nivisno Mussum (Natruray History) HANDBOOK OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTORS Par a5 , . 4 . irish, §. aie os Gop bh: Natural History Specimens intended for the British Museum should be directed to THE BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY), CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, 8.W. All communications should be addressed to the DIRECTOR, Note.—Bowxes of Specimens so addressed are not opened by the Customs Officers at the Docks, but sent on to the Museum under seal. ay “ (Nat. hice.) etna. OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTORS, ISSUED BY _ THE BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. THIRD EDITION. LONDON: PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM. SOLD BY LONGMANS & Co., 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. ; B. QUARITCH, 15 PICCADILLY, W.; DULAU & Co., 37 SOHO SQUARKH, W.; KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., 43 GERRARD STREET, SOHO, W. ; AND AT THE BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY), CROMWELL ROAD, 8.W. 1906. All rights reserved. PRINTED AND BOUND BY TMAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD., LONDON AND AYLESBURY. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. In past years the Museum collections have been greatly augmented and enriched by the donation of valuable series of specimens obtained by travellers and others whose vocations have necessitated their residence abroad in all parts of the world. It often happens that military and naval officers, explorers, missionaries, and others have leisure time which they would be willing to devote to collecting natural history objects if they had a better knowledge of the manner in which such things should be collected and preserved. In order to meet this requirement, it has been thought advisable to prepare a series of pamphlets treating upon the collecting and preservation of specimens in all branches of natural history. These can be obtained separately; but for the convenience and use of those who are willing to take up more than one branch of collecting, they are now united and issued in book form, thus forming an introductory manual of instructions on the subject generally. Although primarily written for the use of voluntary collectors, this work will prove equally useful to those professionally engaged in collecting, as showing the approved 1V PREFACE. manner in which the various objects referred to should be treated. The various chapters have been written by different members of the staff of the Natural History Museum, with the hope that the distribution of this work will lead to the formation of important collections which will ultimately come to us for study and comparison, and possibly enrich the series preserved in the Museum. EK. Ray LANKESTER, DIRECTOR. BRITISH MusEuM (NATURAL History), CROMWELL Roan, LONDON, S.W. June 1st, 1902. In issuing a second edition of this Handbook it has been found necessary to make only a few slight alterations and additions, the principal being hints on collecting Ticks and the importance of securing a considerable number of specimens in certain groups, such as Arachnida and Myriopoda. Bok aie January Ast, 1904. In the present edition some instructions are given respecting the collecting and preservation of Blood-sucking Arthropoda, other than Mosquitoes and Tsetse-flies. With this exception, only a few minor alterations and additions have been made. Ek, ole: January, 1906. TABLE OF CONTENTS. HINTS ON REMOVING AND PREPARING SKINS OF MAMMALS INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PRESERVATION OF BIRDS : How to DETERMINE THE SEX OF A BIRD . ; : ; : : INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING INSECTS : : : : ‘ How To CoLLect DIPTERA (TWO-WINGED FLIES) 4 ‘ : i How TO COLLECT MOSQUITOES ; ‘ , : ; - OTHER BLOOD-SUCKING ARTHROPODA . ; : : ; ‘ a INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING SPIDERS, CENTIPEDES (ARACHNIDA, MYRi0OPODA), AND PERIPATUS . : s : : - . - ~ METHODS OF COLLECTING AND PRESERVING VARIOUS INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS : 3 : ; ; J : ! : : : es HINTS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SHELLS OF MOLLUSCS DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING PLANTS SUGGESTIONS AS TO COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FOSSILS NOTES ON COLLECTING MINERALS . : 5 INDEX . . 2 . g : $ : ‘ 2 ; ; : : HINTS ON REMOVING AND PREPARING SKINS OF MAMMAIS. SECTION A.—LARGE MAMMALS. SPORTSMEN are, as a rule, by no means careful enough about the proper labelling of their specimens, which consequently lose much of their scientific value. Large Mammals, like small ones, should be carefully labelled, with all particulars of date, sex, locality, altitude, etc. Specimen-labels are shown on page 15. The proper reference of each skull to its own particular skin is also of much importance. For skinning large Mammals the implements required are very few and inexpensive—a shoemaker’s knife, a scalpel, a small saw, and a pair of pliers, with perhaps the addition of a pair of cutting-pincers, being all that are requisite. Any addition to this simple outtit only tends to encumber the traveller unnecessarily, everything really de- pending upon the skill with which the knife is wielded rather than upon the number and nature of the implements themselves. The great principle the operator should bear in mind is to make as few incisions as possible in the skin, and that these, so far as practicable, should be confined to the middle line of the under surface of the body, and to the inner sides of the limbs. If this be attended to, the slits will be but little conspicuous when the specimens are mounted. In Mohammedan countries the natives have a practice of cutting the throats of animals from ear to ear immediately they fall, in order that they may be bled after the orthodox fashion. Such gashes have, of course, to be sewn up when the specimen is mounted, with the result that the region of the throat is disfigured ry ‘ 8 HINTS ON REMOVING AND by ugly seams. In his book entitled ‘‘ Seventeen Trips to Somali- land,” Major Swayne has shown that by a little gentle persuasion the natives can be induced to so modify the halal (as the operation is called) that the damage to the specimen is reduced to a minimum ; and probably a similar modification might be assented to bv the Mohammedans of other countries. _ In the case of hornless animals, such as a Lion or Tiger, preparatory to commencing operations, the carcase about to be skinned should be turned on its back, and the fore and hind limbs held outwards by assistants, as far as they can be easily stretched. The operator should then make a straight incision with the knife from the chin along the middle line of the under surface of the body to the tip of the tail. In making this and the other incisions great care should be taken to avoid cutting more than possible into the flesh, and, above all, not to lay open the cavity of the abdomen. ‘The next procedure is to make cuts diverging from the main incision, in order to enable the limbs to be stripped. In the case of the fore legs the lateral cuts should be carried from the middle line through the arm- pits down the inner side of each limb, the knife being held pointing somewhat outwardly, in order that the seams made in sewing up the cuts should be as inconspicuous as possible in the mounted specimens. In the hind limbs the incisions should be carried through the groin, and so downwards in the same manner as in the fore limbs. In the case of horned animals (exclusive of Rhinoceroses, in which the horns are removed with the skin) it will be necessary, when the carcase 1S again turned, to make an incision from the crown of the head down the middle line of the neck to such a distance as will admit of the horns or antlers being passed through the slit thus made when the skin is removed from the head. In no case should the head-skin be severed from that of the body. When all the above-mentioned cuts have been made, the skin of the chest will be left in the form of lappets. Commencing by the application of the knife to the point of one of these lappets, the skin should be gradually stripped from the body, tail, and limbs, special care and attention being requisite in order to avoid damaging the feet, of which the natural contour should be so far as_ possible preserved. In the case of the smaller specimens, whether Deer, (,,yooqpuvy suvurszriodg ,, sprvA\ PUBTMOY UOT) PREPARING SKINS OF MAMMALS. ‘UTIL, V DNINNIMG 10 HINTS ON REMOVING AND Antelopes, Carnivora, or Monkeys, the terminal toe-bones may be left in the skin; but their complete removal is desirable in the larger representatives of these groups, as well as in still bigger animals, such as Elephants, Hippopotami, and Rhinoceroses. Special measures have to be taken with the three latter, but in the case of Carnivora and Monkeys the skin of the toes should be drawn over them by turning it inside-out, and the joints cut with the pliers where required. The next process is to turn over the carcase and draw the skin forwards over the head, when the separation of the ears and the severance of the closely adherent skin round the eyes will demand somewhat delicate manipulation. The conchs of the ears should be severed close to the skull, in order to avoid forming apertures of too large size in the skin ; and in the case of the eyelids particular care should be taken in order to avoid gashing the skin, since even the smallest slit in this region will tend to spread to a great extent, and thus cause almost irreparable injury to the specimen. The lips should be cut off as close as possible to the gums. It may be added that in the case of animals of the approximate size of a Fox, the skin of the tail may be stripped off entire, without slitting the under surface; but for animals of this size not intended for mounting, see page 19. Having now removed the skin from the carcase, the next process is to cut away completely all fragments of flesh and fat which may have been left adhering to its inner surface. The cartilages of the ears must also be dissected out with the scalpel, by turning back the skin over them; after which the inner surface should be well anointed with some preservative—powder, paste, or liquid. The scalpel must also be passed between the outer skin and the inner mucous lining of the lips, and the slit thus made well dressed with the same substance. The eyelids have likewise to be thoroughly dressed with preservative; and if necessary, on account of their thickness, they should be slit open with the scalpel from the inside. The skin has now to be dried, which may be effected, if that of a large animal, either by pegging it out (without undue stretching) hair-downwards on the ground, or by folding and drying it in such PREPARING SKINS OF MAMMALS. cae a manner that large creases should not be formed. Smaller skins should always be folded and dried without creasing. Some pre- servative, such as alum, or one of the special preparations sold for the purpose by dealers, should now be well rubbed in, especially on _the ears, mouth, feet, etc., and the whole specimen sprinkled with the same. The hairy side of the skin has next to be well anointed with turpentine, and the specimen will be ready for packing. When skins are shot during the rainy season, they are very difficult to get dried, and it is then recommended that, if possible, they should be pickled in brine. In addition to the skin, it is essential that the skull, and, if possible, the bones of the limbs, should be preserved as complete as possible. The flesh should be carefully cut away, the brain taken out through the natural hole at the back, and the bones soaked for a few hours in water, after which they may be dried in the sun. In hot, dry climates the teeth should be coated with wax in order to prevent their splitting. A wash of turpentine over the skulls and other bones will prevent the ravages of insects. The following list contains the names of many of the larger Wild Mammals of which specimens are wanted by the Museum. In addition to these, skins and skeletons or skulls of well-established breeds of Domesticated Mammals from all parts of the world are required. Skins of a considerable number of species of the larger Mammals are required for mounting in the exhibition galleries, either to replace indifferent specimens now exhibited, or as representatives of forms at present not shown at all. Such are indicated by a cross (T) in the list. In addition to this (and more especially in view of the approaching partial, if not complete, extermination of many species), it is of the highest importance that the Museum should acquire a series of skins of all the larger species of Mammals as a study-collection, and also a duplicate set for future mounting, thus making three sets in all. Skins of all species, whether rare or common, will therefore be acceptable, and no specimens if properly labelled, can fail to be of present or future use. Some of those more urgently needed for the store and study series are introduced into the list below, being 12 HINTS ON REMOVING AND distinguished from those required for present mounting by the absence of a cross. But the omission of any species from this list must not be considered to signify that specimens of it are not wanted, FOR AT PRESENT PROPERLY LABELLED SKINS OF ALL SPECIES, EVEN THE COMMONEST, ARE MOST ACCEPTABLE FOR PURPOSES OF STUDY. AFRICA AND ARABIA. Gelada Baboon (7heropithecus gelada). Abyssinia. + Brown Hyena (Hyena fusca). + Caracal (Felis caracal). 