BOO sada St Scan oe ieee ace SOE, Serene ares Steet s Sisco ret reese Siseeerore beers, Gueis Boars: reeere 3% Seer at Se Sips 5 Ebi tesody Hie Sore CEt Es Si yeti tes tsesee yey PLATE I. BOB-WHITE HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA / WITH KEYS TO THE SPECIES CYOh i ' .~< AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THEIR PLUMAGES, NESTS, AND EGGS IS) & THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATIONS AND A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THEIR HAUNTS AND HABITS O45 WITH INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS ON THE STUDY OF ORNITHOLOGY. HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS AND HOW TO COLLECT AND PRESERVE BIRDS THEIR NESTS, AND EGGS BY FRANK M. CHAPMAN ASSISTANT CURATOR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY , NEW YORK CITY: IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION, ETC WITH FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLORS AND BLACK AND WHITE AND UPWARD OF ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY CUTS IN. THE TEXT FIFTH EDITION NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1898 CopyriGuHtT, 1895, By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. e Soe 1933 Wefor> WonS TO MY MOTHER WHO HAS EVER ENCOURAGED HER SON IN HIS NATURAL HISTORY STUDIES THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED PRE PAC EH . Ir this book had been written in the last century it might have been entitled ‘Ornithology made Simple, or How to Identify Birds with Kase, Certainty, and Dispatch.” It may be unworthy so com- prehensive a title, nevertheless I have made an honest: endeavor to write a book on birds so free from technicalities that it would be in- telligible without reference to a glossary, and I have tried to do this in a volume which could be taken afield in the pocket. I have not addressed an imaginary audience, nor have I given my prospective readers what, theoretically, I thought they ought to have, but what personal experience with students of birds has led me to believe would meet their wants. The preparation of this work has firmly convinced me that the poet would have been nearer the truth had he written “ One touch of nature makes the whole world kind.” In the succeeding pages I have attempted to express my appreciation of the assistance which natural- ist friends and associates have generously given me, but here I desire to especially thank Miss Florence A. Merriam, Dr. J. A. Allen, and Mr. Ernest E. Thompson for much valuable criticism and advice. Frank M. CHAPMAN. AMERICAN Museum or NATURAL HISTORY, New York City, January, 1895. CORA ST's. INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I.—THE STUDY OF ORNITHOLOGY. Systematic Ornithology. Philosophie Ornithology Economic Ornithology . Sentiment of Ornithology CHAPTER I].—TuHE Stupy or Birps Ovut-or-Doors . How to Identify Birds . : . . : How to Find Birds When to Find Birds Tables of Migration The Nesting Season Note-books and Journals CuapTer II].—Couectinc Birps, THEIR Nests, AND Eees Collecting Birds Making Birdskins. Sexing Birds . : Cataloguing and Labeling Care of a Collection 3 - : Collecting and Preserving Nests and Eggs . PLAN OF THE WorRK. Nomenclature adopted . Definition of Terms The Key to Families The Keys to Species Measurements Range Biographies Illustrations Color Chart List OF ABBREVIATIONS . Vii PAGE CO CO Lo WW co tO WwW SG 200 ow ww OD © DO 3 3 me CO Oo © Vill CONTENTS. PAGE THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA EAST OF THE NINE- TIETH MERIDIAN . . 3 : : : : . AL Key To ORDERS AND FAMILIES . : : : : : fore. I. OrDER PycGopopEs: Diving Birds . : ; : . =56 1. Family Podicipide: Grebes : ; : : . 30 2. Family Urinatoride: Loons ; paper te (2) 3. Family Alcide: Auks, Murres, and Puffins ; a0) II. OrDER LONGIPENNES: LON6-WINGED SWIMMERS. « 690 4, Family Stercorariide : Skuas and Jaegers . ; nn 07 5. Family Laride: Gulls and Terns : ; : - om 6. Rynchopide: Skimmers. : : 5 : . 8d _ III. OrpER TuBINARES: TUBE-NOSED SWIMMERS . : « 86 7. Family Diomedeidze: Albatrosses : . Oo 8. Procellariidze: Petrels, Fulmars, and Bhidhie Ww bias . 86 IV. ORDER STEGANOPODES: TOTIPALMATE SWIMMERS . a 9. Family Phaéthontidz: Tropic Birds. : : per | 10. Family Sulid#@: Gannets. . : : p F .. Oe 11. Family Anhingide: Darters . : : : eee 12. Family Phalacrocoracide: Cormorants. Z . 94 13. Family Pelecanide: Pelicans . : ‘ ae 14. Family Fregatide : Man-o’-War Ene ; ‘ ise) V. OrpDER ANSERES: LAMELLIROSTRAL SWIMMERS : Pee -15. Family Anatide: Ducks, Geese, and Swans. Panats "( VI. OrpvER OponToGLoss®: LAMELLIROSTRAL GRALLATORES . 125 16. Family Pheenicopteride: Flamingoes . : cae 0-19) VII. OrpER Heroptones: Herons, Strorks, IBISES, ETC. . . 125 17. Family Plataleidz: Spoonbills . : : : . 125 18. Family Ibidide: Ibises ; ; d . 126 19. Family Ciconiide: Storks and Wood Thises ; » hoe 20. Family Ardeide: Herons, Egrets, and Bitterns —. 128 VIII. OrpER PatupicoLa#: CRANES, RAILS, ETC. k . 137 21. Family Gruide: Cranes. : : ; ; “ish 22. Family Aramide: Courlans : : . 138 23. Family Rallide: Rails, Gallinules, and Gouts 2 139 IX. OrpvER LimicoL#: SHoreE Brrps ; : ; . 147 24. Family Phalaropodide : Phelan : . pa 25. Family Recurvirostride: Stilts and Av ocets . . 149 26. Family Scolopacide: Snipes, Sandpipers, ete. . . 150 XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. CONTENTS. 27. Family Charadriide: Plovers 28. Family Aphrizide: Turnstones, ete. . 29. Family Hematopodide: Oyster-catchers . . ORDER GALLINZ: GALLINACEOUS BIRDS 30. Family Tetraonide: Grouse, Bob-whites, ete. . 31. Family Phasianide : Pheasants, ete. . . ORDER COLUMB®: PIGEONS AND DOovES 32. Family Columbide: Pigeons and Doves . OrpDER Raprores: Birps oF Prey . ‘ 33. Family Cathartide: American Vultures . 