is's:s e'ehe- 28 12 40 5 78 15 24 50
WALCTE EE occ aa sascis 5s II.99| 13-35| 13-84] 12.05] 13.73] 15.33| 12.22| 11.64
PAG 5 sa. 3- Sorel tie 85.47| 83.40] 84.35] 84.34] 84.82] 83.00] 85.68] 86.93
Casein, milk-sugar, 6
lactic acid, etc. £10! ©. 30) x.23| F-60| 7.36) 3.47) 1.26 -60
Salter tak wclmee cess Dig5|eerco -58| 2.01 .09 -20 84 .83

FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE YIELD OF
BUTTER.

In ordinary dairy or creamery practice, where moder.
methods of creaming and churning are applied, the yield
of butter will exceed that of fat in the milk by 15 to 16 per
cent, or I pound of fat in the milk will produce about 1.15
pounds butter, i.e., yield of butter from roo lbs. of milk =
1.15f, f being the per cent of fat in the milk.

Fleischmann’s formula:

Yield of butter = 1.167 — .25

* The standard of the scale of points ina total of 100 was: Flavor, 45;
grain, 30; color, 15; salting, 10,
+ Chiefly salt.

244 DAIRYING.

Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the
Amount of Butter-fat.—The following resolution was passed
by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and
Experiment Stations at the annual convention of the asso-
ciation, July, 1895:

“Resolved, That this association recommends to the
several stations that the results of tests of dairy cows or
‘herds be expressed in terms of butter-fat, and that when
desirable to express these records in terms of approximate
equivalent in butter such equivalent be computed by multi-
plying the amount of butter-fat by 1}.”’ (Report of Curtiss,
Armsby, and Cooke.)

The factor 13 is based upon the results of the Columbian
dairy test, in which it was found that on the average 117.3
lbs. of butter were made from each 100 lbs. of butter-fat in
the whole milk.

AMOUNT OF BUTTER OBTAINED FROM 100 LBS.
OF CREAM OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS. (Martiny )

Per Ct.Fat| Yield of ||Per Ct. Fat] Yield of Per Ct. Fat| Yield of

in Cream. Butter. in Cream. Butter. in Cream. Butter.

lbs. lbs. | lbs
15 34°5 22 50.6 29 66.7
16 36.8 23 52-9 30 69.0
17 39.1 24 55.2 31 71.3
18 41.4 25 57-5 32 73-6
19 43-7 26 59-8 33 759
20 46.0 27 62.1 34 78.2
21 48.3 28 64-4 35 80.5

BUTTER. 245

YIELD OF BUTTER FROM MILK OF DIFFERENT
RICHNESS. (Kircuner.)

zoo lbs. of milk will yield the number of pounds of butter given in the
tabie. (Percentage creaming, 16 per ct.; fat in butter, 83 per ct.)

Per cent. of Fat in Skim-milk.

Per cent. of
Fat in Milk.

20 30 40 .50

2.5 2.697 2.600 2.503 2.406
2.6 2.812 2.716 2.618 2.522

e .2.7 2.928 2.832 2.734 2.638
2.8 3-044 2.948 2.850 2.754
2.9 3.160 3.063 2.966 2.869
3-0 3-276 3.178 3-081 2.984
3-1 3.392 3-293 3-207 3+100
3.2 3-508 3+409 3+313 3-216
3-3 3-624 3-525 3-429 3-332
3-4 3-739 + 3-641 3-544 3-447
3-5 3-854 3-757 3-659 3-562
3-6 3-969 3-873 3+774 3-677
3-7 4-084 3-989 5-890 3-793
3.8 4-200 4-105 4-006 3-909
3-9 4.316 4.220 4.122 4.025
4-0 4-432 4-335 4.238 4-141
4.1 4-547 4-450 4-352 4-257
4-2 4.663 4-565 4.468 4-373
4-3 4-779 4.081 4-584 4-489
4-4 4-895 4-797 4-700 4-604
4-5 5.O1L 4-913 4.816 4-719
4.6 5.127 5-028 4-932 4-834
4-7 5-243 5-144 5-048 4-949
4.8 5-359 5.260 5-164 5.005
4-9 5-474 5-376 5.280 5.18¢
5-0 5-589 5+492 5-395 5-297

246 DAIRYING.

POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED TO MAKE ONE
POUND OF BUTTER.

Per Cent Lbs. of Milk per Per Cent Lbs. of Milk per
- Fat in Milk, 1 lb. of Butter. | Fat in Milk. 1 lb. of Butter.
hy SP ae As A 5.Uss ss eh kes a
[320 Se Aa eee 29.0 oy See ee 16.7
Bicatah acaba nes Spee ee RENE Retin 16.1
Modieb ake ses «6 25.5 RO... oe ete cece ee 15.5
Gone et es nu Rew = 24.2 ep RRR AS 15.0
BeG ask we tetas « 22.9 én, Aen rut 6 14.5
Ob cn aed ate © « 21.7 Gidcia. eh eee 14.0
ee arches ox agin jen 0 20.7 Onc. gt ake ak eee 13.6
Dy Sa ir ee 19.8 GOss sacelns iso ae Shee
cE ee ee Oe 18.9 OSs 5 cele sve ee 12.8
Bea eieke ace Sop tebe | Jiu os se shee ee 12.4
Lbs. of Milk per Per Cent Lbs. of Milk per Per Cent
1 lb, of Butter. Fat in Milk, 1 lb. of Butter. Fat in Milk.
Oe ae tS > s G70 lesa cis was eee 3.34
Rie dinnake inte x60) re iensnaned 3.22
Eis iG Gites mp © 4 7.25 OB win dine tiny hee 3.15
hee eS ee 6.69 0 ea a ooo ae
EA. cawentiee sos 0.20 SBF mvc ese niat 2.90
coe tees asta ss 5500 SE pew 5 0 eae 2.81
BO. ecce rasa ck Seda VME EC ieee:
(i Aree ty ee me ee Ce GOCE ob ries. 2.64
TO id tee ale « pia os Sha tenements 2.56
EG roan fare +e us «56 5 Sc ses sees cee
Con steko eaneens G55 SOr. ccs on ote, eee
op ee ete 4.14 B39 . sate 's.c abe ee
AOE te 3.95 Si cance cee coe 2.29
ES ewes aes es 3.70 BEY, aie Sine ew cove 2023
ee «G2 6 ee 2.17
Be SWAG walten a 3.47

The two preceding tables are based on ordinary creamery
experience, I pound of fat in the milk producing 1.15
pounds of butter.

BUTTER. 247

NUMBER OF POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED FOR
MAKING ONE POUND OF BUTTER. (KrrcHner.)

Lbs. Butter per | Lbs. Milk per x Lbs. Butter per | Lbs. Milk per 1
too lbs. of Milk. lb. of Butter. too lbs. of Milk, lb. of Butter.

2.4 41.67 3.8 26.32
2.5 40.00 3-9 25.64
2.6 38.46 4.0 25.00
2.7 37 +04 4-1 24-39
2.8 35-71 4.2 23.81
~ 2.9 34.48 4:3 23.26
3-0 33-33 4-4 22.73
S05 32.26 4-5 22.22
3.2 31.25 4-6 21.74
3-3 30.30 4-7 21.28
3+4 29.41 4.8 20.83
3°5 28.57 4-9 20.41
5.6 27.68 5-0 20.00
3:7 27.03 5:5 18.18

DISTRIBUTION OF MILK INGREDIENTS IN
BUTTER MAKING. (Cooxz.)

: =| Proportion
a d|gis of the Total
a's D sp iiaa, ls 3 Milk Fat
on = ra © |=n| & | found in the
eH fy Oo j|ala |< Product.
lbs. | Ibs. | Ibs. |1bs.| Ibs.| lbs.
1000 lbs. of whole milk....]130.0 | 40.0 | 26.0 |7.0 |49.5] 7-5
800 lbs. of skim-milk. ...] 78.0 | 2.4 | 22.0 |6.0 |41.2| 6.4 6
CeolDS. OlGkeaAmus. 2. .6-2|| 52-0°] 3750 | 4.0 |F.0 | 8.3) Ex 94
187 lbs. of buttermilk.....] 14.91 8 St o7| O4leOeg| E0465 2
ase c.ibs, of butter... ....- 37-09] 36.8 BW cOO lee niente 92

SCORE FOR JUDGING BUTTER.
World’s Fair, Chicago,

1893.

BP LSCORIY Sauteed. Se ve cori wewedess: FAR

Ene eT eae

COlGE waincad case seeseeremntveeses 1G
ic DRETR tr sia eran s sin'sewalnieral o's aie ws

10
Pte lace io dis a nlcicin Renewees seu 5
100

248 DAIRYING.

This score has been adopted in judging butter exhibits
at various State fairs and dairymen’s conventions during
late years; in some cases the score has been changed to
50 for flavor and 5. for salting, otherwise as above, or to
flavor 40, grain 30, with other points as above.

Minimum number of points entitling exhibitors to a
premium:

Wisconsin Dairymen’s Association, 93, 95, and 94 points,
for dairy, separator creamery. and gathered-cream butter,
respectively.

New York State Fair, 75 points.

ENGLISH SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING
BUTTER. (McConne tt.)

Perfection, 100.

25 Flavor: nutty, aromatic, sweet.

20 Moisture: as free from beads of water as possible.

10 Solidity: firm, not melting easily, nor softening.

25 Texture: closeness of grain, distinct fracture; not

greasy. Sat

to Color: natural, even.

1o Make: remaining points, cleanliness, salting, nicely
— put up, etc.

SCORE IN JUDGING PROFICIENCY OF BUTTER-
MAKERS.

(Adopted by British Dairy Farmers’ Association.)

Butter-making.
Preparation of cream.,.... eee be 4 | Salting... . 2.2... 68 L wste'stplate sipreaae
SS MILENSHS 2. oth, 25,2 0 6:| Making up.© ox: \c.cc. oma eee 15
Ventilation of churn.. - Flavor and color.. .
Judgment and skill in ‘churning... Texture and freedom from moist-
Washing butter in churn... ..... = ULre; - 26. b ous): wc ee 7
Use of strainer..... SN epanaetaies --. 4| Cleaning utensils ... z
“6 aS" chermometer.. ..3.35e 006 - S47 Romaty and cleanliness of work-
“ * butter-worker evtee eeoeeesce 7 ing.- sees eee eee eee eeeeeea~ re

BUTTER. 249

AMERICAN SCORE FOR JUDGING PROFICIENCY
OF BUTTER-MAKERS.

(Proposed by F. W. CuLBerTson.)

Points. Points.

Preparation an -emperature of Pseof thermometer. ..... i. -~-

CHEST “esse a 8 | Making up and neatness of pack-
Straining cream and use of ADE RSS Ae: Rechts cats, Sere TO

SATE Oe ate eee eee 5 | Grain and quality of butter......
Woloand HavOore 5.2.2 )Sh5 24>. 6 6| Cleaning utensils: churn and
Judgment and skill in churning WOLKGR oa oc isha ue aes Meee 7

and bitter-working... ........ EO PAIN CHUL. 07 cncecleneiacecret 3
Butter in granular form..... .. 8 | Testing buttermilk.............. 3
Washing butter in churn....... 7 | Neatness of person and cleanli-
MEINE Cte ad Seeds a s\leemees gens 5 MESS OF WORK HSI5524 .ig5 hae eee

Perfection........ Sawer e wal siciaseveatee Like cars hic d a setose tere Seca sturance 100

250 DAIRYING.

V. CHEESE.
HOW AMERICAN CHEESE IS MADE.

By Joun W. Decker, of Wisconsin Experiment Station, Author of
“ Cheddar Cheese Making.”
A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese.

As soon as the milk is received at the factory it is heated
to 86° F. and a rennet test made.*

If the milk is not ripe enough it is held till the proper
acidity is reached. Ii the milk is very sweet a starter of
sour milk is added to hasten it. The milk should be set at
such a ripeness that there will be one eighth of an inch
of acid (fine strings) on the hot-iron in two hours and a half
from the time rennet is added.

If the cheese is to be colored the color is added just be-
fore setting the milk. When it is thoroughly stirred in,
we can add the rennet. The amount of rennet to be used
depends on the kind of cheese desired. Ii a soft fast-cur-
ing cheese is wanted, enough rennet is used to coagulate
the milk in fifteen to twenty minutes; if a slow-curing
cheese, enough to coagulate in thirty to forty-five minutes.
It is stirred in thoroughly in four or five minutes and then
the dipper is run lightly over the top, to keep the cream
down till the milk begins to thicken, when a cloth cover is
spread over the vat and the coagulation allowed to continue
till the curd will break clean over the fingers.

* The Monrad rennet test is recommended. It consists of a 160 cc. tin
cylinder for measuring the milk, a 5 cc. pipette, a 50 cc. graduated flask,
and a half-pint tin basin. The rennet is measured with the 5 cc. pipette
and delivered into the socc. flask, the rennet adhering to the pipette being
rinsed into the flask with a little water. The flask is then filled with water
to the so cc. mark, and the solution mixed by shaking. The milk, the
temperature of which should be 86° F., is measured in the tin cylinder,

emptied into the half-pint basin, and 5 cc. of the dilute extract is measured
into the 160 cc. of milk, and the number of seconds required to curdle it

noted. Ifa few specks of charcoal are scattered on the milk and the milk _

started into motion around the dish with a thermometer, the instant of
curdling can be noted by the stopping of the specks. They will stop so
suddenly as to seem to Start back in the opposite direction. The Jtarskali }
rennet test is a very Convenien: “device for ascertaining the exact moment —

of coagulation.

Lee at

a. 7%
a

re ee

CHEESE. 251

The curd is then cut, using the horizontal knife first and
cutting lengthwise of the vat. The cutting is finished from
this point with the perpendicular knife, the curd being
thus cut into cubes one half inch in diameter.

Without waiting for the curd to settle, we begin stirring
very carefully with a wire basket, and rub the curd off from
the sides of the vat withthe hand. Assoonas this is done
we turn on the heat carefully and raise the temperature
slowly to 98° F.; when the curd is firm enough a wooden
rake is used to stir it. The temperature is raised at the
rate of one degree in four or five minutes.

As soon as the temperature of 98° F. is reached we begin
trying the curd on the hot-iron for acid. We must have the
curd firm enough when the whey is drawn, so that a double
handful pressed together will fall apart readily. This is
the test for a proper cooking. When fine threads one
eighth of an inch in length show on the hot iron the whey
is ready to draw. This should be twoand a half hours
from the time the milk was set. The whey is drawn off by
means of a whey gate anc a whey strainer, and the curd
dipped into a curd-sink or on racks placed in the vat.
There should be racks in the curd-sink over which a linen
strainer-cloth is thrown. The curd is dipped onto this
cloth and the whey drains through. The curd should be
stirred, to facilitate the escape of the whey, and is then left
to mat together. In fifteen or twenty minutes it can be cut
into blocks eight or ten inches square, and turned over.
After turning several times these blocks can be piled two
or three deep. The acid will continue to develop in the
curd ; when it will string about an inch it will have as-
sumed a stringy or meaty texture, so that it will tear like
the meat on a chicken’s breast.

It is then run through the curd-mill and cut up into small
pieces. These pieces are stirred up every little while to air.
In the course of another hour and a half there will be two
inches of acid on the curd ; it will smell like toasted cheese
when pressed against the hot-iron, and when a handful is
squeezed, half fat and half whey will run out between the
fingers. It is then ready to salt. It is cooled to 80° F. be-

252 DAIRYING,

fore salting. Ifa fast-curing cheese is wanted we use two
pounds per hundred pounds of curd; twoand a half pounds
are used for a medium cheese, and three pounds fora slow-
curing cheese. The curd should be spread out at an even
thickness and the salt applied evenly. It should then be
thoroughly stirred several times.

As soon as the harsh feeling has left the curd it is ready
to go to press. The screw should be turned slowly, but
fast enough so that a stream of brine is kept flowing. The
full pressure should not be applied for ten minutes. In an
hour the bandages can be turned down, and full pressure
is then applied. Thecontinuous-pressure gang-press made
by D. H. Burrell and Co., is the most satisfactory, as the -
cheese will not loosen during the night. The next day the
cheese are placed on the shelves and the rinds greased.
They should be turned and rubbed every day. The tem-
perature of the curing-room should be 60° to 65° F., and
moisture should be supplied in dry weather. The cheese
are boxed and shipped in about a month.

B. Cheese Made on the Farm,

For a farm dairy it will be much easier to make uf
sweet-curd cheese than sour-curd cheese, described in the
preceding. For this purpose it is necessary to have a curd-
knife, a cheese-vat, and a cheese-press; the method of pro-
cedure is as follows:

The milk, which must be clean and sweet, is heated to
go° F., and if any artificial color is required it is added at
this time. Set the milk with enough rennet extract to co-
agulate in 20to 30 minutes. About four ounces of Hansen’s
rennet extract per 1000 lbs. of milk will prove a sufficient
amount.

As soon as the curd will break over the finger cut it
fairly fine; then raise the temperature one degree in 3
minutes until 108° F. is reached, at the same time stirring
carefully to keep the curd particles apart. Hold at 108° F.
till the curd is firm, that is, till the pieces do not fee] mushy.
Then draw the whey and stir till the whey is well drained
out. Salt at the rate of 2} lbs. of salt to 100 lbs. of curd,
and when the salt is well worked in, put it to press. The
cheese should be cured in a room (preferably a cellar)

CHEESE. 253

where the temperature can be kept at 60° F., otherwise it
will spoil. The cheese should be cured for two to three
months before it is sold,

CAUSES OF TAINTED MILK.

The causes of tainted milk have been classified as fol-
lows, by the Swiss scientist, Dr. Gerber:

1. Poor,decayed fodders,or irrational methods of feeding.

2. Poor, dirty water, used for drinking-water or for the
washing of utensils.

3. Foul air in cow-stable, or the cows lying in their own
dung. ;

4. Lack of cleanlineSs in milking; manure particles on
udder.

5. Keeping the milk long in too warm, poorly ventilated
and dirty places.

6. Neglecting to cool the milk rapidly, directly after
milking.

7. Lack of cleanliness in the care of the milk, from which
cause the greater number of milk taints arise.

8. Poor transportation facilities.

g. Sick cows, udder diseases, etc.

10. Cows being in heat.

11. Mixing fresh and old milk in the same can.

-2. Rusty tin pails ard tin cans (Béggild),

THE FERMENTATION TEST.

At cheese factories there is often, especially during hot
summer weather, a need of some test to discover the cause
of abnormal fermentations which show themselves in
tainted, pinholey, gassy, or floating curds. The trouble will
generally be found to lie in the milk furnished by one or a
few patrons who do not properly care for their milk, or
who allow diseased or tainted milk of any kind to be mixed
with the milk sent to the factory. The problem then is to
detect the origin of the ‘‘off’’ milk, so as to refuse taking
jt and thus prevent it spoiling the whole day’s make of
cheese. The experienced careful cheese-maker will be apt
to find out such milk from its odor or general appearance
when pouring it into the weighing-can, but it may some-

254 DAIRYING.

times escape attention. The Gerber fermentation test
(modified by Monrad) furnishes a convenient method for
discovering tainted milk. The test consists of a tin tank
which can be heated by means of a small lamp, and into
which a rack fits holding a certain number of cylindrical
glass tubes; these are all numbered and provided with a
mark andatin cover. In making the test the tubes are
filled to the mark with milk, the number of each tube being
recorded in a notebook opposite the name of the particular
patron whose milk was placed therein. The tubes in the
rack are put in the tank, which is two thirds full of water ;
the temperature of the water is kept at 104-106° F. for six
hours, when the rack is taken out, the tubes gently shaken,
and the appearance of the milk, its odor, taste, etc., carefully
noted in each case, The tubes are then again heated in the
tank at the same temperature as before for another six
hours, when observations are once more taken of the ap-
pearance of the milk in each tube. The tainted milk may
then easily be discovered on account of the abnormal coagu-
lation of the sample.

Gerber concluded from over 1500 tests made by this
method :

1. That good and properly handled milk should not co-
agulate in less than 12 hours, nor show anything abnormal
when coagulated.

2. If it does, it shows the milk to be abnormal, either on
account of its chemical composition or because it is impreg-
nated with too much ferment (rather, abnormal ferments,
causing an undesirable fermentation).

3. Milk from sick cows, cows that are strongly in heat,
or cows with diseased udders will always coagulate in less
than 12 hours.

4. Only about 20 per cent of the tests coagulated within
12 hours,

Monrad proposes the following rules for the adoption of
this test by cheese factories:

1. ‘‘A proper journal is kept of all the tests.

2. ‘‘ The patrons whose milk is tainted have to pay the
cost of making the test. DF

CHEESE. 255

3. ‘‘ The patrons whose milk is tainted will be kept track
of, and in case there is any loss caused thereby they will
have to Stand it.

4. ‘* Patrons having tainted milk shall be notified at once,
and another test made three days later. If then the milk
is still bad, a test of each cow’s milk is made on the farm
and otherwise the reason sought to be discovered, and until
then the milk will be refused.”

Another test published in the twelfth report of Wiscon-
sin EXperiment Station will prove very satisfactory for the
purpose of detecting gas-producing bacteria in milk. The
method, which calls for no special apparatus aside from a
number of pint fruit-jars, is operated as follows:

‘‘ Pint milk-bottles are sterilized in order to kill out any
adherent germ-life, and then filled two-thirds full with milk
from each patron, To each of these is added a definite
amount of rennet extract (ten drops), and the bottles then
immersed in warm water (g8°-100° F.). After the milk has
set, the curd is cut and cooked in the usual manner. The
whey is then poured off and the curds are allowed to mat,
their condition being noted from time to time. In this way
the normal conditions practised in cheese-making are ad-
hered to quite closely, so that practically the various stages
of making Cheddar cheese up tothe point of putting to
press is carried out, and the development of gas in the
curds can be noted with exactness. Observations are usu-
ally recorded after the lapse of about 4-6 hours and then
again on the following day.”

DETERMINATION OF HUMIDITY IN CHEESE-
CURING ROOMS.

The proper degree of humidity in the cheese-curing
room will vary with different kinds of cheese and at differ-
ent stages of the curing process. Green cheese should be
placed in a somewhat drier curing-room than older ; the
latter kinds, according to Fleischmann, require a relative
humidity of g0°-95°, against 85°-go”° for green cheese,

256 DAIRYING.

Kirchner states that the humidity of curing-rooms should
not, in general, go below 80° or above 95°. Temperatures
from 50°-70° F. are preferable in the curing-room.

The following temperatures and percentages of humidity
are recommended by Martiny:

Per Cent
; Deg. Fahr. Humidity.
(a) For hard cheeses (Swiss, etc.).

a iota i ee Rear pi Pe te ge tina Senge ee» 59-63 90-95
Whale Cured. ccc. a inser ta tata aie ere. ata tie EA 54-59 85-90
CETISEES oo Soca mara ai tapece ¢ie'w wees wel tat cage 50-54 80-95
(4) For soft cheeses (Limburger, etc.).....-... 50-59 80-95

In the interior of our continent it is somewhat difficult
to obtain as much moisture in the air of curing-rooms as is
represented by the preceding figures ; the relative humid-
ity of ordinary curing-rooms in this region, therefore, but
rarely goes over 60°. A higher degree of humidity may
be obtained by hanging wet sheets of canvas in the curing-
room (Decker), or by similar devices, as described in the
thirteenth ann. report of Wis. Experiment Station.

Self-recording thermometers are to be recommended for
use incuring-rooms. For observation of relative humidity
a wet and dry bulb thermometer, a Mittchoff’s hygrometer,
or a Lambrecht’s polymeter may be used to advantage.
Any of these instruments may be obtained through dealers
in chemical glassware or dairy supplies; the prices range
from $8 to $30,

CHEESE. 257

TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN
THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS. (Kinc.)

Directions.—Notice that the table is in three column sections. Find
air temperature in first column, then find wet-bulb temperature in second
column, same division. In third column opposite this is relative humidity.

Example.—Air temperature is 50°, in first column; wet-bulb is 44°, in
second column, same division. Opposite 44° is 61, which is the per cent
of saturation, or the relative humidity of the air.

Caution.—Fan the bulb briskly for a minute or two before taking reading.

40

42

43

44

258 DAIRYING.

HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS.— Con,

CHERSE. 259

HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS.— Cox.

SCORE FOR JUDGING CHEESE.

World’s New York, 1894.

Wisconsin
Fair % Dairymen’s
1893. For For Home |Assoc. 1894.
Export. Trade.
BI AMOR. ache sont. 5d 2B. 45 45 50 45
Texture (and body)....... 20 30 25 30
BONG crab htt icsst boa hs os 15 15 EB 15
SAU EA RBS Ae ee Io =
Make up (finish) ... ..... Io Io Io 10
100 100 I0o 100

ENGLISH SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING
CHEEHSE. (McConne :t.)

Perfection, 100.
35 Flavor: nutty, buttery.
25 Quality: mellow, rich, melting on tongue.
I5 Texture: solid» compact.
15 Color: natural-like, even.
to Make: remainder, due to good making, as cleanliness,

—— salting, perfect rind, etc.
100

260 DAIRYING,

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE.

(KOnIG.)

8 ls
<§/sa
i + .
Ord g . ae g Py cs :
62] 3 3 13.6.4\5-ee
Z Ee lot |O 9 ie ae
Cream qieree., Sib. sn ete ea 27 | 36.33| 40.71| 18.84] 1.02] 3.10
PulPereany cheeses ..20 2 sce ese. 143 38.00] 30.25] 25.35} 1.43] 4.07
Halieskim Cheeset:2:...40.0.005525 2: 21 39-79] 23-92] 29.67] 1.70] 4.73
Skitmcheese.. 4..4a¢e0 bl cbok caeane 41 46.00] 11.65] 34.06] 3.42] 4.87
SouPmilk CHEESE ibe ooh). wis dae gm 15 52.36] 16.03] 36.64 -90| 4.07
WiheyiGHeese: .2..c oes siten spect sos 7 | 23.66] 16.91| 8.90] 45.75) 4.78
VARIETIES AND ANALYSES OF CHEESE.
(McConnELt.)
Water. | Casein.| Fat. | Sugar,} Ash.
British, pressed— Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. |"Penct, | Ber et.
Cheddar, 3 months........ 36.17 | 24.93 | 32-83 |! 3.2% 3.86
Fe aarG ie Sok Grae ay 310% |) 26.3%.) 033-05 sede 3-93
e AVGIBRE., «ni.<.c0% 34.39 |) 20.38). 32.70 0\e- emer 3.58
Cheshixe, news.-.:..-ss00e 36.96 | 24.08 | 29.34) 5.17 4°45
s Old... 3 4--)sweessf- 92«899°| 32.52 | -26:06-)- gags 4.31
WEE DYi5. 2 = ope Ee kOe ay 31-68 | 24.50] 35.20 | 4.38 4-24
DUB lOMe foes ac, ses ec opeee 35.40 | 20.87.) au SO ul. .orieae 3.81
Gloucester (single)... ... .««] 32-50 ) 28.51.) 28.p3 amano 4.66
i (double)........ 35-00) \) 2u.g4). 4-20.85) |cceiaeee 4-07
British, soft—
OA ene ts a warts sire haysiaie i PP Aa 4°04: |) (62-90 )illsteice I.15
Stilton =... Sap ie ae of 30535. 1) "28.85, |. 35-90 9|) wateres eee
French, soft—
Bre ee ABO SEE Bocce 50.35 |) 27-18) | e52r2z 7). sec cca
Camembert...... Esierigee see 50.16 |fa585 i) wer’. 73 yl oe eee 3-89
Gervais (cream),.......0.0. 52.94 | 11.80 | 20.75 | 2.58 2.93
DieCOAIEL, sates ie nace «eo 44-47 |" 14.60 | 33-70)... eben 2.99
French, pressed—
(GIGUVELE, 2-5 «<r iaiclaw eve araia's. c's 34-87 | @5.87 | 28.ox .| deiner 3-84
ROGUGIONL 06. wawccceseesesh, -3L-20-)29.09-4- 23-30") 4.06 ocae
ie Bata éctii
am (round)......... asses} 30-20 |" 24.06 0.26) eeoee ie
Gouda (ilat):2;.- 2-2. sss.) 2i-g0 | a6egs airs scaeee i
German—
Backstein.. ... Jo Sogcopmeec Mie ex Sole) Grcoyatste: 2.80] 2.20 2.16
Swiss—
Backstetn. Os. mock cence 35.00. || 24.440)" —97 240 iene meas 2.36
Bellelay (soft): 22% 2c. a: 37-59 | 28.88 | 30.05 swoae 3.48
Hmmenthaler.c. ce .=ae cae ofr 35.14 | § 30.60 | o35-GO) |(5.\cere cael ae OO
Ltalian—
Gorgonzola........ Scvebreloc ese e4 4 O4n| 20,008 20 od alien seen 3.87
Parmesan, . ..cshQsi00. fii). at? eee || algo." aaa La eee 6.25
Various— mi
American factory...-....-. 25.93 || 38.12") ~34.55 wate ae
Foreign skim, average..... 46.08 | 33.37 | 10.54) 6.12 3-81
German sour milk.......... 63-63 | 25.27 485 Wace 3.67
Whey cheese (cow)........ 24.21 g.06 | 20.80 | 41.01 4.92
eb fe (goat)........ 25.29 9.10 | 20.98 | 29.21 3-88
Centrifugalskim-milkcheese! 50.5 43.1 ee aes eS 5.2

CHEESE. 261

DISTRIBUTION OF INGREDIENTS IN CHEESE-
MAKING, (Cookz.)

Total Casein | Milk-
: Fat. and Ash,
Solids. Albumen.| SU8T-

Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent

Gheeser.3..:2:-5 udpiae 54-2 go.6 77-4 5.0 36
Cheese-press drips... 9 4 6 rns I
A ha 44.9 9.0 22.0 93-5 63

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Io0o0

DISTRIBUTION OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS
IN CHEESE-MAKING. (Cooxez.)

Nitrogen. |Phosphoric Acid.| Potash.

lbs Ibs. lbs
1000 Ibs. of whole milk........ 5.30 I.90 1.75
Haass OL WHEY... co. acicjcio/0°5 <. 1.35 1.23 1.63
TOOWIIS: OF CHEESE. ccitasce dno os 3-95 .65 .12

FORMULAS FOR FINDING YIELD OF CHEDDAR
CHEESE.