7+ Abyssinian Wolf (Canis simensis). Long-eared Fox (Otocyon megalotis). Africa. 7 Fennec (Vulpes chama). 8. Africa. North African Bear (Ursus crowthert). Morocco. African Elephant (Hlephas africanus). Okapi (Okapia johnston). Eastern Congo Forest. Senegambian Buffalo (Bos planiceros). Gambia. Abyssinian Buffalo (Bos occidentalis). Abyssinia. Western Hartebeest (Bubalis major). Gambia, ete. Bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus). Blesbok (Damaliscus albifrons). + Brindled Gnu (Connochates taurinus). White-tailed Gnu (Connochates gnu). Waterbuck (Cobus ellipsiprymnus). Mrs. Gray’s Waterbuck (Cobus maria). White Nile. White-eyed Cob (Cobus leucotis). White Nile. + Mountain-Reedbuck (Cervicapra fulvorufula). Vaal Rhebok (Pelea capreolus). Grysbuck (Raphiceros melanotis). Steinbuck (Raphiceros campestris). =i a ie ee =f +b =r f i PREPARING SKINS OF MAMMALS. 13 Scimitar-Oryx (Oryx algazel). N.W. Africa. Beatrix Oryx (Oryx leucoryx). Arabia. Gemsbuck (Oryx gazella). S. Africa. Fringe-eared Beisa (Oryx callotis), HE. Africa, Swift Gazelle (Gazella mohr). Morocco. Dama Gazelle (Gazella duma). Senegambia. Derbian Eland (7'aurotragus derbianus). Senegambia. Sudan Eland (Zawrotragus gigas). Bahr-el-Ghazal. Situtunga (Zragelaphus spekei). HH. Central Africa. Bongo (Béocercus euryceros). W. Africa. Kudu (Strepsiceros kudu). Sable Antelope (Hippotragus niger). Roan Antelope (Hippotragus equinus). Water-Chevrotain (Dorcatherium aquaticum). Aard-Vark (Orycteropus afer). ASIA, Slaty Snub-nosed Monkey (2hinopithecus bieti). Mekong Valley. Binturong (Arctictis binturong). Eastern Himalaya and Malaysia. Caracal (felis caracal). India and Persia. Persian Leopard (felis pardus panthera). Persia, ete. Javan Rhinoceros (/hinoceros sondaicus). Bengal and Malaysia. Indian Rhinoceros (/hinoceros unicornis). Assam. Shou (Cervus affinis). District north of Bhutan. Swamp-Deer (Cervus duvauceli). India. Schomburgk’s Deer (Cervus schomburgkt). Siam. + Luzon Sambar (Cervus philippinus). Luzon. ~ Philippine Spotted Deer (Cervus alfredi). Philippines. Altai Wapiti (Cervus eustephanus). Altai. Manchurian Wapiti (Cervus xanthopygus). Manchuria. AS) 14

; 3 / tree, Aaa, * Fic. 4.—A portion of the body-cavity of a Fic. 5.—A portion of the body-cavity of a bird exposed to show the position of the bird exposed to show the position of the male sexual organs. s.7, suprarenals, or female sexual organs. /g. lung; k. kidney ; adrenals; ¢. testes; k. kidney ; vd. vas ory. Ovary ; ov.d. oviduct. deferens, or sperm-duct ; int. intestine. sometimes extremely small. If the ovary has been destroyed by shot, or is, as often happens, but slightly developed, look carefully on the left side of the body for a long and more or less coiled tube (the oviduct), one end of which—that towards the head—is free, the other joined on to the intestine, quite close to where it leaves the body (fig. 5, ovd.). A vestige of a similar small tube will be found in the 9 oA. HOW TO DETERMINE THE SEX OF A BIRD. corresponding position of the opposite side, but this is very short. Reference to the figures should make this quite clear. As it is often of the greatest importance to determine the sex, and there may be still some uncertainty after the above directions have been followed, place the body in a dish of salt and water—salt is advisable, but not absolutely necessary—-hold it down on one side, and look into the cavity through the cut; the oviduct will probably now float up quite separate from the intestines. In the male there can generally be traced, from the testes back- wards to the end of the gut, a pair of neatly and closely coiled tubes on either side of the body, of a glistening white colour (fig. 4, vd.). These, in the absence of distinct testes, will serve to identify the sex as certainly as the presence of an oviduct in the female. Unless the sexual organs can be recognized without any doubt, it is better not to mark the sex on the label. If, however, it has been certainly determined, write it down at once. is the sign for male, and 2 for female. INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES. I.—REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS. Repriies should be preserved in spirit whenever practicable. Spirit.—The collector should provide himself with the best and strongest alcohol procurable. This can be afterwards diluted with water or with weaker spirit, until it is reduced to the degree of strength required in each case. As the collector would often have difficulty in obtaining spirit while travelling, he is advised to take a sufficient supply with him. Methylated spirit may be recom- mended on account of its greater cheapness ; but specimens do not keep nearly so well in this lquid, and it should not be used for the preservation of particularly valuable specimens, or such as are intended to be used afterwards for anatomical investigation. In default of spirit the collector may use arrack, brandy, rum, or any other spirituous liquid which he can procure, provided it possesses the requisite strength. Any spirit which takes fire immediately on the apphleation of a light, without having been previously warmed, is strong enough to be used for the preservation of animals. The following is a simple method of diluting alcohol to any desired percent. <— Of alcohol of known per cent. take the number of cubic centimetres represented by the figures in the required per cent., add enough water to bring the whole up to the number of cubic centimetres represented by the figures in the known per cent. The mixture will be of the required per cent. ‘To illustrate: To make 50 % alcohol from 95 % alcohol, add to 50 «ec. of 95 % 35 36 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING alcohol enough water to make 95 ¢.c. The result will be 95 ce. of 50% alcohol. To make 40 % alcohol from 70% alcohol, add to 40 cc. of 70% alcohol enough water to make 70 ¢.c. The result will be 70 ¢.c. of 40 % alcohol. If one of these illustrations is firmly fixed in the mind, one can, working by analogy, make up very quickly alcohol of any desired per cent. without laborious calculation or reference to tables. Larger or smaller quantities than those indicated in the illustrations can be made by using different units of measurement, or by multi- plying or dividing those quantities by the proper number. However, the collector is recommended to provide himself with one or two of those simple instruments, hydrometers or alcoholo- meters, with which chemists and distillers test the strength of spirit. By this means it is easy to ascertain whether the spirit is fit for use. Spirit in which specimens are finally packed for transmission should be 15° or 20° above proof. It is sometimes found advisable to mix some emetic, crushed colocynths or other disagreeable ingredient, with the spirit, in order to deter pilferers from appropriating it. A collector who resides in a locality for some time would find a small distilling-apparatus extremely useful, with which he could redistil his supply of weak or foul spirit, or the bad liquor sold to him as rum, and thus bring it to the proper strength. Cases and Vessels—The most useful are four-sided zine boxes, 18 inches high and 12 inches by 6 broad. On the upper surface they should have a round opening of 4 inches diameter, which is closed with a screw cover: to fit tightly, a ring of rubber or leather is fastened round its margin. Each of these zinc boxes should be placed in a closely fitting wooden case, with a lid secured by hinges and a bolt, and furnished on two opposite sides with a handle of leather or rope. The traveller will require from two to four of these cases, using them for the reception, and first immersion in spirits, of specimens obtained from day to day. The specimens should be kept in them for some time, and repeatedly examined until the case is full, or the REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES. 37 specimens are ready to be finally packed. The spirit, which gets weaker with every specimen immersed in it, has to be renewed occasionally. These cases are very convenient and practical; but they can be replaced by simpler arrangements, such as common earthenware jars closed with cork or rubber. ‘The conditions which any such vessels ought to fulfil are: (1) that they are spacious; (2) that they have a wide opening; and (3) that they can be closed tightly so that the spirit cannot evaporate, but yet that they can easily be opened at any moment. Specimens which are to remain permanently packed or to be sent home should be placed in zine cases, of varying sizes, with closely fitting wooden outer covers. But these cases must not be made too large, because the specimens might suffer if the pressure of the contents was too great, and because the risk of damage to the cases themselves increases in proportion to their size. Such a case ought not to have a greater internal capacity than 18 cubit feet at the utmost ; and when the specimens require the length of the case to be increased, the depth or breadth must be reduced in proportion. The traveller may take a certain number of cases ready made with him, packing them with articles needful for the journey ; or, to save space, he may take only zine plates cut to the proper size, which he can put together when required: the wooden outside boxes may be obtained almost anywhere. But under all circumstances he must provide himself with a soldering-apparatus, after having learnt its use. A pair of shears for cutting the zinc is also useful. Wooden casks are unsuitable, especially in hot countries, for the transport of specimens in spirit. They should not be employed, except in cases of necessity, or for packing large or salted specimens. Very small specimens, or those which are specially liable to be damaged, must not be packed with larger ones, but must be kept separately in small bottles or jars. In closing these, sealing-wax should never be used, as spirit readily dissolves it. Method of preserving.—All reptiles—except large Turtles, Crocodiles and Alligators above 4 feet long, and Snakes above 10 feet long— are suitable for preserving in spirit. A deep incision should be made in the region of the stomach, and a second at some distance 38 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING before the vent, so that a portion of the contents of the stomach and intestine, which might conduce to putrefaction, is emptied out, and the spirit is allowed free access to all internal parts. The specimens are then placed in one of the preparatory vessels or boxes described above. In a few days (or in hot climates after not more than one or two days) the specimens must be removed to a second vessel containing stronger spirit, and must remain there from eight to fourteen days. If they then appear to be sound and well preserved, they may be left in the same spirit till the time comes for finally packing them; but if they are soft and flabby, and discharge mucous matter discoloured with blood, they must be placed for a longer or shorter time in fresh spirit at least 10° above proof. Specimens which show distinct signs of putrefaction must be thrown away, as they endanger the whole contents of the box. Similarly, specimens which are already decomposing when obtained must not be taken for preserving unless disinfected by a solution of chloride of soda (a tablespoonful of the solution in one pint of water) poured into the mouth and injected in the stomach. Of course the spirit which is used in this preliminary process becomes weaker and weaker. So long as it is 15° under proof (or 10° in hot climates) it can still be used for the first stage of preservation. If it sinks below this strength, it is of no further use to a collector who has not the means of redistilling, unless he filters it through powdered charcoal, and then brings it up again to the needfal strength by the addition of very strong alcohol. Sediments on the bottom of the vessel or contaminated and badly smelling spirits are better thrown away. As soon as the collector has accumulated a sufficient quantity of well-preserved specimens, they should be sent home at the earliest opportunity. For transport home they must be wrapped separately in old unstained linen or paper, and packed as tightly as possible. No empty space shouid be left in the cases above or at the sides, so that the contents may receive no injury from the unavoidable shaking during transit. When the case is full, the cover is soldered down, after ¢ hole of about half an inch in diameter has been made. ‘The case is then filled through the hole with spirit 20° above proof, and care must be taken that all the air is driven out by the liquid; when REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES. 39 this is ascertained, a small square piece of zinc is soldered over the hole. In order to make quite sure that the case is securely closed it is turned upside-down, and left thus for the night, when it soon becomes manifest if any leak exists. PRESERVATION OF VERY LARGE REPTILES. 