34. Family Falconide: Falcons, Hawks, Eagles, ete. 30. Family Strigide : Barn Owls . 36. Family Bubonide: Horned Owls, Hoot oe Iss, ORDER Psirracr: Parrots, Macaws, PAROQUETS, ETC. 37. Family Psittacide: Parrots and Paroquets ORDER COoccyGES: Cuckoos, KINGFISHERS, ETC. 38. Family Cuculidz : Cuckoos 39. Family Alcedinide: Kingfishers ORDER Pict: WooDPECKERS, WRYNECKS, ETC. 40. Family Picidee: Woodpeckers . ORDER MACROCHIRES: GOATSUCKERS, HUMMINGBIRDs, SWIFTS, ETC. 41. Family @aprinileide®: Nighthawks W hip-poor- wills, ete. 42. Family Micwapodidan’ Swifts 43. Family Trochilide: Hummingbirds. ORDER PasseRES: PercuiIne Birps . 44, Family Tvrannide: Flycatchers 45, Family Alaudidee: Larks . 46, Family Corvide: Crows and Jays 47, Family Sturnide: Starlings 48. Family Icteride: Blackbirds, Giles ae 49. Family Fringillide: Finches, Sparrows, ete. 50. Family Tanagride: Tanagers 51. Family Hirundinide: Swallows 52. Family Ampelidee: Waxwings . 53. Family Laniide: Shrikes . 54, Family Vireonidw: Vireos . : 55. Family Mniotiltidee: Wood psublere =r) =n) 06. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. AppenDIxX: A Field Key to our Commoner Eastern Land Birds CONTENTS. Family Motacillide: Wagtails and Pipits Family Troglodytide: Thrashers, ‘Wrens, ete. . Family Certhiide : Creepers Family Paride: Nuthatches and Taanien Family Sylviidee: Kinglets and Gnateatchers . Family Turdide: Thrushes, Bluebirds, ete. List oF PRINCIPAL WORKS REFERRED TO INDEX PAGE . 000 . 076 . 389 . 086 . dol . 094 . 404 . 411 . 416 Bops- WHITE LiST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FULL-PAGE PLATES. TO FACE PAGE CoLoR CHART : PIED-BILLED GREBE AND Vauwe Heaps or Ducks LirtLe Biue HERons CLAPPER Ral . Woopcock AND YOUNG SPOTTED SANDPIPER AND YOUNG Rurrep GRousE AND YOUNG , Sparrow Hawk AND YOUNG ; g Hairy WoopPEcKER; YELLOW-BELLIED Sursianee Walp-POOR-WILL ‘ z ; Least FLYCATCHER ; Pues BoBoLink . MEADOWLARK : : : ‘ : : WHITE-THROATED SeLciow: WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW Sone SPARROW; SWAMP SPARROW . ‘ YELLOW-THROATED VIREO; WARBLING VIREO Lovur1s1ANA WaATER-THRUSH Woop TxHrusH; WIxLson’s THRUSH. FIGURES IN THE TEXT. FIGURE _ SImD TP ww! . A completed birdskin 5 : ; i ‘ , Topography of a bird : (a) Spotted, (4) streaked, (c) barred, (a) mar ood Feablicrs Rule showing inches and tenths ; Feet of (a) Pied-billed Grebe, (6) Loon, (ec) Puffin Frontisprece. (a) Bill of Parasitic Jaeger; (6) bill and foot of pias ae Gull Bill of Common Tern : ; ; , : : . Bill of Skimmer : : , : ; : , 4 xil LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE 9, 10. ae 12: 13. 14. 15. 16. ie 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 20. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. o7. 38. 39. 40, 41. 42. 43. 44, 49, (a) Bill and foot of Black-footed Albatross; e bill and foot of Fulmar : ; : : Foot of Cormorant : Bill of Yellow-billed Tropic Bird Bill of Gannet . z ‘ Bill of Anhinga Bill of Cormorant Bill of Man-o’-War Bid ; Bill of Merganser (a) Bill and foot of Meiacd (b) font of Garknisbak Bill of Flamingo 3 ; : Bill and toe-nail of Little Grech Heron ; Bill of White Ibis : Bill of Roseate Spoonbill . (a) Bill and foot of Clapper Rail: bills of (6) Yellow Rail,” (c) Sora, (d) Florida Gallinule; (e) bill and foot of Coot Bill of Sandhill Crane ‘ : ; : : Bill of Limpkin. Bills of (a) Dowitcher, () Knot. © Black- botied Plog er, (2d) Semipalmated Plover Feet of (a) Red Phalarope, (d) nde (c) Dawitaher (d) Black bellied Plover, (e) aaa Plover : : : Bill of Ruffed Grouse ; : Bill of Wild Pigeon . : : ; : : Feet of (a) Barred Owl, (0) Red-shouldered Hawk . Head of Barn Owl : : , Head of Barred Owl . Head of Turkey Vulture . Head of Red-shouldered Hawk Bill and foot of Carolina Paroquet . Bill and foot of Belted Kingfisher . Bill and foot of Yellow-billed Cuckoo : (a) Bill and foot of Hairy Woodpecker, (6) foot ‘of Neate Three-toed Woodpecker : ; 5 ; ‘ , Bill and foot of Nighthawk Bill and tail-feather of Chimney Swift Bill of Hummingbird : Foot of Robin . A Bill and wing of Beene : Bill and hind-toe of Horned Lark (a) Bill and wing of Blue Jay, (8) bill of gene Bill and wing of Starling. ; : “ PAGE 42 50 51 iS PoOW ILLUSTRATIONS. xill FIGURE PAGE 46, (a) Bill and wing of Baltimore Oriole; bills of (6) Meadow- lark, (¢) Purple Grackle 52 47. Bills of (a) Cardinal, (0) Pine ereecanie (c) Pune Wines (d) Red Crossbill, (e) Seaside Finch, ve Goldfinch - . o2 48. Bill of Scarlet Tanager : : ; : 52 49, Bill and foot of Cliff Swallow . 53 50. Head of Cedar Waxwing . 53 51. Bill of Loggerhead Shrike 53 52. Bill of Blue-headed Vireo 53 53. (a) Bill of Tennessee Warbler; (0) bill, wing, on hin tae of Pine Warbler; bills of (€) Redstart, (d) Water-Thrush ; (e) Chat . ; : ; 53 54. Bill and hind-toe of psriene Pini 54 59. (a) Bill of Brown Thrasher, (0) bill and wing of Gathind: bills of (c) Carolina Wren, (d) House Wren. ‘ 54 56. Bill and tail of Brown Creeper . 54 57. (a) Bill of White-breasted Nuthatch, (b) bill and wing of Chickadee 55 58. (a) Bill and wing of Galdene showed Kinglet, @) bill ai Bine Gray Gnatcatcher . ; ; . 55 59. (a) Bill of Robin, (4) bill and wing of Bluebird 3)9) 60. First primaries of (2) American Herring Gull, (6) Ring- billed Gull, (¢) Laughing Gull, (d) Franklin’s Gull, (e) Bona- parte’s Gull . ‘ 69 61. First primaries of (a) Caspian Dees @) Royal Tain: (c) Gon mon Tern, (d) Arctic Tern, (e) Royal Tern . Pes) 62. Head of Least Sandpiper . . 160 63. Head of Red-backed Sandpiper bot 64. Wing of Solitary Sandpiper . 166 65. Head of Semipalmated Plover . li: 66. Head of Wilson’s Plover . o Li6 67. Tail of Sharp-shinned Hawk . 198 68. Tail of Cooper’s Hawk : . 199 69. Primaries of Red-shouldered Hawes . 202 70. Primaries of Broad-winged Hawk . 204 71. Foot of Golden Eagle . 206 72. Foot of Bald Eagle . . 