The approximate yield of green cheddar cheese from 100
Ibs. of milk may be found by multiplying the per cent of
fat in the milk by 2.7; if f designate the per cent of fat in
the milk, the formula will therefore be:

Viel? of cheese = 2.777

The factor 2.7 will only hold good as the average of a
large number of cases. In extensive investigations during
three consecutive years Van Slyke found that the number
of pounds of green cheese manufactured for one pound of
fat in the milk varied from 2.51 to 2.06, the average figures
being 2.73, 2.71, and 2.72, for 1892-94, respectively. For
cured cheese the factor will be somewhat lower, viz., about
2.6 on the average.

If the percentage of solids not fat and of fat in the sam-
ple of milk are known, the following formula, published by
Dr. Babcock in the twelfth report of the Wisconsin Ex-

262 DAIRYING.

periment Station, will give close results (s = solids not fat;
= fat):
Vield of green cheese = 1.58($s +.91/).

This formula is based on a water content of 37 per cent
in the cheese; it may be readily changed to suit any par-
ticular per cent. The average percentages of water in
green cheese in Van Slyke’s investigations referred to
above were 36.41, 37.05, and 36.70 per cent for the years
1892-94, respectively.

If the percentages of casein and fat in the milk are both
known, the yield of cheese may be calculated from the fol-
lowing formula, which will give fairly correct results:

Yield of cheese = 1.1f + 2.5 casein. (Babcock.)

YIELD OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CHEESE FROM
100 LBS. OF MILK. (Fveiscumann.)

Green Cured
Cheese. Cheese.
lbs. Ibs.
Soft full-cream cheese intended for immediate

CONMAMIP LIONS «cence clare clayaie) eee oe eee ole ole 26-3300 Jcwe cesewnce
Very soft full-cream cheeses (Brie, Camembert,

Weuftchatel, ECC)... 2.42 sop nosed ciaae eae tee es 18-22 12-15
Somewhat firmer, full-cream soft cheeses (Lim-

burger, Remondon cheese, etc.)............- 13-16 Q-I1
Soft half-skim cheese (Limburg), 14 lbs. butter,and 12-13 g-11
Soft skim cheeses (@ 7a Brie, Camembert, Livarot.

Backstein, etc.), 3-3.4 lbs. butter and... ..... 75-12 6.5-9
Roquefort cheese (made from sheeps’ milk)...... 18 I2-14.5
Full-milk, from American and English cheeses, Q-II 8-9

and .75 lbs. whey-butter.

Full-milk from Dutch and Swiss cheeses........ 8-11 7-10
and .75 lbs. whey-butter.

Half-skim firm cheeses, 1.6 lbs. butter and..... * 7-10 5-8

Skim-milk cheese, 3-3.5 lbs. butter and..........- 5-7 4-6

Sour-milk cheese, 3-3.5 lbs. butter and..... Poeeel . Fe5—0 5-6

Scandinavian ‘‘Gammelost’”’......... sesccscscce!. 3-5-5-5 2-3
and 3-3.5 lbs. butter.

Whey cheese (“‘ Mysost”’) ....... sia ueene 6-7 antes sue totes

and butter and skim-milk cheese.

Whey in manufacture of full-cream cheese, 73-88 Ibs., average 81 lbs.
oe os oe e half-skim ee 72-80 “ iT 76 “
Silt = ‘* skim cheese 66-76 ‘“* 4 scope ay
Under similar conditions 5-7 lbs. less of whey are obtained in the manu-
facture of soft cheese than in that of firm cheese.
The Zoss sustained in the manufacture of cheese amounts on the average
to 3 lbs. per roo lbs. of milk, not considering the losses incurred in the
curing of the cheese.

_

CHEESE. 263

AVERAGE LOSS OF AMERICAN CHEDDAR
CHEESE IN CURING, (Bascock.)

na ex : Total Total
ee Bice ees eo Weight | Weight Loss.
So sb ng are = Cese-! ‘Green. | Cured
Days. Days. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. | Per Cent.
I I-10 6 99 2,812 2,741.5 70.5 2.51
2 II-20 16 242 73350.9 7,077-0 | 279.9 3-80
3 21-30 25 298 8,530.5 8,160.4 | 370.1 4.34
4 31-60 41 417 12,353-3 | 1,684.4 | 668.9 5-41
5 | Over 60 141 172 6,244.4 59730.0 | 508.4 8.11
Total number of cheese in preceding trials ........ cae Saye 1235.
Avetace weicht of gteen Cheese -.......55:4. 2.20. ae 30.2 lbs.
Ke temperature of curing-room..... 61° F.. (range 55-70°).
humidity of air in curing-room........ . 50 percent.
LOSS IN WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF
CHEESE DURING CURING, (Martiny.)
Per Cent.
Swiss (Emmenthal)—
made from whole milk will lose in........ 5 months 8-14
= ‘« half-skimmed milk will lose in 8 ” 15-20
a ‘* skim-milk will lose in........ 6 ae 12-15
Tilsit—
made from whole milk will lose in........ 4 sf 12-25
Dutch (Gouda)—
made from whole milk will lose in........ ee" 20-28
6c sé skim sé ‘6 6é COR SE Se 4 6s 15-25
American Cheddar—
made from whole milk will lose in........ 2 v 5
ae “ec ce “ec “ce “ce GOs A ees 4 ce 6-7
Limburger or Remoudon—
made from whole milk will lose in........ a4" 16-28
Brick cheese—
made from skim-milk will lose in........ at. SS 15-30
Camembert, Brie, Neufchatel, etc.—
made from whole milk will lose in........ 2 $ 20-35

Sour-milk cheese—

made from whole milk will lose in....... ait Ne 50-60

DAIRYING.

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CHEESE, 26%

WHEY TO BE ALLOWED AT CHEESE FACTORIES
FOR QUANTITIES OF MILK FROM 30 TO 360
POUNDS. (RosBeErtTson.)

The figures in the columns denote the inches of whey.

Weight of Diameters of Milk-cans in Inches.
Milk in
Pounds. 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12
30 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 5 6
35 2 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7
40 3 3 3 4 4 5 6 6 7
45 3 4 4 4 4 5 6 7 8
50 3 4 4 5 5 6 4 8 9
ss 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10
60 4 5 5 6 6 7 8 9 II
65 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
70 5 5 6 7 7 8 10 II 13
75 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 12 14
80 5 6 7 8 8 10 IL 12 15
85 6 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 16
go 6 7 7 9 9 II 12 14 17
95 6 7 8 9 10 II 13 15 18
100 7 7 8 9 Io 12 14 16 19
105 7 8 9 9 II 13 z 16 19
110 a 8 9 10 II 13 15 17 20
1I5 8 9 Io 10 12 14 16 18 21
120 8 9 10 II 12 14 17 19 22
125 8 9 10 II 13 15 17 19 23
130 9 Io II 12 13 16 18 20 24
135 9 10 Ir 12 14 16 19g 21
140 9 10 12 13 14 17 20 22
145 10 II 12 1 15 17 20 23
150 10 II 12 14 15 18 21 24
155 5 fe) II 13 15 16 19 22
160 II 12 13 15 16 19 22
165 II 12 14 16 17 20 23
170 II 12 14 16 17 20 23
175 12 13 15 16 18 21 24
180 12 13 15 17 18 22 24
185 12 14 15 17 19 22
190 13 14 16 18 19 23
195 13 14 16 18 20 23
200 13 15 17 18 20 24
205 14 15 17 19 21
210 14 16 18 19 21
215 14 16 18 20 22
220 15 16 18 20 23
225 15 17 19 2I 24
230 15 17 19 21 24
235 16 18 19 22
240 16 18 20 22
245 16 18 20 23
250 17 IQ 21 23
260 17 19 22 24
270 18 20 22
280 19 21 23
290 19 22 24 !
300 20 23 24
310 2t 23
320 21 24
330 22
340 23
35° 23

268 DAIRYING.

VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND
CHEESE FACTORIES.

PAYMENT OF MILK AT CREAMERIES AND
CHEESE FACTORIES.

Numerous systematic and extensive experiments by vari-
ous scientists have proved that the value of milk for both
butter and cheese production stands in direct proportion to
its fat content. Patrons of separator cheese and butter
factories should therefore receive payment for the milk de-
livered by them according to the percentage of fat in the
milk, i.e., according to the quantity of fat delivered in their
milk. The same applies to gathered-cream factories as
well.

The tables given on pp. 271-72 will aid in the calculation
of the value of milks of different richness, according to
prices agreed upon. In paying for the milk delivered by
patrons, four, or, essentially, three, different methods are
followed at different factories, all of which are just to all
parties concerned. The methods and the directions for
using the tables in each case are given below. The tables
and discussions entered upon are largely taken from Ver-
mont Experiment Station Bulletin No. 16.

CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 269

METHODS OF PAYMENT FOR MILK AT CHEESE
AND BUTTER FACTORIES.

I. A certain price is to be paid per one hundred lbs. of milk
containing a definite per cent of fat (e.g., $1.00 per 100 lbs.
of four per cent milk). By referring to the second half of
the table on p. 271 we find $1.00 opposite 4.00 per cent of
fat; the figures in the samecolumn as $1.00 then give the
value of 100 Ibs. of milk containing percentages of fat rang-
ing from 3.00 to 5.00; e.g., 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk is
worth 75 cents, of 4.5 per cent milk $1.13, of 5.40 per cent
milk $1.35, etc.

2. A certain price is to be paid per pound of fat delivered.
If 21 cents is the price agreed upon we multiply .21 by three,
and the product, .63, gives the amount in dollars to be paid
per 100 lbs. of three per cent milk. The column in which
the figure .63 occurs opposite 3.0 per ct. is then to be used
in the calculations as long as the price is paid, and 3.5 per
cent milk will be paid with 73 cents per I00 lbs., 5.3 per ct.
milk $1.10 per 100 lbs., etc.

Example: Patron A delivers 840 lbs. of milk during one
week, containing, according to the test made, 4.3 per cent
fat. Ifthe price agreed upon per pound of fat was as be-
fore stated, he is to receive go cents per 100 lbs. of milk, or
$7.56 in all.

Patron B, sending 625 lbs. of milk testing 3.45 per cent,
will receive 6.25 X .72 = $4.50, etc. In the table only
tenths of per cents are given; 3.45 being half-way between
3.40 and 3.50, for which percentages 71 and 73 cents areto
be paid respectively, we multiply by the mean of the two
vaiues, or .72. If atest differs less than five-hundredths
from any percentages given in the table, the nearest figure
is chosen.

3. Patrons are to be paid what is received for the butter, less
a certain amount for cost of making and marketing. Multiply
each man’s milk by the per cent of fat it contains, and the
sum of the several products will be the total amount of fat
contained in the day’s milk. Divide the pounds of butter
made from the milk by the pounds of fat it contained, to

270 DAIRYING.

find how much butter each pound of fat makes. Multiply-
ing the amount received per pound of butter, less the cost
of making, etc., by this last result will give the amount to
be paid for each pound of fat delivered.

Example: Suppose the patrons furnish milk containing
in all 400 lbs. of fat, which made 460 lbs. of butter, selling
for 27 cents per pound. The expense of making the butter
is found to be, e.g., 4 cents per pound. 27-4 = 23 cents;
460 divided by 400 equals 1.15; 23 multiplied by 1.15 equals
26.45, which is the amount, in cents, to be paid per pound
of fat delivered; 26.45 X 3 = 79.35, or nearest 79 cents, is
then the money to be paid for 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk,
and (see table) 90 cents for 100 lbs. of 3.40 per cent milk,
$1.24 for 100 lbs. of 4.7 per cent milk, etc.

4. A certain price is to be paid per 100 lbs. of milk of average
guality. Find the total fat contained in the milk as before;
divide this amount by the total weight of milk delivered,
and the result will be the average per cent of fat in the
milk. Starting from this per cent at the left of the table,
go to the right until the price per too lbs. agreed upon is
reached; the perpendicular column in which this figure is
found is the one to be used. Zxamfle: Suppose milk of
average quality is to be paid $1.00 per hundred pounds,
and the farmers furnish 8500 lbs. of milk, containing in all
440 lbs. of fat; 440 divided by 85.00 then equals 5.18, the
number nearest to which in the table is 5.20 per cent. To
the right of 5.20 per cent $1.00 is found in the column
headed .58, which column would be the one to use.

CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES.

271

' PRICE OF MILK OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS PER

100 POUNDS.

ig Price per 100 lbs. of Milk, in dollars and cents.
3.00 | 1.00 -97 -94 -gI .88 .86 -83 81 -79 77,
3-10 | 1.03 | 1.00 .97 -94 -QI .89 .86 84 .82 -79
BR 208 et. 07 5150.63; | .1.00 -97 94 -9I .89 .86 .85 .82
3.305! LtO4) 1.07 | 1.03 I.00 -O7 -94 -92 .89 .87 -84
@dOuler. 53% || £2104] “1.06 03 1.00 -97 -94 .92 -go .87
3a | 1.17 | 1.13 | 1.09 1.06 £09 | 1-00 -97 -95 -93 .89
S.60%/<n.20) | *r.16 | 1.12 1.09 1.06 | 1.03 | 1.00 -97 -95 -92
q-9O || st, 23 1! £29 | ix/76 I.12 T.a9 | x.00 | ‘¥.03'1 7.00 -98 -94
SB eSONete27 1) F.23" | 1,46 1.15 Tate) P09 W4k206i|. T2023 | 4k700 -97
3-90 | 1.30 | 1.26 | 1.22 1.18 Petoul u. E || Oo | )t.00 19 T.03 1.00
AO0—) £0.39 || £29) | ir. 25 1725 HenS: | xe" | xexx | e208 || .00. 1 102
ATOM) 30.37 | 4.32 | x28 1.24 Ee Srerere | Wee Pe EL | WeOo i tcOs
econ st. 40) 1.95. | 0.31 1.27 TPM al thes aaron geet iy | Ge oP De ete gal reo 7
42904445.) 30, | “1.94 L290 [pt 26 fr .2s | ee AQ at) ke gp Pat ko
#40 t-47. | 1. 42),| 1.38 Fes £.29):| 25.26), |\ 1.220) 05 19%) et6ae eae
Beso ESO! | r.45 | 1.41 1.36 E32) 1.20) | Bs25°| ws22 eer) peas
ae6oe) 1-53 |) 2.48 | 1.44 1.39 N35) Maga) Decos 25 peep eek
A.70%| 1-57 | r.52 | 1.47 1.42 £235) | a4 | Bagt | 2-28: | Tse4. | tezo
aes) 1.60: || 555°) 5.50 I.45 LAr | Laz | L233 f 1.30) 227) beg
2296/93 .03,| 5.58) | 1.53 1.48 EsAdal 1.40.) 1530 fe begzol, .Teeqe yas
5.00 | 1.67 | 1.62 | r-56. | 1.52 Edge) pe43 ||) Eeg0 || Hag6 | Eag2: |) ees
B-1o|7i67o |. t.65 | 1.50 1.55 1<50 | E46 | E.Az |} Fo39) |} L95) |} Pegs
Beam te7s | 1.68] x.63 1.58 Do59) [PLAS | Weds f Beg | Bag7 ft Legs
Reson weg |. L.70, | 166 £1.65 £50 |) beSr, |) B47) | bed |) Fagor Eas
BesOrpet<co |) E274. | 1.69 1.64 E.5O | L.54 |} P50 ft be47 |) Be42 | Bess
EeSOuledO3, || 2277 | Loge 1.67 T2602 |) P57 | Loh3e|) PSO | Less |} Pass
BROOWheEsO7 8 |-L-or)| 1.75 1.70 HOG eis 00" |) 256) | 5.52 [) rAd |) Eas
5.70 | 1.go | 1.84 | 1.78 eee be) 1.68 | 1.63 | 1.58 | 1.55 | 1.50 | 1.46
Reoolp I.O3"1 Tao7° | Flor 1.76 Ea7E [2.00 |) ecOr |) Ls57 |) Bea |i LAD
5-90 | 1.97 | 1-90 | 1.84 1.79 B74) (a2e69) |) 5564 |. 2-60: | mG6 |b ree
6.00 | 2.00 | 1.94 | 1.88 1.82 Ke JOE. 7k |eL.07 ier .62° | 155 Wx 5e
3.00 75 “73 71 +70 68 -67 .65 -64 -63 61
3-10 78 -75 73 -72 70 .69 .67 .66 -65 -63
3.20 80 -78 76 -75 73 rf -69 -68 67 -65
3-30 83 .80 78 77 75 -74 ~72 -70 -69 -67
3-40 85 .83 81 79 577. -76 74 73 Ff! -69
3.50 .88 .85 83 .82 -79 .78 -76 +75 ae 7
3-60 -9o -88 85 84 -82 -80 -78 -77 =75 -73
3-70 +93 -go 88 -86 -84 -83 .80 -79 -77 “75
3-80 95 -93 go 89 -86 85 .82 81 -80 -77
3-90 98 -95 92 -QI -88 .87 85 -83 .82 -79
4.00 | I.00 -97 95 -93 -QI .89 .87 85 -84 .8r
4.10 | 1.03 | 1.00 97 -96 -93 -QI .89 87 -86 83
4 20 | 1.05 | 1.02 | 1.00 .98 -95 .94 -QI -go -88 -85
BBO AT IOS NLT cOGU t.02 I.00 -98 -96 -93 -92 -go .88
4.40 | I.10 | 1.07 | 1:05 1.02 I.00 -98 305 -94 -Q2 -go

272 DAIRYING.

PRICE OF MILK PER 100 POUNDS.— Continued.

ae Price per 100 lbs. of Milk, in dollars and cents.

4-50 Nera) F405 | 1.07. 1.05 I.02 | I.00 07 -96 -94 -92
AOS Tas i 1. te 4) 2. rO I 07 1.05 | 1.02 | 1.00 -98 -96 .94
A<7O 1) F276 Ne TS) l\ ers 1.09 £507 | = 04 >| 027) sto .98 -96
#.60 | 2.20 | D.T7 || E.14 I.12 1.09, | 1.07 | 4.07 || <t.02 ||@meco -98
4-90) 1.23) || X.20'!| 2.77 1.14 r.I1 |. T.09 | 21.07 | 1.047] v.02 tae
ROO | £25 1) 1.22.1) 1G 1.16 E.14 | 2.5% | 2.009 | 0.060 | Won) aera
BLO (ee. 20 Wot 24.) ck 2 1.19 €.EG)|° £209*| Tur |r 09 7) ob iad
Be20) or 30.) 2.27) i] 24 1.21 T.18. |. r.26 | z.43 | a. ae] @. OSs eee
5.901) ©o35 | s2e | 120 1.23 1.20 |gt.18.| Z<15 | %.13 || Beto soe
dO Mets 5S) 1632) 2.29 1.26 T.23 | 1.20 | 2.57 | 2275 |) Been ee
BrsO Igor 1.94 | Sr 1.28 1.25 |) 1.22 | X20 | 4.17 |) ce eee
S166 | 1.40 1.97 || 1934 £90 | 1.27:] I-24 | ..22)) 1.10/4| ox eg eee
5-70 | 1.43 | 1.39 | 1.36 t-33 1.30 |, 1.27 | %.24 ) 2.20 | 2.70") tena
Boo} Sas. | ot.40. |. x,.39 1.35 1.92 [2-29 |-ax26 |) a@ 2g) || eo ae
5.90 | 1.48 | 1.44 | x.4r 1.38 1.34 |.I-3E | 2.28 |] 4.264) Goonies
6.00 | 1.50 | 1.46 | 1.43 1.40 1.30 | 2.33 | 2.30 | 2.28 |) nen lees

4.40 88 86 85 83 82 80 79 78 76! .75| .73
4.50 go 88 87 85 84 .82 81 79 79| .76) .75
4.60 g2 go 89 .87 86 -84 83 I Oo} Ol AF
4.70 04 g2 Fep 3 -89 88 -86 84 83 81 80} .78
4.80 96 94 93 -OI -go .88 86 85 -83| .81] .80
4.90 98 96 94 -93 QI -go 88 86 85} .83] .82
5.00 | I.00 98 96 -95 93 «QI go 88 -86} .85) .83
5.10 | 1.02 | 1.00 98 .96 95 -93 92 go -88} .86] .85
5.20'| 't.04' || r.02)| 1.00 -98 97 -95 93 92 -90] .88] .87
5.30 | 1.06 | 1.04 | I-02 | 1.00 99 -97 95 93 -92 go} .88
5.40 | 1.08 | 1.06 | r.04 | 1.02 | I.00 -99 97 95 -93 92] .90
5.50 | 1.10 | 1.08 | 1.06 | 1.04 | 1.02 | 1.00 99 07 +95 3| -92
5.60 [°r.12 | 2.20 | xJo8 | 2.00 | 1.04 | f.0a | reco] 26 -O7 95] -93
5.970 |) 1.t4| 2.12) LexO.] 1.08 | X-06 | 1.64.) TLO2) T7100 -98 97] -95
5.60 |. £0 | Ring | x.22-| E09) | a7 || 2 any! t5O45) -t Oa Evod 98] .97
5.90 | 1.18 | 1.16 | 1.13 | £.1I | 1.09 | £.07 | 1.05 fp 1-04 | 1.02] I-00] .98
6.60] 1.20 | 1.18 | £.15 | %.13 | 1.17 | 1.09.| 1,07.) 2.05 | ¥.03]/51s02/"a0q

CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES, 273

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING DIVIDENDS IN
CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES

According to the Per Cent of Fat in Milk Delivered.
(S. M. Bascock, in ‘‘ Hoard’s Dairyman.”’)

Find the amount of fat contained in the milk of each
patron for any period desired, by multiplying the pounds
of milk expressed in hundreds by the per cent of fat found
by the test. Add together the amount of fat from all the
patrons, thus obtaining the total pounds of fat delivered at
thes factory. Deduct the expenses of manufacture, etc.,
from the money received from sales, and divide the re-
mainder by the total fat. This gives the price to be paid
for each pound of fat. Multiply the pounds of fat de-
livered by each patron by the price; the product will be
the amount which he is to receive.

If it is desired to know the number of pounds of butter
made from each patron’s milk, divide the total yield of but-
ter by the total fat delivered; the quotient will be the
amount of butter made from one pound of fat. The fat
delivered by each patron multiplied by this figure will give
the pounds of butter to be credited to each patron.

The accompanying table gives the butter yield from 100
lbs. of milk, when the pounds of butter from one pound of
fat range from 1.10 to 1.20, and for milks containing from
3 to 6 per cent of fat. To use the table find in the upper
horizontal line the number corresponding most nearly to the
number of pounds of butter from one pound of fat. The
vertical column in which this falls gives the pounds of
butter from 100 pounds of milk containing the per cents of
fat given in the outside columns.

Example: A creamery receives during one month 250,000
Ibs. of milk, which contained 9531 Ibs. of fat; the yield of
butter for the same period was 10,983 lbs., which sold for
29 cents per pound, bringing $3185.07. The expense for
making, etc., was four cents per pound, amounting to
$439.32, leaving $2745.75 to be divided among the patrons.
Dividing this sum by 9531, the total number of pounds of
fat gives 28.8 cents per pound for the fat. This multiplied
by the number of pounds of fat in each patron’s milk gives
the amount which he should be paid, :

274 DAIRYING.

The number of pounds of butter, 10,983, divided by 9531,
the number of pounds of fat, gives 1.152 pounds of butter
from each pound of fat. The column headed 1.15 in the
table is nearest to this ratio, and will therefore give the
butter obtained from 1Ioo lbs. of milk containing different
per cents of fat.

If a patron delivered 9420 lbs. of milk containing 3.2 per
cent of fat during the period considered, his milk would
have contained 301.44 lbs. of fat, which at 28.8 cents per
pound would have amounted to $86.81. It would have
made 301.44 X 1.152 = 347.26 lbs. of butter. In the column
headed 1.15 in the table, opposite 3.2 per cent of fat, we
find 3.68, which is the number of pounds of fat from 100
lbs. of this patron’s milk. The error from the use of the
table in this way will never amount to more than 4 ounce
per 100 lbs. of milk.

Yield of Butter from One Hundred Lbs. of Milk, in Lbs.

= Lbs. of Butter per Pound of Fat. =
oa Sa
Aly xo] x.xx | x-12 | 1.13 | 1-4 | z.25 | 1.16 | x.17| 1.18] 1.19|1.20 he
Ay Ay
3-03-30] 3-33 | 3-36 | 3-39 | 3-42 | 3-45 | 3-48 [3-51 |3-54 |3-57 |3-60] 3.0
3+1|3-41| 3.441| 3-472] 3-503] 3-534] 3-565] 3-596/3.627|/3.658/3.689/3.72) 3.1
3-213-52| 3-552| 3.584] 3.616) 3.648] 3.680] 3.712/3.744/3.776 3-808]3.84] 3.2
3-3/3-63| 3.663] 3.696] 3.729] 3.762] 3.795| 3.828/3.861/3.894/3.927/3.96) 3-3
3-43-74] 3-774) 3-808] 3-842] 3.876] 3.910] 3.944|3-978)4.012|4.046/4.08) 3.4
3-5|3-85| 3-885] 3-920] 3-955] 3-990] 4.025] 4-060]4.095|4.130/4.165/4.20] 3.5
3-6/3-96| 3.996] 4.032] 4.068] 4.104] 4.140] 4.176/4.212 4.248 4.284|4.32] 3.6
3-7|4-07| 4.107| 4.144] 4.181] 4.218] 4.255] 4.292/4-329/4-306|4.403|4.44| 3-7
3.84.18] 4.218] 4.256] 4.294] 4-332] 4-370] 4-408|4.446/4.484/4.52214.56 3.8
3-9/4-29| 4.329] 4.368] 4.407] 4.446] 4.485] 4.524 4.503 4.602|4.641|4.08) 3.9
4.0]4-40| 4.440] 4 480] 4.520] 4.560] 4.600] 4.640]4.680|4.720}4.760/4.80| 4.0
4-1/4-51| 4-551| 4-592| 4-633] 4-674] 4.715] 4-756]4-797|4-838|4.870/4-92| 4.1
4.2|4-62| 4.662] 4.704] 4.746| 4.788] 4.830] 4.872/4.914|4.956/4.998|5.04| 4.2
4.314-73| 4 773] 4-816] 4.859] 4.902] 4.945] 4.988]5-031/5.074/5.117|5-10| 4 3
4.4|4-84| 4.884] 4.928] 4.972| 5-016] 5.060] 5.104/5.148]5.192/5.236/5.28) 4.4
4-5]4-95| 4-995] 5-040] 5.085] 5-130] 5.175] 5.220/5-265/5.310/5-355|5-40| 4-5
4 6|5.06| 5.106] 5.152] 5.198] 5-244] 5.290] 5.336/5-382/5.428/5.474)5-52 4.6
4.715-17| 5.217| 5.264] 5-301] 5-358] 5-405] 5-45215-49915-546/5-50315-54! 4-7
4.85.28] 5.328] 5.376] 5.424] 5-472| 5.520] 5.568|5.616|/5.664|5.712|5.76| 4 8
4-9|5-39| 5-439) 5-488] 5-537] 5-586] 5-635] 5.684|5.733|5.782|/5.831|5-88| 4.9
5.0/5-50| 5.550] 5.600) 5.650] 5.700\95-750| 5.800]5.850/5.900/5.950|6.00) 5-0
5.1/5-01| 5.661| 5.712| 5-763| 5.814] 5.865] 5.916|5.967|/6.018|/6.069/6.12| 5.1
5-2|5.72| 5-772| 6.824] 5.876] 5.928] 5.980] 6.c32/6.084/6 136/6. 1886.24) 5.2
5-3/5-83| 5-883| 5-936] 5-986] 6.042] 6.095] 6.148]6.201|6.254)/6.307/6.36| 5-3
5.4/5-94| 5-994| 6.048| 6.102] 6.156] 6.210] 6.264/6 318|6. 372/6.426/6.48| 5.4
5.5|6-05| 6.105| 6.160] 6.215] 6.270] 6.325] 6.380/6.435|6. 490/6.545/6.60] 5.5
5-6/6.16| 6.216] 6.272] 6.328] 6.384] 6.440] 6.496/6.552|/6.608/6.664/6.7 5.6
5-7|6.27| 6.327| 6.384] 6.441] 6 498| 7.555] 6 612/6.669 6.726|6.783/6.84] 5.7
5.8|6.38| 6.438] 6.496| 6.554] 6.612| 6.670] 6.723]/6.786|6.844|6.902/6.96 5.8
5.9|6.49| 6.549| 6.608] 6.667} 6.726] 6.785] 6.844|6.903/6.962/7.021|7.08) 5.9
6.0|6.60| 6.660] 6.720] 6.780] 6.840] 6.900] 6.96017.02017.08017.146|7.20] 6.0

CHEESE. 275

TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT OF FAT
IN MILK, (Partly after Martiny.)

~~ ~

Sum of S Sum of 5
O.; (5p
5 ya . 3
n a a 7) n n cy
C5) Vv sO 3) vo Vv 6

~ ol < & & e &

+ ise) ite) + lon]

13.20 9.90/3.30, 18.50] 14.80)tr.10/8.70

13-40/10.05|8.89|| 18.75] 15.00|11.25|/8.75

48}. EE) 2 37 85 08} 33] «77
52] 14; 38 go 12} 34) 78
56] 17) 39 95 16} 37) 79
13.60, 10.20|8. 40] 19.00] 15.20]11.40/3.80
64; 23) 41 05 24, 43) 81
68 26} 42 Io 28] 46 82
72| 29| 43 15 32} 49] 83
76} 32) 44 20 36, 52] 84
13.80, 10.35|8.43]| 19.25) 15.40/11.55/3.85
84) 38) 46 30 44, 58} 86
88/ 41} 47 35 48} 61} 87

14.00,10.50\8.90]| 19.50] 15.60]/11.70/3.90

04; 53} 51 55 64} 73) 91
08 56 52 60 68 76 92
12| 59] 53 65 72} 79) 93
Tole ~O2|\ = 54 70 76} 82! 94

14.20,10.65|8.90]| 19.75] 15.80|11.85/3.95

14.40|10.80|3.60}| 20.00) 16.00|12.00]4.00

44 83 61 05 04 03 oL
48 86 62 10 08 06] o2
52 89 63 15 12 og} 8603
* 92 64 20 16 12 04
14.60'10.95,8.68|| 20.25) 16.20/12.15|4.05
64| 98] 66 30 24 18] 06
68|11.01 67 35 28 21 07

276 DAIRYING.

TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT OF FAT
IN MILK.—( Continued.)