1. Tortoises and Turtles——It is no easy matter to kill a large Tortoise or Turtle which is to be prepared for a collection. The traveller will perhaps consider whether it may not be possible to bring the animal to Europe alive, as it can live for ten or twelve months without food in some corner of the ship. If this is im- practicable, a long knife should be thrust into the base of the neck in the direction of the heart, in order to sever some of the large blood-vessels. Both the skeleton and the skin of the same in- dividual may be preserved; but if one or the other has to be sacrificed, it 1s of more importance to preserve the former. First the abdominal shield must be removed by sawing through the narrow isthmus on each side, and then carefully loosening with a knife the skin which is attached to the bone in front and behind. A straight cut is made along the middle of the skin from the chin backwards; and after the skin has been turned aside to the right and left, it 1s easy to remove all the soft parts, as well as the greater part of the muscles of the neck, extremities, shoulder-blades, and pelvis. The head is the only part which is troublesome, as, in removing the soft parts, skin and bones may be easily injured. If the skin is to be preserved, as well as the carapace and the bones, the whole of the inner surface must be painted with arsenical soap. Finally, all the parts are bent back into the hollow of the carapace, and allowed to dry in that position. When they are dry, the plastron is restored to its natural position, and is retained there by tying a string round the carapace. This method may also be adopted in the case of small Tortoises, if the traveller has to be very economical, with his supply of spirit ; otherwise small Chelonians can be placed bodily into spirits. 2. Crocodiles and Lnzards.—In the case of large Crocodiles and Alligators, it is impossible to preserve both the skin and the skeleton 40 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING of the same individual. To prepare the skin, 1t must be cut through along the middle of the under side from the chin to the end of the tail. Care must be taken not to damage the skull, so that this part at least may be saved, in case the skin should happen to be spoiled. The inside of the skin should be brushed over several times with a strong solution of alum, to which a few grains of corrosive sublimate have been added. It is rather strange that perfect skeletons of large Crocodiles and Alligators are somewhat uncommon in collections. The Gavials of India and of the larger islands of the Kastern Archipelago (Sumatra or Borneo, for example), and also the narrow-snouted Crocodiles of North Australia, are particularly valuable to paleontologists and zoologists. The collector should endeavour to procure skulls and skeletons of these reptiles of different ages. In preparing such a specimen for a skeleton, the bulk of the flesh is cut off the bones, and the bones themselves are left in their natural connection. The body is then divided into several portions of a convenient size for packing. These reptiles possess ‘‘abdominal ribs,’ which are unconnected with the rest of the skeleton and inserted in the muscles of the abdomen. In order to preserve them in their entirety, the skin of the abdomen, with the muscular layer attached to it, is cut away in toto and dried, to be macerated at home. In the case of the South American Alligators the collector should endeavour to preserve the external dorsal and ventral plates of each specimen in their natural connection, as the correct determination of the species cannot be otherwise secured. 3. Snakes of a greater length than 10 feet cannot be preserved in spirit; and Pythons and Boas, which have a comparatively large girth, are unsuitable for this mode of preservation if they approach the size mentioned. They must therefore be skinned, but not in the manner frequently adopted, by making a short cut behind the head and then skinning the aninral like an eel, as thus the scales are too much injured. ‘The animal should be split open along the whole median line of the belly and tail with a pair of strong scissors, and the skin be removed with a knife from the line of the cut towards the back. A skin thus prepared does not occupy much space, and, REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES. A] if circumstances permit, is better preserved in spirit than dry. Of course the head requires then no further preparation. Large Pythons and Boas are so frequently brought to Europe alive that most museums have opportunities of obtaining good skeletons ; and therefore it is not worth while for a traveller to preserve them, unless they are of a size to verify reports in which Pythons exceeding 25 feet and Anacondas of over 30 feet are mentioned, The attention of the traveller may be called to a few other points. The determination of the large River-turtles (Zrionya) which inhabit the fresh waters of Asia and Africa is a matter of con- siderable difficulty and uncertainty, which cannot be dispelled except by collecting afresh large numbers of all the species without ex- ception. The traveller should try to cbtain as many specimens as possible of all ages, with their exact localities, and always with the skulls. It would also be particularly interesting to receive specimens taken tn copuld. Collecting Sea-turtles seems little likely to lead to important results. However, very large specimens of the Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys), and more especially its skeleton, are much sought for by museums. It would also be important to obtain embryos in the shell in different stages of development.* Comparatively little is known at present of the habits and mode of reproduction of Lizards ; and when the traveller has an opportunity of observing any of these animals for some time, he should note down everything which appears to him remarkable. Of Snakes it is urgently recommended that the small and obscurely coloured species should be searched for. Many of these live habitually underground, or are nocturnal animals which can only be obtained by digging up the soil or by searching for them among decaying substances. The Sea-snakes are very numerous in species and varieties, and should receive special attention. The collector should obtain all the specimens he can (except the common Platurus and Hydrus); but he must be careful to note the exact locality, * Embryos of all species which are enclosed in egg-shells should be preserved in the strongest spirit, after several holes have been pierced in the shell, in order to empty it of the fluid portion of its contents, 42, INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING respectively the latitude and longitude, where each specimen was obtained. Some of the Sea-snakes found to the north of Australia attain to a considerable size, and it is desirable that the traveller should preserve even the largest in spirit. Such specimens require to be immersed for a comparatively long time in strong spirit, which should also be changed several times. Many Snakes are adorned with very bright and variegated colours during life, which disappear after death. If the traveller is a draughtsman, and can spare time, he should make a sketch of the Snake, and indicate the colours which it presented during life, so far that a complete drawing of the species can afterwards be made with the assistance of the sketch. BATRACHIANS. The majority of Frogs and Salamanders and their larve are covered with a very soft skin; they should be placed in weaker spirit than reptiles, in order to prevent the shrinkage of those parts which are particularly soft. Although spirit of 10° under proof may be used for the first few days, it is necessary to examine the specimens every day, as the intestinal canal frequently contains much food and water. The spirit must be changed three times at least, and often still more fiequently, and finally replaced by spirit 5° or 10° above proof. There are many remarkable facts connected with the reproduction and sexual relations in this class of animals. If the traveller has an opportunity of observing examples of one or more species during the breeding-season, he should, if possible, obtain eggs, watch their development, and collect larvee in different stages of growth. Larvee correctly identified as to species are most valuable for the study of these animals, while those of whose origin nothing is known are almost always worthless. TT, FISHES. The treatment of fishes which are intended for preservation in spirit is very similar to that of reptiles and batrachians. The same kinds of spirit and cases may be used; but it is advisable to REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES. AS keep fishes, batrachians, and reptiles separate, at least during the preliminary stages of conservation. It must always be remembered that fishes contain much more water than reptiles, and consequently the spirit employed becomes diluted much more rapidly and requires to be changed more frequently. In the case of comparatively large (2 feet long) and very fleshy fishes, the spirit penetrates very slowly into the interior; and although the specimens may appear to be in the best condition externally, the inner layers of muscle above and around the vertebal column may be decomposing. It is there- fore necessary to make several deep incisions in the muscular part of the back and tail in addition to those made along the abdomen. Fishes which are loaded with fat, either in the muscles or liver or abdominial cavity, should be placed by themselves in very strong spirit until the greater portion of fat is extracted ; to accelerate this process, the liver should be deeply incised and the masses of fat in the abdominal cavity removed. Before being placed in spirit, the fish should be washed in water to 1emove as much as possible of the slime with which it is usually coated. Fishes which have lost their scales should not be kept ; such as lose them easily, like the Clupeide, should be wrapped in a piece*of paper or linen before they are put in spirit. It occasionally happens in hot climates that, from some cause, the collector cannot succeed in preserving his specimens from decomposi- tion even with the strongest spirit. In such cases it is advisable to add some arsenic or corrosive sublimate to the spirit ; but the traveller should inform his correspondents that he has adopted this mode of preserving. If the colour of the flesh is remarkable, the traveller is recom- mended to take a coloured sketch before skinning it. It is generally important that coloured drawings made from life should accompany a collection ; drawings the originals of which have not been preserved at the time have only a subordinate value. Dried skins of fish admit only of a superficial and incomplete examination, and are easily damaged. This mode of preservation, therefore, should only be adopted when it is impossible to obtain a sufficient supply of spirit and cases, or when there are no facilities for transporting heavy boxes, 4A, INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING The traveller is urgently recommended to collect the largest specimens of a species which he can procure. If they are too large for preservation in spirit, they must be prepared as skins. Scaly fishes are skinned thus :—With a strong pair of scissors an incision is made along the median line of the abdomen from the foremost part of the throat, passing on one side of the base of the ventral and anal fins, to the root of the caudal fin, the cut being continued upwards to the back of the tail close to the base of the caudal. The skin of one side of the fish is then severed with a scalpel from the under- lying muscles to the median line of the back; the bones which support the dorsal and caudal fins are cut through, so that these parts remain attached to the skin. The removal of the skin of the opposite side is easy enough. More difficult is the preparation of the head and scapulary region; the two halves of the scapular arch, which have been severed from each other by the first incision, are pressed towards the right and left, and the spine is severed behind the head, so that now only the head and shoulder-bones remain attached to the skin. These parts have to be cleaned from the inside, all soft parts, the branchial and hyoid apparatus, and all smaller bones being cut away with the scissors or scraped off with the knife. In many fishes which are provided with a characteristic dental apparatus in the pharynx (Labroids, Cyprinoids), the pharyngeal bones ought to be preserved and tied with a thread to the specimen. The skin being now prepared so far, its entire inner surface, as well as the inner side of the head, is rubbed with arsenical soap; cotton- wool or some other soft material is inserted into any cavities or hollows; and, finally, a thin layer of the same material is placed between the two flaps of the skin. The specimen is then dried under a slight weight to keep it from shrinking. The scales of some fishes—as, for instance, of many kinds of Herrings—are so delicate and deciduous that the mere handling causes them to rub off easily. Such fishes may be covered with thin paper (tissue-paper is the best), which is allowed to dry on them before skinning. There is no need for removing