207 73. Tail-feathers of Yellow-billed ( eins 225 74. Tail-feathers of Black-billed Cuckoo . 226 75. Head of Crested Flycatcher . 245 76. Head of Prairie Horned Lark . . 2538 77. Head of Cowbird . 262 X1V LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PAGE 78. Head of Orchard Oriole . : . ‘ ° : : . 267 79. Head of Purple Finch . : é ; ‘ : ; Ar, = er 80. Head of Redpoll ; i ‘ . F ‘ . 285 81. Hind-toe of Lapland eoiet oun ; é e eet . 289 82. Tail-feathers of Vesper Sparrow. : ° . . . 290 83. Tail of Grasshopper Sparrow . ? 5 C ‘ , . 293 84. Head of Seaside Sparrow . ‘ , : 6 aaey , . 297 85. Head of Lark Sparrow. E : . : : ‘ . 299 86. Head of Chipping Sparrow. 2 : athsbi os , . 302 87. Head of Fox Sparrow : ‘ . } . : : . 3809 88. Head of Dickcissel . : : - : ; » 315 89. Barn, Cliff, Tree, and Bank Seales Pere tee ; ‘ . 318 90. Section of primary of Rough-winged Swallow ; . » 323 91. Head of Red-eyed Vireo . ; é ; ‘ ; ‘ . 328 92. Wing of Warbling Vireo . : ; ; . ° : . 329 93. Head of Black and White Warbler . : ; ; ° . dol 94, Head of Worm-eating Warbler ‘ 2 : : . . dol 95. Head of Blue-winged Warbler . : ‘ ‘ : ‘ » dol 96. Head of Golden-winged Warbler . ; : : ; . dol 97. Head of Parula Warbler . ; ; ; : . ; . 851 98. Head of Myrtle Warbler . ; , . : 3 ‘ . dol 99. Head of Magnolia Warbler. ‘ : : ‘ ° . ddl 100. Head of Chestnut-sided Warbler . : ; ‘ , . 301 101. Black-throated Blue Warbler . ; 5 : ‘ ‘ . 304 102. Head of Black-poll Warbler . ; ‘ : ‘ ‘ . 366 103. Head of Prairie Warbler; =. : ee » + 366 104. Head of Oven-bird . : ; : : : : ‘ . 366 105. Head of Kentucky Warbler .~ . : , ; ‘ . 366 106. Head of Maryland Yellow-throat . < ; ‘ ‘ . 066 107. Head of Wilson’s Warbler ‘ : ‘ ‘ ; . . 366 108. Head of Hooded Warbler. ; ‘ ‘ ; i ‘ . 366 109. Head of Canadian Warbler. ; : ‘ ‘ ‘ » 366 110. Head of Yellow-breasted Chat. . ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ » 372 111. Head of Short-billed Marsh Wren . : : i ‘ » 383 112. Head of Long-billed Marsh Wren . : ; , ‘ . 384 113. Head of Red-breasted Nuthatch . : ; ‘ ; » 388 114. Head of Tufted Titmouse. : ‘ - ‘ : é . 389 115. Head of Golden-crowned Kinglet . ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ . 392 A HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER TI. THE STUDY OF ORNITHOLOGY. Brirps, because of their beauty, the charm of their songs, and the ease with which they may be observed, are doubtless the forms of animal life which first attract the young naturalist’s attention. His interest in them gives evidence of an inborn love of Nature. Too often this priceless gift is lost simply through lack of encouragement and instruction. Properly developed it should prove a never-failing source of pleasure and inspiration, if indeed its influence does not become the most potent factor in our lives. Let us hope that the day is not distant when the importance of in- troducing natural-history studies into our schools will be generally recognized. The young student of Nature will then be helped over the repelling technicalities which render so difficult the first steps to a knowledge of his chosen subject. Without a guide he now either loses his way completely or travels under disadvantages which handi- cap him for the whole journey. The uninstructed beginner in ornithology usually expends his en- ergies in forming a collection, and he knows no better way of pursuing his study of birds than to kill and stuff them! Collecting specimens is a step in the scientific study of birds, but ornithology would have small claim to our consideration if its possibilities ended here. Prop- erly considered, it includes what may be termed the science of orni- thology and the sentiment of ornithology. As a science it treats of birds as the exponents of natural laws and seeks to determine their place in the scale of life. In the sentiment of ornithology Nature ap- peals to us through the most interesting and beautiful of her animate forms. . 2 1 SYSTEMATIC ORNITHOLOGY. bo The Science of Ornithology.—The science of ornithology may be divided into three branches—systematic, philosophic, and economic. The systematist aims to classify birds according to what are appar- ently their true relationships. He is the ornithological storekeeper, and having taken an account of stock it is his duty to keep the books of the firm in order. The philosophic ornithologist accepts as a fact the statement of affairs given him by his fellow-worker the systemat- ist, and tries to explain the wherefore and why. He is a seeker of causes. The economist is of a more practical turn of mind. He is impressed by the incalculable influence which birds exert over our agricultural interests, and the necessity for learning with exactness whether this influence is for good or evil. But let us describe these three departments of scientific ornithology more fully. Systematic Ornithology.—tThe first step in the scientific study of any group of animals is to name and classify them. Orders, families, genera, species, and subspecies are to be described and arranged in what appears to be the most natural manner. Thus all the Perching Birds, for example, are placed in the order Passeres, and this order is divided into numerous families—for instance, the Thrushes or family Turdide. But how are we to know which are Perching Birds and which of the Perching Birds are Thrushes? The systematist answers, by studying a bird’s structure. Generally speaking, orders and fami- lies are based on skeletal, muscular, and visceral characters which may be termed internal characters. Genera are based on the form of bill, feet, wings, and tail, or on external characters, while species and sub- species are based mainly on color and size. Thus all the members of a family or order agree more or less in their principal internal charac- ters: those of a genus agree in external characters, and the individ- uals of a species or subspecies resemble one another in color and size. The object of classification is to aid us in understanding not alone the relationships of one bird to another bird, or of one family or order of birds to another family or order, or even of living to extinct birds, but also to assist us in explaining the relationships of all the classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms—mammals, birds, rep- tiles, fishes—and thus down the scale to the lowest forms of life. This systematic study of the relationships of birds has taught us that they have been evolved from reptilian ancestors. There is much evidence in support of this fact, but the most conclusive is furnished by the discovery in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, Bavaria, of several specimens of a remarkable fossil, a reptilelike bird, which has been named Archwopteryx lithographica. It is the earliest known direct progenitor of the great class Aves. PHILOSOPHIC ORNITHOLOGY. 3 The importance of systematic classification is also shown in the ne- cessity of naming objects before we can study them to advantage. As the alphabet is the foundation of a written language, so this great series of scientific names, which appears so formidable to the student, is the groundwork for all ornithological research. Philosophie Ornithology.—Having learned the alphabet of orni- thology, we may pass from the systematic to the philosophic study of birds; from the study of dead birds to that of living ones. A study of specimens shows their relationships through structure, but a study of the living bird in its haunts may tell us the cause of structure. In classifying birds we have taken note of their form and coloration; our object now is to determine how these characters were gequired,.- As Prof. E. S. Morse has said, “There is no group of animals which exceeds birds in varied and suggestive material for the evolu- tionist.” Compare a Hummingbird with an Ostrich, a Swallow with a Penguin, and the enormous variation in the structure and habits of birds is brought very forcibly to our minds. When we remember that these widely divergent types descended from a reptilian ancestor, we are impressed anew with the truth of Prof. Morse’s remark. A brief review of the more important branches of philosophic ornithology will show how rich a field is open to the student of birds. They are: (1) The origin of birds and their place in Nature ; * (2) their distribution in time and space, and the influences which determine their present ranges; + (8) the migration of birds, its origin, object, ex- tent, and manner; ¢ (4) the nesting of birds, including a study of the significance of sexual differences in form, color, and voice, the location and construction of the nest, the number and color of the eggs, together with the habits of birds during the entire nesting season ; (5) the effect * See Newton's Dictionary of Birds (London : Adam and Charles Black, 1893) ; articles, ‘‘ Anatomy of Birds’ and ‘* Fossil Birds” ; Coues’s Key to N. A. Birds. + Read The Geographical Distribution of North American Mammals, by J. A. Allen, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., iv, 1892, pp. 199-244; four maps. The Geo- graphical Origin and Distribution of North American Birds, considered in Rela- tion to Faunal Areas of North America, by J. A. Allen, The Auk, x, 1893, pp. 97-150 ; twomaps. The Geographic Distribution of Life in North America with Special Reference to the Mammalia, by C. Hart Merriam, M. D., Proc. of the Biological Soc. of Washington, vii, 1892, pp. 1-64; one map. Laws of Tempera- ture Control, by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Nat. Geog. Mag., vi, 1894, pp. 229-238 ; three maps. ¢ On this subject read articles by the following authors: J. A. Allen, Scrib- ner’s Magazine, xxii, 1881, pp. 932-938: Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, v, 1880, pp. 151- 154 ; Scott, ibid., vi, 1881, pp. 97-100 ; Brewster, Memoirs Nuttall Orn. Club (Cam- bridge, Mass.), No. 1, pp. 22; Cooke and Merriam, Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley (Washington. 1888) ; Chapman, Auk, v, 1888, pp. 37-39; xi, 1894, pp. 12-17; Loomis, Auk, ix, 1892, pp. 28-39; xi, 1894, pp. 26-39, 94-117 ; Stone, Birds of E. Penn. and N. J., Bird Migration, pp. 15-28. My 4 . GEOGRAPHICAL RACKS. of climate upon the color and size of birds ;* (6) the relation of a bird’s color to its haunts and habits.t Besides these general subjects which enter into our study of the life-history of every bird, we have the special instances of intelligent adaptation to changed conditions of life, and, most interesting of all, the relation between structure and habits, or the part played by a bird’s habits in determining the form of its bill, feet, wings, and tail. Thus the Crook-billed Plover of New Zealand turns over or probes under stones and shells in search of food, not because its crooked bill makes an excellent lever or probe, but it has acquired a crooked bill through this habit. Again, the Gallinules of certain islands in southern seas are flightless, not because their wings are too small to support them, but because after having flown to these islands they had no further use for wings, which in time, through dis- use, became so small that the birds have lost the power of flight. In other words, it is not because their wings are small that they do not fly, but because they do not fly their wings are small. But to enlarge upon these problems which confront the philo- sophie ornithologist would require a volume. It is important, how- ever, that the student should have in the beginning at least a general idea of the effect of climate on the size and color of birds and the migration