ies Pie o. f 2 aw Say) i i > : A we 2 i y ‘ 4; is ae m , = é ; Tt Me ae . J oe rn el ; ee thy r F ; i cj 5 7 } tf v5 dfs < =; vis. ey J c. c oh See ne ak 2 . Lae - =e Sei rs re A — EC erga Soe “a * ex = OE. fe of \ mays oy y ~ a ‘xG -, < * ¥ * # yh g oe red zy = ae ole. ‘ E a y fs o ‘ i = VS: Pw, iS Pe etn AAS fh , ‘ “4 : SUG is Ze ’ b 4 care AX; s te 3 Q WA Ot, A au, : 3 Sue: ar Se Agr Ne * 3 ase 4 = § ty ke 2 “y) inate ‘ ‘ = OS me _ . .iget Pret, NA Kee ji a y : ”. rh or ) ! | : | > - = ei . " oe H P : Lie Coy = La Nj Ma ¥ : y 2 a 7 . p PS es “ 2 A Vaca Ca fad 5 4 Z Pet ee : ve 7 > A. ane os ne « ae fe wast oD ha - < i ... sei 5 a i, 4 ; = : ny ¥ : = Ww m= ' : ‘ae fet = ten we Tiel yee : ; af : f - oa) \ hs Ret Fis 7 * a ig 2% wees “Alan § Ce an eer er ise : « y - \ i 77 Do ud y vi - n a Ve _ ne oa fi — : ; Peal ay - yt! t ca E 7 2 ue eo <; >t a ae 126 - 134 eel oty . 140 ee AT = TAT . tA one AA » 145 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. if -PHoca, |: I. vitulina, L. 2. hispida, Schreber 3. groenlandica, Fabr. III. CysropHora, Nilss. ... I. cristata (Erxl.) FAMILY TRICHECHIDA® I. TRICHECHUS, L. I. rosmarus, L. ORDER RODENTIA FAMILY SCIURIDZ: .... [EL Scrugrus, Li: I. vulgaris, L. FAMILY CASTORID/E ie CAsTor; E. ist tT. firber; Ez... FAMILY MYOXIDA® .... I. MUSCARDINUS, Kaup. I. avellanarius (L.) FAMILY MURIDZE de Wiros; L. os I. minutus, Pall. . sylvaticus, L. . flavicollis, Melchior . musculus, L. = rattus;, Ib, . decumanus, Pall. Own pW N II, Microtus, Schrank ... I. agrestis (L.) 3. glareolus (Schreber) 3. amphibius (L.) ... X SYSTEMATIC INDEX. FAMILY LEPORIDZ: ... 4o¢ aes sie ame ace gent 2EO a EPus, I. ae Sa dae a sa ante aes one 220 I. europceus, Pall. an 500 act 55: oe oe 220 2. timidus, L. Fer 408 “64 si aoe aes ear 225 e-ccuniculus, Li. <5. eae sie aoe oe oe an 1229) GRDER- UNGULATA «. v2 io: ‘o: 0 teer see FAMILY BOVID Zz Soc ae oes 340 ian ear BOS, 1. ss eae ao ve dae oe ss te a2 35 I. taurus, L. ae BK SG aor ae ce ess 235 BAMILY CERVIDAS —... snc cee wae ann eee Bro Cte: LaCERVUS, L: oie 3; an oe ee oat ae igetZ30 I. elaphus, L. wae ae ore aes see ose aes 240 2-dama, 1. oes oe ate ioe ae oF «es 246 II. CAPrREOoLuS, H. Smith a a see ae ade ee 2410) I. caprea, Gray. <.. 560 ae aa ue 3360 i249 III. RANGIFER, H. Smith a ee ee se eas ven 252 I. tarandus(L.) ... af Ae os me a Se AS FAMILY SUID sis Soe aa Sch 556 Bc wo 2 54 TOUS a. 55. Ba ae ‘eis eas Spe =i ae soe 255 E.. SCrOla, 14, 50 bite x3 soot a es oe sen 255 ORDER CETACEA- 40 “is <5 an Oe ee FAMILY BALAINIDAS er Se aes ae ee ses 259 SRB ALIEN A, IG. eee sos ait Me ise Fes PAS .:. 260 I. australis, Desm. oa a Soe ie ea ac4260 II. MEGAPTERA, Gray ... bes Bee sis Poe wes =< 202 1. boops (Fabr.) ... one 50 se se ses ssemeue III. BALZNOPTERA, Lacép. _... 28 aS es sas sn 204 I, sibbaldi (Gray) ... eee ae sik ie Bia seme! 2. musculus (L.) ... oe ae Ae ae as 2.200 2. borealis, Iuess. cs: oor 56 oc 350 aise 2s. 208 4. rostrata (Fabr.) ... sai ot ae “or sale Soe yh FAMILY PHYSETERID<. ... A a 565 Tac et 273 [eee HVSEDER, lay) en. dep cia ae a aoe ae eae t. macrocephalus, L, se ot A5} an so0 Se yi! SYSTEMATIC INDEX. xi ‘ PAG II. Hypersopon, Lacép. wae Boe see ne ae san 270 I. rostratus (Miill.) ales at ae ee =e 2276 III. MESOPLODON, Gerv. Ae AE a ce ae coe 27) I. bidens Ded SBS Ke ad soe oy: sa 279 IV. ZIPHIUS, Cuv. ass a oie ae oes a3: ws 2O2 I. cavirostris, Cuv. te wisis iste sae a: saa 202 FAMILY DELPHINIDA Sc nia ont Se Coe eae 202 I. Monopon, L. ... Bae ae ar Pie ee ae ona 203 I. monoceros, L. ... sive he es re “fc we 203 II. DELPHINAPTERUS, Lacép. ... ae 16 sat ae jue 2A Tt; leucas (Pall.) x. ae ae ned ee es Sy eyoy III. PHoc@na, Cuv. oe gas sas ae es Jas dee 285 I. communis, Less. ak ‘ie Bee “ae oe < Dobson,, Cat.- Chiroptera, Brita Musi, p3207 (1878). Vespertilio emarginatus (nec Geoffr.), Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 26 (1835). Vespertilio edilis, Jenyns, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1839 p. 73. Vespertilio daubentoni, Blanford, Mamm. Brit. India p. 331 (1891). Characters—This, the second representative of the long- footed group, has the wings arising from the sides cf the feet just below the ankle, while the ears when laid forward extend to the tip of the nose. Ears with the tips rounded, but not very broadly, and the inner margin regularly convex, and the outer straight or slightly concave for nearly the upper half of its length, below which it becomes suddenly convex. Earlet moderately pointed, about half the length of the ear, its inner margin straight, and the outer slightly convex, with a rounded lobe projecting just above the base. Face in front of eyes partially naked, and a rather tumid area between the eyes and nostrils. Upper incisor teeth nearly equal in size, with widely divergent cusps; middle upper pre-molar clearly visible externally, and about one-third the height of the first. Colour, brown above and dirty white beneath ; at least the basal half of all the hairs being dark brown. Length of head and body about 13%, inch ; of tail, 1° inch. Distribution. Daubenton’s Bat is an inhabitant of Northern 44 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. Africa and the greater part of temperate Europe and Asia. It appears to have been first recognised as a British.species by the late Rev. Leonard Jenyns (Blomefield), who provisionally identified it with the Vespertilio emarginatus of Geoffroy—an identification which was subsequently corrected by Bell. In Britain it appears to be pretty widely distributed, although more common in the southern and midland counties than further north, and very variable in this respect, even in the former districts. ‘Thus, whereas Bell speaks of it as being very common in some parts of Warwickshire, Mr. Montagu Browne records only one specimen known to him from Leicestershire. Only a single example appears to have been recorded from Yorkshire (Zoologist, 1891, p. 395). At an early period of its British history it was obtained from near Winchester ; and Bell records it from Durham, while the Rev. H. A. Macpherson notices one specimen captured on the Carlisle canal in 1852, and a second near Ulswater, eleven years later. Although somewhat rare even in the Lake District, this Bat extends into Scotland, having been long known from Aberdeenshire, and recently recorded from the extreme north- east of Banffshire. Some years ago, as the writer is informed by Mr. Harvie-Brown, great numbers of these Bats were discovered in an old vault in the castle of Gight, in Aberdeenshire, but immediately after their discovery and disturbance they forsook their old quarters, and their new habitation has not been discovered. Since this species is not mentioned by Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley as occurring either in Sutherland, Caithness, Argyllshire, or the Hebrides, it may be presumed that its range does not include the extreme north of Scotland. In Ireland it has been recorded from Kildare, Derry, and Donegal, and probably occurs elsewhere, although it is rare. Habits—The essential peculiarity in the habits of Dauben- ton’s Bat is its extreme partiality for water, on the surface of PLATE LY REDDISH-GREY BAT. TYPICAL BATS. 45 which it skims in the evening in a manner not unlike that of a Swallow by day. Thus, in describing the appearance of some Bats which he believed referable to this species, the Rev. H. A. Macpherson writes that “they flew actively over the water, frequently dipping, sometimes two or three times in succession, apparently feeding, their shadows being reflected as they hovered over the water, and the motion of their wings recalling the flight of the Common Sandpiper. They flew uniformly low over the water. Sometimes one would approach the margin of the lake, but they seemed to obtain most of their prey in the centre of the latter.” Generally making its appearance soon after sun- set, this Bat, after hawking for a short time for flies and gnats, usually returns to the shore to rest for a time before con- tinuing its flight in quest of food. During the period of its active life, its favourite haunts for repose are trees ; but, as we have seen above, it may retire for its winter torpor to under- ground or deserted chambers of old buildings. III. THE REDDISH-GREY BAT. VESPERTILIO NATTERERI. Vesperlilio natterert, Kuhl, Deutsch. Flederm. p. 33 (1817) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 54 (1874) ; Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 307 (1878). (Plate IV.) Characters.—This species brings us to the second or short- footed group of the genus, in which the foot is of moderate size, measuring less than one-fourth the length of the fore-arm, while the spur on the foot extends only about one-half the dis- tance from the ankle to the tail. The present species may be characterised as follows.—Earlet narrowing above, sharply pointed, and curved outwards ; wings arising from the base of the toes; fur of neck and shoulders scarcely longer than that of head and body; ears longer than the head; membrane 46 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. connecting the hind-legs with its posterior margin fringed with stiff hairs; tail as long as the head and body. Fur very long and dense, on the upper-parts dark brown with light reddish tips; on the under surface, darker at the base, with the terminal third of the hairs white. Length of head and body about 14 inch; of the tail the same. The fringed inter-femoral membrane serves to distinguish the Reddish-grey Bat not only from all the other British species, but likewise from all other members of the genus, with the exception of the West African Welwitsch’s Bat, which is re- markable for its orange-and-black wings. Distribution—The Reddish-grey Bat seems to be an exclu- sively European species, ranging from Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east, and from the southern districts of Sweden in the north to the Alps in the south. In England, although somewhat local, it appears to be not un- common in several of the southern and midland counties, but seems to get scarcer as we go north. It is recorded by Bell from near London, Essex, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Kent, and Norfolk; Mr. Montagu Browne notes its presence in Leicestershire ; and in the Lake District a colony was dis- covered, according to the. Rev. H. A. Macpherson, in the summer of 1886, in an old outhouse at Castletown. In the second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds,” this species was said to be unknown in Scotland, but there is a specimen in the British Museum from Inverary, Argyllshire, presented by the Duke of Argyll, showing that the statement in question is incorrect. In Ireland it has been taken at least in the counties of Dublin, Cork, Longford, and Wicklow, but-is very rare. Habits—When on the wing above the observer's head, this Bat may be easily recognised by the light colour of its under- parts ; its whole coloration being, indeed, of a lighter shade TYPICAL BATS. 47 than in any other British member of the order, This charac- teristic is noticed by Mr. Montagu Browne, who captured one of these Bats among a colony of Pipistrelles in a church in Leicestershire. Thus he writes that “the flight of the two species varied much, the Pipistrelles flying quicker, and con- stantly changing the direction of their flight in a zig-zag kind of manner, whereas the flight of Natterer’s Bat was more fully sustained, and much more direct, though somewhat slower. A marked difference between the flight of the two species was not so much the greater spread of wing as the evident breadth of the wing-membrane. Most noticeable, however, was the greyish-white tint of the under-part of the body; and this was readily observed, not only when flying in the light of the lamps, but when the animal was high up, or in the darkest parts of the church—so much so, indeed, that the people who were assisting constantly exclaimed ‘Here comes a white- waistcoated one.’” Essentially a gregarious species, the Reddish-grey Bat seems invariably to select either buildings— and preferably their roofs—or caverns for its retreat. Bell records the discovery of an enormous colony in the year 1848 between the ceiling and roof of Arrow Church, near Alcester, *‘ Here,” he writes, ‘the Bats were seen adhering, by all their extremities, to the under surface of the row of tiles which forms the crest or ridge of the roof, and others clinging to them until a mass was made up three or four inches thick, six or seven wide, and about four feet in length.” Instead of the repose which ordinarily characterises such an assemblage, these Bats were in a constant state of unrest and turmoil, those on the outskirts of the mass striving (probably for the sake of warmth) to make their way into the interior, which was as strenuously resisted by the occupants of the inside places. Numbers of dead and dried young ones, which had probably fallen from their mothers, strewed the floor of the chamber. 48 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. IV. BECHSTEIN’S BAT. VESPERTILIO BECHSTEINI. Vespertilio bechsteinit, Leisler, in Kuhl’s Deutsch. Flederm. p. 30 (1817); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 52 (1874); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 308 (1878). Characters.—F'rom the preceding species, Bechstein’s Bat may be readily distinguished by the posterior margin of the mem- brane connecting the hind-legs being naked; and by the length of the tail being less than that of the head and body. Ears oval, and considerably longer than the head. Fur light reddish on the upper-parts, and greyish-white beneath ; the bases of the hairs, both above and below, being dark brown. I.ength of head and body about 2 inches ; of tail, 134 inch. Dobson remarks that in general form this species resembles Vespertilio murinus, ‘“‘but is readily distinguished from that species by the proportionately much longer ears, by the very different form of the tragus, by the wing-membrane extending quite to the base of the toes, and also by its considerably smaller size.” Distribution.—Like the last species, this Bat appears to be confined to Europe, its range extending in one direction from the south of England to the south of Russia, and in the other from Sweden to the Alps. So far as we are aware, this species is only known as British upon the evidence of some specimens captured many years ago in the New Forest, and now pre- served in the British Museum, and it has therefore a very doubtful claim to rank in our fauna. Habits.—In marked distinction to the Reddish-grey Bat, this species is described as being an exclusively forest-haunting form, taking up its winter quarters in hollow trees, and never resorting to buildings or caves. Never associating with other members of its order, it generally flies about in small parties, which seldom exceed a dozen in number. TYPICAL BATS. 49 V. THE MOUSE-COLOURED BAT. VESPERTILIO MURINUS. Vespertilio murinus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 47 (1766; 22 parte); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 48 (1874); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 309 (1878). Vespertilio myotis, Kuhl, Deutsch. Flederm. p. 36 (1817). Vespertilio blythit, ‘Tomes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857 p. 53. Vespertilio africanus, Dobson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4 vol. xvi. p. 260 (1875); id. Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p-. 310 (1878). Characters.—Although, as already mentioned, the Mouse- coloured Bat closely resembles the preceding species in general external characters, it belongs to a sub-group distinguished by having the earlet or tragus straight, and sharply or bluntly pointed, instead of being sharply pointed and curving out- wards. The following are the essential characteristics of the present species :— Crown of head slightly elevated ; muzzle blunt ; a somewhat swollen area between the eye and the nostril, and the sides of the face and the end of the upper surface of the nose nearly naked, although the upper lip carries some long hairs. Ears large, generally reaching, when laid forwards, just beyond the end of the muzzle; their tips bluntly pointed; the inner margin moderately convex to the base, where it is joined at a right angle to the basal lobe ; outer margin concave below the tip, with a shallow notch opposite the base of the earlet, suc- ceeded by a convex lobe, terminating opposite the base of the inner margin. LEarlet of moderate length, narrowed above, and sub-acutely pointed, with the inner margin more or less nearly straight, and the outer with a small convex basal lobe, then con- vex for about half its length, and finally straight. Wings arising from the metatarsus ; only the extreme tip of the tail projecting beyond the edge of the membrane connecting the hind legs, 5 E “50 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. the basal part of which is well haired on its upper surface. Anterior upper pre-molar tooth about half the height of the last ; and the middle one small and generally placed somewhat internally to the line of the other teeth. General colour vary- ing from greyish- to reddish-brown, the under-parts being pale brown, with a suffusion of white, and the bases of all the hairs dark. Length of head and body about 2% inches; of tail 2% inches. Distribution—The Mouse-coloured Bat—the largest represen- tative of the Order recorded from Britain—is an inhabitant of the greater portion of temperate Europe and Asia, as well as northern Africa. Eastwards it ranges as far as the north- western Himalaya and Kashmir, the variety from the latter region being distinguished by its shorter ears; while its northern range includes Denmark and the southern districts of England. The claim to rank as a British species originally rested upon the evidence of certain specimens captured in the gardens of the British Museum in Bloomsbury, some time previously to the year 1835. It is suggested, indeed, in the second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds” that, owing to the confusion which, as remarked above, formerly existed between the Mouse-coloured Bat and the Pipistrelle, the speci- mens in question did not pertain to the present species at all. If, however, a skin in the British Museum entered in Dr. Iobson’s “Catalogue of Chiroptera” as of English origin, be, as is most probably the case, one of the specimens in question, and if there be no doubt as to the donafide British origin of the latter, then we cannot refuse to admit the right of the Mouse-coloured Bat to a place in the English fauna. The alleged occurrence of the species in Dorsetshire was subse- quently contradicted (Zoologist, 1887, p. 234). It has in- deed been subsequently recorded by Mr. A. G. More, from Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, on the evidence of certain TYPICAL BATS. 51 large Bats shot there by Mr. F. Bond, which have been referred to the present species ; but in a “Guide to the Isle of Wight,” published in 1876, Mr. More pointed out that the identification was incorrect, and that the Bats in question were really Noctules. Habits—On the Continent, where this Bat is one of the most abundant species, it appears abroad late in the evening, and flies at a low elevation. Never associating with other species, it congregates by hundreds in the roofs of churches and other buildings, as well as in caves; and is reported to be extremely quarrelsome in disposition—so much so, indeed, that many individuals in a colony are often found with the membranes of their wings torn to rags, and some of the bones broken. Although its proper food is insects, specimens kept in confinement in India have been known to kill some of their fellows and eat a portion of their flesh. But a single offspring is produced at a birth, and the little one may be found cling- ing to the body of the female from the latter part of May till about the middle of July, after which it is able to shift for itself. VI. THE WHISKERED BAT. VESPERTILIO MYSTACINUS, Vespertilio mystacinus, Leisler, in Kuhl’s Deutsch. Flederm. p. 58 (1817); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 67 (1874); Dobson, Cat. Chiroptera Brit. Mus. p. 314 (1878). Vespertilio siligorensts, Hodgson; Horsfield, Ann. Mag. Nat. fist. Ser. 2 vol. xvi. p. 102 (1853). Characters.—Whereas in the preceding species the wings arise from the metatarsus, or sides of the feet between the ankle and the toes, in the Whiskered Bat they take origin from the base of the outer toe. This feature, coupled with the absence of any accessory lobe of membrane near the spur on E 2 52 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. the ankle, and the presence of a number of long hairs on the face, extending down to and covering the upper lip, will suffice to distinguish the present species from all the other British Bats. Theears areas long as the head, and their outer margins strongly convex in the lower half. In colour the fur is brown, with a more or less rufescent tinge above, and greyish on the under-parts ; the bases of all the hairs being dark brown or black. Length of head and body usually about 14 inch ; of tail, 12 inch. Distribution..—This Bat ranges over the greater part of Europe, extending from Ireland in the west, to Central Russia in the east, and from Finland in the north to Spain in the south; it is likewise found over a large portion of Asia, having been recorded from Syria, Nipal, Sikhim, and Pekin. It likewise inhabits Africa north of the Sahara. In England, although local, it does not appear to be rare, having been recorded by Jenyns from Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire, by Yarrell from Colchester, by Bell from Chiselhurst in Kent and from Warwickshire, by Montagu Browne from Leicestershire, and by Macpherson from the Lake District ; while in Dobson’s ‘‘ Cata- logue of Chiroptera ” examples are mentioned from the Isle of Wight and Hastings. Although not included by Thompson in his account of Irish Mammals, it is stated by Kinahan to have been obtained from county Clare ; but it appears to be unknown in Scotland. Habits.—-Essentially a solitary species, although occasionally seen in small companies attracted by an abundance of food, the Whiskered Bat appears to frequent, for the purposes of hibernation, either hollow trees, the roofs of buildings, or caverns; the specimens alluded to above from Colchester and Chiselhurst having been taken in chalk-caves. It makes its appearance early in the evening, and flies swiftly in a manner very similar to the Pipistrelle; it often exhibits a preference THE INSECTIVORES. 53 for the neighbourhood of water, over the surface of which it skims. Towards the latter part of June, or the commencement of July, the female produces a single young one. THE INSECTIVORES. ORDER INSECTIVORA. Closely allied in the structure of their teeth and many other portions of their organisation to the Bats, the small and mostly terrestrial Mammals, commonly known as Insectivores, may be distinguished from the Chiroptera on the one hand, by the absence of wings and the normal conformation of the fore limb, and from the land Carnivora on the other by the circum- stance that a pair of teeth in each jaw are not specially modified to act one against each other with a scissor-like action. ‘Their feet, which are always more or less nearly plantigrade, are generally furnished with five toes, carrying claws, and, with the exception of an aberrant West African genus, collar-bones, or clavicles, are invariably present. As a rule, the distinction between incisor, canine, pre-molar, and molar teeth is less well marked than in the majority of Mammals ; but such distinctions do exist. ‘The number of incisor teeth in the lower jaw is never reduced to a single pair, and the molar teeth have well- developed roots and short crowns—the latter surmounted with sharp cusps, which may be arranged either in the form of the letter W (as in all the British representatives of the Order), or ina V. Although there is a remarkable difference in the external form of the various members of the Insectivora, some being robust, while others are slim, and some, again, having a coat of softest velvet, and others a covering of hard spines, yet nearly all are characterised by the elongation of the muzzle, which projects considerably beyond the extremity of the lower jaw. Unlike the Bats, where they are situated on the breast, the Insectivores invariably have their numerous teats placed 54 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. on the abdomen; and the number of young is always large. Their low degree of organisation is indicated by the circum- stance that the main lobes, or hemispheres, of the brain are perfectly smooth, and do not extend backwards so as to cover the hinder portion of the brain, or cerebellum. Indeed, it appears that the Insectivores are the most lowly organised of all the placental Mammals, exhibiting many signs of affinity with the Marsupials, of which they may prove to be the direct descendants. It may be added that their structural resem- blances to the Bats point to the conclusion that the latter are the highly modified descendants of some very primitive and at present unknown members of the Order. With the exception of the Tree-Shrews of India, the whole of the Insectivores are nocturnal creatures, skulking during the day in obscure corners or holes, or even, as in the case of the Mole, being entirely subterranean in their habits. Save for the so-called Flying-Lemur of the Malayan region, which is but doubtfully included in the Order, Insectivores, as their name implies, feed exclusively on insects, worms, molluscs, and such- like creatures. The majority are purely terrestrial in their habits, although a few, like the British Water-Shrew, are aquatic, while the Oriental Tree-Shrews are arboreal, and the Flying-Lemur takes flying leaps from tree to tree in the manner of a Flying-Squirrel. Their geographical distribution is somewhat peculiar, from the fact that while they are abundant in Africa, and still more so in Madagascar, both of which are well-known harbours of refuge for creatures of a low type, yet they are totally unknown in South America, which is another haven for such feeble animals. Although unknown in Australia, they are otherwise fairly well distributed over the remaining regions of the elobe. The British representatives of the Order, all of which, as i . re * ’ - t ‘ = i ‘ * ‘ r i » “ a 1 1 - ‘ 7 <> 2 = F, » = “ 7 = yw ' ‘ a ' - . f i * ‘ ; \ - i 4 } ‘ a = is _ i - ' » ? —- a “TS 7 - ’ , I 7 ° a iy “OOH - FOCHH NOWWOO > Creer) WRG eushy* 24 : joes ee aALVId THE HEDGE-HOGS. 55 already mentioned, belong to the group characterised by the W-like arrangement of the cusps of the upper molar teeth, are classified under three families, of which the first is THE HEDGE-HOGS AND THEIR ALLIES. FAMILY ERINACEID/:. Although the well-known spiny covering of the Hedge-hogs would, by non-zoological readers, be regarded as the most characteristic feature of the Family to which these creatures belong, yet, as a matter of fact, it is of no real importance. Thus, for instance, while similar spines occur in the Tenrecs of Madagascar, which belong to another family of the Order (per- taining to the group with a V-like arrangement of the cusps on the upper molars), in the so-called ‘ Gymnuras” of the Oriental region, which are included in the present Family, such spines are totally wanting. Under these circumstances naturalists have to resort to other characters by which to define the Family. Since, however, these are somewhat technical, and require a certain amount of anatomical knowledge for their proper comprehension, we shall not allude to them here, as it is sufficient for the purposes of this work to state that in Britain the Family is represented solely by the Hedge-hog, which cannot possibly be confounded with any other of our native animals. THE HEDGE-HOGS. GENUS ERINACEUS. Evinaceus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. 1. p. 75 (1766). The genus may be shortly defined as including those mem- bers of the family in which the back and sides are covered with short spines, and the tail is short and rudimentary. Hedge-hogs have a total of thirty-six teeth, there being ten pairs in the upper and eight in the lower jaw. Of these, there 56 LLoypD’s NATURAL HISTORY. are three pairs of incisors, one of canines, three of pre-molars, and three of molars. In the lower jaw, while the number of canines and molars is the same, there are but two pairs both of incisors and pre-molars. In the upper jaw, the inner pair of incisors are conical and vertically-placed teeth, widely separated from one another in the middle line, while the lower incisors incline almost horizontally forwards. The spines clothing the bodies and sides of the Hedge-hogs, which are generally marked with fine longitudinal grooves, are inserted in a layer of tissue beneath the skin by small knob-like terminations resembling pins’ heads, and may thus be likened to pins stuck through a piece of soft leather. Beneath the skin lies a thick layer of muscle—the pazniculus carnosus—which is much more developed than in any other Mammial, and by its contraction enables the creatures to roll themselves up into the well-known ball-like form, when the head and limbs are completely concealed from view, and only a uniformly formid- able array of radiating spines exposed. Hedge-hogs are exclusively Old World animals, and are distributed over the main portion of the three great continents, although they are unknown in Madagascar, Ceylon, Burma, and the Malayan region. Asa rule, the numerous species are exceedingly like one another, both as regards external appear- ance and their general structure, although, somewhat curiously, the European species differs in certain respects from the whole of the rest. I. THE COMMON HEDGE-HOG. ERINACEUS EUROPCUS. Erinaceus curopeus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 75 (1766) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 102 (1874). (Plate V.) Characters.