the paper before the specimen has reached its destination. Large scaleless bony fishes, such as the Siluroids and also the Sturgeons, are skinned in the same way; but as their scaleless skin REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES. 45 can be rolled up, they can be packed in spirit, which saves the traveller the trouble of cleaning the head. Skeletons of large bony fishes are quite as valuable as the skins. In order to prepare a skeleton, it is only necessary to remove the soft parts of the body-cavity and the larger mas-es of muscle, leaving the bones in their natural continuity. ‘The rest of the flesh is left to dry on the bones, as it can be removed afterwards by maceration at home. As the bones which support the ventral fins are not attached to the skeleton, but lie between the muscles, care must be taken that they are not lost or damaged. All the fins are preserved as in the preparation of a skin; and, in the cases of scaly fishes, so much of the skin should be preserved as is required to identify the species, as without this it is generally impossible to do more than determine the genus. For morphological investigations a skeleton which is thus simply dried is not sufficient. For this purpose the skeleton, or at least the head, must be preserved in strong spirit after removal of the large masses of muscle. Some Sharks attain a length of 30 feet, and some Rays a width of 20 feet; and, according to very reliable reports, they may even exceed these limits. It is extremely desirable to obtain such gigantic specimens for museums. Sharks are skinned in nearly the same manner as bony fishes. In Rays it is not sufficient to make only one longitudinal incision from the tip of the snout to the end of the fleshy part of the tail, but a second transverse cut has to be - made across the broadest part of the lower surface of the body. Besides this, other incisions which are necessary for removing the soft parts can be made on the under surface of the fish, and the collector need not be over-particular in this respect. After the removal of the soft parts, the skin is put into a barrel filled with concentrated brine, to which some alum has been added. The head, to which still many soft parts are attached, should be kept at the upper end of the barrel, so that it can be kept constantly under observation. When the liquid is perceptibly diluted by the extrac- tion of water and blood, it must be renewed in toto. Finally, the skin is removed from the barrel, spread out, and the fluid allowed to drain off ; its whole inner surface is covered with a thin layer of dry salt; it is rolled up (this time with the head inside), and packed L 4.6 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING tightly in a barrel with a layer of salt at the bottom, all the interstices being filled up with salt. The barrel itself must be water-tight. Specimens too large for being packed in barrels should receive a thorough dressing of salt and alum, after removal of the whole of the cranium with all the soft parts adhering to it; they ean then be dried and folded into a package of manageable size. In the case of all specimens which are preserved dried or salted, the various dimensions of the animal must be carefully noted, and a sketch of the head should be made, to enable the taxidermist to mount the specimen with its proper proportions. None of the marine fishes are more interesting than those which live habitually in the open sea and only rarely approach the coasts (pelagic fishes), and those which are adapted to living at great depths and never come to the surface (deep-sea fishes). 'The latter can only be obtained with the aid of a ship specially fitted out for exploring the fauna of the deep sea. Collectors who are restricted to their own and limited resources can hardly do more than dredge or trawl in depths of from 100 to 200 fathoms. However, two other modes of collecting deep-sea fishes may be recommended. One of them is in actual use by the fishermen of the Portuguese coasts and of Madeira, who employ a strong line (long-line, spiller, trot), some- times as much as 800 fathoms long, with a weight at one end, and supporting-hooks of various sizes on thinner short lines (snoods), which are fastened to the main line at regular distances of 1 or 2 fathoms; in fact, a long line such as is used in cod-fishing. The second method would be to sink baskets constructed of withes or galvanized zine, like lobster-pots,* and to examine them after twelve or twenty-four hours. The majority of deep-sea fishes are so fragile that their preservation requires special care; they should be wrapped in linen, and kept singly, or only a few specimens together, in a separate jar. A long cut should be made in the abdominal cavity, and strong spirits of wine (from 20° to 30° above proof) should be used to ensure the preservation of the internal organs. * These baskets are dome-shaped with flat bottoms, of from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, and with an opening 6 inches in diameter sloping inwards from the top. The bait is fixed opposite to, and somewhat sideways of, the opening. REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES. AT No opportunity should be lost to obtain pelagic forms, especially the young larva-like stages of development abounding on the surface of the open ocean. They can be obtained without difficulty by means of a small narrow-meshed net dragged behind the ship. ‘The sac of the net is about 3 feet deep, and fastened to a strong brass ring 2 or 23 feet in diameter. The net is suspended by three lines pass- ing into the strong main line. It can only be used when the vessel moves very slowly, the speed not exceeding 3 knots an hour, or when a current passes the ship whilst at anchor. To keep the ring of the net in a vertical position, it must be weighted at one point of its circumference ; and by using heavier weights two or three drag-nets can be used simultaneously at different depths. This kind of fishing should be tried at night as well as in the daytime, as many fishes come to the surface only after sunset. The net must not be left long in the water, from five to twenty minutes only, as delicate objects are sure to be destroyed by the force of the water passing through the meshes. By the examination of the contents of the stomachs of large fishes (Tunnies, Dolphins, etc.) caught in the open sea, rare forms can be discovered. Objects found floating on the open sea, such as pieces of wood, baskets, larger or smaller masses of weed, etc., deserve the collector’s attention, as small fishes and marine creatures of all kinds generally swarm round them. Shallow banks situated at a consider- able distance from land are likely to yield a valuable store of fishes of all kinds, which may be obtained either with hook and line or with the above-described fish-baskets. The latitude and longitude should be carefully noted in the case of all specimens obtained in the open sea. It may be useful to conclude these instructions with drawing the attention of the traveller to a few points on which information is particularly desired. Important information may be gathered relating to fishes which either are actually used as food (fresh or for exportation) or which may become an important article of trade. The following fishes, there- fore, deserve special attention: the Sturgeons, the species of Gadus, the Thyrsites, the Chilodactylus of the Southern Seas, the Tunnies and Sword-fishes of the Indo-Pacific, the Salmonids, the Clupeids, ete, AS INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING On the other hand, it is well known that the flesh of various sea- fishes possesses poisonous properties, either constantly or at certain seasons or in certain localities. Observations should be made on the causes of these properties, on the nature of the poison, and its operation on other animals. Other fishes, the flesh of which is quite harmless or even well flavoured, are armed with special poison-organs, It would be very desirable to investigate this poison in fresh fishes, and to experiment with it as to its effect on other fishes. All observations relative to sex and propagation are of interest ; observations on secondary sexual differences, hermaphroditism (whether normal or abnormal), the numerical relation of the sexes (whether monogamous or polygamous), spawning, and migrations ; nest-building, care for the young, ete. The ova of pelagic fishes, | many with peculiar appendages on the outer integument, are frequently met with floating on the open sea, sometimes singly and sometimes in clusters. Every opportunity of observing their develop- ment, and of tracing the stages of growth of the young fishes, should be taken advantage of. As long as a species of fish is allowed to exist in a district without molestation, it attains to a much greater size than subsequently, when it is diligently sought after, and when none of the individuals are allowed to reach their full growth. On this ground alone it is desirable to collect the largest individuals; but if the traveller is unable to preserve them, he should at least record their length and weight. In hot countries, where the streams and ponds are liable to dry up, many fishes are compelled to temporarily breathe air, or travel considerable distances overland, or fall into a state of torpidity. Observations on such habits, which are verified by the traveller himself, are of incomparably greater value than what he learns by hearsay from the natives. It would also be interesting to know whether the fishes of the Arctic and Antarctic zones are able to maintain life when enclosed in ice, and, if so, for how long. Many pelagic fishes are provided with smooth white or pearly organs imbedded in the skin, which are small and round on the body of the fish, but larger and of various shapes on the head, especially REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, AND FISHES. AD near the eyes, where they are sometimes of a pinkish or greenish colour. These are the so-called phosphorescent organs; and although their luminous properties are now generally admitted, it is desirable to obtain corroborative evidence as to their function from the living fishes, with special reference to the question whether the luminosity is subject to the will of the fish. LABELLING OF SPECIMENS. It is most important that every specimen should bear an indication of the place, date, and circumstances under which it was collected, as well as the native name, if it can be ascertained. This is best done by keeping a notebook or diary, in which the entries are made, each entry bearing a number corresponding to a label attached to the specimen. Threaded parchment labels, a quarter of a square inch in size, are most suitable for the purpose, the numbers being inscribed beforehand in ink, which, when allowed to dry well, will not run when immersed in the spirit. Pencil-marks are lable to become illegible through rubbing off. In the case of fishes a second label may be inserted under the left gill-cover, as a precaution in case the threaded label should become detached and lost, INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING INSECTS. In the following instructions the orders of insects are generally referred to by their scientific names ; viz.— HYMENOPTERA. Saw-flies, Gall-flies, Ichneumons, Ants, Wasps, Bees. Diprera. Gnats, Daddy-long-legs, Horse-flies, House-flies, and other two-winged flies. LeprpopTerA. Butterflies and Moths. TRICHOPTERA. Caddis-flies. Nevuroprera. Termites (White Ants), Stone-flies, Ant-lions, Lace- wings, May-flies, Dragon-flies. OrtHopTeRA. Earwigs, Cockroaches, Mantids, Phasmas (Stick- insects), Crickets, Locusts, Grasshoppers. CoLEoPTERA. Beetles. Hemiprera. Bugs. Homoprrra. Cicadas, Lantern-flies, Froth-flies, Aphides, Scale- insects. AprerA, Spring-tails, Fish-insects, Fire-brats. CoLLECTING MATERIAL AND APPARATUS. Nets, pill-boxes, glass tubes, cyanide killing-bottle, collecting-tin, collecting-bottle, strong knife or digger, lantern. 50 INSTRUCTIONS FOR GOLLECTING INSECTS. 51 Pins, corked boxes, forceps (curved and fine), brushes, gum, card, reund punch, pocket-lens, fine-pointed scissors. Naphthaline in flakes, carbolic acid, chloroform, spirit. Nets of at least two kinds are necessary for general collecting : an umbrella-net for beating, sweeping, etc.; and a cane-net for catching insects on the wing. It is, however, desirable to have a large kite-net for catching butterflies, and a strong iron ring-net for water insects. Pill-boxes of all sorts are useful, and common chip-boxes are very handy ; but it is especially desirable to have as many glass-bottom boxes as practicable.* Cyanide Killing-bottle.