of birds. The first is well illustrated by our Bob-whate or Quail. In New England, at the northern limit of its range, it is a fine, large bird with a light-brown back and a white breast narrowly barred with black. As we proceed southward it becomes smaller, the brown is of a deeper shade, the black bars of greater extent. Finally, when we have reached the humid region of southern Florida, the minimum in size is attained, the back is dark, rich chestnut barred with black, and the breast is almost wholly black. No one who compared this small, dark Florida Quail with the large, pale Quail of New England would consider them the same species. But on examining a series of Quails from all the Atlantic States one sees how gradually this change in color and decrease in size occurs, and that nowhere would it be possible to draw a line separating the two extremes. They are species in process of formation still connected by a chain of natural links. Ornithology presents many similar cases. They illustrate two laws in the evolution of animals—decrease in size southward and greater * Read Part III of Dr. J. A. Allen’s Mammals and Winter Birds of East Florida, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zo6l., vol. ii, No. 3. Cambridge, 1871. + Consult Poulton’s Colors of Animals (D. Appleton & Co., 1890); Bed- dard’s Animal Coloration (Macmillan & Co.) ; Keeler’s Evolution of the Colors of North American Land-birds (Occasional Papers of California Academy of Sciences, iii, 1893) ; also reviews of last two works in The Auk, x, 1898, pp. 189- 199, 373-380. MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 5 intensity of color in regions of greatest rainfall. They are thus evi- dences of an evolution so recent that we can assign its cause. In nomenclature these partly formed species are termed subspecies or races. Under the trinomial system they are distinguished by a third name: thus Colinus virginianus floridanus is a subspecies or race of Colinus virginvanus. But it through any change in the earth’s sur- face the regions occupied by the large, light Quail and the small, dark one should be separated, the intermediates would disappear and in- stead of a race or subspecies we would have a full species—(Colinus floridanus. The Migration of Birds.—Certain insects, fishes, and mammals migrate, but no animals compare with birds in the extent of their migrations. Some birds nest within the Arctic Circle and winter in the southern parts of the southern hemisphere, performing this jour- ney of thousands of miles year after year and returning to their sum- mer or winter haunts with marvelous certainty and regularity. Not only is the migration of birds an interesting subject in itself, but the almost constant changes it causes in the bird-life of the same region gives an interest to the study of ornithology which is ever re- newed with the changing seasons. Indeed, to the lover of Nature birds are a living calendar. ‘“ What was that sound that came on the softened air? It was the warble of the Bluebird from the scraggy orchard yonder. When this is heard, then has spring arrived.” A discussion of the origin of bird migration will be found in the books and papers on this subject to which reference has been given. Here it is possible only to outline its principal features as they exist to-day. Generally speaking, birds migrate at the approach of winter, in search of food. The reason why they leave a land of plenty in the tropics and follow the footsteps of retreating winter to nest in the comparatively barren north is as yet not satisfactorily explained. As arule, the extent of a bird’s migration depends upon the nature of its food. Insect-eating birds are forced to extend their migrations much farther than the seed-eaters, many of which are permanent residents at their place of birth. The land-birds of the Western States winter in Mexico. A few cross the Isthmus of Tehuantepec into Central America, but practically no species cross the Isthmus of Panama. Our Eastern birds have a longer and more perilous journey to perform. They leave the mainland by way of Florida, and some species find congenial winter haunts in the West Indies or Central America, while others go as far south as the Argentine Republic. Birds of strong flight, like Swallows, can easily escape from bird- killing Hawks. and so migrate boldly by day. But the shy, retiring inhabitants of woods and thickets await the coming of darkness, and 6 ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. then, mounting high in the air, pursue their journey under cover of the night. Birds direct their flight by coast lines and river valleys which are easily distinguishable in clear weather. On favorable nights these natural highways of migration are thronged by a continuous stream of aérial voyagers passing from dusk until dawn. Looking through a telescope at the mocn, one may see numbers of birds cross its glowing surface. From such observations it is com- puted that migrating birds fly at a height of from one to three miles. The eyesight of birds is so far superior to ours that we do not realize its value to them while migrating. The height at which they fly gives them command of a wide range of country, and on clear nights they can undoubtedly distinguish its prominent features with ease. But when fogs or clouds obscure these landmarks, they lose their way. It is then that lighthouses prove beacons luring them to destruction. The Bartholdi Statue, at the mouth of the Hudson. River, is directly in the path of the great streams of migrants which flow up and down this natural highway of migration, and for this reason is particularly destructive to birds which travel at night. On one occasion after a storm no less than fourteen hundred birds were picked up at its base, having been killed by striking the statue or pedestal upon which it rests. Se But while sight is of the first importance to the older and more experienced birds who know the way, young birds, who are making the journey for the first time, doubtless rely on their hearing to guide them. Birds’ ears are exceedingly acute. They readily detect sounds which to us would be inaudible. Almost invariably they respond to an imitation of their notes, and, when under way, frequently chirp and call. When we consider their power of hearing and their abundance ~ in routes of migration, it seems probable that at no time during the night is a bird beyond the hearing of his fellow-travelers. The line of flight once established, therefore, by the older birds, who leave first, it becomes a comparatively easy matter for the younger birds to join the throng. Economic Ornithology.