Sum of 6 Sum of 6 Sum of &

O O Os

; ee) re : —|“&
“if & | ‘Z hen Pe a| g¢ ge
a wn wn ay | n Dn nae
Be Lele : «| |Z

20.50] 16.40 12.30/4.10 19.60|14.70/4.90
55 44 33 11 64 73| 9t
60 48 30 I2 68 76 g2
65 seu 30)" 33 J2| 79) 93
7° 56 42) 14 76} 82) 94
20.75] 16.60 12.45|4 15 19.80|14.85|/4.95
80 64) 48 16 84} 88! 96
85 68 6 51 17 88} gt 97
go 7254p 18 92} 94; 98
95 THe SPC I9 96} 97} 99

21.00] 16.80 12.60/4.20

21.25] 17.00 12.75|4.25

30 04! 78| 26 24 18} 06
35 Osnt- SI 27 28 2! 07
40 rave" S4) el S8 32] 24| of
45 16, 87! 29 36) 27) 09

21.50] 17.20 12.90)4.380

60 28 96 32 48 36 12
65 32} 99} 33 52) 39] 13
7O 36/13 02 34 BO}. J42 14

21.75| 17.40/13.05/4.35

80 44] 08 36 64 48 16
85 48 II 37 68 51 17
go 52} 14) 38 72| 54) 18
95 56} 17} 39 76} 57; 19
22.00] 17.60]13.20|4.40)|. 20.80]15.60/5.20
O05 64 23 41 84 63 21
Io 68 26 42 88 66 22
15 72| 29) 43 92} 69) 23
20 76 32 44 96 72 24

30 84 38 46 04 78 26
35 85} 41; 47 o8| 81] 27
40 92 44 48 12 84 28
45 96, 47) 49 16, 87) 29

CREAMERIES AND GHEESE FACTORIES. Pali

SUGGESTIONS TO PATRONS OF CHEESE FAC-
TORIES AND CREAMERIES.

(D. W. Curtis, Sec’y Wisconsin Dairymen’s Association.)
Care of Milk.

1. All milk for the cheese factory must be clean, pure,
and wholesome, or the cheese will be bad. One hundred
pounds of bad milk will injure 10,000 pounds of good milk.

2. The law is very strict against watering or skimming.
A fine of $10.00 to $100.00 is imposed if convicted.

3. After a cow has dropped her calf, the milk should not
be taken to the factory until the tenth milking.

r Milk run through an aerator as soon as drawn from
the cow, in open air, is better for cheese and butter making
than when setin a tub of water and dipped. By any means
at your command thoroughly air the milk until cooled.

5. Stagnant water, dead carcasses, or filth of any kind in
the pasture or barn-yard produces tainted milk. For this
reason set the can of night’s milk in a clean place.

6. Milk with clean hands ; never wet them with milk; it
is positively filthy.

7. See that the cow’s udder is brushed clean and free
from fine dirt and dust before milking.

8. Never mix the night’s and morning’s milk. It will
many times sour them both by pouring the warm milk into
the cold.

g. Small cans (10 to 15 gallons) are much preferred to
larger ones, as the milk is kept in a better condition.

10. Whey should be taken home in separate cans from
that in which the milk is brought in.

11. If whey is taken home in the milk-cans, empty at
once, wash with tepid water, then scald and turn them out
to the sun.

12. Insist that the cheese-maker keep the whey-vat clean,
by washing and scalding at least twice a week.

13. Insist that your factory shall take in milk by the
Babcock test, paying each patron according to what he de.
livers.

14. Use a Babcock test yourself and know just what you
produce; turn off the poor cows ard fill their places with

278 DAIRYING.

good ones. Every patron should know for himself whether
he is boarding unprofitable cows. There is no better way
of knowing this than by the use of the Babcock test at the
barn. The cost of the test is but little, but its instruction
is very valuable.

15. It should always be remembered that pure milk can
only be had through healthy cows, pure feed, pure water,
pure air, and cleanly handling. Every patron is affected
in the cash outcome bythe way his brother patrons pro-
duce and handle their milk, hence the necessity of each
adhering to sound rules based on sound dairy sense. There
is not a first-class factory in the land where good prices are
obtained for cheese but what the patrons practise thorough
cleanliness in the care of milk. Remember, it is a matter
of profit to each to do this.

Care of Cows.

Pay special attention to the comfort of your cows. Do
not let them remain out in cold rain-storms ; it will reduce
the flow of milk. Feed liberally. The cow must at all
times have all the good feed she can eat and digest. Be
sure and provide some soiling-crop against the July and
August drought; if the cow shrinks then you will lose money
in the fall, when butter and cheese are high. Oats and
peas, sweet corn or field corn, drilled 34 feet apart, are a
good soiling-crop.

A silo is a great help-in the economical production of
cow feed. Thousands of successful dairymen have proved
this. It is no longer an experiment.

Dairy farming at high profit calls for close study con-
cerning the cow, concerning her feed, and how to produce
it at the best and cheapest. Every dairy neighborhood
will show men who make nearly double the profit from the
business that others do. We believe that it will pay every
man to be intelligent and as well posted as he can be on these
‘important questions. We must bring up the grade of our
reputation by making better butter and cheese. This will
bring on a larger and better paying demand. To cheat the

CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 279

consumer with poor goods will, in the end, destroy the
business. Better dairymen, better milk, better products,
better reputation in the world’s markets, will surely bring
better profits, and is the only true road to DAIRY SUCCESS.

BY-LAWS AND RULES FOR CO-OPERATIVE
CREAMERY ASSOCIATIONS,

I. This association shall be known as the — — Co-
operative Creamery Association.

If’ The purpose of the association shall be to locate,
establish and carry on the manufacture and sale of milk
products, in such a manner as will conduce to the greatest
convenience and profit of the producers over the greatest
amount of territory in the town of — — and vicinity. Also
to purchase, use, and hold real and personal estate neces-
sary for the transaction of the business of the association.

III. The capital stock of the association shall be — —
dollars, divided into — — shares of ten dollars each.

IV. This association shall be co-operative. Cream and
milk may be purchased or accepted from any person nota
stockholder on the same terms and conditions as may be
prescribed for stockholders.

V. Any person directly engaged in agricultural pursuits
may become a member of this association by taking one or
more shares of the stock of the association.

VI. 1. The regular meetings of the association shall be
held semi-annually, viz., on the first Mondays in — — and
— — —ineach year, at such time and place as the board
of directors may determine; and notice of such meeting
shall be given by the clerk to each member by mail seven
days at least previous to the date of said meeting. 2.
Special meetings may be called either by the president,
with the advice and consent of a majority of the directors,
or upon written request of one third of the stockholders of
the association, upon seven days’ notice as above. 3.
Meetings of the board of directors may be called by the
president or by any two directors.

VII. 1. The officers of the association shall consist of a
president, clerk, treasurer, five directors, and two auditors.
2. The president shall be chosen annually by the board of

280 DAIRYING.

directors, by written ballot, at the regular meeting in
October. 3. The clerk, treasurer, board of directors, and
auditors shall be chosen by the stockholders annually, by
written ballot, at the regular meeting in October, and all
officers shall hold office till others are chosen and qualified
in their stead. Vacancies in the above-named offices may
be filled at any meeting of the stockholders; in the mean-
time by the board of directors. In case of the absence of
the clerk a temporary clerk may be chosen and qualified
in his stead.

VIII. At any regularly called meeting of the association,
nine of the members thereof, and at any meeting of the
board of directors, three members thereof, shall constitute
a quorum for the transaction of business. A less number
may adjourn from time to time.

IX. It shall be the duty of the president, who shall be a
director, to preside at all meetings of the association and of
the board of directors, preserve order therein, put all ques-
tions, announce all decisions, and, in case of an equal divi-
sion, to give the casting vote. He shall receive and safely
preserve all bonds required of the officers of the associa-
tion and sign all certificates or documents issued by the
association or board of directors. In the absence of the
president, it shall be the duty of one of the board of direc-
tors, in order of their seniority, to preside at any meeting.

X. It shall be the duty of the clerk to attend all meet-
ings of the association and of the board of directors, and
to keep a correct record of the same, which record shall be
open for the inspection of any member. He shall give
notice of all meetings and of all appointments on commit-
tees, to each member thereof, and to each officer chosen, of
his election; and shall serve all such other notices as ap-
pertain to his office or as may be directed from time to time
by the association or board of directors. He shall attest
all certificates or documents issued signed by the president,
shall file all bills and reports and such other documents as
may be ordered to be filed, and shall carry on all such
correspondence as may be directed; shall act as secretary
of all committees when called) upon; shall keep a correct

CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 281

financial account between the association and its members,
and shall have charge of all property not otherwise disposed
of. He shall give such bonds for the faithful performance
of his duty, and receive such compensation for his services,
as the board of directors may determine.

XI. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive all
money belonging to the association, giving his receipt
therefor. He shall draw all money for the payment of
claims against the association under the direction of the
boafd of directors. He shall make a report to the board of
directors at such times as they may require. He shall per-
form all duties required of him by the laws of the common-
wealth and shall give such bonds for the faithful perform-
ance of his duty as the board of directors may require.

XII. It shall be the duty of the board of directors to
attend to the general affairs of the association, invest the
funds of the same, appoint ‘such other agents and officers
as in their judgment the interests of the association require,
and fix all compensations. They shall keep or cause to be
kept a correct account of all cream or milk furnished by
the stockholders or patrons, and a correct account of all
sales. They shall prescribe the rules and regulations
governing the collection and delivery of the cream and
milk; may cause the quality of the same to be tested as
often as may be deemed expedient; may authorize the prem-
ises of any stockholder or patron to be inspected, and
may reject and refuse to collect or receive any cream or
milk that is unsatisfactory or not furnished in compliance
with the prescribed regulations. They shall establish
prices and have full power over the business of the associa-
tion, and shall in all cases pursue such measures as in their
judgment will tend to the best interests of the association.
They shall make a full report of their doings, and a full
statement of the business at each regular meeting, or
whenever called upon to do so by vote of the stockholders.

XIII. The duties of the auditors shall be to audit all
accounts of the association, making a report to the board
of directors at the time of the regular meetings, and at such
other times as they may require.

282 DAIRYING.

XIV. The net profits of the business of the association,
after such deductions have been made as the laws of the
commonwealth require, shall be divided pro rata among the
stockholders, according to the number of shares held by
each. [JVofe.—It is understood that the profits shall not
exceed 6 per cent on capital, all receipts in excess of this
sum and necessary reserves being declared in payment to
patrons for cream or milk furnished. ]

XV. 1. Any person doing business for the association or
incurring expense therefor shall receive a just remunera-
tion for such services or expense. 2. All documents issued
by the association shall bear the seal thereof, said seal to
be in charge of the clerk. 3. The directors shall procure
a corporate seal. 4. No member of the association can
transfer his stock to any person not directly engaged in
agricultural pursuits. 5. In case shares are transferred by
one person to another, the certificate thereof must be sur-
rendered to the treasurer, and the board of directors shall
cause another certificate to be issued to the person to whom
the transfer is made.

XVI. These by-laws shall not be altered or amended unless
such alteration or amendment be proposed in writing one
meeting previous to action being taken; provided also that
two thirds of the members vote in the affirmative.

BY-LAWS AND RULES FOR CO-OPERATIVE
CHEESE FACTORIES.

ARTICLE I. This association shall be known as the — — —
Cheese Factory Association.

ART. 2, There shall be two meetings held yearly at the
factory—one in the spring and one in the fall or winter, to be
called by the president.

ArT. 3. At the first meeting in each year there shall be
chosen by the patrons a president and a treasurer and sales-
man,

ART. 4. The salesman and treasurer shall sell all the cheese,
and as soon as he shall have sold and collected for one month’s
make of cheese, he shall, after paying the proprietor for mak-

CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 283

ing and deducting the other expenses, divide the proceeds pro
rata, according to the amount of butter-fat delivered by each
patron, as determined by the Babcock test.

ArT. 5. It shall also be the duty of the treasurer and sales-
man to keep the books of the association, and make final divi-
dend yearly to all the patrons whenever all the cheese is soid
and paid for. He shall also keep a milk book, showing the
number and amount of cheese made each month, to be taken
from the factory’s books. Said treasurer’s milk and cheese
books shall be subject to the inspection of the patrons and tne
president.

ArT. 6. The manager shall keep an accurate account with
each patron of the number of pounds of milk delivered each
day and make and record daily (every week or month) tests of
same to show its fat content; also an account of the number and
amount of cheese made, which accounts shall be subject to the
inspection of the officers and patrons.

ArT. 7. The president shall be authorized to preside over
the entire transactions of patrons or officers, and constitute a
committee to investigate all matters pertaining to said factory,
and if any contingency should arise, he shall be authorized to
bring suit in law against any delinquent.

Art. 8. The manager (cheese-maker) shall be authorized to
criticise all milk offered, and he shall reject the same if in his
judgment said milk is unfit to run into cheese; also to deter-
mine the fat content of any milk, and if found to be below the
legal standard of the State, shall report the same to the presi-
dent, whose duty it shall be to send out a committee of three to
the premises of said delinquent, witnessing the transit of the
milk on the ensuing day from the cow to the factory, which
shall again be tested as on the previous day, and if found to
vary, the party in question shall be adjudged guilty of having
diluted or adulterated the same, as shall appear, and shall forfeit
and pay to the association as liquidated damages the sum of
twenty-five dollars for each and every day such dilution shall
occur.

ArT. g. The president shall also have power to call special
meetings of the patrons at any time he may deem it necessary.
and he shall be required to call a meeting of the patrons when-

284 DAIRYING.

ever a request is presented to him signed by ten patrons.
Whenever a meeting is to be called, the president shall give
patrons at least two days’ notice.

ArT. 10. The action of the treasurer and salesman in regard
to selling or holding cheese shall be governed by a vote of a
majority of the patrons. If no vote is taken, he is to exercise
his best judgment in the matter.

ArT. 11. In voting at any annual or special meeting of this
association the patrons shall be allowed one vote for every cow
the milk of which is brought to the factory. [This may be
altered to one vote on each share of the capital stock or one
vote to each shareholder. |

ART. 12. The treasurer and salesman shall attend all meet-
ings of the association whenever possible, and shall take min-
utes of the proceedings, and place the same on file in his office,
and in other respects act as secretary. In case he should be
absent, a temporary secretary may be chosen. In case the
president is absent at any meeting, a temporary president may
be chosen for a presiding officer.

RULES FOR PATRONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO
CREAM OR MILK GATHERERS.

These rules may be made to epply to either whole-milk or gathered-
cream creameries,

Feeding.—We insist upon only such food being fed to cows
as will produce the largest and best quality of milk or cream.
Turnips, onions, cabbage, or anything likely to injure the
quality of milk, cream, or butter is prohibited.

Milking.—Cows must be carefully cleaned before milking,
to avoid odors that taint the milk. The milk must be strained
through two strainers—one of them cloth—before going into
the cans. Thorough cleanliness must be observed in every-
thing.

Creamers and Cams.—Creamers must be kept in a place free
from odors, and cleanliness maintained in their vicinity Tanks
and cans must be kept sweet and clean, and the water free and
clear. Cans must be washed, then scalded every time they are
used. The water in the creamers should not go below 45 de-
grees in summer and 40 degrees in winter,

CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 285

Setting Milk.—Al\\ cans must be filled full of fresh milk, so
far as possible, and immediately placed in the tank. After cans
are set in water they must not be disturbed. Patrons are not
allowed to draw off the milk except on Sundays, or with per-
mission from the trustees,

Mixing Milk.—Cans must not be partly filled at one milking
and after standing long enough for the cream to begin to sepa-
rate be filled with milk from another milking, or with anything
whatever. After acan has once been set it must not in any
way be disturbed or meddled with, nor the milk drawn off by
the patrons, except on Sunday.

Night's Milk.—When milk is delivered but once each day,
the cans containing the night’s milk must be set in cold water
immediately after milking and the milk thoroughly stirred by
using a dipper and pouring until the milk is thoroughly cooled.
A better plan is to use a cooler to thoroughly cool and aerate
the milk before it is put inthe cans. The night’s milk must be
left setting in cold water until it is hauled to the creamery.

Cream and Milk Gatherers,—Cream and milk gatherers are
forbidden to take any cream or milk which is dirty, or for any
reason, in their judgment, is not of satisfactory quality or con-
dition, or which has been in any way so treated as to indicaie
that an attempt has been made to interfere with the proper and
natural separation of the cream, or of its being correctly counted
on the gauge, or in violation of these rules.

Any patron found neglecting or violating any of these rules
must at once be reported to some one of the board of trustees
or directors, and his cream or milk must not again be taken till
he has satisfied the trustees that his neglect was, for good rea-
sons, excusable ; and if any patron shall more than once be so
reported it shall be deemed a sufficient reason for refusal to
again receive his cream at all.

Cream or milk gatherers are especially directed to take all
possible pains to discover all violations or neglect of any of
these rules, and strictly enforce them in every case.

These rules and instructions are found by experience and
_ observation to be necessary for the protection of the association
and the best good of all its members. Copies thereof will be
securely posted conveniently near each tank where milk-cans
are set, so that ignorance can be no excuse for neglect,

286 DAIRYING.

Patrons are requested to notify the board of trustees or direc-
tors if any cream or milk gatherer is in any way delinquent or
careless in his observance of these instructions.

Patrons who are not disposed to be governed by these rules
are requested to so advise the trustees or directors, and the
treasurer will make prompt settlement with any who wish to
withdraw.

By order of the trustees or directors.

cc ecdeveree ccs eress cues cous cee eady | SESIOOIE

CCH KO CC CER EEOC EERO CESS BEET C2O0E8S Treas.

PART III. GENERAL TOPICS.

I. CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL
ASSOCIATIONS.

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS OF AGRICULTURAL
- CLUBS.

Together With Rules of Order, and Order of Business,
(McKeErkow.)

Constitution.

PREAMBLE.—We, the undersigned, interested in agricul-
ture and horticulture, and desirous to secure the benefits to
be derived from organization, for the purpose of practical
discussion and the promotion of the common interests
of our pursuits, do subscribe the following Constitution:

ARTICLE I. Wame.—This association shall be styled and
known as the Agricultural Club.

ARTICLE II. Odjects.—The objects of this club are to ad-
vance the knowledge and promote the general interests of
agriculture and horticulture in this community.

ARTICLE III. Officers. — The officers shall consist of a
president, vice-president, recording secretary, correspond-
ing secretary, treasurer, and librarian.

ARTICLE IV. Duties of Officers.—Section 1. It shall be
the duty of the president to preside at all meetings of the
club; toenforce a due observance of the Constitution, By-
laws, and Rules of Order; to assign topics of discussion at
the suggestion of members. He shall neither make nor
second any motion, but shall have the privilege of taking
part in debate; and while he has the floor the meeting for
the time being shall be in charge of the vice-president;
but the president shall have no vote unless the club shall
be equally divided.

Section 2. It shall be the duty of the vice-president to
preside at all times when the president is absent, and while
he shall have temporarily vacated the chair,

288 GENERAL TOPICS.

Section 3. The recording secretary shall keep a record
of the proceedings of the club; also the name of each
member, and shall onthe regular last meeting of each year
prepare and read the names of all members; and he shall
have charge of the archives of the club.

Section 4. The corresponding secretary shall conduct
the correspondence of the club and act as recording secre-
tary in the absence of that officer. He shall also render
such assistance to the recording secretary as that officer
may require in the performance of his duties.

Section 5. The treasurer shall keep all money belong-
ing to the club, and disburse the same under the direction
of the club, according toits laws. He shall collect all fees
and dues of members, and shall at some time during the
month of December of each year notify such as are in
arrears and request their dues. He shall keep a correct
-account of all moneys received and expended.

Section 6. The librarian shall have charge of the li-
brary and its appurtenances, regulating the use of the same
by the members, according to the rules and regulations
prescribed. He shall make a written report of the condi-
tion of the library at the annual meeting, and at such
other times as the club may direct. He shall, within one
week, deliver to his successor in office the library and its
appurtenances, and all books, papers, and documents in
his possession belonging to the club.

ARTICLE V. £iections.—All elections for officers shall be
by ballot, and shall be held at the first regular meeting in
January of each year; and their terms shall commence im-
mediately after their election, to continue for one year, or
until others are elected to fill their places. In the case of
vacancy occurring in any office the club shall go imme-
diately into an election to fill the same. A majority of all
the votes cast shall be necessary to a choice.

ARTICLE VI. Membership.—Section 1. Any person inter-
ested in agriculture or horticulture, and of good moral
standing, may become a member of this club by signing
this Constitution, agreeing to support all laws and regula-
tions made in pursuance thereof, and paying fifty cents
annually into the treasury.

Section 2. Honorary membership may be conferred in

CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 289

consideration of eminent character and services in honor
of agriculture or horticulture and shall be conferred with-
out fee or dues. The recipient shall not be entitled to
hold office, but may take part in all discussions and vote
on all questions.

ARTICLE VII. Amendments.—No alteration, amendment,
or addition can be made to this Constitution, neither can
any part of it be repealed, without a vote of two thirds of
the members present. Any proposed alteration, amend-
ment, addition, or repeal must be submitted in writing,
filed with the recording secretary, and read at two regu-
lar meetings next preceding that on which the vote is taken.

By-laws.

ARTICLE I. This club shall assemble weekly (or twice a
month) on —— evenings from November Ist to April
Ist, and at such intervals thereafter as may be agreed
upon by the club, or appointed by the president. The
time and place of meeting may be altered at any regular
meeting of the club by a vote of two thirds of all of the
members present.

ARTICLE II. Section 1. Seven members shall constitute
a quorum for the transaction of business of the club. A
less number may meet, maintain a discussion on any topic,
and adjourn to any given time.

Section 2. Persons present, not members of the club,
may be invited to take part in all discussions of agricul_
tural topics; but they shall take no part in the business of
pae chib.

ARTICLE III. Section 1. If the funds of the club should
at any time be exhausted, or inadequate to meet the de-
mands contemplated by the Constitution, there shall be an
equal assessment upon each member to make up the de-
ficiency. .

Section 2. No appropriation of money from the funds
of the club shall be lawful, except in furtherance of the
objects contemplated by the Constitution, as stated in ar-
ticle 2, or as especially provided by these By-laws.

ARTICLE IV. Section 1. There shall be a library estab-

290 GENERAL TOPICS.

lished for the use of the club in furtherance of the objects
contemplated in article 2 of the Constitution.

Section 2. The library shall be open to the free use of
the members of the club, who shall not be more than three
months indebted to the treasury, subject to the prescribed
rules and regulations.

Section 3. The library shall be maintained by the sur-
plus fund, after defraying the expenses of the club, and
by the voluntary contributions and donations of the mem-
bers, to be duly accredited to each contributor and donor.

Section 4. The library shall be in charge of the li-
brarian, as provided in article 4, section 6, of the Consti-
tution. There shall be a standing library committee of
three members-appointed at each annual meeting, of whom
the librarian shail be one, and ex-officio chairman, which
shall have charge of the purchase and collection of books,
papers, and pamphlets for the library, and perform such
other duties as may be ordained.

Section 5. Rules.x—Rule 1. No member shall have from
the library more than one (two) book(s) at a time.

Rule 2. No volume shall be retained longer than two
weeks, under penalty of a fine of ten cents for the first
week of detention, and five cents for every week thereafter.

Rule 3. There shall be assessed for injuries as follows:
Ist. For an injury beyond ordinary wear, an amount pro-
portionate to the injury, ascertained by the librarian. 2d.
For the loss of the volume, the cost of the book; and if one
of a set, an amount sufficient to replace it, or purchase a
new volume.

Rule 4. No person having incurred a fine shall be per-
mitted to take books from the library until the fine is paid.

ARTICLE V. A vote of twothirds of all the members
present shall be required to pass any appropriation of
money by the club, other than for its necessary contingent
expenses.

ARTICLE VI. Section 1. Any member who shall suffer
his account with the treasurer to go unsettled for more
than one year shall cease to be considered as belonging to
the club, and his name shall be stricken from the roll ac-
cordingly.

CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 291

Section 2. Any member who shall be guilty of any gross
violation of the rules of order, or of profane or indecent
language or conduct, at any of the meetings of the club
shall be fined, reprimanded, or expelled, as the club may,
by a two thirds vote, decide.

Section 3. Any member who shall become guilty of any
heinous offence or disgraceful practice, such as to render
him an unfit associate, shall, on conviction thereof, be ex-
pelled from the club.

ARTICLE VII. These By-laws may be amended in the
same manner as the Constitution.

Standing Resolutions.

Resolved, That after this date the weekly meetings of
this club shall be held on See , or at the resi-
dences of the members of the club, at o’clock.

Resolved, That there shall be an Executive Committee,
consisting of the president, recording secretary, and treas-
urer, having power to transact the necessary business
of the club, during the term when the meetings are not
held.

Rules of Order.

1. No question shall be stated unless moved by two
members, nor open for discussion until stated by the presi-
dent.

2. When a member intends to speak ona question, he
shall rise in his place and respectfully address his remarks
to the chair, confine his remarks tothe question, and avoid
personalities. Should more than one person rise at a
time, the president shall determine who is entitled to the
floor.

3. When a member is called to order by the president,
or any other member he shall at once take his seat, and
every point of order shall be decided by the president,
without debate, subject to an appeal to the club.

4. In case of an appeal from the decision ofthe chair
the question shall be put to the club thus: ‘‘ Shall the de-
cision of the chair be sustained?’’ which shall be decided
without debate.

292 GENERAL TOPICS.

5. Nomember shall interrupt another while he is speak-
ing, except to call to order.

6. Any member may call for a division of the question,
when the sense will admit of it.

7. When any three members call for the yeas and nays,
they shall be taken and recorded on the minutes.

8. All resolutions shall, when required by the president
or any member, be submitted in writing, and signed by the
member offering the same.

g. Cushing’s ‘‘ Manual of Parliamentary Practice”’ shall
be adopted as authority in all matters pertaining to parlia-
mentary order in the club.

10. These Rules may be amended in the same manner
as the Constitution and By-laws.

Order of Business.

1. Calling the roll of officers and necessary filing of
vacancies.
2. Reading of minutes of last meeting.
Reports of committees.
Unfinished business.
New business.
Reception of new members.
. Has any member any question to ask for information
in regard to his farm, stock, etc.?
8. Reading of communications and essays.
g. Discussion of regular topic.
10. Assignment of subject for next discussion.

WP OKEY

CONSTITUTION OF VILLAGE-IMPROVEMENT
SOCIETIES.

ARTICLE I. This society shall be called the Im-
provement Society.

ArT. 2. The object of this society shall be to improve
and ornament the streets and public grounds of the village
by planting and cultivating trees, establishing and protect-
ing grass-plats and borders in the avenues, and generally
doing whatever may tend to the improvement of the village

as a place of residence.

CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 293

ArT. 3. The business of the society shall be conducted
by a board of nine directors, five gentlemen and four
ladies, to be elected annually by the society, who shall
constitute the board. This board shall, from its own
number, elect one president, two vice-presidents, a secre-
tary, and treasurer, and shall appoint such committees as
they may deem advisable to further the ends of the society.

ArT. 4. It shall be the duty of the president, and, in his
absence, of the senior vice-president, to preside at all meet-
ings of the society, and to carry out all orders of the board
of directors.

ArT. 5. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a
correet and careful record of all proceedings of the society
and of the board of directors in a book suitable for their
preservation, and such other duties as ordinarily pertain
to the office.

ArT. 6. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to keep the
funds of the society, and to make such disbursements as
may be ordered by the board of directors.

ART. 7. No debt shall be contracted by the board of
directors beyond the amount of available funds within
their control to pay it, and no member of this society shall
be liable for any debt of the society beyond the amount of
his or her subscription.

ArT. 8. Any adult person may become a member of this
society by paying two dollars ($2.00) annually. Any per-
son not of age who shall plant and protect a tree, under
the direction of the board of directors, or shall pay the
sum of $1.00 annually, may become a member of this
society until of age, after which time the annual dues
shall be increased to two dollars ($2.00), the same as other
adults.

ART. g. The annual meeting of the society shall be held
during the first week in October at such place as the board
of directors may select, and a notice of such meeting shall
be posted in prominent places through the village. Other
meetings of the society may be called by the board of
directors when desirable.

ArT. to. At the annual meeting the board of directors

294 GENERAL TOPICS.

shall report the amount of money received during the year
and the source from which it has been received; the amount
of money expended during the year, and the objects for
which it has been expended; the number of trees planted
at the cost of the society, and the number planted by indi-
viduals; and, generally, all acts of the board that may be
of interest to the society. This report shall be entered
on the record of the society.

ART. 11. This constitution may be amended with the
approval of two thirds of the niembers present at any
annual meeting of the society, or at any special meeting
called for that purpose, a month’s notice of the proposed
amendment, with its object, having been given.

CONSTITUTION OF ROAD LEAGUES.

ARTICLE I. This organization shall be known as the
Road League of County, (State).

ART. 2. Its object shall be the improvement of public
roads in and vicinity.

ART. 3. Any person may become a member on payment
of one dollar per annum, and shall be entitled to vote at
annual meetings.

ArT. 4. The annual meeting shall be held in November
on Mondays on or preceding the full moon.

ART. 5. The business of the Road League shall be
intrusted to a council of twelve, who shall be chosen by
ballot at the annual meetings, and they shall hold office
until their successors are elected.

By-laws.

ArT. 1. The council of twelve shall convene as soon as
possible after the election, and shall choose from their
number a president, also a sé€cretary and treasurer (who
may be one and the same person), and the council shall
hold meetings monthly at the call of the secretary.

ArT. 2. The president shall preside at all meetings, and
when absent a member present shall be called to the chair
in the usual way.

CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 295

ArT. 3. The secretary shall keep a record of the proceed-
ings of all meetings and conduct the correspondence of the
league.

ArT. 4. The treasurer shall keep an accurate account of
receipts and disbursements in a book for that purpose, and
all disbursements shall be authorized or approved by the
council.

ArT. 5. Meetings of the council may be called by order
of the president, or at the request of three of its members,
and five shall constitute a quorum.

Art. 6. The president shall appoint a monthly committee
of two members of the council, who shall give special
supervision to the work of the overseer in charge of the
roads under the jurisdiction-of the league, and serve until
their successors are appointed.