—This should be a wide-mouthed bottle. At * These boxes can be obtained from Messrs. Crockett, 7A, Princes Street, Cavendish Square, London, W., or Messrs. Watkins & Doncaster, 36, Strand, London, W.C,; but care should be taken to see that the bdottoms—and not the tops, as is often the case—are made of glass. Since the boxes are constructed of cardboard, they are liable in tropical countries to go to pieces in the rains; and to prevent this they should be covered with jaconet in the following manner, the important point to remember being that the jaconet must be cut in strips on the cross :—Obtain, say, a square yard of the material, and fold it into a triangle by bringing two opposite corners together. Consider how wide the strips must be, according to the varying depths of the boxes to be covered, and rule them off in pencil by drawing lines parallel to the base of the triangle. Cut up the strips, or if possible get them cut by a book- binder’s machine. Paint the box over with liquid glue, and wrap the jaconet round it: it is particularly important that the edges of the glass and lid should be well protected ; and it will be found that by gently pulling the jaconet it will wrap itself round these without difficulty. When quite dry, say the following day, the box should be given a coat of Aspinall’s enamel, or of paint, a second (and if necessary a third) coat of paint being added after the first is dry. Any paint or glue on the glass can be removed with a penknife; if the jaconet protrudes too far over the glass, cut it round with a penknife and remove it. (Glass-bottomed boxes already protected in this manner can be obtained from Miss EK. M. Bowdler Sharpe, 4, Barrowgate Road, Chiswick, London, W.) A simpler method of protecting the boxes is to coat them (especially the joints) with shellas dissolved in absolute alcohol. Glass-bottomed boxes of this kind constructed of tin aresometimes sold ; but since when in use in warm climates they are apt to become very hot, with the result that insects contained in them are killed and become dry pre- maturely, those covered with jaconet are preferable. 59 INSTRUCTIONS FOR the bottom put about 1 ounce of fused cyanide of potassium broken into small fragments, then enough dry plaster of Paris nearly to cover it (filling in the interspaces), and on to the top of this pour some plaster mixed with water to the consistency of thick cream, to make about j-inch thickness over the cyanide. As some heat is generated during this process, it is well to stand cyayipe kinuixc- the bottle in warm water to prevent it cracking. eg Besides this portable bottle it is well to have a larger jar, similarly made, for killing specimens when taken home.* Collecting -tin.—This is very useful for some pur- poses. It has a false bottom of perforated zine. In the space at the bottom is placed some blotting- paper, with a few drops of chloroform or pure benzole. The insects are put into the upper part ; i and to prevent them rolling about, it 1s well to put coutecina-1in, | some crumpled pieces of blotting-paper in first. * Tf it is intended to take cyanide to a damp tropical climate, it should be conveyed in the form of dwmps, in a bottle with a tightly fitting glass stopper. Cyanide of potassium is also sold in rods, and, in this form, might be con- veniently carried in short lengths in hermetically sealed tubes of glass, of diameter and length just sufficient to take the section of cyanide rod. These should be properly labelled, and marked “ Poison.” Cyanide killing-bottles can be procured ready for use from Hinton & Co., Bedford Street, London, W.C., or any other chemist will prepare one to order. The exact amount of cyanide of potassium to be used is of no great conse- quence; but in the case of a properly prepared jar the odour should be readily perceptible on removing the lid: if it is not, the reason may be that the mixture is too dry, when a little water poured on to the top layer will pro- bably set matters right. After some months’ use the cyanide loses its efficacy (to obviate this so far as possible the jar should never be allowed to remain open), and the mixture must then be renewed. A vough-and-ready method of making a killing-jar or bottle is to cover the bottom with a layer of powdered cyanide, and to place above this a number of layers of blotting-paper. The layers of blotting-paper immediately in contact with the cyanide must be slightly damped ; but only sufficient water should be used to cause the cyanide to give off its odour. The top layer of blotting- paper must on no account be wet, and the less water used the better. COLLECTING INSEC'TS. 538 Zinc Collecting-box.—Boxes made of zine and lined with cork are to be had from Natural History agents. The cork should be well moistened with water, and then four or five drops of strong carbolic acid added. Specimens can be kept in a relaxed state for a con- siderable time in a properly prepared box. Collecting-bottle—This is a bottle specially made for entomologists. It is compressed, so that it may be carried conveniently in the pocket. It has a glass tube or large quill passed through the cork, fitted with a plug. It is very useful for collecting small Coleoptera, etc. A piece of crumpled muslin should be placed in it for the insects to cling to. The cork should be covered with sealing-wax on the inside to prevent insects burrowing into it. Trowel and Digger.—One or both of these are necessary for digging in the ground, for ripping off bark of trees gs ’ Fo) ’ ete. A narrow fern-trowel answers best. Forceps. —Entomological forceps are made with curved points for taking hold of pins: straight, fine pointed forceps for setting are very necessary ; they should have very little spring, and are best made of brass. (Messrs. Janson, 44, Great Russell Street, W.C., or G. Buck, 242, Tottenham y) Court Road, London, W.) FORCEPS, Pins.—The entomological pins in use in the Museum are Nos. 11, 16, 22, all of uniform length (D. F. Tayler & Co., New Hall Works, Birmingham, but can be obtained from Entomological Agents at ls. per ounce). No. 11 isa thick pin for large specimens ; No. 16, a little thinner, is in general use; but No. 22, a trifle thinner, is more suitable for Coleoptera of medium size. There is a finer pin, 5A INSTRUCTIONS FOR No. 23, used for the smaller species, but, as a rule, speciméns which are small enough to require this size are better pinned with a short pin, and then staged. No, 20, a short, very fine pin for small flies, gnats, etc. Nos. LO and 5 are degrees stouter. An ounce of No. 20 pins (7s. 6d. per ounce) contains about 3,750 pins, but these short pins can be obtained in quarter-ounce boxes. An ounce of No. 16 contains 320 pins. Gum.—For gumming small insects on card some entomologists use gum-tragacanth, as it is not conspicuous; but it has the great disadvantage of being very difficult to wash off. Gum-arabic, with a very small quantity of powdered loaf-sugar and one or two drops of glycerine, is perhaps the best mixture. If pure gum-arabic is used, the insects are liable to spring off. The sugar and glycerine prevent this; but the latter must be used very sparingly, as it has a tendency to attract moisture, which is one of the entomologist’s greatest foes. For some purposes, Le Page’s liquid glue (Russia Cement Co.) is invaluable. Some entomologists use McCaw’s seccotine, a very similar preparation, which has the advantage of being sold in metal tubes, so that it is portable. Card.—A hard white card or three- or four-sheet Bristol board should be used. Round Punch.—This should have a diameter of about ? inch for cutting out circles of card the use of which is explained further on. A 20-bore gunwad-punch answers well. Larva-preserving Apparatus.—This consists of spirit-lamp, small oven, and inflator, Instead of an oven a piece of copper gauze placed over the flame of the spirit-lamp answers very well. The whole apparatus can be obtained from entomological agents. COLLECTING. Besides those which may be canght on the wing with a butterfly- net, insects should be looked for on flowers, under bark of trees, im COLLECTING INSECTS. 55 rotten wood, in decaying animal and vegetable matter, under stones, under fallen leaves (where there is moisture), at the roots of grass and trees, in ants’ nests, in ponds and streams. When circumstances permit, and small insects are being sought for in dead leaves, etc., the leaves should be sifted over a sheet of paper. If the insects appear numerous, the siftings should be put into a holland bag, and examined at home. Many small insects which would be overlooked out of doors may be found in this way. Many insects are obtained by sweeping herbage with a net; others by beating trees while a large net or umbrella is held beneath. Ground-beetles may often be caught by putting a piece of meat or bone in a pickle-bottle, and burying it so that the mouth is just on a level with the ground. Moths, some beetles, and other nocturnal insects are obtained by painting patches of sugar on the trunks of trees, and looking for them with a lantern after dark. The mixture used should be made with brown sugar, beer, and a little rum. Apples cut into quarters, smeared with sugar and hung up, also attract moths. Moths may also be caught by hanging up a sheet with a lantern behind it. They are attracted by the light, and, settling on the sheet, may be picked off with glass-bottom boxes or with the killing-bottle. Some beetles and other insects may be obtained by hanging up skins of animals, or the carecases of small mammals or birds. Strangely enough, some butterflies are attracted in this way, as well as by strong cheese. KILLING. Most insects can be easily killed by putting them into the cyanide- bottle ; but care must be taken to see that the sides of the bottle and surface of the cyanide are not wet, as the more delicate insects are apt to stick to the surface and get spoiled. To prevent this when collecting, the upper space may be partly filled with crumpled pieces of blotting-paper, among which the insects may bury themselves. This also prevents them rolling about and injuring one another. Under no circumstances should the specimens be left in the cyanide a moment longer than necessary. Cyanide changes the colour of some insects, green becoming yellow, yellow becoming red. 56 INSTRUCTIONS FOR Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera, and other non-hairy insects may be killed by throwing them into boiling water; but they must be taken out as quickly as possible, and placed on blotting-paper to drain off the water. Lepidoptera may be killed in the cyanide-bottle, and then pinned into the zinc collecting-box, where they can remain in a relaxed condition until it is convenient to set them. Butterflies may be killed by pinching the thorax laterally while the wings are in an upright position; but although this is necessary sometimes, it requires to be done with care, as it is apt to distort the body and render the specimens difficult to set. Pinninc AND MountTIna. Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Neuroptera should be pinned through the middle of the thorax. The position of the pin is indicated in the illustrations by a black dot. Coleoptera should be pinned through the right wing-case near the base, and in such a way that the pin comes out below behind the middle pair of legs. Asa rule the pin should be equally distant from the base and the side of the wing-case. COLEOPTERA, —— COLLECTING INSECTS. 57 —— ESS ao hy " om q Orthoptera should be pinned in the middle, between the bases of the wings. Of course, if they are pinned without being set, the pin must pass through the wings; in which case it is better through the right wing. In some instances the pronotum 1s produced backwards, so as to cover a great part of the body ; in which case the pin must necessarily pierce this part. In most cases it is desirable to have specimens pinned in both ways. Hemiptera should as a rule be pinned through the right wing in the same way as Coleoptera ; but where the scutellum is large, it is necessary to pierce this part a little to the right of the centre, so as to avoid any central spot or mark. When the wings are set out, the pin may be in the centre. : 58 INSTRUCTIONS FOR Homoptera.— The Cicadas and other species with large mesothorax should be pinned through this part ; others may be pinned between the bases of the wings, and some (if unset) through the base of the right wing. FOMOPTERA. When pinning Hymenoptera and Diptera, it is very useful to use circular card discs of about ? inch in diameter, upon the wrder side of which the locality, date of capture, etc., can be written. After the insect is pinned, the pin is passed through ") the middle of the dise until the insect is within a short distance of the card. By this method the legs are not only protected and prevented from hanging down, but they can be spread out so as to be ready for examination, USE OF DISC§, COLLECTING INSECTS. 59 Staging.—This is a very convenient method of dealing with small insects, for which a very fine pin is used. The insect is pinned in the usual way, and the pin is passed through one end of a narrow strip of card, cork, or pith, and a strong full-length pin through the other end of the strip. In this way the smaller insects can be kept at the same level as the larger ones, and there is plenty of room on the longer pin for labels. A very suitable material for staging is a fungus called Polyporus, which is cut into strips and sold for the purpose by stacinc. dealers. ¥ Carding.