—This branch of the study of ornithology treats of the relationships of bird to man from the standpoint of dollays and cents. Civilized man is Nature’s worst enemy. He isa disturbing element whose presence is a constant menace to the balance of life. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that we should acquaint ourselves with the conditions which make a true equilibrium and endeavor to sustain them when it proves to our advantage to do so. The disastrous results which have followed man’s introduction of the English or House Sparrow in America, the mongoose in the West ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. oe Indies, and the rabbitin Australia, clearly show that our attempts to improve upon Nature must be directed, not by haphazard methods, but by knowledge gained through a careful study of Nature’s laws. Few persons realize the value of birds to man. They are the natural check upon the increase of insect life. Consider the incal- culable number of insects destroyed by the birds which pass the ‘greater part of each day hunting through our lawns, orchards, fields, and woods for the pests that destroy vegetation. Of almost equal im- portance are the birds of prey whose food consists largely of the small rodents which are among the farmer’s worst enemies. Indeed, it is not too much to say that without birds the earth would not long be habitable. As yet we are on the threshold of an exact knowledge of the value of birds to man; but let us cite one easily demonstrable case where ignorance of birds’ habits resulted in direct pecuniary loss. Quoting from the report for 1886 of Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Ornithologist and Mammalogist of the United States Department of Agriculture: “On the 23d of June, 1885, the Legislature of Pennsylvania passed an act known as the ‘scalp act,’ ostensibly ‘for the benefit of agriculture,’ which provides a bounty of fifty cents each on hawks, owls, weasels, and minks killed within the limits of the State, and a fee of twenty cents to the notary or justice taking the affidavit. “By virtue of this act about $90,000 has been paid in bounties during the year and a half that has elapsed since the law went into effect. This represents the destruction of at least 128,571 of the above-mentioned animals, most of which were hawks and owls. “Granting that 5,000 chickens are killed annually in Pennsylvania by hawks and owls, and that they are worth twenty-five cents each (a liberal estimate in view of the fact that a large proportion of them are killed when very young), the total loss would be 1,250, and the poultry kiiled in a year and a half would be worth $1,875. Hence it appears that during the past eighteen months the State of Pennsylvania has *xpended $90,000 to save its farmers a loss of $1,875. But this esti- mate by no means represents the actual loss to the farmer and the tax- payer of the State. It is within bounds to say that in the course of a year every hawk and owl destroys at least a thousand mice or their equivalent in insects, and that each mouse or its equivalent so de- stroyed would cause the farmer a loss of two cents perannum. There- fore, omitting all reference to the enormous increase in the numbers of these noxious animals when Nature’s means of holding them in check has been removed, the lowest possible estimate of the value to the farmer of each hawk, owl, and weasel would be $20 a year, or $30 in a year and a half. 8 SENTIMENT OF ORNITHOLOGY. “ Hence, in addition to the $90,000 actually expended by the State in destroying 128,571 of its benefactors, it has incurred a loss to its agricultural interests of at least $5,857,150, or a total loss of $3,947,130 in a year and a half, which is at the rate of 2,681,420 per annum. In other words, the State has thrown away $2,105 for every dollar saved! And even this does not represent fairly the full loss, for the slaughter of such a vast number of predaceous birds and mammals is almost certain to be followed by a correspondingly enormous increase in the numbers of mice and insects formerly held in check by them, and it will take many years to restore the balance thus blindly destroyed through ignorance of the economic relations of our common birds and mammals.” To their credit be it said, the legislators of Pennsylvania were not slow to recognize the error which a lack of proper information had caused them to make. A State ornithologist was appointed, and through his efforts this ruinous and absurd law was repealed. In 1893 the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy of the Department of Agriculture issued a report upon the food of the Hawks and Owls of the United States based upon the examination of the contents of 2,690 stomachs. It proves conclusively the value of most of these misjudged birds to the agriculturist. It is need- less to draw a comparison between legislation based upon information derived from such reports and that based solely on ignorant preju- dices. The Sentiment of Ornithology.