—Both the third upper incisor and the canine in- serted by single roots; the fur usually long and coarse. HEDGE-HOG. 57 Length of head and body, about 10 inches ; of tail, 1% inches. The two characters above-mentioned at once serve to dis- tinguish this species from the whole of the other members of the genus, in all of which the third upper incisor and canine teeth each present the rare and remarkable peculiarity of being inserted by two distinct roots ; while the fur is shorter and much less coarse. _ Differing from all other British Mammals by its coat of spines, the Hedge-hog is the largest indigenous representative of the Order to which it belongs. ‘The muzzle is conical, and the body oblong and convex above, while the legs are so short and the feet so completely plantigrade, that the abdomen almost touches the ground when the creature is walking. The short, broad, and rounded ears are less than half the length of the head ; the eyes are of moderate size ; and while the whole of the back and sides are protected by spines, the face and under-parts are clad with stiff and brittle fur, the tip of the muzzle being naked and black. In colour the spines are dirty white, with a brown or blackish ring somewhat above the middle, while the hair on the face and under-parts is yellowish- white. The rather long claws are moderately curved, and much compressed, but are evidently not adapted for burrowing. The female has six pairs of teats. Distribution. Thecommon Hedge-hog ranges over the greater part of Europe, and extends eastwards through Asia as far as Amurland. In England it is generally distributed, although in many parts the fashion so prevalent of grubbing up hedgerows to make large fields has resulted in a considerable diminution in its numbers. Abundant in the Lake District, it crosses the border into Scotland, where it is mainly characteristic of the southern and central counties, and some years ago it seemed to be chiefly confined to Clackmannan, Stirling, Dumbarton, 58 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. and Perth, in the counties north of the Firths of Forth and Clyde. Now, however, according to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, its range seems to be extending somewhat, pro- bably owing to artificial introduction ; but it is quite unknown in the Isles—that is to say, at least, as an indigenous animal. In Sutherland and Caithness it is, according to the testimony of the same writers, ‘still unknown in the west, and, so far as known to us, in all other parts of the counties. Though pet specimens have been introduced, and have escaped, there is no evidence that they have established themselves in a wild state.” In Ireland, Thompson says that the Hedge-hog is found everywhere in suitable localities. Habits.—Like nearly all the members of the Order to which it belongs, a purely nocturnal animal, the Hedge-hog, or Urchin, as it is termed in many parts of England, reposes during the day in some snug and safe retreat, generally situated beneath the roots of some old tree or stub, in a hedge-bank, thicket, or a crevice in a rock or wall. During the winter the Hedge-hog passes its time in a state of complete torpor, apparently never awakening, and therefore requiring no store of food, which in the case of an animal subsisting on insects and other creatures it would be impossible to accumulate. Although insects com- pose a considerable portion of its diet, the Hedge-hog by no means subsists entirely on them, nor, indeed, on invertebrates generally, since almost all animals that it is able to kill, appear to be equally acceptable as food. As Mr. Harting remarks, while the animal under consideration exhibits a partiality for slugs, snails, worms, and beetles, it has been ascertained that it like- wise consumes eggs, chickens, young landrails and game-birds, mice, young rabbits and hares, frogs and snakes, not even the noxious viper being safe from its attack. With regard to their depredations on young game-birds a recent writer in Land and Water states that a few years ago he lifted some HEDGE-HOG. 59 pheasants’ eggs from the road-side and put them under a hen. The coop was placed outside the poultry-yard and near an old summer-house which stood among shrubs, and was thickly covered with creepers. The birds came out in due time, but soon began to disappear. Rats were at first blamed, but as no traces of their presence could be detected, the keeper was set to watch, with the result that Hedge-hogs were proved to be the delinquents. A writer in the /ze/d bears testimony to the egg-stealing pro- pensities of these animals. He states that ona certain date there was a duck’s nest near his house containing five eggs. ‘‘On the following morning,” he writes, ‘‘there were only two. On the following night I put down a common rabbit-trap at the nest, let into the ground, and covered over. About ten p.m. I heard something crying out (similar to the noise made by a hare when in distress). Upon going there I found a very large Hedge-hog in the trap. I took it out, killed it, and set the trap again. About eleven there was another large Hedge-hog in the same trap, which I killed, and set the trap again. I went again the next morning at five and found another Hedge-hog in the trap, making three Hedge-hogs caught the same night in the same trap. Since then the duck has been sitting in the same nest undisturbed byanything.” This evidence, although circumstantial, appears to be pretty conclusive, and it is con- firmed by another instance narrated by the same writer. In this second case a pheasant’s nest with fifteen eggs was found to have nine destroyed ; each of the damaged eggs having been apparently bitten half through. ‘The six remaining sound eggs were taken home and a small quantity of strychnine inserted into each through a small perforation, after which they were sealed up and returned to the nest. The next morning two of the eggs were partially eaten, while near by lay a Hedge-hog, stone dead. 60 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. In attacking a snake a Hedge-hog proceeds with extreme caution, seizing a favourable opportunity to give the reptile a bite, and then immediately rolling itself up into a ball till it is enabled to repeat the attack, and so on till the snake finally succumbs. ‘If the snake happens to be a viper,” writes Mr. Harting, “still more caution is displayed; for the latter in- variably strikes at the Hedge-hog on being bitten, and it requires a remarkably quick ‘shut up’ to avoid the viper’s fangs. The result in this case is very different ; the viper repeatedly strikes against the sharp spines of the Hedge-hog, and in so doing be- comes lacerated to such an extent that it eventually succumbs to its self-inflicted injuries.” Frogs, according to the same observer, are boldly attacked at once without the slightest hesitation, and torn almost limb from limb. In gardens frequented by Hedge-hogs, these animals may often be observed on the paths and lawns in the dusk of a summert’s evening in search of beetles or worms. ‘The latter are seized as they issue from their holes, and are eaten in a methodical manner, the Hedge-hog commencing at one end and working steadily on till he reaches the other. It is not often that the observations of Gilbert White on the habits of British animals are incorrect, although this is the case with regard to one on the food of the Hedge-hog. He states that these animals were in the habit of eating the roots of the plantains growing in his garden at Selborne; and the state- ment has been admitted into the works of other writers on British animals, although it has been shown that the destruc- tion of the plants in question is due to a nocturnal cater- pillar. Although generally a silent creature, the Hedge-hog gives vent to a peculiar sound, which has been described as some- thing between a grunt and a squeak; and the cry of these animals when trapped has been already incidentally mentioned. HEDGE-HOG, Ol In regard to its senses, it appears from the observations of the late Colonel J. Whyte that although the power of vision is not very highly developed, hearing and smell are extremely acute. From observations made by the same gentleman on a captive specimen, it would seem that these animals keep on the move throughout the night, travelling the whole time at the rate of some six miles an hour in search of their prey, except of course during those intervals in which they are engaged in devouring the latter. With regard to the breeding-habits of Hedge-hogs, some difference of opinion has prevailed among naturalists. Writing from observations made on continental specimens, Blasius states that the number of young produced at a birth varies from four to eight, and that these are usually born during the months of July or August. On the other hand, Bell writes that “‘the female produces from two to four young ones early in the summer, though the difference in their size in the autumn, when they are often found by sporting dogs, would seem to point out a somewhat variable period of birth.” The latter discrepancy was explained by Dr. Dobson, who ascer- tained that a second litter is often produced in the autumn ; and the same observer further came to the conclusion that the number of young in a litter does not exceed four, in which respect he is in accord with Bell. Mr. Harting, however, in an interesting paper published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society for 1892, under the title of ‘Vermin of the Farm,” states that the number of young in a litter is more frequently five or six, and that he has known two instances where seven were produced. The period of gestation does not exceed a month. At birth the young are blind, and covered with soft and flexible white spines, which, however, soon harden and assume their adult coloration. The young are born in a comfortable, well-roofed nest of dried leaves, 62 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. grasses, and occasionally moss ; the same or a similar nest being used for the winter-slumber In conclusion, it may be mentioned that, in spite of its spiny armour, the Hedge-hog has two deadly enemies in the persons of the Fox and the Badger; and where those two animals abound, the number of Hedge-hogs, as Mr. Harting observes, will be small. THE MOLES AND DESMANS. FAMILY TALPID~. Since the sole British representative of this Family is the Common Mole, we shall not spend much time in pointing out the distinctive Family characters, merely stating that all the Talpide may be distinguished from the Lvrinaceide by the absence of the central fifth cusp found on the two anterior molars of the latter; while from the Soricide they differ in that the first pair of lower incisor teeth are not hook-like and directed forwards; and likewise by the presence of zygomatic arches, or cheek-bones, to the skull. Although the Desmans, which formerly inhabited England, but are now confined to the Continent, are aquatic in their habits, the great majority of the members of the Family have their fore-limbs more or less specially modified for digging in the ground. This modification shows itself especially in the very forward position of the fore-limbs, which in the most specialised types are extremely short, and furnished with very wide and powerful feet. Their forward position is brought about by the shortness of the collar-bones and the anterior extension of the breast-bone; while the shortness of the limbs is due to the extraordinary form of the arm-bone, or humerus, which, in place of being long and slender, in the True Moles is almost square, and about as unlike its represen- tative in ordinary Mammals as can well be conceived. The MOLES. 63 Desmans, it should be observed, which depart from the typical Mole type, may be regarded as connecting links between the Moles and Shrews. THE TRUE MOLES. GENUS TALPA. Talpa, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. 1. p. 73 (1766). Body almost cylindrical, and passing imperceptibly into the head without any well-defined neck ; limbs, especially the front pair, completely modified for digging; fore-feet normally turned outwards, instead of downwards, very broad and flat, and furnished with large, nail-like claws, their breadth being increased by a large sickle-like bone on the inner side. All the bones of the fore-limb very short ; and the collar-bones frequently as broad as long. Tail short; no external ears; eyes very minute and entirely hidden by the fur, which is short, soft, and velvety, with its component hairs set vertically in the skin, and not directed backwards. Usually forty-four teeth,* of which in each jaw three pairs are incisors, one canines, four pre-molars, and three molars ; incisors chisel-like and set in a semi-circular row ; upper canines long, conical, and inserted in the jaw by double roots; the lower canines similar in character to the incisors. Moles are among the few existing placental Mammals which retain the typical number of forty-four teeth, though this fea- ture was not uncommon among their extinct ancestors of the early portion of the Tertiary period. The True Moles are an exclusively Old World group, where they are represented by eight species, which are confined to Europe and Asia. In addition to the Common Mole, a second species is found in Europe to the south of the Alps; while ot the Asiatic forms only two occur to the southward of the Himalaya. * In some species the first pair of upper pre-molars is absent, thus reducing the number of teeth to forty-two. 64 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. THE COMMON MOLE, TALPA EUROPA, Talpa europea, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 73 (1766) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 115 (1874). Talpa vulgaris, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 19 (1846). Characters.-—T ail about one-fourth or one-fifth the length of the head and body, slender, nearly of equal diameter throughout, and haired ; upper surface of hind feet thinly clothed with fur ; eyelids open. Fourth upper pre-molar tooth without distal internal basal process, and the corresponding lower tooth smaller than the first of the same series. General colour some shade of black, varying from bluish-black to sooty-black, but occasionally grey, cream-colour, or even white. Length of head and body about 53 inches; of tail, 12 inch. It may be noted that as the European Hedge-hog differs from all its congeners in the characters of its teeth, so the Common Mole is distinguished from all the other members of its genus in that its minute eyes are not covered with a continuous mem- brane ; and it is, therefore, capable of receiving impressions of light. In this respect it is accordingly a rather less specialised creature than its kindred ; and the existence of these perfect, although useless, eyes, is of itself a sufficient proof that Moles are descended from animals which lived on the surface of the earth, and that their completely subterranean habits have been cradually acquired. Although some shade of black, generally with a more or less well-marked greyish sheen, is the normal colour of the Mole, variations from this are by no means uncommon ; and Bell records grey, dark olive-brown, pied, yellowish-white, and wholly or partially orange Moles, while he notes some speci- mens with an orange patch on the chest, although elsewhere of the normal hue. Albino spevimens are also from time to time met with ; while there is almost every transition between the MOLES. 65 colours mentioned above. Piebald specimens appear to be the most uncommon of the normal variations. A white Mole with a red throat is on record; and Mr. Harting mentions a speci- men captured in Fifeshire in 1880, which had a white head, while elsewhere it was of the normal colour. Distribution.— Although unknown in Ireland, the Mole ranges over the greater part of Europe and Asia north of the Hima- laya, occurring as far eastwards as Japan, and it is also found in the Altai mountains. In England it is so universally distributed as to require no special mention; and it probably occurs in most or all parts of Wales, being common even in the ex- treme west of Anglesea. Always more or less abundant in the Scottish lowlands, the Mole appears to have been formerly very rare or unknown in the more northern districts, but during the latter decades of the present century has been gradually extending its northward range. In Sutherlandshire, according to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, it is still steadily on the increase, having been very rare about 1840 in Durness, where it is now common, as it is, in suitable localities, throughout Caith- ness. Although unknown in 1791 in the Lismore district, it subsequently made its way into the Kintyre isthmus of Argyll- shire, and is now found in many parts of that county. The writer last mentioned further states that ‘the Mole is said to have been accidentally introduced into Mull—where it is now quite common—about eighty years ago—say about 1808—in a boat-load of earth brought from Morven. The earth was a peculiarly fine loam, intended for making the floor of a cottage when mixed with clay and smithy ashes.” Quite recently it has made its appearance in the adjacent island of Ulva. It appears, however, still to be absent from the other islands. Similar testimony might be adduced as to the gradual spread of this animal in other northern counties of Scotland, but the foregoing 1s sufficient to show that ere long it will probably be 5 ¥ 66 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. found everywhere on the mainland, where suitable conditions for its peculiar mode of life exist. ‘The increase of cultivation and of communication between remote districts will probably account for this widening distribution of the Mole ; for it is almost impossible to believe that its introduction into certain districts can be due, as in the case of Mull, to accidental im- portation by human agency. In Ireland, as already mentioned, the Mole is quite unknown. Geologically, the Mole is a comparatively ancient animal, dating at least from the period of the so-called forest-bed of the Norfolk coast, which is assigned by some geologists to the top of the Pliocene, and by others to the base of the succeeding Pleistocene epoch. Habits.—Every writer who has described the organisation and habits of the Mole has commented on the admirable adaptation of the creature to the necessities of its surroundings. Passing nearly the whole of its time beneath the ground, the Mole leads an existence of continuous labour—an existence to our ideas which appears dull enough, but which nevertheless may not be devoid of enjoyment of a certain kind. So swift and rapid, when in suitable soil, are its subterranean move- ments, that the creature has been not inaptly said to swim through the earth. Such rapidity of movement through such a resisting medium necessarily entails, however, an enormous drain on the Mole’s vital powers, to sustain which a vast and almost continuous supply of food is essential to its well-being. Hence even a very short period of deprivation of food speedily results in death. As special instances of adaptation we may note the following structural peculiarities in the Mole. In the first place, the cylindrical body, sharp muzzle, and short limbs, present the least possible impediments to the creature’s subterranean pro- MOLES. 67 gress ; while the absence of external ears, and the rudimentary condition of the eyes, are likewise subservient to the same pur- pose. Not less important is the vertical position of the hairs of the fur, which admits of either backward or forward progress in the tunnel with equal facility. Then, again, the broad, shovel- like fore-paws, armed with strong claws and turned outwards, are the very best instruments we could possibly conceive for tunnelling and shovelling backwards the earth; these being worked by muscles of immense power, attached to bones which, by their shortness and width, are calculated to afford the maximum development of strength. Lastly, we must not omit to mention the long, pointed, and mobile snout, furnished with an extra bone at its tip, and the large series of small but sharp teeth, which are equally well adapted for seizing and re- taining the worms and grubs which form its food. Regarding the general mode of life of the species, we may quote from the summary given by Macgillivray in the original edition of the ‘‘ Naturalist’s Library.” He says that its food consists mainly of earth-worms, ‘in quest of which it burrows its way in the soil, extending its subterranean excursions in proportion as its prey diminishes in number ; but the excessive and unremitting labour required in this pursuit, were it carried on at random, is rendered unnecessary by an instinct which compels it to excavate a series of runs or galleries, along which it can walk without inconvenience, and from different points of which it proceeds, forcing its way into the hitherto unper- forated soil. In forming its subterranean paths, it works with its fore-feet, which, as has been seen, are admirably adapted for scraping away the earth and throwing it backwards, pro- pelling itself forward by its hind-feet, which are disposed in the usual manner. When it has thus excavated an extended series of walks, it can run along them to any point without difficulty, and finds security in them from the pursuit of many enemies, F 2 68 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. although man employs them as a sure means for entrapping Tee After mentioning that we are mainly indebted to the obser- vations made many years ago by Le Court for our knowledge of the construction of the Mole’s runs and habitation, the author proceeds to say that “each individual appropriates to himself a district, or space of ground, in which he forms a kind of fortress under a hillock in some secure place, as beneath a bank or near the roots of a tree. In this eminence, of which the earth is rendered very compact, is formed a circular gallery, communicating with a smaller gallery, placed above it, by several passages. On. the level of the lower, or larger, gallery is a roundish cavity, or chamber, communicating with the upper by three passages. From the outer gallery branch off a number of passages, which run out to a variable extent, and, forming an irregular curve, terminate in what may be called the high-road, which is a long passage proceeding from the outer circular gallery, and at the same time communi- cating directly with the central cavity. It extends to the farthest limit of the domain, is of somewhat greater diameter than the body of the animal, has its walls comparatively compact, and communicates with the numerous passages by which the domain is intersected. By this principal passage the Mole visits the various parts of its hunting-ground, burrowing to either side, and throwing out the earth here and there, so as to form heaps or mole-hills. As it traverses this path several * T am indebted to Mr. Aubyn Trevor-Battye for some observations on British Animals, which will be read with interest. Concerning the pre- sent species he writes as follows :—‘‘ With regard to the question of vision, I can state that a Mole which I kept for some time in captivity would take worms from my fingers. When I swung a worm about in front of his face he would—nose in air—follow it backward and forward with his head. Whether he saw it or only smelt it (in which case his quickness of scent was simply marvellous), I am unable to say.” MOLES, 69 times daily, it is in it that snares are laid for its capture. The excavaticns vary in their distance from the surface according to the nature of the soil and other circumstances. In deep, rich earth they are sometimes nearly a foot in depth, while in gravelly or clayey ground, covered with a thin layer of soil, they are often scarcely an inch. Often, also, the Mole burrows quite close to the surface of rich, loose soil which has been ploughed, and sometimes runs along it, forming merely a groove or trench. The principal object of its pursuit is the earth-worm, but it also feeds on larva, and occasionally devours frogs, lizards, and even birds.* Its voracity is excessive, insomuch that hunger urges it to exhibit a kind of fury, and it is found to perish in a very short time if deprived of food. It drinks frequently, and forms passages to brooks or ponds in the vicinity of its residence. During winter, when the cold forces the worms deeper into the ground, it follows them in their re- treats, driving its galleries and alleys to a corresponding depth.” On the above notes Mr. Trevor-Battye observes :—‘“* Mac- gillivray’s remarks require some modification. It is not strictly true that ‘ each individual appropriates to itself a district,’ for Moles have often, I think generally, a common system of runs used by various individuals from many different points. Thus I have known as many as twenty-four full-grown Moles to be taken in a single trap in one position, in a single run through a gateway.” As to its feeding on larve, he says :—‘“‘ A curious case came under my notice where some Moles had made a raid on the larve of cockchafers. Here they had been working half their time above ground, driving short shafts down into the roots of the sward, so that a friend thought at first that Rooks had been at work.” * We have ventured to make a verbal alteration in thisanda subsequen sentence, where statements given hypothetically are now known to be certain. 