—Small Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and some rel: other insects are most easily mounted by being gummed ——— on card. The card should only be sufficiently large to carry the specimen safely, with just room to take hold of the pin without risk of touching the insect. But a better way is to place the insect across a very narrow strip of card. This, although not quite so safe, has the advantage of allowing some of the under side of the insect to be seen. ‘The specimen should always be on the left hand of the pin when the head is turned from carpinc, the operator. HABITS. Notes on the habits of insects, number of broods, whether common or otherwise, if taken singly or paired, are always of interest. Nests, cocoons, and galls are of very small value, unless ac- companied by the insect which constructs or causes them. In collecting Termites, the kind of nest they were taken from should be noted, or photographs of the nest taken. Termites’ nests with the specimens are much wanted. Specimens taken from one nest should be kept together, either in a tube or tied in a muslin bag. The same precaution should be taken with regard to the true ants (Pormicide), 60 INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABELLING. Specimens should be distinctly labelled with the locality in which they were taken, date of capture, elevation, etc. It is also important to mention whether they were obtained during the wet or dry season. These particulars should accompany the specimens themselves, and not be merely noted in a book. LARVA. Persons residing in one place for any length of time can do great service by rearing insects from their larvee. With many caterpillars this is often quite easy. Larvee of unknown species, unless possessing some remarkable feature, are of very little interest. Larve of Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera may be killed in boiling water, and after remaining in it from one to three minutes (according to the size of the larvee) may be preserved in spirit. Caterpillars may be killed in the cyanide-bottle or collecting-tin, and the skins preserved as dry specimens by means of the ‘ larve- preserving apparatus ” (see p. 54). The contents of the body are removed thus :—The dead larva is Igid on a piece of blotting-paper, with the tail farthest from the operator ; a pencil (or similar thing) is laid across the tail end, and the contents rolled out of that part: this process is repeated, each time placing the roller a little nearer the head, until the whole body is emptied. Care should be taken, by shifting the position of the larva on the paper, not to let the outside of the skin get wetted. The roller must not be too much pressed. A glass tube drawn out to a point is now inserted in the posterior opening of the skin, and held with the spring, and air is forced into it with the inflator, while the skin is held over the drying-apparatus or in the small oven. When dry the specimen is ready for mounting on a dry stem of grass or other suitable object. Care should be taken not to distend the skin unnaturally. METHODS OF SENDING SPECIMENS Home. It is desirable to send home small consignments at a time, and the parcel-post should be used wherever this is practicable. Strong COLLECTING INSECTS. 61 wooden boxes * travel very well in this way ; but if pinned specimens are put in a box, it must be put into another rather larger one, with cotton-wool or other material firmly (but not too tightly) packed round it. Small boxes or bottles are always preferable to large ones, as an accident to one does not involve serious loss. Boxes containing pinned specimens must of course be lined at the bottom with cork or thick pith, into which the pins may be stuck firmly ; and it is desirable to pin a piece of sponge dipped in strong carbolic acid in the box, taking care of course not to let the acid run on to the specimens. Lumps of camphor or naphthaline are very dangerous in a box with pinned insects, and if used at all should be en- closed in a muslin bag, and very firmly fixed in the corner of the box. For the transit of certain insects, such as Coleoptera, which have not been pinned, spirit may be used; but this should be avoided when possible. ‘The best way is to use coarse sawdust from which all fine dust has been sifted. Some naphthaline should be mixed with the sawdust, or, better still, especially when there is risk of the speci- mens becoming mouldy, carbolic acid should be used. Three ounces of saturated solution of carbolic acid to eight ounces of sawdust is about the proportion. The boxes or tins containing the specimens in sawdust must be quite filled, otherwise the insects are liable to be injured by shaking about. When spirit is used, it is desirable to change it at least once after the specimens have been put into it, as the moisture from the insects weakens it. The spirit must bear a fair proportion to the bulk of the insects ; in other words, too many specimens must not be put into one bottle. Any space left at the top of the bottle should be filled loosely with soft paper to prevent the insects shaking about in transit. Cotton-wool must never be allowed to come in contact with insects, wet or dry. Too much stress cannot be laid on this point. Bees, flies, and other hairy insects should never be put into spirit or sawdust. Lepidoptera should be put into triangular envelopes with their * If cigar-boxes are used, care must be taken that they are strong enough, as they are otherwise apt to be crushed in transit. 5 62 INSTRUCTIONS FOR wings folded together over their backs. These envelopes may be made thus: taking an oblong piece of paper (almost any sort will do), fold it as in fig. 1, then double one edge up, and the other down as in fig. 2, This makes them much more convenient for opening than if both edges are folded the same way. A stock of these of different sizes should be prepared ready for use. These envelopes may then be packed in tins or strong wooden High: boxes, with some naphthaline sprinkled among them. If tins are used, extra care must be taken that the specimens are not damp when the tin is closed. Care must be taken not to crush the specimens by putting too many into one box; on the other hand, they must be sufficiently tightly packed to prevent them shifting about. Neuroptera should if possible be pinned ; but if this is impracticable, they may be put into papers in the same way as Lepidoptera; or they may be laid in chip-boxes, and kept from rolling about with chips of tissue-paper. Orthoptera wanted for study of the structure may be put into spirit ; but those intended for the dry collection are almost useless if they have been preserved in this manner. They should be dried quickly and put into sawdust. Sometimes they travel well in papers in the same way as Lepidoptera ; but they must not be pressed. In the case of large-bodied species, such as Locusts, in a damp climate, it is advisable before doing this to make an incision with a pair of fine scissors along the under side of the abdomen, and, after emptying it of its contents, fill it with cotton-wool. Sometimes specimens retain their colours and keep in good con- COLLECTING INSECTS. 63 dition in a two per cent. solution of formalin. Further experiments in this method are very desirable, Wasps and other smooth, non-hairy Hymenoptera may be put into sawdust. Bees should if possible be pinned, and sent home in corked boxes; but when this is not practicable, they should be put into pill-boxes, with some chips of tissue-paper to prevent them rolling about. Diptera.—A few of the larger Diptera may be dealt with in the same way as bees; but as a rule they require special modes of treatment. See special instructions. Aplera.—The Spring-tails (Collembola) are among the most difficult of all insects to preserve. They may be put into spirit, but, when possible, specimens of each species should be mounted dry on card, or pinned with the finest pins. The Fish-insects (Lepisma) may be treated in the same way. HOW TO COLLECT DIPTERA (LWO-WINGED FLIES), WITH NOTES ON THE HABITS OF THE PERFECT INSECTS AND LARV At, List oF ARTICLES REQUIRED. An entomologist’s collecting-net.—This can be obtained from any dealer in natural-history apparatus. Any net used for collecting butterflies will do for Diptera ; but, on the whole, perhaps an ordinary umbrella-net will be found the most serviceable. One or two spare net-bags should be taken in case the one in use gets torn, Two dozen glass-bottomed cardboard pill-boxes (assorted sizes, up to 21 inches in diameter, packed in nests one inside another). (See p. 51.) One or two cyanide killing-bottles, not too large to be carried in the pocket when required; or a larger-sized cyanide killing-jar, or materials for making same, as follows: 7 lb. of cyanide of potassium, 1 lb. of plaster of Paris, a glass jar with wide mouth and closely fitting lid. (See p. 51.) Entomological forceps (two pairs). (See p. 53.) Fine-pointed forceps (one or two pairs): these are useful for arranging the legs and wings of specimens when pinned. Needles (two or three) mounted in handles,—also for arranging legs and wings. Entomological pins (D. F. Tayler & Co., New Hall Works, Birmingham), Nos. 5 (1s. 6d. per ounce), 10 (3s. 6d. per ounce), 16 (1s. per ounce), and 20 (7s. 6d. per ounce). The No, 20 pin should be used for all but the very largest Diptera, such as Horse-flies (Tabanidee) and Robber-flies (Asilide) ; as it is exceedingly fine, an ounce will go a very long way. (See pp. 53-54.) 64 HOW TO COLLECT DIPTERA (TWO-WINGED FLIES). 65 To support the discs No. 16 should be used ; but, if these cannot be obtained, common pins may be employed. Gun-wad punches, Nos. 4, 12,and 20 bores (from any gun-maker), for punching discs of card. Cards (3- or 4-sheet Bristol board), from which to punch discs; a supply of the latter should be prepared ready for use. A platyscopic lens (Messrs. Baker, 244, High Holborn, London, W.C.; or John Browning, 63, Strand, London, W.C.: price about 15s.). The magnifying-power should not be too high—from 10 to 15 diameters is about the best. Cork-carpet or pith.—Two or three sheets about 6 inches square, on which to perform the operations of pinning, etc. (Cork-carpet can be obtained at Harrod’s Stores, Brompton Road, London, Two or three cork-lined entomological store-boxes.—These can be obtained from Messrs. Watkins & Doncaster, 36, Strand, London, W.C., or any other dealer in natural-history apparatus. For a collecting trip or expedition of some duration the boxes should not be smaller than about 18 inches by 12, and they must be sufficiently deep to prevent the heads of the pins from coming into contact when both sides of the box are filled. Should the collector run out of store-boxes, cigar-boxes, in the bottom of which is fixed a layer of cork-carpet or pith, make efficient substitutes; but if pith is used, it should not be less than 3 inch thick. How To DISTINGUISH DIPTERA FROM OTHER INSECTS. Disregarding a few abnormal wingless forms, Diptera may be distinguished from all other insects by the fact that they possess only one pair of wings, and are without caudal filaments. Thus, besides ordinary flies, such as Blue-bottles and House-flies (J/uscide), the Order also includes Midges (Chironomide), Gnats or Mosquitoes (Culicide), Daddy-long-legs (Tipulide), Horse-flies (Tabanide), ete. How TO DISTINGUISH THE SEXES. In the majority of Diptera the sexes may easily be distinguished by the fact that the eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the fore- 66 HOW TO COLLECT head in the male, but are more or less widely separated in the female. With the exception, however, of a few small families, this does not apply to the Orthorrhapha Nematocera [Gall-midges (Cecidomyide), Fungus-midges (Mycetophilide), Chironomide, Culicide, and Tipulide], the Diptera that are gnatlike in shape and possess long antenne ; neither is the character found in the Robber-flies (Asilidw), the Dolichopodide (shining green, narrow- bodied, long-legged flies, usually found in the vicinity of water), vor in the vast army of Diptera (chiefly of small or moderate size) included in the families which it is customary to designate compre- hensively by the term Acalypterate Muscide. In these cases, where no sexual distinction is furnished by the eyes, it is usually possible to determine the sex by an examination of the terminal segments of the abdomen: in the male the abdomen ends more bluntly, while the clasping organs are often very conspicuous ; in the female the tip of the abdomen is generally more or less tapering, showing indications of the presence of an ovipositor, which is often extruded. In the Mosquitoes (Culicid@ *) the sexes can be readily distinguished by the antenne, which in the male are plumose, forming tufts in front of the head, while in the female they are nearly bare; in the Midges also (Chironomid) the antennz in the male form plumes, while in the female they are quite short and inconspicuous. In certain families (Dolichopodidw, Empide) secondary sexual characters are often furnished by the legs; where this is the case, it usually takes the shape of abnormal expansions of some of the tarsal joints in the male. Asarule among Diptera the sexes of the same species are alike im coloration, or at any rate resemble one another pretty closely, striking sexual differences in this respect (such as are commonly seen among butterflies) being exceedingly rare. WueEN AND WHERE TO LOOK FOR DIPTERA. With the exception of Mosquitoes, Midges, and similar forms, Diptera are most active when the sun is shining. In hot countries * Hor collecting this family, see special instructions (“low to Collect Mosquitoes”), pp. 81-91, DIPTERA (TWO-WINGED FLIES). 