ArT. 7. The council shall fill all vacancies occurring by
resignation or otherwise, and they may drop from their
number any member who shall persistently neglect his
duty, or manifest indifference by non-attendance of the
monthly meetings.

ArT. 8. The constitution and by-laws of this league may
be changed by a two thirds vote of the entire council,
notice of such change having been given in writing at a
preceding meeting.

The order of business of the council shall be as follows:
I. Roll-call. 2. Reading of minutes of previous meeting.
3. Report of treasurer. 4. Unfinished business. 5. New
business. 6, Reports of committees and of the overseers.
7. Adjournment.

296 GENERAL TOPICS,

II. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND
TABLES.

EXPLANATION OF THE FLAG SIGNALS ADOPTED
BY THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU.

The U. S: Weather Bureau furnishes, when practicable,
for the benefit of the general public and those interests de-
pendent toa greater or less extent upon weather condi-
tions, the ‘‘ Forecasts’’ which are prepared daily, at
IO A.M. and I0 P.M., for the following day. These weather
forecasts are telegraphed to observers at stations of the
Weather Bureau, railway officials, and many others,
and are so worded as to be readily communicated to the
public by means of flags or steam whistles. The flags
adopted for this purpose are five in number, and of the
form and dimensions indicated below:

No 4. No. s.
No. 3. Black Tri- White Flag
No. 1. No. 2. White and Blue angular with black
White Flag. Blue Flag. Flag. Flag. square in centre.
Clear or fair Rain orsnow. Localrains Temperature Cold wave.

weather. orsnow - signal.

No. 1, white flag, 6 feet square, indicates clear or fair
weather. No. 2, blue flag, 6 feet square, indicates rain or
snow. No. 3, white and blue’ flag (parallel bars of white
and blue), 6 feet square, indicates that local rains or show-
ers will occur, and that the rainfall will not be general.
No, 4, black triangular flag, 4 feet at the base and 6 feet in
length, always refers to temperature; when placed above
Nos. I, 2, or 3, it indicates warmer weather; when placed

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 297

below Nos. 1, 2, or 3, it indicates colder weather; when not
displayed, the indications are that the temperature will re-
main stationary, or that the change in temperature will
not vary more than 4° from the temperature of the same
hour of the preceding day from March to October, inclu-
sive, and not more than 6° for the remaining months of the
year. No. 5, white flag, 6 feet square, with black square
in centre, indicates the approach of a sudden and decided
fall in"temperature. This signal is not to be displayed un-
less it is expected that the temperature will fall to 42° or
lower, and is usually ordered at least twenty-four hours in
advance of the cold wave.

Interpretation of Displays.

No. 1, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary tempera-
mune:

No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary tempera-
ture.

No. 3, alone, indicates local rain or snow, stationary
temperature.

No. 1, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather,
warmer.

No. I, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, colder.

No. 2, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather,
rain or snow.

No. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather, rain
or snow.

No. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather,
with local rains or snow.

No. 3, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather,
with local rains or snow.

No. 1, with No. 5 above it, indicates fair weather, cold
wave.

No. 2, with No. § above it, indicates wet weather, cold
wave.

298 GENERAL TOPICS.

LIST OF HEADQUARTERS OF STATE WEATHER
SERVICES.

The headquarters of the state weather services are as
follows:

Auburn, Alabama. Crete, Nebraska.
Little Rock, Arkansas. Carson City, Nevada.
Sacramento, California. New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Denver, Colorado. Santa Fé, New Mexico.
Atlanta, Georgia. Ithaca, New York.
Springfield, Illinois. Raleigh, North Carolina.
Indianapolis or Lafayette, Bismarck, North Dakota.
Indiana. Columbus, Ohio.
Des Moines, Iowa. Portland or Oswego, Oregon.
Topeka, Kansas. : Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Louisville, Kentucky. Columbia, South Carolina.
New Orleans, Louisiana. Huron, South Dakota.
Baltimore, Maryland. Nashville, Tennessee.
Cambridge, Massachusetts. Galveston, Texas.
Lansing, Michigan. Lynchburg, Virginia.
Minneapolis, Minnesota. Olympia, Washington.
University, Mississippi. Parkersburg, West Virginia.
Columbia, Missouri. Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

BENEFICIAL AND HARMEUL HAWKS AND OWLS.
(Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

Much misapprehension exists among farmers as to the
habits of birds of prey. Examination of the contents of
the stomachs of such birds to the number of several
thousand has established the fact that their food consists
almost entirely of injurious mammals and insects, and that
accordingly these birds are in most cases positively beneficial
to the farmer, and should be fostered ana protected.

Among those wholly beneficial are the large, rough-legged
hawk; its near relative, the squirrel-hawk, or ferruginous
roughleg; and the four kites: the white-tailed kite, Missis-
sippi kite, swallow-tailed kite, and everglade kite.

The class that is beneficial in the main—that is, whose
depredations are of little consequence in comparison with

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES, 299

the good it does—includes a majority of the hawks and
owls, among them being the following species and their
races: March-hawk, Harris’s hawk, red-tailed hawk, red-
shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed hawk,
Swainson’s hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged hawk,
Mexican black hawk, Mexican goshawk, sparrow-hawk,
Audubon’s caracara, barn-owl, long-eared owl, short-eared
owl, great gray owl, barred owl, Western owl, Richardson’s
owl, Acadian owl, screech-owl, flammulated screech-owl,
snowy owl, hawk-owl, burrowing owl, pygmy owl, fer-
ruginous pygmy owl, and elf-owl.

The class in which the harmful and the beneficial qualities
about balance each other includes the golden eagle, bald
eagle, pigeon-hawk, Richardson’s hawk, Aplomado falcon,
prairie falcon, and the great horned owl.

The harmful class comprises the gyrfalcons, duck-hawk,
sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper’s hawk, and goshawk.

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS.

By J. NoEr, M.D., Stoughton, Wis.

Wounds.—The all-important item in the treatment of
wounds or cuts is absolute cleanliness or asepsis. Asepsis
can be secured by having everything that is to be used for
the wound boiled just before applying it.

Before dressing a wound:

Ist. Wash your hands, scrub and clean finger-nails
thoroughly with soap and hot doz/ed water.

2d. Wash the limb or parts around cut or wound with
boiled water and soap.

3d. Wash out the wound with hot boiled water. If there
is still oozing from the cut surfaces,press clean cloths
wrung out of duzled water as hot as hands can bear against
the bleeding surfaces till it stops.

4th. Draw the edges of the wound together with strips
of court-plaster. :

5th. Lay over the wound so as to cover it well ten to
twelve thicknesses of clean boiled and baked dry cheese-
cloth, sheeting, or linen, and fasten on with a bandage.

300 GENERAL TOPICS.

6th. Let the injured parts be at rest. If you have
secured asepsis and gotten the edges of the wound together
closely, keep the wounded parts at rest for from three to six
days; the wound will then heal wzthout pain or pus, and
without swelling, inflammation, or fever. Don’t hinder
the healing of a wound by putting pitch, tobacco juice,
‘‘ healing ointments,’’ liniments, or other filth into it.

Broken or Mangled Limbs should be supported by
temporary splints, made from boards, pasteboard, shingles,
etc. Put one on each side of the limb and tie on with
handkerchief or bandages. The splints should be long
enough to support entire limb.

Burns and Scalds—If the burn is extensive, place the
person in a bath of lukewarm water, keep the body im-
mersed up to the chin, see that the water is kept warm;
patient may be left in bath indefinitely. If the burn is not
large, but painful, cover the burned surface with a thick
layer of flour, powdered starch, zinc ointment, or cotton
batting. Equal parts of limewater and linseed oil may be
applied, and the burn covered with cotton. It is impor-
tant in burns to apply a dressing that will exclude the air.
In large burns there is always severe shock: treat this
as directed below.

Shock.—When a person has been severely injured or
badly frightened, there follows a condition of the system
which is known as shock. A person suffering from shock
generally becomes pale, cold, faint, and trembling with a
small weak pulse. The mind is dull and the person looks
anxious and distressed. Sometimes the person is excited
and restless.

Treatment.—Let the person rest in a quiet cheerful
place. If he is little injured, telf him socalmly. If the
injury is severe, and there is pain, broken bones, bleeding,
etc., you must still be calm, cheerful, and helpful. Givea
tablespoonful (2 or 3, if a drinker) of whiskey in water every
quarter or half hour. Wrap him in warm blankets and
lay hot water bottles around him. If there is much pain,
give 10 drops of laudanum. In case of bleeding, open
wounds, or broken bones, treat them as directed. A flushed
face and fever show that the patient is reviving and does

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 301

not need hot-water bottles or whiskey. Never let an in-
jured person be surrounded by a crowd of people.

Hemorrhage or Bleeding always occurs after an in-
jury. It is the result of the tearing or cutting off of the

blood-vessels. A person suffering from hemorrhage either
internal or external is pale, faint, with feeble pulse.

Treatment.--Keep the person quiet. If the bleeding
comes from a wound in the upper or lower limbs, it will
stopeby raising the limb up above the rest of the body.
Tie clean cloths tightly over the sore. If the blood comes
in spurts, tie a rope or handkerchief tightly around limb
above cut nearest to body. If bleeding is slight, it will
stop by tying clean cloths tightly over the cut. Ice may
be applied over the bleeding vessels. Clean cloths wrung
gut of water as fot as hands can bear is often effective.

Never use cobwebs, tobacco juice, or other filthy things
to stop bleeding. Ifa person spits or coughs up red frothy
blood, he is probably bleeding from the lungs. Let him
lie down, and if it continues to come up apply ice to chest
and give a teaspoonful of extract of ergot.

Sunstroke and Heat Exhaustion.—In sunstroke the
person has a red face; skin is hot and dry; there is high
fever; breathing and pulse are very rapid. There is often
delirium and convulsions. Put the patient in a cold bath;
apply ice to the head and rub the skin with pieces of ice.
If he cannot be put into a bath, put him in the shade and
pour cold water over him, or wrap him in cold wet blank-
ets and pour cold water over his head. In heat exhaus-
tion the patient is pale and the skin cool. There is no
fever. Letthe person rest in the shade. Give stimulants,
as hot coffee or whiskey.

Poisoning.—In any case of poisoning when the kind of
poison is unknown, induce vomiting at once by giving
warm water with or without a tablespoonful of ground
mustard, or double this amount of salt to the teacup.
Thrust your finger down his throat to help the emetic.
Milk, raw eggs, gruel, oil should be given freely if irritant
poisons, like potash, lye, or acids, have been taken. The
following table contains suggestions for the proper treat-
ment of the forms of poisoning occurring most frequently:

302

GENERAL TOPICS.

Poison,

Acids:
Sulfuric,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Oxalic.

Carbolic acid and
Creosote.

Alkalies:

Arsenic,

Paris Green,
Poison fly-paper,
Rough on rats.

Corrosive _ subli-
mate.

lodin.

Opium,
Morphin,
Laudanum,
Paregoric.

Poison gas from
coal stove.

= |
iP

|

—_I

Treatment.

Give soap, soda, whitewash, or magnesia, mixed in
water. Produce vomiting.
Give gruel, milk, eggs (uncooked).

Relieve pain by giving to drops of laudanum in
water.

ive Epsom salts, raw eggs.
Produce vomiting,

Give vinegar, lemon of orange juice, or any acid
diluted in plenty of water.

Give milk, gruel, white of egg, ails.

For pain give 10 drops of laudanum.

Produce vomiting if there is none already.

Hydrated oxid of iron with magnesia in water is
the antidote.

Give 2 tablespoonsful of castor oil.

Produce vomiting. Give a teaspoonful of tannin in
water. f ;
Give raw eggs, milk, castor oil.

Produce vomiting. :
Give starch and water, raw eggs, milk, or gruel.

Produce vomiting. Inject froma pint toa quart of
strong coffee into rectum, or give by mouth if
patient can swallow.

| |Keep patient awake.

Fresh air ; stimulants, as coffee, ammonia.

————

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 303

INTEREST TABLES.

4% $x | $2 | $3 | $4 | $5 | $6) $7 | $8 | $o | $10 | $r00 | $r000
4 DAY Oe Or two. |.0 | O2|)_ 0 ° ° ° ° 5 45
oes ayo! |0 | oa ||" 0 ° ° I I 9 89
oh pe Onlien|- ro) cor) tor}: = I I I 2 13 |> ¥.34
ror SS On| On|P oO} on) m1) 2 7 2 2 2 18 | 1.78
Zo. S Opie oMlmnOe| eih|) a | Se 2 2 2 2 22 | 2.22
2 aah Gi eal Pane Eh 32 [ae 2 2 3 3 27 | 2.67
of eae Gav Onlkete| (koh 92" hee 2 3 3 oo Br. | GRvEr
I MO. fo) fe) I 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 33 3°34
2 Gnle 2elgecsl. sel. 4 lg 5 6 6 7 67 | 6.67
nts ot AS Pe Wa ne? a fe os 7 8 9 IO | 1.00 | 10.00
oe 2A Al On| ame TOs] axe 14 16 18 20 | 2.00 | 20.00
‘ER A) & |er2.| 16.}.20 24 | 28 32 36 40 | 4.00 | 40.00

5% || $x | $2) $3 | $4] $5 | $6) $7 | $8 | $o | $10 | $100} $1000
4 DAY Cae Ou (Oi 0. |G. .| 0 fo) ° fo) fo) 6 56
oer Chior On|.) -O''|..0 I I I I no al | te as
ey MeO) tOull Ole By|h I 2 2 2 T7a|\, he 07
Thy once Ovieeco, |G | sor El jee 2 2 2 2 22 | 2.22
ZO" 5. o}| o I I 2 2 2 2 3 3 2g fia eos
a Se ot or ria ieee pa) hg 3 3 3 33 | 3-34
28° of I ro Pe ia |e 3 3 4 x etch) ety
I MO Ont ie | ree e 2: hes i 4 4 js Az |e oy
Pills Re ee ee ee 6 7 8 9 83 | 8.34
sce 5: ||" sie | per tel Urs (a ea a 9 10 II D3) Jj. Be25 | £2.50
Ona Beeston to: tera ay 18 20 23 25 | 2.50 | 25.00
I YR PuletOu PLS e225 \4304| 835 40 45 50 | 5.00 | 50.00

6% | $x | $2 | $3 | $4) $5 | $6) $7 | $8 — $9 | $10 | $100 | $1000
4 DAY On OG Oso) olTho ° I I I 7 67
oe Si] Ob"? on er I I I I I I 13) We wess
avait rey MUON | ae i fe a I I 2 2 2 20 | 2.00
160" owe | a re aie om hd 2 2 2 a 27} 2.67
soe t* I I 5 i me | 2 3 3 3 33 |ne3sa3
24n4 f* Ee] TSS | ee or | 2. (Ste 3 3 4 4 40 | 4.00
I MO EN aaleas, |). ee h Eto [er5 4 4 5 5 50’ [5.00
ans I 2a Vase os AIG G Sean 6 Io | 1.00 | 10.00
Sead Ba SA eG, Bese | rE i lls ol 15 | ©e50 |lerstoo
Gs 3 6 QO. |) 125/215 | x8 21 24 27 30 3.00 | 30.00
I YR 6 | 12 | of ial ey a Me Yo Yo 3 48 BA 60 | 6.00 | 60.00

7% || $x | $2 | $3 | $4) $5 | $6) $7 | $8 | $o | Fro | $r00 | $1000
DAY Hien} ahlhca }, off - 046 ° ° ° ° 8 77
Brees Oui On| hiG. |. Sel oO 1)TS I I I 1 15 E55
pert! $s rata Coy aro ta ime a Nees 4 I I I 2 2 23..| 238
Lows ONL ON[s Ool” roge | ese 2 2 2 3 2G | ei
zonwis® Gull Hon vet: ie |p the 2 3 3 4 38 | 3.84
oe «ar Opi Capes) Dae 2 eto 3 3 ‘4 5 46 | 4.62
I MO ° 1 2 2 3 z 4 4 5 6 58 5-83
Bil ea ie) cnet (eat BAe UE, 8 9 10 TO Wear TG,
gr te Bh Seo oe Oo. to: |) kre 14 16 TS et See gSO
erat! PAG ee fon teks ae | ig 0 al baw GoM be 25 28 32 3501113150" | -352c0
VR Fo ITAA 2H |) 2S] 35: |) 42 || Ao 56 63 FOTN 7.00 | 70.00

304

GENERAL TOPICS.

TABLE OF WAGES BY THE WiEK.

(Computed on a basis of ten hours’ labor per day.) .

a |

mies 142 5 8 9 I 2 3 Pans es 6

© |Hr.| Hrs. | Hrs. | Hrs. | Hrs. | Day. ;|Days.|Days.|Days. Days.|Days.
3 |

$3 |.05 | «10 25 340 | |.45 -50 | I.00 r.50| 2.00 | 2.50.| 3.00

4 |.063] .133 334' .533 .60 .662] 1.333] 2.00) 2.662: 3.334] 4.00

5 |.084| .162 | .47@' .663, .75 | .834] 1.663] 2.50] 3.333%! 4.16%| 5.00

6 |.10 | .20 .50 .80 .90 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 3.00] 4.00 | 5.00 | 6.00

7 |.112| .23% .584| .93%) 1-05 | 1.162] 2.33%] 3.50] 4.662 5.834] 7.00

8 |.133| .262 -66%/ 1.06%, 1.20 | 1.334] 2.662] 4.00] 5.334 6.662! 8.00

G |- 1571.30 -75 | 1.20 | 1.35 | 1.50 | 3.00 | 4.50] 6.00 | 7.50 | g.00
10 |.162] .334 | .83%] 1.33%) 1.50 | 1.663) 3.33%] 5.00] 6 662 8.33%] 10.00
II |.184| .362 .g1%| 1.46%! 1.65 | 1.834] 3.662] 5.50] 7.334 9.162) 11.00
12 |.20 | .40 I.00 | 1.60 | 1.80 | 2.00 | 4.00 6.00} 8.00 ,10.00 | 12.00
13 |.212] .43% | 1.083] 1.733) 1.95 | 2.162) 4.334| 6.50] 8.662 10.833] 13.00
14 |.23%| .462 | 1.162] 1.862) 2.10 | 2.334] 4.662! 7.00] 9.334 1:.662| 14.00
15 3.25 | -50 | 1.25 | 2.00 | 2.25 | 2.50 | 5 00 | 7.50/10.00 ;12.50 | 15.00
1€ |.262] .53% | 1.334] 2-134) 2.40 | 2.662! 5.333) 8.00 10.665 13.33%| 16.00
87 |.283| .562 | 1.412) 2.262 2.55 | 2.834] 5.662! 8.50/11.334 14.162] 17.00
18 |.30 | .60 1.50 | 2.40 | 2.70 | 3.00 | 6.00 g.00]12.00 |15.00 | 18.00
1g |.312| .634 | 1.583] 2.53%, 2.85 | 3.162] 6.334) 9.50/12.662 15.8334] 19.00
20 |.333| -662 | 1.662| 2.662 3.00 | 3.334] 6.662] 10.00/13.334 16.662] 20.00
24 |.40 | -80 2.00 | 3.20 ; 3.60 | 4.00 | 8.00 | 12.00/16.00 paeee 24.00

i
TABLE OF WAGES BY THE DAY.
(Computed on a basis of ten hours’ labor per day.)
25C. 37kc. | soc. | 62kc. | 75c. | 87kc. | $1.00] $r.124 | $1.25
4 hour..| .o1} .ort o24| .03% 03% 048 .05 .05$ .o6}
Seer .o23 -03$ | .05 ; 074 .08$ | sto 11} .12}
eee 05 to7e | 30 1 i cieel as -174 | .20 224 25
(Peetels .12} -18f as .314 374 43% .50 .562 -624
a 20 +30 .40 | .50 60 -70 .80 -90 | $1.00
Ores 223} .33% | -45 -564| .674 -78% | .go | 1.01 | 1.124
Eday..]. -25 ay; ol eo a > 233 -874 [$1.00 | 1t.12$] 1.25
2 days. 50 -75 |$1.00 [$1.25 |$z.50 | $1.75 | 2.00] 2.25 2.50
Bre .75 | $1.12% | 1.50 | 1.873] 2.25 | 2.624 | 3.00 | 3.373 | 3.75
4 ‘* [$1.00] 1.50 | 2.00 | 2.50 | 3.00 3.50:| 4.00 | ‘4.50 5.00
ejeaee 1.25 | 1.872 | 2.50 | 3.124] 3.75 | 4-374 | 5.00 | 5.624 | 6.25
Ge: z.50 |) 2025" | °3.00,| 3.75 | 45071 55.25 | Goody Gas 7-50
$1.374| $1.50 |$1.623| $1.75 |$1.873] $2.00 |$2.124! $2.25 | $2.37}

4 hour..| .o6} o7+ 083| .08%| .098 pK) ro} .11} A 6 4

Anh WN HO COM N

182
374
93%

.00
I1.25
13.50

75
50

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. a05

GESTATION CALENDAR.

Average Gestation Period.
Mares, 484g weeks (340 days, extremes 307 and 412 days).

Cousn aole. S u(283- ~ °° * PAO ye. BINED hig)
Ewes, 22 Sree EBON 7. BAO yetng =" &):
Sows, 16 ot "Grae 8 * TOO) 143. »)s
Time of | Mares, Cows, Ewes, Sows,
Service. | 340 Days. 283 Days. 150 Days. 112 Days.
* i
Jan. I Dec. 6 Oct. 10 May 30 April 22
6 II pe ole a June 4 oy 727
“ IL ee 16 ee 20 te 9 May 2
“ec 16 Lad 21 “ 2 ee “ca
5 14 7
“cs 2I oe 26 “ec 30 ac 19 “se 12
6 26 &“ = Nov 4 ‘& 24 “ 17
ae Jan.- 5 re Mg ee Meio i ein
Feb. 5 ve tO nae peal July 4 Nae
“ce cc “ te.
Io 15 19 9 June 1
sé 15 “ec 20 6c 24 cc 14 “6 6
CIS Sm tt oe & 29 “c 19 coe
<2 28 hur 3G Dec: (4 real eh BG (5
Mar. 2 Feb. 4 ee ae SS a
a hag peli 2 cee BS:
ae “ ee ‘c oe ait Oa July 6
SOP eee ®.- og &s 2g ‘ 3 +6 =
27 Mar. 1 Jan. 3 tires Spee uIG
April I oe 6 ne 8 28 fo Son
“cc ce ae
ac ee aa “ 13 Sept. Ss eé 26
II 16 18 7 31
Son Ja T°: on py ee CS ero Aug. 5
ae 66 «om a “ 10
2G oS ae Feb. 2 ‘6 22 Se 4
May 1 April 5 e 7 x ey $20
5 6 os 10 2 12 Qct... 2 ees =
II 15 17 se 7 “ee 30
¥ 16 . 20 22 by 12 Sept. 4
21 25 27Eh 17 9
“fs 26 Wess Mar. 4 ee oom! ba
ce May ‘5 “ 9 wtp ‘“ 19
June 5 aa ro} SS EEA Nov. 1 iwi
Crone ae Same ““ 6 SG ie
csi awe kos coibmarey ee & Oct
“ “ 6 6 oc 4
20 25 29 16 9
ae: pack: Teng April 3 Cu BE eee?
f.-. 30 June 4 Ty “ 46 x9
July 5 p= 9 Seger sy Dec: -z islet
‘ my és “sé
a zs 3) Es on e Seale = Nov os
a]

306 GENERAL TOPICS.

GESTATION CALENDAR.—( Continued.)

Time of Mares, Cows, Ewes, Sows,
Service. 340 Days. 283 Days. 150 Days. 112 Days.
July 25 June 29 May 3 Dec. 21 Nov. 13
‘ 30 July 4 “ © NisG se 8
a3 6s ce ec
aoe 8 | ood 8 | nol 3. | gta
oe 9 “se 4 “ce ‘ ee 5 -
“ ae “ eo ‘“ ae & a ae 3
6 tis ‘6 2H June 2 “ es “ x
cs ey nie 4 a 4 = ait gn
ec “c «ee ee
ae es Ae Shee wae
6c “ 3 &“ 7 “ 4 =
ee 13 ce 18 “cc a ‘ 9 Jan 3s
18 23 27 Shs 2th ‘ 7
: 23 2 cea '28 July 2 “S41 aeQ) + 12
Sis. 28 ept. 2 e 7 eum | Se ey,
Get oy is 7 és ae Mar. 1 yee
6e 8 ii} I2 66 17 “se 6 as 27
ae e “ “é
ee ages aie .
Pi ae (23 Seer Aug, 1 Seay ear
28 OcE sos ee 6 eee oie inate E
Nov. 2 re 7 sy. OE ng I a eee
as 7 emer ands April 5 ae eG
Sb, 2 RS Se eT ym to. Mar. 3
“ 17 “e 22 v 26 “ce 15 “cc 8
ve 22 “a 27 “6 31 ce 20 “ 13
SRE} Nov. 1 Sept. 5 nae SS As-38
Dec. 2 ee 6 ee Io a 30 “ 23
ee 7 ee Il iT 4 15 May 5 ec 28
eer sc *10 ree .20 ES erg April 2
ee 7 ¢é 21 ac 25 ee n= ‘ 7
ee 22 ce 26 ee 30 ee 20 ce 12
rs 27 Dec. I Oct 5 is 25 ef 17
31 5 9 29 2I

DURATION AND FREQUENCY OF HEAT IN
FARM ANIMALS. (Wotrr.)

If not Impreg- | After Coming In,

In Heat for nated, Heat will Heat will
Recur after Recur after
WNL ATGS Fecd dashe Leite 5-7 days 3-4 weeks 5-9 days
Cows tei 2: righ dias Re ty eg 3-4 r 21-28 ‘
FS WES tet ocidin cnaetes a Cae Nt Nalin 17-28 days 7 months

ee ee

SHEEP weet fe aees 2. 2—4 Q-12 4-5 weeks*
* 8-g weeks at the latest.

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 307

DOMESTIC POSTAGE.

First CiAss.—Letters and all written matter, whether
sealed or unsealed, and all other matter sealed,nailed, sewed,
tied, or fastened in any manner, so that it cannot be easily
examined, two cents per ounce or fraction thereof. A ‘‘ Spe-
cial Delivery’ ten-cent stamp when attached to a letter, in
addition to the lawful postage, shall entitle the letter to im-
mediate delivery at or within one mile of any post-office.
Postal cards, one cent each; with paid reply, two cents each.

SECoND CLAss.—All regular newspapers, magazines and
other periodicals issued at intervals not exceeding three
months; the postage is one cent for each four ounces, payable
by postage stamps.

THIRD CLAss.—Embraces printed books, pamphlets, cir-
culars, engravings, lithographs, proof-sheets and manu-
script accompanying the same, and all matter of the same
general character, and not having the character of personal
correspondence. Circulars produced by hektograph or sim-
ilar process, or by electric pen, are rated as third class.
The limit of weight for mail matter of the third class is four
pounds, except in the case of single books exceeding that
weight. The rate of postage on mail matter of the third
class is one cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof.

FourTH CLAss.—All mailable matter not included in the
three preceding classes, which is so prepared for mailing as
to be easily taken from the wrapper and examined. Rate.
one cent per ounce or fraction thereof, except seeds, roots,
cuttings, bulbs, plants, and scions, which are one cent per
two ounces. Limit of weight, 4lbs. Full prepayment com-
pulsory. Liquids and other like injurious matter not admit-
ted except under conditions which may be learned at any
post-office.

Registry fee, eight cents, which, with the postage, must be
fully prepaid. The name and address of sender must be
given on the outside of the envelope or wrapper.

FOREIGN POSTAGE.

To all parts of the Universal Postal Union (embracing
nearly every civilized country):

ON LETTERS, five cents for each half ounce or fraction there-
of; prepayment optional. Double rates are collected on
deli--ery of unpaid or short-paid letters.

308 GENERAL TOPICS.

On newspapers, books, pamphlets, photographs, sheet
music, Maps, engravings, and similar printed matter, one
cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof.

To CANADA (including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
Manitoba, and Prince Edward Island): LETTERS, two cents for
each ounce or fraction thereof; Books, Circulars, and similar
printed matter, one cent for each two ounces or fraction there-
of; SEconD CLAss MATTER, same as in the United States;
SAMPLES AND MERCHANDISE, one cent per ounce. Packages
must not exceed 4 lbs. 6 oz. in weight; prepayment compul-
sory.

To Mexico: Letters, Postal Cards, and printed matter,
same rates as in the United States. SAMPLES, ome cent per
ounce; MERCHANDISE other than Samples can only be sent
by Parcel Post.

MONEY ORDER FEES.—For Money Orders in denomina-
tions of $100 or less, the following fees are charged: Orders
not exceeding $2.50, 3c.; over $2.50 to $5, 5c.; $5 to $10, 8c.;
$10 to $20, 10c.; $20 to $30, 12c.; $30 to $40, 15c.; $40 to $50,
18c.; $50 to $60, 20c ; $60 to $75, 25c.; $75 to $100, 30¢.

Express Money Orders may be bought of the leading ex-
press companies at the following rates: Not over $5, 5c.;
$5 to $10, 8c.; $10 to $20, roc.; $20 to $30, r2c.; $30 to $4o,
15c.; $40 to $50, 18c.; $50 to $60, 20c.; $60 to $75, 25c.; $75
to $100, 30c.

INTERNATIONAL OR FOREIGN MONEY-ORDER FEES.

On Algeria, Belgium, British India, Cape Colony, Constan-
tinople, Denmark, Dominion of Canada, Egypt, England,
France, German Empire, Hong Kong, Ireland, Italy, Ja:
maica, Japan, Newfoundland, New South Wales, New
Zealand, Portugal, Sandwich Islands, Scotland, Shanghai,
Sweden, Switzerland, Tasmania, Victoria.

For Orders of $10, or less, roc. | Over $50, not exceeding $60, 6oc.
Over $10, not exceeding $20, 20c. | Over $60, not exceeding $70, 7o0c.
Over $20, not exceeding $30, 30c. | Over $70, not exceeding $80, 80c.
Over $30, not exceeding $40, 4oc. | Over $80, not exceeding $90, goc.
Over $40, not exceeding $50, soc. | Over $90, not exceeding $100, $1.

Orders can also be obtained on Austria and the East Indies
by remittance through the Postal Department of Switzer-
land, subject to the rates of the Swiss Department to those
countries. Also on Norway and the Netherlands, through
the Postal Department of the German Empire, subject to
the rates of the German Department to those countries.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 309

Ill. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

CUSTOMARY SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES.