70 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. It may be mentioned here that, as a general rule, the Mole exhibits a marked preference for light soils, such as old pastures, warrens, downs, or recently manured ploughed lands, in all of which the earth can be tunnelled with comparative facility. Occasionally, however, it frequents clayey or barren districts. A peculiarity in its habits is that it works during the day at certain regular hours, which are observed with extra- ordinary punciuality. Continuing his account, Macgillivray observes that during the winter the Mole “‘ retires at intervals to its fortress, in which it has formed a bed of dry leaves or grass, to enjoy a profound repose; but in spring it quits this habitation, and rests during the warm season in a mole- hill. ‘‘On the surface, to which it sometimes makes its way, it can run with considerable speed, but, if not in the immediate vicinity of its hole, is easily overtaken. It is more especially in the early part of the day that it is thus occasionally met with. When a meadow which it has frequented has been inundated, the Mole has been seen to swim with great vigour ; and instances are known of its making its way to islands in lakes and rivers. ‘The males are more numerous than the females, and the former sometimes engage in desperate combats. The number of young produced at a birth varies from three to seven, and the period of parturition is from April to the end of summer ; but whether more than one litter has been produced in a year has not been ascertained. The nest is generally found beneath a large mole-hill, and is formed of a mass of leaves, grass, fibrous roots, and other vegetable sub- stances.” With regard to the appearance of the Mole above ground, Mr. Trevor-Battye sends me a note:—‘‘ This often happens in the evening, especially in July and August, when the animals re a TT MOLES. a1 are searching for white slugs and larve of Zifule, &c., in damp places, and this always occurs when the season is dry. Moles pair as early as February and commonly in March, and any mole-catcher will tell you that the latter month is the best time for Moles to run.” In reference to the number of young produced at a birth, it may be added that four or five is the most usual complement, as few as three or as many as six being rare; and we are not aware whether more than one instance of the occurrence of as many as seven is on record. ‘The period of gestation is given by Bell at two months or more, while by Jesse it is set down at one month only. Naked, and of course blind, at birth, the young are able to follow their parents in about five weeks, when they have attained nearly three-fourths their full dimensions. The voracity of Moles almost surpasses belief, their stomachs being frequently found absolutely crammed full of worms, some of which show every appearance of having been swallowed whole. Writing of a captive specimen, Alston states that it would devour an amount of food which he estimated as exceed- ing its own weight in the course of a single day. During the first three days of its captivity it consumed three or four dozen earth-worms, a large frog, a quantity of raw beef, the body of a turkey-poult, and part of a second, as well as one or two black slugs. From the testimony of more than one person well acquainted with their habits, it has been thought that, in some cases at least, Moles will accumulate a store of worms for use during those portions of the winter when the ground is too hard for tunnelling, except at great depths. These are said to be kept in a basin-shaped cavity in clayey soil, with the bottom beaten hard so as to prevent the worms from making their escape by boring; while according to one statement the worms themselves 72 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. are partially disabled by a bite from the teeth of their captor. More information is, however, required as to these stores of worms, and when they are consumed. In regard to the latter point, Mr. Harting observes that it seems doubtful whether the worms could live long in such a state of confinement, for if unable to make their escape they themselves would die for lack of nourishment. There is, moreover, another circumstance connected with the winter-life of a Mole. Thus, if it be true that during a frost the animal descends lower down in the soil until it comes to the level where worms are to be found, we should like to know how it disposes of the soil dug out in making its tunnels, as it would be clearly impossible to throw up the ordinary mole-hills through the frozen earth above. Concerning these worm-basins, Mr. Trevor-Battye writes to me :—‘“*I strongly doubt this statement. I think it has arisen from the fact that during the winter the Mole does drive down tunnels almost, and sometimes quite, perpendicularly. These are frequently found to end (sometimes at depths of four feet) in a circular expansion, of which the inside is certainly smooth. I have always supposed that Moles lay up for the winter in these ; but the whole question of their hibernation wants making clear. As you dig down to these chambers with a spade, you will notice that all the earth is not removed from the shaft, nor is this necessary. A Mole can work backwards and forwards underground quite easily, without removing earth in the form of a mole-hill. There are numerous questions regarding the history of the Mole still to be settled. Why, for instance, should this species and a Badger die from a slight tap on the nose?” Some difference of opinion has long obtained as to whether the Mole is injurious or beneficial to the agriculturist, al- though it is pretty generally admitted that to the gardener it is MOLES, 73 an unmitigated nuisance. On this subject Macgillivray writes that “ by destroying vast quantities of worms and grubs, the Mole may be considered as conferring a benefit on the agricul- turist; and by perforating the soil, and throwing up the earth, it has been by some alleged to improve the natural pas- tures, especially in hilly districts, but in the cultivated grounds, and particularly in gardens and nurseries, the injury which it inflicts by its incessant labour is more obvious than any benefit that is derived from them, and, in fact, sometimes very great.” This was written in pre-Darwinian days, when the importance of worms in improving and renovating the soil was quite un- recognised, and it is therefore perhaps more than an open ques- tion whether their destruction is an advantage. On the other hand, the quantity of grubs and other noxious creatures which the Mole consumes undoubtedly renders the creature service- able to the farmer. On the whole, some of those best entitled to give an opinion on the subject, are in favour of not destroy- ing the Moles on agricultural land. It is, however, essential that oh pasture land the mole-hills should be knocked about and spread in the early spring, before the grass is allowed to stand for hay, when the fine earth of which they are composed forms an excellent top-dressing. The Mole has several enemies which do not redect whether or not it is valuable to man, and kill it ruthlessly whenever they have the opportunity, the chief of these being Weasels, Owls, and Buzzards. That Weasels kill Moles has been demonstrated on more than one occasion, when they have been seen carry- ing off the bodies of their victims ; while in the case of Owls the occurrence of the remains of Moles among their castings affords decisive evidence. In the case of the Buzzard, Mr. Harting remarks that the bird, ‘‘in the vicinity of mole-hills will take up a position on some tree and watch until it sees a Mole working near the surface, when it will instantly drop 74 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. down and seize it. In this way (¢.e., by watching and jumping down) Buzzards destroy numbers of Rats and other vermin, for which good service they deserve to be protected, instead of being shot and trapped at every opportunity.” In conclusion, it may be mentioned that in the north of England the Mole is still very often des'gnated by its Saxon name of A/ouldiwarp (or earth-turner), while in the west it is more commonly known as the Want, and in the midland counties as the Hoont, or Woont; these names being doubtless synonyms derived from the old Danish designation Wand. THE SHREWS. FAMILY SORICIDA. Different as is the appearance of the Moles from the Shrews, the two groups, as already stated, are so closely connected by the Desmans, that we have to resort to details of structure to differentiate them. The Shrews may, however, be distinguished by the circumstance that the skull has no bony zygomatic arches, or cheek-bones, and that its auditory bulla, at the base of the region of the internal ear, is imperfectly, instead of fully, ossified. A more ready means of recognising a member of the present Family is afforded by the characters of the first pair of incisor teeth, which, in both jaws are very much larger than any of the others. In the upper jaw these teeth are curved and hook-like, with a more or less strongly marked basal cusp on the hinder edge; while in the lower jaw they are elongated and project nearly horizontally forwards, some- times with a slight upward curvature at the tip. Canine teeth are totally wanting in the lower jaw, and in the upper they are similar in character to the outer incisors and anterior pre- molars, so that a Shrew has no tooth which can be termed a tusk. In the lower jaw there are invariably six pairs of teeth, of which the first two are incisors, the third a pre-molar, and SHREWS. 75 the remaining three molars. On the other hand, in the upper jaw the number is variable, ranging from seven to ten pairs. The Family, which contains a large number of representatives, has a wider geographical distribution than any other of the Order, ranging over the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, Africa and North America, as well as many of their islands. In habits, most of the Shrews are terrestrial, although a few, and among them one British species, are aquatic. In popular estimation these animals (as their common designation of Shrew-Mice indicates) are often confounded with Mice, although the two groups have not the most remote affinity with one another. isa] EH < S| A, COMMON SHREW. SHREWS. fw covered by two rows of coarse hairs, which secretes the well- known odour so characteristic of Shrews in general, and which, in one Indian species, is so strongly developed as to render uneatable any article of food with which the creature may have come in contact. Distribution.— The common Shrew is one of the comparatively few Mammals which have an almost circumpolar distribution, its range extending from England across Europe and Asia, north of the Himalaya into North America. It is, however, not a little remarkable that an animal with such an exceedingly wide geographical range should be totally unknown in Ireland. In England and Wales it appears to be universally distributed, and it likewise ranges throughout the mainland of Scotland. Although it has been recorded from Iona, it now appears that throughout the Hebrides the genus is represented only by the Lesser Shrew. Fossil remains, originally assigned to the Water-Shrew, appear to indicate the existence of the present and perhaps also the next species in the Norfolk forest-bed, which, as we have seen, is at least as old as the early part of the Pleistocene epoch. Habits—Nocturnal and retiring in its habits, the Shrew is but seldom seen in a living state, although in summer even- ings its shrill squeaking cry may often be heard in woods, hedge- rows, and dry meadows, which are its favourite haunts. We say in a living state advisedly, since, in the autumn, numbers of dead Shrews are often to be seen on garden-paths and lanes, which have succumbed to a mortality, the cause of which is by no means clear. During the summer months these little creatures form well-marked runs among the stalks of grass of meadows ; and, although they are generally found in those in which the soil is dry, they are by no means wanting in damp and marshy situations. During the winter they retire beneath the roots of trees or bushes, to the deserted holes of other 78 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. small Mammals, or other secure nooks, where they pass the cold months in a state of profound torpor. Although their chief food consists of worms, insects, and grubs, they also con- sume many of the smaller slugs and snails, while Jesse states that they will occasionally kill and eat young frogs. In the spring the female Shrew (perhaps with the aid of her mate) constructs of grass, leaves, and other herbage, a dome-shaped nest, with an entrance on one side, which is generally placed in a hedge-bank or some hollow in the grass. Here in due course she usually brings forth from five to seven naked and blind young, although occasionally there may be as many as ten in a litter. The breeding-season extends from the end of April to early in August. In disposition the Shrew is one of the most combative and pugnacious of animals ; and many fights, probably between rival males, terminate fatally ; while, if two or more of these animals be confined in a cage or box, they invariably fight to the bitter end. It might be supposed that to such combats are due the number of dead Shrews so often encountered in autumn, although it is pretty evident that their death is due to some other cause. It has been suggested that Owls and Cats, which are supposed to kill, but not to eat, Shrews, are the cause of the destruction ; but it is now ascertained that Shrews are eaten by the former, while from the situation in which their bodies are frequently found, it is scarcely likely that Cats are the murderers. In addition to those destroyed by Owls, it is said that a certain number of Shrews fall victims to the voracity of their cousin the Mole. Perfectly harmless to man, both as regards his person, his cattle, and his crops, the Shrew was long the victim of a curious superstition, as is illustrated in a well-known passage from the writings of Gilbert White, which will bear one more repetition. Writ:ng of his native village of Selborne, this SHREWS. 79 charming and quaint chronicler observes :—‘‘ At the south corner of the plestor, or area, near the church, there stood, about twenty years ago a very old, grotesque, hollow pollard ash, which for ages had been looked upon with no small veneration as a Shrew-ash. Now a Shrew-ash is one whose twigs or branches, when applied to the limbs of cattle, will immediately relieve the pains which a beast suffers from the running of a Shrew-Mouse over the part afflicted ; for it is supposed that a Shrew-Mouse is of so baneful and deleterious a nature, that wherever it creeps over a beast, be it Horse, Cow, or Sheep, the suffering animal is afflicted with cruel anguish, and threatened with the loss of the limb. Against this accident, to which they were continually liable, our provident forefathers always kept a Shrew-ash at hand, which, when once medicated, would maintain its virtue for ever. A Shrew-ash was made thus: Into the body of the tree a deep hole was bored with an auger, and a poor devoted Shrew-Mouse was thrust in alive, and plugged in, no doubt with several quaint incantations long since forgotten.” One touch from the twig of such an ash was sufficient to restore an afflicted animal to health. II, THE LESSER SHREW. SOREX MINUTUS. Sorex minutus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 73 (1766). Sorex pygmaus, Pallas, Zoog. Rosso-Asiat. vol. i. p. 134 (1831); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 148a (1874). Sorex rusticus, Jenyns, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1838 p. 417. Characters—Size smaller than that of the last species, from which it may be distinguished by the following characters : The third upper incisor is not longer than the canine,* and by the proportionately shorter fore-arm and foot. Tail usually shorter * It should be noted that the Shrews are now considered to differ from other placental Mammals in having four pairs of upper incisors, the outer- most being the one here reckoned as the canine. 80 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. than the head and body, with a thick covering of hairs. General colour brown above, and white on the under-parts. Length of head and body about 2 inches ; of tail, 1% inch.* Distribution Although far less abundant in England than the common Shrew, the Lesser Shrew has a wider distribution in the British Islands, being found not only in Ireland, but like- wise in the Hebrides, in both of which localities it is the sole representative of the genus. Elsewhere it extends through - Europe and Northern Asia as far eastward as the island of Saghalin, although unknown in North America. In the north of England it appears to be even more uncommon than in the south. This Shrew is the smallest British Mammal, and indeed, with the exception of another member of the same genus, the smallest Mammal in Europe. In habits it appears to agree in all re- spects with its larger relative. THE WATER-SHREWS. GENUS CROSSOPUS. Crossopus, Wagler, Isis 1832 p. 275. Teeth thirty in number, with their summits stained brownish- red. Ears small, but not truncated ; tail with a fringe of long hairs on its lower surface, and the feet also fringed. Habits aquatic. The genus is represented solely by the under-mentioned species. THE WATER-SHREW. CROSSOPUS FODIENS. Sorex fodiens, Pallas, in Schreber’s Saugethiere, vol. ili. p. 571 (1778) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds p. 115 (1837). Sorex remtfer, Geoffr. Ann. Mus. vol. xvii. p. 182 (1811); Bell, British Quadrupeds p. 119 (1837). Sorex daubentonit, Geoffroy, loc. cit. * Mr. De Winton says that the best distinctive character for recognising the species is the extremely small size of the teeth, which require a lens to detect them. IIA aALVTd MAdAAHS — ALM WATER-SHREW. 8) Sorex bicolor, Shaw, Nat. Miscell. vol. 11. pl. 55 (1791). Sorex ciliatus, Sowerby, Brit. Miscell. p. 103 pl. xlix. (1805). Crossopus fodiens, Wagler, Isis 1832, p. 275; Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 149 (1874). Crossopus remifer, Wagler, tom. cit. Amphisorex pennantt et A. linneanus, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ii. p. 287 (1838). (Plate VII.) Characters.— Larger than either of the British species of Sorex, with the tail about two-thirds the length of the head and body. In colour, typically black above and white beneath, with a sharp division between the two, but frequently with the black of the back extending to a portion or the whole of the inferior surface, while in some cases the latter may be tinged with rusty. The stiff fringing hairs of the tail and feet white. Length of head and body about 3% inches; of tail, 2;/, inches. The great variation in the colouring of the Water-Shrew gave rise to the idea that there were two British representatives of the genus, although it is now well ascertained that such varia- tions are merely individual. Distribution—The Water-Shrew is met with in suitable localities in many parts of Europe, whence it extends eastwards through Northern Asia as faras the Altai Mountains. Through- out most districts in England and Wales it is far from uncommon in the neighbourhood of brooks and streams, although, from the nature of its habits, it is not often seen, unless special search be made. According to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, although they seem to be rare in the Lake district, yet the number of specimens killed by Cats, together with the presence of their remains among the débris rejected by Owls, shows that this is not really the case. Both the dark and pied varieties are met with in this part of the country. In Scotland, as a whole, the Water-Shrew appears to be a less common animal than in 5 a 82 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. England. In Sutherland it is, however, said to be far from rare, although the dark variety appears to be less common there than in other parts of the country. Hitherto its presence has not been detected in the Hebrides or any of the other Scotch islands; and it is quite unknown in Ireland. Habits.— Residing in long winding burrows excavated by itself in the banks of rivulets, brooks, ditches, or ponds, the Water- Shrew is fully as active in the water as a Water-Vole or Otter. In search of food, writes Macgillivray, “it makes excursions upon the water, and dives with ease to the bottom. In swimming, it presents a singular appearance, its sides being apparently expanded, its body lying so lightly as to be two- thirds out of the water, its tail extended along the surface ; and it paddles away seemingly with iittle effort, scarcely causing a ripple, although its speed is considerable. I have seen it sporting as it were in the water, several individuals swimming about in different directions, sometimes shooting along in curves at an accelerated rate. It is a very timorous animal, and on the least apprehension of danger, dives and gets close to the bank, or swims directly to its hole.” An earlier writer, Dovaston, describes the graceful move- ments of this Shrew as follows. Lying close to the bank of the pool in which one of these creatures was disporting itself, he writes :—“I repeatedly marked it glide from the bank, under water, and bury itself in the mass of leaves at the bottom ;— I mean the leaves that had fallen off the trees in autumn, and which lay very thick over the mud. It very shortly returned, and entered the bank, occasionally putting its long sharp nose out of the water, and paddling close to the edge. This it repeated at very frequent intervals, from place to place, seldom going more than two yards from the side, and always returning in about half a minute. I presume it sought and obtained some insect or food among the rubbish and leaves, and retired WATER-SHREW. 83 to consume it. Sometimes it would run a little on the surface, and sometimes timidly and hastily come ashore, but with the greatest caution, and instantly plunge in again. . . . When under water, it looks grey, on account of the — clusters of minute air-bubbles that adhere to its fur, and bespangle it all over. It swims very rapidly; and, though it appears to dart, its very nimble wriggle is clearly discernible.” The food of the Water-Shrew consists mainly of various kinds of water-insects, their larvae, crustaceans, and fresh-water snails. In the spring it appears to be specially fond of the larvee of the Caddis-fly ; and in searching for fresh-water Shrimps the animal is in the habit of turning over the stones at the bottom of clear streamlets. It will also prey at times on the fry of fish, one of the Duke of Sutherland’s gamekeepers having watched one of these Shrews attack a shoal of young Salmon which had just been liberated from the hatching-house into a small brook. ‘This fish-eating propensity is likewise proved from the observations of Mr. Buckley ; while there is also evidence that this Shrew will at times eat the flesh of dead mammals or birds. Mr. Trevor-Battye tells me that a colony of these animals, which he found in Kent, inhabited a garden- pond for a great number of years, where they showed a great partiality for frog-spawn. The long, winding burrow already alluded to, which is ex- panded at its extremity into a rounded chamber, serves not only as a dwelling-place, but likewise as a nursery. In this grass-lined chamber the female, early in May, gives birth to from five to ten young ones; five or six being apparently the most usual number. When able to run about, the young are described as most sportive and amusing little creatures, chas- ing one another up and down the small paths radiating from the entrance to the burrow. It is said that at times the Water-Shrew will seek its food, G 2 84 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. which probably then consists mainly of terrestrial insects, at a considerable distance from the water. That it cannot long exist without its favourite element is, however, evident from a statement quoted by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, that in the Lake district during the droughts of 1859 and 1863 these animals suffered severely. Although the Water-Shrew was not definitely recorded by naturalists as a native of Caithness till the year 1872, yet there seems a strong probability that it was long known to the in- habitants of that county under the somewhat remarkable name of Lavellan. What was really the animal thus designated was long a disputed point, although Pennant inclined to the opinion that it was the one under consideration, his view being confirmed by Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley. Other writers have, however, assigned the name toa Lizard. That the Water-Shrew does inhabit Caithness was proved during a flood in the autumn of 1872, when several were seen carried down the river near Wick on bundles of corn and hay. THE CARNIVORES.—ORDER CARNIVORA. Formerly included in the same order as the Insectivores, the Carnivora form a very well-defined natural group, which, so far as existing forms are concerned, may be distinguished from the preceding Order by the following characters. In the case of the more typical representatives of the Order, a pair of cheek-teeth is specially modified to act one against the other with a scissor-like action, at least the anterior outer portion of both the upper and lower tooth being converted into a cutting blade ; this blade in some cases, as in the Cats, forming the whole of the tooth, while in others, as among the Bears, it constitutes but a small moiety thereof. On the other hand, in those members of the Order such as the Seals and Walruses, which do not possess these specially modified and so-called CARNIVORES. 8s ~ flesh-teeth, and are aquatic and mainly marine in their habits, the limbs are converted into paddle-like flippers. Accordingly, we may define the Order as including Carnivorous Mammals having either a pair of specially modified flesh-teeth in each jaw, or with both pairs of limbs converted into flippers. In connection with these flesh-teeth, it may be observed that while in the upper jaw the pair thus named form the Iast of the pre-molar series, that is to say, they are preceded by milk-teeth, in the lower jaw they form the first of the molar series, or those which have no such predecessors. Mentioning a few of the leading characteristics of the Order: generally, it may be observed that the feet frequently have five toes each, and never less than four; such toes (except in the case of some of the Seals, where they are reduced to more or less well-developed nails) being furnished with claws. In no case is the first toe of either the fore- or hind-limbs capable of being opposed to the other. The teeth are always divided into incisors, canines, pre-molars, and molars; the incisors almost always comprising three pairs in each jaw, of which the outermost are larger than either of the others, and the canines being well-developed and assuming the form of distinct tusks. The pre-molars always have sharply-pointed crowns, and in some cases, as in the Seals, the whole of the cheek-teeth are thus acuminate. Among the Bears and Badgers, however, the molar teeth (with the exception of the first, or flesh-tooth, in the lower jaw) have the crowns broad and flattened, and more or less adapted for grinding ; although in such cases they never have folds of enamel penetrating the crown. Owing to the fact that the lower jaw is articulated to the skull by means of a half-cylindrical hinge, or condyle, the motions of the jaws are limited to a vertical plane, and they are thus incapable of a lateral grinding action. In all Carnivores the stomach is simple; and the teats are placed on the abdomen. Unlike the Insecti- 86 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. vora, the collar-bones, or clavicles, are never complete, that is to say, they never articulate with both the shoulder-blade and the breast-bone, while they are frequently altogether wanting. In place of the smooth brains of the Insectivora, the Carnivora have the cerebral hemispheres indented by complex convolu- tions. The typical, or terrestrial, Carnivores (inclusive of the Otters), have an almost cosmopolitan distribution, although unknown in New Guinea, anJ represented in Australia only by the Dingo, The members of the group now living in Britain belong mostly to the A/ustelide ; other families being represented only by the Fox and Wild Cat. The Seals and their allies are mainly characteristic of the colder seas. LAE CATS. FAMILY FELIDAS. With the exception of Australasia and Madagascar, the Cats are cosmopolitan in their distribution, and are distinguished from other Carnivores by the following collective characters. In the skull the hollow bone found at the base of the hinder region below the entrance into the internal ear is bladder-like, rounded, and divided into two chambers by a vertical internal partition, while the tube leading into the chamber of the internal ear is very short. The head is characterised by its short and rounded form, and the small number and specialised character of the cheek-teeth, of which there are only three or four pairs in the upper jaw, and three in the lower. Of these, the flesh-teeth are the most characteristic ; that of the upper jaw consisting of a large three-lobed external blade, and a rather small inner tubercle situated at the internal front angle of the tooth, while the opposing lower tooth is simply a_ cutting two-lobed blade, without any tubercular heel or ledge at its hinder extremity, or any trace of a cusp on its inner border. Behind the upper flesh-tooth, which is the last of the CATS. 87 pre-molar series, there is a minute transversely-elongated molar, which appears to be quite functionless; while in the lower jaw the flesh-tooth, which is here a molar, fornis the last of the whole series. The toes, of which there are five in the front, and four in the hind, limb, are provided with long, sharp, and curved claws, capable, except in the Hunting- Leopard, of being completely retracted within protecting Skull of Wild Cat. sheaths. In the intestine the blind appendage, or czecum, is short. In walking, these animals tread solely on their toes, which are provided on the soles with soft pads, and they are accord- ingly described as digitigrade. In habits they differ from the Dogs and Foxes in that they never combine in packs for the purpose of hunting their prey, while thay are mostly expert climbers. frp eLRUE CATS. GENUS HEELS: Felis, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 60 (1766). Including the whole of the representatives of the family, with the exception of the Hunting-Leopard (Cyne/urus), this genus is characterised by the complete retractibility of the 88 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. claws, and the full development of the tubercle on the inner side of the upper flesh-tooth. THE WILD CAT. FELIS CATUS. Pelis\ *catus, Vion: Syst. “Nat. ed: T2-voly 1p. -62"(77 66); Bell’s British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 220 (1874). (Plate VIII.) Characters—General colour yellowish-grey, with an _ inter- rupted longitudinal dark stripe down the back, two dusky bands on the cheeks, and numerous obscure transverse stripes of the same colour on the body and limbs ; tail of uniform thick- ness throughout, equal in length to less than half the head and body, and ringed and tipped with black. Length of head and body of male about 34 inches ; of tail, 114 inches. In general aspect, form, and coloration, the Wild Cat re- szmbles large “ Tabbies” of the domestic breed; many speci- mens of the latter which have escaped from captivity and taken to a roving life in the woods, being frequently mistaken by the inexperienced for true Wild Cats. From the domestic species, the Wild Cat differs, however, by the proportionately longer body and limbs, and the shorter and thicker tail; the fur being also more abundant than in the old original English breed, when not crossed with the Persian. Conforming in general external configuration and appearance to the type characteristic of the great majority of the members of the Family to which it belongs, the Wild Cat has the general ground-colour of the soft and long fur yellowish-grey, tend- ing in some individuals to pale reddish-brown. In addition to some black spots near the muzzle, the face is marked with two black stripes, commencing between the eyes, and gradually increasing in width, and diverging as they pass backwards between the ears to the hinder part of the neck. Commencing between the shoulder-blades, a broad, irregular black or blackish longitudinal stripe traverses the LVO dTIM TIA SV Tc WILD CAT. 89 whole length of the back, from which diverge numerous paler transverse bands, gradually becoming lighter in tint as they descend the flanks, until they are finally lost in the nearly white area of the under-parts. Usually the tail is ringed with nine black