67 the hours from 8 o'clock till noon and from about 4.30 till sunset are usually the best for collecting. In England the best months for collecting are May, June, and July; but many species are to be found until late in September, while others occur in April or even in March: much of course depends upon the year, the season being sometimes a full month earlier or later than usual. The following hints on collecting have been kindly furnished by Lieut.-Colonel J. W. Yerbury, who has had great experience in collecting Diptera both in this country and abroad :— ‘Diptera are to be found everywhere. Still, the following points should always be considered :— “ Locality.—In temperate climates virgin soil is best, with a south or west aspect for choice, “In the tropics shelter from the prevailing wind is the most important point. “Shelter, however, is an important factor everywhere, and the line taken should be selected with due regard for the direction of the wind. “ Habits.—The habits of the various families differ greatly, and, as a natural consequence, their favourite localities vary also. Before discussing these in detail, it may be advisable to enumerate some of the general attractions for the Order. ~ “ Flowers.—Some flowers are particularly attractive to Diptera, and these are as a rule white or yellow in colour. ‘Jn England the flowers of the following may be enumerated as specially attractive: common and Portugal laurel, holly, black- thorn, hawthorn, bramble, plane, barberry, and at times rhododendron and dog-rose ; but the attraction of the two latter does not as a rule last long. Probably all these are equally attractive in Europe, and to them may be added dane-wort (Sambucus ebulus). “In the tropics Diptera should be looked for on the flowers of several palms and various species of Bher-trees (Zizyphus), ete. “Sugar, as applied by Lepidopterists, has not as a rule much attraction, Still, occasionally it is attractive to Calypterate Muscide, 68 HOW TO COLLECT and in a lesser degree to Stratiomyide ; while at night many Daddy- long-legs (particularly Limnobia) come to sugar. “ Ordure.—Many Diptera are attracted by this—not only Scato- phagide and Muscide, but Diptera of families which one would not expect to see, the moisture being the probable attraction. “ Living Animals.—Many species of Tabanide and other families are to be seen round living animals, but as a rule are not to be caught, the exception being the Mippobuscide, which can often be taken with ease. It is seldom possible to catch flies round animals, domestic or otherwise, with a butterfly-net ; but occasionally they can be caught with the hand, or boxed. ‘“ Dead Animals.—Carrion is sometimes very attractive, and many rare species not met with elsewhere are to be taken on it. Here again the moisture is probably the attraction. A place where blood has run over the ground is generally attractive, though, strange to say, the wet mud and sand in river-beds, so attractive to buttertlies in the tropics, has no attraction for Diptera. “ Other Attractions —Sweeping—Beating.—Other attractions, such as leaves, tree trunks, bare sandy places, ete., had perhaps better be considered under the head of attractions to families. One method of capture should not be omitted, however, and this is sweeping. Many species of Acalypterate MJuscide, and also many small Syrphide, which otherwise would probably be entirely overlooked, may be taken in this manner. The best places to sweep over are damp marshy spots, overgrown with rushes, flags, cotton-grass, etc. Beating seldom repays, though Cyrtide may now and again be obtainable by this means only. “Habits of Various Families.—Syrphide (IHover-flies, Drone- . flies, etc.).—For this family sunshine is absolutely essential, and the majority will be found at flower heads, in company with many species of J/uscide. Some few, however (e.g. Yylota, Calliprobola, Brachy- palpus), prefer leaves and tree trunks ; while species belonging to certain genera (Pelecocera, Melanostoma, etc.) will probably be taken chiefly by sweeping. Many species of ae be Sy es ah oy Syrphus, Hristalis, etc., may be taken hovering in the air. LEUCOZONA LUCORUM. DIPTERA (TWO-WINGED FLIES). 69 “Bombylide (Humble-Bee-flies, ete.). — The species of the Anthracinz branch of this family are generally to be found hovering in the hottest sunshine over bare spots on heaths, seashores, etc. The Bombyline, on the other hand, affect flowers—e.g. primroses, Potentilla, etc. At Aden Bombylius analis was found hovering over the flowers of the garden turnip run wild, and probably other Cruciferse will be found attractive. ‘“ Asilide (Robber-flies) affect many and varied situations. Roads, bare sandy places, ete., are attractive to some species; others sit on tree trunks, stones, and telegraph posts and wires. Others, again, prefer dry sticks and branches near the ground; while the species of Damalis and some few other genera love to sit on bare twigs at about the height of one’s eye. “Tabanide (Horse-flies) are often to be seen flying round living animals ; but few are to be caught in this situation, most of the species of this family being taken flying round oneself or one’s companions. then be noted; and if possible the spore-cast should be preserved (numbered) by painting a thin film of gum on the reverse side of the paper, which should be thin. ‘The pileus should be placed where there is no draught while casting its spores. In the case of Phalloideze young and mature specimens should be obtained when possible. Leaf Fungi are best preserved by pressing and drying, and the name of the host-plant should be noted, or if unknown then a specimen should be taken for identification. Mycetozoa should be dried, and carefully preserved from crushing by fixing them in chip-boxes. SUGGESTIONS AS TO COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FOSSILS. FIELD OBSERVATIONS AND LABELLING. 1. THE scientific value of a fossil depends largely on the accuracy with which the circumstances of its discovery are recorded. When- ever possible, a note should be made, not only of the precise locality, but also of the exact position in the exposed section whence the specimen was obtained. 2. When more than one fossiliferous band is observed in a section, the fossils from each stratum ought to be kept apart, and their exact sequence noted. Measurements of the thickness of the several beds are of great value. A sketch or diagram of the section should be made, the beds numbered, and a corresponding number (with date) should be added to the label of locality attached to each specimen. 3. Be careful to distinguish between fossils from the regularly bedded stratified rocks of a section, and others which may occur in infilled fissures across those rocks. Instances are known in which the contents of fissures filled in at a comparatively recent geological period are nearly as hard as the surrounding rock. Such filled-up chasms are especially to be looked for in limestones, and can be readily distinguished by the irregular and chaotic arrange- ment of their fragmental contents. 4. It is desirable to leave the fossil adhering to a fragment of matrix when the rock is sufficiently hard, or at least to preserve the impression left by it on the matrix. In sandstones the counter- part is often quite as valuable as the fossil itself, and shows 133 134 SUGGESTIONS AS TO COLLECTING features not otherwise preserved. When the rock is soft or pulverulent, traces of it retained in the crevices of the fossil are frequently of value. When the fossil consists of several separate parts (eg. a vertebrate skeleton), a slab showing the parts in natural association is of much greater scientific value than would be the same fragments removed from the matrix. In short, it ought to be possible to verify from the fossil itself the collector’s statement as to the deposit in which it was found, and the natural grouping of its several parts. Photographs or sketches of the fossil im sitéd are most desirable. In case of the specimen being embedded in a slab of matrix, the position of the slab (whether with its face downwards or upwards) should be indicated. 5. Hach specimen (or portion of specimen) ought to be wrapped up separately in paper, protected with cotton-wool,* or a small box when necessary, each packed with its own special label, and marked also on the outside. It is advisable to carry a small bottle of red paint (or red sealing-wax dissolved in methylated spirit), and number each specimen or fragment to correspond with a record in a note-book, thus preserving a second memorandum in case the loose label is lost or displaced in unpacking. The red paint is also useful for making streaks and other distinctive marks across the cracks in fissured specimens before they are removed from the rock—a precaution of much service later in finally fixing together the pieces when separated. 6. It is useful to carry several canvas bags slung on a strap, and preserve one for each horizon, while the actual collecting is in progress, The bag can be tied round with string, and labelled out- side, Hints ON COLLECTING FROM CERTAIN FORMATIONS. 1. It must be remembered that in certain slaty rocks the planes of fracture are not the original bedding-planes, but surfaces induced by cleavage. The original bedding can frequently be detected by * In case cotton-wool, or moss, cannot be procured, soft clay or earth may be used, to protect the face of the specimen. AND PRESERVING FOSSILS. 135 colour-streaks, and fossils must be looked for on planes parallel with the latter. | Such slaty rocks, though apparently barren, may prove (like the Welsh Cambrian rocks) to be very fossiliferous, if the organic remains are sought for on the edges of slabs, sometimes at right angles to the cleavage planes. . 2. In compact limestones fossils are often diflicult to discover, except on weathered surfaces. The old faces of quarries, exposed natural sections, and stone walls should therefore be examined with care. Even when limestones appear to be unfossiliferous, it is well to examine them—and especially the cherty bands and nodules so frequent in them—with a good hand-lens to detect microscopic organisms. Shells of Foraminifera and Radiolaria, spicules of Sponges, etc., may frequently be detected by a lens on smooth, wetted surfaces. 3. Similarly, apparently unfossiliferous clays are not to be neglected. Samples may be taken and ‘ washed” at home, the result being frequently abundant remains of Foraminifera and Ostracoda, etc., from marine deposits, and seeds of plants from comparatively modern fresh-water deposits. _4, When a formation contains nodules or concretions, special attention ought to be paid to these. They have usually been formed round decaying organic matter, and a large proportion of the best-preserved fossils occur in them. ‘The clay-ironstone nodules found in the beds associated with seams of coal usually contain remains of coal plants, insects, and Crustacea enclosed within them, often of great beauty. Many concretions enclose fossil fishes. The late Mr. Charles Moore found, after long experience, that the nodules of White Lias, containing fishes, were most successfully opened by first breaking them in two near the centre, and then splitting open each halt at the inner transverse fracture. The two halves of the split surfaces were afterwards glued together. The interior of chalk flints and nodules of chert from the Green- sand frequently have hollows containing loose whitish or greenish powder. This should be collected, for it usually has small organisms 156 SUGGESTIONS AS TO COLLECTING such as Foraminifera or Sponge-spicules scattered through it; and they may be obtained by levigating the loose powder, or, where the material is silicified, by treating it with dilute acid. 5. Ploughed fields, or fields in the autumn when the crops have been gathered, frequently yield fossils in those instances in which limestone or other rocks are near the surface. Molluscan and other shells and many other calcareous fossils often become silicified, and are thus rendered more durable than the limestone matrix; and they remain when the rest of the rock has been dissolved. Thus it happens thats nodules and stones picked from the surface of fields for the repair of roads, etc., often contain good fossils; and heaps of such materials by the roadsides will repay careful scrutiny. TREATMENT OF FOSSILS IN THE FIELD. 1, As a general rule, it is best to do the least possible trimming and cleaning of a fossil in the field. Final preparation for the cabinet can be far better done at leisure afterwards. 2. Large friable specimens, such as vertebrate skeletons, large Ammonites, or groups of shells, in a matrix which is only moderately hard or lable to fall to pieces on drying, need special treatment. The fossil ought to be first carefully uncovered as it lies in the rock. Then thin paper may be gently pressed over, covering the whole, and as far as possible filling every crevice. Next, plaster of Paris must be poured over this prepared face, and allowed to harden in a moder- ately thick layer. Finally, the specimen may be excavated and transported as a slab, the plaster covering serving as an adequate support. N.B.