I. Weights.
A. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.

1 ton = 2000 pounds (Ibs.} ;*
z Ib. = 16 ounces (0z.) = 256 drams = 768 scruples = 7680 grains ;
I OZ. = 16drams= 48scruples = 480 grains;
1dram = 3scruples= 30 grains;
rscruple = 10 grains,

B,. APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT, FOR DRUGS.

1 lb, = 12 0z. = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 5760 grains;

10z.= 8drams= 24scruples= 480 grains;
1dram = 3scruples= 60 grains;
1scruple = 20 grains.

C. TROY WEIGHT, FOR JEWELS AND PRECIOUS METALS,
azlb, = 12 oz. = 24 carats = 240 pennyweight (dwt.) = 5760 grains;

10Z.= z2carats= 20dwts. = 480 grains;
i carat = 10 dwts. = 240 grains;
1 dwt. = 94 grains.

II. Measures.

A. LINEAR,
1 mile = 8 furlongs (frlgs.) = 80 chains = 320 rods = 5280 feet ;t
x furlong =10chains = 49rods= 660 feet;
x chain -—=|. 4;rods'— ) Solent:
r1rod = _ 164 feet;

1 chain = too links;
1 link = 7.92 inches 3
1 yard = 3 feet = 36 inches;
1 foot = 12 inches,
B. SURFACE.
1 square mile = 640 acres ;
1 acre = 10 square chains = 160 sq. rods = 4840 sq. yd
= 43,560 square feet.

-

* 1 long ton = 20 imperial hundredweights (cwt ) = 2240 pounds.
t 1 sea mile (Admiralty knot) = 6080 feet, or 1.1515 statute mile,

310 GENERAL TOPICS.

e. GALACTES.
I. DRY MEASURE.

z bushel = the volume of 77.627 lbs. of distilled water at 4°C.;
x bushel = a pecks = 8 gallons = 32 quarts = 2150.4 cubic inches¢

apeck =2gallons= 8quarts= 537.6 ‘“ >

tgallon = ,4quarts= 268.8 ‘* =

iquart = 67.2 “ =

2. LIQUID MEASURE.

1 gallon = the volume of 8.3388822 lbs. = 58,373 troy grains of distilled
water at 4° C.;
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 32 gills = 231 cubic inches;
1quart =2pints= 8gills= 57.75 ‘ es
1pint = 4gills= 28.88 ‘ a
Metric System of Weights and Measures.
1. LINEAR MEASURES.

z meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm)= 100 centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimeter
(mm) = .t decameters (Dm) = .or1 Hectometer (Hm) = .oor Kilometea
(Km) = .ooor Myriameter (Mm).

1 Mm = 10 Km = 100 Hm = 1000 Dm = 10,000 m3

1Km= 1oHm= 100 Dm= t1,ooom;

rT Him) 10 Dm-= ) Too me

1Dm= 1oM;
Im = 10dm = roocm = 1o0oo mm;
rdm= iocm= 10omms:
cm = Io mm.

2. SURFACE MEASURES.

1 Are (a) = r00 square meters (sq. m.) = .o1 hectare (ha) $
1 Are = 1 sq. Dm. = 100 square m j
1 sq. Km = 100 Ha = 10,000 A = 1,000,000 $q. M5
1 Ha= “zoo A =. ~10,000'SG..m 5
ee Too Sq. m.

3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

z liter (1) = 1 cubic decimeter (cdm) = 1,000 cubic centimeters (c. c.) =
o.cor cubic meter (cbm) = 1o deciliters (dl) = 100 centiliters (cl) = ox
hectoliter (hl).

1 Hl = 10 D1 = 1001 = 1,000 dl = 10,000 cl
1 Di = 101 =. zoo dl =. z,co0'els
1l1= s10dl= _ 100cl.

4. WEIGHTS.

1 kilogram (kg) = 100 decagrams (Dg) = 1000 grams (g)$
1 gram = 10 decigrams (ag) = roo centigrams (cg) = 1,000 milligrams (mg);
1 ton = 1000 Kg = 100,000 Dg = 1,000,000 g ;

too Kg = 10,000 Dg = 100,000 g 3

1Kg= 100 Dg = 1,000 g.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES,

oll

Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric,

Inches to
Millimeters.

I = 25.4001

Meter to
Inches.

Sq. Inches to
Sq. Centmr.

6.452

Sq. Centime.
to sq. in.

I= .1550

Cubic In. to
Cu. Centmr.

t=! 16.387

Cu. Centmrs
to Cubic In.

r= .0610

Fluid Drams
to Cu. Centi-
meters.

3-70

Cu. Centi-
meters to
Fluid Drams,

27

T=

Grains to
Milligrams.

1= 64.7989

Milligrams
to Grains,

01543

uintals to
ounds Av.

220.46

I=

=

Cubic Centimeter.

and vice versa.

LINEAR.
Feet to Meters. Yards to Meters.
-3048 -9144
Meter to Feet. Meter to Yards,
3.2808 1.0936
SQUARE.
Sq. Feet toSq. Square Yards to
Decimeters. Square Meters.
g.290 .836
Sq. Meters Square Meters
to Sq. Feet. to Square Yards.
10.764 1.196

CUBIC.

Cubic Yards to
Cubic Meters.

Cubic Feet to
Cubic Meters.

.0283 -765
Cu. Decimeters Cubic Meters to
to Cubic Inches. Cubic Feet.
61.023 35-314
CAPACITY.

Fluid Ounces to
29.57 -9464

Centiliters to Liters

Fluid Ounces. to Quarts. Gallons. to Bushels.
338 1.0567 2.6417 2.8377
WEIGHT.
. : Avoirdupois
Avoirdupois : Troy Ounces
Ounces to Grams, Poeun Kilo- to Grune.
ms.
28.3495 .4530 Stance
Kilograms to Hectograms to Kilograms to
Grains. Ounces Av. Pounds Av.
15432.36 3.5274 2.2046

Milliers or Tonnes
to Pounds Av.

2204.6

Miles to
Kilometers.

1.6094

Kilometer to
Miles.

.6214

Acres to
Hectares,

-4047
Hectares to

Acres.

2.471

Bushels to
Hectoliters.
°3524
Cubic Meters to
Cubic Yards.
1.308

Quarts to Liters. Gallons to Liters.

3.7854

Decalitersto Hectoliters

Kilograms to
Ounces Troy.

32.1507

313 GENERAL TOPICS.

KILOGRAMS CONVERTED INTO POUNDS

AVOIRDUPOIS.
Kilos ° I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 e000] .022 044 066 088] .110 132 154 176] .194
oI 220 243 265 287 309] +331 353 315 397 419
+2 +441 463 485 5°97 529) +55! 573 595 617 039
<3 -661 683 705} .728 7501 +972 794 816 838 860
+4 882 904| .926) .948 970} .9Q92] 1.014] 1.036] 1.058] 1.080
«5 I.102} 1,124] 1.146] 1.168] 1.190] 1.213] 1.235] 1.257] 1.279] 1.301
-6 1.323] 1.345] 1.367] 1.389] 1.411] 1.433] 1.455] 1-477| 1-499] 1.521
-7 1.543] 1-565| 1.587] 1.609] 1.631] 1.653] 1.676] 1.698] 1.720] 1.742
8 1.764] 1.786) 1.808] 1.830] 1.852] 1.874] 1.896] r.918] 1.940] 1.962
9 1.984] 2.006] 2.028] 2.050] 2.072] 2.094] 2.116] 2.138] 2.161] 2 183
POUNDS CONVERTED INTO KILOGRAMS.
Pounds. ° I 2 8 4 5 6 7 8 9
9.0 .000 | .005 | .00g | .o14 | <o18 | .023 | .027 | .032 | .036 | .o4t
I .045 | .050 054 | -059 | .064 | .068 | .073 | .077 | .082 | .086
72 991 | .095 | .100 4 .104'| .109 | .r2g | .218 | .122 | .127 132
Ae -136 | .141 | .145 | .150 | .154 | .159 | -163 | .168 ] .172 | .177
-4 -18r | .186 | .191 | .195 | .200 | .204 | .209 | .213 | «218 | .220
a 3227 | «231 | .2360 | .240°) s245"| 1.249 | <254 } 2250, |R.20o meebo
-6 «272 | .277 | .281 | .286] .290 | .295 | .2909 | .304 | .308 | .313
-7 | +318 | .322 | .327 | -33% | -336 | .340 | -345 | -349 | -354 | -358
8 -363 | -367 | .371 | .376 | .381 | .386 | .390 | .395 | -309 | .404
-9 408, | -.413)| qn" | 2422| 24260 5|) 3 ASE) |, 495) |) dd Wad +449.

INCHES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A FOOT.

(TRAUTWINE.)

Ins. | Foot. || Ins. | Foot.|| Ins. | Foot. || Ins. | Foot. || Ins. | Foot.

By .0026]| 1 -0833]| 2 . 1667 6 .5000 || 10 .8333
ts .0052|| 46 | .0938|! 214 -2083 6% -5417 || 1044 -8750
1% -O104 144 | .1042|| 3 +2500 7 5033) || 18 -Q167
144 | .0208|| 18 -1146|| 344] .2917 74% | .6250 || 11344] .9583
36 -0313 1% | .1250|| 4 3933 8 -6667 || 12 I .0000
4g | -0417|| 15g | .1354|| 444 | .3750 || 814] .7083
5g | .o521 134 | .1458/| 5 .4167 9 «7500
34 | .0625|| 1% | -1563/| 546] -.4583 || 936| .7917

% | .0729

OUNCES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A POUND.

10Z. = .06 lb. OZ: = .56lb:
- se 13 “ xo = 63 “ec
3 19 “ Iz fA =, 69 sé
“ 6c “cc “
4 “ = .25 § 120" = 275
5 ‘ = 31 ‘ 13 sé = 81 ““
6 sc = 38 Se 14 ““ _— .88 sé
ge co 6é
Pact « ss Oe

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 313

COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER
SCALES.

Fahren- Centi- : Fahren- | Centi-
heit. grade. Reaumur. heit. | grade. Reaumer.
ed ee | SS | ee |

+212 +100 +80 +158 +70 +56
211 99-44 79-56 157 69.44 55-56
210 98 .89 79.11 156 68.89 55-11
209 98.33 78.67 155 68.33 54-67
208 97-78 78.22 154 67.78 54.22
207 97-22 77-78 153 67.22 53-78
206 96.67 77-33 152 66.67 53-33
205 96.11 76.89 I51 66.11 52.89
204 95-55 76.44 150 65-55 52-44
203 95 76 149 65 52
202 94-44 75-56 148 64-44 51.56
201 93-89 75-11 147 63.89 51.11
200 93-33 74-67 146 63-33 50.67
199 92.78 74.22 145 62.78 50.22
198 92.22 73-78 144 62.22 49.78
197 gi -67 73-33 143 61.67 49-33
196 QI.I1 72.89 142 61.11 48.89
195 90-55 72.44 141 60.55 48.44
194 90 72 140 60 48
193 89.44 71.56 139 59-44 47-56
192 88.89 Ji.1t 138 58.89 4g.11
191 88.33 70.67 137 58.33 46.67
190 87.78 70.22 136 57-79 46.22
189 87.22 69.78 135 57.22 45-78
188 86.67 69.33 134 56.67 45-33
187 86.11 68.89 133 56.11 44.89
186 85-55 68.44 132 55-55 44-44
185 85 68 131 55 44
184 84.44 67.56 130 54-44 43-56
183 83.89 67.11 129 53-89 43-11
182 83.33 66.67 128 53-a0 42.67
181 82.78 66.22 127 52.78 42.22
180 82.22 65.78 126 52.22 41.78
179 81.67 65-33 125 51.67 41-33
178 81.11 64.89 124 51.11 40.89
177 80.55 64.44 123 50-55 40.44
176 80 64 122 50 40
175 79-44 63.56 121 49.44 39.56
174 78.89 63.11 120 48.89 39-11
173 78.33 62.67 119 48.33 38.67
172 77.78 62.22 118 47-78 38.22
171 77-22 61.78 117 47-22 37-78
170 76.67 61.33 116 46.67 39-33
169 76.11 60.89 II5 460.11 36.89
168 75-55 60.44 114 45-55 36.44
167 75 60 113 45 3
166 74-44 59-56 112 44-44 35-56
165 73-89 59.11 II 43.89 35211
164 72-33 58.67 110 43-33 34-67
163 72.78 58.22 109 42-78 34.22
162 71.22 57-78 108 42.22 33-78
161 71.67 57-33 107 41.67 33-33
160 71.11 56.89 106 eee a: 32.89
159 79.55 56.44 105 49.55 32-44

314 GENERAL TOPICS.

COMPARISONS OF FAHREN HEIT, CENTIGRADE
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER
SCALES.— ¢ ontinued.

Fahren- Centi- Fahren- Centi-

heit. grade. Réaumur. heit. grade. Reaumur.

+104 +40 +32 +50 -+10 +8
103 39-44 31.56 49 9.44 7-56
102 38.89 31.11 48 8.89 ” feo
Io 38.33 30.67 47 8.33 6.67
100 37-78 30.22 46 7-78 6.22
99 37-22 29.78 45 7 +22 5-78
98 36.67 29.33 44 6.67 5-33
97 36.11 28.89 43 6.11 4.89
96 35-55 28.44 42 5 +55 4-44
95 35 28 41 5 4
94 34-44 27.56 40 4-44 3-56
93 33-89 27.11 39 3-89 3-11
92 33-33 26.67 38 3-33 2.67
QI 32.78 26.22 37 2.78 an22
go 32.22 25.78 36 2.22 1.78
89 31-67 25+33 35 1.67 1.33
88 Sr. cr 24.89 34 I.11 2.89
87 30-55 24-44 33 0-55 0.44
86 30 24 32 ° °
85 29.44 23-56 31 —0-55 —0.44
84 28.89 23.11 30 1.1 0.89
83 28.33 22.67 29 1.67 ro3
82 27.78 22.22 28 2.22 1.78
81 27 22 21.78 27 2.78 2.22
80 26.67 21.33 26 3-33 2.67
79 26.11 20.89 25 3.89 3.11
78 25.55 20.44 24 4:44 3-56
77 25 20 23 5 4
76 24.44 19-56 22 5+55 4-44
75 23.89 19.11 21 II 4.89
74 23-33 18.67 20 6.67 5-33
73 22.78 18.22 19 7.22 5.78
72 22.22 17.78 18 7.78 6.22
7z 21.67 17 +33 17 8.33 6.67
7o 21.11 16.89 16 8.89 Y pe
69 20.55 16.44 15 9-44 7-56
68 20 I 14 Io
67 19.44 15.50 13 10.55 8.44
66 18.89 Hsia 12 bap i 8.89
65 18.33 14.67 II 11.67 9.33
64 17.78 14.22 10 12.22 9.78
63 17.22 13.78 9 12.78 Io 22
62 16.67 13.33 8 13.33 10.67
61 16.11 12.89 7 13.89 II.1t
60 15.55 12.44 6 14-44 11.56
59 15 12 5 15.00 12
58 14.44 11.56 4 15-55 12.44
57 13.89 TESTL 3 16.11 12.89
56 13.33 10.67 2 16.67 13-33
55 12.78 10.22 I 17.22 13.78
54 12.22 9.78 ° 17.78 14.22
53 11.67 O83 -I 18.33 14.67
52 BETE 8.89 2 18.89 15.11
51 10.55 8.44 3 19.44 15-56

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 315

COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHE(T, CENTIGRADE
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER
SCALES.— Continued.

Fahren- Centi- Z
heit. grade Reaumur. heit. grade Rene
—4 —20 16 —23 — 30-55 — 24.44

5 20.55 16.44 24 31.11 24.89
*” 6 21.11 16.89 25 31.67 25.33
7 21.67 17-33 26 32.22 25.78
8 22.22 17.78 27 32.78 26.22
22.78 18.22 28 33-33 26.67
xe) 23-33 18.67 29 33-89 27.11
II 23.89 19.11 30 34-41 27.56
12 24.44 19.56 31 35 28
13 25 20 32 35°55 28.44
14 25-55 20.44 33 36.11 28.89
15 26.11 20.89 34 36.67 29.33
16 26.67 21.33 35 37-22 29.78
17 27,22 21.78 36 37-78 30.22
18 27.78 22.22 a7 38.3 30.67
19 28.33 22.67 38 38.89 31.11
20 28.89 23-11 39 39-44 31-56
2r 29.44 23.56 40 40° 32.00
22 30 24

Formula for Converting Degrees Centigrade to Fahrenheit, and
vice versa:

n C= S + 32] F.3

oF = (SO = 3) S.
Toe.

For Degrees Réaumur, substitute 4 for the figure 5 in the
preceding formulas.

316 GENERAL TOPICS.

GOVERNMENT LAND MEASURES.

In the system of government survey, lines running north
and south are drawn parallel to a fixed line (principal me-
ridian) at a distance of six miles apart; these are called
range lines. At right angles with these, other parallel lines
(town lines) are drawn, which then run east and west. The
two sets of lines form squares containing 36 square miles
each, called townships. A certain number of townships
forma county. Each square mile of a township is called a
section, containing 640 acres, and these are numbered regu-
larly 1 to 36, commencing at the northeast corner, as shown
in the accompanying diagram. Section 16 in each township
is set apart for school purposes.

Sections are divided by lines running north and south,
and east and west, into guarter sections, designated as the
northeast quarter, northwest quarter, southwest quarter,
and south-east quarter of the section. These quarters con-
tain 160 acres of land each, and are again divided into
quarters, each containing forty acres, which is the smallest
sub-division recognized in government survey. Lands are
usually sold in tracts of forty acres, or a multiple thereof,
except in case of land bordering on lakes, which are frac-
tional sections and may contain more or less than forty
acres. These are called government lots.

TOWNSHIP. SECTION.

NWY| NEY
of of

NEY | NEY

N. W.
Quarter. swy | SEY
of of
NEY | NE4
S. W. S. E.
Quarter. Quarter.

The description of a 4o-acre lot would then, for example,
read as follows: The northeast quarter of the northeast.
quarter of section I in township 24 north, range 7 west.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. SEZ

TO MEASURE CORN ON THE COB IN CRIBS.
(WaRING.)

When the Crib is Equilateral.

RuLe.—Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in
inches, and that again bythe height in inches, and divide the
product by 2748 (the number of cubic inches in a heaped bushel),
and the quotient will be the number of bushels of ears. Take
two thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled
corn.

Example.—Required the number of bushels of shelled corn
contained in acrib of ears, 15 ft. long by 5 ft. wide and to ft.
high.

Solution: 180 in. (length) x 60 in. (width) X 120 in. (height)
= 1,296,000 ++ 2748 = 471.6 heaped bushels, two thirds of which
is 314.6 bushels, shelled.

When the Cribis Flared at the Sides.

Multiply half the sum of the top and bottom widths in inches
by the perpendicular height in inches, and that again by the
length in inches, and divide the product by 2748; the quotient
will be the number of heaped bushels of ears. Take two
thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn.

318 GENERAL TOPICS.

LEGAL WEIGHTS OF GRAIN, SEEDS, ETC,

The table shows the number of pounds per bushel re-
quired by law or custom, in the sale of articies specified, in
the several States of the Union.

4s i Ps 2 Eo}

o =e ao} vo
2 2| 5 PA | 2] 8! s
States. | wis! as ce ; a ems
afin ie ee q| 12 S =| @| 5| 3
1 ola) Bl #8) S| S] 3] Sls eee
| 3] Oo} Oo] Oo} S| vs] oO} & | | Ot ales
1A) O00; 0/0) 0} &| @| FE) 5) G| aloe
IWUAIHE oder osce eee te. 48] 48]...] 56] 50] 52] 32] 60]...] 60 60] 62 45
New Hampshire. . w ot ictelsi} sieratl 'z51s |S Ola BO] owe 321 00! esOlnbo heen eee 62 Lh
Wiermontsia steko. e.--| 48] 48]...| 56)...] 52] 32] 60} 56] 60] 70} 60} 62] 60) 45
Massachusetts.... ...... 48] 48].. | 56) 50] 52| 32] 60] 56] 6o|...|...| 60] 60! 45
ode TRAN ios ook BS aecte. 56] 50] 50| 32| 60] 56] Go}...]...|-.-|-.-]..-
Connecticut..... © eeseee| 48] 48!...| 56) 50] 50] 32] 60] 56] Go}...| so| 6o}...]...
New York ....... ......| 48] 48/!..| 58]...|...| 32| 60] 56] 60|...|...| 62] 60) 44
New Jersey. seccesee.eee| 48] 50)...] 56'...] 57] 30] 60] 56] 6o]...]...]---| 64) 45
Pennsylvania...........| 47| 48|...] 56! 48] 50) 30] 60] 56] 60] 85|...|...] 62)...
Delaware... .cicesesee ce se] vise} act] 22 86l48|s00).-0] ao] n< {00} aki lll
Maryland.. Ste occ|taels cal ceeleee lees 26) 56] 56]... .| 56) -.] Oatewelene
District of Columbia... 47| 48|...| 56] 48] 57| 32] 56] 56] 60] 50] 55| 62] 60] 45
RRR coe eosin in eoeee-| 48] 52/1...) 56) 50] 57| 32] 60] 56] Go}...| 56] 60} 64] 45
West Virginia...........| 48] 52] 80] 56]...|... 32| 60] 56] 6o]...}.. .| 60} 60} 45

North esi -++| 48] 50]...| 54] 46]...| 30]..-] 56] Gol...]...].+-] G4]...
South Carolina..........| 48] 56] 80] 56) 50| 57| 32| 60] 56] 60] so|...| 60] 6o)...
Georgia ............ .--1 47] 521 80] 56| 48] 57| 32] 60| 56] 60 56] 55|--+| 60] 45

Miorida see. coeceeee-eee| 48) 48]...] 56] 48] 57) 32] 60] 56) Go}...] 55] 60} 60! 45
Alabama......... seeeeee| 471 48]...1 56] 48] 57] 32] 60] 56] 60]...| 55] 60] 60] 45
Mississippi. . so. oe] 48]...]...| 56] 48] ..] 32] 60] 56] 6o]...|...| 60] 60) 45
Louisiana....... who's en volect ace) soe) 50) SO) <0.) 32] ¢-0]. cal caste BPA eet or
Texas.......+.2e000+ «| 48] 42/...| 56/...| 57] 32] 60] 56] 60]... 55| 60] 60] 45
Arlearibas .....;.0.0.0-3% 48] 52] 80 56) 48] 57) 32] 60] 56] 60] 50] 57| 60] 60) 60
Tennessee........-00....| 48] 50]...| 56) 50] 56| 32/ 60] 56] 6ol...| 50/260] 60! 45
Kentucky..... soeeee-se-| 47) 56)...| 56) 50] 57| 32| 60) 56] 60] 50| 60] 60} 60} 45
0) IES See ee seeeese! 48) 50].. | 56)...] 55) 32] 60] 56] 6o].. -| 60} 60] 60} 45
Michigan...... eeceeceee-| 48] 48] 80] 56| 50! 54) 32] 60] 56] 60! 56] 58] 60] 60} 45
RONAN. Ue re olep ss Sales 2 48] 50] 70] 56, 50] 48, 32| 60] 56] Go} 50]...| 60] 60) 45
PUBS Fosse anor sce 48] 52|.. | 56) 48] 57) 32] 60] 56! 60] 50] 55] 60] 60} 45
Wisconsin...... ........| 48] 48|...| 56] 50] 57. 32| 60] 56| 6o|...| 42| 60} 60! 45
Minnesota yn. 2es28s cee 5 -| 48] 50]...] 56]... 57 32] 601 56] Gol... 52] 601 60} 45
Towa...........++++00-++-| 48] 52]...| 56|...| 57) 32| 60] 56] 60] so|...| 60] 60] 45
WHESOUTL ccicses Roce oh 48] 52]...] 56] 50] 57, 32] 60] 56] 60] 50] 42] 60} 60! 45
HANSAS 255 0c Geese" seeee-| 48] 50]...| 56) 50! 57| 32] 60] 56] 60} 50] 55] 60} 60} 45
Nebraska....... recesses] 48! 52]...] 56)...] 52) 32] 60] 56] 60] 50] 55] 60] 60} 45
South Dakota..... sO 48] 42]...| 56)...| 52] 32] 60) 56] 60]. ..| 60] 60) 60} 42

North Dakota.. .........] 48] 42|.../§6)...| 57| 32] 60] 56] 60]. .| 60] 60] 60! 42
Montana................| 48] 52|...| 56) 50| 57| 32| 60| 56| 60|...] 50| 60] 60] 45

COIOKAAO orcs ot aay 48] 52].../ 56) 50]...| 32] 60] 56] 6o].. 60} 60} 45
RAGhO Soe cries Semionov 48) 42) 205) 56)..<1.<0| 36] 60} 56) 60)||..<l soe) emm| ee

biee cla sais ates 48) 42]...| 56] .|...| 32] 60] 56] 6o}...|... Ro eerie i)
alllor aan. Bieeleiatisce eran 59|) 4Ols cal seal le EY PARED ls sie fever ee Sele aetiese
ROCCE ocpnpies cacbuien tp ws Bf 12) We. 2s ese so ee | 36|"60] 561 Gol...) 20.) eel Gola

(oe aOKEN aii i.e 48] 42]...| 56'...| 52] 32| 60} 56] 60]...| 60]...| 60} 42

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 319

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.

(TRAUTWINE.)
; l
Average Went
See I cu foot
ravity.|i, Pounds.
RRO RM Seti s ah, 2a: 2 a's dine adiaemjarnsie ws poe alee tnd 26... + 562,
Anthracite, Pee AO Ag ASMA oo NS Se me rees sine 1.5 93-5
broken,of any size, Ttoose’° 22.22... 52-56
(A ton, loose, averages from 40 to 43 cubic feet.)
Ash, American white, GLY ee ee ee ee Bae ee 61 38.
ny Geriecliy Ory... 22... ses 752 47-
PETES T—T.G 5 oc ove oe tacenc nn oe So) GAdape sone 1.4 83.3
TS Ea ea a eee : .96 60.
Brass (copper and zinc) cast, 7.8-8.4....... ......- 8.1 504.
Bronze (copper 8 parts, tin 1 part, gun metal), 8.4-

RSCpREe Diaeyate ste Sint, Geis sities noerdw tae Riek atta ceiets eels 8.5 529
Cement, English Portland........ .... Re Settietaeia ciate 2 81-102
iatedal, Of PINES ANG Oaks... 6-5-2 scceisdie seas ; 15- 3G
Cherry, perfectly CLR Y lors che eteto lv iaicis inst oeteinaes ste ano siniais -672 42.
Ghestait, pertectly, d£Y... |. .ocsccc wees scans aes oes 56 4I.
Coal, bituminous 1.2-1 rGOBS Prine EI OaUCe HEE sce pee Pees 84.

Mactnatt, OF ANY RIZE, 1OOSE.... 26... one os ames 47-52

(A ton occupies from 43 to 48 cubic feet.)

Spengers GABE, 8.6-8.9. 5.0. cnc cweccer ne 00 om Rete Ania 8.7 542.
COG IELTS “te 3c ee Ry Se Re oF ODOR eridae: 25 DE i
Coke, loose, of good Coal.... .. -....seseeseeeeeee nee 23-32
(4 ton occupies 80 to 97 cubic feet.)
Elme perfectly dry..<..ccce.secsese aisieinieteie pinl- satsietorala .56 35.
BAG Coes cns os ASOAC T HUAaA BODOG AOS a56cicMnoebee -93 58.
GIASSPatG—FtAR ine. sccebocececccee Garvie te laa aclballee ey
oldnGastypuleresascw tee so ccitleeins atte cece eG sie 19.258 W204.
Gravel, about the same as sand, which see.
Hemlock, perfectly Se Jadeciindodaac aiielete'n sielcietee i! 25.
Hickory, perfectly dry.. EDO CO ScCCOLKODOCnDe 85 53-
WO OT RCH 5S SSB ORL AC OGOCONUOCE OIDODOeOSOnOd S058 -92 ai
re SE ote aca ca has A sie fare danse -93 : :
Prog CASES GrO-7edsnics incl elac sists > sisie.ciciciee sicieg:axrels's.s'sln's 7.15 446.
Warder. cee s -ss Malsivistaledte ts acisictote ia aie/sinicicislaisie'sla wisietete .95 59-3
LGAG, EL. 38-2E-AZ «ws csv seve scccctesceccecesecencas 11.38 709.6
Lime, Sian ih a awead 4 sss e'e'gnG oes smineng Seb 1.5 95.
‘* ground loose, per struck bu. 62-72 lbs..
Pees ame rat HAL DIES? cae tace cites ccancmen ois sse exe 2.6 164.4
Mahogatiy, re seam ay erry site Beanie 85 53-
Maple, dry.. pl einisinih stefetaeala\eloia bih'aetalavstaielcteld =\6 -79 49-
Mercury, at cook ie RR Saini iii eek eicnes 13.58 846.

Oak, white, perfecily dry, .66-.88.......... Sera. See 77 48.
|

320 GENERAL TOPICS.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.—

Continued,
Average
Average
Specie Were vi
Gravity.|.* econ
in Pounds.
Wak «red. black €t@o.5.c<ceav eae sess a BA Ee ee ; 32-45

eh STEVIE; s0O=0.02 \cccb cece cemens cscs ERNE) SORA OF -95 59.3
Oils; olive; wihlale®.-- 5... ae ccocnans A Rt Aris -g2 57.3
edlsre tec Ate seis aaeen es ce en, ae ee a are eli See aiele 20-30
PC(TOMCUAL ese ic need tle ee ore ela vel lone Owe oe aac a. .878 54.8
Pine, white, perfectly dry, .35-. 45 CEA MUN ae eis o .40 25.

eave llow, NOtthetn’ 4CitOl 62.02.00 des case mele waae -55 34-3

ee 2. .Sonthern, .ba-80s, -ociee ameees: ches -72 45-
Platine 21-222)... wise cicewice se BADER, EPR Aa ue 21.5 1342.
Onariz, common, pure, 2:64-2:67. -.cceeeaw ss se 2.65 165
ROSWMGSen ete, Sin cinidee Seca iseee aisle Pexloiac edo aes een 3 68.6
Salt, coarse, per struck bu., Syracuse, N. Y., 56 lbs. acts 45e
Sand of pure quartz, dry and loose, per struck bu.