bands upon a grey ground ; the first five of these bands being the narrower, and not meeting below, while the terminal black area is the largest of all, being often as much as two inches in length; it is at the same time the deepest in tint. Barred externally with horizontal bands of black, the limbs have their inner surface yellowish- grey, like the upper surfaces of the feet, while the soles of the latter are black. The claws are yellowish-grey. Writing in the volume on British Mammals in the original issue of the “Naturalist’s Library” of the coloration of the hairs themselves, Macgillivray states that in the Wild Cat “the softer hairs or fur are, in general, of a pale purplish tint, and pale reddish at the extremity; the longer hairs white at the base, then black, afterwards yellowish-red, with the tip black. Others, however, are first white, then black, yellowish-black, and finally reddish. There are a few very long white hairs on the loins inferiorly and laterally. On the white parts the hairs are of that colour from the base; on the bright red inter-crural part they are for a short space at the base bluish. The ter- minal rings of the tail have the hairs entirely black, but the black hairs of the feet have their base paler.” In addition to her considerably smaller dimensions, the female Wild Cat may be distinguished from the male by her generally paler coloration. Distribution Ranging over a considerable portion of Con- tinental Europe, namely, France, Germany, Poland, Switzer- land, Hungary, Southern Russia, Spain, Dalmatia, Greece, and part of Turkey, and thence extending eastwards into the forest regions of Northern Asia, the Wild Cat was formerly go LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. widely distributed in Britain, although it appears never to have been a native of Ireland. At the present day it is restricted only to the northern districts of our islands, and is there be- coming year by year morerare. This sole British representative of the feline family is proved, both by tradition and by the dis- covery of its fossilised remains in cavern and superficial de- posits, to have originally ranged over the whole of such parts ot England as were suited to its habits. Such remains have been discovered in the Pleistocene brick-earths of Grays, in Essex, in company with the remains of Mammoths, Hippopotami, Rhinoceroses, and other Mammals now either totally extinct, or long since banished from Britain to warmer climates. They also occur, in association with similar creatures, in the caves of Bleadon (in the Mendips), Cresswell Crags (Derby- shire), Kent’s Hole (near Torquay), Ravenscliff (Glamorgan- shire), Uphill (in the Mendips), and the Vale of Clywd, while quite recently they have been discovered in a fissure in the Wealden rocks near Ightham, in Kent. When the Wild Cat disappeared from the south and mid- land counties of England, appears to be quite unknown; but there is evidence that it lingered till a comparatively late date in the wooded parts of the Lake district, although it does not seem ever to have been numerous there during the historical period. According to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, there is historical evidence of the existence of this animal in the Lake district in the year 1629, and again as late as 1754; while in the intervening period there are to be found in the parish records numerous entries of the sums disbursed for the de- struction of these marauders. Ata still later date, Gilpin, when describing a tour made through the district in 1772, says that the mountains around Helvellyn, ‘‘and indeed many other parts of the country are frequented by the Wild Cat, which Mr. Pennant calls the British Tiger, and says it is the fiercest WILD CAT. 91 and most destructive beast we have. He speaks of it as being three or four times as large as a common Cat. We saw one dead, which had been hunted on the day we saw it; and it seemed very little inferior, if at all, to the size he mentions.” By 1795 Wild Cats seem to have become very scarce in the mountains of Cumberland and Westmoreland; and the last authentic occurrence of one of these animals in the district appears to have been in 1843, when a fine specimen is stated to have been killed near Loweswater. It is true that the occurrence of the Wild Cat has been recorded in these districts in quite recent years —even as late as 1871—but all - such records appear to have been based on large feral speci- mens of the Domestic Cat. In Scotland, though still lingering, the Wild Cat is rapidly decreasing in numbers. According to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, while it has become extremely rare in Assynt during the last few years, it is still not uncommon in the Reay Forest, where it is preserved by the Duke of Westminster. These authors write that ‘one keeper in Assynt killed no less than twenty-six Wild Cats between 1869 and 1880, but of these only three during the last six years. Another keeper killed ten between 1870 and 1873, but no more until the winter of 1879-80, when he killed four, one of which is described as a monster.” In Caithness the Wild Cat is still more rare, only four having been recorded as being killed during some ten years before 1880. Writing in 1882 of its present limits in Scotland, the former of the two authors just quoted said that the Wild Cat is “extinct all south and east of a line commencing, roughly speaking, at Oban, in Argyllshire, passing up the Brander Pass to Dalmally, follow- ing the boundary of Perthshire, and including Rannoch Moor. Thence continued north-eastward to the junction of the three counties of Perth, Forfar, and Aberdeen ; thence across the 92 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. sources of the Dee northward to Tomintoul in Banffshire ; and lastly from Tomintoul to the city of Inverness. Northwards and westwards of this line the animal still keeps a footing.” In Argyll at this date it had receded to the more mountainous districts, where, however, it was not very uncommon. In the Hebrides the Wild Cat is unknown. Although existing in North Wales till a comparatively late period, it does not appear that the animal is now found within the limits of the Principality. In spite of many assertions to the contrary, it may now, owing to the careful investigations undertaken by Dr. Hamilton, be taken as certain that the Wild Cat was never an inhabitant of Ireland; all the records of its occurrence there being based on specimens of the Common Cat which had reverted to a wild state, the latest of such supposed instances of the occurrence there of the true Wild Cat having been published in 1885. The first writer to dispute the existence of the Wild Cat in Ireland was the late William Thompson, of Belfast, who, in his “Natural History of Ireland,” published in 1856, wrote that the creature in question “cannot be given with certainty as a native animal.” Never- theless, in the second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds,” which appeared in 1874, the statement from the first edition that the Wild Cat exists in “‘some parts of Ireland” was allowed to reappear without note or comment; and it was not till the appearance of Dr. Hamilton’s paper in the “‘ Proceedings” of the Zoological Society for 1885 that the Wild Cat can be said to have been authoritatively removed from the list of Irish Mammals. Habits.—Like the rest of its family, truculent and savage in its disposition, and endowed with, in proportion to its size, singular strength and activity of body, the Wild Cat is now the only really formidable wild animal to be met with in the WILD CAT. ) 93 British Islands, where it always inhabits wooded, and generally mountainous, districts. In the most secluded and inaccessible parts of such regions the Wild Cat makes its lair, which may be situated either in some dense thicket, in the hollow stem of a decayed tree, or in a cleft or crevice of the rocks, and there it rears its young. Sometimes, however, the female selects in pre- ference the deserted hole of a Badger or Fox in which to litter ; and we have heard of the nest of one of the larger birds being chosen as a nursery. ‘The young, which are born during the early summer, are usually five or six in number, and closely resemble ordinary domestic kittens. After being suckled by the female till such a period as milk no longer satisfies the needs of their appetites, they are fed by her on mice and small birds till such time as they are capable of taking care of them- selves and capturing larger prey, when they are freed from parental control. All who have had any experience of game and game- preserving are well acquainted with the enormous amount of damage that an ordinary Domestic Cat, which has taken either to occasional poaching or to a thoroughly wild life, will inflict on the denizens of their coverts, moors, or warrens. From its larger size and more powerful build, the Wild Cat is a still more serious enemy to game of all kinds; while in the neighbourhood of human habitations it is likewise a foe to poultry and pigeons. No wonder, therefore, that game- keepers wage incessant war against the Wild Cat, shooting and trapping it whenever the opportunity presents itself; indeed, the wonder is that the creature has managed to survive as long as it has. From the extreme boldness and ferocity of its disposition, an angry and wounded Wild Cat, when brought to bay, is no mean antagonist, even for an armed man; and several instances are on record where these creatures have inflictéd considerable harm on their assailants before finally succumbing. 04 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Relation to Domestic Cats.—It has long been a question whether the Domestic Cat is a descendant of the Wild Cat, or whether its origin is to be traced to some other species of the Felide. On the whole, the available evidence is in favour of the latter view ; and it is probable that the Caffre or Egyptian Cat (Felis caffra) of Northern Africa is the real progenitor of “ Pussy.” It is, however, a well-ascertained fact that the various smaller wild species of Cats will interbreed with the Domestic Cats of their respective countries ; and it is accord- ingly highly probable that the prevalence of ‘“‘tabbies’ among the Domestic Cats of Europe generally, and England in particular, may be largely due to intercrossing with the Wild Cat. On the other hand, in India, where Domestic Cats are frequently spotted, it is quite likely that the whole race may have origin- ated from a wild spotted species very markedly distinct from the striped Caffre Cat. It may be added that during the Pleistocene period the range of the latter species extended into South-western Europe, so that there were ample opportunities for its domestication, even if this did not take place in Egypt. THE DOGS, WOLVES, AND FOXES. FAMILY CANIDAE. Easily distinguished therefrom externally by their long, sharp muzzles, as well as general appearance, the Dog-tribe differ from the Ze”de in many important structural features. In the skull, for instance, the auditory bulla, although bladder- like and rounded, is not divided into two chambers by a vertical partition; while the teeth are much more numerous and different in form. ‘Then, again, the blind appendage, or cecum, of the intestine is of considerable length, and generally folded upon itself. Except in the Hunting-Dog (Zycaoz) of the Cape, the toes are numerically the same as in the Cats; but WOLF. 95 the claws are blunt and non-retractile, the feet being digiti- grade. As regards the teeth, the upper flesh-tooth, or last pre- molar, differs from that of the Cats in having only two lobes to its external blade; while the lower flesh-tooth, or first molar, has a large tubercular heel at its hinder extremity, and generally a small cusp on the inner side of the second lobe of its blade. The pre-molars (inclusive of the upper flesh-tooth) are four in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaws; and there are two upper molars, of triangular form, and generally three lower molars, although in certain Asiatic species the hindmost of these, which is always minute, may be absent. Comprising several genera, the Family has an even wider distribution than that of the Cats, since it is represented by a species in Australia, which may, however, have been introduced by human agency. In habits, many of the Canide@ differ from the /¢ide by hunting their prey in packs; while none are climbers in the proper sense of the word. GENUS CANIS. Canis, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 58 (1766). Although the Indian Wild Dogs are often separated as Cyc, while the Foxes are divided off under the title of Vu/A.s, the genus Canzs is here taken to include the great majority of the members of the Family, with which its distribution is co- extensive. Under these circumstances it will be unnecessary in a work of the present nature to give its distinctive characters. I. THE WOLF. CANIS LUPUS. Canis lupus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 58 (1766). Characters.— Belonging to the typical group of the genus, in which the skull is characterised by the presence of air-cells in 96 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. the region of the forehead, and the smooth and convex form of the triangular process marking the hinder border of the socket for the eye, while the tail is less than half the length of the head and body and is only moderately bushy, the Wolf possesses the following special features. Size large ; fur long and thick, with a woolly under-fur. General colour rufous or yellowish-grey, more or less mingled with black in some specimens; under-parts whitish ; tail frequently tipped with black; under-fur of back pale slaty or light brown, with coarse whitish hairs intermingled. Length of head and body, from 3% to 334 feet; of tail, 18 or 19 inches, inclusive of the hair at the tip. Great individual variation obtains as regards colour, some specimens being much paler than usual, while others are nearly, or quite, black. Extinction in Britain—The fate which is impending over the Wild Cat in Britain has long since befallen its canine cousin the Wolf, on which account the latter species, together with the Bear and the Beaver, is generally omitted in works on the Mammals of Britain. If, however, ornithologists are right in including the Great Auk, now totally extinct, and the Caper- cailzie, which, after complete extermination, has been reintro- duced into our islands, in works on British birds, there can be no question as to the claim of the above-mentioned Mammals to a place in the British fauna, since whether the extermination took place forty or four hundred years ago is a matter of no moment. Distributed over the greater part of Europe, and ranging eastwards through Asia north of the Himalaya, while the North American form is apparently not specifically distinct, the Wolf, during the Pleistocene period, seems to have occurred over the whole of the British Islands. The earliest horizon in which its remains occur is the so-called ‘‘forest-bed” of the Norfolk coast, which belongs to the very earliest portion of the Pleistocene WOLF. 97 period, if, indeed, it should not be assigned to the preceding Pliocene epoch. Lupine remains are also commonly found in the brick-earths of the Thames Valley and other parts of the south of England; while they likewise occur in most or all of the British caverns, inclusive of those of the Pentland Hills in Scotland, and of Shandon in Ireland. Although the records of the gradual extermination of the Wolf from Britain are unfortunately far from complete, such as exist have been carefully examined by Mr. J. E. Harting, from whose writings the following extracts are taken. During the Saxon period so numerous were these animals in England, and so terrible were their devastations during the winter, that January was commonly designated the ‘‘ Wolf-month,” and the attempts of the pre-Norman sovereigns to reduce their num- bers appear to have made but comparatively small impression upon them. During the twelfth century Wolves were still abundant in the New Forest and other districts of Hampshire, while in the “ Book of St. Alban’s,” written about 1481, wolf- hunting during the winter months is mentioned as a royal and noble sport. Comparatively soon after this date, that is to say, some time between the years 1485 and 1509, during the reign of Henry the Seventh, it appears, however, that, under the inducement of rewards for their destruction, Wolves finally became extinct in England. In Scotland, on the other hand, as might have been expected from the nature of the country, they flourished to a much later date, the numbers of these animals during the reign of James the Fourth, at the close of the fifteenth and commencement of the sixteenth centuries being very great, and at times increasing to an alarming extent. By 1620, if we may judge from fhe price (£6 13s. 4d.) paid for a single skin, it would appear, however, that they had be- come scarce, and for miny years it was commonly believed that the last Scottish Wolf was killed in the year 1680. This, 5 H 98 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTCRY. however, is now known to be incorrect, it being well ascer- tained that these animals survived to a much later date, not improbably, indeed, nearly to the middle of the eighteenth century in Sutherland, where tradition points to the last Wolf having been slain in the year 1743. Much the same story is told with regard to Ireland, where in the middle of the seventeenth century, a special Order in Council was promulgated in Dublin relating to the destruction Skull o: Fox. of Wolves, on account of their apparently increasing numbers at that date. Even as late as about the year 1700 they still existed in the great forests on the borders of counties Wicklow and Carlow. When their final extermination was accomplished history telleth not, although it was probably some time between the years 1766 and 1770, inclusive. As being no longer an inhabitant of Britain, it will be un- necessary to enter into the consideration of the habits of the Wolf. II. THE FOX. CANIS VULPES. Canis vulpes et C. alopex, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 59 (1766). Vulpes monianus, Blyth, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal vol, xi. p- 589. ‘XOd HHL xT HLW1d FOX. a9 Vulpes flavescens, Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xi. p. 18 (1843). Vulpes vulgaris, Bell (ex Brisson), British Quadrupeds p. 252 (ieay); 2ndtedsp: 226) (a7 4): Vulpes alopex, Blanford, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1887 p. 635; id Mammals of British India p. 153 (1888). (Plate IX.) Characters—As the typical representative of the Vulpine group of the genus, the Fox differs from the Wolf in the ab- sence of air-cells in the forehead of the skull, as well as in the upper surface of the triangular process defining the hinder bor- der of the socket for the eye being concave. This group is further characterised by the more slender build of the body, the longer and more bushy tail, which always considerably ex- ceeds half the length of the head and body, and the pro- portionately shorter limbs. The ears are large ; the pupil of the eye, when seen in a strong light, forms a vertical ellipse, and the number of teats is only six, against ten, or more rarely eight, in the Wolf group. The present species may be defined as a large, and in winter richly coloured, Fox, its general colour in Britain being reddish- brown above and white beneath, with the backs of the ears black, and the tip of the tail white. Length of head and body from about 27 to 34 inches; o. tail, from 12 to 15 inches. In the ordinary British Fox there is no great amount of variation in colour ; the upper-parts being reddish-brown, mixed with some white hairs on the shoulders, thighs, flanks, rump, and tail. The muzzle is blackish, the inner surfaces and edges of the ears whitish, their outer surfaces black, with slight spots of white ; the tail pale reddish, with the tips of the long hairs brownish-black, and the extremity white. The lower portion of the cheeks, the under part of the neck, as well as the chest and under-parts generally, together with the H 2 100 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. inner surface of the thighs, a narrow line down the front of the hind-legs, and the hinder and inner surfaces of the fore-legs, are white. The front portion of the feet is black, that colour extending upwards nearly to the elbow and knee; the whiskers are likewise black ; while the hair on the soles of the feet is deep red, the claws being light brown. There are, however, certain racial or individual variations in the colour even of the British Fox. Macgillivray, for instance, observes that the largest race, “or that which occurs in the Highland districts, has the fur of a stronger texture and of a greyer tint, there being a greater proportion of whitish hairs on the back and hind-quarters, while two or more inches of the end of the tail are white. The Fox of the lower districts is consider- ably smaller, more slender, of a lighter red, with the tail also white at the end. Individuals of a smaller size, having the head proportionately larger, the fur of a darker red, the lower parts dusky or dull brownish-white, and the tip of the tail either with little white or none, occur in the hilly parts of the southern division of Scotland. The skull of the Highland Fox appears remarkably large and strong beside that of the ordinary kind, and the breadth is much greater in proportion.” Occasionally Foxes are killed in England with the tip of the tail grey or black ; and a pure white Fox was killed in 1887 by the Taunton Vale Hounds, in the West Somerset country. Of more interest is the circumstance that some time previous to 1864, a young Fox was killed in Warwickshire in which the whole of the under parts were of a greyish-black hue. The coloration of this individual resembled that obtaining in the Foxes of Southern Europe ; and assuming it to have been a native-bred animal, the occurrence of an individual of this southern race in England is a matter of some importance from a distributional point of view. In Wales, as Mr. W. E. de Winton tells me, a blackish-brown form of Fox sometimes occurs. FOX. IOI Regarding the Warwickshire specimen, Mr. Trevor-Battye remarks :—‘“‘ I agree about the interest of this specimen, but it raises a question. By this time the native blood must be pretty well diluted, and I suspect that we should find, had we proper means of enquiry, that our Foxes are now larger than they were, say, thirty years ago. The Swedish Fox, imported of late years into this country, is a decidedly larger animal than the native English Fox—larger even, I believe, and I have seen many examples of both forms, than the ‘Greyhound’ Fox, as the gillies call the inhabitant of the Scottish hills.” Distribution—The ordinary variety of the Fox extends over the whole of Northern and Central Europe, being replaced in the south by the above-mentioned black-bellied race. In Central Asia we meet with a third variety, known as the Yellow Fox, and characterised by its general pale yellowish coloration, and the thickness of the tail, although it still retains the black ears and white tip to the tail of the English race. Nearly allied to the last isthe handsome Himalayan variety, commonly termed the Mountain-Fox, which differs so remarkably in its winter dress from the typical form as to have been long regarded as a distinct species. In this variety the colour of the fur of the back varies from chestnut to iron-grey, and the shoulders are frequently ornamented by a dark transverse stripe, while the throat and under-parts are more or less dusky. In its black-backed ears and white-tipped tail it resembles, however, the South European race. Yet another race, commonly known as the Nile Fox, inhabits Egypt. In North America we have other Foxes, now regarded merely as geographical races of the British species ; one of these being the well-known Cross-Fox, taking its name from the presence of a more or less well-defined dark shoulder-stripe. Lastly, the beautiful and valuable Silver Fox of the same regions is nothing more than a dark-coloured variety of the same widely- spread and variable species. 102 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. In Britain, as we learn from the evidence of its fossilised remains, the Fox is one of the oldest Mammalian inhabitants of the country, its earliest occurrence being in the sandy beds of the Red Crag of the East Coast, which belong to the upper portion of the Pliocene period. Its remains are likewise met with abundantly in the brick-earths of the Thames valley and other parts of England, as well as in nearly all the English caverns and some of those of Ireland. They do not appear, however, to have been recorded in a fossilised state from Scotland. To a large extent, owing to its preservation for the purpose of hunting, the Fox is still a common animal throughout England ; but had it not been for this artificial protection it would doubtless, in the more cultivated and open southern portions of the country, have shared the fate that has befallen the Wild Cat. In Scotland the Fox, according to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, is almost universally distributed on the mainland ; but is absent from all the islands, with the exception of Skye. There is, indeed, a statement that “the Fox was at one time common in Mull, but has been long since killed out” ; even, however, if this be true, it is most probable that its occurrence there was due to accidental or intentional importation. Of its occurrence in Ireland, ‘Thompson, writing more than forty years ago, observes that “the Fox, like the Otter, is still found in suitable localities throughout the island, wherever it can remain in spite of man. In many parts of the country this species is abundant, but in no district of which I am aware have so many been taken as on the mountains in the south of the county of Down.” It may be added that in the north of England the short- legged race inhabiting the open low grounds is commonly termed the “ Terrier-Fox”; while to the larger long-legged and long-muzzled mountain race the name of ‘‘ Greyhound-Fox ” is applied. FOX. 103 Habits—The habits and history of the Fox, or rather the British variety of the same, are so well-known as to require but brief notice ; and we shall accordingly content ourselves with extracting Macgillivray’s admirable summary from the original edition of the ‘‘ Naturalist’s Library.” The Fox, he writes, ‘‘resides in burrows, which it excavates for itself in sandy or gravelly soil, in woods or thickets, or on shady banks or the slopes of hills, remaining concealed all day, and coming abroad towards evening. Its food consists chiefly of the flesh of Mammals, birds, and reptiles. In the wilder parts it often destroys lambs, and in the more populous frequently commits great havoc among poultry; but its favourite game are Partridges, Grouse, Rabvits, and Leverets. Insects and worms have also been found in its stomach, and in the maritime districts it has been known to frequent the shores in quest of crustaceous and molluscous animals.’” “It is said to live in pairs, and the young, from three to five in number, are born towards the end of spring. The female exhibits great courage and address in defending them. The sagacity of the Fox is proverbial, and frequently enables it to escape the snares laid for it. Marvellous stories are related respecting the stratagems which it employs to elude pursuit ; and although many of these may be exaggerated, there can be little doubt that its instinctive vigilance and cunning are great. When obtained young, it may be domes- ticated so far as to allow a person with whom it is acquainted to handle it, but cannot be depended upon, as it exhibits no gratitude towards benefactors, forms no strong attachment, and is ever ready to embrace the opportunity of making its escape. it is said to attain the age of fourteen or fifteen years in captivity.” It may be added that the habit of burrowing is by no means universally characteristic of the species. the Himalayan variety 104 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. living in thickets or on cultivated landia such shelter as it can find ready to hand. In conclusion, it may be mentioned that there has been much discussion as to whether the Fox will interbreed with the Domestic Dog. On this point Mr. Trevor-Battye writes: “TI admit that this is hard to prove. But I myself believe in such instances. I knowa Dog at this moment at Pett, near Has- tings, which is credited with being the offspring of such a combination. And anyone who saw him would, I will under- take to say, believe it without proof. It leans to the Fox in its habits, the texture of its hair, its brush, and its voice, which it seldom uses. It is beyond question that the North Ameri- can Indians, the Crees for example, with whom I stayed for some time, are in the constant habit of tying up their dogs away in the bush, in order that they may pair with the Wolves, and the morose result of this alliance every hunter knows.” On the other hand, although such interbreeding has often been asserted to have occurred, several such alleged instances having recently been recorded in the sporting papers, in the opinion of some of those best qualified to give an authoritative judg- ment on the subject, such unions are quite unknown. Mr. W. E. de Winton, however, writes