—We may accept as true Prof. Morse’s estimate of the value of birds to the scientist; we need not question their importance in the economics of Nature, but we are still far from recognizing the possibilities of their influence upon our lives. An inherent love of birds is an undeniable psychological fact which finds its most frequent expression in the general fondness for cage- birds. If we can learn to regard the birds of the woods and fields with all the affection we lavish on our poor captives in their gilded homes, what an inexhaustible store of enjoyment is ours! It is not alone the beauty, power of song, or intelligence of birds which attract us, it is their human attributes. Man exhibits hardly a trait which he will not find reflected in the life of a bird. Love, hate; courage, fear; anger, pleasure; vanity, modesty; virtue, vice; constancy, fickleness ; generosity, selfishness; wit, curiosity, memory, reason—we may find them all exhibited in the lives of birds. Birds have thus become symbolic of certain human characteristics, and the more common species are so interwoven in our art and literature that by name at least they are known to all of us. Shakespeare makes over six hundred references to birds or bird-life. If we should rob SENTIMENT OF ORNITHOLOGY, 9 Wordsworth’s verses of their birds, how sadly mutilated what re- mained would be! But why leave a knowledge of birds to poets and naturalists? Go yourself to the field and learn that birds do not exist solely in books, but are concrete, sentient beings, whose acquaintance may bring you more unalloyed happiness than the wealth of the Indies. John Bur- roughs understands this when he writes of the study of birds: “ There is a fascination about it quite overpowering. It fits so well with other things—with fishing, hunting, farming, walking, camping out—with all that takes one to the fields and woods. One may go a blackberry- ing and make some rare discovery; or while driving his cow to pas- ture, hear a new song, or make a new observation. Secrets lurk on all sides. There is news in every bush. What no man ever saw before may the next moment be revealed to you. What a new interest the woods have! How you long to explore every nook and corner of them !” Human friends may pass beyond our ken, but our list of acquaint- ances in the bird world increases to the end and shows no vacancies. The marsh the Blackbirds loved may become the site of a factory, but no event on the calendar is more certain than that in due time and place we shall hear the tinkling chorus of the epauleted minstrels rising and falling on the crisp morning air. “|... Time may-come when never more The wilderness shall hear the lion roar ; But, long as cock shall crow from household perch To rouse the dawn, soft gales shall speed thy wing, And thy erratic voice be faithful to the spring !” The woods of our youth may disappear, but the Thrushes will always sing for us, and their voices, endeared by cherished associa- tions, arouse echoes of a hundred songs and awaken memories before which the years will vanish. CHAPTER II. THE STUDY OF BIRDS OUT-OF-DOORS. How to Identify Birds.—Whether your object be to study birds as a scientist or simply as a lover of Nature, the first step is the same— you must learn to know them. This problem of identification has been given up in despair by many would-be ornithologists. We can neither pick, press, net, nor impale birds; and here the botanist and the entomologist have a distinct advantage. Even if we have the desire to resort to a gun its use is not always possible. But with patience and practice the identification of birds is a comparatively easy matter, and in the end you will name them with surprising ease and certainty. There is generally more character in the flight of a bird than there is in the gait of a man. Both are frequently inde- scribable but perfectly diagnostic, and you learn to recognize bird friends as you do human ones—by experience. If you confine your studies to one locality, probably not more than one third of the species described in this volume will come within the field of your observation. To aid you in learning which species should be included in this third, the paragraphs on Range are followed by a statement of the bird’s standing at Washington, D. C., Sing Sing, N. Y., and Cambridge, Mass., while the water-birds of Long Island are treated specially. Take the list of birds from the point nearest your home as an index of those you may expect to find. This may be abridged for a given season by considering the times of the year at which a bird is present.* * It is sometimes possible to secure a list of birds of your own vicinity. These ‘local lists’? are generally published in scientific journals, but one may fre- quently secure a copy of the author’s edition. On this subject correspond with L. S. Foster, 35 Pine Street, New York city. Among the local lists of eastern birds which were issued as separate publications and are now for sale are— 1. A Catalogue of the Birds of the Virginias, by Wm. C. Rives, M. A., M.D. Proc. Newport [R. I.]. Nat. Hist. Soc., Document VII, 1890, 8vo, pp. 100, one map, 305 species. 2. The Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey, with Introductory 10 HOW TO FIND BIRDS. 11 After this slight preparation you may take to the field with a much clearer understanding of the situation. Two quite different ways of identifying birds are open to you. Hither you may shoot them, or study them through a field- or opera-glass. A “bird in the hand” isa - definite object whose structure and color can be studied to such ad- vantage that in most cases you will afterward recognize it at sight. Aiter learning the names of its parts, its identity is simply a question of keys and descriptions. ) If you would “name the birds without a gun,” by all means first visit a museum, and, with text-book in hand, study those species which you have previously found are to be looked for near your home. This preliminary introduction will serve to ripen your acquaintance in the field. A good field- or opera-glass is absolutely indispensable. 