MEME UIS eee Pee an ciel see a igik pine San aee ee ae go-106
Sand ot pure quartz, Wet ane a eee Ae ae 118-129
SHTDRE Ceaser ee OE MW ES tes it ey, GP eek eg 10.5 655.
Snowtresiefallen:: - fo: 2. 6 Cave net. cos ox eee tte te 5-12

** moistened and compacted by rain.......... 15-20
Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, loose.......... 72-80
Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, moderately .

rammed. SMe onl oe) eee es Rea See Reena eles go-100
Soils, common loam, slightly moist, IOBEE. eo eet: eee 70-76

as a soft, flowing mud........ eece 104-112

SPRUCE Mperiecthy Oty cers. tenses) los Sete ates 4 25.
SUbl Reig ee ic iota occas ape os epeiitators ain’ teeic ein alereiare Ste +E 2.0 125.
ee 2 on ir Oi eee eee eee sate 7-85 490.
Syeamtore, perfectly dry: ..00..2c 00. cece ee cccceee -59 37-
Lic) Seen eSencie« eiaisisje fos snes alsin em cisearie toh sisirceets 1.0 62.4
OS AMR ican wa sta s «hnlxid oehint, ome oi Ocad vee 7-35 459.
Walnut pértecthy dry py c.csccancsee ste deweltectost ene 61 38.
Water, pure rain or distilled, at 32° F. (barometer

30 TAS) eae yobs vole hee se mat aaes Pelee hee ee see 62.417
Water, pure rain or i-tilled. at 62° F. (barometer

30 in. Nese tc hae og eis sae as a gees See A DC eA See I.0 62.355
Water, pure rain or distilled water at 212° F.

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Nore.—Green timbers usually weigh from one fifth to nearly one half
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GENERAL TOPICS.

Fluctuating Currency.

Silver
Silver

Silver
Silver
Silver
Silver

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Silver
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Silver (nominally) | pyste (=

gold
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about

Boliviano (= 100 centavos)| $-49,3

Peso
Shanghai tael
Haikwan tael (customs)
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Rupee (= 16 annas)

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STATISTICAL TABLES. 323

i. Sp LATISTICAL TABLES.

AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED
STATES, 1890, (Eleventh Census.)

a
Areain | Popula- Area in | Popula-
states. Sq. Miles.| tion. States. Sq. Miles.| tion.

———————_————q—| | — | | em. \_._.____

Alabama.......] 52,250 | 1,513,017 ||Nebraska...... 77,510 | 1,058,910
Arizona’. ..—... .| 113,020 59,020 ||Nevada........ 110,700 45,761
Arkansas...... \ 53,850 | 1,128,179 ||N’wHampshire 91305 376,350
Calitornians <<: | 158,360 | 1,208,130 ||New-Jersey.. 7:815 | 1,444,933
Colorado.......} 103,925 412,198 ||New Mexico. . 122,580 153,593
Connecticut.... 4,990 746,258 ||New York..... 49,170 | 5,997,853
Delaware...... 2,050 168,493 ||N. Carolina.... 52,250 | 1,617,047
Dist. of Colum. 70 230,392 ||N. Dakota..... 70,795 182,719
Florida, .. .:.:.... 58,680 391,422 |/Ohio..... Sc Sode 41,060 | 3,672,316
Georeta,.. .<: “=|! 50,475 11,837,359) ||Oklahomia.~.. .: 39,030 61,834
WGA Giistersiercisiers-s 84,800 84,385 |-Oregon........ 96,030 313,767
DN WOIS ge. se. 56,650 | 3,826,351 ||Pennsylvania.. 45,215 | 5,258,014
Indiana........| 36,350 | 2,192,404 Spe egy ste 1,250 345,506
: 182.984 . Carolina,... 30,570 | 1,151,1

Indian Ter..... 37,400 58,395*||S. Dakota.... . 77,050 308,808
FOWaS (5.0. scien») 56,025 -| @,98r,896 || TDennessee;.... 42,050 | 1,767,518
IRATISA Si 6.0/5-3. 505 82,080 | 1,427,096 ||Texas.......-. 265,780 | 2,235,523
ISGCHEOCK Yass 5() 40,400, |'1,859,035,, | |Wta Des as<ons eos 84,970 207,905
Louisiana ..... 48,720 | 1,118,587 ||Vermont.... .. 9,565 332,422
IMaING He eae s . 33,040 661,086 ||Virginia....... 42,450 | 1,655,980
Maryland...... 12,210 | 1,042,390 ||Washington... 69,180 349,390
Massachusetts. 8,315 | 2,238,943 ||W. Virginia. .. 24,780 762,794
Michigan...... 58,915 | 2,093,889 ||Wisconsin..... 56,040 | 1,686,880
Minnesota..... 83,365 | 1,301,826 ||Wyoming...... 97,890 60,705
Mississippi....| 46,810 | 1,289,600 —=
Missourl....... 69,415 | 2,679,184 “botal. 22323 3,602,990 | 62,622,250
Montana...... 146,080 132,159

* Indians on reservations in various states and territories.

AREA AND POPULATION OF CANADA, 1891.

Provinces Area in | Popula- Provinces Area in | Popula-
an Sq. Miles tion ann Sq. Miles tion
Districts. BE : : Districts. q- : :
Ontakios .u...225 21,950 | 2,114,321 ||Brit.Columbia.| 382,300 98,173
OUGHEGE Rhea. 2 227,500 | 1,488,535 ||Pr. Ed. Island. 2,000 109,078
Nova Scotia.... 20,550 450,396 ||The Territories] 2.371.481 98,967
New Brunswick 28,100 321,263 —.
Manitoba...... 64,066 152,500 Total........] 3,415,647 | 4,833,239

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326 GENERAL TOPICS.
METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR CANADA,

Normal Mean Temperature of the Air.

Province or City. Monthly Temperature. Mena fepame
Lowest. | Highest. Year.
Ontario.. Aig Ae AIG ea eee 193° 69.8° F 43-8° F.
Quebec.. ain h airs serene 25 70.2 42.6
New Brunswick... ............ 16.1 62.8 39-9
NoOVasS GOBlasasitastes <eisae c's parr 21.2 63.3 4TS7
Prince Edward Island ......... 14.7 64.3 40.5
VEAINILO DA vse cto <tsiei. sem sisteieals 0.6 65.9 32.6
StItiSh C OMMMDIA, ~ s. . soe os 22.8 72.2 48.1
MOXONEG) Bos) Uae «ae Fee ss tree 22.9 67.4 44.1
MUON EF Cal Fas Says lorate. oe aie sileiia toate 16.8 72.2 44.3
St. Joba, NetBasersiess sewserieree 18.4 59-7 40.3
PA ali fam? Wy Sit notes. so itstalnie's eaters 22.9 63.5 43-1

Normal rainfall in inches per year: Toronto 29.42, Windsor 23.78,
Peterborough 20.55, Montreal 27.26, Quebec 19.26, St. John 33.27, Halifax
43-08, Glace Bay 55.49, Sydney 49.42, Winnipeg 16.83, Spence’s Bridge 3.88.

COMPARISON OF LEADING INDUSTRIES IN THE
UNITED STATES. (U.S. Census of 1890, in Round Numbers.)

= é 2
~~ s
aS 8 2 zd 5
Ga d a | Bf | 2
ie es = a a
Millions.| Thousands. Millions. Millions. | Millions,
ANeTIeCUItUE 2522: os cise ee ecco 15,982 8,286 ede #8 2,460
Forest products, iota. aie Sass Tee vote ne 1,044
Forest industries, enu-
MICLALCH re 2 eee seen 562 348 102 245 446
Forest products, not enu-
merated (estimated) ...| .... «ae Sends BP 598
Manufactures using wood 543 513 204 442 907
Mineral products, total..... se rie aaa. athe 610
Goal, =: Boeke 343 300 109 oe 160
Gold and i eae 486 57, 40 seh 99
Tron‘and'Steeln cm .c- ae =< 414 176 96 327 479
Manufactures of iron and
SCAG crise Seen 86 60 32 79 131
eather... ban 102 48 25 136 178
Leather manufactures. . Z 118 186 88 153 289
Wooldis boo. Se Bae 297 219 77 203 338

Cotton sr ogee 354 222 7o 155 268

STATISTICAL TABLES,

327

FARMING POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES,
1870, 1880, and i890.

Total population

Total engaged in agriculture
Total in professional and personal

SERVIEESL ..:..
Total in manufactures and mining.
Total in trade and transportation...

Engaged in all classes of occupa-
NITOVUS sit ae aa a ne eee ema
Engaged in agriculture, per cent.

Ninth
Census.
38,558,371

53992,471
2,684,793

2,797 421
1,191,238

12,375,923
48.4

Tenth
Census.
50,152,866

7,670,493
4,074,238

3837,112
1,810,256

17,392,099
44.1

Eleventh
Census.
62,622,250

9,013,201*
5+304,829

5,091 ,669t
3,325,962

22,735,061
39-6

NOMBER OF FARMS IN UNITED STATES AND
THEIR VALUE.

(Eleventh Census.)

States.

Alabama.....
Arizona.... .
Arkansas.....
California....
Colorado. ...
Connecticut .
Delaware....
Dist. of Col..
Florida

wees oe

Massachus’ts
Michigan.....
Minnesota...
Mississippi...
Missouri .. .
Montana.....
Nebraska ....

No. of
Farms.

Value.

1575772|PULI,O51,390

1,426
124,760
52,894
16,389
26,350
9,381
382
34,228
171,071
6,603
240,681
198,167
201,903
166,617
179,264
69,294
62,013
40,798
345374
1725344
116,851
144,318
238,043
5,603
113,608

7,222,230
118,574,422
697,116,630

85,035,180
95;000,595
39,586,080
6,471,120
72,745,180
152,000,230
17,431,580

T, 262,870,587

754,789,110
857,591,022
559,726,046
346,339,360

85,381,270

98,567,730
175,058,550
127,538,284
556,190,670
340,059,470
127,423,157
625,858,361

25,512,340
402,358,913

States.

Nevada......
N.Hampshire
New Jersey..
New Mexico.
New York....
N. Carolina...
N. Dakota...
Ohiass4.6 1 3.
Oklahoma...
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island!
S. Carolina ..|
S: Dakota.
Tennessee....

sees

Vermont.....
Vitginia.eess-
Washington .
W. Virginia..
Wisconsin....
Wyoming....

Rotaleys.22

No. of
Farms.

1,000
29 ISI
30,828
45458
226,223
178,359
27,011
251,430
8,826
25,530
211,557
5;500
I15,008
50,158
174,412
228,126
10,517
325573
127,600
18,056
725773
146,409

3,125

’ Value.

$12,339,410
66,162,600
159,262,840
8,140,800
968,127,286
183,977,010
75:310,305
1,046,738,247
8,581,170
I15,819,2C0
922,240,233
21,873,479
99,104,600
107,466,335
242,700,540
399,971,289
28,402,780
80,427,490
254,490,600
83,461,660
151,880, 300
477:524,507
14,460,880

4,564,641|/$13,279,252,649

=

* Agriculture, fisheries, and mining.
+ Manufacturing and mechanical industries,

GENERAL TOPICS,

328

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STATISTICAL TABLES, 329

AVERAGE AGRICULTURAL WAGES IN THE
UNITED STATES IN 1893-1895, INCLUSIVE.

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

Per Day other than

: |
Per Month for Sea- |p. Day in Harvest.

son or Year. Harvest.
Years. Spe at ee
- With Without | With Without | With Without
Board. Board. Board. Board. Board. Board.
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MGQAle ai (dias 12.16 17.74 -93 £23 63 I
TSQE:. ne ais 0 12.02 17.09 g2 1.14 62 8r

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL FARM PRODUCTS OF
THE UNITED STATES, (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

1859. 1879. 1889.

Products. SD | aoa ae en | | a aa ae
Total Per Total Per Total Ber

Value. |Cent. Value. |Cent. Value. /Cent.

Meatsi.c22.°.s-- 300,000,000] 17.9 || $800,000,000] 22.1 || $900,000,000] 23.9
(COL -.\2-.--- | 360,680,878], 21.6 694,818,304] 19.2 597,018,829] 15.9
ay ecesc. oe aes 152,671,168] 9.1 409,505,783| I1.3 526,632,062] 14.0
Dairy products.] 240,400,580] 14.4 391,431,618] 10.8 411,976,522] 11.0
Wiheatn. 2. Seas 2 124,035,545) 7-5 436,968,463] 12.0 342,491,707| 9.1
Cotton .........] 211,516,625} 12.6 || 271,636,121| 7.5 || 307,008,114] 8.2
Poultry 204. 2. 75,000,000] 4.5 180,000,000] 5.0 200,000,000] 5.2
Other products*| 206,639,527| 12.4 440,438,353| 12-1 472,492,249] 12.6

Grand total. .|1,671,544,323| 100 |/3,624,498,642| 100 |/3,758,519,483] 100

* Other products include barley, buckwheat, flax fiber, flaxseed, hemp,
hops, Irish potatoes, leaf tobacco, maple sirup, maple sugar, oats, rice,
rye, sorghum-molasses, sweet potatoes, and wool.

GENERAL TOPICS.

330

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334

GENERAL TOPICS.

AREA, PRODUCT, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL
CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1895.
(U. S. Department of Agriculture.)
vi Poet ee
otal Total Be ag 2-9
Total Pro-| Area of | Valueof |S | Ee | Se
; Crop. Crop. eit pease
<q < <
Acres $ Cents $
Indian corn, bshls. 2,151,138,580| 82,075,830] 544,985,534| 25.3 | 26.2 | 6.64
Wheat, 467,102,947| 34,047,332] 237,938,998] 50.9 | 13.7 | 6.99
Oats, * 824,443,537| 27,878,406] 163,655,068) 19.9 | 29.6 | 5 87
Rye, * 27,210,070| 1,890,345] 11,964,826) 44.0 | 14.4 | 6.33
Barley, ¥; 87,072,744] 3.299,973| 29,312.413| 33-7 | 26.4 | 8.88
Buckwheat, ‘S 15,341,399 703,277 6,936,325] 45.2 | 20.1 | 9.09
Potatoes, : 297,237,370| 2,954,952} 78,984,901] 26.6 | 93.8 |26.73
‘Lobatco, 1bs.2.2-... 491,544,000 633.950] 35,574,220] 7.2 1775.4 |56.10
Hay, PONS aaa ew Save 47,078,541] 44,209,453] 393)185,615/$8.35 1.07! 8.89
Cotton, bales*..... 9,476,435| 23,687,950] 259,164,640/27.35 .40|10. 94

THE PRINCIPAL CEREAL PRODUCTS OF THE
UNITED STATES.
As Shown by the Census Returns, from 1850 to 1890.

Cen-

sus “soa 3 Wheat. Oats. Barley. | Rye. Beer.
Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels.
1850 | 592,071,104] 100,485,944] 146,584,179] 5,167.015] 14,188,813] 8,956,912
1860 | 838,792,742] 173,104,924] 172,643,185] 15,825,898] 21,101,380] 17,571,818
1870 | 760,944,549| 287,745,626] 282,107,157) 20,761,305] 16,918,795) 9,821,721
1880 |1,754,861,525| 459,479,505| 407,858,999) 44,113,495) 19,831,595| 11,817,327
1890 |2,112,327,547| 468,373,968| 809,250,666 78,332,976 28,421,398] 12,110,349

PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN CANADA,

1891. (Census of 1891.)
Wheat Se Fe aS he 42,144,779 bu. Turnips and _ other
BAULey nomad. Ves ame 17,148,198 ‘ EFOPtS = 3. 6) ote sees barre bu.
OVAES Veet ae cites ei 82,515,413 ‘“* | Grass and clover.....
| Pi Eee en eee eB ae 1,328,322 ‘* | Fruits, grapes, etc.... 68 Boa 81 Ibs.
Peas and beans....... Lo,are. 836. NL ODACCE sa cosivemes vale 4.277.936 2
Buckwheat.........:. 4,886,122. S WPT Ops 4. 4 Oe itn oe 1,126,230 “*
Corn (didize).6-< sae... -10:6768,000 4 8| MH RAXSEEM.... tetas eines 137,015 bu.
IPOLALOES Sie eas tee - 52,653,704 “*
Area of improved land in Canada, 1891.......... eseessee 28,537,242 Acres,
ie a “ty uumder iGrOpinon anette en re 19,904,826 ‘*
= “+ pardens and OxcharGS: . site ssoeics ces cae Gece’ anew 464,462 ‘*
Sey SS DASEUNES TA. pncttctosite cats sans .. 15,284,788 ‘f

* Crop of 1804.

STATISTICAL TABLES. 30D

AVERAGE COST PER ACRE OF RAISING WHEAT
AND CORN IN THE UNITED STATES, 1893.*

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
Wheat. Corn.

RAE Seca ety Sede ope FRc Ae wales 2 Sieh ac e's Ge $2.81 $3.03
PERIGEE = a oe es ees Pita isleie oO eee aia «eres. o 3 ohm = 2.16 1.86
GIG TONNO coe cee na eww eemees pote EERGe 1.62
SECO 0's. ee« Beara) ge tat aise rik cts anes SF Oe Boar 96 barat:
PME OT, FAMINE ccs ese cede aad ape nese. Wk 42
DIR URID orci e hs sisi ¥ oie Bois Rds Gee dam eles oo ¥ 0c ety 1.80
Peeves or pathering 2.0055 6.652. 4.2. 1.19 1.22
oS ae ee Eee ee Bae 1.20
So Si EN SRR aS Soe ca eae ere .50
WiseeetIne on ee ace Sueeeeminpes atu ary Caden wa .76 1.26
8 SR Saat ese: ira. a a ae scan secih of ae $11.69 $11.71

AVERAGE FARM PRICE OF VARIOUS AGRICUL-
TURAL PRODUCTS ON DEC. 1 IN EACH YEAR
FROM 1886 TO 1895.

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

Crop. 1886 +887. |1888. 1889. |18g90.|1891.|1892.|1893.|1894.|1895.
|
s/s |e) se) s sls erels
Corn per bushel..... |0.366/0.444 0.341 /0.283|0.506 0. 406]0.393,0.365|0.457|0-253
Wheat ‘ .-. -|0.687/0.681 0.926)0.698)0.838]0.839]0.624|0.538]0.491 |0.509
Rye es Le +/0.531/0.544 0.591 /0.457|0.629|0.774|0.54810.513/0.501 |0.440
Oats SE cee 0.298]0 304 0.278 0.230/0.424]0.315|0.317|0.294|0. 324 }0. 199
Barley--** : 0.530|/0.522/0.596|0.427|0.648|0.540|0.472|/0.411|0.442/0.337

Buckwheat per bush. |0.544|0.561]0.636 0.518/0 577|0.579)0.534/0.583/0.556/0.452
Irish potatoes “ 0.450|0.685 lo. 404|0.403/0. 777|/0.371|0.673/0 590|0.536/0.266
ELAN eMeIatOls eam 17290010084 [esc 7.88 |7.74 |8.39 |8.49 |8.68 \8-54 8.35

Cotton per lb. -- |0.081]0.085 }0.085|0.083 0.086 |0.073}0.084|0.070 0.046 0.076
Leaf tobacco per Ib. .!0.069]0.103].... . |0.071 0.077|0.084].... 0.081 [0.068 0.069

* Consolidated from returns from nearly 30,000 leading farmers scattered
throughout the United States.

GENERAL TOPICS.

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340 GENERAL TOPICS.

NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM ANIMALS IN
THE UNITED STATES, 1870-95.

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Farm Animals. | Jan. 1, 1870. | Jan. 1, 1880. | Jan. 1, 1890. | Jan. 1, 1895.

Horses, number. 8,248,800 II, 201,800} 14,213,837 15,893,318
value...| $671,319,461| $613,206,611| $78,516,562} $576,730,580
Mules, number.. 1,179,500 1,729,500 2,331,027 2333-108
: value ...| $128,584,769| $105,948,319| $182,394,009| $110,927,834
Milch cows, No. 10,095,600 12,027,000 15,952,883 16,504,629
value..| $394,004,745| $279,899,420| $352,152,133| $362,601,720

Oxen and other
cattle, number 15,388,500 21,231,000 36,849,024 34,364,216
value..| $346,926,440] $341,761,154] 560,625,137] 482,999,129
Sheep, number.. 40,853,000 40,765,900 44,330,072 42.204,064
_ value....| $93,364,433) $90,230,537| $100,659,761| $66,685,767
Swine, number.. 26,751,400 34,034,100 51,602,780 44,165,716
value....| 187,191,502) $145,781,515| $243,418,336| $219,501,267

Total value of
farm animals..| $1,822,327,377| $1,576,917,556| $2,418,766,028) $1,819,446, 306

NUMBER OF FARM ANIMALS IN CANADA, 1891.
(Census of 1891.)
er tnee :
. Working | Milch :

Provinces. Horses.| Oxen. | Cows, | 2eeP: Swine.
Optariowe. (ji 88 Aho 477,838 12,424 | 876,167 | 1,021,769 } 1,121,396
Omebee Fo iicus ft. a. e 344,290 | 45,076 | 549,544] 730,286 369,608
INO Scotia: .oe)2.5.45- 65,047 28,424 | 141,684 331,492 48,048
New Brunswick..... .... 595773 7,510 | 106,649 181,941 50,945
MAMILODA ,\Gatg te uk «2 6,735 | 19,199 82,712 35,838 54,177
British Columbia ....... 44.521 2,631 17,504 49,163 30,764
Prince Edward Island...| 37,302 116 45,849 147,372 42,629
(WhesLerritories, |... 4.1... 00,070 7,583 37,003 64,920 16,283

NUMBER OF PURE-BRED CATTLE IN THE

UNITED STATES, 1895.
(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

Registered.| Living. ile 3 Total Value.
AVTSHILG ssc cetaceans 18,750 9,375 $100 $937,500
Brown-Swiss............ 1,930 1,200 150 180,000
Devon.. Neetee sa 17,007 14,500 81 1,174,500
Dutch- Belted.. PP eee Sy 971 720 200 144,000
Guernsey <jcc5se8 a 12,547 8,500 165 1,402,500
Holstein- Friesian. . 90,325 70,000 100 7,000,000
NIETSGV a2 ohh oe de cna Aa 150,000 100,000 100 10,000,000
‘** Maine State”’ Jersey.. 3,927 2,800 55 154,000
Red-Pellede-riviscees 4,408 3,000 80 240,000

STATISTICAL TABLES.

STATISTICTS OF BUTTER,

O41

CHEESE, AND CON-

DENSED-MILK FACTORIES IN THE UNITED

STATES.

(Eleventh Census.)

Totals for 1e United States.

a

>

Number of establishments reporting..................
Capital employed, aggregate................. dollars

G5 eS EU i i Et ae

AVIA CSR 3 <)s Gc SORE Hi APa ok. OE Loe Oe RE st “

PAROS enc roicle « SMeo8s.s occ c ect Seas web enheat ie

RRR PMEIY «= 2SSRU kc... OS Rie hanes 55 ¢
ENC SWELGN Srey. Ss Fae da sate « ANE Seana ee FS bs
Expenses, total annual......... a a ee $
PIM OIOVEST OS. « «0100p. 00s «6 acv)ete. ss SE ae average number
ERGOEADISECIGS PAIG ese Se.Sk)8 2-: . on SNS tesa ces 6 5: .dollars
Earnings of skilled operatives, weekly:

Average for males above 16 years...... arece eM

Average for females above 1s years......... ‘

fmemaeetor children: §7j 42 3248.23 0eeatas. 4
Hours of labor, daily average:

May, toy November. 73. 224 6-05 de ds oe Or re hours

GME MAOMILO MAY. ovens nme scceuse tas seeecs = "i
Materials used:

PGE PA CRCOSE Cae atircsiecte a viride ate ta oar dollars

For butter:

Gathered creams ..) Jo25.:..2 ... pounds
ie)

MURS AY ee Ds fe See rah + ene ea
COTE nn han nsana las PEt nen aoe dollars
For cheese:

TES TOS ey ep aa Beale oobi :

potas Gostone.G:%. .: aye Soles Sees aide at dollars
For condensed milk:

ATI: MS A eh 2 ne oe aiehaeh cece crater pounds

SSS Co Sh ee ae RR TS: eee cc

motel COSEO: a) Woop «chk Sine eds SSAGOUALS

Fuel and rented power, “COSt.... see eCES Beet ee
Products:
EEG CALE VAI Crates inte stocs nse co's Gs sioloeiniatet ls oa
Butter made:

Ousnity ESE eT Fk eis A AS ae! pounds

ELK ae ae ae ee La Se aR Pe ER dollars
Cheese, full cream:

OURAN TAY 325. oye.- 2 3 naa repped bears eid Sesstts aes pounds

‘UES Ra PN gl PAN Rey dollars
Cheese, skim:

Quantity mictae Sat NE See dale Se se Sige wUM Mala acs pounds

Value . ..dollars
Cheese, all other. made:

Quantity Sits Oe SABIE See 0 Sse pounds

ASR aie eh nea weletotv aarherspaae oes GOllars
Cheese, total made:

Quantity Sop tt racic aie Sontel a arat Necova erase eareter pounds

SON RAs ore Wa Gc Saree eo Rane SOE ee dollars
Condensed milk:
MARIEIEY(: <5 cig lo eee pees bo RC)” Senace pounds

cll SU SS eee ear ae ature Pet cet io Cris ON Soe dollars
Skim-milk and all other products, value .... “*

et eS pounds|2,684,550,517

1890.
Butter and Urtend
Cheese | stabs
Factories. ;
45552 160
16,016,573| 607,590
11,639,692| 449,880
968,333] 145,692
5,588,257] 150,149
5,083,102) 154,039
4,376,881] 157,710
813,954| 61,228
14,369} 552
5,116,005) 274,700

9.48

5°35

2.75

11.09

10.03
49,819,301 |1,545,273

483,630,741

1,893,319,242

29,538,827

16,953,992

83,617,655
1353725305
2,792,086
5345396

60,635,705 2,050,338

181,284,916)
36,675,411)

184,158,174]
16,112,871

22,467,132
1,230,297|

31,409,759
2,459,783

238,035,065
19,802,951

371926, 821
3,586,927!

570,416)

342 GENERAL TOPICS.

CHEESE, BUTTER, AND CONDENSED-MILK FAC-
TORIES, ACCORDING TC STATES.

(Eleventh Censu:s.)

No. of Value of
State Factories. Employés. Products.
INGW VOUKencscccchis ie sisal al oma’ 1,308 3,075 $14,385,966
WWASCONSHInca's -a+ ly apie ieee see 966 1,817 6,960,711
TOW Asiataces sivsie cee AS as ae seis 497 2,545 10,545,182
COE Gee eee ncicks op oer totes Melslshe we a'e ae 330 890 3,001,
PemusylVanlas a: <dacceiiesclves. sere 300 904 55319)434
Mitatents et tcescitel an we steiee ote ee EP AR 262 1,540 8,004,991
Wermont hl. -iisictieee eco seine tilcle'n'w'vanale 123 310 1,602,641
MIVEMCS OU AIG ciciduwittun siceeteles seamen 106 855 2,958,476
KANSAS. - ows - setae sists 5 Uncles b vse 1or 312 919,787
NIICHID AIL ca'ccels sss tasaisiesles elena 100 424 1,179,139
IMISSOUIELE Dio ac ecs esisinew’ [slsyne aici 61 186 400,551
INGUTASE Ass waiat nie Rb aistelawiowKcecleiseina 58 475 | 1,483,000
AVC RAIA pein 0 a /anenisiaistlaelatenie eiiepania = 52 187 402,556
CGONUECECUE, cas cvs cee nllsoc'sonann 49 162 881,327
DIMER RSLALCS «cd otew veces e's = aren mee 239 687 2,890,338

Total for the United States.... 45552 14,369 | $60,635,705

STATISTICAL TABLES,

343

DAIRY PRODUCTS PRODUCED ON FARMS, AC-
CORDING TO THE ELEVENTH CENSUS.

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)

States and Territories. Butter. Cheese. Milk.
Pounds. Pounds, Gallons.