to me on this subject: “In the pack of Otter-hounds hunted by the late Hon. Geoffrey Hill, there was one which, he told me, was a cross bya Prairie Wolf. In the Worcester Museum is an animal, killed near Leibury about two years ago, which is undoubtedly a cross between a Fox and a Dog. It was shot wild, and can only be the result of such an union.” MARTENS, WEASELS, OTTERS, ETC. FAMILY MUSTELID. The third great Family of Carnivores represented in the British Isles, which includes the Martens, Weasels, Badgers, MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 105 Otters, and their allies, differs widely both from the Fedde and the Cam/de in the structure of the base of the hinder part of the skull. In place of the bladder-like and rounded auditory bulla characterising the two latter groups, in the present family this portion of the skull is depressed, with no dividing partition, its inner border being the most prominent, and thence it gradually slopes away towards the tube conduct- ing to the internal ear, of which tube the lower lip is prolonged. The intestine is devoid of any blind appendage (czecum) ; and the toes are always five in number on each foot. The present Family is specially distinguished from others, in which the above features occur, by the following points: The upper molar teeth are reduced to a single pair, which are peculiar in that their inner border is wider than the outer ; while (with the exception of the Indian and African Ratels, where they are reduced to one) there are two pairs of molar teeth, the first of which is the flesh-tooth. ‘The number of pre-molar teeth is very variable, even within the limits of a single genus. Having, with the exception of Australasia, a world-wide distribution, the members of this Family present none of that external similarity of form so characteristic of the repre- sentatives of the two preceding families ; and they exhibit a similar diversity of habit ; some, like the Martens and Weasels, being more or less fitted fur climbing, while others, like the Badgers, are burrowing animals, and others, again, like the Otters, aquatic. MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. GENUS MUSTELA. Mustela, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 66 (1766). The members of this genus, together with certain allied forms which are generally separated and have no representa- tives in the British Isles, collectively constitute a special sub- family of the AZustelide. ‘Terrestrial and more or less arboreal 106 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. in their habits, all these animals have short and partially-webbed toes, with short, sharp, compressed, curved, and frequently partially retractile claws. The upper molar tooth is trans- versely elongated, and consequently wider than long. In all cases the body is much elongated, while the limbs are short. In the genus JZustela the relative length of the body and limbs, like that of the tail, is subject to considerable variation ; the feet are nearly or completely digitigrade ; and the claws are partially retractile. Whereas in the typical forms, or Martens, the number of pre-molar teeth is four pairs in each jaw, in the Polecats and Weasels they are reduced to three. On account of this difference in the number of their teeth, coupled with their more elongated and snake-like bodies, many naturalists separate the Polecats, Stoats, and Weasels from the Martens as a distinct genus (Pe¢orius) ; although, to our think- ing, such a sub-division is quite unnecessary. I. PINE MARTEN. MUSTELA MARTES. Mustela martes, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 67 (1766). Martes sylvatica, Nilsson, Skand. Fauna vol. i. p. 41 (1820). Martes abietum, Fleming, British Animals p. 14 (1828); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 217 (1874). (Plate X.) Characters—Four pre-molar teeth; tail, with the hair, as long as the body; general colour rich brown ; throat and chest yellow; upper flesh-tooth with its outer margin concave; upper molar (last tooth) simply rounded externally. It was long thought that two species of Marten inhabited the British Islands, namely, the present species and the Beech- Marten (AZ. foina), the latter being distinguished by its white throat and chest, narrower skull, the convex outer border of the upper flesh-tooth, and the notch on the outer side of the upper molar. It was, however, definitely shown by Alston in “NHLGVWN-ANId AHL xX FLV Td MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. IO7 the “ Proceedings” of the Zoological Society for 1869, that the Beech-Marten is not tound within our limits. The Marten has the body of moderate elongation and slen- derness, and the tail relatively long ; the head being somewhat triangular in form, with the muzzle pointed, the eyes prominent, and the ears large and rounded. The body is covered, during the winter at least, with fur of two kinds, the outer fur being very long, glossy, and ash-coloured at the base, with some shade of brown at the tip, but varying in intensity on the different regions of the body, the middle of the back, the tail, and the outer surfaces of the limbs being darker than elsewhere. The throat and chest are yellow, and the remainder of the under- parts are greyish ; while the edges and insides of the ears are whitish. The under-fur is yellowish-grey. The length of the head and body is about 18 inches; and that of the tail, inclu- sive of the hair at the tip, about 13 inches. Distribution. The range of the Pine-, or, as it is sometimes called, the Yellow-throated, Marten includes the whole of Nor- thern Europe; but it is replaced in North-eastern Asia by the closely-allied Sable (AZ. ztbe//ina), in which the fur is still longer and silkier, and consequently of greater value. On the other hand, the Beech-Marten occurs throughout the greater part of Europe, although not in the extreme north, and ranges east- wards into Western Asia, where it extends probably through- out a large portion of the higher Himalaya. Occurring in a fossil state in the Norfolk forest-bed, as well as in the caves of Bleadon, Long Hole, Ravenscliff, and Sprit- sail Tor in England, and in that of Shandon in Ireland, the Pine-Marten was probably at one time a common animal throughout the forest-clad districts of the country. It has, however, now practically disappeared from the greater part of the southern and midland districts of England, although occa- sional stray examples are mow and then met with. Even, 108 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. indeed, ina county with so much wild country in it as Leices- ter, the Marten, according to Mr. Montagu Browne, appears to have been completely exterminated, although it was at one time exceedingly abundant there. It still lingers, however, in Suffolk and North Devon, and, it is believed, in Epping Forest, and has been lately recorded from Hampshire. In the Lake district of Cumberland the species is, however, still fairly common, and is regularly hunted during the winter with a few couples of Beagles or Foxhounds, accompanied by several Terriers. Although most numerous in Cumberland, the Marten is also found occasionally in the mountainous districts of Northumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, and around Furness in Lancashire. It is likewise found in North Wales. In Scotland, Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley write that the Marten now appears to be scarcer than the Wild Cat, ‘being extinct in many places frequented by the latter, but, curiously enough, it has survived overa larger area up toa later date, that is to say, that while the boundaries of the country at present inhabited by the Wild Cat are easily defined, and are gradu- ally contracting, the occurrences of the Marten are more sporadic, often turning up in localities, far distant from one another, where no records had previously occurred for many years.” Mr. W. E. de Winton tells me that there is no doubt that it existed on the islands of Lewis and Harris up to about twenty years ago. In Thompson’s time the Marten was found all over Ireland in suitable localities, but was even then becoming scarce, and its numbers have doubtless considerably diminished since that date, although it is not uncommon in Kerry. Commenting on a note relating to the distribution of the Marten, by Mr. J. E. Harting, Mr. Barrett-Hamilton writes that ‘I have been for some time collecting notes on the distribution and life-history of this animal in Ireland, and MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 109 indeed of all our native Irish Mammals. I had at first contem- plated the publication of a list of localities in Ireland where the Marten has been found of late years, but an accumulation of notes has convinced me that this animal is much more common in the wooded parts of Ireland than is generally supposed, and consequently that such an article would be almost as unnecessary as one on the distribution in Ireland of such common Irish Mammals as the Otter or Badger. I think the statement that ‘at one time, in all probability, the Marten must have been generally distributed in Ireland, but as civilisa- tion has extended inland from the east and south, and as woods have been cut down, and the country opened up by railways, drainage, and cultivation, so has this animal been gradually driven into the wilder portions of the north and west,’ needs considerable modification. No doubt the Marten is now being driven out from the east and south, but it is only of late that this has been the case, and I contend that even in the more highly-cultivated parts of the eastern counties of Ireland it would be an impossibility to name a county in which the animal has not occurred recently. Taking the eastern counties from north to south, Mr. Harting’s own notes establish its occurrence more than once in Antrim in 1893, while in Down (again quoting from the same article), ‘ amidst the wild and broken ground of the Mourne Mountains, . . . the Marten will probably for some time yet to come defy the efforts of its would-be exterminators.’ From Louth and Meath I have no records by me, but there is little doubt that stragglers are still occasionally found in those counties, since they lie quite close to more favoured counties. From the small county of Dublin there is no recent record, but the outer parts of the county are not so far from the woods of Wicklow, which are still one of the strongholds of the Marten; and even in Wexford, ‘ the madel county’ of Ireland, its occurrence has been noted as IIO LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. late as June, 1892, a fact which is not at all surprising when we consider that Wexford comes next to Kilkenny, a county in some parts of which the Marten is still plentiful.” Habits.—_-An excellent climber, the Marten during part of the year is a denizen of woods and plantations ; but, as we shall see below, in some districts at least is to be found in the open rocky country. Occasionally it has been known to take up its abode near a farmyard, and to wage war on the smaller denizens thereof. As a rule four or five young form a litter, but the number may vary from two to seven; andasat least two litters are produced in a year, the Marten may be regarded as a prolific animal, so that it is only as the result of continual persecution that it is so rapidly becoming exterminated. Its usual food comprises such birds as it can kill, together with their eggs, the smaller mammals, and reptiles. Writing of the habits of these animals in the north of England, Mr. F. Nicholson says that when hunted, “ they usually make at once for the rocks and crevices, going at a great pace at first, but are soon run into unless they succeed in reaching some hole in a crag where hounds and huntsmen cannot follow. They fight desperately with both claws and feet. When before hounds on level and snow-clad ground they proceed with a succession of astonishing long leaps, often six or seven feet apart. They do not usually come down to the wooded parts of the country except for breeding purposes, but the greater part of the year they follow the screes and higher fell-ground. ‘Though they generally come down to the woods in the valleys in April and May to have their young ones, selecting some old Magpie’s nest or Squirrel’s drey for a home, still they sometimes breed in the rocks near the tops of the highest hills. It is only at such times that the Marten is easily trapped, for, unlike the Polecat, it does not approach a given spot by one track. They do not seem so suspicious of TEX aLV Id “LVOWT1Od ey, yee vs A)! ares og is {] CUAL MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. ert traps as some wild animals, or as the Polecat. If you find traces of, or see the latter about a building, you will most likely find a run near by which it frequents, and a trap has only to be set, and it will be taken ; not so with the Marten, as it is only by accident that it is captured in this manner.” The writer then goes on to say that, owing to their partiality for Rabbits and their unsuspiciousness of baited traps, where the latter animals are systematically trapped, a considerable number of Martens are accidentally caught. If taken at a sufficiently early age, Martens can be readily tamed, when they display considerable attachment to their owners ; and since they lack the disgusting odour of the Pole- cat and most other members of the Weasel tribe, they form rather agreeable pets. Although much less valuable than that of the Sable, the fur of the Pine-Marten is of considerable commercial importance, an average of about three thousand skins being yielded annually, according to Mr. Poland, by Courland and Lithuania alone. Although of late years considerably depreciated in price, good Marten skins even now fetch about ten shillings each in the market. Il. THE POLECAT. - MUSTELA PUTORIUS. Mustela putortus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. 1. p. 67 (1766) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 203 (1874). Fetor.us putorius, Neyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere Europ. p. 62 (1840). Putorius fetidus, Gray, List Mamm. Brit. Mus. p. 64 (1843). Putorius vulgaris, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 112 (1846). (Plate X/.) Character.—Size medium ; body very long and ‘slim ; tail and limbs relatively short; three pairs of pre-molar teeth in each jaw; fur long, dark brown, with the under-fur yellowish ; head blackish with white markings in the neighbourhood of 112 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. the ears and mouth. Length of head and body about 17 inches ; of tail, including hair at the end, 7 inches. The Polecat, Fitchet, Fitchet-Weasel, or Foumart (= Foul Marten), as it is indifferently called, is the largest British re- presentative of the sub-genus Puéorius, which includes the whole of the remaining species of AZwstela. Macgillivray, in the original edition of this work, describes it as follows : * The head Polecats and Moorhen. is of moderate size, oblong, or oval-triangular, when viewed from above, with the muzzle rather rounded; the ears short, and broadly rounded ; the neck of moderate length and very thick ; the body very long; the feet short and strong. On the anterior limb the first toe is very short, the fifth or outer a little longer, the fourth next, the second a little shorter than the latter. On the hind-foot the first toe is also very short, the — MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 113 second longer than the fifth, the third longest, but the fourth almost equal. The eyes are small, with the iris dark brown ; the claws rather long, compressed, arched, and a greyish- yellow tint. The under-fur is very soft and woolly ; the pile long and rather coarse, but smooth and glossy. The general colour is dark brown, the long hairs brownish-black, the under- fur yellowish ; the lower parts of the neck and body, with the feet and tail, darker than the rest, the sides yellowish-brown ; the lips white, as are the ears anteriorly and along the tip behind ; and between the eye and ear is a brownish-white patch.* Distribution—The geographical range of the Polecat includes the greater portion of Europe, its northern limits extending to the south of Sweden, and in Russia to the White Sea ; it is, however, unknown in the extreme south, and its predilection for a cool climate is indicated by the circumstance that during the summer it ascends in the Alps far above the forest limit. In England, owing to the relentless persecution of gamekeepers, it is one of those species fast approaching extinction, being now but rarely met with in most of the southern and midland counties. Mr. Montagu Browne,.for instance, writes that in Leicestershire and Rutlandshire it is becoming increasingly rare, and will soon be exterminated. In the Lake district, where these animals were once so abundant that in one unusually good season as many as thirty-nine were killed, we are told by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson that within the last thirty years, * Mr. W. E. de Winton writes :—‘‘ The winter fur becomes pale and faded before it is shed in May. By the first of June the fur is entirely changed in both sexes. The female, or ‘Jill? changes her entire coat directly she has young, at the end of April or beginning of May. The male, or ‘ Hob,’ changes his more leisurely throughout the month of May. He is then known as the ‘Black Ferret,’ and has a beautiful purplish-black coat. As in all A/ustelide, the male is half as big again as the female, Ihave kept Polecats alive, and know where they are still fairly plentiful.” 2 J 114 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. mainly owing to the employment of steel traps, they have become very scarce. ‘The narrow strip of marshy and heavily- timbered country extending from Bowness is, however, still a stronghold for this much-persecuted creature, and one from which it will with difficulty be completely exterminated. Al- though to southern ears the idea of hunting such an insig- nificant animal with hounds appears absurd, yet Foumart- hunting was at one time a favourite sport of the Westmore- land dalesmen; the hunts generally taking place during the night in midwinter. Much the same story is told with regard to Scotland, in many parts of which it has become well-nigh exterminated. Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley observe that the causes which have operated in the case of the Marten have likewise reduced the numbers of the Polecat. ‘“ Rabbit- trapping has proved fatal to it; for whilst the increase of Rabbits has provided abundance of food, it has been the indirect means of causing the decrease of the species by the agency of steel traps. Inland localities, formerly inhabited by Polecats, have been deserted by them, for, drawing down towards the sandy burrows to prey upon the Rabbits, they themselves became an easy prey.” In the Hebrides and other islands the Polecat seems to have always been unknown. Although Thompson had doubts of its occurrence, there appears good evidence that the Polecat, in his time at least, was an inhabitant of the woods of Kerry, Down, and other parts of Ireland. Habits.—-A dreaded enemy to all gime-preservers, the Pole- cat possesses, for its size, a remarkable combination of strength and agi ity. Dwe'ling generally in woods and copses, or thicket- clad hills, it selects as a retreat and hiding-place either an empty Rabbit-burrow, a crevice among the rocks, or even the cavities in a heap of stones. In such a spot the female, during May or June, gives birth to from four to six young. Remaining MARTENS POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 115 quiet during the day, and issuing forth towards evening, the Polecat, writes Macgillivray, when settled in the neighbourhood of a farm-yard, will, at times, commit “great depredations among the poultry, sucking the eggs, and killing the chickens, grown-up fowls, and even turkeys and geese. Not satisfied with obtaining enough to allay its hunger, it does not intermit its ravages until it has destroyed all within its reach, so that the havoc it makes is not less subject of surprise than of indignation to those on whom it has inflicted its unwelcome visit. It generally perforates the skull of its victim, and is said to devour the brain first, as well as to suck the blood. If un- disturbed it sometimes satisfies its hunger on the spot, and in the midst of its slaughtered victims, but in general it carries its prey to some safe retreat. Its ferocity, cunning, and extreme agility, render it a great enemy to game of all kinds; and it destroys the eggs of Pheasants, Grouse, and Partridges, seizes the birds on their nests, pursues Rabbits into their burrows, and frequently seizes on young Hares. Besides birds and a Skull of Polecat. mammals, it also feeds on fishes and frogs, which have, in some instances, been found in its nest.” Our illustration, which is taken from Bewick, commemorates an instance when a Polecat was frequently seen to resort to the bank of a river for the purpose of catching Eels, which were carried off to its retreat, where no less than eleven were discovered. Mr. Trevor-Battye writes :—‘‘The Polecat is an expert U2 116 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. swimmer. Kept in captivity it shows a great fondness for water, and will not hesitate to plunge in and pick up food from the bottom of a bath full of water. Captive Polecats are frequently early overtaken by blindness.” Although both the Polecat and the Stoat are regarded—and on the whole rightly—as unmitigated vermin, to be ruthlessly destroyed whenever met with, there can be no doubt, as Mr. Harting remarks, there was a time, before the days of strict preserving, when both these animals lived among game of all kinds without causing any diminution in the numbers of the latter. Indeed, it is by no means improbable that they were an actual advantage, since by killing off all the weakly and maimed individuals of the various kinds of game they led toa survival of the fittest. The Ferret 1s a pale-coloured and almost albino domesticated variety of the Polecat, which is, however, much improved by crossing with the dark-coloured wild race. Mr. Trevor-Battye says :—‘ A wild-caught Polecat, though always difficult to handle, can easily be worked like a Ferret for Rats; and in this work they are far superior to Ferrets, owing to their extreme agility. They do not delay inthe hole, but, on the Rat bolting, follow it out and catch it in a couple of bounds.” Ill. THE STOAT, OR ERMINE. MUSTELA ERMINEA. Mustela erminea, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. 1. p. 68 (1766); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 191 (1874). Jetorius erminea, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere Europ. p. 69 (1840). | Putorius ermineus, Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. p. 116 (1846). (7lates XTI. and XTJ/1,) ‘SsuHud HAWNNS NI LVOLS visa per] suognu eg Sa iit NU RE i ON te ol an N aE iar dies Si eg < ol $ Tx @LVvId MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 117 Characters.—S'!ze considerably smaller than the last; fur short; tail shorter than the body; colour reddish-brown above, with the chin and under-parts, as well as the inner surfaces of the limbs and the feet, yellowish-white ; tip of tail black. In winter, in high latitudes and altitudes, the colour is yellowish-white, with a black tip to the tail. Length of head and body of male about 1034 inches; of tail, 614 inches ; female considerably smaller. Although by non-zoological persons the Stoat or Ermine is often confounded with the Polecat, it is, in addition to its smaller size, such a very different-looking animal that there ought not to be the slightest difficulty in distinguishing between the two. Macgillivray, in the original edition of the ‘ Na- turalist’s Library,” describes it as having the body “ much elongated, and of nearly equal thickness in its whole length ; its neck rather long and nearly as thick as the body; its head oblong, flattened above, with a rather obtuse muzzle ; the tail of moderate length, and the fur short. On the fore-foot the first toe is very small, the second Jonger than the fifth, the third longest, the fourth a little shorter; under the last joint of each is a bare tubercle. On the hind-feet are also five bare tubercles, and the toes have nearly the same proportions as those of the fore-feet ; the soles covered with hair. The ears are rather large, broad, and rounded, with a slit in the pos- terior margin, forming a lobe there. ‘The pile is shortish and soft; the hairs acuminate, a little flattened, and _ slightly curved or undulated ; the under-fur very soft and woolly ; the moustache-bristles long ; the coarse hairs on the terminal half of the tail very long.” The most remarkable peculiarity about the Stoat, and one whereby it differs widely from all its congeners, is the assump- tion, in the colder portions of its habitat, of the yellowish-white 118 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. winter-dress. Universal in the higher regions of Scotland, this change takes place comparatively seldom in the south of England, while in the northern counties, although frequent, it is by no means general. Somewhat curiously, the change from the brown to the white dress does not appear by any means always coincident with the advent of winter, or even the approach of cold weather, Stoats having been often killed, even in the south of England, which had undergone a partial change of colour during the earlyautumn. Mr. Harting states, indeed, that he knew an instance of a pure white Stoat being killed in Monmouthshire in the beginning of August. It is possible, however, that this may have been a case where the white coat was retained throughout the year ; since, according to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, the Stoats on the sum- mit of Ben Nevis are to be seen at all seasons in their white winter-dress. Much discussion has arisen how the change from brown to white in the fur takes place, Bell observing that “this is effected not by the loss of the summer coat and the substitution of a new one for the winter, but by the actual change of colour in the existing fur.” This theory has, how- ever, been called in question ; and it is now generally admitted that Macgillivray was right when he attributed the change to growth of new hairs differing in colour from those of the old coat. With regard to the spring change, he writes that ‘so early as the end of March, and the beginning of April, if the weather be mild, the colour of the upper-parts changes toa dull brownish-red, but the lower remain white, and the black hairs of the extremity of the tail are the same at all seasons. This change is not effected by an alteration in the colour of the same hairs, but by the gradual substitution of brown for white hairs. . . . On the whole, it appears to me that in spring, and the beginning of summer, when the animal had assumed its white colour in winter all the red hairs that SSdud HALNIM NI LVOLS TX MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 11g appear are new. ‘Towards December, earlier if the weather be very cold, later if less so, the hairs of the upper-parts become white. In an individual obtained in December, 1834, the colour was a mixture of white and brownish-red. The hairs of the latter colour were not in the least degree faded, and those of the former weve much shorter, and evidently just shooting ; so that the change from brown to white would seem to take place by the substitution of new white hairs for those of the summer-dress. But in mild winters the hairs retain their red colour, and if new hairs come in, they are also red; if the weather become colder, the new hairs that appear are white, although the old hairs do not vary; and, if there are alterna- tions of severe cold and temperate weather, the animal becomes mottled.” Owing to the mild climate in Ireland, the Stoat, which is there very common, does not, according to Thompson, undergo a seasonal colour-change.* Distribution Unlike the two preceding representatives of the genus, the Stoat is a circum-polar animal, ranging through Northern Europe, Asia, and America. Commonly distributed throughout the British Islands, it appears in England to be less abundant than the Weasel, although the reverse of this obtains in Scotland. In the latter country this animal is an inhabitant of the Hebrides and other islands, but, according to Mr. de Winton, it is absent in Lewis. In common with those of the Polecat and Weasel, fossilised remains of the Stoat have been found in several of the English caverns. Habits.—As regards its mode of life, Macg Il-vray wr-tes that * T have received the following note from Mr. W. E. de Winton :— **The changes of fur are the same in all the A/uste/zde. The Stoat is, normally, yellow in wister and brown in summer. The female turns white in winter more often than the male, and is generally flecked with white, even in summer, in old animals. White males are hardly known in England. The male has a yellow stain through the whole pelage, and is paler than the female.” 