65 od ate aie May 10-20. PIM CHICA gba Mhitecsierte ello aise so 5 > chess April 15-25. ERCEMAT WME ISUE 25 wichss a ielans als uz ai aac s April 25-May 10. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker........... April 20-30. SARTO WALLOWa'g.c1n%0, 50 2 + oc beteree easins October 1-10. Miolloncale alm. Warblers cis. es Shoes April 25-May 10. Paine. Warbler. 2 -)7eykee oe ete n eee September 20-30. Yellow-throated Vireo................ September 20-30. White-eyed Vireo.) ..2 365 cua October 1-10. Nashville. Warbler) ii. % 22 deceeeeeee May 20-30. Blue- winged ‘Warbler... 0.4 2. | ces September 1-10. Parma pW arbler 24,%0:..'. ice esac aera sie May 20-30. Selow Ay atbler: shot... Joc chek eee meee September 10-20. Black-throated Blue Warbler......... May 15-30. Magnolia Waeblerty i 3002.52.05 toa ee May 15-30. Chestnut-sided) Warbler . 3... 505 2.0000 May 20-30. Praine Warblerses ieee tn ee ere May 290-30. Maryland Yellow-throat.............. October 10-20. Small-billed Water Thrish2:2.7......% May 15-30. Tloaded: Warbler Sten naece gene eee September 20-30. Y ellow-breasted :Chat, 5.22) 2.207 -eecon September 10-20. Redstarter use a: Malis “Aaa ea aot eine ar create October 1-10. Wilson's Champa 27 7c cceseb ween September 20-30. May 10-20. Wood Bewee., 3.2 oki. tee ee epee September 20-30. Acadian Wily catcher... .).n,scsska sels September 1-10. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher............ May 20-30. White-crowned Sparrow.............. May 15-25. Golden-winged Warbler.............. May 15-25. Tennesse Warblers .0 5) 20st tee betes May 15-25. Worm-eating Warblers .25;022.t22.ee% September 1-10. Cape May Warbleruces fant. wit May 15-25. Blackburniam Warbler, 227, eee sale May 15-25. Bay-breasted Warbler.: i 254s¢ lta ceee May 20-30. Blaekpoll Wiarbler;.c tines sorbent ecena May 25-June 5. Wilson’s: Warbler... .oi.ec-aee ee eek May 20-380. Canadian Warbler: 25 Gace eee oreee May 25-June 5. Date of arrival. May 10-20. May 20-380. Date of arrival. August 1-10. August 15-31. September 1-10. September 10-20. September 20-30. October 1-10. THE FALL MIGRATION. 5 ere Date of departure. Long@illed Marsh Wren..........:.. October 10-20. Short-billed Marsh Wren............. October 10-20. Olive—-paeked* ThTUSHW 5 5.6 séc0 05s 6 oie May 20-June 1. Gray-cheeked, Thruslix ... 0.20... ..8.. May 25-June 5. ral sr vicabeer cn aies sy.na sins d--+ se (2) MMournine Warbler sos aoc scmcicc ties ¥- May 30-June 5. Prickmel Ws, Wi ruUshie sce ocieg 6 seco os. (2) FALL MIGRATION. MIGRANTS ARRIVING FROM THE NORTH. Date of departure. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher............ September 20-30. Golden-winged Warbler.............-. September 1-10. Chestnuit-sided: Warbier es « wa. ad- 5 os Sept. 80-Oct. 10. Canadian» Warblers. oii cade maress « slew ores September 20-30. Small-billed Water Thrush........... Sept. 25-Oct. 5. Olive-sided Flycatcher ...0.6 2.5.2... September 10-20, Menmessce. Warbler saci. 223 a October 10-20. Blackburnian. Warbler... 22... i... sc: September 20-30. WAISOIUR ENV AT OMEI a, 5 oi a bie oy chel ae 2 iahece September 20-30. Wanndtam Norah. awa sche ale ctepiernee November 1-30. Red-headed Woodpecker............. November 1-30. Black pole Warbler. sas. act Semis tee October 15-25. Connecticut. Warbler. .8 seqisesc 28 eke September 20-30. Api We MeAG eG CV IGCOl tt. acters ein ots iee oem October 15-25. Philadelphia Vireo). spose rele = <= September 20-30. Olive-backed: Thrush. f5). 0.7. seine ees October 1-10. Biches se Pitas soem qiatieiiew ce cies a= October 1-10. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker..........- October 20-30. MUNG Ores) Seda cee si aas orca, Sn Seals ... April 10-May 10. White-throated Sparrow.............. May 1-25. Micra WY AT OLOE seal a enna tyoue feelin sie as May 5-20. Wellowakalne. War blete rs: symm. oter. sees October 15-30, Brown Creeper iis is os cia a0 valw < Hs hanna April 1-30. Golden-crowned Kinglet,............. April 1-20. Ruby-crowned Kinglet.............-- October 20-30. MVE t: VU TOL A ice chs gi mia ere oo ater ap 2 ns April 1-30. Gray-cheeked Thrust: 20, 22. i... e+. 0 October 15-25. Pronzed Graces. ope twle seis de Ang oe December 1-30. Rusty sleek DIT <2 of seids es ninw ecient December 1-30. American Fipit o.. ck sien de eter ne» Oct. 25-Nov. 5. 18 THE FALL MIGRATION. Date of arrival. Date of departure. Oct. 1-10. Hernait has? es. ee ee os eee ere November 1-30. October 10-20. Box Sarre woes o25,5 hs vi mere ae eee Nov. 25-Dee. 5. October 20-31. Pime Sime? 52 fi. 0 sy. face nara eee May 1-31. Bree Sparrow s\t\.:. . ss sete eae eee April 1-80. Northern Shrike... :<:.0295 scans cele March 1-81. SUMMER RESIDENTS LEAVING FOR THE SOUTH. Date of departure. September 1-10. Acadian Flycatcher.................. Orchard ‘Oniolekz aya 97 sek sicde eens Rough-winged Swallow............... Worm-eating Warbler. 2s... sess Blue-winged ‘Warbler <...25 5.00825 September 10-20. Baltimore Oriole.................+--. Purple Martins :.4i2. see oe mene Yellow WarblericsShoe. eee September 20-30. Hummingbird ..................0.00 King bird pha sd0d saalans s oon eee eee Great-crested Flycatcher.............. Wood) Pewee. 6.50234 0. ae «de eee Rose-breasted Grosbeak. .-....5..%....- Yellow-throated Vireo............ ets Warbline Vireo... oi ..re cee tee Hooded: Wiarblervcw sk. Foxe onthe wants honmisiana Water ‘Lhrash..is oi esee. Wilson's. Thrash