—If paper be not used, the plaster cannot be readily removed from the fossil, and may completely damage it. Strips of wood, or thin iron rods, fixed down to the specimen by plaster of Paris and string, may be used, to give rigidity to friable or heavy specimens in lifting them from the quarry to a waggon for transport. 3. Some large specimens—e.g. bones in Pleistocene deposits—need to be hardened before removal from the matrix. This can be done by uncovering the upper face of the fossil, and pouring slowly upon it a warm, weak solution of gelatine or glue, or the preparation AND PRESERVING FOSSILS. 137 known in commerce as “soluble glass.” Then, after adequate time for drying, proceed as above (No. 2). 4, Bones which are only moderately delicate can be transported best swathed in long strips of linen or calico (like the Egyptian mummies), and, after wrapping, this may be hardened by the copious application of ordinary flour paste; or the strips may be dipped in flour paste before winding them round the bones. Melted paraffin wax is sometimes found useful to hold together fragile specimens. 5. In cases where the specimen, from either its size or condition, must be got out in pieces, or in the case of a skeleton in separate bones, each part of such bone, or of such more or less entire skeleton, should be carefully marked with a number corresponding to one on the adjoining part, and also with that on a rough sketch in the traveller’s note-book. Red or white paint (carried in a tube) can also be used to mark the connecting-points in a skeleton or in the parts of a single bone. PREPARATION OF FOSssILs. 1, All friable fossils, such as shells in Tertiary or recent clays, need immediate attention. They may be slowly dried in the sun or in an oven, and hardened by treatment while still warm with a weak solution of gum-tragacanth. This is better than gum-arabic, because it does not leave a glossy surface. 2. Fossil leaves in clay curl up on drying, and are frequently destroyed. These may also be preserved by the application of gum- tragacanth or a thin solution of gelatine. 3. Friable bones are best hardened by first warming, and then dipping for a few moments in a warm, weak solution of gelatine. 4. Pyritized fossils cannot always be preserved. When decaying, allow them to soak for some time in water to dissolve the sulphate of iron; then dry carefully, and dip them while warm in melted paratin wax. 5, Ordinary gum, with a little glycerine or glue, may be used for mending small specimens. Shellac is too brittle for most purposes. The best cement for large specimens is liquid glue, with a small admixture of plaster of Paris. Dental cement is very useful, 158 ON COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FOSSILS. especially when it is desired to fix a fragment so that it can be separated again. Pack1ncG FOossits. 1. In packing fossils always use flexible material, such as crumpled paper, shavings, straw, moss, grass, or cotton-wool—never sawdust, sand, or grain (chaff). Boxes should be tightly packed, leaving no room for shifting of contents. | 2. Boxes are better small and numerous than large and few. Heavy cases suffer more from concussion in transport than small boxes. Small boxes, carefully packed and placed in a larger case, will travel well. The opening of cases by Customs officers in docks* and on the frontier of foreign states is often more fatal than a very long journey to the contents of boxes. Bribery in such cases seems permissible, to ensure lenient treatment of collections. * If addressed “To the Director of the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London, 8.W.,”’ the cases will not be opened by the British Customs officers, but sent on at once under seal. NOTES ON COLLECTING MINERALS. From the collector’s point of view, Minerals differ in many respects from both Animals and Plants: the individuality being little pro- nounced, a specimen may be broken in two, and yet often be as satisfactory as before in its illustration of the characters of the material ; the characters themselves are independent both of climate and seasons and of mere longitude and latitude; the material, after collection, is comparatively permanent, and is free from that liability to decay which is a special feature of organic matter. Meteorites.— Of the mineral products of Nature some are interesting as having fallen from the sky (meteorites) : most of these (meteoric stones) are of grey stony matter, which is completely covered with a thin black crust, and contains particles of metallic iron dispersed through it ; the others consist of metal (meteoric iron), which, though containing on the average about 10 per cent. of alloyed nickel, has an aspect like that of the iron of commerce. As native iron is extremely rare, any natural material consisting either wholly or partially of metallic iron is of special interest and worthy of collection. Minerals.—The specimens which show the characters pertaining to mineral species and varieties in the most perfect way are found, not at the earth’s surface, but in the course of the working of mines and quarries. The people connected with the latter know when a specimen has unusual merit, and they are in more or less direct communication with mineral dealers; specimens of exceptional character thus already find their way from these districts into the market, and a traveller without special knowledge of minerals can be of little help. focks.—In general, rock-specimens are of little value, except in connection with a complete survey and description of the region by 139 140 NOTES ON COLLECTING MINERALS. one who has given special attention to the study of mineralogy and geology, and has himself collected the specimens: rock-specimens collected here and there, and without correlative information as to the geological structure of the district, are rarely worth the trouble and expense of transport. But if trouble and expense are to be left entirely out of account, a traveller ina region which is comparatively unknown, or which contains neither mines nor quarries, may occa- sionally be of service by collecting material representative of the rocks met with during his journey. Such material should be taken, not from the margin of the rock which has been long exposed to the action of the weather and is more or less altered, but from the inner part showing uniformity of character. To break off such specimens, the traveller should provide himself with a hammer of which head and shaft are reasonably proof against fracture. ‘‘ Mineralogical hammers” are articles of commerce, and are of various weights and sizes; the head is of well-tempered steel, one end of it being flat and square with an edge about 1 inch long, the other end having the shape of a chisel, the chisel-edge, also about 1 inch in length, being at right angles to the shaft: for most purposes a hammer of 2 pounds’ weight is sufficient. Strong chisels, 4 or 5 inches long, are also occasionally useful. A small “trimming- hammer, from 3 to + pound in weight, is convenient for use in the ae of specimens to a proper shape and size. The size adopted for the specimen must depend largely on the sizes of the individual mineral constituents of the rock, since the specimen is to illustrate the average characters of the mass, and also on the conveniences for transport: a good average size, ‘if the specimens are intended for exhibition, is, length 4 inches, breadth 3 inches, thickness from to | inch. As rock-material is verv heavy, the reduction in size should be made at the place itself; another piece of the rock can then be immediately got, if by any mischance the specimen be spoiled in the course of the trimming. Where a rock shows variations of character, specimens should be selected in illustration thereof. The interest of a rock-specimen lies very largely in the relations of the mass of which it is a part to the other rock-masses in the district ; unless information as to the locality of the mass to which ses NOTES ON COLLECTING MINERALS. 141 the specimen belonged is preserved, the specimen itself generally becomes valueless; for this and other reasons water-worn pebbles are not worthy of transport. Hence it is important to specify as precisely as possible the place from which each specimen has been broken, and also to take precautions against the possibility of a subsequent confusion of the specimens. For this purpose a gummed label should be fastened on each specimen immediately after it has been trimmed, and a number should be written thereon referring to a corresponding entry in a note-book in which all the memoranda relative to the locality aud the specimen are recorded: among these may be included the hour and the date when the specimen was got, as giving a rough indication of the relative positions of the different masses on the line of route. The specimen should then be wrapped in newspaper to prevent friction with others; and as a measure of precaution against the loss of the note-book and also as a convenience, the locality should be specified on the inside edge of the wrapper. It is also convenient if the wrappers of specimens from each particular district are distinguished by some external mark. . The specimens may be stowed in manilla bags, which are then sewn sufficiently tightly to prevent the shaking about of the contents. Wooden boxes should be small and strong, for large boxes containing rock-specimens are almost unmanageable during transport. Paper or straw makes good packing-material ; but sawdust is useless, as the specimens accumulate at the bottom of the box with the sawdust above them. A mineral specimen comprising delicate crystals should be wrapped first of all in soft tissue-paper, next in cotton-wool, and lastly in newspaper; 1t may then be enclosed separately in a small box, which may be put with others in a larger one. Before collecting specimens which offer such difficulties as regards transport, the traveller will do well to spend some time in the Mineral Gallery, and to see for himself the kind of material which is found useful for exhibition and study. 10 Alcyonarians Alge . Alligators . Anthozoa Ants (Hymenoptera) . Aphides cobs Arachnida . Ascidians Batrachians Bats . Bees (Hymenoptera) . Beetles (Coleoptera) . Birds, How to skin » Sexes of . ; Bird-skins, How to preserve Boas P - : Book-scorpions . Botany (see Plants) Brachiopoda Bugs (Hemiptera) . : Butterflies (Lepidoptera) . Caddis-flies ee a). Centipedes . : Cephalopods Characeze Cicadas (Homoptera) . Cockroaches (Orthoptera) . Coleoptera (Beetles) . Corals. : Crabs (Crustacea) Crickets eae Crocodiles . ; Crustacea . Culicidee (Mosquitoes) EN DEX: 123-132 RTE 57, 98 , et PAGE Cuttle-fishes (Cephalopods) 119 Dad eli ets ‘ : ees | Diatoms ‘ : “i 1S0 Diptera (Flies) . : . 56, 63, 64 a Habits of 80 03 How differing from other insects . : a Soe ue How to collect {Ome sf yy ee 4 preserves ise bs 53 transmit . < ne 3 Larvee of 76, 79 is Sexes of - 65 a When and where to look for ; ee OS: Dragon-flies (Neuroptera). 56, 62 Earwigs ates : 50, 57 Echinoderma 115 Echinoids . 115 Fishes : ‘ . 35, 42-49 » Deep-sea. é : ese » Pelagic 46-49 , Skeletons of 45 Fleas . 98 Flies, How to collect . 70, 75 - ean ail! 72 ‘ 5 preserve 72 x 3 | transmit 75 uuarvee of 76, 79 » Two-winged 64 Foraminifera 109 Forceps, Entomological 53 Formaldehyde 104 INDEX. 143 PAGE PAGE Formalin 87, 104 | Lantern-flies (Homoptera) 50, 58 Formol 87,104 | Leathery turtle . 41 Fossils : : ; . 133-1388 | Lepidoptera Butterflies and ,, How to collect ; . 134 Moths) : . 50, 56,.61 i » pack. 2 . 138 | Lion, How.to skin . ; : 8 37 P prepares. cohol Lizards : ; 39 Fresh- water shells .. : 20 | Jocusts. How to collect eee) : if mount P 7 a0 % oe seals, 5. oe 7 i pack . j ee si) 6 _ Larvee and pupze of 87 , Larvee of : ; .~ On ” Sexes of . . . 8d 5, Store boxes for 64 Transmission of . 89 Invertebrates, How to collect 104-119 Moths Ls aa . 50, 56, 61 “ | pack ~ 108 | Mycetozoa . : 2) deez & te preserve. 104 Myriopoda . 99-102 Jelly-fish (Meduse) . : . 112 | Neuroptera (Termites, etc.) 50, 56, 62 Labelling specimens . . 16, 49,133 | Pennatulids : ; : Pe eas Labels, Example of . : . AG hs Peripatuse |: ; sr iO2 Lamellibranchs . : : . 119 | Phasmas (Orthoptera) 5-60. 57,,:62 Land-shells : : : . 120 | Pins, Entomological . £2 oe 144: Plants Polyzoa Porifera (Sponges) Protozoa : Pteropods . Pythons Radiolaria . Rays . Reptiles River-turtles Rocks. Sagitta Salamanders Salpa . Scale-insects (Homoptera) Scorpions Sea-anemones Sea-snakes , Sea-turtles . Sharks Shells. Shrimps, etc. (Crustacea) INDEX. PAGE PAGE 123-132 | Siphonophora . é ; Bye fb 118 | Skeletons of fishes. ‘ »#v45 110 | Skinning mammals ; ipig ls 109 | Snakes ' : : : ee 119 | Spiders : : 99-102 40 | Sponges (Porifera) ; , : he Starfish ; ees 109 | Stick-insects (Orthoptera) . 50, 57, 62 45 | Stony corals 3 . 114 30-42 | Sword-fishes : ‘ , . Ag 41 139 | Termites (Neuroptera) . 49, 59 Micks—; ; ; 21, 92) 98, 108 116 | Tiger, How to skin . 3 3 8 49 Tortoises : ‘ » oo 118 | Trichoptera (Caddis- flies) ‘ « a0 59 | Tunicata . F = al SS 99-102 a Pelagic . : : > ee 114 | Turtles ‘ : : . oo ise a Vermes (Worms) : : Slat . 45 | Wasps (Hymenoptera) 50, 56 120-122 | White ants (Neuroptera) . 50, 59 117 | Worms (Vermes) ; : . elie Printed and bound by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury. r i oe eae Ser i LN A 06 La O04 115 nbaK" Handbook of instructions for collectors