120 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. “the Stoat frequents stony places and thickets, among which it finds a secure retreat, as its agility enables it to outstrip even a Dog in a short race, and the slimness of its body allows it to enter a very small aperture. Patches of furze, in particular, afford it perfect security, and it sometimes takes possession of a Rabb:t’s burrow. It preys on game and other birds, from the Grouse and Ptarmigan downwards, sometimes attacks poultry or sucks their eggs, and is a determined enemy to Rats and Voles. Young Rabbits and Hares frequently become victims to its rapacity, and even full-grown individuals are sometimes destroyed by it. Although, in general, it does not appear to hunt by scent, yet it has been seen to trace its prey like a Dog, following its track with certainty. Its motions are elegant, and its appearance extremely animated. It moves by leaping or bounding, and is capable of running with great speed, al- though it seldom trusts itself beyond the immediate vicinity of cover. Under the excitement of pursuit, however, its courage is surprising, for it will attack, seize by the throat, and cling to a Grouse, Hare, or other animal strong enough to carry it off, and it does not hesitate on occasion to betake itself to the water.” The young, usually from five to eight in number, are born in April or May, and are blind for nine days after birth. They remain with the mother till the autumn, and are full- grown by the following spring. It may be added that the Stoat is an expert climber, having been known to ascend trees for the purpose of attacking birds on their nests and eating their eggs or young. Mr. de Winton writes :—‘‘Old Stoats whose teeth are worn are inveterate egg-eaters. I took forty- two Pheasant’s eggs from one hole in May, 1894, and have got the skin of the old ‘ Hob’ who amassed this larder.” In the autumn large parties of Stoats have, on several occa- sions, been encountered on the march, as though they were un- dertaking a kind of migration, and at such times they are stated MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 2s to be actually dangerous to man, as the whole body will, with but slight provocation, proceed to attack anyone who attempts to bar their progress. ‘They have also been observed to com- bine in hunting Rabbits and Hares, which they follow by scent like a pack of hounds in full cry. The curious kind of para- lysis which seizes a Hare or Rabbit whena Stoat, or even the dimunitive Weasel, is on its track, is too well known to need more than passing mention. At such times the hunted Rodent, after running a short distance, stops, incapable of further movement, until its relentless foe comes up and speedily puts a term to its existence. If taken in such a paralysed con- dition, a Rabbit will be found to have its eyes closed, its heart palpitating violently, and its limbs almost useless ; and it is not till left alone for several minutes that it will revive. Although, owing to the shortness of its fur, the British Stoat in its winter-dress is of no great commercial value, the longer furred skins from Northern Europe and America, constituting the ‘‘ermine” of the fur-trade, have a very high value indeed, and are imported in enormous numbers. The Russian skins are sold in bundles of forty, constituting a “ timber,” of which the present market price varies from twenty to thirty shillings, al- though as much as nine pounds has been realised. Accord- ing to Mr. Poland, to whose work on ‘‘ Fur-bearing Animals,” we are indebted for the foregoing details, over 5,000 Ermine skins were sold in London in 1891 by the Hudson Bay Com- pany alone ; while in 1836 the enormous number of 264,606 were imported. Of late years Stoats have been introduced into New Zealand for the purpose of checking the spread of Rabbits; no less than 3,000 Stoats and Weasels having been sent out from Lincolnshire in 1885. An albino Ermine with a white coat in summer, and lacking the usual black tip to the tail, is on record. 122 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. IV. THE WEASEL. MUSTELA VULGARIS. Vustela vulgaris, Erxleben, Syst. Rég. Animale p. 471 (1777); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 182 (1874). Fetorius vulgaris, Keyserling and Blasius, Wirbelthiere Europ. p. 69 (1840). Putorius vulgaris, Richardson, Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. i. p. 145 (1829). (Plate XTV.) Characters.—Smaller than the last species, from which it is readily distinguished by the absence of a black tip to the re- latively shorter tail ; no seasonal change of colour.* Average length of head and body of male about 8% inches; of tail, 2% inches; the corresponding dimensions in the female being about 7 and 2 inches. To describe in detail the form and general coloration of the Weasel would be but to repeat the statements given under the heading of the Stoat, although the Weasel is a redder ani- mal than the latter. Distribution.— Having, like the Stoat, a circum-polar distribu- tion, the Weasel, although common throughout England, Wales, and Scotland, appears to be unknown in Ireland, where, however, the first-mentioned animal has usurped its name. It is true that in the Zoo/ogist for 1877 the occur- rence of the Weasel in county Mayo is reported; but even if the animal seen were rightly identified, it is possible that it may have been introduced. In the north of Scotland, Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley state that Weasels are common on the mainland ; “and there is not much reason to believe that their numbers have sensibly decreased, though kept, no doubt, * Mr, de Winton writes to me:- ** The Weasel is paler in colour in winter. I believe that none of the A/zs¢e/a¢e@ shed their hair in autumn. The white dress is assumed by a change of pigment, as well as by an accession of white hairs.” “ATX “THSVAM ae Hope BEE Ze SR OS RT te Naat AMAA : cath re ee es Oo y yj Seen Re ee ‘ orn NE - Dy, KS ? “ IS MOT Si aLV Id He WK Wray = WYN CH (0 oe Nth (fn ou a Ned a fea ep PRONG ST 2? Se, ye on Spy EM a lV “Ce. nN ' 5 29? Mowat), Ried MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS. 123 in wholesome check by the efforts of keepers and trappers.” The species is, however, quite unknown in the Hebrides and other Scottish islands. Habits.— Nearly akin to the Stoat in its mode of life, the Weasel, from its inferior dimensions, has the advantage over the latter of being able to pursue in their tortuous underground runs both the Field-Vole and the Mole; and from its relent- less pursuit both of the former and the common Rat, this little Carnivore ought to receive all encouragement at the hands of the farmer, more especially in districts subject to seasonal “‘Vole-plagues.”. We by no means intend to imply that the Weasel, like other benefactors of the human race, has not its faults—-quite the contrary; but, taking all in all, we have little hesitation in saying that the benefits it confers far outweigh the injuries it inflicts. That it has a partiality for small birds, and that it may make an occasional onslaught on the smaller denizens of the poultry-house, may be freely admitted ; but the former depredations are necessarily limited to a few weeks in the year, while the latter are few and far between. In addition to hunting Voles and Rats in their subterranean retreats, the Weasel will likewise pursue them if they attempt to escape by ascending trees or shrubs, as, among his other accomplishments, he is an excellent climber. Whether the Weasel is of sufficient size to carry off hens’ eggs in the same manner as the Stoat, that is, by taking one between the chin and chest, and holding it there safely by bending down the head, we are unaware. Writing in the original edition of the “ Naturalist’s Library,” of the habits of this species, Macgillivray states that it will pursue Rats and Mice “into barns, granaries, and corn-stacks, despatching them generally by a single bite which perforates the brain. In the fields and pastures it has been seen follow- ing its prey by scent, turning and doubling on the track, and 124 il.oyp’s NATURAL HISTORY, pursuing it even into the water. Among grass or herbage it frequently raises itself on its hind-legs to look around, and in a place of security will sometimes allow a person to make a hear approach toit. . . . When its mest as plundered, it defends itself against all assailants, springs upon the Dogs, and even attempts to vent its fury upon their masters. It produces five or six young ones, and is said to litter two or three times in the year.” The extreme playfulness and activity of a litter of young Weasels is well described by Bell. “To the extreme boldness of the Weasel on occasion,” writes Mr. Trevor-Battye, “‘the following fact bears witness. In Sep- tember, 1892, at about one o’clock in the afternoon, when walking along a high road in Kent, a Weasel ran across the road in front, and disappeared ina hole. In a moment it re- appeared, and began quartering the ground with that undu- lating rapidity characteristic of this creature. It was quite regardless of my presence, and presently disappeared again. I moved down the bank, and noticing a movement at the mouth of a little hole, put my hand quickly down and caught a large Field-Vole. As I picked it up, the Weasel followed my hand, and would I am sure have jumped at it for the Vole: but, without thinking, I stupidly threw down the Vole, which the creature seized instantaneously, and carried off into the hedge.” That the Weasel will take to the water when in pursuit of its prey is mentioned in Macgillivray’s account, but it does not appear that it will voluntarily swim for any long distance. An instance is, however, recorded by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, of one of these little animals being taken while swimming across Ulleswater, ata point where the lake is three-quarters of a mile in width. Occasionally, though very rarely, the Weasel is stated to turn white in winter, the tail then retaining its reddish hue, although becoming paler than ordinary. BADGER. Meals The Weasel is subject to considerable variation in size, which once gave rise to the idea that there might possibly be two species. Thus Gilbert White wrote that “some intelligent country people have a notion that we have, in these parts, a species of the genus Afus/elinum, besides the Weasel, Stoat, Ferret, and Polecat ; a little reddish beast, not much bigger than a Field-Mouse, but much longer, which they call a Cane.” It is, however, now ascertained that the so-called Cane, or Kine, is nothing more than an unusually small female Weasel. Such very small, although fully adult, females have been re- corded not only from Hampshire, but likewise from Kent and Sussex. As an example of the pugnacious habits of the Weasel, we may mention that (as we are informed by Mr. Harvie-Brown) there is in the Banff Museum an extraordinary mummified group of these animals, found in a hole of an old tree-stump, all the members of which evidently perished while fighting together. THE BADGERS. GENUS MELES. Meles, Storr, Prodromus Méthod. Mamm. p. 34 (1780). The Badgers and their allies, which are assigned to several dis- tinct genera, represent the second sub-family of the A/us/elide, and are characterised as follows. The feet are elongated, with straight toes, and the claws non-retractile, slightly curved, rounded, and blunt, those on the fore-feet being especially elongated. The upper molar tooth, although variable, is gener- ally very large and elongated longitudinally. In habits the members of the sub-family are mostly terrestrial and burrowing animals, and the group has a wide geographical distribution, although unrepresented in South America. From their plantigrade feet, short ears and tail, and some- what Bear-like general appearance and gait, the more typical Badgers were long classed with the Bears, and even in the 126 LLOYD’S NATURAL IIISTORY. second edition of Bell’s “ British Quadrupeds” the Common - Badger will be found described as the sole existing British representative of the family Urszde. It is, however, now well ascertained that such resemblances as these animals present to the Bears are for the most part superficial, and that their true affinities are with the Weasel tribe. As a genus, the true Badgers, or those included under the head of JZe/es, may be defined as follows :—Upper molar tooth very large and longer than broad, exceeding the flesh-tooth in length ; bony palate not greatly produced backwards ; head pointed, with the nose prominent, and the ears small and rounded ;_ body thick and heavy ; limbs short and stout ; feet plantigrade ; tail short. Number of teeth 38, of which four on each side of both the upper and lower jaws belong to the pre- molar series. The members of the genus are confined to the northern half of the Old World, and do not range into India, although represented in Persia. It may be mentioned as a peculiarity of the Badger group in general, although the feature is more developed in some genera than in others, that the lower jaw is so strongly articulated to the skull, by means of overhanging processes from the latter, that it is almost or quite impossible to disarticulate it without fracture. This is the secret of the terrible biting power of these animals. THE COMMON BADGER. MELES TAXUS. Ursus meles, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12 vol. i. p. 70 (1766). Meles taxus, Boddaert, Elenchus Animal. vol. i. p. 80 (1785); Bell, British Quadrupeds 2nd ed. p. 158 (1874). Meles vulgaris, Desmarest, Mammalogie p. 173 (1820), (Plate XV.) “aseodvd y iy rien 2 SY 4 SON : Paice hy nant) Hel Saws iy Raa Sater <7 AS t ~ es eR TSS TANI eS 4 Oy ZN Me SAO ieee Nests “a0, 5 TER NAY sl \ C Sug MEADS arent = LAAN ‘ANSE ‘i Ny i: 2 ‘ Ree ASP. 1 ; CAA i Se 5 rc St 2 } nN \ > Ary’ \ Bune lh ‘ SR SSA My may SS} x SIWAS 2 : 3 4 = Z Z ‘ 4 f K A NY Ww Sore. aa ES = Zs : Wise y d i pos oe MK, OQ OPVY > INAS ny ‘a { = . FLV Id PADGER. 127 Characters.—General colour yellowish-grey, washed with black ; under-parts and limbs black ; face white, with a black longitu- dinal streak on each side passing through the eye and ear. Length of head and body about 27 inches ; of tail, 7% inches With regard to the nature and coloration of the pelage, Macgillivray writes as follows :—‘‘On the head and face the hairs are adpressed, and of ordinary texture ; on the lower- parts coarse, but of the nature of fur or under-hair; on the upper-parts of two kinds, a coarse fur and still coarser and longer, stiffish, undulated, flattened, and pointed hairs. The head, chin, and hind-neck are white, with a broad brownish- black band on each side from before the eye over the ear, of which the tip is white, down the back of the neck. The throat, fore-neck, middle of the breast, fore-limbs, and hind-feet are brownish-black ; the upper-parts and sides light grey, variegated with black, a large portion of each hair near the end being of the latter colour ; the long hairs at the tip of the short tail whitish.” It may be added that the long hairs of the body are three-coloured, namely reddish, white, and black, and it is the blending of these that produces the well-known “ Badger- colour.” ‘The soles of the feet are completely covered with hair. Distribution Ranging over the greater part of Northern Europe and Asia, the Badger was formerly an abundant animal in the British Isles, where it has left its remains in the Pleistocene deposits of Kent, as well as in many English caverns, and likewise in Shandon Cave, Ireland. Owing to its shy and retiring habits, and the secluded nature of the spots in which it takes up its subterranean haunts, the Badger, or, as it used to be called in many parts of England, the ‘‘ Brock,” is very generally supposed to be an exceedingly rare, if not a nearly exterminated, animal in our is'ands. ‘This, however, is very far indeed from being the case, and Badgers occur 128 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. sporadically in most English counties ; while in some districts, owing to the protection they receive at the hands of land- owners, they are actually on the increase. Within the last thirty years the presence of Badgers has been recorded in up- wards of twenty-nine English counties. Its former abundance in England 1s attested by the frequency with which its title enters into the names of places, and it is curious that in all these cases it is the ancient name of “Brock,” and not the more modern one of “Badger,” that is employed in the compound word. Thus we haye, as pointed out by Mr. Harting, the names of Brockhurst, Brockenhurst, Brockenborough, Brockford, Brockhall, Brock- hampton (in four counties), Brockham Green, Brockholes (in two counties), Brock-le-Bank, Brocklesby, Brockley (in four counties), Brockmoor, and Brockworth. ‘The name Brock, it may be observed, apparently refers to the striped face which forms such a characteristic feature in the animal under con- sideration. As an instance of the apparent increase in the number of Badgers in certain parts of England, we may mention that, in Leicestershire, according to Mr. Montagu-Browne, they now breed in several places and seem to be more abundant than formerly. On the other hand, in certain districts where, from the wild nature of the country, they might naturally have been expected to have survived, they have been more or less nearly, if not completely, exterminated. Thus in the Lake district, according to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, Badgers appear to have been completely extirpated since the end of the first third of the present century, when a few individuals still survived on the fells of Windermere and Cartmell. It is true that a few solitary Badgers are now and then recorded from the districts in question, but these are all stated to be individuals that have escaped from confinement. We may mention, however, that Badgers have been re-introduced on one or two estates in Westmoreland, so that there is some BADGER. 124 hope that, under due protection, the county may be partly re- populated with these interesting animals. In Scotland Mr. Harvie-Brown states that the Badger occurs pretty generally throughout the mainland, but that it is not a native of any of the islands, although it has been introduced into Jura and upon Ailsa Craig. In all districts it appears, however, to be much less common than formerly. In Thompson’s time (civciter 1855), the Badger was stated to main- tain its ground throughout Ireland, probably in every county, examples existing some ten years previous to that date within a few miles of the city of Belfast. Habits.—A nocturnal animal, living generally in pairs, though several have not unfrequently been observed in company, the Badger passes its days securely concealed in its burrow, which is generally excavated in some unfrequented part of a wood or thicket, in the side of a hill densely covered with bushes, or in a deserted quarry, whence it issues forth to feed in the evening or during the night. Although having but a single entrance, the ‘‘earth” is described as consisting of several tortuous pas- sages, opening out at their extremities into larger chambers. Its food consists mainly of roots of various kinds, fruits and nuts, birds’ eggs, together with the smaller mammals, reptiles, frogs, and insects. It is also particularly fond of the grubs of wasps, which are dug out from the nests and extracted from the combs without any fear of the stings of the adult insects, against which the thick fur of the Badger appears to afford an effectual protection. Except that it may destroy a certain number of the eggs of game-birds, the Badger is harmless alike to the game-preserver and the farmer; and the persecu- tion to which in this country it has always been subject at the hand of man, is due rather to the innate desire of killing and hunting, than on account of any actual damage inflicted. It is true, indeed, that these animals are frequently charged with 5 K 130 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. killing and otherwise interfering with young Foxes ; on which account a war to the death is too often waged against them by over-zealous huntsmen. This charge has, however, been effectually disproved, several writers recording instances where the cubs of Badgers and Foxes have been inhabitants of the same “earth,” where they have lived together in perfect good-fellowship and harmony. Mr. Trevor-Battye says that the only harm the Badger does in the above direction is by re-opening Foxes’ “earths” that have been stopped. Mr. de Winton writes :—‘“‘ Badgers sometimes frighten sheep at night, when they are feeding on turnips in pens, and I have had some harm done by them, as the sheep are very fat and heavy-coated, and hurt themselves over the feeding troughs. This is the only damage which Badgers have done to me, and I have lived side by side with them all my life, and have had many as pets.” Having formed a bed of soft grass at the bottom of the bur- row, the female Badger brings forth in the spring from three to four young ones, which do not make their appearance abroad until they have attained a considerable size. Writing of the breeding habits of some Badgers on his estate near Lough- borough, the late Mr. A. Ellis, who had especial opportunities of making observations, states that “the Badger breeds later than the Fox, and it was the middle of March this year [1877] before the preparations for the coming family were made. ‘These consisted in cleaning out the winter-bed and replacing it by a quantity of dry fern and grass, so great that it would seem im- possible the earth could receive it. In June the first young Badger appeared at the mouth of the earth, and was soon followed by three others, and then by their mother. After this, they continued to show every evening, and soon learnt to take the food prepared for them. ‘The young are now [Octo- ber] almost full-grown, and, forgetting their natural timidity, BADGER. in will feed so near that I have placed my hand on the back of one of them. The old ones are more wary, but often feed with their family, although at a more cautious distance. Their hearing and sense are most acute, and it is curious to see them watch, with lifted head and ears erect, then, if all is quiet, search the ground for a raisin ora date. But the least strange sight or sound alarms them, and they rush headlong to earth with amazing speed.” As is so generally the case among the Carnivora, the young of the Badger are born blind, and remain so for several days after birth. It is generally stated, in the case of the Badger, that the young open their eyes on the ninth day; but Dr. A. Nehring records an instance where a litter, born in the Zoological Gardens at Berlin, did not do so until the eighteenth day after birth. A remarkable peculiarity in regard to the Badger is the length and variability of the period of gestation. ‘The mini- mum duration of pregnancy does not appear to be fully ascer- tained, although Dr. Nehring is of opinion that it cannot be less than six months. Instances are on record where female Badgers that have been kept in solitary confinement have brought forth young after periods of ten and twelve months ; and one very important one is recorded by Captain F. H. Salvin, in which a Badger gave birth to one litter on Febrvary 27th, and to another on the sixteenth of the same month in the following year, showing that in this case the period of ges- tation was about seventeen days short of a twelvemonth. In other instances, however, the period is much longer, reaching in two of these to at least fifteen months. The probable ex- planation of these discrepancies is that in certain cases, as in the Roe-deer, the impregnated ovum undergoes a period of quiescence before development; such retardation of develop ment being not improbably induced by captivity, which nearly always interferes more or less with the repreductive process of animals, KE 2 132 LLOVYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. On the gestation of the Badger Mr. Trevor-Battye sends me the following note :—“ Asa rule, no doubt, the Badger pairs in October and the young are born in March or April. I lived for many years close to a stronghold of Badgers and had un- usual opportunities for watching them. It has been said and written that Badgers do not breed till two years old. ‘This is wrong. Some years ago I had a pair which were probably about six weeks old. They were called Gripper and Nancy. They would rest on my lap while feeding, and used to sit up and beg like Dogs. ‘Their hearing and power of scent were remarkable. They were in a closed square yard, but if any of the dogs came near, even following a path which ran at a distance of about six or seven yards, they would instantly jump off my lap and disappear into a corner. These animals could walk and trot backwards with the greatest ease. I have never seen this mentioned ; yet it is worth noticing because the movement is characteristic of the AZustelide, not being shared to my know- ledge by any other Mammal—not, for instance, by the Bears, As I was leaving home I was obliged to send off my Badgers. They went to a friend in the New Forest. Here they escaped from confinement and took up their quarters under some faggots in an outhouse. ‘They paired that October and made their nest (the contents of which would have filled a big wheel- barrow and more) in the beginning of April. But poor Gripper came back one night with a trap on his foot. The chain of the trap got wound round somehow in the burrow and held him prisoner. So he died; and Nancy forsook the earth and went to breed elsewhere. In those days I did not understand maceration. But, as I wanted Gripper’s skeleton, I boiled him in the copper outside, after he had been dead a month. Out of this Badger soup I collected even the smallest vertebra. ‘To stink like a Badger’ is a lying libel on the living animal ; it was not over- stated in the case of Gripper dead—and boiling !” BADGER. 133 With reference to the carnivorous propensities of the Badger, Thompson writes that ‘one gentleman, who kept a young Badger in confinement, reports that it was very fond of Rats, Mice, and birds, and that it devoured a pet Blackbird which he highly prized. At Tollymore Park (County Down) and Glen- arm (County Antrim), where Badgers are numerous, they are sometimes taken in traps baited with Rabbits ; and I was in- formed by a gamekeeper, at the latter place, that they are destructive to young Rabbits in the nest, and, in such cases, do not make use of the Rabbits’ entrance, but delve out a Skull of Badger. circular hole immediately above the nest. From the peculiar footprint of the Badgers, always to be seen about these holes, he knows that they were the depredators.” While admitting the truth of this latter statement, and also that a Badger may occasionally get hold of a sitting Pheasant, Mr. Harting con- siders that the harm done by Badgers to game-preserves is almost infinitesimal, Pheasants, except during the breeding- season, being at roost in the trees, and the Rabbits feeding in the open outside the coverts, at the time when these animals leave their lairs for the nocturnal prowl. No account of this animal would be complete without some mention of the sport of Badger-baiting, which, although now 134 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. illegal, was formerly a favourite with our ancestors. The creature was placed in a tub lying on its side, and attacked by Terriers or other Dogs, whose object was to draw the Badger from its place of security. As Bell remarks, it would be diffi- cult to say whether in this so-called sport, the cruelty were greater to the persecuted Badger or to his canine tormentors. Since, through the intervention of a London paper, the title of which need not be mentioned, a regular trade is even now carried on in live Badgers, the suspicion arises whether Badger-baiting is really as extinct as is commonly supposed. To procure Badgers for the above-mentioned sport or other purposes, the usual plan was to place a sack within the margins of the “earth,” with its mouth upwards and secured by a running string, at such time as the owner was ascertained to be absent from his dwelling. The surrounding coverts were then drawn with a few couple of hounds, which generally suc- ceeded in finding the Badger and hunting him to his hole, on attempting to enter which he was of course securely bagged beyond the possibility of escape. THE “OTTERS. “GENUS -LUIRA. Lutra, Erxleben, Syst. Régne Animale, p. 445 (1777). The Otters, all of which, with the single exception of the Sea-Otter, are included in the present genus, form the sole representatives of the last sub-family of the JAZustelide, the characters of which are as follows :—The feet are short and rounded, with the toes webbed, and the claws small, curved, and blunt. The head is remarkably broad and flattened ; and the upper molar tooth is large and nearly square. In habits, all the species are thoroughly aquatic. The genus Zu¢ra is chiefly distinguished from the Sea-Otter by the cheek-teeth being furnished with a number of sharp PLATS XVI. TY see Bhp Li ejay ie We MAN COMMON OTTER. 2 EA i Li Hiya iit OTTER. 