Maines ...... eas ox Ae So. stoinie 15,593)315 696,052 57:969,791
New Hampshire. ...........- 7:942,840 341,235 42,633 268
Vermont s)....3.. stale esis jaime 23,314,063 609,586 90,712,230
WEASSHEMISELES, i ic5occs a scene s,00 8,358,703 122,900 82,571,924
RGREVISIANG.£. 0.0. cteicctehccs 965,450 24,631 10,610,547
Connecticut..... S Je Wee sree 5 BF 7,196,095 112,566 54,413,822
PNG WE MENN 0109 2 odie <oxhin 00i0.0 p'.- 98,241,813 4,324,028 663,917,240
I Eo) a re 8,367,218 23,613 64,003,953
Ine kote oS ee 76,809,041 439,060 368,906, 480
Delaiwatess.:....2..05.- Saas Cast 2,026,498 359 10,699,362
MATWIAIG....sccsasccces ccc. aves 9,999,602 93573 46,601,218
Virginia..... es Se 1 See ee 17,949,966 109,187 78,143,459
INGE Gar Olina, 652 51.00 eewen is 13,120,374 60,760 55,250,065
South Carolina....... sei ae 597373557 2,476 23,833,631
EG 2 ae 14,483,323 12,833 52,234,508
Florida Mele Se oaicis, ois 2%s : 867,195 * 1.738 5,056,790
Alaamiae go 2 sos ee Ase Oe 14,548,435 6,131 55,508,687
WOE SAS I 5 OR Re 12,988,637 4,808 50,803,371
NG OURSIANIEL EE a eid e'n'b on o10i0jo omanae os 2,089,774 3,930 12,881,927
{oS ES aCe ve 32,100,550 145,730 118,475,320
PURGE SAS sia's w. o's. 06:6), seers aao5> acts 15,724,144 21,328 54,325,073
Tennessee... ... ENE ee ctasave wicca sto: 28,314,389 69,919 107,657,116
IV CRE VIGOINIAL «<5 <icinmnic cocleese 14,063,627 74,372 59,449,066
Kentucky...... ieee is! teela p= 29,038,406 64,822 118,497,289
Chie: sauce: OTE Oe 74,990,307 1,068,082 326,925,396
AVION ATI circa <p a.cinc manee's «ss 50,197,481 328,682 224,537,488
i Wola FEV is as Gee ee ee 48,477,766 - 360,948 200,510,797
NOUS log ewes ss aio-ahe civigierdwese'le 57,221,486 3432456 367,269,464
WISCONSIN twa cases oa c's tis wees 46,- 5,623 906,266 303,701,134
Mannesotacjossssssrecesess% oo 34,766,409 676,642 182,968,973
WA cmc c cle neiheew sales s00cce 72,093,07y 1,038,358 486,961,411
MISSOUP esses ceieses coca 43,108,521 288,620 193,931,103
USS SI COSCn OAS e 46,117,076 759,210 201,608,099
INEDIASKA tin «slensesausees soe 27,818,078 463,831 144,768,263
South Daketas:.. scscceceeses 13,127,244 303,951 59,666,523
INOnt a AKOLAS Jat siccccessocesc 5,712,506 131,374 26,566,112
Montana.......... padateteet Aas els 1,062,185 11,512 6,038,006
Wyoming....... Nclsictemtas cele 428,269 15,196 3,004,588
Coloradons S62 Fase eeus ese 3,282,086 87,183 19,680,791
IWew -MPGxico: ...)..cde oaons ae 86,042 18,931 717,155
Afizonae:® . 2.0.5. sameawsee eves 115,203 10,855 709,225
Utalts. 52.5. Sistaieia| oials He eiele eee ee 1,759,354 163,539 8,614,694
INE WAGE Senco tasalacescear tears 480,657 51,207 2,532,052
Idaho..... WEAGUEE Oc 3 Noa ap votes 1,078,103 207,213 5,085,863
Washington...... Soc uaneecete 3482,225 71,281 19,873,281
Oni HO ASAE Beer oecocseoae 4,786,277 265,576 25,042,276
GANTOLINe io. ac Gone tacetem eos 26,776,704 3,871,575 III,191,186
Total, 1889..... Sent pita 1,023,821,770 18,725,218 | 5,207,121,309
Rota s87o. -i..s2 Cheeses ea: 77752293307 27,272,489 529,632,966
MOtal, W605 24 2) ees Shicsidene| 524,089,188 53,492,153 235,374,522

344 GENERAL TOPICS.

DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF BUTTER AND CHEESE,

1870-95. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
Butter. j Cheese,
Year.
Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value.
pe

1870 2,019,288 $592,229 57,296,327 $8,881,934
1871 31965,043 853,096 63,698,867 | 8,752,990
1872 7,740,261 1,498,812 66,204,025 7)752;918
1873 4,518,844 952,919 80,366,540 10,498,010
1874 4,367,983 1,092,381 90,611,077 11,898,995
1875 6,360,827 1,506,996 TOI,010,853 13,659,603
1876 4,644,894 1,109,496 97,676,264 12,270,083
1877 21,527,242 4,424,016 107,364,666 12,700,627
1878 21,837,117 3,931,822 123,783,736 14,103,529
1879 38,248,016 5:421,205 141,654,474 12,579,968
1880 39,230,658 6,690,687 127,553,907 12,171,720
1881 31,500,500 6,256,024 147,995,614 16,380,248
1882 1457945305 2,864,570 127,989,782 14,058,975
1883 12,348,641 2,290,665 99,220,467 11,134,526
1884 20,627,374 5,7 5Os7 TE 112,869,575 11,663,713
1885 21,683,148 3,643,646 111,992,990 10,444,409
1886 18,953,990 2,058,457 91,8775235 7,062,145
1887 12,531,171 1,983,698 81,255,994 7:594,633
1888 10,455,051 1,884,908 88,008,458 8,736,304
1889 15,504,978 2,568,765 84,999,828 7,889,671
1890 29,748,042 4,187,489 95,376,053 8,591,042
1891 15,187,114 2,197,106 82,133,876 7,405,376
1892 15,047,246 2,445,878 82,100,221 7,676,657
1893 8,920,107 1,672,690 81,350,923 7,624,648
1894 11,812,092 2,077,608 73,852,134 7,180,331
1895 5,598,812 9155533 60,448,421

5,497;539 _

EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS FROM CANADA,

1868-95, (Statistical Year-book for 1895.)
Butter. Cheese.
Year.
Quantity Value Quantity. Value
Pounds Pounds
1868 10,649,733 $1,698,042 6,141,570 $620,543
1880 18,535,362 3,058,069 40,368,678 3,893,366
1881 17,649,491 3,573,934 4952553523 525105445
1882 15,161,839 2,936,150 50,807,049 5,500,868
1883 8,106,447 1,705,817 58,041,387 6,451,870
1884 8,075,537 1,612,481 69,755,423 7,251,989
1885 753305788 1,430,905 79,6553367 8,265,240
1886 4,668,741 $32,355 78,112,927 6,754,626
1887 51485,509 979,126 73,604,448 7,108,978
1888 4,415,381 798.673 84,173,267 8,928,242
1889 1,780,765 331,958 88,534,887 8,915,084
1890 1,951,585 340,131 94,260,187 9,372,212
1891 3,768, 101 602.175 106.202,140 9,508,800
1892 5;730,696 1,056,058 118,270,052 11,652,412
1893 7,036,013 1,296.814 133,946, 365 13,407,470
1894 5,534,621 1,095.5°8 154,977,480 15,488,191
1895 3,650,258 697,476 146,004,650 14,253,002

STATISTICAL TABLES, 34

Or

POULTRY AND EGG PRODUCT IN THE
UNITED STATES,

According to the Census of 1880 and 1890.

1879-1880. 1889-1890,

Poultry on hand June x. Number.
Barnyagd fowl (chickens).............. 102,265,653 258,472,155
Geese.ducks, turkeys, etc.’......i.... 23,234,687 26,816,545

Eggs produced (dozens)..... ee : 450,875,080 817,211,146

At 12 cents a dozen, a very moderate estimate, the annual value of the
egg product on the farm rose from $55,000,000 in 1879 to $98,000,000 in
1889, an increase of 79 per cent. There was an increase of 153 per cent in
the number of barnyard fowl during the decade considered, and of other
fowl (geese, ducks, turkeys, etc.) an increase of 15 per cent.

IMPORTANCE OF APIARIAN INDUSTRY IN THE
UNITED STATES.

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

Apiarian societies in the United States........ 110
PRE IRC IOULIEAIS ye 2 gs 6 cn on nap oA Rinin-n pie ofete ia 8
Steam factories forthe manufacture of beehives

and apiarian implementsS.........sseeeeeeee 15
Persons engaged in the culture of bees (esti-

CEM PRO is OSs bata La PCRS Shy a Bik ag phate! 300,000
Honey and wax produced, at wholesale rates

BORNE R COS oie on a pa pce mnie ae aes $7,000,000
Estimate of the present annual value of apiarian

PROIE CS a5 once hes Ae See ss ere oe eeceees $20,000,000

PRODUCTION OF HONEY AND BEESWAX IN THE
UNITED STATES ACCORDING TO CENSUS RE-
TURNS OF 1869, 1879, AND 1889.

1869 1878 1889

PAGME We MSeLk shady eh ace Ante ce tle = 14,702,815 | 25,741,485 | 63,804,186
IBPESWIANL CUS s 5 fend na tan us chm enti 5 631,129 1,105,556 1.166.543

346 GENERAL TOPICS,

VI. DIRECTORY.

DIRECTORY OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL
INSTITUTIONS.

Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE—Hon. J. Sterling Morton.*
ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE—Chas. W. Dab-

ney, Ji;
Scientific Bureaus and Divisions,

WEATHER BuREAU—Willis L. Moore, Chief.

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY—D. E. Salmon, Chief.

DIvIsIoN OF STATISTICS—Henry A. Robinson, Statis-
tictan.

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS—A. C. True, Director,

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY—L. O. Howard, Eutomologist.

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY—Harvey W. Wiley, Chief Chem-
ast.

DIVISION OF BoTANY—F. V. Coville, Botanist.

DIVISION OF FORESTRY—B. E. Fernow, Chief.

DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY—C. Hart Merriam, O7-
nithologist.

Divis1ON oF PomoLocy—Samuel B. Heiges, Pomologist.

DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY—
B. T. Galloway, Chief.

DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY—F. Lamson-Scribner, Chief.

DIvISION OF AGRICULTUR&L Sor1Lts—Milton Whitney,
Chief.

OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS — Chas. Richards
Dodge, Special Agent in Charge.

OFFICE OF IRRIGATION INQUIRY—Chas. W. Irish, Chief.

OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY—Roy Stone, Special Agent in
Charge.

* Term expires March 4, 1897.

DIRECTORY. 347

GARDENS AND GROUNDS—William Saunders, Horticuliurist
and Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds.

DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS—Geo. Wm. Hill, Chief.

DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSING OFFICE—Frank
L. Evans, Chief.

Canada,

MINISTERS OF AGRICULTURE—

Dominion Minister of Agriculture, Hon. Sidney Fisher,
Ottawa.

Hon. John Dryden, Toronto, Prov. of Ontario.

Hon. Louis Beaubien, Quebec, Prov. of Quebec.

Hon. B. W Chipman, Halifax, Prov. of Nova Scotia.

Hon. Julius L. Inches, Fredericton, Prov. of New
Brunswick.

Hon. J. H. Turner, Victoria, Prov. of British Columbia.

Hon. Thomas Greenway, Winnipeg, Prov. of Manitoba.

GENERAL TOPICS,

348

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350 GENERAL TOPICS.

STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS AND

COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATHS.
(U. S. Department of Agriculture.)

i eae = 33 eae
a8 : 3S B3 V's Tuition
=5 > = em 6S ees.
oa = A op. Ns 3
$3.8 19S died Sa ok
7 al 3 © gy m1 5 ao

State. Peele | 2 | sS/Fe 82 | s €
ss 8 & lao - ° n 5 i fs c al w 4

Sgeln | 8 | gO | #o 588/28 | &

a) a q ex | $a 4x! oY o

al = : vg Sigesi sa] ws

e§sia) 3 | 3h) 38 gs8| es] &

o 8Q 5 = 5 » oo) =e) on °
ia) Ali nella O im % A

Alabama (Rane ee. es 1872 | 25 254] 135 12 83] $5 $5
Arizona.. 2] T8QI <9 47 ° ° Ol), ao °
Arkansas..... ......... 1872 | 35 615 33 I o| o Io
CANTEENS Jo eee cee 1868 | 65 1030| 158 3 33), 20 °
Coloradoss. 225.2% ae0 ts 1878 | 23 210| 58 4 21; Oo °
Conn. (New Haven)...} 1846 | 57 662) x11 ° 53 R652 -| ssa
Connecticut (Storrs)... | 1881 | ro 145| 122 Io] 108) 25 ae
Delaware (Newark) .. | 1870 | 12 75) 6 ° yd a 60
Delaware (Dover). ...| 1892 3 BO) kes ail oe ee |e ae ° 30
Florida (Lake City)....| 1884 | 18 187 5 ° 4, 0 20
Florida (Tallahassee)..| 1890 | 9 55| 55 ° o| o °
Georgia (Athens)....... 1872 | 15 106) 83 2) 207) °
MQHOS Fe Joo: biws'e) fis 1892 | 12 175| TO| isc lee eae ° °
Illinois#........5.. sas30|. 200. 56 743 33 ce epeere ° °
naiattel se: 2. sees e 1874 | 48 682 63 3 21 ° 100
lowagachen sch A ay 1869 | 42 614 175 4 3242!" 6 °
WeamSaS ape wos Se te to aera 1874 | 32 460|} 4 39, 370] .° °
Kentucky (Lexington).| 1880 | 25 297 I ° © 20 20
Kentucky (Frankfort) .| 1892 | 6 36 10 ° Ol is ae a eens
Louisiana (Baton

Rouge) . ; 1887 | 20 196 15 I 22} Oo °
Louisiana (New Or.

LEAS 6 tls in Che to tes aqs et KEOGO sheet 3 304 23 ° I ° °
MEA oe ter See ee 1868 | 23 192 14 Boao al ° °
Garey levels es. chet t oe 1859 | 11 141 LS 5| dae ee 24 24
Massachusetts......... 1867 | 20 204) 204 34. 417| 0 80
Michigan, a. foe. Ftoe. ae 1855 | 29 260} 181 14| 623] © 15
Minn. (Minneapolis). 1869 |139 | 2,000] 175 20, 86) 5 5
Mississippi (Agricul- |

tural College)5.2". 1880 | 23 302} 216 8 166} 5 25
Mississippi (Westside).| 1878 | 15 310] 310 6 79} +O 15
Missouri (Columbia)...| 1870 | 18 46 2 Blot 20 20
Montana.ts2...000%89 Aves teQgel Se 137 51-4 Rory ere a CS, Be)
Nebraslaas onde. 55 1869 |181 |11,420 19 I 96 o °
ING ACA crs ras fess Sysuhelereae 1888 | 15 253 6 ° 2} 0 fo)
New Hampshire... ..| 1866 | 14 | 93 27 I 30, 60 60
NG SECS Dor ert ot 1865 | 28 143 3 ° rr! 285 | 285
New Mexico.. ... ....] 1890 | 17 150) 3 3 hoe
New York 1865 |x 2,031 106 15! { 125 | 125

na eicage ant Se 5 |r5z 03 NS 5, | 100 as
North Carolina (Ra- /

Tsp) tos kick -see| 1889 | 28 225) 31 2 7| .20 20
North Dakota.......... 1890 | 13 61, 8 ° O12 5
OUIOL ke, te Mts arene 1873 | 77 749 89 3 29 «15 15
Oklahoma. tii. 3. + aies| raga -8 120 49 ° 9 40 °
Gresonin en seco satke 1888 | 20 | 237 47 4 16: 205 15
Pennsylvania <25:. <i. 1859 | 47 | 3'7 34 ° 53. oO Laih HOO
Rhode Islands: ss3.2.... Teco 2s: Ib. ar 60 12 Ia) 3 =

DIRECTORY. 351

STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS AND
COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES.—(Continued.)

ae : BE| Be B S Tuition
=o > ed ei Ce fees.
ene, = " on & wee Los
tet tie, =f ta| So feo
Dem <| oO v Oj. a
State. Mele] BF | ek las leg | s Fe
oh 8 2 = 26 ae) Bcd! w =
Sor! & ed} By robe | et Da
+ saet | ot 5 Sq} aa |4o5!| 2 v
Soo} 8] 3 | 35 | 25 888/54!
saq| 5 3 BS] es |os50!] gun 3
ei cles: |. a hep O Je m4 Z
South ecaouna (Clem- § ;
SORA @OMEEC 05) ew... 18 20 635 122 ° ° ° >40
South eauina (Or- 7 oF :
aMeeCDULL). oo... .. >. 1872 | 22 450 146 oO To| o °
South Dakota.......... 1884 | 25 162 20 3 45| 9 15
SROMMIESSEE i. oie ns «> 1869 | 20 203 31 Ollie vei ° °
Texas pronree = an 1871 | 22 368] 187 7 47| 0 °
Utah 1889 | 20 350 37 I eS 5
Vermont.. 1885 | 23 379 86 I 4] 60 60
Virginia (Blacksburg). 1872 | 18 325 70 SD ieociees 2 30 30
Virginia (Hampton).. 1890 | 76 159 dis oftee aca | ake meee ° °
Washington... :) ...'.- 1892 | 12 176 15 ° 1] 0 °
West Virginia wre
gantown. 1868 | 15 250 II I 2 ° 12.50
West Virginia (Farm).. 1892 | 5 70} . o ° af 0 °
MiWseesI. ses... ee 1866 | 27 |!1,598|] 190 20 62] o 18
WWOMGTIYER @ occ Genoese we 1891 | ro 333 ° ° o] o °
13 Sees ae Pe PLOASISELEOS |e cag 2 220|. 3,003) 2. sele aaa
? In universities. 2 Includes incidentals. 3 New.

LIST OF AMERICAN VETERINARY COLLEGES.

NATIONAL VETERINARY COLLEGE, Washington, D. C.:
Dr. D. E. Salmon, Pres.; Dr. Chas. F. Dawson, Sec.

VETERINARY DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA,
Philadelphia, Pa.: Join Marshall, M.D., Dean.

AMERICAN VETERINARY COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF THE
STATE OF NEw YorK, New York City: Dr. A. Liautard,M.D.,
Principal and Dean.

SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
Boston, Mass.: Chas. &. Lyman, F.R.C.V.S., Dean.

VETERINARY COLLEGE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, Ithaca,
N. Y.: Prof. J/. Law, Dean.

SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, earn STATE UNIVER-
sity, Columbus, O.: W. &. Lazenby, Secretary.

CHICAGO VETERINARY COLLEGE, Chicago, Ill.: /ohs.
Hughes, M.R.C.V.S., Principal.

McKILLip VETERINARY COLLEGE, Chicago, IIf.: M4. Z.
Mc killip, M.D., V.S., President.

CALIFORNIA VETERINARY COLLEGE, San Francisco, Cal.:
Dr. Thomas Bonhill, Dean.

ONTARIO VETERINARY COLLEGE, Toronto, Canada: Dr. A.
Smith. F.R.C.V.S., Principal.

Ba

GENERAL TOPICS.

DAIRY SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES AND

CANADA.
Name of Director, Super-
State or Province. Location. intendent, or Professor
in Charge.
NW a mea lere5i ls Orono Prof. Chas. D. Woods
New Hampshire. ... ..| Durham Prof. F. Wm. Rane
Vermont: : igh...) Buringten Prot. jc i Suis
Massachusetts......... Amherst Prof. Wm. Brooks
NemaViork’ = eyes. Ithaca Prof. H. H. Wing
Pennsylvaniasiss2h. 6 State College Prof. Geo. C. Watson
Virginia’ 233°). s25520- Blacksburg Prof. J. M. McBryde
iy 46: a LMR ee nr Columbus Prof. Thos, F, Hunt
Michican’. .. Sei blss2 .-| Agricultural College | Clinton D. Smith
DUMGISSE sis sk Urbana Prof. E Davenport
Waistonsin:..\.92x2 cara Madison Prof. E. H. Farrington
Minnesota. ....| St. Anthony Park Prof. T.. L. Haecker
TOMAR Sd ive s.ce's Set OE te Ames Prof. James Wilson.
Missourn OBteor AS Ae. Columbia Prof. H. J. Waters
North Dakotali rent... Fargo Prof. E. E. Kaufman
South Dakota. ........ Brookings Prof. J. N. Trueman
Utah. 3 <3 FICHE a8... Logan Prof. F. B. Linfield
Washington............ Pullman Prof. W. J. Spillman
Ontario] 2. 250280553... Kingston J. H. Ruddick, Supt.
Bote ALY a a ss pe eaeR ates Guelph Prof. H H. Dean
ee ka see cee SA eine Strathroy F. J. Sleightbom, Supt.
Ouebee ri rhe ci. . ce. St. Hyacinthe E, Castel, Principal
New Brunswick....... Sussex J. E. Hopkins
Nova Scotia...........| Nappan W.S. Blair, Supt.
Winniper. 2... . Manitoba C. C. McDonald, Supt.

Canadian Experiment Stations.

CENTRAL EXPERIMENTAL FARM—Wnm. Saunders, Dzrector.
EXPERIMENTAL FARM—Nappan, N. S.; W. M. Blair, Superin-

EXPERIMENT

tendent.
i> Brandon, Manitoba; S. A. Bedford,
Superintendent.
ec Indian. Head, NN.) We Tye
MacKay, Szwperintendent.
* Agassiz,w B. C.; Thos. A. Sharpe,
Superintendent.
STATION — Ontario Agricultural College,
Guelph, Ont.; James Mills,
President.

Angus

DIRECTORY. 353

LIST OF AGRICULTURAL EXPHRIMENT STATIONS

IN THE UNITED STATES,

Year

State, Location. Director. Estab-

lished.

Alabama (College)....| Auburn W. L. Broun 1883
Alabama (Canebrake) Uniontown H. Benton 1886
PMA ZN cost, ail Se ates Tucson W. S. Devol 1889
PA DGAMSAS rans /e's,c'0 5 ss Fayetteville R. L. Bennett 1887
Calton nta>. 2 o.s)..'s. Berkeley E. W. Hilgard 1873
Silty (6 (Ca ae a Fort Collins Alston Ellis 1879
Connecticut (State)..| New Haven S. W. Johnson 1877
Connecticut (Storrs)..} Storrs W. O. Atwater 1887
Delaware 2s. U5: Newark AY, Le Neale 1888
lorie ct cas we as Lake City O. Clute 1888
GeOntineweec. ak eet Experiment R. AS ees: 1888
Rao es ee sk Moscow CaP: 1892
Binneise ss. . 5/2 ..| Urbana i: rennet 1888
Indiana) asked: Lafayette C. S. Plumb 1888
WGWMlerr tersreie sae cee fess 5 Ames James Wilson 1888
Kansas Manhattan Geo. T. Fairchild 1888
Wentreky Oo) 5 oes33: Lexington M. A. Scovell 1885
Louisiana (Sugar)....} New Orleans W.C. Stubbs 1885
Louisiana (State) ....| Baton Rouge W. C. Stubbs 1886
Louisiana (North)....| Calhoun W. C. Stubbs 1887
WMiaimet awe ee, Orono Chas. D. Woods 1885
Maryland... . ..«.| College Park R. H. Miller 1888
Massachusetts,....... Amherst H. H. Goodell 1882
MiGhT eat os etl. Agricultural College} C.D. Smith 1888
Minnesota..... Pig Ss as St. Anthony Park W. M. Liggett 1888
Mississipph 228 .. Agricultural College} S. M. Tracy 1888
Missouri sees St ee. Columbia H. J. Waters 1883
Montana.. Bozeman S.M Emery 1893
Webraska 2750 o0.5% Lincoln Geo. E. McLean 1884
PEM AGA oH. ce Ss Reno J. E. Stubbs 1888
New Hampshire. .. | Durham C. S. Murkland 1886
New Jersey (State)...| New Brunswick E. B. Voorhees 1880
Wea Mexico 2225 Mesilla Park C. TF. Jordan 1889
New York (State)... | Geneva W. H. Jordan 1882
New York (Cornell)..| Ithaca I. P. Roberts 1879
North Carolina ...... Raleigh H. B. Battle 1877
North Dakota.. Fargo J. H. Worst 1890
SiO Ieee. 21 coe 6 | WOOSter C. E. Thorne 1882
Oklahonwia.4. 002 52... Sullwater G. E. Morrow 1890
Oregon Corvallis H. B. Miller 1888
Pennsylv ania ..... State College H. P. Armsby 1887
Rhode Island . Kingston C. O. Flagg 1888
South Carolina... ..| Clemson College E. B. Craighead 1888
South Dakota........ Brookings J. H. Shepard 1887
(Rennessee <4). 26.) 5 Knoxville C. F. Vanderford 1882
(25 5 SS a Yee ate College Station J. H. Connell 1888
DS eee Logan Luther Foster 1890
Wermont).- e753 52). Burlington |e bare S IS 1886
Witedila 02) 8,-0.8 - Blacksburg J. M. McBryde 1858
Washington... ...... Puliman E. A. Bryan 1891
WiestiVirsinia."..... Morgantown J. A. Myers 1888
Wiis consintey. 2 J: i. Madison W. A. Henry 1883
Wyoming... .........| Laramie F, P. Graves 1891

354 GENERAL TOPICS.

VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY
LITERATURE.

MORE IMPORTANT WORKS ON DAIRYING.
American.

Arnold, American Dairying. Rochester, N. Y., 1876.
(Out of print.)

Decker, Cheddar Cheese Making. Second edition. Madi.
son, Wis., 1895. I5I pp. $1.00.

Flint, Milch Cows and Dairy Farming. Boston, 1888.

Georgeson, Dairy Industry of Denmark. Washington,
Daas 3303:7:+. 133. pp-

Grotenfelt-Woll, Modern Dairy Practice. Second edition.
New York, 1895. 285 pp. $2.00.

Gurler, American Dairying. Chicago, 1894. $1.00.

Harris, Cheese and Butter Maker’s Handbook. Glasgow,
1885. 207 pp.

Jones, Mrs. E. M., Dairying for Profit. Chicago, 1893.
63 pp. 50cents. -

Monrad, The Dairy Messenger. Winnetka, Ill., 1890-93.
242 pp. $1.25.

Monrad, A BC in Cheese Making. Winnetka, III.
Second edition. 68 pp. 50 cents.

Monrad, Pasteurization and Milk Preservation. Win-
netka, Ill. 78 pp. 5ocents.

Monrad, Cheese Making in Switzerland. Winnetka, III.
68 pp. 50 cents.

Newell, Handbook on Cheese Making. Grand Rapids,
Mich., 1889. 59 pp. 50 cents.

Russell, Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology. Madison, Wis.,
1893. 186 pp. $1.00.

Schoenman, Milk Testing. Madison, Wis., 1894. 39 pp.
75 cents.

Schoenman, Butter-fat and Dividend Calculator. Madi-
son, Wis., 1895. 66 pp. $2.00.

Stewart, Dairyman’s Manuak. N. Y., 1888. 475 pp.

Willard, Practical Dairy Husbandry. N. Y., 1877. 546 pp.

Willard, Practical Butter Book. N. Y., 1883. 171 pp.

AGRICULTURAT: AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 355

Engiish.
Fleischmann, Book of the Dairy. London, 1896. Ios. 6d.
Sheldon, Dairy Farming. London. 570 pp., 4to.
Sheldon, The Farm and the Dairy. London, 1889. 154 pp.
25. 0d.
Sheldon, British Dairying. 2d ed., 1896. 170pp.
Long, The Dairy Farm. London, 1889. I15 pp.
Wong and Morton, The Dairy. London. 146 pp.
Oliver, Milk, Cheese, and Butter. London, 1894, 362 pp.

Other European.

Boéggild, Malkeriebruget i Danmark. Second edition.
Copenhagen, 1896. 627 pp.

Martiny, Die Milch, I-II. Danzig, 1871. 438 and 366 pp.

Martiny, Kirne und Girbe. Berlin, 1895. 404 pp., 4to.

Martiny, Milchwirtschaftl. Taschenbuch, Published
annually. Bremen.

Fleischmann, Das Molkereiwesen. Braunschweig, 1876,
1074 pp. "

Fleischmann, Lehrbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Bremen,
1893. 368 pp.

Kirchner, Handbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Bremen, 1891.
618 pp.

v. Klenze, Handbuch d. Kaserei-Technik. Bremen, 1884.
643 pp.

Eugling, Praktische Kaserei. Bremen, 1892. 260 pp.

Weigmann, Die Methoden der Milch - conservirung.
Bremen, 1893. 72 pp.

Duclaux, Le Lait. Paris, 1887. 336 pp.

Duclaux, Principes de Laiterie. Paris. 370 pp.

Lézé, Les Industries du Lait. Paris, 1891. 647 pp.

Pouriau, La Laiterie, 5th ed. Paris, 1895. 898 pp.

A LIST OF FIFTY AGRICULTURAL AND
HORTICULTURAL BOOKS.

Fream, Elements of Agriculture. 4th ed. London,
1892. 486 pp.

Webb, Advanced Agriculture. London, 1894. 672 pp.

Mills and Shaw, Public School Agriculture. Toronto,
1890. 250 pp.

Wallace, Agriculture. Philadelphia, 1895. 352 pp.

356 GENERAL TOPICS.

Gulley, First Lessons in Agriculture. N. Y., 1892. 155 pp.

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1891. 152 pp.

Storer, Agriculture in some of its Relations with Chem-
istry. 4thed. N. Y., 1892. 2 vols. 551 and 590 pp.

Voorhees, First Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1896.
212 pp.

Warington, Chemistry of the Farm. 7th ed. London.
160 pp.

Johnson, How Crops Feed. N.Y. 375 pp.

Johnson, How Crops Grow. N. Y., 1890. 416 pp.

Morrow and Hunt, Soils and Crops of the Farm.
Chicago, 1892. 303 pp.

Plumb, Indian Corn Culture. Chicago, 1895. 243 pp.

Woll, A Book on Silage. Chicago, 1896. Igo pp.

Allen, American Cattl® N. Y., 1881. 528 pp.

Wallace, Farm Live Stock. Edinburgh, 1889. 333 pp.

McDonald, Cattle, Sheep, and Deer. 5th ed. London,
1872. 745-+ QI pp. s

Warfield, Cattle Breeding. Chicago, 1890. 390 pp.

Day, The Horse, How to Breed and Rear Him. 2d ed.
London, 1890. 453 pp.

Curtis, Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Shaki College Sta-
tion, Texas, 1888. 269 pp.

Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding. N. Y., 1887. 525 pp.

Wolff, Farm Foods, transl. by Cousins. London, 1895.
365 pp.

Stewart, Feeding Animals. 5th ed. Lake View, N. Y.,
1890. 558 pp.

Randall, Practical Shepherd. N.Y. 452 pp.

Coburn, Swine Husbandry. N. Y., 1888. 311 pp.

Harris, On the Pig. N. Y., 1889. 318 pp.

Collingwood, The Business Hen. N. Y., 1892. 150 pp.

L. Wright, Book of Poultry. London, 1891. 591 pp.

Cook, Bee-keeper’s Guide. Lansing, Mich., 1884. 4th
ed. 337 pp.

Law, Farmer’s Veterinary Adviser. Ithaca, N. Y., 1880.
426 pp.

King, The Soil. N. Y., 1895. 303 pp.

Waring, Drainage for Profitand Health. N.Y. 252 pp.

Miles, Land Drainage. N. Y., 1893. Ig9 pp.

AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 357

Poore, Rural Hygiene. London, 1893. 321 pp.

Wilcox, Irrigation Farming. N. Y., 1895. 311 pp.

Crozier and Henderson, How the Farm Pays. N. Y.,
1884. 400 pp.

Bailey, The Horticulturist’s Rule Book. 3d ed. N. Y.,
1896. 302 pp.

Bailey, The Nursery Book. 2ded. N.Y., 1892. 304/pp.
; Barry, Fruit Garden. N. Y., 1889. 516 pp.

Landreth, Market Gardening and Farm Notes. N. Y.,
1893. 215 pp.

Fuller, Small Fruit Culturist. N. Y., 1888. 298 pp.

Fuller, Grape Culturist. N.Y. 281 pp.

Henderson, Practical Floriculture. N.Y., 1891. 325 pp.

Weed, Insects and Insecticides. Hanover, N. H., 1891.
281 pp.

Lodeman, Spraying of Plants. N. Y., 1896. 399 pp.

Fuller, Practical Forestry. N. Y., 1891. 299 pp.

Jarchow, Forest Planting. N. Y., 1893. 237 pp.