135 cusps, instead of being smoothed and mammillated, as well as by the moderate development of the toes of the hind- feet. Retaining the elongated bodily form and short limbs characterising the more typical JZustelide, the true Otters generally have the feet completely webbed, and either clawed or clawless. The soles of the feet are for the most part naked, although in the hinder pair the naked portion does not extend backwards to the heel. The flattened head is elongated and furnished with very small ears; and the fur is close, compact, and short, with a woolly under-fur ; the tail being of medium length. There are generally four pairs of pre-molar teeth in the upper, and three in the lower jaw; the first of the upper ones is, however, always very small, and situated on the inner side of the canine, and in some species may be wanting. All Otters have such a strong family resemblance, that the distinction between the various species is in many cases a matter of considerable difficulty ; but, fortunately, there is but one, and that the typical, representative of the genus within the limits of our area. With the exception of Australasia and the extreme north, the genus is practically cosmopolitan; and its representatives are mainly fluviatile and lacustrine in their habits. THE COMMON OTTER. LUTRA VULGARIS. Mustela lutra, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 66 (1766). Lutra vulgaris, Erxleben, Syst. Regn. Animal. p. 448 (1777); Bell, British Quadrupeds, znd ed. p. 167 (1874); Blan ford, Mammals of British India, p. 182 (1888). titra nie BP Cayier,. Dict. Sci... Nat:..vol. xxvit, p, 247 (1823). Lutra indica, Gray, Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. eee 580 (1837), (Plate XVI.) 136 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. Characters.—Size large; claws well-developed on all the toes ; upper edge of naked portion of muzzle projecting backwards in the middle, and concave on either side, where it runs up to the hinder edge of the nostril; tail more than half the length of the body General colour deep brown, with a more or less rufous tinge; woolly under-fur white at the base, then brown, and usually paler at the tips, especially in Indian examples ; under-parts whitish; fur of chin and throat white throughout, elsewhere white at the base and tip, and brown in the middle. Length of head and body, from 25 to 29 inches; of tail, from 15 to 16 inches. Distribution.—This species has a wide distribution in the Old World, ranging over the whole of Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya, while it is represented in India and some of the countries on the east of the Bay of Bengal by a form which is now generally regarded as a mere variety. In the British Islands its fossilised remains are found in the Norwich Crag, belonging to the upper part of the Pliocene period, in the overlying forest-bed of the east coast, the brick-earths of the Thames valley, as well as in several of the English caves. At the present day it is still pretty generally distributed over the country, although becoming scarce in the more cultivated districts where the rivers are small. While, for instance, it is stated to be rare in Leicestershire and Rutland, as also in Hertfordshire, in the wild and rocky districts of Somerset, Devon, and Monmouthshire it is still abundant, as it is in the streams and lakes of Westmoreland and Cumberland. It would be difficult indeed, as observed by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, to find any part of Britain more exactly suited to the needs and habits of this animal than is the Lake district of the two counties last mentioned. In the north of Scotland, according to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, the Otter, although scarce, from incessant persecution, in the east of OTTER. 137 Sutherland, is still far from rare in Caithness, while it is abundant in Argyllshire and the Isles. Some idea of its former numbers may be gathered from the fact that between the years 1831 and 1834 rewards were paid for upwards of 263 Otters killed on the estates of the Duke of Sutherland alone. In Ireland, forty years ago, Thompson wrote that the Otter still survived in suitable localities throughout the country and along the coast, in spite of persecution. Habits.—Feeding almost exclusively on fish, which it pursues not only in rivers and lakes, but also in the open sea, the Otter, writes Macgillivray, in the north of Scotland and the adjacent islands, “resides among the blocks, or in the caverns along the coasts, and subsists on marine fishes, seldom appear- ing in the streams or lakes except in winter, during very stormy weather. In the south of Scotland, and in many parts of England, it inhabits the fresh waters. On shore it runs with considerable speed, but does not bound like the Weasels, and, in fact, is rather plantigrade than digitigrade. In the water it exhibits an astonishing agility, swimming in a nearly horizontal position with the greatest ease, diving and darting along beneath the surface with a speed equal, if not superior, to that of many fishes. It is capable of remaining immersed for a con- siderable time, but on seizing a fish it cannot devour it in the water, but must bring it to shore for that purpose, not always, however, carrying it to its ordinary retreat, but generally to the nearest point that seems to afford temporary security. While eating, it holds its prey down with its fore-feet, or, if small, secures it between them, and commencing at the shoulders, devours the fish downwards, leaving the head and tail. While thus occupied it is sometimes visited by Gulls and Hooded Crows, which, however, do not venture to attack it, but wait until it has finished its meal, contenting themselves with the remnants. It is alleged that it destroys great quantities of 138 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. Salmon, which may be the case when it inhabits rivers and estuaries, but in the open sca it feeds on a variety of fishes. Along the coast it generally finds a safe retreat in caves, of which the upper part is filled with blocks of rock, or beneath large stones; but in rivers and lakes it seeks refuge among the roots of trees, or burrows a hole for itself in the banks. Although properly piscivorous, it has been known to attack young domestic animals, and I found the stomach of one killed in June filled with a curious collection of larve and earth-worms.” The foregoing description, it will be observed, applies chiefly to the habits of the Otter in the rivers and on the coasts of Scotland; those of our readers desirous of becoming ac- quainted with the haunts and habits of the animal in the rivers of the south of England should peruse a graphic chapter in a little work entitled ‘“ Forest Tithes,” by an author who writes under the zom-de-plume of “A Son of the Marshes.” On the Upper Indus I have known a pair of Otters take up their abode among the timbers of a wooden bridge. In sport- ing phraseology, an Otter’s lair is spoken of as its “holt.” When a burrow is excavated by the animals themselves it may vary considerably in size and depth, but one described by Mr. Buckley, discovered on one of the Scottish islands, seems to be the longest and most complex on record. This tunnel, which was bored in peaty soil, amongst the burrows of the Storm- Petrel, was upwards of fifteen feet in length, with a diameter of about a foot, except near the extremity, when it became about four inches narrower. ‘‘ Here and there it was widened out into most evident circular or oval chambers, and the sides and roof were smooth and glossy, rubbed and polished by the passage to and fro of the animals’ fur. The habitation had a cunning and gradual incline from upwards into the peat-bank from the entrance. The latter was simply an uneven, rough, OTTER. 139 grassy-edged, and semi-concealed doorway in the face of the peat slope.” In the month of March or April, the female gives birth in the lair—whether this be a burrow as above described, or merely a hollow beneath the roots of some large tree, or a fissure among rocks—to from three to five young ones, after a gestation of only nine weeks. The young remain with their parents for a considerable period ; and, in India at least, family-parties of six or seven nearly full-grown individuals may be seen to- gether, these sometimes contriving to drive a shoal of fish into shallow water, where they may be easily captured. Although in this country mainly nocturnal in its habits, in less frequented regions the Otter may often be seen abroad well on in the day- time. Everywhere these animals kill far more prey than they can possibly eat, which is one of the reasons why their presence in a river is so cordially detested by fishermen. When taken young, the Otter may be easily tamed, and may be trained without much difficulty to exercise its fish-catching skill for its owner’s benefit. Otter-hunting, either with Otter-hounds or Fox-hounds, is a favourite sport in Devon and Somerset, in the Lake district, and also in Wales. The hounds should be laid on the trail, or “foil,” of the Otter as soon as possible after daybreak, since on many soils the scent soon disappears under a strong sun. Formerly the Otter was struck at on every possible opportunity with a barbed spear termed an “ Otter-grains,” until finally despatched ; but the use of this weapon has happily been dis- continued in the Lake district, as we learn from the Rey. H. A. Macpherson, and elsewhere. Although from its comparatively small numbers the Otter is not much hunted in this country for the sake of its beautiful pelage, on the Continent this forms an important trade. According to Mr. Poland, Scandinavian skins, from their large 140 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. size, thick fur, and dark colour, are among the most esteemed ; and some idea of the numbers of these animals killed and the importance of the trade may be gathered from the fact that upwards of about 10,000 skins are annually sold at the Easter fair at Leipsic, these varying in value from five to thirty shillings each, according to size, colour, and quality. The same authority tells us that during the winter of 1885-86 more than 4,000 of these animals were killed in Prussia alone. THE BEARS. KAMILY “URSIDA:: ithough closely allied to the AZus/eide in the structure of the hinder part of the base of the skull, the Bear family (in addition to the vastly superior bodily size of the great majority of its members) may be readily distinguished therefrom by te greater number of their molar teeth, of which there are two pairs in the upper, and three in the lower jaw, or the same as in the Dogs. In character these teeth are, however, very different from those of the latter, the two upper ones being oblong and much longer than broad, with the crown finely tuberculated, and adapted for a mixed, rather than a purely flesh diet. Moreover, the flesh-teeth (the last pre-molar in the upper, and the first molar in the lower jaw) are exceedingly unlike those of the Dogs, being small in proportion to the molars, and having the suctorial structure so characteristic of Carnivora in general but little developed. All Bears are large, heavily-built animals, with thoroughly plantigrade feet, armed with strong curved claws, well adapted for digging, short ears, and a mere apology for a tail. Genera'ly adepts in climbing, but, in spite of the fossorial characters of their feet, not excavating burrows for their own habitation, Bears are distributed over the greater part of the globe, with the exception of Africa south of the Atlas mountains, and Australia Save for one species from India and another BEAR. t41 from Tibet, they are all included in the typical genus, the distinctive characteristics of which it will be superfluous to indicate in the present work. THE TRUE BEAKS, GENUS) URSUS: Crsus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. 1. p. 69 (1766): THE BROWN BEAR. URSUS ARCTUS. Ursus arctos, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 69 (1766). The Brown Bear, being a species exterminated within the British Islands during the historical period, has the same claim as the Wolf to be regarded asa British Mammal. Being, how- ever, thus extinct within our area, and at the same time sucha thoroughly well-known animal, we think that we shall best serve the interests of our readers by omitting all description, and confining ourselves to a brief notice of the records of its extermination. For these, as in the case of the Wolf, we are indebted entirely to Mr. J. E. Harting, who has so thoroughly investigated what remains of the history of the exterminated Mammals of our islands. We may premise that the Brown Bear (which is still far from uncommon in many parts of the Continent), under a variety of local races, has a wide distribution in the Old World, ranging over the greater part of Europe and Northern Asia, and ex- tending as far south as the Western Himalaya and the valley of Kashmir. In North America it is represented by the closely allied Grisly Bear. Although there is some difficulty in dis- tinguishing between the different species of Bears of this group by their skulls and teeth alone, it is now well ascertained that remains of the Brown Bear have been obtained from the brick-earths of the Thames valley, the fens of Cambridge- shire, various superficial deposits in Scotland and Ireland, and also from several of the English caves. It should be added 142 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY, that some Ursine remains, from English and Irish, have been assigned to the Grisly Bear (Ursus horrtbilis), but the writer is by no means assured that this reference is correct. Documentary evidence proves the existence of th2 Bear in England during the eighth century; and it is likewise on record, that in the time of Edward the Confessor, the town of Norwich was compelled annually to furnish a Bear for royal sport, such Bears being in all probability native British animals. It is likewise probable that the performing Bears which were led about England during this period by itinerant minstrels were also captured in the British Islands. During both the Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods it would appear, however, that the great Caledonian forest of Scotland was the principal stronghold of these animals; Caledonian Bears being well- known in the Roman amphitheatre. There are even traditions still extant in the Highlands, together with certain Gaelic place- names, apparently referring to the former existence of Bears in these districts. At what precise period the Brown Bear became extinct in Britain, there is, unfortunately, no means of ascertaining. That it disappeared at an earlier date than the Wolf, is, how- ever, Certain ; and it has been considered probable that it had ceased to exist before the tenth century. With regard to Ireland, Thompson writes that “I am not aware of any written evidence tendiag to show that the Bear was ever indigenous to Ireland, but a tradition exists of its having been so. It is associated with the Wolf as a native animal in the stories handed down through several generations to the present time.” THE PRUE SHALES. Ee AMIE OCIA: The whole of the Carnivora treated of above, together with their foreign allies, collectively constitute the typical group of SEALS. 143 the Order, and are known as the true Carnivores, or Carnivora Vera, of which the leading characteristic, as already mentioned, is the presence of a pair of specially modified flesh-teeth in each jaw, the fore-feet, and generally also the hinder pair, being of the normal type, although in the Sea-Otter the Jatter are flipper-like. On the other hand, in the Seals and Walruses, which now claim our attention, there are no flesh-teeth, and both pairs of limbs are modified into flippers. From the latter feature, this second great sub-ordinal group of the Order is known as Carnivora Pinnipedia, or Fin-footed Carnivores. The massive and more or less conical form of the body in the Seals and their allies is too well known to demand more than casual mention. The limbs, which are relatively short, have their upper segments more or less completely enclosed in the skin of the body ; while they are provided with five toes each, connected together by webs. Unlike the land Carni- vores, the first and fifth toes of each foot are stouter and generally longer than the three middle ones. The tail is always short. In regard to their teeth, it may be mentioned that, whereas only in the Sea-Otter among the true Carnivores are there less than three pairs of incisors in the lower jaw, in the present group such a reduction is invariably the case ; while very frequently also there are cnly two pairs of these teeth in the upper jaw. In the cheek-teeth the pre-molars (generally four in number in e ch jw) are nearly similar to the molars ; the latter being generally reduced to a single pair, although in some instances there are two pairs in the upper jaw. The milk-teeth are shed at an exceedingly early age—sometimes even before birth,— and are consequently of no functional importance whatever, while collar-bones are totally wanting. In habits, the whole of these animals are thoroughly aquatic; and they are, as a rule, inhabitants of the sea, although some t44 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. ascend rivers, and a few are found in land-locked lakes. Al- though their movements on land are awkward and ungainly in the extreme, the members of one family (the Eared Seals, of which there are no British representatives) pass the whole of the breeding season on shore, during which prolonged period they undergo a complete fast. The true Seals, or Phocide, which are the most specialised representatives of the entire group, are characterised by the circumstance that the hind-flippers, when on land, are ex- ended backwards parallel to the tail, and are thus incapable of taking any share in those movements which, by courtesy, may be termed walking; this mode of progression being effected mainly or entirely by a kind of jumping movement of the body. All these Seals are further characterised by the total absence of any externally projecting ear; the passages to the brain opening flat on the surface of the sides of the head. Although the number of incisor teeth is subject to some degree of variation, the pre-molars and molars collectively always form five pairs in each jaw; these teeth generally having three well-marked cusps arranged longitudinally, with sometimes a smaller fourth cusp posteriorly, but being occa- sionally simple. The British Seals, although not numerous, include represen- tatives of three distinct genera. GENUS HALICHGRUS. Flalicherus, Nilsson, Faun. Skandinav. vol. i. p. 377 (1820). Three pairs of upper, and two of lower incisor teeth; cheek- teeth (¢.e.. molars and pre-molars) mostly with single roots, and simply conical without accessory cusps. First and fifth toes of the hinder flippers not much longer than the three middle ones; and the webs on their feet not projecting be- yond the extremities of the toes. SEALS. 145 The genus is represented solely by the under-mentioned species, THE GREY SEAL. HALICHCERUS GRYPUS. Phoca grypus, Fabricius, Skriv. af. Nat. Selksk. vol. i. pt. 2, p. 167 (1791). Halichxrus griseus, Nilsson, Faun. Skandinay. vol. i. p. 377 (1820). Phoca gryphus, Fischer, Synops. Mamm. p. 239 (1829). Halicherus gryphus, Bell, British Quadrupeds, p. 278 (1837), and 2nd ed. p. 262 (1874). Halicherus grypis, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1866). Characters.—General colour yellowish-grey, becoming lighter on the under-parts, with dark grey spots and blotches ; but, as in most Seals, there is considerable of variation in tint according to age. ‘Total length of male, about 8 feet. Distribution.—The range of this species is restricted to the shores of the North Atlantic Ocean, where it is far more com- mon and more widely distributed on the European than on the American side. Its chief haunts appear to be the British and Scandinavian coasts; its northern limits being seemingly marked by the Baltic, the Gulf of Bothnia, and Iceland. This Seal was first recognised as an inhabitant of the British seas in the year 1836; and while rare on the southern coasts of Eng- land, it is exceedingly abundant on the western and southern shores of Ireland, as well as in the Hebrides and Shetlands. The specimens taken on our southern coasts must be regarded in the light of stragglers from more northern regions ; one of these having been taken many years ago in the Severn, while a second was captured on the Isle of Wight in 1857. It has likewise been recorded from the Welsh coast. On the more southern coasts of Scotland this Seal is likewise rare, but it be- 5 L 146 LILOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. comes more numerous as we proceed north. ‘Thus, although now diminished in numbers, a few are still to be found in suitable localities on the coast of Caithness, where they have been said to breed in the rocky caverns. According to Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley, they “also occur in some num- bers on Ejilean-nan-roan, off the Kyle of Tongue, where speci- mens have been seen over eight feet long. ‘They are most numerous on the outer island. At Souliskeir, to the north of Cape Wrath, they were once abundant, and parties of fisher- men used to go from Orkney and the north Sutherland coast Skull ot Grey Seal. to kill them in October.” The same authors state that, al- though restricted and rare in the Inner Hebrides, it still fre- quents the more remote Outer Hebrides in some numbers, although, for obvious reasons, they refrain from mentioning its favourite haunts. They add that there are ‘few localities, even among the Isles, where they could be observed with any degree of regularity. We know of one single, very hoary, and very large individual, frequenting a portion of coast, and having done so unmolested for many years. What his age may be, it is vain to speculate upon, but he certainly has been known and recognised by natives for a very long series of SEALS. | 147 years, frequenting always the same reach of shore. That great Grey Seals breed also even far in among the Inner Hebrides seems to be perfectly certain from notes in our possession, but it is quite open to doubt if such an occurrence as the birth of a Grey Seal has ever taken place anywhere upon the coast of the mainland” of Argyllshire. On the southern and western coasts of Ireland these Seals appear to retain their hold more than elsewhere, and they like- wise seem to congregate in larger parties than in most other - places, at least a dozen having been seen together. Even here, however, their numbers appear to be diminishing steadily, although the persecuted creatures have, fortunately for themselves, now become so shy and wary as to make it very difficult to approach within range. A large specimen shot by A. G. More, on a rocky island off the coast of Con- nemara, in 1869, measured exactly eight feet in length, and we ghed close upon four hundred pounds; but Scottish examples are stated to reach fully nine feet from the tip of the nose to the extremity of the hind-flippers. Habits.—In habits the Grey Seal is essentially an insular and oceanic species, generally associating in pairs, although occasionally, as we have seen to be the case on the Irish coasts, consorting in small parties. In the Hebrides they take up their quarters in the most exposed situations ; and produce their young in September or October, or even as late as November. When first born, the-young Seal is clothed with white hair, which is retained till such time as the creature is able to take to the water, when the adult dress is assumed. In Scandinavia, on the other hand, it is stated that the breed- ing season is not till February ; a difference which Bell sug- gests may be due to the difference in the climate of this region from Britain, although it does not appear to us that this ex- planation is adequate. L 2 148 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. It may be mentioned that, like all the other British species, the Grey Seal has no under-fur, and therefore does not yield “seal-skin.” GENUS PHOCA. Phoca, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. 1. p. 55 (1766). Distinguished from the preceding genus by the relatively smaller and more pointed teeth, and by those of the cheek- series having accessory cusps, and mostly double roots. The head also is rounded, instead of flattened, and the muzzle naked and not truncated, while the brain-cavity of the skull is proportionately much larger. The short front-flippers are furnished with five stout, some- what compressed and curved, and rather sharp claws ; while those of the hind-feet are narrower and less curved. The genus includes several species from the northern hemi- sphere, among which are the majority of those frequenting the British coasts. I. COMMON SEAL. PHOCA VITULINA. Phoca vitulina, Winmn., “Syst. Nat. ed 12; vol.i1.p. 56(1766); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 240 (1874). Phoca variegata, Nilsson, Skandinay. Faun. vol. i. p. 359 (1820). Callocephalus vitulinus, F. Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxix. p. 544 (1826); Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 20 (1866). (Plate XVIT.) Characters—Considerably smaller than Halicherus grypus, to which it closely approximates in general coloration, the upper- parts being yellowish-grey spotted with black and brown, while the under-parts are light silvery-grey. Cheek-teeth crowded together, and placed obliquely in the jaws. Total length, from ato 5 feet. TVWaSs NOWWOO At 127 6 MA Cy uwing Hf eta Vi i ae i i ~S ie. WAX FLVId SEALS, 149 Distribution.—This Seal, the second of the two species which alone breed on the British coasts, has a wider and also a more northerly distribution than the Grey Seal, being found not only on both sides of the North Atlantic, but likewise in the North Pacific. Northwards its range includes Spitsbergen, Greenland, and Davis Straits; while southwards it is found commonly on the northern shores of France and Holland, but is stated to be rare in the Baltic. Formerly abundant, in such localities as are suited to its habits, throughout the British coasts, this Seal has now practically disappeared from those of the more southern and eastern counties of England, although even there an occasional straggler now and then Skull of Common Seal. makes its appearance, one such instance having occurred not many years ago at Brighton. On the more rocky shores of the western counties, as well as in Wales, it is, however, still far from uncommon; the same being the case in the northern English counties. On the coasts of the Lake district, where the shore is generally sandy and without islands, it is, how- ever, decidedly rare, although, according to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, a few old individuals occur now and again both in Morecambe Bay and in the main channel of the English Sol- way. On the coasts of the mainland of Scotland this species 150 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. may be still met with in considerable numbers, although itis less abundant than formerly, even in the Hebrides and other islands. On the coasts of Sutherland and Caithness, Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley write that it is not un- common in some localities, especially in the Firths of the north coast, and occurring all along the coasts in the west. Another resort on the east coast is a sand-bank at the entrance of the Dornoch Firth, visible from the town of Tain, where Seals used to lie in large numbers, until persecuted by long- range punt-guns. Although it has long been known that this Seal will often ascend rivers for long distances in pursuit of its favourite Salmon, it is not so much a matter of common know- ledge that it will take up its residence for longer or shorter periods in inland fresh-water lakes. The authors last mentioned have, however, collected evidence of the occurrence of many of these Seals both in Loch Awe, in Argyllshire, and also in Loch Shiel. On the Irish coasts—and more especially on the west and east—the common Seal was formerly abundant in suitable localities, although even in Thompson’s time they were becoming scarce in Belfast Bay, where a portion of the coast, where they were once common, bears the name of, “‘ Craig-a-vad,” Or “Seal Fock Habits——Unlike the Grey Seal, the present species is essen- tially gregarious, congregating in herds of as many as two or three dozen individuals, which, when in repose, may be seen lying on the shore as closely packed as possible, with their heads all turned seawards. In spite, however, of its northern range it is not an Ice-Seal, never frequenting the ice-fields or ice-floes of the polar ocean, but generally resorting to sheltered fjords and caves, where food is abundant, and the depth of water not too great to render its capture a matter of difficulty. Macgillivray writes that it ‘frequents estuaries, sea-lochs, bays, and the channels between islands, where it may be seen SEALS, 151 occasionally protruding its head above the surface, sometimes following a boat or vessel ata distance, but generally keeping beyond reach of shot. It feeds exclusively on fishes, in pur- suit of which it can remain several minutes immersed. At low water it often betakes itself to rocks or small islands, on which it reposes until the return of the tide; and I have seen droves of twenty or more individuals thus basking in the sun. In estuaries they sometimes repose on the sands, where they are liable to be surprised, if the water be distant, for their movements on land are exceedingly awkward, and their hurry in endeavouring to escape when approached forms an amusing sight, as they seem to tumble about in a ludicrous manner, throw- ing themselves headlong into the water from the rocks. When there are caverns on the coast, they find a more secure retreat in them, since, if attacked, they can escape by diving.” While in the sea, the Common Seal lives largely upon Floun- ders; but it is also especially fond of Salmon and Sea-Trout, and it is in pursuit of these latter that it so frequently ascends long distances up rivers. The young—usually one, but occasionally two in number—are born in June, or thereabouts, after a gesta- tion of nine months. Although the new-born young are clothed in a coat of white hairs, as in the case of the Grey Seal, yet it appears that instead of being retained for two or three weeks, as in the latter, this is replaced by the adult coat very shortly after birth, the offspring at the same time taking to the water. The fondness of Seals for musical sounds is well-known, and the following account, communicated to Macgillivray by a resident in the Hebrides, illustrates this very graphically. ‘In walking along the shore in districts where Seals were abundant in the calm of a summer afternoon,” writes the narrator, “a few notes of my flute would bring half-a-score of them within thirty or forty yards of me; and there they would swim about, with their heads above water, like so many black dogs, 152 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. evidently delighted with the sounds. For half-an-hour, or, indeed, for any length of time I chose, I could fix them to the spot, and when I moved along the water’s edge they would follow me with eagerness, like the Dolphins, which, it is said, attended Arion, as if anxious to prolong the enjoyment. I have frequently witnessed the same effect when out on a boat- excursion. The sound of the flute, or of a common fife, blown by one of the boatmen, was no sooner heard than half- a-dozen would start up within a few yards, wheeling round us as long as the music played, and disappearing, one after another, when it ceased. ““Other occasions occurred during my residence in these islands of witnessing the habits of these creatures. While my pupils and I were bathing, which we often did in the bosom of a beautiful bay in the island, named, from the circumstance of its being the favourite haunt of the animal, Seal-Bay, numbers of them invariably made their appear- ance, especially if the weather was calm and sunny, and the sea smooth, crowding around us at the distance of a few yards, and looking as if they had some kind of notion that we were of the same species, or at least genus, with them- selves. ‘The gambols in the water of my playful companions, and their noise and merriment, seemed, to our imagination, to excite them, and to make them course round us with greater rapidity and animation. At the same time, the slightest at- tempt on our part to act on the offensive, by throwing at them a stone or a shell, was the signal for their instantaneous dis- appearance, each, as it vanished, leaving the surface of the water beautifully figured with a wavy succession of concentric circles. “On hot days in summer I have seen great numbers of them stretched in groups on the rocks at the bottom of Seal-Bay, which had been left dry by the receding tide. There they SEALS. 153 would lie lazily along, basking in the warm sun, like so many large swine, and nearly of the same colour. “The fishermen on the island used to assert that, like many other animals both of the land and the water, they never repose without stationing a sentinel on the watch. I cannot posi- tively confirm this, but I have often observed that during the general slumber one of the number, but not always the same individual, would raise its head for a second or two, turning it half round, and again stretch itself in repose. Ever and anon, too, we would hear from some one of the group a melancholy moan coming slowly over the surface of the deep, wild and savage In the sound.” The proportionately much larger capacity of the brain in the Common, as compared with that of the Grey Seal, would naturally suggest that the former is a far more intelligent creature than the latter; and actual experience proves this to be the case. Thus, whereas the Grey Seal isa dull and phlegmatic animal, exhibiting no signs of pleasure in musical sounds and display- ing no attachment to its owner when in captivity, the present species can be readily tamed, and exhibits not only a high degree of affection for its master, but likewise great general intelligence. A well-known story is related in Maxwell’s ‘‘ Wild Sports of the West” of a Seal which had been captured young in Clew Bay, on the west coast of Ireland, and tamed by the servants of a neighbouring landowner. ‘There it remained for upwards of four years, and so great was its attachment to the house, that after being carried out to sea three times and there left, it returned home on each occasion. With unspeakable cruelty, on the last of these occasions, the poor animal had been deprived of its sight, but even then it returned after an interval of eight days. Another individual, which was tamed by an Irish gentleman in 1819, appeared, according to Thomp- son’s account, ‘* to possess all the sagacity of the dog, and lived 154 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. in its master’s house and ate from his hand. In his fishing excursions this gentleman generally took it vith him, upon which occasions it afforded no small entertainment. When thrown into the water, it would follow for miles the track of the boat, and although thrust back by the oars, it never relinquished its purpose ; indeed, it struggled so hard to regain its seat that one would imagine its fondness for its master had entirely overcome the natural predilection for its native element.” From the value of its skin, and the amount of oil yielded by its fat, this Seal is much hunted by fishermen, which has re- sulted in the diminution of its numbers already alluded to. Although the flesh of the adult is dark-coloured and somewhat rank, that of the young is tender and by no means unpalatable. Unless killed outright by the first shot, when in the water, they are liable to be lost, as they dive immediately on being struck, and are seldom seen again. Moreover, even if killed, unless the boat is rowed up speedily and the body secured, it will likewise be lost, as a dead Seal, more especially if it be in poor condition, immediately sinks to the bottom. II, RINGED SEAL, PHOCA HISPIDA. Phoca hispida, Schreber, Saiugethiere vol. iii. pl. 86 (? 1776); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 247 (1874). Phoca fetida, Fabricius, in Miiller’s Zool. Dan. Prodr. p. 8 (1766) ; without description, and the name subsequently withdrawn by its author. Phoca annullata, Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna, p. 362 (1820). Callocephalus discolor, F. Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxxix., p. 545 (1826). Pagomys fetidus, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 23 (1866). Characters.—Very similar in external appearance to the last, but of somewhat smaller size, and the colour of the upper SEALS. 155 parts blackish-grey, generally marked with more or less distinct oval whitish rings; under-parts whitish; hair soft, and nearly erect. Cheek-teeth not crowded together, and placed in a straight line. ‘Total length, generally from 3 to 4 feet. The skull may be distinguished by the pre-maxillary bones (those carrying the incisor teeth) running ‘up some distance by the sides of the nasals, instead of not touching them at all, or only at the tips; while the hinder foramina on the palate open either on or behind the suture between the maxille and_pala- tine bones, instead of in the maxillze themselves. Distribution.— But a very rare and casual visitor to the British coasts, the Ringed Seal is an essentially northern species, in- habiting the Arctic Ocean and the shores of the North Atlantic and North Pacific, being especially plentiful among the ice- floes of Davis Strait, but in Greenland mainly confined to the northern districts. An undoubted example of this Seal was taken on the Norfolk coast in 1846, and sold in a fresh con dition in the Norwich market ; and there is some evidence that the species occasionally visits the Hebrides. It is also stated by Mr. J. Cordeaux that an example occurred on the Lincoln- shire coast so recently as the year 1889. Sir William Turner records its remains from the glacial clays of various parts of Scotland. Habits.—On this point it will suffice to say that this species is an Ice-Seal, dwelling in the neighbourhood of the coast-ice of the northern oceans, and seldom visiting the open sea. In such situations it preys on fish which are captured in a hole kept open, by some means not fully known, in the ice; passing such portions of its time as are not occupied in fishing, in sleep. The single offspring is born late in the winter or early in the spring on the solid ice, and is stated to take to the water before shedding its baby-coat of light-coloured hair, which is 156 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. usually retained for about a month after birth. The skin, although used for clothing by the natives of Northern Green- land, is not so much valued as that of the Common Seal. Ill. THE HARP-SEAL. PHOCA GRCENLANDICA. Phoca grenlandica, Fabricius, in Miller’s Zool. Dan. Prodr. p. vill. (1766); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 252 (1874). Calocephalus grenlandicus, F, Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxxix. p- 545 (1826). Pagophilus grentlandicus, Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 25 (1866). (Plate X VIII.) Characters.—General colour t@wny-grey or yellowish-white, sometimes spotted ; males with a somewhat harp-shaped or crescentic blackish mark crossing the shoulders and extending down each flank, and the muzzle also dark-coloured. Cheek- teeth separated, and arranged in a straight line. Total length, from 4 to 5 feet. The skull may be readily distinguished from that of either of the preceding species by the circumstance that the free hinder margin of the bony palate is almost entire, instead of being deeply and acutely notched ; while the two branches of the lower jaw, in place of diverging at once, are nearly parallel in front. According to Jukes, the young of the Harp-Seal are white until they are six or seven weeks old, during which period they are termed “‘White-coats” in Newfoundland; at the age of one year, small spots make their appearance, and in two years larger spots ; while it is not till the third year that the malcs (then called ‘‘Saddle-backs”) assume the characteristic dark harp-shaped markings. PLATE XVIII. 7 HARP-SEBAL. SEALS. 157 Distribution.—As arctic in its distribution as the preceding species, the Harp, or, as it is often called, the Greenland Seal, is an equally rare and casual visitor to the British Islands, and, indeed, it is only recently that a skull has been definitely identified as pertaining to a British specimen. The general distribution of the species is the same as that of the Ringed Seal, since it occurs in the northern seas of both hemispheres. As regards its occurrence in Britain, two Seals killed in the Severn in 1836 were referred to this species by Bell, and although doubts were subsequently thrown on the correct- ness of this identification, the same gentleman maintained its Skull of the Harp-Seal. accuracy. Gray also identified with this species the skin of a young Seal taken in the Thames at Isleworth in 1858; and Macgillivray provisionally did the same with another from the Firth of Forth. More satisfactory is the evidence with regard to an immature Seal captured in Morecambe Bay in January, 1868, the skull of which is now preserved in the museum at Kendal; Sir William Turner (Journ. Anatomy and Physiology, vol. ix., p. 163) confidently assigning it to the species under consideration. Regarding its alleged occurrence in the Scottish Isles, Mr. H. D. Graham (Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, vol. i., 158 LLOYDS NATURAL HISTORY. p. 53) gave an account of three Seals seen by himself in West Loch Tarbet, off Jura, which he confidently identified with the Harp-Seal; and three others have been reported from Loch Scridain, in Mull. Mr. Harvie-Brown records a Seal shot at Kintradwell some time previous to 1870 as referable in all pro- bability to this species ; while he adds that one killed, although lost, by himself in the Hebrides, was likewise a Harp-Seal. Finally, a Seal shot in county Galway, about the year 1856, is considered to indicate the right of this species to be included in the list of Irish Mammals. Habits.—Like the Ringed Seal, the Harp-Seal is found chiefly on, or in the neighbourhood of, ice, frequenting both the solid ice-fields and the detached floes. It differs, however, from that species in that it does not make a breathing-hole in the ice for fishing. Writing of its habits in Spitsbergen, Professor Alfred Newton writes that the Harp-Seal ‘‘is of a sociable disposition, and we saw it in herds of not less than fiftyin number. These were very fond of swimming in line, their heads only above water, engaged in a game of ‘ Follow-my-leader,’ for, on the first Seal making a roll over or a spring in the air, each Seal of the whole procession on arriving at the same spot did the like, and exactly in the same manner.” In addition to consuming large quantities of Salmon and other fish, this Seal likewise feeds upon molluscs and crustaceans. During the month of March, while on the field-ice, the female Seal gives birth to her offspring which may be either one, two, cr even, it is said, occasionally three innumber. The white baby-coat is retained by the young Seal for two or three weeks; and it is not till after losing this that it takes to the water. THE HOODED SEALS. GENUS CYSTOPHORA: Cystophora, Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna vol. i. p. 382 (1820). This genus differs from the two previously mentioned in that HOODED SEAL. 159 the incisor teeth are reduced to two pairs in the upper, and toa single pair in the lower jaw; the total number of teeth thus being only thirty. The cheek-teeth, with the usual exception of the last, are inserted in the jaws by a single root each; and the first and fifth toes of the hind-feet are much longer than the three middle ones, and are provided with small rudimental nails, while the webs connecting the toes project in the form of lobes considerably beyond the extremities of the latter. On the nose of the adult male is an inflatable sac lying beneath the skin, capable of being dilated so as to form a kind of hood extending backwards to cover the head. HOODED SEAL. CYSTOPHORA CRISTATA. Phoca cristata, Erxleben, Syst. Regne Animal. p. 590 (1777). Cystophora cristata, Nilsson, Skandinav. Fauna, p. 327 (1820); Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 41 (1866) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 257 (1874). Cystophora borealis, Nilsson, of. cit., p. 383 (1820). Stemmatopus cristatus, ¥. Cuvier, Dict. Sci. Nat. vol. xxxix. D550 (1S26). Characters.—In this, the only species of the genus, the general colour of the fur of the upper-parts is dark grey, marked with spots of a still deeper shade ; the under-parts being lighter and uniform. ‘Total length, from 7 to ro feet. Distribution—This large and curious member of the Seal family is an inhabitant of the colder regions of the North Atlantic, although not extending to the extreme north, which probably accounts for its not being circum-polar. Migratory in its habits, occurring in South Greenland from April till June, and again making its appearance in August, some few individuals straggle as far south as Iceland and Northern Scandinavia, while still more rarely others make their appearance now and then on the 160 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY. coasts of Britain, or even of France. The first undoubted British example of this species was taken in the River Orwell during the summer of 1847; it was a very young animal, and its skin is preserved in the museum at Ipswich. A second young specimen was seen on a rock in the sea at St. Andrews in the summer of 1872, and was killed with stones. Other specimens are more or less vaguely reported to have been taken on the Scottish coasts ; while it is not improbable that a Seal seen many years ago near Westport, in Ireland, belonged to the present species. Habits The Hooded, or, as it is often called, the Bladder- nosed Seal, is especially characterised by its migratory habits, to which allusion has already been made, and the extreme ferocity of its disposition. Not only do the males fight to- gether for the possession of females to add to their harem (this being one of the few species of true Seals which are polygamous), but when attacked on the ice they will boldly face their adversaries, instead of precipitately fleeing, after the general custom of their tribe. On such occasions the sac on the nose is inflated, as if with the purpose of terrifying the assailants. The chief food of this Seal is stated to consist of Cod and Flounders; and the species spends the greater part of its time on the ice, upon which the young are born in the spring. THE WALRUSES. FAMILY TRICHECHID&. The Walruses, of which there is but a single existing genus, differ structurally from the true Seals in that, when on land, the hind-flippers are bent forwards under the body, and aid in terrestrial progression; this being a feature in which they resemble the Eared Seals (O¢arviide). In the absence of external ears they agree, however, with the true Seals. Their WALRUS. 161 dentition, on the other hand, is quite unlike that of either of the other two Families of the sub-order, the upper canines forming enormous downwardly directed tusks, while all the other teeth are inseited by single roots, and have very simple crowns, which in those of the cheek-series are flattened. THE WALRUSES.. GENUS TRICHECHUS, Trichechus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 49 (1766). Size very large; head rounded, with relatively small eyes, and the muzzle short and wide ; tail rudimental ; the five toes of the fore-feet of nearly equal length, and furnished with minute flattened nails; in the hind-feet, the fifth toe slightly the largest, and, like the first, with a nail like those of the fore- feet, the nails of the three middle toes being long, narrow, and pointed ; the webs of the hind-feet projecting in advance of the toes in the form of lobes. In the adult only eighteen teeth, forming a pair of small incisors in the upper jaw, and another of enormous canines ; the lower canines being small, and very similar to the pre-molars, of which there are three pairs in each . jaw, THE WALRUS. TRICHECHUS ROSMARUS. Trichechus rosmarus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 49 (1766); Gray, Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus. p. 36 (1866); Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. vol. i. p. 269 (1874). Rosmarus arcticus, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso.-Asiat. vol. i. p. 269 (1811). Odobenus rosmarus, Allen (ex Malmgren), North American Pinnipeds, p. 23 (1880). Characters-— Muzzle furnished on each side with a bunch of quill-like bristles ; hair short and closely pressed to the skin, of 5 M 162 LLOYD'S NATURAL HISTORY, a greyish-brown colour, but becoming lighter with age, and in very old individuals to a great extent disappearing, and leaving the body nearly naked. ‘Total length, from 12 to 15 feet. Distribution.—Essentially an inhabitant of the frozen regions of the north, the Walrus, or Morse, has but slight claim to be regarded as a British animal, so far at least as the historical period is concerned. ‘Typically from the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, this species may probably be regarded as likewise an inhabitant of the North Pacific, since, in our Skull of Walrus, Opinion, the view taken by the American naturalists that the Pacific Walrus is entitled to rank as a distinct species is untenable. Apart from certain early references to its reported occurrence on the coast of Scotland, the first definite record of the occurrence of the Walrus within our limits is one given by Macgillivray, who states that the example in question was shot while reposing on a rock at Caolas Stocnis, in the island of Harris, during the winter of 1817. This specimen, which was actually seen in the flesh by its describer, measured ten feet WALRUS. 163 in length, and yielded two barrels of blubber. A second example was killed in the summer of 1825 on the island of Edday, in the Orkneys ; while two years later a third is stated to have been seen in Hoy Sound. A fourth was killed in the spring of 1841 on the island of East Haskar, near Harris ; while two others are reported to have been seen in the Orkneys—the one in 1857, and the other somewhere about the same date. The discovery of a skull, now preserved in the Cambridge Museum, in the peat near Ely, would seem to indicate that in former times ‘lie Walrus not only visited the shores of the eastern coast, but that it ascended the larger rivers. Its former occurrence on the same coast is confirmed by a lower jaw dredged from the Dogger Bank (where teeth of the Mammoth are so commonly obtained), now in the British Museum. At a still earlier epoch, when the climate was probably much colder than at the present day, Walruses (which have been referred to an extinct species) appear to have been by no means uncommon on our eastern coast, where they were doubtless resident. Fragments of the tusks of these animals have been disinterred not only from the so-called ‘“‘forest-bed” of Cromer, in Norfolk, but likewise from the still older Red Crag of Suffolk and Essex, which belongs to the upper portion of the Pliocene epoch. Habits——In the case of animals like the Walrus, whose only claim to be regarded as British rests on the occurrence of some half-dozen stragglers which have wandered or been carried from their northern home, our notice of habits will be of the briefest. It may be mentioned, however, that Walruses are essentially gregarious animals, which in former days con- gregated on the ice or shores of the Arctic regions in herds often comprising hundreds of individuals. Their food con- M 2 164 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. sists mainly of molluscs and crustaceans, grubbed up from the mud by the aid of the tusks; and for crushing the hard shells of these the other teeth are most admirably adapted. Whether, as alleged, the tusks are also employed in aiding the creature to climb up on the ice, is a point in regard to which there is a difference of opinion among observers. ‘The young, usually one, but occasionally two in number, are born on the ice from April to June, and are tended and defended by the female with remarkable solicitude and bravery. THE RODENTS, OR GNAWING MAMMALS. ORDER RODENTIA. THE possession of a single pair of chisel-like incisor teeth in the lower jaw, which grow continuously throughout life, and are opposed by a similar pair of upper teeth, is of itself a sufficient character to distinguish the Rodents, or Gnawing Mammals, from all the other British representatives of the Class to which they belong. In the lower jaw only this single pair of incisors is developed, and the same is the case in the great majority of the members of the Order as regards the upper jaw, although in the Hares and Rabbits, as well as in their foreign cousins the Pikas, a small and functionless second pair of upper incisors is to be found behind the large ones. ‘These chisel-like incisor teeth have, as an almost invariable rule, a coating of hard enamel only on their front surfaces, the result of which is that they have a cutting-edge formed and kept continually sharp by the action of gnawing food and other hard substances. Since these teeth form a segment ofa circle and grow continuously throughout the life of their owner, if one by any chance happens to get broken it results that the opposing tooth, having nothing to wear against it, grows to a great length beyond the gums, curving round, and sometimes actually piercing the skull of its RODENTS. 165 unfortunate owner. Although in many cases the enamel @n the front of the incisor teeth of Rodents is of the ordinary white colour, in others it is stained some shade of yellow, brown, red, or even black. Behind these incisors there occurs a long tooth-less gap, owing to the total want of canines. Then follow the cheek- teeth, which are generally only four in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, owing to the loss of the anterior pre-molars, there being never more than three pairs of the latter teeth, while in some cases they are totally wanting. The cheek-teeth have flattened crowns adapted for grinding ; and while in some cases these are surmounted by blunt tuber- cles, they are more generally inter-penetrated by in-folds of the enamel from the sides or summits, or both, by which in the worn state they are divided into laminz, or have islands of enamel on the grinding surface. The lower jaw is articulated to the skull by a knob, or con- dyle, elongated longitudinally, and thus permitting of the back- wards-and-forwards “‘ munching ” movement so characteristic of these animals when eating. The feet are either completely, or almost completely, planti- grade, and are usually furnished with five toes, generally armed with sharp claws, although in a few instances these terminal appendages partake more of the nature of hoofs. In nearly all cases collar-bones are present, although these may be incom- plete, or even rudimentary. In no case is the socket for the eye in the skull surrounded by a ring of bone. In number the Rodents exceed any other of the Mammalian Orders; and they have likewise a wider geographical distribution, being practically cosmopolitan and represented even in Aus- tralia. They are, however, by no means evenly spread over the globe, and attain their greatest development in South America. In accord.ince with this general numerical superi- 166 LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. ority, we find their British representatives exceeding in this respect the terrestrial members of any other Order belonging to our fauna. With the exception of one South American species, existing Rodents are mostly animals of comparatively small size, many being very minute. Although some are aquatic, and others arboreal in their mode of life, the majority are terrestrial. By far the greater number are exclusively vegetable feeders, and there are scarcely any which do not eat vegetable food of some kind or other. Consequently they are, of all Mammals, the most harmful to the agriculturist. Although the Order is divided into a very large number of Families, only four are now represented in the British Islands, two of which have but a single species each. Within the historic period a fourth Family—the Beavers—was, however, represented by its typical member within our area. THE SQUIRRELS AND MARMOTS. FAMILY SCIURIDAL. Confining our attention throughout our description to the British representatives of the Order, the Squirrels may be defined as Rodents with cylindrical hairy tails, having cheek- teeth furnished with roots and carrying tubercles on their crowns, and by the presence of two pairs of pre-molars in the upper, and one pair in the lower jaw, the first pair of upper pre-molars being, however, often minute, and not unfrequently shed at an early age. With the exception. of Australasia, this numerous Family is cosmopolitan in its distribution, and while its typical represen- tatives—the Squirrels—are arboreal, the Marmots are terres- trial. “TIGUHINOS NOWIWNOD “XIX div'ld SQUIRREL. 167 THE TRUE SQUIRRELS. GENUS SCIURUS. Sciurus, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 86 (1766). Tail long and bushy ; ears generally well developed and often tufted ; feet adapted for climbing, the front pair with the first toe rudimentary. Teats four to six in number. First pair of upper pre-molar teeth minute, and frequently shed at an early state. Collar-bones complete. THE COMMON SQUIRREL. SCIURUS VULGARIS. Saurus vulgaris, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 12, vol. i. p. 86 (1766) ; Bell, British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed. p. 276 (1874). (Plate XIX.) Characters-—General colour brownish-red on the upper-parts, and white beneath; tail very bushy and coloured like the body; ears tufted during a portion of the year; first upper pre-molar tooth frequently shed. Length of head and body, about 8% inches ; of tail, exclusive of hair, 7 inches, with the hair, 8 inches. The Squirrel is subject to certain variations of colour accord- ing to age and the time of the year, and there seems likewise to be some difference due to locality. After mentioning that the female is smaller, and generally of a lighter colour than the male, Macgillivray writes on this subject as follows :—In younger individuals the colour is redder than in adults, in which it is seldom destitute of a grey tinge; ‘‘and I have seen some in which the grey predominated over the red. In April and May the hair of the upper-parts assumes a singularly faded appearance, losing its gloss and assuming a light yellowish tint. In the latter month the process of depilation commences, to be completed by the end of June, when the ears are desti- tute of tufts. It appears that the long hairs which fringe the ears are not proportionately longer than the rest until Novem- 168 “LLOYD’S NATURAL HISTORY. ber, that they then gradually elongate, attain their extreme development in spring, and remain un-shed till June. In the northern regions of Europe the grey colour in winter is more decided, and the fur of denser and finer texture.” Bell adds that towards the end of summer the tail not unfrequently becomes more or less decidedly cream-coloured.