Barn Plans and Outbuildings. Orange Judd Co., N. Y.,
1893. 235 PP-

Sanders, Practical Hints on Barn Building. Chicago,
1893. 284 pp.

Bennett, Farm Law. Portland, Me., 1880. 120 pp.

AMERICAN DAIRY PAPERS.

American Cheese-Maker. Grand Rapids, Mich. Monthly,
50 cents.

American Dairyman. New York City. Weekly, $1.50.

Bulletin American Devon Cattle Club. Wheeling, W. Va.
Monthly, 50 cents.

Chicago Produce. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $1.50.

Creamery Gazette. Des Moines,Iowa. Monthly, $1.00.

Creamery Journal. Waterloo, Ia. Monthly, $1.00.

Creamery Patron. Decorah, lowa.

Dairy World. Chicago, Ill. Monthly, $1.00.

Elgin Dairy Report. Elgin, Ill. Weekly, $1.00.

Jersey Bulletin. Indianapolis, Ind. Weekly, $2.00.

Hoard’s Dairyman. Fort Atkinson, Wis. Weekly, $1.00.

358 GENERAL TOPICS.

Holstein-Friesian Register. Brattleboro, Vt. Semi-
monthly, $1.50.

The Milk News. Chicago, Ill. Monthly, $1.00,

The Milk Reporter. Deckertown, N.Y. Monthly, $1.00.

New York Produce Review and American Creamery.
New York City. Weekly. $1.00.

The Pacific Coast Dairyman. Tacoma, Wash. Semi-
monthly, $1.00. re

The Practical Dairyman. Chatham, N. Y. Monthly, 50
cents.

The Western Creamery. San Francisco, Cal. Monthly,
$1.00.

MAIN FOREIGN DAIRY PAPERS.

The Dairy, 144 Fleet Street, London, England. Monthly, 3s.

The Dairyman. 17 New Castle Street, Farringdon St., Lon-
don, England.

The Dairy World and British Dairy Farmer. 310 Strand,
London, England. Monthly, 3s.

Nordisk Mejeri-Tidning. Stockholm, Sweden. Weekly, 5 kr.

Mialkeritidende. Odense, Denmark. Weekly.

Milch-Zeitung. Bremen, Germany. Weekly, 8 mk.

Leutsche Molkerei-Zeitung. Berlin, Germany. Weekly,
8 mk,

Molkerei-Zeitung. Hildesheim, Germany. Weekly, 6 mk.

L’Industrie Laitiére. 33 Rue J. J. Rousseau, Paris, France,
Weekly, 20 fr,

La Laiterie. 18 Rue des Martyrs, Paris. Bi-weekly, 13. fr.

Schweizerische Molkerei Zeitung. Zurich. Weekly, 6.60 fr.

Die Milch Industrie. Berne, Switzerland.

AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 359

MAIN AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL AND HORTI-
CULTURAL PAPERS.

Agricultural Epitomist. Indianapolis, Ind. Monthly, 50
cents.

American Agriculturist. New York City. Weekly, $1.00.

American Bee Journal. Chicago, Il]. Weekly, $1.00.

American Cultivator. Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.50.

Américan Farmer. Chicago, Il]. Semi-monthly, 50 cents.

American Fertilizer. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, $2.00.

American Gardening. New York City. Semi-monthly,
$1.00.

American Grange Bulletin. Cincinnati, O. Weekly, $1.00.

American Poultry Journal. Chicago, Il’. Monthly, $1.00.

American Poultry Yard. Hartford, Conn. Weekly, $1.50.

American Sheep Breeder and Wool Grower. Chicago, IIl.
Monthly, $1.00.

American Swine Herd. Chicago, Ill. Monthly, 50 cents.

American Veterinary Review. New York City. Monthly,
$3.00

Acker und Gartenbau Zeitung. Chicago, Il]. Weekly, $1.00.

Breeders’ Gazette. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $2.00.

Breeders’ Journal. Beecher, Ill. Monthly, $1.00.

California Cultivator and Poultry Keeper, Los Angeles, Cal.
Monthly, $1.00.

Colman’s Rural World. St. Louis, Mo. Weekly, $1.00.

Colorado Farmer. Denver, Colo. Weekly, $2.00.

Connecticut Farmer. Hartford, Conn. Weekly, $1.50.

The Cultivator and Country Gentleman. Albany, N. Y.
Weekly, $2.50.

The Cultivator. Omaha, Neb. Semi-monthly, 50 cents.

The Dakota Farmer. Aberdeen, S. D. Semi-monthly,
$1.00.

Farm and Fireside. Springfield, O. Semi-monthly, 50 cents.

Farm and Home. Chicago and Springfield, Mass. Semi-
monthly, 50 cents.

360 GENERAL TOPICS,

The Farmers’ Advocate. London, Ont. Semi-monthly,
$1.00.

Farmer’s Call. Quincy, Ill. Weekly, 50 cents.

Farmers’ Review. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $1.25.

Farmers’ Home. Dayton, O. Weekly, 50 cents.

The Farmers’ Magazine. Springfield, Ill. Monthly, $2.00.

Farm, Field, and Fireside. Chicago, Ill. Weekly,
$1.00.

Farm, Field, andStockman. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $1.00.

Farm News. Springfield, Ohio. Monthly, 50 cents.

Farm, Stock, and Home. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi-month:
ly, 50 cents.

Farming. Toronto, Canada. Monthly, $1.00.

The Farm Journal. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, 50 cents.

Florida Agriculturist. De Land, Fla. Weekly, $2.00,

Garden and Forest. New York City. Weekly, $4.00.

Gardening. Chicago, Ill. Semi-monthly, $2.00,

Horse Review. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $2.00.

Indiana Farmer. Indianapolis, Ind. Weekly, $1.00.

Industrial American. Lexington, Ky. Semi-monthly, $1.00,

Industrialist. Manhattan, Kan. Weekly, 50 cents.

Iowa Farmer. Cedar Rapids, Ia. Monthly, 50 cents.

Iowa Homestead. Des Moines, Ia. Weekly, $1 00,

Irrigation Age. Chicago, II]. Monthly, $2.00.

Journal of Agriculture. St. Louis, Mo. Weekly, $1.00.

Journal of Agriculture Illustrated. Montreal, Canada.
Monthly, $1.00.

Kansas Farmer. Topeka, Kan. Weekly, $1.00.

Kentucky Stock Farm. Lexington. Ky. Weekly, $2.00.

Live Stock Indicator. Kansas City, Mo. Weekly, $1.00.

Live Stock and Farm Journal. Toronto, Canada. Monthly,
$1.00.

Live Stock Report. Chicago, Ill. Weekly.

Live Stock Review. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $2.00.

Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. New Orleans,
La. Weekly, $3.00.

Maryland Farmer. Baltimore, Md. Monthly, 50 cents.

Meehan’s Monthly. Germantown, Pa. Monthly, $2.00

Michigan Farmer. Detroit, Mich. Weekly, $1.00.

AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 361

Midland Poultry Journal. Kansas City, Mo. Monthly, 50
cents.

Mirror and Farmer. Manchester, N. H. Weekly, $1.00.

Montana Stockman and Farmer. Helena, Mont. Weekly,
$2.00.

National Stockman and Farmer. Pittsburgh, Pa. Weekly,
$1 50.

Nebraska Farmer. Lincoln, Neb. Weekly, $1.25.

Nebraska Homestead. Omaha, Neb. Weekly, $2.00.

New England Farmer. Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.00.

New England Homestead. Springfield, Mass. Weekly,
$1.00.

Northwestern Agriculturist. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi-
monthly, 50 cents.

Northwestern Farmer. St. Paul, Minn. Semi-monthly, 50
cents.

Ohio Farmer. Cleveland, Ohio. Weekly, $1.00.

Ohio Poultry Journal. Dayton, Ohio, Monthly, $1.00.

Orange Country Farmer. Port Jervis, N. Y. Weekly, $1.00.

Orange Judd Farmer. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $1.00.

Pacific Rural Press. San Francisco, Cal. Weekly, $3.00.

Poultry Monthly. Albany, N. Y. Monthly, $1.25.

Poultry World. Hartford, Conn. Monthly, $1.25.

Practical Farmer. Philadelphia, Pa. Weekly, $1.00.

Prairie Farmer. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $1.00.

Rural Canadian. Toronto, Canada. Monthly, $1.00.

Rural Californian. Los Angeles, Cal. Monthly, $1.50.

Rural Life. Waterloo, Ia. Weekly, $1.00.

Rural New Yorker. New York City. Weekly, $1.00.

Skérdemannen (Swedish). Minneapolis, Minn. Semi-
monthly, 75 cents.

Southern Cultivator. Atlanta, Ga. Monthly, $1.00.

Southern Live Stock Journal. Starkville, Miss. Weekly,
$1.00.

Southern Planter. Richmond, Va. Monthly, $1.00.

Swine-Breeders’ Journal. Indianapolis, Ind. Semi-monthly,
$1.00,

Texas Farm and Ranch. Dallas, Tex. Weekly, $1.00.

362 GENERAL TOPICS.

Texas Stockman. San Antonio, Tex. Weekly, $2.00.

Turf, Field, and Farm. New York City. Weekly, $5.00.

Wallace’s Farmer. Des Moines, Ia. Weekly, $1.00.

Western Agriculturist and Live Stock Journal. Quincy, IIl.
Semi-monthly, $1.00.

Western Resources. Lincoln, Neb. Weekly, $2.00.

Western Rural. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $1.00.

Western Swine Herd. Geneseo, Il]. Monthly, 50 cents.

Williamette Farmer. Salem, Ore. Weekly, $2.00.

Wisconsin Agriculturist. Racine, Wis. Semi-monthly, 50
cents.

Wisconsin Farmer. Madison, Wis. Weekly, $1.00.

Woo! Markets and Sheep. Chicago, Ill. Weekly, $1.00.

INDEX.

Aberdeen Angus cattle, ar
Accidents, what to do in case of, 299
Acidity of milk or cream, determination of, by alkaline tablet test, 239
Mann’s test, 241
Adulteration of milk, 207
Agricultural and dairy literature, 354
horticultural books, list of, 355
papers, main American, 359

Agricultural associations, constitutions of, 287

clubs, constitutions and by-laws of, 287

educational institutions in the United States and Canada, 348

engineering, 124

products, average farm price of, 1886-1895, 335

schools and colleges in the United States, statistics of, 350
Alkaline tablet test of acidity in milk or cream, 239
American trotter, the, 18
Apiarian industry in the United States, importance of, 345
Arbor Day, dates of, in different states and territories, 103
Ash of cows’ milk and colostrum, composition of, 196
Ayrshire cattle, 171
Babcock milk test, the, 197

application of, 199

Beef cattle, 21
Berkshire pigs, 24
Bordeaux mixture, 87
Boyd, John, Boyd’s process of cream ripening, 236
Brown-Swiss cattle, 183
Butter, 230

American premium, analyses of, 243

by deep, cold setting and Cooley system, 238

shallow-pan creaming, 238

cheese and condensed-milk factories in the United Sele) 341, 342

composition of, 242

conversion factor for calculating yield of, 244

domestic exports of, 1870-1895, 344

? 363

364 INDEX.

Butter, English scale of points for judging, 248
European, composition of, 243
from separator cream, 239
formula for calculating yield of, 243
makers, American score for judging proficiency of, 249
score in judging proficiency of, 248
making, 230
distribution of milk ingredients in, 247
use of pure cultures in, 232
milk requited for making 1 |b. of, 246, 247
records, official, 189
score for judging, 247
sour cream, composition of, 242
sweet cream, composition of, 242
yield from cream of different richness, 244
' milk of different richness, 245, 274
By laws and rules for co-operative cheese factories, 282
creamery associations, 279
Caldwell, Prof. W. H., Guernsey cattle, 164
California weir table, 137
Canada, area and population, 323
dairy schools, 352
experiment stations, 352
exports of dairy products, 1868-1895, 344
meteorological data, 326
Ministers of Agriculture, 347
number of farm animals, 1891, 340
production of various crops, 1891, 334
Carcass, a steer’s, 156
of farm animals, constituents of, 159
Cattle, proportion of beef to live weight, 157
the various parts of, 158
Cattle foods, classification, 9
comparative value, 15, 16
Cereals, prices per bushel and per ton, 17
Cheddar cheese, formulas for finding yield of, 261
losses in curing, 263
manufacture of, 250
Cheese, butter, and condensed-milk factories in the United States in 1890,
341, 342
Cheese, composition of, 260
curing-rooms, determination of humidity in, 255
domestic exports of, 1870-1895, 344
English scale for judging, 259
factories, co-operative, by-laws and rules for, 282
management, 268
whey to be allowed patrons of, 267
loss in weight during curing, 263
manufacture of, 250, 252

INDEX. 365

Cheese making, distribution of ingredients, 261
fertilizing ingredients, 261
use of pure cultures, 232, 235
score for judging, 259
synopsis of manufacture of principal varieties, 266
varieties and analyses, 260
yield from 1oo lbs. of milk, 262, 264
Chester White pigs, 24
Cheviot sheep, 23
Chinch-btgs, fighting the, by means of kerosene emulsion, 92
Cisterns, capacity of, 137, 138
Clark, W. G., M.D.C., Common diseases of farm animals, 35
Veterinary remedies and doses, 45
Cleveland Bay horses, 19
Cloevers, notes on adaptability and uses, 79
Clydesdale horses, 19
Coins, foreign, value of, 321
Colostrum, composition of, 196
Components of cows’ milk, calculation of, 195
Composition and weight of ordinary crops per acre, 59
of ash of cows’ milk and colostrum, 196
butter, 242, 243
colostrum, 196
commercial fertilizing materials, 118
cows’ milk, variations in, 194
cream, 210
dairy products, 210
different parts of same milkings, 194
feeding stuffs, x
live animals, 160
milk of different breeds, 190, 191
morning and evening milk, 194
morning, noon, and evening milk, 194
sweet- and sour-cream butter, 242
various kinds of milk, 193
Concentrated feeding stufts, weight of, 15
Condensed-milk, butter, and cheese factories in the United States in 1890,
341, 342
Constitution and by-laws of agricultural clubs, 287
road leagues, 294
village-improvement societies, 292
Contagious diseases, rules for treatment in case of, 52
Conversion factor for calculating yield of butter, 244
of U. S. weights and measures to metric, and vice versa, 311
table for calculating fertilizing ingredients, 123
pounds of milk into quarts, 209
quarts of miJk into pounds, 209
Cooling milk or cream, water or ice required, 229
Corn, cost per acre of raising, 335

366 INDEX.

Corn on the cob, measurement of, in cribs, 317
Cost of irrigating canals and ditches, 136
raising wheat and corn, per acre, 335
Cotswold sheep, 23
Cows, buying and selling by tests of the milk, 192
care of, 278
diseases of, 39
premium, yields of milk and fat at state fairs, 188
Crops, farm, enemies of, 87
fertilizing materials in, 115
soiling, 60, 61
various, yields per acre. 67
weight and average composition of, per acre, 59
Craig, Prof. John A., Characteristics of breeds of live stock, 18
Cream, application of viscogen in, 227
composition of, 210
formula for finding fat content of, 213
gatherers, instructions to, 284
ice required for cooling, 229
preservation of, by heat, 225
ripening, Boyd’s process of, 236
separators, capacity of, 217
economy of, 216
handling and care of, 214
list of, 212
use of alkaline tablet test with, 239
yield from milk of different richness, 211
Creameries and cheese factories, directions for making dividends in, 273
suggestions to patrons of, 277
Creamery associations, co operative, by-laws and rules for, 279
management of, 268
‘Curing of cheese, losses in, 263
rooms, humidity in, 255
Cuts of meats, diagrams of, 156, 156a
Dairy breeds, results of tests of, 186, 187
yield of milk of, English standards for, 190
Cows, 161
methods of judging the value of, 191
rations for, 11, 13
yield of milk and fat from, 185
farms, regulations for the government of dairies and, 53
papers, American, 357
main foreign, 358
products, American analyses of, 193
composition of, 210
exports of, from Canada, 1868-1895, 344
the United States, 1870-1895, 344
fertilizing ingredients in, 196
produced on farms, 1890, 243

INDEX. 367

Dairy schools in the United States and Canada, 352
Statistics for the United States, 1890, 338
Dairies and dairy farms, regulations for the government of, 53
Dairying, 16
more important works on, 354
Decker, John W., How American cheese is made, 250
Devon cattle, 179
Dewey, L. H., Table of noxious weeds, 82
Dietaries, 148
daily calculation of, 148
Dietary standards, 148, 155
Digestion coefficients, 2, 6
Dimensions, interior, of farm buildings, 144
Directory of official agricultural institutions, 346
Diseases of farm animals, 35
Disinfectants, list of, 52
Disinfection of stables, rules for, 52
Distance table for planting vegetables, 64
tree-planting, 66, 102
Dividends, directions for making, in creameries and cheese factories, 273
Dorset sheep, 23
Drains, earth removed for, of various dimensions, 127
Duroc-Jersey swine, 24
Dutch belted cattle, 18z
Duty of water, 132
Economy, pecuniary, of food, rs2
Engine management, 221
Engineering, agricultural, 124
English milking trials, results of, 189
Essex pigs, 24
Exhaustion of fertilizers, r20
Farm animals, common diseases of, 35
constituents of carcass, 159
duration and frequency of heat in, 306
estimated number on farms and ranches, 1896, 336
food requirements of, 15
in Canada in 1891, 340
in the United States in 1870-1895, 340
live, composition of, 160
standard rations for, 10
buildings, interior dimensions of, 144
crops, enemies of, 87
products, fertilizing constituents of, 111
yard manure, amounts required to replace ingredients abstracted by
various crops, 116
Farms in the United States, statistics concerning, 327, 328
Farming population of the United States, 327
Farrington, Prof. E. H., The alkaline tablet test for acidity in milk or
cream, 239

368 INDEX.

Fat, relation of, to casein and other solids of milk, 195
Fattening animals, comparative results obtained with, 157
Feeding and general care of poultry, 25
standards for farm animals, 10
stuffs, chart showing manurial value of, 112
composition of, 1, 3
concentrated, classification, 9
weight of, 15
fertilizing constituents, 111
valuation of, 17
Feed rations, calculation of components of, 11
Fermentation tests, 253, 255
Fernow, Prof. B. E., Forestry for farmers, 95
Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products, 122
ingredients, composition of, 118
conversion table for calculation of, 123
equivalent quantities of, r21
in dairy products, 196
different crops, 115
raw materials and chemicals, trade value of, 122
voided by animals, 117
withdrawn by various crops, 114, 115
Fertilizers, exhaustion of, 120
Field crops, 56
Fish, N. S., Brown-Swiss cattle, 183
Flag signals adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau, explanation of, 296
Food economy, 147
fuel value, 146
Foods, human, 145
Food materials, human, composition of, 149, 150
nutrients furnished for 25 cents in, 153
pecuniary economy of, 152
Forestry, 95
fire laws in the United States, 104
for farmers, 95
Formulas for calculation of total solids in milk, 203
yield of butter, 243
converting degrees Centigrade or Reaumur to Fahrenheit
and vice versa, 315
finding adulteration of milk, 207
fat content of cream, 213
separator skim-milk, 221
quantity of water or ice required for cooling milk
or cream, 229
yield of Cheddar cheese, 261
Frederiksen, J. D., Handling and care of cream separators, 214
French coach horses, 19
Fruit trees, distances apart, 66
longevity, 66

INDEX. 369

Fruit trees, time required to bear fruit, 66
Fuel value of food materials, 146
woods, too
Fungous diseases of plants, treatments for, 87
Galloway cattle, 21
Gerber fermentation test, the, 254
Germination standards of seeds, 77
Gestation calendar, 305
Goff, Prof. E. S., Treatments for injurious insects and fungous diseases of
plants, 87
Government land measures, 316
Grass seeds, amounts to sow per acre, 77
number, weight, and cost of, 77
Grasses, notes on adaptability and uses of, 79
Guernsey cattle, 164
Gurler, H. B., Butter-making, 230
Hackney horses, 19
Hand separators, list of, 212
Hawks and owls, beneficial and harmful, 298
Hay, seed mixtures for, 57
Heredity, 30
Hereford cattle, 21
Hicks, Gilbert H., Seed-testing for the farmer, 72
Highland cattle, 24
Hills, number of, on an acre of land, 63
Hog cholera, suppression of, 49
Holstein-Friesian cattle, 168
Honey and beeswax in the United States, production of, 345
Horn-fly, remedies for, 51
Horse, labor done by, 142
Horse-power, 225
Horse-power required for separating rooo Ibs. milk, 216
Horses, diseases of, 35
draft of, 141
Horticulture, 64
Hoxie, S., Holstein-Friesian cattle, 168
Human foods. 145
composition, 145
Humidity in cheese-curing rooms, 255
relative, in curing-rooms, table showing, 257
Ice required for cooling milk or cream, 229
Inches reduced to decimals of a foot, 312
Injurious insects, treatments for, 87
Interest tables, 303
Irrigated land, value of, 134
Irrigating canals and ditches, cost per mile, 136
Irrigation, 132
efficiency of windmills for, 129
pipes, cost of, 136

370 INDEX.

Jersey cattle, 161
Kerosene emulsion, 89, 92
Kilograms converted into pounds Avoird., 312
Lactometer, 199
Land measures, government, 316
Legal weights of grain, seeds, etc., 318
Leicester sheep, 23
Lincoln sheep, 23
Live animals, composition of, 160
mineral matters in roo parts, 160
Live stock, characteristic breeds of, 18
London purple, 88
Loss of butter from inefficient skimming, 220
cheese in curing, 263
Main pipe, rule for obtaining size of, 126
Mann’s test, direction for use of, 241
Manures, amount and quality produced by stock, 116
and fertilizers, 108
valuation of, 109
composition, amount, and value of, from different farm animals, 117
Mantrial value of feeding stuffs, chart showing, 112
Maple syrup, specific gravity, sugar content, and boiling-point, 69
sugar obtained from, 70
Marshall rennet test, 250
Meat, diagrams of cuts, 156
Merino sheep, 22
Mineral matters in 100 parts of live animals, 160
Milch cows, diseases of, 39
Milk, adulteration, 207
average composition, with variations, 194
calculations of components, 195
total solids, 203
composition of various kinds, 193
care of, 277
gatherers, instructions to, 284
ingredients, distribution of, in butter-making, 247
cheese-making, 261
morning and evening, composition of, 194
noon, and evening, composition of, 194
payment of, at creameries and cheese factories,-268
preservation of, by heat, 225, 227
price of, per 100 lbs., 271
records, official, 189
relation of fat to casein and other solids of, 195
relative cheese value of, 264
required for making 1 lb. of butter, 246, 247
skimming and watering of, 207, 208
standards, 206
table for converting pounds of, into quarts, 209

INDEX. 371

Milk, table for converting quarts of, into pounds, 209
finding average per cent of fat in, 275
testing, a chapter on, 197
use of alkaline tablet test with, 239
watering of, 207
Milking trials, English, results of, 189
Milkings, composition of different parts of same, 194
Miner’s inch, 133
Money, foreign, value of, 321
order, fees, 308
Monrad rennet test, the, 250
Mutton, diagrams of cuts, 156a
New York Board of Health Jactometer, comparison with Quevenne lac-
tometer, 200
Nitrogen voided by animals, 117
Noer, J., M.D., What to do in case of accidents, 299
Noxious weeds, table of, 82
Number of plants for an acre of ground, 62, 63
trees on an acre, 99
Nutrients, 145
furnished for 25 cents in food materials, 153
Nutritive ratio, 2
Official milk and butter records, 189
Orchard-spraying outfit, 93
Ounces reduced to decimals of a foot, 312
Oxford sheep, 23
Pasteurization of milk and cream, 225
Pastures, permanent, seed mixtures for, 57
Patrons, rules for, 284
Payment of milk at creameries and cheese factories, 268
Percheron horses, 20
Perishable goods, temperatures injuring, 71
Pickrell, J. H., Shorthorns as dairy cows, 173
Pipes, carrying capacity of, 135
cost of, for irrigation, 136
Plant diseases, treatments for, 87
number of, for an acre of ground, 62, 63
Plowing, performance of team in, 142
Poisoning, antidotes in cases of, 301
Poland China pigs, 24
Pork, diagram of cuts of, 1564
Postage, domestic, 307
foreign, 307
Potatoes, relation of specific gravity, dry matter, and starch conten of, 68
Poultry and egg product in the United States, 1880 and 1890, 345
Poultry, breeds of, 30
feeding and care of, 25
Pounds converted into kilograms, 312
Power required for discharge of water, 132

372 INDEX.

Power required to raise water from deep wells, 136

separators, list of,.212
Precipitation, normal, in Canada, 326

the United States, 325
Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 225
Pure cultures, use of, in butter and cheese making, 232
Purity standards of seeds, 75
Quevenne lactometer, 199
Rainfall, 128
Rations for dairy cows, practical, 13
standard, 10, 11

Record, highest, for yield of fat, 188
Records, milk and butter, official, 189
Red polled cattle, 176
Rennet test, 250
Richards, H. B., Dutch belted cattle, 18z
Richter, Prof. A. W., Steam boiler and engine management, 221
Road leagues, constitution of, 294

making, 138
Roads, drainage, 138

different kinds of, force required to draw a load on, 140

good, importance of, 140

gravel for, 139

repairs, 139

stone required for maintenance of, 143

weight required to move vehicles on, 141
Russell, Prof. H. L., Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 225
Seed mixtures for grass and clover, 58

hay and permanent pastures, 57

per acre, 56
testing for the farmer, 72
vegetable, quantity required per acre, 65
Seeds, 72
germination standards, 77
grass, number, weight, cost, and amount to sow per acre, 77
purity standards, 75
Separator skim-milk, conditions determining fat content of, 221
formula for obtaining fat content of, 221
per cent fat in, 215
Shaw, Prof. Thos., Heredity, 31
Sheep, diseases of, 43
proportions of the various parts of, 158
Shire horses, 20
Shorthorn cattle, 21, 173
Shropshire sheep, 22
Silos, cylindrical, area of feeding surface required to supply different
sized herds, 62
capacity of, 61
Sisson, L. P., Devon cattle, 179

INDEX.

Skimming of milk, detection of, 207

Slope, rise per 100 feet, 127

Smith, J. McLain, Red-polled cattle, 176

Soiling crops adapted to Northern New England states, 60
time of planting and feeding, 61

Solids of milk, calculation of 203

tables for obtaining, from specific gravity and per cent of fat, 205

Southdown sheep, 22
Specific gravity of various substances, 68, 69, 319
o woods, 100
Spraying calendar, 89
outfit for orchards, 93
Standard rations for farm animals, ro, 11
Starch equivalent, 2
Statistical tables, 323
Steam boiler and engine management, 221
Steers, live and dressed weights of, 1564
Sterilization of milk and cream, 225, 227
Sub-humid region, 134
Suffolk horses, 20
sheep, 23
Swine, diseases of, 44
live weight and gains made, 157
plague, suppression of, 49
proportions of the various parts of, 158
Tainted milk, causes of, 253
Tamworth pigs, 24
Tanks, capacity of, 137
Temperature-correction tables for specific gravity of milk, 2o1
Temperature of the air, normal mean, in Canada, 326
the United States, 324
Temperatures injuring perishable goods, 71
Testing milk and other dairy products by Babcock’s method, 197
Tests of dairy breeds at American experiment stations, 186
World’s Columbian Exposition, 187
Thermometer scales, comparisons of, 313
Thoroughbred horse, the, 18
Tile-draining land, reasons for, 124
pipe of main drain, size required, 126
Tiles, number required per acre, table showing, 125
size required, 125, 126
Tires, wide, effect of, 143
Tractive force required for carriages, 140
Trade values of fertilizing ingredients, 122
Tree-planting, distance table, roz2
Trees, number on an acre, 99
United States, agricultural experiment stations in, 353
wages, 1893-1895, 329
apiarian industry, importance of, 345

373

374 INDEX.

United States, area and population, 323
cereal products, principal, 1850-1890, 334
comparison of leading industries, 326
cost per acre of raising wheat and corn, 1893, 335
crops, principal, 334
dairy schools, 352
Statistics for 1890, 338
Department of Agriculture, organization, 346
farming population, 327
number and value of farm animals, 1870-1895, 340
of farms in, and their value, 327
pure-bred cattle, 1895, 340
poultry and egg product, 1880 and 1890, 345
precipitation, normal, 325
product and value of principal crops, 1895, 334
production of honey and beeswax, 345
statistics of butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories, 341, 342
farms, 328
principal crops, 1895, 330
temperature of the air, normal mean, 324
value of principal farm products, 329
wages, agricultural, 1893-1895, 329
Veal, diagram of cuts, 1562
Vegetable seed required per acre, 65
Vegetables, usual distances for planting, 64
Veterinary colleges, American, list of, 35
remedies and doses, 45
Victoria pigs, 24
Village-improvement societies, constitution of, 292
Viscogen, 227
Wages, agricultural, in the United States, 1893-1895, 329
by the week and the day, table of, 304
Wagon tires, wide, effect of, 143
Water, acre-foot of, 133
carrying capacity of pipes, 135
duty of, 132
flow through straight pipes, 135
power required for discharge of, 132
to raise, from deep wells, 136
required for cooling milk or cream, quantity, 229
right, 132
second-foot, 133
Watering of milk, 207
Weather Bureau, the, explanation of flag signals adopted by, 296
services, state, list of headquarters of, 298
Weeds, 82
noxious, table of, 82
Weights and measures, 309
customary system of, 309

INDEX. ato

Weights and measures, conversion of, to metric, and vice versa,311
metric system of, 310

Weights, legal, of grain, seeds, etc., 318
Weir table, the California, 137
Wheat, cost per acre, of raising, 335
Wheeler, Prof. Wm. P., Feeding and general care of poultry, 25
Whey to be allowed patrons, 267
Wind, force and velocity of, 129
Windmills, capacity, 130

ecOnomy, 131

square feet and acres irrigated by, 129
Winslow, C. M., Ayrshires, 171
Woods, fuel value and specific gravity, 100
World’s Columbian Exposition, results of breed tests at, 187
Yield of butter, formula for calculating, 243

Cheddar cheese, formula for calculating, 261

cheese from too lbs. of milk, 262, 264

fat, highest record, 188

milk and fat by premium cows at state fairs, 188

from dairy cows, 185
of dairy breeds, English standards for different breeds
186, 187, 189, 190

Yields, average, per acre of various crops, 67
Yorkshire pigs, 24

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